i wmL i .i.'.,.-.L i ' ! t':^;:i:.,ii,;i l ,Sr '^ui&iU w wriwCTwiZSrKC RYE-ATWOOD GEOGRAPHICAL SERIES UC-NRLF » BOOK TWO A NEW WORLD LIES BEFORE US tsf W GEOG GINNAND COMPANY- PUJ ¥ IC ■smssm Z3ffim$sm$:: - ■— i,^^.iwi,w.ma«i.t»^.J :;;i ^^5 g U 1 1 a si a lii 11 yi 1 i»fi«*e«*fti^o«eKt«?9ffr: MMMMBQavaoaaanooa GIFT OF publish** 1 THE NEW FARMING IN THE OLD WORLD imnnnrmnnmirnnumnnmnnTTr iiiiiii'iiiminiL'imiJiii'iiiiiiiiiJuuiiii n — ."'T-rTT 1 3 QL 5 g, ~=Q "^ 3 T S C^ir ^Q C:w:±Z ^te^ FRYE-ATWOOD GEOGRAPHICAL SERIES ac ■"■ ' bc t — .-w " **• - ,jr *"* ' rY ■** at ' r NEW GEOGRAPHY BOOK TWO BY WALLACE W. ATWOOD GINN AND COMPANY BOSTON • NEW YORK • CHICAGO - LONDON ATLANTA • DALLAS - COLUMBUS - SAN FRANCISCO & EL -J j iiiiiiiiiiiiiii i iii i iiiiiiiiiiiiiiii n iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiinminiiiiiiiiiiiiiiig PREFACE IlllllllllllllllllllllllilllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllHllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllinni In this series Book One has introduced the child to the study of geography in a most delightful and effective way. After visiting homes in various parts of the world an introductory study is made of the different nations of the earth. Book Two follows a wholly new method of treatment, avoids repetition of matter pre- sented in Book One, and guides the pupil to a much fuller knowledge and understanding of geography. Human geography is the keynote of the series. Em- phasis is given to the study of those factors that have a controlling influence upon the life and activities of people. The " New Geography " becomes an applied science of fundamental significance to all American citizens. The natural regions of the world, differing as they do in surface features, climate, and resources, have produced widely different occupations and modes of life. They serve, therefore, as the best units for study. Regional geography is not a new idea; it is the goal toward which the best scientific thought and the best pedagogy have long been progressing. The simplicity and the logic of this approach have each year won new supporters. The one thing lacking has been a textbook constructed on this principle. Regional maps. The division of the United States into natural regions as shown in this book is the work of the geographers of the Association of American Geog- raphers and of the United States Geological Survey. For the other countries of the world the leading authori- ties of several nations have been studied. The consistent use of one simple color scheme on the maps enables the pupil to gain most easily a picture of the different physical settings in which the scenes of human life are enacted. Other maps. A new and very useful series of polit- ical and economic maps shows graphically the chief exports and imports. The routes Of inland transpor- tation are also clearly shown. From these maps the essential facts of commercial geography can be readily comprehended and easily remembered. The relief and vegetation maps are also entirely new. By a skillful use of color they show the relief, drainage, and distribution of vegetation. The series of colored rainfall maps indicates effectively the periods of heavy or of light rainfall that are of such great importance in agriculture. Comparative map studies are introduced as a new feature. With maps in the hands of each pupil, show- ing the relief, drainage, vegetation, rainfall, and distri- bution of population, the data are available for the solution of many excellent problems. Problem method. The understanding of the geographic conditions in a natural region is the fundamental basis for the discussion of problems relative to the life and occupations of the people living in that region. Numer- ous concrete problems and topics for discussion have been formulated, and many practical exercises that may be assigned for library or home study have been prepared. Picture study. The illustrations are accompanied by very full legends ; each view teaches some important fact. A remarkable series of aeroplane drawings of the great cities and their surroundings assists in a proper emphasis on urban geography. Mathematical geography. While all necessary infor- mation has been given as needed, mathematical geog- raphy in general has been postponed until the pupil has become familiar with the details that should serve as the basis for such world-wide or universal conceptions. The United States — a world power. At the close of the book the pupil is brought back to his own country. Against the background of world conditions he now examines our natural resources, the role they play in our industrial life, and the care that should be taken to conserve them. This leads to the treatment of our inland and foreign commerce and the development of our international relations and responsibilities. Acknowledgments. In the preparation of this book Mr. Frye, Mrs. Atwood, Mr. William T. Oliver, several map experts, many government departments, many railroads and chambers of commerce, the Pan American Union, and members of the author's staff and that of Ginn and Company have given most valuable assistance. The proof sheets were criticized by Miss Nellie B. Allen of Fitchburg, Massachusetts, by Mrs. Jane Perry Cook of the Chicago Normal College, and by Mr. Grant E. Finch of the Montana Normal School. To all the author expresses his sincere thanks. WALLACE W. ATWOOD Clark University COPYRIGHT, 1920, BY GINN AND COMPANY • ALL RIGHTS RESERVED • ENTERED AT STATIONERS' HALL THE A THEN. Ill ;.M PRESS • GINN AND COMPANY • PROPRIETORS • BOSTON . U.S.A. 424.1 ii Gift vnhM^m miiiiiiHiiiiiiiiiiiii miiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii'iiiiiiiiiiiiiiinnMM CONTENTS HE M NORTH AMERICA PAGE The United States 1 Northern Division of the Appa- lachian Highlands (New England) 5 Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain . . 14 Southern Division of the Appalachian Highlands 26 Interior Highlands 38 Central Plains 39 Great Plains 53 Rocky Mountains 59 Western Plateaus 65 Pacific Mountains and Lowlands . 70 Comparative Map Studies ... 82 Possessions of the United States 83 Alaska 83 Hawaiian Islands 87 Panama Canal Zone 88 Porto Rico 90 Virgin Islands 91 Philippine Islands 92 Guam 95 Samoa Islands 95 The Nation as a Wholf ... 98 Canada 103 Appalachian Highlands .... 103 Laurentian Upland 104 Hudson Bay Lowland 105 Central Plains 105 Great Plains . 106 Western Mountains and Plateaus . 108 Newfoundland and Labrador . 110 Mexico Ill Central America 114 West Indies 115 Trinidad 120 Bermuda Islands 120 The Continent of North America 121 Comparative Map Studies . . . 124 SOUTH AMERICA Introduction 125 Natural Regions 127 Brazil 130 The Guianas 134 Venezuela 136 Colombia 138 PAGE Ecuador 138 Peru 140 Bolivia 142 Chile 144 Argentina 148 Paraguay 152 Uruguay 154 Falkland Islands 155 Colon Archipelago 155 Comparative Map Studies . . . 156 EUROPE Introduction 157 Natural Regions 158 Coast Line '. 162 Influence of the Ice-Sheets . . 162 Climate 163 Natural Resources . . . . . 163 British Isles 164 Norway and Sweden 170 Denmark 174 Iceland 175 The Netherlands 175 Belgium 177 Luxemburg 179 Prance 180 Switzerland 187 Germany 189 Austria 193 Hungary 194 Czechoslovakia 195 Poland 196 Baltic States 197 Finland 197 Russia 198 Trans-Caucasian Republics . . 200 White Russia 200 Ukraine 202 Rumania ... 202 Mediterranean Lands .... 203 Spain 204 Portugal . 206 Italy 207 Jugoslavia 213 iii PAGE Albania 213 Bulgaria 214 Greece 214 Turkey 215 Comparative Map Studies . . . 216 AFRICA Introduction 217 Natural Regions 220 Climate 220 Vegetation and Animal Life . 221 Natural Resources 221 Egypt 222 British Possessions 223 French Possessions 225 Other European Possessions . . 228 Liberia and Abyssinia .... 229 Comparative Map Studies . . . 230 ASIA Natural Regions 231 Climate 234 Countries of Southwestern Asia 235 Countries of West-Central Asia 239 Siberia 240 The Republic of China .... 242 Japan 246 Indo-China 249 The Malay States 251 India 252 Small Countries in the Himalaya Mountains 254 East Indies 255 Comparative Map Studies . . . 256 AUSTRALIA, NEW ZEALAND, AND PACIFIC ISLANDS Australia 257 New Zealand 263 Pacific Islands 264 Comparative Map Studies . ' . . 265 POLAR REGIONS North Polar Region 266 South Polar Region 266 5Kr,7:lG CONTENTS WORLD GEOGRAPHY World Geography 267 The Earth in the Universe . . 276 THE UNITED STATES — A WORLD POWER Introduction 277 Natural Resources of the United States 278 Soils 278 Forests 284 Mineral Resources 286 Water 295 Fisheries 297 Industries Dependent upon Im- ported Haw Materials . 299 Inland Commerce 300 Foreign Commerce 302 Summary and Conclusion . . . 304 APPENDIX Reference Books i Geographical Explorations . . ii, iii World Production Maps . . . iv, v Great Trade Routes .... vi, vii Tables of Area and Population viii Index and Pronunciations ... xi INDEX OF MAPS Maps in Colors Africa, Physical (showing Natural Regions) 218 Africa, Political and Economic . . 227 Africa, Rainfall and Population . . 230 Africa, Colored Relief and Vegetation 230 Alaska, Political and Economic . . 84 Asia, Physical (showing Natural Regions) 232 Asia, 'The Near East, Political and Economic 237 Asia, The Far East, Political and Economic 247 Asia, Political and Economic . . 250 Asia, Rainfall and Population . . 256 Asia, Colored Relief and Vegetation 256 Australia, Physical (showing Natural Regions) 258 Australia, Political and Economic . 260 Australia, Rainfall and Population . 265 l'AGF Australia, Colored Relief and Vege-" tation 265 Canada, Political and Economic . . 107 Central America, Political and Eco- nomic 118, 119 Europe, Physical (showing Natural Regions) 1G1 Europe, North Sea Countries, Polit- ical and Economic . . . . 171 Europe, Central, Political and Eco- nomic 182, 183 Europe, Eastern, Political and Eco- nomic 201 Europe, Mediterranean SeaCountrics, Political and Economic . . 208, 209 Europe, Rainfall and Population . 216 Europe, Colored Relief and Vegeta- tion 216 Hawaiian Islands, Political and Eco- nomic 84 Mexico, Political and Economic . 118, 119 North America, Physical (showing Natural Regions) 122 North America, Rainfall and Popu- lation 124 North America, Colored Relief and Vegetation 124 Philippine Islands, Political and Eco- nomic 93 Polar Regions 266 South America, Physical (showing Natural Regions) 126 South America, Northern Section, Political and Economic . . . 135 South America, Southern Section, Political and Economic . . . 145 South America, Rainfall and Popu- lation 156 South America, Colored Relief and Vegetation 156 United States, Physical (showing Natural Regions) 2, 3 United States, Sectional Maps, Polite ical and Economic New England States .... 13 Southern States, Eastern Section . 23 Southern States, Western Section 25 Middle Atlantic States .... 35 Central States, Eastern Section . 45 Central States, Western Section . 55 Northwestern States .... 73 Southwestern States .... 76 United States, Rainfall and Popula- tion 82 United States, Colored Relief and Vegetation 82 PAGE United States, Political ... 96, 97 West Indies, Political and Eco- nomic 118, 119 World Maps Average Annual Rainfall . . . 275 Ocean Currents 275 Geographical Explorations . Plate A Great Trade Routes .... Plate B BLACK-AND-WHITE MAPS Africa Valley of the Nile 223 Asia Relief Drawing of Palestine . 236 Europe Extent of Continental Ice-Sheet . 168 North America Extent of Continental Ice-Sheet 10 Panama Canal Zone 89 United States Cattle-Producing Areas . 283 Coal Resources 287 Corn-Producing Areas . 278 Cotton-Producing Areas 282 Forest Areas . 2S4 Gold and Silver Resources . 293 Iron and Copper Resources 289 Lead and Zinc Resources . 292 Northeastern Industrial District . 21 Oil and Gas Resources .... 288 Sheep-Producing Areas .... 283 Sugar-Producing Areas . 279 Territorial Expansion .... 99 Westward Movement of Population 98 Wheat-Producing Areas 279 World Maps Cattle-Producing Regions . iv Coal-Producing Regions V Cotton-Producing Regions . V Iron-Producing Regions V 299 WheatrProducing Regions . iv AVool-Producing Regions . iv World Temperature Maps . 268 Aeroplane Drawings Boston 9 Chicago 50 London 167 New York City 30 Paris 185 Philadelphia 32 Pittsburgh 33 Rio de Janeiro 133 San Francisco 79 Washington 101 NEW GEOGRAPHY NORTH AMERICA THE UNITED STATES During the last hundred years the United States of America has become one of the busiest nations in the world. In every state, from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and from the Canadian boundary to the Mexican frontier, most of the people are very busily engaged in some kind of work. Their occupations and many of their customs depend chiefly upon the geographic con- ditions in the regions where they live. We are a hopeful and enthusiastic people. We look forward to having better homes, more beautiful churches, and better schools. We want the people in the country to enjoy the advantages of good roads, mail service, the telephone, and many other comforts, and we look for better living and working conditions in the cities. Every boy and every girl in this country has an opportunity to rise to a position of great responsibility. The schools are open to all, and everyone who is able and willing to work hard may have the advantages of the highest and best education. Each one will ha\e the responsibility of citizenship in a great nation. To fulfill the responsibility of citizenship, to help the home community, the state, and the nation, each one of us should understand the geography of this country ; and at this time, when the United States of America is taking a larger and larger part in affairs of world-wide importance, it is more necessary than ever before that we know also the geography of other countries. Variety in physical and human geography. Some parts of the United States are warm and other parts are cold ; some are well watered and forested, others have a moderate rainfall and are grasslands ; and still others are very dry. In some sections of the country there are plains, in some parts there are plateaus, and in other parts there are mountains. See map opposite page 82. Vast areas of rich soils have led to farming, and the extensive grasslands have invited many to raise cattle, horses, and sheep. The wonderful supplies of coal, oil, gas, and water-power, together with iron, copper, lead, and zinc, have made possible a most re- markable industrial development. People living on the coast, where there are good harbors, have very natu- rally become interested in commerce, and throughout the land many are engaged in trade and transportation. Because the physical geography differs so widely in the many sections, the human geography varies also. Natural regions. For purposes of study, which should lead to an understanding of -geography, the United States is divided into natural regions. See map on pages 2 and 3. A natural region is a portion of the earth's surface throughout which the geographic conditions which help to determine life do not differ greatly. When a natural region is very large, the climate in the distant parts will differ, and this difference must be considered in explaining the life of the region. Map I'late, l'atented Julys, l'J21 • Method of Making .Maps, 1'ataited July S, 1921 .G from 95° Greenwich 1 ^ *&**&&&.. * J Rainy L. )Sp<" HUNTER S V P B * T Q on' 1 - ;,„«n»« « ^ PI. Ow* I *y C* ajvf OZAUK I'I.ATEAC\^| *^ JtL j'?»'W"'' , "'^??'/-fi^^.- \ Dea Moines^s&s J*'?-, .r " U.2. / ** ■'Sail % /? • \ ^C i \ M \ ILL./ 1000 to 1500 ft. A\\ l„ \l0J0toJW0Sl.l c. 5R • ,uou l \ -V JfMemphis L «1SS.. J s \^ ^500 ^\ft. Natche: CSan Bias „ C.St "<£«»• K* r^ 'Galveston . BN T AL SHElp GULF F * C.Botnand A.BACO I. BXli e^^r 1 - pRoviDExet: 95° Greenwich 9G- "Yucatan Peninsula Lake Nicarag ua CjSable- • : f?^ i 80° Panama Canal I, - Ei ari|i.o..»i.o«: M © Giiin and Company NATURAL REGIONS MAP STUDIES — NATURAL REGIONS OF THE UNITED STATES (Pages 2, 3) 1. Where are the young, rugged mountains of the United States ? the old, worn-down mountains ? 2. Name and locate the three large regions of plains in the United States. 3. The longest river in the world is on this map. Which one is it ? See tables in Appendix. 4. The greatest system of fresh-water lakes in the world is on this map. Make a list of Fig. 1. This steam plow is turning over the rich soil in the Great Plains. Notice the gently rolling country and contrast it with the Rocky Mountains region shown in Fig. 2. Are any states entirely within the Great Plains ? What states are partly included in them ? the lakes. 5. In what mountains is the Continental Divide ? 6. Can one go by water from Chicago or Duluth to Europe ? Describe the route. 7. The waters from what lakes flow over Niagara Falls ? See page 41, Fig. 74. 8. What nations sent explorers to this country ? See Appen- dix, Plate A. Where did they go ? 9. What nation sent the men who sailed down the Mississippi River ? Who explored the mouth of the Mississippi River ? 10. Learn to locate each of the natural regions. The Appa- lachian Plateau, the Appalachian Mountains, the Piedmont Belt, and the Coastal Hilly Belt make up the region which is known as the Appalachian Highlands. 11. Make a list of the natural regions, giving the general elevation of each above sea level. 12. Which one of the western plateaus has, in general, the higher elevation ? 13. Where is the greatest delta on this map? 14. Suppose the sea withdrew to the edge of the continen- tal shelf, where the water is now 100 fathoms deep, what states would be enlarged? 15. What parts of the United States have good harbors? 16. Trace the southern limit of continental glaciation (ice action) on this map. Through what states does it pass ? See page 10, Fig. 14. 17. North of that line the land in the United States, ex- cept in the driftless area of Wisconsin and neighboring states, has been covered by glacial ice. South of that line in the high mountains there were also glaciers. We must frequently refer to this line, for the surface features, soils, streams, and lakes north and south of it differ very greatly. 18. The routes of migration westward were of great im- portance in the settlement and development of this country. Frequent reference will be made to them in the text. Trace each one on the map. 19. What city has grown up where many of the western routes left the Missouri River? 20. What was the easiest route through the Appalachian Mountains? 21. Which of the western routes avoided most of the mountains ? 22. Which of the western routes had the least desert country ? See map opposite page 82. 23. What natural regions are crossed by the parallel of 40° north latitude ? 24. What two states are separated by that parallel ? 25. In what natural region is Great Salt Lake ? Yellowstone National Park ? the Grand Canyon ? Mount Mitchell ? Pikes Peak ? Mount Whitney ? 26. In what region does the Mississippi River rise ? the Rio Grande ? the Colorado River ? the Tennessee River ? 3 R. E. Marblt Fig. 2. Glacier National Park, in the Rocky Mountains of Montana, has been set aside by our government as a vacation land for the people. It is a region of rugged mountains with glacier-covered peaks and heavily wooded slopes. In the valleys between the mountains are beautiful glacial lakes 27. In what region does the Arkansas River rise ? 28. What peak in Maine is in about the same latitude as Mont Blanc, France ? See eastern margin of map. 29. What mountains in New York are about one degree farther north than Mount Vesuvius, Italy ? 30. Are the New England states and New York in the latitude of northern Europe or southern Europe ? Note to Teacher. Most of the fundamental facts of land forms, water bodies, and the work of streams, winds, and glacial ice have been learned by the pupil in his study of Book I, and this knowledge should be applied in answering the questions on this page. For example, since he has already studied " Divides," he can, with the help of the key in the corner of the map, locate and trace the Continental Divide and interpret the meaning of the term. The thirty questions given above are merely suggestive of the use which should be made of this, the first map in the book. The teacher should formulate many more questions on this regional map and should devote several class periods to a thorough discussion of all its features. Continual reference to this map is made throughout the entire study of the United States. NEW ENGLAND Fig. 3. This is Lake Sunapee in New Hampshire, one of the thousands of beautiful lakes which are scattered among the hills and mountains of New England. Notice its irregular shape, its islands and wooded shores, and the cleared land surrounding the farmhouse at the right. In the distance beyond the lake you can see the rolling upland country of the old, worn- down Appalachians. What do the people of this region do for a living ? Can you explain why farming is difficult in this part of New England ? Why are there so many lakes in New England ? Of what use are they ? NORTHERN DIVISION OF THE APPALACHIAN HIGHLANDS New Exglaxd In this portion of the United States, farming, lum- bering, and fishing were formerly the chief occupations, but now New England is a great manufacturing district. There must be some good reason for such a change. Natural resources. Use map on page 13. There are ex- cellent harbors on the New England coast, and offshore, in the cold, shallow waters, fish have always been abun- dant. Forests once covered most of this region, and there are still extensive forests in the northern parts of Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont. Recently the United States government has established a national forest in the White Moun- tains, and much of the land in that part of New Hamp- shire is being purchased by the government and will be reforested. Almost every farm in New England has a wood-lot which supplies fuel for the home. The broad, flat areas of the Connecticut River Low- land are the most extensive farm lands in this region (Fig. 4), but the lowlands bordering Lake Champlain in Vermont also have fertile soils. In each of the New ■HHHb* Fig. 4. Much tobacco is grown in the southern part of the Connecticut River Lowland. The stalks are cut and hung on racks like this to wiit in the sun. Then they are taken to the barns and dried. The Connecticut valley tobacco is r ;ed chiefly for making wrappers for cigars England states there are many areas of good soils, although much of the land is too hilly or too stony for farming. The rock formations (such as granite, marble, lime- stone, sandstone, and slate) of which the hills and mountains are made, and often the bowlders scattered about on the surface, are used as building materials. Much of the United States depends upon New England for granite and marble. The seashore, the islands, the many beautiful lakes (Fig. 3), and the mountains serve as summer resorts. They attract thousands of visitors each year, and in a country where so many people live and work in large cities, such vacation grounds are a real natural resource of ever-increasing value. Many of the lakes serve as reservoirs for city water supplies, others furnish ice, and in many there are good supplies of fish. Another natural resource of very great importance, and one that helps to ex- plain why New England has become a manufacturing district, is the water-power. Most of the streams, large and small, have falls or rapids in their courses, and in those places dams have been constructed and mills have been erected. Many great plants have been built to transform the water- power into electric power. NEW ENGLAND Fig. 5. Dairy herds like this are a very common sight in New England. In summer the cows graze over the grassy hillsides, but in winter they are fed indoors. The great cities of New England demand large quantities of milk and butter, and make dairying profitable for the farmer Even the Connecticut River, the largest stream in New England, is used to generate electricity. In several places a small stream has been dammed to generate electricity on a farm, so that the farmer may light his home and run machines with the power generated by the little stream that flows over his land. Climate. The rainfall in this region is enough for agriculture and for tree growth, and it is evenly dis- i tributed ; that is, about the same amount falls each month. The amount that falls in a year in New England is about 45 inches. See map on page 82. In any land where the rainfall is over 80 inches a year, as in the Amazon Basin, there is a very wet climate. In places where the rainfall is less than 20 inches, as in some of our Western states, agriculture is unsafe without the help of irrigation. In the great deserts of the world the rain- fall is less than 1 inches a year, and in some, notably the Atacama Desert of northern Chile, it is almost nothing. Often during the winter in New England there are very heavy snows, and though they cause much extra work and much inconvenience, they are a great pleasure to all who enjoy the winter landscape. The trees to be used for lumber are cut during the winter, and the logs are drawn over the snow to the streams. When spring comes, the melting snows furnish water to the lakes and streams. These waters carry the logs to the mills, and there help to turn the wheels that generate power. Moisture in the air is very helpful in the spinning of cotton, and thus the climate of New England favors the development of one of the most important of the textile industries (Fig. 7). The average summer temperature is about 70 degrees, and during the winter the average temperature is about 30 degrees. Temperatures as low as 40 degrees below zero are, however, not unknown to people in this part of the country. Such a climate, with large seasonal changes, forces the people to look ahead and provide for the future. New Englanders must build good, substantial houses, and, in order that their homes may be warm during the winter months, they must lay in supplies of fuel. Much of the food raised in the summer, such as potatoes and other vegetables, is put away for winter use, and during the winter months enough ice is cut and stored away to last for the next summer. In this way the climate tends to make people vigorous. Home work. 1. Find out how many inches of rain fall in your home district each year. For what crops is it sufficient ? Com- pare that amount with the amount that falls in New England each year. 2. Read about the life in a logging camp in the Maine woods. Note to Teacher. The home work planned in this book may often serve as library or desk work in school. In many cases it may be best to assign certain problems or exercises to individual pupils or to committees to report upon. Encourage oral reports in class. Fig. 6. This is one of the great manufacturing plants at Manchester, New Hampshire. It is located on the Merrimack River at a point where a water- fall occurs and provides power to run the machinery. This one mill turns out over two hundred million yards of cotton and worsted cloth each year. Water-power is a very valuable natural resource. Years ago it could be used only to turn the mill wheels directly, but now the falling water i3 made to generate electricity, and this hydroelectric power can be transmitted over great cables for use in factories which are hundreds of miles away NEW ENGLAND Fig. 7. Fall River, Massachusetts, is one of the largest cotton-manufacturing cities in the United States. The city has water-power, but not enough for the industry ; most of the mills use steam power. Fall River has a safe, almost landlocked, harbor, deep enough for large passenger vessels and freighters. Advantages for manufacturing, — summary. The loca- tion of New England on the Atlantic seaboard, its many excellent harbors and its numerous rapid streams so well supplied with falls, the moist air, an invigorating climate, and a distribution of rainfall which supplies streams and reservoirs with water throughout the year, are factors which have made possible the rapid develop- ment of manufacturing. The construction of railroads and the improvement in steamship service have greatly assisted the industrial growth. Thousands of people have come to New England to work in the mills and factories. Settlements and occupations. The Pilgrims first landed near the tip end of Cape Cod, where Provincetown is located, but they soon sailed across the bay and estab- lished their first settlement at Plymouth. Each of the good harbors along the New England coast attracted settlers, and the largest coast cities have developed near the best harbors. Some of the streams are navigable (see map, p. 13), and at the head of navigation other settlements were started, such as Augusta and Bangor in Maine. The settlers who undertook farming needed trading centers where they could sell their products and buy their supplies, and towns soon began to appear in the better agricultural parts of the region. Little by little each of the seaports and each of the settlements increased in size. Lumbering and shipbuild- ing were undertaken, and many engaged in fishing. As ships becanle available and there were fish and lumber to use in trade, some commerce was undertaken ; and from those early days to the present time the New England people have become more and more interested in and dependent upon commerce. Locate Fall River on your map. How do the manufacturers get coal to make steam for their mills ? Where does the raw cotton come from ? Where do most of the manufactured cotton goods go ? Explain why New England is one of the two great cotton-manufacturing centers of the United States The mills demanded raw materials, and in response the ships brought large quantities of cotton from the South- ern states. Later, vessels brought cotton from Egypt to be manufactured into cloth in New England. Wool was first furnished from the sheep raised in the New England pastures. To-day wool is brought to Boston from all the leading sheep-raising countries of the world. The small mills were increased in size, until now the New England mills are immense structures (Figs. 6, 8). With the introduction of railroads more raw materials were brought to this part of the country, food supplies were imported from the great agricultural districts in the interior of the United States, and the manufactured articles of New England were sent west and south to markets that increased rapidly in number and in size. Fig. 8. Here are the great woolen mills at Lawrence, Massachusetts, on the Merrimack River. The Merrimack turns more factory wheels than any other river in the world. What other cities along this river have impor- tant water-power development ? Where do the woolen manufacturers at Lawrence get their raw wool ? NEW ENGLAND Fig. 9. This is a steamship and railroad terminal at Portland, Maine. In the center, along the wharves, are the railroad tracks and the great storage warehouses. Can you explain the advantage of such an arrangement as this ? Portland is the largest city in Maine, with an excellent harbor, deep enough for the largest vessels. What are the chief exports and imports of Portland ? New Bedford, Fall River (Fig. 7), and Providence are at the heads of bays. The first two are important centers for the manufacture of cotton goods, and they depend largely upon ocean traffic, but Providence is far inland and is making more and more use of railroad service. It is one of the leading cities for the manufacture of silverware and brass ware. New Haven and Bridgeport are busy manufacturing centers on the coast of Connecticut. Hartford is an important industrial city at the head of navigation on the Connecticut River. With the .development of railroads much of the trade between the coast cities, wbich was formerly dependent upon shipping by water, is now carried on by rail. This often saves a great deal of time. The manufacture of shoes, which began in a small way, has become a very large industry. Hardware, cutlery, watches, and many kinds of jewelry are made on a large Vermont has no seacoast, but its largest city, Burling- scale. The lumbering and shipbuilding have continued, ton, has a good harbor on Lake Champlain. Burlington but now many of the vessels are made of steel. Much has a large lumber trade. of the wood of the forests is being made into pulp and A second group of cities in New England owe their loca- used in the manufacture of paper. tion to water-power sites. See map on page 13. Begin- In time tbe water-power proved insufficient, so coal ning again at the north, we find Lewiston and Auburn on was brought, chiefly from Pennsylvania, in order that opposite banks of the Androscoggin River, where there more mills and more factories could be built, and that i s water-power. Near the mouth of the Saco are Bidde- all of them could run throughout the year. ford and Saco, another pair of cities on opposite sides of a Home work. On an outline map of the United States color in the boundaries of the New England states ; print in the abbre- viations of the state names ; add the names of the capitals and chief seaports. Keep this map and add to it as the study of the United States proceeds. Location and growth of cities. Use map on page 13. Those settlements that were so fortunate as to be located on good harbors or on navigable rivers have become important commercial centers. Beginning at the north we find Bangor and Augusta. They have the advantage of being seaports and also of being inland cities surrounded by productive lands. Lumbering has helped to develop these cities, for they are near the forests. Portland has an excellent harbor and has become one of the chief seaports of New England (Fig. 9). Portsmouth is the leading seaport of New Hampshire. Gloucester, on a very good harbor near Cape Ann, is an important fishing port (Fig. 10). Boston, the largest city in this group of states, and the capital of Massachusetts, has one of the best harbors in the United States. This seaport has the advantage of being nearer the great European coast cities than New York. Philadelphia, Baltimore, or any other Amer- ican port farther south on the Atlantic coast (Fig. 11). stream, where there is. power available. Lowell, Lawrence (Fig. 8), Nashua, Manchester, and Concord all depend in part upon the Merrimack River for power (Fig. 6). Holyoke is located where there are rapids in the Detroit Pub. Co. Fig. 10. This is a codfish-drying yard at Gloucester, Massachusetts. A great many of the people of the town are engaged in the fishing industry. Some of them catch the fish, others cure and salt it, and still others buy and sell it. Massachusetts salt cod is sent all over the world NEW ENGLAND Connecticut River, and power was se- cured by damming the stream. This city manufactures most of the high-grade paper made in the United States. AtPawtucket. Rhode Island, at Nor- wich, in Connecticut, and in numerous other places in the New England states, water-power has been developed for manu- facturing purposes. Often the water- power is used to generate electricity, and that form of energy is sent over wires for miles and miles, so that distant cities are furnished with electricity for lighting, for use as power in factories, and for running the trolley cars. A third group of cities (and they are chiefly inland cities) may easily be remembered by asso- ciating with the name of the city the particular industry which has been developed there on a large scale. In the north, Millinocket (Fig. 12) and Rumford, in Maine, are engaged in making paper from wood pulp. n and Company Fig. 11. This is an aeroplane drawing of Boston. Describe the country surrounding Boston. What rivers enter Boston Harbor ? What are the good features of the harbor ? Boston imports more wool, hides, and skins than any other port in the world. For what are they used ? Boston is the leading fish market of the United States. What does Boston export ? How does Boston rank in size among the cities of the United States ? See tables in Appendix. What places of special historic interest are shown in the drawing ? Lynn is best known for shoes, Waltham for watches, and Quincy for granite. Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology are in Cambridge. Wellesley College, for women, is located on the shore of a small lake in the town of Wellesley, shown at the western margin of the sketch Barre, Vermont, has wonderful quarries in great hills of granite. Proctor and Rutland, in the same state, produce large quantities of marble. Brockton, Lynn, and Haverhill, in Massachusetts, manu- facture more boots and shoes than any other three cities in the United States. Worcester is best known for its iron and steel works. It has large wire mills and many machine shops. Springfield is a prosperous city in the Connecticut valley and is an important center for the manufacture of cars, automobiles, and firearms. Waterbury and Ansonia in Connecticut are best known for their brassware. New Britain is noted for the manu- facture of hardware, 'Willimantic for cotton manufactur- ing, and South Manchester for silk manufacturing. Woonsocket, in Rhode Island, has excellent water-power and is an important center for woolen manufacture. Home work. On an outline map place the imports and exports of any city in which you are especially interested. The Chamber of Commerce of that city will usually furnish you the necessary information. As the study progresses this exercise could well be reneated for several cities and certainly for the home town. Iitrn t aper Company Fig. 12. The town of Millinocket, Maine, has grown up around the largest papar mills in the world. At the left are the great piles of spruce wood ready to be ground into pulp. In the center is the main office building of the plant. Explain the location of this industry here 10 NEW ENGLAND Explanation op New England Scenery Mountain-making. Long, long ago the rocks in this part of the continent were subjected to a very great amount of pressure. They were folded and forced high into the air. That made mountains throughout most if not all of New England. Wearing down. Rains, winds, changes of temperature, freezing of water in the cracks of rocks, helped to break up the mountain tops, as the rocks are being broken up on the top of Mount Washing- ton and all high mountains to-day. Little by little, streams cut their valleys deeper and deeper, and took the loose material away to the sea. A long period fol- lowed, when the land was being worn down and the high moun- tains were reduced to low mountains or to hills. Ice invasion. While the streams were at work cutting down the highlands a more remarkable thing happened. A great ice-sheet formed on the land east of Hudson Bay (Fig. 14). For years more snow fell each winter in that region than melted in the following summer. Thus a great snowbank was formed. In the bottom of that snow- bank, as the snow was compressed, ice was formed, in much the same way as ice is formed when you press a snowball in your hands. In time the huge ice mass began to move. As it advanced it gathered stones and rocks and soil, so that when it came into New Eno-land it was rock shod. As it moved southward it wore off the hill-tops and broadened the valleys (Fig. 15). This great ice-sheet covered even the highest moun- tains in New England. On the top of Mount Washington there are stones that the ice-sheet left there, and on the top of Mount Monadnock, in southern New Hampshire, the bare rock surfaces still show the scratches that were made by the stones frozen into the base of the ice- sheet when it passed over this summit. The glacier ad- vanced until its southern margin was in the Atlantic Ocean (Fig. 14). The islands of Marthas Vineyard and Nantucket were in part covered by the ice. On the southernmost Fig. 13. This woman is sorting and weighing skeins of raw silk in a silk mill at South Manchester, Connecticut. Connecticut is the only New England state which has developed an important silk- manufacturing industry shores of Marthas Vineyard there are rocks that the glacier carried from the mainland and left there when it melted. About half of Long Island was covered by the ice- sheet, and the belt of hills that extends from east to west through the middle of the island is made of stones, sands, and clays left by the ice (Fig. 39). That belt of hills is a part of the deposit left by the glacier and marks the southern limit of ice advance in that region. Retreat of the ice. When the climate grew warmer. ( he ice slowly melted away. All the stones that were in the glacier were left on the ground. The streams that came from the melting glacier washed some of the sands and gravels southward, and in many places made great plains of that loose material. This explains why New England has so many bowlders, and why in some places the soil is sandy and gravelly. Waterfalls, rapids, and lakes. As the ice melted farther to the northward the material which it left blocked many of thestream courses. The rivers had to find new ways to the sea. In doing this they some- times had difficul- ties. There was hard rock to be cut away. This is the explanation of the falls and rapids. Streams commonly have falls or rapids where they cross hard rock. Other streams were so blocked by the de- posits of glacial material that the waters could not get out, and so hundreds of ponds and lakes came into existence. Where such ponds and lakes have been drained there are fertile meadow lands. Note to Teacher. Each pupil should be encouraged to make a collection of pictures and to prepare a portfolio or a scrapbook. Adver- tising booklets, newspapers, and magazines will furnish an abundance (if material. As the study of geography proceeds, the pupil* should tiring to class the pictures they have obtained of the country under consideration, and thus additional illustrations, in which the pupils are especially interested, will be available for each lesson. Home work. 1. Arrange your own pictures of New England in groups showing the scenery or occupations. 2. Write at least fifty words of description about each one. Fig. 14. This map shows the extent to which North America was covered by ice in the glacial period. Where were the four great centers of snow accumulation ? Which of these centers has an ice-sheet to-day ? NEW ENGLAND 11 Inlets and harbors. When the ice advanced through the valleys to the coast, it deepened these valleys and dug out great quantities of the earth. When it retreated, there were deeper channels which helped to make the large inlets where the best harbors are now located. The retreat of the ice from Boston Harbor left hills of earth that rise above the sea as islands, and these islands are a natural protection for the harbor. Sinking of the land. Another wonderful thing has happened which has helped New England. The land near the shore has been depressed, or lowered, and the sea waters have advanced into the mouths of the rivers. For this reason New England is said to have a " drowned coast." The drowning and the ice action have made the coast irregular and produced the good harbors. © Henrj ti- Penbody Fig. 15. This is Crawford Notch in the White Mountains of New England. Notice the gently rounded, forest-covered slopes, and contrast them with the sharp, rugged peaks in Fig. 2 on page 4. The White Mountains are part of the old, worn-down Appalachian Highlands, which form the highest land in the eastern United States The rock islands off the coast of Maine and New Hampshire are due chiefly to the sinking of the land. They are hill-tops, standing with only their heads out of the water (Fig. 16). We shall find that the eleva- tion of many lands above sea level has been changed ; some of them have been depressed and others have been uplifted. Lafayette Park. A portion of Mount Desert Island on the coast of Maine has been set aside as the Lafayette National Park. This is the first national park east of the Mississippi River. Summary. Almost everything of natural origin in New England has proved to be a real resource to man: the harbors, the streams with their water-power, the forests, the soils, and the underlying rocks. The moist climate, Fig. 16. Bar Harbor is one of the many beautiful summer resorts on the Maine coast. The islands which you can see in the view are just the tops of hills which used to stand entirely above water. Because the coast has sunk, Maine is said to have a " drowned shore line " with enough rainfall for farming and for the lakes and streams, has proved to be a natural resource. The moun- tain scenery, the many lakes, and the seashore are true natural resources. As a busy people we need play- grounds, we need vacations, and these restful and beauti- ful spots are now of great value to us. The future. New England will always be an industrial, or manufacturing, district. There are natural advantages here which will continue to give this part of the count ry the leadership in certain lines of manufacturing. The forests, now in part held by the government, will be more wisely cared for. The fishing interests should be conserved. The great supplies of building stone will last almost indefinitely. Market-gardening, dairying, and poultry-farming may all be developed much more extensively, and the planting and care of apple trees should be promoted. With scientific care many of the abandoned farms will again become productive. Fig. 17. The woolen mills at Winooski, Vermont, owe their location to the falls of the Winooski River. More and more of the New England waterfalls are being harnessed and made to produce power for industry. What are the chief products of New England manufacture ? 12 NEW ENGLAND Problems and review questions. 1. Where were the first settle- ments of white people in this region ? 2. What natural advan- tages led to the location of these settlements ? 3. What natural advantages led to the more rapid growth of Boston ? 4. What disadvantages did the early settlers find in this region ? 5. To what occupations did the forests lead ? the water-power ? 6. Where are there wood-pulp mills ? 7. For what is the pulp used ? 8. Why was sheep-raising undertaken by many New Eng- land people? 9. What factors led to the abandonment of New England farms ? 10. What leading cities have been much benefited by a loca- tion on the coast? 11. What cities have developed at the head of navigation on certain of the rivers ? 12. What river in New England has been most used in developing water-power ? 13. Why are the mouths of the New England rivers wide and deep ? 14. W r hat is the largest river in New England ? 15. What are the chief manufactured products of New England ? 16. Why has New England become a manufacturing region ? 17. Name a leading cotton-manufacturing center; a woolen- manufacturing center ; two cities where boots and shoes are made in large numbers. 18. Could New England get along easily without importing foods from other regions ? W T hy ? 19. What foods has New England in such quantities that some may be exported? 20. Where does the fuel for New England come from ? How is it sent ? 21. Why should there be so many large bowlders in the fields ? 22. W T hy do we find scratched and polished rock surfaces along the coast of Maine and on many of the mountains ? 23. How much of New England was formerly covered by ice ? 24. Where did this ice come from ? 25. How was the ice formed ? 26. Why did the ice disappear ? 27. Why do the farmers build stone walls about their fields in New England ? 28. How do the attractive summer resorts along the coast and in the mountains benefit New England ? MAP STUDIES Maine. The White Mountains that center in New Hamp- shire extend northeastward into Maine, but do not reach quite to the eastern border of the state. Note on the map the curving brown line which runs from Saddleback Mountain to a point near Houlton. North of this line the land bor- dering the old, worn-down mountains is a plateau country. South of this line the land is part of the Coastal Hilly Belt. All of Maine is within the Appalachian Highlands, where there is a pleasing variety in the surface features. Lakes and streams are abundant. The irregular coast has numerous pic- turesque inlets and islands. 1. Locate Mt. Katahdin and give its elevation. 2. Name two navigable rivers ; three large lakes. New Hampshire. The center of scenic interest in this state is Mt. Washington, and the outlook from the summit is over the Presidential Range and the beautiful lake district in the bordering hilly country. The lowlands near the Connecticut River and small areas among the hills of the Coastal Belt furnish attractive opportunities for farming. The state is fortunate in having large supplies of good building stone, extensive forests, and an abundance of water-power. Vermont. The Green Mountains extend from north to south through this state. In the northwest are the fertile agricultural lowlands that border Lake Champlain, and in the southeast the farm lands of the Connecticut River Lowland. The mountains are forested and furnish large quantities of lumber. The granites and marbles of the mountains are used as building and ornamental stones, and the valleys between the ranges are used as farm lands. Water-power is available in many places. Massachusetts. This state is fortunate in having a preat variety in surface features and soils. The Connecticut River Lowland is between two belts of old, worn-down mountains. To the west are the Berkshire Hills. They represent the southward extension of the Green Mountains. To the east are the Central Highlands of Massachusetts. They are the southward extension of the White Mountains. Farther east is the Coastal Hilly Belt, and in the extreme southeast a little of the Atlantic Coastal Plain. Cape Cod, Nantucket, and Marthas Vineyard are in the Coastal Plain region and have light, sandy soils. The hills and mountains contain building stones, much of the land is suitable for farming, and nearly every stream furnishes water-power. Rhode Island. This is the only state entirely within the Coastal Hilly Belt. The sinking of the land has allowed the sea to advance inland and form Narragansett Bay. Here there are good harbors and many islands and peninsulas that furnish attractive sites for seaside homes and resorts. Connecticut. Near the coast this state is hilly, and the hills become higher to the north and northwest near the old, worn- down mountains. The Connecticut River Lowland crosses from Hartford to New Haven, but the river leaves the Low- land at Middletown and flows southeastward to Long Island Sound. The manufacturing centers of this state are fortu- nate in being near the great markets of the city of New York. GENERAL QUESTIONS 1. Are the products of New England all used there, or are some exported ? 2. W r hat countries do New England manu- facturers draw upon most for raw material ? 3. Why should the New England farmers give so much attention to dairy- ing, gardening, and poultry-raising ? 4. Where do the grains and meats come from that are ex- ported from Boston and Portland ? 5. What conditions off- shore make favorable fishing grounds? 6. What are the chief crops of the Connecticut River Lowland? 7. Where is maple sugar made in large quantities ? 8. Where is granite obtained? Where is marble obtained? 9. How may the irregular coast line of New England, which has given such good harbors, be explained ? 10. What rivers in New England are navigable? 11. To what state do Nantucket and Marthas Vineyard belong? 12. What state in this group is without a seaeoast ? 13. What water route is there from Burlington, Vermont, to the sea? 14. Is Boston or Buffalo farther from the equator ? See western margin of map. 15. Compare the latitude of Providence with that of Cleve- land, Ohio. 16. What city in France is in about the same lati- tude as Bangor, Maine ? See eastern margin of map. 17. What New England states border on the Canadian frontier ? Notk. For a study of New England cities see page! 8 and 0. D Long. 71° West E from 70° GreenYwich Ginn and Compauy 14 ATLANTIC AND GULF COASTAL PLAIN utionai 1 din Service, Ino. Fig. 18. The Cape Cod Canal in Massachusetts was opened in 1914. It connects Cape Cod Bay with Buzzards Bay, making a short, safe route from Boston to Long Island Sound, in place of the long, dangerous trip around the Cape. Here is a tugboat passing through a liftbridge over the canal. The canal is 8 miles long, 100 feet wide, and 25 feet deep, making it possible for large vessels to pass through it. Its cost was twelve million dollars, but already it has saved merchants and shippers many times that amount. Locate the canal on the map on page 13. In what natural region is it? ATLANTIC AND GULF COASTAL PLAIN To open the study of this natural region, examine each of the pictures from Fig. 18 to Fig. 39, reading the statements below the pictures. Make a list of all the facts you discover in this way. What are the occu- pations of the people ? Is the country rough or smooth ? Is it wet or dry ? Are any rock ledges shown ? Are there the air near the coast, both over the sea and over the land, somewhat warmer than it would otherwise be. Along the east Gulf and Atlantic coast, within this region, the rainfall varies from 40 to 60 inches a year. That is enough for agriculture. West of the Mississippi River the rainfall decreases from about 50 inches to 20 inches near the Rio Grande. At the Mexican frontier any great bowlders in the soil, as in New England ? agriculture is uncertain unless irrigation is practiced. What are the principal crops? Make a list of the sea- ports shown in the views. What parts of this area appear to be the warmest? The maps and the text will sup- plement what has been learned by studying the pictures. Climate. The Coastal Plain extends so far from north to south that the climate at one end differs greatly from that at the other end. The temperature along the Gulf coast is about 85 degrees in summer and about 50 degrees in winter. Farther north, along the Middle Atlantic states and the southern shores of New England, the summers are warm, but the winter temperature often falls below zero. Many of the beaches of New Jersey, Long Island, and eastward to the end of Cape Cod are used as summer resorts, and many of the beaches in the South, especially in Florida, are winter resorts. The Gulf Stream flows northward along the Atlantic coast; it brings warm waters northward and keeps Fig. 19. These are brave men of the United States Coast Guard. They patrol the coast and go to the rescue of ships in distress. This view shows one of their large life-saving boats Storms often originate over the warm waters of the tropics and start inland across the Gulf coast or north- ward along the Atlantic coast. These storms commonly bring rain to the coastal lowlands. Some of the storms are dangerous to coastwise shipping, but the United States Weather Bureau stations in the West Indies and on the mainland now send out warnings by wireless, so that sea captains may know when such storms are near and what way they are traveling. The captain who receives such warning may change his course and thus avoid meeting the storm. Natural resources. The Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain includes ex- tensive areas of good farming land. In many places the soils are light and sandy. Such soils, when fertil- ized, are suitable for the raising of fruit and vegetables. In Long Island, in New Jersey, and farther south near each of the larger cities the I H'Iltw .1 & Underwood ATLANTIC AND GULF COASTAL PLAIN 15 Coastal Plain soils are used for market-gardening and fruitrraising. In other parts of the Coastal Plain the lands are used for general farming. Deposits of phosphate rock are available in several localities (see map, p. 23), and that rock, when pul- verized, makes an excellent fertilizer (Fig. 20). A large part of the Coastal Plain is still over- grown with a pine forest. This forest is one of the most valuable of the nat- ural resources, and fur- nishes much of the lumber ^&t ? r^ ^^pp - 1 -; a irfi '^-""A. Fig. 20. This is a phosphate-mining plant in Florida. The phosphate rock is dug out of pits, loaded onto little cars, and carried to the crushers, where it is ground up. The state of Florida produces half the world's supply of phosphate rock. For what is it used ? On the map on page 25 notice in what parts of Louisiana and Texas nat- ural oil, or petroleum, and natural gas have been dis- covered (Fig. 24), and in what parts of Texas coal is found. The coal in the Coastal Plain region of Texas is lignite, a soft, brown coal, somewhat woody in ap- pearance. The coal farther north, in the Central Plains portion of the state, is bi- tuminous, the grade com- monly known as " soft coal," and very widely used in manufacturing.' Louisiana and Texas also used in the Southern states and even in the Northern states for building purposes. There are also large cypress groves in the Southern states, where lumber is obtained. Near the coast, where the climate is warm enough, the lowlands are used for cultivating rice (Figs. 21, 22). The great alluvial, or river-made, lands near the Missis- sippi River and on the Mississippi delta are wonder- fully fertile, and there large crops of sugar (Figs. 25, 26), rice, and cotton are raised. Offshore, the shallow waters which cover the conti- nental shelf abound in fish, many varieties of which are used as food. The quiet waters of the drowned river mouths provide great quantities of oysters, and the warm waters which surround the southern end of Florida contain large numbers of valuable sponges and turtles. have important sulphur beds, which provide the largest source of supply in the country. The navigable rivers and the harbors of the Coastal Plain must also be counted among the chief natural re- sources of this region. Notice on the maps on pages 23 and 25 how many of the rivers of this region are navi- gable, and what seaports are located near their mouths. Occupations. Agriculture is quite evidently the chief occupation in this region. Many farmers who formerly thought that the Central Plains region was the best part of the country to live in have migrated to the southern plains, where it is not necessary to spend much for warm clothing or for coal. The settlers may work out of doors most of the time, and such healthful work is becoming in- creasingly attractive to large numbers of American people. &) Keystone View Co. Fig. 21. These men are cultivating a rice field on the Coastal Plain. Rice is not a native grain of North America, but came originally from Asia. In 1694 the governor of South Carolina planted a little rice in his garden, and it grew so well that the industry was started in this country Fig. 22. After the rice is harvested it is threshed in a machine which separates the kernels from the straw. This view shows the threshing machine and the stack of straw in the background, and in the foreground the bags of rice ready to be shipped. What states produce rice ? If) ATLANTIC AND GULF COASTAL PLAIN Fig. 23. On the large Southern cotton plantations the picking is usually done by negroes, but on the smaller farms this work is often done by the owner and the members of his family. What are the chief cotton-growing states ? In what two natural regions is the cotton grown ? The greatest cotton-producing region in the world is located in the Southern states, where the climate is warm (Fig. 23). The large farms are called plantations. The cotton crop requires the help of thousands of people. In the fields there is the work of planting, cultivating, and harvesting. The cotton fiber must be picked from the bolls by hand and carried to the cotton gins, where the lint cotton is separated from the seeds and baled. It is then ready for market, The seeds of the cotton are sold to the oil mills. In the mills the seeds are first put through a process by which all the short lint left on them by the gin is removed ; this is called linters and is used for making mattresses and guncotton, and for other purposes. The hulls are then removed from the seed. The cottonseed hulls make ex- cellent feed for cattle and are nearly as valuable for this purpose as hay. The oil is then pressed out of the seed ; cottonseed oil is used as a substitute for olive oil and lard and for other purposes. The residue of the seed, after the oil has been extracted, is called cottonseed-oil cake ; this cake is ground into meal, and cottonseed Fig. 24. The petroleum fields of the Gulf Coastal Plain are dotted with derricks like these, each built over an oiJ well. The Gulf Field, as the oil region of Louisiana and Texas is called, was opened up about 1900, and since then these two states have becomt very important producing centers Fig. 25. Railroad lines run through the broad fields of sugar cane in Louisiana, and as the cane is cut it is loaded onto the cars and taken to the mills, where it is crushed and the juice extracted. Louisiana produces nearly all the sugar cane raised in the country meal is used for cattle feed and for fertilizer. It is very rich in nitrogen and is largely used in commercial fertilizers for furnishing this element. Two enemies of the cotton plant are the cotton- boll weevil and the pink boll worm. The weevil attacks the cotton plant, but the pink bollworm makes its way into the cotton seeds and is thus more destructive than the weevil. The United States government is making a great effort to kill off these insects in the areas where they have established themselves. More and more of the cotton grown in the Southern states is now being manufactured into cloth in the South. The cotton mills are operated by water-power, steam- power, and hydroelectric power. From the earliest days of colonization rosin and turpen- tine have been obtained from pine resin. These products are commonly called naval stores, because they were used in preparing wooden ships for the water (Fig. 32). In New Jersey the sands of the Coastal Plain are used in the manufacture of glass, and the clays from the low- lands have led to the establishment of the pottery business. Since the discovery of petroleum, or natural oil, in Louisiana and Texas these states have rapidly developed a large oil business. Large quantities of the petroleum obtained from the ground are piped to ports on the coast and then shipped to industrial centers. A great amount of sulphur is mined in these two states, and Louisiana produces great quantities of salt. ATLANTIC AND GULF COASTAL PLAIN 17 History of settlement. The Coastal Plain is espe- cially interesting to us from a historical stand- point. Provincetown, pro- tected by a curved sand bar, or hook, at the tip end of Cape Cod, has grown up near where the Pil- grims first landed in Amer- ica before making their settlement at Plymouth. When settlers came to Delaware Bay, to Chesa- peake Bay, and to the mouths of navigable riv- ers farther south, they moved upstream to the head of navigation. That was at the inner margin of the Coastal Plain. See maps on pages 23 and 3o. At that line falls were encountered in the rivers, and the ocean-going vessels had to stop. Where falls were met in the James River, Richmond was established. The colonists who moved up Chesa- Fig. 26. This is a great sugar refinery in Louisiana. The raw sugar, which is the crystallized juice crushed from the cane, is brought here to be purified. First it is melted, then filtered and cleared, and finally recrystallized into the white sugar of commerce. Where does the raw sugar for this refinery come from ? that were there. The line connecting these cities is called the fall line. It is the western boundary of the Atlantic Coastal Plain, and it continues westward, forming the northern boundary of the eastern part of the Gulf Coastal Plain. See map on pages 2 and 3. In the Southern states a number of early settlements peake Bay located Baltimore at the inner margin of were made near the mouths of the larger rivers, and the Coastal Plain. Those who attempted to go up the Schuylkill stopped at the falls in that river and founded a settlement that has grown into the great city of Phila- delphia. In trying to go up the Delaware River, falls were encountered where Trenton is now located. Columbia, in South Carolina, is at the head of naviga- they became seaports, such as Wilmington (North Caro- lina), Charleston, Savannah, Jacksonville, Mobile, and New Orleans. Several of the early Spanish and French explorers came to the mouth of the Mississippi and went up that river into the interior of the continent. See Appendix, Plate A. tion, as are Augusta, Macon, and Columbus in Georgia, The names in the Mississippi Valley, such as New Orleans, and Montgomery in Alabama. Many other cities have Baton Rouge, and St. Louis, suggest that the French grown up along this inner margin because of the falls nation was interested in this part of North America. Fig. 27. The Coastal Plain sands of the shores of southern Florida support a large growth of coconut palms. This view shows the clusters of coconuts growing around the trunk of the tree Fig. 28 . These men are harvesting Indian River pine- apples. Pineapple-growing has recently become an important industry in southern Florida. What con- ditions make fruit-raising profitable in Florida ? Fig. 29. Oranges are the most important of the Florida fruits. Thousands of acres are covered with thriving groves. Some of the groves contain lime and grapefruit trees as well as orange trees 18 ATLANTIC AND GULF COASTAL PLAIN ; 1 ^^•FmP Jl£W"3K SBHMiiMt »^^ 1 ,j PMUj; 1 J '^ pr \f^ jgWBmM'31 ^^^^p^"' ^^"SgSBpSs Fig. 30. Tampa, Florida, is situated on the margin of the Gulf Coastal Plain at a point where a small river enters Tampa Bay. This view shows the river and the flat land on which the city is built. The lower channel of the river (at the right) has been deepened to allow large vessels to enter The Atlantic portion of the Coastal Plain, as far south as Florida, is a part of the original territory obtained from Great Britain by the treaty of 1783, following the Ameri- can Revolution. Florida was purchased from Spain in 1819. Louisiana and Arkansas are a part of the Louisiana Territory purchased from France in 1803, and Texas was annexed to the United States in 1845 (Fig. 191). Until after the Revolutionary War almost all of the white people in North America lived in southern New England or on the Coastal Plain and Piedmont Belt north of Georgia (Fig. 190). "Piedmont" means at the foot of the mountain. Origin of the plain. The Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain was formerly under the ocean. At that time the continental shelf (see map opposite page 82) was more than twice as wide as it is to-day. Rivers from the lands brought sands, gravels, and clays to the shore line, just as they are bringing such materials to the seashore to-day. The sands, gravels, and clays thus deposited offshore r i ■*■"* «9 "•*''!• '''.if'' ... ■■■--' -^^ Pi ^S^s^k^f R3Sli^HH9i£ 1 ' $fy ~ • i ti *> *'■ j ■7 i.' . ! J i^ ^ p^ 6^-^^ .^A^ I'.::. ■:.•- 1 t>J En. Div. R. J. AgT. Coll. Fig. 31. This is a common sight along the shores of Delaware Bay. The farmers bring their tomatoes to the wharves in wagons and trucks and load them onto flat scows bound for the canneries at Baltimore. Thousands of tons of Coastal Plain tomatoes are canned every year at Baltimore from the bay. Tampa is the chief port of export for the Florida phosphate. The railroad tracks over which the phosphate is carried from the mines to the storage elevators are at the right in this view. Where is this product sent from Tampa ? What other products are exported from this Gulf port ? built up a plain underneath the shallow ocean waters. Later the land rose, the sea retreated, and the Coastal Plain came into existence. The surface soil was enriched by the decay of vege- table matter, and in time this whole region became clothed with plant life and with great forests. Most of the materials which make up the Coastal Plain are soft and loose. Even a boy would have difficulty in finding a stone to throw. Instead of bowlder walls, as in New Eng- land, the early inhabitants built picturesque rail fences. In place of marbles, gran- ites, sandstones, limestones, and other hard rocks similar to those that form the Ap- palachian High- lands, the materials of the Coastal Plain usually consist of loose sands, gravels, marls, loams, and clays. Delaware Bay, Chesapeake Bay, and the broad inlets farther south are estuaries, or drowned river mouths, due to a late sinking of the coast. Sand reefs and sand dunes. Use maps on pages 23, 25, and 35. Along the shores of the Coastal Plain the waves have built sand reefs which inclose, or nearly in- close, lagoons. These offshore reefs become natural break- waters. There is one over 100 miles long on the coast of Texas ; and in the Carolinas, Cape Lookout and Cape iz) LoJerwihul * CiiiJemood Fig. 32. Savannah, Georgia, is the largest market in the country for naval stores. The wharves are crowded with barrels of rosin, tar, and turpentine, ready for export. Where will they be sent ? ATLANTIC AND GULF COASTAL PLAIN 19 Hatteras are parts of sand reefs which project as great points into the Atlantic Ocean. Along the New Jersey and Long Island coasts there are also offshore reefs. The sands washed up by the waves on these reefs are commonly blown into sand dunes, so there is usually a line of low hills bordering the coast. When a sand reef is formed near the mouth of a river or a harbor, the end of it is usually curved. At the open- ing of New York harbor, Rockaway Beach on Long Island Fig. 33. This is a view in the business section of Houston, Texas. The broad, well-surfaced street, wide sidewalks, and fine business blocks are typical of the enterprising cities of the Gulf Coastal Plain. Locate Houston on your map. What are its chief business activities, and why ? and Sandy Hook on the New Jersey side are both curved (Fig. 52). The tip end of Cape Cod was formed into a curved reef, or hook, by the work of waves and shore currents. This hook protects the harbor of Province- town. All the land about Provincetown is sand. The hills here are made of sand blown up by the winds. Fig. 34. Galveston is built on the end of a sand bar and is open to the full force of the waves from the Gulf. In 1900" the city was destroyed by hurricane waves, and since then this great cement sea wall has been built in order to prevent another such disaster Coral islands. Along the shore of Florida, where the sea waters are sufficiently warm, corals have grown and made little islands and reefs. Corals grow in clear ocean waters where the temperature does not fall below 68° Fahrenheit and where the depth is not more than 120 feet. We shall find that there are coral animals in the tropical seas all around the earth where there are clear, shallow waters. Mississippi delta. At the mouth of the Mississippi River is one of the largest deltas in the world. Each year the river brings millions of tons of sediment to the Gulf. If all the material brought in one year were placed on a square mile, it would be nearly 270 feet high. When the river water meets the still water of the Gulf of Mexico, it loses its velocity and so is forced to drop whatever it is carrying. The deposits appear first as bars opposite the mouth of the river, and the river is forced to divide and form two mouths. This process continues until there are several mouths. Each distinct mouth is called a distributary. It takes water away from the main stream and thus does a work that is quite different from the work of a tributary. Fig. 35. New Orleans is located on a broad bend of the Mississippi River about one hundred miles above its mouth. This view shows part of the city and in the distance the low, flat land of the Mississippi delta across which the river winds its way. Can you explain the origin of this delta ? £) ilcruit i'UUiilniig Co. The river channel has been deepened so that the largest ocean steamers can reach New Orleans, making it the most important seaport on the Gulf of Mexico. Locate New Orleans on your map. What are its exports? With what countries does it trade ? What are some of its chief imports ? 20 ATLANTIC AND GULF COASTAL PLAIN Fig. 36. Here is a view in a Mississippi pecan orchard. The nuts are spread out in trays according to grades and sizes. Nut-raising is a growing industry in our country, in which the South and the Far West lead. Nuts are very nutritious, and their use as food is increasing rapidly Future. The Coastal Plain is a large region with enough rainfall for agriculture, and with such good soils that it will surely become a more and more important agricultural district. The presence of large supplies of phosphate rock that may be used to fertilize the light sandy soils is most fortunate. The trees should be cared for by trained foresters, and thus the supply of timber and pitch can be made permanent, More nut-bearing trees and more fruits can be raised (Figs. 36, 37, 38). More of the swamp lands should be drained. The Mississippi River can be in part controlled and forced to deposit more silts on its flood plain. Thus wet lands are built up and made suitable for farming. Men should learn how to control this river in such a way as to prevent disastrous floods. In this way it would be possible to save some of the rich soils that the river is all the time carrying to the Gulf of Mexico. The lowlands of Florida are being drained and made available for agriculture. The seaside resorts are certain to become more and more popular as the .cities of this country become more crowded. The Coastal Plain will easily accom- modate a much larger population, and with in- telligent, scientific care the soils will yield greater crops, and all who live there may be prosperous. The excellent harbors of the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain encourage foreign commerce. With the ever-increasing trade of the United States with the countries of South America, Central Amer- ica, Mexico, and the West Indies the states of the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain are sure to be greatly benefited. Fig. 38. A single peanut vine, showing the full-grown nuts and the little nodules on the roots which extract nitrogen from the air in the soil and store it up for food for the vine. When the plant decays, the nitrogen from the nodules enriches the soil Fig. 37. This is a field of Virginia peanut vines. The blossoms come out near the base of the vine and are at once covered with earth. Thus the peanuts develop underground but are attached to the branches of the vine, not the roots. What are the uses of the peanut ? Problems and review questions. 1. How may the absence of hard rocks in the Coastal Plain be explained ? 2. What is the reason for the great bays indenting this coast ? What is an estuary '.' 3. How are deltas formed ? What proof is there that the Missis- sippi Rivet made the delta at its mouth ? 4. What is the relationship of the continental shelf to the Coastal Plain ? 5. How were the sand reefs bordering the coast formed ? 6. Explain the presence of sand dunes on many of these reefs. 7. Explain the formation of lakes in the Mississippi River flood plain. 8. Why did the early settlers who came to this coast move in- land rather than settle on the shore ? 9. Why did they stop and build settlements at the inner margin of the Coastal Plain ? 10. Where were some of the early settlements ? 11. What is the fall line ? 12. Why is this part of the United States an agricultural dis~ trict ? 13. What conditions found here are favorable for raising cotton, rice, sugar cane, citrous fruits, peanuts ? 11. What indus- tries have the southern forests developed ? 15. In what part of Louisiana has oil been discovered ? 16. What European peoples sent exploring parties to this portion of America ? 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How high is Mount Mitchell, North Carolina ? Is Mount Washington, New Hampshire, as high ? 6. North of Virginia, which way does the drainage go from the Appalachian Mountains ? 7. Which way does it go from the southern part of the Appalachian Mountains ? 8. What are the larger rivers in the northern part ? in the southern part ? 9. What states are within or partly within this division of the Appalachian High- lands ? 10. What natural regions border the Appalachian Highlands ? Home work. 1. Select any pictures you have of this part of the country and bring them to school. 2. Write brief studies of your pictures, like those under the views in this book. An industrial region. This division of the Appalachian Highlands is a great industrial region. It is one of the busiest sections of the United States. It includes the densely populated districts in New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, and extends southwestward to the in- dustrial section of northern Alabama. Locomotives, steel rails, steel vessels, warships, guns, and munitions are manufactured here on a large scale (Fig. 40). The Dela- ware valley has become the greatest shipbuilding district is necessary for all kinds of machinery ; farmers must have implements made partly of steel ; great buildings need strong steel frameworks ; loco- motives and automobiles must have many steel parts. In what ways does the manufacturer depend upon the miner, and the miner upon the farmer ? in the world. Most of the steel trusses for the bridges and the steel beams for the great skyscrapers are made in this region, as well as all kinds of heavy hardware. Mining and lumbering are very important occupations in this part of the United States, and in places much of the wood of the forests is made into pulp which is used in making paper. Most of the cities are manufacturing centers. Natural Resources Sources of power and raw materials. There are large supplies of coal, oil, gas, and water-power in this region. These are sources of power, and man must have power in all manufacturing pursuits. Iron is found in the Appalachian Mountains and in the Adirondacks, and great quantities are brought from the Lake Superior district. There are many seaports, many waterways, and a net- work of railways (Figs. 42, 43). Raw materials are readily brought to this region, and manufactured articles are easily shipped to all parts of the world. To understand the great development of the indus- trial life in this region it will be necessary, as well as interesting, to study certain of the natural resources upon which it is dependent. Coal is found in the ground, usually in great layers. If mining men know that coal is to be found deep below the surface, they sink a shaft (which is like a well) into the ground until they reach the coal seam. Then the coal is broken out and brought to the surface. Little by little the men underground take out the coal under acres or square miles of the land, while the surface of that land is perhaps being used for agriculture (Fig. 41). APPALACHIAN HIGHLANDS 27 The coal resources in this region, and farther west in the great Mississippi Valley, underlie thousands of square miles. The United States is wonderfully fortunate in having such vast quantities of coal. Natural oil and gas. When indications of oil or gas are noticed, deep holes are bored into the ground; and if there is oil or gas there, it will come toward the surface through pipes that are put down as the boring proceeds. Gas is commonly used as fuel or for lighting purposes. Natural oil, or petroleum, furnishes a large number of useful products. As it comes from the ground it is usu- ally a thick, dark-green substance. When it is heated, naphtha and gasoline are driven off as vapors and may be condensed into liquids. Kerosene is another product. Our common oils for machinery come from petroleum. Vaseline is one of the products, and also paraffin, which is used in making candles. Water-power. In addition to the fuels as sources of energy there is a remarkable amount of water-power in this region. The map on page 21 shows where a num- ber of the large water-power plants are located. The waterfalls in the northern part of the district are due to the changes in drainage, caused by the glaciers, just as those in New England were caused (p. 10). South of the land of glacial action (see maj),j). 21) water-power is developed where streams have hard rocks in their Fig. 41. The layers of sandstone, shale, limestone, coal, and fire clay shown in this drawing were nearly horizontal when they were made, but they were all upturned when the Appalachian Mountains were formed. The rain and the rivers wore away some of the surface, and men discovered the seams of coal. Then the men dug a deep hole, or shaft, and drove tunnels that crossed the layers of coal. Now the miners can easily break out the coal and let it drop into small cars that are taken to the shaft and lifted to the surface. The fire clay is also mined. In coal fields away from the mountains the layers of coal are usually horizontal channels and are having a difficult time to cut them away. In such places falls and rapids occur, and there men construct dams and put in power plants. Sometimes the force of the falling water is used directly to turn mill wheels and thus keep machinery running. Often the falling water turns wheels that generate electricity. This is changing or transforming one kind of energy into another. Such plants are called hydroelectric plants. The electricity is a very convenient form of energy and may be used for the benefit of man in many different ways. Salt and gypsum are found at a number of places in New York State (Fig. 73). The salt is far below the sur- face and is a great layer of rock. The gypsum is also a layer of rock, but it is nearer the surface than the salt. These deposits are a proof that there were formerly inland seas in this part of North America. When the seas dried up the salt and gypsum that had been in the water were left. Map and picture studies. Use the maps on pages 23 and 35. 1. Make a list of the resources that man gets from the ground in the Southern Division of the Appalachian Highlands. 2. Which ones, when used, are gone forever ? 3. Which ones may be used more than once ? 4. Study Fig. 41. 5. Where is iron shown on these maps ? 6. What building stones are shown ? There are other excellent building stones in this region. Home work. 1. Find out how coal was made. 2. Find out how coke and other valuable products can be obtained from coal. Fig. 42. Here is a section of one of the great railroads of the state of New York, where six tracks run parallel to one another. Above each track is the signal which tells the engineer whether to go ahead or to slow down. If it is upright, the track is clear; if it is down, there is a train ahead Fig. 43. The electric engine is fast coming into use on our modern railroads. It makes traveling far cleaner and more comfortable and is easier to run than the steam engine. It carries no coal car and needs no stokers. How will the increased use of hydroelectric power affect railroading ? 28 APPALACHIAN HIGHLANDS Fig. 44. This little girl is feeding the chickens on Fig. 45. These little kids live on the same farm. Fig. 46. These are the fine, strong oxen which are a government experiment farm in Maryland. Our Goats are not very common in the United States, used in the mountainous parts of the Southern government runs many experiment stations in and the government is experimenting to see Appalachians for hauling logs in places where order to discover the best farming methods whether goat-raising would pay the farmer railroads have not been built as yet Soils. Soils are of the greatest importance to a com- munity, and it is wise conservation to keep up their fertility. For this purpose special nitrogen-fixing crops (Fig. 38), such as clover and alfalfa, or soy beans and peas, may be planted, and fertilizers may be used. The continuous prosperity of our nation will depend more upon the fertility of our soils than upon any other one of our natural resources. In the northern portion of this region (including most of New York State), the northern part of New Jersey, and a little of Pennsylvania the soils are of glacial origin. See map on page 21. The glacial soils vary because they are made of different kinds of rocks, which were ground up, or pulverized, by the movement of the glacier ; some are stony, some are heavy clays, others are sandy and gravelly, but most of them are fertile soils. South of the line of ice action the soils were made during long periods of rock decay (Fig. 48). Those periods were probably millions of years in length. Each time that the rocks are heated by the sun and then cooled they expand and contract and thus are weakened. Each time that water freezes in the cracks of the rock it expands and opens the cracks a little more, just as the formation of ice may break a bottle or a pitcher. Each time that a root gets into a crack and grows it helps to widen the crack, and sometimes roots of trees break rocks. As plants decay and as animals burrow through the loose material the soil becomes finer and finer until a surface loam is made. Forests. See Figs. 49, 60, and SI. The soil in a forest is loose and porous, and much of the rainfall easily sinks into the ground. Thus there is less water to rush down the hillsides and cause floods. The water which sinks into the ground percolates through the soil and gradually finds its way into the streams, thus preventing them from dry- ing up. In the shade of the forest also the surface water evaporates slowly. Thus droughts are prevented. In portions of this region where the forests have been removed from the mountain sides heavy rainfalls often cause disastrous floods. At other times droughts occur because the rain waters, instead of sinking into the ground, have poured down the hillsides and been lost. Fig. 47. Dairying is very important in the Southern Appalachians. The great round dairy barn in which this herd of cattle lives will hold four hundred and fifty cows. In the center of the barn is a big silo, in which one thousand tons of green feed can be stored for the cows to eat in winter Fig. 48. This is a farming scene in a part of the Southern Appalachians which is south of the glacial line. Notice the careful way in which the soil has been rolled and left in clean, even furrows, ready for planting the seed. How have the soils in this part of the region been made? APPALACHIAN HIGHLANDS 29 Fig. 49. In the mountains of South Carolina and Georgia the lack of snow makes it impossible to haul the logs from the lumbering districts on sleds. Instead they are often taken out over narrow-gauge railroad lines. In this view the great logs are being loaded onto the cars by a steam crane The roots of the trees help to bind the soils and keep them on the mountain slopes. The presence of the forest, therefore, is beneficial in many ways, in addition to sup- plying lumber, wood pulp, and pitch. To-day there are national forests in the southern por- tions of the Appalachian Mountains. The government has purchased thousands of acres, where trees will be planted and cared for by trained foresters. Climate. The prevailing winds throughout this belt come from the southwest, and many of the storms that pass over the country come from the southwest and move northeastward. Some storms come from the west or northwest and then change and move northeastward. In the higher mountains the rain- fall amounts to over 60 inches a year, but in the lower portions of the country the annual rainfall is from 40 to 50 inches. Heavier rainfall in the higher mountains is due to the fact that the winds coming to these mountains must rise to such eleva- tions that the water- vapor in the air is cooled and forms tiny drops of water that float in the air as clouds until the drops become too large, when they fall as rain. The rainfall in this region is sufficient for all agricultural uses and for domestic and industrial purposes. The water- power is chiefly dependent upon the heavy rainfall in the mountains. Fig. 51. These men are fighting a forest fire in the Southern Appalachians. Fires of this kind are usually started.through carelessness, and they de- stroy millions of dollars' worth of timber each year Fig. 50. When the loaded cars reach the sawmill, the logs are rolled off into the log pond. At the left in this picture you can see the track on which the log cars run, and at the right the floating logs which will be sawed into boards in the mill. Why should we preserve our forests ? Location and growth of cities. At the southeast margin of the highlands are the fall-line cities, beginning, at the north, with New York and ending, at the south, with Montgomery, Alabama. See maps on pages 23 and 35. Each of these cities is located on navigable waters, and most of them have the advantage of water-power. Another group of important cities includes those located within the Appalachian Highlands on large rivers ; such cities as Harrisburg and Pittsburgh in Pennsylvania and Wheeling and Huntington in West Virginia. A third group of leading cities includes those that owe their loca- tion to the presence of some partic- ular natural resources. Birmingham, Alabama, is near the iron and coal of the southern Appalachian Moun- tains, and Scranton and Wilkes-Barre. in Pennsylvania, are in the midst of the hard-coal field of that state. Many of the cities of this natural region owe their location to the local development of prosperous farming communities. The business of a manufacturing city may be divided into three parts : ( 1 ) the gathering of raw materials ; (2) the manufacture of commodities ; and (3) the distribution of the manu- factured goods. To carry on its busi- ness each industrial center demands good transportation facilities to and from the city, and some source of power to turn the wheels of its mills. 30 APPALACHIAN HIGHLANDS The city of New York has the largest population of all the cities in the world and outranks all others in export and import trade. Its excellent harbor affords a port for the largest vessels (Fig. 52). Raw materials may be brought from all parts of the world to this center, and manufactured goods may easily be shipped to all parts of the world. This location on the seashore, therefore, is one of the most desirable places in the United States for a city. In addition. New York has the advantage of /,-ARITA-N BAT SANDY HOOK @Gmi and Company Fig. 52. This is an aeroplane drawing of New York City and its surroundings. The city originally occupied only the island of Manhattan, at the mouth of the Hudson River. Trace the outline of the island in this view. The city of New York now includes the five boroughs of Manhattan, the Bronx, Brooklyn, Queens, and Richmond. Locate these boroughs in the drawing. How many people live in this great city ? What proportion is this of the population of the United States ? See Appendix, pages viii and ix In addition to its commercial advantages, New York ia but a short distance from a large supply of fuel. From the Appalachian fields coal and oil are quickly and easily brought to the city for use in the large factories. The leading industries in New York are the manu- facture of clothing and machinery, printing and book- making, meat-packing, and the refining of sugar. New York has become the leading financial center of the world. There are many banks and insurance companies with large capital, and most of the great industrial houses of America have offices in the city (Fig. 53). The borough of Brooklyn devel- oped as a large independent city across the river from New York City, but it has now become a part of the metropolis. It is an important center for the refining of sugar and the roasting and grinding of coffee and spices. Eastward from Brooklyn and northward along the banks of the Hudson River are chains of suburban towns where many of the people live who work each day in the metropolis. To the west, across the Hudson River, are Hoboken, Jersey City, and Newark. These three cities are in New Jersey, but they have many of the same great geo- graphic advantages that New York City has. In addition to the busy indus- trial and commercial life of the city, New York is one of the leading educational and musical centers of this country, and it is for- tunate in having wonderful collec- tions of natural history and of art. ATLANTIC OCEAN SANDY HOOK LIGHT SHIP being at the mouth of an important river. Northward from New York is the busy highway of travel through the valley of the Hudson, and equally important is the valley of the Mohawk, leading westward from Albany. By the Hudson-Mohawk route supplies of raw material for manufacture, and great quantities of food, are brought from the rich agricultural lands of the interior. During the French and Indian War and the American Revolution the valley of the Hudson was a center of great struggle, for its possession by an enemy meant the separation of the only two thickly settled districts of America and the isolation of New England (Fig. 39). Picture study. Study Fig. 52 carefully. 1. What natural advan- tages lias New York as a port ? 2. Describe the kind of country around the city. Using this aeroplane view, with Fig. 39 and the map on page 35, answer the following questions : 3. To what natural region do Staten Island and Long Island belong ? 4. In what natural region are Manhattan Island, Jersey City, and Newark located ? 5. In what state is Sandy Hook ? 6. Why should there be sand bars near the entrance to New York harbor ? 7. What great natural highway leads northward from New York ? 8. Why is most of the trade between New York and the West carried on over this highway rather than over a direct route from New York to Chicago ? 9. What industrial cities other than New York are shown in Fig. 52 ? 10. Where do they get their raw materials ? their fuel? APPALACHIAN HIGHLANDS 31 Fig. 53. This view shows the lower end of Manhattan Island as it appears from the west bank of the Hudson. This is the business and financial center of New York City, and the office buildings are commonly known as sky- scrapers, because they are so high. The waterfront here is lined with long Yonkers is situated on the Hudson and is a very important industrial and residential city. Albany, the capital of New York, is near the head of tidewater on the Hudson (Fig. 54). To the west is the Mohawk Valley, with the Erie and Barge canals ; to the north is the Champlain Valley, leading to Canada ; to the east is the best route to Boston ; and to the south is the Hudson Valley route to New York. Albany is at the crossing of great trade routes. See map on page 21. Troy is located at the head of steamboat navigation on the Hudson River and near the eastern end of the New York Barge Canal. It is famous for the manufacture of collars, cuffs, and shirts. Schenectady, on the Mohawk, manufactures electrical supplies and locomotives (Fig. 55). Utica is another Mohawk River city ; it is one of the leading knitting and cotton mill cities in the country. piers which jut out into the river. Between them are the deep-water docks, which receive the largest ocean liners. How is the general shape of New York favorable to shipping ? What are its principal exports ? With what countries does New York trade chiefly ? What are some of its imports ? Syracuse was located near certain salt springs which have led to the manufacture of soda products. Railroad trade-routes and waterways have led here to the growth of manufacturing. Many automobiles and bicycles are made in Syracuse. Note. For other cities in New York State see page 34. Philadelphia was founded by the famous Quaker, William Penn. The name " Pennsylvania" means Penns ivoods, and "Philadelphia" means brotherly love. Here is the famous Independence Hall (Fig. 58), where one may see the old bell that first rang out the good news that the Declaration of Independence had been signed. The city is located on the Delaware River and is one of the largest and best seaports of the United States. Before the opening of the Erie Canal it was the first city of the countrv (Fis;. 56). It now ranks third in size. Fig. 54. Albany, the capital of New York, stands on the steep west bank of the Hudson River, 150 miles from its mouth. Approaching the city from the river, you can see the large public buildings on the hill, and below, along the water-front, the docks, railroad stations, and river boats. Albany © Fellows-raft Plioio Shup, Albany is an important railroad center. At the right in this view is the bridge over which all trains from the east must pass to enter Albany. Locate this city on the map on pages 96 and 97. How many transportation routes can you trace which pass through Albany or have their terminals there ? 32 APPALACHIAN HIGHLANDS Fig. 55. This is a great locomotive-manufacturing plant at Schenectady, New York. Its buildings cover acres of land. Schenectady is the center of the locomotive-manufacturing industry of New York ; the state produces about one fourth of the locomotives of the country. What are the essential materials for this industry ? Where do the locomotive manufacturers of Schenectady get them ? Iron and coal are not far away, and Philadelphia has become an industrial center. More locomotives are made here than in any other city. Other very im- portant industries are the manufacture of clothing and clothing materials, the refining of sugar, the making of ma- chine tools and textile machinery, and the tanning and finishing of leather. Washington and the District of Columbia are very near the falls of the Potomac, but Washington was not located for industrial or commercial purposes. A more detailed description of the capital city, its location and its buildings, will be found on page 101. Pittsburgh. The early routes of westward migration led George Washington, then a young man of twenty-one, settlers to the headwaters of the Ohio River in western was sent to warn the French away from the Allegheny Pennsylvania. See map on pages 2 and 3. Here, at the valley. He reported that the point where the Mononga- junction of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers, the hela and Allegheny rivers came together was a very city of Pittsburgh stands to-day (Fig. 57). In the year 1753 favorable situation for a fort. Accordingly, in 1754, the British besran to build a fort there, but before it was finished this was seized by the French and given the name Fort Duquesne. The following summer Washington tried to retake the foil. This attempt resulted in the beginning of the French and Indian War, which ended in the withdrawal of the French from the territory and the renaming of Fort Duquesne after the great English states- man, William Pitt. The water routes made this site favor- able for the location and growth of a large city. Excellent sandstone for glass- making is found in the Ohio valley, and Pittsburgh is famous for its plate glass ) Ginn anil Compaoj Fig. 56. The beginning of the city of Philadelphia was made at the falls of the Schuylkill River, where it tumbles down from the hilly country of the Appalachians to the level Coastal Plain. As the city gradually grew in size it came to occupy all the land between the Schuylkill and the Delaware, and to-day the larger river is much the more important. Its channel has been deepened so that large ocean vessels can reach Philadelphia, and twenty miles of wharves along the river front make it possible for hundreds of ships to dock here at one time. For this reason, although Philadelphia is one hundred miles up the river from the sea, it is really a seaport and has a large foreign trade. This aeroplane view shows parts of two different natural regions. What are they ? How do they differ in appearance ? What are the chief exports of Philadelphia ? Where do they come from ? Where are they sent ? What is imported in return ? APPALACHIAN HIGHLANDS 33 and glassware. Since coal, iron, limestone, oil, and gas were available, Pittsburgh became the leading center in this coun- try for the manu- facture of iron and steel. As the iron and steel industries expanded, more iron was required than it was possible to secure in Pennsyl- vania. By that time the wonderful sup- plies of iron in the Lake Superior region had been discovered, and these ores are now brought by boat to points on Lake Erie, and then by rail to Pittsburgh to supply its great blast furnaces. The city enjoyed a most remarkable development while railroads were being built throughout the United States. The iron and steel industries made possible the rapid construction of railroads, and thus helped Pittsburgh to grow. Later the introduction of steel skeletons for the great office buildings, the use of steel in making freight and passenger cars, and its substitution for wood in a thousand other ways brought a great amount of business to, this center of iron and steel manufacture. Scranton and Wilkes-Barre are in the midst of the chief field of hard coal in the United States. Iron and steel are available, and with their supply of coal these cities have become in- dustrial centers. Reading is beauti- fully located on the east bank of the Schuylkill on the margin of the Appalachian Mountain belt. It is a busy manufacturing city, specializing in cotton and woolen goods and boots and shoes. Harrisburg, the capital, © < linn and Company Fig. 57. Pittsburgh has grown up at the point where the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers join to make the Ohio River. The first settlement was made on the little point of land between the two rivers. From that small beginning the city has grown to the size which this view shows, spreading out over the tongue of land between the rivers and taking in the settle- ments on the opposite banks. This aeroplane drawing shows the kind of country which you would see if you were to travel through the Appalachian Plateau. Can you describe it ? Why was this spot a natural place for a city to grow up ? What are the important resources of the region around Pittsburgh ? What are the chief industries of the city ? How does it rank in population among the cities of the United States ? See tables in Appendix is located on the Susquehannah River within the moun- tain area. Coal, iron, and steel are easily available, and therefore manufacturing has been undertaken. Baltimore is located on the inner margin of the Coastal Plain at the head of an arm of Chesapeake Bay. It is a leading port and an important manufacturing city. The nearness of the Appalachian coal fields insures abundant fuel for manufacturing. The chief industries are the making of clothing and. slaughtering and meat-packing. Baltimore is a lead- ing center for the canning and pre- serving of fruits and vegetables and for the manufacture of tobacco. Note. For a farther study of cities in this natural region see pages 22 and 34. Fig. 58. No building is dearer to the people of the United States than Independence Hall in Phila- delphia. Here the Declaration of Independence was signed in 1776 and the United States Consti- tution adopted in 1787 Rural occupations. In order to learn what the people in the rural parts of this region do for a living, study Figs. 44-48. 34 MAP STUDIES MAP STUDIES (Use also map on page 21) New York State is very fortunate in having a great variety of surface features, soils, and natural resources. The water- ways and water-power are exceedingly valuable. 1. Where is the chief fruit-producing district? 2. What mineral resources are shown in New York? 3. What special reason was there why the people of this state should develop dairy farming and gardening ? Buffalo is at one end of important trade routes from the Great Lakes to the Atlantic, and New York and Boston are at the other ends of those routes. Immense supplies of food and raw materials for manufacture are brought to Buffalo. Power is supplied from the coal, oil, and gas fields of the states farther south and by wire from Niagara Falls. The city has therefore become a manufacturing center. Rochester owes its start to the water-power at the falls of the Genesee. Later the Erie Canal, the railroads, and recently the Barge Canal, by furnishing good transportation facilities, have helped to make it a prosperous manufacturing city. Note. For other cities in New York State see pages 30 and 31. Pennsylvania. 1. What natural regions extend into this state ? 2. What sources of power are indicated on the map ? 3. In what part of the state are the oil and gas fields? 4. The coal in the western part is soft, or bituminous ; that in the east is hard coal, or anthracite. 5. What are some of the im- portant agricultural products ? 6. What navigable rivers are available to the people of this state ? Agriculture is important, but fully twice as many people in Pennsylvania are engaged in mining and manufacturing as in farming. Note. For cities in Pennsylvania see pages 31, 32, and 33. New Jersey. 1. What natural regions extend into this state ? 2. What mineral resource is found in the mountain belt ? 3. What resource has led to the development of the pottery industry ? 4. What source of power led to the location and helped in the growth of Trenton ? of Paterson ? Newark is the largest city in the state. It is a manufactur- ing center specializing in patent leather, jewelry, paints, and thread. There are many large copper smelters here. Jersey City enjoys the advantage of New York harbor. It is a busy manufacturing city. Paterson leads all American cities in the manufacture of silk. Trenton, the capital, is situated on the Delaware River. It is a fall-line city and the center of the pottery industry of the Atlantic coast. Camden, opposite Philadelphia, is an important shipbuilding center. Many who work in Phila- delphia have their homes in Camden. Atlantic City is one of the most attractive seaside resorts along the New Jersey coast. Delaware. 1. What natural regions extend into this state ? 2. What coal and iron fields are accessible to Wilmington ? 3. What advantages has this city in transportation routes ? Wilmington is located where two small streams from the upland hilly belt have rapids in their courses and furnish water-power. It is a fall-line city and the most important in- dustrial center in Delaware. Its population is about one half of that of the state. 4. Locate on the map the canal which connects Delaware and Chesapeake bays. 5. What fruit from Delaware is best known ? 0. Dover, the capital, is centrally located in a good agricultural region. Maryland. 1. What natural regions extend across this state ? See map on pages 2 and 3. 2. What sources of power are there in the state ? 3. What are the chief crops of the lowland area? 4. What industries do the shallow salt waters of Chesapeake Bay encourage? 5. What is the chief seaport of this state ? 6. Opposite the mouth of Chesapeake Bay the imports and exports are shown. With what countries is most of the trade carried on ? Annapolis is beautifully located on the shores of Chesapeake Bay. It is the capital and contains the United States Naval Academy. Baltimore (*ee p. 3S). Virginia. 1. What natural regions extend into this state ? The soil of the Coastal Plain is light and sandy, suitable for raising fruits, vegetables, and peanuts. 2. What appears to be the leading product of the Piedmont Belt in this state ? 3. What important mineral resource is found in the mountain area ? The majority of the people in Virginia are engaged in agricultural pursuits. Along the coast and in Chesapeake Bay oyster fisheries are very important. Richmond, the capital, is a fall-line city. The water-power available is used in numerous large manufacturing indus- tries. Norfolk is fortunately situated near Hampton Roads. It receives large supplies of coal from the highland region and has become one of the chief coaling stations for vessels on the Atlantic coast. Norfolk is one of the largest peanut markets in the world. West Virginia. Agriculture is the chief occupation of the people of this state, and yet West Virginia is very well sup- plied with mineral resources and forests. 1. What sources of fuel are available ? 2. What large navigable river is on the northwest border of the state ? Wheeling is the largest city in West Virginia. It is situated on the Ohio River about 60 miles below Pittsburgh. Large supplies of coal and iron are available, and this city, like Pitts- burgh, has become a great manufacturing center. In addition to the iron and steel mills there are large glassworks. Huntington is another large city in West Virginia located on the Ohio River. It has the advantages of both railway and water transportation. Charleston, the capital, is in the midst of one of the greatest coal districts of the state and is surrounded by rich oil and gas fields. GENERAL QUESTIONS 1. Name three important seaports in this group of states. 2. What food supplies do the coast cities import in large quan- tities ? 3. From what countries do the foods chiefly come ? 4. What raw materials are imported for manufacture ? 5. What city in Europe is in about the same latitude as New York ? 6. Is Chicago farther north than New York ? 7. What city on the Mississippi River is in about the same latitude as Washington, D. C. ? 82 c B 80° Longitude C West from D Greenwich 76° 1 1 MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC MAP Scale of statute miles Atreal QUE Scale of kilometers 100 200 "& State capitals ss " Navigable rivers | Lowlands # Chief seaports _| Uplands and plateaus ternora*^— -v platt&Burg |^ Central plains I Old, worn-down I mountains Military Camps (D Madison Barracks, D 2 © Langley Field, D 5 ©CampDix, E3 ©Camp Meade, D 4 © Camp Lee, D 5 ® Mitchell Field, F 3 MICH Detroit © Plattsburg Barracks, F 1 ® Ft. Niagara, C 2 ® Ft. Myer, D 4 ® Hampton Roads Nava ng Station, D 5 N T. . 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J • .'G^ttysburgVjV.Ch^^-^r^.?^*.^^- m ngton Lakewood oppeh eeocii !EAT AND Burn^SBta^VestonV ilip( ^J Th W s • Davis Gallipojisjrplr^^^^tannon.^ Is { ^ , rtsmouthHrli^sant SpericerW. \A. P^-^ts^iil. ■^'Sutton nd tA HE r », >»Wi)(#est _ Shester'ou'eSp'^M'n;/; r"- j Tianmrrr-i i n, i# Jftvumingtor , ^ ioMo] t i* .Westminster ^{ *1-V -Salem yineland i„iii>-^ Atlantic '"'«#' City 'LI :esburg Kenova KY. 50AL irCharlestq ontgottiery Richwo Bted onct iriton JVIp.HTavre^eJ v •iFrederickV^ „ w >«^ p Baltimore*^ ^ :^! ^.r»o\er;# BLUEFSH E/Li.B<\VCape May Milf0idg>te Henlopen .b^^"-^^ v - ., Ut*c ^^ 4„ ,S: 7HatrTsonb' a ri^O--r-^f ^ ( J J^\ NFredericksburgi ta^nton ria S i c Orange* | ISprs • JCitv^TSharlotte aynesbow*. \ ^ Boayli B Benfc^.'^ '^ /K»NT|I. ^ManalfieTx ^Bne x 4 ldria ^W»pri|nt 0n ,1? Iffthl Jo £5=§f °V^eafoi«'' /arll^^if^naSrttU.le^, ^^«a^ S o 1^ . 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KJ r7~Vj»"" '" "^etour ""inee n.man 80 r CENTRAL STATES EASTERN SECTION POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC MAP Scale of statute miles MAfcKlNAb'i; St.Ignace "^.ttoia blanc^ Escanapa Pt.Detour beaveb i Mackinaw '°'t, _ yf Oharlevoi: wi '^''^^>Mondovi A W 'X^^ StevensP W Sey T°^een/ay BOma,N -* fm** tan o K» „v >—~N fe CWaR Sherman , F * [ D 3 ' ® Gseat Lakes Nava! Training Sta., '1g'K^r!dge Field, F 3 % © Chanute Field, C 4 ~;^ © ScofeioW, B 5 © WilbuMVtoght Field, E 5 i f '(M^k RaoiliSs » ^-* — » .• '■ •KalWskaA^s ? iffffravA-seC.ty ^V~**f; 42 ^X Black River/1 Nek. Falls , _reen Bay rOES/Wukauj#|De *£**""£ $ W.' l5_J^mah\f WIS.. Oshkosh " Ne =naj. r ./*' Rivers Cj 'Rippn- Fo1 S'aujpun Sparta ^.Mau1Si R v^g v-I Crosse j| Ejrpy \ poC-.. ' r0(1 ^? BaSo?PverDan^^ R U, ;^sitBend "f {.* •Richland/r ft °~ • VodDurTj J T Port Washington '^F^Kntej^. Columbus" ji ar Jj .hcedarburg WhiteMjlU* fJ^^i»«<>»5V ^ terto fe^OcononS W oc fijM"*^ a L d T\ ^ Madison^ T u * e8 *«. . 4Mii™ u k^ „„ < ""lUw^ | sto^htonT^VV^/i'--* 1118 1 Cudahi ' ^ GrandHavi OelweinT^^P'atteville Mineral Point V?V Ft.Atkinson ■loot lk A J^'WM Jane 8 vilIeJ.C Burlm « t 2 h 'Monroe t a 3^:. i=*Lake Ao Sable •" Pt. Au Sable ^ 5 -.,*BarqV es O !?° \I)ubuqueJ« C A^ f ? e, * srt Beloit ' •Harvard -T "Woodstock ^*Ft. Sheridan t< 1 "Racine ^ 4 Kenosha ^ lion City^ ■ Waukegan Aim; jfc- 1 ' Saginaw £,. * Greenvilla ,,,„„ c ««Vassar BeldingV MICH.C 1 |0 AJ. if. # .Ipnia ,/j Qwpsso Lapeer . J,. * Port Hurol , «t. Johns' a h - "-Flint Grand Rapids" „,„.„!•, F enton „ Stc;,,- Durand m • Holland Lansings H oy ,h, \ r^r- -4JJastiftgs' o charlotte |*J\PonHa*«-' *. V^ AU S ian «• " iEaton Rapids Mt.Clemei f^^S" 86 ?*^ r. j- Highland Park Haven/ hall Kalamazoo *B gfll A »* Arbor Detro l(arJJapid Iowa Cityi ^J^urling - c Rrt**L-firtV-T r. ■■-""■>«"-a^wi.onenaan Kalamazoo * r -Jt> -^i"--»- .; hm , «-^ Ma[w4d-V- 0i ' „ClintonK u " on atir 1 ' 11 ^ ^DixpaBf Kalb Rock-Fail^f^ Aurori rfendota . Sandw. i™*4 "Batav rrineeton ock *Geneseo i Jand__.^ Spring Valley.-** - Aledo ^mouth . - T-f--. . . Qff N yClALA'T 01 r .-nd.|;-^- C ^>Vo- •(Chicalo Ga V ,• ^' *™f N> Kend . llville L^Bryan, 'Kewaneel I^^ 11 " 6 ^„ ' r. , '^'^ #*"&& "Kankak^xfl?^a ke Nor^plffia'ci{y> P & l 2^lfe^f .Gales.»nrg /.OATts 5: C I! ; Judson -Rochester* ". J** \A |T, fushnellj L I C Y a ^°^ Abingdon^Pforia >eoK £ . >EW V ! v % . I ^-5^R£F^d1LJ Ar'&V , a t^^ \ "" r WatsekaT I MonticelloT X^ptjL^ BRrfttonVDt ft«C A . ,*J Kenton GaliOn Mair HooUt W. "•'-^ »fe0 V^JCehna ^.JjUS^^ Carthage ^ewisto^Wfj, Tl t. . i Havana/V T . - ■ Rushvifte. ^s3T**J c J - ,,r l£»' . Tr^ftjtsasr^ja&L •* Cily , Danville ^annibal% Louisiana W « ilO> St.Charlel fg Virginia^-ri De catur £ J rD »*--Westville Wayne if ^Kenssetaer I y «ayne t^\ Lo^nsp^«Hv^!'' n ^ lLafayetteVLafavette •*i OKOmfe i .*""*". p^P ^'Y^iplon jMartf o^Cjt^ ^■Frankfort ,' „, *l •, ,• Alexandria g°C" g i°Pr ">_♦ -^ Ander^wc^ ^envi ^ T^TTrhana^*^ V ^ t B ~\lSe' , BarnJBfate! . tpTColUmDUS gknlsvljle O ( London |.> Lancaster r 'rX, vill ei I uviuwiieia Mm SV II Pari|l . r V.'~""V!**"'"'» ^"^ Greenfield >"c ponajv. I .£ q iU, ■» croo»sviiit. .Roodhouae \.^„. ..AS'vanJ .I| S-'™ , .Greencas^e goa^nie W i , b Dayton] 'Xen* ^ ^ V Logan 1 . Whi.l'nVlfden '"J''""* . C.hArlestonlpI^ .Bfkzil r^y ? / Conne-i." 5li*Ao K/ .7 Jeffersbn ICtty -iV^T SheibS" 1 ^ •Vtch field, erseyville ^Staunton 7* * 1 L°^ r T'" le ^ :;ndal 4 Newt r • fcGranite City /!> , Olney r\ #E.St.Loi»i s X ! ' .o . |,.FIora\ . t.Loi ©iBeUefille iL r'tinsvi Sulm Jason' ^'t^LintonyTBedf^y ■A 4fVSKelbyvi! ^ FradkHn NE pT ^•.Bloomini ,igr i ' er re-Haut«r'oJ* v trarjKHn ereensburft^'Hamiitorfi;' „ ,' P -asohviUeZ^J N E iTcolur*busrCioci>.Bemard|G^nfiel, Explanation if State capitals ^ tX ' ; |%aWaira'city ;,Sffers <> ~.'rinceton„ ,.• , Ne^ Albi j .WW.FrankSr^f"- ^•_M%physg 9 r<: H »:„•„ Eldorad; VatApo I JflashviUeV »».!« Kbura Lawrentjebu: AuVpn • *N^Veri facymour w Connej ^ AshtailflTa. ,Pot-iSfoi^M'LEE l{ f /5^/^p^Svilll Bowling Bellevue # Oberlip. Elyna Javenna f tJreen # Fo^toria NortSfalk I Ak^piK' * Ni'cs , ^ {• Tiffin S^ Barbertoif. " Younfestow FiiiiayV Shelby (fillianr^- \ • 44 12 Ashland Wooste' ieldl • Canton isilloo LAY] E.Liverpr Dover • •iNew Philaldihia , • iLafayetteVij.fBvetto • iS T okom'r | ^:|UfMiS,epoH •Herrin* 1 1 Navigable rivers „. Ca P^.' An Giraro^" i Lowlands I (Coastal plain) r^' 7 F ^^'^^""^WiSc-heiter <,^ *lenr?er»S^^> ^i J J \ Lawr Ve»* A«* ^"Nic hoiasville +«. % Morgaafield *>,'Al OBAC( f Morgan/ield *.«? ff ^ 9 ° ^larrodsburg* .LancasterVl/eV, C^-*> \ Nlv ' turgis S "^ %, ' ElizaBet f own WwPanville. -Berek ;£?• > ?* ' PikevilllV; ■> 'o M u L E i Lebanon^- Stanford U>d «ef? >v "%. • Prx>videnrii£ . Marion .Madr^^viH^ If '"ScVon-G-"^'*^-^ ^."f "- | Central plains j Uplands and plateaus Old, worn-down mountains New» Madrif' Paduc V frT^^dy»ille rfiowling Green^w^J . Glasgow SO '^%TC orbi ^' ">^rf^. 8 rr A . Ruasellville r ° R N r^%5*^ Barb*arvilW<«D ,> H ° pk " la Jpfr f _ Ml 3 r '""" ii rf*?*WilliamibuSSsr: Mayfield "AB" 6 ." 00 , Rueseliville * O R N kman\ - ^aHopkinsylle p -'^^A Union City A T E N|N. < "ashvir 8% 'CynthlBna Catlettsbutii Huntingtotl J Shelbyvilli?; . .Paris V .Morehead ill \ ( -f^ ouisville^VWf Georgetowni^^^ Loui ^ \J \ - B Memphis '90 Mobile # 88° Longitude D West from 86° Greenwich E F Atlanta. 82° Savannah* 6 ) Ginn and Company 46. CENTRAL PLAINS Fig. 79. This is the Superior-Detroit High Level Bridge, which spans the Cuyahoga River at Cleveland. It is made of steel and concrete and is high enough to allow the tallest smokestacks and masts of the Great Lakes vessels to pass under it. Cleveland is one of the most important ports on the Great Lakes and is also a great industrial city. Iron ore from the Lake Superior district is sent down the lakes to Cleveland, and coal comes by rail from the fields of the Appalachian region. What are Cleveland's chief industries ? How does Cleveland rank in size among the cities of the United States ? Problems and review questions. 1. What natural regions border the Central Plains ? 2. How do the Great Lakes modify the weather conditions near them ? 3. Which part of the Central Plains has glacial soils ? 4. Where is the Blue Grass Country ? 5. In what ways is natural oil, or petroleum, transported ? 6. What uses are made of natural gas ? 7. Does the mining of the coal in the Central Plains interfere with the use of the surface for farm- ing? 8. If the coal were used at the mines to generate electricity, what saving of work would that mean ? What other arguments are there in favor of this plan ? What arguments are there against this plan ? 9. How did there come to be great deposits of salt in parts of this region ? Settlement and Industrial Development Early explorations. Plate A in the Appendix shows the early routes of exploration into the interior of the continent. Certain headwaters of the St. Lawrence and Mississippi river systems are so near together that the Fig. 80. This is a view in the business district of Buffalo, showing the broad streets and handsome buildings. The city gets its electricity for light and power from Niagara Falls, twenty miles away. Locate Buffalo on your map and explain its commercial importance. What are its chief industries ? early explorers carried their boats and outfits from one river system into the other. In Wisconsin there is a short portage from the Fox River (which flows northeastward into Green Bay) to the Wisconsin River. The city of Portage is located just where the early explorers crossed from the St. Lawrence system into the Mississippi system. See map on page 45. This was the route followed by Marquette and Joliet in 1673, on their trip from the Great Lakes down the Wisconsin and Mississippi to the mouth of the Arkansas. On their return they came up the Illinois and portaged to Lake Michigan. In 1682 La Salle, on his third trip into this region, portaged from the south branch of the Chicago River to the Des Plaines and thence went down the Illinois. See Appendix, Plate A. On this trip he followed the Missis- sippi River to its mouth, taking possession of the coun- try in the name of France and calling it Louisiana in honor of Louis XIV. The explorers who went westward through the Appa- lachian Mountains of Pennsylvania soon came to the headwaters of the Ohio River. See map on pages 2 and 3. This river was used as a highway of travel during the early days of migration into the Central Plains. Some who came by way of the Mohawk valley to the shores of Lake Erie turned southward into the Ohio and fol- lowed it to the southwest. Many from Pennsylvania and Virginia moved south- ward between the long Appalachian Mountain ridges and finally found in Cumberland Gap {see map on pages 2 and 3, K 3) an easy route to the westward. Some of these immigrants settled in the hilly country of eastern Kentucky and eastern Tennessee, but many of them pushed on beyond the Appalachian Plateau into the Central Plains. In all cases the lakes and rivers guided the early explorers. CENTRAL PLAINS 47 Fig. 81. The harbor of Duluth is protected by a long, narrow tongue of land which nearly connects Duluth and Superior. A ship canal has been cut through this tongue of land, allowing the large lake freighters to enter and leave the harbor. The canal is spanned by a traveling aerial bridge. Foot Migrations westward. At the close of the American Revolution a great many people from New England and the Middle Atlantic states went westward and settled in the great agricultural lands of the Central Plains. In those days land travel was chiefly by wagons or oxcarts. As the number of people increased, larger and larger settlements were made, and these grew into prosperous farming communities. Owing to the building of railroads many of the small towns have become cities. Columbus (Ohio), Indianapolis (Indiana), Springfield (Illinois), and Des Moines (Iowa) are examples of cities located in the midst of prosperous farming districts. Location and growth of cities. The location of cities is greatly influenced by changes in the means of trans- portation or, as we may call it, by breaks in transpor- tation. When men who are traveling by water find it necessary to abandon their boats and go overland, they must unload their goods, usually stay overnight, and purchase a new outfit. Such delays mean that people begin to congregate where there are breaks in transpor- tation. A little hotel is built, stores are opened to ac- commodate the travelers, trading begins, and, as the demands increase, more and more goods are brought there to be sold. As the population increases, manufac- turing may be undertaken, a railroad may be built to this place, and soon a city has been established. Lake ports. Many cities in the Central Plains region have developed as lake or river ports where there are advantages in transportation. See map between pages 95 and 98. Buffalo, Erie, Cleveland (Fig. 79), Toledo, Detroit, Milwaukee, and Chicago are the larger lake ports of the Central Plains. Duluth and Superior are large lake ports in an adjoining natural region. Each one of the lake ports is located at a break in transportation. To-day iron ore is brought by train to Superior and Duluth and then transferred to lake vessels Photograph bj McKeuie, Duluth passengers, teams, automobiles, and trucks are lifted and carried across the canal by this bridge. Great quantities of ore and grain are brought to Duluth and Superior by rail, loaded into the freighters, and sent east by the Great Lakes. Explain the importance of Duluth and Superior as shipping centers (Fig. 81). Wheat and lumber also come to these ports and are transferred to vessels. Grains and manufactured products from Chicago and farther west are loaded onto vessels leaving that port (Fig. 88). Thousands of auto- mobiles are shipped by water from Detroit. Buffalo receives large quantities of foods and raw materials from the west, and resbips much of it by canals or by rail to cities farther east (Fig. 80). Part of the iron ore brought to Sandusky, Cleveland, Erie, and other Lake Erie ports is used in those cities, but large quantities are transferred to freight cars and sent on to Pittsburgh. On the return westward many of the vessels take coal and manufactured goods for delivery to the upper lake ports. The railroads transfer the products of the farms to the large cities on the shores of the lakes and distribute throughout the country the manufactured goods from the cities. The lake ports are therefore very busy places, where great cargoes of raw materials and manufactured goods are being exchanged. C. J. BibbMd Fig. 82. Minneapolis, located at the Falls of St. Anthony on the Mississippi River, is the greatest flour-milling center in the world. Over 100,000,000 bushels of wheat are made into flour here every year. The city is also a great lumber center. Can you explain the location of these industries ? 48 CENTRAL PLAINS Fig. 83. St. Louis is located on the right bank of the Mississippi River just south of the points where the Missouri and the Illinois rivers enter the main stream. The city, which has nearly twenty miles of river frontage, is a very important river port and a very busy railroad center. At the right in this picture is one of the great bridges which connect St. Louis with the east bank of the river. In the center are some of the large buildings of the city. Locate St. Louis on your map. What are the advantages of its location ? What are its chief industries, and why have they developed ? River ports. Cincinnati, Louisville, St. Louis, Kansas City, coming to the city manufacturing has developed (Fig. 85). Omaha, St. Paul, and Minneapolis are the larger river ports Louisville and Cincinnati are the leading Ohio River ports within this region. Minneapolis started as a lumber in this natural region. town. Logs were sent downstream from the forests of Minnesota. Later, when railroads had been built and the great Northwest was open for settlement, large quan- tities of wheat began to move eastward and flour mills were erected at Minneapolis, until that city has become the leading flour-milling center in the United States (Fig. 82). St. Paul has also become an important manu- facturing and railroad center and is a large lumber market (Fig. 84). St. Louis was a trading center in the early days of settlement, and since it was near the junction of the Missouri and the Mississippi, it was a natural outfitting point for travelers (Fig. 83). The leading cities on the Missouri River are located where transportation west- ward in the early days was interrupted. The overland routes of migration to the Pacific coast started from Kansas City. See map on pages 2 and 3. To-day there are magnificent bridges across the river, and travel may go on without inter- ruption. But the cities once established have continued to grow in population and importance. Omaha is a river city, but it owes its Fig. 84. St. Paul, the capital of Minnesota, is situated across the Mississippi River from Minneapolis, and the two are known as the "Twin Cities." They form a very important railroad center, and four transcontinental railways pass through them. Name the other chief railroad centers in the Central Plains Note. For additional study of cities see pages 44 and 54. Farming. In the study of agriculture in this region we shall begin at the south and work north and west. In Kentucky, in the Blue Grass Country, there is a rich clay soil, where more tobacco is raised than in any other part of the United States (Fig. 70). This is also a good district for general farming. The famous corn belt stretches from east to west throughout the Central Plains, with a width of about two hundred miles. In traveling through that portion of the country during the summer we can see thousands of acres of gently rolling country where com is grow- ing (Fig. 86). The corn belt is in the well-watered por- tion of the Central Plains and gradually comes to an end in the west as the coun- try becomes drier.' At the western end, in Kansas and Nebraska, an occasional dry season means the loss of a corn crop. Corn is a heavy product to ship, and the farmers have found that instead of marketing corn it is much more profitable to feed it to hogs and cattle and then growth chiefly to railroads. It was made the terminus sell the stock when they are fattened (Fig. 87). This is of the Union Pacific Railroad, which, with its connections, the reason why corn and swine appear so commonly was the first transcontinental railway route. Omaha has side by side on the economic maps of the Central become a great railroad center, and with raw materials Plains region (pp. 45, 55). CENTRAL PLAINS 49 Fig. 85. This is a portion of the busy industrial district of Omaha. The buildings in the picture include the car-shops of the Union Pacific Railroad and a great plant for the smelting and refining of gold and silver ores. Be- cause of its location Omaha has become a very important agricultural and The farmers also raise horses, mules, and sheep. The green cornstalks, if put into silos, make good winter fodder for stock. Some of the fields are always reserved for raising oats, barley, wheat, and vegetables. The zone where most of the oats are raised is a little farther Fig. 86. This farmer is standing beside his corn crop to show how tall it has grown. Proper seed selection and soil preparation have produced an abundance of large, well-filled ears. What states are included in the corn belt ? What other crops are grown in this belt besides corn ? north, running through northern Indiana, Illinois, and Iowa. It begins before the corn belt ends. See maps on pages 45 and 55. The great wheat belt begins before the oat belt ends, and wheat becomes a more and more important crop to the northwest and west. Wheat-raising has an impor- tant relationship to the climate. It needs from three to four months of weather without frost in which to grow and ripen. Wheat also needs rain in the early part of its growth, but during the ripening period it matures better if the climate is dry and there is plenty of sunshine. To the northwest, in Minnesota and the Dakotas, and to the west, in Nebraska, Kansas, and industrial center. Seventeen railroads meet here. What do they bring to Omaha ? What do they take away ? In the early days of westward migra- tion Omaha was one of the points from which the pioneers set forth on their journey westward. What trails did they follow ? See map on pages 2 and 3 Oklahoma, we pass into drier and drier regions, where wheat can be raised more profitably than corn or oats. The broad, level country in the valley of the Red River in the Great Plains of Canada and the United States is a wonderful wheat-producing district, for the soils are very fertile. The valley of the Minnesota River in the Central Plains, just southeast of the Red River valley, is another rich wheat-growing district Near each of the large cities in the Central Plains dairy farming, market gardening, and the raising of poultry have been undertaken on a large scale. Many of the, dairy products from southeastern Wisconsin and north- ern Illinois are shipped to all parts of the United States. ■ g£a»6 - - : ^*>^ — $r*R RT4P -— Fig. 87. These little pigs are among the many thousands which are raised in the corn belt. The rich corn is just what they need to make them fat, so nearly every corn farmer also raises hogs. For this reason the corn belt is the greatest hog-exporting region in the world Wisconsin has more dairy cows than any other state except New York and leads in the production of butter and cheese. Home work. 1. Find out the meaning and value of rotation of crops. 2. What is meant by winter wheat ? by spring wheat ? 50 CENTRAL PLAINS Influence of farm life upon cities. With the produc- fields and the quick harvesting of great crops. This led tion of such great crops of grain, mills were estab- lished in the chief centers of population, where these products might be worked into the form of foods. With the raising of swine, cattle, and sheep the meat-packing business has developed. Chicago became the center for this business and still ranks first (Fig. 89), but now Kansas City, Omaha, Fort Worth, East St. Louis, and other cities have large meat-packing establishments, where some of the best plows in the world are made (Fig. 77). The great to the invention of the most helpful farm implements the world has ever known. The first chilled-steel plow was made by a man who settled on the banks of the little river where South Bend is now located. That one tool has been wonder- fully helpful to the entire country. The little blacksmith shop has grown into immense foundries and factories, n and Company Fig. 88. This is an aeroplane drawing of Chicago. The low, flat land on which the city is built was once covered by the waters of the lake. The curved margin of the upland southwest of Chicago marks the old shore line. Chicago has no natural harbor, but by widening and deepening the mouth of the Chicago River and protecting it by breakwaters an excel- lent harbor has been made. The river itself, which used to flow into the lake, has been transformed into a drainage canal by which the waters of Lake Michigan flow into the Illinois River and finally into the Mississippi. How has the location of Chicago favored its development ? More and more food was needed within this region, but the production of food has gone far beyond the local needs, and the Central Plains now supply large quantities of food to other parts of the United States and to many foreign lands. The farmers needed implements, and at South Bend (Indiana), Chicago and Moline (Illinois), Racine (Wis- consin), Davenport (Iowa), and many other cities great plants have been established for the manufacture of different kinds of farm equipment. Special machinery was needed to make possible the planting of immense reapers and binders, mowing and thresh- ing machines, gang plows, and gasoline motors have been per- fected here in the Central Plains. To give farmers the comforts of run- ning water in their homes, dairy barns, and pastures, wind- mills were needed. Thelight metal wind- mills were perfected to meet this demand. They are wonderful labor-saving devices and encourage us to make much more use of the wind. Some day many farmers may have windmills to generate electric- ity, which may be held in storage bat- teries and used as it is needed about the farm buildings. Every new home had to be furnished. New kitchen outfits were needed. Sewing machines, washing machines, churns, wagons, carriages, pianos, and automobiles were called for. The prosperous farm- ing districts made large demands upon the cities for manufactured articles. Home work. 1. On an outline map show the routes by which the early explorers and settlers came into the Central Plains. See map on pages 2 and 3. 2. Add the boundaries of these states to your map of the United States. Print in names of states, capitals, and a few large cities. 3. Select the five largest cities and work out with the maps what must have been important factors in determining the location of each city. CENTRAL PLAINS 51 Milling. The coal mined in this region and the oil and gas produced here supply heat for the homes and power for the ever-increasing number of railroads and factories as well as for the steamships on the lakes and rivers. The oil and gas produced in excess of the local demand are sent to other parts of the country. The demand for the lead, zinc, and salt has kept the mines of Missouri, the upper Mississippi Valley, central New York, and southern Michigan busy producing these valuable minerals. Manufacturing. With the rapid development of agri- culture and mining, the great increase in population, and the construction of railroads, came large demands for manufactured articles. We have mentioned the call from the farmers for such arti- cles. The city populations also needed homes. They needed furni- ture, clothing, food, books, maga- zines, and papers, and were ready to buy many luxuries. Industrial life developed in response to this ever-increasing demand. Now many useful articles made in this region are shipped to other parts of the United States and to distant lands. Problems and review questions. 1. What were the routes of the early explorers into the upper Mississippi Valley ? 2. What are the chief navigable waterways in the Central Plains ? 3. How have they been improved by man ? 4. How may they be made more serviceable to man ? 5. Where are there great water-power plants in the Central Plains ? 6. What uses have been made of the wood from the forests ? 7. What building materials other than wood are available ? 8. Why should cities be located at breaks in transportation ? 9. Why do farmers in the corn belt usually raise swine ? 10. What are some of the modern improvements enjoyed on the farms ? 11. How does the development of farming influence life in the cities ? 12. How have the industries of the cities influenced life on the farms ? 13. Why should the Central Plains of the United States be an industrial as well as an agricultural district ? What sources of power are there ? What raw materials for manufacture are avail- able ? What metals are mined in this region ? What very useful metals are found in large quantities in an adjoining region and easily brought to the industrial centers ? What means of trans- portation are available ? Where are the customers ? 14. What agricultural advantages have these plains ? Did most of the soils originate in this region ? Is there enough rainfall for agriculture without irrigating the lands ? Which portion has the greater rainfall ? What means of transportation are available for the modern farmer ? Physical Geography Land made in the sea. The Central Plains were formerly covered by an interior sea that spread north- ward from the Gulf of Mexico and covered this part of the United States. In that sea the sandstones and lime- stones that underlie the region were made. Uplifting of the land. The land was next uplifted, and the sea was forced to retreat. Rains fell and rivers began their work of cutting up the land and taking the loose material back to the ocean. Coming of the ice. Next came the Ice Age, when the great continental glaciers invaded the Central Plains. In Fig. 89. Chicago is the largest meat market in the world. The stockyards are located near the great meat-packing plants. They contain thousands of pens to which the cattle, sheep, and hogs are taken from the railroad cars and kept until they are purchased by one of the packing companies. From what regions do these different kinds of live stock come to Chicago ? To what points is the meat sent ? the eastern portion of the region it was a part of the same great ice-sheet which covered the northeastern por- tion of the United States and advanced into the Atlantic Ocean. West of the Mississippi the ice came from an- other center, which was west of Hudson Bay (Fig. 14). Two great ice-sheets, therefore, moved southward from Canadian territory into the upper Mississippi Valley. They crossed the region of the Great Lakes and met south of the driftless area of southwestern Wisconsin and the adjoining states. The southern limit of ice action and the driftless area are shown on the map on pages 2 and 3. Retreat of the ice. In time the climate became warmer and the great ice-sheets melted away. They left a mantle of clays, sands, gravels, and bowlders, much as they did in other regions. 52 CENTRAL PLAINS Fig. 90. This is a view of part of the lake front at Chicago, a little south of the mouth of the Chicago River. A fine, broad boulevard follows the lake shore, along which there are many hotels and tall office buildings. Chicago is the second largest city in the United States, and although it is a thousand miles from the ocean, it is one of the greatest ports in our country. Using Fig. 88 and the maps on pages 45 and 85, answer the follow- ing questions : What products are brought to Chicago by boat ? Where do they come from ? What is the chief industry at South Chicago and Gary ? The Great Lakes. Before the ice melted entirely away, The former outlets of the Great Lakes are now occu- it stood for a time over the valleys of the Mohawk and pied by small rivers, but the broad valleys which formerly St. Lawrence rivers, and during that time the water from had large rivers when the lake waters drained through the western Great Lakes flowed through other outlets them are valuable for farm lands. They are very attrac- to the south. Lake Superior drained by way of the St. tive routes for railroads and canals. From Chicago south- Croix River into the Mississippi ; Lake Michigan drained westward in the ancient lake outlet there is an old canal by way of the Illinois River into the Mississippi ; and known as the Illinois and Michigan Canal, a new Sani- for a time the waters in the basin of Lake Erie drained tary Canal, and several railroads. In Ohio and Indiana, by way of the Maumee and Wabash rivers into the Ohio. Later the waters from the Lake Erie basin joined those of the Lake Huron basin and flowed westward across Michigan, by a route which is now followed in part by the Grand River, into, the basin of Lake Michigan. Dur- ing this time the water from the Great Lakes found its way to the Gulf of Mexico. When the ice melted farther back to the northward, the valley of the Mohawk was uncovered and the drain- age from the Great Lakes turned eastward, draining for a time through the Mohawk valley into the Hudson. Thus the Mohawk valley once held a mighty river, and the lake waters en- tered the sea near the point where the great city of New York now stands. When the ice had melted still farther northward, and the valley of the St. Lawrence was uncovered, the Fig. 91. In the southern parts of Indiana and Illinois, and in Kentucky, boys have found holes in the ground through which they can descend into great underground rooms. In places they can crawl along tunnels from one room to another. This is because the layers of rock are made of limestone, which the underground waters easily dissolve away, leaving the great caves and tunnels. In some of the caves the roofs and walls are covered with beautiful crystals made by the water. Sometimes, when only a small portion of the roof of the cave is left, it forms a natural bridge like the one at the right in this figure canals and railroads follow the former outlets of Lake Erie. The Mohawk valley is the route of the Erie and New York barge canals and of trunk lines of railroads. Home work. 1. From the tables at the end of the book make a list of the chief lake ports in the order of population. Do the same for the large river cities. 2. How many of the twenty-five largest cities in the United States are in the Central Plains ? 3. Which is the second largest city in the United States? Future. Without any doubt agriculture will continue to be the chief occupation within this Central Plains region, manufacturing will be second, and mining third. With these occu- pations there has cornea great trans- portation business. Thousands of peo- ple will always be needed by the rail- road and steam- ship companies. An increasing popula- tion will continue to demand a larger and larger number of traders, store- drainage from the Great Lakes chose that northern route keepers, and men and women connected with the office because it was the lowest route available. The Great work of large business interests. Thus it seems certain Lakes are drained by the St. Lawrence River to-day. that the region will increase in prosperity. GREAT PLAINS 53 Fig. 92. The drainage basin of the Judith River in Montana is one of the parts of the Great Plains where there is enough moisture to raise grain without irrigation. This view of the basin was taken at harvest time and shows the broad, level surface which is so well suited to the production of grain. The harvesters are being drawn over the fields by a tractor, which makes it possible to cut many acres in a very short time. The chief crop here is wheat. Where is this wheat made into flour ? Where is it finally used ? What other kinds of grain are raised in the Great Plains region ? GREAT PLAINS causing floods in the spring by melting the snow fields. In winter there are fierce storm winds, which bring snow The Great Plains region, east of the Rocky Moun- and sleet and are called blizzards. Tornadoes sometimes tains, is an open, unforested grassland (Fig. 92). Here cross the plains during the summer. Such a storm travels life has been affected by climate more than by any other with a great funnel-shaped cloud accompanied by terrific geographic factor. winds which blow down houses, barns, fences, and bridges Climate. When the rainfall in any region is below 20 and do a great deal of damage. Occasionally a house is inches a year, the success of agriculture is uncertain unless turned around so that it faces in a new direction. A the lands are irrigated. If the rain averages between 10 roof may be taken off, and the furniture may be carried and 20 inches, grasses will flourish but the region will not away by the wind. In Texas cold winds, called northers, be forested. The prevailing winds are from the southwest, sometimes come very suddenly and cause rapid changes and they give up most of their moisture on the seaward in the temperature. The abundance of sunshine in this slopes of the high mountains before reaching this section region is favorable to agriculture, and with the help of of the country. See map on page 82. Rain-bearing winds irrigation large crops are produced. from the Gulf of Mexico bring some rainfall to the Texas end of the Great Plains, especially in summer. During the warm season the temperature on the plains near the Canadian border commonly ranges from 70 to 90 degrees, and in the cold season the thermome- ters register 10, 20, and even 40 degrees below zero. At the Texas end of the Great Plains the winter temperature averages about 45 degrees and the summer temperature averages about 85 degrees. Thus the Great Plains have what is called a continental climate. There are great extremes in tem- perature and moderate or light rainfall. Occasionally very warm winds cross the plains, dry- ing up the grasses and crops in summer, and even wBBmBbm 1 I i - m re ! - . . . .— — . >".. Fig. 93. This is a field of full-grown kafir corn. You can see by the meas- ure at the right that it is six feet high. Kafir corn is a drought-resisting plant, well suited to the dry conditions of the Great Plains. Can you name other drought-resisting plants ? Natural resources. The grasslands, which have made the grazing of stock possible, are the most important of the natural resources. The soils, especially in the broad river bottoms, are exceedingly fertile, and large crops of wheat (Fig. 92), kafir corn (Fig. 93), and alfalfa are raised. In North Dakota large quantities of flax are grown. Irrigation is prac- ticed in many of the valleys. In Wyoming, Montana, and North Dakota there are extensive beds of lignite, which is a low-grade coal. Bituminous coal is found near the base of the moun- tains in Montana, Colorado, and in New Mexico. There are also oil fields in Wyo-- ming and Colorado, and it is very likely that more may be discovered in other parts of this natural region. 54 MAP STUDIES MAP STUDIES The change from the Central Plains to the Great Plains is very gradual. The land is higher in the west, the soils are more sandy, and there is less rainfall. The changes in geographic conditions are such as to make the activities of the people in one region quite different from those in the other. Minnesota. 1. What natural regions extend into this state? See map on pages 2 and 3. 2. What part of the state is without any glacial soil ? 3. Explain the numerous lakes. 4. What navigable river rises in this state ? Find its source. 5. What is the chief mineral resource ? See Fig. 71. 6. What are the chief farm products? 7. Name and locate the capital. See page 48 and Fig. 84. 8. What is the largest city in Minnesota ? See page 48 and Fig. 82. Duluth (Fig. 81) is the gateway to and from the Great Lakes and is second only to New York in the volume of tonnage which it handles. It is the principal shipping point of Amer- ican iron ores, and one of the great grain markets of the world. Iowa. 1. Is any part of this state outside of the Central Plains ? 2. What portion of the state is without glacial soils? 3. What navigable rivers border Iowa ? 4. Judging from the products, name the leading occupation. Des Moines, the capital and largest city, is near the coal fields and has become a manufacturing center. It is one of the leading cities in the insurance business in the United States. Sioux City is the largest city in northwestern Iowa ; it is an important railway center. Davenport is on a high bluff over- looking the Mississippi River ; it is a manufacturing, and trad- ing center. Dubuque is also on the Mississippi River and is an active manufacturing city. Cedar Rapids is in the midst of a most productive farming district and is fortunate in having water-power available. Meat-packing and the making of cereal foods are its chief industries. Waterloo is noted for the great variety in its manufacturing. Missouri. 1. What mountains are in this state ? What plateau ? What plains ? 2. What mineral resources are im- portant ? 3. What navigable rivers are available ? 4. What are the chief farm products ? 5. Describe the location of the capital. St. Louis is the largest city in Missouri and ranks with the leading cities of the nation in commerce and manufacturing (Fig. 83 and page 48). Kansas City is located on the western boundary of the state on the Missouri River, but owes its development largely to the railways. It is in the midst of a prosperous farming and stock-raising district. St. Joseph is the metropolis of northwestern Missouri and is a very busy trading and meat-packing center. North Dakota. Most of this state is in the Great Plains natural region. The eastern part is a fertile lake bottom ; the central portion is mantled with glacial soils and is an excel- lent farming land ; but the western part, where the rainfall is light, is useful chiefly as a grazing country. 1. What are the chief occupations of the people ? 2. What river that rises near the headwaters of the Minnesota flows northward into Canada? 3. What are the chief farm prod- ucts of North Dakota ? 4. What fuel is found in this state ? 5. Where is the population densest ? Why ? 6. Is irrigation practiced in this state? Bismarck, the capital, is on the Missouri River in a district where agriculture and dairying are taking the place of graz- ing. Fargo sprang into existence with the coming of the rail- road and owes its development to the fertility of the valley of the Red River. Grand Forks was first a fur-trading post, but the railroads have made it an important distributing point, and the fertile soils of the Red River Valley have attracted farmers into that part of the state. South Dakota. 1. What natural regions extend into this state? 2. The Black Hills are a range of the Rocky Moun- tains. What is the highest peak in this range? 3. What metals are found in the state ? 4. What must be the occupa- tions in the different parts of South Dakota? Pierre, the capital, is one of the largest stock-shipping points in the state. Sioux Falls has the advantages of water- power from the Big Sioux River and excellent railroad con- nections. This city has shared in the prosperity and growth of the great northwest agricultural and grazing regions. Aberdeen is another city that owes much to the western railroads and to the development of farming. Nebraska. 1. What natural regions extend into this state ? 2. What large river forms the eastern boundary ? 3. What are the chief products of Nebraska? 4. Judging from the products, name the two chief occupations. Lincoln, the capital, has been benefited by the many railroads that enter the city. It is a manufacturing center and the seat of the leading educational institution of the state. Omaha, the metropolis of the state, is a leading manufacturing and meat- producing center and an important stock market (Fig. 85). Kansas. 1. What natural regions extend into Kansas? 2. What part of the state is most densely settled? Why? 3. What sources of fuel are available ? 4. What are the chief farm products? 5. Judging from the products of this state, name the chief occupations. 6. Name and locate the capital. Kansas City, Kansas, is opposite the city of the same name in Missouri. It is the largest city in Kansas and is an impor- tant meat-packing and trading center. Wichita has prospered as the farming and stock-raising of Kansas have developed, and it is near some of the great oil and gas fields of Kansas. GENERAL QUESTIONS 1. Where does the 20-inch rainfall line cross these states ? See map on page 82. 2. From what district do the great flour mills at Minneapolis get their wheat? 3. What are the chief markets for the cattle raised in these states ? 4. What is the notable change in occupation between the dry and wet parts ? 5. Does the corn belt extend into these states? 6. As you go to the northwest from the corn belt, what do you find the farmers raising ? 7. What interesting sights should you expect to see if you went in a house-boat from St. Paul to St. Louis ? Describe such a journey taken in summer. 8. Compare the latitude of Denver with that of Springfield, Illinois. 9. What large Gulf port is in about the same longitude as Kansas City, Kansas ? 10. Which is farther from the north pole, Duluth or Spokane ? D Giuo and Company 56 GREAT PLAINS away, and visiting became very com- mon among the people. That extreme hospitality has continued to the present day. The people welcome strangers and are most cordial to. everyone. Passing of the open range. More and more settlers came to the Great Plains ; the raising of cattle and sheep grew to be very profitable; the call of the great industrial centers farther east for meat, wool, and leather steadily increased. Railroads were constructed. Still more settlers came, the land had to be divided among the different ranchmen, and fences were built. The days of the open Early exploration. The early routes of migration west- range have now nearly passed, but grazing remains the ward from the Missouri River are shown on the map most important industry of the Great Plains (Figs. 94, 95). (pp. 2, 3). Most of the outfitting was done where Kansas A modern ranch. The headquarters of a modern ranch City is located. Many exploring parties started west- must be near a supply of water. There the home and ward by way of the Santa Fe trail, crossing the plains numerous barns, sheds, and corrals will be built. Near to the southwest and going through New Mexico to the home there will be fields suitable for raising hay, avoid climbing the Rocky Mountains. The Oregon trail alfalfa, and possibly some grain. led through the valley of the North Platte, and the The ranch must be supplied with modern harvesting California trail branched off from the Oregon trail at machinery and a large number of strong work horses points in what is now the state of Idaho, and crossed or a few motors. The saddle horses are used chiefly by Fig. 94. Millions of cattle graze over the Great Plains of Texas. This is a herd of fine-blooded Herefords, an English breed of cattle which the ranchmen raise in great numbers because they can fatten them quickly. To what great centers are these cattle sent when ready for market ? Why is Texas a particularly favorable locality for cattle-raising ? Can you describe a Texas cowboy's life ? the Great Basin region. The Lewis and Clark expedi- tion of 1804-1806 followed the Missouri River far to the northwest. Ranch life. A few of the fur traders, trappers, and miners who followed the trails westward decided to settle in the Great Plains. They chose the valley bottoms for their homes and began raising horses and cattle. The land belonged to the government, and there were no fences. Those were the days when each man's cattle the men or boys who ride out to oversee the cattle or to drive them to pasture or to some place for shipment. The prosperous ranchmen of to-day all use automobiles for going to town or for transporting supplies. During the summer while the sheep and cattle are in large fenced pastures, feeding on native grasses, the ranch- man and his many helpers are engaged in the fields at home. When fall comes the cattle and sheep are driven into the fields near the home, where for several weeks mingled with those of his neighbors, and every season it they may graze and later, when the grass is gone or the was necessary, with the help of cowboys, to round up ground is covered with snow, they may be fed conveniently, the stock and brand all the calves. This was done before the calves left their mothers ; and as the mothers had all been branded when they were young, the ownership of the calves was known. Later many undertook the raising of sheep. Sheep are able to graze on lands where cattle would starve, and cattle will not graze after sheep have been on the range; hence the necessity of separate ranges. The sheep are always put on the poorer ranges. For years and years all of the land was freely used by all the people. The ranchmen all helped each other and were most hospitable. They usually traveled on horseback and Stopped wherever night overtook them. Fig. 95. The men on horseback in this picture are cowboys who ride over If they happened to be at another man's home, they the Plains looking after the great herds of cattle. Back of them is a rope went in and made themselves comfortable, whether the c c °" a V n ™ ich they T keep th c f h ? m - ™ s picture was ' ak * n T Sheridan, Wyoming. Locate Sheridan on the map on page 73. Describe owner was at home or not. No one was ever turned the country and the climate there GREAT PLAINS 57 Farming. The large rivers that rise in the mountains where there is a heavy rainfall with much snow furnish water for irrigation, and thus farming of a more general nature has been undertaken near the main streams.. Large quantities of hay and grain are raised to feed to the stock. Alfalfa fields, when well irrigated, will yield from two to four crops a year. Alfalfa is a member of the clover family, and it helps to enrich the soil by taking nitrogen from the air. The practice of dry farming is now adding to the production of grains in this region. Courtesj of international Hamiter Co. Fig. 96. The farms of the Great Plains are so large that much of the work must be done by machinery. This is a threshing outfit, which separates the kernels of grain from the stalks. The engine which provides the power is at the left, while the threshing machine itself is at the right Along the eastern margin of the Great Plains much ranching district and has developed a large business in wheat and corn are raised. Where there is corn there coal and oil. Cheyenne is located at the base of the are usually hogs, as in the Central Plains. See map on mountains in Wyoming, at a break in transportation, page 55. Near the western margin, especially in Colo- where, in the early days of settlement, many weary rado, large crops of potatoes and sugar beets are raised, travelers stopped to rest and change their outfits before Cities. At the western margin of the Great Plains, starting on over the mountains. Denver is located just near the base of the Rocky Mountains, there are several east of the mountains (Fig. 99). Smelters, where the large cities. In the north is Great Falls (Montana), where ores from the mountains could be treated, were early there is excellent water-power, which is used to generate established at this city. Railroads have greatly helped electricity. The electricity is used locally for light and the growth and prosperity of Denver as well as all other power, and some is sent to Butte and Anaconda for use cities in the Great Plains. in the mines and in the smelters. Many of the railroad From Colorado Springs the view of the mountains is trains that cross the Rocky Mountains of Montana are magnificent. This city is on the plain east of the foot- run by electricity generated at Great Falls. hills and has become a popular resort. Pueblo is located Billings (Montana) is a noted sheep center and one of at one of the gateways into the Rocky Mountains. Here the principal wool markets of the country. Sheridan great smelters have been built to take care of the ores (Wyoming) is in the midst of an active and prosperous produced in the mountain region. Trinidad is situated in the midst of a busy coal-mining section. Throughout the middle portion of the Great Plains the chief towns are on the lines of the railroads or in the fertile valleys. Explanation of the Great Plains. The underlying rocks of this region were made chiefly in an inland sea that once reached from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean. Sea bottoms are usually nearly level; and when the land rose and the sea retreated, a plain came into ex- istence. In portions of western Texas one may travel for miles and miles without seeing a single stream or a single valley. The land looks like a vast sea bottom from which the waters have been withdrawn. Streams crossing from the western mountains eastward have brought vast quan- tities of fine material which they have spread over the surface of the plains. In northern Montana and in © Kejgtone View Co- i- Fig. 97. Another farm machine is the hay-loader, which rakes up the hay parts of the Dakotas there are glacial soils. Instead of and loads it on the wagon. This saves all the labor of pitching it by hand. being Coarse, like the soils which the ice-sheet left in The machine in this view is at work in an alfalfa field in the Great Plains. ^^ England, these glacial Soils are fine, and especially How many other agricultural machines can you name ? Where are they a . . . . a j a manufactured ? Where are the largest numbers of them used ? Well suited for raising gram. See map OH pages 2 and 3. 58 GREAT PLAINS Fig. 98. The Bad Lands of the Great Plains are cut up into all kinds of strange shapes and forms. This particular area is appropriately called Toadstool Park. Locate the Bad Lands on the map on page 55. Can you explain the cause of these curious surface features ? Bad Lands. In portions of the Great Plains, especially in South Dakota, Wyoming, and Nebraska, are areas that are called the Bad Lands. Here the rainfall is light, and the soil and subsoil consist of soft clays and shales. When rains do come they are usually in the form of severe storms, and the water falls in great abundance for a short period, as from a cloud-burst. The water cuts the soft material into fantastic forms (Fig. 98) and car- ries the soil away. The rough land is very bad to travel over and therefore received its descriptive name. The Bad Lands are wonderfully interesting places to visit, however, and in the masses of clay are found the bones of some of the largest animals that have ever lived in the history of the world. Black Hills. The Black Hills of South Dakota and Wyoming (see map, pp. 2, 3) are an outlying range of the Rocky Mountains. They were formed by the folding and uplifting of the rocks. The rains and streams have taken away the top of the great fold and uncovered the core rocks, where gold, iron, tin, lead, and zinc have been discovered (Fig. 100). Since the Black Hills rise above the level of the Great Plains, they receive more rainfall than the plains, and their slopes are forested. The dark evergreen trees of the forest suggested the name for the hills, which from a short distance look almost black. Future. The irrigation works in the Great Plains are sure to be extended and improved. Much more of the land can be used for dry farming. In addition more and more drought-resisting crops will be introduced, and in these ways agriculture will increase in the region. The coal deposits in Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas will certainly be mined more extensively in the future. The chief occupation of this region, however, will con- tinue to be the raising of cattle and sheep. There is every condition here to favor the future development of this great industry on an even larger scale than at present. Problems and review questions. 1. How is agricultural life usually affected if the rainfall drops below 20 inches a year? 2. Why-do the Great Plains have light rainfall ? 3. What storm winds are somewhat common in this region ? 4. Where are most of the farms and homes located ? 5. Which routes through this region did the early pioneers to the Far West follow ? 6. What do you understand by a general round-up ? 7. Explain the growth of the larger cities at the western margin of the Great Plains. 8. What are the chief crops of these Plains ? 9. Where is there a large area in the Great Plains with no valleys ? 10. Why are the Bad Lands so rough ? Home work. 1. Place on an outline map the large rivers that cross the Great Plains. 2. Make a list of the ten largest cities of the Great Plains and a similar list of the ten largest cities of the Central Plains. Use Appendix tables. Compare the total popula- tions in these two groups. 3. Make a list of the foods produced in the Great Plains and compare them with those which are raised in the Central Plains. 4. Read about Buffalo Bill's life in the West. Fig. 99. Denver, the capital of Colorado, is located on the western edge of the Great Plains, about fifteen miles from the front range of the Rocky Moun- tains. In this picture you can see the snow-covered Rockies in the distance. Study your maps and explain why Denver has become such an important city Fig. 100. Lead, South Dakota, is an important mining center in the Black Hills. The rugged mountains of this region are rich in gold, silver, lead, copper, and iron ores, and Lead contains one of the largest gold mines of the world. Explain the relation between the Black Hills and the Great Plains ROCKY MOUNTAINS 59 Fig. 101. These men are preparing fora trip into the Rocky Mountains. After they have strapped their baggage securely on the backs of the mules, they will mount their horses and start off on the mountain trail, leading the mules. What resources make it worth while for men to explore the mountains ? ROCKY MOUNTAINS Early explorations. Some of the men who went west- ward to California along the trails of migration shown on the map (pp. 2, 3) returned to the Rocky Mountains and here discovered gold in the stream gravels. They usually camped by a mountain stream, and one in the party would take some of the gravel from the stream bed, wash it, and test it for gold. In that way many of the first mining camps of the West were located. Some men picked up beautiful specimens of copper ore ; others found pieces of lead and zinc ores among the loose rocks in the canyons. In the early days of settlement the mountain forests had an abundance of large game, and trout were plenti- ful in the streams. To one who loved the out of doors the life among the mountains was delightful, and it continues to be so to-day. There is still some game, and the streams are kept stocked with fish. Prospecting for ores. Men would spend weeks or even months hunting for a gold deposit, and many of them made wonderful discoveries. There are thousands of old log cabins in the mountains that were formerly the homes of prospectors. Whenever a rich discovery was announced, hundreds of people would rush in. The first mining was always placer mining, but later tunnels were driven into the hills, shafts were sunk, and simple mining machinery was installed (Fig. 103). In those early days, when there were no railroads or wagon roads, all of the mining equipment was brought into the mountains on the backs of horses, mules or even little burros. Mines were sometimes established hio-h o up on a mountain, where it seemed as if no animal could go. To-day there are many mines to which all the supplies are brought on the backs of animals that come up narrow trails (Fig. 102), and in some places the ores are sent down the mountains on pack animals. Fig. 102. This procession of mules is off for the mines in the mountains, each animal carrying two heavy planks bound to a packsaddle. The lumber will be used in the mining operations. The mule, although small, is strong and sure-footed and makes a very useful pack animal in the mountains Coal, oil, gas, and marble. Near the mountains, espe- cially in Wyoming, where there is an open, basin-like area between the ranges, coal, oil, and gas have been ' found. In Wyoming most of the coal is sub-bituminous ; that is, coal of a grade not quite as good as bituminous. Central Colorado is one of the very few places in the United States, outside of eastern Pennsylvania, where anthracite coal is mined. The Colorado mountains also furnish large quantities of excellent marble. Home work. 1. Get together your pictures of the Rocky Mountains and of life in this region and bring them to school. 2. On your outline map of the United States color the national parks in the Rocky Mountains. 3. Find out the value of an ounce of gold, an ounce of silver, a pound of lead, a pound of zinc. 4. Find out which of these metals is the heaviest. Fig. 103. Ore deposits are discovered where the mineral veins reach the surface of the earth. The prospectors first examine the vein carefully to find out in what direction it runs in the ground; they then "stake out a claim," or mark the land they want to hold for mining; samples of the vein are taken and analyzed ; if the value is sufficient, lumber and machinery are brought in, a mill is constructed, homes are built, and the men begin to sink a vertical shaft, like a well, and drive tunnels to one side or the other until they strike the vein. The miners can then blast out the ore, load it upon little cars which are pushed along the tunnels to the shaft, and hoist it to the surface, where it is put through the mill 60 ROCKY MOUNTAINS Ranch life. Some of the Western explorers were at- the mountains, above the timber line (Fig. T05). Here tracted by the rich soils in the valleys and in the open a shepherd and his dogs will live all summer long with parks between the mountain ranges. There, in the midst about two thousand sheep. Every few days the camp of most beautiful scenery, they chose to build their homes. In those early days most of the settlers became ranchmen. Their cattle and sheep could graze almost anywhere. The ranchmen would drive them into the mountains during the sum- mer, and in the winter feed them in pastures near their homes. During the summer a ranchman would ride out occasionally to see that his stock was getting along well and had plenty of salt, but he would spend most of his time in the fields near home, raising hay and alfalfa, so that he might be prepared to feed the stock during the winter. The Rocky Mountain region is not yet densely settled, but the more de- sirable farm lands have been taken up. Large areas of the mountain region are included in the national parks or national forests. There is some open range, where anyone who chooses may pasture stock, but most ranchmen now have a particular val- ley for their cattle and a definite area where their sheep may graze during the summer. Those who do not own grazing lands may pasture their stock on an open range or get permits to turn them into a national forest. The assignment of grazing lands in the national forests is made by officers of the government, and each ranchman pays a small fee for every animal pastured. It costs the ranch- man each year about 37 cents per head for cattle and about 7 cents per head for sheep. Fig. 104. These men are branding a calf. It looks very cruel, but it really does not hurt the animal much. While one man holds him, the other takes a hot iron and singes off the hair in the form of the owner's mark, or brand. Why is branding necessary in the West ? Fig. 105. These sheep are grazing on one of the open pastures high up in the San Juan Mountains. What season of the year is it ? Can you explain the absence of trees here ? tender will bring him a sup- ply of food and perhaps help him to move his camp to a fresh grazing field. By September, when the nights in the high moun- tains become very cold and when heavy snows are quite likely to fall, the shepherds begin to drive their flocks into the foothills and later out to the pastures where they are to be fed and pro- tected through the winter. In the spring the shearing is done. The warm coats of the sheep are clipped, and the wool is shipped to market. Immediately after the shear- ing comes the dipping (Fig. 106), and after that the sheep, with their lambs, return to the mountains. The sheep must be branded each year, for the brand is of paint. Even the lambs are usually branded. Orchards. Many of the mountain valleys have proved to be good places for raising fruit (Fig. 108). Large quantities of apples, pears, peaches, and plums are raised. Most of the fruit must be shipped to city markets. Some of it is canned. Location and growth of cities. Within the mountain area the loca- tion of certain of the larger cities has been determined by the discovery of rich ores. Beginning in the north, we find that the chief mining centers include Coeur d'Alene in Idaho, Butte, Helena, and Virginia City in Montana, and Leadville, Cripple Creek, Ouray, Telluride, and Silverton in Colorado. Most of the smaller cities in the mountains owe their location and The sheep must be carefully guarded, so that bears, growth chiefly to the local development of ranches wolves, coyotes, or mountain lions may not get them, or of orchards, but in every case the construction of They must be kept in the pastures assigned to them, railroads has greatly benefited the cities, and therefore a shepherd is left with each flock. Most NoTE- For a special study of the cities in the northern and southern of the sheep pastures are in huge open basins high in sections of the Rocky Mountains see pages 72 and 77. ROCKY MOUNTAINS 61 Native vegetation. The lower slopes of the mountains and the lands between the ranges, called either valleys or parks, are grasslands. Next higher come the forests, and above the timber line there is more grass. The highest peaks, the very steep places, and the areas of loose rock are without coverings of vege- tation. The trees of the forests are chiefly pines, spruces, and hemlocks. Among these great evergreen trees there are some birch trees and little groves of quaking aspen. National forests. Many of the for- ests in the Rocky Mountain region are now under control of the govern- ment. They belong to all the people and are cared for by men trained in forestry. Each forest is divided, and a forest ranger is assigned to each section. He rides over the trails, watching for possible forest fires, and sees that the ranchmen keep their herds and flocks in the proper pas- tures. It is his business to count the cattle and sheep that enter the national forest each spring and to mark the trees which may be cut for lumber. Each ranch- man or settler is allowed by law a certain amount of wood every year from the national forests. This is to Fig. 106. At the dipping season the sheep are pushed into a trough and forced to swim through a solution which kills the ticks, little creatures that live on the skin of the animal and spread deadly disease lumber business near the national forests may purchase from the gov- ernment such trees as the forester marks for this purpose. Burned-over districts are replanted by the Forest Service. The range riders often have their homes in the beautiful canyons among the mountains. Each man keeps several excellent saddle horses. In the morning a fresh horse is caught and saddled, and the ranger starts off for a day's ride over some of the wonderful forest trails (Fig. 192). In many places the trails are along the very tops of the mountains. In southern Colorado there is a trail known as the Continental Divide trail, which follows the great water- shed for nearly a hundred miles (Fig. 109). As the ranger rides over it the forests appear on either side below him. He can see for miles and miles and can easily detect the beginning of a forest fire. In some places out- look towers have been built for the rangers. There are telephones connecting the ranger stations, so that the men can quickly communicate the news of a fire or of stray sheep or cattle. When a forest ranger must be gone overnight or help him with his buildings and fences. If the ranch- possibly for two or three days, he usually puts a camp man wants more wood than his allowance, he may buy bed, a supply of provisions, possibly his fishing rod, and it from a national forest. Those who wish to go into the a few cooking utensils on the back of a small mule and P. H. Troutman, Canon City, Colo. Fig. 107. This is Silverton, Colorado, on a winter evening. Silverton is a typical Rocky Mountain mining town, which has grown up because of the rich deposits of gold, silver, lead, and zinc ores which have been found in the surrounding mountains. Locate Silverton on your map Fig. 108. On cold nights the Colorado fruit-growers burn oil in their or- chards. The cloud of smoke which rises from the flaming oil pots hangs over the orchard like a blanket and prevents the heat of the earth from escaping. In this way the fruit trees are protected from frost 62 ROCKY MOUNTAINS eaj of WimJl Bros, and Deafer Tourist Bureau Fig. 109. The trail over the Continental Divide in Colorado zigzags up over the slopes and is so narrow that the horses must go in single file. Trace the line of the Continental Divide on your map. At what points did the early pioneers cross it ? See map on pages 2 and 3 starts off on a saddle horse, leading the pack animal. With such an outfit he can travel and live independently, for his hotel travels with him. His route may take him through a beautiful canyon or high over the mountains. He may follow a trail in the forest or be far above the timber line, where the sheep are grazing. For his camp he will select a place where there is good grass for his saddle horse and pack mule and a supply of water and firewood. The pack and the saddles are taken off, and the animals are turned out to graze overnight. He may catch a few mountain trout and then build a fire and cook his evening meal. A few fir boughs, properly laid down, make a good bed for him. Next morning after breakfast he must pack up and start over new trails, through deep canyons, or over high crest-lines, by beauti- ful lakes and wonderful waterfalls. Such is the ranger's life in summer. During the winter he supervises the cutting of timber. Home work. Make out as long a list as you can of the different varieties of trees that grow in the forests of the United States. Fig. 111. In winter, when the snow is deep in the Rocky Mountains, it is hard to keep the railroad tracks clear so that the trains may go through. This view shows five engines pushing a railroad snowplow up grade. Why is the snowfall so heavy in this region ? Fig. 110. This is a distant view of the Rocky Mountain National Park. It is in the heart of the Rockies in north central Colorado, and its peaks rise to more than thirteen thousand feet. Locate this park on your map. How many of our national parks are in the Rocky Mountains ? Water-power. When the rain falls in these high moun- tains, it collects in little rivulets, which unite to make mountain streams. These often descend through the canyons as rushing torrents. The snows which fall nearly every month in the year contribute water to the streams, especially during the summer season. Where the streams come to cliffs or precipices in their courses, there are waterfalls. Near the mining camps, where power is needed for running the drills, hoisting the ores, running the mills, and lighting the mines, the water- power is often utilized to generate electricity. The power plant is usually located near a waterfall, and the' electricity is transmitted by wire over the tops of mountains, if neces- sary, to where the mines are located. Most mining towns are lighted by electricity. At Shoshone, Colorado, near Glenwood Springs, is one of the very large power plants. From this point electric- ity is transmitted over copper conductors, sup- ported on steel towers, for distances of more than 150 miles. Denver and many of the cities and mines in central Colo- rado receive power from the Shoshone plant. A few of the railroads in the Rocky Mountains are now run by elec- tricity, and some day all of them may be oper- ated by electric power. regorv 3t Cheney, (Jura;, Colu. Fig. 112. High up on the slopes of the mountains, where there is much snow and only a little vegetation, live thou- sands of wild Rocky Mountain sheep b ROCKY MOUNTAINS 63 Problems and review questions. 1. What first attracted men to settle in this region ? 2. Describe the life of a prospector. 3. What are now the chief resources within this region ? 4. Why should stock-raising be profitable among the mountains ? 5. Why must the sheep be guarded ? 6. Where are their summer feeding grounds ? 7. Why should the government charge a board bill for sheep and cattle that graze in the national forests ? 8. What are the various duties of a forest ranger ? 9. What sources of power are there in this region ? 10. Why should the mountain scenery be considered a valuable natural resource to the American people ? 11. What occupations may attract more settlers to the Rocky Mountain region ? 12. What has determined the location of the larger cities in this region ? Give several examples. 13. How much rain falls in these mountains ? See map on page 82. 14. How do seasonal changes in climate affect the life of the stock-raiser ? of the forest ranger ? each mountain fold was cut by streams and by glaciers. The rock that was in the center, or was the core of the mountain range, appears now in the peaks, while the upturned rocks in the foothills on either side are what is left of the great layers that made the top of the fold, or arch. In some places in the Rocky Mountains, when the earth was being folded and uplifted, volcanoes broke out and built up mountains of lava mixed with rock fragments that were thrown into the air. Great sheets of lava poured forth and covered hundreds of square miles of the surrounding country. National parks. In northern Montana at the east margin of the mountain area is Glacier National Park. This is a region of magnificent mountains, beautiful Mountain scenery. No one can visit the Rocky Mown- lakes, many small glaciers, and with forests, shrubs, tains without wondering how they were made, why grasses, and an alpine flora that add to the beauty of the rocks in some places stand straight up and in almost every view (Figs. 114, 116). other places are horizontal, why in some places they Yellowstone National Park is chiefly in northwestern are sandstones and limestones and in other places Wyoming. It is a region where there were many active granites, marbles, or great thick layers of lava. The volcanoes. Below the surface there are hot rocks which entire region is a real wonderland of natural beauty, heat the waters circulating through the cracks and '--/iOCKj Photograph lv H&jnea Fig. 113. These are a few of the thirty thousand elk which roam through the Yellowstone National Park. Our government is making a great effort to preserve the wild animal life of our forests and plains by enforcing strict laws about hunting. Why is this wise ? Fig. 115. Diagram of a mountain fold the top of which has been cut away ) E. B. Marble Fig. 114. This is one of the ninety glaciers from which Glacier National Park takes its name. They are the small remnants of the great continental ice-sheet which once spread over this area The outer por- tion of the earth, in the region of the -Rocky Moun- tains, was com- pressed, and the rocks were arched, - or upfolded, as in Fig. 115. Rains, winds, frosts, and glaciers all helped to wear away the tops of the folds. Little by little fissures, and the waters come out of the ground as hot springs and gey- sers (Fig. 119). Rocky Moun- tain National Park is in the central part of northern Colorado. This is a region of high mountains, broad valleys, and fine forests (Fig. 110). ) K. E. Marble Fig. 116. Glacier National Park also contains many beautiful lakes. They occupy parts of the valley floors which were broadened and deepened by the glaciers. This one is Lake Ellen Wilson 64 ROCKY MOUNTAINS J (Jifford (tor Northern PftCiBc R.R.) Fig. 117. The Great Falls of the Yellowstone River are among the wonders of Yellowstone National Park. The water falls over a sheer precipice three hundred feet to the canyon below. How do these falls compare in height with those of Niagara ? Locate Yellowstone National Park on your map Ice age in the mountains. When the continental ice- sheets formed in Canada and advanced into the north- ern part of the United States, there were thousands of smaller glaciers in the Rocky Mountains. At that time snows accumulated near the summits to such great Photograph bj Hayaea Fig. 118. The beautiful hot-spring terraces in the Yellowstone National Park have been built up by the white limy deposits from the cooling waters of the springs. These terraces are gorgeously colored with bands of bright red and yellow, while the water in the pools is a deep blue-green Future. We have found the chief occupations in this region to be mining, grazing, farming, lumbering, and fruitrraising. More and more people are sure to settle here and go into one or another of these lines of work. There is a wonderful supply of water-power in the depth that ice was formed, and the ice moved down the mountains, and relatively little of it is used. It is prob- canyons, deepening each gorge and carrying away the loose material. Many of these glaciers reached the foothills of the ranges and some advanced for short distances over the bordering lower lands. The deposits of morainal material indicate how far the glaciers extended over the lowlands. In time the climate changed ; there was less snowfall in the mountains ; all of the glaciers became smaller because of melting, and most of them disappeared (Fig. 114). The glaciated canyons have the glacial drift, or moraines, in them ; for when the ice melted, it left on the bottom of the canyon all the stones, sands, gravels, and clays that it was carrying. In some places these moraines blocked the drainage, and lakes were formed. Sometimes the ice gouged out the solid rock and made basins where waters have accumu- lated and formed lakes. In places the main canyons were deepened so much more than the tributary valleys that the tributary streams now fall from the side val- leys into the main canyons, thus making many beautiful waterfalls. Photograph bj Hajmes Fig. 119. "Old Faithful," the most famous Yellow- stone geyser, erupts regularly every sixty-five min- utes, throwing a stream of hot water one hundred and twenty feet into the air able that some day all the people will have electricity for lighting and heating their homes and for running their sewing and washing machines and their saws for cutting firewood. Electricity could be used for cooking and for ironing in the mountain homes. Perhaps this will come about sometime, when the mountain com- munities plan to cooperate. The forests will be a constant source of lumber and will afford pleasure to all who live in them or visit them. The harmless varieties of wild game should become more abundant. Airships may be used to patrol the forests. Each year thou- sands of busy people will seek a change from the active life of our large cities in a vacation spent in this region of magnificent scenery, good fishing, and cool summer climate. Problems and review questions. 1. Ex- plain briefly the ways in- which these high mountains were made. 2. Are there any glaciers in the Rocky Mountains to-day ? 3. What signs of ancient glaciers are there in the mountains ? 4. Where did these glaciers form ? 5. Why did they dis- appear ? 6. By what natural forces are the mountains worn down ? 7. What national parks are within this region ? WESTERN PLATEAUS 65 WESTERN PLATEAUS tne i r ances t rs settled long ago, when they feared the These plateaus extend from north to south between attacks of hostile tribes. In many of the canyon walls the Rocky Mountains on the east and the Cascade and there are the ruins of ancient cliff-dwellings (Fig. 120). Sierra Nevada on the west. The chief subdivisions are Those people made their homes where they could easily fight off enemy tribes. The the Columbia Plateau, the Great Basin, and the Colo- rado Plateau. See map on pages 2 and 3. A problem. Use map op- posite page 82. Suppose we think of a high plateau country in the temperate zone nearly surrounded by mountains. Suppose there are canyons more than a mile deep in the plateau, and mountain ranges rising from 2000 to 5000 feet above its general level. The region has a very dry climate with Fig. 120. In the Mesa Verde National Park in Colorado are the wonderful ruins of the cliff -dwellers,a prehistoric people who made their homes under the over- hanging cliffs of the great wooded mesa. This is the Cliff Palace, the largest of the dwellings. It is 300 feet long and originally contained 200 rooms cliff-dwellers irrigated the lands in the canyons, raised vegetables, and hunted wild game. White settlers. The white people who have settled in this plateau region have been attracted by the rich deposits of minerals in the mountain ranges of the desert or by the fertile soils. The lands about the margin of the desert are most easily irrigated, and many of the cities and towns are on the less than 10 inches of rainfall annually over the greater part, but with from 10 to 20 inches in certain portions. What would primitive peoples do for a living in such a region ? Where would they make their settlements ? Would civilized people want to live there ? What occupa- tions would they find profitable ? Where would they build their homes? What would they do for water? This is a large geographic problem, and it is a real problem for the people who are trying to make a living in the great plateau region of our Western states. Native tribes. Several tribes of Indians now live on these plateaus. They make their settlements near the streams in order to have drinking water and a chance to irrigate some of the land (Figs. 121, 123). In America some of the tribes of Indians practiced irrigation before the white men did. These people raise sheep and horses. The Navajo Indi- ans are good shep- herds. They are also expert weav- ers and make much of the wool from their flocks into blankets. Some of the In- dian tribes live on mesa tops, where Fig. 121. This is a typical village of the Colorado Plateau. It is located in the dry valley, or " wash," as it is called, of one of the tributaries of the Colorado River. The little stream which flows at times through the wash furnishes water for irrigating the fields. Notice the low, flat-roofed buildings and, in the distance, the barren, level surface of the plateau edge of the desert, where great irrigation projects have been developed. See maps on pages 73 and 76. The white people often get their water from the neighboring mountains. Reservoirs are made, and the waters are piped for many miles to the settlements. The mining towns must of course be located near the place where the ores are discovered. This means that they are in or near the desert ranges. Rainfall. When a land is surrounded or nearly sur- rounded by mountains it is quite sure to be a semidesert, possibly a desert. The winds that cross our plateau states come chiefly from the southwest. They take up an abundance of moisture as they pass over the Pacific Ocean, but as the air rises to cross the Coast Ranges and then the Cascade Mountains or the Sierra Nevada, the moisture is forced out and falls as rain or snow on the windward sides of the mountain ranges. When the air descends into the plateau region, it becomes warm. Warm air tends to take up more mois- ture; so the winds, as they pass east- ward across the plateaus, tend to 66 WESTERN PLATEAUS dry up the country rather than to give up their moisture. Great dams have been built across the larger rivers, Some of the local mountain ranges within this semidesert thus creating artificial lakes, or reservoirs, for the region succeed in getting a little rain from the winds. Trees and grasses will grow on these mountains, while the surrounding plateau surface will have little but sagebrush, grease- wood, cacti, and yucca (Fig. 122 and map opposite page 82). Changes in temperature. In all arid regions the temperature varies greatly between night and day. When there is little or no moisture in the air, the ground during the day becomes very warm. In summer the stones are so hot that it is uncomfortable to touch them Fig. 122. This is the beautiful cholla cactus, one of the plants which grow on the dry Colorado Plateau. The prickly spines which surround the stem are characteristic of desert vegetation storage of the stream waters at the flood seasons. From the reservoirs the water is carried by canals to the lands that are to be irrigated, and is then distributed to the separate fields by means of small canals or ditches. In this way the water can be turned into the fields at just the time and in just the amount that is needed. By means of these govern- ment irrigation projects thousands of acres in the Western Plateaus are being irrigated, and the farmers of this region are thus able to raise successfully large crops The air just above the ground also becomes very warm, of grain, forage, fruits, vegetables, and cotton. In the southern part of this region the temperature rises to 120 degrees Fahrenheit during the summer days. When night comes the heat passes off through the air very rapidly; the stones and earth become cold, and the air above the ground loses its heat. The tempera- ture continues to fall until sunrise of the next day, and the hours just before the Fig. 123. This is one of the Indian villages of the arid Southwest. The houses are made of adobe, or bricks of sun-dried clay, and are grouped about an open central square, or plaza. Why are the houses not made of wood ? What do the people do for a living ? Physical Features The Columbia Plateau is made of extensive flows of lava. The lava poured out of the earth along great cracks, or fissures, and spread over the country. One flow followed another until the lava was over a mile in depth. It filled up all the low places and buried hills and even mountains. sun rises are the coldest of all the twenty-four hours. To-day the mountains that remain, of which the Blue Irrigation. In many parts of the plateaus the soils Mountains of Oregon are a good example, are nearly. are fertile and buried in lava. Fig. 124. This is a Hopi Indian house near the Grand Canyon. It is built exactly as the ancestors of the Hopis built their homes centuries ago, and in it live a large number of Hopi families deep, but there is not enough water for farm- ing. Irrigation from the rivers that rise in the high mountains has long been practiced by in- dividual farmers. Since 1900 the Federal govern- ment has begun to provide water for the irrigation of this region through twelve national irriga- tion projects. Later on, rivers cut their valleys through the lava, and two of them, the Columbia and the Snake, have made wonderful- canyons in the plateau. In the canyon walls of the Snake River, far below the present surface of the country, can be seen the out- lines of the old hills which were buried by great outflows of lava. Fig. 125. This Hopi Indian girl is very skillful in the art of basket-making. The weaving of beau- tiful baskets and rugs, often wonderfully colored, is an important industry among these Indians WESTERN PLATEAUS 67 Great Basin. South of the Columbia Plateau, and in- magnificent scenic feature on the earth (Fig. 126). For eluding most of Nevada and parts of Utah, Arizona, 250 miles the Colorado River has cut a gorge into the and California, there is a region bounded by mountains plateau ; in one place this gorge is nearly 6000 feet deep. where there is inland drainage ; that is, the streams cannot flow to the sea. The rains that fall on the neighboring mountains flow into the basin, where most of the streams either dry up or sink into the ground. A few streams empty into lakes, some of which have no outlets. The best example of this kind of lake is Great Salt Lake, where the water contains nearly as much salt as it can possibly hold in solution. Each stream that flows into the lake brings in some salt, and as the water is lost from the lake by evaporation the lake has become more and more salty. During the ice age, when the climate was less dry, this lake was a thousand feet deeper than it is now and spread over much of western Utah. At that time it had an outlet to the Snake River and was a fresh-water lake. Between the mountain ranges in this basin region there are Fig. 126. If you could stand beside the Indian in this picture, you would be looking out over the greatest gorge in the world, — the Grand Canyon, which the Colorado River has carved in the level plateau of Arizona. The opposite rim of the canyon is twelve miles away, and the river itself is over a mile below If ten columns the size of the Washington Monument were placed one upon the other, rising from the stream level, they would not quite reach the elevation of the rim of the canyon. If all of Mt. Washington above sea level could be placed in this gorge, its summit would rise only a few feet above the rim. From the rim of the gorge the river at the bottom of the canyon appears no larger than a tiny brook. In its most magnificent portion the canyon is from 10 to 12 miles wide, and yet in the clear, dry air of the desert the farther wall appears to be much less than a mile away. The canyon is per- haps most remarkable for its coloring and for the great variety in the rock formations. Each layer of rock has some distinc- tive shade. There are bands of red, green, brown, and gray. One layer, about 500 feet thick, has a brilliant red color ; this large quantities of sands and gravels and fine soils, which layer is so situated that it may be seen from any point streams have brought from the mountains and spread out on the lower lands. The soils are excellent and, when water is brought to them, wonderful crops are raised. Death Valley is in the Great Basin. It is east of the Sierra Nevada in southern California and is the lowest land area in the United States. The bottom of the valley is from 250 to 280 feet below sea level. Colorado Plateau. South- east of the Great Basin, and including parts of Utah, Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico, is ■ the Colorado Plateau (see map, p. 76). This is probably better known and more remark- able than any other plateau in the world. Its fame is due chiefly to the Grand Canyon, which is the most Fig. 127. This is one of the four great natural bridges in southeastern Utah, which are the largest in the world. The people standing on top give an idea of its great size. Compare this view with Fig. 60. How do you suppose this bridge could have been made in so dry a region ? on the rim. Bordering the canyon on the south there is a forest of yellow pines with beautiful open parks. In the canyon itself the vegetation is chiefly that of a desert, with sagebrush, a few cedars, and cacti. Sitting on the rim of this great gorge, one sees the colors change from hour to hour with the change in the sun's position or as clouds shade one portion or another. Sometimes clouds form below the rim. Light- ning is seen to flash through the clouds, thunder is heard, and rain falls in the canyon. As the storm clears away, the whole scene changes ; the vegetation has been freshened and the rocks that have been moistened during the rain have a peculiar brilliancy of color. 68 WESTERN PLATEAUS Fig. 128. This is Bingham, one of the important mining centers of Utah. Notice the way in which the city has spread up the two valleys which meet in the foreground of the view. In the background is the mountain of copper ore which caused the development of the city If one descends to the stream, as is possible at a few places by following carefully made trails, the water is seen to be yellow. It is about the color of coffee with cream in it. When a sample of the water is taken and allowed to stand, a thick layer of yellow mud settles to the bottom. This mud tells the story of the making of this wonderful gorge. The canyon was carved and is still being deepened by the stream which flows through it and by the little streams that flow down the canyon walls. This work has taken millions of years. Home work. 1. Read about the cliff-dwellings in the Mesa Verde National Park. 2. Read about the Navajo, the Acoma, and the Hopi Indians. 3. Read a special description of the Grand Canyon of the Colorado River. Discovery of natural resources. See maps on pages 73 and 76. As white men came to know this part of the western country, they discovered certain portions where, with the help of irrigation, agriculture could be carried on very successfully. They also discovered gold, copper, silver, and iron. Borax has been found within this region, and there are many places where salt is secured. The waters of Great Salt Lake are pumped into fields surrounded by dikes and then allowed to evaporate. As the water is taken up into the air the salt is left on the ground ; later it is plowed up and sent to a refinery, where it is prepared for market. Growth of mining centers. Bingham in Utah (Fig. 128), Reno, Carson City, Virginia City, Tonopah, and Goldfield in Nevada, and Jerome, Globe, Clifton, and Bisbee in Arizona are among the many mining centers that have grown up in this region. Gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc, and some other minerals are obtained. Farming and fruit-raising with irrigation. Wonderful changes have been made through irrigation. Large areas of dusty sagebrush deserts have been transformed into beautiful, green, and productive garden spots. Just west of the Wasatch Mountains in Utah, in the fertile valley of the Jordan River, there is a chain of ■ '" •■■■ . | < ■ ■**2jI^B*^ ■ f _4C' LI-'" Fig. 129. The falls of the Spokane River provide valuable water-power for the city of Spokane and make possible its manufacturing industries. This view shows the lower falls as they rush over the great dam. Above the dam is the power plant which transforms the water-power into electric power. How many other cities can you name which have developed because of water-power ? Fig. 130. Salt Lake City was founded in 1847 in the desert just west of the Wasatch Mountains. By irrigation from the mountain streams this desert region was made fertile and productive. To-day the city is an important railroad terminus and the business center of the irrigated farming country which surrounds it. Locate Salt Lake City on your map agricultural settlements where irrigation is practiced. Ogden, Salt Lake City (Fig. 130), and Provo, three of the largest cities in Utah, are located at the western base of the Wasatch Mountains in the midst of irrigated lands. In Idaho, bordering the valley of the Snake River, and in Washington, near the Columbia River, there are sev- eral large irrigation projects. Spokane (Washington) (Fig. 129) has grown up on the very margin of the Columbia Plateau, at the edge of the mountain belt. At Wenatchee in the Columbia val- ley, in the Yakima and Boise valleys, and in many other places there are wonderful orchards (Fig. 132). The Salt River irrigation project in Arizona has led to the extensive produc- tion of the long-fiber Egyptian cotton in the vicinity of Phoenix. WESTERN PLATEAUS 69 Dry farming. In certain parts of the Columbia Plateau where the soils are rich, but where there is not sufficient water for irrigating the land, the settlers practice dry farming. The soils are carefully cultivated so as to make the surface material as fine as possible. That will delay the evaporation of moisture. In places great crops of wheat are raised where for- merly nothing but sagebrush grew. The roots of the Fig. 131. This sturdy pair of horses is hauling a load of baled hay to mar- ket in central Washington. This part of the state receives a light rainfall, but irrigation and dry farming have turned it into a good farming country. What are the principal products of this area ? wheat reach far down into the ground and there find some moisture. With some crops the soil is cultivated very frequently. These methods are adding large areas to the lands that may be used for producing foods. Future. More of the waters coming from the moun- tains will be utilized in irrigating the margin of the Western Plateaus (Fig. 133). Then more people can be accommodated there and more foods can be raised. The water-power in certain of the mountain valleys near the margin of the desert and in the canyons within the desert makes possible the generation of electricity for light and power in the cities and towns. Mining in this region will certainly continue to develop, and with the constant extension of railroads more and more of the mountain ranges will become easily accessible, and this will make it possible for poorer grades of ore to be mined at a profit. The dry farming in eastern Washington and Oregon has not reached its limit. It will undoubtedly be in- creased, thus adding to the crop yield of the region. Washington is the gateway to Alaska. With its ex- cellent harbor and shipping facilities there is promise of great development in the entire Puget Sound region. Problems and review questions. 1. Why do more people live in the southern portion of the plateaus than in the northern portion ? 2. What do the native people do there to make a living ? Fig. 132. The city of Wenatchee, Washington, is situated on the banks of the Columbia River. The broad, river-made plain is used as orchard land. The rainfall is under twenty inches a year, which is much less than the fruit trees need, and therefore all the orchards are irrigated 3. Why did the ancestors of these native people build their homes in caves, on the tops of mesas, or on the cliffs of the can- yons ? 4. Why is there so little rainfall in this region ? 5. How does the dryness of the area affect the changes in temperature from night to day ? 6. What is the coldest time in the twenty-four hours ? Why ? 7. What has the Federal government done to help the farmers who live in the Western Plateaus ? 8. How was the Columbia Plateau made ? 9. What is meant by the Great Basin region ? 10. In which plateau is the Grand Canyon ? 11. What have you ever seen that is higher than the walls of the Grand Canyon ? 12. How was the canyon made ? 13. To what natural regions do the mountains of Arizona and the plateau of southern New Mexico belong? See map on page 122. 14. What great natural resources have white men discovered in the plateau region ? 15. What factors have controlled the loca- tion of the cities ? 16. What will help to make this part of the country suitable for larger populations in the years to come 2 RJBr'jl Wttr^ft 'jH HE*. i^F ^fl M 1 iImL. ^ Fig. 133. The great Roosevelt Dam in Arizona was built by the government to store up the waters of the Salt River for irrigation. The Salt River Irrigation Project is one of the many undertaken by our government to water the dry lands of the West and make them fit for farming 70 PACIFIC MOUNTAINS AND LOWLANDS Fig. 134. This is Crater Lake, Oregon. It occupies the huge hole which was left long ago when a great volcanic mountain collapsed into itself. This mountain was one of a range of volcanoes which were built up by many out- pourings of hot lava long before man came to live on the earth. The other PACIFIC MOUNTAINS AND LOWLANDS Coming of the pioneers. In studying the country west of the Mississippi River we have several times referred to the great rush to California when gold was discovered there in 1848. The trails from the Central Plains west- ward led the exploring parties through several natural regions to this westernmost portion of the United States. See map on pages 2 and 3. Some came in at the south, where the climate was dry and warm, and some crossed the Sierra Nevada and went directly to the mining districts in the mountains. Others, who followed the Oregon trail, came by the Columbia River through the Cascade Mountains to the region where Portland is now situated. The life in the mountainous portion of this region developed most naturally from the discovery of mineral wealth. In the lowland areas the occupations were determined by the conditions of soil and climate. mountains of the range did not collapse and to-day they are cold, rugged peaks, covered with ice and snow (see Figs. 147, 150). The lava cliffs which form the rim of this lake are a thousand feet high, and rising out of its clear, blue waters is a beautiful little volcanic cone called Wizard Island Placer mining. The first mines were in the sand and gravel deposits of certain valleys of the Sierra Nevada. Some of the gold is in the form of pebbles or nuggets, but more is in the form of grains as fine as sand. Some of it is a gold dust. The stream deposits that contain the gold must be washed in order to separate the gold from the sand and gravel. This is done by running the deposits through long boxes. The gold is heavier than the sand and gravel and therefore sinks to the bottom .. E^^ _*-±±. : ^v^ Sb Fig. 135. These men are at work near Fresno, California, stacking alfalfa hay with the help of a derrick. The dry summers of the central valley of California are especially favorable to alfalfa-growing, and the farmers often cut it three or four times a season. Explain the climate here Fig. 136. There are no better dairy farms in the country than those in the central valley of California. The cows in this region have green feed the year round, which is a great advantage to dairying. In what ways do the conditions for dairying here differ from those of New England ? of the boxes, where it is caught and held behind small crossbars. This method is called placer mining. Vein mining. The prospectors realized that the orig- inal source of the gold which they found in the gravels must be somewhere upstream, and they searched through the mountains to find the mineral veins which carried the gold. Many of the veins were discovered, and this led to mining underground. Great shafts were sunk and tunnels driven (Fig. 103). Some of the hills have been honeycombed, and the miners now go thousands of feet down into the earth for the ores. PACIFIC MOUNTAINS AND LOWLANDS 71 Climate. The prevailing west winds that come from over the Pacific Ocean to the northern portion of the Pacific coast bring an abun- dance of moisture, and the rainfall is heavy, reaching 100 inches a year on the western slopes of the moun- tains in Oregon and Wash- ington. Farther south the rainfall decreases, and in southern California it is often very light. During a part of each year the winds of southern California come from over the land and bring little or no rainfall to Fig. 137. This man is picking grapes in his vineyard in the valley of California. These grapes will be dried to make raisins. Why is the valley of California a favorable place for the cultivation of vineyards ? Where are the other grape-raising centers of the United States ? the coastal region. They come from a very dry region. The winds that come from over the Pacific Ocean have the temperature of the air over the water, and as that changes but little from summer to winter, there are not such great ranges in temperature along the coast as there are farther inland. In the lowland area the climate is never very cold. The rainy season is during the winter, when the upper air is colder ; thus, as the winds rise to cross the moun- tain, they are more quickly chilled and forced to give up their moisture. In the high mountains the winters are cold and there are heavy snowfalls. Agriculture. In the early days the number of miners increased rapidly and more food was needed. This led many people to begin farming and fruit-raising on the rich soils in the lowland belts between the great mountain ranges (Figs. 135, 136). In southern Calif ornia the soils are exceedingly fertile, and with the help of irrigation large crops are raised. The lowlands as they appear on the map do not look extensive enough to be as important as they are; but in the valley of California, shut away from the Pacific Ocean by the Coast Ranges, the climate is just right for raising grain and fruit. In the north, barley, rice, apples, pears, peaches, and grapes are the chief products (Fig. 137). In southern California, plums, apricots, oranges, lemons, olives, figs, walnuts, and almonds are produced (Fig. 138). The abundant rainfall on the mountains furnishes sufficient water for irrigating the lowlands, and in the valley of California and in the southern part of the state, irrigation is carried on by the most modern methods. Drying fruits. Since the rainfall is light, especially in the southern portion, fruits may be dried out of doors. The long days of sunshine are just what is needed to dry plums and grapes into prunes and raisins. Few places in the world have a climate and soil so well suited to the raising and drying of fruits as the central and southern portions of California. See Fig. 139. Fig. 138. This picture shows one of the great groves of orange, lemon, and grapefruit trees which are cultivated with the help of irrigation in southern California. These are called citrous fruits. How does the climate of southern California compare with that of the citrous-fruit area of Florida ? Fig. 139. In the valley of California, during the rainless summer months, acres of land are covered with trays of fruit drying in the sun. The trays in this picture contain prunes. Peaches, pears, apricots, raisins, currants, and berries are also dried in this way. Explain the climate here 72 MAP STUDIES .So g 03 c3 S ■ c3 03 J3 ® — 03 SQ i- £ -g a a 3 c 03 a S o a *> 03 a, J* ^^ *-i a„a '— • . What d? 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This is a typical scene in the Pacific Northwest. The square- rigged sailing vessels are lying at anchor in the river, waiting to be loaded with timber for foreign markets. To what ports will they sail ? What con- ditions make the Pacific Northwest the finest lumber district in the world ? The mature fish leave the salt water when they are ready to spawn, or lay eggs/ and start up one of the streams. The Columbia River and its tributaries and the small streams that flow into Puget Sound are favorite waters. The eggs are de- posited in the running water, and the young salmon are hatched there. Then they begin their jour- ney to the sea, reaching it when they are only a few inches long. They mature in about four years. By a remarkable instinct most of them return to the rivers of their birth to spawn (Fig. 145). Most salmon are taken in the salt water, where their flesh is in Lumbering. The forests in Oregon and Washington the best condition (Fig. 146). They are the most luxuriant in the United States. They are are caught by means of purse made up chiefly of fir, cedar, and spruce, and they have seines, gill nets, and fish traps, and made possible the production of large quantities of a few species by trolling. In the Co- lumber. In southwestern Oregon there are magnificent lumbia and other large rivers the fish forests of northern yellow pine (Fig. 142). Tacoma, wheel is used. If nets are stretched Seattle, and Portland are lumbering centers and send completely across a stream, or if too lumber to the great cities of the Mississippi Valley. On many nets are placed in a river and Puget Sound and on the Columbia River vessels from kept there, the salmon in the stream almost all the countries of the world may be seen taking are soon killed off. The government on cargoes of lumber (Figs. 140, 141). has made laws restricting the catch- The mills built to take care of this business have such ing of salmon but providing certain remarkable machinery that huge logs from six to eight feet in diameter and fifty feet long are used. Such logs enter the mill, are sawed into great beams or into various sizes of boards, and are made ready to ship without having been touched by a man's hand. In these forests large quantities of spruce were cut to build aeroplanes for use in the World War. On the Coast Ranges west of the Puget Sound Lowland and on the mountains of California there are also large supplies of timber. In California the forests of red wood have furnished excellent lumber for buildings, and in that state are the largest trees in the world (Fig. 143). Salmon fishing. The cold streams coming from the snow-fields and glaciers in the Cascade Mountains are used by salmon for spawning. Hjjj^b Hk 4 jv ¥ iij^Hnyt 4 Jl^jB 0&T WPZffiiHQtof^ ^^r*^ iJu-V Jji gJfcL.^ my \ \ ' 'i M"M | iriy^' Fig. 142. A northern yellow pine in Oregon, 225 feet high © Keystone View Co. Fig. 141. When the logs which are cut in the forests of the Puget Sound country must be towed out into the ocean, the lumbermen chain them together in great cigar-shaped rafts rights for all who engage in this industry. Oil. Several oil fields have been dis- covered in California (see map, p. 76), and that state has become one of our greatest producers of this very useful fluid (Fig. 144). Some of the oil comes from rocks that extend beyond the shore under the Pacific Ocean. This has led to a very interesting development of oil wells. Some of them are sunk on the land near the shore ; others are drilled beyond the shore line, and in such cases the derricks can be seen rising out of the water. A pipe is put down through the sea water deep into the ground by which the oil can be brought to the surface just as well as if the pipe had been driven down on shore. PACIFIC MOUNTAINS AND LOWLANDS .75 Coal. Near Tacorna and at points near Coos Bay there are a number of large coal mines. The coal is in upturned and folded layers of rock, much as it is in the anthracite coal field of eastern Pennsylvania. In this western region, however, the coal has not been made so hard as that in the East, but it is a good grade of bituminous coal. Water-power. A second very im- portant source of power in this region is provided by the numerous waterfalls and rapids which are present in most of the mountain streams. In many places hydroelec- tric plants have been put in and all the large cities have an abundance of electricity. Harbors. A coast bordered by young, rugged mountains is certain to be without good har- bors unless the land sinks and allows the sea waters to enter the mouths of the rivers. Fortunately the land did sink on our Pacific coast, and the salt waters came in through the Golden Gate at San Francisco, at the mouth of the Columbia River, and at Puget Sound. At each of these places the mouth of a river is drowned and bays or estuaries have been formed. This has given the Pacific coast deep, sheltered waters suitable for harbors. Fig. 143. These trees are the giant sequoias of California. Some of them are from 25 to 35 feet in diameter and several hundred feet in height. Many are over two thousand years old Fig. 144. One of the chief oil fields of California is located near Bakersfield, at the southern end of the central valley. The California oil fields con- tribute about one third of the total production of the country. Why is it particularly fortunate that California has an abundant oil supply ? The Pacific coast states are all benefiting by com- mercial relations with foreign countries. There is also some coastwise trade and an active business with Alaska. The opening of the Panama Canal has brought these growing Pacific coast ports into closer relations with all Atlantic ports. Mountain scenery as a natural resource. The sight of the beautiful mountain panoramas is refreshing to those who must stay in the busy cities in the rush of commer- cial and industrial life. Some enjoy their vacation out- ings in the mountains, and many make long expeditions through the canyons and climb to the lofty summits of the range. Camping among the mountains is an inspira- tion to study and to enjoy nature. Thousands of tour- ists visit the national parks in this region every year, and many go far into the wild parts of the mountains. rtUrtU, regun Fig. 145. This is a Chinook salmon jumping a waterfall. Thousands of salmon run up the Pacific coast rivers every year, swimming against the current and jumping the falls. After spawning the salmon die, and some of the dead bodies drift back down the streams, furnishing food for other fish Fig. 146. The commercial species of salmon are Chinook, sockeye, silver, humpback, and dog. Here is a boatload of several thousand salmon, the re- sult of one day's fishing. These salmon will be taken to the canneries and put up in tins for export. Where will the canned salmon be sent ? Mn^auuqs. MAP STUDIES 77 3 *5a .3 co o3 a to 03 cn. CD S — 3 c o J a -a o eg 3 a — 93 ^j 3 * 43 a. ►* 2. ^ £ 8 J t! "S -G 03 «« cp Eo -w co . .2 "3 IS 3 ^H r« S « 'o « 3 o .■a == bo 3 3 ^ cs .2 a 03 ,a cn. 03 03 Q CD ■I s ^ CO ■■ a 3 z 00 t- O bOrt o3 ^ a co 45 .a r. 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This is part of the city of Seattle, and in the distance, sixty miles away, is Mt. Rainier. Seattle is situated on Puget Sound, and the summit of Mt. Rainier is 14,408 feet above sea level. Locate both on your map. What makes Seattle an important city? Location and growth of cities. With the development of mining, agriculture, lumbering, and fishing, and the coming and going of people from foreign lands, a num- ber of large cosmopolitan cities have grown up. The chief seaports are shown on the maps (pp. 73, 76). They have the advantages of being inland and on protected waters. Many of the facts regarding the commerce are shown on those maps. Seattle (Fig. 147) and Tacoma have the advantage of the deep water of Puget Sound, and are both lumber centers. Both are fortunate in having a supply of coal near at hand.. A canal at Seattle connects the Sound with a fresh-water lake. Here vessels are cleaned of barnacles, for the barnacles cannot live in fresh water. Seattle is a great outfitting point for people going to Alaska and is the port most commonly reached on the return from Alaska. Most of the supplies for that territory pass through Seattle. At Bellingham (Washing- ton) and at Astoria (Oregon) there are immense salmon canneries. , Portland is situated on the Willamette River near the Columbia River. These waters are navigable for ocean-going vessels, and Portland is the seaport for Oregon (Fig. 150). San Francisco is very favorably sit- uated just within the Golden Gate. It is the commer- cial center and the financial metrop- olis of the Pacific coast (Fig. 151). The four prin- cipal fruit-growing districts in the val- ley of California are near Stockton, Sacramento, Fresno, and San Jos6, but there are several other large fruit- growing districts. ' In the south, in the lowland bordering tbe coast, are Los Angeles and Pasadena. Pasadena is beautifully located near the base of the mountains (Fig. 149). Los Angeles adjoins Pasa- dena and extends by a narrow strip of land to the coast. It ranks as the largest city in the state of California. These cities are in a great fruit-growing district. They attract large numbers of visitors during the winter. Fig. 148. The state capitol of California at Sacramento is an exceptionally fine example of the domed type of architecture most com- monly used for our state and federal buildings <-i _^ MIMi^k-.. r ■»*■ , J ^^Mff55^BWfiC?S^--£^7rrtrfM ''"^^h' \*j$&*^ - J* I"* **ZZ'. - :M--%* fc$- _..«. i-«. Fig. 149. Pasadena is located on lowlands that are composed of sands, gravels, and silts washed out from the mountains by streams. It is an exceptionally beautiful city. The streets are lined with a great variety of tropical trees such as the eucalyptus and palm. The rainfall is light, so ) Henrj G. Peabodj the gardens must be irrigated and all the trees and lawns watered frequently. Because the city is situated between the mountains and the sea the climate is always mild, with no extremes of heat or cold. Can you explain this ? In this view notice the automobile road which zigzags up the mountain PACIFIC MOUNTAINS AND LOWLANDS 79 Fig. 150. Mt. Hood, one of the old volcanic mountains of the Cascade Range, towers like a giant above the surrounding ridges. It is 11,234 feet in elevation. The city in the foreground is Portland, Oregon, the most im- portant city in the state. How far away from Portland is Mt. Hood ? Picture study. Use Fig. 151. 1. How should you describe the land surface shown in this view ? 2. Has the shore line been elevated or depressed ? Give reasons for your an- swer. 3. To what natural region does this area belong ? See map on page 76. 4. San Francisco Bay is about fifty miles long and ten miles wide. It is connected with the Pacific Ocean only by the nar- row strait of the Golden Gate. What advantage is there in this ? 5. How is the bay connected with the valley of California ? See map on page 76. 6. In what ways is the physical geography of this area favorable to commercial development ?. 7. What are the chief exports and imports of San Francisco ? 8. With what countries does San Fran- cisco trade ? National parks. The Pacific Mountains and Lowlands contain several of the most beautiful national parks in the country. Mt. Rainier National Park sur- rounds the beautiful peak of the same name, which is remark- able for the twenty-eight glaciers which descend its slopes (Fig. 156). Crater Lake National Park con- tains the most extraordinary crater lake in the world (Fig. 13-4). Yosemite National Park is an area of deep valleys, lofty peaks, and cascading waterfalls (Figs. 152, 168, 154). These and the other na- tional parks of the region appear on the maps on pages 73 and 76. Physical Features Sierra Nevada. At the eastern base of the Sierra Nevada there is a great crack, or fissure, in the earth. When the mountains were last uplifted, a slipping took place along that, crack. The mountains undoubtedly rose very slowly, perhaps a few inches at a time, but they rose to elevations of from 10,000 to 14,000 feet above the sea. Standing on Mt. Whitney (14,501 feet high) one may look down a most wonderful mountain slope into the basin region to the east or view to the north and west a panorama of lofty peaks that extend to the westward until they reach the valley of California. When this huge mass of land was uplifted, the rivers, supplied with plenty of water by the moist winds from the Pacific Ocean, began their work of cutting it down (Fig. 154). Immense canyons were carved out, and during the Ice Age great glaciers formed in the high mountains and helped to deepen the canyons (Fig. 152). n an-1 Company Fig. 161. This aeroplane drawing of San Francisco and its surroundings shows the location of the city on a hilly peninsula south of the Golden Gate. Before gold was discovered in California, San Francisco was only a small town, but as the prospectors and miners poured into the state after 1849 it grew very rapidly until to-day it is one of the leading seaports of the United States. How does San Francisco rank among the cities of the United States ? See tables in Appendix 80 PACIFIC MOUNTAINS AND LOWLANDS Fig. 152. Long ago Tenaya Canyon, in the Yosemite National Park, was carved by a river. Then it was widened and deepened by a glacier. To-day its floor is covered with a forest of evergreens. On the right is the great granite Half Dome, rising nearly a mile above the valley floor Cascade Mountains. The Cascade Mountains, which seem to he a continuation northward of the Sierra Nevada, have been greatly uplifted by earth pressure, and here also the streams and glaciers have been at work cutting into the mountain mass, deepening the canyons, and carrying the loose material to lower levels. There are beautiful glacial lakes and superb waterfalls in these mountains. Volcanoes. In places in the Sierra Nevada, volcanoes have broken forth. Shasta is a magnificent volcanic cone. It is so high that the upper slopes are covered with snow all the year round, and there are glaciers on the summit. In the Cascade Range there are many more volcanoes (Fig. 156). Lassen Peak was active in 1916 and 1917. Coast Ranges. The Coast Ranges are even younger than the Cascades and Sierra Nevada. They are not so high as the Sierra Nevada or Cascades, and are still groAving. They have in them rock forma- tions which have come up out of the ocean since the glacial period, and this is an indication of extreme youth in mountains. They have also been dissected by streams and by glaciers. On their western edge the waves are now actively at work cutting away the rocks, making sea cliffs, sea caves, and rock islands. The Pacific Ocean side of these ranges shows a series of terraces like gigantic steps, rising to at least 1500 feet above the present sea level. These are benches made by the waves when the land was lower. Each time the land rose, a new bench, or terrace, was cut. The terraces prove that the land was under the sea, and the kinds of sea shells found on them show that they have been but re- cently uplifted. Since the last up- lifting of the coast the lands have been somewhat depressed , which accounts for the excellent har- bors which were de- scribed on page 75. Earthquakes. The young mountains in this region are still growing, and occa- sionally, as in all regions of young mountains, the little slippings along the cracks and fissures in the rocks cause earthquakes. There are certain cracks in the Coast Ranges Hw f #w^»M^.-A ^ki^!"o j ^tlS9^"-iis3t Wpmlm ■■ \i -^S3r ' ^Jnr^^fiSk j9B||ip9lfi!sl!HHI&sT -o^i/t *£2/:\ ■ ^MyjjTj jwitmB HT^BM '* 4^^Hrr '~ m r f I i£lff ^^1 ^-^r5r H 'ipp HPw-» T ■' ~* '"--JjjiSJilK k,.;. Fig. 153. These jagged peaks are the Three Brothers in the Yosemite National Park. The park, with its steep-walled canyons and cascading waterfalls, is one of the nation's beautiful playgrounds Fig. 154. These are the four great waterfalls in Yosemite National Park. From left to right they are Bridal Veil Falls, 620 feet ; Yosemite Falls — upper, 1430 feet, lower, 320 feet ; Vernal Falls, 320 feet ; Nevada Falls, 594 feet. Of what value are these falls ? where earthquakes have occurred since the white people settled there. Volcanoes are also commonly located in regions where the mountains are growing. Lowlands. The lowlands of the Pacific coast region have received the wash from the mountains on each side. Sands, clays, and gravels and some glacial materials have been depos- ited here, making rich soils (Fig. 157). Future. The natural re- sources are varied and abundant and will lead to a greater prosperity. With the development of the nations in eastern Asia and the steadily increasing trade with Australia and New Zealand our Pacific coast states are sure to con- tinue their rapid growth. PACIFIC MOUNTAINS AND LOWLANDS 81 About fifty years ago Japan began to use modern industrial methods and has since developed rapidly in that direction, until now it is a great world power. China is just entering upon a period of internal develop- ment. Many of the valuable natural resources of that country bave as yet teen little used. The Chinese have lived chiefly as an agricultural people. They have great resources of coal, oil, and iron and many other metals. These resources are now being used and fac- tories have been built for the manufacture of cotton, silk, flour, iron and steel, and other products. Indus- trial development will undoubtedly lead to increased commercial intercourse with the Pacific states. Docking facilities on the Pacific coast must be enlarged. The history there will be somewhat like the history of the Atlantic seaports, where it has been difficult to build enough wharves to meet the ever- Fig. 155. This is the beautiful canyon of the Columbia River. The river rises east of the Pacific Mountains and is the only one which cuts its way across them to the ocean. Study the map on pages 2 and 3 and explain the impor- tance of the Columbia in the westward expansion of the American people increasing demand. With more foreign trade will come the necessity of more extensive railroad service for transporting imports and exports. A larger population will be needed to care for this business and to supply food for all who live in the region. Much of this growth will certainly take place in the next half-century. Problems and review questions. 1. What first led exploring parties into the Pacific Mountains ? 2. By what routes did the early explorers reach California ? 3. What is meant by " placer mining"? 4. Tell briefly the story of a gold nugget from the time it was in a mineral vein until it was found by a prospector. 5. What sources of power are there within this region? 6. Where did the soils on the lowlands come from ? 7. Why is so much fruit dried in California ? 8. Describe briefly the life of the salmon. 9. What conditions are favorable to the development of lumbering on a large scale Fig. 156. This view of Mt. Rainier from Mirror Lake shows its rugged slopes covered with ice and snow. It has more glaciers than any other peak in the United States. Many of them are from four to six miles long, and they extend in all directions from the summit to the base in Oregon and Washington ? 10. Name the chief seaport's in this region. 11. What different mountain ranges are included in this region ? 12. What grains are raised in the valley of California? 13. What fruits are raised in California ? 14. What is the explana- tion of the formation of Crater Lake ? 15. Where should you go in this part of the United States to see a glacier ? 16. Explain the presence of Puget Sound and San Francisco Bay on the Pacific coast. 17. What signs are there that the mountains of this region are still growing ? 18. What city on the Willamette River near the Columbia may be called a seaport ? 19. With what countries is most of the trade from Seattle and Tacoma ? 20. What are the chief imports from China and Japan to this country ? 21. Explain the presence of forests in the mountains of the Pacific coast states. Fig. 157. Looking out over the gently rolling lowland of the Willamette River it seems as if the valley were one great orchard. Rows of apple, pear, prune, and peach trees alternate with acres of strawberry plants and berry bushes. 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Some years ago the United States government introduced rein- deer from Lapland into Alaska. Many of the Eskimos of Alaska have now learned to care for reindeer as farmers care for cattle. The Eskimos in this view live at Cape Prince of Wales. They have harnessed their reindeer to POSSESSIONS OF THE UNITED STATES ALASKA An investment. In 1867 we purchased Alaska from Russia for $7,200,000. Many people thought we paid too high a price. Since then we have taken from Alaska over 1300,000,000 worth of gold, more than $6,000,000 worth of silver, many million dollars' worth of copper, and some tin. Billions of tons of hard and soft coal have been discovered there. We are now taking millions of dollars' worth of fish from the Alaskan waters each year, most of which are salmon. In southeastern Alaska there are large forests, wonder- ful waterfalls, and such beautiful scenery that thousands of people take the boat trip to Alaska just to see the mountains, the long fiords, and the glaciers. Home work. In Bancroft's " History of the Pacific States," or elsewhere, read about Bering's discovery of Alaska. Climate. The winds from the Pacific Ocean bring an abundance of mois- ture to the coastal region of southern Alaska. See map on page 124. They blow over waters of the ocean that have been warmed by the Japan cur- rent, and they therefore keep the Pacific coastal region from ever being extremely cold. During the summer season a tem- perature of 95 degrees in the shade is sometimes reached in the interior of Alaska and even as far north as the arctic circle, and some prefer to work at night rather than during the day, because it is cooler when the sun is low. The winter temperature in the interior is very low, — so - 7 * - ** 7 ' k2 MP &M$^mBKEL -^SsfaJKcfe t> H - 1 LMsi! Fig. 159. This is a view of Chilkoot Pass during the Klondike rush for gold. With their outfits on their backs the gold-seekers formed a long line here, pulling themselves up over the mountain by means of a long wire cable sleds and are hauling reindeer meat to market at Nome. How many miles is it from Cape Prince of Wales to Nome ? What will these Eskimos buy at Nome in exchange for their meat ? Why do the Eskimos keep reindeer instead of cattle ? How many different uses of the reindeer can you name ? low that the mercury freezes in the thermometers. In the Far North in summer it is daylight throughout the twenty-four hours. The sun is highest at noon, when it is in the south, and lowest at midnight, when it is in the north. During the winter the days in Alaska are short, and in places the sun does not rise above the horizon for many weeks. Effects of climate. Many think that Alaska is so cold a country that no one but Eskimos would want to live there, and that the growing season is too short to raise even vegetables. That is not so. To-day there is a popu- lation of about 55,000 in this far northern territory. Near each of the larger settlements there are vegetable gardens, and nearly every prospector has a little garden patch beside his cabin. Timothy hay and oats are raised in a few places. Strawberries will ripen. Cattle graze all winter long on certain of the islands near the Alaskan Peninsula, and there are many Pacific coast harbors that are free from ice all the year. People. When the report was circu- lated that gold had been discovered in Alaska, miners and prospectors from almost all parts of the world rushed to this new country in the hope of discovering a rich deposit of gold-bearing gravels (Fig. 159). The miners make up most of the popu- lation to-day. Along the Pacific coast there are several Indian tribes. They are in- dustrious and kindly. Many of them work in the canneries, some in the mines, and others in the forests, where lumbering is carried on. In the interior of the country small Indian settlements appear along the banks of the Yukon. I Ginn and Company ALASKA 85 Fig. 160. These are the rugged coastal mountains along the Alaskan shore. The sharp peak in the middle distance is Mt. St. Elias. Its summit is 18,000 feet above sea level. To the left of it is the great Malaspina Glacier, which extends from the foot of the mountains to the sea At Cape Prince of Wales, which is the nearest point in North America to Asia, and from there northward along the coast as far as Point Barrow, there are Eskimo settlements (Figs. 158, 162). Government. The people of Alaska elect delegates to Congress and have almost complete control of local affairs. Since Alaska is a territory, the governor is appointed by the president of the United States. Problems and map studies. 1. What are the chief mineral re- sources of Alaska ? 2. Name three important products shipped from Alaska to the United States. 3. What makes the coastal region of Alaska so favorable to the salmon ? 4. What are the chief articles shipped to Alaska ? 5. Why are there not more people engaged in farming there ? 6. What are the chief cities of Alaska? 7. What is the most impor- tant inland city ? 8. What city is the capital of Alaska? the metrop- olis ? See Fig. 163. 9. What is the largest river ? 10. Name the northernmost cape. 11. Explain the fiords and islands along the coast of Alaska. 12. What explanation can you suggest for earthquakes? 13. Find the place where the sealskins come from. Study Fig. 164. 14. Who discovered Alaska ? See Appendix, Plate A. 15. What bodies of water have been named in honor of him ? 16. How much did we pay for Alaska? 17. Why should it be very warm in the valley of the Yukon during summer ? 18. What ocean current helps to keep the coast of Alaska warm ? 19. Explain the heavy snowfall on the coast ranges where the glaciers are formed. 20. Why is there less rainfall in the interior of Alaska than there is along the seacoast ? 21. Where do the Eskimos live ? 22. Of what value to the Eskimos are the reindeer ? 23. How do people travel" in the Yukon valley in winter ? 24. Plan three sight-seeing trips in Alaska and describe the things you would see on each one of them. Fig. 162. This Eskimo is paddling his kyak, which he has made by covering a framework of bones with skins tightly sewed together. He wears a sort of raincoat, which, when tied down over the opening in the boat, makes it water tight. In this rig he can ride the roughest waves with perfect safety Fig. 161. Perry Island, one of the volcanic mountains of the Aleutian chain, rose suddenly from the sea, and when it was first discovered, steam was escap- ing from every crack and crevice. Later explosions blew it to pieces, and to-day it cannot be seen. Locate the Aleutian Islands on your map Natural Regions The Pacific coastal region. Bordering the coast there are magnificent high mountains. They are a continu- ation northward of the mountains in our Pacific coast states, and extend through British Columbia into Alaska and then follow the coast through the Aleutian Islands. These islands are the peaks of a mountain range which extends nearly to Asia (Fig. 161). The St. Elias Range, as seen from a vessel coasting along the Alaskan shore, is one of the most magnificent sights in the world (Fig. 160). The Coast Ranges are young and growing mountains. Earthquakes are common in this belt, and there are many active volcanoes. There is one volcanic region which has been appropriately called " the valley of ten thousand smokes." This region has been set aside by Congress as the Katmai National Monument. This coastal region has a number of excellent harbors, and in the southeastern part of Alaska there is a beauti- ful inland passageway shel- tered from the storms of the Pacific by a series of large islands. Juneau, the capital of Alaska, is situated near the northern end of this inland passage. Mining is the chief oc- cupation in southeastern Alaska, although lumbering and the canning of salmon are important. Whaling stations have also been established here, and there are i salmon, halibut, herring, and a few cod fisheries, which provide a living for many of the people. 86 ALASKA Fig. 163. Nome, on the Seward Peninsula, was first settled by men who found gold in the beach sands. To-day most [of the gold has been washed out, and the mining is farther inland. Nome has no harbor, and vessels must anchor far offshore. Why are there no trees here ? Farther west, in the Prince William Sound district, there are other mining centers. Large quantities of copper have been discovered on the islands in this sound. Cordova is the terminus of a railroad which follows the Copper River to an important mining district. Seward is now the terminus of a government railroad which is planned to connect this port with Fairbanks, the largest city of the interior. The railroad will pass near one of the great coal fields, and a branch line will go to the mines. When this road is completed, supplies for the miners can be quickly taken to the great gold-mining camps of the interior. It will reduce the cost of living in that part of the country, and will greatly help the development of Alaska. See map on page 84. Home work. On an outline map of Alaska locate Juneau, Skagway, Sitka, Cordova, Valdez, Seward, Eagle, Fairbanks, and Nome. Print in the names. like those on the Mississippi River, come from St. Michael upstream as far as Dawson (Fig. 166). Some go up the Tanana to a point near Fairbanks. When winter comes, the river freezes over; but it continues to be the high- way of travel, for during that season dog sleds are used, and with the help of the dogs there is a regular winter delivery of United States mail through this vast land. Gold has been found in the stream gravels in the valleys of the Yukon and Tanana rivers and in almost all of their tributaries. The plateau is a region of light rainfall. Grasses, mosses, and many flowers grow on the upland areas, and trees border the main stream courses. Most of the flowers have short stems ; in places there are millions and mil- lions of blossoms. In the interior of Alaska the ground thaws out to a depth of about eighteen inches during the summer season. Below that it remains frozen year after year. Endicott Range. North of the Yukon Plateau, and Fig. 165. This man is starting out alone to pros- pect for gold in Alaska. He has with him his tools, food, bedding, gun, and fishlines. Why has he a net over his face ? Yukon Plateau. extending from the northern extremity of the Rocky The next natural region within the Mountains to Bering Strait, is a range of mountains Alaskan territory is a broad upland through which the Yukon River flows to Bering Sea. This river rises in Canadian territory. It is over 2000 miles long, and about 1500 miles of its course is in Alaska. The chief highway of travel in the interior of Alaska is the Yukon River. During the summer large steamers, Fig. 164. Far off in Bering Sea, west of Alaska, there are a few islands which the fur seals use as their summer home. This particular place is known as Kitovi Rookery, St. Paul Island. Where do the fur seals spend their winters ? that have been but little visited by white men. The mountains are known to have rugged peaks with snow- fields and glaciers. No one lives there, and as yet little prospecting has been done in that part of Alaska. Arctic Coastal Plain. Still farther north, extending from the foothills of the Endicott Range to the ocean, is a gently sloping lowland which in form is much like the Coastal Plain east of the Appalachian Highlands or border- ing the Gulf of Mexico. Here the rainfall is scanty and the vegetation is chiefly moss and grasses. The ground is frozen most of the year and thaws only a few inches at the surface dur- ing the summer season. Such a place is called a tundra. See map opposite page 124. The only inhabitants of this region are a few Eskimos who live near Point Barrow, about 300 miles north of the arctic circle. HAWAIIAN ISLANDS 87 Fig. 166. This is one of the Yukon River boats which bring supplies into the interior of Alaska every spring after the ice melts. The boats are stern- wheelers, and so the freight barges have to be tied to the prow and pushed. What supplies do the people in Alaska need ? Why ? HAWAIIAN ISLANDS Physical features. The Hawaiian Islands are volcanic peaks which have come up from the ocean bed. There are eight principal islands and many smaller ones, hav- ing a combined area less than that of the state of New Jersey. On the island of Hawaii, which is the largest in the group, the mountains have risen to a height of over 14,000 feet. Mauna Loa and Mauna Kea are the two highest of these volcanoes. On the slope of Mauna Loa is the tremendous crater of Kilauea (Fig. 169). The summit of Mauna Loa and the crater of Kilauea are national parks. Climate. Since these mountain peaks rose in the torrid zone, in the midst of a great ocean, they have a warm climate with but a slight change in temperature from summer to winter. The winds are the northeast trades, and they bring plenty of rainfall to the windward side of the mountains. The precipitation reaches 75 inches a year on that side, but on the southwest, or leeward, side the annual rainfall is less than 25 inches. One side of an island is therefore well wooded, while the other side is a semidesert. The people and their occupations. The population of these islands is about 200,000. The native Hawaiians be- long to the brown race. They are an intelligent people but have been de- creasing in numbers. White people have invested money in the develop- ment of the plantations, and a great many people from Japan, China, and the Philippines have gone to the islands to work. Sugar cane is the chief crop. Pineapples, coffee, rice, bananas, tobacco, and citrous fruits are also raised (Fig. 167). The location of these islands is fortunate, for the ocean routes from our Pacific coast ports to New Zealand, Australia, the Philippines, China, and Japan naturally pass near the Hawaiian group. They are sometimes spoken of as at the " cross-roads of the Pacific." They are used as a coaling station, and large reserves of coal are held there for the United States Navy. Vessels may put in at these islands to make repairs. Cities. Honolu- lu, on the island of Oahu, is the capital and larg- est city. It has a good harbor and is the chief port of the territory (Fig. 168). The next largest city is Hilo, on the island of Hawaii. Government. In 1893 the white people took control of the government of the Hawaiian Islands and in 1898 offered them to the United States. These islands now constitute one of our territories. Problems and map studies. Use map on page 84. 1. Where are the Hawaiian Islands? 2. Why is the climate of the islands so mild ? 3. What winds bring rain to the mountains ? 4. How were the islands made ? Give proofs. 5. What are the chief imports ? 6. What are the chief exports ? 7. Why are these islands spoken of as at the " cross-roads of the Pacific " ? See Appendix, Plate B. 8. Plan a trip from your home to Honolulu. 9. How should you reach your port of departure ? 10. How long should you be on the ocean ? 11. In what occupations should you expect to find the Hawaiians en- gaged ? 12. What places of interest should you wish to visit ? ///'//' , ■■HMHjffi|ttgj&gggMJ Ijfl D E. M. Newman Fig. 167. The finest pineapples in the world are grown on the Hawaiian plantations. Thousands of them are canned and sent to the United States. What other products do the Hawaiians raise ? PBBBIP Hfl| H^^HI ~ ¥9F ^^ mm ^UtUB/E/LW/KSmmum^ CT& '■ *v. -. ; *ds " i ■ Ik-idflfete _ " WtTMiVi i", : i» . _'i .— Fig. 168. Honolulu, the capital of Hawaii, has a safe, deep harbor where the largest ocean-going vessels can anchor. It is an important port of call for ships engaged in trans-Pacific trade. From what countries do these ships come ? What do they bring to Honolulu ? What do they carry away ? Why are the Hawaiian Islands such valuable possessions of the United States ? ) 88 PANAMA CANAL ZONE Never before in the history of the world has man attempted a task so large or so difficult as the construc- tion of this canal. There were three chief difficulties: (1) a range of hills which separates the two oceans; (2) great seasonal floods in the Chagres River ; (3) tropical diseases. The line of hills has been pierced by the Gaillard Cut, which is 250 feet deep (Fig. 171). To con- trol the Chagres River the Gatun Dam was constructed, which has caused the formation of Gatun Lake, the largest artificial lake in the world (Fig. 172). The Fig. 169. This is a photograph of a model of Kilauea, the active crater on the eastern slope of Mauna Loa. The circular pit in the foreground contains a lake of boiling lava. Surrounding it is the great floor of hardened lava, built up by many outpourings of hot liquid rock PANAMA CANAL ZONE Ever since 1513, when Balboa climbed to the top of a hill on the Isthmus of Panama and looked off over the Pacific Ocean, men have talked of a water route through this narrow neck of land. France was the first country to attempt the construction of such a canal, and in 1880 Ferdinand de Lesseps, the engineer who built the Suez Canal, began the work. This project failed because those in charge were unable to prevent the spread of tropical diseases among the workmen. In 1904 the United States acquired from the republic of Panama a narrow zone through the Isthmus (Fig. 172). Our purpose in securing this zone was to construct a canal for large ships from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. 'J Publishers' Photo Service, Inc. Fig. 170. These are the Gatun Locks of the Panama Canal. They are three great water steps by which ships are lifted from the level of the Caribbean Sea to Gatun Lake. The locks are large enough for the largest vessels afloat. At the left is one of the electric locomotives used for towing © Publishers' Photo Service, luc. Fig. 171. This great steamship is being towed through the Gaillard Cut. Across the canal is Gold Hill, which has caused the blocking of the canal several times by slides from its slopes. The Gaillard Cut was made through the mountainous backbone of the Isthmus, and was a very hard problem for the engineers who constructed the canal problem of fighting tropical diseases was very difficult. Forests and underbrush were cleared away, oil was spread upon the waters of the marshes and swamps to prevent mosquitoes from breeding, sanitary conditions were greatly improved, and every care was taken to prevent the spread of any contagious diseases which appeared among the workmen. About 260,000,000 cubic yards of material were handled in the construction of the Panama Canal. That amount of material would build a wall around the Dis- trict of Columbia 60 feet thick and a little over 500 feet high. If the material could be piled up around the earth at the equator, it would make a solid wall six feet thick and about nine feet high. The level of Gatun Lake, through which the canal route passes, is about 85 feet above the sea. That neces- sitated a series of locks near each end of the canal. With the help of electric motors at these locks a vessel may now pass from one ocean to the other in about ten hours (Fig. 170). The route of the canal through the lake is marked by buoys that are brightly lighted at night. Colon, the Atlantic terminal, is a supply station. Here ships can obtain almost anything they need. Storage bins for coal, machine shops, bakeries, and ice plants have been established at this terminal. PANAMA CANAL ZONE 89 The Pacific terminal of the canal is Balboa. It is fitted up as a repair station. With huge machine shops and modern dry docks, Balboa stands ready to receive any ship that needs re- pairing after its trip through the canal. By means of the canal the Pacific coast ports of North America and South America may easily be reached from all Atlantic seaports. The opening of the Panama Canal shortened the water route from New York to San Francisco by 8000 miles and made all of our island possessions in the Pacific Ocean more valu- able. The United States govern- ment has fortified the canal, but it is open for the use of vessels of all nations. The canal is also of great advantage to the countries of western Europe, shortening the distance between their Atlantic ports and the Pacific ports of North and South America by thousands of miles. Home work. 1. Make a diagram showing the length of the canal, the height of Gatun Lake, the location of the locks at each end, and the location of Colon and of Panama. 2. Which end of the canal is farther west ? 3. Find out how electric motors help vessels through the canal. CARIBBEAN SEA SCALE. CF MILl^ © liinn anil Company Fig. 172. This is a view of the Panama Canal Zone, showing the mountainous country through which the canal was cut. The Canal Zone (shown by the darker shading) is 10 miles wide and 50 miles long from deep water at Colon to deep water in the Gulf of Panama. The narrowest width of the canal is 300 feet, and its shallowest depth is 41 feet. The highest reach of its water surface, from the Gatun Locks to the Pedro Miguel Locks, is 8S feet above sea level E. M. Newman Fig. 173. This is the city of Panama, near is that the Pacific end the Pacific end of the canal. Can you explain how it is the eastern end of the canal ? Problems and review questions. 1. About how long is the Panama Canal ? 2. How wide is the Canal Zone ? 3. How was the Gatun Lake formed ? 4. Of what advantage is the lake ? 5. How is the canal route through the lake marked ? 6. How high do vessels rise above sea level in crossing the Isthmus? 7. How long does it take for vessels to pass from ocean to ocean through the canal ? 8. What difficulties had to be overcome in building the canal ? 9. What was done to prevent the spread- ing of tropical diseases ? 10. What South American countries are most benefited by the canal? 11. How did the opening of the canal increase the value of our Pacific islands ? 12. What did it do for Europe ? 90 PORTO RICO (& £. M. .Newman Fig. 174. This motor truck, loaded with Porto Rican sugar cane, is bound for the sugar mill. The sugar used to be hauled to the mills in oxcarts in Porto Rico and Cuba, but gradually motor trucks are taking their places. Why are motor trucks better for this purpose ? PORTO RICO Porto Rico is in the torrid zone and is one of the four largest islands of the West Indies. In many ways it is a delightful place to live in, and certainly a most attrac- tive island to visit. The central portion is mountainous, and about the margin are the lowlands, which have been divided into farms. Many of the lower slopes of the mountains are cultivated. About three fifths of the people are white and the other two fifths are negroes or people with mixed blood (Fig. 177)._ Porto Rico is not quite as large as the state of Connec- ticut ; it has a population of over a million. The island was ceded to the United States by Spain in 1898. At that time the great mass of the people were uneducated. (...^MIIMMMMMIV -«b '. en, «e L R a*Ji ns , >Oi CRS Pnn^ s v Laramie ' " I gh .* /e/jr] • P *rkCitrf 4A ^iadroH Alliance ^jjllopgjnont ©Denver W V^^sSali^i^* P.Colorado S^) CiSWgftjN #PuebIo ?\ sHu 7" ^2=- — **** iit. tjjff«flasting UNITED STATES* f POLITICAL MAP ~L | SHOWING PRINCIPAL RAILROADS % Scale of statute miles s °° 3Q0 <00 go 10O BO lOO ^w fioo I J^ — — Scale of kilometers 100 300 •k Capital of country * Chief seai&rts © Capitals of states A Chief lake ° »> . Principal railroads j Uplands and plateaus „ , 4 ~~ I Lowlands — 1 (Chiefly coastal plain) ~ 1 Lowlands r~ _J (Central plains) l_ _) Great plains 1 B 120° C US° Map Mate, Patented July 5, 1821 • Method of Making Haps, P.tented July 5, 1921 "I Old, worn-down J mountains "1 Young, rugged —I mountains • ATLANTIC TIME ZONE Ginn and Company 98 THE NATION AS A WHOLE THE NATION AS A WHOLE After studying the different parts of the United States and its possessions, we should consider the nation as a whole and see how important a part the geographic con- ditions have played in the settlement of the country and in the development of industrial and commercial life. Early settlements. The first permanent settlements in the United States were on the Atlantic coast (Fig. 190). In the days before there were any railroads the Appala- chian Mountains held the people near the Atlantic sea- board. The mountains were a barrier that made travel to the westward difficult. Moreover, going beyond the mountains to live meant cutr ting off all easy communica- tion with the settled portion of this country and also with England. Until manufactur- ing plants were established in America the colonist s depended upon the trade with England for many of the things they needed. Perhaps the presence of Indians west of the moun- tains influenced some people to stay in the East. However, the fact that they did stay together led to the development of great strength in the colonies which united to make this nation. Fig. 190. This map shows the distribution of population in the United States in 1790, and the westward movement of the center of population since that time. Near what cities was the population densest in 1790 ? Trace the progress of the center westward. Near what city was the center in 1870 ? in 1920 ? MAP STUDIES — POLITICAL MAP OF THE UNITED STATES See map between pages 95 and 98. 1. What states border the Atlantic Ocean ? 2. What states border the Gulf of Mexico ? 3. What states that do not border the Atlantic Ocean or the Gulf of Mexico include a part of the Coastal Plain ? 4. What state is north of Long Island ? 5. Of what state is Long Island a part ? 6. What two states are separated by Delaware Bay? 7. Into what two states does Chesapeake Bay enter ? 8. Between what two states is the Savannah River? 9. Locate Mobile Bay. 10. In what state is the delta of the Mississippi River ? 11. What state is separated from Mexico by the Rio Grande? 12. What states border on Lake Erie? on Lake Michigan ? on Lake Superior ? 13. The banks of a river are named "right" and "left" as one would see them looking downstream. Name the states on the west, or right, bank of the Mississippi River. Name those on the left bank. 14. You have named the row of states on the right bank of the Mississippi. Next to them on the west is a row whose eastern parts are in the Central Plains and whose western parts are in the Great Plains. Name these, beginning at the north. 15. What states include a part of the Rocky Mountains ? 16. What states include a portion of the great plateau between the Rocky Mountains and the Cascade and Sierra Nevada .Mountains? 17. At what place in the United States do four states come together ? 18. What states are crossed by the Colorado River ? 19. In what state is Great Salt Lake ? 20. To what state should you go to see the Grand Canyon of the Colorado? 21. What mountain ranges border the great plateaus on the west ? 22. What states border upon Mexico ? 23. Between what two states does the lower part of the Columbia River flow ? 24. What large tributary does this river receive from the southeast? 25. Bound the state in which you live. 26. Bound the United States. 27. What states border on the Pacific Ocean ? 28. What states border on Canada? 29. Are the rail- roads more numerous in the east- ern or in the western half of the United States ? Why ? 30. Lay out a route of travel from Boston to Los Angeles by way of New York, Albany, Buffalo, Detroit, Chicago, St. Paul, Glacier National Park, Seattle, Portland, San Francisco. What railroads should you use ? What states should you cross ? 31. Return from Los Angeles to Chicago by a route that will take you by a side trip to the rim of the Grand Canyon and through Denver. What is the name of the railroad used and the names of the states crossed ? 32. Make a list of the chief seaports ; the chief lake ports. Put the population opposite each city name. See Appendix. 33. What are the ten largest cities in the United States ? Arrange them in the order of population. 34. What is the difference in the standard time of New York and Chicago ? of New York and San Francisco ? of Wash- ington, D.C., and Denver, Colorado? 35. What large cities in New England are in about the same latitude as Rome, Italy? 36. What part of our country is in about the same latitude as Palestine, where Jerusalem is located ? 37. What large cities in the United States are in about the same longitude as Bogota, the capital of Colombia? 38. Which is farther west from Greenwich, — the capital of Texas or the capital of Mexico ? 39. Compare the latitude of San Francisco with that of Peking and also with that of Tokyo. Home work. 1. On an outline map of the United States, print in from memory the names of the states. If necessary, correct your map and try it again. Learn to do this perfectly. 2. On the same outline map, locate and print in from memory the names of five important seaports, five large lake ports, and five large river cities. 3. How many state capitals can you name and locate correctly from memory ? Test yourself on an outline map. THE NATION AS A WHOLE 99 Westward expansion. The westward expansion was The forests are always of importance ; the fish, the largely controlled by geography. The trails used by the waterways, and the harbors have all been important in pioneers followed the easier routes of travel. See map on pages 2 and 3. On the north the Great Lakes and on the south the Gulf of Mexico formed natural boundaries. Later, by a series of pur- chases and treaties (Fig. 191), the wide strip of land stretch- ing from the Atlantic to the Pacific was acquired by the United States. In time Alaska, the Panama Canal Zone, and various islands in the Pacific and Atlantic oceans came into our possession. As pioneers pushed into all parts of the territory acquired by the United States, trails were built and small settlements were established. During the period of active railroad construction, which fortunately came when this country was being opened up, these settlements were joined together by a great network of roads. To-day it is relatively easy to reach almostany partof the United States. Discovery of natural resources. With the expansion, the increase in settlements, and the construction of railroads, more and more of the natural resources of this vast country have been discovered and utilized. We are fortunate in having rich soils, broad, level lands, and abun- dant rainfall, so that sufficient food may easily be raised. In this country we have only begun to test our ability to produce food. We have never had a great famine, and it is hard for us to believe that in some parts of the world millions of people have died in a single year for want of food. Next in importance comes the great group of resources which furnish man with power> such as coal, oil, gas, and streams. These sources of power have increased the amount of work man can do and have led to the remarkable development in manu- facturing which has taken place in the United States. Then come the mineral resources, such as iron, cop- per, gold, silver, lead, and zinc. Fig. 191. This map shows the steps by which the United States has expanded from the territory of the original thirteen states to its present size. How many of our present states are included in the original territory ? List the different additions in order of the dates of their annexation Fig. 192. This view shows the special cut, or blaze, on the trees, by which the national forest trails are marked. In what ways are the national forests a benefit to our country ? the growth of the nation. Conservation of natural re- sources. Almost everyone in the United States is interested in developing or using great natural resources. Ithas taken millions of years for the de- posits of coal, iron, gold, silver, and other minerals to form, and perhaps as long for the accumulation of natural oil and gas. It has taken a long, long time for the formation of the soils. Many of these re- sources can be used but once and can never be replaced. Agriculture is dependent upon the fertility of the soils and upon rain or other water supply. Raw materials are essential to our industrial and commercial development as a nation. In this country we have come to know that from this time on the mineral wealth must not be wasted, the forests must be protected, the fertility of the soils maintained, the water-power developed, and many of the dry lands irrigated. Fish and game should be allowed to increase in numbers. The spreading of injurious animals and insects should be prevented, while other animals, and especially the birds, should be protected. The birds not only destroy large num- bers of insects but add much to the pleasure of the people. These facts are sufficient to con- vince one that the natural resources must be conserved if this country is to continue for all time to be an attractive place for people to live in. Our government is making a great effort to conserve all valuable re- sources. The Reclamation Service is adding large areas to our agricultural lands by irrigating the dry places and by draining the wet parts ; the Forest Service is engaged in maintaining the national forests (Fig. 192) ; the Bureau of Mines is teaching men how to ex- tract the rich mineral ores from the earth most econom- ically ; and the Department of Agriculture is helping the farmer to raise 'larger and better crops. 100 THE NATION AS A WHOLE Education. The American colonists had high ideals easy routes for transportation, and a number of large of education and very early established schools and col- industrial and commercial lake ports have developed, leges. A school was opened for each new settlement in On the south direct access to lands in the tropics is this country, and as prosperity came these schools were afforded by the Gulf of Mexico, which, with the Carib- improved. Thousands of high schools have been estab- lished. An effort has been made to give each American child and all those who have chosen to come to this country from foreign lands a good education. Most of the states now have a number of normal bean Sea, forms an American Mediterranean. Its waters touch Central America, Mexico, the United States, and the West Indies, and reach the northern shores of South America. The United States now holds a prominent place in the commerce which crosses the American schools and a university, and many of the states have Mediterranean, and in the future it will undoubtedly established agricultural colleges, either associated with occupy a still more important position. The Pacific coast gives us access to the oriental countries, and leads us to take a great and very direct interest in the development of Asiatic nations (Fig. 193). The addition of Alaska has given us land which ia rich in mineral wealth and fish. It has a supply of coal which will become of importance to commerce on the Pacific. The islands of Hawaii, Samoa, Guam, and the Phil- ippines are all important stations in the midst of the Pacific Ocean. They form a chain joined by cables and by the routes of travel followed by the great steamships crossing the Pacific. The Panama Canal is of immeasurable commercial value, and our islands in the West Indies give us additional land in the tropics where certain food supplies may be produced. The temperature in the United States varies from summer to winter and in general stimulates thought and develops energetic people. The seasonal Fig. 193. Here is a great ocean liner lying at anchor ofi the coast of Japan. This is one of the large ships which run across the Pacific Ocean, carrying freight and passengers between the western ports of the United States and Canada and the eastern ports of Asia. What are some of the goods carried on its westward trips ? on its eastward trips ? the universities or as independent institutions. There are also numerous special schools of medicine, dentistry, pharmacy, mining, and engineering, so that everyone changes make life more interesting and force people to who wishes may find a place to go for higher training look ahead and provide for the future. The weather in the profession of his choice. Geographic factors which affect the growth of the nation. When a land is divided by mountain ranges into small natural regions, many distinct nations are apt to be developed. Here large natural regions and broad, level stretches of fertile lands have led to the development of a unified nation. The great railroad systems have helped to bind the people together. The breadth of view and the daring of the American people are in some degree due to the extent of its territory, its broad, open expanse of prairie lands, and its wonderful natural resources. The location of the United States on the shores of the Atlantic is of great importance to the country. It makes possible a close association with other progressive nations of the world. On the north the Great Lakes provide conditions are not so severe that progress is impossible, and yet they are not so mild that everyone becomes lazy. The climate of the United States has therefore been a factor of fundamental importance in the development of a strong, progressive nation. All of these large geographic facts have been of im- portance in the development of the nation and have led not only to great internal strength and great wealth but to an ever-increasing interest in the other nations of the world. Problems and review questions. 1. Where were the first perma- nent settlements in this country ? 2. Why did the Appalachian Mountains serve as a barrier to migrations westward ? 3. Describe the routes most commonly used in crossing the Appalachian Mountains. See map on pages 2 and 3. 4. How did rivers affect the movements of pioneers ? 5. How have railroads helped in the settlement and industrial life of this THE NATION AS A WHOLE 101 country ? 6. What natural resource is of the greatest importance to the United States ? 7. Name the natural resources that furnish power. 8. What metal is most useful to man ? Explain. 9. How may the fertility of soils be maintained ? 10. Why should water power be used ? 11. How far do you know electrical power to be transmitted ? 12. How may we conserve fuel re- sources ? metals ? forests ? 13. What institutions for higher education are maintained in your state ? 14. How have the Atlantic, Gulf, and Pacific coasts proved beneficial to the nation ? 15. Where may we expect our commerce to increase greatly in the next fifty years ? 16. Why should a variable climate with large seasonal change be favorable to a progressive civilization ? Government. The thirteen orig- inal colonies became the first states in the Union. For some time the newly acquired territories were large but thinly settled. As the number of people increased, the new territories acquired were di- vided and local governments were established. Each division was in time admitted into the Union, until there are now forty-eight states. The national Congress is com- posed of a Senate and a House of Representatives. Each of the forty-eight states elects two sena- tors, but the number of repre- sentatives elected by each state varies with the population. At present there are four hundred and thirty-five members in the House of Representatives in Con- gress. The people in the terri- torial possessions send delegates to Congress. The President is elected by the citizens of the United States to serve for a term of four years. He appoints, subject to the approval of the Senate, the members of his Cabinet, who take charge of the great departments of public affairs. At present the members of the Cabinet include secretaries of State, the Treasury, War, the Navy, the Interior, Agriculture, Commerce, and Labor, an Attorney-General, and a Postmaster-General. Washington and the District of Columbia. The seat of government for the nation is the city of Washington, situated on the banks of the Potomac River (Fig. 194). Washington has become a most attractive city, of which every citizen of the United States may well be proud. It was established as a seat of government and is not an industrial center. The chief business in Washington pertains to the conduct of national affairs. The Capitol (Fig. 195) and the Congressional Library are magnificent structures. Large buildings have also been constructed as headquarters for most of the departments. Each foreign nation has a representative or a group of representatives in Washington, and it is an everyday experience to those living in the capital to meet people from various parts of the world. The larger foreign nations have buildings of their own in the city. Recently a large building has been constructed in Washington for the Pan American Union. The efforts of all those associated with this organization are <£) litnD Mid Company Fig. 194. This is an aeroplane drawing of Washington. The extent of the District of Columbia, which corresponds with the city limits, is shown by the darker shading. To what states does the adjoining land belong ? George Washington selected this site for the national capital in 1790 and made the first plans for the city. Describe the capital and its surroundings from what you can see in this view directed toward bringing about a closer and better relationship between the countries of North and South America. The National Museum is a place of great historic and scientific interest. The Red Cross organization has a beautiful home in Washington (Fig. 196), and the head- quarters of the National Geographic Society are here. Internal development. When the thirteen colonies came together to form a nation, they had a total popula- tion of about 1,000,000 people. To-day there are about 105,000,000 people in the. United States. We have had a period of most prosperous internal development. The growth of cities, the construction of railroads, and the establishment of all kinds of educational institutions have been remarkable. The nation has grown strong and powerful. This was most wonderfully demonstrated in our participation in the great World War. 102 THE NATION AS A WHOLE Fig. 195. The National Capitol at Washington is a very beautiful building made of white stone and marble. The dome is surmounted by a statue of Liberty, representing the great ideal of the American nation. In one of the wings is the chamber where the United States Senate meets, and in the other is the Hall of Representatives. The Supreme Court has its room in the main building of the Capitol Maritime expansion. To-day we are moving rapidly to a more and more important position in the commerce of the world. Our great factories need raw materials from distant lands. They also need additional markets where their ever-increasing number of products may be sold. Other nations wish to carry on an exchange of commodities with us. The United States, with the hun- dreds of new vessels built during the World War and the many which will be built each year in the American shipyards, will certainly develop a large international commerce. The United States in world affairs. Each time that we acquired a possession in the Atlantic or Pacific Ocean we assumed the responsibility of governing or assisting in the government of other people. This responsibility has led our government officials to make a careful study of the people living in the Hawaiian, Samoan, and Philippine Islands. We have also the problem of under- standing the people in the West Indies and the native people of Alaska. In each of these countries the geo- graphic conditions that affect the lives of the people are different from those in the United States proper. As the great industries of the United States have developed, the manufacturers have needed more men and more raw materials. Millions of people have come from foreign lands to live in this country, and vast supplies of materials are being imported. These factors have in- creased our interest in the other countries of the world. With our growth in international commerce and the part which we found it necessary to take in the great World War our interest in world affairs has increased. It has become, therefore, more and more important that each citizen of the United States should know the geography of foreign countries. More men must be sent from the United States to foreign lands to repre- sent our business houses. We must have diplomatic and consular represents atives in all parts of the world, and the number in this service must be increased. We are interested not only in the welfare of the people within the United States and our various posses- sions ; we are interested in the welfare of all peoples and must continue to do our part to preserve peace in the world. Individuals cannot live happily or lead the most useful lives in a community unless order is maintained there, and the different nations cannot continue their growth, and civilization cannot ad- vance, unless peace and order are maintained in the world. Problems and review questions. 1. Who is the highest public official in your home town or city ? How was he elected ? For how long ? 2. How is your state represented in Congress ? Who are the senators ? Who is the representative from your district ? 3. Who are the members of the Cabinet ? 4. Where is the District of Columbia? 5. How does Washington differ from all other large cities in America? 6. What places should you like to visit in Washington ? 7. About how much larger is the population of the United States now than it was at the time of the Kevolutionary War? 8. Why should we be interested now in developing foreign commerce? 9. Why should we be interested now in helping to maintain peace not only at home but throughout the world? Fig. 196. This building is the headquarters of the American Red Cross in Washington. The Red Cross is an organization to which every boy and girl in the United States should belong, for its chief object is to relieve the suffering that follows great disasters in all parts of the world CANADA 103 Fig. 197. St. John, the chief city of New Brunswick, has a deep, sheltered harbor on the Bay of Fundy. The tides in the bay are very swift and strong, and at St. John the tide rise is twenty-five feet. This view shows part of the harbor at a time when the tide is high CANADA Our neighbor on the north, with land which extends from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and north- ward into the Arctic Ocean, is the Dominion of Canada. It is part of the British Commonwealth of Nations. Most of the people in Canada are of British descent. A large proportion of them live along the southern border, near the United States. The political divisions of Canada correspond to our states, but they are called provinces. The three farthest east are the Maritime Provinces. Climate. Use map on page 124. Most of Canada has sufficient rainfall for agriculture. The moisture-bearing winds from the Pacific Ocean give up rain on the moun- tains. There, on the coast ranges and Rocky Mountains, dense forests flourish and glaciers are formed. On the Great Plains east of the Rocky Mountains, and in the Far North, there is little rainfall. In those parts there are great extremes in temperature, but the dry air and bright sunshine are bracing and healthful. The whole interior of Canada has what is known as a con- tinental climate, which means that there is a great change in temperature from summer to winter and only moderate rainfall. The air becomes cold as it travels far to the north, and it gives up most of its moisture before it reaches the tundra area on the northern margin of the continent. In that part of Canada the winters are so long and so severe that very few people live there. See map oppo- site page 124. In the valleys of the St. Lawrence and Ottawa rivers cold winters are followed by warm and delightful sum- mers. In the Maritime Provinces, which are nearly surrounded by water, there is much less change in Fig. 198. This is the same spot when the tide is out, and the boats that were afloat are now aground on the reddish-brown mud flat. Why is the harbor of St. John never icebound in winter ? Why is it foggy in summer ? Explain the great rise of the tide here temperature from season to season than there is farther inland. The climate of these provinces is therefore much like" that of New England. ^ APPALACHIAN HIGHLANDS Beginning at the east (see map, p. 122), the first natural region is part of the Appalachian Highlands. It includes most of the land to the southeast of the St. Lawrence River, as well as the islands in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The mountains in this part are old and worn down. They are rounded, smoothed, and forested. The rest of the land is either plateau-like or forms a part of the Coastal Hilly Belt which we studied in connection with the New England region. New Brunswick has a sunken coast with good harbors, and those on the Bay of Fundy are always free from ice (Figs. 197, 198). Fishing is the chief occupation of the people. This province is partly covered with spruce forests, and that has led to the grinding of wood into pulp, which is also an important industry. Dairy-farming and agriculture are spreading throughout the area where the forests have been cleared away. Prince Edward Island is a hilly land with an irregular coast. The chief occupations of the people are fishing, fruit-growing, and dairy-farming. Cheese and butter are made for export, and the skimmed milk is given to pigs. Nova Scotia. The irregular peninsula southeast of the Bay of Fundy, together with Cape Breton Island, form the province of Nova Scotia. There are many excellent harbors along the coast, because the shore line is sunken (Fig. 199). Halifax has the best harbor on the mainland, and Sydney the best harbor on Cape Breton Island. Bordering the Bay of Fundy are rich orchard lands and many excellent farms. Apples are grown and exported 104 CANADA in large quantities. Lumbering is carried on, and the wood-pulp industry has been established ; and where the forests have been cleared away, farming has been begun. Fig. 199. This is the harbor of Yarmouth, one of the most prosperous towns of Nova Scotia. It is situated on a small bay at the southwestern end of the peninsula and is the chief shipbuilding center of the province. The lake country back of Yarmouth is much visited by tourists Nova Scotia is fortunate in having a large supply of coal. It produces each year about half of all the coal mined in Canada. Iron is secured from Newfoundland, and these two natural resources give promise of a great commercial and industrial future for Nova Scotia. There are foundries at Sydney, where the Newfoundland iron ore is used in the manufacture of steel rails. Home work. 1. On an outline map of Canada locate and name the chief seaports, the capital of the Dominion, and three impor- tant inland cities. 2. Classify your pictures of Canada by natural regions. 3. Read about Amundsen's and Stefansson's travels among the islands of the Arctic Archipelago. 4. Read and report on the government of Canada. 5. Read and report on the tides in the Bay of Fundy. 6. Read about the building of the Canadian Pacific Railway. LAURENTIAN UPLAND Northwest of the St. Lawrence River, north of the Great Lakes, and extending far into the Arctic Ocean is the Laurentian Upland. See map on page 122. This vast area varies in elevation up to about 2000 feet above the sea. At the extreme northern end of Labrador, in the region east of Ungava Bay, mountains have been reported which rise to a height of 6000 feet above sea level. The far northern part of this natural region is but little known. The Laurentian Upland is a very old land. Indeed, it is probably as old as any land in North America or any other continent. The rocks have been exposed to the weather, broken up, and formed into soils. Rivers have worn down the lands, and the great continental glaciers that formed in this region have assisted in the work (Fig. 14). The Laurentian Upland extends into the provinces of Quebec, Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatche- wan, and Alberta, and into the Provisional Districts of Keewatin, Mackenzie, and Franklin. Throughout the region there are numerous lakes, swamps, marshes, and ponds. Rivers usually connect the small bodies of water, and thus canoe journeys may be planned through most of this country ; in fact, that is the usual method of travel in the country beyond the railroad lines. The province of Quebec has the advantage of a shore line on each side of the St. Lawrence and on Hudson Bay. The best soils are in the St. Lawrence Lowlands and on the narrow terraces, or benches, which border the St. Lawrence River. Most of the settlements are therefore located near the river. The farms are principally on the south bank. Each farm has a little frontage on the river and extends back for some distance to the higher land. In the region of the lower St. Lawrence the majority of the people are of French descent and speak the French language. In their homes, schools, churches, and town organizations they live much as their forefathers did who came to this coast from France hundreds of years ago. Nearly all the streams draining from the uplands toward the St. Lawrence have falls in their courses. In this region there is a fall line such as we found along the east margin of the Piedmont Belt in the United States. The water-power along that line should lead to the growth of manufacturing towns. On the south side of the St. Lawrence there are remarkable deposits of asbestos, which provide nearly all the world's supply. This material is found in great cracks in the rocks. It is sometimes called mineral wool. Fig. 200. Quebec is located on a bold headland overlooking the broad St. Lawrence River. The Upper Town is partly walled and has an ancient citadel. This view shows Dufferin Terrace and the Lower Town. Locate Quebec on your map. It has been called the " Guardian of the Gateway to Canada." Can you tell why ? The city of Quebec is a wonderfully attractive place with special historic interests. The city is built in part on the heights above the St. Lawrence and in part on the lowland bordering the river (Fig. 200). The city CANADA 105 was founded as a fur-trading post, and the site was chosen because it was an easy place to defend. The estuary of the St. Lawrence ends at the city, but the Fig. 201. Montreal occupies part of a low island at the junction of the Ottawa and St. Lawrence rivers. The Ottawa River opens up the forested district to the north and west, and the lumbering there has led to the build- ing of pulp mills at Montreal. What are the other industries of Montreal ? tide runs for 90 miles farther upstream. Formerly Quebec was the chief seaport of Canada, but the deep- ening of the river has allowed ocean-going vessels to continue upstream to Montreal. Home work. Find out all the uses you can for asbestos. Montreal has a wonderful situation. It is a thousand miles from the Atlantic and is on a great navigable river which is the outlet of the Great Lakes. But for one handicap it might rival the greatest Atlantic ports. That handicap is ice, for from the middle of December to near the end of April the river is frozen. The Ottawa River encircles the city, and logs are drifted down that river from the forested areas to the northwest. Montreal is now the metropolis of Canada, an important railway center, and the terminus of many steamship lines (Fig. 201). Large harvests of wheat come to Montreal from the West, in part by way of the Great Lakes and in part by rail. Lumber and wood pulp are made of the logs that are sent down the Ottawa River. The grain coming into the city has led to the establishment of flour mills and brew- eries. The route to the south through Lake Champlain and the Hudson valley to New York City is only 420 miles long. Large trans-Atlantic vessels bring European goods directly to Montreal and take away the raw materials which Canada sends to the Old World. These geographic advantages explain why Montreal has come to have a population of half a million people, — a large number when we remember that the total popu- lation of Canada is not much more than eight million. HUDSON BAY LOWLAND At the southern end of Hudson Bay there is a small coastal plain. See map on page 122. This is a land of clay soils. It is forested now, and there is an abundance of game in the forests. Some day the trees will be cleared away and this lowland region will probably become an agricultural district. CENTRAL PLAINS North of Lake Ontario and Lake Erie there is a small portion of the Central Plains, a natural region which we studied in connection- with the United States. See map on page 122. This land is sometimes called the Lake Peninsula because it is bordered on the south, east, and west by lake waters. It is one of the most favored parts of Canada. The soils are rich, and it was formerly a wheat- producing area. Now that wheat is grown more cheaply on the Great Plains of the West, dairy farming and the raising of swine have become important. Oil has been discovered in the rocks underlying these plains, and this should lead to greater industrial development. The province of Ontario includes the Canadian exten- sion of the Central Plains, a portion of the Hudson Bay Lowland, and some of the Laurentian Upland. In the Laurentian Upland silver, iron, copper, and nickel are obtained. Near Sudbury, an important railway center, are some of the richest nickel mines in the world. Fig. 202. The harbor at Port Arthur on Thunder Bay in Lake Superior is full of lake freighters, some west-bound for Duluth, and others east-bound for ports on the other Great Lakes. Port Arthur and Fort William are receiving and shipping centers for the grain from the prairies. The building of passenger vessels and grain carriers is an important industry at Port Arthur 106 CANADA 0J CO • HojsojipaiA § 108 CANADA Fig. 205. This is the railroad bridge over the North Saskatchewan River at Edmonton, the capital of Alberta. Two transcontinental railroads pass through Edmonton, making it a very important commercial center. Beyond the bridge you can see the city and the Provincial Parliament buildings. The trappers from the north bring their furs to Edmonton for sale and exchange for supplies Indians (Fig. 206). They collect furs, hunt the caribou, and fish in the rivers and lakes. There are no towns in this part of Canada, but only small trading posts. -The white people here are chiefly interested in secur- ing furs. Home work. 1. From the Appendix find out what are the five largest cities of Canada. 2. Locate these cities on an outline map. 3. Learn to name and locate these cities accurately from memory. 4. Find out one important thing about each of these cities. WESTERN MOUNTAINS AND PLATEAUS which we studied in connection with North Dakota and Minnesota. It has a deep, rich soil containing hardly a stone. The mountain and plateau part of Canada is a region of Manitoba includes a part of the Hudson Bay Low- wonderful scenic beauty, with high mountains, hundreds land, some of the Laurentian Upland, and in the south of glaciers, beautiful mountain lakes (Fig. 208), and deep a part of the Great Plains. canyons. A great part of this region is yet almost Winnipeg is the third largest city in Canada. In the untouched by man. early days it was a small fur-trading post, but the location British Columbia. Much of this province is heavily was favorable to the growth of a large city. It is only 400 miles from Lake Superior, in the midst of a pros- perous farming country and halfway between Montreal and Vancouver. It is the largest grain and fur market in the British Commonwealth. It contains one of the largest grain elevators in Canada and is coming to be a great manufacturing center. Saskatchewan and Alberta. These provinces are for the most part within the Great Plains. Tbey include with Manitoba the great wheat and oat-producing lands forested, and in the mountains mining has been under- taken. The chief city of British Columbia is Vancouver, which has an excellent harbor and is the western ter- minus of the Canadian Pacific Railroad. Vessels start northward from there along the coast for Alaska, and others leave for Japan, China, Australia, and other parts of the Pacific. See map on page 107. Vancouver exports wheat from Alberta, and salmon caught in the cold streams of British Columbia. Min- erals from the mines of British Columbia and lumber of Canada. Regina is the chief city in Saskatchewan, and from the wonderful forests of giant Douglas fir are also Edmonton (Fig. 205) is the chid: city in Alberta. The exported (Fig. 209). Opposite this seaport, on the island transcontinental railroads have made possible the rapid settlement and devel- opment of this part of Canada. Provisional districts of Keewatin, Mackenzie, and Franklin. Relatively little is known of this part of the country. It is a wilder- ness. Exploring parties have found their way be- tween the northern islands and passed from Baffin Bay to Bering Strait. They have found a few Eskimos living on the Far-Northern islands. Most of the peo- ple on the mainland are Fig. 206. This is a wandering Indian family of northern Canada. They roam over the cold, treeless plains, living by fishing and by hunting caribou and musk oxen. Why do they not raise crops ? Why are they constantly moving about ? What is their tent made of ? of Vancouver, there are coal mines which supply western Canada. Many of the steam- ships which cross the Pacific secure their fuel from these mines. The island of Vancouver has a delightful climate with but slight changes in tem- perature. The mountain scenery and the lakes and forests add beauty to the country. In the fertile valleys are many comfort- able homes. Victoria, at the southern end of the island, is the capital of British Columbia and an important Canadian port. CANADA 109 Yukon. Those who go to the Yukon country usually follow the coast route to Skagway, Alaska, and then cross the mountains on a railway to the headwaters of the Yukon River. The Yukon country is for the most part mountainous. The famous Klondike Gold Field is located on one of the tributaries of the Yukon River near the city of Dawson. The climate in that part of Canada is severe, with long, cold winters and short, cool summers. Few people would ever go there if it were not for the gold which is found in the stream gravels (Fig. 207). In the mountains there are many mines, and we may expect mining to be further developed in this province. Conservation of Natural Resources Canada's great wealth lies in its natural resources, and the future of the country depends chiefly upon the way in which the re- sources are used. To safeguard against waste of natural resources Canada created a Commission of Conservation in 1909. This com- mission, like our own in theUnited States, is subdi- vided into differ- ent departments. There are depart- ments of land, forest, mineral, fuel, game, and water-power conservation. It is the duty of the officers of each department to make a study of the natural resources for which that department is responsible. For example, those who have charge of the conserva- tion of minerals have not only made a business of dis- covering what possibilities there are in Canada of greater mineral development but have found out how the differ- ent minerals can be most economically mined. Each of the departments aims to make its services just as valu- able to the nation as possible. It often happens that the work of one department is a help to another. Thus, when the committee on minerals discovered rich deposits of phosphate in the Rocky Mountain Parks, this discovery was of great value to the department of agriculture because it provided a source of fertilizer for the farmers. The work done by the Commission of Conservation will be of great help in the development of Canada. Fig. 207. This man is a gold prospector. He is washing the river sands and gravels in his pan to find out whether they contain enough gold to make mining worth while Fig. 208. These horsemen are riding along the shore of Lake Louise, one of the most beautiful sheets of water in the Canadian Rockies. The lake is more than a mile above sea level and is surrounded by high, snow-covered mountains. What part of the United States is similar to this region ? Problems and review questions. 1. Why do most of the people in Canada live near the southern margin of the country ? 2. What winds bring moisture to British Columbia ? 3. Why is it dry in the Great Plains region ? 4. How does the Labrador Current affect the climate of the east coast ? 5. What section has the greatest annual range in temperature, or difference between the hottest season and the coldest season ? 6. What is the general influence of the oceans on the temperature of the lands near them ? 7. How does temperature change with latitude? with altitude? 8. What are the chief products of Nova Scotia ? 9. What condi- tions made possible the steel industry at Sydney ? 10. What is the chief occupation of the people of New Brunswick ? 11. What is the usual way to travel in the northern wilderness of the Laurentian Upland ? 12. What use is being made of the forests of the Laurentian Upland ? 13. In what part of Canada is the French language commonly spoken ? 14. Why should Montreal have become a larger city than Quebec ? 15. What is the capital of the Dominion of Canada ? 16. Where are the prosperous farming districts of Canada ? 17. Where are the chief mining districts of Canada ? 18. What geographic con- ditions favored the growth of Winnipeg ? Vancouver ? Dawson ? Fig. 209. Many logging railroads have been built in the lumbering sections of British Columbia. At the left in this picture is a donkey engine which is used to haul logs to the railroad and to load them on the cars. Account for the dense forests in western British Columbia 110 NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR Fig. 210. St. Johns, the capital of Newfoundland, is situated on one of the finest harbors in America. The harbor is landlocked and deep, offering anchorage to the largest ships even at low tide. It can be entered only by way of a narrow channel guarded by high cliffs. Fishing is the chief NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR Newfoundland is about the size of Maine and New Hampshire combined. It is the northeastern terminus of the Appalachian Highlands. The western portion is mountainous, and the rest of the island is hilly, with small areas of level land in some of the valleys. The eastern coast of Newfoundland has sunk, forming a num- ber of deep fiords, long peninsulas, and high cliffs, and producing several excellent harbors. Most of the life in Newfoundland is near the coast. Fishing is the chief occupation. Offshore there is an area, larger than the island itself, where the sea water is less than 600 feet deep. This forms the Grand Bank, which is one of the richest fishing grounds in the world. In the interior, where there are forests, the manufac- ture of paper from wood pulp has been undertaken. Coal, iron, copper, gold, and nickel have been discovered on the island, and these deposits have been worked to some extent. The capital of Newfoundland is St. Johns, on the east coast of the island (Fig. 210). Where the cold Labrador Current passes Newfoundland and meets the warm water of the Gulf Stream, fogs are formed, which often make travel in that part of the ocean very dangerous. Great icebergs from the arctic regions drift southward in the Labrador Current and are often seen by vessels passing from North America to Europe. The icebergs are frequently surrounded by dense fogs, and the captains of the vessels must use great care to avoid hitting them. Even large ocean liners have been sunk by collisions with these great masses of floating ice. Fig. 211. Nine tenths of the people of Labrador depend upon the fishing industry for their living. These men are spreading out the cleaned and salted codfish to dry on the wharf industry of St. Johns. In the spring the fishing boats start for the Grand Bank, which swarms with cod and other fish during the summer months. In the late summer the fishermen return with their catch. The fish are then carefully dried and prepared for export. To what countries are they sent ? Home work. 1. About how far is it from St. Johns, Newfound- land, to Liverpool ? Use Plate B in Appendix. 2. Compare that distance with the distance from New York to Liverpool. 3. Find out what fraction of an iceberg appears above the water. 4. Make a drawing of an iceberg, in the proper proportion, showing how much is above and how much is below the surface of the water. Labrador is separated from Newfoundland by the Strait of Belleisle, which is 12 miles wide. Politically it is a part of Newfoundland, but local affairs are left to those who live in Labrador. Both Labrador and Newfoundland have been covered by glacier ice, so the rock hills are rounded and smoothed off, and there are many glacial moraines and bowlders on the surface. There are long, deep fiords and rocky headlands along the coast. About 400 Eskimos make up most of the permanent population. They live chiefly by fishing (Fig. 211); and when there is a poor season, there is danger of a famine. Missionaries have introduced the reindeer as an additional source of food and cloth- ing for the people of this bleak coast. Problems and review questions. 1. What is the political relationship of Labrador to Newfoundland? 2. To what common- wealth do both belong ? See map, p. 107. 3. What is the chief occupation of the people in these countries ? 4. What min- erals have been found in Newfoundland ? 5. Why should there commonly be a fog around an iceberg? 6. Why should there commonly be fogs off the coast of Newfoundland even if there are no icebergs there ? 7. Explain the long, deep fiords on the coast of Newfoundland and Labrador. 8. Why is the Grand Bank an excellent fishing ground ? It is one of the three greatest fishing grounds in the world. The other two are the North Sea and the Japanese waters near Asia. 9. Why is the Grand Bank a dangerous fishing ground ? Underwood St Underwood MEXICO 111 Fig. 212. This is the beautiful cathedral of the City of Mexico. It was built by order of one of the kings of Spain, and although it was started in 1667, it was not completed for more than a century. Its two great towers, 200 feet in height, rise above all the buildings of the city Henrj G. Peibody Fig. 213. The view southeastward from the cathedral towers is very beau- tiful. The city, with its low, solid buildings of Spanish architecture, spreads out over the flat-floored Plateau of Mexico. In the distance are the snow-capped volcanic peaks of Iztaccihuatl and Popocatepetl MEXICO Mexico is a Spanish-American country with over 15,000,000 inhabitants. The white people, who make up only a small part of the population, are chiefly of Span- ish descent. Most of the inhabitants are native Indians or people of mixed descent, resulting from the marriage of the white people with the natives. Spanish is the official language. This is a country of great variety. In the plateau and on the west coast it is very dry, and in the high moun- tains and on the east coast it is very wet ; there are low plains, high plateaus, and high mountains ; there are dense tropical forests, grassy plains, and sagebrush deserts. Near sea level it is always very hot, at inter- mediate elevations there are temperate climates, while some of the mountain tops are always snow-covered. Such geographic conditions present many opportunities for the Mexican people and many interesting problems for us. Gulf Coastal Plain. (Maps : between pp. 117 and 120 ; p. 122). Bordering the Gulf of Mexico is a coastal plain which is an extension of the Gulf Coastal Plain that we studied in the United States. In Yucatan the plain widens and takes in most of that peninsula. Eastern Sierra Madre. Rising abruptly from the western margin of the Gulf Coastal Plain is the Eastern Sierra Madre, a young and rugged mountain system which is a continuation southward of our Rocky Mountains. These mountains contain rich deposits of minerals. Their east- ern slopes are clothed with dense tropical vegetation. Mexican Plateau. Traveling westward, we cross the Mexican Plateau, a region of broad, flat areas and low mountain ranges. All but the southern portion of this plateau is a semidesert, containing many extremely dry places. In the north is a region of inland drainage like that in our Great Basin region of the United States, where the streams descending from the mountains sink into the sandy soil or flow into salt lakes. Western Sierra Madre and Sonoran Desert. Moving still farther west, we come to the Western Sierra Madre, which is also a young, rugged mountain system. These mountains contain deposits of very valuable ores. On the eastern slopes, toward which the moisture-laden winds blow, they receive a heavy rainfall ; but the rain clouds cannot pass over the summits, and on the western side the land is dry. The Sonoran Desert consists of a foothill belt and a narrow coastal plain bordering the Gulf of California. Lower California is a part of Mexico. It is a rugged land made by the continuation southward of the Pacific Coast Ranges of California. Most of it is a desert. High volcanic peaks. A range of lofty, snow-clad, volcanic peaks bounds the Plateau of Mexico on the south. The three highest peaks of this range are Ori- zaba, the Star Mountain ; Popocatepetl, or Smoking Mountain ; Iztaccihuatl, or WJiite Woman (Fig. 213). Rainfall. Most of Mexico is in the belt of the north- east trade winds. As those winds blow toward the equa- tor they become warmer and warmer, and so tend to take up moisture. In blowing over water surfaces they may become very moist, but unless they are forced to rise 112 MEXICO Fig. 214. These Mexican women are making the beautiful drawn work for which their country is famous. Where does their thread come from ? Fig. 215. These men are water peddlers in the City of Mexico. Notice the size of their water jars and the curious way in which they are carried Fig. 216. This ship is being loaded with mahog- any logs at a Mexican port. Where will these logs be sent, and what will they be used for ? or some cold object intervenes, no rain will fall. Both Within a few hours one may pass by rail from sea ranges of the Sierra Madre force these winds to rise, and level, where the heat is very oppressive, up through the so act as condensers ; rain falls abundantly on their wind- ward slopes. The streams from the western mountains are used to irrigate portions of the dry plateau region. The southern portions of Mexico receive rains in summer, when the sun appears to come northward. Zones of altitude. Because of the great differences in elevation in Mexico, there are three distinct zones which have special Spanish names. The tierra caliente, or hot land, extends from sea level up to 3000 feet. The tem- temperate zone and into the cold zone in the high moun- tains. The people of Mexico have the products of the torrid, warm-temperate, and cool-temperate zones near at hand. Natural resources. Mexico is very rich in natural resources. The mineral wealth consists of silver, gold, copper, lead, and many other metals. Mexico is also fortu- nate in having a large supply of petroleum and some ex- cellent water-power sites (Fig. 217). The fertile lands perature in this zone varies from 75 to 80 degrees, though in the lowlands and on portions of the plateau furnish it sometimes rises to 100 or 105. The winters are warm, but the summers are hot. The eastern coastal plain of Mexico and a part of the adjoining mountain slope are in- cluded in this zone. It is a land of rich foliage, beautiful flowers, and many fruit trees. Along the coast are man- grove swamps, and farther inland there are coconut palms, mahogany trees, and rubber trees. In the forests there are gorgeously colored birds and butterflies, monkeys, foods, and the forests yield ebony, mahogany (Fig. 216), and rubber. There are also extensive grazing lands. Millions of dollars have been invested in the natural resources of Mexico by people in the United States. Occupations. Mining produces the greatest wealth of the country (Fig. 219), but agriculture is the occupation which most of the people must follow in order to earn a living (Fig. 218). The grasslands on the plateau support and prowling beasts that make their homes in jungles, millions of cattle, sheep, horses, and goats. Leather has The next zone, extending up to 5000 or 7000 feet, is called tierra templada, or temperate land. Here the thermometer will reach 60 or 70 degrees, the temperature many peo- ple enjoy in their homes during the winter. The Mexicans like to call this the land of " perpetual spring." This zone includes part of the moun- tain slopes and some of the great plateau. The third zone, called tierra fria, or cold land, is still higher. Evergreens and some deciduous trees grow here. The high mountain tops are very cold, and they rise above the timber line. ) Keystone View Co. Fig. 217. The great Juanacatlan Falls of the Santiago River are often called the "Niagara of Mexico." Hydroelectric power is developed here for manufacturing and for use at Guadalajara, twenty miles away long been one of the chief products of this country, and the Mexicans are experts at ornamenting the arti- cles made from it. The great mass of laboring people, who are chiefly Indians and half- breeds, are called peons. They work for very small wages in the mines, in the fields, and on the plains where they care for stock. They are learn- ing to work in some of the factories. Home work. 1. On an outline map of Mexico locate and name the chief natural regions, the capital, and two seaports. 2. Read about the life of the peons. 3. What Spanish explorers reached Mexico ? MEXICO 113 Cities. Tampico and Vera Cruz have the best of the poor harbors along the Gulf coast. The waters are shallow, with offshore bars and reefs. Commerce with the United States and Europe is carried on through these ports. See map betioeen pages 117 and 120. Tampico has been helped by the development of oil wells in Mexico. Vera Cruz has been the leading port since the days of Cortez. The City of Mexico, the capital of the republic, is situ- ated at the southern end of the Mexican Plateau and is nearly surrounded by high mountains (Figs. 212, 213). Puebla is near the City of Mexico, and because of water- power and a supply of raw materials it has become a center for the manufacture of cotton. Guadalajara, San Luis Potosi, and Monterey are important inland cities, and Mazatlan is the chief seaport on the west coast. In the center of a Mexican city is a plaza, or open park, about which many of the most important build- ings are placed. At one side is a cathedral ; opposite the cathedral may be a national or city bank and other public buildings. The chief shops and places of amuse- ment are built on the edge of the plaza whenever this is possible, and the public markets are near by. A city home is usually built around a patio, or central garden, which the family enjoys in private. Instead of having a front yard, as many homes in the cities of the United States have, the houses in Spanish cities are built out to the sidewalks and have the yard hidden from the street. Government. The thirty-one states and territories in Mexico are united to form a federal republic, with a constitution modeled after that of the United States. The states have a degree of local self-government, and they unite in the election of a president and other national officers, as we do. The great mass of poor, ignorant, uneducated peons, however, make it difficult to conduct public affairs satisfactorily. In a free country it is important that all citizens become well educated. Future. The remarkable wealth of natural resources may bring pros- perity to Mexico. Mining should be promoted and agri- culture extended by means of irri- gation. Probably Mexico will never become an indus- trial nation, be- cause- the people show little abil- ity in mechanical arts or invention. Wr m ¥mm Fig. 219. This is a modern copper-smelting plant in Mexico. The rich copper ore is mined near by and then brought to the smelting works, where the metal is separated from the rock. The production of copper is a very important industry in Mexico and is carried on mostly by American and European companies. In what parts of Mexico is copper found ? What other metals does Mexico produce ? Fig. 218. Here are the coffee-drying yards on a Mexican plantation. The coffee beans are spread out to dry and are then raked up into piles ready to be put into bags for shipment. What other products do the Mexican planters and farmers grow ? What products are exported ? More well-trained white people are needed to develop the natural resources, and living and working con- ditions for the laboring classes must be improved. Higher standards of education should be established, and arrangements should be made so that a larger number of Mexicans may own homes and ranch lands. A strong and just government must be maintained. Problems and review questions. 1. What European nation early became interested in Mexico? 2. What is the official language of Mexico ? 3. What natural regions in the United States extend southward into Mexico ? 4. What are the prevailing winds of Mexico ? 5. Where is the rainfall heavy ? Why ? 6. Why is the Mexican Plateau dry ? 7. Explain the Sonoran Desert. 8. What reasons are there for thinking of the mountains as young ? 9. Explain and describe the zones in altitude. 10. What are the chief natural resources of Mexico ? 11. Name the capital and chief seaports. 12. Describe the plaza of a Mexican city and the patio of a Mexican home. 13. Name the mountain ranges in Mexico. 14. Locate the three highest moun- tain peaks. Find the elevation of these peaks in the Appen- dix. 15. Explain how it is possible for the people of Mexico to have both torrid-zone and temperate-zone products near at hand. 16. Account for the lack of prosperity in Mexico. 17. What remedies can you suggest for this lack of prosperity ? 114 CENTRAL AMERICA CourtcBj of the Pan American Union Fig. 220. This is a view on a banana plantation in Costa Rica. The men have cut the bunches of bananas from the plants and are loading them upon the ponies' backs. The ponies will carry them to the freight cars in which they will be sent to the place of export CENTRAL AMERICA Between Mexico and South America are the six re- publics of Guatemala, Honduras, Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama. Five of these countries extend from the Atlantic to the Pacific, across the narrow neck of land which is called Central America. Salvador, how- ever, is entirely on the Pacific side. Besides the six republics there is British Honduras, the only European possession in this part of North America. It is a small, mountainous country located on the Gulf of Honduras, south of Yucatan. The young, rugged mountains that border the Pacific Ocean in North America continue through Central America and South America. On the east, in Central America, there is a very narrow coastal plain, but on the west the mountains come to the seashore. Climate. Central America lies between the tropic of Cancer and the equator, and therefore the winters are almost as hot as the summers. The heaviest rainfall comes during the summer, and more rain falls on the east coast than on the west coast, because the prevailing winds are the northeast trades. See map on page 124. At Colon, on the east coast, there is a yearly rainfall of 127 inches, and at Greytown the rainfall is 259 inches a D Publishers' Photo Serriae, Inc. Fig. 221. These oxcarts are used a great deal in Costa Rica and other Central American countries. Notice the heavy yokes on the oxen, the solid wooden wheels, and the rude framework which supports the canopy. What products do you suppose are hauled in these carts? What are the canopies for? Fig. 222. The docks at Limon have steam conveyors which take the bananas right from the cars to the holds of the vessels. The conveyor is an endless chain of canvas pockets. Each pocket holds one bunch of bananas. To what countries are the bananas of Costa Rica sent ? year. Such abundant rainfall in a tropical region means dense forests, where there are sure to be gorgeously col- ored birds, many insects, and the germs of dangerous diseases. Central America, like Mexico, has three zones of alti- tude, — tierra caliente (hot land), tierra templada (tem- perate land), and tierra fria (cold land) (p. 112). Products. On the lowlands and in the valleys among the mountains immense quantities of bananas are raised (Figs. 220, 222). Tobacco and coffee grow on the hill slopes, and cattle, horses, and hogs are raised. In the mountains gold and silver are mined (Fig. 225) ; these are exported to Europe and the United States. The forests are rich in mahogany. People. The white people in these countries are of Spanish descent, and the Spanish language is spoken almost entirely. In addition to the native Indians there are many negroes in these countries (Fig. 223). Many people from the United States have become interested in developing the coastal lowlands and have gone there to live. In the interior the Spanish-American homes and customs still prevail. WEST INDIES 115 The trade of Central America is now largely with, the United States. The countries border the " American Mediterranean," and their development is of immediate interest to the people in North and South America. They produce many useful articles and foods which we cannot secure in our own country. Such hot, moist lands are not adapted to very active work. Nowhere in the world do we find much manu- facturing in the tropics. The imports as shown on the map between pages 117 and 120 indicate clearly that the people send to the countries in the temperate zones for cotton goods, machinery, and other articles made in fac- tories. Wheat cannot be raised in Central America, and wheat foods and flour must therefore be imported. Problems and review questions. 1. Name the countries in Central America. 2. Why is the heavier rainfall on the northeast of the mountains ? 3. What foreign language should you find most useful in traveling in the -countries of Central America ? 4. What kinds of food are exported ? 5. What are the chief imports ? 6. With what country is most of the trade ? 7. In what Fig. 223. The natives of Guatemala build their houses by first putting up a few columns made of rough stones plastered together, and then filling the spaces between with thin sticks of wood. The high, pointed roofs are thatched with straw. What do these people do for their living ? part is the influence of the United States most clearly shown '.' 8. To what part of Central America should you go to see the Spanish or Spanish-American type of home and life ? Home work. 1. Read about volcanoes in a good reference book. WEST INDIES The West Indian Islands are arranged in a curve from the peninsula of Yucatan eastward and then southward to the northern coast of Venezuela. They are the tops of a young and rugged chain of mountains. The water about them is 20,000 feet deep in some places; and if the sea were withdrawn, there would be, in place of C'uuneaj of ibe Pan American Union Fig. 224. Pineapples are grown very widely in the western part of Cuba. One crop can be raised each year, and each plant bears one apple. What other fruits does Cuba raise ? the islands, one of the greatest systems of moun- tains to be found in the world. Bordering the shores of Cuba and Porto Rico, and in places on the other islands, there are coastal lowlands, but for the most part the West Indies are distinctly moun- tainous. Cuba, Jamaica, Haiti, and Porto Rico are called the Greater Antilles. The Leeward Islands, the Wind- ward Islands, and the other small islands which form the rest of the curve are called the Lesser Antilles. The Bahamas are a low group of coral islands north of Cuba. See map between pages 117 and 120. The West Indies form the northeastern margin of the "American Mediterranean " and are convenient stopping places for vessels passing from Europe or the United States through the Panama Canal to Pacific coast ports. The passageways between the islands are rapidly be- coming great thoroughfares for modern traffic, and the islands prove convenient coaling stations for the various navies of the world. Climate. Most of the West Indies lie between the tropic of Cancer and the equator. The temperatures are therefore hot during the summer and warm during the winter. The latitude of these islands brings them into the belt of the moisture-laden northeast trade winds. Courtesy of tbe Pan American Union Fig. 225. These boys are sorting ore at the Rosario mine in Honduras. This mine is located near Tegucigalpa, and has been worked continuously for thirty years. It has produced millions of dollars' worth of gold and silver. What are the other important products of Honduras besides its mineral ores ? 116 WEST INDIES Fig. 226. This is a sugar-cane field in Cuba. The cane grows in single stalks and when full grown it stands from eight to twelve feet high. As soon as it ripens, the cane is cut by hand, stripped of its leaves, loaded upon carts, and hauled to the sugar mills to be crushed Publishers' Pboto Service, Inn. Fig. 227. Here the cane is passing up a belt conveyor into the mill, where it is crushed between great rollers to squeeze out the juice. Then the juice is crystallized, and the raw sugar is ready for export. Cuba is the world's largest exporter of sugar. What countries buy Cuba's sugar ? The southwest, or leeward, sides of the ranges are much drier than the northeast sides. Where there is abundant rainfall, tropical vegetation grows luxuriantly, and such fruits as pineapples, coconuts, and bananas are grown. Products. On the lowlands bordering the coast there are large sugar and tobacco plantations. Coffee is also grown on these islands. The agricultural products are exchanged for manufactured goods made in the United States and Europe. See map betiveen pages 117 and 120. The royal palm, which grows luxuriantly in the W^est Indies, is a valuable tree to the native people. It reaches a height of from 60 to 80 feet and is covered with great green leaves. A medicine is distilled from the roots, the trunks are xised as timber for building houses and furni- ture, and the leaves are often used to thatch houses. The stems of the leaves are made into baskets ; hats and a certain kind of cloth are woven from the fibers of the leaves. The seeds are excellent for fattening hogs, and the bud found at the top of the tree is eaten as a vegetable. Home work. Head about the uses of other kinds of palm trees. Cuba is the largest of the West Indies, and is an in- dependent republic. Through the center of the island is a mountain range, and the plantations are near the coasts. Habana, the capital and chief city, is located on an excellent harbor (Fig. 228), and from that port ves- sels leave for Europe and the United States (Fig. 230). Santiago also has a good harbor. It is situated on the south side of the island, near the eastern end. Iron has been discovered near by, and this is shipped to the United States. The chief products of Cuba are sugar (Figs. 226, 227) and tobacco. Nearly half of the cultivated land is planted with sugar cane. More tobacco is raised in Cuba than in any other of the West Indian islands. The tobacco raised here is grown on the sheltered southern slopes of the mountain ranges and is valued especially for its fine flavor. Large numbers of cattle, horses, and mules are also raised in Cuba. The forests contain valuable supplies of mahogany and cedar. The cedar is used in the manu- facture of cigar boxes, which are filled at Habana with cigars made from the tobacco grown on the island. Publishers' Photo Service, I bo. Fig. 228. This is part of the city of Habana as it looks from the Cabanas fortress. The narrow strait in the foreground leads into the harbor. Habana is the capital and chief port of Cuba. More merchandise enters and leaves Habana than any port of the United States except New York. When Cuba was taken by the United States in 1899, Habana was a dirty, unhealthful city, because the Spaniards had no care for sanitation. The Americans cleaned the city thoroughly, and to-day it is a big modern port, with large, fine buildings, good streets, and excellent docks. Locate Habana on your map WEST INDIES 117 MAP STUDIES — MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, AND THE WEST INDIES (Between Pages 117 and 120) 1. With what countries is the chief commerce of Mexico ? 2. Is Mexico noted for its industrial life or for its mining and agricultural life ? 3. What climate should we expect to find in countries whose products include sugar, cotton, bananas, coffee, and rubber ? 4. What climatic factors prevent many of the Mexican people from being very industrious ? 5. What is the chief kind of cloth used by the Mexicans ? 6. Why do they not buy more woolen clothes ? 7. What are the chief mineral resources of Mexico? 8. What kinds of fuel are found in Mexico ? 9. Name the two most important seaports. 10. In what kind of region is the capital of Mexico located, — mountain, plain, or plateau ? 11. Name and locate seven other important cities in the in- terior of Mexico. 12. From what ports in Central America do great quanti- ties of bananas come ? 13. What other food supplies come to the United States from Central America? 14. What Euro- pean nation possesses land in Central America? 15. What © Publishers' Photo Service, Inc. Fig. 229. Here is an oxcart such as many Cubans use on their farms. This farmer raises sisal hemp, which you can see beyond the oxen. The sisal looks like a century plant, and its fiber is used to make rope and twine. It is a cheaper rival of Manila hemp countries of Central America extend from the Gulf of Mexico or the Caribbean Sea to the Pacific Ocean ? 16. What are the chief food supplies that we receive from the West Indies ? 17. What supplies go from these islands to Europe? 18. Do the people of the West Indies do most of their own manufacturing, or do they import manufactured goods ? 19. Which is the largest of the West Indies? 20. Which of these islands belong to the United States? 21. What other countries have possessions among these islands ? 22. What are the principal seaports of the West Indies ? 23. What greatocean current passes betweenCuba and Florida? 24. Which side of the islands is the better watered? See map on page 124. 25. What winds bring the rains ? 26. What large city in Pennsylvania is in about the same longitude as the city of Panama? 27. What large cities in the United States are about as far west from Greenwich, England, as the city of Guatemala? 28. Which is farther from the equator, — San Juan in Porto Rico or Bombay in India? 29. What capital city in South America is almost directly south of New York ? Courtesj of the Pan American Union Fig. 230. Ships from all over the world come to Habana, and as many as a thousand of them can anchor in the harbor at one time. The docks are always crowded and busy. The carts in this picture are loaded with Cuban products for export. Name some of these products Jamaica is a British possession. Most of the natives are negroes, but there are some English, some Chinese, and some Hindus living on the island. The exports are like those from many of the other tropical countries, — bananas, coconuts, sugar, and coffee, — and here, as in other tropical countries, cotton goods and flour must be imported from the northern countries. Most of the trade is now with the United States. The Bahamas belong to Great Britain. About twenty of these islands are inhabited, but there are many that are uninhabited. In the waters near the islands sponges and turtles are obtained. On the land pine- apples, oranges, and large quantities of the sisal plant, valuable for fiber, are raised. Some of the pineapples are canned for export. Many of the native people are skillful in weaving the sisal fiber and in making tortoise-shell goods from the shells of the turtles. ' •.■■■■- Ill ■ - ■ - - - — •-- ' ' • - ■ ILL il I — 2e — ■ — - "-*>-•*-*-. ■«- ;~Wr-- _ hS* ^^^Z^^\^ j^NRSBk*^ ^ *40^^ r V. SW'.^ ^^ .n^llH ■to; ,. tijjm I Fig. 231. This is the main street of Kingston, the capital of Jamaica. In the distance is the broad, sheltered harbor. Kingston was destroyed by a terrible earthquake in 1907, but it has been rebuilt and is a busy, prosperous city. The new buildings are made of steel and concrete. Can you explain why ? 110° E • Winnipeg 95° St.Louis • 90 Longitude Q West 85 *ono.,-,^l Afij peni HISS. ia. / p ; ' "^fiialp,. „ 4 n"*^ 25 :>0 10 . "lalveston JV'mene^ Cteatro ia '»kr' *«»» m ri* ARENAS • jel* U^** ... V^ V pel*" X— -ss^A PU CHE y/H I S A L HEM P sUtTcrus */f ' ™J0» , v v CampecheYu C A T A N *X-4e Bravo °/ o o S.BSrtol onaJli <£<£ .Ci GOA \ >> ■ r /*<»0"lca nai0 ^ ^ 4^ Borinquen P DES^CIEO A^^' 1 Jiguero Pt. Blanco Mayagii Guanajibo Buena Vista Pk, ttarlquh LAN Cape Rojo Yauco ' f 1 Ponce *.i,,n„i, ^•^ ^ » «", >» ■ ■. MEAJ2. HARPW PORTO RICO ADD THE VIRGIN ISLANDS OF THE UNITED STATES . 67°30' 67° -^ .C V 5 i'lNKROI. nacfonso „-? ' „**■ Gurabo » Vieques Sound X <^? ^i> •♦oic^T — wXftBU«>a VIEQUES 1. S- rf* Scale of statute miles IO 20 30 40 60 Scale of kilometers O IO 30 40 60 Frederikated West Virgin islands] OF THE UNITED STATES 66 30' Longitude 6.6 Wftt /ram 65 30' Gmnwlch 63 , T O U ^ CE1 <.&> I.iberii NICOYA PSa*. A\MfiRICA c0 B 110 105 100" 95 90 Longitude Q West & Map l'lmte, Patented July 5, 1U21 • Method of Making Maps, 1'atented July 6, 1921 from H Greenwich 80^Pittsburgh -New it •York K W " ^gfo-.P. Wmt f rom M° Greenwich E'&ggBL-''- lg° oVll) J 50 f \ Comparative Area £ L I 1 Old, worn-down I 1 i mountains Young, rugged mountains •• Boundaries of natural regions Average summit elevations in natural regions indicated tbus: 500 to 1000 ft. £ou TH Green J) wich 50° © Ginn and Company NATURAL REGIONS 127 t'ounesj ot the Pan American Union Fig. 240. The Strait of Magellan is bordered by high, snow-capped mountains which descend 'abruptly into the sea, making some of the most beautiful scenery in South America. The strait is very dangerous for navigation, and many ships are wrecked here. How should you travel from New York to Valparaiso? America. In the east and northeast, just as in North America, there are areas of old, worn-down mountains ; and between the mountain regions, extending north and south for the full length of the continent, there are lowlands. The west coast is bold and rocky like the west coast of North America. Far to the south the coast ranges have sunk and now form an archipelago and irregular coast, just as the coastal ranges of British Columbia and Alaska have sunk and formed groups of islands and wonderful inlets (Fig. 240). Climate. Most of South Amer- ica is between the tropics of Can- cer and Capricorn, where there are hot winters as well as hot summers. The most densely set- Fig. 241. This is the Laguna del Inca, one of the beautiful lakes high up in the heart of the Andes, on the line of the Trans-Andean Railway 6. Which continent has the more irregular coast line, North America or South America? Which has more good harbors ? 7. What is the general elevation of the plateau of Bolivia? of the great lowland areas? of the Brazilian and Guiana highlands? 8. Between the high mountain ranges of Ecuador and Colom- bia there are narrow, plateau-like areas too small to show on the map. 9. Name five of the higher peaks of the Andes Range. 10. Name five of the larger rivers of South America. 11. Give the names of the three great lowland areas. 12. In which country is the Pampa? 13. Locate on the map the Iguassu Falls (Fig. 239). 14. Where is the highest lake in the world which is navigable for commercial purposes ? 15. Locate two large deltas and one estuary. 16. Which coast has the better harbors ? 17. What is the name of the land connecting South America with North America ? 18. Trace the route of Magellan around the southern end of this continent. See Appendix, Plate A. 19. Fix in your mind the name of the southernmost cape in South America. Natural Regions Andes Mountains. The giant ranges of the Andes are at the western margin of the continent. Many of the peaks rise to 14,000 feet above sea level, and a few to more than 20,000 feet (Fig. 242). The highest peaks are volcanoes, and in the region of the vol- canoes and throughout most of the length of these young, rug- ged mountains, earthquakes are common (Fig. 243). Volcanoes and earthquakes are signs of tied portion, which is progressive and developing rapidly, youth in mountains, and they usually mean that the is in the temperate zone. No part of the continent except mountains are still growing. near the tops of the high mountains has a long period of frosts. In the equatorial belt the rainfall is heavy, and it is also heavy where winds from over the oceans blow against mountains or highlands. On the lee side of mountains there are deserts or semideserts as in northern Chile, in Peru, and in southern Argentina. See maps on and opposite page 156. MAP STUDIES 1. How have the rivers assisted in the exploration of this continent ? 2. Where are the young and rugged mountains of South America ? 3. Give the names and locations of the old, worn-down mountains. 4. Why are the Brazilian High- lands so different from the Andes? 5. Compare the general distribution of mountains and low- lands in North and South America. Where are the old and the young mountains in each continent? Where are the lowlands of each continent ? Brazilian Highlands. The Brazilian Highlands are a great forested tableland, from 2000 to 5000 feet high. The rivers of this region have carved wonderful gorges Courtesj of Walter 3. Tower Fig. 242. The peak of Aconcagua (23,080 feet), on the boundary line between Argentina and Chile, is the highest mountain in the two Americas. The Trans-Andean Railway, which crosses the great wall of the Andes not far from this point, was completed in 1910 128 NATURAL REGIONS w m \ *■** ' » 2^5?^^^^^^ — - ■ *«*. - Lowlands. The great plains of South America are the largest in the world. Long ago there was a sea between the Andes on the west and the highlands on the east. The rivers which flowed down from the moun- tains into this interior sea carried fine materials, deposit- ing them on the sea bottom until finally the sea was filled up and transformed into a broad area of wonderful lowland plains. Parts of the lowlands are to-day just about at sea level, and during the rainy seasons the rivers overflow and flood these areas. The Orinoco Lowlands in the north are grasslands called the llanos. Here thousands and thousands of cattle are Fig. 243. Along the Andes in Ecuador are several snow-capped volcanic peaks. This is Chimborazo, which rises nearly four miles above the level of the Pacific Ocean, from which it can be plainly seen. Chimborazo has not erupted within historic times, and its crater has entirely disappeared and developed beautiful waterfalls. In some places the land rises abruptly from the Atlantic coast, and in others it is bordered by a narrow coastal plain. The southeast trade winds bring an abundance of rain to these highlands, and on their slopes there are forests and large areas of mixed grasses, where horses, cattle, and mules may graze. In some parts there are rich soils that yield excellent crops. Guiana Highlands. The Guiana Highlands are also old, worn-down mountains. There is one peak which rises to over 11,000 feet, but most of the area is only from 3000 to 4000 feet above sea level. These highlands are also forested, and, like the Brazilian Highlands, are similar UvuriesT »i U. B. Kourbach Fig. 245. Along the Amazon, from its mouth to Iquitos, Peru, are little trad- ing stations like this. Here the river steamships call on their way upstream to deliver the manufactured goods which the natives need. On their way back they stop again to pick up the products of the country for export raised. During the rainy season much of this country is under water ; the people go about in boats, and their cattle leave for the hills. The homes near the rivers must to the Lauren tian Upland and some parts of the Appa- be built on piles to prevent them from being flooded, lachian Highlands of North America. There are deep The Amazon Lowlands form a vast, flat plain, most canyons in the Guiana Highlands. The region is well of which is covered by the most luxuriant tropical forest watered and large areas are covered with grass. For in the world. The tree- tops and vines are so thick that this reason it is used chiefly for the raising of cattle, it is dark, or twilight, in the depths of the forest even when the sun is shining. The trees re- main green throughout the year. Even such trees as shed their leaves in the fall in the temperate zone keep sending out fresh green leaves in this forest. The constant warmth and moisture help the trees to grow all the time. Thousands of strange animals live in this tropical forest, such as the jaguar, alligator, anteater, and huge snakes. The howling monkeys, that have a leader called a chief howler, live here. One sixth of all the kinds of birds Fig. 244. Lake Titicaca, which forms part of the boundary between Peru and Bolivia, is the known in the world have been found highest body of water in the world which is navigated for commercial purposes. It is one hundred , , r ,i„„ u„-.~ ™~„+ *,..., ... , , * . . ,. „ *~* . , . .. , here, and many of tnem nave most and forty miles long, and its surface is nearly two and a half miles above sea level. A line of _ _' J steamers runs between the railroad terminals at Puno and Guaqui at opposite ends of the lake brilliant plumage. NATURAL REGIONS 129 Fig. 246. Many of the natives of the Amazon Lowlands make a business of gathering Brazil nuts, which grow on a very tall tropical tree. The men in this view are washing the nuts and putting them into their boats, in which they will take them to the nearest Amazon trading station Fig. 247. When the river boat calls at the trading station, the Brazil-nut traders put their crops aboard to be carried down to Belem. There the nuts are reshipped to other countries. What other products do the Amazon River boats bring out to Belem from the interior of the continent ? The great butterfly collections in the museums have been made largely in the Amazon forest. Insects are innumerable, and eighteen hundred kinds of fish have been found in the streams of the lowlands. The northeast and southeast trades carry much mois- ture inland from the Atlantic. As they rise to cross the Andes they are cooled, and they are forced to give up their moisture on the east side of the ranges. Over eighty inches of rain falls there each year. The Amazon Low- lands are near the equator, where there is always a heavy rainfall and where the air is always very hot. Hot, damp conditions cause dense tropical forests and make it almost impossible for white people to live there. When people go to live in this dense tropical forest, they find plenty of fish and game to eat, but vegetable foods are scarce (Fig. 248). A part of the forest must be oleared away and a garden planted. Little wheat can be raised here, but the natives make a flour from the roots of the manioc plant. Manioc bread is the com- mon food of the natives in Guiana and Brazil. The roots of the manioc plant are gathered when they are one or two years old. They are washed and grated, and after the moisture is pressed out, the flour is roasted, and then it is ready to be used. Tapioca is made from this same plant. The Parana Lowlands are farther south and mostly in the temperate zone. Here the rainfall is a little less, . B. Roorhich Fig. 248. These Brazilian natives have just returned from a turtle hunt. The sand banks of the Amazon and its tributaries are inhabited by great numbers of turtles, which the natives catch and use for food. From the eggs they make a butterlike substance which is very popular and instead of great forests there are extensive grass- lands, sometimes called savannas. See map opposite page 156. The Pampa, or great grassland of Argentina, is within this region. The lands of southern Brazil, of Uruguay, Paraguay, and Argentina, in the temperate zone, are best suited to white people. Problems and review questions. 1. Why do so many people from Europe and North America want to go to South America ? 2. Name two languages commonly spoken in South America. 3. What European nations have recently sent many settlers to South America ? 4. Why do most of the people in South America live near the coast ? See map on page 156. 5. Is it shorter from Rio de Janeiro to London or to New York ? See Appendix, Plate B. 6. What is the best route from New York to Valparaiso ? 7. Plan out a trip to South America that you would like to take. 8. In what zone is most of South America located ? 9. In what zone in South America is the population most progres- sive ? 10. How many republics are there ? 11. What countries are not independent ? To what European nations do they be- long ? See map on page 126. 12. On what part of South America did Columbus land ? 13. Name and locate the chief mountainous regions. 14. Name and locate the three large low- land regions. 15. Describe briefly each of the above regions. Use the map on page 126 and also the map opposite page 156. 16. Explain the formation of the islands on the Chilean coast. 17. Locate the Straitof Magellan, Cape Horn, and Punta Arenas, the southernmost city of the world. 18. Cape Horn rises 1400 feet above the sea. Is it on the mainland or on an island ? 130 BRAZIL r> ^ H f*M*> Courtesy of 0. It Koorbach Fig. 249. These men are rubber gatherers of the Amazon Valley. Each day they tap the wild rubber trees and collect the sap. On the rack in front of them are the brownish-black balls of rubber which have been made by thickening the sap and curing it over a smoky fire BRAZIL Extent. This is one of the largest countries in the Avorld. In an east-and-west direction it extends as far as from New York City to San Francisco, and in a north- and-south direction as far as from the arctic circle to the Gulf of Mexico. It is larger than continental United States and about half as large as all South America. It touches every other country on the continent except Chile and Ecuador, and has 6000 miles of seacoast. On the physical map (p. 126) we see that most of the Brazilian Highlands, the Plateau of Central Brazil, and the vast Amazon Lowlands are in this country. Rivers. The Amazon River is the largest in the world ; it is not the longest, for the Missouri-Mississippi River is longer, but it contains more water than any other river in the world. The amount of fresh water brought to the mouth of this river is so great that for more than 100 miles out to sea the water is fresh. The Amazon is about 4000 miles long, which is 600 miles more than the distance from New York to Liverpool. Coune»j of the Pan American Union Fig. 250. This is one of the great coffee plantations which cover the upland districts of Sao Paulo, where the rich red earth and abundant rainfall provide perfect conditions for the coffee trees. The plantations often cover thousands of acres. The trees bear clusters of berries which look like dark red cherries. Inside each berry are two seeds, which are the coffee beans of commerce For 250 miles upstream from the mouth this river is 50 miles wide, so that it looks like a broad bay rather than a river. The main stream and the twenty- nine large tributaries have 27,000 miles of navigable waters, which is more than any other river system in the world. The northeast trades, which blow with greater force by day than by night, help the sailboats up the Amazon. The boatmen travel upstream by day, but when they want to come downstream they travel at night, so that they will not have the strong wind against them, and the current will take them along faster. During the rainy season the main stream rises from 20 to 50 feet, over- flow's, and be- comes a chain of lakes. The trib- utaries frequent- ly overflow their banks also and flood the country near them. This is the reason why so many of the houses near the rivers are built on piles. Boats may go up the Madeira, the largest tribu- tary, for nearly 500 miles to the lower end of the falls. There is a railroad from the lower end to the upper end of the series of falls and rapids, — a distance of about 200 miles, — and farther upstream one may again travel by boat far into the interior of Bolivia. People. If the Indians are counted, there are over twenty million people in Brazil. The Portuguese claimed this country by right of discovery. When they came to South America, they found many native tribes of Indians. To-day most of the Indian people live in the interior. Many of them have house-boats and live on the rivers part of the time, but they also have small villages, where they have cleared away the dense tropi- cal forests. The population of this re- public now includes many people from nearly every European nation, as well as some from Asia. Most of the white Fig. 251. In addition to the wild rubber trees, Brazil has many rubber plantations. This view shows the way in which the plantation trees are cut to make them bleed BRAZIL 131 people live in the larger cities along the eastern coast or in the farming country of southern Brazil. Resources. In the high- lands gold, copper, lead, iron, some coal and oil, and a remarkable number of dia- monds have been discovered . The highlands have rich soils and are well watered. The Central Plateau is a great grassland where cattle, horses, and mules are raised. The Amazon Lowlands are overgrown with a tropical forest where there are thou- sands of rubber trees. There are also mahogany, rose- wood, ebony, and cacao trees, besides many trees which yield valuable drugs, and others which yield Brazil nuts (Figs. 246, 247). The soils of the lowlands are very rich. Climate. Most of Brazil is in the lowlands of the torrid zone. That means high temperatures. We learned on pages 128 and 129 that the rainfall is heavy in the Amazon basin and on the eastern slope of the Brazilian Highlands. In the upper basin of the Sao Francisco River, which is shut off from the Atlantic Ocean by highlands, there is an area of light rainfall. See map on page 156. Here irrigation is necessary for agriculture. Courtesy of the Pan American Union Fig. 252. These are the yards where the coffee seeds are spread out to dry in the sun after being separated from the pulp of the berries. While drying they are stirred frequently with wooden rakes. When thoroughly dried, the seeds are peeled and the beans sorted, graded, and put into bags for shipment crude rubber which the na- tive Indian people brought in from their little camps in the forest (Figs. 249, 251). On the southern slopes of the Guiana Highlands and on the grasslands south of the tropical forests grazing has become the principal occupation of the people. In the Brazilian High- lands near Sao Paulo and Rio de Janeiro there are wonder- ful coffee-producing lands, where four fifths of the coffee produced in the world is grown (Figs. 250, 252). Until a railroad was con- structed up the mountain wall from Santos to Sao Paulo it was very difficult to get the coffee to the port. Now there is a remarkably well-built and well-equipped railroad that climbs 2500 feet in a short distance and connects the seaport with the great producing area. More coffee is carried over that road than any other road in the world. There are a few other railroads that start from the coast and, after reaching the highland surface, branch off in several directions into the interior. Mining is becoming important in the Brazilian High- lands, and some day that industry will be much more South of the tropic of Capricorn the temperatures are developed. There are immense deposits of high-grade lower than near the equator, and there is less rainfall. That is a country of excellent grasslands. Occupations. What have the people who came to settle in Brazil done with the great natural resources ? Along the lower Amazon River, and on cleared parts of the lowlands near the eastern coast, they established great plantations of sugar, rice, and tobacco. After a time they learned to go far up the rivers and gather the iron ore in the old, worn-down mountains, which the world is certain to need. Then more railroads will be built into the mountains, and, as the mining increases, it is likely that more ores will be discovered. Prosper- ous mining camps will undoubtedly be established in the highland area. The southern part of this region also contains bituminous coal, but the quality is so poor that at the present time it is not worth mining. 1 _gfe*, ^K^- ft— ^"^■HsiiBi/ PftfWS iiSBpSi 1!j!^_^^?^?~l^ljS iju' : ■ ■ — I ^^^« Fig. 253. This is Santos, the world's greatest center of coffee export. The Sao Paulo coffee district is covered by a network of railroads which bring the coffee to Sao Paulo, whence a single line takes it to Santos. Locate Santos on the map on page 145. To what countries is the coffee sent ? Fig. 254. S2o Salvador, the center of Portuguese rule in Brazil in colonial days, was the leading Brazilian port as long as sugar was the chief export of the country. Why is it no longer the leading port ? Notice the escalator which connects the lower (old) city with the upper (new) 132 BRAZIL Courtea, ot H jtker .s. Tower Fig. 255. The Marine Depot at Rio stands on one of the many islands near the entrance to the harbor. Here the harbor master has his headquarters and can easily oversee the shipping which passes in and out. What are the chief reasons for the commercial importance of Rio ? Toward the south, near Paraguay, the land is low and excellent for farming. Here the people raise a great deal of yerba mate, which is used in making a drink which is some- what like tea. Home work. In some good reference book read about the life of the natives who prepare' the crude rubber for market. Cities. Rio de Janeiro, the capital, with over a million people, is the largest city in Brazil and the second largest in South America. Buenos Aires is the largest. Rio is located on the most beautiful harbor in the world, where the largest vessels may anchor safely (Figs. 257, 259). This is a place where the land sank and let the ocean waters come in. Over a hundred little islands in the harbor are hills or low mountains with only Courtesy of the Pin American t'nlon Fig. 256. The port of Recife is protected by a breakwater built on a reef which fringes the shore. Without the breakwater ships could not anchor at Recife safely. Explain why Sao Salvador, which used to be known as Bahia, is the capital of the state of Bahia. Coffee, cacao, and cotton are the most important products raised in Bahia, and these products form the chief exports. Recife, which is the capital of the state of Pernambuco, is situated on the fertile coastal lowlands of Brazil. Recife is one of the chief sugar centers in Brazil. Both Sao Salvador and Recife are important seaports. See Figs. 254 and 256 and the map on page 135. Belem, sometimes called Para, is at the mouth of the Amazon, about a degree and a half south of the equator. It is an important rubber port. From Belem large ocean vessels go up the Amazon to Manaos. Although situated nearly a thousand miles in- land, Manaos has become a thriving city with many modern conveniences. The growth of Manaos is due partly to its loca- tion at the junction of the Negro and Amazon rivers and partly to the plentiful supply of rubber found in the neighboring forests. Home work. Read about the work on a coffee plantation. Summary. Without doubt you will always remember Brazil for its rubber and its coffee, but do not forget that Brazil is a large country, that grazing, farming, and mining are all very important, and that lumbering has great possibilities. A start has been made in manufacturing. There are cotton mills in Brazil, but they do their tops out of water. The city of Rio de Janeiro is not produce nearly enough cloth to satisfy the needs of built on narrow plains between the hills. In the older part, which is the business district, the streets are narrow. In the newer part there are wide avenues bordered by rows of beautiful palms, feathery bamboos, and tree ferns (Fig. 258). The homes in this part of the city are modern, and many of them are set in gardens of flowering tropical plants. Santos is the port for Sao Paulo, the second largest city in Brazil. Santos is one of the busiest places in South America. Over 2000 vessels enter and leave the port each year, and about 15,000,000 bags of coffee are shipped annually (Fig. 253). Sao Paulo is about 2000 feet above the sea and has a delightful climate. The air is warm during the summer days but cool at night. In winter there are sometimes slight frosts. The climate seems to help to produce vigorous men. There are excellent modern factories, where electricity and the best of machinery are used. the people, and so cotton cloth and cotton garments are j) E. H. Nrwrnan Fig. 257. The Bay of Botafogo is part of the harbor of Rio. The avenue which encircles it was built on made land where there was formerly a man- grove swamp which caused terrible epidemics of yellow fever in Rio. Cleaning it out, draining, and filling have freed Rio from the fever BRAZIL 133 Courteaj of Uie t&u American Union Fig. 258. The Avenida Rio Branco is the finest street in Rio and is the center of Brazilian art and culture. This view shows, on the left, the mosaic sidewalk and the Municipal Theatre, and on the right the Conserva- tory of Music, the National Library, and the Art Museum imported into nearly every city. If someone should find more coal or oil, or if the people should use more of the water-power to make electricity, Brazil might undertake more manufacturing. The waters from the Brazilian Highlands are carried off by the Uruguay, Parana, and Sao Francisco rivers. These streams have many falls which offer opportunities for the development of water-power which should furnish electricity for cities, factories, and railroads (Fig. 239). Future. One of the future problems for this large republic is the building of railroads into the interior. This work has already been started, and in time it will be possible to go by rail from Rio de Janeiro into any of the states of Brazil. The development of railroads will in turn soon lead to the establishment of cities and to the spread of population into the interior. With the estab- lishment of inland cities another prob- lem must be faced. The tropical forests are full of insect pests and danger- ous animals, which must be killed be- fore people can live safely in this part of Brazil. Finally, through education and the use of scientific knowledge the spread of tropical diseases must be prevented. When these things are done, more people will wish to live here and help to develop the wonderful natural resources. Problems and review questions. 1. Compare the size of Brazil with that of the United States; with the continent of South America ; with the continent of Europe. 2. Name three large tributaries of the Amazon River. Which tributary is the largest ? 3. In what region does the Amazon rise ? 4. How should you go from Belem, in Brazil, to Sucre in Bolivia? 5. Of what nationality were the early settlers of Brazil ? 6. In what part of the country do their descendants live ? 7. Why have so many people from the nations of Europe come to live in this republic? 8. Where do most of these people live ? Why ? 9. What is the official language of Brazil ? 10. How do you explain this ? 11. Name and locate the capital and four other large cities. 12. What fact should you associate with each city named ? 13. What are the chief products shipped from each seaport ? 14. What should you remember about the Amazon Lowlands ? 15. Which city in Brazil is very near the equator ? 16. What is the chief export from that city ? 17. What city on the Amazon River can be reached by large ocean-going vessels ? 18. For what is the Central Plateau of Brazil valuable ? 19. Why is it difficult to live or to travel in the tropical forest ? 20. What things will help the development of Brazil ? 21. What countries in South America do not border on Brazil ? Home work. 1. On an outline map of South America color the boundaries of each country. Print in the names of the countries. 2. Locate and name the capitals. 3. Locate and print in Belem, Valparaiso, Callao, Guayaquil, Santos, Sao Paulo, Manaos, Rosario, Sao Salvador, Recife, La Guaira, Santa Marta, Buenaventura, Punta Arenas, Cdrdoba, Porto Alegre, La Plata, Villa Rica. ni^jyusKina ABLOAF #Bota5^ apa Cabana ATLANTIC OCEAN <& Uinu and Cumpuj Fig. 259. This is an aeroplane drawing of the country bordering the Bay of Rio de Janeiro. Explain the irregularity of the coast line here. Why is such a coast line favorable for Rio ? Describe the land surface on which Rio is built. What is the vegetation here ? See map opposite page 156. Why has Rio become a more important port than Belem, Recife, or Sao Salvador ? What are its chief exports and imports ? With what countries does Brazil trade most ? Can you explain your answer ? 134 THE GUIANAS 0} o> T3