: /fn . ^> : dB ^M ^ THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESENTED BY PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID : A TREATISE ON THE COAL MINES OF DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND; WITH INFORMATION RELATIVE TO THE STRATIFICATIONS OF THE TWO COUNTIES: AND CONTAINING ACCOUNTS OF THE 1 LIST OF PLATES, \TITH DIRECTIONS TO THE BINDER. I. Sketch of Harrington Mill Pit Frontispiece II. Map of the District of the Collieries Page 1 III. Remarkable Strata 22 IV. Workings in a Mine 79 V. Diagram of a Pit at the Furnace, descriptive of Old Wastes, &c 167 VI. Dr. Clauny's Lamps, with those of Mr. Brand- ling, and Dr. Murray 113 VII. Sir Humphry Davy's and Mr. Stephenson's Lamps 19<> Part of DURHAM & NORTHUMBERLAND, with the COLLIERIES, TREATISE ON THE COAL MINES OF DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND, CHAPTER I. General Description of the Coal District of Durham and Northumberland. Soils, Mountains, Rivers, 8$c. A HE county of Durham, which has been the principal theatre of calamity from explo- sion, has been long famed for its valuable mines of coal, lead, and iron ; its extensive quarries of marble and free-stone, and its important manufactories of every species of hardware ; its founderies, lime, brick, and tile-kilns. Indeed such is the extent and flourishing state of commerce, mining, manufactory, and ma- ritime consequence of this county, that it very B 2 COAL MINES OF deservedly claims the attention of both the curious and the learned, the statesman and the historian, the geologist and the tra- veller. This county is supposed to have been in- cluded in the territories of the Brigantines, (or Highlanders,) which extended over Dur- ham, Yorkshire, and some part of Northum- berland ; and though different writers have varied in their opinions upon the subject, we have Cam den, with many other eminent histo- rians, to support the fact of its having been included in the Brigantine territories. When the island was subdued by the Romans, and when they began to establish themselves in provinces, this county was included in the division Maxima Casariensls; and afterwards, on the establishment of the Saxons, formed part of the kingdom of Northumberland, with which it continued connected until the hep- tarchial divisions of the island were united under Egbert. Durham is a county-palatine possessed of many very valuable privileges, which are sup- posed to have originated in the grant made to St. Cuthbert, the apostle of the north, by Egfrid, king of Northumberland, anno 685, ef all the land between the rivers Wear and DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND; . Tyne;* to hold in as full and ample manner as the king himself held the same, which was afterwards confirmed by king Henry I. to the then bishop of Durham, and ultimately by the parliament of Edward VI. The extensive privileges, however, secured by these different acts of confirmation have since that time been much abridged, and necessarily yielded to the different policy of the nation, -j~ though many exclusive privileges are still retained, nor can any abrogation of their limits be traced as injurious to the general welfare and import- ance of the county. Hills and mountains form the general aspect of the country, and in many places give a very noble and romantic effect to the scenery. The western angle is bleak, naked, and barren, being intersected by a ridge of mountains called the English Appennines* though they do not particularly deviate from the more bold * It is called by the monkish writers, with other bor- dering counties, " the land of St. Cuthbert," or " his patrimony." Camden's Britt. f Time insensibly produces mighty changes in all earthly things, and under the best modifications of social polity accidental circumstances will arise to exact aberra- tion from the declared principles of its primitive settle- ment. Sedgwick on Blackstone, p. 73. B 2 4 COAL MINES OF and steep eminences of a rocky country ; va- rious streams issue from the eastern side of these hills, and flow towards the sea, while ranges of smaller hills branch from this dis- trict and spread over almost every part of the county. The soils and various strata, which are so interesting in this county and on the eastern coast of Northumberland, have long been known to the world for their richness and value ; but the rapid improvements in geology have not advanced without greatly illustrating the hidden stratifications, and pourtraying to scientific curiosity the extensive and pleasing phenomena of their mineral formations, the principal of which are lead, iron, coals, marble, and grind-stones, with the common and mag- nesian lime-stone. In the banks of the river Tees the Belem- nite, Trochita, Entrochoi, Asteria, are found, and likewise in several other parts of the county : the lead mines produce consider- able quantities of spars, both opaque and diaphonous. In the coal mines near Durham a black opaque spar was found, beautifully fluted and about three inches in diameter, intersected at intervals of about one inch and a half with a joint at which the columns DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. 5 easily divide. The honeycomb spar likewise abounds ; and the stalactical spar, icicle, or dropstone, presents itself in many lime-stone quarries, and in the rocks on which the ruins of Barnard-Castle stand. * The principal rivers are the Wear, the Tees, and the Derwent, which added to the Tyne furnish the most desirable means for facilitating the exportation of minerals and merchandize, from this part of the country, across the boundless deep, to the ports of Europe, Asia, Africa, America, or any other parts of the known world. The Tyne, which is in Northumberland,, is formed below Newcastle of the South and North Tyne. The South Tyne rises behind Crossfeli, and the North Tyne commences on the borders of Scotland : the two branches join near Nether Warden, and afterwards receive the Dill, or Devil's Beck, near Corbidge, and the Derwent near Leamington. The mayor and corporation of Newcastle have been con- servators of this river with increased privileges * Barnard- Castle was founded by Barnard, son of John Baliol, who came into England with the Conqueror. It was a very extensive structure, situated on a rock ; and its remains are said to cover about six acres and three roods of ground. Crosby's Gazetteer. O ,COAL MINES OF v- since Edward II. and have jurisdiction to high water mark on both sides from the sea to Hedwin Streams, above Newbourne. The Wear rises in the great wilds of Stan- more, wherein the counties of York, Cumber- land, Westmoreland, and Durham, nearly unite, and flowing considerably northward of the Tees crosses the county and falls into the sea at Sunderland, having Bishop-Wearmouth and Sunderland on the south side, and Monk- Wearmouth on the north. This town used formerly to be of some importance in a mili- tary point of view, and was several times in possession of the Danes. It does not retain many vestiges, however, to distinguish it from a populous village. The church is very ancient, and was the first glazed in England. The Tees rises in the same district, and flows in a south-east direction for near thirty miles to Sockbourne, when it turns suddenly and falls into the German Ocean near Hartlepool. The Derwent rises still further north in the same range of Moors, and, pursuing a course nearly parallel with the Wear, passes the wild and mountainous tract on the northern borders of the county, till it falls into the Tyne near Smalwell, and finally disembogues itself into the German Ocean at Shields. DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. CHAPTER II. Coal Mines. Formation of Coal. Number of Seams. Dislocations of Strata. Boun- daries. Independent and Secondary Forma- tions. JL HE Coal Mines being the principal point in question, and the amelioration of the misery which has of late so widely extended itself for want of possible remedies being adopted, it may not be improper to commence with the origin and chemical nature of coal, and with the seams or strata in which it is generally found, before the minutiae of circumstances are entered into. According to the opinion of most modern mineralogists, there are three different kinds of coal formation entirely different from each other ; and as the knowledge of this must be at all times interesting, and conduce to the improvement of society, it cannot emanate in a more applicable shape than from a work entirely connected with its uses. The true coal formation consists principally of extensive parallel strata of coal, covered by strata of 8 COAL MINES OF shale, containing impressions of vegetables, and not unfrequently the remains of fresh- water shell fish, with those of animals. Under each stratum of coal is generally found a stratum or layer of greasy indurated clay, called by the miners clunch, and usually des- titute of those organic remains that charac- terize the shale. In some cases the seams con- tinue for a great distance with a regular dip, and rise : in others they may be represented by muscle shells inverted one into another, and having the open side upwards. The seams of coal are for the most part se- parated from each other by beds of various- coloured sand-stone, of clay, of bituminous shale, of ratchil, or rubble-stone of a soft de- composing clay, porphyry, or grunstein, lo- cally termed rotten-stone, of argillaceous iron ore, of marl, and of secondary lime-stone.* There does not appear to be any uniform system in the plans of nature as to the ar- rangement of these strata in regular alterna- tions; but sometimes one, sometimes more, interpose themselves between the seams of * Much interesting information on the causes which produced the different formations in general will be found in Cuvier's Theory of the Earth. DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. Q coal, while in several instances part of these formations, particularly lime-stone, are not to be found. The number of seams of coal in any par- ticular formation is likewise uncertain and variable, though according to the calculations of experience it does not often occur that more than three or four are found worth working. The uppermost is in general shattery and very much mixed with earth and pyrites, except in some few cases, where very thick beds of sand-stone intervene. The seams generally run in a slanting direction, and are sometimes nearly vertical, but in most cases have an in- clination of from one in five to one in twenty; and it may be inferred that the formation of the coal strata depends in a great measure upon the rocks or strata by which they are sur- rounded : the parallelism of coal seams is ad- mirably preserved. The strata are frequently intersected by cracks or breaks, which are filled with gravel or sandstone, and sometimes with a sink or bending, locally denominated troubles. Water generally finds free passage through the breaks, and in the course of time, by decom- posing the adjacent strata of earth, clay, &c. causes immense fissures through the beds of IO COAL MINES OF different formation, until arrested in its course by some hard and impervious stratification. Mr. Bakewell made some very interesting investigations relative to coal, but they were not thought sufficiently concise. Various other geologists have thrown further elucidation upon the subject ; and there is no doubt from the great attention which has lately been paid to it, but that the secret beauties of nature, which have so long remained in darkness and obscu- rity, will in future form new and highly in- teresting subjects for philosophy and science. The boundaries of any particular formation cannot be exactly defined ; but from the most correct examinations which have been made, it appears that the whole of Durham and Northumberland is occupied by three dis- tinct formations. These two counties form a triangle, having its apex at Berwick-upon- Tweed, and its base upon the river Tees. On the east it is bounded by the sea, on the north by the river Tweed, on the west by Scotland and Cumberland, and on the south by Yorkshire. Its greatest length north and south is eighty-eight miles ; and its greatest breadth, from Crossfell in Cumberland, which forms part of the formation of these counties., to Hartlepool, is about fifty-two miles. DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. 11 The three formations of Durham and Nor- thumberland are, 1st, the independent coal formation ; 2d, the second or Newcastle coal formation ; 3d, the magnesian lime-stone formation. The independent coal formation extends more or less over both counties, and has its greatest inclination towards the east, rising pretty regular in angles of from 35 to 75 westwards ; it is supposed at its greatest dip to be 45Q fathoms in thickness, and contains many alternations of different strata, the chief of which are, lime-stone, slate-clay, and sand- stone : it is found, more or less, over the whole of the two counties, and is supposed to pass under the Newcastle or secondary coal forma- tion ; it is likewise found in North and South Wales, in Shropshire', and near Bristol ; in most instances it may be depended upon near the primitive and transition rocks. In some instances it is found after the secondary lime- stone. Mr. Goodchild sunk a bore near his quarries west of Sunderland, in order to dis- cover if any coals were deposited underneath. After trying to a great depth, the argillaceous shale which generally accompanies coal was found, and next came the regular coal strata ; but the investigation ended here, as the ex- 7 12 COAL MINES OF pense of sinking shafts, &c., would have been too great, while seams nearer the surface are workable. But the most certain indications of the independent coal strata are the impressions of vegetables in the shale, or the tenacious blue clay, into which shale decomposes. Con- siderable quantities of good coal are found north of the Cocquet and west of Bywell-on- Tyne, with the exception of the porphyritic and grauwacke mountains forming the Che- viots. From the best information which can be obtained, there does not appear to be more than six or seven beds in this formation. The second, or, as it is called, the New- castle coal formation, does not extend so far as the independent, but is pretty well ascer- tained to commence north at Morpeth, and having its west boundary in a line from thence south to Castle Barnard. From Morpeth it strikes out towards the sea; and continues along the coast to Teignmouth, where its east boundary cuts across the country to the river Tees, about fifteen miles from the sea ; so that this angle of the county, formed from the three points of Teignmouth, the mouth of the Tees, and part of the river Tees, where the coal formation commences, is of recent formation. DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. 13 and consists principally of magnesian lime- stone, blue lime-stone, and clay. The number of beds in the second coal formation is uncertain ; but it is supposed to contain about twenty, though there are only six of any note, and only four worth working, which are the following. 1 . The " Five Quarter," which upon an average taken from the centre of the formation at Harrington, about two miles east of Painshir- Hill, lies about eighty fathoms below the sur- face, and is three feet six inches in thick- ness. The coal in this stratum is of an inferior quality to that of the other seams, except about ten inches of the upper surface, which is of a very superior quality, and much used in forging ; the remainder is mixed up to a certain extent with better coals, or consumed by the poorer classes of people. 2. The High Main which runs about eleven fathoms below the Five Quarter seam, and averages about six feet in thickness. 3. The Maudlin Seam, lying thirteen fathoms below the High Main, and about four feet six inches in thickness. 4. The Hutton Seam, lying twenty-four fathoms below the last mentioned seam, and 14 COAL MINES OF about three feet two inches in thickness ; this seam is, in many places, quite worked out. About Newcastle the mines have a great number of seams, and we have accounts of some containing fifteen or sixteen ; but many of them constructed of such very indifferent coals, or otherwise so unfit for use, that they have no particular claim to attention. St. An- thon's colliery, situate three miles east of New- castle, is supposed to be one of the deepest in the kingdom, and to contain sixteen beds or seams, although there are not more than four of them worked. And in the Montague Main colliery, situate three miles west of Newcastle, there are fifteen seams of coal, four of which only are workable J* * For explanations of machinery, and the rationale of working a mine, see Encyclopaedia Londinensis, Art. Coal. DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. CHAPTER III. Inflammable Air of Mines. Analysis of Coals. Soils intervening with Coal Strata., c. W HAT makes the working of the Tyne and Wear collieries more dangerous than those of any other district is the great quantities of gas which unites or generates in their formation, and becomes liberated in the working. It gene- rally confines itself to the roof of a mine, or otherwise forces into the fissures or breaks of the superincumbent strata ; so that by this means, unless some agency is used to dislodge and force it into the atmospheric current (which cannot be done in the presence of lighted can- dles), the inflammable air becomes rapidly accumulated. The discovery of this inflammable quality in coal gas is not of very ancient date, as there does not appear any decisive account of it be- fore 1739, when Dr. Clayton described its inflammability in a paper to the Royal Society, wherein he mentions the produce upon analysis 16 COAL MINES OF to have been an aqueous fluid, a black oil, and an inflammable gas.* The great quantities of gas contained in the Newcastle coals, more than those of other parts, has been clearly demonstrated by the experiments of the Bishop of Llandaff, Kirwan, and several other eminent philosophers. The Newcastle and Whitehaven coals possess nearly the same properties, as Mr. Kirwan has shown by analysis, viz. Whitehaven. Newcastle. Charcoal 57* Bitumen 41*3 Ashes 17 100 Charcoal 58 Bitumen 4O Earth, and me-^ tallic matter >- 2 and sulphur . J 100 These coals differ essentially from most others, and contain a greater quantity of bitu- minous matter than either the Cannel or the Kilkenny coal, which partake of a much greater carbonaceous composition. The oil which it gives out on distillation is ' * For the mode of analyzing coal see Dr. Henry's Elements of Chem. vol. ii. p. 433. DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND, ]/ of three different kinds ; and this liquid pro- duction, though not precisely the same in its nature, is generally given out from all coals in similar proportions, or one-eighth of the quan- tity analyzed. One portion of the liquid is a tenacious oily fluid, transparent, of a reddish or red brown colour, and more or less translucid ; it is of an inflammable nature, and on exposure to the air becomes resinous. Next is a more watery fluid, or aqueous ammonia, charged with oil and transparent : it is either quite colourless, or of a dilute yel- lowish colour : it is very inflammable, and burns with a brilliant blue yellow flame : by exposure to the air it is partly volatilized, and leaves a residuum very much resembling the tenacious oily fluid. When combined with concentrated sulphuric or nitric acid, this product is con- verted into a solid resinous matter soluble in alcohol. The third product is a kind of mineral tar, being much thicker than either of the others, and of a dark brown or black colour. This is one of the solid bitumens, and is obtained in great quantities by distillation of the Bovey coal, and a similar species of coal found near Cologne, which is greatly bituminized. The Bovey coal, 18 COAL MINES OF is formed of trees, reeds, rushes, and other vegetable substances embodied together in the alluvial earth, having very distinct impressions of trees, and being wholly of a ligneous and fibfous texture. This coal is found within one foot from the surface, and in the whole alternations of its strata does not exceed seventy-five feet in depth. It is curious that the Bovey coal be- comes less bituminized in its descent, as the lower seams approximate nearer to the slate- coal; it is called the compact carbonated coal by Kirwan, the common brown coal by others. There is a manufactory on the Wear, a short distance from Sunderland, belonging to Messrs. Featherstone, for the purpose of decomposing the coal and extracting from it the coal tar, petroleum, &c., and ammonia; it is similar to the one erected at Colebrook Dale by Lord Dundonald. A lamp-black is likewise obtained here in the same way as at the manufactory in the county of Saarbruck on the Rhine. It is from the second formation of Durham and Northumberland that most of the coal is exported to London and other parts of the kingdom ; the independent coal being for the most part applied for home consumption, on account of its inferior quality. DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. 19 Sand-stone, slate-clay, or metal-stone forma- tions of different distinctions alternately in- tervene between these formations of coal ; and dykes to a considerable extent traverse it in all directions. It is curious that on the north side of the dyke called the Great Dyke, the beds are thrown down ninety fathoms : its direction is N.N.E. and S.S.W. ; it enters the sea about three miles north of Shields, and runs west- ward and S.S.W. through the whole forma- tion. Besides this there are some other dykes which have claimed the particular attention of geologists, though no certain theory has yet satisfactorily accounted for their existence. 30 COAL MINES OF CHAPTER IV. ^ The Second, or Sandcrland and Newcastle Coal Formation. Third, or Magnesian Lime-stone Formation and Dykes. J. HE second, or Sunderland and Newcastle coal formation is supposed to be about fifteen miles by twenty, making a superficial area of 300 miles, each mile containing about 4,645,000 cubic yards, or tons, (as each cubic yard is calculated to contain one ton of coal :) of this from one fourth to one sixth is appropriated to pillars and walls for supporting the mine, and the annual consumption amounts to about 3, ]00,OOO tons. The third formation is the magnesian lime- stone, which is found with different variations all along the coast of Durham, breaking off at the Tyne. It is intercepted for about twenty miles on the coast of Northumberland by the coal formation, and is only found in very inconsiderable quantities to the north. Its principal range is from Teignmouth to Durham and Hartlcpool ; and although the exact depth DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. '21 cannot be defined, it is not supposed to exceed thirty-five fathoms. There is much difference in the qualities of the lime-stone in different parts of the county of Durham, upon which geologists have expended much experiment, and produced many enlight- ened chemical elucidations. It appears how- ever that, after the magnesian lime-stone, blue lime-stone occurs near Sunderland for about sixty-four feet ; and after this alternations of dark slate-clay and blue slate-clay for about forty fathoms ; then comes green or whin-stone for a considerable depth, and ultimately the coal formation.* The lime-stone rocks about Sunderland are probably more curious than any other part about the formation, particularly at Building- Hill, where it is found imperfectly crystalline, and of a dark yellow or ochre colour, in some places dividing, into small cells, united with each other, from whence it has been called the honeycomb Iime 7 stone. Numerous basaltic blocks are found scattered about in the surface and under the soil, as observed by Mr. Bakewell, and are very similar in appearance to the large masses of * See page 11, 22 COAL MINES OF calcerated matter under the east cliff at Brighton. I have examined the lime-stone about Sunderland, and can only refer my readers to Mr. Bakewell's treatise on the geology of England * for a more explanatory account. Dr. Clanny made some very in. teresting investigations on a lime-stone rock in the vicinity of Sunderland containing marine impressions, and which Mr. Bakewell is in- clined to consider of subsequent formation ; Dr. Clanny communicated the result of his in- quiries through the medium of Thomson's Annals, in August, 1815. Various specimens of the different strata may be examined on the coast, as the perpen- dicular aspect affords a complete section of the whole. In some places near Sunderland there appears to have been a sinking in of the strata, as the parallelism is destroyed, and one series dips to the south-east, while the other dips north-west, and giving passage to water in the line of their junction. (See plate III.) The lime-stone formation contains the im- pressions of fish to a large extent, and various other productions of the sea. The dykes, which rise from an unknown * See Appendix to his Geology, note on p. 353. PL III. 22. c>r fn& o& DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. 23 depth to the surface, are various in their qua- lities, and are distinguished under the names of the whin-dykes, stone-dykes, clay-dykes, rubbish-dykes, and slip-dykes. The whin-dykes are formed of basalt,* or whin-stone, (one of which occurs at Coaly Hill, near Newcastle,) which, according to some the- ories, is supposed to have issued hot from the bowels of the earth ; indeed this idea is much strengthened by the coals on each side being re- duced to cinder, and continuing more or less burnt or scorched to a considerable distance. The most striking instance of this phenomenon appears in a dyke passing from Ay ton in Cleve- land, by Bolam, which is seven miles and a half north-west of Darlington, in a right line to Cockfieldfell, in the county of Durham : it is of a black basaltic nature, and is quarried for the purpose of mending the roads, making the firmest foundation possible. The stone dykes are filled with a variety of imperfect materials, which in general are both hard and dry, and separated by fissures * According to Werner, basalt is confined to the Floetz- trap, or secondary trap formation. It occurs in vast mountainous beds, mostly of a conical form, in strata, in banks or dikes, and in veins, and almost always ac- companies coal. Aikin*$ Chem. Diet. D'Aubuisson. 24 GOAL MINES OF running in horizontal and longitudinal di- rections. The clay-dykes, which occur in greater quan- tities than any other, are formed of very dry indurated clay, which is impervious to water. The rubbish-dykes are composed of sand, pebbles, and clay, apparently swept in from the surface, and give free admission to water. Slip-dykes derive their name from the pro- bability that they were formed by large masses of strata slipping from their original position, and in the coal formation appear to have caused a complete dislocation in the ad- jacent stratifications, as considerable quantities of different substances are mixed confusedly together. These dykes are denominated down- cast or upcast, according to their relative po- sition when approached by a miner. In the limestone formation these dykes are filled with metals and beautiful spars. DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. 35 CHAPTER V. Deposition of Coals. Their Duration. The Origin of Coal 7^- Gases. Accumula- tions of Fire-Damp in the Tyne and Wear Collieries. XT is difficult to ascertain where beds of coal are deposited, unless there appear some signs on the surface, or from fragments scattered abou in beds of clay, though the true foun- dation may generally be depended upon after the secondary or blue lime-stone formation. Mr. Bakewell, in his Geology of England^ is inclined to believe that the coal strata do not extend to any considerable distance be- yond their known limits ; and observes, " that our prosperity and greatness as a manufac- turing nation, in a few centuries, when the present mines are worked out, will depend upon its determination." * Dr.TMillar, in his edition of William's Mineral Kingdom, gives a still more desponding account, as to the du- ration of coals, particularly in Scotland, near * Bake well's Geo. p. 351. 2 COAL MINES OF Edinburgh. The result will of course remain for future ages to investigate : but when geolo- gists advance theories of such vast import- ance, it becomes a government, in the further- ance of every , consideration which is to hand its foresight and permanent regulations down to posterity, so to employ the evidence of research in regard to mineral sources of wealth, that any improper waste may not be made, for want of its interference, to innovate more than is necessary upon those resources whereon a country's affluence and happiness must through all ages depend. And although Dr. Thomson, whose emi- nence as a philosopher and a chemist justly entitle him to rank amongst the first in Europe, calculates upon a supply for one thousand years,* (inclusive of the time the mines have been worked,) yet the probability that this may not ultimately occur, united with the senti- ments expressed throughout the whole of that learned gentleman's writings on coal mines, gives an assurance that he would perfectly con- cur in this regulation of legislative caution, and in the necessity . of government paying some attention to the lives of the persons em- ployed in working them. * See Annals of Philosophy, Dec. 18H, p. 411. DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. 27 It has been supposed by some writers that, if a line be drawn from Sunderland across the country to Bristol, all counties both in England and Scotland to the westward will be found to contain coal, until interrupted by a line drawn from the south of the Tay, op- posite Dundee, along the Ochill-hills to Stir- ling, which they considered as the northern boundary; but this is not correct, as coals have been found in Sutherlandshire. The origin of coal has for a long time oc- cupied the attention of our most able philo- sophers, chemists, and naturalists ; and com- bines such subject of research, and such sub- lime indications of providential exactness and economy of nature, that whoever employs the powers of contemplation and inquiry upon it, is necessarily improved and delighted with the study. That it has a vegetable origin, and springs from the concretion and bituminization of ve- getable matter, has been so strongly argued that it appears to supersede the idea of volcanic origin. In support of this may be advanced the ligneous texture traced in the most compact species of coal, and the regular transitions of bituminized wood through pitch-coal and slate- 1 28 COAL MINES OF coal into glance-coal, which is devoid of bitu- men, and combined with' a proportion of earth. This coal yields carbureted hydrogen gas of much less density than that obtained from other coals.* The number of theories however upon the origin of coals are yet very nume- rous, and leave much room for further inves- tigation. Coal, when decomposed by heat, gives out acidulous water, oily bitumen, charcoal or carbon, carbureted hydrogen, and carbonic acid ; and as these are the principal bases of its formation, the researches of philosophy converge in their examination, and point out the extreme necessity of science and caution in the working and management of collieries. The principle most destructive to the secu- rity of coal mines, and the lives of the miners, is the inflammable air, fire-damp, or carbu- retted hydrogen gas, which consists of hydro- gen holding some carbon in solution ; and, ac- cording to Dr. Thomson, contains three-fourths of its weight of carbon, and one-fourth of hydro- gen. This is contained in every stratum, and liberates itself from the secretions of nature in * Dr. Henry's Elements of Chemistry. 4 DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. $9 great quantities; and though many opinions pre- vail relative to the manner in which carbureted hydrogen is generated in a mine, one alone exists as to the destruction it causes when exploded. There is no doubt that it proceeds from the bedi of coal in the greatest measure, and from the rents or fissures wherein it is frequently pent, and either exudes in gaseous volumes through the coal, or bursts out in streams of foul air, so that the miner is generally exposed to the greatest danger even in the common working of a colliery, although hardiness and habitude remove fear, and even in many instances cau- tion, far from his considerations. Mr. Dalton has shown (see his work) that the fire-damp of mines is the same as is pro- duced in wet marshes ; and society are indebted for a corroboration of this opinion to the va- luable experiments of Sir Humphrey Davy,* who has elucidated its many peculiar qualities, and shown the great degree of its inflam- mability. Very few mines are so free from gas as not to be in some measure dangerous ; for the at- * See his Paper as printed in the Philosophical Transac- tions for 1815, and in Tilloch's Philosophical Magazint for January 1816. 3O COAL MINES OF mospheric current passing through occupies the middle region of the workings, while the fire-damp, from its specific lightness, ascends and continues on the roof, and may be found in almost every part of a mine, as I have my- self ascertained by holding up a lighted taper and watching the flame, which, on immersion in small quantities of the fire-damp, appears to have a yellowish semi-circle over the top. The carbonic acid gas occupies the floor, and is only dangerous when its quantity be- comes so great as to affect the respiration, as at the Hepburn Colliery ; and in case of ex- plosion of the fire-damp, the carbonic acid with the common air is so much expanded as to sweep every thing before it. The mines on the Tyne and Wear are con- sidered in a peculiar degree dangerous, from the quantity of gas yielded by their coal ; in- deed the many accounts of devastation which have recently occurred in this district are un- equivocal proofs in corroboration of the state- ment. When any quantity of gas escapes from a rent or fissure, its blast is always most power- ful on the first liberation, and gradually be- comes less until the whole is spent out : should nothing occur therefore to ignite it in the first instance, it may be carried off by DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. 31 good ventilation ; but should this be deficient, it may explode on ignition when the whole has broke forth into the mine, as the accumu- lation would be too great, and overcharge the atmospheric air. There is much difference in the appearance of gas-yielding coal ; but, generally speaking, the Durham and Northumberland coal yields abundance : and at this time much danger is suspended over these immense works, from their astonishing extent, and the great increase of inflammable principle which this extent na- turally produces. In part of the Hutton Seam, for instance, which has been worked out, the gas has become so powerful that nothing will contain it; on this seam being worked out, the shafts and staples * were stopped up to the next seam above it, by means of strong scaffold- ing, clay, straw, earth, &c. seven fathoms in thickness, and the water suffered to drain into it as an old waste. The water has now accu- mulated in considerable quantities, and having * A kind of smaller shaft cut through from one stratum of coal to another in different parts of a mine, for the purposes of ventilation, and for the passage of miners. I descended one of these by means of a rope ladder with wooden staves, and which was hung on a post at the top of the staple ; the bottom of this staple was 125 fathoms from the surface. 32 COAL MINES OF forced the foul air to the upper part of the rise, begins to compress it too much, which causes the fire-damp to force its way back through the waters ; and, extraordinary as it may appear, through the whole substance of the scaffolding. In one part of a mine which Dr. Clanny and myself descended, a bore had been made through the scaffolding of three inches in diameter, in order to liberate the gas below more freely ; and it is greatly to be feared, from past circumstances, that no mode of ventilation can be adopted which will sufficiently guarantee the security of the mine and the miner : for it is not a subject which gives time for deliberation ; but if any thing occurs to obstruct this ventilating medium, when an extensive eruption of gas breaks upon the light, it communicates to all parts of the mine around, and in one moment rears the terrific aspect of volcanic convulsion and death ; or, as expressed by a little alteration of a pas- sage from Thomson : Here terror holds his unrejoicing court^ And through this sombre hall the loud misrule Of driving thunder is for ever heard ; Here the grim tyrant meditates his wrath, Here arms his fires with all subduing strength, Bursts the strong hold which earth to nature gave, And rears a tomb where once a people Jived. DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. 33 When the gas escapes only in regular and moderate quantities, the miner may explode it as he goes on, without producing any other effect than a pleasing phosphoric phenomena in the working, or a flash like the flash of a musket. But this, after being practised for years, unfortunately strengthens the idea of security, and the mind is incapable of inform- ing itself what hidden reservoirs may be broken into in the future progress of a mine. A fact so simple, and yet so incontrovertible as this, can but impress every one with con- viction, and produce the natural inference, that the most desirable and most valuable improve- ment in a colliery would be afforded by an invention to counteract this operation of nature. The real origin of gas, however, still forms a subject for the inquiries of philosophy. As no conclusive evidence has ever yet established a certain cause, some ascribe it to the gradual decomposition of coal, which in consequence gives out its carburetted hydrogen, or inflam- mable air ; others, who suppose that the forma- tion of coal was produced by the decomposition and concretion of vegetable substances, infer that it originates from the exhalation of putre- fying animal and vegetable matter in the stag- nant water of coal mines ; others, to the effect 34 COAL MINES OF of iron pyrites, which, it has been observed, produce a decomposition of the water, and by uniting with the oxygen become sulphate of iron or green vitriol, while the hydrogen is li- berated in a gaseous state. Most probably the whole of the above principles concur in pro- ducing the gases of a mine; but these points still remain undetermined,* and also the exact man- ner in which gas is given out or separated from the coal. At all events it appears evident that the process of nature is continually at work, and does not depend at all upon the working of mines, although by their penetration into the earth it is afforded a means of escape, when it would otherwise either in its more condensed state have concreted to some earthly substance, combined with other matters in the formation of new stratifications, or in its gaseous state have sought the rents and fissures of the earth, and there accumulated. It is very ably argued by many writers that there is a natural volcanic principle in the earth, which, if it cannot obtain vent, will in the course of time either produce earthquakes or violent eruptions of fire and lava. How long a period of time might be required for this * Memoirs of the Wernerian Society for 1808-9-10, page 504. DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. 35 process to accumulate sufficiently for such an effect is difficult to ascertain; but it might pro- bably be ascertained that the earth, having been supplied with openings in those parts where the most combustible principles were collected, had ceased to vibrate upon her poles from earthquake, or form new surfaces by eruption. Having gone thus far in the regular grada- tion of the subject, it will be necessary next to give a short outline of the commencement of mining. This, however, cannot attain the exact point of origin, as there does not appear any certain record to proceed upon, nor does an- tient tradition afford much assistance : there is little doubt, however, that the Romans were acquainted with the use of this fossil when in Britain, but to what extent is very un- certain. Indeed the extension of the coal trade to its present importance has proceeded rapidly within the last few centuries, as the general use of wood fuel till within a very short com- parative period clearly demonstrates that our forefathers did not participate so much in the internal provisions of nature as ourselves. Many circumstances may be found to corro- borate the evidence of coal being known at a very early period, but no particular mention D 2 36 COAL MINES OF occurs of coal in the county of Durham until the grant of King Henry III. to the good men of Newcastle of a license to dig coalt in a place called Castle-field, and the Forth. In 1245 mention is made of the ways of persons employed in digging, and from hence proceeds the most certain information relative to mining. There is no account of coal mines in Scotland till the grant of one at Pittencrief, in Fifeshire, to the Abbey of Dumfermline in 12Q1. In 1306 they appear to have been generally introduced into London, and shortly afterwards mention is made of exportations in exchange for foreign merchandise. In the charter granted to Sunderland by Bishop Morton in 1634, the articles specified for exportation are sea-coals, grind-stones, rub- stones, and whet-stones; and shortly afterwards Sunderland assumed an appearance of rising consequence, which created much jealousy amongst the Newcastle owners.* Notwith- standing this, however, they have mutually advanced in wealth and trade, and at this time * As there are many publications containing the details ef history in regard to the coal trade, particularly Brand's History of Newcastle, it has not been thought essential to the object of this work to enter fully upon it. 7 DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. 37 wear a very striking feature of rising import- ance. The conveniences for carrying on the coal trade, the perfection of the machinery, and the extensive range of waggon-ways, are truly astonishing ; amongst the most admirable con- trivances I must number the staithway, nearly adjoining on the south side of Sunderland bridge. A short distance up the river a de6p ravine branches, in a very striking and romantic manner, towards the south-east. On one side of this ravine a series of warehouses have been erected, in which large quantities of coal are deposited ; and from them a staith, or waggon-way, is erected, supported by long wooden pillars, and which descends in an angle of about thirty five degrees through an arch cut in the opposite rocks, and then con* tinues to run on a level but elevated platform along the side of the river. This staith is so constructed that, when a waggon loaded with coals descends on one side, it pulls an emptied waggon up on the other. The ship to be loaded is placed immediately under the elevated platform, when a trap-door is opened and the bottom of the waggon being let down, the coals descend through a trough into the ship, in some cases the waggons 36 COAL MltfES OF themselves are lowered all together, by ma- chinery, from the platform. It will next occur to recite the unfortunate history of explosion, in order to impress more strongly the necessity of legislative inter- ference. Indeed the great interests connected with the question, the fame of England in her improvements, and the mass of human life depending upon security, imperiously claim the direct attention of a watchful and benevolent government. As the short space of three years has fur- nished a melancholy series of misery and dis- tress, it would be unnecessary to look any further back for accounts, were it not material to prove that these accidents are not the mere upshots of an unfortunate period, but the re- gular calamities incident to the accumulation of inflammable air, and to the want of proper information relative to the mines. Unfortunately no regular statement can be traced from whence to elucidate the immediate consequences and distresses of the several ex- plosions, until about 1812. DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. CHAPTER VI. An Account of the different Explosions from June I7g4 to October 1813, containing those that have happened at Harraton, Washing- ton, Lumley, Hepburn, Ovclose, Felling, Harrington) Collingwood Main, and Fat- AN the year 1812 society were presented with that excellent medium of philosophic intelli- gence, Dr. Thomson'^ Annals of Philosophy, from the pages of which, and the aid of con- siderable local information, the present state- ments are enabled to assume a character of authenticity and descriptive fact, which alone entitles them to public consideration. The explosion at Felling, in 1812, appears to have been the first introduced into any general publications, but antecedent to that period a long train of misery is furnished from 17Q4. As no detailed account can be obtained, it will suffice to state that, on June 11, 1794, an explosion took place at Harraton, situate on the banks of the Wear, opposite Lambton Park, the seat of J. Lambton, Esq. which killed twenty-eight people. 40 COAL MINES OF February 7, 1798, another explosion took place at this time at Washington, a populous village about six miles from Newcastle, which killed seven persons. October 11, 1799, another occurred at Lum- ley, a short distance from Lumley Castle, the seat of Lord Scarborough, which killed thirty- nine persons. Another, October 6, 1805, at Hepburn main, on the south bank of the Tyne, about halfway between Shields and Gateshead, which killed thirty- three men and boys. Another at Oxclose, Nov. 29, in the same year, which destroyed thirty-eight persons. After this period more detailed particulars occur ; and it is unnecessary to present any thing more than the simple fact, to show the true extent of these calamities. But the re- flective mind will contemplate with regret the long train of attendant miseries entailed upon, explosions; while a reference to the maps of Durham and Northumberland will point out the comparatively small district which has been subject to these repeated melancholy oc- currences : and the reader will discover in the perusal of the following statements, that a second explosion took place* at Hepburn in 1814; so that by^a common calculation of pro* BURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. 41 babilities, it may with considerable certainty be anticipated, that, unless some preventive is adopted, a short lapse of time will present more repetitions of explosion, or include the names of mines hitherto fortunate in their escape. Explosion at Felling.* In Felling parish there are several beds which have been progressively worked for many centuries, some of them being now nearly excavated. In October, 1810, working commenced on a seam called the Low Main ; and being in the proprietorship of liberal and wealthy persons no expense was spared which could enhance the improvements of the mine, or tend to the security of the pitmen. The most approved methods of ventilation * There is an exception to the general parallelism and inclination of strata in this mine. " A bed of schistus called the He worth Band commences nearly under the highway from Newcastle to Sunderland, and gradually increases southward in the form of a wedge, dividing that which in the river Tyne is one seam of coal into two distinct seams, which at the Wear are many fathoms asunder. The wedge consists of sand-stone and schistus." Picture of Newcastle. N 42 COAL MINES OF according to the present system were adopted, and every species of mechanical apparatus at- tached to the colliery combined in the general perfection, and regularity proceeded upon. Not- withstanding this, and in spite of every pre- caution which was adopted, the pit called the Brandling Main exploded in May 1812; and on the twenty -fifth of that month the sur- rounding neighbourhood was thrown into the utmost terror and confusion by its tremendous burst. The fire broke out in two discharges from one of the working pits, which were shortly followed by another from a second pit. Terror and dismay spread in every countenance, and the most agonizing fear took possession of the poor creatures who had relatives employed in the mines. The deep caverns, where the explosion first vented its fury, confined the eruption too much for its utmost noise to be heard on the surface; but for half a mile round the trembling vibra- tions of the earth proclaimed the occurrence before the sound escaped, and for four or five miles an alarm was created by the slow and hollow rumblings in the air. Immense quan- tities of coal, pieces of wood, and dust, drove high into the atmosphere, and the lacerated remains of several bodies were thrown up th DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. 43 shaft. The scene was dreadful ; and for a time the spec f ator beheld himself close to Etna or Vesuvius. Darkness and misery reigned around, the roads and paths were covered in all direc- tions with pieces of coal and coal dust ; every species of machinery about the shafts was, with little exception, blown to pieces or set on fire; and the Chapelry of He worth, situate near the mine, was enveloped in darkness. No sooner was the explosion heard than the wives and children of the pitmen ran to the working pit, where a scene of distress presented itself which it is impossible for language to describe ; and though a sympathetic heart will strengthen its imagination upon an occurrence so dreadful, still it must fall short of the ori- ginal picture. Wives crying for their husbands, children for their parents, and others for some fond relative or friend, form the scene before us. Every apparatus from whence assistance could before have been expected was rendered totally useless by the convulsive eruption ; and it was not until some secondary means were ar- ranged that any steps could be taken for ascer- taining the extent of the calamity. When this was accomplished, out of one hundred and twenty men and boys employed in the mine, only thirty, two were rescued alive, three of whom afterwards 44 , COAL MINES OF fell victims to the shatters and scorches they had received. The joy of those who saw their re- lations raised as they imagined from the tomb may easily be conceived; but nothing can des- cribe the frantic horror and wretchedness of the poor creatures .who, after seeing all brought up who could be saved, did not behold amongst them the husband, father, brother, or son, they sought. After the blasts of explosion had in some measure subsided, and the shafts became more clear from the smoke and dust which issued through them, a number of intrepid and htimane people volunteered to descend in order to ascertain whether any more could be found in existence. But after several fruitless attempts, during which they suffered the effect of another partial explosion, and run great danger of suffocation from the overwhelming quantities of choak and fire-damp, they were compelled to ascend without being able to af- ford any consolation to the distracted people who anxiously waited their return. Despair now knew no alleviation ; and those who could not number their relatives amongst the few saved gave way to the most distressing and melancholy grief. Still when the first emotions had subsided, and the mind became DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. 45 absorbed in the fixed gloom of its anguish, hope presented one forlorn ray in which to ven- ture another trial. This, however, was unavail- ing ; when, insensible to the firm philosophy of stronger minds, they turned the poignancy of their feelings into distrust and imputation upon the proprietors and viewers of the mine. Notwithstanding this, the owners, after wil- lingly offering to adopt any means which might be suggested as best applicable to the distress- ing circumstance, were compelled, when the mine had remained three days in a state of complete suffocation, totally to exclude the at- mospheric air, and thus extinguish the fire. In two days, however, the immense weight of clay and other materials thrown into the pit, and suspended by ropes and scaffolding, broke from their hold and precipitated to the bot- tom ; a second scaffolding was erected which shortly shared the same fate ; but the third which was made upon a more substantial prin- ciple answered every purpose, and continued to exclude the air until the mine was re- opened. This was effected, after a variety of prepa- rations, on the 7th of July. On the pits' being pierced, one of them emitted a thick volume 46 COAL MINES OF of vapour which gradually diminished in it* force and blackness, and by the following morning had so much decreased as only to re- semble a stream of smoke. Here again another scene of misery and distress presented itself: for, notwithstanding the time which the mine had been closed, the remembrance of some instances where men had subsisted for thirty or forty days upon candles and horse-beans, led many to believe that their relatives might still be restored to them. They assembled in great numbers in the hopes of a miraculous deliverance being effected ; some out of cu- riosity, some from their sufferings, and others to create distrust and confusion, by acrimonious and malignant observations, formed a numerous but wretched assemblage. Early on the morning of the 8th of July, one of the pits was descended by Mr. Straker, one of the viewers, and Mr. Anderson, with several other persons, for the purpose of ex- amining the mine, and to ascertain whether any of the poor sufferers had by the remotest possi- bility preserved their existence. The dreadful dislocations which nature had sustained, the dreary and terrific aspect of all they beheld around them, united with the horror-inspiring remembrance that they were in the tomb of DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. 4? death, gave a transient chill to their imagi- nations ; and intrepidity appeared faultering under the united effects of fear, darkness, and doubt. At length one body was found, which increased the horrors of their situation ; and the speechless agony of their minds for some time paralyzed all exertion : but in a short time they were animated to proceed. The body was put into a coffin, a supply of which had been lowered down the shaft, and was drawn to bank * from above, the sad prog- nosticator of what was to come. But the misery of this scene was not con- fined within the bowels of the earth ; it had extended its range far in the neighbourhood. What must be the sensations of a humane mind on beholding ninety-two coffins piled in heaps at a joiner's shop, and conveyed from thence in cart-loads to the shafts of the mine ? On their approach the shrieks and lamentations of the women and children was truly distressing ; but grief had now become too strong to waste itself in expression. A silent, fixed, and wretch- * To bank signifies the act of ascending from the pit to the surface, or sending any thing from below to day ; thus, if the gas in a mine is excessive, and rushes up the shaft, the miner describes it by saying, " she came out to tank." 48 COAL MINES OF ed gloom absorbed all speech, and the mind re- coiled from the contemplation of dead bodies ; many of them returned to their houses, while the remainder paced in solitary anguish near the pit. Such indeed was the effect of explo- sion and putrescence,* that few o^ the bodies could be identified by their relatives, unless some clue existed in their clothes, tobacco- boxes, or other collateral assurances. It was not until the first of September that all the bodies were found ; and to describe the numerous instances of horror, of mutilated beings, and distracted families, which occur- red in the mean time would be impossible. Suffice that, to those who delight in wandering through fields of desolation, through the gloomy darkness of earth's deep caverns, and amidst the martyrdom of human life, this was indeed the sepulchre of contemplation. Masses of rock hurled in every direction, wag- gons shattered and twisted in every shape, mutilated horses and dead bodies in every di- * The state of the mine after the explosion, and after the atmospheric current was excluded, must have been horrid; for the oxygen would be entirely consumed by the inflammation of the gases, and leave the pit filled with nauseous and expanded volumes of choak-damp and hydrogen. , DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. 4Q rection, were the subjects which convulsed nature had provided. A more detailed account of the proceedings of this event will be found in the Philosophi- cal Annals of Dr. Thomson, who has not failed to give publicity and strength to every circumstance which has a tendency to amend the evils, and draw the public mind into com- miseration with the unfortunate sufferers. The cause of this accident, like many others, remains doubtful ; but there is little reason to suppose any other, than that it was occasioned by a contact of lights with the fire-damp or carbureted hydrogen gas. The above explosion destroyed altogether about one hundred persons, leaving forty-one widows, and one hundred and thirty-three children. Explosion at the Harrington Mill Pit. On the I Oth of October in the same year another destructive explosion occurred at the Harrington Mill Pit, situate about five miles from Sunderland, which destroyed twenty-four men and boys.* This accident, it is pretty well ascertained, was occasioned by the lights. * It was in this mine, and near to the spot where tht E 5O COAL MINES OF In stating this explosion, it occurs in com- mon justice to humanity to mention the ex- ertions of Mr. Patterson, an engineer to the mine, and Joseph Gleghorn, one of the work- men, who immediately after the first burst of the inflammable thundering, descended the pit, and by the promptitude of their mea- sures, and the activity of their dangerous ex- exertions, saved many poor creatures from a miserable death. Explosion of the Collingwood Main Colliery, The next considerable explosion, which re- vived the remembrance of the horrors and dis- tresses at Felling and Harrington, occurred in the Collingwood Main Pit. This colliery is si- tuate on the River Tyne, a short distance south-west of North Shields, and was in con- siderable perfection as to its working, and the means adopted for securing it against the ac- cumulation of choak * and fire-damp. men were destroyed, that Dr. Clanny and myself expe- rimented upon his lamp amidst inflammable air. * Choak-damp, or carbonic acid gas, is double the weight of common air, which causes it to sink towards the floor and spread in the bottom of the mine : it is fatal to respi- ration. Carbureted hydrogen, or fire-damp, is ten time* DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. 51 JiV the case of this explosion, as in many other instances, all precautions proved unavail- ing and ineffectual, for want of an insulated light. The fire-damp rushed on the candles, ignited, and in a few minutes tore the mine to pieces, by which eight of the workmen were killed, and two severely wounded. It must here be remarked in corroboration of the evidence that, notwithstanding the ut- most perfection of the ventilating system (at present attained), no security can be permanent if the possibility of communicating ignition to the carbureted hydrogen gas exists ; for, in this instance, not only the proper avenues to the workings, but the current of ventilation, were obstructed by means of a sinking in of part of the mine. This by the miners is denominated a creep,* (and upwards) lighter than atmospheric air, and ascends to the roof of the mine, having the purer air between it and the choak-damp. But although they rise and fall ac- cording to their specific tendencies, it does not follow that they remain unmixed, but it is most probable that they are liable to mutual penetrations, which are produced in a greater degree when worked upon by an active agency, and, we may naturally suppose, are lessened in the absence of an evolutionary power. * When working one of the seams in the Harrington Pit, a creep of this kind occurred, which caused a reut 52 COAL MINES OF and is occasioned by the pillars, left for the support of the mine, giving way, or forcing themselves into the clayey stratum underneath. An obstruction of this kind drives all the fire and choak-damp from that part of the mine where it happens, to other parts, where it ac- cumulates in great quantities ; and if a candle happens to communicate with the fire-damp, the large portion of it, and the mass of choak- damp which expands by its inflammation, pro- duces the most destructive consequences. Many people are frequently suffocated after an explosion by the carbonic acid gas, or, as termed by the miners, surfeit, or after damp. This is powerfully expanded during the inflam- mation of carbureted hydrogen gas; and as the carbureted hydrogen on explosion imme- diately collapses into half its original bulk, the choak-damp, being expanded and agitated from all quarters by the heat, substitutes the partial vacuum, and in fact constitutes for a time the only vapour in the mine. When a mine is at work, all the old work- ings are closed by trap doors,* having boys, through the whole upper strata and alluvial earth to the surface, though near 100 fathoms in thickness. * These doors are of different dimensions, according to the situation they are in, or the necessity of admitting DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. 3 " trappers, " to open them when necessary. This is to prevent the accumulations of inflam- mable air contained in those parts from break- ing upon the miners. But when the convul- sive power of an explosion demolishes these doors, every secretion is opened, and every collection of gas liberated, and either produces second, sometimes third explosions, or over- comes all animal respiration, by the suffocating effects of the carbonic acid ; so that unless the pitmen who happen to be in a distant part of the mine can obtain a sufficiency of atmosphe- ric air, they are suddenly and unexpectedly enveloped in the vapour, and suffocated under all the agonies of their situation, under the despair of being for ever cut off from their wives and families, and under the conviction that they are the martyrs of neglect and pre- judice. Scarce had the public feeling subsided on this dreadful calamity, when the meteor of misery was lighted up in another part of the country, and humanity again stigmatized by its own inactivity. horses or only men. Some of them, which Dr. Clanny and myself passed through, were not much above three feet square, made tolerably strong, and to fit close in the frame. 54 COAL MINES OF Explosion at Fatjield. Several minor explosions had occurred at different periods in the mines at Fatfield, a small village pleasantly situate on the banks of the Wear, about nine miles from Sunder- , land, by which a number of men were killed. Notwithstanding these repeated accidents, and although Dr. Clanny's lamp was then in- vented, the facility with which other workmen were found caused the old course to be pur- sued, and the system which so fatally de- monstrated its insufficiency still to go uncor- rected. Thus on the 28th of September, 1813, pre- judice was presented with another sacrifice of human life, by the destruction of thirty-two men at this explosion ; thus was England deprived of a portion of her subjects, and the surrounding society again involved in distress by the cala- mity, by the misery and want, of families, and by the wretchedness which every where pre- sented itself, In other respects no care or caution was wanting in the. working of the mine : the old workings were \yell secured, and the ventila- tion comparatively good ; but a stone falling from, the roof carried along with it a quantity DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. 55 of fire-damp, which, coming in contact with the candles of the miners, immediately ex,- ploded, and communicated through the whole region. What further proof can be necessary that many lives would be saved if the lights were secured from such contacts ; and as the means of such security is discovered, society ought not to rest until they are adopted. Imagination, when unassisted by scenery, cannot sufficiently impress upon the mind the effect of these occurrences. I will, therefore, repeat the description of this explosion, as given by a lady who took an airing in the vi- cinity of the mine shortly after it took place. Having proceeded within about a mile and a half of the mine, she alighted from her car- nage and walked the remaining distance : in a short time the painful scence of wretchedness presented itself, and on approaching nearer she beheld several houses having their doors open and filled with mourners but just returned from following some poor sufferer to the grave. They appeared neatly clad in the sable tributaries of death, and were sitting around their tables silently cherishing the an- guish of their hearts. Being at a loss to find the mine, she anxiously sought some habita- tion which misery had not altogether occupied, 56 COAL MINES 0V in order to be directed in her way ; but the work of destruction had been too extensive, and if expectation for a moment gained hope from the appearance of a closed door, it was soon converted into horror, to see it open and let out other processions of death. At length a young woman came up and in- quired whether the lady wanted any thing: on being told that she wanted to find her way to the mine, but was fearfql of asking on ac- count of their melancholy engagements, the girl pointed to the road, and immediately burst into tears. Can the human mind contemplate this, and see in it only a small portion of the misery these calamities have occasioned, with- out feeling how imperiously every individual is called upon, as a Christian and a fellow creature, to step forward and avert the danger which still impends over the miners. But as those who are not well acquainted with a coal mine will be at a loss to trace the different operations alternately alluded to, it will not be uninteresting to introduce a de- tailed account of its interior, and relieve the imagination for a time from reflecting upon these multiplied calamities. To approach the subject however through its respective gradations, and to account, as far DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. 57 as the evidence at present before us will enable me to do, for the existence of the minerals which abound in the earth, and which con- stitute the original temptation to mining, I have briefly canvassed over the theories of the most eminent naturalists and geologists, with such observations as are suggested by my own judgment, I? 5S COAL MINES OF . CHAPTER VI. The Theories of Burnet^ Descartes, Whiston, Woodward, Buffon, and others, on the ori- ginal Formation of the Earth, and the Causes of Stratification, fyc. J- HE theory of the earth and of stratifications having of late become very extensive, it may not be uninteresting to digress a little into the more general information upon this head ; as the coal strata form one amongst the innumer- able mineral productions, for which theorists have so much difficulty to account. Out of the many different theories which have been advanced relative to the origin of rocks and stratifications, it is almost impossi- ble to decide upon any one as firmly conclu- sive in its evidence. The latitude which has been given to supposed causes, and the immense chaos of conception which presents itself to the imagination of a theorist upon earth, has not failed to produce some extraordinary works upon this important subject; and we are still bewildered by the 6 DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. 5Q contradictory evidences which arise from the different theories. Burnet, who wrote about the year 1680, endeavoured to assimilate the formation of systems with the doctrines of Scripture ; and so shaped his arguments that no evidence might militate against Creation being the work of a great and omnipotent Being. He supposed that the earth in its origina 1 form was smooth, and devoid of the irregula- rities which now exist ; that it was of a sphe- rical shape, and formed a solid incrustation over a fluid mass within. He then goes on to account for the irregularities which have sub- sequently existed, as arising from the general deluge, which, according to his theory, was produced by the heat of the sun penetrating the surface and, expanding the waters within the incrustation, caused them to rush out in im- mense torrents and form our present oceans ; that this revolution having produced partial vacuums, the outer shells fell in, and by this means our present mountains, hills, and val- leys, were made. The theory of Descartes was very similar to that of Burnet ; but the probability appears so very distant, and the imaginary evidences upon which it is attempted to be substantiated (50 COAL MINES OF are so irreconcilcable with the common contem- plation of the subject, that, however we may admire the fertility of imagination and con- ception in the ideas of these writers, it is diffi- cult to consider their ideas as sufficiently cor- roborative of the fact. Whiston and Dr. Woodward follow much in the same train of argument with Burnet and Descartes ; the former making some difference in the relation of his theory to Scriptural pas. sages, and the latter differing with Burnet upon the principle of the earth's regularity and smoothness : for though Burnet ascribes the origin of rivers to aqueous condensations in the polar regions, J)r. Woodward endeavours to prove that the rivers could not exist without the presence of mountains. The theory of M. de Buffon is not supported by the reasonable suppositions and moderate evidences of the former, but combines such an irreconcileable number of improbabilities, that it is almost impossible to give him credit for any thing more than having in this instance liberated his imagination to the most un- bounded extents of both time and creation ; and yet Demaillet was of the same opinion. M. de Buffon supposed that, at a period as far back as 75,000 years, a violent concussion. DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. (Jl took place between the sun and a comet, by which a considerable portion of the former was struck off and carried into the regions of space, and being in a red hot liquid state dis- united, became cool, and formed into the se- veral planets. It does not appear however that the earth, as one of these planets, became cool for 20 or 22,000 years ; and that condensation of water did not take place until the end of 25,000 years, nor was it completed until the further , elapse of 10,OOO years; after this he allows the creation of shell-fish, and that the various strata of the earth were formed in the bosom of the waters. At the expiration of about 50,OOO years, he supposes the waters to have receded, and the valleys to have been occasioned by the -different currents which carried on a regular system of calcareous for- mations, and formed the alluvial beds from the attrition of their operations. He dates the creation of man about 6000 years back, and accounts for the existence of animals by sup- posing a quantity of living atoms capable of producing new species, and of perpetuating those already in existence. This theory certainly appears extravagant, and yet such is the field for imagination that 62 COAL MINES OF several other eminent philosophers and natural- ists have entertained similar notions. Mr. Kirwan is of opinion that the globe to a certain extent was originally liquid ; and that the different mountains and rocks, both stratified and unstratified, with valleys, &c. were produced by the evolution of the earth upon its axis, when its upper menstruum was in a state of solution. Dr. Hutton does not appear to give any elucidation as to the manner in which the earth and sea were originally produced, but ascribes the formation of hills and valleys to the perpetual operation of rivers and currents in general, which carry along with them the soil, over, and through which they pass, and ultimately lodge it in large accumulations in the ocean, which become consolidated into strata by the action of subterraneous fire. Every day certainly presents us with innu- merable instances to prove the operation of water upon the soil through which it passes, and the encroachments made upon one coast, while, by the same process of nature, simul- taneous lodgments are made upon another; and if we consider the perpetual revolution of the earth upon its axis, and the effect of the immense bodies of water which are continually DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. 63 rolling about, from the equator to the poles and from the poles to the equator, we shall be less astonished at the idea of long periods of time producing wonderful and sublime changes in the appearance of our planet, and in the nature and form of its rocks and stra- tifications. The theory of Dr. Hutton is further corro- borated by the alluvial formations in many parts being of different constituent materials ; some spaces of them being hard, calcareous, and rounded, while other parts are in their native roughness ; others are partly deprived of their angular edges, and become in some measure rounded, though partially as if brought from graduating distances, inferior to the distance from whence the rounded pebbles had been brought. Besides these theories we have those of Ber- trand, Humboldt, Werner, Saussure, Cuvier, and Bakewell, and lately some very interesting papers have appeared in Thomson's Annals, written by Mr. J. B. Longmire, on formations and their different phenomena. Mr. Longmire has classified the primitive formations under new names, according to their being stratified or not ; calling those formations which are not 64 COAL MINES OF stratified " concrete, " and those that are stra* tified, of the primary formation, " concrete earth, stone, " or whatever other matter of which they are formed. The eminent French naturalist Cuvier enters very minutely into the examination of the or- ganic system of nature, and ascribes the dif- ferent formations of the earth to the united operations of fire and water. He is clearly of opinion that the whole of what Werner de- scribes as secondary formations* has been formed since the creation of fishes or animals, and that the primitive rocks were formed be- fore the animal creation. In support of this, he advances the fact of the primitive rocks not having any organic remains or impressions of shell-fish in their strata, and the obliquity with which they pass under rocks of the se- condary formation. He explains the manner in which thaws and rains operate in forming * " Primitive " and " secondary " are names given by modern naturalists, according to the Wernerian system. The primitive formations are those devoid of organic re- mains or marine impressions, and are considered as being formed antecedent to the secondary, which are charac- terized by organic remains, marine impressions, and vege- table matter. DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. 65 new alluvial matter, and with rivers, in the progressive course of time, change the forms of rocks, of coasts, and valleys. The ground of this theory appears to be more generally supported than any other, and at once opens to the imagination a striking and wonderful sublimity in the plans of nature* If we contemplate the slow, though pro- gressive revolution of systems, if we unite with them the frequent and extraordinary effects of volcanic eruption, the mind is lost in its ideas of an original Creation, and calculates in vain to discover the embryo of Nature. We can only depend however upon our own powers of judgment, and the additional means of evidence which are furnished us, for the reconciliation of these theories to our indivi- dual suppositions. It appears most probable that the different strata have been formed by the mutual co- operation (under various circumstances) of de- composition in the internal laboratory of nature and volcanic eruptions; that subterraneous fires forced a passage through the superincumbent strata, and created a series of formations by the lava, which, descending from the crater, or mouth of the volcano, formed into pyra- midical laminae : supposing these eruptions F 66 COAL MINES OF to have been periodical, depositions of alluvial matter, which in some cases might by com- pression become concrete and consolidated, would take place, and produce alternations of soil and strata. It is observed in many mountains, particu- larly the Brocken mountain, in Hartz Forest, Lower Saxony, that the bed which forms the base of the strata in the surrounding valley is at the summit the uppermost stratum. This is supposed to be occasioned by a subterra- neous matter, intensely acted upon by heat, having forced its way through the several strata when in a liquid or tangible shape, and thus caused the elevation of the lower stratum, and rent the upper ones asunder. This will be better understood by laying four or five elastic planes one upon another, fastened down at each end, and then force a conic substance underneath up the centre, until the point breaks through or penetrates the whole of the planes. Is it not however equally probable that an eruptive mass might for a time accumulate itself into a conical mountain ; that by be- coming cool it would concrete until its central region was again dissolved by heat, and emitted fresh eruptions of lava, forming new layers 1 DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. 6? round the original cone, and so, by alternate cessations and eruptions, produce many and different substances ? This is the more proba- ble from the extremities being thinner and more shattery than almost any other part. These alternating strata have in general the remains of shell-fish imbedded in them, from whence is deduced an idea of their having been originally horizontal ; but, according to the theories of Burnet, Descartes, and Demaillet, these materials might have been deposited during the earth's immersion in water, so that what would be contradictory in one theory is reconciled by another. But as it is not my intention, or the object of this work, to expatiate fully upon the origin of rocks and minerals, I hope the explanation of such parts as relate to coal will be found satis- factory, according to the information we have upon the subject : I shall now therefore pro- ceed in what relates to it alone. Whatever were the original causes of the stratifications within the earth, it is certain that they possess an astonishing resource of different minerals and fossils, in which the researches of chemists and mineralogists are daily discovering some new principle some 68 COAL MINES OF new cause for admiring the wonderful works of a great and beneficent Creator. These valuable productions of nature gradu- ally drew the attention of mankind to explore the inner regions of the earth, and accelerated the progress of mining to its present state. DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. 6Q CHAPTER VIII. Right of Digging for Coals. Mode of Tenure. Sinking of Mines. Method of Boring, fyc. Draining. Process of Min- ing. Description of Workings. .HAVING thus delineated the various opi- nions in regard to the collective and parental formations of nature, and having in a former part explained the causes by which coal is produced, it will be unnecessary to dwell any longer upon that subject. I shall now there- fore proceed with the original and individual branch which has occupied so much of my attention. The right of digging for coals seems first to have been granted to bodies corporate, ancient baronies, and the heads of religious institu- tions, as we find in the middle of the thir- teenth century, from which period a regular history may be traced of their progress. From these grants emanated the collateral tenures by hom^j or fee, until the extermination of the feudal laws substituted new modes of tenure ; and they are now held in right by the lord of the manor, who either lets the working of his 7O COAL MINES OF mines upon lease, or works them himself; and is liable to be sued for damages in case they are worked beyond the boundary of his sur- face rights, and by a recent case tried at New- castle, His Grace the Duke of Northumber- land versus Grey, it was decided by the Court that the lord of the manor has no right to break through the soil, without first obtaining consent from the owner of the free- hold or copyhold. In many parts of the kingdom the rent is regulated according to the quantity of coals won up the shaft ; but in the Tyne and Wear collieries the rent is regulated by the quantity of coals led away from the pit, which causes the immense accumulations of screened coals, which are -found at almost all the pits in this district. Mines are generally let upon lease when not worked by the owner, with very express con- ditions in regard to the interests of the pro- prietor, and ^seldom give him any further trouble than the settling or renewing his lease; but as the proprietors are generally persons of considerable influence and intelligence, there is no doubt but the national feature which ac- cidents in collieries have assumed will awaken in their minds a very strong desire to support DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. 71 any improvement which may lessen the extent of these calamities, and place coal mines upon a systematic and respectable establishment. Too much cannot be said in praise of the Honourable Washington Shirley, and Messrs. Fereday and Smith, who, as extensive coal pro- prietors, and aware of the injury done to so- ciety by old and fatal customs, have laudably stepped forward to encourage improvements, and ameliorate the situation of miners. It is sometimes very difficult to ascertain where beds of coal are deposited ; and before the present simple method of boring was dis- covered, the proprietors used sometimes to lose considerable sums by erecting machinery, and sinking pits, where ultimately no coal could be found. This in a great measure arose from comparing the different strata near the surface, with the strata alternating down an ad- joining shaft, which in some instances may be relied upon; but in case any dislocation or slip has disturbed the uniformity of the strata below, this speculative method may prove abortive. When a section of the different strata is presented by the perpendicular bank of a river or ravine, the method is still more obvious ; but when these advantages cannot be found, a 72 COAL MINES OF criterion is formed from the general rules of formation. Coal is seldom found under moun- tains of solid lime-stone or sand-stone ; but in ground of secondary stratifications coal seams are more generally found. Water-springs fre- quently pass through the coal strata, owing to its porous nature, and by this means cast up small fragments which are pretty certain indi- cations. When the general indications of coal are sufficiently strong to be relied upon, the pit is sunk without further delay ; but when this is not the case, boring is resorted to : this sim- ple invention has been long in use, and affords the most effectual method of discovering coals. Boring is accomplished by means of strong iron rods from three to four feet long, and about one inch and a half square, with a screw at one end, and a matrix at the other, by which the length is increased as the bore pe- netrates further into the ground. At the bot- tom of the rods is a chisel about ]6 inches long, and at the top the upper rod is fixed into a piece of timber to give weight to the fall, and to enable the workmen to produce a ro- tary or boring motion, by which method the bore penetrates through the hardest stra- tifications, and on fixing a kind of scoop to DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. 73 the lower end, the pulverized matter is brought from the bottom, by which means the nature of the strata is discovered. It is usual to bore three holes in order to certify the uniformity of the strata ; and these being made, where the shafts are afterwards sunk, serve as draining sluices to carry the water down the mine. Some objections are made to this method, from its not being able to bring any thing up of a more substantial nature than pulverized coal or dust, mixed with water, which might be fritted off from some casual layer of coal in the passage of the bore ; but it does not appear that any very great inconvenience re- sults from this. Mr. Ryan has however invented a method by which whole blocks may be severed from their stratum and brought to the surface, which, if applicable, would certainly be a great improvement. The mines are drained by means of sub- terraneous sewers cut from the lower stratum to some practicable level, and thence carried off: otherwise, when no level can be found, by means of engines * to draw it up, through a * Water-engines for coal mines were invented by a predecessor of the first Earl of Balcarras, who had a pa- tent for twenty-one years from James VI., anno 1600. Brand's History of Newcastle. 74 COAL MINES OF shaft sunk for that purpose at the lower end of the dip. When a seam of coal is in work which hap- pens to be above another some time worked out, the waters are easily drained off by suf- fering them to descend and accumulate in the old wastes of the lower seam ; and it is this circumstance which renders it so necessary to have correct records of the boundaries, as should they be broken through, the adjoining mine is deluged and the workmen drowned. During the progress of cutting a shaft through the soil to a stratum of coal, machines are erected above the pit, and every apparatus provided which may be necessary to the ulti- mate process. When digging commences in a district where no pits have before been sunk, the change of aspect is surprising : the immediate vicinity is soon covered over with machinery, huts, and different habitations, and the country intersected with staiths or waggon-ways. The miner, having come to his stratum, digs first to the bottom, and then proceeds to work his way through it ; in the higher seams the coals are drawn by horses from the hewers to the shaft in sledges, and in the lower ones they are drawn in the same manner on trams,* * Tram is a kind of basket made very large and strong, and fixed on a sledge for the purpose of being drawn. DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. 75 pulled with two small cords by a boy before, and pushed on by a boy behind. It has before been stated in what manner the coal-seams alternate at different depths under one another. When the shaft is sunk far enough for the first stratum, the working of it is proceeded upon, but only in a partial degree, as it is found necessary to intermix the coal from the different deposits before they are sent away for consumption. Having worked a passage in several directions, and established the rudimental basis of a mine on the one seam, the shaft is carried down to another, and so on through the whole course ; at the same time staples are sunk in different direc- tions from the workings of one seam to the workings of another. These are a kind of smaller shaft, or well, for the purpose of facili- tating the works of the miner, and to regulate the currents of atmospheric air, so that it may traverse all parts with ventilation : in conse- quence of this the staples are generally at the head of a working, or otherwise close to a An ingenious plan has lately been introduced into a mine near Cheney Row, by Mr. Patterson, an engineer. By this plan several horses are dispensed with, and the eledges are worked to certain distances by means of ma- chinery affixed to the steam-engine on the surface. 76 COAL MINES OF stopping, which prevents the air from passing, and drives it down the staple. The shaft is a perpendicular drift, being sometimes made semi-elliptical at the mouth by means of boards ; a few yards down it becomes perfectly circular, and is in general from eight to ten feet in diameter. It is cased by stone walling for about eighteen fathoms down, or until the stone work can rest upon solid rock, when it is continued by being cut through the consolidated strata, and opens to the work- ings of the mine through strong arches. On getting to the bottom of a shaft the appear- ance is truly grotesque and dismal ; rugged roofs supported by pillars or walls left for that purpose, and just shown by the miserable light of a miner's low,* is all that exists for exami- nation. In some parts the workings are very low and narrow, compelling the miner to creep through them ; in other parts they are suffi- ciently high for a person to walk erect, and are frequently enlarged by sinkings in of the stratum or shale above, which is afterwards >* The loio is locally a very small candle, which the miner fixes in a piece of soft clunch or clay, and carries between his fingers, on his hat, or fixes on the coal, ac- cording to circumstances. DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND, 77 removed or piled up in walls for the support of the mines. This produces many curious specimens of natural roofs and domes, accord- ing to the fall of the upper stratum. In some parts there are large areas propped up by great numbers of wooden piles, which not unfre- quently appear bent or cracked in the middle from the great pressure of the upper strata. The ordinary mode of working a mine is in parallel passages called boards, about four yards wide and eight yards asunder. These are connected by headways, which are smaller pas- sages, at right angles to the former and twenty yards apart, thus leaving strong pillars of coal to support the roof of twenty yards by eight. The headways and boards are drawn at right lines through the whole extent of the mine. 78 COAL MINES OF CHAPTER IX. Present System of Ventilation. Its errors. New Methods by Mr. Ryan, and Lieut. Menzies. Steel-Mills. the seams of coal generally extend a great way in their natural inclined or horizontal po- sition, a great number of workings, or as they are termed " boards or gates," progressively branch out from one another so as to form an immense number of dark passages, through every one of which, while working, it is ne- cessary according to the present system of ven- tilation that a current of air should pass, in order to carry off the accumulations of vapour or fire-damp. This is accomplished by means of a stream of air which descends the downcast shaft, and passes through the workings until it finds the upcast shaft through which it ascends. It is usual to have a large furnace within about twenty yards of the upcast, occupying the lower half of an enlarged working, and always kept up to a certain standard of heat. The other workings of the mine are so formed as to con- centrate just before they come to that in which DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. 79 the furnace is kept, and by this means the cur- rent, or draught of air is accelerated through the mine, from the downcast towards the up- cast shaft. When the coals are hewn out of a board, and its remaining open can answer no immediate purpose, it is usual to close it by stoppings or folding doors, so that the current of air may pass on to other workings. Mother-gates are the principal workings which branch from the shafts in right lines, running south, east, north, or west ; but as a better idea will be formed of the system now in use by a sketch representing the principal workings, &c., I have availed myself of one in- troduced by Mr. Buddie in his pamphlet on the Ventilation of Mines, and which delineates the method invented by Mr. Spedding of Whitehaven, to whose memory the owners of mines are much indebted for his ingenious discoveries. (See Plate IV.) The double lines show the air-stop. pings, or doors erected for the purpose of preventing the air from passing into any working when not necessary. The single lines show the brattices, and the darts * ,y> > and dotted lines . SO COAL MINES OF the current of air passing from the downcast shaft through the mine to the upcast shaft where it ascends. a the downcast pit, b the upcast pit, a A the east mothergate, B a the west mothergate from the downcast pit a. By tracing the darts it will be seen that the current of air from the bottom of the downcast pit a> first passes along the east mothergate a A> and the adjoining south board M B, to which it has free access through the holings or walls, 1 2 3 4 : it then passes through the holing 5, called the air- wall, into the boards (workings) C D 9 having free communication between them by the holings 678 and 9. After passing the boards C D it enters the head- ways E E, in going along which it ven- tilates the boards F G by being forced into them by the brattices X X X X, when the current of air sweeps the boards by two and two as above described : this is called double coursing; but when it is thrown down one board and up another, as it is from H to H, it is called single coursing. The remaining part of the ventilation back to the east mothergate a A is in double courses. The current of air is at last discharged out of the first board Z, north of the east mother- f> DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. 81 gate a A, into the headways K K, along which it is forced by the boards and stoppings s s s s, and the stenting stoppings r r r r r, to the bottom of the upcast shaft. Should the main stopping N be blown out, every working of the mine would be left un- ventilated, except the headway K K, along which the current of air would pass directly from the downcast to the upcast shaft. Nor could this be remedied until the stopping N was replaced, leaving all the workmen in other parts of the mine,, particularly where the fire happened, to be suffocated by the choak and fire-damp. It may be necessary to remind the reader that this plate is merely sketched to elucidate the lines of ventilation according to the present system, and the variety of boards- or workings, as it would otherwise carry with it too great an appearance of regularity and precision. The floor of the mine is one continued course of rugged substance, and, when passing from the downcast shaft towards the upcast shaft, continues to ascend according to the rise of the coal stratum : its sides and roof are equally rugged and irregular, and the whole presents the most solitary and dismal aspect possible to conceive. By means of the foregoing system, venti- G 82 COAL MIKES OF lation is now carried on through a mine in such force as to drive off great quantities of inflammable air ; but it sometimes and frequently happens that the gas collects too rapidly, and exceeds its proportion of atmo- spheric air until it attains the firing point, when, should the flame of a candle be introduced, the carburetted hydrogen in combination with common air immediately explodes ; so that the greatest danger at all times to be feared is the light. The distance between the shafts is from one- half to two-thirds of the working; and ac- cording to the mode of coursing the air, as in the present system, a space of five hundred yards square, having the current of air passing up and down its workings, would require the ventilating medium to traverse eighteen miles. The different methods hitherto used of pro- pelling the air through a mine appear to have been miserably defective. The practice of form- ing a current by means of a stream of water forced down the downcast pit not only renders one shaft useless, but causes an amazing ex- pense for labour, &c., to drain the mine. The air-pump has likewise been found insufficient ; and the method of accelerating a draught by means of a furnace near the upcast shaft is very dangerous, as the furnace forms the lower DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. 83 part of a cylinder, through which the atmos- pheric and consequently noxious airs of a mine must pass, and frequently explode. Mr. Buddie has stated in his pamphlet that, in case of danger, the furnace may be extin- guished, but I fear the inflammable air would travel rather too quickly, as, exclusive of the men having to scramble to the furnace, a fire like that used in ventilation would require a full half-hour to be extinguished. The air in the present system has likewise to ascend and de- scend up one working and down another alter- nately, owing to the coal strata dipping to the south-east, and by this means suffering the lighter fluid or carburetted hydrogen to be per- petually seeking rents and fissures for accumu- lation. Much destruction has been occasioned by reason of the present system of ventilation not being able in its best state to carry off the fire-damp, which accumulates in the breaks or, as called in Staffordshire, (i pot-holes " of the roof. The manner of dislodging this is not less singular than dangerous. The part where it accumulates being previously cleared of all the men, except those employed in this hazardous service, a candle is fixed to a pole (this appa- ratus is called a " fire-line"); and the men, having guarded themselves as much as circum- G 2 84 COAL MINES OF stances will admit, plunge the candle into the explosive mixture, which immediately inflames with a tremendous report, and not unfre- quently kills all the men, and destroys great part of the mine. Indeed the number of men lost and injured by these casual accidents is enormous; and, including the great explosions, there are not less, than one thousand lives lost annually by explosion in Great Britain, and seven or eight thousand burnt or otherwise de- stroyed. From the above circumstances, society have just cause to rejoice at the numerous improve- ments lately proposed in ventilating mines, and at the indefatigable attention paid to the construction of a secure lantern by Dr. Clanny, and the subsequent attempts of Sir Humphrey Davy, Dr. Murray, and others; in the hope that some of their plans will ultimately lessen the extent of those dangers which have hitherto caused so much destruction. Whatever may be said of the steel-mills, they are certainly inadequate to the security necessary in coal pits, as the small scorified substances which are visible on the inflamma- tion of carburetted hydrogen gas would no doubt explode from their scintillations, and communicate explosion Jo the surrounding mass : exclusive of this the steel-mill is ex- DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. 85 % tremely expensive,, and yields but a very in- sufficient supply of light. This instrument has in many cases great advantage over the common low or candle, but none whatever to recommend it in preference to the lamps now invented. Its construction is very simple, consisting of a wheel with a zagged periphery which strikes upon common flint, and thus produces whilst at work a con- tinual luminous circle, varying in brilliance or the colour of its sparks according to the preva- lence of carburetted hydrogen or carbonic acid. But if a proper system of ventilation were once introduced, all the danger would be re- moved; and although Mr. Buddie considers the present system as beyond any further im- provement, I have much pleasure in referring my readers to a most ingenious plan by Lieut. Menzies, published in Thomson's Annals, p. 283, April, 181 6. Mr. Menzies has taken up the subject on its proper ground, and endeavours to facilitate the purification of the mines by simple and incontrovertible means rather than by the com- plicated agencies now in use. He has consi- dered the inclination of inflammable airs to ascend rather than to be compressed ; and has assimilated this quality with the general dip and rise of the coal strata. 85 COAL MINES OF Upon this principle Mr. Menzies proposes to have the upcast and downcast shafts at cer- tain distances, the downcast being made at the lower end or dip of the strata, the upcast at the upper end or rise, and so regulating the cross boards and workings that every facility may be given to the current of air passing through the mine ; at the same time that the workings may be freed from any blower or accumulation of gas, by closing up the lateral doors and stoppings along the rise of the working, and suffering a current of air to take its natural course from below ; and instead of having rectangular passages Mr. Menzies has substituted oblique boards, passing between the parallel workings, which, considering the course of the air and the levity of the gases, are much better calculated than any other for carrying off the fire-damp. I cannot help remarking upon one observa- tion of Mr. Menzies, which, from what I know of him, I think must have escaped his serious consideration. After urging some simple means for forcing out the foul air, he says, (p. 2Q8,) " Why should not operations so simple and so highly important be executed on Sundays, while labour of other kind is suspended." I contend that there is no necessity for such a measure: the coal proprietor ought not, more DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. 8? than any other person, to innovate upon the laws of religion and morality; and I see no reason why operations so essential to their in- terest, and the security of the mines, should not be performed on proper days. Mr. Ryans System of Ventilation. In the beginning of May, 181 6, Mr. Ryan presented a paper to the Society of Arts, with certificates on his system of clearing mines from fire-damp and foul air, and which were referred to a committee of that honourable and learned society. After the subject had been under considera- tion for one night, and was adjourned to ano- ther meeting, one of the members requested my attendance to hear the question discussed. Through the medium of this indulgence I had an opportunity of seeing Mr. Ryan's system elucidated by experiments before the Society, on models prepared for that purpose. Numerous certificates were read by the chairman from gentlemen of the first respectability in the coal-trade of Staffordshire, and several letters from Dr. Gray, Dr. Clanny, and Mr. Burns, members of the Society for preventing Acci- dents in the Northern Collieries. The testimonies produced by Mr. Ryan, 88 COAL MINES OF and the efficacy of his system, were corrobo- rated by the personal and highly respectable evidence of the Honourable Washington Shir- ley, and of several other gentlemen practically acquainted with the subject, whilst the philo- sophical principles of its operation underwent the most scrutinizing though liberal discussion of the committee. By permission of the chairman I was al- lowed to express my sentiments at length upon the subject, and to ask such questions as I thought necessary to be brought before the society. The rejection of Mr. Ryan's plans in the North seemed to indicate that there was some deficiency in them which was not made public, and probably this barrier would not have been overcome even by the multiplicity of satisfactory testimonials which were pro- duced from. Staffordshire, had not the preju- dices and mistaken interests which coalesce in the North been fairly laid open. I entered upon the subject as well as upon the comparative systems of Mr. Buddie, Mr. Ryan, and Mr. Menzies, at considerable length; and the committee, feeling the import- ance and great interest of the question, gave it the fullest latitude, and, after a long sitting on Tuesday evening the 7th of May, it was ad- journed to Thursday the Qih. DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. 8Q The system again underwent on this night a long and animated discussion, during which the committee scrutinized every branch of its principle, and ultimately concluded with a resolution unanimously agreed to, expressive of the philosophical principles and superiority of Mr. Ryan's plan over those now adopted, and voting a premium of one hundred guineas as a reward consistent with the sense enter- tained by the Society of its merits. On the question being brought forward be- fore the general ordinary meeting of the So- ciety, the gold medal was added to the above premium, in consideration of the great im- portance of Mr. Ryan's system. Mr. Ryan considers that, according to the pre- sent system of ventilation, much coal is lost from the circumstance of the pillars being left much larger than is absolutely necessary for the support of a mine, in order to give strength to the stoppings, which in the system now used are very numerous, and, according to Ryan's plan, totally useless. He proposes to work away nearly all the coal, and support the roof by pillars of timber; and in situations where there is no danger from a waste above the seam of coals at work, from buildings, or otherwise, to draw away the supports left at some distance behind the C)O COAL MINES OF part where the men are employed hewing, and by this means let the mine creep and entirely close the excavation. His principle of ventilation acts upon the known specific levity of the carburetted hy- drogen, causing it to occupy the roof of a mine, from whence he proposes to draw it by appropriating a separate headway or gas tube of about four feet square, communicating di- rectly from the upcast shaft to the most ele- vated part of the coal seam. This gas headway he makes the first work- ing in a mine, and carries it through the stra- tum immediately above the coal ; and as the working proceeds a communication is made from the several parts of a mine to this head- way, which is holed into at certain distances as the stratum of coal is hewn away. By this means an aperture is always presented to the light air or fire-damp floating on the roof to make its escape ; which that it will do, when the gas tube is made into a partial vacuum by the heat of a steam furnace at the bottom of the upcast shaft, is clearly demonstrated. This will be further elucidated by nearly filling a decanter with water and inverting its mouth into a bason filled with the same. Let a long glass tube or syphon pass through the neck of the bottle nearly to the top, and then pour DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. Ql some oil into the water just under the mouth of the bottle : the oil being the lighter fluid immediately ascends to the top ; and the air being drawn out of the tube so as to produce a momentary vacuum, the oil immediately rushes down and is discharged. Mr. Ryan proposes to have the steam-fur- nace about twenty-five yards horizontally from the bottom of the upcast shaft. He found that in a door fixed at the upper part of a gas head- way where a great quantity of gas was accu- mulated, an aperture of only two inches in diameter was sufficient vent for the foul air to pass through. There is no doubt but that the adoption of this system, from its philosophical principles, would lead to much improvement and economy in the working of a mine : in several instances this beneficial effect has been produced, and the Honourable Washington Shirley informed me that he supported Ryan's plans merely from motives of humanity, and his conviction of their superiority over any other. It is much to be regretted that the mines are not under such a state of regulation that improvements might be made in them without the projector having to contend with all the local prejudices and objections of persons im- mediately connected in their working. Until this is the case we must not expect to see any 02 COAL MINES OF perfection in mines, as their better regulation depends upon the total removal by some means of the fire damp, which might probably be accomplished by the combination of chemical investigation and mechanical ability. The Netherton and Buffery collieries in Staffordshire are now ventilated according to Ryan's system, and, from being the most dan- gerous mines in that part of the kingdom, are now the most secure ; but such was the extent of prejudice amongst the viewers and under- men, that all the benevolent attentions and authority of Mr. Shirley were insufficient to procure Ryan satisfactory trials, until he com- pelled obedience by discharging his men, and. sunk a nevy pit for experiments in the cause of humanity. Having thus delineated, as far as circum- stances require, the internal structure of the earth, the feature which coal wears in this structure, and the interior of a mine, with the mode of working and ventilation, I now proceed to finish the accounts of explosion and other accidents originating from a want of proper management in collieries, and trust the reader will find himself better acquainted with the subject, and ^proceed through the re- maining statements with more satisfactory in- formation. DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. $3 CHAPTER X. Continuation of Explosions, viz. at Felling, Hepburn, Leefield, the Success Pit, the Tyne Main, Sheriff's Hill, and Newbottle Collieries, with the dreadful Inundation of the Heat on Pit, including from 1 8 1 3 ft> 1 8 1 6. Felling. BY a reference to the date of the former ex- plosion at Felling, it will be found that scarcely a year intervened before this mine was again visited by the destructive arm of death, which on December 24, 1813, destroyed twenty- three men and boys : exclusive of this, twelve horses were killed, and twenty-one workmen escaped with more or less injury. Unfortunately there seldom remains any clue whereby to ascertain the exact cause which produces the explosion, as the poor workmen who are pursuing their labours nearest tojhe point of inflammation seldom escape to give evidence of the fact. It is presumed however, from a concurrence of circumstances, that this explosion was oc- casioned by the inflammable air igniting at 1 94 COAL MINES OF the crane lamp in the south headway, as many persons, the mine, and materials, were found dreadfully shattered on the outer side of the stoppings, whilst those on the inside were killed by the choak-damp, which rushed in to form an equilibrium after the inflammation of the gas. In no instance whatever has a stronger proof occurred of the inadequate security af- forded by ventilation than in this mine. It was reported to be more perfectly ventilated than any other; but notwithstanding this, one momentary operation of combustible union de- stroyed all the plans and improvements of the colliery. Hepburn Was the next mine which exploded, and did not so much abound in the supposed advan- tages of the Felling pit, being in a very in- different state of ventilation and abounding with old wastes. The excavated workings were full of inflammable air, and nothing but absolute disregard to common humanity could have induced the owners to work this pit in the state it was in ; and although every ex- ertion has subsequently been used to improve the state of its interior, the fate of Felling* is a 7 DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. 5 melancholy beacon against trusting too much to visionary securities. The means of ventilation certainly are now in a very high state of improvement ; but the most eminent ventilators will concur in stating that, unless nearly the whole of the fire-damp can be removed, other requisites are necessary for permanent security. The explosion of this mine * happened on May 12, 1814, and destroyed Mr. Mole, the underviewer, besides ten pitmen, who left nine widows and twenty-seven children in the ut- most misery and distress. There is one part of the workings at Hep- burn colliery which has for a considerable time baffled the skill of every person em- ployed ; and other parts, which at much risk the owners are enabled to work, cost them about sixty pounds per month in producing a sufficiency of light from steel-mills, which are very liable under some circumstances to produce explosion. I believe it would be almost impossible to keep any lamp burning in some parts of this mine now at work, as the prevalence of car- bonic acid is so very great, that combustion * For former explosion, see p. 40. 96 COAL MINES OF could not be supported. Fire-damp likewise exists in great quantities ; and as the principle which generated so much gas still continues to increase the accumulation, there is no doubt but it will cause the working to be relinquished in a very short time. Mr. Ryan descended one of the shafts of this colliery some time in the latter end of November, 1815, with a supply of atmospheric air to support respiration, whilst he examined the state of its interior, in expectation, from the accounts that had been given him, that the noxious vapours were formed chiefly of the car- buretted hydrogen ; but the experiment had nearly cost him his life, owing to the immense accumulations of carbonic acid or choak-damp. Leefield. On September Q, 1814, another explosion occurred, at Leefield colliery, situate on the Wear, about ten miles south-west of Sunder- land. It was occasioned by breaking into an old working, which had long been excavated and formed itself into a magazine of carburetted hydrogen gas. By this explosion luckily no person was killed, though the whole of the workmen employed were much injured. DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. Q7 Unfortunately, however, a second explosioa occurred in this mine on the ninth, by which four persons were killed, one of them leaving a wife and seven children, and another a wife and five children, to bewail their untimely end. Heaton Inundation. I have before remarked on the great evil which exists in this district from the extent and situation of the old wastes, which accord- ing to the present system of management are in every way dangerous; for they either be- come the receptacles of water, or otherwise fill with inflammable air, and which on being broken into from any other mine invariably prove destructive. It is this circumstance which daily increases the necessity of securing, not only to ourselves but to future ages, correct records of their situation and boundaries, the want of which, and the consequences resulting from the ignorance of them, are strikingly il- lustrated by the melancholy catastrophe which happened in this pit. Heaton colliery is situate about three miles from Newcastle on the road leading to Shields, and cannot escape the notice of a person tra- velling that way, and is one of those worked H Q8 COAL MtNEfc OF only by one shaft, which is made to answer the double purpose of upcast and downcast, a System of cruel and inhuman economy which frequently produces the greatest of calamities.* The depth which the seam in work lay was about one hundred and ten fathoms, and pro- ceeded under the wastes or excavated workings of an upper seam, which had for some time been closed up, and were rilled with accumula- tions of water and inflammable air. The water, having found some rent or fissure passing partly down the strata which inter- vened between the two seams, is supposed to have gradually decomposed the remaining dis- tance, and ultimately on May 3, 1815, about four o'clock in the morning, forced its way through the roof of the lower seam, and quickly rose to the height of twenty-four fa- thoms. The pitmen, having no means of retreat except the single working shaft, were forced to seek refuge in the higher parts of the mine ; but the tremendous deluge which rushed through the yawning apertures met no impe- diments, and in two days the water had attained the height of thirty-one fathoms and cdn- * See Sheriff Hill colliery, p. 103. DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. QQ signed seventy-five men and boys to eternity, besides destroying thirty-seven horses. But it is to be lamented that even this dreadful sweep did not end the work of misery, as twenty- five widows were deprived of their husbands and the means of subsistence, and about eighty children robbed of their fathers. I believe the greater part of these waters have since been drained off at great expense, and an immensity of labour. The jury, which sat over the first body found, gave a verdict satisfactory to the management of the mine previous to the accident. It might be good according to the present system, but that this requires amendment, and might be much im- proved, there is little doubt of. Subsequently to the above verdict juries have been summoned over other bodies which were found dead in this colliery ; and from the evi- dence produced before them it appears that many of the poor sufferers who escaped to the higher workings must have subsisted for some time upon horse-flesh, candles, and horse- beans, as part of a dead horse was found near them, and but few candles were left, although a considerable supply had been received just before the accident. H 100 COAL MINES OF Success Pit. Although the dreadful accident at the Heaton colliery happened at a period so little distant from the present, still it did not end the history of distress ; for while the inhabitants of the two counties were yet intent upon the miseries occasioned by the inundation of the Heaton pit, they were roused into increased an- guish by the explosion of this pit on Friday, June 2. The Success Pit is situate near Newbottle, on the left of the road leading from thence to Cheny Row, about six miles from Sunderland, and exploded about half-past four in the morn- ing without leaving any possible means of as- certaining the cause, as every person on the spot where the explosion occurred was de- stroyed. It is supposed however,, from recent examination, to have been occasioned by the workmen breaking into an old working from an ignorance of their proper boundary. In an instant fifty- four human beings were shattered to atoms, and the thundering of the earth tolled the dismal knell of despair to their unfortunate wives and families ; the explosion laid all waste around, and the overwhelming DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. 301 currents of atmospheric air, * choak, and fire- damp, which rushed from every quarter to fill up the vacuum., soon completed the horrors of the scene. Scarce a vestige of the mine in its winning (or working) shape could be found : seams of coal were rent asunder, pillars hurled from their station, and the roof lowered in many places to the floor; a waggon with a team of horses and the driver were dashed to pieces; and out of seventy-two persons employed, besides the fifty-four killed at the instant, and the waggoner, two suffered death by suffoca- tion, and the remaining fifteen were severely hurt or wounded; some of them only sur- viving until they had reached the surface, when the atmospheric air became too powerful for their exhausted condition. Thus in the short space of a month one hundred and thirty-two poor beings were awfully destroyed, and near three hundred widows and children left to all the horrors of beggary and starvation. It is a reflection which makes the humane mind look with indignation on the unpardon- * A curious account of the effects of air rushing into the vacuum occasioned by an explosion, appears in Phil. Trans, abridged by Drs. Hutton, Shaw, and Pearson, vol, xiii. page 102 COAL MINES OF able lethargy of every person concerned in this trade, and of society in not actively proceeding to get such regulations established, and im- provements introduced, as would lessen the ex- tent of these accidents ; and though the fund established for the relief of sufferers by explo- sion, &c. may palliate, it by no means extenuates the blame of cruel inattention to the security of the miner. Means of this kind would be much better employed in preventing causes for their application, than in dispensing relief, which must first be qualified by death and despair; and I most sincerely hope, when this publication and the statement it contains have attracted public attention, that government, the society esta- blished at Sunderland for the prevention of accidents in coal mines, and of which His Grace the Duke of Northumberland is Patron, and Sir R. Noel President, with the owners, viewers, &c. will mutually concur in adopting plans for the removal and prevention of these accidents. Tyne Main. Another explosion occurred on Monday the 5th of June, at the Tyne Main colliery, situ- ate near to Gateshead Park, the property of 1 DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. 103 Cuthbert Ellison, Esq. which severely scorched one man, without doing much further damage. Sheriff Hill On the 27th of July, the Isabella Pit of this colliery, situate about four miles from New- castle on the road to Durham, exploded, by which ten men and boys were killed. Another accident of a very different nature happened at this mine in December last, owing to its being worked by only one shaft. The shaft was divided into three parts by means of boards or brattices fixed longitudinally down it ; and to prevent them taking fire from the heat of the furnace, which cast up one of these partitions, a current of water was kept constantly flowing down on the brattices : by some means however this was stopped, and the brattices got .dry, when they shortly took fire below ; the ventilating medium became deranged, and the workmen finding the want of air rushed to the pit : five of them however lost their way, or took a different rout, and were never heard of more ; the remainder were saved with much exertion. T ne brattices con- tinuing to burn set fire to the coal-beds, which continued burning for a considerable time. 10>T COAL MINES OF Immediately on being made acquainted with this accident, Mr. Buddie the viewer, who I understand is one of the proprietors, hastened to the spot, and too much cannot be said of his humane courage in being lowered down the shaft, although the brattices were on fire, in order to render every assistance in his power. Newbottle. On Monday the 31st of July, another spe- cies of accident, of a very serious nature, occur- red at the Newbottle colliery, situate about six miles from Sunderland ; and although it may be reckoned amongst those casualties against which there is no guarding, still it shows the extreme necessity of protecting a class of people who are exposed to such mani- fold dangers. A new steam engine had been erected at the shaft of this mine, which had just commenced winning, and forms an apex with the Success and Harrington Pits. A great number of per- sons, principally workmen in the mine, as- sembled to witness its first operation, when the boiler being overheated, fifty-seven persons wem instantly destroyed by its explosion. DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. CHAPTER XI. On the Means of affording a secure Light in Coal Mines, by Dr. Clanny. Correspon- dence with the Editor of the Morning Chro- nicle, and with Dr. Clanny. THE quick repetitions of the latter accidents, and the sensation produced throughout the kingdom by their publication in the news- papers, gave rise to the following correspon- dence ; and every heart must concur with me in paying a tribute of public respect to the philanthropic exertions of Dr, Clanny. He had witnessed the effect of these accidents ; he had professionally attended to the sufferers ; and, without any other motive than humanity in behalf of the miners, he exerted himself more than six years back to prevent explosions from fire-damp, and has ever since paid the most zealous and friendly attention to their cause ; and though the result has not been what might have been expected, still his claim continues not only undiminished but increased. The subsequent inventions have arisen from his exertions in keeping the subject alive ; and 4 10(5 COAL MINES OF whatever may be the merit of Sir Humphry Davy, Dr. Murray, and others, it is only just to give Dr. Clanny his due, and leave the rest to comparison. Society are likewise much indebted to the Editor of the Morning Chronicle, in so readily facilitating the appearance of the letters in his very excellent and independent paper, which contributed in no small measure to awaken the public attention, and agitate a subject so long neglected. It will be necessary, properly to elucidate the whole subject of lighting the mines, to transcribe Dr. Clanny's paper in 1813 to the Royal Society,* and which I have his permis- sion to do. Previous to his lamp being de- scribed to this learned body, it was experi- mented upon in a very satisfactory manner, by Dr. Wollaston, Sec. R. S., Mr. Allen, F. R. S., Mr. Pepys, F. R. S., and professor Berzelius, of Stockholm. * Phil. Trans, for 1813, part ii. p. 200. DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. 107 " On a Steady Light in Coal Mines, by W. R. Clanny, M. D. read to the Royal So- ciety, May, 1813. " The many dreadful explosions of fire- damp, or inflammable air, which have occur- red in the extensive and well-regulated coal mines in this district in the course of nine years, during which I have resided in the county of Durham, have often excited my most serious attention ; and latterly these ex- plosions have caused the death of so many in- dustrious people, that no individual possessed of common humanity can look on the subject with indifference. " Though the improved methods of ventila- tion have been attended by many solid advan- tages to the proprietors of coal mines, it is nevertheless worthy of remark, that the in- creased frequency of explosions clearly demon- strates that ventilation in this case has been no preventive. " Ventilation undoubtedly supplies atmosphe- ric air, but it cannot obviate those inundations of inflammable air (if I may be permitted the expression) which, rushing from the old work- ings and caverns of the coal mine, overwhelm 108 COAL MINES OF every thing before them. It is evident that ventilation, even in its improved state, has afforded no relief whatever ; and here the ap- paratus which, in the Jirst instance, I have the honour to lay hefore the Royal Society, will be found to afford a good light unaccom- panied by danger.* " It very frequently happens that accumu- lations of carbureted hydrogen gas, mixed with atmospheric air, take place in the wastes or old workings of the coal mines ; and though much precaution is used for keeping this inflammable air confined to its proper places, by means of partitions and folding-doors, nevertheless, when by carelessness or accident the air comes into contact with any ignited substance, an explo- sion generally takes place. " These explosions happen when the pit- men are occupied in heaving out the coal at the workings, should they chance to open a cavern of unmixed carbureted hydrogen gas. This gas, for the most part being pent up in a condensed state, rushes from a chasm, and forming what is locally denominated a blower, it suddenly mixes with the atmospheric air of the mine, and, surrounding the lights of the * See Thomson's Annals, and Tilloch's Phil, Mag. for June 1813. DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. 10Q pit-men, an explosion follows, commensurate with the quantity of hydrogen gas, which is frequently very considerable.* " The great danger of these explosions, even when every precaution has been taken, is ma- nifest by their frequency, and indeed it may be expected that an explosion will take place by means of a lighted candle the instant that the hydrogen gas amounts to one-twelfth part of the atmospheric air present, and that a similar effect will follow at all proportions from one-sixth to one-twelfth. " When ventilation, by the methods in ge- neral use, is found insufficient to carry off the fire-damp as it arises in coal mines, large pumps are employed at the top of the shaft for that purpose, which are worked by steam- engines. So frequent and instantaneous are the changes in the proportions of inflammable air from accidental circumstances, that it would be impossible at all times to ascertain, by a che- mical process, at all parts of the mine when danger is impending ; for frequently the great- est differences of proportions exist at the same time in different parts of such extensive works * The account of the explosions as contained in Dr. Clanny's paper is here omitted, as they are described more fully in the foregoing pages. 11O COAL MINES OF as coal mines. In fact, the miners know from the appearance of the light of their candles * when the proportion of hydrogen gas is such as to threaten an explosion ; hence they care- fully watch each other's candles, that they may desist in time and escape instant destruction. * c The excavations of coal mines are much greater than they are generally supposed to be ; in some collieries they are continued for many miles,*f~ forming numerous windings and turn- ings, along which the pit-men have frequently to walk for forty or fifty minutes before they arrive at the workings, during which time as well as when at work, they have no direct communication with the surface of the earth, but are entirely at the mercy of their greatest enemy, the inflammable air. This circum- stance first impressed me with the idea,, that the light by which the pit-men were to work might be insulated. " I was well aware that no preparation of * See Observations of J. B. Longmire, on the Means of detecting Carbureted Hydrogen Gas, or Inflammable Air in Coal Mines. Thomsons Annals, 1815, p. 332. f Mr. Buddie, in a letter to Sir R. Milbanke, President of the Society for Preventing Explosions, &c. ( See First Report) says that he has known the distance which a current of air has to pass through a mine to exceed thirty miles. DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. Ill phosphorus could supply a sufficient light for the purpose ; an observation equally applicable to the miserable scintillations of steel-mills (as they are termed) which have often exploded the inflammable air of the coal mines. " I find it needful here to remark that, as far as applies to myself, the idea of insulating the light, and also the plan which I have adopted of carrying this plan into eifect, by the construction of the apparatus or lamp, are perfectly original. This lamp may be managed with the greatest care by any boy of common understanding. It is so strong, that should large pieces of coal fall upon it, they cannot in the least injure it. Nor is there any chance of its being upset by any accident, as it may be worked at the very bottom of the mine, and it is likewise conveniently portable. " The combustion of the candle within the lamp is supported by the ordinary atmospheric air of the coal mine, 1 which is supplied by a pair of common bellows, through a stratum of water below the candle ; at the same time a portion of the air, already in the lamp, is driven through another stratum of water above the candle ; and thus the air supplied may ex- plode within the body of the lamp, without communicating the effect to the air in the 112 COAL MINES OF mine, however highly it may be charged with carbureted hydrogen gas. 66 The moment the air enters into the lamp it comes in contact with the candle, and con- sequently, upon all occasions, a small portion only of the air can be exploded, instead of the whole contents of the lamp ; by this means several obvious advantages are secured. The air, passing in a brisk current from below up- wards close by the candle, carries the snuff with it, so that the light is always clear and steady. " I may also remark that, wherever a person can exist from a sufficiency of atmospheric air, this lamp will afford a safe and abundant light from one candle only, for the space of five hours at least. This lamp will in all proba- bility be found very useful in the powder ma- gazines of ships of war and of forts, as also in those places where gun-powder is manu- factured ; but this observation is merely thrown out for the opinion of those who are more con- versant upon such subjects." DESCRIPTION OF THE LAMP. The plate given with the above paper being different to the lamp in its present modified state, BURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. 113 I have omitted giving a figure on the original plan, but present a sketch upon the improved construction. Plate VI. Fig. 1, represents the lamp as it now is ready for use. A) the body of the lamp, constructed of copper or block tin. B, a conical tube which carries off the air (deprived of its oxygen by combustion) through the water in the cistern C. D is a cistern containing water to keep the lamp cool if necessary. E, the window of the lamp made of very thick glass. F, the candle supported upon a tin stand. G) a cistern containing water through which the air is forced by the bellows. H 9 a tube from the bellows which conveys air for supporting the combustion of the candle. An elastic tube may be fixed to the valve of the bellows in case of necessity, by which to draw atmospheric air from any distance to sup- ply the lamp. No other invention whatever can equal the se- curity of this lamp ; and although others may be more applicable, from the necessity of having a person required constantly to work the bel- I 114 COAL MINES OF lows, still I am of opinion that its great use and security will prevail in the investigation ^>f dangerous mines, indeed in the investiga- tion of all mines, as its portability and other recommendations are now beginning to be ap- proved by viewers and practical men about collieries. I will now proceed with the corres- pondence which originated from the accidents before described. LETTER. (No. I.) " To the Editor of the Morning Chronicle. " SIR, " The melancholy explosions which have re- cently occurred in the coal mines, and by which so many families have been involved in distress and want by the loss of their princi- pal supporters, induces an anxiety in my mind, to know whether, in any of the mines which have exploded, Dr. Clanny's insulated lamps have been used, as a theoretical knowledge of their construction strongly suggests their great utility in preventing explosions from in- flammable air. " I trust that the general interest which is felt in any subject so replete with public cala- 1 DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. ] 15 mity will be an excuse for thus trespassing on your columns ; and, as the principal remedy against similar catastrophes depends upon the exclusion of the inflammable air contained in old workings from accidentally bursting upon the lights of the pit-men, and the exclusion of any excessive inflammability which may accidentally occur in the ventilations of the mine, I can but regret that, if they have not been adopted generally, a more extensive ap- plication is riot made. " In them the light is perfectly insulated, and cannot come in contact with any air ex- cept what is conveyed in by the bellows from the common air of the mine, or with pure at. mospheric air by means of an elastic tube. And whatever inflammable mixture may pass through the tube into the lamp, it may ex- plode as it becomes exposed to the heat, with- out communicating the effect to the air in the mine, however highly it may be charged with carburetted hydrogen gas ; as on entering the lamp the air passes from the tube into a stra- tum of water, and undergoes the same cor- rection in ventilating from above to the mine. " I have no motive for extolling the appa- rent advantages of this invention but what would occur to every person desirous of avert- I 2 11 6 COAL MINES OP ing a repetition of similar accidents, as those which of late have so extensively occurred. 6, Crave* Street, " J. H. H. HOLMES." July 12, 1815." LETTER. (No. II.) " To the same. " SIR, " I have to express my obligations for the insertion of my letter relative to the explosion of coal mines, and which originated from mo- tives of common humanity, blended with a very strong desire to know whether the invention so apparently beneficial as Dr. Clanny's lamp had been used, or whether any effectual re- medy had yet been ascertained for these dread- ful accidents. " In consequence of its insertion, two gen- tlemen waited upon me this morning, who are connected with a society * for preventing accidents of this nature, and for propagating scientific improvements in these subterraneous habitations of man. And as some, although a very inadequate return for your attention, I * The society for preventing explosions, &c. in coal mines at Sunderlanct. DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. 11? take the liberty of exposing upon a broader base the opinions which this information have given rise to ; and as it may hereafter lead to a desire on my part to elicit the case through the medium of your excellent paper, I cannot justify myself in common etiquette, without previously acquainting you, what, from mere curious observation, should convert my pen into active exertion. " By an estimate drawn up from the most concise information that can be had, it appears, that, within the last three years, not less than, four hundred Jives have fallen sacrifices to explosions ; about three hundred to casual ex- plosions and accidents, incident and un- avoidable ; and three hundred and twenty wives and children (I quote from memory) re- duced to parochial dependance, or absolute distress. " I am not aware that this estimate includes the late extensive explosion which killed above one hundred and thirty people, but those con- tained in the estimate happen within a circle of not more than ten miles in diameter. " The prejudices of owners, viewers, and others employed about the mines, have hi- therto much cramped the progress of improve- 7 US COAL MINES O* ment, and precluded any actual observations being made, which might tend ultimately to establish means of safety ; but it is to be hoped that the alarming extent of these accidents having now assumed such a national feature of calamity will prepare the legislature for en- couraging the efforts of philanthrophy, and enabling persons with sanction and authority to penetrate the gloomy regions of a coal mine in search of experiments, and in the adoption of improvements. " Villages nearly depopulated, and starving families, are the effects of these disastrous oc- currences ; and the increase of pauperism in this case must always exceed its due proportion, so long as private prejudices are enabled to frustrate public improvements : and it ought to be considered that the interest or the prejudices of any individual person, or class of people, ought not to militate against the pre- servation of general equability and public se- curity. " I write this as a private letter, but sub- ject to your better judgment in regard to any other use. I am informed that a more accu- rate report, up to the present time, will shortly be obtained, when some active steps will be DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. 1 1 9 taken for penetrating the gloom of subterraneity with experimental inventions. . " I have the honour, &c. " 6, Craven-street, " J. H. H. HOLMES." "July 17, 1815." LETTER. (No. III.) " To the Editor of the Morning Chronicle. 66 SIR, " A short time after its publication in the Morning Chronicle, I read the letter signed J. H. H. Holmes, bearing date July 12, 1815. Not having the honour of an acquaintance with Mr. Holmes, and being desirous that this hu- mane gentleman, and your readers, should have replies to the queries which Mr. Holmes has made in his letter concerning my appara- tus for lighting collieries, I shall with your permission endeavour to supply the requisite information through the same desirable me- dium. " Mr. Holmes commences by observing, * that the melancholy explosions which have recently occurred in the coal mines, and which have involved so many families in want and misery, induce an anxiety to know whether 120 COAL MINES OF Dr. Clanny's insulated lamps have been used in any of the mines where these dreadful accidents have occurred, as a theoretical know- ledge of their construction strongly suggests their great utility in preventing explosions from inflammable air, &c.' " My lamp has not been employed in any of the mines in which these dreadful accidents have happened, and I have much pleasure in stating that no accident can occur when it is used in the manner directed : nor is this theo- retical ; for more than half a dozen of the first philosophers of the present age have seen the lamp experimented upon with inflammable air, and have observed that there was not the slightest chance for explosions occurring in those mines where it is used. Of course I do not consider myself at liberty to publish their names, but shall leave them with you, Mr. Editor, for your satisfaction. " Since the publication of my paper, " on the Means of procuring a Steady Light in Coal Mines, without the Danger of Explosion,'* I have made some important additions to the apparatus: 1st, The candle may be lighted within the body of the lamp, even in those places where the atmosphere is highly charged * See page 107. DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. 121 with inflammable air ; and should the candle be extinguished by any accident it may be lighted again in the same manner with perfect safety : 2dly, This apparatus is now so con- structed as to be conveniently portable : 3dly, The apparatus may be carried in a train or wheelbarrow, and will, by the circumvolu- tions of the wheel, supply itself with air for the combustion of the candle, without any person touching it.^ " It is well known that the miserable scintil- lations of steel-mills have several times caused explosions in coal mines, and these mills are considerably more expensive than my appara- tus; for the prime cost is about one guinea each, and I am credibly informed that it re- quires the constant employment of one work- man to keep six steel-mills in repair ; while on the other hand my apparatus will last fifty * The second of these additional improvements Dr. Clanny certainly has carried to an admirable extent ; but the first and third have been altered since he became ac- quainted with the interior of a mine, &c. The rugged and, in some parts, confined boards of a mine are but ill calculated for the circumvolutions of a wheel attached to machinery ; and , the miner would never attend to the re-lighting by phosphorus. Its present portability however comprehends all advantages. 122 COAL MINES OF years, requiring.no repair, and the present cost will not exceed two guineas and a half.* " It has heen more than once urged that ventilation properly conducted will do every thing. I grant that hy proper ventilation se- veral accidents might he prevented. But where is the colliery that is properly ventilated ? In- dependently of this, explosions have generally arisen from the following causes, in which ventilation, even in its improved state, cannot be considered as a preventive ; for, from the present state of the collieries, considering their extent and the time they have been worked, the uncertain information as to the extent or limits of old collieries, on all sides, of which no information can be obtained, besides the incertitude which prevails for want of maps and records, no secure plan of ventilation can be followed up in most of the mines in this district; and consequently explosions under the present state of affairs must increase, pro- vided my apparatus be not in use, particularly the following case as hinted at above. " When the plan of a colliery is abstracted or lost, as I understand to be the case in a * They are now made of copper for thirty shillings, fcnd may be had of block tin for seventeen. DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. 123 very considerable explosion which took place a short time ago in this district ; when by accident or carelessness the pit-men work into old workings where inflammable air has been accumulating for many years ; or when they " hole" into another coal pit containing in- flammable air, or open into a natural reservoir of inflammable air, by which a blower is formed ; when sudden eruptions of carburetted hydrogen gas unexpectedly mix the whole cir- cumambient air up to the firing point ; when, the barometer stands below '29, and the wind is south-east,* the atmospheric air becomes * The mines and old workings, in some instances, are provided with cast-iron gas pipes, carried from the mine up the shaft to some yards above the surface. These pipes continually give out a very strong current of gas, except when the wind is a little to the north-east, or when round in any point from north to north-west. In this case, in- stead' of the gas issuing up and making the pipes quite warm, it drives down and causes the pipes to be cold. The warmth however may in some measure be accounted for ; as the pipe I examined was carried up the upcast shaft, consequently the gas became heated at the bottom near the furnace, and this communicated an excess of heat to the pipe. When the wind is north or north-west, the atmospheric air descends, and prevents the warmth of the lower part from ascending. This phenomenon is owing to the heaviness of the atmosphere in one case preventing the current of gas from ascending, and its lightness on the other suffering it to escape. 124 COAL MINES OF too light to sweep off the increased discharge of inflammable air which then issues out of every part of some mines ; where the inflam- mable air prevails between the workmen and the upcast shafts, and a fall of stones or other causes occur to force back the atmospheric current towards the downcast shaft. " In several coal mines ingenious methods o are used for exploding the inflammable air as it accumulates ; this plan undoubtedly has much merit, but in the cases stated above, it does not apply so well as we could wish, as it is intended for general principles. " It is requisite to state that there are three classes of persons concerned in collieries : the owners, who in general are persons of large property, and for the most part understand, ing very little of the detail of business, or the method pursued in carrying on their works ; the chief viewers and under-viewers, to whom every thing is entrusted ; * and the pit-men, or miners, who perform all the labour, and on whom destruction falls. They are a very honest and industrious class of men.-}- Many * See Phil. Mag. May 1815, p. 377. t From the observations I have been able to make on the habits and characters of miners in general, I find them a. very industrious quiet people, perfectly subservient in every respect to their viewers or other masters; and DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. 125 men cannot bear instruction from others, par- ticularly if they belong to another class. Habit, prejudices against any thing which may appear new or upon scientific principle, and self- sufficiency, have had their share in refusing my apparatus for two years, though I defy any man, or any class of men, to find fault with it in any particular. " And any copper-smith may make a thou- sand of them at the above price. W. RETD CLANNY, Sunderland, M. D. and M. R. I. A." Aug. 1, 1815." * LETTER. No. IV. " To W. Reid Clanny, M. D. 8$c. " SIR, " Not having the honour of your acquaint- ance, I hope I shall be excused in presuming amongst them there are many who, though illiterate cha- racters, are possessed of much scientific practical know- ledge, and wonderful natural ability. If therefore the mines were put under a proper management, and every one enabled to communicate his ideas (which at present they dare not do), I have no doubt but that, whatever im- provement was projected, it would be much facilitated by their local information. 126 COAL MINES OF upon the publication of our respective letters in the Morning Chronicle, for the reception of this letter, and for the appreciation of those circumstances which have resulted from my first statement. At the same time I must apo- logize for taking the liberty, unauthorized, of using your name in a public print; but as it was only in such manner as was connected with your own invention of an apparatus which possesses general utility, and ought to claim public attention, I hope my anxiety to ques- tion, whether on the one hand it had been used? and if not, on the other, why not? will be deemed justifiable by you, and afford an excuse for the liberty. " A day or two following the publication of my letter two gentlemen called at my lodgings, who stated that they were connected with a so- ciety which had in view the alleviation of acci- dents in coal mines, and the propagation of improvement for preventing explosions. From them I received an expression of thanks for having in some measure brought the subject before the public : we had much conversation upon this important topic, and they expressed an intention of waiting upon me again when they had received reports from the North, with conclusive information respecting the present DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. 127 state of the mines, and the extent of calamity recently experienced. " A statement brought up to a late period, but anterior to that, was shown to me, and which, from its alarming extent * of distressed fami- lies and individuals, strongly urged the neces- sity of some authoritative interference. Indeed it appeared in the contemplation of these gen- tlemen to prepare grounds for a petition to parliament, and which I conceive would be the most proper and most effectual remedy. Still there are many matters to be considered, and many interests connected, in shaping the manner in which this remedy should apply e'er it comes before parliament, as it would be necessary to lay the grounds of a petition upon, such a basis that the evidence of no particular prejudice, or any particular interest, should be able fatally to oppose ; and this I presume will be best done by showing the extreme necessity of making local prejudices beyond what are just to be admitted and private interest be- yond what it is proper to protect subservient to the general safety, happiness, and interest of the community. " For, however extensive the fund may be * See page 117. 128 COAL MINES OF which the owners, &c. have provided for the alleviation of distress occasioned by explo- sion * and other accidents in mines, this says nothing in regard to the sacrifice of human life; and so long as the lives and the social ties of existence (which I presume exist in the breasts of miners and their, families as in others) are a subject of national consideration, an anxiety must be felt for their fate. the glass. These lamps have been tried in a mine ; and on their being presented to the Society of Arts, in May, certificates were sent with them of highly satisfactory experiments. They were, as usual with all inventions sent to this society, referred to a proper committee for investiga- tion, and the silver medal was ultimately awarded to Dr. Clanny, as a testimony of approbation for the modification of his original lamp presented to the Royal Society in 1813. The steam lamp (as it was then), on being experimented upon, exploded, in consequence of the gas being forced through the tubes much more rapidly than it would have been drawn in, had the lamp been immersed in an inflammable mixture. I thought proper however to put it to the test, and as it failed, to let it stand for further improvement : the air tubes at that time were much shorter and quite open at the bottom ; but Dr. Clanny has subsequently made satisfactory improve- ments by lengthening the tubes, and striking small perforations through the bottom of them, P2 COAL MINES OF CHAPTER XIX. On the Necessary Regulation of Collieries. Explosion of the Wellington Pit. Obser- vations of Mr. Thomas and Thomas Chap- man, Esq. thereon. Plan for establishing an Office by Act of Parliament) and for appointing Commissioners, and a Master Superintendent, for regulating and inspect- ing Mines Abridgment and Alteration of Mr. Chapman s Rules. JL HE lighting and ventilation of mines, how- ever important to the interests of the country and to humanity, do not combine the whole improvements which are necessary in the mining system. It has now got to 'such an extent, and the excavations under ground, parti- cularly in the district of the Tyne and Wear, are so immense, that it is essential to the future prosperity of England, to have a regular and systematic principle in the working of col- lieries ; for, exclusive of the dependance a nation has upon her mineral resources, the revenue produced by them ought to make go* DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. 213 vernirient very watchful over the mining of Great Britain. Nothing is wanting to prove the impossibi- lity of having any security from the present system ; and I have to regret that, even while I am writing this treatise, fresh accidents oc- cur to swell the lists of calamity. The subject had already become too seriously injurious to the happiness of society to be any longer trifled with ; but now that we see instances almost every month of our fellow-creatures being destroyed by subterraneous explosion, it is no longer to be endured, and necessity de- mands that something be done. On Saturday the 28th of April, 18l6, the Wellington pit, near Newcastle, exploded from the ignition of the carburetted hydrogen gas, and raged with terrific fury through the ex- cavations to a distance of two hundred yards in one continued flame. Luckily however this mine had two shafts, and the powerful rarefac- tion of air which was caused by the explo- sion drew a strong atmospheric current down the Blucher pit ; and by this means all except thirteen men escaped : these were dreadfully bruised or scorched, whereas, had it not been the case, every soul must have perihed. Mr. Thomas, in his " Hints for establishing 214 COAL MINES OF an Office at Newcastle (originally brought for- ward in 1797> and revived in J805) for col- lecting and rendering information relative to the state of the collieries in its neighbourhood; and the progress that has been made as to as- certaining the nature and constitution of the Strata, below those Scams to which the work- ing of this Country has been confined," sug- gests that the proprietors of collieries in the neighbourhood subscribe to such an establish- ment, and direct their agents to deliver into the office plans of the boundaries, with any other information relating to their respective mines. After this Mr. Thomas suggests eight other rules necessary for the regulation of such office, and which appear very applicable. Thomas Chapman, Esq. Civil Engineer, sug- gested some further measures upon this head, and urged the increasing necessity of parlia- mentary interference. I perfectly coincide in the general rules laid down by these gentle- men, but think they ought to be established under an act of parliament expressly for that purpose, and empowering a superintendent to see all the regulations carried into effect. This ought in the first instance to form the object .of the existing society for bettering the state of the mines ; and it is to the members I sub- DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. 215 Jnit the following additions and alterations of former plans. I am well convinced that any institution dependent upon voluntary subscrip- tions and information would be useless and ineffectual. I therefore suggest that a petition be framed, praying his Majesty's Government to grant an Act of Parliament upon the fol- lowing grounds. That an office be established at Newcastle^ Shields, or Sunderland, (whichever may be found most convenient,) having a clerk or agent at the remaining two places ; to be re- gulated by five or more commissioners ap- pointed for that purpose, and under the im- mediate direction of a master superintendent or inspector. That this establishment should be provided for by a rate upon the coals, mutually affecting the proprietor and lessor. This rate would be comparatively trifling, and ultimately of no pe- cuniary consideration to either party, as its difference would not be felt by the consumer. Calculating therefore^ on the least possible scale, upon the annual exportation of one million of Newcastle chaldrons from the ports on the Tyne and Wear, which by reference to the account of exportations we may fairly pre- sume, and including the land sale collieries, 21 6 COAL MINES OF it may be estimated that one million five hun- dred thousand chaldrons of coals are annually led away from the mines of this district. A duty of one penny per chaldron upon this quantity, to be paid by the owners or lessees of the mine, and by the act imposed in due moieties or proportions upon each, or wholly upon the proprietor if working his own mine, would produce annually 6/25 O/. Out of this might be apportioned the salary of the superintendent or inspector and com- missioners. Another part to establish a per- manent fund for the liquidation of any extra- ordinary expenses or premiums to persons de- vising improvements for preserving the security of a mine, provided the necessity and propriety of the means to be adopted be first commu. nicated to the superintendent, and verified by certificates from a sufficient number of persons practically acquainted with the subject; who should lay them before the commissioners; but that nothing relating to the repairs of the machinery, or common and usual working of the mine, should be included in this claim. That examinations should be made of ex- isting wastes ; and if, upon proper investiga- tion, a sufficiency of coal, alumine, or other product, could be depended upon to defray the DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. expenses of draining or otherwise securing such wastes, that they should be let by con- tract to a person undertaking to perform the same, and to leave the excavated parts in a state of security ; and that any profit gained by such contract should relapse into the fund for the general uses of mining. That another portion of the above proceeds should be substituted for the present bene- volent fund ; and that, exclusive of the com- missioners appointed by government, all proprietors and viewers, on signifying their wishes before a certain day, in any year, should become joint trustees of this fund, five of whom should act as a joint committee with the commissioners and superintendent; and that any surplus arising herefrom should sub- join and be transferred to the fund or ac- cumulating annual proceed of the monies ap- plicable to the extraordinary uses of mining. That the permanent fund should be suffered to accumulate for a certain number of years, after which, dividends should be made out pay- able to the proprietors and lessees, according to the duty annually paid by them. An establishment upon principles of this kind could not certainly be deemed oppressive in its tendency : on the contrary, it would 218 COAL MINES OF be upon a most equitable plan ; and, addition- ally regulated by other arrangements which would develope themselves in the forming of such an act, it would certainly prove beneficial to the country, and a source of security to miners. The expense would ultimately be felt, or probably not felt at all, by the consumer ; and I hold it as a principle of common equity, that government should preserve, in the strict- est manner, what must always be a source of great assistance to the revenue, what the pre- sent population have only a life interest in, and what ought to be transferred in as ample a manner as possible to their successors. Principle of the Plans suggested by Mr. Chapman, abridged and altered. That on the conclusion or relinquishment of the working of any seam of coals in any col- liery, known by any individual designation, the owner or owners, workers or occupiers of the said colliery shall, within nine months after such relinquishment, lodge, or cause to be lodged, in the office of the master super- intendent, a duly authenticated and correct plan of the said wrought-out or relinquished seam of coals, drawn on a scale of not less DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND, 21Q than four chains- -to an inch* and containing the full extent of the workings of the said coals, distinguishing such parts as are totally wrought out from those where the pillars are left standing ; and also wit/i the following par- ticulars delineated upon it, accompanied by' proper explanations and marks of reference, viz. The direction of all d^kes or fissures inter- secting the seam. The position and denomination of all the pits. The precise boundaries of the colliery, so that the unwrought parts and extent of barrier may be known ; every drift into such un- wrought parts to be iorrectly delineated as to its direction and extent. That the direct line of dip or depression be correctly laid down, with all alterations in the course of the seam. A delineation of all the roads, brooks, and principal objects, permanently situated on the surface, with the compass line and date. This map, with it| delineation and references, shall, after being (duly signed and authen- ticated by the principal coal-viewer or manager of the workings of the colliery and the over- man,, and secured in a tin case with a label 6 220 COAL MINES OF signifying the colliery or seam to which it refers, be lodged, within the period mentioned in the master superintendent's office, under penalties for failuie in so doing. This map should likewise be iccompanied with a paper of reference, contahing the length or depres- sion of strata in various parts of any dyke in- tersecting the same, the depth and diameter of each pit from the surface, the height and quality of seams, the description and formation of the roof and thil., the faults or troubles, and the relative situation of coal seams in regard to others. All drifts communicating through the bar- rier from one seam to another colliery should be noticed ; their situation, and whether any stops or frame-dams hive been put into such drifts. All other local or partial circumstances which may preserve authentic information of the pits, staples, scaffoldings &c. in case it may ever become necessary tore-work the seam. That viewers, &c. wlo should deliver in plans, as above, of minei which were worked out antecedent to such Act of Parliament, should be entitled to a certain premium, as a stimulus to obtain retrospective information. That all persons be entitled to see the DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. '221 documents, and have extracts, on application, twelve months after any seam or colliery is wrought out or relinquished, and on paying the fees to the clerk of the peace. That on the plan being delivered into the master superintendent's office, notice thereof should be given by the attesting parties to the clerk of the peace to whom the original should be delivered within three months from such notice, after having exact copies taken at the superintendent's office, to obviate the loss of such information by fire or otherwise. That the superintendent should ascertain the number of seams relinquished or wrought out, and should thereupon request the viewer or other managers, if living, to prepare plans accord- ingly, and if dead, avail himself of old plans if any are in existence. That in case any or all of the records in, either office be destroyed by fire or other means, the same shall be replaced from the undamaged office properly examined and signed by the parties who originally delivered them in, if living, and if dead, upon being verified by the clerk of the peace and master superintendent ; the expense to be borne by the parties requiring the same. That a separate book shall be kept by the 4 222 COAL MINES OF which all information relative to such colliery shall be regularly inserted. That reports be delivered in quarterly from every mine, verified by viewer, overman, and engineer, of the state of the mine under their charge, and of the machinery used in working them with reference to any alteration since last report. Under an establishment of this kind the mining system would soon become secured by regular and authentic records ; and, by a con- tinual watchfulness to the interests and ma- nagement of collieries, many of the present dangers would be removed, and we should not be agitated by repeated and destructive ac- cidents. E am aware that the coal owner has at all times but a speculative property, and fre- quently sinks an immense capital without knowing how far the deposit of coals may answer his expectations ; and sometimes, owing to % the working of too great a number of pits at one time, and consequent depreci- ation in the market, is rendered a great loser ,by his trade. It as frequently happens that an accident in the mine causes a loss of some thou- sands of pounds, which naturally makes them look with an eye of jealousy upon any plans of DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. superintendent for every colliery at work, in improvement, &c. which may require imme- diate expense. But I am of opinion that the placing of mines under the protection of Parlia- ment, and bettering the state of ventilation and light, would tend very much to lessen the recurrence of those accidents, and ultimately remove causes of great loss and trouble. Having therefore proposed a plan for the better regulating and securing of the mines, I will proceed to show the great national and in- dividual interests which are combined in this extensive trade. 224 COAL MINES OF CHAPTER XX. Brief Statement of the Nezvcastk and Sun- derland Coal Trade. JtiEFORE I enter into the particulars of this, it may be necessary to make a few observa- tions upon the great quantities of coal wasted for want of proper regulation in the working or hewing them out, and a proper arrangement of the government duties affecting the export- ation of small coal. The English collier only curves the top of the block, and down one side, which causes the uncurved side to shatter considerably on being forced out by the wedge. In this respect he is excelled by the Scottish pitman, who proceeds more economi- cally, and, by curving down both sides, gets the coal out more entire, and with much less waste. This is probably however an established custom of working which it would be difficult to change ; but it is certain that from one cause or another, there is a great deal too much small coal made at the Northern English col- lieries. This has been publicly complained of DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. by Mr. Chapman, whose experience and in- vestigations upon the subject render his opi- nions very valuable to society. Mr. Chapman estimates that- nearly one fourth of the coals won up the shafts are taken away by screening before they are put on board, some parts of which are used for making cinders, and other parts for making mineral tar; but by far the greater quantity remain in large heaps near the mouth of the pit, exclusive of the waste previously made by hewing the coal underground. Those heaps which Jay on the surface un- dergo a process of decomposition from the effect of wet, &c., and spontaneously take fire^ continuing to burn for a great number of years, and illuminating the country at night in almost all directions. Mr. Chapman very justly remarks, that the coal thus wasted would be of the greatest service for agricultural purposes, by enabling the fanner to burn lime at a more economical rate than he can possibly do while excluded from the benefits of cheap fuel, and at the same time obviate a great and increasing in- cumbrance to the, soil near the collieries. To accomplish this, Mr. Chapman proposes that the small coals, upon which he would have the GOAL MINES dF coasting duty taken off, should be gauged through parallel metal bars of about half an inch asunder ; and, to prevent the introduction of larger coals under this exemption, that the carrier should be liable to the payment of double duty in case of any fraud being de- tected ; with several other regulations tending to secure the revenue from fraud and misap- plication. To induce the coal owners to adopt these measures, if sanctioned by Parliament, a cer- tain tax was by Mr. Chapman's plan proposed to be laid upon the masses of coal accumu- lated near the pits, according to their dimen- sions ; which would in some measure compel the owner to lessen the heaps, and in future screen smaller quantities. And in order to aid the lessee as much as possible, that the small coals should not be subject to the same rent as others when led away, according to the custom of rental at these collieries : but to give the vendor, and at the same time the owner or lessor, a profit, that a charge in the proportion of one fourth of the rent upon large coals, should be imposed upon them ; whereby the proprietor would derive gain from what at present lies useless. And that the Duke of Richmond's (now a government) duty of one fcURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. 22? shilling per chaldron, should be reduced in the same proportion upon small coals. Much small coal is produced after the coals are taken away from the mine, by the friction on teaming them from the staithways into ships or keels, and by unlading in the Thames, exclusive of the further operation of filling and emptying the sacks from the wharfs. Each chaldron of coals, when delivered from a ship into a lighter, is authenticated by a sworn meter, according to a recent Act of Parlia- ment, at the additional charge to the consumer of four-pence per chaldron. The coal trade from the Tyne and Wear, and from Hartlepool and Blyth, has continued to increase for many years, and at this time an amazing quantity of coal is vended. It will be unnecessary to trace the subject through its early gradations. Suffice that, on an average of six years ending 1776, there were annually cleared at the custom-house of New- castle two hundred and sixty thousand chal- drons to London, ninety-two thousand to British ports and the colonies, and twenty- seven thousand chaldrons to foreign ports. It appears by a treatise on the coal trade published in the year 178Q by Mr. Beaumont, that France and her dependencies were in the a 2 COAL MINES OF habit of receiving upon an average twenty thousand chaldrons of coals annually from the Tyne and Wear, principally for forging and distillery. This demand has however been subsequently decreased by the war; and it is not expected that it can revive to the former extent, as considerable improvements have in the mean time been made in the col- lieries of that country, and as coal is found more answerable to their purposes than any they could discover before ; a circumstance which I fear will counteract Mr. Beaumont's anti- cipations, that an increasing population would enhance the price of wood and other fuel, and thus augment her demand of coals upon this country. Several mines in the county of Durham send their coals entirely to the Tyne ; and I believe the coals raised from the following pits are generally sent to that river, and ex- ported principally for manufacturing uses, viz. Simpson's Pontop, Windsor's Pontop, Tanfield Moor,* Hedworth, Hepburn, Eighton, and Pel aw. * These collieries are not shown in the map given in this book, but lie considerably on the south western side of the county. DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND, New, Chal. In 1302 the expectations from the Tyne amounted to ...... 538,489 1803 ....................... 549,461 1804 ....................... 632,518 1805 ....................... 602,400 1806 ....................... 633,826 1807 ............ ........... 561,713 1808 ....................... 629,447 1809 ....................... 564,853 1810 ....................... 641,834 1811 ....................... 652,325 Since which time up to the present period the coal trade of Newcastle has continued nearly the same. The vend of coals from Sunderland has proportionately increased ; and as I am favoured with some very authentic accounts as to the exportation, &c., I shall give them at length. A rapid increase must have taken place m the exports of coal from this port, from 171Oto 1747, as the average exportation from 1?04 to 1710 did not exceed 65,760 Newcastle chal- drons, whereas in June 1748 the export of coal amounted in to ..... , ...... 147,403 1749 ................... .... 135,549 1750 ...................... 162,277 230 COAL MINES OF 1751 128,891 1752 1771,056 1753 167,242 1754 165,770 1755 174,165 1756 175,122 1757 178,939 1758 187,242 1759 186,681 1760 180,479* 1761 169,610 1762 171,542 1763 182,162 1764 205,468 1765 203,777 if 66 205,569 1767 ... 195,205 1768 202,726 1769 212,737 1770 213,645 1771 219,760 1772 253,980 1773 264,232 1774 s 234,563 1775 285,933 1776 266,287 1777 261,237' 1778 252,894 DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. 231 1779 231,863 178O 233,515 1781 . . . 212,552 1782 ...... 197,958 1783 224,710 1784 248,204 1785 255,511 1786 271,526 1787 266,560 1788 280,598 1789 269,238 1790 298,077 1791 309,968 1792 303,862 1793 279,862 1794 316,807 1795 301,057 1796 269,170 1797 264,874 1798 285,694 1799 260,929 1800 322,252 1801 267,667 1802 259,01 1 1803 340,628 1804 290,957 1805 - 299,226 1S06 302,372 232 COAL MINES OF iso; 297,150 1808 315,937 1809 311,957 From June to Dec. 180g. . 172,928 Dec. 1809 to D CC - 1S1O . . 356,801 1811 329,128 1812 326,865 1813 330,793 1814 ... . .. 360,917 1815 339,117 The proportions in which the respective col- lieries on the Wear contribute to this exporta- tion, will in some measure be shown by the following account, ending Dec. 31, 1815. New. dial. 1. Lady Frances Vane Tempest's collieries 47,960 2. John George Lambton, Esq 46,149 3. Messrs. Nesham and Partners ... 18,,977 4. Messrs. Grinishaw and Bonner . . 14,268 5. M. J Davison, Esq 11,745 6. Sir Thos. Liddell and Co 7,841 7. Messrs. Carr and Co 7,494 8. J. Humble, Esq. (Leefield) 6,014 9. Wm. Russel, Esq. and Co 6,157 10. Sir Ralph Noel, Bart DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. 233 11. Messrs. Thomson and Co., (Urpeth) 1,759 19. Messrs. Thomson and Co., (Fat- field) 328 Half year's exportation 173,502 List of Collieries Adairs Backworth Benton Bewicke Brandling Main Burden Bishop Main. Coxlodge Chapter Eighton Eighton High Moor Fielding Hepburn Main Heaton Holywell West Heaton Hunt and Co. Main Killingworth Kings Meadow Kenton Liddle Main Murton Norfolk which export from the Tyne. Newcastle Main Ords Main Pelaw Main Pontop Simpson's Pontop Windsor's SHipcote Tanfield Moor Tanfield East Team Townley Usworth New Walker Wallbottle Wall's End, Bell and Co'*. Wall's End, Bewicke Wall's End, Brown Wall's End, Newmarch Wall's End, Manor Wall's End, Russel Wall's End, Riddell Willington Wylam Wortley 234 COAL MINES OF List of Collieries which export from Sunderland. Birtley Walls End Hutton Primrose Bourn Moor New Eden Brayton Nesham High Main Eden Main Nesham Eighton, South Primrose Main Eighton, Lawson and Co. Russel New Main Hepburn Wear Wear Brandling Hedsworth Wear W. End (Huntand Co.) Lambton Lumley Hutton Main Wear Main The quantity of coals sworn to before the commissioners at Sunderland as consumed in potteries, lime-kilns, &c. is about 10,OOO chal- drons annually. An estimate of the number of persons re- ceiving employment from this trade was made in 1792, by Dr. Macnab, who calculated that 64,724 persons were employed by the col- lieries of the Tyne and Wear, of whom 26,250 belonged to the Wear, and 6,704 were pitmen and boys belonging to the works on the Tyne ; and the remainder on the Tyne as follows : Fitters and runners 103 Keelmen, boys, boatmen, &c. . . . 1,547 Trimmers, ballast heavers, &c. . . 3,00(> DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. 235 Pilots and foymen 500 Seamen and boys 8,OOO Shipwrights, keel-builders, &c. . Q46 Purveyors for ships' keels 1,1 OO Coal factors, clerks, &c 2,000 And if one-fourth of theses have families and three in a > 16,425 family unemployed ...... J Making a total at that time 1 ^ } 38,325 on the Tyne j In 1810, Mr. Bailey, in his " General View of the Agriculture of the County of Durham," estimated that there were thirty-four watersale collieries in the county, which annually vended 1,333,000 chaldrons of thirty-six bushels, and employed 7 3 011 men, and that the land- sale collieries in Durham vended 147,080 si- milar chaldrons, and employed 382 men. Mr. Bailey calculated that the proportion of coals carried to the Tyne from the Durham pits was as eight to five of those carried to the Wear. The keelmen on the Wear at that time amounted to 750; casters, trimmers, and fitters to 507 so that by the above proportion there would be 2000 persons employed by the Durham trade on the Tyne ; making the total 236 COAL MINES OF amount exclusive of pitmen, seamen, &c. 3,257. The Newcastle coal trade is supposed to employ about 6,5 3O pitmen ; and at this time the pitmen on both rivers may be fairly calculated at ] 0,OOO. Mr. Bailey calculates that the number of men employed in the aggregate, as casters, trimmers, keelmen, &c. is in the proportion of 10,650 to 1,480,080 thirty-six bushel chal- drons. This is nearly the annual exportation of both rivers ; so that in the working of pits and conveying coals on board there is about 2O,650 persons employed in this district, ex- clusive of men employed in landsale collieries. The duties upon coal have been extremely variable ; and with all the precaution possible I run much danger, owing to the numerous acts, statutes, &c. relating to them, of making some incorrect statement; but this I have of course endeavoured to avoid, as much as circumstances will admit, by making brief references where I deemed longer ones un- necessary. In 14-21, there was a custom payable to the Crown of two-pence per chaldron on all coals sold to persons not franchised at Newcastle : this however was suffered to run considerably in arrear for nearly a century, until Queen DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. 237 Elizabeth in 15QQ, demanded that the arrears should be made up. To avoid this the inhabi- tants petitioned the Queen, and offered to charge themselves and their successors in per- petuity with one shilling per chaldron providing the claim to these arrears was cancelled, to which Her Majesty assented. An attempt was made in l6lO, by the hostmen of Newcastle, to shackle Blythe as a branch of that place with this duty, but it was not then accomplished; it appears however to have been done in 1638, In l66l a similar attempt was made towards Sunderland but without success; and in 170(5 a fruitless effort was made to get it altogether repealed. On Sept. 18, 1677, Charles II. made a grant of this duty to his natural son Charles Duke of Richmond and Lenox, his heirs and assigns, and in default of issue to Louise Duchess of Portsmouth and her heirs, subject to an annuity of five hundred pounds to Sir Thomas Clayes, at a reserved rent of IL 6s. 8d. In J800, the Richmond family sold the pro- ceeds of this duty to Government for 1Q,000/. per annum ; whereas, calculating upon the pre- sent exportation of coals from Newcastle to persons not franchised at 550,000 chaldron, and Blythe at 50,000, the revenue arising from it amounts to 30,000/. annually. 7 238 COAL MINES OF An act 5 and 6 William and Mary, c. 10. passed, entitled " an act for the relief of the orphans and other creditors of the City of London," wherein amongst other things it was enacted that four-pence per chaldron metage- money, over and above the duties then existing, should be imposed upon all coal or culm im- ported into the port of London from and after June, 16p4. In 1700 a further sum of six- pence per chaldron was imposed for and during the term of fifty years, being to the 2Qth of September, 1750. 21 Geo. II. c. 29. enacted that the import or duty of six-pence per chaldron should re- main and continue for the further term of thirty-five years. 27 Geo. III. c. 37. continues the said tax for the term of forty-two years from and after the expiration of the aforesaid term of thirty-five years, which carries it to 1827. Nothing has been a greater drawback upon the coal trade than the City of London, as appears by the several acts, 1Q Car. II. c. 3. s. 36. 22 Car. II. c. 1 J. 1 James II. c. 15. 8 and 9 Will. III. c. 14. 1 Anne, stat. 2. c. 12. 9 Anne, c. 22. J Geo. I. stat. 2. c. 23. But by 5 Geo. I. c. 9. s. 1. the duties imposed by these acts and statutes were put under the control of His Majesty's Commissioners of 4 fcURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. 239 Customs for the use of the state, and were made perpetual by 6 Geo. I. c. 4. s. 1. Not- withstanding this it appears by the appendix to the report of the Committee on the Coal Trade in 1800, as delivered to the House of Commons, that in the year 1795 the City re- ceived (from the orphan's duty of ten-pence per chaldron, No. 57, of Appendix; metage duty of four-pence per chaldron, No. 58 ; the Crown allowance of one halfpenny per London chaldron, No. 59 ; and groundage and balliage of sea coal, No. 60, at half a farthing per chaldron) 55 3 O58/. lls. Ad.> and in 1800, exclusive of many other dues, 61,898/. I4,y. 3id.* The town's dues at Newcastle have been two-pence per chaldron since 17Q3, to all classes ; the coast duty is now six shillings. In London, King's duty nine -shillings and four- pence ; war taxes three shillings and two- pence ; metage four-pence ; orphan's duty ten- pence ; and market dues one penny, per London chaldron ; also one farthing Lord Mayor's dues, and one penny Trinity dues, per Newcastle chaldron. * See Letter of Nath. Atchesou, Esq. F.A.S. on the Present State of the Carrying Part of the Coal Trade, published in 1802. 240 COAL MINES OF The same duties affect the coals from Sun- derland, except the town's dues which are greater than those at Newcastle. In 1747 the commissioners of the town were empowered by Act of Parliament to levy one penny half- penny per chaldron on the coal owners ; and one halfpenny per chaldron on the fitters, for all coals exported from thence, in aid of the necessary repairs of the town, and the preser- vation of the harbour. In 1785 this duty was increased to three- pence per chaldron upon coal owners, and one penny per chaldron on fitters, making a town charge of four-pence per clialdron. And in 18O8 it was further increased to four pence halfpenny on owners, and one penny half- penny on fitters, making the town charge six* pence per chaldron. The Newcastle chaldron is nearly equal to two London chaldrons, as it contains sixty- eight Winchester bushels ; the London chal- dron containing only thirty-six bushels of the same measure.* And by the foregoing statement it appears that the exportations from the Tyne and Wear at this time average one million * In 1655 it was agreed that 136 Newcastle chaldrons should equal 217 London chaldrons, which was confirmed by Parliament in 1667. DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. Newcastle chaldrons annually, making about 1,900,000 London chaldrons. An exportation of this extent from our coal district will re- quire an immense supply to continue for many generations; and as the incfease of population in London or the country will increase the quantity necessary for consumption, it is re- quisite for the future welfare and happiness of society, as well as for the protection of our commercial interest, to place the mines under the best possible regulation. The duration of the supply is doubtful, and at all events the resources ought to be administered with caution and public economy. To show the necessity of this, and improve the condition of miners, has been my principal object, and I submit the information I have collected to the examination of a discerning public, and more particularly to those who have the administration of National affai>s, and to the Patrons, Vice-Patrons, and Members of tbe Society for preventing Accidents in Coal Mines, in the hope that my endeavours will be justly appreciated, and that the subject will receive that attention to which it is so emi- nently entitled. GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS USED IN MINING. AIR-FUNNEL. A large wooden box of a circular shape, open on one side, with a vane on the opposite side to turn N its mouth to the wind; it is used to accelerate a current of air through the downcast pit. Brattices. Partitions of wood used in ven- tilating the boards in which the miners are at work. In some instances where the cruel practice of having only one shaft is adopted, brattices are used to divide it. Brakemen. Men employed to work the en- gines or other machinery used in winning the coals. Banksmen. Men employed on the surface* to unhook and empty the laden corves, as they ascend. Bearing door. A door which force* the air R 2 244 GLOSSARY OF through more of the workings than one sheth of boards. Bearing stopping answers the same pur- pose. Blower. A fissure in any region of the mine from which inflammable gas escapes. Boards. The principal excavations of mines from which the daily supply of coal is ob- tained running east and west. Corve. A strong hosier basket in which coals are brought up the shaft. Crossing. A brick arch, or lofting of plank, where the currents of air decussate, or intersect at acute angles. Cranemen. Stout lads employed in raising the corves by the power of a crane, from the trams upon a higher carriage. Coursing the Air. Passing the current of air up one board and down another, or up and down three or four. Cross-cuts are oblique passages made in extensive workings for the purpose of shorten- ing the way to particular parts of the mine. Curve. To make an incision in the stratum, in order that the miner may clear the coal out in blocks. Drifts. Narrow oblong excavations made to carry off water, to convey the air from one shaft to another, or to make researches. TECHNICAL TERMS. 245 Frame Dams. Beams of timber wedged together for the purpose of draining water. Firing Point. When the inflammable gas is sufficiently mixed with atmospheric air as to explode on the application of a lighted candle. Fire-line. A staff with a candle at the end, to fire the carburetted hydrogen on the roof of a mine. Falls are breakings down of the roof of a mine, and frequently injure the workmen very much. In many cases they obstruct the venti- lating medium. Headways. A passage single or double, driven in the longitudinal direction of the coal, and running parallel to another. The two drifts between the shafts are called the double or winning headways. Hewers. Men employed to cut the coal from the stratum. Jenkins are narrow passages cut through the middle of the pillars for the purpose of getting the coal left in the first working. Keeper. An inspector of the hewers, &c. Low. Small candles which the miners use, and which are fixed in pieces of clay in order to hold between his fingers, or stick upon the coal. 246 GLOSSARY OF Mothergate. The principal avenue, used as a road from the shafts to the workings and ex- tremities of the mine. Overman. A kind of underviewer, who has command, of all the mine below. Mr. Buddie observes, " that the office of overman is of the utmost importance to the management of a coal mine." I admit it is so ; but what is the use of this office if the person filling it be permitted to leave the duties to some of the hewers or sinkers ; need I name an instance where the overman seldom descends a mine? Onsetters are those who hook and unhook the COrveS at the bottom of a shaft. Pillars. The coal left between the boards and headways for the support of the roof, and which is generally in the shape of a parallel- ogram. The quantity left for this purpose de- pends upon the depth of the mine, and the thill or floor, and roof, which if soft, require more to be left ; the general average is from one-fourth to one-sixth of the stratum for pil- lars ; the Walls-end coals are so valuable, that Mr. Russel is taking away all the coals, and substituting stone walls. Pot-holes (Staffordshire). Holes in the roof of a mine, occasioned by the falling in of the strata in which gas accumulates. TECHNICAL TERMS. 247 Stoppings are partitions of brick and lime to procure ventilation through the wastes or old workings of a colliery. Sheth y Sheth-door, Sheth-stoppings, ... .924,761 1804 947,001 1805 974,314 ) 250 APPENDIX. Chaldrons. Average of 5 years. 1806 987,750 1807 933,14-8 1808 1,088,050 J> . . . .1,010,525 1809 923,440 1810 1/120,237 1811 1,115,171 1812 1,071,361 1813 970,898 j> 1,082,926 1814 ...1,140,168 1815 1,117,034 Thus, by the above statement, the duties received by Government and the City have upon an average amounted to the following sums, viz, Time. Government dues of 9*\ 4rf. per chal. City duos, arising from orphan's duty and metage money of %d per chal. Market dues Irf. per chal. 1800 to 1805 inclusive 1805 to 1810 1810 to 1815 . s. d. 431,554 14 8 471,579 6 10 505,365 9 4 . s. d. 53,944 7 10 58,947 5 10 68,170 13 8 . s. d, 3,853 3 5 4,210 10 5 4,512 3 10 DR. CLANNY has just invented a new apparatus, which burns with a bright flange from an oil lamp when in a current of* atmospheric air ; but should it be in the neighbourhood of gas, a tube is made to convey hydrogen into the lamp so as to burn like a common gas-light, immediately upon which the oil lamp is extinguished. INDEX, A. Page ACCIDENTS, calculation of, by Mr. Buddie. ... 171 After damp 52 Air, inflammable 15 , analysis of, by Dr. Clayton 15 . } by Mr. Kirwan 16 , } changes' in proportions of. 109 Alumine, found in coal works 169 Ammonia from coal 17 Appendix 24?9 Arts, Society of, its proceedings on Mr. Ryan's system of ventilation 87 Ayton, dyke at 23 Azote. . 194 B. Bakewell, Mr., on the duration of coal 25 Beaumont, Mr., on coal trade 227 Bitumen in coals 17 Blackstone, Sir W. on private property 163 Boards, how worked , 77 Boring 71 , new method of, by Mr. Ryan 73 , to detect wastes. 167 Bovey coal ; . . . 17 Boundaries, bad effects from not being known 122 Brandling, Mr., his lamp as presented to the Literary and Philosophical Society of Newcastle 184? Brocken mountain, curious formation of 66 Buddie, Mr. his letter to Sir R. Milbanke, Bart. on ventilation 151 > , observations thereon , 152 Buffery colliery 92 Buffon, M. de, his theory 60 Building Hill, its lime-stone ... 21 Burnet, his theory. .,.,..., , . 59 25'2 INDEX, Page Carbonic acid. 30 > , how affected on explosion 52 Carburetted hydrogen 28 , how found in collieries 30 . , origin of. 33 . , how confined in a mine .... 108 , effect of atmosphere upon. . 123 . 9 Sir H. Davy's experiments upon 194? , liability of to dilution . . 200 Chapman, Thos., Esq., on the necessity of parlia- mentary interference .... 214 . , his plans abridged and altered 218 , } on sma ll coa i 225 Charcoal, fires of, proposed by Sir H. Davy for lighting mines 197 Clanny, Dr on limestone on lighting coal mines 105 his paper to the Royal Society, 1813. . 107 on the causes of explosion 108 first lamp of 113 improvements upon ditto 121 security. of ditto 162 curious test of ditto 206 opinion of Dr. Thomson on ditto 173 his paper to the Royal Society in 1815 175 certificate of experiment in a room. ... 178 ditto in a mine 179 his claim to originality 203 new lamps of. 208, 250 Clayton, Dr., on the inflammability of coal gas 15 Coal, its formation . . . . -, stratifications of . , fractures in 9 . its extent and boundaries in Northumberland and Durham 10 , independent or primary 11 , second or Newcastle , its seams , analysis of ., quality of 1& <-, extent and contents of, 20 INDEX. 253 Page Coal annual consumption of. 20 where deposited '. . . 25 duration of. where found 27 origin of. 27 glance 28 chemical properties of 28 when first used 35 right of digging for 69 how worked out 74< small, waste in 225 Coal owner, his difficulties 222 Coal trade 227, 249 , persons employed in 235 Coaly hill, dyke at 23 Collingwood Main, explosion at 50 Cologne coal : 17 Commissioners to regulate collieries 215 Cuiver, on the organic system of nature 64? Customs, old, bad effects of 170 D. Dalton, Mr., on carburetted hydrogen 29 Davy, Sir H., on ditto 29 his experiments on ditto 191 his lamps 195 on metallic tubes 195 on safety canals 196 on wire gauze apertures 196 description of his lamps. , f 199 observations on paper on ditto, in the Edinburgh Review 202 Derwent river 6 Descartes, his theory. 59 Dewar, Dr., on destroying^fire and choak-damp. ... 164< Draining of mines 73 Durham, county of 1 , ancient history of 2 , privileges of. 2 , mountains, soils, strata, and rivers 3 Duty on coals in aid of permanent establishment. . . 216 . .. in general 236 paid yearly 254 INDEX. Page Dyke, the great i . . . 19 Dykes in general L 22 , whin 23 , stone 23 , clay 24 , rubbish 24? , slip 24 , spars in 24 E. > Edinburgh Review, observations on a paper in 202 Excavations, extent of 110 Explosion at Harraton 39 Washington 40 . Lumley 40 Hepburn 40 . Oxclose 40 Felling 4-1 Harrington * . 4*9 .1 . Collingwoocl IVInfn 50 . Fatfield '. '. 54 . Felling 93 Hepburn 94 . Leefield 96 , Success Pit 100 _ TyneMain 102 SheriffHill 103 Newbottle 104 Explosions, losses by 84 . , destructive effects of 118 , will increase in number 135 Exportation of coal from Newcastle 229 , Sunderland 229 _ mines on the Wear 232 F. Farey, Mr., opinion of, upon the mismanagement of mines, and prejudices of agents 142 , on the division of mines into compart- ments 168 Fatfield, explosion at 54 , described by a lady 55 Fdling, explosion at 4-1 INDEX. 255 Page Felling, pit re-opened . , . .... 46 ', second explosion at - 93 Fire-damp 30 ., method of exploding 33 , how dislodged from secretiojis 83 , explosive properties of. 192 Five Quarter seam 13 France, her demand of coals 227 Fund for relief of miners inadequate to the purposes of humanity 127, 140 Fund for relief of sufferers 217 Furnace, steam used in Ryan's system of ventilation 91 G. Gas, carburetted hydrogen 28 carbonic acid . . SO Glance coal 28 Glossary of technical terms 24S Goodchild, J., Esq., his trial for coal through lime- stone . 1 1 Grotthus, experiments of, on explosive mixtures . . 197 H. Harraton, explosion at 39 Harrington, explosion at 49 Heat, effect of, upon gasses 197 Heaton colliery, where situate 97 inundation of 98 verdict of Jury on men found at. . 99 distressing anecdote of 99 Hepburn colliery, explosion at 40 , second, do 93 , danger and expense incurred by working 95 Hewing coal, defects in 224? Heworth, chapelry of. 43 High Main 13 Hutton Seam ... 13 ' accumulation of gas and waters in 31 Hutton, Dr. his theory , 62 I. Importations in London .,..,,., , 249 256 INDEX. Page Improvement, slow progress of. 157 Inflammable air 15, 28 , experiments upon , 191 K. Kirwan on the globe 62 L. Lambton park 39 Lamp black 18 Lamps, Dr. Clanny's 113, 208, 209 . , Dr. Murray's 1 86 , Mr. Brandling's 184 , Mr. Stephenson's 187 , Sir H. Davy's 195 Leefield, explosion at 96 Legislative interference, necessity of 144, 157 i , opinion of Dr. Thomson on 172 Letters to. the Editor of the Morning Chronicle, on coal mines. No. 1 114- II 116 III 119 IV 125 V 130 VI 134- VII 136 Light in coal mines, on the secure means of, by Dr. Clanny 105 Limestone magnesian 20 extent and boundary of 20 blue 21 rocks near Sunderland 21 natural sections of. . , 22 impressions on 22 Longmire, J. B., on formations 63 Lumley, explosion at 40 , castle 40 M. Manufactories, for decomposing coal 18 Menzies, Mr., his system of ventilation 85 INDEX. 257 Page Menzies, Mr., opinion of, on prejudices .......... 153 Millar, Dr., on the duration of coal .............. 25 Mines of Tyne and Wear dangerous ............ 30 -- rugged appearance of ................... -- how lighted ....................... ..... 69 - how worked ............................ -- in other countries ....................... 174 -- names of, which export from the Tyne ..... 233 -- from the Wear ..... 234. Mining origin and progress of ................. improvements in ...................... legality of ........................... mysteries of. ................ . ........ 172 how to be regulated ................... 218 Miners and Agents, how classed ................ 257 Montague main .............................. 14 Morton, Bishop, charter of, to Sunderland ....... 36 Murray, Dr., his lamp ........................ 186 Netherton collieries .................. . ....... 92 Newbottle, explosion at .... .............. . . , . . 104 Newcastle coal, analysis of .................... 16 Newcastle, exportation of, to 1776 .............. 227 - , -- , from 1802ta the present time ............ . . 229 -- chaldron .......................... 240 O. O chill-hills, supposed boundary of coal formation In Great Britain , 27 Oil, extracted from coal. 16 , proportions obtained 17 Orphan's duty 238 Oxclose, explosion at 40 P. Parliament, caution of petitioning upon this subject 127 , grounds of petition to 215 Pot-holes, how cleared 84 Private property, rights of interference in 163 s 258 INDEX. R. Rent of mines, how regulated .................. 70 Richmond, Duke of, his duty on coals ........... 237 - , ditto sold to Government ............ 237 Ryan, Mr., on boring ....................... 73, 163 -- , his system of ventilation as presented to the Society of Arts ............ 87 -, experiments of, at Hepburn ......... 96 S. Scotland, duration of coals in 25 Shafts, how made 76 , arrangement of 82 Sheriff Hill, explosion at 103 , fire at 103 Shirley, Hon. Mr., exertions of 71 Society for preventing accidents, &c 14*6 . origin of 14-6 . Patron, Vice Patrons, and Members 147 . Committee 148 first report of. 151 Spars, nature of, in Durham 4 St. Anthon's colliery , 14 Steel mills 84 Stephenson, Mr., his lamp 187 -, experiments upon 188 Strata, intervening with coal 8, 19 Success pit, explosion of. 100 Sunderland charter to 36 exportation of, in 1634 36 staithway at 37 exportation of, since 1710 229 town's dues 240 Superintendent of mines 215 T. Tar mineral Tenure of mines 69 Tees river 6 Theories on the earth, &c 58 . INDEX. 259 Page Thomas, Mr., observations of, on establishing an office at Newcastle, &c Thomson, Dr., on the duration of coal .......... 26 -- 9 on the mode of working collieries. . 161 . ' - , on explosions ........... . ...... 173 Tyne Main, explosion of ...................... 102 Tyne river . f ............................ - - , collieries exporting from ..... . ............ . 233 V. Ventilation, danger of obstructions in ............ 51 -, present system of , objections to , new method of, by Mr. Menzies 85 , by Mr. Ryan 87 W. Washington, explosion at , 40 Wastes, danger of 166 -, description of 167 , plan of guarding against, by Mr. Ryan 167 Water, its operation upon soils and strata 62, 65 Wearmouth, Monk, antiquity of 6 Wear river 6 , collieries exporting from 234? Wellington Pit, explosion of. 213 Whiston, and Woodward, theories of 60 Whitehaven coal, analysis of 16 Wire-gauze, security of, to insulate lights 196 , dimensions of apertures 196 THE END, WORKS PUBLISHED BY BALDWIN, CRADOCK, AND JOY, 47, PATERNOSTER-ROW. PUBLISHED PERIODICALLY. ANNALS OF PHILOSOPHY ; or, Magazine of Chemistry, Minera- logy, Mechanics, Natural History, Agriculture, and the Arts. Bv THOMAS THOMSON, M. D. F. R. S. &c. Of this Work the Seventh Volume is just completed (June 1816). tt com- menced in January 1813; and is published in Monthly Numbers, price 2s. Gd. The Annals of Philosophy are enriched throughout by the contributions of the most eminent philosophers of Foreign Countries as well as of Britain. The first two volumes having been reprinted, complete sets may still be procured. THE EDINBURGH ENCYCLOPEDIA ; or, Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and Miscellaneous Literature. Conducted by DAVID BREAV- STER, L.L. D. Fellow of the Royal Societies of London and Edinburgh, and the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland; and Honorary Member of the Royal Physical Society ; with the assistance of Gentlemen eminent in Science and Literature. In 4to., with numerous Plates from Original Drawings. This Encyclopaedia is published in Half Volumes, Price II. Is. Od. each. Ten Volumes or Twenty i>art s nre alrendy completed ; and from the progress which has now been made in the publication, the Proprietors have been enabled to fix with ac- curacy the greatest number of Volumes of which it will consist, which will on no account exceed Eighteen. The Edinburgh Encyclopaedia will be illustrated by at least Five Hundred Plates, including an Atlas of Thirty Maps, executed from Original Drawings, by the first Artists in London and Edinburgh. *** A few Copies are splendidly printed on the finest Royal Paper, with Proof Impressions of the Plates, Price 21. 12s. 6d. each Part, in boards. THE BRITISH REVIEW, AND LONDON CRITICAL JOURNAL, Published Quarterly ; viz. on the first of February, May, August, and November, Price 6*. each number. THE COLONIAL JOURNAL, Published Quarterly, Price 8*. each Number, in Royal 8vo. *** The object of this publication is to record every species of information re- lative to the British Colonial Possessions, excluding only the territories under the management of the East India Company. Of course it will scarcely be more in- teresting to Colonial Readers than to the Mother-country, by whom even local know- ledge must be eagerly sought for. Plates illustrating the scenery and natural history of the Colonies embellish the several numbers of the work. The periods of publi- cation are the first of January, April, July, and October. GENERAL HISTORY AND COLLECTION OF VOYAGES AND TRAVELS, arranged in Systematic Order; forming a complete History of the Origin And Progress of Navigation, Discovery, and Commerce, by Sea and Land ; from the earliest Ages to the present Time. By ROBERT KERU, F.R.S. and F.A.S. Edinburgh. Illustrated with Maps and Charts. Works Published by Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy. This collection, it is expected, will be comprised in about twenty volumes, of which seventeen are already published, price 12s. each. The work appears in half volumes every two months. THOMSON'S NEW GENERAL ATLAS; compiled and adjusted from the best systematic Works; and. the most authentic Accounts of recent Voyages and Travels. The work will contain, including a supplement, about sixty-eight maps of imperial folio, on a scale corresponding with the celebrated Atlas of D'Anville. It is pub- lished in numbers, at intervals of two months, each No. price 8s. containing four maps, full-coloured. Thirteen numbers are already published, and the remainder are in great forwardness : when finished, the whole will form the most complete, and by far the cheapest Atlas of the size ever offered to the Public. THE ANNUAL REGISTER ; or, a View of the History, Politics, and ' Literature, for the Year 1815. Published Annually, in one large Volume 8vo. Price l6s. ** * A few Sets remain complete in 57 Volumes ; and also of the new Series from 1791 to 1815, in 25 volumes. Gentlemen whose Sets are imperfect are recommended to take the earliest opportunity of completing them, &s many of the Volumes are nearly out of print. THE PARLIAMENTARY HISTORY OF ENGLAND, from the Earliest Period to the Year 1803, from which last-mentioned epoch it is continued downwards in the Work entitled, The Parliamentary Debates. Published in closely printed Volumes Royal Svo. Price I/, lls. 6d. This Work contains the most accurate account of all Proceedings and Debates in both Houses of Parliament ; Addresses ; King's Speeches and Messages ; important Parliamentary Papers, Petitions, and Reports ; Protests; Lists of Persons filling the several high Offices in Church and State ; Indexes, &c. &c. and will form, with the Parliamentary Debates, publishing under the same Superintendence, a complete and uniform Parliamentary History of this Country. The Twenty Seventh Volume is now published which brings the work down to February, 1788. THE PARLIAMENTARY DEBATES. Published in closely printed Volumes, Price lL lls. 6d. Royal Svo. /This Work comprises full and accurate Reports of the Speeches of the. Members; .correct Copies of Addresses; Royal Speeches and Messages; the most important Par- / liamentary Papers, Petitions, and Reports; the Annual Finance Accounts; Lists, I Indexes, &c. &c. ; and forms a Continuation of the Work entitled, " The PAR- LIAMENTARY HISTORY of ENGLAND from the earliest Period to the Year 1813." Volume XXXII. being the first of the present Session of Parliament, is nearly ready for publication. WORKS RECENTLY PUBLISHED. NEW EDITION OF THE STATE TRIALS. A COMPLETE COLLECTION OF STATE TRIALS and Proceedings for High Treason and other Crimes and Misdemeanors, from the Earliest Period to the year 1783, with Notes and other Illustrations : Compiled by T. B. HOWELL, ESQ. F.R. S. F.S. A. Including, in addition to the whole of the Matter contained in the Folio Edition of Hargrave, upwards of Two Hundred Cases never before collected. Complete in Twenty-one Volumes, handsomely printed in Royal 8vo., Price I/. 1 1$. ()d. per Volume, in boards. Works Published by THE REPRESENTATIVE HISTORY OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, comprising a History of the House of Commons, and of the Counties, Cities, and Boroughs of the United Kingdom. By T. H. B. OLD FIELD, ESQ. Being a new Edition of the History of Boroughs, greatly enlarged and re-modelled. In 6 Volumes 8vo., Price 3/. 12s. 0(7. THE PRINCIPLES OF POPULATION AND PRODUCTION, as they are affected by the Progress of Society ; with a View to Moral and Political Consequences. By JOHN WEYLAND, JUN. ESQ. F.R.S. In one large Volume Svo., Price 14*. A COURSE* OF LECTURES ON DRAMATIC ART AND LITER* ATURE. By WILLIAM AUGUSTUS SCHLEGEL. Translated from the original German by John Black. In Two Volumes 8vo., Price I/. 4s. " The present Work contains a critical and historical Account of the ancient and modern Drama The Greek, the Latin, the Italian, the French, the Spanish, and the German. The view which the Author has taken of the standard Productions, whether Tragic or Comic, in these different Languages, is, in general, ingenious and just, and his speculative Reasonings on the Principles of Taste are often as satisfactory as they are profound." * * * * " We have, we trust, said enough of this Work to recommend it to the Reader. We ought to add, that the Translation appears io be very respectable." Edinburgh Review, Feb. 1816. THE PHYSIOGNOMICAL SYSTEM of Drs. Gall and Spurzheinn founded on an Anatomical and Physiological Examination of the Nervous System in General, and of the Brain in particular; and indica- ting the DispoMtkms mid Manifestations of the Mind. By J. G. SPURZ- HEIM, M.D. In Royal Svo., Price I/. 10s. with Nineteen Copper- plates. The Second Edition, with Additions. HARMONIES OF NATURE. By J. B. H. DE ST. PIERRE, Author of Studies of Nature, Paul and Virginia, &c. Translated from the French by W. Meeston, A. M. In 3 Volumes Svo. Price I/. l6s. with a Portrait t>f the Author. A SYSTEM OF PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. By the REV. P. KEITH, F. L. S. Vicar of Bcthersden, Kent, and Perpetual. Curate of Marr, Yorkshire. In 2 Volumes Svo. with Plates by Sowerby. Price I/. 6*. ** The work consists of four books, arising out of a very natural division of the subject. The first book treats of the external structure of plants; the second of their internal structure, or anatomy. The third book treats of the constituent principles of plants ; and the fourth contains an explication of the phenomena of vegetable life and death. ELEMENTS OF CHEMISTRY. By WILLIAM HENRY, M.D. A new Kdition considerably enlarged, with Plates by Lowry. In ( 2 Volumes Svo. Price I/. 8*. ENGLISH SYNONYMES, Alphabetically Arranged and Explained, with Illustrations from the Writings of various Authors. By GEORGE CRABB. In one large Volume Svo. Price I/. 1*. SPECIMENS OF THE CLASSIC POETS, in a Chronological Series, from Homer to Tryphiodorus, newly translated into English Verse, and Baldwin f Cradock, and Joy. illustrated with Biographical and Critical Notices. By CIIARLIS ABRAHAM ELTON. Elegantly printed in 3 Volumes, Svo. Price I/. 16's. ' THE REMAINS OF HESIOD the Ascrcean: including the Shield of Hercules. Translated into English Rhyme and Blank Verse. With a Dis- sertation on the Life and ^Era, the Poems and Mythology of Hesiod, and copious Notes. Also an Appendix: containing " Selections from Chap- man's ancient Version of Hesiod's Georgics." The Second Edition, re- vised and enlarged. By CHARLES ABRAHAM ELTON, Author of " Spe- cimens of the Classic Poets from Homer to Tryphiodorus." In an elegant Svo Volume. Price 12s. boards. " This is the first complete English Translation of Hesiod that has yet appeared. The sense of the original is given with as much precision as it was possible to give that of a Poem of such high antiquity, and the versification, both rhymed and un- rhymed, is correct and harmonious. The Notes are well executed. For just ex- planation of difficult passages Mr. Elton is evidently superior to every other com- mentator on Hesiod: and the work must be considered as a valuable acquisition to the literary world. It gives a very faithful picture of Hesiod to those who cannot consult the original, and will afford much useful information to those who can." London Review. An Easy, Natural, and Rational Mode of Teaching and Acquiring the FRENCH LANGUAGE on a Plan entirely new; in which the Anomalies and Irregularities of Verbs are clearly demonstrated and reduced to Rules; the Whole deduced from the Philosophy of Language, and an Analysis of the Human Mind. By WILLIAM HENRY PYBUS. In Svo. Price 8s, boards. *** By this Grammar, acquaintanrp wUh '"> i:t>ri ^ Arts and Sciences may bs acquired at the same time with the Language. The Simplicity of the Method, which appeals to the Understanding of the Pupil, will give him Confidence in his own Powers, and engage him to pursue his Studies with corresponding interest. It is well known that many, who have studied for several Years according to the old Systems of Instruction, do not without diffidence and difficulty converse with a Native of France; nor are they generally understood by him, on account of the inaccuracy of their Pro- nunciation, and their contracted Knowledge of the true Idioms of the Language. USEFUL KNOWLEDGE ; or, a Familiar and Explanatory Account of the Various Productions of Nature, Mineral, Vegetable, and Animal, which are chiefly employed for the use of Man. Illustrated with nu- merous Figures, and intended as a Work both of Instruction and Reference. By the Rev. WILLIAM BINGLEY, A.M. F.L. S., late of Peterhouse, Cambridge, a"nd Author of Animal Biography. In 3 Volumes 12mo. Price ll. Is. THE LIFE OF WILLIAM HUTTON, F.A.S.S. including a parti- cular account of the Riots in Birmingham in 1791 ; to which is subjoined the History of his Family, written by himself, and edited by his daughter CATHERINE HUTTOX. In Svo. with a Portrait, Price 12*. MEMOIRS OF THE IONIAN ISLANDS, and of their Relations with European Turkey, Translated from the Original Manuscript of M. d Vaudoncourt, late General in the Italian Service. Illustrated by a very ac- curate and comprehensive Map. In one large Volume Svo. Price 15s. THE COLONIAL POLICY OF GREAT BRITAIN, considered with relation to her North American Provinces and West India Possessions; Works Published by Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy. wherein the dangerous tendency of American Competition is developed, and the necessity of recommencing a Colonial System on a vigorous and extensive Scale exhibited and defended; with Plans for the -promotion of Emigration, and Strictures on the Treaty of Ghent. By a British Tra- veller. Jn 8vo. Price 8s. boards. NOTES ON THE WEST INDIES; including Observations relative to the Creoles and Slaves of the Western Colonies, and the Indians of South America; interspersed with Remarks upon the Seasoning or Yellow Fever of Hot Climates. Second Edition, with additional Betters from Martinique, Jamaica, and St. Domingo, and a Proposal for the Eman- cipation of the Slaves. By GEORGE PACKARD, M. D. &c. &c. In 2 large Volumes 8vo. Price I/. 6s. in boards. TRAVELS THROUGH CANADA and the United States of Ame- rica., including a Description of Newfoundland, the Magdalen Islands, Quebec, Montreal, New York, &c. their Manners, curious Customs, Anecdotes, Commerce of Canada, Climate, the Lakes, Imports and Ex- ports, Duties, Tonnage, &c. from 1S06 to 1811: State of Society of Ca- nada, South Carolina, Boston, Charlestown, Savanna; their Literature, Natural History, &c. By JOHN LAMBERT, Esq. The Second Edition, corrected and much improved. To which are added Biographical Notices of Madison, General Moreau, Jefferson, Madame Jeioiue Buonaparte, Adams, Col. Burr, Randolph, Ernmett, Barlow, General Pinckney, Monro, &c. with a general Statistical View of the United States lor a period of twenty years. Jn Q Volumes Svo. ornamented with 16' coloured Engrav- ings, a Chart of Quebec and its Environs, drawn from the Surrey made by order of Admiral Saunders, and a handsome coloured Map ot Canada and the United States of America, Price I/. 10s. in extra boards. TRACTS, HISTORICAL AND STATISTICAL, ON INDIA, with Journals of several Turs through various Parts of the Peninsula ; also an Account of Sumatra, in a Series of Letters. Illustrated by Maps of the Peninsula of Hindostan, and by a Variety of other Plates. By BENJAMIN HEYNE, M.D. F.L.S. Member of the Asiatic Society at Calcutta, and Surgeon and Naturalist on the Establishment at Fort St. George, 4to Price 2/. 2*. The information contained in these tracts is of a very miscellaneous nature ; histo-. rical, statistical, scientific, economical, and political. They are the result of inquiries made under the direct authority of the government in India. TRAVELS IN SWEDEN during the Autumn of 1812, with an Ac- count of Lapland. By THOMAS THOMSON, M.D. F.R.S. L. and E. F.L.S. Illustrated by Maps, Portraits, and other Plates, 4to. Price 2/. 25. This work is the result of a journey through Sweden, undertaken principally with a view to mineralogical researches, of which it contains many interesting details. Besides a map of Sweden, a plan of Stockholm, and a variety of other plates, it comprises geognostic maps of Gothland, Nerike, and Sconia, plans of the copper mine at Fahlun, &c. THE HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY, from its Institution to the End of the Eighteenth Century. By THOMAS THOMSON, M.D. F.R.S. L. and E. F.L,S. 4to. Price 2f. 2s.; large paper 3/, Its. LIBRARIES