fiELps IN THE Use of Good Enclis UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, LOS ANGFLES THE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY This book is DUE on the last date stamped below ^ JUL 15 19 Southern Branch of the University of California Los Angeles Form L I HELPS SOUTHERN BRANCH, ilNIVERmLteoQAUFORN'A, LIBRARY, l^S ANOCLBS. CALIF. GOOD ENGLISH: A HAND-BOOK FOR ALL WHO DESIRE TO SPEAK OR WRITE CORRECT ENGLISH. BY ALBERT N. RAUB, Ph.D., LL.D., Author of "Les?ons in English," "Practical English Grammar," "Practical Rhetoric," "Studies in English and Ameri- ■ CAN Literature," "Methods of Teaching," "School Manageiment," etc. PHILADELPHIA : R A T J B & ' C O ■M334 Copyright, 1897, BY ALBERT N. RAUB. Electkotvpkd by Westcott & Thomson, Piiilada. WiLMAM RtlTTKR COMPANV, BOOK MANOFACTIUEKS, SeVKNTH Aav CHERRY STREF.TB, PlIILADA. \ r) WW ^0 PREFACE. \^ The object of this book is that of serving as a con- "^ venient hand-book for editors, lawyers, teachers, clergy- men and others who have occasion to write or speak the English language, and who desire to do so in accordance with approved modern usage. The aim of the author has been to make the book helpful to all who may find it necessary or interesting to consult its pages, especially on the subjects of Cap- ital Letters, Syllabication, Syntax, Punctuation, Letter- Writing and Diction. Only those points in Grammar have been discussed which, it is thought, may prove most helpful to those who desire to speak or write the language correctly. Many sentences taken from the works of reputable writers, but illustrating violations of correct usage, have been incorporated in the book, and the proper correc- tions indicated, either in marks of parenthesis where a word has been improperly omitted or in brackets where the wrong word has been used by the author quoted. 4 PREFACE. A list of synonyms most frequently used, and a list of words most liable to be misused, as given in the book, ought to be both interesting and beneficial to all who desire to express themselves accurately. The author hopes that the book may meet with the approval of all who are interested in the use of good English. A. N. R. CONTENTS. PAGE CAPITAL LETTEES . . 11 First Word in a Book ..11 First Word of a Sen- tence 11 Numbered Clauses ... 11 First Word of an Exam- ple 12 After an Introductory Word 12 An Enumeration of Par- ticulars 12 Direct Questions .... 12 Direct Quotations ... 13 Poetry 13 Proper Names 13 Particular Objects ... 13 Proper Adjectives ... 13 Titles 13 Names of the Deity . • 13 landO 13 Book Titles 13 Common Nouns .... 14 The Bible 14 Specific Terms 14 Special Rules 14 Letter Addresses .... 14 Letter Closing 15 A Series of Questions . . 15 Indirect Quotations ... 15 Seasons, Months, Days . 16 • PAGE Pronouns Eepresenting Names of the Deity . . 16 Titles as Parts of Names . 17 Tlie Word State .... 17 Objects or Events made Particular 18 Names of Professions . . 18 Personification 19 Words Derived from Proper Names .... 19 Titles of Books, etc. . . 20 Names of Places .... 21 Names of Cities .... 21 Added Names 21 Words and Phrases ... 22 De, du, von, etc 22 One Capital Letter ... 22 Two Capital Letters . . 23 Complex Names .... 24 St. for Street 25 SYLLABICATION .... 28 The Use of the Hyphen . 30 SPELLING 35 Final E 35 Final Y 35 Final Consonant .... 36 Endings in f, 1, or s . . . 36 Ize or ise? 39 5 CONTENTS. PAGE Able and ible 39 le or ei ? 46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR . . 41 Nouns 42 Number 43 Plurals, how formed . . 48 Nouns Ending in Y . . 44 Nouns Ending in O . . . 44 Nouns Ending in/ or/e . 45 Nouns Ending in jf . . . 45 Plurals of Figures, etc. . 45 Plurals of Proper Nouns . 45 Complex Proper Names . 45 Plurals of Compound Nouns 46 Corapotmd Nouns from Foreign Languages . . 46 Abstract Nouns .... 48 Two-form Plurals ... 48 Plurals of Fractions . . 50 Collective Nouns .... 50 Whereabouts 51 Gender 51 Ma.sculine without a fem- inine form 52 Names of occupations in common gender ... 52 Case 53 The Possessive Case . . 53 Syxt.vx of Nouns ... 54 Mi.stakes in Writing tiie Pos.sessive 54 Pos.sessive of Compound Words 55 The I'ossessive when an Adjective follows the Noim 55 In joint owiR-rship ... 56 PAOE In separate ownership . . o6 The Po.sse.ssive with Nouns in Apposition . 56 The Possessive with a Pronoun in Apposition 57 The Possessive limiting a Participial Noun ... 57 The Nominative Case . 59 T'he Nominative Cane Inde- pendent 60 The Objective Case . . 61 The Objective Case after a Verb 61 The Factitive Construc- tion .61 The Objective Case after a Preposition .... 62 The Case by Apposition . 65 Same Ca.se AFTER A Verb . 67 "It is me" 68 Notes on Nouns .... 69 Adjectives 71 Complex Adjectives . . 71 Compound Adjectives . . 71 Numeral Adjectives . . 72 Comparison 73 Syntax of Adjectives . 74 Limiting Precedes Quali- fying 74 Ordinals Precede Cardi- nals 74 Ordinal Precedes Noun . 74 Cardinal Follows Noim . 74 IMural Adjective requires Plural Noun 76 "A ten-foot pole" ... 76 "I feel bad" 76 Order of Adjectives ... 77 "Farther," "further" . 77 CONTENTS. PAGE "Each other" .... 77 "This," "these" ... 77 The article before few, dozen, etc 78 Syntax of Articles . . 78 The article before ' ' few ' ' and "little" .... 79 The article repeated . . 79 The article before several adjectives 79 ,"Sing the tirst and the second stanza" .... 80 Repetition of the arti- cle 81 The article before titles . 82 A or an before h . . . .83 None, every, each, any, either, neither, many 83, 84 All and whole 84 Fewer and less 84 Peonoun.s 86 Two-form Pronouns . . 86 Syntax of Personal Pronouns 87 Antecedents connected by and 87 Antecedents connected by or or nor 87 Antecedents connected by as well as 88 Order of Pronouns ... 88 Use of we and you . . 89 Eelative and Interrog- ative Pronouns . . 90 Who, wliich, what, that . 90 Syntax of Relative Pronouns 91 The Restrictive Clause . 91 PAGE The Relative Represent- ing a Collective Noun . 92 That ior who or which . 92 Reflexive Pronouns . 94 Verbs . ■ 95 The Transitive Verb . . 95 The Intransitive Verb . 95 Voice , . 96 Mode 96 Tense 98 Syntax of Verbs ... 101 Verbs having Collective Nouns as Subjects . . 102 Subjects connected by "and" or "as Avell as" 103 Subjects connected by "or" or "nor" . . 105 The Subject with Modi- fiers 107 Nominative to be Ex"- pressed 108 Discrepant Subjects . . 108 The Subject limited by Adjectives 110 Distributive Pronouns as Subjects Ill Indefinite Pronominal Adjectives as Subjects 111 Relative Pronouns as Subjects 112 Relative Pronouns to be Repeated 113 Connected Verbs ... 114 Ellipsis of the Principal Verb ]15 Disjoined Subjects ... 115 The Concord of '-There" ]16 Error of Proximity . . 117 CONTENTS. The Verb after " Than " as a Connective . . . 119 Infinitives 120 Participles 123 Adverbs 125 Phrases Modified . . .125 Independent Adverbs . 126 Conjunctive Adverbs . . 126 "The" an Adverb . . 126 The Placing of Adverbs . 127 Improper use of " how " and "how that" . . 127 Improper use of" wlien " and "where" ... 128 "Like" as a Conjunc- tive Adverb . . . 128 Complex Adverbs ... 131 Compound Adverbs . . 131 ' ' Farther ' ' for ' ' fur- ther" 131 Prepositions 133 "Set in," "Were look- ed for" 133 Appropriate Preposi- tions 133 Prepositions become Ad- verbs 133 Conjunctions 139 Correhitives 140 Introductory Conjunc- tions 141 ".\s follows" .... 141 "Than whom" .... 141 ".And which" .... 142 "That" instead of "but," "l.ut that," "lest" 143 "Not only," "but," "but also" .... 143 PAGE Words Used as Different Parts of Speech . . . 145 "A.s," "before," "af- ter," "till," "imtil," "both," "l)ut," "ei- ther and neither," "for," "like," "since," "that," "then," "what," "well," "while," "yet" 145-150 PUNCTUATION 151 The Period 152 Complete Sentences . . 152 Abbreviations .... 152 Complete Expressions . 153 Numbers of Pai-agraphs 154 The Comma 154 Compound Sentences . . 154 Relative Clauses . . . 154 I>ependent Clauses . . 155 Parenthetical Expres- sions 1 56 Intermediate Expres- sions . . 157 Transposed Elements . 158 Series 158 Words in Pairs .... 159 Words in .\pposition . . 159 Words in the Vocative . 159 The Absolute Construc- tion ino Omissiini of the Verb . 161 J^iif^ical Subject .... 161 Quotations 161 Numeral Figures . . . 161 -Ambiguity 161 The Semicolon .... 162 CONTENTS. 9 PAGE Parts of Sentences . . . 102 A General Terra . . . ICi'l Sliort Sentences .... 1(32 Successive Clauses ... 163 Additional Clauses . . 1C3 Before "As" 1G3 "Yes" and "No" . . 164 The Colon 164 Parts of Sentences . . . 164 Additional Clauses . . 164 Quotations 165 Formal Introduction . . 165 Title-Pages 165 The Interrogation Point ....'... 165 Questions 165 Doubt 166 The Exclamation Point 166 Interjections 166 Exclamations 167 The Dash 168 Sudden Changes .... 168 Parenthesis 168 A Pause 168 An Omission 168 Summing- Up 169 Repetition 169 Keflex Apposition . . . 169 Titles Run In .... 169 Dialogues 169 With Other Marks . . 169 Marks of Parenthesis . 170 Quotation Marks ... 170 Direct Quotations . . . 171 A Quotation within a Quotation .... 171 Quoted Paragi-aphs . . 172 The Hyphen 172 PAGE Other Marks of Punc- tuation 172 Brackets 172 The Apo.strophe . . . . 173 The Ellipsis 173 The Section 173 The Paragraph .... 173 The Caret 173 The Index 173 The Brace 173 The Ditto Mark . . . . 174 The Cedilla 174 The Tilde 174 The Diaeresis 174 The Macron 174 The Breve 174 Leaders 174 Book Notes 175 A Corrected Proof- Sheet 176 Explanation of Proof-Marks 177 Sizes of Books .... 178 LETTER- WRITING ... 179 The Heading 179 The Introduction . . . 181 The Address • • . . . 182 The Salutation .... 184 The Body of the Let- ter 187 The Conclusion .... 188 The Complimentary Closing 188 The Signature .... 189 The Superscription . . 190 Invitations and Re- grets 192 Hints on Letter-Writ- ing 193 10 CONTENTS. Important Abbrevia- tions 194 CHOICE OF WORDS . . 200 Noun Synonyms .... 200 Adjective Synonyms . 209 PAGE Verb Synonyms . . . . 219 Adverb Synonyms . . . 225 Preposition Synonyms . 227 Spurious Words .... 231 Words Liable to be Misused 233 HELPS IN THE USE OF GOOD ENGLISH. CAPITAL LETTERS. In the employment of capital letters usage is nearly uniform, though occasional differences exist in the appli- cation of some of the rules. The following are the chief rules for the use of capital letters : 1. The First Word in a Book, etc. — The first word in every book, tract, essay, etc., and of every chapter or section, also the first word of every note, letter, or other writing, should begin with a capital letter. 2. The First Word of a Sentence. — The first word of every sentence or its equivalent should begin with a capital letter. Thus, " Where have you been ?" " It is a very pleasant day." 3. Numbered Clauses, etc. — The first word of each of a series of numbered clauses or phrases should begin with a capital letter. Thus, "He stated three things: 1. That he had not been present; 2. That his brother had not been present; 3. That neither had any desire to be present." 11 12 GOOD ENGLISH. ■1. First "Word of an Example. — ^The first word of a clause or a sentence, when used as an example, should begin with a capital letter. Thus, Ex. " To err is luiinan." 5. After an Introductory "Word. — The first word after an introductory word or clause should begin with a capital letter. Thus, Hesolved, " That all land should be taxed." jBe it enacted, etc., " That a tax of three uiills," etc. 6. In an Enumeration of Particulars. — The first word of each new line in an enumeration of particulars, when arranged in lines, should begin with a capital let- ter. Thus, The expenses of the committee were as follows: For Advertising $4.20 For Clerk Hire 10.00 For Postage 7.00 It will be noticed that tlie chief items in a statement of this kind or in a bill begin with capital letters. Thus, Mk. John Henderson, To William Brown & Co., Dr. To 4 lb. Coffee @ 30^ $1.20 " 10 lb. Sugar @ 6^ 60 " 12 yd. Muslin® 7^ 84 7. Direct Questions. — The first word of a direct ques- tion should begin with a capital letter. Thus, "The question is, Where can we get a better?" This rule is taken also by some to cover an important, statement. Thus, "My remark was this: If he does not do the work properly, he must be dismissed." CAPITAL LETTERS. 13 8. Direct Quotation. — The first word of every direct quotation should begin with a capital letter. Thus, The Bible says, " Blessed are the meek." 9. Poetry. — The first word of every line of poetry should begin with a capital letter. Thus, " Now came still evening on, and twilight gray Had in her sober livery all things clad." 10. Proper Names. — Every pro])er name should begin with a capital letter. Thus, John, Susan, New York, Thomas Jefferson Jones. 11. Particular Objects or Events. — Words naming particular objects or events should begin with capital letters. Thus, Niagara Falls, Fourth of July, The Statue of Liberty, The National Educational Association, The Park. 12. Proper Adjectives. — Adjectives derived from proper names should begin with capital letters. Thus, English, American, Welsh, Johnsonian. 13. Titles. — Titles of honor, office, or respect, usually begin with capitals. Thus, President Cleveland, General Grant, Superintendent Brooks, Sir Walter Scott, Mr. Williams, Richard the Third, Professor Greene, Colonel Meredith, Mrs. Johnson. 14. Names of the Deity. — All appellations of the Deity should begin with capital letters. Thus, God, Almighty, the Divine Architect. 15. I and O. — The words I and should always be written as capital letters. 16. Book Titles. — In the titles of books, or the sub- 14 GOOD ENGLISH. jects of essays, etc., eveiy noun, adjective, verb, and adverb, should begin with a capital letter. Tlius, " Helps in the Use of Good EngUsh." 17. Common Nouns. — Common nouns, when strongly personified, should begin with capital letters. Thus, " Come when his task of Fame is wrought." 18. The Bible. — When reference is had to the divine origin of the Bible, the name of the book itself or any particular part of the book should begin witli a capital letter. Thus, "The Holy Bible"; "The Acts of the Apostles." When the Bible is spoken of simply as a book, as "Several bibles were sold on Saturday," no ca2:)ital is required. Capital letters are used also to begin the names of other sacred writings, as Tiie Koran, The Zend Avesta, etc. 19. Specific Terms. — The words state, academy, col- lege, university, park, etc., when used specifically, either as nouns or as adjectives, should begin with capital let- ters, and at other times with smaller letters. Thus, "The State, a state election ; The College, a college course; A drive in the Park, the park along the river." The foregoing rules cover the ordinary cases where words should begin with capitals, but in the case of hand-bills, advertisements, etc., much is left to the dis- cretion of the printer. Special Rules. The following s})ecial rules for the use of capital letters should be observed : Letter Addresses. — In the address of a letter the first CAPITAL LETTERS. 15 word of the salutation and of the title should begin with capital letters, but no other words. Thus, we write, Dear Sir, My dear Sir, My dear Aunt Lizzie, My very dear Mother, My much esteemed Friend, etc. Letter Closing'. — Much the same rule holds good here; namely, that only the first word and the title should begin with capital letters. Formerly, many writers began each word of the closing with a capital letter; thus, Yours Very Truly, but the best usage is against this at present, and one should write. Yours respectfully. Yours very truly, Cy ■a.O'yi,^ 'yf^■^ ■aetZ'i ^^-tz^^-ei-i.^ ^XU'i ^i.€£-'yit/. Cy ifz -/#«_, @^^^ -MA-i-t^ ^^•e^ei^ cd-^ee^m^ A Series of Questions. — When a series of questions is propounded, each of which requires a separate an- swer, each question, though but part of a sentence, should begin with a capital letter. Thus, What is one-third of 6? Of 18? Of 24? What is the capital of Maine? Of Oregon? Of Missouri? Indirect Quotations. — Indirect quotations do not re- quire the use of capital letters. Notice that in the following: Remember the maxim, "Honesty is the best pohcy," the quotation is intro- duced by the use of a capital letter, but the same thought may be conveyed indirectly without the use of either cap- ital letter or quotation marks, as follows : Remember the maxim that honesty is the best policy. 16 GOOD ENGLISH. Seasons, Months, and Days of the Week. — Xo cap- ital letters are used in writing the names of the seasons, but it is difierent in writing the names of the months and the days of the week, which should always begin with capital letters. This is probably because some of the months and some of the days are named after de- ities and persons. Thus, January (Janus), March {Mars), May (Male), June (Juno), July (Julius Caesar), August (Augustus Cxsar), are all derived from proper names, and should begin with capital letters. In order to make the rule uniform, the name of each month should, there- fore, begin with a capital letter. The same is true of the days of the week ; thus, Sunday is sun day ; Monday, moon day; Tuesday, Tiw^s day; WednesdaN^ M^oderi's day ; Thursday, Thorns day ; Friday, Friga^s day; Sat- urday, Saturn's day. Five at least of the names of the days of the week are derived from proper names and should begin with capital letters. In order, therefore, to make the rule uniform in its application, the names of the months and the days of the week should each begin with a capital letter. Names of the Deity. — As stated in Rule 14, all ap- pellations of the Deity should begin with capital letters, but usage with regard to writing pronouns referring to the Deity is not uniform. The most careful writers of English seem to favor the use of small letters rather than capitals in beginning these pronouns, except when the pronoun is equivalent to the name of the Deity. Relative pronouns, Avhen referring to the Deit\', begin with small letters. Tlie following sentence shows the correct usage: "We prayed to Ilim who rules the world." When a name usually applied to tlie Deity is applied to created beings, no c:if)ital is used ; as, " Lord of lords, King of kings.''' CAPITAL LETTERS. 17 When the word " heaven " is used to mean the Deity, it should begin with a capital letter; as, " May Heaven protect us," but when it means the firmament, the Avord should begin Avith a small letter. When it refers to the abode of the blest, it is written by some with a capital letter and by others without. Usage is not uniform. The adjectives universal, eternal, divine, omniscient, etc., when applied to God, need not begin Avith capital letters, but usage requires capital letters in the follow- ing : Almighty God, Infinite One, First Cause, Supreme Being. Titles. — When a title is part of a name, the word in- dicating the title should begin with a capital letter ; as, President Monroe, King James, Colonel Thompson; but when such titles follow the name no capitals are used. Thus, we would say, " James Monroe was president of the United States," " James II. Avas king of England." When a title precedes a proper name for the purpose of explanation, as, "The apostle Paul," "The prophet Isaias," " The poet Milton," it begins Avith a small letter. When it is desirable to make the title take the place of the person's name, the title is usually begun with a capital letter, as in the folloAving : " The President Avill give us an audience at 10 o'clock;" "The Teacher Avill begin his lectures this morning." In the foregoing sentences reference is made to a par- ticular president or teacher, and the Avord in either case has the force of a proper noun. The Avord "state" is one which is frequently Avritten imj-iroperly. Where it is a specific term it should begin Avith a capital letter; as, "The State is responsible;" Avhere it is not a specific term the Avord should begin Avith a small letter, as in the following : " Ncav Jersey 2 18 GOOD ENGLISH. and other states bordering on the Ocean." In some printing offices the direction to the compositors, espe- cially the learners, is to begin the word " state " with a capital letter wherever it occurs. This is wrong. It is correct to begin the word " state " with a capital letter only where it refers to a particular state, or where the individual name of the state having been referred to, the word " state " is made to take the place of the proper name itself. Thus, we write, " The State of Virginia was settled by the English ;" " Pennsylvania lies south of New York; the State is noted for its manufactures." Even some of our best writers have violated these rules. Thus, Bancroft writes of the " canebrakes of the state of Louisiana," and Everett speaks of "the union of the States." Objects or Events Made Particular. — Words wliicli particularize objects or events give them the force of proper nouns, and they should therefore begin with capital letters. Thus, we may write, " The young man is attending college," but " The College is the most im- portant institution of the village." Similarly we write, " The City has a beautiful park," but " The Park is a pleasant place of resort." When certain dates become the names of special events, the chief words of the date should begin witli cai)ital letters. We may write, " Independence was de- clared on the fourth day of July, 177G," but " The Fourtli of July is one of our chief holidays." So also, we write, " The revolution of the American colonies against Eng- land was entirely successful," or ''The American Revo- lution led to the independence of the American colo- nies." Names of Professions, etc. — When the name applied to a profession or calling is considered in its widest sense, CAPITAL LETTERS. 19 the best usage is in favor of beginning the word with a capital letter. Thus, Mandeville says, " For the Bar or the Pulpit." It would be better to write, "The calling of the Teacher is honorable," rather than " The calling of the teacher is honorable." So also, '' The prosperity of the Merchant depends much upon his honesty and integrity," meaning merchants as a class, is a better form than " The prosperity of the merchant," etc., which might refer to an individual merchant. Personification. — According to Rule 17, common nouns, when strongly personified, should begin with capital letters; thus, "The entrance to the garden of Hope was by two gates, one of which was kept by Rea- son, and the other by Fancy." But not every noun tliat is personified should be so written. Only those which are used in the sense of proper names should begin with capital letters. In the sentence from Milton, " Wave your tops, ye pines," the word pines, though addressed, does not represent persons, and it is not therefore written with a capital letter. "Words Derived from Proper Names. — Words de- rived from proper names usually begin with capital letters ; as, American, Welsh, French, Latinize, Wes- ley an, English, etc. The two Avords "italics " and " italicize " are, however, frequently written without the use of capital letters. Whenever a word derived from a proper name has lost its reference to the original name, and has taken its place as a common noun or a common adjective, it no longer is written with a capital letter. Thus, damask no longer has reference to Damascus, the word from which it was derived. So also colossal no longer has reference to Colossus, nor stentorian to Steator, nor godlike to God, nor artesian to Artois, nor peach to Persia, nor muslin to Mo- 20 GOOD ENGLISH. sul ; hence none of these words nor any of their kind are written with capital letters. The same princii)le applies to the writing of such words as china-ware, champagne, daguerreotype, galvanize, laconic, academic, and others. Titles of Books, etc. — Sometimes it is difficult to de- termine the exact meaning of an oral expression tliat may be made perfectly clear when written, l^y the use or the non-use of a capital letter. Thus, in spoken language we detect no diflerence between "Webster's Speeches " and " Webster's speeches." When the ex- pressions are written or printed we recognize that '' Web- ster's Speeches " is the title of a book, while " Webster's speeches " means the speeches of Webster. So also, " Longfellow's Poems " and " the poems of Longfellow " have a different meaning, determined b}^ the use or the non-use of a capital letter. The same principle applies when the adjective new precedes a noun. Thus, "The new Ironsides" refers to a new steamer named Ironsides, but in the expression "The New Ironsides," the name of the steamer is " The New Ironsides^ The new Ironsides is a new Ixjat; tlie New Ironsides may be either new or old. So we write also of the principal of a school when we refer to his duties, but when we refer to liis title we Avrite of him as the Principal of the school. Princeton University was formerly the " College of New Jersey," and while that was its proper title it should have been spoken of as "The College of New Jersey." If the name Princeton were necessarily used, tlien it should have been written not "Princeton College." but "The Princeton college;" that is, the college at Princeton, Notice the difference in the two expressions, "William Peim with a few other Friends " and " ^^'illiam Penu CAPITAL LETTERS. 21 with a few of his friends." Notice also the difference between " The Planter's House," a hotel, and " The planter's house," the residence of a planter. The Lock Haven normal school is a normal school at Lock Haven, but the proper title is "The Central State Normal School of Pennsylvania." So also the Newark academy is an academy at Newark whose corporate title is " The Academy of Newark." Names of Places. — In many cases words originally beginning with snjall letters are now written with capi- tals because they have become names of places. Thus, Clark's ferry has been changed to Clark's Ferry, Pike's peak to Pike's Peak, Chadd's ford to Chadds Ford, Dobb's ferry to Dobbs Ferry. Names of Cities. — In cases wdiere the word city is used with a proper name, "city " should begin with a capi- tal letter only when it forms part of the name. Thus, we write Jersey City, Atlantic City, Oil City, Mahanoy City, Salt Lake City, because the word city in each case is a part of the corporate name ; but the word city in such expressions as New York city, Philadelphia cit}^ Baltimore cit,v, Washington city, is not written with a capital letter, because in none of these does it form a part of the coryjorate name. We may speak of Balti- more, New York, Boston, etc., but not of Jersey, Atlantic, Oil, or Salt Lake as cities. Added Names. — When a new proper name is formed from an old one by the addition of a word, the latter becomes a part of the coiiiplete name and should begin with a capital letter. Thus, Philadelphia, West Phila- delphia ; Chicago, South Chicago, Chicago Junction ; Baltimore, South Baltimore, North Baltimore; 'Chester, West Chester, South Chester; Canada, Upper Canada; Virsrinia, West Virginia. 22 GOOD ENGLISH. Words and Phrases. — The rule requiring a capital letter at the hegiiiniug of a sentence applies also to ■words or j)hrases comprising an entire saying of some other person when introduced as having been said by him. Thus, "He shouted, 'Help, helj) !'" "Every tongue shall exclaim with heart-felt joy, '^^'elcome! welcome ! La Fayette.' " De, du, von, etc. — In general, the best usage favors beginning these words with capital letters, especially where they begin a heading or a sentence. Thus, the correct forms are Van Buren, Van Dyck, Du Pont, O'Reilly. Bulwer writes uncertainly " Captain de Cax- ton ;" " the old De Caxtons," seeming to indicate that the absence of a capital is correct when a name or a title precedes the de ; but Hood writes " Wolfgang von Dilke ;" " even Von Raumer." One Capital Letter. — Goold Brown, in his "Gram- mar of Grammars," gives as one of his rules on capital letters, " Compound proper names wliich by analogy in- cline to a union of their parts without a hyphen, should be so written, and have but one ca])ital;" as, Eastport, Eastville, Westfield, Westtown, Whitehaven, German- town, Blackrock, Mountpleasant, Dekalb, Newfoundland, etc. He adds on another page, " I would observe that perhaps there is nothing more puzzling in grammar than to find out, amidst all the diversity of random writing and wild guess-work in printing, the true way in wliich the comi)Ound names of places should be written." In writing the names of places containing the word Haven, usage is not uniform, but the better plan is to begin both Avords witli capital letters. Thus, Lock Haven, New Haven, Wliite Haven. The same is true in words of which "Mount" forms a part. The proper CAPITAL LETTERS. 23 forms are Mount Holyoke, Mount Auburn, Mount Pleas- ant, Rocky Mount. So also the forms De Kalb and Des Moines are preferable to Dekalb and Desmoines. Two Capital Letters. — Brown gives the followinp; as one of the rules for the use of capital letters: "The compounding of a name under one capital should be avoided when the general analogy of other similar terms suggests a separation under two." He then gives the following as examples : " Ben Chat, Ben Golich, Ben Nore," etc. Following this rule he decides that the words East, West, North, South, denoting relative position, and the word New when it distinguishes a place by contrast, require generally a separation of the words and a capital letter for each ; thus, East Greenwich, West Greenwich, North Manchester, South Manchester, New York, New Haven. There are, however, many exceptions to this rule, as in the names Easthampton, Northhampton, Westchester, Southport. It may be said that in names like Westchester and Newcastle usage varies. Any of these forms, New-Castle, New Castle, Newcastle, has authority for its usage. Whether the words are connected by a h3'^phen or writ- ten separately, each part should begin with a capital letter, but only one capital is used when the words are joined without a hyphen. The conditions under which two capital letters are needed are as follows : 1. When an adjective is added to a proper name, as in New York, New England, North Carolina, South Da- kota, Great Pedee, West Cleveland, Lower Canada. 2. When a proper noun wdth a possessive termination is used with a common noun following it; as, Glenn's Falls, Baffin's Bay, Martha's Vineyard, Booth's Corner. 24 GOOD ENGLISH. When names of this kind are united they drop the possessive sign and have Init one capital letter; as, Gravesend, Crowsnest, Whitestown, Scottsboro, Penns- burg. 3. When two common nouns with a preposition be- tween them are used as the name of a place; as, Isle of Shoals, Lake of the Woods, Cape of Good Hope, Fish- kill-on-the-Hudson. Complex Names. — In names consisting of two words, botli words are written with capital letters if the com- mon name precedes the particular ; thus, Mount Wash- ington, Lake Superior, Cape May, Bayou Teche. When the common name of the object, as bay, mountain, city, river, etc., follows the particular name, usage varies. If the name of the object seems necessary to make the ex- pression intelligible, it is best to begin both words with capital letters. Thus, when we speak of Hudson's Bay, w'e could not ajipropriately call it "the Hudson's;" so also of Long Island Sound, Albemarle Sound, Hampton Roads, Cape Cod Bay, Delaware Bay, White Mountains, Rocky Mountains. Both capital letters, in each case, seem to be necessary in these words, especially in the example last named. Most mountains being rocky there must be a distinction between " the rock}^ mountains " and "the Rocky Mountains." In complex names where the first word conveys the meaning intelligibly witliout the use of the other, the capital letter in the second word does not seem neces- sary. Thus, we may refer to the Susquehanna river as "the Susquehanna," to the Hudson river as " the Hud- son," to the Mississippi river as "the Mississippi," to the Catskill mountains as "tlie Catskills," and our language will in every case be intelligible. The words mountains, rivers, etc., in such ex])ressions need no cajiital letters. CAPITAL LETTERS. 25 The same is true of nearly all the oceans. We may- write " the Atlantic ocean " or " the Atlantic ;" " the Pa- cific ocean " or " the Pacific," the distinguishing name of the natural body of land or water being sufficient to make the meaning intelligible. The distinction is clearly shown in speaking of " the Delaware " and " Delaware Bay." The first term would not be mistaken for the second. The first refers only to the river. ^^'hen an adjective forms part of a geographical name it should begin with a capital letter; as, Green Moun- tains, Green Bay, White Mountains, Red River. A good rule for the use of capital letters in complex names is as follows: When both names are necessarv to express the meaning, each should begin with a capital letter; thus, Green Mountains, Casco Bay, Bering's Strait, Berkshire Hills, Chapel Hill, Rocky Point, Mam- moth Cave, Block Island, Michigan City, Fairview Vil- lage, Bunker Hill, Central Park. When only one name is needed to make the meaning intelligible only the proper name of the object should begin with a capital letter; as, Missouri river, Adiron- dack mountains, Mediterranean sea. Pacific ocean, Wash- ington city. Street. — St. as the abbreviation for street is bv some written without a capital letter ; but there seems to be no good reason why this should deviate from the rule. Chestnut St. is better tlian Chestnut st. It requires the two terms to make the name. It is true that authority may be given for either form. Irving wrote the expres- sion, " Mulberry street," and Bryant the expression, " Grand Street," but John Wilson, an excellent author- ity on such matters, writes " School Street," and the Atlantic Monthly, " Nassau Street." Goold Brown seems to claim that a h3'phen should 26 GOOD ENGLISH. occasionally be used to make an expression clear, and he would write " The New-York Directory," claiming that without the hyphen the phrase might mean the new directory for York: but this position is not tena- ble. If a new directory for York were meant, the word " new " should not begin with a capital letter, and the expression should read '' The new York Director}- ." The " New York Directory " is a directory for New York, either new or old. If a new one is meant it may be written " The new New York Directory," in which the second word new is part of the name of the city. In general, it may be said that unless there is good reason for using a capital letter it is better to use a small letter instead. The tendency of the uncultured is to use more capitals than are necessary. Errors in the use of capital letters are frequent even among reputable writers. We append some examples to show how even the best informed may sometimes violate the current rules. 1. The Lord mayor of London's authority. — Murnnfs Gram- mar. 2. We stayed a month at lord Lyttleton's, the ornament of bis country. — Id. 3. The Chestnut ridge is about twenty-five miles west of the AUeghanies, and Laurel ridge ten miles further [farther] west. — Balbi's Geography. 4. Staten Island, an island of New York, nine miles below New York City. — Universal Gazetteer. 5. He who sells a christian sells the grace of God. — Magazine. 6. In colleges and halls in ancient days. There dwelt a sage called discipline. — Wayland. Goold Brown gives the following as written incorrectly. They are taken from Williams' Universal Gazetteer. "JSalt Creek, the name of four towns in diifcrent parts of CAPITAL LETTERS. 27 Ohio ; White Clay, a hundred in Newcastle county, Delaware ; Newcastle, a town and halfshire of Newcastle county, Dela- ware ; Sing Sing, a village in West Chester county, New York ; White Water, a town of Hamilton county, Ohio; Red Hook, a town of Dutchess county. New York, on the Hudson ; Kinder- hook, a town of Columbia county. New York ; Charles City, James City, Elizabeth City, names of counties, not cities." Mr. Brown would in each of these names join the two words with a hyphen or reject the second capital letter and make each name a name of one word. Present usage does not sustain Mr. Brown. Note. — As regards the name White Clay, in Delaware, which is the name of both a creek and a political division known as a hun- dred, a peculiar local pronunciation has become established which would not be recognized elsewhere. The name of the stream is known as Whitely Creek, though spelled White Clay Creek, and of the hundred, Whitely Creek hundred. SYLLABICATION. Syllabication is the process of dividing words into the syllables of which they are composed. The following are the most important principles to be followed in the division of words into sj'Ilables : 1. Words should be divided usually according to their prefixes, suffixes, or grammatical endings if they have any. Thus, reneiv, larger, ^cis dmn, hurtful, rocky, cider. 2. Compound words should be divided into the sim})le words of which they are composed. Thus, mill ivheel, lien man, fore most, tea kettle. 3. Wlien the derivation and the pronunciation seem to conflict, the division should be made according to the pronunciation rather than the derivation. Tlius, rep re- aent a live rather than representative; apathy rather than apathy; predicate rather ihixn pre di cate ; ther- mometer rather than ther mo me ter; as crihc rather than a scribe. 4. In dividing words we should give to every syllable all the letters necessary to the correct pronunciation of that syllable. Thus, preface not preface, matron not mat ran, tioin He not twink le, bril Rant not brill iant. 5. A word having two or more syllables may be di- vided at the end of a line, but only at the end of a syl- lable. In applying this principle the part on either line sliould consist of two or more letters, otlierwise the word should not be divided. It is important also that the word should be so divided 28 SYLLABICATION. 29 as to convey no misconception at first glance. Thus, a word like occurrences is better divided occur rences than occurrenc es. 6. Two or more words conveying a single idea should be united ; as, beehive, sfeaviboat, cornplanter. 7. Consonants should be joined Avith the vowels Avhose sounds they modify. This is but another form of stating the third principle named. Thus, we divide reformation into refo7- ma tion or re for ma tion according to the mean- ing of the word as governed by the pronunciation of the first syllable. 8. Diphthongs and triphthongs are not divided. Thus, we write buoy ant, loy al, boy ish. When two vowels come together and do not form a diphthong, they form parts of separate s\'llables, and they may be divided ; as, a e ri al, co op er ate, zo ol o gy, etc. 9. When a single consonant comes between two vow- els, if it does not shoi'tcn the sound of the first vowel it goes to the second ; as, re bcl, ea sy, co zy, era zy, stu dent. 10. When a single consonant comes between two vow- els it goes to the first vowel if the vowel sound is thereby shortened ; as, reb el, hear y, stud y. 11. ^^'hen a mute and a liquid come between two vowels the same principle applies; the first consonant goes to the first vowel if that vowel is thereby short- ened; as, cit ron, pat ronize ; but when the first vowel is not shortened both consonants go to the second vowel ; as, pu trid, pa trol. 12. When a liquid and a mute coming between two vowels blend with the first voAvel, they are generally not separated ; as, piost age, tcest em. 13. When a liquid and a mute coming between two 30 GOOD ENGLISH. vowels do not blend with the first vowel they are sep- arated, as in dan (jer. In other cases two consonants occurring together are usually separated, as in gen der, em pire, col lee tion. Close attention to principle Seven would have saved some of our grammarians grave doubts, one of whom at least seems to be in a quandary as to whether the words river and fever should be divided ri ver and fe ver or riv er and fev er. It will be noted, by this same principle, that Walker's rule that a consonant coming between two vowels must go to the latter, is incorrect; but even principle Seven, while general in its application, seems to have some exceptions in such words as rising, sizable, and dronish. The Use of the Hyphen. The use of the hyphen is considered here because of its importance in connection with syllabication. Compound words, or those made up of two or more words, sometimes require a hyphen to connect their parts. The following are the most important principles gov- erning the use of the hyphen : 1. Permanent compounds, such as bookseller, penman, and shoemaker, are consolidated ; while temporary com- pounds, such as good-natured, laughter-loving, etc., require a hyphen. 2. Words regularly united, and usually known as com- }>ound words, should not be broken. Thus, railroad is a better form than rail road, red-hot is better than red hot, and icell-beiug better than well being. 3. Tlie hyphen is used to join the parts of com- pound words that do not sufliciently coalesce without it ; as, dew-drop, curly-headed, rosy-clieeked, forty-Jive, to- night. SYLLABICATION. 31 4. The compounding of words is sometimes necessary to make the meaning clear. Thus, there is a well-defined difference between a glass-house, a place for making glass, and a glass house, which is a house made of glass. So, also, the distinction between a live oak, a living oak, and a live-oak, a species of evergreen, is made clear by the use of the hyphen. So, also, the hyphen makes clear the distinction between a singing bird and a singing-bird, a dog^s ear and a dog^s-ear, many colored goods and many- colored goods. When part of a word is common to two or more con- secutive words it should be left separate or be used with both words. Thus, we may write of " the minute and the second hand of a watch ;" better, '' the minute-hand and the second-hand of a watch." When several compounds occur together, it is usually best to combine them in groups ; as, " Cripple-Creek gold-mines ;" " Broad-Mountain coal-fields." A phrase used as an epithet or as a modifier is com- pounded, and the hyphen used ; as, a " never-to-be-for- gotten " event, a " flower-bedecked " meadow, an " I-am- surprised " expression of countenance. When compounds are formed by the union of a pos- sessive and the noun limited, if the meaning is lit- eral, both possessive sign and hyphen disappear; thus, tradesman, doomsday, ratsbane. When these same terms have not a literal meaning, as hound' s-tongue, beards-foot, or icolfs-hone, names of plants, both jjossessive sign and hyphen are retained. When the compound term is used as an adjective, both the possessive sign and the hyphen are retained, as in the expressions, "a camers-hair shawl," " neatVfoot oil," "a bird's-e3'e view." A phrase having a possessive and used as a proper 32 GOOD ENGLISH. name retains the possessive sign but does not take the hyphen ; as, Hare's Corner, SewelVs Point. Cardinal numbers from twenty to one hundred are written with a hyplien ; thus, twenty-one, sixty-seven, eighty-four. So also fractions ; as, two-thirds, three-fourths, nine-tenths. A foreign plirase that is used as an epithet, or whose parts have so lost their meaning as to become Anglicized, is written with a hyphen ; as, piano-forte, billet-doux. But if the words convey their original meaning, they remain separate and no hyphen is used; thus, habeas corpus, scire facias, casus belli. Prefixes, or similar parts, are not consolidated with the rest of the word if they stand before a capital letter, and the hyphen is used to separate ; thus, pre- Adamite, ex- President, Anglo-Saxon, anti-Democratic. The hyphen is used also to preserve the separate sense of the parts of a compound term, as in electro- magnetism, vice-admiral, hydro-carbon. The words to-day, to-night and to-morrow should alwa3's be written with a livphen. Tlic tendency to consolidation in compounds seems to be well marked. Thus, the word schoolhouse was orig- inally written as two words, school house ; later the hy- ])hen was inserted, making it a single word, school-house, each syllable taking equal stress; later still the accent was shifted to the word school, and the liyphen was dropped, and it seems to be the general rule in these compounds that where the accent shifts to a single syl- la])le the hyphen disappears. Rome amusing errors, occasioned by the misuse of the hyphen, are here presented, together with the names of the authors. Webster's Spelling Book tells us that " men load hay S YLLA BIG A TIOK 33 with a pitch fork ;" also that " it is no more right to steal apples or water melons than money." The following are taken from prominent writers : " She formed a very singular and unheard of project." — Goldsmith. " I judge not my ownself, for I know not my ownself." — Wayland. " Our discriminations of this matter have been but four footed instinct." — Bush, on the Voice. " A tin peddler will sell tin vessels as he travels." — Noah Webster. "The town has been for several days well behaved." — J7ie Spectator. " Both the ten and eight syllable verses are iambic." — Blair's Grammar. "Obscured, where highest woods, impenetrable To star or sun-light, spread the umbrage broad." — Milton. "He manylanguaged nations has surveyed."- — Pope. " Bluntwitted lord, ignoble in manner." — Shakespeare. " You miglit have trussed him and all his apparel into an eel-skin." [Notice there is but one accent.] — Shakespeare. "They may serve as land-marks to show what lies in the direct way of truth." — Locke. "A falling off at the end always hurts greatly." — Blair. "The north west winds from the iiigh lands produce cold, clear weather." — Webster. " The soldiers, with down cast eyes, seemed to beg for mercy." — Goldsmith. "His head was covered with a coarse worn out piece of cloth." — Goldsmith. " Constantia saw that the hand writing agreed Avith the con- tents of the letters."— Addiso7i. " Hunting, and other out door sports, are generally pursued." — Balbrs Geography. " The consequences of any action are to be considered in a two fold light." — Wayland. 3 34 GOOD ENGLISH. "The time when screech-owls cry and bandogs howl." — Shakespeare. " The greatest part of such tables would be of little use to English men." — Friestly^s Grammar. " They have put me in a silk night-gown and a gaudy fool's cap." — Addison. An old song runs, " We'll wander where the cows-lips bloom." SPELLING. It is not the province of this hook to decide whether the rules for spelling should be taught in schools or not. There are many words, of course, to which the usual rules do not apply, hut that is no reason why we should not familiarize ourselves with the rules so far as they do apply. The following are the most important rules for spelling: 1. Final E. — Words ending in silent e generally drop the e on receiving an additional syllable beginning with a vowel; as, ice, icy; move, moving ; advise, advisable. 2. Words ending in silent e generally retain the e on receiving an additional syllable beginning with a conso- nant; as, ivise, loisely ; shame, shameful. The following are exceptions to the rule: Duly, truly, wholly, awful, nursling, wisdom, judg- ment, abridgment, acknowledgment, argument, and (ac- cording to some authorities) lodgment. 3. Final Y. — Words ending in y preceded by a conso- nant sound change the y into i before any other termina- tion or additional syllable than 's and those beginning with i; as, pretty, prettily. The following are exceptions : a. Y is changed to e in beauteous, duteous, bounteous, piteous, plenteous. b. In the derivatives of dry (except drier, driest), shy, sky, sly, spry, wry, the y is not changed. 4. When a vowel precedes the final y, or when a suf- 35 36 GOOD ENGLISH. fix is added beginning with /, the y is generally retained in words receiving an additional ternnnation ; as, boy, boyish. The following are exceptions to the rule: Pay, paid; lay, laid, lain; day, daily; say, said, saith ; slay, slain, together with the compounds of tlie fore- going. 5. Final Consonant. — Monos3dlables and words ac- cented on the last syllable, ending witli a single conso- nant preceded b}- a single vowel, double the final conso- nant on taking an additional syllal)le beginning with a vowel; as, run, running; begin, beginning. The following are the exceptions : a. In the derivatives of the word gas. the s is never doubled. b. The letters x, k, v, are never doubled. 6. When a Avord ends with two consonants, when the last consonant is preceded by a diphthong, or when the accent is not on the last syllable, the final con- sonant is not doubled on taking an additional sylla- ble beginning with a vowel; as, i\ghi, fghtiiig ; benefit, benefited. Crystal, crystalline is an exception. ]\Ionosyllal)les which end in /, /, or s, preceded by a single vowel, end in a double consonant; as, off, will, glass. The words clef, if, of are written with, a single /, and the words as, gas, has, teas, is, his, this, yes, us, thus, pus, with a single s. Monosyllables ending in any other consonant than /, /, or s do not end with a double consonant. Tlie following are exce})tions : add, ebb, egg, en; inn, burr, purr, butt, buzz, fuzz. SPELLING. 37 The words in, bur, but, conform to the rule. Final x, being equivalent to ks, is not doubled, nor is the final consonant doubled when it follows a single Yowel preceded by qu, which is really equivalent to kw. If the derivative does not retain the accent 6n the last syllable of the root-word, the final consonant is not usu- ally doubled; thus, refer', reference, rej'erred' ; prefer', ■preference, preferable, preferred', prefer' rible ; infer', in'- ference, in'ferable, inferred', infer'rible. Letters doubled in the Latin are usually doubled in the English without regard to accent or any other prin- ciple ; i\B, excel, excellent, excellence; mHame, iuflammable, infiamnudion ; Britain, Britannia, Britannica. The dictionaries of Webster and Worcester differ some- what in the application of Rule 5, with reference to the spelling of derivatives whose primitives end in I. Wor- cester has reveller, traifeller, etc., while \Vebster follows the rule, and writes the words, leveler, reveler, traveler, etc. There seems to be no necessity for the principle quoted by Goold Brown, that the final / of Avords ending in el must be doubled before another vowel, lest the power of e be mistaken and a syllable be lost in such words as traveler, duelist, marvelous, gra,velly. Only the last of these seems to require the doubling ot the I to distinguish it from the word grave'ly. When hj follows I, as in realli/, orcdly, ivoolly, etc., there is no doubling, but simply a joining of the suffix ly to the root. When, however, ly follows words ending in II, one of tlie I's is dropped, as in full, /(t%; droll, drolly. In compound words, when three letters of a kind come together, one is dropped, as in chaffinch, or a hy- phen is used, as in ill-looking, still-life. In general, words ending with any double letter retain both letters when followed by any termination not be- :. 1 i 38 GOOD ENGLISH. ginning with the same letter, and drop one of tlie letters when followed by a termination beginning with the same letter; as, agree, a^reemcni ; ivee, freedom, freer ; see, seeinr/, seer ; shrill, shrillness, slir'dhj. Some writers reject one I when/a/Z or ncM is added to a word ; as, skill, skilfid; but Webster and others retain the II, and write wdlfid, skdlful. In derivatives from the words bias, u-orshij), kidnap, some writers double the final consonant, but the usual custom is to follow the rule, and write the words, biased, uorshiped, worshiper, kidnaper. According to Goold Brown, the final II is peculiar to monosyllables and their compounds, witli the few deriv- atives formed from such roots by prefixes; hence, all other words that end in I should end with a single /; as, excel, repel, withal, control, damsel, consul, tranquil. The words distill and instill, as given by Webster, may be properly written Avith annul, until, as instil, distil, be- cause they are not derivatives of till. Most writers agree that words ending in ce or rje, should retain the e before able or ous, to preserve tlie soft sound of c or j; as in traceable, courar/eous, charge- able. The e is also retained in singeing, swingeing, tingeing, to avoid confusion with the words singing, swinging, ting- ing. Judgment, abridgment, acknowledgment are now written Avithout the c, but the older authorities, Walker, Col)b, Lowth, Beattie and otliers, wrote these words with the e retained. When the final e is preceded by a vowel it is some- times omitted on taking an additional syllable ; as, due, duly; awe, awful; true, truly; argue, argument; blue, bluish; but we wi'itc blueness, trueness, eyeless. SPELLING. 39 While the rule for the changing of the final y to i, when preceded by a consonant, applies to derivatives, it does not apply to compounds. Thus, we have 'penniless but pennyivorth, merciful but mercy-seat. Before ing and ish the final y is retained to prevent the doubling of i; as, pity, pitying, baby, babyish. Words ending in ie, dropping the e, change the i into y to prevent doubling the i on taking an additional syl- lable beginning with i; as, die, dying ; lie, lying. Ize or ise? — In words ending in ize or ise, sounded alike, as in size and ivise, z is used in such as are formed essentially by means of the termination ; as, apologize, philosophize, sympathize, brutalize; and s is used in such as are formed essentially by means of prefixes ; as, rise, arise, advise, devise, supervise, surmise, comprise, compromise. There are, however, many exceptions to this rule, as in the words advertise, catechise, chastise, criticise, exercise, exorcise, merchandise ; also, size, assize, caj)size, detonize, rec- ognize. If the rule could be made effective it would be the means of rejecting many variable spellings. Some words ending in II drop one I in composition ; as, all, always ; full, beautiful, artful; well, icelfare. Of words ending in or or our, there are more than three hundred, but few of them now, in America at least, retain the form our. Labour, behaviour, honour, and endeavour, though occasionally so Avritten in Eng- land, are, in the United States, written with the termina- tion or instead of our, and this whole class of words will probably at no distant day become uniform in the use of the termination or, just as the k has disappeared from such words as musich, publick, logich, etc. Able and ible. — It is frequently difficult to remem- ber which of these endings to use in the wHting of 40 GOOD ENGLISH. certain words. Is it collectable or collectible? The only safe guide seems to be one's knowledge of Latin. For tlie first conjugation the termination is abilis, from which we get able, as in arable. For the second con- jugation the termination is ibilis, from which we get ible, as in docible. For the third and the fourth conju- gation it is ibilis, giving us ihlc. But to one who has not been a student of Latin these rules will be of little use, and yet nothing more satisfactory can be offered. The tendency at the present time in the case of such words as center, is to use the termination icr rather than tre, though either is correct, and we may write center or centre, theater or theatre. Many words of the language have two or more forms, with authority for each; as, plough, ploiv ; inquiry, en- quiry ; hight, height ; indorse, endorse ; meter, metre. Frequently words are written by inserting an apostro- phe for an omitted letter or letters. Thus, we have don''t for do not, doesn''t for does not, isn^t for is not, ivonH for ivoll not, the old form of will not, Pll fov I will, sha'n''t for shall not, ma''am for madam, ^tis and ifs for it is, e'en for even, gVr for ever, o^cr for over, pr'^ythee for I pray thee, o''clock for oj the clock, and many others. le or ei? — In words containing the comliinations ie or ei, c is usually followed by ei and the other consonants by ie, but there are some exceptions to this rule; as, seize, seizure, leisure, weird. Always write c with ian, never fian. A late writer on orthography says there are only eleven efies, derived from arefy, calefy, humefy, liquefy, madefy, rarefy, putrefy, tabefy, torrefy, stupefy, defy; thus, liquefied, rarefied, etc. All the others are ifies; as, sim- plify, simplified, verify, verifies, verified. Even of the eleven efics, not more than six are words in common use. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. The object of this book is not to give a full discussion of the subject of English Grannnar, but simj^ly to pre- sent such points in both the etymology and the syntax of our language as are likely to be interesting and useful to writers and speakers. There are many parts of grammar which, while use- ful and interesting to the student and the teacher of English, are of comparatively little importance to one who desires simply to know how to write or speak the language correctly. These it has been thought best to omit, as being in a measure foreign to the purpose of giving practical help in the use of good English. The words of our language are divided according to their use into classes called parts of speech. These classes are known as nouns, pronoims, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. Under this classification adjectives are made to include articles, and verbs to include participles. Every word in the English language may be placed in some one of these classes, according to the use made of the word in expressing thought. Each of these classes has its special function, — the noun to represent names of things ; the pronoun to act as a substitute for a noun ; the verb to express action, state or being; the adjective to modify tlie meaning of a noun or a pronoun ; the adverb to modif}' the mean- ing of an adjective, a verb, or another adverb ; the 41 42 GOOD ENGLISH. preposition to sliow relation ; the conjunction to con- nect; and tlie interjection to ex])ress emotion. Nouns. Any name of an object is a noun. The word object, as here used, is meant to include anything that can be thought of, whether perceptible to the senses or not. For instance, the senses give us no perception of time, cause, space, and other intuitive ideas, or of spirit, soul, or the mind itself, but we know that all these things exist, and their names are therefore classed as nouns. The names of signs, symbols, words, etc., are nouns when spoken of, as the italicised words in the following sentences : " ^ is a vowel ;" " The is usually an article ;" "7 is a pronoun ;" " + (phis) is the sign of addition.*' Any part of a sentence when used as a name may be called a noun, as the phrase admission free in the follow- ing: ^^ Admission free ^^ was posted on the walls. The most important division of nouns, so far as writ- ing correctly is concerned, is that into Common and Proper nouns ; that is, names representing classes ; as, boT/, girl, ocean, city; and nouns having individual or particular names; as, John, Mary, Atlantic, Philadelphia. The chief thing to be observed in the writing of nouns is that every proper noun should begin with a capital letter. When a proper noun is made to denote a class, as " He was the Cicero of his age ;" that is, "the orator of his age," it becomes a common noun, but the ca])ilal letter is retained. When a common noun is used as the name of a par- ticular object, it becomes a pro])er noun, and is written with a capital letter; as, "The Park;" "Tiie College;" "The River." ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 43 When two or more words are used to express but one proper name, as General Meade, Williaiii Henry Busiiell, Queen Victoria, Duke of Kent, Chesapeake Bay, it consti- tutes but one name, known as a coni])lex proper noun, and each of its principal or com[)oneiit parts begins with a capital letter. When a noun consists of two or more parts consoli- dated or united by a hyphen, as grandfather, son-in-law, it is known as a compound- noun. Many proper names, of which there are said to be over 70,000 of places alone, had their origin in common names or common adjectives; thus. Brook, Dale, Hill, Woods, Rivers, Waiers, — names of natural objects ; Brown, White, Green, Black, Gray, — names of colors ; Smith, Car- penter, Driver, Seaman, Sailor, Fisher, Bishop, — names of occupations ; Wolf, Fox, Sheep, Bear, Beaver, Hare,— names of animals. Frequent compounds occur, as Whiteman, Grcenman, Greenwood, Gottlieb (God love), Greenhut (green hat), Pe- terson (son of Peter), Johnson, Jackson, Willianison. Nouns are farther divided into collective, verbal, and abstract. The collective noun is the name of a grouj) or collec- tion; thu8, flock (of sheep), herd (of cattle or swine), drove (of horses), covey (of partridges), audience (of hear- ers), bevy (of girls), group (of paintings), croivd (of peo- ple), congregation (of peoj^le), school (of learners), are all collective nouns. NUMBER. One of the chief things to be considered in connection with nouns is number. 1. Usually nouns form their plurals by annexing .s- to the singular when the sound of that letter will coalesce 44 GOOD ENGLISH. with the last sound of the singular form of the word ; as, girl, girls; tree, trees; hook, books. 2. When the sound of s will not coulesce with the last sound of the singular form, as in the word /ox, es is added. Thus, fox, foxes ; churcli, churcJies; ash, ashes; bush, bushes. An attempt to pronounce any of the words in the pre- ceding paragraph by adding s to the singular form will at once show that es, which has the z-sound, is preferable to s as an ending. The foregoing rules cover most cases for the forma- tion of tlie plural, but some forms require further dis- cussion. Nouns Ending- in Y. — The spelling of the plural forms of nuuns ending in y follows the rules heretofore stated, — words ending in y preceded by a single conso- nant, change the y to ie and add s. Formerly the spelling of such words as lady, glory, etc., was ladle, glorie, etc. ; hence it may be said that these words form their plurals regularly by changing the y to ie, and adding s. Nouns Ending in O. — Nouns ending in o preceded by a vowel add s only in forming their plurals ; as, cameo, cameos ; folio, folios. Nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant usually add es in forming their plurals; as, echo, echoes; negro, negroes. The following, however, are exceptions to the fore- going rule : The plural of two is written twos, and the following are usually Avritten cantos, halos, juntos, quartos, solos, tyros, duodecimos, octavos, pianos, mementos, lassos, pro- visos. Most nouns ending in / or fe are made plural by changing the / or fe to ves; as, life, lives; loaf, loaves. e:nglish grammar. 45 The following nouns ending in / or/e form their plu- rals by adding s : Brief, chief, dwarf fife, grief, gulf, hoof, roof, proof, reproof safe, scarf, surf, turf, strife, kerchief, mis- chief, handkerchief. Nouns ending in ff form their plurals regularly by adding s ; as, muff, muffs; staff, staffs, except where staff means a cane, when the plural is written staves (pro- nounced stiivz). When other parts of speech are used as nouns, their plurals are formed according to Rule 1 ; as, " The ins and outs of office ;" " The ifs and huts weakened his argument." The plurals of figures, letters, and symbols are formed by annexing an apostrophe and the letter s ; as, +, +'s; *, *'s ; b, b's ; 6, 6's. In such cases the apostrophe takes the place of an omitted letter, as in +es, 6es. Plurals of Proper Nouns. — Proper nouns form their plurals regularly, by the addition of s or es; as, Caesar, the twelve Caesars; Mary, the two Marys ; Carolina, the Carolinas ; Dervish, Dervishes. Some writers, however, use the forms the two Maries, the Henries. Complex Proper Names. — In writing the plural forms of complex proper names, s, the plural sign, is added to the last word only ; as. The George WasJiing- tons, the Sir Isaac Newtons. When a proper name is preceded by a title, the plural termination may be annexed to either the name or the title, or to both. The following are examples : '' The Miss Bertrams." — Sir Walter Scott. " The Miss Burtons." —Bulwer. "The two Miss \Ne\\em.''— Dickens. "The Miss Hornecks." — Irving. "The Misses Smith." — Bry- ant "The Ladies Butler."— ^SW/i. When a numeral or the title Mrs. precedes the proper 46 GOOD ENGLISH. name, the name only is usually made plural; as, "Tlie two Miss Scotts ;" " The Mrs. Welbys ;" " The two Miss Thompsons." When the title belongs to several names, the title only is made plural ; as, " Messrs. Green and Wilson ;" '" Messrs. Jones, Adams and Smith;" "Drs. Brown, Good, and Hen- derson." When two titles equally prominent are used, both are made plural ; as, " The Lords Commissioners North and Russell." Proper names ending in the syllable man, not being compounds of the word man, form their plurals regularly by adding s; as, Germans, Turcomans, Mussulmans. Plurals of Corapound Nouns. — In compound nouns the part wliich names the object is made plural; as, schoolhouse, schoolhouses ; tooth-brush, tvoth-h rushes ; son- in-law, sons-in-law ; pear-tree, ipear-trees ; hanger-on, liang- ers-on ; major-general, major-generals ; attorney-general, attorn eys-general. In such words as spoonful, cupful, cartful, cartload, the words Jul and load name the object or quantity ; hence the plurals are spoonfuls, cupfuls, cartfuls, cartloads, meaning one spoon, cup, or cart, full a number of times. If more than one sjjoon or cup were meant, the plu- rals should be written spoons full, cnps full, but not with a hyphen or as one word. Compound Nouns from Foreign Languages form their ])lurals regularly by annexing the plural termina- tion to the last term : as, piano-fortes, ipse-dixits, scire fa- ciases. A few com])ound nouns have both names made ])\n- ral ; as, men-servants, women-servants, ■ignes-fatui. Some writers add to their list of doulilc j)lura]s the word knlghts-temjjlars, hui there seems no good reason for ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 47 departing from the regular usage in the writing of this word, which is properly knights-templar, as given in " Mitchell's History of Freemasonry." Foreign Nouns. — Some foreign nouns adopted into our language have two forms for the plural, an English and a foreign one. The following are some of the most familiar examples : English Plural. Foreign Plural. Bandit, bandits, banditti. Beau, beaus > beaux. Cherub, cherubs. cherubim. Encomium, encomiums. encomia. Focus, focuses. foci. Fungus, funguses. fungi. Gymnasium gymnasiums, gymnasia. Medium, mediums, media. Seraph, seraphs, seraphim. Stamen, stamens. stamina. Most foreign names retain their original plurals, as ii the following : Alumnus, alumni. Grenus, genera. Amanuensis, amanuenses. Hypothesis, hypotheses. Analysis, analyses. Larva, larvEe. Antithesis, antitheses. Madame, mesdames. Axis, axes. Monsieur, messieurs. Basis, bases. Nebula, nebulae. Crisis, crises. Oasis, oases. Criterion, criteria. Parenthesis, parentheses Datum, data. Phenomenon , phenomena Desideratum, desiderata. Radius, radii. Diseresis, diaereses. Stimulus, stimuli. Effluvium, effluvia. Stratum, strata. Ellipsis, ellipses. Terminus, termini. Emphasis, emphases. Thesis, theses. Erratum, errata. Vertebra, vertebrae. 48 GOOD ENGLISH. Abstract Nouns. — The names of metals, virtues, vices, arts, and sciences, and the names of things measured, have no plural form ; as, wisdom, gold, temperance, draw- ing, arithmetic, wheat, milk. When different kinds of the same substance are re- ferred to they may be written in the plural form ; as, sugars, cloths, etc. The names of sciences ending in ics, as mathematics, physics, optics, mechanics, are in the singular number. Alms (almesse), news, molasses are in the singular number. Some nouns have no singular form. The following are examples : Archives, ashes, belloios, billiards, bitters, cat- tle, clothes, compasses, goods, manners, measles, morals, nup- tials, nippers, pincers, pantaloons, scissoi^s, thanks, tongs, tidings, tiveezers, trousers, shears, scales, vitals, wages. Home nouns are alike in form in both numbers; as, deer, sheep, trout, salmon, vermin, apparatus, series, species, means, odds, pains (efforts), riches, etc. The number of nouns which have the same form in both num1)ers can be learned only by the meaning of the noun in the sentence. The words head, brace, pair, couple, dozen, score, hun- dred, etc., having the singular form, may be either sin- gular or plural in meaning; but they may be written also with plural forms. When preceded by a numeral they take the singular form; as. Four pair of gloves; Three brace of quail; Five dozen eggs. At other times they take the plural form; as, "They came in pairs ;^^ ^^ Hundreds of birds were in the meadow." Two-form Plurals. — Tlie following nouns have two forms for the phiral, with difierent meanings: Brother, brothers (of a family), brethren (of a society). Cow, cows (two or more), kine (the kindj. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 49 Die, dies (stamps for coiniug), dice (cubes for gaming). Fish, fishes (individuals), fish (species or quantity). Genius, geniuses (men of genius), genii (spirits). Index, indexes (tables of contents), indices (exponents). Pea, }:>€as (two or more), j^ease (kind or substance). Penny, pennies (coins), pence (amount of value). Odds is either singular or plural. Pains (labor) is used as either singular or plural, but mostly in the singular; as, "No pains is taken." — Po'pe. " Your pains are registered." — Shakespeare. Means (instrument) is both singular and plural. We may say " By this means,''- or "' By tlicse means.^^ Oats is used almost wholly in the plural. Tlie sin- gular is usually expressed by " a grain of oats " rather than by "an oat." Cannon, shot and shell are used in a collective sense; as, "Stormed at with shot and shelf'' Youth and heathen have regular plurals; as, "A hundred youths." — Dryden. "The ancient heathens." — Addison. But both words are often used in a col- lective sense; as, "Why do the heathen rage?" — Bible. "They hate us youth." — Shakespeare. Trout, herring-, shad, etc., are often used in a collect- ive sense, and each word requires a verb in the plural ; as," The trout live in the brook." The word herring has also a plural form ; as, " Myriads of herrings." — Baird. Sail when it denotes a collection of ships is plural ; as, " The fleet consisted of twenty saiV^ Head is sometimes used in the plural ; as, " Thirty thousand head of swine." — Addison. In such expressions as " A three-cent piece," " A five- dollar bill," " A ten-foot pole," and the like, the word joined to the numeral by the hyphen loses its proper- ties as a noun, and as a part of the adjective retains its 4 50 GOOD EyOLISH. original form. An author humorously remarks that it would be quite as proper to speak of " they-goats " for the plural of " he-goat " as to speak of a ten-feet pole. Fractions. — Since we speak of two-thirds, three-fifths, etc., it is best to read such fractions as ^, ./^^j three twenty-firsts, five thirty-fifths. Collective Nouns. — The number of a collective noun is determined by the thought to be conveyed by the sen- tence in which it is used. A collective noun conveying the idea of unity is in the singular number ; as, " The army has left nothing in its track but a ruined country ;" " The committee has read its report." When the idea conveyed by a collective noun is that of pluralit}'- or has reference to the individuals included in the term, it is in the plural number, and both pronoun and verb agreeing with it should have the plural form; as, "The public are invited;" "The jury disagreed in their opinions;" "The committee were not unanimous in their decision." In rare cases the collective noun in a sentence may be used in both numbers; as, "Each House shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to time i)ub- lish tlie same, excepting such parts as may in tJicir judg- ment require secrecy." — Constitution oj' the United States. The sentence from Irving, "There is a tribe in these mountains who are fairer and more intelligent than tlie other Indians," might probably be improved by substi- tuting the words, "whose members are fairer," etc. A possession or attribute common to several objects sliould be expressed in the singular. Thus, " We ought to be content with our lot;''' "It is the duty of all to care for their health," not healths. Some names of building material, as brick, stone, plank, ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 51 joist^ are frequently used in a jjlural sense without the s, especially when referred to in quantity ; as, " A pile of brick ;" " A cartload of stone ;" " A thousand feet of plank." When spoken of as individuals they may take the plural form; as, "Several bricks;" "A half dozen or more stones;" "Two planks;" " Some joists." Whereabouts.— A common mistake, made es[)ecially by newspajDers, is that of using whereabouts as a i>lural noun and making it the subject of a verb in the plural. Thus, one paper says, " His wdiereabouts are unknown," and another, " His whereabouts have not yet been dis- covered." These sentences are of course incorrect. Whereabouts means simply location or staying-place and is in the singular number. GENDER. Gender is the distinguishing of nouns with re-gard to sex. It has been argued by some that as there are but two sexes there should be but two genders. But sex and gender are not synonymous. Sex is an attribute of objects ; gender is an attribute of language. Objects are either male, or female, or without sex. We therefore have the masculine gender, denoting the names of males ; the feminine gender, denoting the names of females ; and the neuter gender, denoting the names of such objects as have no sex. The use of these three genders covers the ground when the sex or the absence of sex is known ; but there is a host of names of objects whose sex we do not know by the noun-form, and we therefore need an- other gender which may be applied to such words as friends, parents, neighbors, children, etc. ; that is, a gender which is common to names including both sexes. In the sentence, " I expect some friends to visit me to-mor- ro^y," it might be incorrect to speak of friends as mascu- 52 GOOD EXGLISIT. line, because tliey might be women ; it might be equally incorrect to speak of them as feminine, for they might be male friends; indeed, they might consist of both males and females. To attribute either masculine or feminine, gender to the Avord parents, in which both sexes are represented, would be absurd. There is, therefore, a necessity for the Common gender, a term which is common or applicable to both sexes. Some masculine nouns have no corresponding femi- nine ; as, 'printer, brewer, hodler, lawyer. This is true probably because originally none of these occupations were pursued by women. For a similar reason, some feminine nouns, as seamstress, laundress, have no corre- sponding masculine form. The tendency at present is to write the names of occu- pations in a common gender, without reference to sex. Thus, editor means a person that edits ; there is no need of the word editress. We thus also write the word painter to represent either sex; also teacher, poet, doctor, pJiysi- cian, guide, and there seems to be no necessity for such words as paintress, teacher ess, poetess, doctress, physicianess, or guidess. Sometimes tlie names of animals are regarded as mas- culine or feminine, not because of their sex, but from their general characteristics. Thus, "The lion does not fear his enemy;" "The fox csca])ed from his pursuers;" " The dove coos softly in her nest ;" " Every bee minds her own business." — Addison. Such inanimate objects as are noted for firmness, power, boldness, etc., as sun, war, anger, are sometimes personified by the use of pronouns in the masculine gender. Thus, "The Sun rose in all his glory and power;" "Then Anger rushed, his eyes on fire."' — Cvl- lins. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 53 Sucli inanimate objects as are characterized by tbe feminine attributes of gentleness, beauty, etc., are per- sonified by the use of pronouns in the feminine gender ; as, " There lay the City before us in all her beauty ;" " The Ship glides smoothly along in her course." In writing of children or the lower animals, sex is usually disregarded, and the neuter form is used ; as, "The little child prattled on till it fell asleep;" "The cat caught the bird and ate it." A collective noun is regarded as neuter when the col- lection of objects is taken as a unit ; as, " The army in its march destroyed much |)roperty." When the objects indicated by a collective noun are considered separately, the gender must correspond to the sex of the individuals ; as, " The jury could not agree in their (masculine) opinions." CASE. Case is that property °of nouns or pronouns which denotes their relation to other words. In English there are three cases, the Nominative, the Possessive^ and the Objective. Of these, the Nominative and the 01>jective of nouns have the same form. The Possessive has a special form to denote possession, the singular differing fi'om the plural. The Possessive singular of nouns is usually formed by annexing the apostrophe and the letter s ('s) to the nom- inative form ; as, man, man^s. When the nominative plural does not end in s the pos- sessive is formed in the same manner as the singular possessive; as, men, men'' s ; children, children'' s. When the nominative plural ends in s, the possessive plural is regularly formed by annexing the apostrophe only ; as, boys, boys'' ; ladies, ladies'. 54 GOOD ENGLISH Inasmuch as the possessive sign always follows the full form of the nominative, a safe })lan is to write the nominative form first, and then convert it to the pos- sessive form hy annexing the possessive sign. Thus, ^y,fl}fs; iiies,//e.s'; mouse, mowsc's; mice, wice's; father- in -1 aw, father-in-law^ s ; fath ers-in-la w, fathers-in-law^ s. When the form of the noun is the same in both num- bers, the apostrophe may for the sake of distinction pre- cede the s in the singular, and follow it in the plural ; as, " A deer's hoofs ;" " Deers' hides for sale." When the nominative form ends with the sound of s or z, the s of the possessive sign is sometimes omitted, especially if the next word begins with the sound of s or z; as, "For conscience' sake;" "James' slate." In general, the regular possessive sign should be an- nexed unless the combination forms a disagreeable sound, as in the expression " Moses's laws." The following seem particularly lacking in euphony: " Demosthenes's life." — Blair. " Some of ^Eschylus's and Euripides's plays."— i?/a/>. " Confucius's system.'' Care should be taken to place the possessive sign always at the end of a word. The possessive sign ('s) is an abbreviation of the old English form is or es. Thus in Ciiaucer we find, "The kyngis crowne," " The knightes tale," " In widdow'es habite." Syntax of Nouns. Of the use of the nominative form as subject of a sentence, little need be said. Mistakes are likely to occur only in answers to questions, as where one calls out, "Who is there?" and the answer is "Me;" or "Who l)rought the flowers?" "Me;" that is, "Me brou";ht them." ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 55 The possessive case is the one in the use of which writers are most liable to err. Compound words are formed sometimes of a possess- ive and the noun limited. In such cases, wlien the literal meaning is retained, the apostrophe is omitted, as in ratsbane, tradesman; but when the meaning is figura- tive rather than literal, the apostrophe is retained, as in Jolis-tears, wulf's-bane, hound^s-tongue, — names of plants. When the compound term is used as an adjective the possessive sign is also retained ; as, "A bird's-eye view;" "A cainel's-hair shawl.'' The possessive sign is used with nouns only, never with pronouns, to denote possession. It's is not the possessive case, but a contraction of it is. In complex nouns the sign of the possessive should be affixed to the last word of the name; as, *S7/- ]V(dter Scott''s "Tales of a Grandfather;" Henry Ward Beec]ier''8 sermons. When an adjective belonging to a noun in the pos- sessive case follows the noun, the possessive sign is affixed to the adjective, so as to place the sign imme- diately before the modified noun; as, "This is some- body else's book." The same principle applies in such expressions as "Edward the Third's reign." We could not possibly attach the possessive sign to the word Edward without destroying the sense of the expression. Such expres- sions as " Edward the Third " and " someljody else " are complex, and take the possessive sign onl}^ at the end of the expression. Sometimes when the last word of a complex title is in the objective case, it is preferable to express the idea of possession by means of a preposition and its object rather than by the use of the possessive form. Thus, 56 GOOD ENGLISH. tlie expression "The dominion of tlie Emperor of Ger- many" is a better expression tlian is "Tlie Emperor of Germany's dominion." Care must be taken when two or more connected nouns in the possessive denote joint ownership, to affix the possessive sign to the last noun only. Tiius, " Fer- dinand and Isabella's reign," meaning one reign ; " Por- ter and Johnson's store," meaning one store belonging to the firm of Porter & Johnson. When two or more connected nouns in the possess- ive case denote separate ownership, the possessive sign should be affixed to each noun. Thus, " Porter's and Johnson's store," meaning Porter's store and Johnson's store. The same thought may be expressed by placing the word store after the first noun ; thus, Porter^s store and Johnson^s, when, it will be noticed, both possessive signs become necessary. The word store retains the sin- gular form in either expression, because it is expressed after one of the nouns and understood after the other. If the word store, following either of these possessivcs, Avere written in the plural form, it would mean that each person had two or more stores. If the thouglit is to be expressed that Porter and Johnson own several stores in partnership, we should Avrite the expression, Porter and Johnson's stores. In fact, a single OAvnersliip, whether by one person alone or by a number in ])artiu'r- ship, requires a single possessive sign ; separate owner- ships, separate signs. Wlien a noun in the possessive case has one or more nouns in apposition, tlie sign is affixed to tliat only wliieh immediately precedes the noun limited ; as, " Da- vid the psahnist's reign;" "The Avork Avas LongfelloAv's, autlior of EA'angeline." The Avord n:ork is here under- stood after Loiujfelluw^s. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 57 When a noun is put in apposition with a pronoun in the possessive case, the sign of the possessive may be omitted from the noun ; as, " His success as a teacher is certain;" that is, i?^«s success as a teacher^s success is cer- tain. When the possessive Hniits a participial noun or a participle used as a noun, the possessive form should be used in the limiting word. Thus, " Have you any objection to my listening?" "The objection to your speaking was plausible." " Our being present seemed to encourage the children. " The Avord limited by a possessive term is frequently omitted, especially in conversation ; as, " We bought the books at Lippincott's ;" that is, at Lippincott's store. If the noun limited is not expressed, we may use either of two forms, " At Wilson the tailor's," or " At Wilson's, the tailor," the second expression taking a comma after the possessive sign to indicate an omis- sion. Though some writers place the possessive after the first of two nouns in apposition, as " We bought the goods at Smith's, the grocer," the best usage does not sanction the practice. The sign should be put after the second noun or after both. Thus, "We bought the goods at Smith the grocer's," or " We bought the goods at Smith's, the grocer's." The first of these expressions expanded means " at Smith the grocer's store," in which the possessive sign is placed at the end of the complex expression. The second expression means " at Smith's (store) the grocer's store." Tlio first of these forms is preferable. We should not write, "We bought the goods at the store of Mr. Smith's," but "at the store of Mr. Smith." 58 GOOD ENGLISH. Frequently it is better to denote the idea of possession by a prepositional phrase rather than by tlie use of a possessive term. This is particularly true of nouns in the neuter gender. Thus, " The roof of the house " or " The roaring of the wind " is better than " The house's roof" or " The wind's roaring." It is true, we have such authorized expressions as "a day's labor," "a week's wages," "a ship's length," "the law's delay," and a few others, but when an expression is not already recog- nized as current English, it is best to denote posses- sion by a prepositional phrase as in the case of neuter nouns. Violations of the Correct Usage of the Possessive Sign. Many reputaljle writers, through carelessness or other- wise, occasionally violate the rules of syntax. The following are illustrations of incorrect usage of the possessive form : Man only of a softer mold is made, Not for his fellow's ruin, but their [his] aid. — Dryden. All liars shall have their parts [part] in the burning lake. — Watts. And love's [love] and friendship's finely ])ointcd dart Falls blunted from each indurated heart. — Goldsniitli. A collection of writers [writers'] faults. — Swift. That is, as a reward of some exertion on our jmrts [part]. — Gurney's Evidences. Such was the occasion of Simon Glover [Glover's] presenting himself at the house of Henry Gow. — Scott. He pointed out the difficulty of counsel [counsel's] doing public justice without preparation. — Lord Campbell. There are all reasons for suspicion [suspicion's] falling on him. — Dickens. Their healths [health] perhaps may be pretty well secured. — Lode. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 59 The Nominative Case. Tlie Nominative Case is that which is generally used as the subject of a sentence. The subject may consist of a noun or a pronoun, or any word, phrase, or clause, used as a noun. A verb may have several subjects in a sentence ; as, " David and Henry have come." In some sentences the subject is not expressed. This is usually the case in commands ; as, " Come ;" " Strive to excel." In parsing such expressions the verb is said to agree with a noun or a pronoun understood. The subject usually precedes the verb, but not always ; it is sometimes placed after the verb or after an auxil- iary ; as, "Great is Diana;" "Why do 3'ou not come?" "Shall we reach the train in time?" The subject of a finite verb should have the nomina- tive form. The subject of a verb in the infinitive mode takes the objective form. We may say, " I believe that he is hon- est," or " I believe him to be honest." Violations of the Correct Usage of the Nominative Case. He has dined here and me [I] with him. — Jeffrey. He was by nature less ready than her [she]. — A. Trollope. She professed the greatest regard for the lady, tvhom [who], she assured us, was an angel. — Scntt. It is much easier to respect a man who has always had our re- spect than to respect a man whom [who] we know was last year no better than ourselves. — Bosweil. He offered his daughter in marriage to whomsoever [who- soever] might subdue the place. — Irving. The very two individuals whom [who] he thought were far away. — B. Disraeli. 60 GOOD ENGLISH. THE NOMINATIVE CASE INDEPENDENT. The nominative form of a noun or a pronoun is used not only as the subject of a sentence, but also in what are known as the independent and the absolute con- struction. A noun or a pronoun is said to be used independ- ently — 1. When it represents a person or a thing addressed; as, " Boys, are you ready ?" " Gentlemen, shall we have order?" " Dear Sir, I wish to see you." 2. When it is used in exclamation ; as, " Delightful task ! to rear the tender thought ;" " Great Goodness, I did not expect such a result!" 3. When by pleonasm the attention is dh'ected to an object before anything is said of that object; as, "Thy rod and thy staff, they comfort me." Nouns or pronouns used in the three preceding ways are said to be in tlie nominative case independent by address, by exclamation, by fdeonasm. A noun or a pronoun is said to be used absolutely, or to be in the nominative case absolute — 1. When it is placed before a participle as the subject of an abridged clause ; as, " The teacher having come, we began work." 2. When it is used after an infaiitive or a jiarticiple of a copulative verb, as part of an abridged proposition ; as, " His being a reliable man was greatly to his advan- tage;" "To be a learned man was his ambition." Sometimes the nominative which should logically precede the participle is omitted; as, "Admitting your argument;" that is, ''We admitting your argument." Sometimes also in the al)solutc construction, the participle is omitted; as, "The war at an end, the ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 61 soldiers returned ;" that is, " The war being at an end," etc. By some grammarians such expressions as the titles of books, the headings of chapters, the names on signs, etc., are considered as being in the nominative case in- dependent by specification. The Objective Case. There are two circumstances under which a noun or a pronoun may be in the objective case. The first of these is where it represents the object of a transitive verb. The objective case may follow also the participle of a transitive verb. A verb or a participle may have several objects ; as, " He teaches both grammar and logic.'''' The object of a transitive verb may be any word, phrase, or clause, used as a noun; as, "The boy likes study;" "He likes to study;" "He knows that whoever studies will invprove." Some transitive verbs have two objects, one denoting some person or thing, and the other that which the ob- ject is made to be in fact or thought; as, "They made him king;" "They crowned him king." Either of these sentences may be taken to mean, "They kinged him." Him is the direct object, and hing is the factitive object, by some grammarians called the complement. Sentences of similar construction are, " They elected him President;" "They chose Mr. Smith captain." In each case the verb has the sense of to make, and the con- struction is called factitive, from facio, I make. Tlie principal verbs used in this construction are choose, elect, make, ajipoint, name, ccdl, constitute, render, consider, reckon. Some transitive verbs may be followed by two objects. 62 GOOD ENGLISH. the first being the object of a preposition understood and the second the object of the verb ; as, " I gave John some money.'''' When the objects change places the preposition is expressed ; as, " I gave some money to John." The indirect object, or object of the preposition under- stood, is by some writers made the subject of a verb in the passive voice; as, "I was asked ni}^ opinion." The propriety of this usage is, however, questionable, and it ought to be avoided. A better form for such sentences is, " My opinion was asked." If the sentence be correct as given, there must be an ellipsis, the meaning being '' I was asked (for) my opinion." The Objective Case After a Preposition. — The ob- jective case occurs after a preposition used to show the relation of the noun or other objective following, to some preceding word. The objective case is used after the adjective ivorth, and sometimes after like, near, nigh, without a preposi- tion expressed ; as, " He is like his father ;" " The book is worth a dollar." By some grammarians the object here is called an adverbial objective ; others claim that a ])reposition is understood after the adjective. When a noun or a pronoun is the object of two or more prepositions it sliould Ijc made to follow the first preposition, and a pronoun representing it should be l)laced after the others. Thus, " He spoke in favor of, but voted against, the measure," should be "He s])oke in favor of the measure, but voted against it." The same principle holds good where a noun is used as the object of both a verb and a preposition. Thus, " He advocated and voted for the measure," should be " He advocated the measure and voted for it." Whom and which should be made to follow rather than ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 63 precede the prepositions of which they are the objects. Thus, " To whom did you speak ?" is better than "Whom did you speak to?" The word home, and nouns denoting time, space, de- gree, amount, direction, as years, feet, time, etc., are put in the objective case witliout a preposition ; as, " The wall is four feet high ;" " We have walked several miles;" "You will not be a dollar richer by the change ;" " I have lived here ten years." In each of these sentences a preposition is implied. Thus, " The wall was high by ten feet;" "We have walked (over the space or distance of) several miles;" "You will not be richer (by or to the value of ) a dollar by the change." Violations of the Correct Usage of the Objective Case. The following illustrations show violations of the principles controlling the use of the objective form : But first I must show u'ho [whom] I mean by tlie govern- ment. — Benton. To poor tve [us] thine enmity is most capital. — Shakespeare. He loves he knows not who [whom]. — Addison. Let him not boast that puts on his armor, but he [him] that takes it off. — Barclaij. John Home Tooke was refused admission only because he had been in holy orders. — Diversions of Pur ley. (Admission was refused to John Home Tooke, etc.) Who [To whom] had been unexpectedly left a considerable sum. — Dr. Johnson. He [him], who had always inspired in her a respect which almost overcame her affection, she now saw the object of open pleasantry. — Miss Austen. Thackeray having been requested to write in a lady's album, found the following : 64 GOOD ENGLISH. "Mont Blanc is the monarch of mountains — They crowned him long ago ; But who they got to put it on Nobody seems to know." Whereupon Thackeray added the following: A Humble Suggestion. I know that Albert wrote in a hurry ; To criticise I scarce presume ; But yet methinks that Lindley Murray, Instead of who, had written tvhom. W. M. Thackeray. Wash ye, make ye [you] clean. — JBroivn's Concorda?ice. Hodgson's Errors in English, from which we take some of the foregoing, criticises the following : God will send no such fools as I upon his errands. — Kingsley. This sentence is correct as it stands, meaning "God will send no such fools as I (am) upon his errands." The conjunction really connects sentences here instead of the words " fools " and " I." The following are examples showing the misuse of the preiDositional objective: All debts are cleared between you and / [mej. — Shakespeare. So you must ride on horseback after we [us]. — Coirper. This life has joys for you and / [me], And joys that riches ne'er can buy. — Bums. He hath given away above half his fortune to the Lord knows who [whom]. — Fieldimi. I have plenty of victuals, and between you and / [me], some- thing in a corner. — Day's " Sanford and Moion.'^ There are still a few who, like them and / [me], drink noth- ing but water. — Gil Bias. We are still much at a loss icho [whom] civil power belongs to. — Locke. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 65 I cannot tell who [whom] to compare them to. — Bunyan. That they should always bear certain marks who [whom] they came from. — Butler's Analogi/. It is in this particular that the great difference lies between the laborer who moves to Yorkshire and he [him] who moves to Canada. — Westminster Review. Now he had lost her, he wanted her back ; and perhaps every one present, except he [hira], guessed why. — Kingsley, in " West- ward Ho.'' But if you can't help it, u'ho [whom] do you complain of? — Collier. I see there is some resemblance between this good man and / [me]. — Bunyan. The Case by Apposition. When a noun or a pronoun is joined to another for the sake of explanation or emphasis it is in tlie same case as the noun which it explains or emphasizes. This is usually called the same case by apposition. As has been explained before, when several nouns come together to express but one name, as General Ulysses Simpson Grant, they constitute a complex noun, and are not in apposition. Sometimes the common noun is put in apposition with the proper ; as, " Milton the poet ;" and sometimes the proper noun is put in apposition with the common ; as, " The poet Milton." Sometimes a noun is put in apposition with a sen- tence; as, "Always attend to business, a good rule, was his guiding motto ;" and sometimes a sentence is put in apposition with a word ; as, " His motto. Always pay as you go, is a good rule." A plural term is sometimes for the sake of emphasis put in apposition with several nouns or pronouns pre- ceding ; as, " Children, relatives, friends, — all have de- serted me." 5 6Q GOOD ENGLISH. Distributive pronouns are sometimes put in apposi- tion with a plural noun or j^ronoun ; as, " They called eacli other ;" that is, " They each called the other," each being in apposition with they. As is sometimes followed by a noun denoting office or rank, which is in apposition with a preceding noun or pronoun. Thus, " His work as a teacher is satisfac- tor3%" in which teacher is in the possessive case, being in apposition with his. Nouns in apposition need to agree in case, but not necessarily in person, number, or gender. When a noun is in apposition with a pronoun in the possessive, the possessive sign of the noun is omitted. See the foregoing sentence, " His work as a teaclier is satisfactory." Violations of the Rule for the Same Case by Apposition. Mr.-5. Bi"0\vnlo\v had presumed to scold her, to blame licr, for what she was doing, she [herj whom nobody ever blamed. — Mrs. Oliphant. God forbid that John Hawkins's wife should refuse lier last penny to a distinguished mariner, and he [him] a gentleman born. — Kingsky. Amidst the tumult of the routed train The sons of false Antimachus were slain ; He [him], who for bribes his faithless counsel sold, And voted Helen's stay for Paris' gold. — Pope. I saw him before me, he [him] who had since our first meet- ing continually contrived to pass some inap])reciable slight on me. — Lever. It is characteristic of them to appear to one person, and he [him] the most interested, the most likely to be deluded. — W. J. Fox : Works. I don't forget the danger and the woo of one weak woman, and she [her] the daughter of a man who stood in this room. — Kingsley. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 67 To send me away, and for a whole year, too, — / [me] who had never crept from under the parental wing — was a startling idea. — C. J. Mathews. The word came not to Esau, the hunter that stayed not at home, but to Jacob, the plain man, he [him] that dwelt in tents. — Penn. Christ and him [he] crucified was the Alpha and Omega of his address. — Sermon. Same Case after a Verb. Intransitive verbs and verbs in tbe passive voice liave the same case after them as before them when both Avords mean the same thing. The verbs usually placed between two nouns or ]5ro- nouns meaning the same thing are he, become, seem, ap- pear, and intransitive verbs of motion, place, or position ; also the passive form of such transitive verbs as call, choose, name, elect, appoint, consider, esteem, constitute, and a few others. A noun or a pronoun either preceding or following one of these verbs may be in the same case as a phrase or a clause separated from it by the verb. Thus, " It is a disgrace that loe should he compelled to remain,^^ or " That we should be compelled to remain is a disgrace." In the first of these sentences, the meaning may be expressed by transferring the explanatory clause and putting it directly in apposition with the subject; as, "It, that we should be compelled to remain, is a disgrace." The noun or the pronoun following an intransitive infinitive, and meaning the same thing as the noun or the pronoun preceding the verb, is usually in tlic ob- jective case, since the word preceding the verb, and known as the subject of the infinitive, is in the objec- tive case. Thus, " I took him to be the judge.'''' gome writers havg agreed \\\^\ the sentence " It is 68 GOOD EXaiASlI. me " is correct, because it is cuninion. Tins is not true. It is a direct violation of the rule, nor is the expression common among correct writers. If " It is me " Avere correct, then also would "It is him," " It is her," "It is them" be correct; but they all violate the well-estab- lished principle that intransitive verbs have the same case after them as before them when both words mean the same. The noun or the pronoun after a passive or an intran- sitive participle limited by a possessive is in the nomi- native case independent; as, "No one thought of its being 7." In such expressions as " He was taught grammar " there is an ellipsis of a preposition, as will appear when we substitute the word " instruct " for the word "taught." Thus, "He was instructed in grammar." The subject and the predicate noun or pronoun need agree in nothing except case. Thus, we may say " It is I," " It is he," " It is she," " It is you," " It is they." Those who would admit the correctness of " It is me," as Dean Alford does in " The Queen's English," and quote Shakespeare as authority, in King Lear, where the fool's expression is " And yet I would not be thee, uncle," will on further examination of the same play find Shakespeare saying " Be as well-neighbored, pitied, and relieved as thou ;" " 'Tis they have put him on the old man's death;" " It is both he and «/;e;" "'Tis Ac;" " 'Twas he-;' " Alack, 'tis he;'' " O, this is he'' Shall the rule or the exception govern ? In practice, it matters not which of the nouns precedes or which follows if both are in the same case. Some- times both follow or both precede tiie verb. Thus, "Am I a .Jew?" "Art thou Klias?" " I was eyes to tlie blind, and feet was I to the lame." " I know not who she is." ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 69 Violations of the Rule for the Same Case after the Verb. He had taken Oliver to be he [him]. — Dickens. If there is any one embarrassed it will not be me [I], and it will not be she. — W. Black. It cannot be me [IJ. — Swift. These are her garb, not her [she]. — Hannah More. Although I know it to be he [h\m\.— Dickens. It is not me [I] you are in love with. — Adam Smith. Art thou proud yet? Ay, that I am, not thee [thou]. — Shake- speare. Time was when none could cry, "It was ??^e" [I]. — Dryden. Notes on Nouns. Some discussion has arisen as to whetlier we shall say " the United States is " or " the United States are." Bry- ant in his famous Index Expurgatorius, wliich determined the question of usage for " Tlie New York Evening Post," of which he was editor, used the term in the plural. The Secretaries of State before the late Civil War used the expression in the same wa^^ Many autliorities have ad- vocated the opposite view, and usage is still unsettled. A reasonable view seems to be that where the General Government is meant, or where the term expresses the name of the nation, we should consider the term sin- gular, and say " The United States is," as we would say " Central America is," or as we would say of any otlier country made up of individual states. If we were to refer to the states as individuals, we should say " the United States are," but a doubt might arise as to the propriety of beginning either " united " or " states " with a capital letter. Foreign Nouns. — Frequently the pl.urals of foreign nouns are incorrectly formed. The word naming tlie graduate of an institution of learning is a good exam- 70 (JOOD ENGLISH. pie. The following are the proper forms : The term ajjplied to a male graduate is alumnus (sing.), alumni (plur.) ; to a female graduate, alumna (sing.), alumnas (plur.) ; and where an association consists of both sexes, the proper term is " alumni association." It is best in general to use the Anglicised plural of foreign terms where thi^y have become Avords in com- mon use. Thus, animalcules is preferable to animalcuhe except in scientific treatises, solos to soli, Ignoramuses to ignorami, funguses to fungi, stamens to stamina, gymna- siums to gymnasia, focuses to foci, beaas to beaux, and enco- miums to encomia. The general tendency in writing the names of profes- sions and other callings is to abandon the use of the feminine termination Avhere women occupy the same plane and enjoy the same privileges as men ; hence we have for women as well as men, doctor, teacher, poet, editor, instructor, merchant, and the like; but when the calling is essentially one belonging to the sex, a termination which indicates the sex is given to the word; as, actress, count- ess, duchess, and the like. In the case of actress the reason for using the forms actor and actress is probably because the parts played by the two sexes are different. As a rule, in fornnng new nouns it is l^est to take the affix from the same language as the root-word. Tliis is sometimes known as "The law of verbal formation." Thus, in the word telegraph, we have tele (Gr.), "afar off'," and grapheia (Gr.), "to write," and the word tele- graph, as also the word telegram, is a legitimate Avord ; but the word cablegram is a hybrid derived from the French and the Greek. The suffix ist, from the Greek, is frequently affixed incorrectly to an Anglo-Saxon root, producing as a re- sult such monstrous hybrids as wulkist, talkist, fightist, ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 71 and timist. Many of these have dropped out, and we have walker, talker, and the like, but " timist " is still used by some to denote one who keeps correct time in his musical performances. The proper word is time- keeper, from timnian (A. S.) and ceopan (A. S.). Many abbreviations of nouns have crept into modern usage, some good, some bad. Thus we have, among the forms which have secured recognition, ?;a7i for "van- guard," cah for "cabriolet," consols for "consolidated an- nuities," viob for " mobile vulgus,^^ proxy for " procuracy," chum for " chamber-fellow," hack for " hackney-coach." But there is no known excuse for the use of " co-ed " for female student at a co-educational school, " exam " for exnmination, "gym" for gymnasium, "pants" for pantaloons, " pard " for partner, " prex " for president, " gents " for gentlemen, " prof" for professor, " spec" for speculation, " prelim " for preliminary examination, or " bike " for bicycle. Many of these abbreviations are the product of the playground, where they are thought to savor of smart- ness, but none of them should be used unless recognized by reliable authority as having established themselves. Adjectives. Adjectives are used to limit or qualify the meaning of nouns and pronouns. Two adjectives taken together as one term, without the use of a hyphen, may be called a complex adjective; as, "A pa/e blue sky ;" ^^One hundred and twenty dollars," Numerals below one hundred, when taken together, are united by a hyphen; as, thirty-tivo, sixty'three, ninety- six. An adjective may modify a noun modified by another 72 GOOD ENGLISH. adjective; thus, "A little girl;" "A beautiful little girl." In the second example, "beautiful" modihes the expres- sion " little girl." When an adjective precedes an expression in which a possessive limits another noun, the adjective limits the noun in the possessive rather than the noun limited by the possessive. Thus, in the expression, " The old man's coat was torn," tlie and old modify mail's. An adjective usually precedes the noun but follows the pronoun which it modifies; thus, "He is a wise man;" "He is wise." There are, however, many exceptions to this principle, as in the expression "The boy is active." When an adjective is used abstractly after a participle or a verb in the infinitive mode, as " To be prudent is sometimes difficult," it does not relate to any noun or pronoun. Some adjectives merely limit; as, this, that, six; while others qualify. Among the limiting adjectives are the articles, a, an and the, numeral adjectives, and pronominal adjectives. Of the articles, a and an always limit nouns in the singular; a being used before consonant sounds and a/i before vowel sounds. An attempt to ])ronounce a com- bination where a precedes a vowel sound, as "a apj)le," "a orange," will readily show why it is more eupho- nious to use an before vowel sounds. Similarly, an at- tempt to pronounce an before a consonant sound, as " an cart," "an book," will show why it is more eui)honious to use a before the sound of a consonant. The may be used before either singular or jjlural nouns. Of tlie numeral adjectives, tiiose relating to number, tliere are three kinds: the Cardinals, Avhich denote how many, as one, two, three, etc.; the Ordinals, which denote ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 73 what order, as first, second, third, etc. ; and the Midtlpli- cative. which denote how many fold, as double or twofold, triple or threefold, etc. Pronominal adjectives are those which may, without the use of the article, represent a noun when understood. The jDronominal adjectives are either Distributive, as each, every, either, neither, — Demonstrative, as this, that, these, those, yonder, former, latter, — or Indefinite, as some, one, any, such, none, other, another. In the case of pronominal adjectives, when they limit a noun expressed they may be called simply adjectives. When the noun is understood, as in " This is mine," the pronominal adjective may be called a pronoun. Words derived from proper names, as American, Po- lish, Roman, etc., are known as Proper Adjectives. Proper adjectives should begin with capital letters except as noted heretofore in the treatment of Capital Letters. In the comparison of adjectives, when two objects are compared, strict usage requires the employing of the comparative degree to express a greater or a less degree of quality ; as, wiser, gentler, more beautiful, less savage. In the comparison of three or more objects the super- lative degree is required to express the highest or the lowest degree of quality ; as, ivisest, most beautiful, least savage. Monosyllables, and dissyllables ending in le or y, are compared by the use of cr and est; as, simple, simpler, simplest; spicy, spicier, spiciest. Other adjectives are usually compared by the use of more and most or less and least; as, beautiful, more beau- tiful, most beaidiful ; dangerous, less dangerous, least dan- gerous. Many ndjectives are compared irregularly ; as. good, better, best; evil, ivorse, worst. 74 GOOD ENGLISH. Sonic adjectives, as superior, inferior, prejerahle, previoiis, do not admit of comparison. Tliis is true also of adjec- tives denoting qualities which cannot exist in different degrees; as, round, squ(tre, prrpcndiculnr, etc., though some -writers use the comparative and the superlative forms of these words on the theory that the words are not used in a strict sense. Thus, "The most perfect society." — Everett. "Sight is the most perfect of our senses." — Addison. "The extremest verge." — ShaJ:espeare. Syntax of Adjectives. When a limiting and a qualifying adjective modify the same noun, the limiting adjective is placed first; as, "This excellent advice;" "The three brightest boys." When two numeral adjectives are thrown together, the ordinal should generally precede the cardinal ; thus, " The first three ;" " The last^six." Some grammarians object to this form because the " first three " imj)lies a " second three," and in groups of less than six there can be no second three. This is not necessarily true. While there ma}' not be a " first three" and a "second three" in five, there may be a "first three" and a " last three," just as in com})etition we speak always of "the best three out of five," and not the " three best " out of five. When an ordinal adjective limits a noun it should precede tlie noun ; as, the fifth pxiyc, the thirlceuth lesson, the second month, the cif/hth day. When a cardinal adjective limits a noun it sliould fol- low the noun ; as, page five, lesson tliirtcen, post sixteen, part one, not " part first." Adjectives as well as nouns may have the factitive construction, as in tiie Ibllowing: "Tiuv made the land ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 75 rich ;" that is, " They enriched the land ;" " They washed their hands clean ;" that is, "They cleansed their hands." It will be noticed that the predicate verb and the facti- tive adjective are together equivalent to a single verb. When the passive form of the verb is used, as, "The land was made rich," the adjective becomes a predicate adjective. Tlie comparative degree presents the objects compared as in difi'erent classes or divisions, and is followed by than; as, " Bo_ys are more rugged than girls." The superlative degree presents the objects compared as being in the same class or division, and is followed by o/. Tb us, "Samson was the strongest of men." We may say " Solomon was the wisest of Hebrew kings," but not "Solomon was wiser than any of the Hebrew kings," for he himself was one of the Hebrew kings. We may say " Eve was the fairest of women," but not " the fairest of her daughters Eve," as given by Milton. When only two objects of the same division are com- pared the comparative may be used like the superlative, and is followed by of; as, " Henry is the older of the two brothers." Some writers have used the superlative in the com- parison of two. Notice the following : " Tlie most agreeable of the two." — Cowper. "The most fatigued of the two." — Hood. "The strongest of the two."— Hawthorne. "■ Which of the two was the most active?" — G. P. Marsh. " The least of the two." — Southey. "The eldest of the two sons." — Thackeray. " Wherever God erects a house of prayer, The devil always builds a chapel there ; And 'twill be found, upon examination, The latter has the largest congregation." — Defoe. 76 GOOD ENGLISH. Double comparatives and double superlatives sbould not be used. \\'hen Shakespeare wrote the expression, " the most unkindest cut of all," he probably was aware that he was sacrificing the grammar of the sentence to make the meter correct. Each, Every, Either, and Neither are in the singu- lar, and require verbs, nouns, and pronouns connected witli them to be in the singular. Even when two or more singular subjects are con- nected by and, if they are preceded by each, every, or no, they are considered separately, and require a verb in the singular; as, "Each tree and each shrub has its assigned place;" "Every boy and every girl was ready for the work;" "No chair and no cushion was out of ])lace." When an adjective is necessarily plural the noun which it limits must take the plural form ; as, six feet, ten miles, seventy dollars; but when tlie adjective and the noun together form a new adjective the noun-part of the adjective retains the singular form ; as, " a ten- foot pole," "a two-foot rule," "a three-cent piece," "a five-dollar bill." Wiien quality is to be expressed, the adjective and not tlie adverb should follow the verb. Thus, "I feel dck;'' " I feel had;'' " Eggs boil hard;'' " The three stood tall and silent," — Macaiday; " Many a nobleman lies stark and stiff," — Shakespeare; " Time hangs heavy in the hall," — Scott. A correct plan for determining whether tlie adjective or the adverb should be used in such sentences as the foregoing is this : If anj^ part of the verb be or become can be substituted for the verb in the sentence, the verb should be followed by the adjective. Tlius, " I feel (am) wicked ;" "I feel (am) bad;" "She looks (is) beautiful;" "The eggs boil (become) hard;" "The apples taste (are) ENGLISU GRAMMAR. 77 sweet;" "The marble looks (is) cold;" "He felt (was) better;" "The child lay (was) motionless." When several adjectives limiting the same noun fol- low one another and are separated by a conjunction, the simplest is placed first. Thus, we say, " The boy whom we met is older and more intelligent than his brothers." If written in this form, " The boy whom we met is more intelligent and older than his brothers," the word more, in effect, modifies not only inteUigcnt, but also older; thus, " more intelligent and more older." Care must be taken, when two adjectives limiting the same noun are joined without the use of a conjunction, that that adjective be placed nearest the noun which with the noun may be modified by the other. Thus, " A rugged little church " rather than " A little rugged church;" "A pretty little girl" rather than "A little pretty girl." In referring to distance farther should be used, not/«r- ther. Thus, " The sun is farther from us than is the moon." Farther is used in the sense of additional. Thus, "Have you any further remarks to make?" The best authorities seem to agree that each other should be used when reference is made to two only, and that one another is the proper term to use when reference is made to more than two. Thus, "Tiie boys like each other;" that is, each boy likes the other. The number is limited definitely to two. We may say also, "The soldiers followed one another;" that is, one fol- lowed another, the number being indefinite. This and its plural these refer to wliat is near or last thought of. That and its plural those refer to what is distant or last thought of. Thus, Farewell my friends ! farewell my foes ! My peace with these [foes], my love with those [friends]. 78 GOOD ENGLISH. This and that modify words in the singular; these and those, words in tlie plural. It is incorrect to say these kind or those sort. The words a and the, though generally used as arti- cles, may be used as other parts of speed). Tiius, when a is used as a substitute for at, on, in, or other preposi- tions, as " He has gone a-fishing," it becomes a prep- osition. So also in sentences where the is used to modify an adjective or an adverb, it is properly an adverb, as in " IVie more I sing the better I like it;" " The deeper the well, the cooler the water." When the article .a is used before the words dozen, few, hundred, etc., the combination of article and adjective, as a few, may be parsed as a complex adjective. Some gram- marians prefer to tliink that a })reposition is understood ; as, "A dozen (of j eggs." When millions and larger num- bers are used the preposition is expressed ; as, " Two mil- lions of dollars." Syntax op Articles. When a common noun is used in its most extended sense, no article is placed before it ; as, " Iron is liard ;" " Glass is brittle." No article is i)laced before a noun denoting a mere title or name used as a name. Tlius, "The cliief oflicer in some towns is called mayor; in others, l)urg(>ss;" " His title is cai>tain." The article should be ])laeed before an adjective used as a noun ; as, " None l)ut the brave deserves the fair." The article should be used l)efore a common noun when tlie latter is used to denote a ])articular class ; as, "Tlie rose is a beautiful flower." \\'hen several particulars are included in a class, tlie article must precede each of tlie })articulars if it is ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 79 placed before any. Thus, " Nouns have three cases, — Nominative, Possessive and Objective," or " Nouns have three cases, — the Nominative, the Possessive, and the Objective." The article a is used before the words Jew and little to denote some. Thus, " A few remained to greet the stranger ;" '' We have a little money." The article a is omitted before these adjectives to denote none, not many, or not much. Thus, "Few were present to listen to the address ;" " But little change has been noticed." The article is used before each of two names when they are compared if they refer to separate persons or things ; as, " The house is more costly than the barn." The article is omitted before the second of two names compared if they refer to the same person or thing; as, " Longfellow was a more celebrated writer than speaker." When several nouns have different constructions, or when it is desired to express direct contrast, or to give emphasis or prominence to each noun, the article should be placed, before each. Thus, " The teacher and the pu- pils were frightened ;" '' The street but not the number was given ;" " Twenty thousand dollars was paid for a store and a farm." When several adjectives in succession limit the same noun, an article is placed before the first only; as, "A red, white, and black cow," meaning one cow. When several adjectives in succession limit a noun denoting several objects of the same name, the article is phiced before each adjective; as, "A red and a wliite cow," meaning two cows of different colors. Applying this principle to the following sentences, 80 GOOD ENGLISH. a. Sing the first and second stanza, b. Sing the first and the second stanza, c. Sing the first and second stanzas, d. Sing the first and the second stanzas, it is evident that only the second sentence (6) is correct. With reference to the first sentence, the single article indicates a single stanza, but a stanza cannot be first and second at the same time. The same is true of the third sentence; the stanzas must be first and second at the same time. The fourth sentence means that the first stanzas shall be sung and the second stanzas shall be sung, whereas there is but one of each. The fourth sentence could be correct only on the supposition that the first stanza of each of several hymns was to be sung. The second sentence is correct in either of the follow- ing forms : Sing the first and the second stanza. Sing the first stanza and the second, A i)rominent writer on Grammar says we may say, " the north pole and the south pole, or the north and the south poles." The latter form is incorrect. In the expression " a red and a white cow," the word " cow " is understood after the adjective "red." So also in tlic expression " tlic north and the south poles," the word poles is understood after the word north, as indicated by the presence of tlie article, and therefore the exj)res- sion means " the north poles and the south poles," an indefinite number of each. There is objection also to the statement of a late writer who argues that we may say, " the first and second edi- tions of a book," which means editions that are at the same time both first and second. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 81 In the expressions, The old and new book, The old and the new book, The old and new books, The old and the new books, the first and the third are incorrect, and the others cor- rect. The proper expression for the books of Scripture is, "The Old and the New Testament." Tlie guiding principle in determining the use of the article in such sentences as the foregoing is, that where several adjectives in succession modify a noun which refers to as many distinct objects as there are adjectives, the article must be placed before each adjective, if the noun is omitted after each except the last ; thus, " The first, the second, and the third stanza," means three stanzas. Notice also that the singular form of the noun, stanza, is the correct one, because it is un- derstood after each of the adjectives Avhere it is omitted. When the adjectives limiting a noun denote but one object, the article occurs but once, and that before the first adjective ; as, " A white and black [spotted] dog." In general, as many objects or groups of objects are suggested in expressions like the foregoing as there are articles. Thus, " A red, a wliite, and a blue flag " (three articles, three flags). "A red, white, and blue flag " (one article, one flag). Thus, also, "The first and second stanza " Tone article, one stanza). But a stanza cannot be first and second at the same time, therefore the ex- pression is incorrect. The proper form is " The first and the second stanza " (two articles, two stanzas). 82 GOOD ENGLISH. Sometimes for the sake of emphasis or through poetic license, a writer departs from the rule ; as, " A sadder and a wiser man He rose the morrow morn." — Coleridge, Where other limiting Avords are used with the adjec- tive, the same principle applies. Thus, " His first and last will " means one will. " His first and his last will " (not wills) means two wills. As to the words naming streets, usage is not uniform. Shall we say " Eleventh and Chestnut Streets," " Elev- enth Street and Chestnut Street," or " Eleventh Street and Chestnut?" This does not really come under the principle stated. Street is not the noun modified by the words eleventh, etc. The real names of the streets are Eleventh Street and Chestnut Street, just as the name is not Delaware but Delaware Bay. Two words. Chestnut and Street, are necessary to form the complete proper name. Custom seems to sanction Eleventh and Chestnut Streets, but the form Eleventh Street and Chestnut also is used, and the form " Chestnut Street below Tenth " seems to have no exceptions. Where a street crosses an avenue both the words street and avenue are used ; thus, " Broad Street and Columbia Avenue."' The definite article is usually placed licfore such com- I)limentary titles as reverend and honorable; as, ''The Reverend Phillips Brooks;" "The Honorable William E. Gladstone." We may say also " The Reverend Mr. Brooks," and "The Honorable Mr. Gladstone." Butler's Grammar chiiins that of should not be in- serted l)etween both or all and a noun following, but that it may be inserted between both ov all and a pro- noun following. Thus, we say, "Both the bo3'S " and EKGLISH GRAMMAR. 83 " All the men," or " Both of them," " All of them.." The use of the noun without the preposition is j^referable. The adjective some m^xy be written before numerals to render the number less definite ; as, " Some twenty j-ears ago, Tom." • Usage seems to differ with regard to the use of a or an before words beginning with h. All agree, however, tliat before words beginning with A and accented on the first syllable, a is the proper article to use; as, "A liistory ;" " A horseman." When the accent is on the second syl- lable, in such words as historical, either a or an may be used, according to the taste of the writer. Some gram- marians declare tliat the article in such cases must be an; as, "An historical account," "An hotel," and yet few people would speak of "an hotel." Usage is decid- edly in favor of the form " a hotel," and divided as to " a historical" or "an historical." Pronominal Adjectives. — Every is sometimes used to limit a numeral adjective and a noun taken together; as, " Every ten days ;" " Every five dollars." None may be used in either the singular or the plu- ral ; as, "We waited for a car, but none came;" "The train was wrecked and none of the passengers escaped." Every means all considered separately, and requires a verb or a pronoun in the singular; as, "Every good boy is ready to do his duty." Each means all considered separately, and requires a verb or a pronoun in the singuLar ; as, " Each girl is ready to do her share of the w^ork." Any denotes an indefinite object as opposed to a par- ticular one or more; as, " Can any one do this?" " Have )'ou any money?" Either means one or the other of two, but not both. It implies a choice; as, "Take either of the books." 84 GOOD ENGLISH. Neither means not the one nor the other. Many wlien followed by a may be considered a com- j)lex adjective. It means much the same as every, but does not denote all. All and "whole anean much the same, but they are not interchangeable. We may say " All the world " or " The whole world," and we may say " All the apples," but not '' The whole apples," in the same sense. Fewer and less are sometimes misapplied. Fewer refers to number, and Ze-s-i' to size. The school officer who said to the teacher, " There are less girls than boys in your school," probably told the truth, })ut it did not express the thought he meant to convey, that there were fewer girls than boys in the school. Violations of the Correct Usage of Adjectives. Isabella was the cause of more misery in botli countries than any (other) woman who ever lived. — History of France. Neither of them are [is] remarkable for precision. — Blair. Neither of which are [is] taken into account. — Dean Alford. Mazzini may be said to have done more for the unity of Italy than ajiy (other) living man. — Spectator. The word party for a man occurs in Shakespeare. — Dean Al- ford. (Drop a.) The two sisters were extremely different, though each had their [her] admirers. — Scott. Never did a set of rascals travel furUier [farther] to find a gallows. — W. Irving. A proper fraction is less than one, because it expresses less [fewer] parts than it takes to make a unit. — D. P. Colburn. We may consider the whole space of an [a] hundred years as present. — Beattie. Which created a great disi)ute between the young and (the) old men. — Goldsmith. It was read by tlie high and the low, by the rich and (the) illiterate. — Dr. Johnson. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 85 So difficult is it to separate these two things from one another [each other]. — Blair's Rhetoric. They stand now on one foot, tlien on another [the other]. — ■ Walker's Particles. Tlie head of it would be an [a] universal monarch. — Butler's Analogy. Scripture, n., appropriately and by way of distinction, the books of the Old and (the) New Testament, the Bible. — Dictionary. In two separate volumes, entitled the Old and (the) New Tes- tament. — Wayland. The creed of Zoroaster . . , , supposes the co-existence of a benevolent and (a) malevolent principle, which contend together without either [cither's] being able decisively to prevail over his antagonist. — Sir Walter Scott. Here they confound the material and (the) formal object of faith. — 3Iaturin's Sermons. Mr. Stanley was the only one of his predecessors who slaugh- tered the natives of the region he passed through. — Loyidon E.x- aminer. (Omit "of his predecessors.") A close prisoner in a room twenty foot [feet] square. — Locke. A Philosophical Inquiry into the Origin of our Ideas of the Sublime and (the) Beautiful. — Burlr. There are no less [fewer] than five words with any of which the sentence might have terminated. — CampbeWs Rhetoric. The letters published after C. Lamb's death and that of his sister, by Mr. Talfourd, make up a volume of more interest than any (other) books of human composition. — Leslie. To the antiquary and (the) artist those columns are a source of inexhaustible observations and designs. — Byron. Her two brothers were one after another [the other] turned into stone. — Art of Thinking. Memory and forecaste just returns engage, This [that] pointing back to youth, that [this] onto age. — I^pe. For beast and bird ; These [those] to their grassy couch, those [these] to their nests repair. — Milton. The landlord was thought to see further [farther] and deeper into things than any (other) man in the parish. — Fielding, 86 good english. Pronouns. A pronoun may represent a noini or any phrase or clause used as a noun. A pronoun agrees witli its antecedent in person, number and gender ; but the case is determined by the relation of the pronoun to other words in the sen- tence. The pronoun thou is now rarely used except in the solemn style. You is used instead in both the singular and the plural, but the verb which agrees with it is always of the plural form. Some difficulty is experienced in expression because the language has no singular pronoun in the third per- son to represent males and females. When both sexes are represented, the masculine form, he, is used by com- mon consent; as, "jfZe that hath ears to hear, let him hear." Some of the personal pronouns have two forms for tlie possessive, one of which, viy, our, thy, your, her, their, is used when the noun is expressed; as, my book, her pen- cil ; and the other, mine, ours, thine, yours, hers, theirs, when the noun is understood or implied ; as, The book is mine ; The pencil is hers. In parsing this latter form the simplest plan is to call the word a personal pronoun, having the possessive form, and then determine the case by the use of the word in the sentence. Thus, in the sentence, "The book is mine," mine is a personal pronoun, having the possessive form. It is in the first person, singular num- ber, and in the nominative case after is. The word mine here means my hook. Care must be taken never to write tlic possessive form of pronouns with an apostrophe. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 87 Syntax of Personal Pronouns. When the antecedent of a personal pronoun is a col- lective noun conveying the idea of unit}^ the pronoun agrees with it in the third person, singular number, neuter gender. Thus, " The army marched onward in its course." When the antecedent is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality, the pronoun agrees with it in the plural number, the gender corresponding to that of the individuals in the collection; as, "The jury did not agree in their opinions." When a pronoun is used to represent two or more nouns connected by and, but meaning different things, the plural form must be used ; as, " Both the boy and the girl spoke to tlicir father." When a pronoun is used to represent two or more nouns in the singular, connected by and, and meaning the same thing, the singular form of the pronoun must be used ; as, " Our teacher and protector has her home in the village." When two or more nouns in the singular, connected by and, are preceded by each, every, or no, the pronoun which represents them is in the singular number; as, "Every bush and every tree is putting forth its leaves." When two or more nouns in the singular, connected by or or nor, are represented by a pronoun, it agrees with them separately in the singular number. Thus, "Neither Henry nor William has found his book." When two or more nouns of different numbers are connected by or or nor, the pronoun should be made plural, and the plural noun should be placed nearest to it. Thus, " Neitlier the teacher nor the pupils felt that they had cause to regret tlieir action." 88 GOOD ENGLISH. ^\^heIl two or more nouns are connected by as well as, and also, but not, or similar connectives, they belong to different propositions, and the j)ronoun reijresents the first noun only. Thus, "The boy as well as his father believed that he would succeed." When two or more antecedents, connected by and, are of different persons, the pronoun which represents them is of the first person if either of the antecedents is of the first person. Thus, " William and I are anxious to please our friends." If none of the antecedents is of the first person, the pronoun is of the second person ; as, " Vou and your brother must be kind to your sisters." When using the pronoun of the second person, sin- gular, the same form must be preserved throughout. Thus, "Thou and th}^ sons shall bear the burden of thy sins." When several personal pronouns in the singular num- ber are used together, the second person is placed before the others, and the third is placed before the first. Thus, "You and I," " He and I," " You and he." When several personal pronouns in the plural number are used together, we is usually placed first, you second, and they third ; thus, " We and you," " We and they," "You and they." When the use of a pronoun causes ambiguity, the noun should be repeated. Thus, the sentence, "The farmer told his neighbor that his cows were in his corn," may mean four things, — a. The farmer's cows were in the farmer's corn. b. The farmer's cows were in his neijrhbor's corn. c. The neighbor's cows were in the farmer's corn. d. The neighbor's cows were in the neighbor's corn. "We, though jjlural, is sometimes used by editors and ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 89 others to denote but one. Our is used in the same way. Thus, " We give this as our opinion." You is often used to denote but one ; but the verb agreeing with it must have the plural form. When neuter nouns are personified they are repre- sented by pronouns in the masculine or the feminine gender. Thus, "Grim Darkness furls his leaden shroud." Such collectives as dozen, many, few, score, preceded by a, are represented by pronouns in the plural ; as, " A few of them were present." Antecedents in the singular number but of different persons cannot be represented by a single pronoun. A separate pronoun must be used to represent each ante- cedent. Thus, "The boy found his pencil, but his sister did not find hers." Violations in the TTsage of Pronouns. Every oue in the family should know their [liis] duty. — Penn. His form had not yet lost all lier [its] original brightness. — Milton. I shall not learn my duty from such as tltee [thou]. — Fielding. But he must be stronger than thee [thou]. — Southey. No one will answer as if I were their [his] friend or compan- ion. — Steele, iii Spectator. She was no better bred nor wiser than you or me [I]. — Thack- eray. If the part deserve any comment, every considering Chris- tian will make it themselves [himself] as they go [he goes]. — Defoe. Now these systems, so far from having any tendency to make men better, have manifest tendency to make him [them] worse. — Wayland. Every nation have their [has its] refinement. — Sterne. Neither gave vent to their [his] feelings in words. — Scott. Everybody will become of use in their [his] own fittest way. — Ruskiii. 90 GOOD ENGLISH. The tongue is like a race-horse, which runs the faster the less weight if [hej carries. — Addison. Nobody knows what it is to lose a friend till they have [he has] lost one. — Fielding. I do not mean that I think any one to blame for taking care of their [his] health. — Addison. "Kose Satterly, the mayor's daughter?" — "That's her'' [she]. — Fielding. Relative and Interrogative Pronouns. A Relative Pronoun is one which relates to a preced- ing word, phrase, or clause, called its antecedent, and unites with it a subordinate clause. The relative pronouns are icho, ivhich, icJiat, and ilidt. Some grammarians consider as a relative pronoun when it follows such, same, or many ; as, "We give you such as we have." Others claim that there is an ellipsis in such expressions, the relative pronoun being understood, the foregoing sentence meaning, " We give you such as (those are which) we have." Who is used to represent jDcrsons, which to represent inferior animals and things without life, what to repre- sent things, and that to represent both persons and things. What, that, and which have the same form in the nom- inative as in the objective case. In many sentences what is equivalent to both the ante- cedent and the relative ; as in — a. That is what I saw. b. He bought what he wanted. In parsing ichat, a form something like the following is the simplest : In the first sentence, " What is a rela- tive pronoun having a double construction. It is in the nominative case after is, and in the objective case after sa;<;." ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 91 Three of the words used as relative pronouns, who, which, what, are used also as Interrogative Pronouns. Interrogative pronouns are used to ask questions. Tlie possessive form of who and wJiich is whose. What and tJiat have no possessive form. Syntax op Relative Pronouns. The relative pronoun who is sometimes applied to the names of animals when these are personified; as, "The fox, ivho now addressed the assembly," etc. Which was formerly used in referring to persons ; as, " Our Fatlier, ivhich art in heaven," but the question is pertinent as to this' expression, the opening of the Lord's Prayer, May not the use of tvhich here -arise from the thought that the petitioner was addressing the Lord not as a person but as a pure spirit ? A clause introduced by a relative pronoun is said to be restrictive when it limits or restricts the meaning of its antecedent word as would be done by an adjective. Thus, " The man who is industrious will succeed ;" that is, " The industrious man will succeed." Notice the difference in the force of the relative clauses in the following : a. "My brother that is studying law will be examined in June." {Restrictive.) h. " My brother, who has been spending the summer with us, will return to the city soon." (Non-restrictive.) In sentence h, the subordinate clause " who has been spending the summer with us," may be stricken out without changing the meaning of the main clause, but this cannot be done with a restrictive clause. Relative pronouns which are used apparently in an- swer to questions, as " Who spoke ?" — " I do not know who spoke," are known as Responsive Relative Pronouns. 92 GOOD ENGLISH. The relative pronoun should be placed near its ante- cedent to avoid ambiguity. When a relative pronoun represents a collective noun denoting unity, u-Jiirli is used ; as, '' Tlie school, uhich convened at nine, has been dismissed." When a proper name is used merely as a word, it is represented by ivhich; thus, " Wasliington, a name which is dear to every American." What should not be used instead of the conjunction that; as, "We do not know but what [that] he may come." Whom and wJiich generally follow the preposition by which they are governed ; tJiat always precedes both the verb and the preposition. Thus, "To whom did he speak?" "Here is the boy that I spoke to." That is frequently used instead of who or whicJi. The following are the most important cases : a. After tvho used interrogatively ; as, " Who that has seen his work is not pleased ?" b. After an adjective or an adverb in the superlative degree; as, "This is the best that we could get." c. When reference is made to antecedents which sep- arately are represented by ivho and idiich ; as, " Botli the horse and the rider that we saw fell off tlie bridge." d. After the adjectives same, very, and every, when the relative clause is restrictive; as, "This is the same man that called yesterday." c. After the pronoun it used indefinitely ; as, " It was not I alone that was careless." /. After all and similar antecedents when tlie limiting clause is restrictive; as, "All that are stialiou.s will im- prove." By many writers and speakers tlie last of these rules is not strictly observed. Thus, while it is certainly cor- ENGLISH GBA3TMAE. 93 rect to say " All that are interested will remain," the form " All who are interested will remain " is sanctioned by custom at least. A change of relatives referring to the same antecedent should be avoided. The following is incorrect : " This is the same person tJiat called, and ivhom we met in the city." Violations of the Correct Usage of Relative Pronouns. Who [whornj have we here? — Goldsmith. Our party of seventeen, the largest which [that] ever entered the valley. — Richardson. Massillon is perhaps the most eloquent writer of sermons which [that] modern times have produced. — Blair. Who [whom] should I meet the other day but my old friend? — Steele. The princes and states ^vho [that] had neglected or favored the growth of this power. — Bolingbroke. The army whom [which] the chief had abandoned, pursued meanwhile their [its] miserable march. — Lockhart's Napoleon. Both minister and magistrate are compelled to choose be- tween his [their] duty and (their) reputation. — Junius. The first American who [that] adopted literature as a calling, and who [that] successfully relied on his pen for support, etc. — A History of Literature. This is just as if an eye or a foot should demand a salary for their [its] service to the body. — Collier'' s Antoninus. When you press a watch or pull a clock, they answer [it an- swers] your question with precision, for they report [it reports] exactly the hour of the day, and tell [tells] you neither more nor less than you desire to know. — Bolinybroke. Valancourt was the hero of one of the most famous romances which [that] was [were] publi-shed in this country. — Thackeray. Not the Mogul, or Czar of Muscovy, Nor [or] Prester John, or Chan of Tartary, Are [is] in their houses [his house] monarch more than I. — King : British Poets. 94 GOOD ENGLISH. Bryant was the first American ivho [that] discovered that the flowers and birds of New EngUmd were not those of Old Eng- land. — A History of Literature. Tlie same might as well be said of Virgil, or any (other) great author, whose general character will infallibly raise many casual additions to their [his] reputation. — Po/^c. The crisis is one of the most singular which [tluitj have ever occurred. — Econoriiist. All the virtues of mankind are to be counted upon a few fin- gers, but his [its] follies and vices are innumerable. — Sivift. Undoubtedly he was the most powerful speaker, the most active minister, the truest man, which [that] the kirk has had since Chalmers' death. — W. C. Smith, in Theological Review. Reflexive Pronouns. Dr. Morris, in English Accidence, shows that formerly the simple personal pronouns might be used reflexively, as in Shakespeare's Merchant of Venice, " I do repent me," the addition of the syllable self only rendering their re- flective signification more emphatic. Self was an adjec- tive, meaning same, but afterward it became a noun. Ben Jonson uses the phrase "my woeful self." The use of myself, yourself, etc., for I, your, etc., is not sanctioned by good authority. Thus, " Myself did it," is not regarded as good English, because the word myself here loses its reflective character and becomes the simple subject. Violations of the Correct Usag'e of Compound Personal Pronouns. I saw that it was impossible tliat Sir Lionel Somors and my- self [I) should ever get on well together as man and wife. — ^ingsley. Jerrold, Mr. Herbert Ingram, Mr. Peter Cunningham, and myself [I] were out for a day's ramble. — Hr. Charles Mackay. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 95 Mr. Studer and myself [I] had already decided on taking one man apiece as a personal attendant. — Prof. P. Forbes. Parliament, yourself [you] and many other independent mem- bers, were unwillingly, etc. — Benj. Disraeli. The reader will be indebted for any interest he may find in these pages as much to my correspondents as myself [to me]. — Public School Report. In October, George and myself [I] went to spend a week or ten days at Hampton Court. — Mrs. Grote : Life of George Grote. Verbs. The chief division of verbs is into transitive and in- transitive, the former of which may be followed by a noun or a pronoun in the objective case, and the latter not. A transitive verb expresses action, and this action is such as either literally or figuratively passes from the actor to a receiver of the act. A transitive verb requires an object to complete its meaning. Thus, " He 'makes " is not complete in sense until some noun or pronoun in the objective case is made to follow ; as, " He makes wagons." Makes is therefore a transitive verb. When the sense is complete without the use of an object, the verb is intransitive; thus, the verb hake in the sentence, " She can bake," though in the sentence "She can bake bread," the same verb, hake, is transi- tive. An intransitive verb that does not express action is known as a Neuter Verb; as, ^5, are, ivas, etc. An intransitive verb may be used transitively when followed by a word of similar meaning; as, "I dreamed a dream f^ "She lived a wretched Zifg." An intransitive verb may also be used transitively 96 GOOD ENGLISH. when it has a causative meaning ; as. " The boy flies his kite " (causes it to fly) ; " The engineer runs his engine." A verb may be transitive with one meaning and in- transitive with another. Thus, " I will return the books " (trans.) ; " We will return to the city " (in- trans.). VOICE. Transitive verbs are said to have voice, a property which shows whether the subject of the sentence rep- resents the actor or the thing acted upon ; as, " The boy shot a bird ;" " A bird was shot by the boy." The first form, where the subject represents the actor, is known as the Active Voice, and the second as the Passive Voice. The verbs in these sentences, shot and was shot, are the same verb in two forms, either showing that the action passes from one object, boy, to another, bird. Intransitive verbs may, when followed by a preposi- tion, take the form of the passive voice ; as, " We iccre laughed at^'' (ridiculed). In such sentences the verb, including the preposition, is a complex verb. Sometimes transitive verbs have the active form with a passive meaning ; as, n. 8ome goods sell readily. b. The field ploughs well. MODE. Mode is the manner in which an assertion is ex- pressed. Most grammarians give five modes of the verb, — Indicative, Potential, Subjunctive, Imperative, and Infinitive. Some reject the potential, and others seem inclined to reject the subjunctive. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 97 Hodgson, in his Errors in the Use of English, says, "The mood in the use of which mistakes are commonest, is the subjunctive, a mood that as a separate inflection is dying out in the language, the tendency being to merge the distinction between it and the indicative." The subjunctive mode is used to express an assertion as doubtful or conditional. The distinction between the indicative and the sub- junctive is usually carefully observed by correct writers. Thus, a. If it rains (now), let us remain indoors. b. If it rain to-morrow, we cannot go. The first of these sentences admits of no doubt. It either rains or it does not rain, and the fact that we know is implied in the indicative form, " If it rains." But in the second sentence we are in doubt, unable to tell whether it will or will not rain to-morrow, and therefore express our doubt in the subjunctive form, " If it rain." Sometimes the sign of the subjunctive is omitted ; as, " Were I in his place ;" that is, " If I were in his place." The conjunctions mostly used to introduce the sub- junctive form are unless, if though, lest, except, provided; but these conjunctions, or at least a part of them, may be used with the indicative form. For a verb to be in the subjunctive mode, the essential thing is that it express doubt, or a future contingency or condition. Errors in the Use of Modes. We shall be disgusted if he gives [give] us too much. — Blair. If thou findest [find] any kernelwort in the marshy meadow, bring it me. — Neef's Methods of Teaching. What is it to thee, if he neglect thy urn, Or without spices lets [let] thy body burn ? — Dryden. 98 GOOD ENGLISH. A certain lady whom I could name if it icas [were] necessary. — Spectator. Human works are of no significancy till they be [are] com- pleted. — Karnes. Though perspicuity be [is] more properly a rhetorical than a grammatical quality, I thought it better to include it in this book. — Campbell's Rhetoric. Although the efficient cause be [is] obscure, the final cause of those sensations lies open. — Blair. Our disgust lessens gradually till it vanish [vanishes] alto- gether. — Karnes: Elements of Criticism. It ought to weigh heavily on a man's conscience if he have [has] been the cause of another's deviating from sincerity. — W.J. Fox: Works. Enough has been done, I trust, to satisfy them that if Keble was a scholar, a divine, a remarkably gifted poet, if he were [was] exemplary as a friend, a brother, son, and husband, so he was admirable in the discharge of his duties as a parish priest. —Sir J. T. Coleridge. If the cavern into which they entered ivere [was] of artificial construction, considerable pains had been taken to make it look natural. — W. Black. If I avi [be] in the City at that time, I will do all I can to prevent the desecration of the Sabbath. — Newspaper. TENSE. Tense is said to denote the time of nn action or event. The indicative mode has six tenses : three absolute, — the Present, the Pad, and tlie Future; and three relative, — the Present Pei-fect, the Past Perfect, and the Future Per- fect. The indicative mode is tlie only one in which the tenses indicate time accurately. The Present and the Present Perfect tense both refer to present time. The former represents an act as taking place at the present time; as, " I write," while the Pres- ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 99 ent Perfect represents an act as completed during present time; as, "I have written to-day." The present perfect tense of the indicative mode has for its sign the word have; as, "have sung;" "have seen." The Present Tense, in addition to denoting present time, may express a general truth ; as, " Cold freezes water." It may also express a habit or a custom; as, "The boy is diligent;" "We think constantly." It may also represent the past or the future as pres- ent ; as, " Columbus crosses the ocean and discovers a new world ;" " I see the era of prosperity as it dawns upon us." The Past Tense denotes what took place in past time ; as, " We sang ;" " We were singing." It also expresses what was customary ; as, " They always were very agreeable." The Past Perfect Tense denotes an action or an event as complete before some past time; as, "The meeting had convened before we arrived ;" that is, we arrived in past time, but the convening of the meeting, also in past time, had taken place before our arrival. The sign of the past perfect tense in the indicative mode is hid; as, " had gone ;" "had sung." The Future Tense denotes future time ; as, " We shall come;" "They will pay us a visit." The sign of the future tense is shall or will. In promises, xvill is used in the first person, and shall in the second and the third ; as, " I will go ;" " He shall go." To denote futurity or prediction, shall is used in the first person, and will in the second and the third ; as, "We shall be there;" "Will you be there?" The Future Perfect Tense denotes an act completed 100 GOOD ENGLISH. before some future time ; as, " The train will have gone before we reach the station ;" that is, we shall reach the station in future time, but the going of the train will be an act completed before our reaching the station. The sign of the future perfect tense is will have or shall have. Thus, " The snow will have melted before spring comes ;" " We shall have completed the work before the close of the week." There are many errors made in connection with the past perfect and the future perfect tense, especially in ordinary conversation. Goold Brown gives the following sentence from Blair as an impropriety for correction : " I had written before I received his letter." The sentence is correct. Errors in the Use of Tenses. It was observed by Newton that the diamond possessed [pos- sesses] a very high refractive power compared with its density. — Haven. It always was [has been] my opinion that we would succeed finally. — Newspaper. As we remember to have heard an acute and learned judge profess his ignorance of what an articulator was [is], we may explain, etc. — Westminster Review. He insisted that the Constitution wa.'i [is] certain and fixed, and contained [contains] the permanent will of the people, and was [is] the supreme law, and could [can] be revoked only by the authority that made it. — Kent. It was [is] a pity I was the only child ; for my mother had fondness of heart enough to have spoiled a dozen. — Irving. Arts were [had been] of late introduced among them. — Blair. The wittiness of the passage was [had been] already illus- trated. — ('amjMVs Rhetoric. They have done [did] anciently a great deal of hurt. — Boling- hrohe. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 101 I observed that love constituted [constitutes] the whole moral character of God. — Dwight. Two young gentlemen, who have made a discovery that there was [is] no God. — Swift. Syntax of Verbs. A finite verb agrees with its subject in number and person. Though the pronouns we and you are frequently used to represent a single person, the verbs used with them must agree with them in the plural form. When iV, used indefinitely, is the subject of a sentence, the verb agrees with it in the third person, singular num- ber, but the verb may be followed by a nominative dif- fering from the subject in either person or number, or both ; as, " It was either you or they that called to me." When the subject of a sentence is a phrase or a clause, the verb agrees with it in the third person, singular num- ber; as, "To know great and good men is a pleasure." The finite verb never agrees with a noun in the first or the second person, but with a pronoun representing it. Thus, " I, James Smith, do hereb}' depose;" " Boys, you deserve much praise." The number of a verb having for its subject a noun whose form is the same in both numbers, is determined by the meaning of the sentence. Thus, " A sheep was sold;" "Some sheep were sold." When a verb has several subjects of different persons, it agrees with the first person rather than the second, and with the second rather than the third. Thus, "You and I will go ;" " He and you came ;" " He and I will go." When two or more subjects in the singular number, connected bv and, follow the verb, it is sometimes used 102 GOOD ENGLISH. in its singular form ; as, "Thine is the kingdom, and the power, and the glory." In expressions like this the speaker seems to lix his attention on eacli subject sep- arately. In the expressions as folloics, as appears, etc., a subject seems to be understood; thus, "As (itj follows;" "As (it) apjDcars." A verb in tlie imperative mode agrees with a subject, thou, ye, you, understood. In such sentences as " Let there be light," the ex- pression is used without reference to a subject, but the verb is still in the imperative mode. Subjects, Collective Nouns. — When the subject of a sentence is a collective noun conveying the idea of unity, the verb agrees with it in the singular number. Thus, "The army has changed its course." When the subject of a sentence is a collective noun conveying tlie idea of plurality, the verb agrees with it in the j)lural number. Tlius, "The public are invited;''^ " The committee do not agree in their suggestions." Errors in the Use of Verbs having Collective Nouns for Subjects. Far the greater part of their captives was [were] anciently sacrificed. — Robertson'' s America. The greater part of these new-coined [? newly-coined] words has [have] been rejected. — Home Tookc. While all our youth ^re/ers [prefer] her to the rest. — Waller^s Poems. While still the busy world Is [are] treading o'er The paths they trod five thousand years before. — Yoimg. So that the whole number of the streets were [was] fifty. — Roll in' s Ancient History. The number of inhabitants luerc [wasj not more than four millions. — Smollett. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 103 The House of Commons ivere [was] of small weight.- — Hunt. Small as the number of inhabitants are [is], yet their poverty is extreme. — Fapie's Geology. The number of school districts have [has] increased during the year. — School Report. In France the peasantry goes [go] barefoot, and the middle sort makes [make] use of wooden shoes. — Harvey. Above [? more than] one-half of them tvas [were] cut off before the return of spring. — Robertson's America. Subjects Connected by And or As well as. — A verb having two or more subjects denoting difierent persons or things taken together, agrees with them in the plural number; as, "Father and mother are here." A verb having two or more singular subjects connected by and, but referring to the same person or thing, is in the singular number. Thus, " The great orator and statesman, Webster, ivas a senator." Wlien two or more subjects in the singular number are preceded b}' each, every, or no, the verb agrees with them in the singular number. Thus, " Every man, woman, and child teas attentive." When two subjects in tlie singular number, connected by and, are emphatically distinguished, they belong to different propositions, and the verb expressed agrees with the first onl}', the predicate of the second being understood. Thus, "Their pleasure, and not the wel- fare of the people, was their chief consideration." When the verb separates the subjects, it agrees with that which precedes it ; as, " Thy beauty walks, thy ten- derness and love." When two subjects are connected by and, one of which is affirmative and the other negative, they belong to dif- ferent propositions, and the verb agrees with the affirm- ative subject, and is understood with the other. Thus, 104 GOOD ENGLISH. "Our character, and not onr \)rok'S'&\ow.^ recommends us;" '' Not a loud voice, but strong proofs, bring conviction." When two subjects are connected by as well as, but, save, also, but not, they belong to different propositions, and the verb agrees with the first, being understood with the others. Thus, " Prudence, as well as right, dictates that a man should be just." Every verb except those in the infinitive or the im- perative mode should have a subject expressed, unless several verbs have the snrne construction. Thus, " He knows his duty but will not do it," should be "He knows his duty but he will not do it." Two or more distinct subject phrases connected by and require a plural verb. Thus, "To do our duty to the public and to be just to ourselves are sometimes difficult." Errors in the Use of Verbs. Hill and dale doth [do] boast thy blessing. — Milton. Common sense, as well as piety, tell [tellsj us these are proper. — Comvieittary. Therein consists [consist] the force and use and nature of language. — Berkeley. How is [are] the gender and (the) number of a relative known ? — Bullions. The syntax and (the) etymology of the language is [are] thus spread before the learner. — Bullions. How each of these professions are [is] crowded! — Addison. Both death and I am [are] found eternal. — Milton. The boldness, freedom, and variety of our blank verse is [are] infinitely more favorable than rhyme to all kinds of poetry. — Blair's Eheloric. When the force and direction of personal satire is [are] no longer understood. — Junius. In consequence of tliis idea niucli ridicule and censun.' has [liave] been tlirown upon JMilton. — Blair. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 105 Consequently, wberever space and time h [are] found, there God must also be. — Sir Isaac Newton. For where does [do] beauty and high wit But in yon constellation meet? — Butler's Hudibras. Thence to the land where fiows [flow] Ganges and Indus. — Milton. High rides the sun, thick rolls the dust, And feebler speeds [speed] the blow and thrust.— ^S/r W. Scott. By wliich an oath and (a) penalty was [were] to be imposed upon the members. — Junius. There is [are] also the fear and (the) apprehension of it. — Butler's Analogy. Bitter constraint and sad occasion dear Compels [compel] me to disturb your seasons due. — Milton's Lycidas. But it, as well as the lines immediately subsequent, defy [defies] all translation. — Coleridge. But their religion, as well as their customs and manners, ivere [was] strangely misapprehended. — Bolinghrohe. But his jealous policy, as well as the fatal antipathy of Fon- seca, were [was] conspicuous. — Robertson's America. By that time every window and every door on the street were [was] full of heads. — Newspaper. Subjects Connected by Or or Nor. — ^^''hen two or more subjects in the singular number are connected by or or nor, the verb agrees with them in the singular. Thus, " Neither parent nor child was saved." When one of the subjects connected Joy or or nor is in the plural number, it is placed nearest the verb, and the verb is made plural. Thus, " Neither the teacher nor the pupils were present." When the verb has two or more subjects of different persons, connected by or or nor, it agrees in person with the one nearest to it. Thus, " Neither he nor I am will- ing;" " Neither Henry nor you are ready." 106 GOOD ENGLISH. Errors in the Use of Verbs. No monstrous height, or length, or breadth appear [appears]. — Pope. Nor want nor cold his course delay [delays]. — Johnson. Neither the intellect nor the heart are [isj capable of being driven. — Abbott. Nor he nor I are [am] capable of harboring a thought against your peace. — Walpole. By which he, or his deputy, were [was] authorized to cut down any trees in Whittlebury forest. — Junius. A lucky anecdote, or an enlivening talk, relieve [relieves] the folio page. — Isaac Disraeli. Yet sometimes we have seen that wine, or chance, have [has] warmed cold brains. — Dryden. A rusty nail, or a crooked pin, shoot [shoots] up into prodi- gies (?a prodigy). — Spectator. Neither history nor tradition /«/vi/«/i [furnishes] such infor- mation. — Robertson. Praise from a friend or censure from a foe, Are [is] lost on hearers that our merits know. — Pope. Neither Charles nor his brother toere [was] qualified to sup- port such a system. — Junivs. When, therefore, neither the liveliness of representation, nor the warmth of passion, serve [serves], as it were, to cover the trespass, it is not safe to leave the beaten track. — CampbelPs Phetoric. Neither the general situation of our colonies, nor that partic- ular distress which forced the inhabitants of Boston to take up arms, have [has] been thought worthy of a moment's considera- tion. — Junius. Surely none of our readers are so unfortunate as not to know some man or woman who carry [carries] this atmosphere of peace and good will about them [?]. — Kingsley. No action or institution can be salutary and stable which are [is] not based on reason and the will of God. — Matthew Arnold. Neither his conduct nor his language have [ha:?] left me with that impression. — Lord Houyhton. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 107 The excommunication of the Stock Exchange is far more terrible than the interdict of the Pope or the ban of Empire ever were [was]. — -P''o/. Rogers. The Subject, -with Modifiers. — A modifier of the sub- ject of a sentence does not affect the form of the verb. Thus, "The number of visitors increases daily;" "Tiiree months' interest is due." When the subject is a relative pronoun, the verb takes its number from the antecedent. Thus, " The new audi- torium is one of the finest buildings that ever have been erected in the City." Errors in the Use of Verbs. The ninth book of Livy aflbrds one of the most beautiful ex- emplifications of historical 2)aiuting that is [are] anywhere to be met with. — Blair. The idea of such a collection of men as make [makes] an army. — Locke. How beauty is excelled h\ manly grace And wisdom, which alone is [are] truly fair.- — Milton. What art thou, speak, that on designs unknown, While others sleep, thus range [rangestj the camp alone? — Pope. The rapidity of his movements were [was] beyond examjjle. — Wells' Historij. The mechanism of clocks and watches were [was] totally unknown. — Hume. And each of these afford [affords] employment. — Percival's Tales. The judicial power of these courts extend [extends] to all cases in law and equity. — School History. This is one of the very best treatises on money and coins that has [have] ever been published. — J. R. McCullough. I confess that I am one who am [is] unable to refuse my [his] assent to the conclusions of those philosophers who assert that nothing exists as it is perceived. — P. B. Shelley. 108 GOOD ENGLISH. Cardinal Wiseman has taken advantage of tlie attack to put forth one of the most brilliant appeals that Itiis |havol appeared in my time. — Miss Miiford: Yesterdays tcilh Authors. Whenever Don Guzman replied with one of those smiles of his, which (as Aymas said afterward) ivas [were] so abominably like a sneer, that he had often hard work to keep Jiis hands off the man. — Kingsley. Nominatives to be Expressed. — Every finite verb not in the imperative mode should liave a separate nominative expressed except when the verb is repeated for the sake of emphasis, or is connected with another verb in the same construction, or is put after but or than. Subjects Improperly Omitted. There is no man (who) would be more welcome. — Steele. There is no man (who) doth a wrong for wrong's sake. — Lord Bacon. The web of the natural and (that of) the supernatural are so woven together in the soul that they cannot be untied. — John Duncan, IjL.D. Who is here so base that (he) would be a bondsman. — Beau- ties of Shakespeare. Mr. Prince has a genius (that) would prompt him to better things. — Spectator. Between an antecedent and a consequent, or Avhat goes before, and (what) immediately follows. — Blair's Rhetoric. All the various miseries of life, which people bring upon themselves by negligence and folly, and (which) might have been avoided by proper care, are instances of this. — Butler's Analogij. Will martial flames forever fire thy mind. And (thou) never, never to Heaven be resigned? — Pope. Discrepant Subjects. — Sometimes in compound sen- tences a single predicate is used in connection with two or more subjects ; as, " Not a drum was heard nor a funeral note.'''' ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ■ 109 This construction is admissible only where the sub- jects are in the same number, otherwise the rule for the agreement of a verb with its subject is violated, as in the following : " They are easily avoided, and their existence ( ) forgotten." Verbs Improperly Omitted. The civil government was tlicn very submissive, and heretics ( ) ahnost unknown. — Lecky. His beard was white, his face ( ) pale and melancholy, his eyes ( ) lustrous. — Miss M. B. Edwards. His diet was abstemious, his prayers ( ) long and fervent, and the alms which he received with one hand he distributed with the other. — Gibbon. The evening was made pleasant with sacred music, and the fatigues of two long services ( ) repaired by simple refections. — Holmes. Massinger is a decided Whig ; Beaumont and Fletcher ( ) high-flying, passive-obedience Tories. — Leslie Stephen. He belongs to one caste, and the hewers of wood and drawers of water ( ) to another. — W. J. Fox. The oddity has become always odder, the paradoxes ( ) still more paradoxical. — Lowell. His brow was wrinkled, his lips ( ) compressed, his eyes ( ) full of a terribly strong calm. — Kingsley. Still was her inward structure unchanged, her essential duties were unvaried, her course ( ) pursued with equal success. — Car- dinal Wiseman. At present all contributions of facts are to be welcomed, all hasty theorizing (is to be) encouraged. — Spectator. They were spreading his reputation, and every day ( ) bring- ing new friends. — J. T. McCleunan, in Memoirs of Thomas Driun- mond. Not only was the watch discovered, but duplicates { ) [also] found. — Traits of Character. Public opinion is a reality as solid to him as the globe, its phenomena ( ) as influential as sunshine and darkness. — W. E. Alger. 110 GOOD ENGLISH. But the young doctor cnme, and the old doctor came, and the infants were laid in cotton-wool, and the room ( ) heated up to keep them warm, and bay-teaspoonfuls of milk ( ) given them. — Holmes. These tracts were always kept lighted, and the expense thereof { ) defrayed by a special tax. — The Comi-ng Race. The offenses against morality are condoned too easily, and the line between vice and virtue ( ) drawn in accordance with certain distinctions which even Parson Adams could scarcely have approved. — Leslie Stephen. The Subject Limited by Adjectives. — AMien a sub- ject is limited by two or more adjectives, it is in the plural if each adjective is preceded by an article, but in the singular if there is but one article used. Thus, "The logical and the historical analysis coincide.'''' (There are two analyses.) " The figurative or meta- phorical expression has a difierent meaning from the literal." Figurative and metaphorical take but one article because they limit a noun in the singular, which in turn takes a verb in the singular as its predicate. Errors in the Number of the Predicate Verb. The moody and savage state of mind of the sullen and ambi- tious are [is] admirably drawn. — Spectator. The material and (the) mental world have their points of union, blending them together. — IK J. Fo.v. Note. — Dr. Hodgson would have this read "The ma- terial and the mental worlds have," etc. This would mean "The material worlds and the mental worlds," which is incorrect. The word world is understood after the word material in the expression, but the article the should precede mental, to show that two worlds are meant. The expression " Vocal and instrumental music now ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Ill invariably /orm a considerable part of tbe programme," which Dr. Hodgson condemns, is correct as it stands. So, also, in the following the verb is correct: "But with Socrates moral and intellectual excellence were in- separable, and as he could discover no security for con- duct but knowledge, so he could find, in the first instance at least, no other subject for knowledge hut [than] hu- man conduct." — Saturday Review. The following sentences, given by Dr. Hodgson in Errors in the Use of English, as illustrations of the incor- rect use of the verb, are correct, except where noted by the marks of parenthesis : Bodily and intellectual labor vjere paid at the same rate of wages. — M. D. Conway. Sacred and profane wisdom agree in declaring that "pride goeth before a fall." — Spectator. Those most important and complex changes which political and social science have brought about. — Sir H. Holland. To be worth anything, literary and scientific criticism require, both of them, tbe finest heads and the most sure [surest] tact. — Matthew Arnold. It is not only possible, but (also) probable, that lay and cler- ical opinion are at variance. — Manchester Kraminer. It is true that the Scotch and (the) English patronage are two different things. — Spectator. In each of the six foregoing sentences a noun is under- stood after the first of each pair of adjectives. Distributive Pronouns as Subjects. — The distribu- tive adjective pronouns, each, either, neither, when used as subjects, require verbs and pronouns in the singular number ; as, '" Each of the boys has done his duty." Indefinite Pronominal Adjectives as Subjects. — Of the indefinite pronominal adjectives, when used as pro- nouns, some and all are used in the plural ; one, other, and 112 GOOD ENGLISH. another, in the singular; and any and none in either the singuhir or the plural, according to the sense implied in the sentence. Errors in the Use of Verbs having* Adjective Pronouns as Subjects. It is true that not one of the bright particular stars of Polish history loere [was] of that line or age. — Saturday Review. While either of these are [isj hungry, Nor poppy, uor mandragora, Nor all the drowsy syrups of the East Will ever medicine them [him] to slumber. — Fielding. Neither of these boys were [was] so remarkable for their [his] talents as for (the) thoroughness of their [his] work. — Rev. G. Butler. In this composition neither of the arms cross [crosses] the body. — Lady Eastlake. Neither of us deny [denies] that Homer and Virgil have great beauties. — Blair. But neither of these circumstances are [is] intended here. — Home Tooke. And yet neither of them express [expresses] any more action in this case than they [he] did in the other. — Bullions. pjach in their [his] turn like Banquo's monarchs sto/X' [stalks]. — Byron. "Mind," says one, "soul," says another, "brain or matter," says a third ; but none of these are [is] right. — C. Bray : Illu- sion and L)clusion. Relative Pronouns as Subjects. — Frequent errors occur in the putting of a relative pronoun in the object- ive case where it is used as the subject of a verb. Thus, " I saw the boy whom [who] we thought had gone." Errors in the Use of Relative Pronouns as Subjects and Predicate Nominatives. Nina wa.s annoyed by the presence of Mr. .Jekyl, whom [who] her brothers insisted should remain to dinner. — Mrs. H. B. Stowe. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 113 Those two, no matter who spoke, or ivhom [who] was ad- dressed, looked at each other. — Dickens. I oti'er a prize of six pairs [pair] of gloves to lohovisoever [whosoever] will tell me what idea in this second part is mine. — Dickens. The face of the good Samaritan was written on the face of whomsover [whosoever] opens to the stranger. — Miss AlcoU. Why should I be told to serve Him if I do not know Whom [who] it is I serve? — Florence Nightingale. Pray, remain single and marry nobody, let him be xchom [who] he may. — Sidney Smith. Milton, in his " Iconoclastes," insolently wrote, ■" I shall not instance an abstruse author, wherein the king niigiit be less conversant, but one whom [who] we well know was the closest companion of these solitudes, William Shakespeare." — /. Dis- raeli. Friday, who7n [who] he thinks would be better than a dog, and almost as good as a pony. — National Review. I was assured that if taken up by English capitalists, whom [who] they seemed very anxious should buy and Avork them, the mines would be found highly remunerative. — King : Pen- nine Alps. Relative Pronouns to be Repeated. — In contracted sentences, Avhen the case or the government is changed, the relative should be repeated. Thus, " The upper part of the house, of which \ know nothing and have never seen," should read " which I have never seen." Relative Pronouns Improperly Omitted. The domain of the husband to whom she felt that she had sold herself, and (by whom she) had been paid the strict price — nay, paid more than she had dared to ask. — George Eliot, in Daniel Deronda. Originality in politics, as in every field of art, consists in the use and application of the ideas which we get or (which) are given to us. — Justin McCarthy. 8 114 GOOD ENGLISH. It is a persuasion which we all smile at in one another, and (which) we all justify in ourselves. — Miss Martlneau. A man could not sustain such a position ; it represents a mo- mentary action, which the sculptor must have often seen, and (which) is perfectly true to nature. — Lady Eastlake. One of the last of his parliamentary speeches was delivered in defense of Warren Hastings, with whom he was on terms of intimate friendship, and (whom he) regarded as a consummate statesman, and the savior of India. — W. F. Bae, in John Wilkes. While at Brussels he fought a duel by moonlight with a Span- iard with whom he had been gambling, and (whom he) suspected of cheating him. — Lady Jackson, in Old Paris. Agreement in Tense. — Verbs connected by and^ nor, t/ian, etc., and referring to acts occurring at tbe same time, must agree in tense. A proper succession of tenses should be observed where one verb depends on another. Errors in the Use of Tenses. It would doubtless have exhibited itself quietly enough if it were [had been] absolutely undiluted. — Justin McCarthy. If with equal force of character his intellectual power had been less, we shoidd feci [should have felt] the shock without the mysterious attraction. — Leslie Stephen. Very amusing and useful companions Dharma would have found them, were it not [had it not been] for her longing after the woods and sea-breezes of Cliftclalc. — Dharma, vol. iii., p. 290. We can conceive no argument more utterly baseless than that wliich assumes (that) he would have accomplished all he has done, and a great deal more, if a different principle of action were [had been] substituted for that which, as yet, has always been the main-spring of his movements. — Quarterly Review. It is entirely reasonable to doubt that xvere [had] temporal aid and support also (been) offered, they would likewise have been at once thankfully received. — Rev. W. Mcllwaine. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 115 Ellipsis of the Piincipal Verb, — In subordinate clauses, in contracted sentences, and in answers, the auxiliaries c/o, have, may, can, shall, and will, sometimes admit of an ellipsis of the principal verb ; as, " He never did like the work and he never will." An ellipsis of this kind is permissible only when the form of the verb in one clause is such that it can be repeated without change in the other. Thus, " I have not spoken, and I cannot (spoken) " is neither correct nor justifiable. Improper Omission of Verbs. I am anxious for the time when he will talk as much non- sense to me as I have (talked) to him. — W. S. Landor. Some part of this exemption and liability may (be) and no doubt is due to mental or physical causes in the unhappy or (in the) fortunate individual. — Spectator. Shelley, like Byron, knew early what it was [is] to love ; al- most all the great poets have (known). — Memoirs of Shelley. She could meet no one among the lanes and (the) cornfields who could claim her as had those odious relations [relatives] of liers (claimed her).- — Mrs. Linton, in Sowing the Wind. But the problem is one which no research has hitherto solved, and probably never will (solve). — Sir H. Holland. No introduction has (authorized), nor in all probability ever will authorize, that which common thinkers would call a lib- erty.— P. B. Shelley. He ridicules the notion that truth will prevail ; it never has (prevailed) and it never will (prevail). — Leslie Stephen. I never have (attacked) and (I) never will attack a man for speculative opinion. — H. T. Buckle. Disjoined Subjects. — When a subject in the singular number is connected with another noun or pronoun by with instead of and, the verb should have the singular form. Thus, " The house and its contents loere burned," but "The house, with its contents, icas burned." 116 GOOD ENGLISH. Where plurality is signified, as " the house and the barn," it is better to use and rather than with. Errors in the Use of Verbs with Disjoined Subjects. My syinpatliy with him in this ill-usage, along with my ad- miration for his fortitude and generosity, 7cere [was] the hegin- ning of the great affection that I afterward had for liim. — Hope: Stories of Ideal Life. Poor Mrs. B's crippled baby, with all his many other failures, were [was] at once forgotten by his patience. — John HoUiiKjs- head, in Ways of Life. The amount of discussion which finds utterance in the poem, equally with the valuable analysis of mental phenomena, are [is] nothing less than startling. — H. B. Forman. The electric light, with ])owerful reflectors, are [is] the means to be employed. — Newspaper. When Leonidas, the Spartan king, with [and] his chosen band fighting for their country, were cut ofl' to the last man. — Karnes' Elements of Criticism. And a considerable village, with gardens, fields, etc., extend [extends] around on each side of the square. — Liberator. The spacious firmament on high, With all the blue ethereal sky, And spangled heavens, a shining frame, Their great Original proclaim, Iprocliiima].— Addison. The side A B, with the side BC,form [forms] a right angle. — Geometry. The bag, with the money and the checks in it, were [was] stol en . — Newspaper. The King, xoith [and] the Lords and (the) Commons, consti- tute an excellent form of government. — Crombie's Treatise. The Concord of "There." — Either a singular or a ])lural verb may follow tJwrc introducing a sentence, according to the number of the noun used as the sub- ject of the sentence. Dr. Abbott cites thirty-two pas.sages from Shakespeare ENGLISH GRAMMAR. • 117 in which " There is," " There was," etc., singular forms, are followed by plural subjects, or two or more singular subjects. But this is not in accordance with good usage, nor should this bad example be imitated. Errors in the Concord of There. On the table there was [were] neatly and handily arranged two long pipes. — James Greenwood, in Unsentimental Jour- neys. There exists [exist] sometimes only in germ and potentiality, sometimes more or less developed, the same tendencies and pas- sions ivhich [that] have made our fellow-citizens of other classes what they are. — Matthew Arnold. There is [are] such malice, treachery, and dissimulation, even among professed friends and intimate companions, as cannot fail to strike a virtuous mind with horror. — Smollett. Although the market traffic had not yet commenced, there was [were] considerable noise and confusion. — James Green- wood. There was [were] the buoyancy of spirit, the undoubting con- fidence, that the riddle of the universe had at last been satis- factorily solved, and the power of seizing the picturesque and striking aspects of things, and embodying abstract theories in vivid symbols, which marks [mark] the second order of intel- lects. — Leslie Stephen. There was [were] about her the brilliancy of courts and pal- aces, the enchantment of a love-story, the suffering of a victim of despotic power. — Madame Bonaparte. Surely there is [are] both grandeur and eloquence in his apostrophe to the atheists whom [who] he knew abounded in Louis XIV. 's Court, and whom he warned that their eternity was an inevitable fact. — Bossuet and his Companions. Error of Proximity. — Frequently the subject of a sentence is obscured by the intervention of two or more prepositional phrases or dependent clauses between the subject and the verb agreeing with it. 118 • GOOD ENGLISH. Errors of Proximity. I have no feeling connected with my general recollection of them, but those to which the combination of good sense, wit, and genius naturally give [gives] rise. — Sydney Smith. A moral and honorable mode of action and thought are [is] enforced as a duty. — Mayhew : German Life. If a man's conscience is either crotchety, superstitious, or cowardly, this is positive proof that the man himself must have been either false, idle, or cowardly in his thoughts, and some degree of disappointment and contempt are [is] the appro- priate punishments [punishment] for these offenses. — Saturday Review. The game was played out, and the end was come [had come], as the end of such matters generally come [comes], by gradual decay, petty disaster, and mistakes. — Kiugsley. A sojourn of five years in the military hospitals, camps, and towns of Algeria have [has] originated and strengthened these opinions. — Miss M. B. Edwards. Culture points out that the harmonious perfection of genera- tions of Puritans and Nonconformists have [has] been in conse- quence sacrificed. — Af. Arnold. The introduction of such beverages as tea and coffee have [has] not been without their [its] effects. — Westminster Review. On the tenant [tenant's] being ejected, the unexhausted value of the unpaid manures go [goes] to the landlord. — Scotch Agri- cultural Re])ort. M. Guizot's republication of some of his more important political essays, written at intervals during a period of fifty years, are [is] interesting at the present time. — Westminster Review. The opposition of interests which we have spoken of refer [refers] only to variations in the relative magnitude of those portions or shares into which wealth is distributed. — Fawcctt : Manual of Political Economy. As lias been stated already, the severity of the symptoms were [was] no criterion of the severity of the disease. — A. GriJ/lths: Memorial of Millbun/:. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 119 The franslaflon of specimens of the " Recent French Poets," by Arthur O'Shaughnessy, are [has been] very brightly done. — Guardian. The inferior number of red particles in their blood do [docs] not make women the political inferiors of men. — Frof. T. C. Leslie. Nothing but dreary dikes, muddy and straight, guarded by the ghosts of suicidal pollards, and by rows of dreary and des- olate mills, occur [occurs] to break the blank gray monotony of the landscape. — F. W. Farrar : St. Winifred. "Than" as a Connective. — Than, as a conjunction, is used to connect sentences ; as, " He is older than I " (am old). Dr. Hodgson and some others take the ground that tJian must connect Hke cases, nominative with nominative, and objective with objective. Thus, they would condemn the following sentence from Kings- ley's Westivard Ho : " Think not of me, good fellows, nor talk of me ; but come behind me decently, as Christian men, and follow to the grave the body of a better than I " and change the / to me, on the ground that the con- junction connects the noun man in the objective with the pronoun /, which they claim should also be in the objective case. The conjunction than connects sentences here as else- where, and the sentence means, " Follow to the grave a better man than I " (am good), and it is correct as writ- ten by Mr. Kingsley. So also the following from Dickens, which Dr. Hodg- son condemns, is correct: "The smooth manner of the spy, cautiously in dissonance with his ostentatiously rough dress, and probably with his usual demeanor, received such a check from the inscrutability of Carton, who was a mystery to wiser and honester men than lie, that it faltered here, and failed him." 120 GOOD ENGLISH. Errors in Case with "Than" as a Connective. I'll tell you what, brother Frank, you are a great deal wiser than me [I], I know, but I can't abide to see you turn up your nose, as it were, at God's good earth. — Kingsleij. He must be a wiser man than me [Ij who can tell what ad- vantage or satisfaction he derives from having brought such a nest of hornets about his ears. — Smollett. Infinitives. A verb in the infinitive mode is not limited b}^ person or number. It may be used as a noun in either tlie nominative or the objective case. It may be used also as a modilier of an}^ })art of speech except an article, a preposition, a conjunction, or an interjection. Wlien the infinitive is used as a noun, it may still be modified as a verb. The verb in the infinitive mode is sometimes used independently ; as, " To confess the truth, I forgot the date." The infinitive of an intransitive verb, or of a transi- tive verb in the passive voice, may be followed b_y a noun or a pronoun used independently; as, "To become a successful man requires industr\\" The infinitive after a Avord of command is usually preceded by a noun or a pronoun in the objective case; as, " We ordered him to come," the wliole expression being the object of the finite verb ordered. The sign to must not be se])arated from the remaining part of the infinitive l)y an intervening word. 'J'hus, "He tried finallv to i»ay," not "lie tried to finally pay." ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 121 After the active voice of the verbs hid (to command), see, feel, hear, let, make, dare (to venture), and verbs of similar meaning, as ivatch, behold, etc., the sign to of the infinitive is omitted ; as, " See him go ;" " Let ns play." The sign to is occasionall}'^ used after a few of the foregoing words when they are emphatic; as, "Barest thou to beard the lion in his den?" The infinitive sign to should never be used for the full form. Thus, " I did not go because I did not want to," should be " I did not go because I did not want to go." When the action, being, or state, expressed by the infinitive, is present or future as compared with that expressed by the verb which it limits, the present tense of the infinitive is used. Thus, "I expected to come;" that is, I expected at that time to come then or in the future. When the action, being, or state, expressed by the infinitive, is past as compared with that expressed by the verb which it limits, the present perfect tense of the infinitive is used. Tlius, " Cresar seems (present time) to have been (past time) ambitious." Verbs expressing hope, intention, desire, command, or expectation, are followed by the present tense of the infinitive. Errors in the Use of the Infinitive. There are several faults whicli I intended to have mentioned [to mention]. — Wel)ster. They hoped to have met [to meet] each other. — Newspaper. So as neither to embarrass nor (to) weaken each other. — Blnir. Their character is found and made (to) appear. — Butter's Analogy. He wanted to go, but he liad no opportunity to (go). — News- paper. 122 GOOD ENGLISH. He was made (to) believe that neither the king's death nor (his) imprisonment would help him. — Shrffield's Works. He can show his moral courage only by daring (to) do right. — Goold Broum. The bulls of Guisando are two vast statues remaining in that town ever since the time of the Romans, supposed to be [to have been] set up by Metellus. — Lovkharfs Don Qui.vofe. We ought not to try and [toj define God. — Taine. They would not say that the facts stated in the indictment would have been fully sufKcient to have warranted [to warrant] the judge to have directed [to direct], and the jury to have given [to give], a general verdict. — Lord Erskine. (Better, " Fully sufficient to warrant the judge in directing the jury to give," etc.) I found him better than I expected to have fotuid [to find] bim. — Priestley's Grammar. I meant, when I first came, to have hourjld [to buy] it. — Sydney Smith. It has been my intention to have collected [to collect] the rem- nants of Keats' compositions. — Shelley. I intended to have insisted [to insist] on this sympathj' at greater length. — Eusklii. Friendships which we once hoped and believed would never have (jroivn [grow] cold. — F. W. Farrar : Julian Home. Could I have chosen my own period of the world to have lived [to live] in, and my own type of life, it shoidd be [would have been] the feudal age, and the life of the Cid, the redresser of wrongs. — Eev. F. W. Eobertson. I had hoped never to have seen [to see] the statues again when I missed them on the bridge. — Macaulay. He paid me many compliments upon my sermon against bad husbands, so that it is clear he intended to have made [to make] a very good one. — Sydney Smith. We should have thought that the Bi-shop might have been contented to have pointed [to point] out that to nations, as to individuals, selfishness is its own worst punishment. — Spectator. We hapjiened to have been [to be] present on the occasiou. — Mayhew : German Life. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 123 We would have liked to have read [to read] it to Isola ; it would have been pleasant to have heard [to hear] his own voice giving due emphasis to the big words. — Mrs._Lynn Linton: Sowing the Wind. If he had lived longer, it would have been difficult for him to have kept [to keep] the station to which he had risen. — //. L. Bulwer, in Historical Characters. That the mind may not have to go backwards and forwards in order to rightly correct [rightly to correct] them. — Herbert Spencer. I wish the reader to clearly widerstand [to understand clearly]. — Rusk in. Transactions which seem to be most widely separated [to be separated most widely] from one another. — Dr. Blair. The ladies seem to have been expressly created [to have been created expressly] to form helps meet for such gentlemen. — Macaulay. The spirits, therefore, of those opposed to them seemed to be considerably damped [to be damped considerably] by their con- tinued success. — Scott. That virtue which requires to be ever guarded [to be guarded ever] is scarcely worth the sentinel. — Goldsmith. In works of art, this kind of grandeur, which consists in mul- titude, is to be very cautiously guarded [to be guarded very cau- tiously] . — Burke. Sufficient to disgust a people whose manners were beginning to be strongly tinctured [to be tinctured strongly] with austerity. — Macaulay. Participles. A Participle partakes of the nature of a verb and of an adjective. When a participle is used as a noun it may be in either the nominative or the objective case, and be mod- ified in all respects like a verb. A participle used as a noun may be limited by a pos- sessive ; as, "il/^ dayinrj did not interfere with their run- ning.^' 124 GOOD ENGLISH. A participle may be followed by a noun or a pronoun used independently; as, "My being a minister gained uie ready entrance." The perfect participle, and not the past tense, is used •with the auxiliaries have and be in the ditferent modes and tenses. Thus, " ^^'e had gone;" "We have writ- ten ;" " They have been singing." The past tense, and not the participle, should be used to express past time. Thus, "We went;" "We wrote." When the participle is preceded by the, and generally when it is preceded by an adjective, it is followed by of; as, " The curbing of the temper is necessary." The placing of a participial phrase should be such as to make clear the meaning of the sentence in which it is found. A participle should not be used when the infinitive mode, a common noun, or a phrase equivalent, will better express the meaning. Thus, "The planting of a tree is evidence of a love of beauty," is better than "Planting a tree is evidence," etc. Errors in the Use of Participles. In llie choice they had made of him, for (the) restoring of order. — RolUn's History. In (the) punishing of this we overthrow The laws of nations and of nature too. — Dnjden. It is the giving (of) different names of the same object. — Kaynes. The keeping (of) juries without meat, drink, or fire, can be accounted for only on the same idea. — Wcb.''ter^s Essays. And yet the confining (of) themselves to this true principle has misled them. — Home Tooke. AVhich require only the doing (of) an external action. — But- ler's Analogy. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 125 Miraculous curing (of) the sick is discontinued. — Barclay's Works. Never attemi>t pro/on jhig [to prolong] the pathetic too much. — Blair. But Artaxerxes could not refuse pardonhig [to pardon] them. — Goldsmil/i's Greece. You have proved beyond contradiction, that acting [to act] thus is the sure way to procure such an object. — CampbclFs Rhetoric. And sound sleep thus broke [broken] off, with sudden alarms, is apt enough to discompose anj' one. — Locke. Garcilasso was master of the language sp)oke [spoken] by the Incas. — Robertson's America. When an interesting story is broke [broken] off in the middle. — Karnes. I assure you therefore seriously, and upon my honor, that the carrying (of) this point seems essential to the success of this measure. — W. J. Fox. I suppose her knowledge of the Emperor [Emperor's] having left nothing to his son induced her to make such a will. — Madame Bonaparte. A hammer is the cause of the nail [nail's] being driven. — Haven. Is not the bare fact of Gud [God's] being the witness of it suffi- cient ground for its credibility to rest upon ? — Chalmers' Sermons. As in the case of one [one's] entering ujjon a new study. — Beattie's Moral Science. From the general rule he lays down, of the verbs [verbs'] being the parent word of all language. — Home Tooke. Adverbs. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, participles, and other adverbs. Adverbs may also modify phrases or clauses that per- form the office of adjectives or adverbs. Thus, in the sentence, " The road crosses the creek just below the 126 GOOD ENGLISH. city," the adverb just does not modify the preposition below^ as is stated by some writers on grammar, but it modifies the adverbial phrase " below the city." "The bird flew directly over the house ;^^ "The orchard is just beyond the m.eadow f^ "I was sixnck just beloiv the ei/e," are similar sentences in wliich directly and just modify prepositional phrases used as adverbial modi- fiers. Adverbs when not modifiers may be used independ- ently, as the italicised words in the following: Well, are you ready ? There were six in the carriage. Now, let us start. The words ycs^ yea, ay, no, nay, when used in answer to questions, are usually equivalent to propositions. They may be parsed as adverbs used independent!}'. The word amen may be parsed in the same manner. Such expressions as " Up with " and " Down with " are properly complex verbs. Adverbial phrases should be parsed as single expres- sions only when the words of which they consist cannot be parsed separately. A conjunctive adverb not only connects two clauses, but it also modifies a verb in each clause. The independent adverb there is by some grammarians called an expletive. In such expressions as " scalding hot," " freezing cold," "dripping wet," the words scalding, freezing, dripping, are adverbs used to modify the adjectives whicli ibllow them. The word the is an adverb when it modifies an adjec- tive or another adverb, as in " 'The deeper the well, the cooler the water;" " The more I study, the better I like it." ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 127 When simple quality is to be expressed an adjective, and not an adverb, should be used ; as, " The rose smells sweets " The lady looks beauti/uL" " I feel bad:' Adverbs should be so placed as to show clearly what words they modify. Thus, " I have only one," not " I only have one." As suggested in the discussion of infinitives, an adverb should not be placed between to and the remainder of the infinitive. Special care must be taken to place the adverbs only, chiefly, merely, solely, and others of a similar signification in such a position that tlie meaning of the sentence may not be misunderstood. Thus, " He chiefly spoke for our entertainment," should be " He spoke chiefly for our en- tertainment," in which chiefly modifies the phrase " for our entertainment." No as an adverb can modify comparatives only; as, no longer, no better, no more. It should not be used as a substitute for not, as in " I do not know whether I shall go or no [not]." The adverb ever, when it follows such words as rarely and seldom, is preceded by /f ; as, " Rarely, if ever ;" "Seldom, if ever;" but the adverb never in such cases is preceded by or; as, "Rarely, or never;" "Seldom, or never." All these are correct English expressions. When negation is intended, but one negative adverb should be used ; as, " We have nothing to give ;" but when affirmation is intended, not may be used before a word having a negative prefix ; as, " He was not disqual- ified ;" "They were not dissatisfied." The adverb how and the words hoiv that should not be 128 GOOD EXGLISH. used as substitutes for the word that in adding a sub- ordinate clause ; thus, " They said that he must be pun- ished," not "/toif that he must be punished." From should not be used before the words hnicc, ichcnce, thence, as it is ah-eady implied in these words. Thus, whence means " from where," and//-097i ichence must mean " from from Avhere." Where and ivhen should not be used as substitutes for ivhich and its adjuncts when meaning place or time. Thus, " I have forgotten the name of the town where they live," should be "in which they live." Also, "The year when this took place," should be "The year in which this took place." Avoid the use of hnost [ov almost, 'icay for away, iJhj lor ill, and dircdhj for as soon as. Tliere is no such word as ilhj. Some writers on grammar olyect to the use. of the word lihc as a conjunctive adverb, as in the sentence "The bird flies like a swallow." They claim that as should be substituted for lihe in all such cases. But there are many sentences in which such a substitution would be misleading, and therefore incorrect. Notice the difference of meaning caused by the reconstruction of Byron's sentence, a. "The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the ibid;" b. "The Assyrian came down as a wolf," etc. In the first and correct form of the sentence the mean- ing is, "The Assyrian came down like a wolf (comes down) on the fold." In the second form, " The Assyrian came down as a wolf," etc., the Assyrian is made to assume the character of a wolf, a thought wholly foreign to the intention of the author. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 129 In the following sentences no question can arise as to the propriety of using like as a conjunctive adverb : a. Satan goeth about like a roaring lion (goeth about), seek- ing whom he may devour. — Bible. b. Sail like my pinnace (sails) to these golden shores. — Shake- speare. c. I have ventured, Like little wanton boys that swim on bladders (venture), This many summers in a sea of glory. — Shakespeare. d. Like one (stands) in prayer I stood. — Longfellow. e. The cattle are grazing, Their heads never raising, There are forty feeding like one (feeds). — Wordsworth. f. Since I may say, now lie I like a king (lies). — Shakespeare. g. Spreading himself like a green bay tree (sj^reads itself). — Psalms. h. Like the dew on the mountain ( ), Like the foam on the river ( ), Like the bubble on the fountain ( ), Thou art gone and forever. — Scott. i. [The sound] rang in his ears like the iron hoofs of the steeds of Time (ring). — Longfellow. j. Goodman Brown came into the street of Salem village staring like a bewildered man (stares). — Hawthorne. Sometimes when tlie verb is expressed in the subordi- nate clause, as or as if takes the place of like as the con- nective; as, "I do with my friends as I do with my books." — Emerson. One author on grammar sa3^s that like must not be followed by a noun or a pronoun in the nominative case; but it always is so followed when the verb in the principal clause expresses action. Another writer on grammar makes the very positive statement that like is never a conjunction, and therefore it cannot be used instead of as to introduce a clause. 130 GOOD ENGLISH. Tiiis autlior claims tliat it is incorrect to say "Run like 1 run," but that we may say '' He runs like nie," in which of course like is considered an adjective or an adverb. But the verb runs being active, and actions being compared, the true meaning of the sentence is, " He runs like me runs," or, corrected, " He runs like I (run) ;" and "' like " clearly performs the office of both conjunction and adverb, and is therefore a conjunctive adverb. Another author, in sentences such as " He walks like I walk," pronounces like a subordinate conjunction of manner. This is at least a new but wholly unnecessary division of conjunctions, which is already covered by the term conjunctive adverb, as the office of the word is not that of a conjunction alone nor that of an adverb, but of both. Like is used also as an adjective, in which case a prep- osition seems to be understood after the word "like " in sentences expressing a comparison ; Thus, "The boy was like (unto) his father." " Wh.it though my winged hours of bliss have been, Like ( ) angels' visits, few and far between." — Campbell. " The boy looks li/cc [resembles] his father." The distinction between the use of like as a conjunc- tive adverb and as an adjective is — 1. That like as a conjunctive adverb compares actions ; as, "She sings like an angel (sings);" whereas like as an adjective compares objects; as, ^'John is like his father f^ "The school is like a government;^'' ^^ She looks like her mother.''^ 2. When like is used as a conjunctive adverb it is pre- ceded by a verb denoting action, and the same verb may be taken as the predicate of the chiuse following; as, ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 131 " He runs like a deer (runs) ;" " You act like a child (acts)." When like is used as an adjective in sentences ex- pressing comparison, the verb in the principal clause, preceding like., does not express action; as, "There is no statue like this living man." 3. Like as a conjunctive adverb connects clauses of a complex sentence, and is followed by a noun or a pro- noun in the noniinative case, used as the subject of the subordinate clause. In sentences where like is used as an adjective it is part of the predicate of the simple sentence in Avhich it is found, and is followed b_y a noun or a pronoun in the objective case; as, "He is like ( ) me;" "He is not unlike ( ) his father." The examples given show that it is entirely in accord- ance with the best of authority to use like as a conjunc- tive adverb with a nominative case following, or as an adjective with an objective following. Such sentences as " He talks like her " and " She walks like me," can mean only " He talks like her talks " and " She walks like me walks," and are gross violations of one of the simplest principles of grammar. Sometimes the adjective form of a verl) is used ad- verbially ; as, " The swallow sings sweet from her nest in the wall." Tliis is usually done in poetry to make the meter correct. Adverbs consisting of two or more words not united may be regarded as complex adverbs ; as, by and by, upside down, now and then. Adverbs consisting of two or more words united may be regarded as compound adverbs ; as, somchoiv, helter- skelter, topsy-turv]/. Far, farther, farthest, relate to distance, and may be 132 GOOD ENGLISH. used either as adjectives; as, " It is farther to Asia than to Europe ;" or as adverbs ; as, " I have gone farther than you." Forth, further, furtJicd, are used when meaning " some- thing additional ;" as, " I have nothing further to say ;" "Are there any further arguments to be offered?" Errors in the Use of Adverbs. Most men dream, but all do not [not all doj. — Beattie. By hasty comp(jsition we shall acquire ccrtainhj [certainly acquire] a very bad style. — Blair. AVe have often occasion [often have occasion] to speak of time. — Lowth. Whether it can be proved or 7io [not] is not the thing. — Bui- ler's Analog;/. Can I make men live whether they will or no [not] ? — Sliake- spearc. ! "Which is scarce [scarcely] possible at least. — Sheridan's Elo- cution. What need is there that I should say anything farther [further] on this question? — Popular Lecturer. Shall we have any farther [further] discussion? — Superintend- ents Address. They will, too, not mcrchj interest [interest not merely] the children, but (also) grown-up persons. — Westminster Review. Homer was not onhj the maker [the maker not only] of a nation, but (also) of a language and of a religion. — Athe- noeum. We were onbj permitted 1o stop for refreshments [|)crmitte(l to stop for refreshments only] once by the way, so that without the provision of cold fowl, bread, and wafers, which we only happened to think of [happened to think of only] the moment before setting out, our situation would have been somewhat deplorable. — Mrs. Ellis : Summer and Winter hi the Pijrenees. The result is not pleasant to iis onlij [pleasant to us not oidy] because it fulfills our predictions, but (also) because any other would have been productive of infinite mischief — Spectator. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 133 We seldom or ever [if ever] see those forsaken wlio trust in God. — Atterbury. In considering the life of Seneca we are not only dealing [dealing not only] with a life which was rich in memorable incidents, but also (with) the life of one who climbed the lofti- est peaks of the moral philosophy of Paganism. — Rev. F. W. Farrar, D. D. Prepositions. A Preposition is used to show the relation between some noun or pronoun following it and some preceding word which the preposition with its object modifies. When two prepositions used together express a single reLation they may be considered one term, and be called a complex preposition ; as out of in the sentence " Tliey came running out of the house." But is a preposition when it is used in the sense of except; as, "All but him have come." In sucli expressions as had set in, were looked for, etc., the preposition becomes part of the verb ; had set in means " had commenced," and ivcre looked for, " were ex})ected." A preposition ending a sentence without an object becomes an adverb; as, "Come m;" "Come o»." After like, near, nigh, and opposite, the preposition is usually omitted. The preposition is also sometimes omitted after verbs of giving, procuring, and a few others ; as, " Get ( ) me a book ;" " Give ( ) me some help ;" " Teach ( ) me the way." The preposition is omitted also before nouns denoting time, value, or measure; as, "We talked ( ) an hour;" " The book is worth ( ) a dollar ;" " We had walked ( ) ten miles." 134 GOOD ENGLISn. In exclamatory sentences the antecedent is frequently omitted ; as, " Oli, for a home !" That is, " Oh, I long for a home !" A prei)osition should not be omitted except when such construction is sanctioned by good usage. Thus, " We fled the country," should be " We fled from the countr3\" Care should be taken to use the proper preposition to express the meaning intended. Certain words require the association with them of certain prepositions. The following are some of the most important com- binations : Abatement of. Abhorrence of. Abhorrent to. Abide in or at a place, with a person, by a decision or an award. Abound in that which is pos- sessed, with that which follows or inhabits. Absolve from. Accede to. Accommodate a thing to, a person ^vith. Accompanied by persons or animals, u'ith things inani- mate. Accord toith (intransitive), to (transitive). Accountable to a i5erson,'/or a thing. Accuse of. Acquaint rvith. Acquiesce in. Acquit of. Adapted to a thing, for a purpose, from a production. Adjourn to a place, at an hour, from one place or hour to another. Admission to (access), into (entrance). Advantage over a person, of privileges. Advice to a person, of a trans- action. Advise of. Advocate of a cause, for a person. Affinity of sounds or colors, for a ]'erson, between persons. Agree to proposals, with a person, upon something deter- mined. Agreeable to. Allied to a cause, with a per- son. Alter from one thing, to an- other. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 135 Analogy between two objects, to or with another. . Angry at a thing, ivith a per- son. Answer to a person, for an offence. Antagonism between two things, to or against a thing. Anxious for success, about one's welfare. Apologize for an affront, to another. Appoint /o a place, over oth- ers. Argue tvith a person, against a project. Array w;7/t arguments, in col- ors or dress. Arrive at a place, i« a vehi- cle, from a place. Ask of a person, for what is wanted, a/ifer one's health. Aspire to a thing, after an abstraction, as immortality. Attend to (listen), attend upon (wait). Averse to. Banish from a place to an- other. Bargain with a person, for a thing. Bestow on or upon. Betray to a person, into a project. Bind to a person, % a bond. Blush at a sight, for anoth- er's conduct. Boast of. Border on, or iqion. Bound for. Call at a place, on a person,/or a person or a thing, in question, by name, to or after a person. Care for, about. Careful of our possessions, about our conduct. Charge on an enemy, ^uitli a crime, against a person, /c one's account. Clear of harm, from, guilt. Communicate to a j^erson, loith others. Compare icith in quality, to for illustration. Comjjly icitli. Complain against a person, of actions. Concede to. Concur loith a person, in an opinion. Condemned for a crime, to a punishment. Confer o?i or iipon a measure, M'(7/i (to consult), upon (to give as a favor). Confide in (to trust in). Confide to (to entrust with). Conform to ; in conformity with; conformable to. Congratulate oil or upon. Connect with an equal, to a superior. Connive with a jierson, at a proceeding. Consist of (composed of), consist in (comprised in). 136 GOOD ENGLISH. Contend «77/i ai^erson, against an obstacle,/or a right or a prin- ciple. Contradictory of. Controversy icitli a person, behveen two, about matters. Convenient for persons, to places. Conversant with. Convert to a doctrine, into something else. Copy after actions, from things, out of a book. Correspond with (by letter), to similars. Covered with or by. Debar from entrance, ©/"priv- ileges. Defend others //•<)?«, ourselves against. Depend, dependent, on or vpon. Derogatory to. Desirous of. Devolve on or z/pon. Die of a, disease, from hunger or thirst, bij violence or an in- strument, for another. Ditrer with a person in opin- ion, from a person in qualities or characteristics, about or con- cerning a question, among (to disagree). Different from. Diminution of. Disagree in opinion, to some- thing proposed. Disappointed of something not obtained, in something ob- tained which fails to meet our expectations. Discriminate one from an- other, between two. Disgusted with a person, at, with, or by a thing. Disqualified for a position, from holding olfice. Dissent from. Distinguish /rowi another, 6e- twten two. Divest of. Divide between two, among several, with others. Dwell in a house or a city, at a place, on a street or a farm. Embark at a place, in busi- ness, for profit or a place. Embellished by an artist, with or by engravings. Emulous of. Enamored of. Encroach on, upon. Equivalent to. Expel from, out of. Expert at when followed by a noun, in when followed by a participle. Expose to loss or danger, for sale. Familiar to me, I am famil- iar with. Favored hy a person, with entertainment. Fight with another, against foes, for a principle. Followed by. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 137 Founded in truth, or upon a basis. Free from. Frown at a person, on con- duct. Frugal of. Glad of something gained, of or at what befalls another. Graduate at or from an insti- tution, in a class. Grateful to a person, for a favor. Ill of Illustrated by an artist, with or by cuts. Impatient tf?7/i a person, at his conduct, of restraint, un- der misfortune, for something wanted. Incorporate with (to com- bine), into (to take into). Incumbent on, upon. Independent of. Indulge with a single thing or act, in something habitual. Inquire of the person asked, after or about the subject of in- quiry, into when search is made for particular knowledge. Insensible to. Inseparable from. Insist on, upon. Introduce to a person, into a place. Involve in. Jealous of Join to something greater, with something equal. Killed by an enemy, 7viih an instrument. Lean 07i or against a support, to an opinion. Live at a village or a for- eign city, in a city or the coun- try. Long after, for. Marry to. Martyr for or to a cause, to a disease. Need of. Notice of. Observance of. Opinion on, about. Part from persons, with be- longings. Pay for something, to a per- son, with money. Placed in, on. Preferable to. Prevail on, upon, or with (to persuade), against (to over- come). Profit by. Pronounce against a person, on a thing. Protect others/ra/n, ourselves against. Provide for, against, with. Put into, in (place). Reconciled with a person, to a condition. Reduce to a state, under sub- jection. Regret for. Rejoice tvith a person, at or i)i good news. 138 GOOD ENGLISH. Relieve from restraint or anxiety, of property. Rely on, xipon. Remedy for, against. Remonstrate tvith a person, against a proceeding. Resemblance to each other, between two. Reside at a village, in a city or the country. Restrain from. Rid of Search for or after a person, into particulars, out the truth. Seized by an enemy, with ill- ness. Smile on or upon favorably, at unfavorably. Speak to an audience, to or with a person, on or about a subject. Strive tvith a person, for an object, against an obstacle. Struggle u'ith an adversary, for an object desired. Suspected of a fault, iy a person. Suitable to one's station, /or a purpose. Swerve from. Sympathize witli a person, in one's sorrow. Think of, on, about. Thirst /or, after. Trust in (to have confidence in), to (to depend on). Unite to (transitive), loith (intransitive). Useful to a person, for a pur- pose. Unworthy of. Vest m a person, with a thing. Vexed ivith a person, at con- duct. Wait on a person (to serve), at a table, /or what is expected. Errors in the Use of Prepositions. Based in [on] the great self-evident truths of liberty and equal ity. — Scholar's Manual. Looked at in [from] this point of view, we cannot refuse to regard them as organisms of some peculiar and amazing kind. — Smiles. I think it must have been to [from] some such primitive ex- planation of the whooping-cough that there has grown up in Austria the unique custom of treating that disease by adminis- tering the rod. — M. D. Conway: Francis May. He has not been averse from [to] a moderate quantity of good, sound, fruity port. — G. A. Sala. Politics, as he makes even Demosthenes admit, are [is] the ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 139 sad refuge of restless minds, averse from [to] business and from [to] study. — Leslie Stephen. This brings to my mind another instance of the same nature, where our English poet, by not attending to the peculiar expres- sion of his author, has given us a picture of a very different kind than [from] what Homer intended. — Fifz Osborne. The seventeenth century evidently had a different notion of books and women than [from] that which flourishes in the nine- teenth.— /Vt/^ Mall Gazette. Conjunctions. Conjunctions are used to connect either words, phrases, or sentences. Care must be taken, however, that they connect like parts ; thus, a word with a word, a plirase with a plirase, or a clause with a clause; and in coiniecting words, the words must be of the same parts of speech, a verb with a verb, an adjective with an adjective, etc. ; but a noun may be connected with a pronoun. Elements of equal rank are connected by what are known as coordinate conjunctions, and, also, but, yet, etc. A modifying clause is connected with the principal clause by means of a subordinate conjunction; as, " He will attend, that he may learn." A modifying clause may be connected with the prin- cipal clause also by a relative pronoun or by a conjunc- tive adverb. ' The subordinate clause always modifies some word or' words in the principal clause. Sometimes conjunctions, or conjunctions with other parts of speech, are used in pairs to mark the sense more clearly. These pairs are known as correlatives. 140 GOOD ENGLISH. Tlie chief correlatives are — Both .... and: "i)o/!/i teacher fl?if/ pupils were tired." Either .... or : " Nouns are cither common or proper." Neither .... nor : " Men are neither -wholly good nor wliolly bad." "Whether .... or :" I care not u-hethcr you go or stay." If . . . . then: "T/" this be treason, then make the most of it." Though .... yet : " Tliouyh deep, yet clear." Such (adj.) .... that (conj.), to express a consequence: "His conduct was such that all will see the wrong." As (adv.) .... as (conj.), to express equality: "My chances are as good as yours." As (conj.) .... so (adv.), to express equality: "As the teacher is, so is the school." So (adv.) .... as (conj.), to deny equality: "You are not so young as you were." So (adv.) .... as (conj.), to express a comparison : "How can you be so base as to lie?" So (adv.) .... that (conj.), to express a consequence: "So live that you may be fearless of consequences." So (adv.) .... as (adv.), with an infinitive following, to express a consequence : " We ought so to read as to make our- selves distinctly understood." Not only .... but (conj.), when the latter term of com- parison includes the former: "Not only Pennsylvania but the whole nation is interested in this question." Not only .... but also (conj.), or but even (conj.), when the latter term of comparison does not include the for- mer: "iVb< o?2iy Pennsylvania but also Delaware is west of the Delaware river;" "Not only the children but eve?i the teachers were frightened." When several words are taken together to form a con- junction, the combination is known as a complex con- junction. The i»rinci])al com])lcx conjunctions are — ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 141 as if, but also, but likewise, as well as, but even, even though, forasmuch as, but that, except that, inasmuch as, The conjunction that is sometimes used merely to in- troduce a subordinate clause which is made the subject of the sentence; as, "That you have been deceived, is very clear." The conjunction as is often used to unite words that are in apposition ; as, " His work as a teacher was satis- factory ;" " He offered himself as clerk ;^^ " This gentleman as my friend will protect me." The expression as fullow is used by many wliere the antecedent is a noun in the plural number; thus, "His words are as follow." — Spectator. In such sentences the meaning probably is " as they follow ;" or if as is re- garded as a relative pronoun, it may be taken in the plural, and the word foUoiv properly agree with it in the plural. Many writers, however, claim that the singular verb should be used, and the expression read " as fol- lows," meaning as it folloivs. Occasionally the conjunction that is understood ; as, "The truth is (that) we have been badly treated." After than or as, when connecting the terms of a com- parison, there is usually an ellipsis of some word or words ; as, " He is older than I (am)." The sentence, " He gave me more than you," shows the necessity of supplying the omitted words to make the sentence clear, as it may mean " He gave me more than he gave you," or " He gave me more than you gave me." As to the expression "than whom," Lennie\s Gram- mar, 1830, says, " When ivho immediately follows than, it is used improperly in the objective case ; as, ' Alfred, 142 GOOD EXGLISH. than ichom a greater king never reigned ;' — than whom is not grammatical. It onglit to be tlian who, because who is in the nominative to was understood. It is true that some of our best writers have used other plirases which we have rejected as ungrammatical ; then why not reject this too?" Why not? Professor Fowler, an authority of note, says with re- gard to the expression, "Satan, than whom none higher sat," that it should be " Satan, than who none higher sat." When two terms connected are to be com})leted in sense by a third, they must be so expressed as to make sense with it. Thus, " He has made changes and addi- tions to his house," should be " He has made changes in his house and additions to it." Two terms connected by a conjunction should be the same in kind or quality rather than different. Thus, "The help was prompt and cheerfully given," should be " The help was promj)t and cheerful," or " The help was prompt, and it was cheerfully given." After also, other, othenvise, rather, and other English comparatives, the latter term of an exclusive compari- son should be introduced by the conjunction than. Thus, " There were no others than these;" " His speech was nothing else tJian deception." Relative pronouns being connectives, they exclude con- junctions, unless there are "two or more relative clauses to be connected. I'lie following sentence is faulty : "The princij)al and distinguishing excellence of Virgil, and wJdch. he possesses beyond all ])oets, is tenderness." It should read. "The jirinciijal and distinguishing ex- cellence of Virgil, an excellence which he possesses beyond all other ])oets, is tenderness." After expressions denoting doubt, fear, or denial, that ENGLISH GRA3IMAR. 143 should be used instead of hut^ but that, or lest; as, "I doubt not that you will succeed." It is correct to use the words but also only where the words but in addition could be substituted. Errors in the use of the proper correlative of not only are frequent even with reputable writers. Errors in the Use of Conjunctions. I have and pretend to be a tolerable judge. — Shakespeare. He was more beloved but not so much admired as Cinthio. — Addison. The Court of Chancery frequently mitigates, and breaks the teeth of the common law. — Spectator. Antony, coming alongside of her ship, entered it without seeing or being seen by her. — Goldsmith's Greece. Composition is excellent, and (it is) the vital principle in all these things. — Dr. Lieber. To have [having] only one time, or measure, is not much better than having none at all. — Blair. Facts too well known and (too) obvious to be insisted on. — Blair. I cannot doubt but that [that] these objects are really what they appear to be. — Karnes' Elements of Criticism, We've both the field and honor won ; The foe is profligate, and (he has) run. — Hudibras. I question not but [that] my reader will be pleased with it. — Spectator. I doubt not but [that] such objections as these will be made. — Locke. The terms rich or [and] poor enter not into their language. — Robertson s America. There being no other dictator here but [than] use. — Camp- bell's Rhetoric. Many of Lord JefFrey's reviews are little else but [than] special pleading. — Tuckerman. I have no doubt but that [that] the pistol is a relic of the buccaneers. — W. Irving. 144 GOOD ENGLISH. Their relation, therefore, is not otherwise to be ascertained but [than] by their place. — CavipbeWs Rhetoric. There is no other method of teaching that of which one is ignorant but [than], by means of something already known. — Dr. Johnson. O fairest flower, no sooner blown but [than] blasted. — Milton. As if religion were intended For nothing else hut [than] to be mended. — Hudibras. About the time of Solon, the Athenian legislator, the custom is said to have been introduced, and uihich still prevails, of writ- ing in lines from left to right. — Jamieson's Rhetoric. [Change to "The custom of writing in lines from left to right, which still prevails, is said to have been introduced."] Conversation with such tcho [as] know no arts which polish life. — Spectator. For the torrent of the voice left neither time or [nor] power in the organs to sliape tlie words properly. — Sheridan's Elocu- tion. Its influence is likely to be considerable in the morals and (in the) taste of a nation. — Blair's Rhetoric. Whether the subject be of the real or (the) figurative kind. — Blair. Bruce spoke of himself and his compeers as being neither Scottish or [nor] English, but Norman barons. — Scott. It is perhaps the finest of all Juvenal's satires, the mightiest, the sternest, and (the) most deeply impressed, not merely by a sense [by a sense not merely] of bitterness, but (also) of the deep responsibility of life. — Westminster Review. The author has sat at the feet of our Elizabethan dramatists, and in one or two places has caught not merely |has not merely caught] their idioms and phrases, but has (also) become imbued with something of their manner of spirit. — Idem. Homer was not only the maker of a nation [the maker not only of a nation], but (also) of a language and of a religion. — Athe- nceum. The result is not pleasant to us only [pleasant to us not only] because it fulfills our predictions, but (also) because any other would have been })roductive of infinite mischief. — Spectator. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 145 Its almost vulgar personality may convey to those who are neither acquainted [acquainted neither] with the writer or [nor with] his books. — Quarterly Revieiu. The hardship is that in these times we can neither speak of kings or queens [speak neither of kings nor of queens] without suspicion of politics or personalities. — Bijron. But he was neither fitted [fitted neither] by abilities nor by disposition to answer the wishes of his mother. — Miss Austen. Taking the Thackeray gallery as a whole, we cannot admit that either in qualities of [that in qualities of either] head or heart his women are inferior to the women we generally meet. — North British Review. The engi'aving is neither like [like neither] me nor the pic- ture. — Miss Mitford. Neither our vices or [nor] our virtues are all our own. — Dr. Johnson. This is consistent neither with logic nor (with) history. — Tlie Dial. Whilst they are learning and apply [applying] themselves with attention, they are to be kept in a good humor. — Locke. He firmly refused to make use of any other voice but [than] his own. — Goldsmith's Greece. Your marching regiments, Sir, will not make the guards their example, either as soldiers or (as) subjects. — Junius. Words used as Different Parts of Speech. It is a well settled principle of Grammar that use determines the classification of a word. The following are some of the most imi^ortant words whose classification varies according to the use of the word : As is a conjunction when it means since or because; thus, ^^ As he was ambitious, I slew liim." It is an adverb when it represents time, degree, or manner; as, "He came as soon as he could;" "I fared as well as I expected." 10 146 GOOD ENGLISH. It is a conjunctive ndvcrb when it introduces a subor- dinate clause; as, "They went out as we came in." Before, After, Till, Until, are adverbs, or ratlier conjunc- tive adrerhs, when tlicy introduce subordinate clauses; as, " Think before you speak;" " They came after we had gone." " We waited until the meeting closed." They are p'epositions when used to show relation, and they should be followed by a noun or a pronoun in the objective case ; as, " We stood bej'ore him ;" " The dog ran aj'ter the rabbit;" "The storm delayed us till night." Both may be either an adjective or a conjunction. 1. It is an adjective when it is used to limit a noun ; as,-"J?o^/t men earned their wages." 2. It is a conjunction when it is used with and to con- nect sentences or parts of sentences ; as, " They were both tired and hungry." But may be a preposition, an adverb, or a conjunc- tion. 1. It is a 'preposition when it means except; as, "Whence all but him had fled." 2. It is an adverb when it means oidy ; as, "I have made the trip but once." 3. It is a conjunction when it connects sentences or parts of sentences ; as, " It is not he but you that are to blame." But implies some opposition or excc])tion. Yet and however are nearly equivalent, but are milder in their application. Nevertheless, while having a meaning sim- ilar to but, is a much stronger term. Either and Neither are used as pronominal adjectives and as conjunctions. 1. They are used as jironondiud adjectives when they limit or represent nouns ; as, "i\ei7/io* man answered;" ^^ Either boy may help." ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 147 2. Tliey are conjunctions wlien they assist in connect- ing sentences; as, ^^ Either yon or your brothers should come;" ^'Neither the man nor liis son was here." The proper correlative of either is or, and of neither, nor. As adjectives, either and neither are in use limited to two. Wlien more than two are referred to, any one or none should be made to take the place of eitJier or neither. Thus, we say ^''Either of the two," but '■'Any one of the five;" so also, ^^ Neither of the two;" but ^'■None of the three." Either as an adjective may imply "each of two;" as, "A farm on eltlier side of the railroad;" that is, two farms, one on each side of the railroad. " A farm on both sides of the railroad " means one farm through which the railroad passes. As conjunctions, either and neither may be used with any number; as, ^^ Neither man, woman, nor child was spared from an attack of the dread disease." For may be either a conjunction or a ])reposition. 1. It is a conjunction when it means because, or is used in giving a reason ; as, " Let us return, Jor it is getting 'late." 2. It is a preposition when it is followed by a noun or a pronoun in the objective case; as, "He bought the book for me." The three W'ords, for, because, and since, are to some extent interchangeable. Because means "b}' the cause of," and had originally a reference to physical cause. It is now used chiefly to express a reason, especially in answer to why. Since is less formal than " because," and in its conjunctive sense is usually placed at the begin- ning of a sentence. The difference in tlie Avords is il- lustrated in the following sentences : " ^^'e will not go 148 GOOD ESGLISII. because the day is too cold." ^^ Since the day is so cold, we will not go." Like may be used as a noun, as a verb, as an adjec- tive, and as a conjunctive adverb. 1. It is a noun when it is used as a name; as, '^ Like begets like f " We shall never look upon his like again." 2. It is a verb when it expresses action ; as, " I like the music ;" " I like order." 3. It is an adjective when it modifies a noun, or when it compares objects ; as, " The girl is like her mother." 4. It is a conjunctive adverb when it compares actions or connects clauses ; as, " She sings like an angel ;" " He fights like a tiger." Since may be a conjunction, a preposition, or an adverb. 1. It is a conjunction when it means j'or the reason that ; as, ^^ Since you wish it, I will remain." 2. It is a ■preposition when it is followed by a noun in the objective case denoting time ; as, " We have had no rain since June." '-). It is an adverb in all other cases. That may be a conjunction, a relative pronoun, or a pronominal adjective. 1. It is a conjunction when it is used to introduce a subordinate clause or connect sentences; as, " I believe that we shall succeed ;" '' T/iat we shall succeed is cer- tain." 2. It is a relative pronoun when it is used instead of " who " or " which ;" as, " This is the first one thcd came." 3. It is a pronominal adjective Avlien it limits or rep- resents a noun ; as, " That knife is mine ;" " TJiat is my knife." Then may be used as a conjunction or as an adverb. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 149 1. It is used as a conjunction when it means "there- fore" or "in that case;" as, "If this be treason, then make the most of it." 2. It is an adverb when it denotes time ; as, " It was then too late to correct the mistake." "What may be a relative pronoun, an interrogative pronoun, a pronominal adjective, an adverb, or an in- terjection. 1. It is a relative 'pronoun when " that wliich " or " those which " may be substituted ; as, " We know what he wished to say." 2. It is an interrogative 'pronoun when it is used to ask a question; as, ^^What have you brought?" 3. It is a pronominal adjective when it limits a noun ; as, " What beautiful flowers these are !" 4. It is an adverb when it means " partly ;" as, " What by threats and what b}^ stratagem we succeeded." 5. It is an interjection when used to express surprise ; as, ^^What! Shall we give up Avithout a contest?" Sometimes what is used both as a pronominal adjec- tive and as a relative pronoun, when it limits' a noun and at the same time " that which " or " those which " may be substituted for it ; as, " What money we had was useless." "Well may be a noun, a verb, an adjective, an adverb, or an interjection. 1. It is a noun when it denotes an object; as, "The well is deep." 2. It is a verb when it expresses action ; as, " The water wells out from under the rocks." 3. It is an adjective when it is used to limit a noun or a pronoun ; as, " Tlie boy is wcllJ^ 4. It is an adverb when it limits a verb; as, "That was well done." 150 GOOD ENGLISH. 5. It is an interjection, when used as an exclamation ; as, "ire/^, ivell! This is an important affair." Well as an adverb is sometimes used independently to introduce a sentence; as, "IFe//, shall we start?" While may be a noun, a verb, or an adverb. 1. It is a noun when it means a portion of time; as, " Let us sit here for a ivhileJ^ 2. It is a verb when it means to " spend " or " pass ;" as, " We fished to ivhile away the time." 3. It is a conjunctive adverb when it means during the time in which, or is used to connect clauses ; as, " Tiiey were attentive ivhile the teacher spoke." Yet may be either a conjunction or an adverb. 1. It is a conjunction when it means nevertheless or not- withstanding ; as, "Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him." 2. It is an adverb when it means thus far, in addition, or at the present time; as, "We have not yet completed our work." PUNCTUATION. Punctuation treats of the use of points in dividing written composition. It is essentially a grammatical process. The chief use of punctuation is to divide discourse into sentences, and sentences into parts, in such a man- ner as will best show the relation of these parts to one another. Usage differs somewhat among authors of good repute with regard to the use of some of the marks of jjunctua- tion, but that is more the fault of the authors than of the system, and it ought not to be quoted as an argu- ment against punctuation. There is of course much left to individual judgment, just as there is in determining the meaning of a sen- tence, but it is equally true that the punctuation of a sentence frequently determines its meaning. The chief marks of punctuation are — 1. The Period (.) 2. The Comma ( , ) 3. The Semicolon ( ; ) 4. The Colon ( : ) 5. The Interrogation Point (?) 6. The Exclamation Point (!) 7. The Dash (— ) 8. Marks of Parenthesis ( ) 9. Quotation Marks ( " " ) 10. The Hyphen ( - ) 151 152 GOOD ENGLISH. In addition to these there are a few otlier marks used by writers and printers, which will be explained far- ther on. The Period. The Period was the first punctuation mark intro- duced, and was used originall}^ to indicate the comple- tion of a sentence. The following are the chief rules for the use of the Period : 1. Complete Sentences. — A period should be placed after every declarative or imperative sentence. When long compound sentences are broken up into shorter ones, each of these shorter sentences should be followed b}'^ a period. Sometimes a conjunction, as and or hut, is used to introduce a sentence, but it has no efi'ect on the punc- tuation. A familiar example is — "And Moses spake unto the children of Israel." 2. Abbreviations. — A period sliould be placed after evei'y abhrcriated word. Some abbreviated words consist of initials only, as U. S. Grant for Ulysses Simpson Grant. In such cases the period should follow each initial. Letters are sometimes used in mathematics to indi- cate angles, lines, etc. These are not abbreviations, and they take no period after them. We speak of them as the angle A, the angle A BC, or the line C D, l)ut in no case where so used do they require a period. Sometimes letters are used also to represent fictitious persons in the statement of mathematical })robk'ms; as, " Mr. A bought a farm," etc. In such cases no period is necessary. PUNCTUATION. 153 When the Roman numerals are used to denote num- bers, a period is usually placed after the combination ; as, Geo. III., Chap. XVI., A. D., MDCLIL, though it may be remarked that some late writers omit the period. When letters are doubled to indicate the plural, as 11. for lines, pp. for pages, MM. for Messieurs, LL. for legum, only one period is placed after the abbreviation. When the abbreviated word closes the sentence, but one period is used. Thus, " Our neighbor is James Hodgson, M. D." When the abbreviations represent separate words, a period follows each ; as, Post Master, P. M., Doctor of Medicine, M. D., Master of Arts, A. M., Doctor of Laws, LL.D. When abbreviated words become current as abridged words in good use, as cah for cabriolet, consols for consol- idated annuities, no period is required after them. When an abbreviated name becomes a nickname, as Ben, Dan, Will, Sue, no period is used. Ordinal adjectives, as 2d, 3d, 4th, 6th, etc., are not abbreviations, but substituted forms for second, third, fourth, sixth, etc. No period therefore should be placed after them. Note that 2d, 3d, and all words ending with these forms, as 22d, 23d, 42d, 43d, etc., end Avith d only, not nd or rd. 3. Complete Expressions.— .4 period should be placed after each Heading, Title, Signature, Imprint, or Advertise- ment, when the expression is complete in itself. The title-page of a book usually consists of three parts : 1. The name of the book ; 2. The name of tlie author, with his professional titles appended ; 3. The name of the publisher, with the place of publication. 154 GOOD ENGLISH. Each of these parts sliould be followed by a period. A practice has lately become fLisliionable to omit periods altogether from title-pages, but it is -wholly without lit- erary authority. 4. Numbers of Paragraphs. — A period should follow each figure or letter indicating the number of the paragraph, the sentence, or the particular heading. Thus, Some of the chief marks of punctuation are — 1. The Period, 2. The Comma, 3. The Semicolon. The Comma. The Comma is used to mark the least degree of sep- aration in the divisions of a sentence. The words comma, semicolon, and colon were originally used to denote the portion of the sentence cut off rather than the mark. The following are the chief rules for the use of the Comma : 1. Compound Sentences. — A comma is used to sepa- rate the members of a compound sentence when the degree of sejxiration is slight. Thus, "There was an abundance of game, but we had no gun." 2. Relative Clauses. — Relative clauses which are ex- planatory) or which present an additional thought are set off by commas, but when such a clause is restrictive it is not separated from the chief clause by a comma. A restrictive clause is one that limits its antecedent to some particular meaning, while a non-restrictive clause is equivalent to an additional thought. Thus, in the sentence, "The man who is industrious will succeed," the clause " who is industrious" is restrictive, the sen- tence being equivalent to " The industrious man will sue- PUNCTUATION. 155 ceed." In the sentence, " Mr. Slmrp, ivho is an industrious man, will succeed," the clause in italics simply adds an additional thought with regard to Mr. Sharp, and it is therefore non-restrictive. It may be dropped from the sentence Avithout destroying the sense of the principal clause; thus, "Mr. Sharp will succeed." In the sentence, " The man who is industrious will succeed," the restrictive clause limits the meaning not only to " man," but to a particular man, " The man who is industrious." If several words intervene between a relative pro- noun and its grammatical antecedent, a comma should be placed before the relative clause. Thus, " He will be most likely to win success, who is most faithful." If a relative pronoun is followed by a word or a phrase enclosed by commas, a comma should be placed before the relative clause even when this clause is re- strictive. Thus, "They, who, notwithstanding the fiict that they were stran- gers, defended us, merited our gratitude." When the relative has for its antecedent several nouns or clauses in succession, it should be separated from the last by a comma, even though the relative be restrictive. Thus, "There were present laborers, merchants, and professional men, who doubted the arguments of the speaker." If the comma were omitted after the Avord "men," the sentence could be construed to mean that only the pro- fessional men doubted. 3. Dependent Clauses. — Dependent clauses are usualhj set off by commas, especialUj when they 'precede independent clauses. Thus, "If you wish to win, you must struggle." 156 GOOD ENGLISH. A dependent clause is one that modifies or completes the meaning of another clause. It is usually introduced by some coordinate conjunction or a conjunctive adverb, and it often precedes the clause on which it depends. When the dependent clause follows that on which it depends, in many cases it is not set off by a comma ; as, " We will remain if you do not object." When the dependent clause follows that on which it depends, and is introduced by " that," it is not set off by a comma unless "that" is equivalent to "in order that," and is placed at some distance from the verb. Thus, a. " I believe that it will rain." b. " I shall listen to his arguments, that I may come to a con- clusion for myself." 4. Parenthetical Expressions. — Parenthetical loords and "phrases should he set off by commas. Expressions are parenthetical when they are placed between the related parts of a sentence, but arc not strictly essential to its meaning. The following are among the expressions commonly used parenthetically : Accordingly, finally, moreover, then, doubtless, hovirever, namely, therefore, consequently, indeed, perhaps, too. After all, as it were, as it happens, beyond question, for the most part, generally speaking, in the first place, in fact, in short, in a word, in truth, in general, no doubt, of course. in the mean time, now and then, in reality, on the contrary, on the other hand, without doubt, you know. Wh(>n one of these parenthetical expressions occurs PUNCTUATION. 157 at the beginning or at the end of a sentence, only a single comma is used to separate the expression from the main part of the sentence. When any of these same expressions are used to modify some particular part of the sentence, they lose their parenthetical character, and are no longer set off by connnas. Observe the use of the word however in the following : a. "You will, however, be late." b. " However, you will be late." c. "He will do the work however late he may be." Some words, known variously as expletives^ inde- pendent adverbs, etc., as nou\ ichy, well, yes, no, again, first, secondly, farther, etc., when they stand at the begin- ning of a sentence, are set off by commas. Thus, " First, let me make a statement." " Well, we are ready to go." "Why, that I cannot answer." When now and tJicn or here and there are used to in- troduce contrasted expressions, they are set off by com- mas. Thus, " Noiu, all is peace; then, all was disorder." 5. Intermediate Expressions. — Clauses and other ex- pressions not of a parenthetical character, but so placed, as to come between the essential parts of a sentence, are set off by commas. Thus, " Man, even in his lowest estate, is a noble work." In general, commas may set off any of these interme- diate expressions when they can be removed without destroying the sense of the sentence. Thus, in the sen- tence, " Physical exercise, es])ecially in tlie open air, is of great importance to health," the expression " espe- 158 GOOD ENGLISH. cially in the open air" may be removed, and the remainder, "Physical exercise is of great importance to heahh," still conveys the chief thought without any modification. 6. Transposed Elements. — Tmnsjwsed p^irases and clauses are usually set off by commas. Thus, " Of the many odd people I have encountered, he was the oddest." A comma is placed after a surname when it precedes the Christian name; as, Lindsey, George W. ; Barker, R. S. This arrangement of names is frequently made in alphabetical order in lists and indexes for convenience of reference. When in transposed elements the connection is very close, the comma may be omitted ; as, " At noon we started on our journey." 7. Series. — In a series of more than two icords, all being the same part of speech, a comma should fulloiv each word of the series. Thus, "The air, the earth, the water, teem with life." When the conjunction is omitted between the last two words of a series, a comma is placed after the last unless it is followed by a single word ; as, " Teacher, jnipils, friends, have gone." When the conjunction is omitted between all except the last two words of tbe series, a comma is usually put before the conjunction, but some writers omit it. The following is the usual form : " Days, months, and years have fled." ^^'h(•n the words in a. series are connected 1)V con- PUNCTUATION. 159 junctions the comma may be omitted ; as, " Days and months and years have fled." In some cases where a greater pause than usual is desired, both conjunctions and commas are used; as, " They suffered, and fought, and died, in their country's cause." In such expressions as " A beautiful little rose," no comma is used to separate the adjectives, for the reason that the first adjective seems to modify all that follows ; but where the successive adjectives all modify the noun with equal force, they are separated by commas, as in the following: "A hard-working, faithful, honest old man." 8. "Words in Pairs. — When words are used in pairs a comma should be placed after each pair. Thus, " Houses and lands, offices and honors, gold and bonds, are nothing to the man at Death's door." 9. "Words in Apposition. — Words in apposition, to- gether ivith their adjuncts, are set off by commas. Thus, " Milton, the author of ' Paradise Lost,' was blind." Pres. James McCosh, D. D., LL.D. When the noun in apposition stands alone or has only an article before it, no comma is required between it and the word with which it is in apposition. Thus, " Paul the apostle ;" " The poet Whittier." When several words contain a description of some person or thing, if the name be mentioned it should be set off from the rest of the sentence by a comma ; as, "The greatest of poets, Homer, Avas blind." 10. "Words in the "Vocative. — Nouns in the Nomina- tive Case Independent by address, with their accompanying 160 GOOD ENGLISH. words, are separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. Thus, " Gentlemen, are you ready to hear me?" " I am, my dear Sir, your friend." This rule is applicable to the salutation in a letter. Thus, -^ <^^4fi-^ ^^tct^ etc. 'e€i4. '©^^^ ■ctea-i. ^Qu4.^ Whatever the salutation, it seems proper to place a comma after the title on the ground that the title, Avitli its modifying adjectives, is in the nominative case inde- pendent by address. When the body of a letter begins on the same line as the salutation, the comma is followed by a dash. Thus, 11. The Absolute Construction. — A word placed in the Nominative Case Absolute is, with its accompanying P UNCTUA TION. 161 words, separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma. Thus, " Peace having been declared, the army was disbanded." 12. Omission of the Verb. — TF/ieu in a compound sentence the verb is omitted in any of tJie members following the first, a comma takes its place. Thus, "Homer was the greater genius; Virgil, the better artist." 13. Logical Subject. — When the logical or complex subject of a sentence ends ivith a verb of the same form as the predicate verb, or consists of parts subdivided by commas, it is separated from the predicate by a comma ; as, " He who breaks, pays." " Bananas, oranges, and figs, are the chief exports." 14. Quotations. — A quotation or anything resembling a quotation, introduced into a sentence, shoidd be preceded by a comma. Thus, " Bacon says, ' Knowledge is power.' " " The question now is, Where shall we find a desirable site?" If the quotation depends directly on the word which precedes it, no comma is required. Thus, " The cry of 'Down with the traitors!' rang through the hall." 15. Numeral Figures. — When any numbers except dates arc e.rpressed by more than three characters, they are separated by commas into groups of three, counting from the right. Thus, " The amount on hand is $16,437,842." 16. Ambiguity". — A comma is sometimes used to prevent ambiguity. Thus, " I awoke and called my brother to me," with- out the comma means that I awoke my brother and called him to me. With the comma, " I awoke, and 11 1(52 GOOD ENGLISH. called my brother to me," means that I became awake and called my brother to me. The Semicolon. The Semicolon is used to separate parts of sentences less closely connected than those separated by commas. It is used also to separate the divisions when the subdi- visions are separated by commas. The following are the principal rules for the use of the Semicolon : 1. Parts of Sentences. — A semicolon should be placed between the parts of a sentence ichen the subdivisions of these parts are separated by commas. Thus, " Without dividing, he destroyed party ; without corrupting, he made a venal age unanimous." When the members of a sentence are long, they are sometimes separated by a semicolon though no comma is used. Thus, " Errors like straws upon the surface flow ; He who would seek for pearls must dive below." Some writers would in the foregoing set off the expres- sion " like straws " with commas, but this is unnecessary. The golden rule in punctuation is to use a punctuation mark only where there is a necessity for it in order to make the meaning clear. 2. A General Term. — A general term having several particulars in apposition may be separated from the particu- lars by a semicolon. Thus, Nouns in English have three cases ; Nominative, Possessive, and Objective. 3. Short Sentences. — SJiort sentences luhich have a PUNCTUATION. 163 slight dependence on one another as to meaning, are usually separated by semicolons. Thus, " There is good for the good ; there is virtue for the virtuous ; tliere is victory for the valiant ; there is spirituality for the spir- itual." In the apphcation of this rule usage differs somewhat Some writers prefer the colon, and others the period, in- stead of the semicolon, but the best usage favors the semicolon. 4. Successive Clauses. — A semicolon is used to sepa- rate several successive clauses in a complex sentence when they have a common dependence on a principal clause. Thus, "When my heart shall have ceased to throb; when my life shall have passed away ; when my body shall have been con- signed to the tomb, — then shall all these things be remembered in my favor." Some writers prefer to separate the principal clause from the others by a colon, and the others from one another by a comma and a dash. 5. Additional Clauses. — An additional claiise which assigns a reason, draws an inference, or presents a contrast, may he set off by a semicolon. Thus, " Straws float upon the surface ; but pearls lie at the bottom of the stream." When the additional clause follows without the use of a connecting word, some Avriters use a colon instead of a semicolon. Namely, for, but, yet, are some of the words com- monly used for connecting an additional clause to express a reason or a contrast. 6. Before As. — A semicolon shoidd be placed before " as " when it introduces an example. Thus, 164 aoOD ENGLISH. "A noun is a name; as, boy, Henry." A semicolon is sometimes used before viz., to icit, i. e., or that is, when it precedes an example or an enumera- tion of particulars. 7. Yes and No. — " Jcs" or "710," ivhen foi'ming part of an ansiver and folloived by a proiposition, is iisuaUy set off by a semicolon. Thus, "Yes; I think it will rain." When yes or no precedes a vocative expression, the semicolon follows the expression, and a comma follows yes or no. Thus, "No, my friends; I cannot endorse this platform." The Colon. The Colon is used to separate parts of sentences less closely connected than those separated by the semi- colon. The following are the most important rules for the use of the Colon : 1. Parts of Sentences. — A colon should be placed be- tween the parts of sentences ivhose subdivislo)is are separated by semicolons. Thus, "The article contained two chief thoughts: the first, that the argument was not sound ; the second, that it _was not con- vincing." 2. Additional Clauses. — An additional clause not for- mally connected with the preceding clause is set off from the latter by a colon. Thus, " Let others hail the rising sun : I bow to him whose course is run." This rule did'ers from Rule 5 with reference to the PUNCTUATION. 165 semicolon, chiefly in the omission of the conjunction "which formally connects the clauses. 3. Quotations. — When a quoUition is introduced, but not as the object of a transitive verb, it sJioukl be preceded by a colon. Til us, " Foi- of all sad words of tougue or pen, The saddest are these : ' It might have been.' " When a quotation follows such transitive verbs as snij, exclaim, rcphj, shout, cnj, and similar verbs, as the direct object, it should be preceded by a comma instead of a colon. Thus, " The speaker said, ' Gentlemen, I am glad to meet you on this occasion.' " 4. Formal Introduction. — A colon is placed after such expressions as " habet are used for the same purpose. Leaders are dots used to carry the eye from the words at the beginning of the line to something at the end of it. Thus,^ Spelling page 44 Syllabication " 83 PUNCTUATION. 175 Book Notes. The Title-page of a book is that page of the book which contains the title. It is usually the first page. Running Titles, or Headlines, are placed at the tops of the successive pages, and are used to show the name of the book, the subject treated of on the page, or both. Captions, or Sub-heads, are headings placed over chapters or sections ; they stand in the body of the page, not at the top. Side-heads are titles run into the line or made a part of it. A Frontispiece is a picture placed opposite the title- page, and facing it. A Vignette is a small picture, not occupying a full page, but placed among other matter either on the title- page or in some other part of the book. In preparing manuscript for printing, one line ( ) should be drawn under such words as are to be put in italics; two lines (- J) under such as are to be printed in small capitals; and three lines ( ) under such as are to be printed in LARGE CAPI- TALS. A waved line {...^^..^ is placed under words that are to be printed in bold-faced type. Italics should be used sparingly. Inexperienced writ- ers generally use underscored words too freely to indicate emphatic words. Leads are thin plates of type-metal by which lines are spaced aii}:)art. Matter spaced in this way is said to be leaded. Composing, as a part of the printer's work, is setting up the type. The work itself is called composition. The quantity of printed matter is counted by ems. An em is the square of the body of the type used. 176 GOOD ENGLISH. A Corrected Proof-Sheet. OLIVER WENDELL HOLMES. Dr. Holmes ha« been likened to Thomas ^ hood, but there is little in common between them, save the power/ of combining fancy ^ < I and sentc/ment with grotesque drollery and humor. Hood under all his whims and , ea I oddities, concaels the vehement inten sity Q of a reformer. The iron of the \Vorld's /. c. wrongs has entered into his soul. There % isan undertone of sorrow in his lyrics. His A X sarcasm directed against oppression and big- _ otry, at times betrays the earnestness of one whose owK - withers have been wrung. D . Holmes writes for I simply the amusement of J^H himself and his readers. He deals only with the vanities, the foi- bles, and the minor faults of mankind, good^ naturedly and almost sympathizingly sug- 'W./. gesting excuses fV/r folly/ which he tosses / / about on the horns of ridicule/ Long may q i:om. he Iroe to make broader the face of our care- ridden generation, and to realize for himself the truth of the wise mans declaration that C^ "A merry heart is a continual feast." J. G. Whittier. ^^ly the covering of anything to hide it, as one may bury his face in his hands. Interment is a word more restricted in meaning than burial; it involves the idea of earth or soil. Calamity, disaster. — The word calamity is usually ap- plied to such events as produce extensive evils ; such as failure of crops, destructive floods, or civil war. Disas- ter is applied to such an occurrence as mars or ruins particular plans or conditions, such as losses in trade or railway accidents. Character, reputation. — Character is what a person morally is. Reputation is the prevailing opinion with regard to a person. ( Center, middle. — The center is a point or a definite place, as " The center of a city." The word m,id(lle is a less definite term than center ; it may refer to space or time; as, "The middle of the road;" "The middle of a line ;" " The middle of winter." Choice, preference. — -Choice denotes the act and the power of choosing. Preference is the exercise of choice 204 GOOD ENGLISH. in reference to one or more ol)jects. To say that one has no choice in a matter means that he has no power to choose. To say that one has no preference in a matter means that he has no prevailing inclination or choice. Companion, associate, comrade. — A companion is one who goes in company with another temporarih'. There need be no equality; thus, a man's companion may be his clog. An associate is one who is a habitual and voluntary companion on the ground of personal liking or community of feeling. A comrade is a com- panion who is made so by circumstances and not by personal choice. Thus, the students in a school or the soldiers of an army are comrades. Compensation, remuneration. — Compensation is an equivalent furnished for anything parted with or lost by another. Remuneration is compensation for jiersonal services done to the reraunerator. One's salary or wages is therefore remuneration. Composition, mixture. — A mixture is any interfusion of particles of a different nature into one mass, liquid or solid, and it may be the result of either chance or design. A composition is the union or mixture of parts, elements, or ingredients designedl\% and according to certain proportions. Convert, proselyte. — A convert is one who turns from one set of opinions to another. A proselyte is one who has been brought over from one religion to another. The convert has changed Ins views, religious or other- wise ; the proselyte is one whose views on religion have been changed by the persuasion of others. Corner, angle. — Corner is applied to the meeting of two st)lid bodies, angle to the meeting of mathematical lines. Corner refers to the point of meeting; angle, to the si)acc included Ijctwecn the lines. CHOICE OF WORDS. 205 Crime, sin, misdemeanor. — A crime is a deed violat- ing a law, human or divine. The word is now usually restricted to mean the violating of a civil law. A sin is a violation of divine law, or any law of a sacred charac- ter. A misdemeanor is a minor crime. Custom, habit. — Custom is a frequent or habitual rep- etition, whether b}^ individuals or communities. Habit applies to individuals onl}', and is the resulting effect of custom. Custom is voluntary; habit is involuntar}', and sometimes unconscious. Deception, deceit. — Deception is the act of deceiving. It applies to individual instances or acts of one who deceives. Deceit applies to the habit or quality of mind, or the trait of character; thus, we speak of " a course of deceit." Delivery, deliverance. — Delivery means a delivering to; deliverance, a delivering from. DiflBculty, obstacle. — The w^ord difficulty is usually applied to such impediments as are complicated, and require patience to overcome. Obstacle is applied to such as are simple. Disability, inability. — Disability expresses the absence of power from a subject capable of it; disability ma}'' be only temporary. Inability is the absence of power from a subject incapable of it. Disability may be removed ; inability is irremediable. End, aim. — Aim has reference to the immediate object, end to the ultimate object. Extent, limit. — Extent denotes a su.perficial spreading in one or more directions. Limit is the boundary or restraint of such extent. House, home. — A house is a building in which to live. Home is the place where one halntually lives. Idea, thought. — An idea is a mental impression or 206 GOOD EXGLISII. picture; thus, we have an idea of a rose; we also have an idea of red or redness. We combine these ideas and we have a thougJd ; as, " The rose is red." Impertinence, impudence, insolence. — Impertinence has reference to the meddling with matters in whicli the meddler has no concern. Impudence is an unblushing assurance accompanied with a disregard of the presence or rights of others. Indolence is applied to the unbridled exhibition of impudence or pride, to the disregard of the feelings of others. " Impertinence is no respecter of pro- priety ; ini])udence, no respecter of delicacy; insolence, no respecter of persons." Intellect, mind. — Intellect is used to denote the think- ing power of the mind, including perception, memor}^, imagination, understanding, and intuition. Mind in- cludes not only the intellect, but also the sensibilities and the will. Intention, purpose. — Intention is a general setting of the mind on doing a thing. Purpose is stronger than intention, indicating a resolution to be carried out. In- tention is incipient volition, purpose is decisive. Invention, discovery. — Invention is the making of a combination of ideas a reality for the first time. A dis- covery is the finding out of something heretofore exist- ing but unknown. Thus, we invent machines and ])ro- cesses ; we discover elements, causes, and truths. Judgment, discernment. — Judcpnent is the power or faculty which decides accurateh' in practical matters. Discernment is combined keenness and accurac}' of men- tal vision. Discernment regards difl'eronces rather than things, but judgment is concerned with the things them- selves. Limb, member. — In human anatom)- limb is tiie term aj)i>li(Ml to the arms and the legs, member is tlie term ap- CHOICE OF WORDS. 207 plied to any organ or part of the body which performs a distinct ofiice, as the tongue, the eye. Majority, plurality. — A mnjority is more tlian half of the whole number. A plurality is the excess of votes given to any candidate over the next highest. It is a majority when there are but two candidates, but not necessarily so when there are more than two. Thus, in a hundred votes cast, fifty-one or upward is a majority ; but if three candidates receive respectively forty, thirty- six, and twenty-four votes, the candidate receiving forty votes has a plurality. l)ut not a majority. Melody, harmony. — Melody is a rh vthmical succession of single sounds so as to form a musical thought. Pop- ularly it is known as the tune. Harmony is a concord of two or more musical strains. In hymns and other musical selections, the melody usually is one of the strains. Memory, remembrance, recollection. — Memory is that mental faculty by which we retain and reproduce a knowledge of past thoughts or events. It includes remembrance, the power of retaining knowledge, and recollection, the power of recalling knowledge. Strictly speaking, the following, " Do you remember m}' name?" means only " Do you hold my name in memory ?" What the speaker means to imply is " Do you recall my name?" That is, " Do you recollect my name?" We remember any- thing that may be recalled either now or in the future, though we may not be able to recollect it when we wish. The word usually in demand is "recollect ;" as, "I recol- lect when it was thought impossible to send news by telegraph." Negligence, neglect. — Negliyence is applied to the habit ; neglect, to an act or a succession of acts. Novice, novitiate. — A novice is a beginner, or one 208 GOOD ENGLISH. who is new in any business or calling. Novitiate denotes tlie state or the time of being a novice. Observance, observation. — Observance is the due or proper rendering of a formal or practical recognition to rule, law, custom, or occasion; as, our observance of the Sa])bath, our observance of law or of the principles of trutli. Observation has reference to an act of close con- templation, with a view of becoming acquainted with the object, as the observation of an eclipse. Opinion, sentiment. — An opinion is purely intellec- tual, and is the result of a judgment on the subjects of science, argument, facts, principles, or occurrences. Sen- timent has to do only with matters of feeling. Part, portion. — Part is the general term, meaning that which is less than the whole. Portion is generally used with some suggestion of allotment. Thus, a portion of land is a quantity in which one or more persons are interested. Proceeding-, procedure. — A proceeding is a complex action whose steins or stages may be distinguished sepa- rately. Procedure is the act or manner of proceeding. Thus, we may say, "The proceedings were interesting." " His method of procedure was approved." Proposal, proposition. — A proposal is somctliing put forth or laid down for acce]itance or rejection by another. A proposition is simjjly a statement, an aflirmation, or a denial. Smith, in >Sipiinu/ms IHscrinwiated, suggests a further difference as follows: ^'^ Proposition being used for something to be deliberated upon ; proposal, some- thing to be done." In general, it is better to say "I liave a proposal to make," rather than " a proposition to make." Reason, cause. — A reason is that which accounts for a conclusion. It is the why we believe as we do. Cause CHOICE OF WORDS. 209 is that which produces an effect. The cause gives the physical account; the reason, the logical or meta- physical. Receipt, reception. — The word receipt is used when money or other objects are taken into possession. Re- ception applies to persons and to such objects as are con- nected with sentiment on the part of the giver. The following are correct forms : " A receipt for the goods was given ;" " The reception of the favor won our grat- itude;" ''The speaker met with a warm reception." Relative, relation. — A relative is one who is connected with another by bluod or marriage. The word relation was so used formerly, but it is now confined mostly to its abstract sense ; as, " What are his relations to the congregation?" " What relation is Mr. Strong to you?" Requirement, requisite. — A requirement is something required by a person or persons. A requisite is some- thing needed by the nature of the case to give complete- ness. Thus, " The requirements of candidates for the position are of a high order ;" " One of the requisites to success is a good character." Sewage, sewerage. — Sewage is the contents of sewers. Sewerage has reference to the system employed in carrj-- ing sewage. Adjective Synonyms. Acid, sour. — Acid and sour express different degrees of the same quality. Acid is a concentrated corrosive sourness; sour refers to a milder form of acidity. Lemon juice is acid, buttermilk is sour. Active, busy. — Active expresses a tendency to employ- ment. Busy means simpl}^ closely or diligently employ- ed. To be active im^^lies energy ; to be busy implies at- tention to one's work. 14 210 GOOD ENGLISH. Adjacent, adjoimng, contiguous. — Adjacent means lying near, without touching. Adjoining means touch- ing at a single point. Contiguous means touching at one or more sides. Abundant, copious, plentiful. — Abundant is used witl)out reference to the source, but witli reference to the quantity of the supply ; as, " An abundance of money." Copious means an abundant giving forth ; as, " A copious stream." PlentiJ'ul is similar in meaning to abundant, but it is limited more strictly to physical things. We may speak of a plentiful or an abundant harvest, but not of a plentiful cause for gratitude. Artful, deceitful, designing. — The original meaning of artful was simply " full of art," in the sense of con- trivance. But the word now has reference to the use of such means for one's own purpose as are hidden from the observation of others. Deceitful has reference to a more deliberate purpose of leading others astray. One may be artful and yet not deceitful. The man who stands and looks intently at the top of a tree along the street, and thereby draws a curious crowd, may be called artful, but he is not necessarily deceitful. The deceitful man is ready, if necessar}^, to resort to falseliood to gain his end. Designing denotes the exercise of artful conduct with the specific pur[)ose of securing certain results. The designing man is always laying plans for the pur- pose of accomplishing some end in the future. Authentic, genuine. — Authentic means having autho- rity, dcnuine means real or true as o])posed to what is sj)urious. A document is authentic when it relates facts and may be relied upon as being true and authoritative. It is genuine when it is the production of a person whose name it bears as author. Beautiful, handsome. — The word handsome is applied CHOICE OF WORDS. 211 to persons, to certain objects, and to moral acts. Beau- tiful is applied to persons and other objects of eitlier sight or sound. Thus, we speak of " a handsome man," "handsome conduct," " a handsome horse." We speak also of "a beautiful woman," "a beautiful melody," "a beautiful landscape." Handsome may be applied to men or women ; horses, dogs, or other animals ; trees, houses, and parks; but not to landscapes, views, or prospects. Handsome is rarely applied to pliysical objects of small size; tliese are pretty or heautiful. Beneficent, generous, benevolent, liberal. — Benefi- cent denotes largeness of bount}', as the outflow of great kindness combined with great power. The word is now restricted almost wholly to Divine giving. Generous de- notes a mental disposition to give whether one has the means or not. It applies to forgiving as well as to giv- ing. Liberal denotes a character which gives largely when it gives. It makes no definite estimates as to what is needed, but aims to give enough. In conduct it considers favorable as well as unfavorable construc- tions, and rather gives them the preference. Benevolent has reference to the person rather than to the act. A be- nevolent man will give when he can. In character he will avoid doing injury, and aim to benefit where he finds it possible. Brave, bold. — Brave applies to the readiness to meet such dangers as come from living or active opponents whose power is to be dreaded. The stopping of a run- away horse is a brave act, so also is the saving of a per- son from drowning or from being burned to death. Bold. refers to a readiness or pretended readiness to meet dan- ger, rather than to the conduct when the danger comes. A man may be bold in his threats against an enemy, but when he runs away he is not brave. 212 GOOD EyGLISH. Bright, brilliant. — Brilliant is a stronger term than bright. Briijht is used in a variety of meanings, — shed- ding light, reflecting light, etc. Brilliant is shining witli intense or sparkling brightness which shines with a changeful play. Ceremonial, ceremonious.— Ccrc?no7im^ is applied to external rites, or public ceremony. Ceremonious is applied in its present sense to dealing overmuch in conventional forms ]jetween individuals. Clean, cleanly. — Clean means free from filth or that which is foul. In a moral sense it means that which is free from evil. Clennbj denotes a disposition to be ijhys- ically clean. It has reference to the habit. Close, near. — Close is a more definite term than near. Houses or persons are close when they almost touch ; they may be near and yet be separated by a moderate distance. Competent, qualified. — One is qualified for a task when, either by training or otherwise, he has a special aptitude for the work. He is competent when lie lias simply the natural powers, to which such subsequent training may be given as will make him qualified. Complete, entire, whole. — Entire and whole are in nian}' cases interchangea])le. An entire set of furni- ture and a whole set of furniture mean the same thing. Whole, however, applies to what is made up of parts. Therefore, where the idea is such that the thing Avhich it represents cannot be divided into parts, the proper word is entire, as in "entire confidence," "entire care." Complete denotes the presence or possession of all that is needful to constitute a thing. An object is entire when not broken or mutilated ; it is complete Avhcn it lacks nothing. Corporal, corporeal. — Corporal relates to the substance CHOICE OF WORDS. 213 of the body ; corporeal., to the nature of the body. We speak of " corporal punishment " and of our " corporeal existence." Diffident, bashful, modest, reserved. — Diffidence is the positive distrust of one's self. Modesty is the absence of any tendency to over-estimate one's self. Bashfulness is excessive or extreme modesty. Reserve is a keeping to one's self. Sometimes it becomes faulty when it ap- proaches too nearly to pride. Docile, tractable. — Docile denotes the actual quality of meekness. Tractable denotes the absence of refrac- toriness. A docile child is easily taught and managed ; a tractable child may be taught and governed by proper attention. Doubtful, uncertain. — Doubtful is used in the sense of entertaining a doubt or admitting a doubt. Uncertain simply expresses a lack of sufficient knowledge to de- cide. " It is doubtful whether we shall win, for it is uncertain liow many votes will be cast." Eager, earnest, — Eager denotes an excited desire and intentness in the pursuit of some object; as, "Children eager to see ;" " Hounds eager in the chase." Earnest is always used in a good sense, and refers to the steadiness and energy of an occupation or a habit. Eligible, desirable. — Eligible means worthy of being chosen, or qualified to be chosen. Desirable is broader in its application. It relates to any kind of choice, as of possession, conduct, or anything that is to be wished for ; as, " a desirable residence," " desirable associates," " desirable absence of noise." Endemic, epidemic— An epidemic disease is one in whicli the cause acts on a large number of people at the same time. An endemic disease is one that is peculiar to the peo])le of a particular nation or community, its ori- 214 GOOD EyOLISH. gin being connected with tlie local conditions or the personal habits of tliose among whom it occurs. Enormous, huge, vast. — Huge denotes great size, with massiveness predominating over proportion. Enormous is huge of its j)articular kind ; thus, an api)le five inches in diameter would not be huge, but it would be an enor- mous apple. Vast has reference to the quality of great superficial area, as vast prairies and huge mountains. Envious, jealous. — Envious denotes a feeling of un- happiness caused by the contemplation of any good enjoyed b}^ another. Jealous indicates envy mixed with rivalry. One is jealous of another when the latter stands in some relation to a third which the former desires to occupy. Nations as well as individuals may be jealous. Equal, equable. — Equal is applicable to number, de- gree, or measurement of things fixed. Equable denotes the quality of continuous proportion, and is applied to action or movement. Thus, we say a vessel sails an equable, not an equal, rate when it sails as great a dis- tance in any hour as in tlie ])receding. Equal, equivalent. — Equal denotes that two things agree in anything that is ca])able of degree, as number, value, quality. Equivalent means equal in such propor- tions as affect ourselves, or the use we make of things, as value, force, effect. Extraordinary, remarkable. — Extraordinary denotes that whicli is out of or beyond the ordinary. It is sometimes equivalent to the word remarkable, or that which causes remark, but it cannot be used as equivalent to remarkable except when the subject contem})lated excites remark. Extravagant, prodigal. — Extravagant denotes a wan- dering Ijcyond. One may be extravagant in the expen- diture of money, in speech, in compliments. Prodigal CHOICE OF WORDS. 215 indicates a love of large and excessiv^e expenditures. A poor man may be extravagant, but he is prevented by his poverty from being prodigal. Female, feminine, effeminate. — Female is applied to sex as opposed to male. Feminine indicates tliat which is characteristic of females, as opposed to masculine. Effeminate applies to those actions or characteristics of men which would be more appropriate to women. We speak of " female dress," " feminine accomplishments," " effeminate actions." Garrulous, loquacious, talkative. — Garrulous denotes being unduly talkative, especially about others' affairs rather than our own. Talkative implies a desire to engage in talk witli others as well as to others. Lo- quacious denotes the habit of talking continuously. Gentle, mild, meek. — Gentle originally denoted well- born. It indicates refinement and quietness of nature. It is applicable to animals, and, by analog}^ to external forces and influences. We may speak not only of a gentleman, but also of gentle lambs, gentle breezes, and the like. Mild implies subdued but not deteriorated energy, as "mild air," which might be harsh; "mild expression," "mild disposition." Meek differs from mild and gentle in never being applied to conduct, but only to the temper or character. A meek person is one who subm.its to wrong rather than combat it. Gratuitous, voluntary. — Gratuitous means given with- out recompense, or without proof A gratuitous assertion is one without proof; a gratuitous affront, one that is unmerited or uncalled-for. Voluntary means by the con- sent of one's will; that is, not done under compulsion. Many acts are done voluntarily that are not done wil- lingly. Great, big, large. — Big gives the imiDression of relative 216 GOOD ENGLISH. bulk; as, a big fisb, a big mountain. Large applies chiefly to relative Avidth or capacity ; as, a large build- ing, one that is capacious. Great may be used not only with regard to size or number, but with regard to any- thing that may exist in degree ; as, " a great noise," " a great address," ''a great battle." A great soldier may not be a large soldier, nor a large soldier a great one. Number, quantity, and extent are represented as large. Power, knowledge, strength, wisdom, and such abstract qualities as ignorance, weakness, and folly, with tlieir opposites, may be represented as great. Hard, difQ.cvlt. — Hard expresses in a general way what difficult expresses in a more refined and particular way. Any work of the body or the mind which seems to resist our efforts may be said to be hard. That which is difficult presents a kind of liardness which requires some mental aptitude, as well as work and persever- ance, to overcome. Many occupations are not difficult, but they require hard work. The process of solving a problem may not be hard work, but it is often difficult. We therefore speak correctly of difficult questions and difficult problems instead of hard problems and hard questions. Hideous, shocking-.— if /Vi^'ows primarily denoted that which is frightful to behold, Init is now extended also to noises. That which is shocking acts with a sudden effect. The hideous contradicts beauty and is lasting; the shock- ing contradicts morality and is teinjiorary. Lawful, legal. — Latcjid denotes "in accordance with law, whether civil or moral." Lcgid denotes conformity to civil law, the law of the land. Little, small. — Little is a general term, and applies to quantity as well as size; as, " little attention ;" "a.little boy." iSmall applies to size only. LitUe is opposed to CHOICE OF WORDS. 217 hig ; small, to large. The terms are relative, little being exceptionally small. Luxuriant, luxurious. — Luxuriant means superabun- dant; liuurious, contributing to luxury; thus, "luxuriant vegetation ;" " luxurious ease." Noted, notorious. — Abated refers to that which is Avell-known favorably or eminentl}^ as " a noted ora- tor." Notorious is employed to express what is widely and publicly known, and usually, though not always, unfavorably; as, "A notorious thief." Obstinate, stubborn. — An obstinate person is one that will do what he has determined upon. A stubborn person will not do what others wish him to do. One term is positive; the other, negative. Only, alone. — Only indicates that there is no other of the same kind ; alone, denotes being accompanied by no other. " An only child " is one that has no brothers or sisters; "a child alone " is one that is not accompanied by any one. The following are correct: "Only members are admitted ;" " The request alone was sufficient to secure the favor." Opinionated, conceited. — Opinionated denotes self-con- ceit on particular points in one's judgment, accompanied with an obstinate determination to hold to one's opin- ion. Conceited refers to the over-estimation of one's own ability. Penurious, saving. — Saving denotes the avoiding of unnecessary expense, whether as a habit or for a pur- pose. Penurious refers to the suffering of want in the extremity of saving. Pliant, pliable. — ^That which is capable of bending is pliant. That which may be readily bent is pliable. A whipstock is pliant, but a whiplash is pliable. Rational, reasonable. — Rational denotes that which 218 GOOD ENGLISH. pertains to the reasoning powers as a faculty. It is that wliich distinguishes tlie man from the brute. Reasonable has reference more to that which is in accord with our sense of right or fitness, as " a reasonable excuse." Ravenous, voracious. — Both these words apply to the matter of appetite. A voracious animal is one that eats large quantities of food ; a ravenous animal is one that eats with great haste, usually because hunger has been increased by ])rivati()n. Refractory, ungovernable. — liejractory denotes per- verseness in breaking rules or in disobeying commands. Ungovernable denotes that which sets at defiance all at- teni}jts to govern or control. Regal, royal. — Regal means belonging to the attri- butes of a king; as, "regal splendor." Royal denotes belonging to the person of the king; as, "royal robes;" "royal crown." Ridiculous, ludicrous. — Ludicrous denotes that which is likely to ]>rovnke laughter, but without any necessary admixture of contempt. Ridiculous conveys " the idea of the contemptible in things and the humiliating in persons." Righteous, godly. — A righteous man is one who in a practical way believes in revealed religion, and docs what he believes is in conformity with the Divine will. A godly man is one who communes with God, in prayer, meditation, and the study of God's word. Scarce, rare. — Things are rare when oidy a few of the kind exist; they are scarce when they can be had only in less ([uantity than usual. Sensible, sensitive. — Sensible expresses a habit or state of mind relating to a j)articular subject. Thus, one may be sensil)l(; of cold, heat, or kindness. Sensi- tive expresses a condition in which the sense or feeling CHOICE OF WORDS. 219 is quickly acted upon, as one is sensitive to changes of temperature. "Womanly, ■womanish. — Womanly denotes belonging to woman. Womanish means effeminate. Thus, we speak of the womanly traits of girls and the womanish ways of some men. Verb Synonyms. Abdicate, resign, — These words differ chiefly in their application to the importance of position. Abdicate means to leave or reject a liigh power, dignity, or station, as a king abdicates his throne. Resign means to quit or give up any situation, office, or employment, high or low, as an officer or an emploN^ee may resign his position. Allo^w", permit. — To allow is to give some degree of sanction ; to permit is sim])ly not to prevent. Argue, debate. — To argue is to say all that can be said either for or against a proposition ; to debate is to sift by argument for and against. Assassinate, kill, murder. — To kill is the broadest of these terms. It means simply to deprive of life, includ- ing vegetable as well as animal life. To murder is to kill with malicious thought and intention. To assassinate is to murder by secret or sudden attack upon a person. Banish, expel, transport, expatriate.^ — To banish is to eject by ban or public proclamation. To expel is to drive out. To transport is to carry beyond the sea to a penal colony. To exjmtriate denotes the alienation from one's native land. One may expatriate himself, but he is banished, expelled, or transported by some authority in power. Begin, commence. — Begin usually refers to time or order. Commence implies action. Thus, " A wicked life begins with little sins." Formal and public transactions 220 GOOD ENGLISH. arc said to commence. Thus, " Tlie work of preparing the book was commenced before the holidays." Collect, assemble. — To colled, used intransitively, is to gather from difi'erent places into one bod_y or place. To assemble denotes the same as to collect, but is ap])li- cable only to persons. Comprehend, apprehend. — Apprehend is to lay hold of or grasj) by the mind. It is sim])ly the recognition of a fact. Comprehend implies more than apprehend. To comprehend is to embrace or understand a thought in all its extent. I comprehend a thought when I know all about it. Confess, acknowledge. — To acknovdedge is to admit that one has knowledge. To confess implies a fault. The word confess is frequently misused for acknowledge or ad- mit, as in " I confess I thought he was the taller of the two." Confirm, corroborate. — Tlie use of these words is to give strength to assertions. To corrohurate is used only of the subjects ; as, facts, opinions, or statements are cor- roborated, while confirm is used with reference both to the minds of the persons and to the subjects. Thus, "His statement was corroborated ;" " I am confirmed in my opinion." Confute, refute.^ — Confute applies both to an argument and to the ])erson who makes the argument. To r(fute means to repel by the same kind of argument, and ap- plies to anything that may be alleged against one, as calumny and the like. Congratulate, felicitate. — To felicitate originally meant to make happy, and was the proper word to use wlien it was meant to compliment a singer or a speaker on the excellence of his performance. Tlie word congratulate, which implies a sharing in another's happiness, has, CHOICE OF WORDS. 221 however, of late been made to take the place of the word felicitate when we mean a simple expression of formal politeness. Devise, bequeath. — Devise is properly used for a gift of real estate by will. Bequeaih is properly used wlien applied to a gift of personal property by will, but Law Courts have in a measure extended the application of the word "bequeath" to include what is properly ex- pressed by the word "devise." Descry, discover. — Discover is to bring to light what was concealed or unknown. Descry is to discover by the eye things difficult of discernment on account of distance or dimness. Dispel, disperse. — Dispel means to separate or scatter in such a way as to cause to vanish. Disperse means simply to scatter abroad. We dispel illusions. Sun- shine dispels the fog. We disperse crowds. Distinguish, discriminate. — So far as these words are used as synonyms, discriminate is used only of moral subjects ; distinguish is used also in reference to physical objects. We distinguish best by showing great differ- ences, we discriminate best by showing slight differences. Educate, instruct. — To instruct is to impart know- ledge ; to educate is to train and develop. Excel, surpass. — To excel is to go beyond in good qualities or in laudable actions. Excel is employed only in an honorable sense. To surpass denotes to. go beyond others, but it is not limited to what is praise- worthy. Expend, spend. — Spend is applied indefinitely to what w^e pay out. Expend refers to what we pay out from a particular source on a particular object. Thus, " He spends two thousand dollars a year, of which he expends five hundred dollars on travel." 222 GOOD ENGLISH. Foretell, predict. — To foretell is to tell or declare be- forehand what is to happen. Prediet differs from fore- tell chiefly in being limited in its use to persons, while foretell is used also of other indicators, as " Clouds fore- tell rain." Grieve, mourn. — To (jricve is to feel trouble or the pain of inward distress. It is purely mental. To mourn is to give outward expression to our grief Imbibe, absorb. — To imbihc means to take the moist- ure away from one body into another. To absorb means simply to take the moisture away. The rays of the sun are said to absorb moisture ; a sponge both absorbs and imbibes. Incite, excite. — To excite is to call into greater activ- ity, or to arouse to an active state powers before dor- mant. To incite is to excite to a particular act or end. Inhibit, prohibit. — To prohibit is to forbid by the force of authority ; to inhibit is to prohibit coercively. Pro- hibition lies in words only ; inhibition is supported by power to enforce tlie restraint. Intrude, encroach, obtrude. — To intrude is to thrust one's self upon the presence or the society of another. To encroach is to come gradually or imperceptibly ui)on another's land or upon liis rights. To obtrude is to thrust one's self in the way. Move, remove. — To move is to change the position of an object, or to cause an internal motion of its parts. To remove it is to take it away bodily. Nominate, name. — To name is to mention for a gen- eral purpose. To nominate is to mention for a specific purpose. Only persons are nominated. Things as well as ])ersons are named. Obstruct, hinder, prevent. — To obstruct is to place something in the wav of To hinder, the most general CHOICE OF WORDS. 223 of these terms, now means simply to keep one from his purpose temporarily. To prevent is to render altogether impracticable. To hinder supposes no design ; to pre- vent denotes a premeditated act. Obviate, prevent. — Prevent means so to hinder that an act shall not happen at all. Obviate means to pre- vent its happening in the future. Crimes and calamities should be prevented ; difficulties, inconveniences, trouble, should be obviated. Outlive, survive. — To outlive means to live longer than another; to survive is to live after another, or after certain antagonistic iniluencte have been overcome. Pardon, excuse.- — To excuse is applied to small faults ; to pardon, to greater ones. Pare, peel. — Pare means to trim ; peel, to take off the skin. An uncooked potato is pared ; when cooked, it may be peeled. We peel an orange, but pare an apple. To peel denotes a natural process ; to pare, an artificial one. Prognosticate, foretell. — To foretell is to tell before- hand. To prognosticate is to know beforehand, A phys- ician prognosticates the progress of a disease by the symptoms discoverable in the patient. Raze, demolish. — Raze means to make even with the ground. Demolish means to destroy an organized body or a structural mass, as the walls of a building. Recede, retreat, withdra'w. — To recede is to go back ; the action is suited to our convenience. To retreat is to draw back, usually from necessity, as to escape danger. Withdraio has much the same meaning as recede, except that recede refers to going back from a given spot, whereas withdraiv is applied wlrere the place or persons are con- cerned, as we withdraw from a room or from a company of persons. 224 GOOD ENGLISH. Receive, accept. — Used as synonyms, to receive is to take back; to accept is to take to one's self. We receive what is our own ; we accept wliat others offer us. Recline, repose. — To recline is to lean back. To rqwse is to recline in such a position as is most easy and com- fortable. Recoil, rebound. — Rebound is to bound back or spring back. Recoil is to coil or Avhirl back. A ball rebounds ; a snake recoils. Relieve, alleviate. — To relieve is to remove or take away. To alleviate is to lighten or lessen. That which removes pain relieves it ; that which affords ease from pain alleviates it. Share, divide, distribute. — To divide is to cut or sep- arate into parts. To share is to divide into parts and give those parts to others, reserving one or more parts for ourselves. To distribute is to give all the parts to otliers, reserving none for ourselves. Shut, close. — To close means to bring together the parts, as we close the eyelids. To shut is to bring the parts so close together that there can be no ingress or egress. The petals of a flower close. AVe close a book. The door of a house is shut. One may shut his mouth by closing his lips. There are many cases whore the words may be used intercliangeably. Slant, slope. — These words have substantially the same meaning, but their application varies. Slant is applied to small bodies ; slope^ to those that are either large or small. My pen slants as I write, but a hillside slopes. Slip, slide, glide. — To slip means an involuntary move- ment. Slide refers to a voluntary movement. Slip and slide indicate lateral movements of the feet, while cjlide CHOICE OF WORDS. 225 indicates a mov.ement of the whole body. "We glide when we slide; a ship glides in the water. Speak, talk, converse. — To speak is simply to utter articulate soundis. To talk is to speak to others. To converse is to talk with others. Treasure, hoard. — To treasure is to lay up for the sake of preserving. To hoard is to lay up for the sake of accumulating. Utter, speak. — To utter is to put forth a vocal sound. To speak is to utter an intelligible sound. We may utter a groan, but we S2:)eak words. Yield, submit. — To yield is to surrender one's self in consequence of external pressure. To submit denotes more of a voluntary action than to yield. We submit sometimes because we deem it prudent, and our submis- sion is only partial or temporary. We yield because we are compelled, and the yielding is final. A person may submit without showing any resistance, but he yields only after a struggle. Adverb Synonyms. Advisedly, deliberately. — One who speaks or acts advisedly does so with a full knowledge of the circum- stances and the consequences of his conduct. One who speaks or acts deliberately takes time to weigh the matter in his mind. Al^vays, continually. — We do always what we do at all times and on all occasions. We do continually that which we do without intermission. Almost, nearly. — Almost applies to matters of progres- sion, degree, or force. Nearly is applied to matters of time, space, and fact. Thus, " We have almost finished the work." " I am nearly twenty years old." Nearly may be preceded b}' a negative ; as, " It is not nearly so cold 226 GOOD ENGLISH. as it was," but almost is never so preceded. A man "almost killed" ma}' have been seriously hurt; while a man " nearly killed " has escaped entirely. Consequently, therefore, accordingly. — Consequently means in consequence of; it is employed either in rea- soning or in narration. Therefore means for this reason ; it implies a conclusion and is employed in abstract rea- soning. Accordingly means " according to some thing or principle ;" it implies an agreement or an adaptation, and is used chiefly in narration. Especially, particularly, chiefly, principally. — Espe- cially and particularly are superlative in their import. They refer to one object out of the many that is supe- rior to all others. Especially is the stronger word of the two. The words are used as follows : "We are too prone to listen to the evil that is spoken of others, especially of our enemies ;" " There is but little rainfall in some parts of the West, particularly on the plains." Chiefly and principally are comparative in their import. They denote a superiority over only some others; as, "In- dians live chiefly in the Territories." "They mistake the nature of criticism who think its business is prin- cipally to find fault." Frequently, often. — Often usually refers to a series known to be established. It relates to a standard of frequency; as, "How often does the wheel revolve?" "How often do you come?" Frequently denotes the simple repetition of anything without reference to any standard or order ; as, " We frequently have frost in Octolx'r." Relatively, comparatively. — Comparalively denotes according to an estimate made by comparison. It is opposed to positively. Relatively means according to a relation to something else; it is opposed to absolutely. CHOICE OF WORDS. 227 Comparatively regards an average ; relatively, a standard. Thus, "The scliool has comparatively few students;" that is, considering the number attending other schools of like grade. " There were relatively few in attendance at the lecture;" that is, regarding the matter that was to be discussed. Scarcely, hardly.— These words in many cases may be used interchangeably. Where there is a difference scarcely relates to quantity ; hardly, to degree. " There was scarcely a bushel ;" " It is hardly cold enough to freeze." Preposition Synonyms, About, around, round, at. — About is less precise than around or at. It may apply to {)lace, time, quantity, or number; as, "About the house;" "About midday;" " About a bushel ;" " About twenty." Around means " on all sides," " encircled like a ring or a globe." It implies rest, and locates place more definitely than " about ;" as, " Around the fire-place," "Around the field." Round has generally reference to a rotary movement or a partial encircling; as, "The longest way round ;" " To go round in a circle ;" " Bread enough to go round." At means nearness; as, "At the window;" "At 4 o'clock;" "At rest." At, in. — These two words are frequently used in speak- ing of places or residence. Usually in implies enclosure ; as, "We stayed in Holland;" "They lived in Philadel- phia." It also is more generally applied to countries and larger cities, while at implies nearness to a point or bor- der, and applies to smaller places or foreign cities ; as, " They landed at Charleston ;" " He stopped in New York, but he lives at Dover." 228 GOOD ENGLISH. Above, over, beyond. — These terms have both a lit- eral and a figurative meaning. Above means higher in position, number, degree, rank, etc. ; as, " The room above this;" "The moral law is above the civil." Over indicates ^vllat is expressed by afeore, with the addition oCthe idea of verticality ; as, " The cliff juts over the river ;" " The clouds hung over the valley." Beyond relates to the measurement of distance, usually horizontal, but also sometimes vertical; as, "The forest is beyond the river;" "The stars are beyond the moon." Above, on, upon. — On and upon differ from above and over in this, that tliey imi)ly contact; as, "The book is on the table;" " The cu]) was put upon the shelf." On and upon dififer as to relative height; thus, on is pro])erly used when it implies contact on the upper side of any- thing, or even when action is imi)lied and the position is low ; as, " The pen is on the table;" "Throw the water on the grass." Upon denotes that the position is one of some elevation, nnd generally it is used in connection Avith a verb implying action ; as, " Upon the moun- tains;" "He tossed the book upon (up on) the shelf." The two words are now, however, almost interchange- able. Sometimes for tlie sake of euphony or rhythm, tipon is preferable to on; also when motion into position is involved. After, behind. — After has special reference to the order to whicli two things belong in common, espe- cially as regards time; as, "The assembly did not con- vene until after 10 o'clock;" "The hounds riin after the fox." Behind has reference to the position of two things in space, without any notion of consecutiveness ; as, "Behind the door;" "The tree behind the house;" "He has left no estate beliind liim to create contro- versv." CHOICE OF WORDS. 229 Amid, among. — Amid and amidst mean so " sur- rounded by" as to be in the midst; as, " Amid the lingering liglit." " Lead, kindly light, amid the encircling gloom Lead thou me on." — Newman. "He stood firm amidst the storm." " Undaunted amidst insults and mockeries." Among implies number; also, " mingling with ;" as, " Love among mortals is but an endless sigh." — Longfelloio. " Flowers among weeds." "To be happy yourself you must live among the happy." — Disraeli. " He sent his apostles forth like sheep amongst wolves." — Gcikie. Among-, between. — The distinction between among and between is one chiefly as to number. Between has reference to two; and among, to more than two; as, "Between daylight and dark;" "The proceeds were divided between the merchant and his partner;" the adage says, " There is honor among thieves," the num- ber unlimited; " We were aniong friends;" "The good opinion of the teacher soon spread among the pupils." Betwixt, which was formerly used in tlie sense of between, is now rarely used. Below, under, beneath. — Smith, in Synonyms Discrim- inated, says, " That which we are under is that by which we are covered, overhung, or overtopped. That Avhich we are below is simply something which is higher than ourselves. That which Ave are beneath is much higher than we." Beside, besides. — Beside means "by the side of" or "at the side;" as, " A cot beside the sea." " Lovely Thais sits beside thee." — Dryden. 230 GOOD ENGLISH. Besides, as a preposition, means " in addition to " or " in connection with ;'' as, " Besides his wealth he has few claims to recognition." " The marquis had but little besides his palace." But. — But, wlien used in the sense of except, is a preposition, and should he followed by the objective case; as, " All but him had gone." " The boy stood on the burning deck Whence all but him had fled." — 3frs. Hemans. Occasionally hut is met with in literature, followed by the nominative case instead of the objective, as in the following from Scott: "Should all the race of mortals die, And none be left but he and I." If this is correct usage, as is claimed by some, hut is a conjunction, and the sense of the sentence is " And none be left but he and I " (be left). Has the poet violated a grammatical rule to make / rhyme with die? It seems so. By, through, with. — By means nearness. a. In place; as, " A city by the sea." "The house was close by the river." b. In time ; as, " We shall be ready by Wednesday." "The angel came by night." — Stoddard. c. In means ; as, " Success is won by hard work." " Your message came by mail." CHOICE OF WORDS. 231 d. In manner ; as, " We grew cold by degrees." "They came in one by one." 5?/ usually refers to persons: ivith, to things; through may refer to either. Tims, "The path having become useless through neglect, it was cleared by the servants with scythes and hoes." By denotes the agent ; with, the instrument ; as, " He was shot by the guard with a musket." Spurious Words. A number of words, used probably first by the uned- ucated, but not recognized as good English, have found their wa}' into our language. A few of these, usually known as spurious words, are here given. Authoress. — There is no authority for this word, as there is none for j^oetess or loriteress. There are but few words in our language which take the termination ess, and most of these are titles which primarily denote the names of males, and therefore take " ess " to denote the feminine. The most important of these are abbot, baron, duke, count, emperor, prince, marquis, and a few others among titles ; also, ambassador, governor, hunter, priest, prophet, etc. But in the case of the words author, poet, conductor, inspector, etc., it is not necessarily the man but the person that acts ; hence, sex is not necessarily indicated in the original forms author, poet, writer, etc., and no distinctive form is necessary for the feminine. Agriadturalist is a word much used by writers on agri- culture, but it has no legitimate existence. The correct word is agriculturist. ]\Intthews remarks that we might as well speak of a geologicalist or a chemicalist as an aericulturalist. 232 GOOD ENGLISH. C()ntrove7'siali.st is anotlier spurious word occasional! v used. The word is derived from "controvert." A con- trovertist is one who controverts. Tlie office being al- ready filled by "controvertist" and "controverter," there is no place for "controversialist," which could mean only one who " controversials," a term which is unknown to our language. Donate is one of the ill-born words for which the lan- guage seems to have no use so long as we have the words give, present, bestow, grant, etc. But donate is prob- ably no worse than orate from oration, collate from colla- tion, 'ovate from ovation, and the like, none of which should be recognized as legitimate words, or be used by tliose who desire to speak correct English. Enthuse, though lately growing somewhat into favor, is a word not yet recognized by the best authorities as good P]nglish. Firstly is sometimes used by even such reputable writers as Dickens, but it is not a word in good stand- ing. The word first is the pro])er word whether as an adjective or as an adverb. Folks for folk is condemned l)y the critics because the word folk already im])lies plurality. JI((d have, or, as it is often written by the illiterate, had of or had ov, is a vulgarism used for had. The proper expression is " Had I seen him," not " Had I have seen liim." ///// is frequently used for ill. Ill may be used as either adverb or adjective. There is no such word as illU. Inniimerahle Number. — This expression, occasionally used, represents something impossible. Jeopardize is a word that has given rise to some dis- cussion. The original word is jeopard, which, it is CHOICE OF WORDS. 233 claimed, is a legitimate English word as old as the language, meaning "to expose to loss or injur}', to im- peril, to hazard." The word jeojjarcUzc, though con- demned hy such writers on English as Gould and Rich- ard Grant White, has still made considerable prog- ress in the way of supplanting jeopard. But, as one writer remarks, there seems to be no more necessity for the word than there is for jierilize, hazardize, and similar words yet uncoined. Leniency is another of the words not needed in our language. We already have leaUy and the adjective lenient to cover the ground. Preventative^ a spurious form for preventive, rotatory for rotary, casuality for casualty, underhanded for underhand, speciality for specialty, are barbarisms which, as Mat- thews says, should be excommunicated. Stand-point, though much used, is a questionable word. Why we should have stand-point and not be allowed to use start-point as a legitimate Avord, is difficult to un- derstand. The correct forms are "standing-point " and "starting-point" if they are to be used. Stand-point is used incorrectly for " j)oint of view." Then as an adjective, as in " The then king of France," is sanctioned by some authorities and condemned by others. The masses, as a term meaning the people in general, is condemned by the best authorities on the proper use of English. In the statement, " It is a conflict between the classes and the masses," one is inclined to ask, Masses of what? Words Liable to be Misused. Words are, frequently used which do not convey the meaning intended. The speech of the Congressman 234 GOOD ENGLISH. •\vho, wlien an insinuation was made against his motives, indignantly " denied the allegation and defied the alli- gator," is a fair illustration of how easily words may be miso])plied. When Shillaber makes Mrs. Partington speak of the (xsophagus as the sarcophagus, we enjoy the wit because we know that the wrong word has been used with a full knowledge of its meaning for the purpose of amusing us ; but many of these misused words are mis- used ignorantly or carelessly. Frequently words that differ somewhat in meaning are liable to be substituted for each other. Care should be taken to give the proper shade of meaning to each word. Careless or thoughtless writers frequently use words loosely Avithout regard to the exact meaning. Thus, the word party is often used improperl}' for the word person. A person is an individual human being ; a party is a col- lection of persons, or used in the singular it is one who takes a part or is a party to a suit or a legal document. Thus, also, the word success is sometimes used where the adjective successful would be more appropriate. Thus, " Our meeting was a great success " might be expressed more elegantly by the form, " Our meeting was very successful." The word teavi is a word frequently misused. The word properly means " two or more animals working together." A single horse is not a team, nor is a horse and a carriage, nor are two or more horses hitched to a wagon. Two or more horses are a team when Avorking together, but the wagon or other vehicle constitutes no part of the team. Tiie term " foot-ball team " is strictly correct. The following is a partial list of words liable to be misused. Accord fur grant.- — To accord means to agree with or CHOICE OF WORDS. 235 to suit; as, "That accords with my views," or "Your views accord Avith mine.'' But in the expression, " He accorded (granted) me many privileges," the word grant implies what we wish to say. Affable for good-natured. — Affable means easy of approach in conversation, ready to speak, but it is now applied to express an eas}" and considerate manner on the part of persons of superior position to those of infe- rior rank. A President may be affable to his guests. Aggravating for irritating. — Aggravating means mak- ing heavier or more grave. It is frequently misused for the word irritating, which means exciting unduly in either a physical or a mental sense. All of them for them all. — We may say I bought " one of them " or "two of them," but not " all of them." Of means here out of, and cannot be used with all. The proper form is "them all;" thus, " I bought them all." ■Allude for say or mention, — To allude to a thing means to hint at it playfully without any direct men- tion of it. As an example of its misuse, speakers fre- quently say as follows : " The gentleman in his remarks has alluded to my speech on this question." It Avould be better to say "has mentioned my speech," or "has referred to my speech." Alternative. — Alternative implies a choice between two things. We cannot speak of two alternatives as being offered, but one alternative or choice. When that choice has been made there remains no more. Careless writers speak of " several alternatives " having been jDresented or offered. Antecedents. — This word is used frequently in refer- ence to a man's previous conduct or character,' as in "What do you know of this person's antecedents?" Such usage is not correct. The antecedents of a person 23G GOOD ENGLISH. are properly those wlio have jjrcceded liim. The proj'jer form of the question is, " What do you know of this person's past life?" Appreciates for rises. — The word '" ai)[ireciate " is often incorrectly used to express arise in price; as, " Wheat has appreciated in value." In this sense the word is improi)erly used for rise (risen). Apt for liable or likely. — Aj>t means the possession of mental ability. An apt ])erson qualifies himself for any work with comparative ease. Thus, we say, " He is apt to learn," or " He is apt to teach." Liable ex- presses a capability of being acted upon ; as, " We are liable to catch cold ;" " Iron is liable to rust." Likely is used chiefly in the sense of probability ; as, '' It will likely rain to-night." Frequently the word apt is im- properl}' used for liable; as, ''The weather is apt (lia- ble) to change at any time ;" " We are apt to be dis- appointed." At all is a needless phrase. It adds nothing to the meaning or force of an exj)ression in which it is used. "Nobody at all was injured in the accident" and " It was not at all strange," ex j tress no more tlian they would by tlie omission of the pln-ase at all. Balance for remainder or rest. — Balance is properly the difference between the two sides of an account. The re-'it is that which remains or is left after the sepa- ration of a part or parts. The remninder is the rest under certain conditions, usually the smaller part which remains after the greater part has been taken away. In- stead of saying "A large part of the army escaped, l>ut the balance were either killed or wounded," say " the rest" or "the remainder" were either killed or wounded. Besides I'or beside. — Beside is a preposition, and means " by the side of;" as, CHOICE OF WORDS. 237 "Harry sits beside liis mother." Usage has extended the meaning to " out of the regular course " and " out of;" thus, "It is beside my present intention to disturb those in oflRce." " Paul, thou art beside thyself." Besides is a preposition when it means "in addition to ;" as, " Besides the children, the parents were much interested." Besides is an adverb when it means " moreover;" as, "Besides, there are other matters to be looked after." Both alike. — The word " both" in the expression " both alike " is superfluous. If two things are alike, each is like the other, and " The two are alike," or " They are alike," expresses the thought correcth'. Bound for determined. — It is not correct English to sa}' " I am bound to go." The word " bound " is here incorrectly used for the word " determined." In the ex- pression "The ship is bound for New Orleans," the word bound is derived from a root meaning " to make ready." Bourn for country. — Bourn is proper!}' a boundary or limit, and is correctl}' used in Hamlet's Soliloquy : "The undiscovered country from whose bourn (edge) no traveler returns." It is not correct to use " bourn " as referring to the coun- try itself. Bring for fetch. — Bring implies motion in one direc- tion only, toward the speaker. It is correct to say to a person at some distance, " Bring me a book ;" " Bring your friend with you ;" but to one at our side we should say, " Fetch me the book from the library ;" that is, mo- tion in two directions, "go and bring," first from then to the speaker. 238 GOOD EXGLISn. But for that or if. — But should not be made to take the place of that or if. The word hutAs incorrectly used in both the following sentences: "I do not doubt but [that] lie will be here;" "I should not wonder but [if] that were true." Calculated for likely. — Calculate means to compute or reckon, but its })articiple is often used in the sense of likely, a shorter and better word for the purpose. Thus, " The nomination of a strong partisan is calculated [likely] to arouse the opposition." Even Goldsmith says, "The only danger that attends the multiplicity of publica- tions is, that some of them may be calculated to injure rather than benefit society." Can for may.- — Can expresses power ; may, possibil- ity, permission, probability. I can do tliat which I have the power to do. I may do tiiat which I have permis- sion to do, or that of which there is a possibility or a probability ; ns, " I may be in tlie City to-morrow." " It may rain before we return." " How many pencils can I buy for a dollar?" " How many pencils may be bought for a dollar?" Carnival for festival or frolic. — Carnival (carnis vale") means literally a farewell to flesh. It was formerly used to signify a festival celebrated with merriment and rev- elry the week before Lent. But the word has been per- verted to mean almost any party, frolic, or festival ; and we have the expressions "boating carnivals," "sleighing carnivals," "skating carnivals," notwithstanding the fact that we have legitimate words appropriate to all these frolics. Catch for overtake. — CatcJt for overtake is a common CHOICE OF WORDS. 239 error, so often made that many will hesitate to believe that " try to catch a car " is not better than " try to over- take a car," and yet the former is not a correct use of " catch," which means " to seize." One may " catch up " with a car, but not " catch it " in the sense of overtak- ing it. Citizen for person or resident. — A citizen is one who has certain legal and political rights. Aliens are not cit- izens, and persons either native born or aliens may be residents without being citizens. The word " citizen " is improperly used in the following: "A number of citizens on the train offered their services in helping to care for the wounded." The expression should be " A number of persons," etc. "The citizens of the town, of all classes and nationalities, entered tljeir protest against the nuisance." Better, " The residents," etc. Consequence for importance. — Consequence has refer- ence to what follows or to results. The root-word is sequor, to follow. Importance refers to things of moment in them- selves. To say that something is of no consequence is to say that it is of. no following or result. The jDroper ex- pression is, " It is of no importance." Consider for think. — To consider is to ponder, to think about carefully. We hear the expression, " We do not consider the topic a fit one for open discussion," or " We do not consider him fit for the place," when we have not considered. We mean " We do not think him fit for the place." Contemptible for contemptuous. — Contewptible means that winch deserves contempt; contemptuous means filled with contempt. There may be contemptible persons and contemptible acts. Our opinions of them are contemptu- ous. Convene for convoke. — Com^ene means to come to- 240 GOOD ENGLISH. gether ; convoke, to call together. It is not correct to say " The President convenes Congress." The President may convoke Congress, but Congress convenes. Correspond with for correspond to. — Many Avriters use tliege phrases interchangeably. Objects correspond to each other; persons, with each other by writing. Thus, "The ornaments correspond to each other;'' "His man- ner of living corresponds to his means;" "The brothers corresponded with each other so long as they lived apart." Couple for two. — A couple is two coupled or united by some bond. A man and his wife are a couple. Even two of the same kind are not always a couple. Thus, two gloves or two shoes, to be used together, are a pair ; two partridges, a brace; two oxen, a yoke or pair; two horses, a span or team. Such phrases as "a couple of eggs," " a couple of days," " a couple of dollars," " a couple of books," etc., are all incorrect. Crime for sin or vice. — A crime is a violation of the civil law. What is a crime in one country may not be a crime in another, and what is a crime at one time may not be a crime at another, because the laws nmy change. A sin is a violation of the Divine law. Vice is a course of action or a habit of life which is harmful to the actor and harmful to others. Crushed out for crushed. — Generally the word crushed is sufficient to express the thought intended. Thus, " The rebellion Avas crushed " expresses concisely the thought to be conveyed. " His skull was crushed " is quite as expressive as " His skull was crushed in." Curious for strange or remarkable. — Primarily cu- rious meant inquisitive, and it is still used in this sense. It was used V)y Addison in the sense of internieddling willi all kn(nvlcdge. It is sometimes used to mean nice or intricate, as we speak of images "curiously carved," CHOICE OF WORDS. 241 but its use for strange, remarkable, or queer is not sanc- tioned by the best usage. Deadly for deathly. — Deadly is that which causes death, Avhile dcaUihj is that which resembles death. Thus, " a deadly weapon ;" " a deathly pallor." Deceiving- is frequently used for the phrase trying to deceive. It is thus incorrectly used in the sentence "You are deceiving me." The meaning to be conveyed is that "you are misrepresenting in order to deceive." Decimated for reduced. — Deciraatcd means reduced by one-tenth. To speak of a regiment's having been decimated by one-third is of course incorrect. Defalcation for default. — -Defalcation means a lopping off. The right word to indicate the crime of not paying to the proper parties the money which one has collected for them is default. The verb indicating this action is default, and the criminal is a defaulter. Delicious for delightful. — Delicious relates to the grat- ification of the senses. Delightful relates to the state of the mind. Thus, we say "delicious food," "delicious fragrance," "a delicious taste," etc.; but "delightful mu- sic," "a delightful landscape," "a delightful entertain- ment." Depot for station. — A depot is a jjlace of deposit where goods are placed for safe keeping. Station is the correct name of the place at which passengers gather to take the cars. One would not say " The next depot is Lancaster," but " The next station is Lancaster." Lit- erally, the expression means that the next station at which the train stops (sto, stare, to stand) is Lancaster. Directly for immediately or instantly. — Directly is applied to the action of persons. It is frequently used in the sense of " as soon as," but incorrectly so ; as, " Directly he stopped, the coffin was removed by four 16 242 GOOD ENGLISH. men." — Dickens. Directly means soon; as, "We will call them directly." Immediately refers to the course of time, and signifies " without interruption or intervening time." Instantly means "in an instant;" it is a stronger word than "immediately." Dirt for earth or soil. — Dirt is filth. The word has properly no other meaning. But we hear persons speak of " dirt roads," meaning unpaved roads. These are in'operh" earth roads or gravel roads. The word dirt should be restricted to its proper use. Divine for clergyman. — Divine is properly an adjec- tive, but it is frequently used as a noun as a substitute for the word clergyman, a much more appropriate word. Dock for "wharf. — A dock is an open place, without a roof, into which anything, usually a ship, is received and enclosed for safety. So also a prisoner is placed in the dock during trial. A wharf is properly the pier to which a vessel is fastened while it lies in the dock. Dress for gown. — Dress is really a general term in- cluding one's entire apparel, undergarments included. The proper word to apply to the outer garment of a woman, often known as a dress, is goicn. Frock, though now rarely used, is applied to the outer apparel of either sex. Drive for ride. — Many persons make a distinction in these two terms, by limiting the use of the word ride to horseback exercise, whicli might now be extended prob- a])ly to exercise on a bicycle, and using the word drive for carriage-riding. But we may ride on horseback or in a carriage. We may take a horseback ride, a carriage ride, or a ride in the cars. The action in any of these cases is riding; the person who manages the horse or the engine is the driver. " To take a boat ride or a car- riage ride in the Park " is correct English. " To take a CHOICE OF WORDS. 243 ride in the Park " is ambiguous. It may mean a ride on horseback or a ride in a carriage, or even in a street- oar. Dry for thirsty. — Dry denotes the absence of moist- ure. Thirsty signifies the desire for drink. Either. — The hypercritical object to the use of the conjunction cither when more than two are spoken of. AVhile either, used as an adjective, as " Either of the boys," is limited in its application to two, there is no such restriction in its use as a conjunction, the correl- ative of or. We may say " Either the boy or his sister," and we may also say, " Either James, George, William, or Henry," or we may supply the conjunctions, and say, " Either James, or George, or William, or Henry," in which case either is used as a correlative with each of the conjunctions separately. The foregoing remarks apply with equal force to the use of neither as a correlative conjunction. Elder for older. — Elder is properly applied to persons only, while older is applied to objects of any kind, ani- mate or inanimate. One horse or one book may be older, but never elder, than another. Empty for vacant. — Empty denotes containing noth- ing; as, "an empty purse;" "an empty pail." Vacant refers to what may be occupied or is intended to be occupied ; as, " a vacant chair." A house is vacant when no one lives in it; it is empty when it is devoid of furniture or belongings. Enough for sufladent. — Enough is the quantity which one wishes to have; sufficient is the quantity which one needs. Enough implies more than sufficient. Epithet for name. — Epithet is given by dictionaries as an adjective. The noun to which it corresponds is name or appellation. The words " villain," " coward," " fool," 244 GOOD ENGLISH. " knave," are ap})c'llations, but " vile," " cowardly," '' fool- ish," "knavish," "good," "just," "honest," etc., are epi- thets. The import of epithet may be either good or bad. When, therefore, we api)ly an epithet to a person we use the adjective ; wlien we call him names we use nouns. Equally as well for equally well or as ■well. — A ?.> ^ UCLA-Young Research Library PE1111 .R19 y L 009 585 883 3 uc snuTHrRfj regional library faciuty AA 001 348 945 SOUTHERN S RANCH, MNIVERSIXY uF CAUPtRNIA. • LIBRARY. iX>S ANGELEa CALIF.