LIBRARY "UnivrsitY cf IRVINE^ '7 SEMICENTENNIAL PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 1868-1918 THE SEMICENTENARY CELEBRATION OF THE FOUNDING OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA WITH AN ACCOUNT OF THE CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 1868-1918 BERKELEY MDCCCCXIX SEMICENTENARY CELEBRATION COMMITTEE PROFESSOR CHARLES HENRY RIEBER, Chairman HERBERT MCLEAN EVANS WILLIAM CAREY JONES ARMIN OTTO LEUSCHNER JOHN CAMPBELL MERRIAM LEON JOSIAH RICHARDSON HENRY MORSE STEPHENS CONTENTS PREFACE xi GENERAL PROGRAMME xv I. SPECIAL EVENTS OF THE WEEK OPENING ADDRESSES Address of Welcome, by President Benjamin Ide Wheeler 1 Introductory Address, by Professor Charles Henry Rieber 3 A Retrospect, by Professor George C. Edwards 5 The Latest Gifts to the University, by Professor Leon J. Richard- son 10 RESPONSES OF DELEGATES For Stanford University, by Professor Charles David Marks 17 For Mills College, by President Aurelia Reinhardt 19 For the Republic of China, by Mr. Yung-Yu Yen 21 For the University of Washington, by President Suzzallo 22 DEDICATION OF THE JANE K. SATHEE TOWER Introduction, by President Wheeler 27 Ode to the Sather Campanile, by Mr. Edward Robson Taylor 28 Address for the Faculty, by Professor Ivan M. Linforth 32 Address for the Students, by Mr. John L. Reith 34 ADDRESSES AT THE SATHER TOWER FOLLOWING THE MILITARY REVIEW AND PARADE ON THE CAMPUS For the Faculty, by President Wheeler 38 For the Army, by Colonel Mervin Maus 39 For the Navy, by Captain Robert Russell 42 The Professional Man in Service, by Dr. Herbert C. Moffitt 45 T-he University Man in Service, by Captain A. J. Eddy 47 The Civilian in Service, by Mr. Sayre MacNeill 50 DEDICATION OF GILMAN HALL Introduction by Professor Edmund O'Neill 53 Address by Professor Stillman of Stanford University 57 Address by Dr. Duschak of the University of California 62 DEDICATION OF THE PAGET CHAIR Introduction by Professor William Carey Jones 65 Address by Professor Charles Gilbert Chinard 67 Address by Professor Cestre of the University of Bordeaux 69 [vii] UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENARY DEDICATION OF THE BUST OF JOHN M. ESHELMAN Introduction by Professor Charles Henry Eieber 72 Address by Mr. Max Thelen 73 Address by Colonel Harris Weinstock 75 UNIVERSITY CLUB BANQUET Introduction by Mr. Willard N. DroAvn 83 Toast: The President of the United States, Eesponse by Governor Stephens 83 Address for the University, by Professor Armin O. Leuschner 84 Address by President Hill of the University of Missouri 87 The Special Contribution of France to the International Idea, by Professor Cestre of the University of Bordeaux 91 Vision and Eeconstruction, by Professor Anesaki of Tokyo 101 Toast: The Navy, Response by Captain Russell 104 Toast: The Army, Response by Major Warren 105 ALUMNI BANQUET Introduction by Mr. Wiggington Creed 107 Address for the University, by President Wheeler 109 Address by Professor Sloane of Columbia University 112 Address by Professor Breasted of the University of Chicago 117 Address by Professor Swain of Harvard University 121 Address by Professor Henry Morse Stephens 124 THE HITCHCOCK LECTURES OP THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BY PRO- FESSOR SWAIN OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY The First Quebec Bridge and its Failure: Synopsis 135 The Second Quebec Bridge: Synopsis 137 Rapid Transit in Cities and the Means of Obtaining It: Synopsis .... 138 The Present Situation with Eegard to the Development of Water Power and Federal Legislation on the Subject 138 Some Controversial Points in the Valuation of Public Utility Prop- erties 159 THE E. T. EARL LECTURES OF THE PACIFIC SCHOOL OF RELIGION, BY PROFESSOR BREASTED OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO The Earliest Internationalism 192 THE BARBARA WEINSTOCK LECTURES OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFOR- NIA, BY PROFESSOR TUFTS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO The Ethics of Cooperation 215 THE FACULTY RESEARCH LECTURE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BY PROFESSOR RUDOLF SCHEVILL Cervantes and Spain's Golden Age of Letters 237 [viii] CONTENTS (Continued) SPECIAL LECTURES Jean Jacques Rousseau and the Renaissance of Moral Intuition, by Professor Cestre of the University of Bordeaux 257 The Press and International Relations, by Mr. Oswald Garrison Villard 270 The University Extension Movement, by President Van Hise of the University of Wisconsin 281 What Do We Mean by Democracy? by Professor Perry of Harvard University 285 Japanese Views on Present International Problems, by Professor Anesaki of the University of Tokyo 299 CHARTER DAY EXERCISES Introduction by President Benjamin Ide Wheeler 315 Charter Day Address : The World War and Some of its By-Products, by President Hutchins of the University of Michigan 316 Conferring of Honorary Degrees 336 II. CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS FIRST SESSION : The History of the Pacific Ocean Area Introduction by the Chairman, Professor Henry Morse Stephens .... 345 The Foundations of American Policy in the Far East, by Professor Treat of Stanford University 346 Discussion by Dr. Yen of the University Bureau of China; Professor Ichihashi of Stanford University; Professor Malcolm of the University of Southern California; Professor Chapman of the University of California; Mr. Kawikami of San Francisco; Mr. Villard of New York 356 SECOND SESSION: International Aspects of the Labor Problem Introduction by the Chairman, Professor Carl C. Plehn 371 Address by Mr. MacArthur of San Francisco 372 Discussion by Mr. Kawikami, Mr. Kasai, and Mr. Mullen 376 THIRD SESSION: International Relations in Science Introduction by the Chairman, Professor John C. Merriam 390 Address by Professor Campbell of the Lick Observatory 390 THIRD SESSION : Oceanographic Problems of the North Pacific Introduction by the Chairman, Dr. Evermann of the California Academy of Sciences 414 Address by Professor Ritter of the Scripps Biological Institute 415 Address by Dr. Marvin of the U. S. Weather Bureau 422 Address by Mr. Blair of the U. S. Weather Bureau 427 Address by Dr. Brooks of Yale University 435 Address by Dr. Dawson of Ottawa, Canada 446 Address by Dr. Palmer of the U. S. Weather Bureau 449 fix] UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENARY FOURTH SESSION: International Aspects of Certain Biological Problems of the North Pacific Address by Dr. Jordan, Chancellor, Stanford University 4.34 Migration of Birds in its International Bearing, by Dr. Grinnell of the University of California 407 Some Pliases of Work of Biological Stations, by Dr. Bovard of the University of Oregon 471 Botanical Information Which we Should be Seeking, by Dr. Frye of the University of Washington 473 Remarks by Dr. Jordan of Stanford University 475 FIFTH SESSION : Problems of Agricultural Education and Eesearch Introduction by the Chairman, Dr. Thomas Forsyth Hunt 478 Address by Professor Mead of the University of California 479 Discussion by Professor Mackie of the University of California; Professor Donaghho of the University of Hawaii 488 Address by Professor Gilmore of the University of California 496 SIXTH SESSION : International Aspects of Trade and Commerce Introduction by the Chairman, Professor Henry Rand Hatfield 502 Address by Mr. Koster of San Francisco 503 Discussion by Mr. Robert Lynch, Mr. John R. Rossiter, and Mr. Kasai, of San Francisco 510 SEVENTH SESSION: Problems of Education Introduction by the Chairman, Professor Alexis F. Lange 521 Address by President Suzzallo of the University of Washington 523 Discussion by President Foster of Reed College ; President Van Hise of the University of Wisconsin 531 III. SEMICENTENNIAL PUBLICATIONS FOREWORD 547 LIST OF PUBLICATIONS .... .. 549 North Hall Facing title page The Library Facing page 1 Sather Tower Facing page 27 Military Review and Parade Facing page 39 Old Cheimstry Building Facing page 53 LeConte Oak and Grove Facing page 65 Founders' Rock Facing page 83 The Greek Theatre Facing page 315 Wheeler Hall Facing page 345 PREFACE The University of California commemorated its fiftieth anniversary March 23, 1918 with a programme quite different from that which has now come to be typical for such occasions. A high academic festival such as originally planned would have been out of place at a tim,e when the thoughts of all men were intently centered on the problems of the war. In these troublesome times we should have been unjustified in celebrating even so important an event in the life of the University as its fiftieth anniversay were the occasion to be marked merely with the cus- tomary festivities and the recounting of past achieve- ments. We have therefore made the distinctive fea- ture of this celebration an earnest consideration of the future. The history of any institution is genuinely significant only in so far as it defines possible lines of action for the future. Owing also to the comparative isolation of the University of California in the major academic world the observance of the Semicentenary was largely a domestic affair, a home-coming of the Alumni and the keeping of open house for nearby friends and neighbors. Because of the distance and the necessity UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENARY of economy in these uncertain times., comparatively few American universities and but three foreign in- stitutions were able to send delegates from the actual teaching staff. The universities had released for war service so many members of their faculties that we did not have the pleasure of welcoming to our academic fireside any considerable number of our colleagues from other institutions. At the time when the United States with all the world was giving such serious attention to inter- national relations it seemed fitting that the Univer- sity should aim to make some contribution to the mutual understanding among peoples. Because of our geographical position and the growing importance of the reciprocal interests around the Pacific, we ex- tended invitations to an International Conference of the Nations bordering the Pacific Ocean. Tlie vital intercourse across the Pacific makes one recognise at once the high significance of such recur- rent Pacific international conferences. All are aivare of the advantage and need of the gathering together of men bent upon giving and receiving intelligent judgment upon problems whose solution will diminish the occasion for international friction and will ad- vance the common good. The proposed, conference met ivith cordial approval. Men who could not have been persuaded to attend a mere academic festival journeyed from afar for this conference, and we believe that the outcome of those deliberations will alone have justified our Sem,icentenary Celebration. GENERAL PROGRAMME GENERAL PROGRAMME FIEST DAY Monday, March the Eighteenth 10.00 A.M. ADDRESSES OP WELCOME TO DELEGATES AND GUESTS. 11.00 A.M. RESPONSES OF DELEGATES. 2.00 P.M. CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS. THE FOUNDATIONS OF AMERICAN POLICY IN THE FAR EAST. Professor Payson Jackson Treat. 3.00 P.M. DISCUSSION. 4.00 P.M. HITCHCOCK LECTURES OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALI- FORNIA. THE QUEBEC BRIDGE. Professor George Fillmore Swain. 8.00 P.M. THE E. T. EARL LECTURES OF THE PACIFIC SCHOOL OF RELIGION. THE EARLIEST INTERNATIONALISM. Professor James Henry Breasted. SECOND DAY Tuesday, March the Nineteenth 10.00 A.M. CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS. INTERNATIONAL ASPECTS OF THE LABOR PROBLEM. Mr. Walter MacArthur. 10.00 A.M. MEETING OF THE WESTERN SOCIETY OF NATURALISTS. 11.00 A.M. CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS. JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU AND THE RENAISSANCE OF MORAL INTUITION IN THE EIGHTEENTH CEN- TURY. Professor Charles Cestre. 2.00 P.M. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IN SCIENCE. Director W. W. Campbell. [XV] UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEM.ICENTENAEY 3.00 P.M. CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS. THE ORIGIN AND NATURE OF THE SUGGESTION CON- CERNING THE INTERNATIONAL EXPLORATION OF THE NORTH PACIFIC. Professor William E. Kitter. 4.00 P.M. DISCUSSION. 4.00 P.M. HITCHCOCK LECTURES OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALI- FORNIA. THE NEW QUEBEC BRIDGE. Professor George Fill- more Swain. 6.15 P.M. DINNER OF THE WESTERN SOCIETY OF NATURALISTS. 8.00 P.M. WILD ANIMAL LIFE IN CALIFORNIA. Harold C. Bryant. THIED DAY Wednesday, March the Twentieth 10.00 A.M. MEETING OF THE WESTERN SOCIETY OF NATURALISTS. 2.00 P.M. CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS. INTERNATIONAL ASPECTS OF CERTAIN BIOLOGICAL PROBLEMS OF THE NORTH PACIFIC. Chancellor David Starr Jordan. 3.00 P.M. DISCUSSION. 4.00 P.M. RECEPTION TO DELEGATES, SPEAKERS, AND INVITED GUESTS BY THE TRUSTEES AND FACULTY OF MILLS COLLEGE. 4.00 P.M. HITCHCOCK LECTURES OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALI- FORNIA. SUBWAYS AND RAPID TRANSIT IN CITIES. Pro- fessor George Fillmore Swain. fxvi] GENERAL PROGRAMME 6.30 P.M. DINNER TO GEORGE FILLMORE SWAIN. 7.00 P.M. DINNER TO PRESIDENT HUTCHINS. 8.00 P.M. CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS. JOURNALISM AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS. Dr. Oswald Garrison Villard. 7.30 P.M. DEMONSTRATION BY THE DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION FOR MEN: 7:30 TO 8.00 P.M. DEMONSTRATION OF MASS IN- STRUCTION IN ATHLETICS AS AT PRESENT CON- DUCTED AT THE UNIVERSITY. 8.00 TO 10.00 P.M. INTERCLASS BOXING, WREST- LING, FENCING, AND GYMNASTIC COMPETITIONS. FOUETH DAY Thursday, March the Twenty-first 9.00 A.M. CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS. SCIENTIFIC AND EDUCATIONAL ASPECTS OF AGRI- CULTURE IN COUNTRIES BORDERING THE PACIFIC. Dr. Elwood Mead. 10.00 A.M. DISCUSSION. 11.00 A.M. WHAT Do WE MEAN BY DEMOCRACY? Professor Ralph Barton Perry. 2.00 P.M. WEINSTOCK LECTURE. ETHICS OF CO-OPERATION. Professor James Hayden Tufts. 3.00 P.M. CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS. THE INTERNATIONAL ASPECTS OF TRADE AND COMMERCE. Mr. Frederick J. Koster. 4.00 P.M. DISCUSSION. [xvii] UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENART 4.00 P.M. HITCHCOCK LECTURES OF THE UNIVERSITY OP CALI- FORNIA. WATER POWER LEGISLATION. Professor George Fillmore Swain. 7.30 P.M. SENIOR WOMEN'S SINGING IN SENIOR WOMEN'S HALL. Open house to visiting alumnae. 8.00 P.M. FACULTY RESEARCH LECTURE. CERVANTES AND SPAIN'S GOLDEN CENTURY OF LETTERS. Professor Rudolf Schevill. FIFTH DAY Friday, March the Twenty-second 10.30 A.M. DEDICATION OF GILMAN HALL. 11.00 A.M. MEETING FOR CONSIDERATION OF RECURRENT CON- FERENCES ON INTERNATIONAL PROBLEMS OF THE PACIFIC. 11.30 A.M. JAPANESE VIEWS TOUCHING PRESENT INTERNATIONAL PROBLEMS. Professor Masahasu Anesaki. 12.30 P.M. REGENTS' LUNCHEON. Faculty Club. 2.00 P.M. REVIEW AND PARADE OF A BRIGADE COMPOSED OF THE SCHOOL OF MILITARY AERONAUTICS, OF A BAT- TALION OF THE UNITED STATES NAVY, AND OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA RESERVE OFFI- CERS' TRAINING CORPS. Exercises at Sather Tower. 5.00 P.M. REGULAR WEEKLY INSPECTION BY COL- ONEL G. B. HUNTER, UNITED STATES SCHOOL OF MILITARY AERONAUTICS. 5.10 P.M. EVENING PARADE AND RETREAT, AND GRADUATION OF SENIOR SQUADRON. 4.00 P.M. CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS. EDUCATION AFTER THE WAR, President Henry Suzzallo. GENERAL PROGRAMME 4.00 P.M. HITCHCOCK LECTURES OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALI- FORNIA. SOME GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND DISPUTED POINTS IN THE VALUATION OF PUBLIC UTILITY CORPORA- TIONS. Professor George Fillmore Swain. 4.00 P.M. CONFERENCE OF THE UNIVERSITY EXTENSION DIVISION. 6.00 P.M. CLASS DINNERS. 7.00 P.M. DINNER TENDERED TO THE DELEGATES, SPEAKERS, AND GUESTS BY THE UNIVERSITY CLUB, SAN FRANCISCO. 7.00 P.M. ANNUAL DINNER AND INITIATION, ALPHA OF CALI- FORNIA OF PHI BETA KAPPA. 8.00 P.M. THE UNIVERSITY EXTENSION MOVEMENT. Addresses by President Charles R. Van Hise and Dr. Oswald Garrison Villard. SIXTH DAY Saturday, March the Twenty-third CHARTER DAY 10.00 A.M. CHARTER DAY EXERCISES AT THE GREEK THEATRE:. CHARTER DAY ADDRESS. President Harry Burns Hutchins. 12.00 M. ALUMNI, FACULTY CLUB, AND FRATERNITY LUNCH- EONS. 2.00 P.M. DEDICATION OF THE ESHELMAN BUST. [xixl UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENARY 2.30 P.M. DEDICATION OP THE SATHER TOWER. The Chimes Master played a brief passage from Beethoven 's Ninth Symphony. 3.00 P.M. DEDICATION OF THE PAGET CHAIR. Greek Theatre. 4.00 P.M. PRESIDENT AND MRS. WHEELER'S RECEPTION TO THE DELEGATES. 7.30 P.M. ALUMNI BANQUET. [XX] PART FIRST SPECIAL EVENTS OF THE WEEK ADDRESS OP WELCOME PRESIDENT BENJAMIN IDE WHEELER MEMBERS AND FRIENDS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA: We are assembled in preparation to celebrate the fiftieth anni- versary of the action of the Legislature of California in organizing the University of California. This action received the active support of Governor Frederick F. Low during his incumbency from 1863 to 1868, and the organizing act of the Legislature was signed by Governor H. H. Haight on March 23, 1868. Thereby this University came into existence. For eight years prior thereto instruction of collegiate char- acter had been given through a privately supported institution incorporated at Oakland under the name of the College of California, and upon the organization of the University this institution was merged in it as its College of Arts; it being understood and agreed that all past graduates of the College should rank in all respects as graduates of the University. The College of Arts, now expanded to be called the College of Letters and Science, has had, therefore, a continuous existence from the year 1860. The College owed its foundation and early development most to Yale, while the University was chiefly shaped on that type of state university embodied in the University of Michigan. Eight years ago we celebrated the foundation of the College under the comfort and blessing of President Hadley of Yale; this week we celebrate the foundation of the University under the fortunate presence and cognizance of President Hutchins of Michigan. The University of California has learned much from the experience of other and older institutions, particularly the state institutions of the central West ; but quite as much as any one 2 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFOENIA SEMICENTENAEY of the state universities has it been influenced by the older universities of the northeastern division. Its distance, however, from the main educational centers, and its peculiar environment and situation have given it occasion to much independent pro- cedure; and among other and more specific conditions which have favored or permitted such procedure may be mentioned the following: 1. The Organic Act, operating practically as a charter, gave stability to the management and encouraged continuity in the action of the Board of Regents. 2. The sixteen-year terms of the appointive Regents not only gave stability and continuity to the action of the Board, but aided in encouraging the State to entrust to the Regents tasks outside the institution located at Berkeley. 3. The ex officio members in the Board tended to draw the University closer to the administration of the government and to the people of the State. 4. The existence of the College of California as a nucleus of the University aided from the beginning in establishing upon sure footing the humanistic disciplines. 5. The existence of an endowment fund, derived first from the more than usually fortunate sale of public lands, gave encour- agement to private gifts. 6. The State has thus far wisely entrusted to the care of the Regents of the University all of its undertakings in the field of higher learning and research, sparing itself thereby foolish com- petitions between two or more boards within the same State. But whatever it is and however it so came to be, the Univer- sity of California, so being, with all its heart opens to you, its guests this day, its doors and offers access to its hearth, and bids you come in and draw nigh. The affairs of this day, the arrangement for this feast, are in the hands of Professor Rieber, and to him I give the fate of this meeting. INTRODUCTORY ADDRESSES INTEODUCTOEY ADDEESS CHARLES HENRY EIEBER, PH.D. Professor of Logic, University of California, Chairman of the Semicentenary Celebration MR. PRESIDENT, MEMBERS OF THE FACULTY, AND GUESTS: Many of us have waited long for this hour with varying degrees of anxiety and pride. Eight years ago the committee on Semi- centennial Publications began its work. Looking forward from those distant years this day seemed to all of us one that held forth the promise of sheer gladness and unalloyed pleasure in a high academic festival. But today no one may conceal from him- self that it is an hour in which all must recognize the very serious responsibilities of these times. In fact, during the past two or three months many of the members of our committee wondered if it might not be unwise, perhaps improper for the University to celebrate even such an important anniversary as the fiftieth anniversary. I may say, therefore, for our com- mittee, that while some of our plans were begun several years ago, the programme for the week was prepared on very short notice, and under most trying conditions. No one seemed able to say in advance where he or anyone else would be in a week's time. But let us hope that we who are here, although we are all in a state of serious and even solemn thought, may, nevertheless, find it not unfitting to rejoice over the significant happenings during the first fifty years of the life of this University. A brief tale of those years is to be told by our next speaker. Before introducing him I should like to say, however, that the Committee on Semicentennial Publications intended to publish a history of the University of California in one volume ; but when the facts were being assembled it was found that not one, but three or four volumes would be needed, so they abandoned the project. I speak of this to emphasize the difficulties that must have confronted the next speaker. He is a man particu- larly qualified for the task assigned him, because not only has he actively taught here many years, but he is also one of the 4 UNIVEESITY 0*' CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENAEY earliest graduates of this University and is familiar with the entire stretch of fifty years. He will give us something like a flashlight series of views, with particular reference to some of the University's early benefactors. I refer, of course, to our beloved Professor George C. Edwards. A BETBO8PECT A RETROSPECT GEORGE C. EDWARDS, Pn.B. Professor Emeritus of Mathematics, University of California MR. PRESIDENT, INVITED GUESTS, STUDENTS OF THE UNIVERSITY, FRIENDS ALL: The day of the golden wedding of Athene and California approaches. It is well at such a time to review quietly and rapidly the birthday and the wedding gifts that have come to this pair during their happy married life. The latest gifts another will recount to you. The story of the gifts for the other forty-nine years has been assigned to me, one of the elder sons, to tell in the space of fifteen or sixteen minutes. The task is an impossible one. The pleasure of simply referring to a few is a very agreeable pleasure. It is not a task. As I have been running back over the history of the institu- tion and calling to mind the long list of its benefactors, it has given me a great deal of pleasure and but little difficulty to select those names that I desire to speak of at this time. I first sat down and wrote out a list of the names of those who had made gifts to the University as they occurred to me in the space of thirty minutes. Then I went to the records, and I commenced from the last year and started to run back. I counted twelve hundred donations in the last ten years and quit. Then I decided that the little pencil sketch that I had made originally I would adhere to, and I have done so. The beginnings of the University run back to 1849 when the quest for gold was upon us. Three men, Rev. S. H. Willey, Sherman Day, and Rev. C. S. Lyman undertook to organize a college. They were not successful in raising the necessary money for it. Their undertaking was, of course, abandoned. In 1855 efforts were again put forth which resulted in the obtaining of a charter for the old College of California, that President Wheeler has already referred to. In 1860 it opened its doors, and its full staff was composed of Rev. S. H. Willey, who was Vice President and Financial Secretary, Henry Durant, Martin Kellogg, and Isaac Brayton. Today in the University of Cali- 6 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENARY f ornia there are more than forty professors in one of the depart- ments. The first graduating class, as you have already learned, was in 1864, and one of the men who graduated from the old College of California is on this platform today. Excuse me for men- tioning his name, but it seems fitting that I should do so, Gardner F. Williams; a man who has spent many years of his life in South Africa; who has done much for the reputation of this institution; and who has done much to help the men who have gone out from this institution. I am glad to see him here today ; he antedates all of us. In 1869 the University opened its doors. There were twenty- five of us freshmen on the steps. The University adopted from the old College of California two sophomores, five juniors and three seniors. The total student body was thirty-five. The records say forty. There were some special students who came in the latter part of the year and some came to attend lectures. There were ten professors, so that the University actually con- sisted of forty-five persons. I have been asked to say something about the gifts that have come to the institution. I suppose I have been asked for this reason : through accident I happen to be the only man who has been continuously connected with the University from the day it opened its doors until now. I entered in 1869 as a freshman ; when I graduated I became an instructor and I have been here ever since. The donations that have been made to this University are divided into two classes: those which are of the permanent endowment type, which make return to the University through investment, and those which do not make immediate return, but are expended in bettering the institution, as in the construction and equipment of buildings. The funds which make immediate return are classed as permanent endowments, and amount to $5,500,000. Other donations which are not of that class, but which have been given to the University and have been expended for work done here amount to $5,500,000 more, making a total donation of about $11,000,000. Of these amounts the Federal endowment is represented by three-quarters of a million; the consolidated perpetual endowment is represented by $992,000. A SETE08PECT 7 One of the most important gifts that came to this University was from the College of California. When the College of California ceased to exist it deeded all of its property, which consisted of land in Oakland where the old college buildings were, which were occupied by the University for four years, and also the site where we now are. This site was presented to the University of California and to the people of the State of Cali- fornia by the College of California. The first professorship was established in 1872, when Edward Tompkins, who was one of the active men in the organization of the University, gave property out on Broadway in Oakland, estimated at that time to be worth $50,000, for the purpose of establishing the Agassiz Chair of Oriental Languages and Litera- ture. The fund at the present time amounts to $106,000. Most of you know that Profesor Freyer, who is now Emeritus, occu- pied the position as head of that department for many years. In 1873 the Medical Department of the University was founded with an endowment from Dr. H. H. Toland, of $75,000. In the records the $75,000 is referred to as a comfortable gift for that year; but the gifts of that time amount to very little as compared with the amounts you will hear read to you today. In the same year (1895) D. 0. Mills commenced his donations to the University, as well as Fredrick Billings, Michael Reese, and others. And while speaking of Michael Reese, I remember that there was a man who died worth six millions of dollars ; and yet the only thing that is left of Michael Reese is the fifty thousand dollars which he gave to the University Library. I do not know that I ought to tell this story of the death of Reese. But as he was an interesting character in California I will risk it. He went back to Germany to make a visit, and he thought he would go out to the cemetery where his father and mother were buried. Michael Reese, worth six millions of dollars, went to the cemetery and wanted to go in; they asked him a mark for the privilege. He became so angry at what must have seemed to him an outrageous demand that he went around behind the cemetery, climbed over the wall and got inside. The exertion, however, was so great he died of heart failure. In 1874 the donation of the Lick Observatory was made. The year 1878 saw the donation of the first building to the 8 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFOSNIA SEMICENTENARY University of California to be located on the present site, the building we are now in, given by A. K. P. Harmon. The same year H. D. Bacon donated $25,000 and the State gave an equal amount for the construction of Bacon Hall. Not only did Bacon give the money, but also much of his household goods, twenty- five hundred volumes of his library, statuary, and paintings. In 1881 D. O. Mills established the Mills Professorship by a donation of $75,000, which through wise investment now amounts to $170,000 and more. The Hearst Greek Theatre is one of the things that has given quite a reputation to the University. Not very long ago a gen- tleman traveling in Europe was asked where he was from; he said, "From the University of California." "Where is that?" he was asked. "Well, I am from San Francisco." "Oh, yes, San Francisco, that is where they have that outdoor Greek Theatre." It has given a reputation to the University of California that is unique. Since then we have had the Doe Library and Boalt Hall. Mrs. Boalt gave $100,000 for the erection of a building, and the lawyers of the State contributed $50,000. Mrs. Boalt has since left an endowment of $200,000 for the Professorship of Law, Next on my list comes the Cora Jane Flood donation of $377,000; the Sather endowment, which made possible the Sather gate and the Campanile; two professorships and other donations ; the Clarance W. Mackey endowment for a professor- ship ; and the Hooper bequest of one million dollars for medical research. The University Hospital recently built at a cost of $600,000 was made possible by popular subscription. Then there are graduates of the University who have done much. E. V. Cowell, J. K. Moffitt, and others. The French Government gave us the library that is of so much interest at the present time. Other donors whose names occurred to me are Annie M. Alexander, I. W. Hellman, H. W. Carpentier, and J. C. Cebrian. Among those who have established scholarships are Joseph Bonheim, William E. Davis, Carrie M. Jones, Willard D. Thompson, and Levi Strauss, in actual money amounting to $400,000. A RETROSPECT 9 There is another person I have not yet mentioned, intimately associated with the very life and well-being of this institution. That person is Mrs. Hearst. She has bestowed upon the Uni- versity a wealth of hope, of faith, and of affection. A veritable gentlewoman is she, the fairy godmother, as the students call her ; a women whose example is an inspiration ; one whose money donations it takes seven places of figures to represent. She gave until it hurt, and then more. Long may she live, a blessing to Athene and California. There are others who 'have given. While it may not always be in money, it has been in faith and good works ; and as I stand here now I think of those departed ones who labored in the various buildings around this campus ; I recall Joseph Le Conte over there; I recall Hilgard over yonder; Rising in the Chem- istry Building; Soule there; Christy over there; Howison yonder ; Hesse over there ; then in North Hall Kellogg, Welcker, Stringham, Sill, Paget, Bacon, and a lot of others who have given of the best of their lives to this institution. And while a student who comes here does not know it, there is a pressure upon him, a pressure upon every one of you, because Joseph Le Conte lives; you may not have heard of Joseph Le Conte, but his spirit is here, and upon this campus there is an influence which is due to the life of a devoted, scholarly gentleman. Others yet have given their lives. There is but one living ex-president of the University. He stood at the helm during many of the trying days of this insti- tution. I thought that he would be here this morning. I would like to pay him the compliment of speaking about him were he here. I am glad to mention his name, William T. Reid, faith- ful, honest, true, and substantial; a man who had to do with the institution in the times when they were hard. And while I am here I would like to pay a personal compli- ment to the man who has stood at the helm for more than one- third of the period of the existence of this institution. Out in the glare, facing the wind and the spray, he has kept the ship going steadily on along her course; may he live long in that position and keep the ship going as she has been going. Long live California and Athene, and may the result of this union be a happy, strong, and enduring, a just, honest, and hardworking lot of young people. 10 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY THE LATEST GIFTS TO THE UNIVERSITY LEON J. RICHAEDSON Associate Professor of Latin, University of California THE CHAIRMAN: It has been customary in the past on Charter Day to announce the gifts that have been made by the generosity of the public during the preceding year, and I call upon Professor Richardson to present the list of these gifts at this time. PROFESSOR RICHARDSON: Mr. President, Professor Rieber, Members of the Faculty, and Students of the University: The gifts to the University of California since March, 1917, are as follows : Regent I. W. Hellman has given $50,000 to endow four scholarships for the aid and encouragement each year of four needy, deserving, and competent students in the academic departments. George H. Kraft has bequeathed to the University $50,000 to endow the Herbert Kraft Scholarships in the College of Agri- culture. Dr. Robert Hills Loughridge, Emeritus, late Professor of Agricultural Chemistry, bequeathed to the University $3000 to endow the Loughridge Scholarship in agriculture. Dr. T. Brailsford Robertson has executed a deed giving to the University his patent rights in the valuable growth-promoting substance "Tethelin," which is of especial value in causing obstinate wounds to heal or bones to knit. Mrs. Timothy Guy Phelps has bequeathed $35,000 for the endowment of a Timothy Guy Phelps Memorial Library, the income to be devoted to the purchase of books for a scientific library at the Lick Observatory. Elizabeth Patterson Mitchell, $30,000, to endow the George Ladd Scholarship Fund for students of music. Regent Phoebe A. Hearst : $3900, toward further equipment of the Hearst Memorial Mining Building ; $1200 for the Hearst scholarships for women; in addition to her annual contribution GIFTS TO THE UNIVEBSITT 11 to the Museum of Anthropolgy, $508 for frames and cases for the Museum, and various valuable exhibits; $1000 toward the salary of the supervising architect. Miss Annie M. Alexander, $12,750 for the maintenance of the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology during 1917. Subscriptions of $1000 per annum each, for five years, for the maintenance of the D. 0. Mills Expedition to the Southern Hemisphere, have been made by William H. Crocker, P. W. Bradley, A. B. Spreckels, Mrs. William H. Crocker, and Ogden Mills. Mr. W. B. Bourn and Mr. Gordon Blanding have each contributed $1000 for 1917. F. W. Bradley, '86, has subscribed $5000 toward the fund for the completion and equipment of the new University Hos- pital, and given $1000 as his yearly contribution to the Mining Students Loan Fund. He has also given a mine rescue outfit for the instruction of students in the College of Mining. Mrs. James Moffitt has subscribed $10,00 toward the fund for the equipment of the new University Hospital, in addition to $5000 which she gave toward the building itself. Alexander F. Morrison, '78, has given $5000 toward the erection and equipment of the new University Hospital in San Francisco. William Ethelston Furrey of Santa Cruz has bequeathed the University $1300 in cash, and real estate valued at approximately $2000, with directions that his bequest be used by the Regents "as they deem most good." The Class of 1917 has given $2000 as a class endowment. The Pacific Coast Gas Association has given $4415 in com- pletion of its subscription toward instituting a chair of Gas Engineering in the University. Mr. J. C. Cebrian has given 600 volumes of Spanish books on literary and scientific subjects. Mrs. George H. Howison has given the books on philosophical subjects collected by her husband, consisting of 1235 volumes. Mrs. Alexander F. Morrison has given $1500 for the purchase of an opthalmological library of 486 volumes as an addition to the Medical School Library. An alumnus has subscribed $5000 toward the fund for the equipment of the new University Hospital in San Francisco. 12 TJN1VEESITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY Miss Persis H. Coleman and Miss Janet Coleman have given $2500 each toward the William Watt Kerr Memorial Fund. The Standard Oil Company has presented to the University the exhibit which it displayed at the Panama-Pacific Inter- national Exposition, valued at $2000. J. Louis Mundwyler and Fred Mundwyler of San Francisco have given a very extensive collection of chamber music, valued At approximately $1200, to be known as "The Mundwyler Brothers Collection of Chamber Music." The Doheny Mexican Commission has given $1200 to pay a cataloguer one year to aid in cataloguing the Bancroft Library materials on Mexico. Mr. Edward I. Doheny has given $1200 to pay an editorial assistant for one year to begin work on the publication of a series of volumes of documentary materials for western history. Senator James D. Phelan has given $1500 for the purpose of printing and publishing the papers of the San Francisco Vigi- lance Committee of 1851. The Joshua Hendy Iron Works, through the courtesy of Mr. T. S. O'Brien, has given a 20-inch Hendy Double-Cone Classifier and a 5-foot Callow Cone, as an addition to the equip- ment of the ore-dressing laboratory of the College of Mining. Mr. R. E. Houghton has given a complete set of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies and Navies in the War of the Rebellion, comprising 136 volumes, and also eight very rare additional volumes, being the History of the Conduct of the War, a report of the Congressional Investigation carried on during the progress of the Civil War. Dr. Edith Brownsill has given $500 as an addition to the Alumnae Endowment Fund, placed in the stewardship of the Regents, for the benefit of the University Young Women's Christian Association. The American Association for the Advancement of Science has made a grant of $500 for investigations by Dr. Takeoka and members of the faculty of the Department of Pathology in regard to the use of taurin in the treatment of tuberculosis. Regent William H. Crocker has given $600 for the salary of the Research Assistant in Protozoology, to aid in researches regarding intestinal parasites. GIFTS TO THE UNIVERSITY 1 His Grace, Reverend Edward Hanna, Archbishop of San Francisco, has given $250 for the purchase of one of the rarest items of early Calif orniana, Father Picolo's "Informe del Estado de la Bueva Christiandad de California," printed in Mexico in 1702. The former students of Professor George Holmes Howison have planned an endowment of $10,000 for an annual lectureship to bear the name of their venerated teacher. Of this sum $7000 has already been subscribed, and the first Howison Lecture will be given in August of this year. RESPONSES OF DELEGATES BESPONSES OF DELEGATES 17 ADDRESS OF THE DELEGATE FROM LELAND STANFORD UNIVERSITY ACTING PRESIDENT CHARLES DAVID MARKS, B.C.E. PROFESSOR RIEBER, CHAIRMAN : It would have been hard for us indeed if because of these troubled times we had been obliged to celebrate our important anniversary entirely alone. Such is happily not the case for many of our friends from other insti- tutions have come to give added dignity to our festival. The majority of those delegates who come from a distance will not be here until Saturday. But we are fortunate in having some of our invited guests, living not too far away, who come with special messages for us. It gives me a personal delight, in addition to my official position, to greet the representative of our sister University at Palo Alto, a man with whom I lived as a neighbor for two years, in the same yard without a fence between us. I often think and speak of that as an excellent illustration of the fact that science and philosophy can get along admirably together if each respects the rights of the other. I shall call upon the acting president of Stanford University, Professor Charles David Marks. PROFESSOR CHARLES DAVID MARKS: Mr. President, Friends and Members of the University of California: To this sister University about to celebrate its fiftieth year of useful service to state and nation Stanford University sends greeting. The record of your institution is a source of pride, not only to your Regents, your Faculty, your Alumni, but to us also who as citizens of the State of California and as members of a sister institution have watched your marvelous growth and develop- ment. It is true that twenty-six years ago, when Stanford University first opened its doors, the state university had already established a well earned reputation for the scholarship of its faculty. Le Conte, Hesse, Hilgard, Howison, to mention but a few, were men who rank with the highest in the country in their respective lines of work. To be welcomed by men of such attainments when we came to California was indeed a pleasure 18 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENAEY and a privilege. A hearty welcome awaited us. A welcome based on the recognition that the foundation of a sister univer- sity would but add to the strength of their own alma mater, would but arouse a greater interest in higher education, would but increase the number of well trained men and women in California prepared to take upon themselves the duties of citizenship. This prediction has been fulfilled. The attendance at the University of California has increased from seven hun- dred to eleven thousand, and that the University has given to the state and the nation men and women who realize what they owe to both, is shown by the stand taken by them in the nation 's hour of need. The state institution is a democratic institution. In its hands lies the problem of safeguarding democracy. From its doors men and women must go forth who not only have learned to do something useful, but to do it well ; men and women impressed with the responsibility of doing their duty by the state, by the nation, yes, and by mankind. Tested by these standards your institution has done a splendid piece of work, and may look back with pride on the accomplishment of her first fifty years. The noble example set by your regents, faculty, and students in the past and the service rendered by those of you here at present must always serve as an inspiration to your successors. Accept, therefore, on your fiftieth birthday, the heartiest good wishes of Stanford University, and may the State Univer- sity of California, the pride of us all, live, flourish, and grow. EESPONSES OF DELEGATES 19 ADDRESS OF THE DELEGATE FROM MILLS COLLEGE PRESIDENT AURELIA HENRY REINHARDT, B.LITT., PH.D. THE CHAIRMAN : The next person is a representative of a real sister college, President Reinhardt of Mills. PRESIDENT REINHARDT : President Wheeler, Professor Rieber, and Guests at this significant birthday party : I am happy to have been chosen as the representative of Mills College. I might have come not as a delegate but as a daughter traveling home- ward with love in her heart and congratulations upon her lips, if I may say so, President Wheeler, for her almus pater. A sister college, Mills may be justly called, as her students were working quietly on the Oval beyond the fringe of eucalyp- tus trees in Oakland when the first university buildings were put up among the oaks of the Berkeley campus. So, as a kins- man and a contemporary, Mills has a deep interest in the achieve- ments and triumphs of the state's university. To this great California institution, which to some of us is almost California itself, I bring the greetings most becoming that college for women students wherein it is my happiness and privilege to work, and from whose sunny gardens I have come this morning. You have listened to the splendid record of material progress here on the campus at Berkeley: buildings, endowments, equip- ment. I would call to your attention an inner growth and achievement. A pioneer in education, among pioneers in the wilderness of the far West, this University points back to the days of Marshall on Sutter Creek and gold discoveries in the Sierra foothills. From simple beginnings it has grown as if by magic. Its founders came out of the colleges of New England, filled with the belief that youth is to be taught things of the spirit as well as things of the mind. Its early purpose was to equip students with knowledge and character. When the young state demanded citizens professionally trained the University added to its departments of letters and science, colleges of medicine and law. When agricultural inter- ests were to be encouraged an agricultural college was the answer. The state needed surveyors, mining and electrical 20 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENARY engineers, bridge builders, road makers, and architects, so the Unversity prepared departments of engineering, civil, electrical, mechanical, and what said some one this morning about oppor- tunities in gas engineering? New occasions taught new duties as the years passed, and recent demands for further technical and vocational training have again been met by courses of training designed to prepare men for innumerable new callings in a world of changing social and industrial conditions. In short, the University has served with increasing usefulness the people of the state by understanding the needs of the hour and supplying trained citizens to answer the hour's need. A graduate thinks of the University not merely as a group of splendid buildings, not merely as a higher school with a curricu- lum embarrassingly rich, nor merely as laboratories, libraries, and museums for such as use them. We think of it our Uni- versity, beautiful on the hills above the bay as that place where the ambition and energy of our youth was purposefully trained, as that institution where the individual life was given a propul- sion toward rightful choice and useful activity. What engineer or teacher, farmer or laboratory expert, law- yer, or man of business who climbed the steps of North Hall, or looked through the Golden Gate from the Library windows can deny it? Many graduates are absent on this day when the University of California attains its half century of age; on the Western Front, or beyond the Pacific, under the sea, or in the air, their absence testifies better than present words what the University of California has taught five decades of men and women. Mills College congratulates you, President Wheeler, whose privilege it has been to be a teacher and leader of the youth of California for a score of happy years. Long may this insti- tution under your guidance send forth men to live and fight for the right; long may it send forth women capable of availing themselves of new world rights and privileges, worthy likewise of fulfilling the old world obligations of lighting the sacred fires on the altars of home, church, and country ! Long live the University of California, light of our great commonwealth of California, light also of our greater democracy of the United States ! RESPONSES OF DELEGATES 21 ADDRESS OF THE DELEGATE FROM THE REPUBLIC OF CHINA YuNG-Yu YEN, DIRECTOR OF THE EDUCATIOAL BUREAU OF CHIAOYUPTU THE CHAIRMAN : At least one of our friends who come from a distance to honor our festival is here. Mr. Yen, the special representative of the Republic of China, will now tell us how the world fares on his side of the ocean. DOCTOR YEN: Ladies and Gentlemen: I consider it a great honor and privilege to represent the Republic of China at the semicentennial celebration of the University of California, and to bring congratulations to this University on this great occasion. The University of California is one of the best and largest universities in the United States and exercises great influence in uplifting the morals and standards of the Americans particu- larly and of civilization at large. As a Chinese I like to mention the fact that the educational value of this University to the Chinese is also very great. The students who have studied in this University are now doing great work in China. A few instances may be interesting to you: one, Mr. Tsen S. Chen, the ex-Minister of Agriculture of the Chinese Government, and Mr. Tsung Yun Tsang, the ex-Minister of the Department of Audit in China; both of these persons were graduates of the great University of California, and they have taken a prominent part in rendering useful service to China at the present time. Through them the work of this University is of great value in China, and I think that this is one of the many records you may well be proud of. I wish for the continued success of the great University of California. 22 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFOENIA SEMICENTENABY ADDRESS OF THE DELEGATE FROM THE UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON HENRY SUZZALLO, PH.D. President of the University of Washington THE CHAIRMAN : A letter from the Secretary of the President of the University of Washington briefly states that President Suzzallo has just left for California and that he does not wish to be met, because he has been in Berkeley before and can find his way about. I suppose President Suzzallo will also refuse to be introduced. PRESIDENT SUZZALLO: Mr. Chairman, President of the Uni- versity, Members and Friends of the University : It is a great personal pleasure to bring greetings to this great American university on the occasion of its fiftieth birthday. It suits me that the chairman has not limited my expression to an official representation, for my greetings are appreciations, and my appreciations are many, both official and personal. First, as one of the native born of this State I speak my great esteem for an institution of learning which, with its dominating intellectual life, has projected, through thousands of its trained citizens, its sciences and moralities into the industrial and civic affairs of this commonwealth. The University of California has been a true state university, elevating the material and spiritual conduct of the State's social life. Second, as an undergraduate of another and a neighboring university, I speak that respect which comes from the rivalries, the defeats, and the victories of student life. Thrice in inter- collegiate debate have I personally felt in defeat the victorious power of the forensic representatives of the University of Cali- fornia and learned to respect the institution which trained those who administered the whipping. Third, I can also speak as one who has been, for a short while at least, a graduate student member of this University. I have known the vision of its teachers and their power to encompass truth. BESPONSES OF DELEGATES 23 And last, it is permitted me to bring greetings from the State of Washington and its chief educational institution, the University of Washington. We appreciate the University of Calfornia for it has given to the far western institutions of higher learning a splendid example of that balance between a pointed, professional efficiency and that liberalizing humanism which is required to keep us practically sound. The campus of this University has overlapped our University and many others. Wherever former students live and do their work, there is to be found a bit of the college campus. Wherever men go they carry the spirit of alma mater. They are the carriers of the values, the principles, and the methods for which the University stands. My appreciation of the American university has always been large, but never larger than now. Once I had thought that the contribution of the common schools might be more significant than that of the colleges. I have come to revise that estimate, and to believe that the American college is really the supreme educational contribution to our democratic life. A democracy requires picked leadership as well as common appreciation, and we have learned through our present crisis the college man's amazing capacity for shouldering the heavy loads of a great emergency. He has put aside his play and his light-heartedness, asserted his devotion to fundamental values, and taken upon his youthful shoulders the ardent and sacrificial defense of his country and his civilization. It is thoroughly consistent with our democratic tradition that our university men, our best educated, should be its most responsive defenders. No one can fail to glory in the part of this University once he has beheld its brood of eaglets fleeing into world strife for the protection of liberty and justice. As one from a sister institution, I once more express my appreciative greetings to this University. Long live the Univer- sity of California, and long live the University of Washington's hearty appreciation of the achievements of the University of California. DEDICATORY ADDRESSES SATHER TOWER DEDICATORY ADDEESSES 27 DEDICATION OF THE JANE K. SATHER TOWER ADDRESS BY PRESIDENT BENJAMIN IDE WHEELER We are assembled here today to dedicate the Sather Tower.. Mrs. Sather was a very practical minded person. During the later years of her life she found a way to use money as she believed humanly useful. She began by setting apart a building in Oakland, the value of which on her death should be given in part to certain persons, and the remainder for the foundation of a professorship in the University. That building rose greatly in value. When she gave it in trust it had a value, she supposed, of $150,000. It was finally disposed of for $400,000, and as that amount grew the tower went up, for there was a provision also in another act of hers for the building of this tower. Her gifts to the University represent, as I said, moneys which accumulated during the last twelve years of her life, and which she set aside religiously for University purposes. The following are her gifts to the University. The endowment of a Chair of History, thus far amounting to $105,000; certain other moneys due to be added to that so that the value of it shall be counted at about $120,000. The Classical Chair fund which is estimated to be $120,000. With the Historical Chair endowment goes a Library Fund endowment of $12,000. Her interest in history resulted in still another fund of $10,000. The Law Library fund $21,000. This Campanile, this tower as it is properly called the Sather Tower cost something of a few thousand dollars over $200,000. The Esplanade, which is provided here, cost $39,000. The bells for which she provided $23,000 have thus far cost considerably less than that. At any rate her gifts total about $530,000. She was a plain, practical woman. I saw her a great deal during the last years of her life, and while she seemed to select things which were representative of vision, she was humanly practical. She thought that this tower was better as a memorial than granite piled up in a burial ground, and she expressed herself very definitely on that point. A few days 28 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENARY before she died the Sather Gate which was also her gift, that cost about $40,000 stood there practically a memorial to her. She said to me that she thought it best that that gate should be a memorial to Mr. Sather, and she thought this would be a good memorial for her, for she said, ' ' I shall have no monument in any graveyard. ' ' It represents in its character the University. Its idealism, reaching down to the depth of fires, spurns with its foot the ground which it arises out of, and without mediation springs into the Empyrean, into the fire of the eternal. These verses written by Edward Robson Taylor express better than any prose the ode of this monument. ODE TO THE SATHER CAMPANILE* EDWARD EOBESON TAYLOR Above the noise and tumult of the day Thou risest to the silences of heaven, A glorious thing from even unto even, A beauty's vision fading not away. It must have been a more than blessed dream, When all the feelings rose conjointly wise Against the glamour of some worldly scheme, That moved her heart to raise thee to the skies, Where thou in all thy veins of steel and stone With Aspiration's purest blood shall thrill, As evermore around thee shall be sown The seeds of Learning and of Righteous Will, And back of thee the radiant, everlasting hill. II Gigantic flower thou, whose beauty beams With unimagined loveliness of Art, Of all the campus blossoming the heart And sublimated essence of its dreams; Giving the fragrance of unwonted blooms In many a far-away, delightsome dell, * Dedicated to Benjamin Ide Wheeler, President of the University, March 23, 1915. DEDICATORY ADDRESSES 29 Or where the cypress builds her heavy glooms, Or e'en where mild-eyed fairies love to dwell; Where books disclose their magic-working lore, And cast their cunning lures for stumbling feet, While sweets as strange as life their joyance pour, Till all the moments in one round complete Within the arms of Concord pleasurably meet. Ill The fateful hours of the passing day From thee shall ever musically peal, And through the somnolence of night shall steal, Till lost in whispering echoes far away. Perpetual guardian thou, whose tongue shall tell The lesson learnt in Indolence's bowers, When idle thoughts the idle bosom swell, And Time unreaped its wretched prey devours. Yet shall they bells of ever-present cheer Hearten the struggle of laborious souls, And Trade herself will turn a listening ear, As she pursues her daily myriad goals, When mid her roar thy golden voice the minute tolls. IV With hoary-headed Time a friend thou 'It be, And play with years as with fresh-hearted things As thy emblazoned crest forever springs Into the wondering air divinely free. Here shall ambitious youth its vans wide spread For flights beyond the rosiest dreams of hope; Or if perchance on indolences fed With adverse circumstance it fails to cope, The sight of thee upsoaring lone and high, % With Aspiration as thy soul and seal, And Admonition blazing in thine eye, Will rouse it like a battle's trumpet peal To every glorious thrill Achievement dares to feel. 30 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFOENIA SEMICENTENAEY V So firmly dost thou grip the rocky ground, Thy beauteous form the earthquake might assail, And storms upon thee all their fury hail, Yet scathless at the last thou wouldst be found. Still thou dost seem the airiest of things, With lofty crest which glitters in the air, That blooms by day a flower, with radiant wings, At night a beacon shining starlike there. So ever may the men and women here Foundationed be in nobleness of soul, Unshaken by the raging storms of fear, A shining light for every worthy goal, Undaunted by life's waves however mad they roll. VI Thy roots strike deeper than the claws of steel, And bolts and bonds that hold thee in thy place, For those are deep as universal space, And wide as ever longing we can feel: They reach the great ideals that ever blaze Around the empurpled summits of desire, Until as conquering Gods we bless our days With nurturing breath of their eternal fire; They stimulate the weary and the weak To march still onward though the road be hard, And Difficulty's crown rejoice to seek Though every passageway be doubly barred, And watchful dragons stand relentless on their guard. VII Symbol of Truth, thou ever-precious one ; Thy winged word speaks from thy columned stone With voice as clear as that of some dim, lone, Ice-crowned peak far reaching to the sun. It wakes our bosom's golden-hearted lyre, Until in music of seraphic strain DEDICATORY ADDEESSE8 31 It lifts our thoughts from every low desire Up to the wisdom of celestial gain; And may thy bells ring out in clarion sound Truth's sacred gospel to the willing breeze, Till all this place in Tightness be renowned, And till adventuring youth in season sees What is Life's vital wine, and what its worthless lees. VIII Beauty breathed gratefulness when thou wert planned: She saw herself in brilliancy anew, Until from steel and stone there nobly grew A marvelous thing transfiguring the land. She saw her child as with immortal breath Swell to the roots with heaven-approving pride, As he who drew thy lines beyond all death In triumph stood serenely by thy side. The Muse had roamed the chambers of his soul, Where domes and towers of song were glad to be, And there he saw thee as his perfect goal, In all the splendors of thy high degree, Thy inexpressible, divine simplicity. IX Thou ceaseless monitor of worthy deeds, We greet thee here as some familiar friend, Who blessing gives us that can have no end, And all ennoblement forever breeds. Imagination sees upon thy sides The golden names of those that never die; With those rare ones that hid their latent prides, Yet did their work that others raised on high; With these thy stones in living glory blaze, Thy column seems to pierce the vaulted skies, And as we longer and the longer gaze, A reverential incense seems to rise And wreath itself in hallowed words of holy praise. 32 UNIVEESITY OF CALIFOENIA SEMICENTENABY ADDRESS OF IVAN MORTIMER LINFORTH, M.A., PH.D. Associate Professor of Greek, University of California PRESIDENT WHEELER: I call upon Professor Ivan M. Lin- forth to speak on behalf of the Faculty. PROFESSOR LINFORTH : This tower was not built to serve any immediate and pressing need. Towers are never built to serve any immediate and pressing need. Indeed, one seldom feels an immediate need for a tower. There are things, however, which are made to serve some quick and vital purpose when they are conceived. The beauty of such things lies rather in the utility which they possess, in the aptness which they reveal, the requirements for which they are made. Socrates could call a good dustpan a beautiful dustpan. Dustpans and such things which are made for a useful purpose may indeed be made with a fine sense of form and quality. They may be decorated and embellished and so made beautiful, but they do not exist primarily to be beautiful and the artist who makes them in executing them finds that his hand is not free to do that which he likes, but what he must. There are things which, however, are made without any pressing need. They are not made to serve any useful purpose ; such things are pictures and statuary. The beauty of these things is of another sort from the beauty of things made to serve some purpose. They create a very real need, and the mind feeling this need is concerned with a force which is never felt for other objects. Among such things as these is the tower at whose foot we stand. It was constructed for an ideal purpose rather than for some immediate utility. Not all of you will perhaps realize what this means, what this tower means to us. You must live with this tower, you must go back and forth day by day and brush against its huge side in order to know what this tower means to us. You must look at it from beyond the eucalyptus trees. You must catch a glimpse of it between the branches of the oaks of the faculty glades ; you must see it down the vistas as we go along, and out of the hollows of the hills, and you must see it with a wreath of fog about its DEDICATOSY ADDRESSES 33 security, which seems to divide the upper part and the heavens from its foot ; and you must see it pink in the sunset light, and you must see it ghostly and insubstantial against the black sky at night. In all these ways and many more you will understand what it means to us. You will understand it stands here as a solace to us; and not only that but as we here today dedicate this tower to our own delight and service, we also realize that we are dedicating it to the eternal usefulness of the California men and California women who are yet to come. 34 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENARY ADDRESS OF JOHN L. REITH FOR THE ASSOCIATED STUDENTS OF THE UNIVERSITY PEESIDENT WHEELER : Generations will pass on through these buildings that we erect here. The buildings do not pass through the generations. Subservient to their use the generations pass through them. They enter them, use them, and they go. But this tower under which we stand will see the generations passing, passing, hundreds, and perhaps thousands of them. We who are here now for only a little while, committed to the care of those who are likely to be here longer, the present students of this University who represent the life, will now speak: Mr. John L. Reith, President of the Associated Students of the University of California. MR. REITH: President Wheeler, why should a student speak here today? Why should we have anything to say about the dedication of that massive piece of granite? I think there is a tremendous reason why we should. As I try to look a long way out and look in from a long way out I can see that we are in a period of transition. We are passing from the old to the new. Granite is replacing wood, and as we pass from the old to the new I am afraid we are apt to lose those very things which are indispensable to a university. I am afraid that we will lose sight of those things that are endeared to the hearts of every member of a student body of a university. I am afraid that we will lose those very things which exist in order that the alumni and the university may love one another, I mean that in passing from the old to the new we are apt to lose our traditions. Old North Hall is gone : that was a tradition. The freshman-sophomore push ball game contest is gone : that was a tradition. South Hall will go soon : that is a tradition. We need those traditions, and that is what I mean when I say that in passing from the old to the new we are apt to lose traditions ; and as our graduates go out from this University they have those feelings which they have gained as a result of their four years of undergraduate life DEDICATORY ADDRESSES 35 in the University. It is an intangible feeling, but it is a feeling which grows upon you, which makes you realize as you leave your university, that you know something about it. It makes you think that you have absorbed something in your under- graduate life that will allow you to come back here years hence and be glad to be back on the university grounds. That is the binding result of tradition, and as we look back over those old traditions which have gone we must find new traditions. We have to have these new things; we have let progress take the place of traditions, for it is necessary that we keep along with the inevitable tide of human advancement, and for the sake of that tradition has taken a backward stand, but now why can 't we start in anew? Why can't we be constructive? Why can't we build up new traditions? I believe that around this Sather Tower we have a glorious opportunity to build up new tradi- tions. I believe we could make this a part of our undergraduate life. I would like to see rolls end at the Campanile as they used to end on the old football ground, and I would like to see the class serpentine down from the Greek Theatre and stop here, and as the Campanile bells toll out "All Hail" I would like to see the undergraduate student body join in as a fitting climax of the roll. I would like to see the bells of the tower toll out in the different hymns of the colleges the result of our big inter- collegiate contests, baseball, track, or any intercollegiate contest we may be interested in. If it is on their grounds I would like to see the students standing out here with eyes turned up there at half past four in the afternoon, looking for "All Hail" if we win, or ' ' Hail, Stanford, Hail " if we lose. I believe in that way of building up traditions around this tower. I would like to see that done, and I think by doing that we would create a new tradition. It would be a permanent, bigger, and better California spirit. 36 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENAEY PRESIDENT WHEELER: I want to read again one stanza from the verses that I read as we began. VII Symbold of Truth, thou ever-precious one ; Thy winged word speaks from thy columned stone With voice as clear as that of some dim, lone, Ice-crowned peak far reaching to the sun. It wakes our bosom's golden-hearted lyre, Until in music of seraphic strain It lifts our thoughts from every low desire Up to the wisdom of celestial gain; And may thy bells ring out in clarion sound Truth 's sacred gospel to the willing breeze, Till all this place in Tightness be renowned, And till adventuring youth in season sees What is Life's vital wine, and what its worthless lees. VIII Beauty breathed gratefulness when thou wert planned: She saw herself in brilliancy anew, Until from steel and stone there nobly grew A marvelous thing transfiguring the land. She saw her child as with immortal breath Swell to the roots with heaven-approving pride, As he who drew thy lines beyond all death In triumph stood serenely by thy side. The Muse had roamed the chambers of his soul, Where domes and towers of song were glad to be, And there he saw thee as his perfect goal, In all the splendors of thy high degree, Thy inexpressible, divine simplicity. IX Thou ceaseless monitor of worthy deeds, We greet thee here as some familiar friend, Who blessing gives us that can have no end, And all ennoblement forever breeds. DEDICATORY ADDBE8SES 37 Imagination sees upon thy sides The golden names of those that never die ; With those rare ones that hid their latent prides, Yet did their work that others raised on high; With these thy stones in living glory blaze, Thy column seems to pierce the vaulted skies, And as we longer and longer gaze, A reverential incense seems to rise And wreath itself in hallowed words of holy praise. Now let the bells ring out. The chimes master played a selection from Beethoven's Ninth Symphony. 38 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENARY ADDRESSES AT THE SATHER TOWER FOLLOWING THE MILITARY REVIEW AND PARADE ON THE CAMPUS Friday, March the twenty-second PRESIDENT WHEELER: We are assembled here today in the name of and by the symbol of force, organized force for the pro- tection of society and the things we hold highest in our lives. Right is it that you should have assembled yourselves here under the Tower that speaks for the meaning of the University, the idealism of university thought and life. Here at its base we stand firm. All that the University is or hopes to be is com- mitted now and given now into the well expressed form of the army and navy of the United States. This war will be in some sense, and a very real sense, decided by the universities. More and more men are coming to them to ask their aid, not only through the forms and practices of science, but through the personal leadership of men from the universities who are gifted therein. Colonel Mervin Maus, representing the Western Department of the United States Army, will be the first speaker of the day. DEDICATORY ADDRESSES 39 ADDRESS OF COL. MERVIN MAUS, U.S.A. My friends, I do not believe that had I been asked a year ago to select a subject or a place or a clime, I could have been more fortunate than I am today in coming before this splendid aggregation here at the University of California, in one of the most beautiful states in the world, under the most favorable conditions. I come to address you on a subject that has been very close to my heart for the many years that I have followed the flag, across the Pacific and over the plains, during the last forty years of my military experience. I know of no emotion so proper that a nation may be imbued with as that of the national spirit of patriotism. Unless a nation is filled with patriotism that nation is bound to pass down the high road of decadence, and finally of subjugation by some powerful neighbor who is filled with the military spirit. If you are inclined to doubt the truth of this statement it is only necessary for you to turn back to the pages of history, and you will find that for the last thousands of years, it is recorded there that whenever a nation has lost its military spirit, its patriotism, that nation sinks into insignificance and disappears from the face of the earth. Since the great Civil War of 1861 the patriotic spirit in America has slumbered. In fact during the 80s and 90s it had gotten to such a low ebb that it was almost impossible in this country to find people who reverenced the Stars and Stripes. You remember that a very few years ago, even, the Stars and Stripes scarcely ever decorated the buildings throughout our great republic. In fact, there were very few people able to repeat the beautiful and sentimental lines found in "The Star Spangled Banner," and I remember that there were even fewer who could carry the air of the most magnificent national anthem that has ever been written in the history of the world. Just in passing, I might tell you that in 1891 in coming back from Europe on one of the great liners on which there were a number of English people and foreigners, an Englishman wagered that 40 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENASY there was not an American aboard who could repeat the first stanza of "The Star Spangled Banner," and he won his wager, although I do remember that as the ship made her way in toward the Bartholdi Statue of Liberty in the harbor of New York one lady had the patriotic spirit and stood out boldly on the fore deck and sang that beautiful poem telling of the nearly broken heart of its author, and of his joy when he saw the Star Spangled Banner still gleaming the next morning after that eventful night. But now, my friends, things have changed. I am happy to say that the day has passed when a man found in uniform is discredited on the streets of this country. For I remember distinctly, looking back over my long service, when the men in uniform 'were discredited not only on the streets in our cities but were even refused admittance in many of the places of public entertainment. Some of you doubtless remember that. But thank God, there has been an awakening; that awakening has come since the Spanish American War, and it is now an honor and a great privilege for a man to don the uniform of the United States and to fight for the Stars and Stripes. It is my opinion that in no place in the wide, wide world can patriotism be better or more thoroughly inculcated into Young America than at our great universities. And right here, under the shadow of this magnificent monument, we see faces of men who are determined and who are filled with that great spirit that actuated our leaders, such men as George Washington and U. S. Grant, as well as such men as Robert E. Lee, and Stonewall Jackson, and the other great Americans who took up the cause which they thought just and offered their very lives for it. It gives me great pleasure, my friends, to be with you this afternoon. I want to say that, as an old veteran of three or four wars, I hope every man of you will carry in his inmost heart one single dream, that liberty may possibly result only from the sacrifice of your lives. But I think there is no cause before the American people or the world today that could better justify every one of us baring our breasts to the enemy and going over and fighting the greatest evil that has ever been known on the face of the earth. And I congratulate you all here today that you have enlisted in the service of our great DEDICATORY ADDRESSES 41 old Uncle Sam, whose men are gathering from the east and from the west, from the north and from the south, and who are going into this fight to the end that every man, no matter how humble in life or how high, no matter what his circumstances are may have that which belongs to him as a God given right. 42 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY ADDRESS OF CAPTAIN ROBERT RUSSELL, U.S.N. PRESIDENT WHEELER: An institution which, like this, looks out through the Golden Gate upon the portentous Pacific, can- not fail to have an interest in sea power, as guarantor of the security and permanence of our lives. As representative of that power I introduce to you Captain Robert Russell, Commandant of the Twelfth Naval District. PRESIDENT WHEELER, ALUMNI AND STUDENTS OF THE UNIVER- SITY OF CALIFORNIA, AND FELLOW GUESTS: I am glad to be here today to take part in this splendid ceremony which brings together so many patriotic Americans whose hearts are bound in the cause which we are now undertaking. The first thing which we must think of, and practically the only thing, my friends of the army and navy, is the winning of the war. We will win this war (applause), and our whole soul must be wrapped up in it. Less than one year ago this country declared war on Ger- many. At that time our navy had few officers and few men, compared with the requirements of the occasion. Immediate steps were taken to increase the numbers of both. Today, after less than one year, the number of officers has been increased by several thousand, and the men by hundreds of thousands. And I should like to take this occasion to thank the University of California for the assistance which it has given us in the training of officers. Right here in this grand university there are today extension classes for naval preparation, for service in the navy. And seventy-two of my naval reserves that have been enrolled here are now taking this course. I want also to tell you that some of the young men who less than a year ago went from this very university, are now on torpedo boat destroyers off the coast of England and the coast of France, as officers of the United States Navy. And those young men, all honor to them, have been advanced by their own sheer merit, without influence of any kind whatsoever. DEDICATOBY ADDRESSES 43 It may interest you to know that our system of training and our means of acquiring officers is a progressive one. The young men come in and every one who has come into the navy has come in as a volunteer in the lower grades, because they have not had the naval experience which would enable them to enroll in the higher grades, and by their own efforts work up and are placed in the officers' material class, and later into the officers' class; and then, by these competitive examinations they are enrolled as officers, some of them finally even getting intensive training at Annapolis. And I wish to tell you young men within the sound of my voice that the opportunities for service in the navy were never as good as today. Promotion awaits every young man who merits it. His own merit and his own exertions will take him up, regardless of influence. I wish also to tell you that the doors are still open. We need men, we need officers, and we welcome those who come. I feel that it is not necessary to say that now is the time, for if our country ever needed the service of its sons it does today. And I hope that this grand university will continue to help us in the supply. The record made by the Twelfth Naval District has been a fine one. Our young men who have gone east have shown up well in all places alongside the picked men of all sections of our common country. Let each of you who has joined the colors bear in mind that you not only represent your country, but that you represent your locality, that you represent your college or your university, or wherever it may be whence you have come ; and let those that come from the University of California bear in mind that their instructors, their professors, as well as the officers under whom they serve, are watching their careers, and hope that they will write their names high on the roll of honor as the representatives of the University of California. ADDRESSES BY MEN OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA FACULTY IN MILITARY SERVICE DEDICATOBY ADDBESSES 45- ADDRESS OF DR. HERBERT C. MOFPITT MR. PRESIDENT, AND MEN OP THE UNITED STATES ARMY AND NAVY : I am sorry that, for the present, I am no longer a major, but merely a poor dean in one of the departments of the University. It is always a pleasant duty to answer the call of the Uni- versity. It is a great honor today to represent her, even in the humblest way. The spirit of the professional schools, from which I am today asked to bring you a few words of greeting, is the same spirit that animates every man in our University, whether he be freshman or graduate student, alumnus or teacher, "We have all learned anew the lessons as to the finer meanings of responsibility and of duty. And there is only one question in the minds of every one of us today : ' ' How best may I serve ? ' ' The great war has brought a few problems to medical men- When nations are sick, they are much like sick individuals ; when truly sick, they call loudly for the doctor, and when well, they promptly forget all about him. In England the military com- mission made so many demands upon the medical profession that civil practice and the medical schools have suffered grievously. In our own country over 17,000 medical men are in duty in the Medical Corps, and thousands of others are serving on draft boards, on advisory boards, on various commissions. Our medi- cal students have been drafted in the Sanitary Corps and sent back to various schools for training. So that the medical schools of the country today may be said to be really navy and army medical schools. What is our medical school doing in the work of medicine, in connection with the war ? Thirty-five members of our faculty are in active service, among them are many on their way to France as members of Base Hospital 30, the base hospital of our University. Others remain at the school to teach, very much against their will, and they simply remain there because it is their duty so to do. Others are teaching army medical men who have been detailed by the Surgeon-General to the universities for- 46 TJNIVEESITY Of CAL1FOENIA SEMICENTENAEY special work in surgery. Still others are actively engaged in research, which is closely connected with many medical prob- lems of the war. Many of our aluinni are on duty in cantonments or in connection with commissions. Many of our nurses are in active service abroad. And our students, with their new responsibilities well in mind, are tackling their work with an earnestness that augurs well for the new plan of the Surgeon General. We are confident that our men and our women are going to be of full measure, no matter where they go. There is a wonderful work everywhere to do. We must no longer regret that we were not wholly prepared when the call for us came. We must waste no more time in quibbling over mistakes that have been made. A tremendous lot of army work has been done, and a splendid military organization is rapidly reaching perfection. You men are teaching a great lesson as well as preparing for a great work to do. We feel strongly that your lesson is going to be exactly as important as your work. We feel strongly that we must all stand together, men of the universities, men of the army, and men of the navy, and insist that the healthy body and disciplined mind that goes through military training must endure in our nation. I bring you words of greeting from our professional schools, and I can assure you that the professions of law and medicine can appreciate the tremendous value that must come to our nation from the proper discipline that comes always through the proper kind of military and naval training. DEDICATORY ADDRESSES 47 ADDEESS OF CAPTAIN A. J. EDDY, OF THE COAST ARTILLERY PRESIDENT WHEELER : I call upon Capt. A. J. Eddy. SOLDIERS AND SAILORS, FELLOW-MEMBERS OF THE FACULTY, AND FRIENDS: Our President has asked me to speak this afternoon about the University men in the service. This is a very large subject. I shall not attempt to go into the many phases of mili- tary service in which our university men find themselves today, but I shall attempt to tell you of a few things which seem most important about university men in the service of the army and navy, as I view it. A large percentage of the university men are now commis- sioned in the service, and that, it seems to me, is the place where they belong. They have a superior training, they have been fitted by education and instruction to hold commissions. There are some, it is true, who have not yet been commissioned, who are serving as enlisted men in the army and navy, but I feel sure that, as time goes on, more and more of them will be com- missioned in the service. When the United States Army and the United States Navy were first expanded there were four classes of men from which to draw to make officers. In the first place, we had the West Pointers and the graduates from the Naval Academy. Then we had the National Guard officers, who were drafted into service. Then we had the non-commissioned officers, who were promoted to commissioned ranks. Finally, we had the civilians who were commissioned into the service through training camps or by other means. I believe the majority of the university men have gone into the service through the agency of the training camps. There are some, of course, who elected to enter the service before war was declared. There are some who were officers in the National Guard. But I believe the majority have gone into the service from training camps. 48 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENAEY The duties which devolve upon an officer in the United States Army or Navy are probably more complex and varied than any which ever devolve upon men in civil life. In the first place, the officer must be a manager of men. If he is not a manager, he is not an officer. He must also be an instructor. He must also be a leader. As a manager he must look after the personal comforts of his men, he must see that they are properly clothed, properly fed, that they have a good place in which to sleep. He must look after their finances. He makes out their pay-rolls. He often sends their money to their dependents and relatives. As an instructor, he must be a professor of military science, if you please. He mus,t be able to teach the men their proper duties. A commanding officer, particularly officers of the grade of captain or above, is responsible for the training of his par- ticular organization. He must be certain that every man in his organization knows his duties. He must be certain that, when the time comes, each man will know his place. Then, under the subject of "instructions," he must develop a spirit among his men, a spirit of camaraderie, a morale which will make them act together as a unit. He must make every man strive to do his utmost to make his organization, his troop, his company, his battery, the best one in the regiment. And if he can make every man in his organization part of the company he is in, if he is striving to do his best for that company, he need have no worry about how he is going to act when the final, supreme test comes. Lastly, he must be a leader, he must be able to lead his men in battle. It is difficult to say which one of the three things is most to be desired in an officer. If he is not a manager, if he does not care for the personal wants and comforts of his men, they won't fight for him, they will be discontented. If he is unable to instruct them, they will not know what to do when the proper time comes. And if he is not able to lead them, they will scatter over the field of battle, and will waste their strength inefficiently. It seems to me that the university man, and you men who are training to be officers, are getting at the universities of the country a kind of training which peculiarly fits you to be officers in the United States Army. And in some branches it is abso- lutely essential that a man have a university training. Take the DEDICATOET ADDRESSES 49 artillery. You cannot teach a man to be an artillery officer in three months or six months. He must have a foundation of technical education. Napoleon has said that God fights on the side of the heavy artillery. And this war has demonstrated that more than any war in history. And so I say the university men are particularly equipped for doing the duties as officers in the army and navy of the United States. We are going to win. We are going to win because, in the first place, we are on the right side. General Grant, after the battle of Bull Run, and when things looked pretty gloomy for the United States, was asked by a fellow officer if he thought the North would ever win the struggle, and he said, "We must win." And that is the spirit today. We must win. And I feel sure that after the victory has been won, a great measure of that will be due to the university men of the United States. 50 UNIVEESITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENAET ADDRESS OF SAYRE MAcNEILL ALUMNUS PRESIDENT WHEELER : Colleague of our Ralph Merritt in the Food Administration our Sayre MacNeill. MR. PRESIDENT, LADIES AND GENTLEMEN: I Speak not of armies or of the men that wield arms, but of those allotted to the grayer and duller side of national warfare, the men engaged in the civilian service. The place of the civilian serving in this war is different from what it has been in any other war. For the old wars were, for the' most part, wars of armed forces, and the war in which we are now engaged is a war of organized nations. So it has become a truism to say that it is an essential part of national warfare that certain of us should see that the military arm is upheld and made most effective, first, by material things, like money and food and munitions, and also by less tangible but important things, such as keeping up and main- taining the unity, the cheerfulness, and the firmness of loyal purposes among all of us that the troop ships leave behind. Many times we who are serving in the civilian service will look upon you men in uniform with the greatest envy. Because for you the paths of duty and of honor run straight and clear. And I can assure you that the voice of the cannon is clear and loud and certain as compared with the manifold, divergent voices of wheat or ships or bonds and the things that are associated with them. You can see the effect of your work as you go along. You can count your successes in numbers of the enemy killed, wounded or captured, in guns, or square miles taken. In most of the civilian branches it is not so. Whether it be work in connection with ship building or the control of railroads or Red Cross work, or the Liberty Loan work, or the Food Administration work, or whatever it may be, it is hard w r ork indeed to walk straight and keep your eye on the main points of the business in hand, to hold a straight course among doubts and varied counsels. And it is in this connection that we, who are engaged in civilian work, it seems to me, must learn certain lessons from you, and learn them thoroughly and promptly. And the particular lessons that we must learn from the military men are two : first, the habit of putting implicit and DEDICATOET ADDRESSES 51 ready confidence in our leaders, and secondly, the absolute will- ingness to take orders. For without those two things, as I see it, our civilian service in this way cannot accomplish what it should. And it will not, without those two things, constitute real service. Many a man, in volunteering for civilian work of any kind, has run across very much the same problem, and come very near making the same mistake as was made, or so nearly made in very ancient times by Naaman, the leper. Naaman, as you all remember, went to a great prophet regarding the healing of his body. The prophet gave him specific orders, and bade him wash seven times in the river Jordan. Now, Naaman, as many of us have done under an analogous situation, hesitated, and commenced to want to argue that out, and ask why, and he came very nearly dropping the enterprise in which he was engaged, or failing in it, on account of doubts and difficulties. One of his servants finally said to him, ' ' If the prophet had bidden you to do some great task, some hard or difficult thing, something spectacular, you would have done it. How much more, then, when he asks you to do something simple, easy, should you do it. ' ' That same proposition comes up to many of us engaged in civilian activities. And why? It is when the civilian seeks to get from his soul an unrest which exists in it on account of any inaction at a time like this, that he goes to the leader or the prophet, either in connection with ships or Liberty Loans or Red Cross, or the Food Administration, or whatever it may be, and he offers himself for orders. When those orders come and they come to every one of us, in one form or another, to every man, woman and child in the civilian population when those or- ders come, it is frequently the case that we are disappointed in what they are. We have volunteered our services. It would be very nice to be a prima donna in one of those great activities. It might be very interesting to be assigned for duty at Washington or in France, or wherever it might be. That is all well and good. But it is not so spectacular or so interesting when the orders are something entirely different, when the orders are, "Stay where you are, in your home. Do your work there. Keep up your profession. Give it, say, a third or half your time, and centralize the rest of your time on this specific war work right here in your own home. ' ' Then is the time when every one of us must remem- 52 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENAET ber and must get this lesson from our military arm, and we must learn it thoroughly, to take the work from our leaders when they tell us what we are to do, and to do that thing. In connection with the food work particularly, it has often seemed to me that if Mr. Hoover, for example, were to call upon us to do a great and spectacular work, if he should come out some morning and say, "Wanted, for the safety of this nation, ten million men, women, and children, who will swear that they will not touch food, for a week, ' ' that if so much were asked of us, we would find many people with the spirit of the ancient martyrs, ready and willing to half starve themselves, and make an intensely great sacrifice, whereas the same ones of us who would be willing to do that and remember about doing that, find it practically impossible to remember from day to day specific little orders, such as not eating wheat at the evening meals. The simple assignment of duty done right near home, according to orders given us, believing in the people who give those orders, the performance of these tasks promptly, tactfully, without sound or fury, these offer a very rich field for the university man to throw his full weight into the scale. And that is what I sincerely and seriously believe we are doing. And whether a man in this civilian work is helping to solve the shipping problems with a Prentiss Gray or a Jack Fletcher or a Plummer at the Atlantic seaboard, or whether he is doing that work out here with our Ralph Merritt, or whether he is helping to solve the new problems of railroad control with our Brookmans and our Thelens, or whether the man is putting in his time endeavoring to synchronize, as best he may, the mighty forces of employers and employees toward a joint end, as our dear friend Carl Parker was doing practically with his last breath whatever line of this work we are engaged in, sir, I bring you the message on behalf of my associates, it is our proud boast that we are able to report to you that we are endeavoring to serve the Republic. PRESIDENT WHEELER : As we join now in our National Anthem let us all lift our faces toward the Tower, whence cometh our help, and in thought of our boys who are in the service, register again with ourselves in our hearts a vow of loyalty to this Nation. To the accompaniment of the strains of the Star Spangled Banner the service flag was unfolded on the Sather Tower. DEDICATORY ADDRESSES 53 DEDICATION OF OILMAN HALL Chairman, EDMUND O'NEILL, Pn.B. Professor of Chemistry, University of California THE CHAIRMAN: We meet today to dedicate this building. It is called Oilman Hall, in honor of Daniel Coit Oilman, the first President of the University, from 1870 to 1874. Under his administration the University was organized, the faculty en- larged, and the course of instruction amplified. Unusual for the administrators of his day, he believed in the importance of science; and it was through his efforts that the College of Chemistry was established and the first laboratory was built. Afterward, as the first President of Johns Hopkins Univer- sity, he had a larger field for his administrative genius ; and we all know the impetus given to science as the result of the estab- lishment of Johns Hopkins, with the eminent leaders of science who were gathered in its halls, and the influence of its sons in so many American universities. For these reasons it is eminently fitting that this building should commemorate him, and the name Oilman Hall will ever serve to bring back his personality and the services he rendered to this University. The dedication of a building is like the launching of a ship. The architect or the designer must plan his building or his vessel, keeping in mind the experience of the past, endeavoring to correct errors, planning improvements, giving rein to his imag- ination to create a new design more beautiful or more har- monious or better fitted for its purpose. And then comes the period of building, when the architect or designer sees his dream take form, when the artisans fashion the stone and the steel and the wood, each workman a specialist in his task, each craftsman doing the work that lies before him, in apparent confusion and aimlessness. But gradually the structure shapes itself, the casual onlooker can understand the meaning of the seemingly disconnected efforts, can recognize the outlines of what it is meant to be ; and finally the building or the ship is finished and ready for its purpose. 54 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENART The launching or the dedication is a gala day, a day of festivities and celebration. The vessel glides down the ways festooned with banners and streamers, with the sound of music and the plaudits of the assembled multitude; the dedication of great buildings are carried out with pomp and ceremony. Are those ceremonies and festivities merely in commemoration of the completion of a great work ? Only in part. It seems to me that it is more a mark of what the future will bring. The ship sails away to foreign shores, ,with its passengers and cargo, bringing new materials and new ideas to other parts of the world and returning with a freight of material and spiritual things for our enlightenment and betterment; and so it is with this building. We commemorate its completion, we recall to our mind the labors and devotion of the architect and advisers, and builders of this beautiful structure. But still more this dedication is to mark the promise of the future. Year after year students, instructors, and investigators will work in these laboratories, teaching the experience of the past, expounding the knowledge of the present, and unveiling the mysteries of the future. Future generations will throng this hall ; professors and students, mutually helpful, pioneers in science, exploring new fields, attacking new problems, solving the riddles of the universe. Tomorrow is the fiftieth birthday of the University. The founders of the College of California are not here to witness the development of their little College. I remember as a boy going to the evening lectures of Professor Carr (the first Professor of Chemistry), where he presented the elementary principles of chemistry, illustrated with experiments. Although it was fifty years ago I remember the lectures and experiments as though they occurred yesterday. It fired my imagination and gave me my first insight into the charm and interest of science. Little did I think then that fifty years later I would assist in the dedi- cation of a chemical laboratory, many times larger, many times more costly than the entire college of those days. Would that the men of those times could be present here this week to see the great tree that has grown from the little seed they planted in the sixties. The development of the Department of Chemistry may be divided into three periods; the first period from 1870 to 1890, the second period from 1890 to 1918, and the third period today. DEDICATORY ADDRESSES 55 The beginning of each of these epochs is marked by the erection of a new building. South Hall, the first edifice of the campus, was to a large extent devoted to chemistry. The original plan was to build it entirely of granite, but owing to lack of money the granite was used only to the first floor, the remainder being of brick. But the building was good. Only the best material was used. Iron straps, for bracing and binding, were freely used and the build- ing has stood the test of time, weather, earthquakes, and use for nearly fifty years; and it is as sound and good as it ever was. The cost, when labor and material were a fraction of what they are now, was $180,000. The architect was David Farquharson. The furnishing and equipment were of the highest quality. The interior furnishings were of California laurel, the laboratory desks were of black walnut ; the hoods were made of plate glass. Everything was of the very best, and the laboratory when com- pleted was far superior to any in America and unexcelled by any in the world. The faculty was small, the students few in number, but the spirit was fine. Of the chemistry instructors of those days two have passed away, Professors Rising and Christy. Professors Stillman and Slate are still with us. Under their inspiring and enthusiastic leadership, together with the smallness of the classes and the lack of distracting avocations and activities, now unhappily so prevalent, we could devote ourselves to study and reflection and discussion in a leisurely way that now no longer is possible. The closeness of association of professor and student, so often referred to by the old graduates, was the rule. The small college in the midst of the uninhabited fields of Berkeley had a charm that can never come again. The University grew, and with it the Department of Chem- istry. South Hall, in spite of the erection of a number of other buildings, became too small for the accommodation of the chemistry students, and in 1890 the Regents erected the adjacent Chemistry Hall, devoted entirely to chemistry. The late Clinton Day, an alumnus of the College of California, was the architect. The cost was $62,000. Additions were made from time to time, and the cost as it now stands amounts to about $100,000. This structure marks the second stage in the development of the College of Chemistry. 56 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENARY Just as the building was devoted to chemistry alone, so the course of instruction in the College was narrowed to specialized chemistry. In the early days the College of Chemistry served the purpose of a College of Natural Science, which at that time did not exist. Students interested in general science enrolled in the College of Chemistry. The creation of the College of Natural Science, now merged with the College of Letters as the College of Letters and Science, gave the general science student greater freedom in the choice of his studies, and the College of Chemistry could devote itself to its more special instruction. This condition continued until the advent of Professor Lewis, in 1912, when the graduate and research departments were organized. The conditions of the seventies were reproduced ; the graduate school taking the place of the early College. The small number of students, the group of young and enthusiastic instruc- tors, the close relations in the laboratory and the seminar, serve as a reminder of the old laboratory in South Hall. This building in a material way also brings back recollections of the seventies. Like South Hall it has its deep foundations, its massive walls, its tons of steel reinforcement. It will prove a monument to the architect, John Galen Howard, and to the State of California, which, as in 1870, provided the great sum of money for its erection. But this structure, beautiful and genuine as it is with its varied and costly equipment, with electric furnaces that will melt platinum or granite, its liquid hydrogen plant, by means of which we will approach the absolute zero, its delicate measuring instruments that will show a variation of .00001 of a degree, will all be valueless if they are not put to real use. Eeal use will require real men. If a company of instructors and students imbued with the true spirit of research, with genuine love for learning, with intelligence and will, with enthusiasm and per- sistence, with patience and industry will devote themselves to solving the secrets of science, the mysteries of nature, then this building will serve its purpose. I can safely say that within this hall is gathered such a company ; and it is in the confidence of this knowledge that we assemble here today to dedicate this building to its high purpose of advancing knowledge, to reach a little farther into the unknown, to teach the truth, and to help mankind in its quest for happiness. DEDICATOEY ADDRESSES 57 ADDRESS OF JOHN MAXSON STILLMAN, Pn.B., Emeritus Professor of Chemistry, Leland Stanford Junior University THE CHAIRMAN: We have spoken of the spirit of the old laboratory in South Hall, of the fine relations between instructor and student, and of the charm of the environment. One of the men who exemplified this spirit is with us today, John Maxson Stillman, student in the College of Chemistry from 1870 to 1874, Instructor of Chemistry in the University of California from 1875 to 1882, later Professor of Chemistry and Vice President of Stanford University, now Professor Emeritus Dr. Stillman is a most fitting representative to take part in the dedication of this building. I wish to take this opportunity of paying a per- sonal tribute to him in the part he played here in the early University. He has been identified with the development of chemistry in California since the beginning. His influence as a teacher has been widespread and far reaching. With respect and affection, I present him to you and will ask him to tell us something about the early University and what this dedication means to him. PROFESSOR STILLMAN: Permit me first to express my appre- ciation of the courtesy extended to the University I represent and of the honor conferred upon me by the authorities of the University of California in inviting me to participate in the dedication of this new and splendid temple to chemical science. As a representative of the Department of Chemistry of Stan- ford University I take pleasure in extending to the University of California and to our friends and colleagues of the Depart- ment of Chemistry our heartfelt congratulations upon this important addition to the equipment and therefore to the efficiency of chemical training in the University. I voice the sentiments of my colleagues of Stanford in expressing our hope and confidence in an ever increasing develop- ment, and an ever widening influence of this department upon the growth of chemical science in America. 58 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENARY It is, however, not only as a representative of a sister insti- tution that I am deeply interested in the occasion which brings us together here. When, forty-five years ago the University first established itself at Berkeley, laboratory instruction in chemistry was first systematically undertaken ; and it was my valued privi- lege as assistant and later as instructor to participate in the work of the pioneer period of this Department of Chemistry. It is not an easy matter to span this gulf of years with full realization of the different conditions prevailing then and now, conditions affecting not merely the facilities of this University for the teaching of chemistry, but the relations of chemical education to public demand and appreciation. Indeed, it is difficult now to realize the great difference in the relations of university ideals in general to the popular comprehension which underlies public support, as they obtained then and as they now exist. The last published catalogue of the University shows a student body in the colleges at Berkeley numbering 6780 students. In the first year at Berkeley the total registration was 191. The latest register shows a teaching force in the Chemistry Department of eight professors, one lecturer, five instructors, and fourteen assistants, or thirty altogether. In 1873 there was but a single professor, Professor Willard B. Kising, who came to the work fresh from several years training in the best laboratories of the Old "World and brought with him methods and ideals of chemical training abreast of the time. He was assisted that first year by but three undergraduate assistants, seniors in the College of Chemistry. While the spacious laboratories of chemistry have been in recent years continuously overcrowded by their almost thousands of workers, the two modest laboratory rooms in Old South Hall were in those early years never overcrowded by their few dozens of students. And these comparative figures are indicative of, and to a great extent a measure of, the changes that have taken place in the public appreciation of the value of university ideals and of the importance of chemistry to the public welfare. The career of the chemist in those days offered few induce- ments and little of promise. The Pacific Coast in particular still DEDICATORY ADDRESSES 59* lingered in the epoch of the exploitation of its rich natural resources in gold and silver, grain, cattle, and timber. The occupation of chemist meant to the general public little more than that of assayer of gold and silver or pharmacist. Outside of mining the chemical industries were few, and were conducted primitively and on established traditional lines. Indeed, the chemical industries of the whole United States were largely contented to depend upon the scientific and technical achieve- ments of Europe. Those were years of sacrifice and of many trials for the little band of teachers with advanced concepts of University education and for their relatively few but very earnest supporters in Cali- fornia. Isolated by distance from sympathetic co-workers in the Eastern States, struggling against public apathy, and battling against attempts to obstruct their aims or to divert from the young University its needed financial support their discourage- ments were many and their disappointments frequent. So much the greater honor to those who, nevertheless, against all oppo- sition kept the course of the University ever steadily onward toward the highest ideals, until such time as the people of Cali- fornia, recognizing at last the value of the service rendered, rallied loyally and generously to its support. A great leader of those who formulated and fought for high university standards was he who from 1872 to 1875 held the office of President of the University, Daniel C. Gilman. Though but for three years he was with us those years were critical years. The organization of Johns Hopkins University, the unique posi- tion it very soon commanded among American universities and the prestige it so long maintained are the lasting monuments to the high ideals and the organizing ability of President Gilman. And if not so conspicuously, no less effectively was his influence exerted in the infancy of the University of California. The clear judgment, the sound ideals of scholarship, and the friendly encouragement of President Gilman awakened and nourished the ambitions of many of the students of those early years to persevere in attaining the most thorough obtainable training for the educational career, when conditions generally were disheart- ening to such aspirations. And so it appeals to me as very appropriate that this new laboratory, devoted to the extension 60 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENARY of chemical knowledge, should bear the name of Gilman, our pioneer leader, whose far seeing vision and wise initiative laid broad and deep the foundations upon which under enlightened leadership the splendid superstructure of our State University has been erected. It is at a momentous time in our national history that Gilman Hall is opened for research and instruction. But it is also an auspicious time, for. do we not all see now, as we have never seen before that America must never again be satisfied to be depen- dent upon any other nation for the vital necessities of national life, either in her industries or in the scientific knowledge upon which these are founded? Yet it is in the chemical field that in the past our unpreparedness has been most flagrant. The many serious problems which in this time of war are taxing to the utmost the chemical skill and science in this country are not more serious nor numerous than those which will call upon chemical science in the strenuous years to follow, when peace shall some time come to this war-torn world. May Gilman Hall, under direction of its wise faculty and with the loyal support of the people of California, contribute in generous measure to the solution of the future problems con- fronting the chemists of America. For the American people are at last fully aware that the security and the prosperity of this nation is dependent in no small measure upon the self dependent character of its chemical science and its chemical industries. I have a letter from President Gilman written forty years ago. It will not be without interest today: Baltimore, Feb. 16, 1878. My dear Stillman : There are no letters (except family letters) which give me so much pleasure as those I receive from California, and within a few days I have been favored with excellent varieties of the species, from your pen and Mr. Stearns 's. My last previous letter was from Prof. Rising. ... I have had many printed papers referring to the progress of the Univ. of Cal. including the notes of Mr. Bacon's proposed gift, the Report of the Regents, the lectures of Prof. Becker, etc. In all these signs of growth and DEDICATORY ADDRESSES 61 progress, I rejoice with all my heart. I have always believed that the good forces in California would overcome the bad elements, and that we should see a university on the Berkeley slopes, strong and sound, helping on all the interests, social, industrial, political, literary and scientific. It is a great pleasure to me to see on the Register, which has also come lately to hand, the names of former students enrolled among the instructors. The Faculty of a college, as it seems to me, should be in part composed of Alumni of the institution and in part from men trained elsewhere. The former know the situation, its good points and bad; they love their Alma Mater and are quick to defend and advance her interests. The latter bring in good ideas from other institutions and prevent the concern from moving in too firm a routine. As I write, your name and Jackson's, and Christy's, and Slate's, and Rowell's, and Parker's, and Hin- ton's, and ever so many more occur to me as those on whom the University might well rely. Royce would be a great addition to your company. He has certainly a very remarkable mind and is I think likely to become a man of great distinction. . . . Give my kind regards to all your comrades and believe me, Ever your friend, Sincerely, D. C. OILMAN. 2 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY ADDRESS OF L. H. DUSCHAK, A.M., PH.D. Superintendent of the Berkeley Experiment Station of the United States Bureau of Mines THE CHAIRMAN : Dr. Stillman represents the old University. Since his time a new generation has come into the field to carry on the work. We older men must lay down our burden to be taken up by the younger ones. Dr. Lionel H. Duschak is a fitting representative of this group. A graduate of Michigan and Princeton, Superintendent of the Berkeley Experiment Station of the United States Bureau of Mines, a specialist in physical chemistry, he will serve in the ranks of chemists and carry forward the banner of the scientist. For a long period yet to come he and his contemporaries will see the uses to which this building will be put, will watch the work that will be done in it, and will make use of the results and dis- coveries made in this laboratory. As a representative of the younger generation of chemists I present Dr. Duschak. DOCTOR DUSCHAK : As a representative of the younger men who are engaged in chemical work I deeply appreciate the honor of being invited to participate in the dedication of Oilman Hall. We have watched with a real interest the recent growth and progress of the Chemistry Department of this University and note with gratification that its needs for better facilities have been met by this excellent new building. May I extend to the University and the Chemistry Department our congratulations on the event which gives rise to this ceremony ? It will occur to all of us that this occasion is one of particular significance to our part of the chemical world. Standing as a permanent addition to the chemical group, Oilman Hall is a mile- stone marking an important step in the development of the chemical work of the University. I wish to indicate by a few words what this development may mean to us. The underlying thought which I wish to convey to you is suggested by consider- ing for a moment the relation of this University in its entirety to the Commonwealth. I shall not attempt to define this, but DEDICATORY ADDRESSES 63 wish only to call your attention to certain facts which have impressed me. As a part of this University we find colleges of mining and agriculture, which in many states form separate and all too frequently competing institutions. We find courses in music, in commercial education, and in other branches which are frequently offered only in special schools. We observe a quick response on the part of the University to growing popular interest in any new line of endeavor. This is not to be inter- preted in any sense as a concession to faddishness, but rather as an evidence of virility, of alertness, of a desire to assist in realizing the greatest good from each new activity by giving it the benefit of the scientific study and technical direction available in the great University workshop. This University has main- tained to an unusual degree a close and helpful contact with the complex and ever changing activities of the life about it. May we not take it for granted then that this splendid new building will be used by the Chemical Department for corre- sponding efforts in its own particular field; that the increasing chemical activity within the University implies a corresponding increase in the helpful influence which will emanate from this center to the broad and varied fields of chemical activity with- out? Eesearch in so-called pure science has been aptly referred to as the foundation upon which all scientific work rests. One should not think of this foundation, however, as a mass of concrete lying cold and inert in the earth, but rather as the trunk of a great tree, which is constantly pushing forth its roots into new and unpenetrated earth, tapping new sources of vital energy. We shall expect first of all, then, that the activities in this new building will supply leadership in the field of theoretical chemistry; a field in which this Department already occupies a prominent place. This leadership will come in part from the trained men continually going out from the University. Consideration of the practical value of a theoretical advance is rarely, if ever, the compelling motive of the investigator. He has a less material vision before him. Today, however, no one regards it as a degradation of science that such practical appli- cation should be made. It is an interesting fact that some of the recent and highly fundamental theories and conceptions of 64 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENAEY physical science have received direct practical application. As an example, the new type of X-ray apparatus developed at the research laboratory of the General Electric Company may be cited. In fact chemistry would enjoy but a restricted existence and would probably suffer decay were it not making its rich and varied contributions to the daily needs of the world. The ideal and the material must go hand in hand ; and in this new building, which is being dedicated today, there is abundant evidence that both aspects of chemistry will be given due atten- tion. The variety and extent of the material resources of the Pacific Coast is well known. Their utilization has only just begun. In unlocking the great storehouses of this region the chemical pioneers will look to the University for assistance in many ways. In this connection it is well to remember that as we pass from experimental work for a theoretical purpose to that with material ends in view, we usually approach operations of an extremely simple character. The basic principles will be obvious and well understood, and the technician's skill is more particularly required in detecting and controlling what may superficially appear to be details of small importance. The solution of a seemingly minor problem may bring major results. Members of the Chemistry Department will be proud to recall later on that much of the equipment for experimental work of a more practical character was first used in the study of prob- lems having to do with the utilization of local materials in meeting the needs of our country in the present great conflict. The relation of chemical work within the University and that without should not be one-sided. We on our part wish to stand in the most friendly and helpful relationship to the department, to assist where possible to the end that it may achieve the largest measure of usefulness. With the idea of friendly cooperation and mutual helpfulness in mind the dedication of this new and splendidly equipped building has an almost individual sig- nificance to each one of us. In the years to come there will grow up about Gilman Hall rich memories, like those which now enshroud its older com- panions. In this new era just beginning the Chemistry Depart- ment will continue true to its early ideals and traditions and will carry forward the standards so splendidly maintained throughout the past. DEDICATOET ADDRESSES 65 DEDICATION OF THE PAGET CHAIR IN THE GREEK THEATRE Chairman, PROFESSOR WILLIAM CAREY JONES, M.A. Professor of Jurisprudence, Director of the School of Jurisprudence, Dean of the Graduate Division, University of California THE CHAIRMAN : We come this afternoon to dedicate in a very informal manner a chair in honor of one who exemplified in the finest way the elements of Gaelic civilization. Professor Paget was known to some of us rather intimately. It is one of my precious memories, as it was my fortune, to know Mr. and Madame Paget in a more intimate way than most persons did. I knew them in their daily life, and with the little things that come up and the big things that come up in daily life. I learned to love and admire Professor Paget for his sincerity and unashamed way, for his fine scholarship and his loyalty to this country ; and to love his wife, Madame Paget, for her marvelous devotion to her husband, for her interest in the social and civil affairs in the community in which she came to live, and for her loyalty to her friends. Professor Paget was a big man. He did not carry any rank, but in that stupendous beginning of the war which caused him to leave his land, that part of the territory of France which was taken away just as we see it now in the present aggression, he was impoverished and forced to come to this country to get a living for himself, and to leave a very happy home, yet there was no rancor for that country. Some of his best friends in this country were Germans. We did not know until after his death that during all these years (he had been here twenty-five years) a very considerable portion of his income had to go back to France to care for those depen- dents left behind him. Nothing was ever said by him, nor did it appear in his household, yet that was the fact. He was devot- ing himself to them with his love. Here in this country he estab- lished the warmest of friendship with those who knew him, and he exemplified as I said those characteristics of French character 66 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENAEY which we have all come to know so well in these last few years : the simplicity, the earnest, firm, steady patience, the high- mindedness of the French people. To this man who leaves his greatest teaching, French language and literature, this Chair has been given by one of his former students in memory of him. It would be something that would be very pleasant to him to know that he has been remembered, and more especially to Madame Paget, whose single thought of life was for Professor Paget; and any appreciation of him during his life was so warmly received by her that it would be pleasant, especially so for her, to know that he has been remembered in this way. This afternoon we have Professor Charles Gilbert Chinard, who accupies the chair now which Professor Paget formerly occupied, and he will speak to you. DEDICATORY ADDRESSES 67 ADDRESS OF CHARLES GILBERT CHINARD, B. ES L., L. ES L. Professor of French, University of California Students of history know well the part played by the French in the discovery of the far West and the Pacific coast. Their contribution to the intellectual development of this part of the country still remains to be written. If it is ever done, a chapter, and that not the least important, will certainly be given to Pro- fessor Felicien Victor Paget. Born in France in the first part of the nineteenth century, Profesor Paget came to this country, a man already mature in years and rich in experience. He was appointed instructor of French in the University of California in 1887, and for fifteen years he initiated several college generations of students and teachers into the knowledge and appreciation of the literature of his native country. The French Department counted very few students when in 1894 Professor Paget was put at the head of it. French was considered a sort of luxury and the schools neglected it almost entirely. Professor Paget would be happy if he could see how today the people of the State and the school authorities have finally come to realize that France has something unique to offer them. In more than one way Professor Paget contributed to this change of attitude: the teachers he educated are to be found today in many schools of the State; our students can still use the books which he bequeathed to the French Department; and finally he and his widow left to the University all their property, to be kept in trust as long as this institution shall endure. Through this trust fund a graduate fellowship was established, to be awarded every year to a student of French. Professor Paget has been well repaid for his devotion to the University. Almost all the students who held the Paget fellow- ship are at the present time teaching French in the State ; several were enabled to go to France and to study there; one of them 68 UNIVEESITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENAEY after a short visit to France decided to go back to Paris, and for the last three years she has devoted all her energy to the reeducation of the French wounded. In this place which may well be considered as the hearth of the University, through the grateful care of one of his former students Professor Paget's memory will be associated with the future life of our university community. He will be remem- bered as a gentleman, a lover of letters, a good friend, and a pioneer who blazed the trail and still shows the way to his suc- cessors. DEDICATOET ADDEESSES 69 ADDRESS OF CHARLES CESTRE Professor of English Literature in the University of Bordeaux, Special ^Representative of the Minister of Public Instruction of France ME. CHAIRMAN, LADIES, AND GENTLEMEN: France has never lacked explorers, either explorers of land, as this country well knows, or explorers of thought. Professor Paget was one of the pioneers of the intellectual relations between France and America. It is fitting that under the auspices of Professor Paget 's memory a salute should be brought from France to this Uni- versity. To the University of California, young in years but ripe in learned achievement, I bring the greetings of the universities of France, ripe in years but ever young in spirit. Ever since the times when the devout churchman and scholar Robert Sorbon, in the remote Middle Age founded on Monte Ste. Genevieve the college which soon shone throughout Europe as the very source of knowledge and wisdom, the universities of France, daughters of the old Sorbonne, have kept brightly burning and have handed on from generation to generation the torch of human learning. This University, co-temporary to the settle- ment of one of the most recent cities in the United States, has been prompt in seizing the bright luminary and uplifting it high to throw the pure light of the intellect and the spirit on the path of its aspiring sons and daughters. Wherever I have been in the United States I have admired the staunch devotion to the ideal, in the midst of resolute endeavors to conquer the forces of nature and transform the primal energies into elements of human welfare. This cult of the higher life is especially manifest in the universities. But nowhere does it appear with more striking distinctness than in the will of the founders of this College to have the life of the spirit develop on this western coast at the same pace as the growth of the new city and the gradual mastering of wild nature by the pioneers of civilization. 70 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENAEY In their devotion to spiritual values France and America stand together in an age when base worship of materialism, selfish interests, and blinded self indulgence have led some nations to disown all that the joint efforts of great thinkers, religious teachers, and progressive writers, in the past history of mankind, had done to raise the human being and human society above the level of the brutal primitive conditions of exist- ence. The catastrophe which has been wilfully loosed upon the world by one set of peoples, and covered the soil of Belgium, honored for her arts and crafts, and the soil of France, hallowed by twenty centuries of civilization, with bloodshed and reeking ruins, shows that it is possible for knowledge to grow without any softening of national manners, for technical skill to develop without any bettering of social ethics, for prosperity to increase without any showing of good will towards others, and that there is such a thing as scientific barbarism. The democratic countries, America, France, and England (whatever their mistakes or misdemeanors in former times) have at least shown themselves capable of learning the lesson of their own history and of the history of the world. It is not in vain that, the rule of their public life has been the application of the universal principles of morals to politics and social relations. Groping their way through blunders and occasional abuses of power humanum est errareihey have in the long run disci- plined their appetites, quelled their instincts, restrained their ambitions, and come to apply the Christian dictate of loving kindness and the philosophic mandate of justice to the inter- national organization of the comity of nations. The French have never lost sight of the noble teaching of their moralists, who always placed the harmonious and humane cultivation of the whole soul above the mere quantitative enrich- ment of the mind, remembering the precept of Montaigne : Science sans conscience n'est que mine de I'ame. This ought to be placed side by side with the noble saying of Emerson : "Hitch thy wagon to a star," and the thoughtful and inspiring sentiment of Lowell: "Conscience is the taste of the soul; taste is the conscience of the mind." DEDICATORY ADDRESSES 71 All ought to be recollected in conjunction with the line of Words- worth: "We live by Admiration, Love, and Hope." Nations that do more than lip service to the ideal, who record in their past a noble struggle for liberty, or generous assistance tendered to others for their emancipation, or liberal and just treatment dealt to minor races, or a strenuous endeavor to cause peace and a legal status to prevail in the world, are alone entitled, according to the tests recognized by the modern con- science, to the name of civilized nations. They ought to unite, even at the price of costly outlay and dire sacrifice, to ensure the triumph of right in its age-old battle against might. To the noble elan of idealistic friendship and cooperation that brought Lafayette and Rochambeau over to these shores in 1777 answers today the disinterested idealistic movement of sympathy and joint service which has carried the Americans over to the shores of France in the resolute intent to end the insupportable tyranny that threatened the world. Henceforth, both for the Americans and the French, the watchword is, in the imperishable terms of General Pershing, ' ' We are here. ' ' 72 UNIVEESITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENAEY DEDICATION OF THE ESHLEMAN BUST Presiding Officer, MAX THELEN, B.L., A.M. President California State Kailroad Commission PROFESSOR RIEBER, CHAIRMAN : Friends of Mr. Eshleman : My part in this programme will be very brief because I did not know Mr. Eshleman personally; I never saw him while he lived amongst us, but now I see him every day and I want to see him day and night. As Chairman of the committee which has had charge of this celebration, I was anxious that this part of the programme should be directed by one who knew him and loved him, and who came in contact with him when he was at work. The one thing that I insisted upon in connection with the bust was that it should finally be placed, not in some corridor of the library, but in some equally honorable place where the students could see that face every day, every hour, and so it will be put here in the corridor of Wheeler Hall Auditorium, This celebration committee has been very anxious to have as many of the alumni in these different years honored as could possibly be honored, and at various meetings we raised the question, "Who are our most distinguished alumni? and we started to make a list, running it up to ten, fifteen, twenty of the most distinguished alumni during the last few years. I have also taken it upon myself to ask men whom I met at random who they thought were the most distinguished alumni. I would say, "If you were to make a list of the most distinguished alumni, who would they be?" Invariably the list would be headed by Josiah Royce, and invariably the second on the list was Jack Eshleman. I take unusual pleasure in asking Mr. Max Thelen, who probably knew Mr. Eshleman better than any one else, to take charge of this meeting. DEDICATORY ADDRESSES 73 ADDRESS OF MAX THELEN, B.L., A.M. President California State Railroad Commission MR. THELEN: Brothers and Sisters of our common Alma Mater and Friends: I think it most fitting that on an occasion of this kind when our University is celebrating her fiftieth anni- versary at least one function should be set aside to do honor to one of the sons of our University; and no son who has gone forth from this University represents better the ideals of the University and the spirit of service of the University than Jack Eshleman. Most fitting is it, therefore, that on this occasion, devoted to do honor to one of our sons, the son chosen should be Jack Eshleman. I remember the very first day in which I came to college I saw Jack. He was President of the Junior Class at that time and he gave us a talk, telling us just how we should conduct ourselves as freshmen. From that time through the days of college, through the years afterward, and through his magnificent work as President of the Railroad Commission, I knew him well, I knew him intimately ; I learned to know the splendid character- istics which he had; his principles; his sympathy, his courage, and his high idealism. Sympathy for the common man and common woman tempered by an understanding of their need and their views ; courage to go forward in every healthy under- taking, and courage to stand firm when assailed, showing forth the high idealism for which this University so preeminently stands. A little while ago, after he had passed beyond, a number of his friends, particularly in the east, acting in concert with men here in our own state, thought it would be most fitting that the students of this University should day by day be reminded of this splendid son of the University, that there should be here some tangible reminder of Jack; and thus it was that men in every part of this country to which his fame and his reputation had gone united so that there might be presented to this Uni- versity and appear here day by day as a reminder of him, a 74 ['XITESSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENARY bust of Jack. It was under the leadership of Maurice L. Cook that this particular bust which you see here today was sculptured, and is here today ready to be presented as a perma- nent reminder of this great son of the University. I assume that Jack's work as President of the Railroad Com- mission will live in the years to come as the greatest of his great work ; and I want you to know that although he is no longer with us in person his spirit still dominates the Railroad Commission. If there is a problem of difficulty that comes to us if we know how Jack w r ould have acted under the circumstances our path is clear. The spirit of service is the predominant spirit of the Univer- sity of California, and none of our sons more clearly typified that spirit than did Jack. DEDICATORY ADDRESSES 75 ADDRESS OF COLONEL HARRIS WEINSTOCK MR. THELEN: My friends, we shall now go hence, but Jack's bust will remain here, and as day by day the young men and the young women of the University of California for genera- tions to come look upon him they will be encouraged to render the same kind of service, service to this University, service to the State of California, and to all which is good and noble; for such was Jack's service, and of that service he, more than any other of the young men of the University, is the noble example. With pleasure I introduce to you, my friends, Colonel Wein- stock, who will present the dedicatory address : COLONEL WEINSTOCK: I once heard Robert Ingersoll, the great orator, say, "I love this country. I love this country because the humblest wage earner at th| close of his day's toil, can take his boy upon his knee and say; o him, 'My boy, if you have the brain and the character, you caL some day, despite your humble origin, fill the highest place in the gift of the American people.' ' How often have we seen this exemplified in our land. This country, for example, has seen Andrew Jackson, the son of a poor Irish emigrant, James Polk, the son of a poor farmer, beginning life as a clerk in a country store, Millard Fillmore, starting his career as a wool carder, Andrew Johnson, entering upon his life work as a tailor, Abraham Lincoln, starting out as a rail splitter, and James Garfield, the canal boat driver, all in turn occupying the Presidential chair. This Republic has seen the sons of toil and poverty elevated to the positions of Governors of our Commonwealths, members of our Supreme Courts, representatives in the United States Senate, and Ambassadors to foreign nations. No position of public trust or honor is closed in this great country to the humble or to the lowly born, if they but prove worthy. The only aristocracy that the American people recognize is the aris- tocracy of fitness and character. 76 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY Where then, can we find a country that offers a greater incentive to youth honorably to qualify itself for high places? What people in ancient or modern times have shown greater appreciation than the American people for the man of worth? In a land of autocracy, accident of noble birth, as a rule, is the first essential for social or political preferment. In this democ- racy fitness and the ability to serve, regardless of birth, are, as a rule, essentials to attain to places of honor and distinction. We are assembled here today to do honor to the memory of one who, in his career, has exemplified all that I have thus far said. John M. Eshleman was born in Illinois under the humblest circumstances. He was a farm boy until his nineteenth year. Drifting to California he became a railroad section hand, a steward in a railroad construction camp, and even exercised his abilities in the handling of the frying pan. Life for him during all these years had been a hard, close struggle. He knew what it was to toil and to labor. Though blest with a stout heart and an abiding faith in himself and in the earnestness of his life's purpose, he was hampered by a frail body. His lack of physical powers did not, however, keep him from performing the hardest manual labor and living on the roughest and coarsest fare. His youth had been no feathered existence. Life to him was real and earnest. If he was to make his way in the world it must be made despite the lack of wealth or influence, despite lack of early educational advantages, despite the lack of influential friends, despite the lack of robust health. There is no greater test of character than in early youth to be thrown upon one's own resources. The weakling is likely to succumb to the temptations to which the poor and friendless are subjected. The feeble are easily submerged in the seething mass in which each is struggling to rise over the heads of the others. To the strong of heart and mind such struggles are simply devel- opers of character. The university of hard knocks, to him who can safely pass through it, is the world's finest university. It brings the graduate the experience he can get in no other way, an experience which nowhere can be bought for money. As a rule, it gives him an outlook on life and a knowledge of human nature unknown to him who has been reared as a hot house DEDICATORY ADDRESSES IT plant. It teaches him, as a rule, how better to sympathize with the humble and the lowly, and better to deal with the high and the mighty. The university of hard knocks brings out, as a rule, the highest and manliest qualities the graduate may possess, and gives him a faith in himself that is not least among his most valuable assets. The university of hard knocks, as a rule, brings out of a man all his initiative, all his self reliance, all his aggres- siveness. It teaches him to stand firmly on his own feet and to meet obstacles and difficulties with fortitude and courage. John M. Eshleman was not only a graduate of the university of hard knocks but he was also a graduate of the University of California. While wielding his pick and shovel as a railroad section hand, his quick mind and his restless ambition led him to prepare himself for a higher education. His college career led his friends and admirers to feel that his was to be an impor- tant future. As president of the Associated Students in his senior year, and as a member of the Phi Beta Kappa Society and the Psi Upsilon Fraternity he made a K "ord which commanded attention. His academic work not only wun for him special recognition in the award of the Le Conte Fellowship, but he was also tendered the appointment to become a member of the University teaching staff. He left the University of California in 1904. I first met him as a young deputy of the State Labor Commission, seeking information in connection with his official duties. I was at once impressed by his earnestness, his intelligent grasp of the problems he was dealing with, and his high ideals- These qualities, as they grew and. developed and flowered, more and more commanded for him the attention of those around and about him. The name of John M. Eshleman in due course stood for all that was straight and clean and high-minded. It stood for force of character and for steadfastness of purpose. Some one has said that there are just two kinds of people in the world, "lifters" and "leaners. " Eshelman after enter- ing public life was speedily ranked with the "lifters." Many learned to lean upon him and to be guided by his wisdom and counsel. His voice carried with it weight because it belonged to one who had a sane mind and a sound heart. No one was ever 78 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENAET able to find in his make-up even the touch of a yellow streak. He possessed in a high degree the two qualities which the world most needs and most admires, convictions and the courage of con- victions. When occasion arose he did not hesitate in his love of right and justice to speak out and to act in accordance with the dic- tates of his conscience, regardless of consequences to himself. Being thoroughly human, he loved the good will and the appre- ciation of all. When forced, however, to choose between the plaudits and the good will of the many, on the one hand, and the dictates of his conscience on the other hand, his conscience prevailed. As a member of the Legislature and as District Attorney for the County of Imperial, he distinguished himself and became generally regarded as a man of unusual strength and force of character. The biggest work of his life was as Railroad Com- missioner of the State of California. For thirty years or more the Railroad Commission of California had been looked upon as being in the nature of a standing joke. It was notorious that the railway interests had, as a rule, been able to secure the election of their own men to this commission, who then faith- fully observed the wishes of the railways and subserviently car- ried out their behests, regardless of the public welfare. For thirty years the Railroad Commission had not only been a parasite but it had meanwhile defeated the will of the people. Determined that so far as lay within his power this condition should no longer prevail, Eshleman when elected Railroad Com- missioner threw himself into his work with all the energy at his command. It was not long before as President of the Commis- sion he had revolutionized the practices of the Commission and had made it a live, working organization. He commanded for it the fear of the wrong-doer and the respect of the people. The Railroad Commission for the first time since its creation began to function as a live institution. Those dealing with it found that it could no longer be intimidated, threatened, or cajoled. The full spirit and letter of the law were carried out in an intelligent, fearless, and effective manner; and the people soon came into their own. Railway abuses which had been tolerated for decades by subservient or inefficient Railroad DEDICATORY ADDRESSES 79 Commissions were corrected. Citizens with grievances against California railways were afforded the fullest hearings and their just complaints were speedily adjusted. The achievements of the California Railroad Commission under the inspirational leader- ship of John M. Eshelman is a record not duplicated in the rail- way history of the country, and makes a brilliant chapter in the history of this Commonwealth. Not only was the dominant corporation in the State over- thrown and public rights restored to the people, but the rate reductions for the benefit of the people aggregated $6,000,000 a year. Application for increased railway rates aggregating $2,- 000,000 a year were denied and conditions were established that were fair to public utility companies and just to the public. The achievements of the Commission commanded national attention and Eshleman became a conspicuous leader in the national conventions dealing with public utilities. In due course he was persuaded by his friends to prepare himself for the position of Governor of California by becoming the running mate of Governor Hiram W. Johnson, as a candidate for Lieutenant Governor. His election to that high office was overwhelming. He filled the position of President of the Senate with the same signal ability which had marked all his previous public services. Governor Johnson related to me not so long ago how helpful Eshleman as President of the Senate had been to him in the work of dealing with important legislation that had to be passed upon by the Governor. Governor Johnson found the clear brain, the unselfish spirit, and the wise counsel of Eshleman of the highest value and it was to him a source of satisfaction to feel that here was a man to whom could be safely entrusted as his generally accepted successor, the continuation of administering the great State policies that had so recently been initiated by the Johnson State administration. By none was Eshleman mourned more deely and more sincerely than by California's greatest Governor, Hiram W. Johnson, to whom as a friend, a co-worker, and a public servant, the loss of Eshleman seemed irreparable. No man had ever served the State more faithfully or more efficiently. He placed the people of California for all time under 80 UNIVESSITY OF CAL1FOEN1A SEMICENTENAEY deep and lasting obligations, and won for himself a place in their confidence and in their hearts that is the richest legacy that one can leave to those near and dear. The qualities of mind that greatly aided him as a public servant were his knowledge as an able lawyer of the fundamental principles of law, and his rare powers of forceful and effective expression of pure and simple English. To know John M. Eshleman was to admire, to respect, and to love him. His life cannot but be an inspiration to the youth of our Commonwealth. The heritage which he has bequeathed to those who are to follow, of simple living, high thinking, and efficient doing places him in the front rank among California's men of distinction. It is, therefore, with reverence and affection that friends and admirers look upon this marble reproduction of John M. Eshle- man. May it continue to stand in these sacred precincts for ages to come and may the story of his life, his struggles, and his achievements be a continuous source of encouragement to the disheartened, an inspiration to the struggling, and a guiding star not only to other men in public life but also to the youth of our State who are earnestly striving to make themselves as useful to their fellow citizens as was he whose memory we are at this hour honoring. There can be no higher aim in life than so to live that when we shall have gone to the beyond it may be said of us as can be said of our beloved friend John M. Eshleman, "Well done,, good and faithful servant." BANQUET ADDRESSES FOUNDERS' ROCK BANQUET ADDRESSES 83 ADDRESSES AT A BANQUET TENDERED BY THE UNIVERSITY CLUB OF SAN FRANCISCO To THE DELEGATES, SPEAKERS, AND INVITED GUESTS OF THE SEMICENTENABY CELEBRATION Toastmaster: Mr. Willard N. Drown THE TOASTMASTER: In these serious times I think we should begin the evening with a toast to the chief executive of the United States, and I call upon Governor Stephens, the chief executive of California, to propose the toast, The President of the United States. A TOAST TO THE PRESIDENT GOVERNOR STEPHENS : We must win the war. We will win the war, to insure American safety, to secure a larger liberty for man- kind, to insure America against the rule of the Hun. We must follow the Commander in Chief. Our Commander in Chief is the President of the United States, and to the President let us all drink. THE TOASTMASTER : Tomorrow, as you know, is to be held the celebration of the semicentennial of the University of California. We greatly regret that President Wheeler is unable to be with us tonight. But he has delegated Professor A. 0. Leuschner to take his place. I call upon Professor Leuschner. 84 UN1VEES1TY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY ADDKESS OF ARMIN OTTO LEUSCHNER, PH.D., Sc.D. Professor, of Astronomy, Director of the Students Observatory MB. PRESIDENT, GUESTS, AND FELLOW- MEMBERS OF THE CLUB: As the President of the Club has said, I am here merely to fill a chair. The place card before me reads, "President Wheeler." Until the last moment we had hoped that he would be with us tonight to express his appreciation to the Club for entertaining the guests of the University, and to give an additional welcome to the delegates who have come to us from all parts of the world. He was expected to bring with him President Hutchins, who will be our Charter Day speaker tomorrow. But President Hutchins felt it necessary to remain quietly at home tonight before the great task that he has to perform tomorrow. He, as well as President Wheeler, who also thought to save himself for the exercises which he has to conduct tomorrow, sends the Club and our guests heartiest greetings and expressions of sincere regret at not being able to be with us here tonight. I have also to present to you the regrets of some of our dele- gates whom we had counted upon seeing. Among them are Presi- dent Van Hise of the University of Wisconsin, Mr. Villard, the editor of The Nation, both of whom, on account of an obligation which was not foreseen, which imposed upon them another engage- ment, are kept at Berkeley tonight. I have also to bring you the greetings of our beloved Professor Henry Morse Stephens, who had hoped to be with us here tonight with his special guest, Pro- fessor Kellogg, whom many of you may know. Although I am here only to fill a chair, yet I can but feel as the little girl did after her first few days in school, when she was asked by her mother how she liked her new experience, and she replied, "Oh, thank you, very well." "But why?" she was asked. "Because I like the boy that sits next to me." "What is his name ? " " Oh, it isn 't always the same one. ' ' That is the way university men feel when they get together in the Club. And we feel that way all the more when we can sit at the table, not BANQUET ADDRESSES 85 only with our own colleagues in the University but with univer- sity men who have come together from all parts of the world, and above all if those university men are at the same time representa- tives of foreign governments which, side by side with us, are now fighting for the great cause of liberty. The University of California has just completed fifty years of educational service, and this educational service is now cul- minating in service to the country. Never before was it realized what the universities could do in an emergency such as faces us at the present time. Colleges and universities were thought to be pretty good places to send one's sons to, to get a little liberal education and perhaps a little polish, without so much thought upon the part of the public that there was being instilled into those boys a loyalty and an efficiency which, in time of need, would be one of the greatest assets of the country. But those times come about. Not only are our boys following the flag, not only were they among the very first to heed the call of the flag, whether it waves from the topmast of a ship or on the staff at the head of a column, but also in civilian service; in all kinds of service to the country they are proving their efficiency. Today was service day at the University. It is but fitting that this day should close here tonight with a gathering at this Club, the University Club. This Club has always fostered uni- versity ideals, and in behalf of the University of California I want to express to the Club the appreciation of the University that it has made itself a part of this memorable week, of this Service Week, which we are commemorating at the present time. The keynote of today was to pledge the University to the service of the country, a pledge which meant that every uni- versity man present, student, regent, representative of other col- leges, and faculty member of Berkeley, would stick to this task until this war is won. We have not been waving bunting and banners to celebrate this last week, but we have held a serious gathering: we have held, as one of the most important aspects of our commemoration, a Congress of International Relations. At the present time, when the whole world is upset, when even clouds seem to gather here at the Pacific, it seems but proper that serious minded men should get together, and, in a scholarly way, should study the situation 86 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY and analyze it and explain it to the multitude and the masses, so that we may not haphazardly take hasty action on any question that might confront us here on the Pacific but rather might approach in soberness and thoughtfulness any difficulty that may arise, and with the proper appreciation of all the facts involved. It is only on the basis of a scholarly study of conditions that proper international relations can be maintained. And that has been the keynote of our commemoration this last week. For that purpose, we have brought together most eminent scholars from different parts of the world, who have talked to us, and who have given us their point of view. It is but fair to say here, before you all, that the idea for such a gathering originated with the chairman of the committee in charge of the arrangements for the commemoration of the fifty years of service of the University, Professor Rieber, and also in the mind of Professor Merriam, the chairman of the Scientific Committee of the State Defense Council. They are the ones to whom we owe the success of the great gathering, the great discussions that have taken place at Berkeley during the present week. At first some thought that the undertaking would not be successful ; but from day to day the lecture rooms have become more and more crowded, the people have been eager to know the viewpoint of our foreign representa- tives, so that the halls of Berkeley were found to be altogether too small to accommodate all those who came to hear and to learn. We thought that it was particularly fitting at this time that the problems of the Pacific should be studied in this locality bor- dering on the Pacific, for this locality is perhaps more affected by the problems of the Pacific than any other part of the country. And the problems that were discussed were not merely of a political sort, to be solved diplomatically, as has been so un- happily done in the past ; but they go to the very root of the con- ditions that underlie political relations. We may have been wrong, all wrong, in this idea. We hope not. We may have sinned in this direction. But if we have sinned, I might remind you, perhaps, of what a very noted representative of the Catholic Church said at a recent dinner in the East: "I would rather be a sinner any day than a saint, for a saint generally has a past, but a sinner has a future. BANQUET ADDEESSES 87 ADDRESS OF DR. A. ROSS HILL, PH.D., LL.D. President of the University of Missouri MR. TOASTMASTER AND FRIENDS: I have no commission to represent the other delegates or the states represented here on this auspicious occasion. But I am very glad, indeed, to have the privilege of once again enjoying the hospitality of the Univer- sity Club of San Francisco, This has been a great week. The conferences that we have attended at the University have been of unusual significance. And I want to say that, somewhat to my surprise, I have found that they have been extremely helpful, and that the addresses that have been presented have been of a very high order. In fact, coming here expecting to spend a week of leisure and to secure a rest, I have found myself inclined to act like the chairman of our board used to, who attended the classes quite regularly as if he expected some sort of demerits if he failed to get around. So from Monday morning until this afternoon at six o 'clock, we have been following discussions and papers that I think have made the week one of very serious import to all the delegates who are present. And I want to express to the University and to those who have charge of the occasion, the satisfaction those of us feel who have come from long distances to attend this fiftieth anni- versary. I am pleased, indeed, that the University of California has taken up the idea at this time of conducting conferences of an international nature. The keynote of the situation may be ex- pressed by a remark of the first president of my Alma Mater. Andrew D. White, when he said, "The man you don't like is the man you don't know." I think those of you who are members of the University of California faculty appreciate the full sig- nificance of that. It applies equally to international relations. The people you don't like are the people you don't know. And I think we in America have been getting too provincial in our knowledge of foreign places. I take it, therefore, that these con- 88 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENARY ferences mark an epoch in the history of relations in America, especially states bordering on the Pacific, because of a start in an understanding with the peoples in other parts of the world. Those of us who have had the privilege of sitting in university class rooms and having students come from foreign countries have come to have some appreciation of the insight that can be secured into other peoples by coming into close contact with them. While we cannot all have such intimate acquaintances, we can at least all study the social conditions, industrial development, the ideals and ambitions of other nations. If I may be permitted a personal reference, I will say that I think some of my most interesting experiences as well as most valuable, as typified in my own life, came from living in families in Munich and Bavaria and Strasburg and Baden-Baden, among the southern Germans, and in my association at Cornell University with a Japanese who is now a director of a technical school in Tokio; also in the experiments in the psychological laboratory and in meeting with the students of other countries, not only abroad, but in the larger American universities. And this insight which one can get in actual human attitudes through contact is most helpful in bringing us into a better understanding of our relations to other nations. I congratulate the University of California upon bringing together people from all parts of the United States and from other parts of the world for the conferences that have been con- ducted this week. And I want to say, in addition, that I am especially pleased to have one state university take the lead in this matter. Our state universities are the greatest instruments we know in this country for the development of a state conscience and state consciousness. And they are also, every one of them, whether they have agricultural colleges attached or not, federal institutions as well ; and some of them have received more stim- ulus through their federal relations than through their state relations. It is a happy idea that a state university has been the first in this country to step forward from the mere traditional state connections, to those which are national and international, and to help lead the people of the country in that direction. And I trust it will be the task hereafter, not only of our state univer- sities but of our national universities, that are running on the BANQUET ADDEESSES 89 basis of private endowment, to develop on the part of all their students not only a state pride and national pride and conscious- ness but also to develop the international mind and the inter- racial mind. If the conference which has been conducted this week will prove to have been significant in bringing that about, it will be of great value in the development of our larger national life. Let me say one word in relation to the University of Cali- fornia itself. I want to extend my own felicitations, on behalf of my own university and on behalf of other institutions that may permit me to represent them on this occasion, upon the completion of the fiftieth year of its history. The record of the University of California has been a most honorable record among the insti- tutions of this country. Few universities of its short history have contributed so many significant names in the various lines of scientific and literary instruction. Who does not know among the educational men of the country names like Howison and Hilgard, and many others who have graced the chairs in the University of California from the beginning of its brief history, names that are still fresh in the minds of all of us who have passed through universities as students in recent years. And the record that they made has been extremely significant in the development of that spirit which has made the University of California grow so rapidly in other respects in more recent years. The rapid development of its enrollment, and in still more recent years the construction of such splendid and fully equipped buildings has been a record that has given to some of us at times a feeling of despair but at other times has been to us a ringing challenge and a great comfort. Because we feel that what the State of Cali- fornia has been able so quickly to do in the development of a great state university may be possible in time for some of our older and more conservative commonwealths. I take it, however, upon an occasion like this, that a university as young as is the University of California is, after all, inclined to look mostly to the future. She has not on her campus yet, in spite of all the splendid buildings that have been erected recently, come to have that calm and statuesque beauty of countenance that is born only of the travail of many generations. But while she lacks the transfiguring beauty of age she wears today the fresh 90 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFOENIA SEMICENTENAEY color of a vigorous prime. Hers is still the portion of youth, youth with its faith, its incredible hope, its superabundant energy, its tingling sense of activity that does not count upon the past, that does not dwell so much upon the records of the past, but, rather, upon the promise of the unrivalled present, and we pre- dict for the University of California a splendid future. BANQUET ADDSESSES 91 THE SPECIAL CONTRIBUTION OF FRANCE TO THE INTERNATIONAL IDEA CHARLES CESTRE Professor of English Literature at the University of Bordeaux, Special Bepresentative of the Minister of Public Instruction of France MR. PRESIDENT AND GENTLEMEN: It is not without emotion that I rise to address you this evening, after the enthusiastic and significant demonstration which has been given in favor of France. If I am here to be an interpreter of France to America you may be sure that I shall not fail to be an interpreter of America to France, and to mention, with all the emphasis that it deserves, the treatment that I have received at your hands tonight. Gentlemen, after having heard the addresses and lectures delivered at this celebration of the fiftieth anniversary of the University of California, all bearing on international disquisitions and forecasts I should be lacking in the sense of harmony if I did not stick to that very domain, and did not try to do my small, but I hope somewhat useful share in this worthy attempt. And in that respect I think I ought to address you very briefly tonight on the special contribution of France to the international idea. We have not always practiced the international doctrine. You know that the international doctrine in practice is young. The history of my country is formed of dark pages and bright pages, just as is the history of every country. But I may say without boasting that what characterizes France is that in the course of her long existence she has been able to learn from her own history as well as from the history of the world. When some nations (whom I need not point out) are as willing and as ready to learn from the history of the world and their own as we have been we shall be nearer to the dreamed of peace. In spite of some dark pages in our past (they are not perhaps, irretrievably so), the French are proud of their past, of all the endeavors of the nation to build the character of the nation. 92 UN1VEESITY OF CALIFOENIA SEMICENTENAET There are periods of which we are no longer proud. One of them is the time of the Napoleons. But in spite of our Napoleonism and some dark pages of our history, I may say that the thinkers of France, those who have built at the same time the ideals of their country and a part of the ideal of all the world, have done a great deal to establish the basis for international principles. It was in our great eighteenth century that there was con- ceived and expressed, for the first time, the idea of international amity between nations. At that moment a great movement ap- peared in French thought, indeed in connection with the whole thought of Europe, not exclusively creative, in part inherited from the great past of mankind, but in some parts which were an especial contribution of France. Right at that moment, in the eightenth century, our great philosophers for the first time gave solemn and persuasive expression to two great motives, the motive of human sympathy, the love that ought to exist amongst all men, and the idea of right, based upon just reasoning, upon the faith in man rising by the effort of his intellect above the fatalities of the physical w r orld, above the materialistic necessities, which had been considered thus far as inevitable and unsur- rnountable. War was one of those physical necessities ; and our ancestors thought that it w r as possible for men to rise above war, as it was possible to rise above despotism and tyranny. And the same men who were the founders of democracy the men from whom your Franklin and your Jefferson learned part of their American idealism also spoke for the first time, long before it could be carried into practice, about an international understand- ing between nations. One of them is Abbe de St. Pierre, with his proposal for perpetual peace among nations, an idea that was developed later on by Kant, the German philosopher, by his own confession a disciple of the French philosophers of the eighteenth century. Abbe de St. Pierre was an imaginative idealist, who thought it was possible, as some pacificists of our own time have also thought, to bring about peace by holding out your hands and calling upon all men to agree and hail one another as brothers. He proposed that the great nations should get together and form a sort of committee to arrange all differences and sign peace among them. It was wildly Utopian, but still, the idea had been expressed in a book. That idea was taken up a few years after- BANQUET ADDSES8ES 93 wards by Jean Jacques Rousseau, a man of very much keener mind and very much more alive to a sense of the realities, and he wrote a book upon Abbe de St. Pierre 's proposal for perpetual peace in which he sided with him, declared his enthusiasm and approbation of his conception of internationalism, but criticized and corrected some of his ideas. And it is from Jean Jacques Rousseau especially that a reasonable and sane idea of inter- nationalism arises, just as it is from him also that the idea of democracy in its universality arises. Jean Jacques Rousseau said we must reach the idea of a legal status between nations, while preserving the great motive power of patriotism. As President Hill said a moment ago, "We cannot like those whom we do not know. ' ' And Jean Jacques Rousseau, as a keen psychologist, understood that it was impossible to ex- tend our sympathy to people who lived at the other end of the world, and especially in his day when communication with distant lands was hardly possible. It was the time when his contem- porary, Montesquie, said, "How can a man be a Persian?" He thought it was impossible for a man to have real sympathy for those with whom he had no direct contact, and he said, "Let us build a conception of a comity of nations upon the real existence of nations, upon the real fact of nations keeping their patriotism, that admirable force, provided it is a patriotism that is not selfish, provided it is not a mere outburst of instinct and appetite and brutal force, provided it is a reasonable patriotism, made both of feeling and of reason." And therein lies the greatness of the philosophy of the eighteenth century in France: that it sought to bring together and to combine in harmonious propor- tion both feeling and reason. Then Rousseau proposed a thing which materialized very much later, a federation of the small states, that would have kept the balance with some of the greater states. And there we see a first and prophetic sketch of the idea of the neutrality of the small states. Nobody had spoken of neutrality. There was just one country that was actually enjoying some sort of neutrality, Switzerland, because she happened to be within high and then impassable mountains, and had been able to defend herself, keep- ing the admirable spirit of liberty, which is still symbolized today in Wilhelm Tell. 94 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENARY Starting from this actual view of the independence of Switzer- land, Jean Jacques Rousseau conceived without expressing it very distinctly, the idea of neutrality, an idea, gentlemen, which you feel is one of the essential bases of the future international organization of nations; because it is only when small nations are guaranteed against the inroads of powerful and ambitious and land-grabbing nations, it is only then that we can have some hope for stability in an international organization. That was the beginning : the idea of doing away with war in the future, perhaps by some legal organization of the world, based upon an international law which would be the natural development of the new principle of "right" that was rising in the minds of men and that was going to blossom forth a very few years afterwards in the American democracy. Democracy, as it was understood in the philosophy of our French thinkers of the eighteenth century, as it was developed in America at the end of the eighteenth century, and as it was attempted to be developed by France at the time of the French Revolution, is based upon the idea of justice. Justice is the basic conception of liberty. As soon as men conceived an aspiration for liberty, because they had acquired a sense of their own dignity, of their inviolability as human and moral persons, as soon as they had that sense of liberty in connection with the social sense, the idea of justice was born. A man who feels a right to his own individual liberty, must, through his reason and sym- pathy, understand that his neighbor, citizen of the same state, is entitled to the same right, and that is the basis of democracy. The sense of justice, extended beyond the pale of the state to the society of states, was to determine the policy of nations toward each other. It is the natural outgrowth of the idea of democracy. The nation that consists of a collectivity of indi- viduals, that owns a collective soul, which is the sum total of the individual souls of the citizens, ought to have a right to its personality and its inviolability. There ought to exist justice among nations, just as democracy required and claimed that there should exist justice among individuals. Then the two things were born at the same time, the idea of democracy and the idea of a legal status among nations. They were born from the same two great movements of rationalism and BANQUET ADDRESSES 95 of human sympathy. After that came the French Revolution, which was a gigantic attempt to realize in a few years such great changes that probably they were bound to meet with immediate failure, although they sowed the germs of momentous progress for the future. You know that the French Revolution was deviated from its regular course by the coalition of despots. Yet in its earlier years, in the first years in which it was allowed to develop norm- ally, one of the first things which France did was to borrow a word from our great historian Michelet : " to declare peace to the world. ' ' And she welcomed the great men of all nations, declar- ing them citizens of the French Republic and citizens of the world. Your Thomas Paine was one of them. Then came the dark period when sorely tried France had to surrender herself into the hands of a strong man, who restored order, but monopolized the admirable elan of the French nation for his own purpose of world dominion. As soon as France had recovered herself and resumed the normal development of her historic course she again tried to realize the international idea. And she based it now upon the new principle born of the French Revolution, a principle which is only an extension of the rights of man applied to the relations between states, the right of every nation to patriotic loyalty and to independence. France, I am glad to say, in connection with England, did all she could in the nineteenth century to promote, disinterestedly, sometimes at the cost of great sacrifice, the ' ' principle of nationality. ' ' This prin- ciple of nationality had become a concrete principle first through the birth of the American nation. The first time the principle of nationality was affirmed and established in history was here in America. Then the French nation, in a gigantic struggle against autocratic Europe, affirmed the principle for herself and established a noble form of enlightened patriotism. Then, in- voluntarily. Napoleon helped the principle of nationality by arousing and very justly and naturally arousing, the spirit of patriotism in Germany, that thus far, as you know, had not existed as a nation. And France struggled through the nine- teenth century to help other nations to come to a realization of themselves, to grow and develop and live. The first attempt was made, in connection with England, for Greece, and Greece was 96 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFOENIA SEMICENTENABT restored to her own integrity as in the ancient times. And then we fought for Italy, driving the Austrians out of the northern provinces. French blood flowed upon the fields of Italy, to liber- ate Italy. And then we tried, you know, to restore Poland, how- ever far away Poland was. And the Poles have ever been grate- ful to us. A great many emigrated to us ; they are an important element of the intellectual and artistic part of our population, and today they manifest their gratefulness by forming a Polish army on French soil of 200,000 men. We have been favorable to the development of German unity. That Third Napoleon of ours, that poor puppet of a ruler, had at any rate that saving grace, that he was an idealist, even to the detriment of French interests; and, to the great damage of French history, he helped to the formation of German unity. And we should not regret it, if Germany had made good use of it. We could not believe, nor could we forsee, that that form of patriotism, which results from the unification of a nation and which, in our idea, should be the great force of the world, could be perverted and distorted back to mere physical force, to the mere impulse of instinctive and brutal might, and become the support and stay of ferocious barbarians. Napoleon helped, through his diplomacy and otherwise, German unity. This principle of nationality was an essential principle of France in the nineteenth century. Then, after the severe lesson that we received in 1870 (at which time we had still some traces of the old militarism) we entirely abjured and disowned militar- ism, and if France has remained a military nation it has been for the purposes of defense, increasing her army reluctantly, in a small degree, after some huge step of the German army, which was always there in a threatening and menacing attitude: we abjured militarism, and we gave proof of it by helping, along with the civilized nations of the world, in furthering the idea of arbitration and the formation of a conference for peace among nations. We went to The Hague in good faith, and we put down our signature to the treaties in good faith. And we intended to stick to our word. We did not give a signature with the secret thought of breaking our word as soon as it might be convenient for our interests and our ambitions. BANQUET ADDRESSES 97 We have done our part, ever since the eighteenth century and through the nineteenth century, to carry out this international idea. And how do we conceive it ? It is good to dwell upon this a few moments, because words of internationalism, mere words, are falling from the mouths of our enemies. Some of their theorists, some of their most stubborn militarists, have spoken about internationalism. One of their thinkers, a great scientist, who calls himself a philosopher at the same time, the chemist Ostwald, claims to be an internationalist and even a pacificist. How does he understand it? If we take the doctrine of Ostwald all nations organized so that they should become efficient should be under the absolute and tyrannous leadership of Germany. "The age of individualism is past," Ostwald said. Your indi- vidualism, gentlemen, our individualism, the individualism that France, England, and America have cooperated in forming, and which we consider to be the future ideal of the world that indi- vidualism is superannuated. "We ought to overcome it," he said. A period of "organization" has arisen, and organization means, first, submission of the individual to the state, according to the Prussian idea, and, secondly, the enslaving of all nations under the iron rule of Germany. And, in proper terms, we and you should all be compelled, after the triumph of Germany, to labor as workmen under German foremen. Germany, Ostwald says, would discover the best ability of each people, and they would be put to work at the task which they were most capable of doing. That would be the "organization" of the world." It is not in this manner, by conquest and kaiserism, that we want to enforce the international status of the future. I am not exaggerating ! Ostwald is not the only one who said it. I might mention the name of a German scholar, a prominent scholar who stands high among famous investigators, the great Hellenist Williamowitz Moellendorf, a man who was, through his studies, in contact with the great thought of ancient Greece, and who ought to have known better. In a lecture at the beginning of the war, he said, "There cannot be any international law. So the only future of the world is: all the nations disarmed and among them Germany alone fully armed. ' ' But another expres- sion of the theory of Ostwald. And the German jurists come 98 UNIVEKSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY along to confirm this conception. They say the idea of "right" upon which those superannuated forms of political organization, such as the American democracy, the French democracy, and British liberty are founded, is false; the idea of right does not exist, it is a mere notion. Law does not depend upon right, they say, it depends upon historical necessity. Such laws as prevail today are the outcome, within the precincts of each nation, of custom, empiricism, material determinism; in other words, an application of the famous formula "might is right." We are very far from this conception, when we, Americans, French, English, and the other allied nations representing the civilized ideals of the world, speak of internationalism. First, internationalism rests upon that very idea of "right" that arose in the eighteenth century, best expressed by the French phil- osophers, when they said, ' ' We want to rest the new international status of the world upon right and justice. We want all nations, even the small and weak nations, to be respected, just as we respect a citizen w r ho is our neighbor and co-liver in our city or in our state. ' ' The nation that exists through racial, geographic, historical, and spiritual causes, is a moral entity, has a person- ality, has actually a soul which we must respect. Shall we forget what Flanders, that today we call Belgium, has done in the past, with that indomitable spirit of liberty, with all the benefits she has conferred upon the world by handing down arts and crafts to our generation? Shall we forget what a nation like Greece, with a great past, has done for the world? They are small nations, occupying but a small area on the map of the world, but they are great by their intellect, by their creative genius, by their artistic imagination, by their moral preeminence. Those nations have a right to live, because they brought into the world some of the vital force through which the world has lived, and which, if it did not exist, the world would not be worth living in. They have a right to exist, they have a right to develop, to reach the utmost consummation of their destiny. If they are not strong by the number of their inhabitants or by their military organiza- tion they ought to be protected. Then the idea of neutrality conies up. BANQUET ADDRESSES 99 When this respect for the moral and spiritual causes in the world, when this idealism that rises above mere materialism or the mere conception of the world based upon might and upon instinct and upon brute force when this idealism has triumphed, then we can apply the principles of right, then we can have international law, and expect that good faith among the nations will bring about the prevalence of international order, just as good faith among citizens makes life and civilized order possible in the state. I feel sure, gentlemen, that our two demo- cratic countries agree absolutely in this ideal. I have no apprehension in speaking about internationalism today, because you have come to understand after several years in which the whole meaning of this struggle has not come to you, living so far and in such different relations from the Old World now, you have come to understand the full significance of this struggle, and you have outgrown that phase of internationalism which we, over there, could only look upon with apprehension and anxiety, the internationalism which was fused with pacificism. We are pacificists at heart. But when you are living very near, elbow to elbow, with a nation armed to the teeth, and which is a thievish nation, and, as she has proved later on, a murderous nation, you cannot speak of peace. And besides, remember that history, since the days of Israel and antiquity and Christianity, with all of the vicissitudes through which the world has passed, shows that no great progress in the world has been won except through great sacrifice. We are fighting in one of the great crises of the history of the world, analogous to the advent of Christianity and to the French Revolution and other gigantic struggles for liberty that some of the smaller nations have had to go through. We are fighting, let us hope, in the last of the great crises of the world, and out of this may there arise a better future, a peaceful future ! You have understood at last, and there has been great joy in France, when we heard it ; you have understood that you have to fight for this great boon of the future, international law and peace among nations. It has been a great joy, not only because you bring to us your resources, which are enormous, and we measure the full extent of them, but because we are the nation 100 UNIVEESITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY that is most sensitive to moral forces. A former Chancellor of Germany, Herr von Billow, in a rather famous book, which many of you have read on the World Politics of Germany, treating of the subject of the relations of France and Germany, writes this sentence : " A strange people that places psychic causes foremost above their material interests. ' ' A strange nation, indeed ! Ger- many thus far has been unable to understand that there could be a moral sense among nations. But now we know that you have come to feel with us in this conception, and I have had no hesitation of any sort in treating before you this question of internationalism and of the peaceful relations of the future, because I feel confident that you are resolute, determined to march with us, hand in hand, through hardship and through triumph, to the final victory. Vive I'Amerique! BANQUET ADDEES8ES 101 VISION AND RECONSTEUCTION PROFESSOR MASAHARU ANESAKI of the Imperial University of Tokyo MR. PRESIDENT, AND MY FRIENDS AND COLLEAGUES : I Want to express my sincere gratitude, doubly, indeed trebly, because I have to thank, first of all, this country, to which we as a nation, and I myself personally owe so much, and to the University of California, which has educated many of our young men and which has, moreover, in this celebration organized the Confer- ence on International Relations, and has invited our University to participate in that; also I have to thank the University of California for this generous invitation, not only personally but in the name of the University of Tokyo, to which I belong; and then I have to thank this Club for the generous hospitality ex- tended to me together with other guests. In this club room I see the flags and colors of various colleges. Seeing those, and reflecting that I am now in San Francisco, I cannot help thinking of a story once told to me by my revered friend and colleague in Harvard, the late Professor Royce. As all of you probably know, he was a San Francisconian, if I may coin the word. He often told me, 'You don't know how interesting it is to me, a Californian, that I have you, a Japanese, here before me. In looking back to my boyhood days I remember vividly how I gazed at the first steamer of the Pacific Mail sailing from the harbor of San Francisco for Japan. It was on the first of January, in the year 1864." [I may be mistaken in this date, because I am not a historian, and I do not know the exact date, but somewhere about that date.] "At that time," he said, "Japan was something like a dream to my boyish mind. But now you are among us, and I not only know that but I know what you are thinking and what you feel; that is, I am well acquainted with your intellectual life, your moral sentiments, and your ideal aspirations. They are all unrolled before me, and are in close personal touch with me. What I thought to be a dream 102 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENARY land is not a dream land, but a reality linked with us in many ways. And here we are colleagues and frineds on the shores of the Atlantic Ocean." Now, in thinking of this, and in thinking that I am here, a guest of this University Club of San Francisco, and seeing all the banners of the various colleges, I cannot but think also of a recent address made by your Ambassodar, Mr. Roland Morris, in a meeting of the American University Club of Tokyo. Among other things he told us about the privileges and responsibilities of university men in the coming reconstruction, or it may be re-creation, of the world, of humanity. He said : ' ' There are perhaps two points which we must care for, for the future of mankind ; we must exert to the full our vision and our elasticity of mind. First, the vision that sees beyond the complexities of the present and opens a wide mental vista ; and, closely connected with that vision must be the elasticity of mind, the power of insight, the power which can perceive something in the depths of events and of occurrences." There is no need of dwelling upon those two points. I may perhaps be allowed to assume that I myself am an ambassador from your own Ambassador in Tokyo. To use a business term, I am re-importing what your own Ambassador has exported from this port to Japan. I only hope your Ambassador will not claim the copyright of his utterances, and that the collector of customs of San Francisco will agree not to examine my spiritual cargo. I think there is no need of saying that we university men, assembled here, our brethren and fellows from the world over, have a great task to achieve (and I hope at a not far distant day our former colleagues from Germany may cooperate with us) for the coming reconstruction and re-creation of the world and its civilization. This can be accomplished only by the leadership of university men, who are endowed with vision and insight and know how to work out a remoulding of humanity on the basis of justice and reason and peace, as our colleague, Professor Cestre, has just now so eloquently and precisely laid before us. One other matter occurs to my mind, and I want to be per- mitted to tell a story to you that illustrates the power of vision. It may be a trifling incident of vision, yet it means something for me at least. More than sixty-seven years ago that is, before the BANQUET ADDRESSES 103 coming of Commander Perry's fleet to the harbor of Uraga several of the Japanese, the men looking for a new Japan, stood for the opening of the country and gave warning admonition to the nation. One of them, Takano by name, wrote a book, in which he had a sentence which ran, ' ' Is not the water washing the shores of Yedo, of one continuity with the waters running under London Bridge?" I don't know how he knew the name of London Bridge surely he had not seen it. That was almost a vision. The Japanese people of those days took him as a mere visionary. Worse than that, the government authorities thought a man of that kind was a dangerous man, instigating people to useless speculations, and put him into a dungeon and sentenced him to death. So it was that one of the pioneers of new Japan sacrificed his life for a bit of this vision, which is a commonplace fact before us now. Yet it was a vision on his part, and, in the eyes of the authorities of that time, a dangerous thought, threatening and exciting the people. But the vision has triumphed, idealism has triumphed, and we have the new Japan. But I shall not dwell further on vision or elasticity of mind, which you know better than I, because I have learned this from your Ambassador. But one point which I wish to tell you is this, that I have come to this country at this time to tender our congratulations to the University of California, The University is now celebrating the fiftieth anniversary of its birth, and especially so tomorrow, on its Charter Day. That charter was granted in the year 1868, just the year when our country, Japan, opened its new era, and thus I find it very interesting and some- thing significant to me. But in every way, the mission, the responsibilities of university men will prove more and more important in the future reconstruction of the world ; and I hope that not only the two countries, but the two universities on the two sides of the Pacific, may cooperate for this reconstruction and re-creating of the world. 104 UNIFEBSITY OF CALIFOENIA SEMICENTENAEY THE NAVY CAPTAIN EGBERT RUSSELL THE TOASTMASTER: Gentlemen, before proposing a health to the Army and Navy, I feel as if I must say a word about the part the university men are playing in the present war. I notice from the figures that I have seen that Yale now has five thousand men in the army and navy, that it has two thousand of its men in civil governmental situations, and over a thousand men are on the other side now; they have an honor list, men who have already given their lives, of over forty, something like forty-two men have already been decorated for conspicuous bravery. I haven't the figures of other universities, but I know that they, too, will equal the showing that Yale has made. I would like to propose a toast, and ask you all to rise and drink to the United States Army and Navy. I shall now introduce to you Captain Robert Russell, who will respond to the toast, "The Navy." MR. TOASTMASTER: After listening to the very eloquent ad- dresses of the gentlemen who have preceded me, a sense of modesty possesses me, and I shall take very little of your time in what I shall have to say. Hut it may be interesting to you all to know that our navy is expanding all the time. From a very small navy a year ago, we have expanded until we now have several thousand more officers than we had less than a year ago. "We have hundreds of thous- ands more men than we had at that time. "We have also at the same time increased our navy, we have a great many more ships than we had a year ago. Better than that, I want to assure you that the spirit of our navy is still high ; I believe the spirit of our navy tonight, in the face of war, will measure up to the spirit of the men with John Paul Jones, will measure up to the spirit of the men who served in the war with Tripoli, the men who served in the War of 1812, the men who served in the Civil War, under David Farragut, and the spirit of the men in the Spanish- American War, under George Dewey. BANQUET ADDEESSES 105 The navy has but one thought and that is the winning of the war. Everyhing else must take a back seat. We do not enter into what caused the war, we do not trouble yet about what shall be done when the war is over. But everything, every man, every officer, must do his full share of the very best possible work that is in him for the winning of the war. That is the whole thought. Here, standing before university men, I wish also to thank the universities for the cordial cooperation which they have given us. Here in my own particular territory the University of Cali- fornia has done us great service, is today carrying on classes in preparation for naval service, and is supplementing the work we are doing ourselves and which we would not otherwise be able fully to undertake. I saw the University of California today unfurl its flag with 2200 stars for its sons now serving in the army and navy of the United States. Other universities throughout the country are also helping. In the east and in the central part of the counry and in the west the spirit of our people is high ; and I feel that we can count on you, and I believe that you will be justified in counting on us. The one thought and the one slogan with all of us is, ''We must win the war." 106 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENARY THE AEMY MAJOR WARREN, U. S. A. THE TOASTMASTER: I give you the toast, "The Army of the United States," and I will call upon Major Warren to respond. MR. TOASTMASTER AND GENTLEMEN : I wish it were really pos- sible for me to answer to such a toast as "The Army of the United States. ' ' But I find that it is quite beyond me to express properly an appropriate response. As I sat here tonight wondering what I really would say, there was one thought that came into my mind, and that was with reference to one's own individual service flag in his own heart. This country is today in the business of war, and of nothing else. It must be in the business of war. And Avhen tonight you go home and on the service flag of your own heart you put a star for something that you have done individually tow r ards winning the war, it will be the end of a perfect day for you. BANQUET ADDRESSES 107 ADDRESSES AT THE BANQUET OF THE ALUMNI ASSOCIATION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA CHARTER DAY Toastmaster, Mr. Wiggington E. Creed, President of the Alumni Association INTRODUCTORY ADDRESS WIGGINGTON E. CREED President of the Alumni Association PRESIDENT WHEELER, ALUMNI OF CALIFORNIA, AND GUESTS : The alumni of California welcome the visitors and delegates to our semicentenary observances, and bid them carry back to the alumni of their institutions our message that we join with them in dedicating ourselves to revere and to work for the common ideals of the institution we call Mother. We have become accustomed at our Charter Day observances to take stock. We have grown into the habit of considering our material progress and our material needs, our spiritual needs and our spiritual progress, at each Charter Day ; and on this occasion, we have taken stock wdth a broader and a deeper significance than ever before. We have not only considered what we have been, what we have become, what we are to be ; not only have we reaffirmed the ideals we were founded to foster and to cherish, but we have considered the part we are to play and are playing in meeting the problems which confront the world today and those problems as great which will confront the world when peace is here. It was, therefore, particularly fitting that President Hutchins should have given us that resume of the forces and causes which have placed us at war ; should have made that review of the duties and obligations \ve owe at this time, and suggested those dangers to which we must be alive when peace comes. May those words go far over this State and Nation. It was worth while to have heard them ; it is worth while to spread them. 108 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEM1CENTENABY We alumni who have come back here have learned anew many things of our great institution. We have seen the semicentenary publications, and have learned again that this great institution of ours fosters research. To our minds the foundation stone of the University is the spirit of research, and the opportunity for research amongst the scholars that make its faculty. And we are glad as alumni to know that our university has not only fostered and encouraged research, but that it has established a system of publications whereby the results of those labors may be recorded for the world. Again, on this several days' visit, we have learned that our University is doing a great deal of practical work and that it is doing it in a university way. But it has done our hearts good to learn that notwithstanding the competition for the efforts of the University and for the funds allotted to it to be directed toward practical ends our University has held true to the pur- pose of its foundation, and has fostered, protected, and encour- aged the humanities. We feel a debt of gratitude to Henry Durant that he wrote into the organic act creating the University that there must be in the University of California a College of Letters, and that that College of Letters should embrace a liberal education in English literature and philosophy. That mandate in the organic act has helped to put in the minds of the men of this State the need for a broad culture which gives men new interests and opens up vistas which give to men the capacity to write into life truth and honor. And there can be no doubt that the existence of that act, with that mandate in it, has done much to put into the minds of our legislators the spirit and the will to support both the practical things and the things of culture. As we look back over the years, President Wheeler, we have realized that you have come to us when we cried aloud for leadership. You found us, as you said, potentially great. We were like our torrential streams, untouched by the hand of science. Yours was the vision to lead, to control, and to dis- cipline. That mission you have fulfilled. In gratitude for what you have done, for what you have been, and what you have meant to us, the Alumni of California salute you. President Wheeler. BANQUET ADDEESSES 109 ADDRESS OF BENJAMIN IDE WHEELER President of the University of California MB. TOASTMASTER, LOYAL CALIFORNIANS : This is no time for me to speak. You have heard enough from me today. Yet I have come here just to give you one thought : the half century has gone. Though you feel pity for it, though you yearn for it, it has gone. North Hall is only a torso, and that torso will last only a few months. The fifty years are gone. We are in the second half century. Turn your faces toward the future, men and women of the Alumni Association. Consider what is your obligation in belonging to the body of the Alumni of this Uni- versity. Is there any institution which holds a place like this speak only, if you will, in terms of geography and do you know what the second half century calls for? No small thing. What we have been doing is shaking off our swaddling clothes. We are emerging into our work. The little catalogue of the semicen- tenary publications means more in expressing what this Univer- sity must be, yearns to be, compels itself to be than any of its outward foundations. The half century is gone. Let us gird ourselves for the second half. There stands a University, just begun in its work, with traditions that are fortunate, traditions brought over here from the old college at Oakland which were fortunate. It kept there at Berkeley from the very beginning in hearty glow a study of the humanities, a larger, a more generous outlook. That insti- tution is in many ways in its past. But the half century has gone. We turn our faces toward the second half. In that must be fulfilled those indications of the place which the University must hold. Great things must come. What is there now is a sugges- tion. We can think of it in no other way. A college that looks out, as this does, upon the bay and then upon the ocean beyond, must have come to know its place and its demands. 110 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY Material things we must have. This beginning of a system of buildings must, of course, be carried out. First of all we must have the Student Union, Alumni Hall. We must have a great, generous auditorium, with an organ in it. And that means some- thing in terms of the spiritual life. We must fill in the gaps, beginning at the central nucleus. A building must go up where North Hall came out, speedily. The Law Building must be com- pleted. South Hall must be razed, and the building that goes there put in its place. We must begin the great museum that is to crown that splendid knoll where now stands the little build- ings of the Astronomical Department. That building must carry the things to be housed in a museum; we promised it, the state required it and promised it all in one breath, in the organic act. The museum then, is one of the first things to look out for; and there we must bring together all of the materials, whether artistic or scientific, that belong in a museum. That will fill the center. Then come the laboratories up in the region of Bacon Hall, east- ward. Questions will arise of this building or that building. That will be settled with the time. But we have got to have cared-for open playgrounds for the students. We are hampered now. We are to have all that land reaching to Bancroft way, in the immediate vicinity of the University, for level playgrounds. There is no use putting them off at a distance, except as places where we may hold our pageants, such as the annual football games and baseball games and this and that. But we must have opportunity for healthy play and for military drill directly in the neighborhood of the University. We can't think for a moment of being stingy about those things. That which is in contemplation is too big for small talk. Whether or not we go to the ridge is not worth talking about of course we go to the ridge. And the little sum of money that is talked about or involved in barring our way to the ridge behind the University cannot hold us back a moment. Those will be nearest right who in things pertaining to the University of Cali- fornia think largest. Because the situation there is not one call- ing for small talk, I repeat, but for large views. The days are corning soon when vastly more will be needed there than we have today. We will pay then for what we have. Generosity on the part of this State unparalleled has marked the gifts of the State BANQUET ADDBESSES 111 in these most recent years. Friends have arisen to help us mightily. In the eighteen years that I have seen this University we have averaged nearly $500,000 a year of gifts. There are evidently people in the world who care for the University. There are a great many provisions that I know of as already made. Even this year, one after another, came in the splendid gifts. They are mostly for scholarships. We need gifts for equipment ; we must have further endowment, on a large scale, of chairs. What a fine thing it is, when you think of it, that Mrs. Sather, by careful management of her own affairs, in twelve years saved enough to endow two professorships, each with $120,000 ; that she added for the support of those two chairs book funds, one of $10,000, one of $15,000 in fact, two of $15,000 each a book fund also in law, the Sather Gate, the Sather Tower, the Esplan- ade below the Tower, and finally, the bells at the top of the Tower, all given by one woman out of her savings, practically, for twelve years. She had a joy in it. And there are many such. And we look wrong who look small, for the case is wide and large. The work that is to be done there in the next fifty years is enormous, wide-spreading, great, as compared with the work that has been done in these years now closed. All blessing, all credit to those who have labored and loved in this half century that is past. All help to the elbows of those who work for the needs of the half century to come. I know what your spirit is. I have dwelt enough with these men and women who have become and are becoming alumni of this Uni- versity to know that they will tolerate no small view of what this University is to be. Let us join in one accord to help in every way to make that university all that its place before men and under God and in the world demand. 112 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENAET ADDRESS OF WILLIAM M. SLOANE, PH.D., L.H.D., LL.D. Seth Low Professor of History, Columbia University FELLOW ALUMNI ANI> ALUMNAE : Not quite the youngest infant of the great University of California, but pretty nearly, because I represent a university which, in its situation, in its ideals, in a certain sense in its achievements, is a sister university to the very highest degree. It was Mr. Lowell who said that when Columbus knocked at the front door of the Indies, he found himself at the back door of America. From our hilltop in New York we look out across a bay, not so beautiful as yours, but the bay through which you and your ancestors, for the most part, entered the country; and as I stand in President Wheeler 's house and look out through the Golden Gate I cannot but draw a parallel, however imperfect, between the physical situations of the two universities. But we are bound by closer ties, even, than that. The long, intimate affection and friendship which my President, Butler, has for your great President, Wheeler, is one of the reasons why I am here to bring not only his personal greeting, but the greeting of his university, which in a very high measure he has made what it is, as President Wheeler has made yours. A dear friend of mine was appointed on a commission to examine the insane asylums of the state of Connecticut, and in the corridor of the harmless ward he found a man astride of a trunk, an empty trunk, but with straps, and he was galloping away do\vn the hall, manifestly enjoying himself tremendously. As my friend approached him, it was dear old Dr. Fisher of Yale, he said, ' ' Sir, that is a fine horse you have. ' ' The other replied, "Horse? This is no horse. If it was a horse, I could get off. This is a hobby." I have a hobby, and I can't get off from it. In these days of stress, it is time to take stock, as our toastmaster so aptly put it, of what we are, the one thing that presents itself to me as the single greatest thing is that we should get together get together. It is supreme, the magnificent effort which your Pacific mother has put forth. It is supreme, the splendid effort which BANQUET ADDRESSES 113 our great Atlantic mother has put forth. We, who are some thousands of miles nearer to the scene of conflict, have passed through various phases, one of which I hope is exactly similar to that through which you have passed and from which you have come triumphant. But I do feel that such pride as we university and college people should have is an honest pride and a just pride when we think that the very cream of our university men are the men who have been put to the very front to meet the dreadful and terrible task which lies before them. About one and a-half per cent, all told, of adult men have hitherto enjoyed the benefits of a univer- sity training. Upon that paltry one and a-half per cent, more than eighty per cent of the great tasks of the country has de- volved. That is a record of which to be proud. Exactly in the same way that the vast machinery of government should be united, working smoothly, with an effectiveness which we had not expected of our democracy, but of which we are justly proud, has been largely due to university men. We dare not forget, because not only has it been done but much remains still to be done, and we know it will be done with the same effectiveness. A note has been struck today, sir, which makes every fiber of my being respond. It is the note of the visitors, the note of exchange, the note of general and broad sympathy among the universities. Let us organize it, sir, let us organize it ; let us have a great central board which will see to it that the thing which you do so generously, which is so admirably done in the Univer- sity of California, as evidenced by the great and kind hospitality extended to me and my kind from all the eastern universities, from the middle universities, should be organized in such a way that it will become permanent. We get old, we get set in our ways. At times the college professor appears to me to be the worst type of a fossil. Then all of a sudden he has a rejuvenation and rises to his task. There is nothing which will make him do it like that which has happened to me, to be sent from the eastern university up and down this coast to your marvelous institutions of learning, and to become, for the time being, the possessor of that California spirit which I am proud to share with you; the spirit of warm hospitality, the spirit of keen appreciation, the spirit of God-bless-you,-go-on-your-way-but-come-to-us-again-if- 114 UNIVEESITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY you-can. That kind of temper is the temper that we, in our older East, need to get from you in fullest measure, to quaff it out of a great bowl held with both hands. There is a nursery tale about two boys who were mounted upon the same rocking horse, and after a little time one of them said, "Say, Tommy, let's one of us get off so there will be room for me." We have got too much of that. We want to have it dissipated. We need to have it understood that there is plenty of room in our broad domain, we Americans of every sort and every type, and every map that there is plenty of room for both of us and for all of us. And I am eager, if I can give you any note tonight, to give you the thought that you should back up your President, and that the movement which is sure to be in- augurated within a short time shall have your hearty support, not only of receiving but of sending your professors to us. Yet that is not enough. We have scholarships that send men to Europe, we have scholarships that send them out on investi- gations, all splendid. What you say, sir, is so true, that after all the acid test of the university is the thing that is produced by the research of the scholars, whether students or professors. What we need is the type of scholarship and fellowship that will send Columbia students to California, and pay their expenses, and that will send California students to us and to Harvard and to Yale and to Princeton, for in a certain sense I feel it incumbent upon me to mention all of our great eastern universities with which I am more familiar, unfortunately, than I am of those of the Middle States. That is the thing which I want to commend to you. Then there is a certain something which I must say before I sit down (which will be very soon) and it is this: Every patriot here in this room is yearning, longing, eager to assist in the tremendous struggle in which we are engaged; and I regret to say that somehow, in reading the papers during the last six months, not only at home but here, I do not find a certain note which ought to ring, and ring, and ring until it is part of our very being. Have you stopped to think, ladies and gentlemen, of the mothers of France? Have you stopped to think of the mothers of Great Britain ? There is no moaning at the bar when their boys are sent forth into eternity. It is, "These I have: BANQUET ADDEESSES 115 these I have given. Have I more ? I lay it on the altar. And I do it with gladness and with cheerfulness." And I ask you women, in particular, if you find your men a little gloomy as they look over their paper to cheer them up. I do not ask you to be Spartan mothers and endure that is not what you have to do or Spartan sweethearts and endure, or Spartan sisters and endure. I ask you to go much farther, to be glad in every- thing that you give in this great crisis. I live a very considerable portion of the year, although I am a professor in Columbia, in the university town of Princeton, where I was a professor for twenty years. When slavery was abolished many negroes came there to live. They took the names of their old masters, for the most part, the most distinguished names, almost, in the history of New Jersey being the names of our darkies. One of them, John Richmond, was accosted, as he was going from the engine house down a blind alley to vote, by one of our oldest and most distinguished citizens, Mr. Stockton historic name. He said to him : ' ' John, you have been voting ? ' ' "Yes, sah," ' ' John, who did you vote for ? ' ' said Mr. Stockton. "Well," he said, "Mr. Stockton, it was this away. I was goin ' down toward the engine house, and the Democrats got hold o ' me, and they talked and they talked and they slipped me three dollars. Well, I took it, and I went a little farther and then the Republicans got hold o' me, and they talked to me and they talked and they talked and they slipped me two dollars. And, Mr. Stockton, you may as well know I jest nachally voted the Republican ticket, because, you see, they was the least corrupt." Unhappily, there is a moral in that. Unhappily, we cannot always choose the absolutely right or the absolutely good, and, on the other side, reject the absolutely wrong. We know, alas, those of us who have gone a certain distance upon the path of life, that the ethics of our life, like the ethics of every man, how- ever high his station may be, so frequently consists in choosing the lesser of two evils. Now, you may say to me, apropos of what I have been saying, "We will not do any of these things that you have been talking about, we will be placid, we will be calm, we will do the absolutely right thing." I don't know how 116 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENAEY many of you are descended from Puritans, many of you, I am sure I am descended from something quite as bad, a Scotch Presbyterian and that conscience of ours somehow or other prompts us in what I think at the present moment is the wrong direction; and what I am asking you to do is to be cheerful in this hour of need above everything else. It may be that that is the choice of the lesser of two evils. But at this moment our boys at the front my wife there wears the service button, our boy is in the thick of it it is not a case of freely granting them leave, of giving them our blessing, but it is the case of letting them know at every moment of our lives and of their lives that there is a gladness and a joy and a cheerfulness behind them. We say we will do our duty: without that, our duty will be a sad, sour, and dreadful thing. In conclusion, I want to say, that, as I look about me here, it is not exactly the sort of graduate dinner to which I am accus- tomed. We haven't reached so far yet, quite, in our graduate dinners. But we are getting there very rapidly. We will have the girls with us soon ; whether they are young girls or middle aged girls or elderly girls they are going to be with us as you are here tonight. BANQUET ADDRESSES 117 ADDRESS OF JAMES H. BEEASTED, A.M., PH.D., B.D. Professor of Egyptology and Oriental History, in the University of Chicago MR. PRESIDENT, and, as my distinguished predecessor, seem- ingly with great satisfaction, uttered for the first time, I take it, as the spokesman of your recently created body of alumni Fellow Alumni a term which I am very proud to use : I count it a great privilege, even thus unexpectedly, without any oppor- tunity for preparation, to speak at least a word of appreciation. I have been carried away, as we visitors all have been, by this veritable flood tide of California enthusiastic hospitality. It makes a triple assault upon the visitor ; upon mind, heart, and digestion. The last two, in my case, have promptly surrendered, and I have lost them both, and I fear, before I have done, you . may be inclined to think also that the first has likewise very largely surrendered. A note of deep seriousness has been struck here this evening. You may permit me, perhaps, to turn for a moment to the lighter side. Many seem to be the uses of the archaeologist. He is expected to dig up old things. Presumably that is one of the reasons why your chairman fancied that I could deliver an after dinner speech. I remember very well ten years ago, far up in the heart of Nubia, that magnificent temple that has yielded so much, and where we were indeed digging up old things, that in order to gain access to a great inscription, from which I hoped and, indeed, afterwards was able to recover a fascinating chapter from the Old World, I was deeply buried in a trench before the monu- ment, and in order to reach the enormous lines of the inscription, which were at the bottom of the trench, I was obliged fairly to stand on my head. Way down at the southern limit, I am glad to say it was the southern limit, for we soon escaped them, were a group of Cook's tourists, and as the bi-weekly steamer drew up at the dock, a very elegantly dressed English lady came for- ward, climbed the river bank, and presently espied a very gener- 118 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY ous array of khaki trousers, and down below underneath an archaeologist at work, wrong end up. She stared for a moment, and superciliously adjusting her lorgnette, looked down and said, 1 ' Fawncy earning your living doing that. ' ' Had she but known what I was really doing I fancy she would have manifested an absorbing interset in my occupation on this particular occasion, for the monument on which I was engaged was nothing less than an account of a wedding in high life. There were forty lines, each eight feet long. Even our distinguished journalist from New York might have regarded a high-life wedding account 320 feet long as fairly fulsome. Upon publishing a preliminary account of that wedding in- scription there reached me in the heart of the Soudan, a letter of which I w r ould like to read you just a portion. It is headed with an eagle, and over it the cryptic words, ' The Ramsey Family Association," and the local officers of the local associations all over the United States are duly listed on either side of the head- ing, and then the letter goes on to say: "My dear sir: I notice from press reports that you have been making investigations in Egypt and that you have unearthed an account of the marriage of Rameses the Second. As secretary of our association, I am very much interested in anything concerning Rameseys. I have found that on a list of ancient knights, a report from Scotland, one knight is named Ramesey" spelled R-a-m-e-s-e-y. "The people of England know nothing of the origin of the name nor of the three places in England so named. The Scotch people are very tenacious of the name, preferring the spelling R-a-m-s-a-y, but they admit that the name R-a-m-s-e-y is altogether correct, and that some of their ancestors spelled it R-a-m-s-e-y. Now, my theory is that some of the descendents of Rameses went north and west as civilization worked its way eastward and crossed Rome, Austria, Germany, and finally to England, where the places there were named Ramsey, from some of their descendants. I would like to know if you, in your researches, have found out what became of the descendants of Rameses, and whither do you think they went. A man named Pharoah Ramsey lives in the State of Kentucky at the present time, which, to say the least, is a strange coincidence." BANQUET ADDRESSES 119 I repeat that many are the uses of the archaeologist. While we men who deal with this very remote oriental world of the near east sometimes find ourselves diverted in mid-career by com- munications like this I have a full file of what I call my freak correspondence, of which this is a prize specimen nevertheless, we are dealing there with an aspect of the life of men which has, after all, it seems to me, its immediate and more serious bearing upon our own attitude toward life at the present moment. With us who are endeavoring to recover the various chapters of the human career, and to discern emerging from the ages and eons of the Stone Age barbarism the expanding life of man, it is ours to discern that life, in its crossing of the Mediterranean and planting in the southeastern regions of Europe the very earliest germs of that civilization which, ultimately spreading over Europe, has crossed the western ocean and found a home on this western continent. And those of us who work in that way, realize, I think, and perhaps more fully than others who labor on the later phases of civilization, what it has cost; the ages of human endeavor, man confronting the forces of nature round about him, facing intelligently the forces of the material world, and making conquest of the highest, age by age. That is the panorama of the centuries which reveals itself to us, and we realize how many ages of human comfort it has cost .to build up this structure which, transplanted to our fair land, has been so enlarged, developed, beautified, and diversified. And now, just as we have stood, as we thought, in the dawn of a new morning, another race has re-proclaimed the law of the jungle. And it remains for us, us of a new continent, to keep our faces toward the morning, realizing what civilization has cost, and to plant ourselves in the way and save it, as it was saved over and over again by the men who had won it in the beginning. I like to think of the conquest of this continent, not alone as an exploitation of material resources, wondrous as that has been. But the men who planted the trails of this vast continent with rich and prosperous states were accompanied also by the gaunt and pious figures of those Pilgrim forefathers of ours, on whom, to be sure, our colleague, Professor Sloane, looks with some com- 120 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY miseration, perhaps ; and the descendants of those same Pilgrims of New England as they have drifted westward across the con- tinent have drawn out of the resources of the wilderness the lessons of a higher and a more spiritual life, have planted it as they moved westward with colleges. In Ohio, Oberlin ; in Illinois, Knox; in Wisconsin, Beloit; and the" one with which you are familiar in Southern California here, Ponoma ; w r hile north of you are still others. And here in the vicinity of your own campus, the seed was planted out of which your own great and noble university has grown. That kind of thing never took place before in the history of man. Never was there spread out a continent of hills and valleys and primeval forests of which man was called upon to make conquest, where as he has made conquest of it he at the same time has taken care that the youth of the land should be educated and given the privilege of learning the highest ideals of human culture. Having achieved a past like that, I look forward to the future without dismay. The latest news in the newspapers may not be encouraging. But we of America should not falter. We shall go forward, and, if neces- sary, there will be five million men in France two years from now. I want to thank you men of the Pacific Coast for the privilege of coming out here and learning a new lesson in patriotism. I appreciate deeply the honors that have been conferred upon me, of which I had not the slightest intimation when I was bidden first to come here and began to speak upon the ancient civiliza- tions which I so much love. I appreciate all those things deeply. And as I go, I want to say that it is not merely with a feeling of gratitude, deep and pleasant gratitude, but with a feeling also of complete confidence in the men and women of this Pacific world, that they are building well and worthily, solidly, and in such a way that the future may be regarded by us all as safe, certain, and along the lines which you and the great President of your University may lay out for the communities along the Pacific Coast. BANQUET ADDEESSES 121 ADDRESS OF GEORGE FILLMORE SWAIN, B.S., LL.D. Professor of Civil Engineering in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Harvard University MR. TOASTMASTER, LADIES AND GENTLEMEN, FELLOW ALUMNI AND ALUMNAE: My name is not on the list of speakers for this evening, and it was only a few moments ago that I was asked to say a few words to you. So you may well believe, therefore, that my feelings approximate very closely to those of a minister one Sunday morning, who was accustomed to give two sermons each Sunday, one in the morning and one in the evening, and who, when he put his hand in his pocket for his sermon in the morning, found it was not there. He had left it at home. He was quite embarrassed, and he arose and said to his congregation : "My dear friends, I feel quite guilty and embarrassed, for I find that I have left my sermon at home. Therefore I shall only be able to speak the words which the Almighty puts into my mouth, but I hope to come this evening better prepared." I much fear that there is nothing I can say to you this even- ing that will not have a personal touch. My thoughts are all in that direction. I am in a peculiar position here today and, indeed, this week. I am a native Calif ornian, born just across the way, and my early education was received but a few blocks from here in Oakland. I then went east, by force of circumstances, and there I have remained. I now find myself here once more, in my native state, my native city, receiving your wonderful hospi- tality and being honored by your great university in a manner which leaves me no way of expressing my appreciation. There are other reasons why my thoughts tonight are largely, if not entirely personal. "When I went east your President Wheeler prepared me for college in mathematics. You see what I owe to him. He got me into college. If it had not been for him I might not have been a college student even. In that case I could not have graduated and, therefore, I might not have been here tonight. Then, in conferring upon me the degree with which I was honored today you see he is simply giving to me what really 122 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY belongs to him. We all receive our stimulus from a few men and I should like to bear tribute to your President for what he did for me. He stimulated me as did another of your great Californians. It is very curious how things come around in this world, for after I entered college I was tutored in logic by your Professor Howison, and to him I owe a great deal, a debt that I realize more and more as I look back to that time. When I left California neither of these men were here. I go east, and receive my inspiration and stimulus from them, and I come out here and I receive from President Wheeler an honor ; but too late, unfor- tunately, to see my old Professor Howison. He still lives, how- ever, in the hearts of all those who have ever come under his. influence. The great reward that a teacher receives in this world is to be made conscious that he has been successful in helping young men make more of themselves than they otherwise perhaps could have made. So I am very glad to tell you here, alumni and alumnae of the University of California, what I personally owe, and what I am sure thousands of other young men have owed to President Wheeler and to Professor Howison. I am impressed here tonight with the similarity of meetings of this kind in other universities. We are one body, the univer- sities of this country. We belong to one great guild. We are working for a common end and a common purpose. And I might easily imagine myself tonight at a meeting of Harvard alumni or Massachusetts Institute of Technology alumni, except that we do not have the great advantage of so many of the fair sex. Perhaps we shall come to that in time. But we are one body, we are working together for a common end, I repeat. I see this flag, I see that 2200 of your California alumni are serving their country in this time of stress. It is just the same with us in the East, perhaps more so. The Engineering School of Harvard University has been converted entirely, or perhaps I should say the former Engineering School, into a school given up to govern- ment purposes for the education of radio men. The building in which my office is at the Institute of Technology is one-half given up to barracks and offices for army engineers and aviators ; and when I go into my office in the morning I am very apt to be stopped by a sentry, and I have to draw out my pocketbook and BANQUET ADDRESSES 123 show a pass to get into my own office. That is the way it is. Our campus looks just like this does here, marching men and the roll of guns, the roll-call, everywhere. The spirit of it is in the air. We college men, the college men of the country, have come to the front in this crisis in a manner of which I think we may all be proud. We have never failed the country, and we shall never fail the country. And as the years go by, in solving the great problems which we shall face after this war, which President Hutchins has so ably outlined, perhaps greater than any of the past, the country will be made, I am sure, to realize that the college men can be depended upon to use their influence and all their efforts, directly and indirectly, toward the correct solution of those problems ; so that people may realize that college education, higher education, does not mean simply the acquisition of knowledge, but that it means higher things, that it means morality, that it means the highest public service and sacrifice,. 124 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY ADDRESS OF HENRY MORSE STEPHENS, M.A., LITT.D. Sather Professor of History, University of California THE TOASTMASTER : I had a very direct question hurled at me by Professor Henry Morse Stephens. He said, without any warning, "Why am I asked to speak at an alumni banquet? I am not an alumnus. The alumni should do the talking." I pacified him by telling him that he had been drafted. That is a word to conjure with these days and it subdued even Professor Stephens. He will speak to you this evening as a friend if not as an alumnus. Professor Stephens. PROFESSOR STEPHENS : Your chairman has robbed me of my first sentence. I was going to tell you all about how I had not intended to talk as an alumnus, but how I had been drafted. Yet, although this is the first alumni banquet I have ever attended I am delighted to be here, because there are some things that I want to say. The first of those things is that I wish we had in the Univer- sity of California something like the great annual service that we have in my old University of Oxford, where we have each year what we call a commemoration of founders and benefactors. I have felt, superbly interesting as the services of today have been (for they were services), that one thing was lacking, the oppor- tunity to express the feelings of the University to many men who have served it long and faithfully without any conspicuous pre- tense to enroll themselves in any particular place of honor. When I think of the services to the University of men like Frank Bridges and men like James Sutton, men who do great work and Avithout Avhom the University could not continue to exist, it seems to me that we here, as a body of alumni, ought to have some means of expressing our gratitude to them and men of that kind. To Colonel Edwards, a magnificent tribute was paid last night at the Harmon Gymnasium. The services of men of that kind, who have graduated from this University and have then continued to serve in it, are never, it seems to me, sufficiently recognized. BANQUET ADDBESSES 125 A large part of our faculty comes from the Middle West, the East. Our speakers tonight, our delegates that we honor, come largely from a distance. I come from a greater distance than any of them. It is a far cry from the University of Oxford to the University of California. For very many years I cherished the thought of going back to Oxford. But when I was there in 1910 and the opportunity was afforded me to go back to Oxford I found that I had become so Californianized that it was not pos- sible to go back there any more. A man who has once felt the charm of California, who has lived in the University of Cali- fornia, cannot be happy anywhere else. If we could keep here men like Sloane and Breasted and Hill for about a year they would never go back to Columbia or Harvard. You men and women who have graduated from this great university of ours cannot realize what it means to be outside of it, to the visitor. It means something that they have never felt before. I always think that it would be such a good thing if every person, not only from the University of California but every Californian, could be dropped into New York for three months in the winter. Then you would appreciate California properly. It is only those of us who come from a distance who know what it means. Now, I got to thinking about my special subject to speak about tonight, and I have thought of a good many things, a great many things. I consulted Frank Otis and one or two other people as to whether it would be appropriate for me to say something to you about the matter that lies close to the heart of all of us, morning, noon, and night ; to say something of the present war in Europe, as it has seemed to the University and the graduate eye. I happen to have the good fortune of having many good friends among the undergraduates, and they come and tell me things which I think they very often don't tell their parents. They use me as a sort of father confessor, I am happy to say. These boys come to me, one after another, to ask what branch of the service they shall go into, what they shall do, and where they shall go, and my tables pile with letters from boys from all parts of the country, and from the allied countries abroad. One of them, knowing he might not tell where he was in his letter, drew me a little plan of the city, which I was thoroughly able to recognize, as the place where his battalion was quartered. 126 UNIVEESITT OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENAEY So I think I can speak quite clearly about the way these young men feel. I have had the advantage of talking to innumerable alumni. Tonight I sat at table with one known to many of you, Sunny Jim Force, Major Force, of the United States National Army. On the other side was young P. T. McFarland, graduate of our University, who first took his Doctor's degree, and then promptly entered the service in the navy. I kept the width of the table betwen the naval man and the infantryman. But from all of these various sources I think in some degree I have been able to find out, and I should like to tell you about it, how the boys around the University really feel in regard to the importance of serving at the present time. Perhaps I can best illustrate it by saying that I was talking a short time ago to a group of juniors, men of the class of 1919, and this was their theme, every one of them : ' ' Do you think we can retain our membership in the class of 1919 ? "We are all going to France, of course, but won't it be the greatest class that ever existed, a class that has gone through a war, a class that has been in France, not only hinting at it but actually being there? We shall have had the greatest experience, we shall have played the great game. But we want to remain as the class of 1919 of the University of California." That is the spirit of the boys. It is a wonderful spirit. The boys came to me to ask me whether they should join the National Guard at the time of the war with Mexico I won 't say the war, but the movement on the Mexican border. There were lots of boys who didn't feel they wanted to go into that, somehow; various causes disinclined them to believe in it. But there isn't a man in the entire University of California who in his heart and soul is not intending to go to France as soon as he possibly can. One day I happened near two boys in my classrom. one of them deaf in one ear and the other blind in one eye, and they were saying to each other, if they could only manage somehow or other to exchange, then one of them could go, and it would be all right. There is a desire to go, with an intensity that I have never known. I traveled through Germany and was in France as a boy at the time of the Franco-German war in 1870-71. I have seen a good deal of warriors who have been through different campaigns, but there never has been anything like the feeling there is today, and BANQUET ADDRESSES 127 that feeling surely is because these boys know, though some of them dare not state it they know that this war is not a war between nations, it is not a struggle for advantage of any kind whatever, it is a war of religion, it is a war of principle, it is a war of one civilization against another civilization. There has sprung up in the last one hundred years a civilization based on force, based on a government of a part of civilization which has for its doctrine that the state is male and the church is female, that the state should absorb all their energies and control all their lives. And over against that has grown up in other countries a belief that the true development of Christianity and humanity is toward a line of a free field for every one. On the one hand there has been fully developed the idea that inefficiency must be punished, that extreme efficiency, even to the extreme of brutality, must be followed. Over against this are the doctrines that have grown up so slowly as Christianity, that there is a place in the world for the afflicted and the unfortunate ; they are not to be crushed out by an iron system that deals in efficiency only. Those two civilizations are face to face. They cannot exist together in the same world. Abraham Lincoln, as you know, said there could not exist side by side freedom and slavery. There cannot exist side by side a civilization of freedom and a civilization of autocratic development. Our boys know that. You men know that. You know perfectly well that this is a holy war. It is not a war of nation against nation. I get tired when I hear of going to war to help the French, or to help the English, or to help the Allies, or to war against the Germans or the Bulgarians, or against anybody. There is nothing of that kind. As I read the American boy 's soul, he is not going to fight Germans, he is going to fight the system that has grown up which calls brutality efficiency. Over and against that system, then, is that civilization which we call democracy. I have lived in this country for twenty-four years. For the first sixteen of those years I had every intention of going back to Oxford as soon as I possibly could, just as if you go East you live in the intention of coming back to California just as soon as you possibly can. After I came back last from Oxford, and thought it all over, and that I was going to spend the rest of my life here, I thought I should at least be a citizen of the 128 UNIVEESITT OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENARY United States. But I could not, after the war broke out. I was told to be a neutral, and I was a resident alien. It is a hateful thing to be a resident alien. It closes your mouth. You can't say anything. Oh, but I wanted desperately to say things, par- ticularly after the sinking of the "Lusitania." I could not see or think neutrality. I am not built neutral I must fall one side or the other, and I felt villainously unneutral. But I had to keep quiet. I might not say a word. That would be very wrong as a resident alien. A resident alien who had gone on twenty- four years as a resident alien should not say anything. I wanted to talk, but I was not allowed to talk. My duty as a resident alien in a neutral country, to be as silent as I could, was very, very hard. It is very, very hard to renounce your own fatherland and become a citizen of another land. But the moment I read Presi- dent Wilson's war message last April, I turned over in my bed and resolved that I would go down to Oakland as quick as pos- sible and be naturalized. And in November last, in this very city of Oakland, I was admitted to citizenship in the United States. And I am proud of it, because I have become a citizen of the United States in the time when the United States is taking its big part in the world. I gave a course of lectures, as some of you may remember, on general history, commonly known as IA and IB, on the topic of the ' ' United States as a World Power. ' ' The United States is a world power, and has taken the responsi- bility of being a world power, as President Hutchins said this morning. And it can only do its part as a world power by think- ing out what the future of the world must and shall be. And I want to say to you that the good will triumph, the right will triumph. It is hard sometimes to feel it these days, when one sees these desperate, terrible headlines, scare headlines, I trust they are, in the newspapers. But for all that, it will merely stiffen the souls of the American people. I have not lived for twenty-four or five years among them without knowing what that temper is. I have not been brought into touch for twenty-five years with students without knowing what Americanism will do when it sets itself definitely to a task, believing it to be right. It is all very well to make fun of the so-called materialism of America. The United States is not a bit materialistic. It is BANQUET ADDRESSES 129 idealistic to an extreme. It believes in its ideals. It fought for them in the Civil War for four long years, the men of the South believing in their States Rights, the men of the North believing that slavery must end. They fought it out. This war is a much worse war. It is a war, as I have said, of religion, that is, the religion of democracy, which is the religion of the United States ; the religion which believes in the right of every man, poor, sick, or afflicted. That is the real democracy of the United States. I do not care so much about its political democracy what I love is its great social democracy, and no where can you see that illus- trated as you can in the American university. The greatest handicap that a man can have is to possess a little money. It is the boy who works his way through college who is the ideal college student, and you all know it. You all know how you honored the man who graduated with you after making his way through with pain and toil. If you only knew the delight with which I received some time ago the small present in money to be used in helping that type of hard-working student making his way through college, who is ashamed to go to a loan office, who is afraid to ask, and who may have to go home. Those are the men who make the finest graduates of the University of California. For it is not only brains we try to cultivate, but to make a definite, genuine character, so as to make a man able to find his way through this world of ours. There is one other thing I want to say, a confession I want to make. I was, I suppose, sufficiently fair in my attitude in regard to one great question in the world, because I was asked to speak on behalf of woman suffrage and against it. I accepted neither invitation, for obvious reasons. But what I do think is going to happen in this old world of ours, when it is all broken up, when its civilization has been broken up and a new heaven and a new earth come into existence, is that we are going to find an entirely changed world. When this war comes to an end the world is going to be broken all to pieces, the old ideas of prop- erty, the old ideas of marriage, the old ideas of classification of any kind they are all going to change. You men and the younger men among us (I shall not live to see it) will build up a new civilization, and in that civilization, your great, big help lies in the fact that you have the women with you. As I get my 130 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY letters from England I discover the wonderful work the English women are doing. As I get my letters from France I find out something about those wonderful French women, who have sacri- ficed their husbands, their sweethearts, and their sons. It is because the women are with us here that we shall be able to overcome a civilization which declares that the state is masculine, and which declares that women should be entirely relegated to raising children. The women of this world are fully taking their part. They make the big sacrifices. They are equal with the men in every respect. They have as much right to vote and will use their vote as rightfully as the men. They have as much right to take part in decisions as to whether a nation shall go to war or not, as have we. My girls in the University of California are just as capable as the boys. The women are behind the men in everything that this war signifies ; and it is because they have worked away from the idea of the state being purely masculine, because men and women alike in this country are able to consider things, that I rejoice that mine eyes have been cleansed of the blindness which made me ever ready to consider, as an old Vic- torian Englishmen would consider, the position of women as being relegated away from the great things of life. Woman is showing herself worthy of the great things of the world. And the new civilization that will be built up, when the time comes, will be one in which the women will take quite as big a part, or bigger, than the men. I have sometimes felt that it is my duty to make such con- fession as I have made so that I could be easy of conscience. I have made it, and I now feel easier in mind. And I say to you that you may talk to the women in the University as well as to the men, and you will find that their new responsibilities are making far grander creatures of them. You will note, of the women, that they are far nobler women than they would be shut away in the kitchen and the nursery of the old time civilization. There are many other things that I should like to say to you. To a body of alumni of the University like this, I feel as though I should like to say many, many things words, above all, of encouragement, words to make you realize how a man like myself feels, that this union of heart of French and English and Italian, and, above all. of Amercian, is bound to make the new world that BANQUET ADDRESSES 131 is to come a better world. It may be harder for a time, but it is going to be better in the long run. We who are here in this room are going to suffer deeply and are going to rejoice greatly. And in the forefront of civilization is this land of the United States, of which I am so proud now to be a citizen. Because it is going to play, it is playing, a great game. Don't be deceived if you find your brothers and your sons speaking lightly of their obliga- tions. It is because they feel deeply. The ordinary boy, if you ask him why he is interested, will give you any kind of an excuse that comes to his mind. He will say he is going because some- body else is going, or because somebody else didn 't go, or perhaps he thought it would be fine to go, or he would like to go and talk French, or like to go across the Atlantic at Uncle Sam 's expense. I have heard that very remark made. It is all camouflage. He is going because he knows and feels that he is an American, and it is his place to see that civilization does not vanish from the earth. The University of California has taken its part and is doing its best to train and encourage its young men and young women that they may be among the leaders in this great national move- ment to save civilization from the barbarian. I say "the bar- barian" yes. Why? Because of his education in barbarism, because of his training school ; because he has been trained up to believe he is so much the best person in the world that it is his duty to spread that idea abroad by force among other people. That is wherein there has grown up the arrogance which the world now sees displayed. Again and again attempts have been made to accomplish it, through one civilization or another through Louis XIV in France, the Napoleonic Empire which very nearly accomplished it. But the law of right, of freedom, of justice, has triumphed, and such combinations have gone down before and they will and must go down again. And it is your part, the part of every one of you, men and women alike, to be behind this great force of the United States, which has taken so long to get itself out of the neutral attitude, which has taken so long to realize the intensity of the duty laid upon it, but which now, having realized it, will bring about a triumphant conclusion. And when the close comes, it will be for the United States of America to lead the world into the idea of democracy, that ideal which must crush and shall crush, in spite of whatever dis- 132 UNIFEESITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENAEY appointments there may come first must and shall crush the idea of force, the idea that one person or one group of people shall rule another person or another group of people. Because the eternal meaning of American democracy is, in the broadest sense, liberty, equality, fraternity; the right of every man to a chance and opportunity to make the best of himself. America means that, and the rest of the world will believe it in time. THE TOASTMASTER : Will you now all rise and join in singing "All Hail." and then, with "The Star Spangled Banner," we will close. (The University Hymn and the National Anthem were sung standing.) SPECIAL LECTURES SPECIAL LECTURES 135 THE HITCHCOCK LECTUEES OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, 1918 GEORGE FILLMORE SWAIN, B.S., LL.D. Gordon McKay Professor of Civil Engineering in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Harvard University [First Lecture] THE FIRST QUEBEC BRIDGE AND ITS FAILURE This lecture dealt with the subject of the first bridge erected across the St. Lawrence River just above Quebec, which failed August 29, 1907. It was illustrated by many lantern slides, which traced the history of the structure, explained the type adopted and its relations with other types of long span bridges, discussed the methods of erection of bridges, showed the details of the structure, and finally described its failure and the reasons for this. This bridge as planned was to have a single span of 1800 feet, the longest span in the world. The main structure was a canti- lever bridge, of three spans, located about seven miles above the City of Quebec. The largest span is ninety feet longer than the two spans of the Forth Bridge, which was completed in 1889. The piers of the Quebec Bridge had been completed and the superstructure of the southerly half was being erected by first erecting the southerly shore arm on scaffolding, and then building out the long span piece by piece by means of travellers. The southerly cantilever arm had been completed and the suspended span in the center of the structure, which is supported at each end upon two cantilever arms, was being built from the south- erly end. The heavy traveller at the end of the projecting arm, which had been used in building the southerly cantilever arm, had been removed, and the central supported span was being built with a lighter traveller. A few days before the accident one of the inspectors discovered that one of the lower chord members of the southerly anchor arm near the river pier had buckled or bent out of line about two inches. A deflection at this place had been noticed the previous week, but at that time it was only three-quarters of an inch. 136 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENAEY While some of the employees appear to have felt uneasy with regard to this buckling, it was apparently considered by those in charge to be insignificant and not a cause for anxiety. On August 28th a conference of the chief engineers and others in authority was held, and it was decided to place the situation before the consulting engineer in New York. A messenger went to New York for this purpose, and the consulting engineer, after conference, telegraphed Phoenixville, where the bridge was being fabricated, and sent his representative there for consultation with the officers of the bridge company. By the time he arrived at Phoenixville the bridge had collapsed. Eighty-five men went down with the bridge, and of these only eleven were saved. No such mass of steel work had ever collapsed in the history of bridge building. Some 17,000 tons of steel formed one tangled mass of debris, extending from the anchor pier over the central pier down into the main current of the river. A study of engineering failures is more enlightening than a study of engineering successes. The lecture discussed the causes of the disaster, and drew the lessons which it taught. The material and workmanship of the bridge was considered to have been excellent. The disaster was not attributed to any flaw in material or defect in manufacture. It was due to the failure of the compression member and the buckling which had been noticed. This compression member had been designed without taking due account of the actual weight of the structure, the stresses in it were allowed to be too high, and the design was extremely faulty. The lattice bars connecting the parts of the member were much smaller in strength, in proportion to the size of the piece, than those used in ordinary design. These lattice bars had hitherto been designed in a purely empirical manner, although it is possible to apply to them some principles of mechan- ics. The lecturer, after the failure of the bridge and after obtain- ing details of the structure, had computed the strength of these columns and had found that failure should have taken place almost precisely, when it did. Facts and figures were given with reference to the details and the causes of the failure, which it is not necessary to discuss further in this abstract. SPECIAL LECTUBES [Second Lecture] THE SECOND QUEBEC BRIDGE A strange fatality seems to have pursued this structure. After the failure of the first bridge, plans were made for a new one at the same place and with the same span, although the width between trusses was greater. The design of the new struc- ture was radically different from that of the old one, and the differences between the two were explained and illustrated by lantern slides. The new bridge, like the old, was a cantilever bridge of three spans. The central supported span, which rests on the end of the cantilever arms, which in the old bridge was being built piece by piece from the cantilever arm, was in the new bridge designed to be built complete on the shore of the river. "When completely erected, scows were to be run beneath it and the load transferred to these scows, which were then to be towed up the river until this supported span was in position between the two ends of the cantilever arms, which had previously been completely erected, and the supported span was then to be raised by hydraulic machinery into its permanent position. Great care had been taken in the design of the new structure, and the two cantilevers had been successfully erected without serious accident. The plans for the supported span in the center and for raising it into place had also been carefully studied, and were thought to be beyond suspicion. When the span was being raised, however, after it had been raised a few feet and the scows had been taken away, there was a sudden failure at the southeast corner support, and the entire supported span dropped into the river. The lecture explained by means of numerous lantern slides the construction of the bridge, the methods of erection, and the causes for the failure. The cause is considered by some to have been a flaw in a steel casting, but it is more probable that the stress in the casting was excessive. Nevertheless, the other three castings held, and it is possible that there may have been a flaw in the 138 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENARY one that failed. The design of these castings, however, was shown to be open to criticism, and the peculiar point was illustrated that while more material was put into them than was necessary the result was a decrease in strength. Following this failure a new central supported span was built, and in the following year it was successfully erected, so that the structure is now complete. In the erection of the final structure the methods which w r ere considered open to criticism in the pre- vious structure were changed. [Third Lecture] RAPID TRANSIT IN CITIES AND THE MEANS OF OBTAINING IT This lecture dealt with the subject of the growth of urban population, the transportation problems to which this growth had given rise, and the methods of meeting these problems. The lecture was illustrated by a large number of lantern slides show- ing subways and elevated structures in various American and foreign cities. The two main methods of providing rapid transit in cities are by means of subways and elevated lines. The first subway in the United States was built in Boston, and the lecturer had been connected as a member of the Boston Transit Commission with the construction of all the Boston subways for the previous twenty-five years. The relative advantages and disadvantages of subways and elevated lines were discussed, the relative costs compared, and the methods of construction described. [Fourth Lecture] THE PRESENT SITUATION AYITH REGARD TO THE DEVELOMENT OF WATER POWER AND FEDERAL LEGISLATION ON THE SUBJECT There are few points of more practical interest to the people of this country than the development of water power. In this subject the people of the Pacific Coast should be particularly interested, inasmuch as they are comparatively remote from SPECIAL LECTUBES 139 deposits of coal, although, of course, they have large supplies of that other fuel, which has taken so large a place in industry in recent years. Power is one of the great necessities of modern civilization. Indeed it may fairly be said that this modern age may be charac- terized more accurately than in any other way as an age of the development and use of power. When we remember that it is only one hundred and fifty years or less since the invention of the steam engine, that the locomotive is not yet one hundred years old, that the telephone, electric light, all forms of electric energy, and practically all of our modern machinery have been developed within one hundred and fifty years, prior to which time almost all manufacturing was done by hand, is it not clear that this is an age primarily of power and machinery? The sources of power are two, viz. : the combustion of fuel, and the harnessing of the natural power developed by falling water. These two sources are fundamentally different in their economic significance. Every pound of fuel that is burned is permanently lost to mankind and can never be recovered. Con- servation of fuel means economy and restriction in its use. Seeing that the end of our fuel supplies must come at some time, perhaps in the not very distant future, it is essential that the greatest possible economy should be exercised in its use. The power of falling water, on the other hand, is generated constantly by our rivers as they flow from their sources to the sea, and only needs to be harnessed in order to be utilized. Every pound of falling water not harnessed or used is lost forever and can never be recovered, although providentially the power goes on perpetually from year to year, renewing itself constantly. Conservation of fuel, therefore, means the greatest possible restriction in its use: conservation of water power means the greatest possible extension of its use. Every horse power devel- oped by water not only provides that power for use, but elim- inates development of power by means of combustion and per- manent loss of fuel. Conservation of water power is therefore a double conservation ; it saves not only the power itself, which otherwise runs to waste, but it prevents or replaces the develop- ment of power by the use of something which once used can never be replaced. 140 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENAEY There is a third element involved, which makes the use of water power a triple conservation. Much has been said in recent years with reference to the desirability of improving our means of inland navigation by making our rivers navigable. In general this can only be done by means of locks, dams, and canals, by which a river is converted into a series of pools, or reaches, in which the velocity and depth are sufficient for navigation. Most projects for inland navigation are, in the opinion of the speaker, uneconomical and undesirable. Transportation by river and canal has been outgrown and superseded by transportation by rail, except in certain special localities, as, for instance, on the Great Lakes and wherever long distances can be traversed by water by means of large vessels. If anyone doubts this he has only to read Professor Moulton's interesting book entitled "Waterways vs. Railways," or Mr. John Howe Peyton's book on railroad transportation in order to be convinced. Nevertheless, much is said about inland navigation, and in some cases and for small craft it is a desirable means of transportation. The point now to be observed is that the development of water power by the building of a dam is a large step in making a river navigable. The dam should, of course, be located not solely with reference to the requirements of water power but also with reference to the requirements of navigation. If so located, a water power development is a navigation improvement. Conservation of water power, therefore, not only develops power and prevents it going to waste, but also conserves fuel and navigation, and is, therefore, a triple conservation. At the present moment with the enormous demand for fuel, its price is very high, and the supply is in- sufficient for daily requirements. In the East there has been a coal famine this winter, the seriousness of which is propably not appreciated by those who live in the warm climate of California. Many people have been unable to get coal enough to keep them- selves decently or comfortably warm through a winter of un- exampled severity. The coal supply has been doled out in baskets- ful or bagsful under the direction of public committees, and our coal yards have every day been crowded with anxious people trying to get a few pounds to keep themselves warm. An ex- mayor of the city in which I live, finding himself out of coal and trying to get some was told by his dealer that the best he could SPECIAL LECTURES 141 do was to let him have one ton if he would send and get it. Some people have had to close up their houses and live in hotels. Factories have been obliged to restrict output at the very time when it should have been increased to its maximum. Even in Philadelphia, close to the coal deposits of Pennsylvania, there has been much suffering and distress. The situation indicates forcibly the need, in the interests of the public and of the nation, of the greatest possible or practic- able development of water power, for water power can be used not only for power but for heat and light. Moreover, the intro- duction of electrical transmission of power has made it possible to develop water power in inaccessible regions, where such power exists, and to transmit it for use up to a distance of over two hundred miles with very little loss in transmission. Previous to the development of electrical transmission water power was under the great handicap that it could only be used at or near the point of development which is frequently in remote, mountainous, or otherwise inaccessible regions. Electrical transmission has, there- fore, revolutionized the status of water power and enormously increased its importance. With the development of electrical transmission has also come the increasing use of electricity as a means of utilizing power. Electric light has become the almost universal illuminant and electric motors are universally used to drive our street cars and largely used to drive machinery in mills. One of the great developments in the future will be its increased use in operating our railroads by means of electric locomotives instead of steam locomotives. Electric power is also used in many commercial processes, such as the manufacture of nitrogen- ous products for explosives and fertilizers, and in other processes requiring the production of a high temperature. In view of all the foregoing, it seems passing strange that water power has not been utilized to a greater extent. It would seem self-evident that the interests of the public would require its greatest possible economic development. Notwithstanding this its development has lagged behind that of steam. The last census of the United States in 1909 showed the total owned steam and gas power in use in forty-three leading industries to be 14,950,525 horse power, and the total water power in use 1,822,888 horse 142 UNIVEESITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY power. Mr. Leighton, formerly Hydrographer of the United States Geological Survey, states that the developed water power, according to the census made in 1908 is 5,356,680 horse power. Mr. Leighton estimates that the undeveloped water power amounts to 37,000,000 horse power for twenty-four hours a day and 365 days in the year, of which one-third is in the northern Pacific region. Another government estimate is 28,000,000 horse power. But the greater part of the undeveloped power is at sites where at the present time there is no market. Mr. Leighton further states that in his opinion "The available water power sites in the country are all developed." It should be remarked, however, that the electrification of our railroads would make available a great many sites where otherwise there would be no market. Moreover, many sites now developed might have the power much increased if provision were made for proper storage which w y ould supply \vater during dry seasons. The increase in power available by this means is very great, the absolute maxi- mum power possible by development in this country amounting in Mr. Leighton 's opinion, to "a conservative total of at least 200,000,000 horse power." There is no question in the minds of those who have given this problem careful consideration that there is in this country an immense supply of water power possible of commercial de- velopment if a market could be established, and that the electri- fication of railways and the development of electro-chemical industries may offer a market for much of this power. A large part of the power within range of commercial development is in the region of the Columbia River and the northwestern Pacific slope. It is stated by good authority that "The largest amount of water power in any one state is contained in the state of Washington, which has nearly 10,000,000 water horse power, of which less than three per cent has been developed. In Washing- ton coal is mined and steam power plants are operated within the range of the sound of descending waters, and trainloads of coal are imported each day from British Columbia." The same authority gives a list of actual projects for the development of water power in navigable streams which have been held back from development, amounting to 2,122.000 horse power. At all events a very great amount of power is possible of development SPECIAL LECTURES 143 as an engineering proposition, and in view of the fuel shortage its development and use should be carefully studied and encour- aged in every reasonable way. This subject has within the last three months been taken up by the Chamber of Commerce of the United States through a committee appointed for the purpose, and a referendum has been issued to constituent members throughout the country briefly discussing the subject and asking for a vote on certain funda- mental principles involved. In a recent consular report on the chemical industries of Norway the following statement is made : In surveying the chemical industries of Norway there are several features worthy of careful study by the American economist. First and foremost is the systematic and exhaustive manner in which the abundant water power of the country is now being regulated, stored up, and pressed into the service of the steadily increasing group of the electro-chemical industries. The best talent of the nation is enlisted in this cause and the way is rapidly being opened for Norway to assume an industrial position commensurate with its size and admirable facilities for maritime transportation. Why should not the United States devote equal attention to the development of its great resources ? From the above figures and other available statements and estimates it seems probable that there is today in use between four and five times as much steam power as water power, and that there is still undeveloped water power which could be practically developed amounting to much more than all of the steam power now in use. The development of water power besides saving fuel and affording a means of improving navigation, would bring other important advantages. It would release for other service the labor of millions of men employed in mining, transportation, and distribution; it would release hundreds of thousands of freight cars now used in transporting coal, as well as thousands of locomotives; it would save much damage and inconvenience due to smoke and soot, and thereby tend to improve human health and cleanliness. Every horse power than can be developed by water and used to replace steam power saves in the neighborhood of $15 worth of coal per annum. If this saving is capitalized at ten per cent it justifies an investment of say $150 a horse power in a water 144 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENARY power plant in excess of a steam plant. If 10,000,000 horse power could be developed by water this justifies an investment of $1,500,000,000. There seems little doubt that at least 5,000,000 horse power could today be developed by water if encouragement were offered. This would mean an annual saving of, say, $75,000,000 in cost of coal alone. Mr. Hugh L. Cooper estimates that the utilization of 35,000,000 horse power by water power would save, as compared with steam power, the sum of $1,241,600,000 per annum, besides conserving 280,000,000 tons of coal and transferring to other needs the service of 600,000 railway cars, 20,000 locomotives, and 740,000 laborers. Why then has water power not been more developed ? There are two reasons; first, the high cost of development of water power and its inferiority to steam in most respects; second, governmental restriction and discouragement. Let us consider these two in some detail. 1. High Cost of Development of Water Power and Its Inferiority to Steam in Most Respects One of the fundamental mistakes in the popular conception of water power is that it is cheap. The power itself is observed running to waste and it is inferred that as the power is there and does not require to be developed but only to be harnessed, it can be utilized at small expense. Such a view is incorrect. No power plant would be built, whether for steam or water, except in the expectation that it would be profitable for its owners, that is to say, that the gross return would be sufficient to cover all charges and leave a net return of an amount sufficient to be attractive. With reference to the cost of power the charges to be deducted from gross earnings are five, viz. : fuel, other operating expenses, taxes, depreciation, and fixed charges. A water power plant has the advantage that there will be no charge for fuel, and that other operating expenses will be small. The taxes and depreciation will be perhaps the same in either case, though the depreciation should be smaller, in general, for a water power plant. The fixed charges, however, will be very much greater for the water power SPECIAL LECTURES 145 plant. It is not generally realized that the initial cost of a water power plant will generally be from two to five times as much per horse power as for a steam plant, and, furthermore, that the initial development will have to provide for a larger total horse power. This arises from the fact that the construction necessary for a water power plant frequently, or generally, involves a dam, which may be of great size, and a very large area of land which must be flooded, and riparian rights acquired, together with canals, pen stocks, flumes, or conduits, and sometimes of great length, as well as transmission lines many miles in length, all of which is in addition to the power house itself with its necessary machinery. A steam plant is simple, involving simply the buildings and land for them, with the necessary machinery. The risk to the investor on account of the greater initial cost and higher fixed charges is, therefore, much greater for the water power plant than for the steam plant. Moreover, in case of failure there is a greater salvage in the steam plant. The land and buildings may be abandoned and used for other purposes, for they are generally located near the point of utilization or in a city, whereas a water power plant, like a railroad, can only be used for the purpose for which it was designed and cannot be abandoned and given up to some other use. The investor in a water power plant must, therefore, be prepared to face fixed charges of from two to five times that of a steam plant per horse power; and this of itself would be sufficient to deter investors from entering this field unless favorable conditions should exist both as to development and utilization and freedom from undue interference by public authorities. Furthermore, as already stated, the initial development in a water power plant must be greater relatively than in a steam plant. Most undertakings grow from small beginnings. If steam power is used, a small power plant may be built first, with one boiler and one engine. If the undertaking is successful and the demand for power grows, it is easy to add more units. In a water power plant, on the other hand, the dam, reservoirs, tunnels and other conduits, must be planned for a greater capacity than will be available at the beginning, for it may be difficult, if not impossible, to increase the capacity. The turbine wheels, of course, may be increased 146 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY in number as the demand for power increases, but the other elements, except the transmission line, are not so easily increased. This element then also increases the initial investment and the risk to the investor. There is still another advantage in a steam plant, arising from the relatively greater possibility of improve- ment in the efficiency of steam machinery. A water wheel will utilize eighty or more per cent of the theoretical energy of the falling water, and the loss in electrical transmission will be small. There is, therefore, only a possibility of a slight increase in efficiency due to improvements in the art, probably not over five to ten per cent. On the other hand, in a steam plant the best reciprocating engines or steam turbines develop but little more than fifteen per cent of the theoretical energy of the coal and the best gas engines something over twenty per cent. It is evi- dent that the margin for possible increase in efficiency is very great. As a matter of fact, notwithstanding the increase in the cost of fuel, both the initial cost and the operating cost of steam plants has decreased considerably within recent years. Not many years ago a steam plant was commonly estimated to cost in the neighborhood of $100 per horse power, while recently (before the war, of course) large plants have been built at an initial cost of $40 or $50 per horse power, and these plants are said to have generated power for about three and a-third mills per kilowatt hour exclusive of interest and depreciation, which means for con- stant power twenty-four hours a day and 365 days in the year about $22 per horse power. If to this we add twelve per cent, on $40. for interest and depreciation on the initial cost, we arrive at a total cost under $27 per horse power per annum under favorable conditions, but varying, of course, very greatly, depending upon the manner in which the power is used, whether constantly or only during the day, the cost of fuel and labor, whether steam is needed and used for other purposes, as for heating, processes of manufacturing, etc. Moreover, steam power is constant from day to day through- out the year, while water power fluctuates, sometimes very greatly. At periods of low water there may be very little power, while at other times there may be a disastrous flood. The works are liable to damage, and if the power to be developed is to be SPECIAL LECTURES 147 greater than the absolute minimum flow of the stream it must be by storage, which can only be procured by means of reservoirs, involving the taking and flooding of large areas. Water power can be produced aside from fixed charges at a lower cost than steam power, if the conditions are favorable, owing to the absence of cost for fuel and the lower cost for labor ; but the fixed charges on the much larger investment often suffices to bring the total cost above that for steam power. Summing up, the large initial cost of water power develop- ments and the greater risk to the investor, together with the greater proportional development required at the beginning, is the main deterrent under this first heading to water power de- velopment. Once safely financed and in operation, with a good market, and fair treatment, water power developments are very attractive on account of the greater convenience, the small operat- ing expense, the small amount of labor employed, and the conse- quent absence of labor troubles, the independence of fuel supply, the smaller depreciation (in general), and the comparatively small amount of working capital needed. These advantages, however, may be more than offset if burdensome regulations and restrictions are likely to be imposed by public authority. It is a common impression that water powers are very profit- able undertakings, which are being sought by capital as a means of securing large returns on a small investment. Such is not the case. It has been pointed out that the investment is large and that in many respects steam power offers greater possibilities for profit than water power. If water power is to be developed, the conditions must be made favorable, and inducements must be offered to investors, including reasonable assurance of fair treatment from the public authorities. Present demand for the development of water power and there is a large demand in many localities generally comes not from capitalists who are seeking for profitable investment, but more often from communi- ties and industries which, on account of the high price and scarcity of fuel, are desirous in their own interest of inducing capital to make such developments; just as the demand for the building of railroads in the early days arose quite as much, if not more, from the desire of communities and states to secure 148 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY transportation facilities in order to develop the public resources as it did from investors who saw the possibilities of large returns. The collateral advantages resulting from the development of water power, viz., the saving in fuel, in labor, in transportation, the absence of smoke and soot, are reaped not by the owners of the water power but by the community as a whole. If the total w r ater power in the country now commercially capable of develop- ment could be brought into use, there is no question that the total direct and indirect saving to the public in the conservation of fuel and the release of labor and railroad equipment, as well as in other ways, would run into hundreds of millions of dollars annually, perhaps billions of dollars. The above considerations show the importance of approaching the subject with an attitude of mind which recognizes that the development of water power is of benefit mainly to the com- munity as a whole, and that in order to secure such benefits water power developments must be made attractive to capital, rather than with the attitude of mind which assumes that such enterprises should be surrounded with as many restrictions as possible. Particularly is this the case at this moment in this country. Capital will have abundant opportunities after this war, both here and abroad. States, communities, and individ- uals will be clamoring for it, and it will be comparatively scarce, owing to the great destruction of wealth which has taken place. There will also be a scarcity of labor unless the labor supply of Oriental countries, which have not felt the devastation of war, can be utilized, which seems to many desirable though it may not appeal to some of you on the Pacific Coast. This leads us to consider the second reason why water power has not been more extensively developed, viz., 2. Governmental Restriction. It is self-evident that large water powers will generally exist on large streams on which navigation is possible and which come within the category of navigable streams, or else in regions near head water which may lie within the public lands of the Forest Reserve. It is stated on good authority that of 77.2 per cent of the water power resources of the country which require a Federal SPECIAL LECTUEES 149 permit, less than 4 per cent has been developed, while of 22 per cent of those resources which do not require a Federal permit 25 per cent has been developed. (This, of course, may be partly due to inaccessibility, lack of market, etc.) As a matter of fact many undeveloped water powers are in whole or in part under control of the Federal Government, either because they are on navigable streams or require the use of public lands. With respect to these powers the policy of the Federal Government in recent years has been such that their development, instead of being encouraged, has been almost prohibited. I will endeavor to briefly summarize the situation. Federal Acts prior to 1899 had prohibited the building of dams in navigable rivers in such manner as to obstruct or hinder navigation or in places where they might interfere with actual navigation until the plans for such works should be approved by the Secretary of War. In 1899 an act was passed requiring the consent of Congress for the building of such structures and the approval of the plans by the Chief of Engineers and the Secre- tary of War. Since the passage of this act it has been customary to obtain a special act of Congress for the development of each water power on navigable streams. These acts generally require very properly that any changes which may be rendered necessary if the structure is found to obstruct navigation in the future shall be carried out by the owners at their own expense. In 1906 the so-called General Dam Act was passed, in which further restrictions were added, requiring the permittee to con- struct, maintain, and operate at his own expense such locks or other structures or appliances which the Secretary of War at any time might deem necessary in the interests of navigation, and that if Congress should authorize the construction of a lock for navigation in connection with a dam, the owner should convey to the United States, free of cost, the title to such land as might be required, and should operate such locks, and maintain such lights and signals, at his own expense, as the Secretary of Com- merce and Labor should prescribe. These conditions were not obligatory, but they might be imposed by the Secretary of War at his option, although another section of the act allowed the United States to construct and maintain locks or other struc- 150 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENARY tures required for navigation at its own expense. The main objection to the act, however, was that it "was revocable by the Government at any time. In 1910 the act of 1906 was amended and still further restrictions added, providing for the collection of a charge for any head-water improvements made by the United States which might improve the flow of the stream, even though the permittee did not profit by them. Any act was made revocable at any time, but, if revoked, the United States was to pay the owners the reasonable value of the works, as decided by the court if not by agreement. Permits were to be given for a period not exceeding fifty years. This last act was, therefore, more fair to the permittee than that of 1906, because it provided that if the rights should be revoked the owner should receive compensation. It did not, however, provide for any compen- sation at the end of the period of the lease, which could not be greater than fifty years, nor for any renewal at that time. The owner, therefore, who developed the water power would have to amortize or receive back his entire capital during the fifty year period. It will be observed that by this last act the permit was re- vocable at any time : if revoked the United States was to pay com- pensation, and had a term not to exceed fifty years, without compensation or renewal at the end of that period ; also that the permittee might be required to give land for locks and to con- struct and operate such locks at his own expense. Notwithstand- ing the fact that by constructing the dam he made a large con- tribution toward rendering the stream navigable, he was required, or might be required to contribute still more. There was no question as to the propriety of his paying for any benefit which he might receive from head-water improvements, if he actually received it. The government also reserved the right to alter and amend the act at any time. Any riparian owner building a dam for power purposes, therefore, placed himself entirely at the mercy of the Federal Government. But even these restrictions were not sufficient for those entirely well-meaning and enthusi- astic persons who maintained that the government should not give away any of its rights on navigable streams or on the public domain, but who failed to perceive the importance of encourag- SPECIAL LECTUEES 151 ing water power development. They maintained that, in addi- tion, the permittee should be charged for the power developed. They insisted on the imposition of such charge, together with the other burdens referred to, being placed upon riparian owners who desired to utilize their natural riparian rights and incidentally to confer a considerable benefit upon the government without expense to it by improving the navigability of the stream. Sev- eral bills providing for the construction of dams across navigable streams were vetoed in 1908, 1909, and 1912, because they con- tained no provision for compensation, or because the act of 1906 did not terminate the permit at some fixed time. There was great difference of opinion in Congress regarding these matters, and in general it may be said that Congress was in favor of greater liberality toward permittees, while the executives believed in restriction. In 1913 a bill to permit the construction of a dam for water power purposes across the Connecticut River, which provided for compensation to the government, to which the applicants for the privilege had agreed, was defeated in Congress by the votes of those who were willing to give the company the privilege without compensation but were unwilling to establish the precedent or to recognize the principle that the government is entitled to receive it. They believed that while it had the power, it had not the legal or moral right to accept it. Prior to January 30, 1932, the Federal Government expended at the Des Moines Rapids on the Mississippi River the sum of $1,458,103 for inadequate navigation facilities, and prior to June 30, 1912, the sum of $12,184,987 for navigation improve- ments on the entire stretch of the river between the mouth of the Missouri and St. Paul. Since 1910 the Mississippi River Power Company as a private investment has expended upward of $20,000,000 at the Des Moines Rapids, and has constructed a magnificent dam with locks of deep draft. On the Coosa River in Alabama, which is navigable in its upper and its lower portions, but not in an intermediate distance of about one hundred miles, in which improvements by the gov- ernment have been considered impracticable on account of the expense, navigation improvements had cost prior to 1876 about $1,500,000. Under an act of 1907 a water power dam has been 152 TJNIVEESITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY constructed without expense to the government at a cost of over $2,000,000, and in 1912 a similar improvement was proposed at another place at nearly the same cost. This was vetoed because no compensation was provided. In this case the applicants pro- posed to build a nitrate plant, producing a product valuable for fertilizers or explosives. If this bill had not been vetoed, this country would have had a nitrate plant today. As it was, when the permit was refused the applicants went to Canada and located their plant there. Similar restrictions have been urged upon the government and adopted with reference to the development of water power on the public domain. Here it is, of course, proper that if gov- ernment lands are used the permittee should either pay for them outright or pay a reasonable annual charge. Where, however, the public domain is only incidentally affected, as, for instance, where some portion of it would be flooded by the pond created by the dam, or where government land is crossed by flumes or transmission lines, if water power development is to be encour- aged it is desirable that the permittee should acquire a permanent right or that, at all events, he should not be subjected to any onerous restrictions. This case, however, according to present regulations is treated just the same as the case where the govern- ment owns the site of the power itself. The main obstacle to development in these cases does not arise from the rates which are charged, which are generally reasonable, but from the form and condition of the permit, which at present is revocable at any time at the will of the government department by which it is granted, and also subject to other deterrent restrictions. Can you imagine that investors will knowingly put their money into water power developments if the fact that a small part of the transmission line which may lie upon government lands subjects the entire development to the charge of instant revocation of its rights upon the whim of a cabinet officer? As a matter of fact, on March 2, 1909, the Secretary of Agriculture and the Secretary of the Interior did revoke some twenty-five permits, substituting permits with different conditions. It may be that the revocations in this case were not made for the purpose of embarrassing the permittee, but were to meet altered conditions; but the fact SPECIAL LECTURES 153 remains that permits could be revoked and have been revoked at the pleasure of a cabinet officer, and that the revocations made did embarrass the permittee. Among the other provisions with reference to water powers on the public lands which hinder the development of power are the following : If the government takes the property, the price paid is to be fixed by the government or by a member of the cabinet. It is sometimes provided that a company operating under a gov- ernment permit shall not sell more than fifty per cent of its power, or some other percentage, to any one concern. How could railroad electrification be promoted under such restrictions? Rental rates, which, as we have stated above, are properly im- posed, may be revoked by the Secretary and new ones imposed at periods of not less than ten years. In imposing new rates, appre- ciation in land values is considered as income in estimating a fair return to the investor, who, of course, never receives this appreciation, since the land is used and necessary for the works. Notwithstanding this, in case the property is taken by the United States or by state or municipal corporations only the original cost of the tangible property is to be paid to the owner. He is here not to be allowed the appreciation of land. The inadequacy of the present laws to encourage water power development has been recognized by several cabinet members directly concerned, who have referred to them as "absolutely inadequate and thoroughly unsound in principle and practice." Please remember, then, that the present defects of water power legislation may be summed as follows, as outlined in the report of the committee of the Chamber of Commerce of the United States : Water Powers on the Public Domain As to water powers on the public domain (lands the title to which is in the United States), a permit has to be obtained from the Department of Agriculture or the Department of the Interior, whichever has control over the site in question, and, no matter how much the investment required, the permittee must accept a permit which is upon the face and in fact, arbitrarily revocable at any time, that is, revocable by the same department that grants the permit. His permit also may be made subject to any conditions which the department may see fit to impose at the time the permit is granted. But this is not all, for his permit is made subject to any further condition which the same department may at any time choose to impose, adding further burdens or restrictions even after 154 UNIVEESITT OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENAEY his investment has been made. Indeed, if a homesteader happens to make entry upon the land covered by the site occupied by the investor's water-power plant, then immediately the permit is, by virtue of such entry, automatically revoked. And in neither case is the investor protected by provision for compensation. His entire investment is at the hazard of loss or confiscation from the moment it is made. Again, even if the water-power site is located outside of the public domain and it becomes necessary to use or cross any part of the public domain for a transmission line or otherwise, then, no matter how slight the use, a permit must be gotten for such use, and the same hazard of revocation prevails as in the case of a permit for a public domain site. The result is that, out of about 5,000,000 kilowatts of energy commercially feasible to be developed from the water powers upon the public domain, only about one-tenth have been developed. 4,500,000 kilowatts of energy on the public domain are unneces- sarily and unreasonably allowed to continue to waste, because the legislative restrictions and hazards prevent the necessary invest- ment of private capital. Water Powers on Navigable Streams Outside the Public Domain Under the present status (Acts of 1906 and 1910) applying to water powers outside the public domain, the term of the permit cannot exceed fifty years, and at the end of that time the permittee has no rights whatever. No consideration is taken of the length of time required to build up his business and to get on a profit-paying basis, nor of the necessary investment to keep his plant up-to-date. At the end of the 50-year term, or a shorter term if it were made shorter, he must lose his entire investment. To save himself from this loss he must amortize his plant, which is impossible; that is, he must add to his charges for service such amounts, beyond the otherwise ordinary charges necessary to bring a fair profit, as are sufficient to pay him back by the end of his term his entire invest- ment. In many instances this would make his charges beyond the rate which would bring a demand for his service. But this is not his only hazard. His permit may be arbitrarily revoked at any time before the end of his term, and that, too, without compensating him adequately for his investment. More- over, arbitrary conditions at the will of the War Department may be imposed, and the nature and extent of the burdens or hazards which may thus be arbitrarily imposed are left indefinite and un- certain. Furthermore, he is subject to such conditions not only imposed at the time and as a part of his permit, but it is also subject to other indefinite and uncertain conditions and burdens which may be imposed subsequently thereto. This makes it impossible for any investor, acting under such a consent of the Congress and a permit issued thereunder, to com- pute with any business-like approximation the amount of the invest- ment which he may ultimately be compelled to make. Of course, where the investment-cost per horse power produced exceeds a fixed sum, varying under various conditions, the enterprise is not com- mercially feasible; that is, development and operation mean a loss of profit and a loss of investment. These water-power developments require large capital and careful financing, all of which is impos- sible in the face of these uncertainties and hazards before which capital necessarily shrinks. There have been developments on SPECIAL LECTURES 155 navigable streams within the past few years, but none of these has been made under any permit granted under act of Congress since 1907. These developments are under consents granted under prior acts. These are the reasons for the present stagnation of water-power development on navigable streams in this country. The legislative defects now existing are apparent and not denied by any sane student of the subject. The present administration appears to recognize the difficulty and is endeavoring to deal with it. The Committee of the Chamber of Commerce of the United States, as above stated, has prepared a referendum. This committee has made the following recommendations : 1. As to all developments, whether within or outside the public domain, a separate act of Congress should not as at present be required for each development; but the authority to issue permits should be vested in some department or commission designated for that purpose and under conditions protective of the interest of the public and of the investor. The advisability of this action has been generally recognized by most students of the question. 2. Permits should be issued for a period of at least 50 years, unless at the option of the applicant a shorter period is agreed upon, and should be irrevocable, except for cause. It will not be sufficient to fix the term of a permit as "not exceeding 50 years. ' ' This would allow the government authority to dictate a shorter period. Capital investments in water power development should be allowed at least a 50-year period in order to insure a reasonable average annual return, making up in later years for losses incurred throughout the period necessary to build up the business. A 50-year period is recognized very generally among financiers as the shortest reasonable period for such an investment. 3. A toll should be imposed by the government only on power developments on the public domain or benefited by head-water im- provements maintained by the government. Such tolls should be based upon the horse power actually developed, used, and sold. The tolls should be reasonable, and proportionate to the benefits actually derived. A distinction is not always recognized, as it should be, between tolls exacted for permits for sites on the public domain and those exacted under permits to develop power on navigable streams outside the public domain. Tolls, as such, exacted for the pur- pose of revenue, are not justifiable in reason or, according to 156 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY good authorities, in law when imposed under permits for the improvement of navigable streams outside the public domain. The government owns the public domain and when it grants a permit for a site on the public domain it may reasonably exact a toll, but a permit for a development upon a navigable stream not 011 the public domain is simply a permit to improve riparian rights owned by the applicant, and the sole justification for even requiring a permit in such a case is to protect the paramount right of the government to regulate and protect navigation. On such streams, therefore, a toll, if exacted at all, should be simply in the nature of a license fee to cover the cost to the government of such control and inspection of construction and operation as are necessary to protect the interests of navigation. In case the government makes improvements at the head- waters of the stream, which improve its flow, and is, therefore, beneficial to water powers below, it is proper that the amount of such actual benefit received should be paid back, in part at least, by all the users of water power, in order to reimburse the govern- ment to some extent for the operation of the headwater improve- ment. It is to be observed, however, that navigation interests benefit by such headwater improvements equally with water powers and perhaps more so, and that this benefit is given without charge to those who profit from the navigation facilities, for the federal policy regarding navigation is stated by the act of Febru- ary 27, 1911, as follows: No tolls or operating charges whatever shall be levied upon or collected from any vessel, barge, or other water craft, passing through any lock, canal, canalized river, or other work for the use or benefit of navigation now belonging to the United States or which may be hereafter acquired or constructed. It is difficult to see why, in view of this provision, any toll, even for headwater improvements, should be levied upon users of water power; for it discriminates against them in comparison with navigation interests, while, as a matter of fact, the development of water power is much more beneficial to the public and ought to be much more encouraged than the development of inland navigation. Any toll levied for headwater improvements should be accur- ately defined. If stated as so much "horse power per annum" SPECIAL LECTURES 157 it is uncertain whether it is to be based on the number of potential horse power possible of development at the site, whether or not developed, utilized, or sold ; or whether on the basis of the actual horse power generated at the site as a matter of fact, without reference to the quantity utilized; or again, whether upon the power actually developed, used and sold. The latter basis alone should be the proper basis of the toll. The owner of the site might have at his disposal already much more than he could find a market for, and any headwater improvements might simply result in a greater flow of water over his dam, without benefit to him. Why, then, should he be taxed for such headwater im- provements, which he has not asked for, does not desire, and cannot use? 4. If public lands form only a small and incidental part of the entire development, the licensee should be entitled to acquire the right to use such lands, paying the government fair and just com- pensation for such use. One of the greatest obstacles to development of water power on the public domain in cases where it is necessary for a trans- mission line or pipe line to cross a small portion of government land, but in which the site of the power itself is not on the public domain, is the impossibility of obtaining any assurance from the government that he can get the necessary rights, under any reasonable tenure, which will assure him of security in his investment. Any such slight use of government lands which may be necessary to his enterprise may under present regulations result in arbitrary revocation of his entire permit, and may, therefore, mean the destruction of his entire investment. 5. At the expiration of the license period the government should have the right to recapture the property for itself or for a new licensee upon the payment of fair and just compensation for the property and for all dependent property, if taken; and if the dependent property is not taken, then fair and just compensation should be paid for all severance damages. Provision should be made that, all things being equal, the original licensee have priority over any new licensee. No great development of water will take place unless the rights of permittees at the expiration of the permit are properly protected. It seems clear that the government should have the power to recapture the property at that time by paying for it its fair value at that time. It should not have the power to take a 158 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENAEY portion of the entire property, leaving to the owner a portion which is vitally dependent upon the portion taken by the govern- ment, unless fair compensation is paid for the damage thereby sustained. 6. At the expiration of the license period the government should (1) agree with the licensee as to the terms of a new license, (2) recapture for itself or for a new licensee, or (3) continue the license under the original terms. If the government does not desire to take over the property at the expiration of the license it is clear that it should be obliged either to continue the license under the original terms or agree upon new terms with the old licensee. It should not have the power to force the old licensee to accept its own terms. 7. Bates and services should be regulated by state commissions where the service is intrastate, and only by federal authority where the service is interstate and the commissions of the states which are directly concerned do not agree or there is no state commission. The exercise of any federal jurisdiction over the issuance of securities would be unnecessary and unwise. 8. No preference should be allowed as between applicants, whether a municipality or otherwise, which amounts to the granting at the expense of the government of a subsidy creating unequal competition in the same market. Some bills relating to this subject have proposed that muni- cipalities or states should be granted permits without charge while private parties must pay a toll. This would make it possible after a private company had developed a power and was selling it, for instance, for electric lighting purposes, for the muni- cipality to develop another power and enter into competition with the existing company, not only for municipal purposes but for private purposes, which might result in the ruin of the original company. It should not be possible for such a condition to arise. It would mean putting into the market a competitor subsidized at the expense of the government. It would mean that a private licensee would under a government license expend time and money to build up a market and business and when, perhaps after a long period, the time for making profits began then the government would under another license give to a municipal corporation, free of cost, other power with which, as a competitor, to enter into a market already built up under burdens of expense imposed by the government. There would be SPECIAL LECTUEES 159 competitors in the same market, the one under the burden of expenditure imposed by the government permits, licenses or leases, and the other subsidized either by a remission of capital expenses or of tolls and, therefore receiving free of cost the benefits of improvements paid for by the government. In view of the benefits to the community which are brought about by the development of water power, it is earnestly to be hoped that action will soon be taken by Congress which, instead of restricting, will encourage to the greatest possible extent the investment of capital in these enterprises. Without any interest in any of them and looking at the subject purely as a student of public policy, the speaker has become convinced, especially in view of the developments during this war, that it will be better for the Federal Government to pay a subsidy to encourage the development of water power and to remove all restrictions so far as possible, always reserving to the government the power to take over the property at any time in the future at its fair value at such time. Perhaps when that time comes the courts will have finally decided what fair value is, and how it is to be determined. [Fifth Lecture] SOME CONTROVERSIAL POINTS IN THE VALUATION OF PUBLIC UTILITY PROPERTIES The subject of the valuation of public utilities and other prop- erties has come prominently into the public eye within two or three decades. It has led almost to the formation of a new branch of engineering, and has attracted the attention of many economists and publicists. The problem of estimating the value of an industrial property is of course old. Bankers and business men have for many years been obliged to attack it in order to form an opinion which would justify purchase or sale, or the notation of new securities, par- ticularly since the era of industrial combination set in. But the great increase in interest in the subject has been mainly the result of the increasing regulation of public utilities by state and national regulating commissions. When it was decided that 160 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFOENIA SEMICENTENAET public authorities could fix the rates to be charged by public utility corporations, the question naturally arose at the outset, upon what sum should the company be allowed to earn at least a fair return? When it became necessary for a public board to decide upon new issues of capital, or upon the proper total capital to be allowed the company or upon the price to be paid for a taking, the question naturally arose, what is the fair value of the property represented? When it became necessary to allow a company to earn a certain depreciation allowance, it was natur- ally at once queried, upon what value shall such allowance be reckoned ? However, it is easy to go too far in the application of any theory. There is clearly no relation between any particular railroad rate, as, for instance, that between San Francisco and Chicago, and the value of the property. The rate between com- petitive points must be the same by all roads, independent of value. The most that can be said of railroad rates is that if the earnings as a whole, over a large district, are not sufficient to give a fair return on the total value of the property, they should be increased, and vice versa. Yet even here, some roads, by virtue of low cost of construction or exceptional efficiency of management, may prosper on the old rates, while other roads may become bankrupt. The limits for the use of a valuation at all is a subject for careful consideration. We are in danger of forgetting that, in the words of Jefferson. "That country is best governed which is least governed." May it not be that we are regulating too much, and forgetting that after all, the principle that rates should be determined by what the traffic will bear, rightly applied, is perhaps the best ? At all events, this principle has been the one under which our railroad system has mainly developed, and it has developed business and given us lower rates and better service than in any other country on earth. It is very generally assumed that the courts have decided that a railroad company, or any public utility company, shall earn no more than a fair return upon its property. This, however, is not my understanding of the situation. I do not understand that the Supreme Court has ever established that doctrine. The function of that Court is onlv to decide whether am* action violates the SPECIAL LECTURES 161 Constitution of the United States, and in rate cases to decide when a rate is so low as to result in confiscation of private property. In exercising this function I understand that it has decided that one criterion by which to decide whether rates fixed by legislative authority are so low as to deprive a railroad company of its property without just compensation, according to the Constitu- tion, is that if those rates prevent the company from earning less than a fair return upon the present value of the property used in the service of the public, then those rates are too low and violate the Constitution. It has never decided that rates must be fixed at such a point that only a fair return will be earned, and it is easy to see that there may be other elements entering into the problem. A railroad company experiences years of depres- sion, during which earnings are less than normal. In order to earn a fair return on the average it must, therefore, earn more than a fair return in good years to balance the years in which it will earn less, under any rate schedule; and, furthermore, it must be allowed to earn a surplus, to provide for unforseen con- tingencies, such as floods, earthquakes, etc. Rates cannot be suddenly changed, as in the case of an industrial property, to conform to varying conditions. A certain degree of flexibility of rates, giving the opportunity to meet emergencies, now often impossible under our regulating system, is much to be desired, but, in general, rates should be stable. The basis of a fair return upon the present value of the property used in the service of the public seems, therefore, clearly to indicate only the minimum return. The Supreme Court, however, has distinctly said that if the rates charged by a public utility corporation do not afford a fair return on the fair present value of the property used in the service of the public, those rates are confiscatory and therefore unconstitutional. It becomes necessary, therefore, in many cases to find such fair present value. The term value is one of the most uncertain in the dictionary. It may mean very different things. The problem of ascertaining the present value of a complex operating property is consequently necessarily one of those uncertain problems, partly depending upon engineering facts, partly upon economic doctrine, and 162 UNIVEESITY OF CALIFOENIA SEMICENTENABY partly upon a perception of justice and equity as between the public and the owners, in which almost every question, including the desirability of a valuation at all, is involved in controversy ; while upon some fundamental principles the opinions of those who might be deemed equally capable of forming a judgment may differ widely. It is, therefore, not a subject to be dealt with by the young, the immature, or the prejudiced. It is not a proper subject for the college curriculum, except for selected students in graduated courses. It calls for the power of logical, careful reasoning, for experience, for good judgment, and above all for a well balanced mind, fair and impartial, which sees things as they are, has no prejudices, appreciates the wide bearings of the subject, can judge of remote consequences, can disentangle conflicting threads of argument, and can take the broadest and sanest view of the relations of the public to the individual. The problems of valuation are indeed more dependent for a correct solution upon attitude of mind and capacity for logical thought than upon anything else, and next upon experience, that great and only teacher. Where almost every point involved is the subject of contro- versy and difference of opinion it is difficult to select any special points for discussion; yet it seems not inappropriate to choose a few of the fundamental principles, and to outline some of the main differences between opposing points of view. I do this the more readily because of the increasing popular attention that the subject is attracting, and in the hope that if some of you have not yet thought deeply upon these questions it may suggest some ideas, and indicate to you the many uncertainties of the subject and the necessity for careful consideration of many points of view before arriving at a conclusion. My own personal views are, naturally, strenuously opposed by those who think differently. My only excuse for speaking of this subject lies in its increasing popular importance, and in the fact that circumstances have called upon me, during the past ten years, to make valuations of property aggregating nearly two billion dollars in value, so that, at all events, however I may lack in judgment or sanity I cannot be charged with inexperience. SPECIAL LECTURES 163 As a primary basis for ascertaining fair present value the following are available: 1. The cost of the property to date ; new, or after deduct- ing depreciation. 2. The cost of reproducing the property at the present time; new, or after deducting depreciation. 3. The market value of its securities. 4. The capitalized earnings. The basis of the commercial value of a public utility, or of any other commercial property, is plainly earning power, present or potential. No one would willingly invest in or buy such a property unless he could see the prospect of a fair return. It might be earning nothing, or even losing heavily at the time, but he might not see possibilities of readjustment, improvement, or additional business, or other possibilities which would justify him in paying a considerable sum for the property. Most public utilities are naturally and properly monopolies. It is not in the interests of the public in the end that two railroads should be built in the same territory where one is ample for the business. If two exist, they must to a certain extent, in the public interest, be operated as a combined monopoly. The days of unrestricted competition have passed. But a public utility is a monopoly which derives its power in part from a charter or rights conferred upon it by the public. It must, therefore, be subject to public regulation, and must be operated in such a manner that none of the rights of the public, legal or moral, will be infringed. In a certain limited sense it is the agent of the public which has con- ferred upon it the right to perform a certain service which the public requires. The Supreme Court has recognized the above four primary elements in ascertaining fair value, together with other elements not here mentioned. In rate cases present earnings cannot, of course, be considered as a basis, because the object is to fix the rates and the earnings depend upon the rates. Some other basis must here be found. The market value of the securities can be found at any time by an accountant. They may, however, be temporarily and unduly inflated or depressed, so that the market value at any given time may not represent the value of the 164 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENAEY property. There remain the other two bases of value, viz. : the original cost and the cost of reproduction ; and the first point to which I wish to direct your attention is the great difference of opinion which exists with reference to these two methods of finding value. Each has its ardent advocates. It is claimed on the one hand, in favor of original cost, that this represents the sacrifice which the owners have made to produce the property, and that they are entitled to a fair return upon no more than this sum, or, if the property is taken, to a payment of no more than this sum. As one college economist expresses it, On any sound principle there should be no valuation for rate regulation but history, that is, a statement of outlay, of money spent and services rendered, nothing more. . . . As an agent the utility exercises the right of eminent domain, must give an account of its stewardship, is subject to continuous control, is liable for compulsory service, and must cooperate with all other public agents of its principals, the State. It is held by this writer, and by some others, that the relation between the public and the utility company is strictly the legal relation of principal and agent. Your able California attorney, Mr. Max Thelen, among others, takes this view. The advocates of this view hold that the agent is only entitled to receive his expenses and fair compensation for his services, and that if he makes a profit he "may be held as a trustee and compelled to account to his principal for all profits and advantages acquired by him out of the relationship." This leads them to the con- clusion that a public utility should receive a return only ' ' on the money reasonably and properly expended in the acquisition and construction of its works actually and properly in use to carry out its agency, no more and no less. ' ' If lands were donated by the State to the company to enable it to construct its works, the company is not to be allowed to earn any return upon those lands when they have become valuable, or if it acquires lands at a low cost it is only to be allowed a return upon such actual cost. On the other hand, this view is rejected by most students of the subject. It seems far-fetched and fanciful to most people, and it has never had the sanction of the highest courts. Those who oppose it urge that while a public utility may be termed in a limited sense the agent of the public, it is in no sense a legal SPECIAL LECTURES 165 agent. The conclusions above stated clearly do not follow when the principal has allowed that agent to manage the property for years without supervision or restriction and perhaps at a loss, and without a definite understanding at the beginning as to the legal relation between the parties, has allowed it to charge what rates it pleased, subject to competition, to earn what profits it could, to go through bankruptcy, perhaps several times, without interference by the principal. They urge that rights were given to the company by its charter because those rights were necessary to enable the works to be constructed, for without the power of taking land by eminent domain it would probably be practically impossible to construct a railroad. They urge that public lands were given originally in some cases because without giving them the public could not induce the company to build the works, and that once given they are the property of the company, like any other private property; they maintain that the public desired the works to be built because it saw that they were essential for the prosperity of the State, but that the risk of loss was left entirely with the company, and, therefore, that it should have the ownership of its property and the possibility of profits when they become possible. They say that lands originally given to the company by the state were given absolutely, without con- dition or agreement, that they were intended to be, and have always been considered to be the obsolute property of the com- pany, that they were given, as a matter of fact, in consideration of advantages which the public expected to receive in compensa- tion and which the public has actually received manifold in compensation. They say that if the company was merely the legal agent of the public that relationship should have been estab- lished and understood by both parties at the beginning, which has never been the case. They say that if the legal relation of principal and agent is to hold, the agent must be subject to the continual supervision of the principal, and that after allowing a railroad company to manage its own affairs for decades, to go through foreclosures and receiverships without any guarantee of protection against loss on the part of the principal, it is in- equitable and illegal for the principal at a later time to step in, claiming that the legal relation of principal and agent is to be assumed and that the company, after it has become prosperous, 166 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENAET is then to be allowed to earn no more than a fair return upon the original cost. Moreover, the highest courts have stated, again and again, that while it is at least the present value of the property which the company employs for the public convenience which is entitled to a fair return in rates, or to be paid as compensation in a taking, this fair value is not the original cost thereof. For instance, in San Diego Land and Town Co. vs. Jasper, 189 U. S. 442, the court said : The main object of attack is the valuation of the plant. It no longer is open to dispute that under the Constitution what the com- pany is entitled to demand in order that it may have just com- pensation is a fair return upon the reasonable value of the property at the time it is being used for the public. San Diego Land and Town Co. vs. National City, 174 U. S. 793-757. That is decided and is decided as against the contention that you ought to take actual cost of the plant, annual depreciation, etc., and to allow a fair profit on that footing, over and above expenses. Again, in the Minnesota Rate Cases, 230 U. S. 454, the court said: It is clear that in ascertaining the present value we -are not limited to the consideration of the amount of the actual investment. If that has been reckless or improvident losses may be sustained which the community does not underwrite. As the company may not be protected in its actual investment, if the value of its prop- erty be plainly less, so the making of a just return for the use of the property involves recognition of its fair value if it be more than its cost. The property is held in private ownership and it is that property and not the original cost of it of which the owner may not be deprived without due process of law. [Italics mine. G. F. S.] The advocates of the original cost theory are always careful to remark that the first cost is not to be taken if the company has been wasteful or extravagant, that is, if the value is less than that cost; but they strenuously oppose making any additions to that first cost if the investment has been skillfully made and has resulted in an increased value to the property. As a matter of fact, the first cost theory does place a premium upon and encourage wasteful, extravagant, and inefficient con- struction. Every engineer knows that there is a wide range within which the cost of construction may be reasonable. In a case in which the speaker was recently consulted there were four bids for constructing a certain property, all by responsible and skilled contractors. The highest three bids were close together, although there was no evidence of collusion, and were double the SPECIAL LECTUEES 167 lowest bid. The latter proved to be too low, and the contractor lost money; his actual cost being about two-thirds that of the highest-bidder. Even the highest bid could not have been con- sidered an unreasonable one. When a railroad is constructed it is given certain rights by the public, but those rights are only those which are necessary in order to secure the construction. A railroad is given the right of eminent domain because without that right it would be im- practicable to build the road. So of the right given to a street railway company to lay its tracks in the streets, or to a gas com- pany to lay its mains in the streets. The public grants the rights because it wants the commodity which the utility is to furnish. Not infrequently it is more anxious to grant the charter than the company is to receive it. It leaves the company un- restricted for many years in the conduct of its business and in its financial management, and finally comes in to regulate it and to fix its value. In the meantime the community has grown, lands which perhaps were donated to the company have increased in value in common with all other lands in the neighborhood, largely due to the presence of the utility, and now it is said by the advocates of original cost that since those lands were donated to the company it is not to be allowed to earn any return upon the value of those lands, because the public should not be required to pay any rates for what it has itself given. In the meantime the property may have changed hands a dozen times at prices determined by the competitive theory, that is to say, based upon the earnings which the public has allowed the company to make without restriction. The original company may have been suc- ceeded several times by new companies. Nevertheless, they claim it is now to be allowed to earn a return only upon the original cost, notwithstanding the decisions of the courts that costs is not value. The decisions of the courts are no stumbling block in the way of some of those who advocate this theory, and one of them, a college economist, sweeps the difficulties away by saying that the present uncertainties and unsatisfactory condition are due to these decisions of the Supreme Court and that they will continue until that Court is compelled by public opinion to reverse itself or until its power is changed by constitutional amendment. This 168 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENAET illustrates the character of much of the discussion on this ques- tion. The author referred to evidently considers that he and he alone, and those who agree with him, are infallible, that anybody who disagrees with him is wrong, including the Supreme Court of the United States, which must be compelled to reverse itself. In connection with the original cost theory it is also asked by some, in case its value is to be ascertained on the basis of first cost, just what is meant? The first cost to whom? To the owners, or to previous owners? If your property is to be taken from you on the basis of its original cost, should that be its cost to you or to somebody else? It is urged, for instance, that cer- tain individuals might get together, obtain a franchise, and build a railroad. They may be shrewd and far-sighted, may locate the road with exceptional skill, and may build it under exceptionally favorable conditions when prices are very low, or perhaps when they can get certain of the work done at prices which can never be again obtained. For instance, they may be able to get a good deal of their grading or filling done for nothing, or they may even be paid for it, for somebody else at the moment may have a large quantity of earth, taken perhaps from a subway or tunnel in a city, which he wants to dispose of, and unless he can dispose of it to the utility he will have to pay a large sum to carry it elsewhere. He may, therefore, be willing to dispose of it to the utility and to place it for next to nothing or even to make a payment therefore. At all events, the road may be supposed to be constructed at an extremely low cost. It fills a need and develops a good business, and a few years afterward some new parties appear and seeing that it was built most economically and has great possibilities, they may buy it from the original builders at a large advance over what the latter paid for it, and yet perhaps less than it would cost them at the time to reproduce it, or to build another road. They buy it at that price. Years go by and the property becomes subject to public regulation, and is now to be taken for public purposes, or its rates fixed. Is it equitable to pay the new owners what they paid for it or what their predecessors paid for it? Of course the answer which is made to this suggestion by those who hold the theory of principal and agent is that the agent of the public is the company and not the individuals who happen to SPECIAL LECTUEES 169 own it and hence individual ownership is of no consequence. But how is this when not simply the stockholders have changed, but when the original corporation has been suceeded by a new one ? Is the new corporation the agent, or not ? If it is, then the cost to it should be taken ; if it is not, the whole theory falls. The case, however, is certainly not so simple as some would make it appear, nor can it be decided offhand by simply asserting that the Supreme Court is all wrong. Certain it is that the theory of principal and agent, and the use of first cost, if applied as some have urged that it should be applied would very likely wipe out millions of dollars of investment honestly made and even sanctioned by regulating commissions. Moreover, the theory of first cost, it is claimed, leaves entirely out of account the element of competition, which still remains to a certain extent, though under regulation. There may be two railroad lines between the same two cities, and extending no farther. One of them necessarily has the best location and originally cost much less than the other. If the rates are to be based upon original cost the more cheaply built road will obtain all the business, and the building of new roads will be absolutely prevented. This argument, of course, applies equally to the cost of reproduction theory, and indicates that as a basis for rates neither result is at all conclusive. Would this not be true equally in case of a taking ? If the public should take the more econom- ically built road at its original cost it would thereby become pos- sessed of an asset with which it could wage war against the later and more expensive road, to the extermination of the latter, although it had chartered it and was equally its principal. It is asked whether the state should use its paramount powers to ruin agencies that it has itself authorized. To many it is clear that no valuation has much, if any, relation to rates, which should be determined by what the traffice will bear. By some it is considered that public ownership is the only solution of these problems, but the experience with public owner- ship is decidedly against its advantage to the public, and especi- ally in a democracy it would be a distinct public menace. Another consideration is urged with reference to the original cost theory. If the basis of this theory is that it is the sacrifice made by the agent which is the basis of value, it must be his 170 UNIVEESITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY total sacrifice, and if in any years of the enterprise he did not receive a fair return on his investment any deficiency below a fair return must be added to that investment and compounded from year to year. Additions of this kind may easily result in a great increase above the original cost investment. Moreover, it is not only the cost of the property that is to be taken but also the cost of developing the business to its present condition, including all expenditures, direct or indirect. Your able California attorney, Mr. Thelen, appears to hold this view, for he quotes with approval from a decision by another eminent Californian, Secretary Lane, who in the Western Ad- vance Rate Case said: Perhaps the nearest approximation to a fair standard is that of bona fide investment, the sacrifice made by the owners of the property, considering as part of the investment any shortage of return that there may be in the early years of the enterprise. Upon this, taking the life history of the road through a number of years, its promoters are entitled to a reasonable return. This, however, manifestly is limited, for a return should not be given upon waste- fulness, mismanagement, or poor judgment, and always there is present the restriction that no more than a reasonable rate shall be charged. Those who oppose the original cost method fail, however, to see why Mr. Lane should limit the shortage of return to the early years of the enterprise, or why every shortage from the beginning to the time of decision should not be allowed. They maintain also that if from the original cost is to be deducted any losses due to "wastefulness, mismanagement, or poor judgment," then there should also be allowed any profits accruing from economy, efficient management, and good judgment; and admitting that there is always present the restrictions that no more than a reasonable rate shall be charged, which Mr. Lane implies is a restriction independent of first cost, they claim that this means also that no less than a reasonable rate shall be charged, that is, a reasonable recompense for the service rendered, also entirely independent of first cost. Against this view that deficiencies of earnings should be in- cluded in original cost, it is urged by some that the mere physical property would be worth nothing aside from its operation, that the construction of the property means constructing a property that has, or is capable of having, business, but which without SPECIAL LECTURES 171 the business is valueless. Giving the physical bare bones a value is only justified, they say, if it has the business too. They refuse, therefore, to allow any deficiency of earnings. In taking this ground they clearly abandon the position that the sacrifice of the owners is the fair value of the property. As for the capitalization of a deficiency in earnings it is also urged by a few that this would amount to a guarantee by the public of a fair return, which they say the public can never make even though it is a principal. This view, however, clearly involves a fallacy in regard to the meaning of the word guarantee. To allow a capitalization of a deficiency of earnings is not to guarantee a fair return. The public, of course, should never guarantee a public service cor- poration, which it charters, against being a losing venture; but ought it not to guarantee to it rates which, if those rates will produce the traffic, that is, if the traffic will bear those rates, will prevent it from being a losing venture ? As the price of any commodity, including transportation, is raised, the demand for it generally decreases. At some point the price will result in a demand which will produce the maximum return. That maxi- mum return may not be enough to constitute a fair return on the investment. In this case the concern is a losing venture, and the public cannot guarantee it, and ought not to guarantee it against such contingency. But, on the other hand, if the public is to regulate rates and values, ought it not to guarantee a rate high enough to produce a fair return even on a value which includes deficiency of earnings in previous years, if such a result is possible? If this view is not taken no one will invest in a public utility. If you invest in a public utility you take some risk. You are willing to take the risk because your judgment tells you that the concern will be a success, but would you make the investment if you knew that the public was to come in later and prevent your receiving even a fair return on your invest- ment from the beginning though it might become capable of pro- ducing large returns? These illustrations are not fanciful. Street railways in many parts of the country are in a condition which justifies them. In Massachusetts they have become so seriously crippled that the public is not obtaining anything like the service that it ought to have. The shares of one corporation, in whose capitalization there is admittedly not a dollar of water, 172 UNIVEES1TY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENAEY which has been under public regulation from the beginning and some of whose stock has been issued at a price of $155 a share, as fixed by the state regulating body at the time, has been recently selling for under $30. The theory of cost of reproduction as a basis of value has also its defects and opponents. Those who oppose it are par- ticularly active and caustic in their criticism. They designate it by all sorts of epithets. One eminent critic of this theory and advocate of the original cost theory says that the reproduction cost theory is "utterly dishonest." This critic knows perfectly well that the Supreme Court in at least two decisions has spoken favorably of this theory. In the Knoxville case the Court said : The cost of reproduction is one way of ascertaining the present value of a plant like that of a public utility company, but that test would lead to obviously incorrect results if the cost of reproduction is not diminished by the depreciation which has come from age and use. In the Minnesota rate case the Court said : The cost of reproduction method is of service in ascertaining the present value of the plant when it is reasonably applied, and when the cost of reproducing the property may be ascertained with a proper degree of certainty, but it does not justify the acceptance of results which depend upon mere conjecture. Moreover, the same court in a later case, that of the Des Moines Gas Co. (238 U. S. 153), distinctly upheld the cost of reproduction method, saying, in approval of what had been done : After valuing the real estate and various items of personal property, as hereinafter stated, the master adopted as the only practical way, in his judgment, of determining the reasonable value of the buildings, their contents, yard structures, and the mains, house and street lamp service, and meters, the test of estimating the cost of reproducing them new and then estimating the deprecia- tion which should be deducted in order to obtain their present value. Notwithstanding these decisions of our highest court this critic says the theory is "utterly dishonest." Those who oppose the cost of reproduction method sometimes intimate that it is only used by those who desire to arrive at a high valuation. Thus, the same critic said, in an official decision, 1 ' The reproduction cost theory has during recent years become a fashionable one among many attorneys and managers of public service corporations." He perhaps forgets that in the leading case of Smyth vs. Ames, counsel for the railroad maintained that SPECIAL LECTURES 173 the original investment should be the basis. It appears that, when the roads were built, wages were above normal, prices high, and gold at a heavy premium, and that when the action was brought prices had materially declined, so that it was estimated that the roads could then be reproduced for less than the original cost. On the other hand, counsel for the state then maintained that "the present value, as measured by the cost of reproduc- tion ' ' was the proper basis. Hence the critic might equally well have said that the original cost theory had during recent years become a fashionable one among many attorneys for and members of public commissions. The value of the theory is to be judged not by the persons who hold it, but by its own merits and the decisions of the highest courts, which we should always respect though we may personally disagree with them. Those who uphold the cost of reproduction theory, so far as I have read their views, appear to be more reasonable and mod- erate in their expressions. They respect the opinions of the Supreme Court and neither term them utterly dishonest nor say that the Court must be forced to reverse itself. Most of them appear to believe, as the Supreme Court does, that neither repro- duction cost nor original cost is alone the criterion, though they believe that cost of reproduction, properly ascertained, is much nearer to fair present value than original cost, while some of the writers who support the original cost theory apparently maintain that it and they alone are infallible. The advocates of the repro- duction cost theory urge, certainly not without reason, that if, as the Supreme Court has said, it is the fair present value of the property which is to be the basis, then let us suppose the follow- ing case: Suppose a railroad passes through a town. It has its right of way, its bridges, its embankments. The problem is to find the present value. Suppose it should build a branch from its station in that town, diverting from its main line. It would have to buy property, build bridges and embankments. On the original cost theory, which no doubt here applies, the cost of its right of way would be its value. They ask then, is the present value of the right of way of the main line, only one hundred feet away, built fifty years ago, which goes through precisely similar property, any less than the value of the branch right of way just built 174 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENARY simply because it was built earlier? Extend the illustration. Suppose that the railroad company needs to enlarge its yard and must widen its right of way or take a block adjoining one w r hich it already possesses. It takes that property, enlarges its yard, builds its embankments and bridges if necessary. The cost of that new property is its value at the time. Is the value of the other block previously existing any less? It is in exactly the same locality and under similar conditions. Why, they say, should there be a difference in the present value ? Those who advocate the original cost method are seriously disturbed by the fear that the use of the cost of reproduction method will lead to rapidly increasing values and rates. Thus Commissioner Lane, in the Western Advance Rate case, referring to the contention of the Burlington Road that it was entitled to a return on unearned increment in land value, said : If this is a precise expression of what our courts will hold to be the law, then, as we are told, there is certainly the danger that we may never expect railroad rates to be lower than they are at present. On the contrary there is the unwelcome promise made in this case that they will continuously advance. and he adds: In the face of such an, economic philosophy, if 'stable and equit- able rates are to be maintained the suggestion has been made that it would be wise for the Government to protect its people by taking to itself these properties at present value 1 rather than to await the day, perhaps twenty or thirty years hence when they will have multiplied in value ten or twenty fold. In the case of Buffalo Gas Co. vs. City of Buffalo (N. Y. Public Service Commission, 2nd District, Vol. 3, 633), the Commission said : A valuation made in the case of this company in 1907 would produce vastly different results from a valuation made in 1912, owing to the different prices of pipe, and yet there can scarcely be any disagreement upon the proposition that the price of gas in 1907 and 1912 should be substantially the same. A condition of things which permits the public to appeal to this Commission to fix the rate in times of financial distress when materials are low and labor is cheap and thereby obtain a low rate which shall obtain perman- ently or substantially so; and on the other hand which permits the company to appeal to the Commission to fix a rate at a time when labor is high and materials are dear, and thereby fix a higher rate to continue with a substantial permanency, is intolerable. If the Commission were to fix the price of iron pipe upon the prices now prevailing, next year they may be 50 degrees higher. Justice would require that the rate go up if the cost of reproduction now is to prevail; while, on the other hand, if pipe gets lower the rates should be lower. This would require a constant juggling with prices in order to carry out what would be deemed substantial justice. SPECIAL LECTURES 175 To these criticisms of the method the following reply may be made. In the first place, Secretary Lane's suggestion, that railroad values may be multiplied ten or twenty fold, is an exaggeration. His fear seems to have reference mainly to the increase of land values, since values of the other elements may be expected to fluctuate up and down, generally speaking ; but the value of land in a railroad valuation is, on the average, only from about 15 per cent to 25 per cent of the total value, so that if land values should be multiplied ten times, which is very excessive, with other values unchanged on the average the total value of the property would be increased only about three times instead of "ten or twentyfold." Secretary Lane seems to think that railroad rates should be expected to be lower in future than at present, and the New York Public Service Commission seem to think that the price of gas should remain substantially the same. The price of money, of labor, of every material thing, varies from year to year, and it may be pertinent to ask why it should be assumed that the price of transportation or of gas should remain the same or should fall. It is, of course, desirable that rates should remain stable, and, if public service companies are allowed to earn a fair surplus to provide for fluctuations from year to year, they will remain fairly stable, as compared with the prices of materials or money. The price of a thing changes either because of conditions affect- ing it, which change its value, including among these supply and demand, or because of a general change in the value of a dollar. If, by reason of an excess of currency, the value of the dollar decreases, that is to say, if it takes more dollars to buy a given thing, why should transportation or gas, which are commodities, be exempt from the general change in price ? Further, with reference to Secretary Lane's suggestion, it is very doubtful in the minds of a great many people if protecting the people means limiting the taxes and other charges imposed upon them, whether the taking possession of the properties by the government will protect the people. The experience with government ownership does not show that it leads to decreased charges, although it may be possible to hide those charges in the general tax levy so that the average man may lose sight of them. 176 UNIVEESITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENAET Certainly many intelligent and unprejudiced men believe that a great disillusioning will come upon the American people if they resort to government ownership in the hope of reducing charges. Further, with reference to the statement of the New York Public Service Commission, it may be said that those who believe in the cost of reproduction method do not as a rule look upon a valuation as a thing to be made from year to year or whenever demanded by the public or the corporation. With the increase of public control, assuming the desirability of ascertaining the physical value of public utility properties or the necessity of doing so in some cases, these people maintain that such values should be ascertained once for all simply as a starting point. They believe that the past should be wiped out, and a new start made, that any past errors on the part of the companies in the way of financial mismanagement or overcapitalization, and any mistakes on the part of the public in allowing such things to happen, or in allowing rates which are too high, or rates which were so low as to result in financial embarrassment or bank- ruptcy, should equally be forgotten, but that a new start should now be made with a valuation of the physical property at the present time, and that hereafter such methods of accounting and such rules controlling the issue of securities and the application of the proceeds should be adopted as will insure that the value of the physical property at a future time can be ascertained on the basis of the present value and the operating results since it was made. This was even the view of Director Prouty, who, as a member of the Interstate Commerce Commission, in an address before the National Association of Manufacturers in New York in 1907 said: The popular impression that if the value of our railroads were known it would be easy for us to adjust rates that a fair return upon that value and only a fair return would be obtained, is entirely erroneous. The most that can be done in most cases in fixing the value of our railroads would be to determine the cost of their reproduction at the present time. . . . Such a valuation would . . . establish, as it were, a point of departure today from which future values might in some measure be reckoned. Commissioner Prouty evidently at that time believed that the only thing that could be done in the case of railroads was to use the cost of reproduction method, and he further evidently believed SPECIAL LECTURES 177 that once applied it would be not necessary to use it again, but that it would serve as a point of departure for the future. This, I think, is the view taken by most advocates of the cost of reproduction method. These considerations may perhaps indicate to you the com- plicated character of the problem and especially the mental characteristics of some of the individuals who deal with it. They will perhaps substantiate the statement made at the beginning of this lecture that the attitude of mind with which a subject of this kind is approached is perhaps the most important element in arriving at a correct conclusion. As illustrating the lengths to which some advocates of the original cost theory go, one of them maintains that overhead expenses for engineering, if paid out of operating expenses after the plant is put into use by members of the regular staff, are not to be considered even in original cost. In other words, if a company builds a temporary bridge at the beginning, puts its road into operation, and subsequently replaces this bridge by an expensive steel structure designed by its regular staff of engineers, the engineering expense connected with this bridge is not to be considered as original cost because done by the regular salaried staff. In other words, this writer apparently believes that not even actual original cost is to be used. But, after all, much of this discussion is purely academic in view of the fact that in many cases, as, for instance, in the case of a railroad of considerable age, it is generally impossible to ascertain the original cost. So far as I know, no complete esti- mate of the original cost of any large railroad has yet been found, or the deficiency in earnings in lean years worked out. All valuations of such roads have been based on estimating the cost of reproduction. This can be done with comparative ease, as it involves simply making an inventory of the property and placing upon each item the cost of producing it at the present time. The original cost cannot be found because, in the first place, the records are in many cases destroyed or inaccessible, and, in the second place, because in the past accounts have not been kept in such a way as to distinguish between amounts properly charge- able to replacements and amounts properly chargeable to new 178 UNIVEESITT OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY construction. "When our railroads were built they were, as a rule, constructed cheaply, because the money was not available to construct them in any other way. As traffic grew and revenue increased, a wooden trestle, for instance, would be replaced by a steel bridge. The entire cost of the replacement would be charged to operating expenses. The banks of a cut, originally with a certain slope, would slide through the action of water, and addi- tional material would have to be taken out to make the slope of the banks less. This would be charged to operating expenses. As a matter of fact, the latter expense is properly chargeable to the original cost of producing the cut in its later condition, as the excess cost of the steel bridge over the cost of replacing the wooden trestle is also properly chargeable to original cost. It is probably impossible to disentangle these accounts at the present time in such a way as to ascertain the original cost of a large railroad. It may be urged that the accounts should have been kept in such a manner as to capitalize all expenses above those necessary to renew worn-out parts in the way in which they were originally built. On the other hand, there is something to be said in favor of the method of accounting which has been followed in this country. If all renewals beyond replacements in kind are charged to capital, a steady increase in capitalization and rates necessarily results. In this manner the large capital of some of the foreign roads has been produced. Our railroads, on the contrary, have preferred to keep their capital low by taking advantage of good years to make extensive replacements and improvements, charging them to operating expenses. It is urged, on the one hand, that since the revenue with which to pay for this replacement came from operating expenses and these revenues were contributed by the public in the form of rates, the public has contributed to the company a portion of its capital, and, therefore, that the company is not entitled at the present time to any return to it by the public in rates upon such capital ; but it should be remembered that the public had it in its power to regulate rates and to prevent such return of capital to a con- siderable extent, and that it did not do so. Further, the surplus might have been distributed to stockholders. The result of this development has been that this country has become possessed of SPECIAL LECTURES 179 a system of railroads unequalled by those in any other country in the service that they give, and capitalized at a figure lower than in any other country, and carrying their traffic at rates lower, on the whole, than any other country. The history of the past, therefore, has not been entirely unfavorable to the interests of the public. With more stringent regulation, the history of the future, many believe, will not be so favorable. As a result of considering the controversy between the original cost method and the cost of reproduction method many dis- interested students have finally come to the same conclusion, which is this: Neither method of ascertaining value is in all cases, or perhaps in any case, the exclusive basis. Both should be considered, if ascertainable. The wisdom of the decision of the Supreme Court in the case of Smythe vs. Ames, so many times quoted, will, I think, become more apparent the more carefully this question is studied. It reads as follows : We hold, however, that the basis of all calculations as to the reasonableness of rates to be charged by a corporation maintain- ing a highway under legislative sanction must be the fair value of the property being used by it for the convenience of the public. And in order to ascertain that value the original cost of construc- tion, the amount expended in permanent improvements, the amount and market value of its bonds and stocks, the present as compared with the original cost of construction, the probable earning capacity of the property under particular rates prescribed by statute, and the sum required to meet operating expenses, are all matters for consideration and are to be given weight as may be just and right in each case. We do not say that there may not be other matters to be regarded in estimating the value of the property. What the company is entitled to ask is a fair return upon the value of that which it employs for the public convenience. Furthermore, many will thoroughly approve the words of your own eminent jurist, Justice H. M. Wright, who makes the following remarks with reference to the original cost method : Original cost is urged as a criterion of value by certain econ- omists and state officials. The theory is that the return in money which is the inducement and the reward for serving the community with water or gas, or other service, is justly to be determined on the basis of the amount of sacrifice on the part of the investor, and this amount of sacrifice is summarily identified with the original investment in existing property. The assumption neglects to take account of the fact that there would ordinarily be successive owners of the property or of shares in it, and at different purchase prices. Furthermore, the test proposed applies to property devoted to the public use, the socialistic basis for fixing value, while the property of all other persons in the community is valued in accord- ance with the non-socialistic basis of our economic structure with- 180 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFOENIA SEMICENTENAXY out reference to its cost. Money, the measure of value, changes in purchasing power in obedience to economic laws. . . . Original cost is of course a test of controlling importance in the case of newly constructed or acquired property. It may be a valuable check upon the value of property of moderate age; but generally it will have no significance as regards property, say of forty or fifty years' elapsed life. I think that most unprejudiced students after considering these matters, will be apt to agree with Judge Wright and to reach substantially the following conclusions : In the case of a public utility constructed today and under public regulation from the beginning, the investor should be satisfied with a fair return, commensurate with the risk involved, upon the actual investment. If rates sufficiently high to produce such return are guaranteed by the public the investor must take the risk that the investment will be a losing proposition, and that when rates are fixed so as to produce a maximum return that maximum may be less than a fair return upon the investment. What a fair return is will depend upon this risk, but he should be guaranteed that the public will not interfere with the imposi- tion of rates which, if they can be collected, will produce such fair return. In the case of utilities of comparatively recent construction, and especially if under public regulation from the beginning, the same basis would hold. In the case, however, of utilities which have been allowed to operate for many years without public regulation, a new start should now be made and a valuation fixed as a starting point, accounting methods and the issue of securi- ties to be subject to public approval in the future. The value to be fixed as a new starting point should be, as the courts have decided, not less than the fair present value of the properties and in the ascertainment of such fair present value, as Judge W T right so wisely says, the original cost will have no significance. Indeed, neither original cost nor reproduction cost will be the sole test, but we shall come back to the words of wisdom, so often quoted, in the case of Smythe vs. Ames. Another of the much discussed points regarding valuation may now be referred to, as it is of great importance, namely, the question whether depreciation should be deducted from the value now, whether found by the original cost method or the cost of reproduction method. SPECIAL LECTUBES 181 When an industrial plant or a public service plant is put into operation, many of the individual units immediately begin to depreciate in value and condition on account of use, wear, decay, and perhaps approaching obsolescence. The time will come when such units will have to be replaced. How shall this be provided for? At first sight it appears that the proper method would be to set aside each year out of earnings, the total amount of the accrued depreciation in that year, and to carry the sums so set aside in a depreciation or reserve fund, paying out of this fund each year for the renewals in kind which are necessary. This places the company in strong financial position and enables it to meet renewals when due. Such a fund, however, is a return of capital to the company by those who buy its product. The same result might be accomplished by building up a surplus, but in this case stockholders might demand a distribution of this surplus, whereas if the proper amount is held in a depreciation fund stockholders may not demand that this be distributed. Such a procedure is eminently desirable, and generally pos- sible, in the case of an industrial plant, for just two reasons: (1) that the industrial concern can charge any price that it pleases for its product; (2) that an industrial plant frequently finds itself in a position in which it is necessary to make very extensive renewals in a single year. Let us consider these reasons. 1. An industrial plant is not subject, except perhaps in ex- ceptional times like the present, to any public regulation. It can charge what it likes for its product. It is limited only by com- petition with other concerns making similar products, and it generally and properly aims to make the prices which it charges such as will produce a volume of sales that will result in the maximum net return. Whether it makes rails or razors, or drugs, or soap, or furniture, or refined oil, or any other industrial product, it is not limited by the public in regard to the prices which it can exact. It may earn 40, 50, or even 100 per cent of its capital stock in a single year. 2. An industrial plant frequently finds it necessary to make large renewals in a single year. Improvements in machinery and methods of manufacture, the introduction of new apparatus and processes, and other circumstances, some of them unforeseen and unforeseeable, may at some time render it necessary to entirely 182 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENARY reconstruct the plant in order to enable it to do business econom- ically and to meet competition. When such expenditures become necessary, if the company has not accumulated a surplus or a depreciation fund sufficient for the purpose it may find itself in a serious situation. It will either be obliged to continue its busi- ness without making the renewals which are necessary and which will result in economy, or it must get new capital for the purpose. It is, therefore, wise for it to accumulate a depreciation fund. It should make hay while the sun shines, and while it enjoys a good business it should provide for the inevitable future. Now when such a depreciation fund has been accumulated, what is it? Clearly it is original capital which has been returned to the company by those who have bought its products in past years. It is amortization of the capital. The balance sheet shows this clearly. On the asset side stands the original cost. From this is deducted the depreciation, so that the cost is carried at a depreciated value. On the same side stands the depreciation fund, which should be equal to the deducted depreciation. On the liability side stands the original capital. When any renewal of a part of the plant is necessary the situation is this : the original investment in that part of the plant has not only earned for its owners a fair return during its life, but the original capital investment in it has also been returned to the owners by the public, and is now available by the company for a renewal of that element. A public service corporation, and particularly a railroad, differs radically from an industrial plant in regard to both of the elements which justify the accumulation of a depreciation fund. In the first place a railroad company is not justified in asking the public to return to it any portion of its original capital. It is under public regulation. Its rates are subject to being fixed by a public commission, and if they were not, public opinion would exert a corresponding pressure. If the public, through its regulating body, requires or allows the company to accumulate a depreciation fund, and permits it to charge rates sufficient for the purpose, it may be wise in certain particular cases for the company to set aside such a fund. In electric light plants, gas plants, to some extent in water works, where, as in industrial SPECIAL LECTUEES 183 corporations, large renewals may become necessary in a single year, it may be desirable to accumulate such a fund, and in some instances the public authorities permit it, and perhaps require it. A railroad, however, is essentially different. It will never need renewal as a whole, or in any large part, because it consists of such an immense number of separate units. It will presently be shown, also, that in the case of a railroad the accumulation of such a fund is neither necessary nor desirable. What should a railroad company be allowed to obtain from the public in return for the commodity which it furnishes? (1) It should be enabled to earn its operating expenses, because it has to pay them out year by year, or perhaps week by week. (2) It should be allowed to earn its taxes, which are paid to the public. (3) It should be allowed to earn its fixed charges or the interest on its fixed capital obligations, because if it does not it may be obliged to go into the hands of a receiver, or to borrow money to pay interest, which would be bad financial policy, and could only be done at high rates if at all. (4) It must be allowed to earn enough to pay for renewals as they become necessary. Otherwise the property will run down and become less efficient as a servant of the public. (5) It should be allowed to earn a fair return to its owners on the capital stock. These then, are the earnings which a railroad should be allowed to make : operating expenses, taxes, fixed charges, maintenance and necessary re- newals, a fair return. Should it also be allowed or required to earn the amount of accrued depreciation and to carry this in a depreciation fund? A little consideration will show that this is neither necessary nor desirable, for the reason that a railroad lacks the second element which makes the accumulation of such a fund desirable in the case of an industrial corporation. No large part or element of a railroad will require renewal in any one year, because the multiplicity of its parts is so great. Annually accruing deprecia- tion and annual expenses for renewals tend to reach a condition of equilibrium in which one of these is equal to the other. By skillful management the departure from this condition of equili- brium may be made very small. If a large bridge is weak and needs renewal there are various methods of meeting the emerg- ency. The bridge may be strengthened, or temporarily sup- 184 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY ported by placing pile bents beneath it and shortening the span. Many bridges needing renewal have been treated in this way, and carried for ten or fifteen years without renewal. If -a large struc- ture requires renewal this year the renewal of a corresponding number of smaller structures may be postponed. To earn anything more than operating expenses, taxes, fixed charges, necessary maintenance and renewals, and a fair return means that the public is returning to the company its capital. The company should by skilled management endeavor to make renewals come due in such a way that they may be fairly uniform from year to year. If in any one year a large item of expense is to be met for renewals other items can be cut down or post- poned by temporary measures until subsequent years. If such renewals cannot be met from current earnings the company may borrow money or incur a floating debt for the purpose, which is retired as soon as possible even if rates have to be temporarily somewhat increased in order to do so. Such a plan provides for obsolescence. A new structure may be much better than the one which it replaces but it seems proper that future customers should bear the expense involved in securing the better facilities rather than to have the expense borne by the customers who had only enjoyed the benefit of the inferior facilities previously available. Such a plan puts the burden of paying upon those w r ho enjoy the facilities which they pay for. Furthermore, it is easy to see that in the case of a railroad, with its great number and diversity of units, to build up a depreciation fund would not only be undesirable but would result in a useless fund. This is true in the case of any concern, whether an industrial concern or a public service corporation, in which the multiplicity of units is such that renewals in time come to be an approximately constant expense. The situation is best illustrated in the case of the ties of a railroad, because they are the shortest-lived element, and the illustration is easier to grasp. Suppose that a railroad is 10,000 miles long, with 25,000 ties to the mile. It has 25,000,000 ties. If these cost 60 cents apiece they are represented in the capital account by $15,000.000. If the average length of life of a tie is ten years, then, inasmuch as ties differ and are not all of the same quality when put into the railroad and inasmuch as the wear SPECIAL LECTURES 185 upon them differs according to the location and the traffic, they will, even if all are put in at the same time, wear out at different times. Some of them may last only five years, others may last twelve or fifteen, depending upon circumstances. Ultimately, when the condition of equilibrium is reached, there would be an annually accruing depreciation of ties of one-tenth of the capital represented, or $1,500,000 ; and during each year about one-tenth of all the ties will be renewed, at a cost of $1,500,000. The con- dition of equilibrium is reached when the depreciation of the ties is between 40 and 50 per cent and the depreciated value between 50 and 60 per cent. If a considerable portion of the railroad is new the condition of equilibrium will not have been reached. Tie renewals will not equal annually accruing depreciation. Assume the depreciation to be 40 per cent and the depreciated value 60 per cent. In this case the depreciation in the ties will be 40 per cent of $15,000,000 or $6,000,000, and this will be included in the total depreciation of the property. During the following year the annual accruing depreciation would be $1,500,000, and the tie renewals somewhat less, so that the fund, if it had been set aside, would be increased this year. The condition of equilibrium will be reached when the fund reaches 45 per cent of $15,000,000, or $6,750,000. After that time in any one year what is paid into the fund would be exactly balanced by what is taken out of it. The fund would represent capital for ties which has been returned to the company by the public. Of what use is it to accumulate this fund for the simple purpose of having it ? If the answer is made, let the fund now be used to meet cost of renewals without adding to the fund out of earnings, then, if this is done, the fund will gradually disappear. But w r hat would be the justification for such a procedure? At this point another consideration comes in. In an industrial plant the concern not infrequently starts in with large earnings. If it is economically constructed and supplies a commodity that the public wants, the entire field is at once immediately opened to it. Earnings may be large from the beginning. A railroad company is radically different. It is generally built into new country, and in advance of a market for its product, namely, transportation. It builds its line into territory where the trans- portation facilities have been insufficient, and where the business 186 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENAR7 must be developed. At the beginning, therefore, its earnings may be small, until the country becomes settled and its resources developed. This is particularly the case with our trans-conti- nental roads, like the Canadian Pacific, Canadian Northern, and the American roads. In early years the earnings may be so small as to produce for a long time no return to stockholders, who must have faith and w r ait for the development of the country before they get any dividend. In some instances the early returns may be so small that that company cannot pay its fixed charges, and is obliged to reorganize according to a plan which will cut down those fixed charges. Such has been the experience of many American railroads, as is well known. Now what would be the use of requiring a company under such circumstances, in the early days, to set aside a fund to provide for depreciation of ties, thereby burdening it still further. Is it not much better to allow it to develop its traffic as fast as it can, meeting necessary tie renewals as they become necessary from year to year, seeing that ultimately a condition of equilibrium will be reached, without any fund, in which accruing depreciation will be equal to annual expenses for renewals? Every other element of a railroad is in essentially the same condition that has been described with reference to ties. Bridges wear out, but not all at once, as there are great numbers of them. The same is true of rails, buildings, water tanks, and every other element of property which depreciates. The above seems clearly to show that the accumulation of a depreciation reserve in the case of a railroad is neither necessary nor desirable. As a matter of fact it is not required in the United States, except in the case of equipment, and this has only been required within a very few years. The Interstate Commerce Commission in all the years of its existence, from 1887, did not require the accumulation of a depreciation reserve, until a few years ago for equipment, and many railroad men believe that even this was unnecessary, because even equipment does not wear out all at once. Furthermore, it may be claimed that with refer- ence to other items than equipment public authorities in America do not permit an accumulation of a depreciation fund for the reason that although it is not prohibited, the public authorities have not in general allowed rates to be high enough to permit of SPECIAL LECTURES 187 such a fund being accumulated. No American railroad accumu- lates a depreciation fund, so far as I am aware, for anything except equipment. If the public authorities permit or require a depreciation fund to. be accumulated, and it is so accumulated and, therefore, represented in the assets and in the physical valuation, then it ia proper to deduct depreciation from the value of the property new, the amount so deducted depending upon the accounting regula- tions with reference to the accumulation of the fund. Here is where accounting comes in. There are various methods of esti- mating depreciation, all based on an assumed life of the element of the property to be depreciated. If the ' ' straight line ' ' method is used, that is to say, if the depreciation is supposed to be uniform each year, and the fund is accumulated on this basis, it should be so figured in the valuation. If the "sinking fund" method is required, then this method should be figured in the valuation. The above consideration clearly demonstrates, it seems to me, the following propositions : 1. In making a valuation of a public utility property, accrued depreciation should not be deducted from the value new, unless a depreciation fund has been accumulated, in which case the depreciation for the elements covered by said fund, computed in the same manner in which the fund has been computed, should be deducted. The fund will be among the assets, and the depre- ciation which it represents should properly be deducted from the value new. 2. While in the case of some public utility properties, like gas and electric light plants, it may be wise in the public interest to permit, encourage, or even to require the company to accumulate a depreciation fund, permitting it, of course, to charge rates which will enable it to do so ; yet in the case of a railroad, with its great multiplicity of elements, the accumulation of a deprecia- tion fund in general is undesirable and unnecessary in the public interest, and results in a return by the public of a part of the capital to the company, to constitute a useless and permanent fund. The case is different where there is overdue or deferred de- preciation ; that is to say, where renewals which were necessary 188 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENAEY to maintain the property in good operating conditions have not been made. The company when it accepts its franchise, accepts the obligation to maintain the property in serviceable working condition. It must do this out of earnings, without increase of capital unless improvements are made. If it neglects to make necessary renewals in kind, excessive or overdue depreciation results, and this it is proper to deduct from the value new in order to find the present value, but only this. This represents what a purchaser would have to pay if he were buying the prop- erty, in addition to what he pays for the property to the previous owners, in order to put it into good workable condition; and he should, therefore, pay that much less than what would be its present value if in good workable condition. If a railroad is properly maintained, with no overdue depre- ciation, it is just as valuable an operating concern as if it were new. The owner is under obligation to replace worn out parts in kind when they become worn out, without increase of the capital. Furthermore, the railroad as a whole never wears out if properly maintained. Its life is indefinite. If the accrued depre- ciation for individual items is added together it results in an accrued depreciation for the entire property. We have, therefore, let us say, ties on the average one-half worn out, because one- half of their life has elapsed, showing a present value of 50 per cent of the value known, and similarly for other elements. We have, then, the entire property showing a depreciation of perhaps 15 per cent. All of these depreciations for individual elements are worked out by one method or another from life tables, that is to say, from tables based on the assumed life of the various elements; and by adding these together the result is a deprecia- tion in the value of the entire property as a whole. How can there be a depreciation based on the life of a property and the portion of it which has elapsed, if it has no determinable life, that is, if its life is indefinite? The property as a whole, if properly maintained, does not depreciate. A tie on a railroad may depreciate, but the ties of a railroad, if properly maintained, never depreciate. A tie has a life of ten years, therefore if it is five years old it has depreciated 50 per cent. The ties of a rail- road, if properly maintained, have an indefinite life. Based on this, therefore, they have no depreciation if five years of their life SPECIAL LECTURES 189 has elapsed. The property which is valued is a railroad, not a part of a railroad. Furthermore, it is clear that no depreciation should be de- ducted from the value new of a properly maintained railroad property when it is considered how that property in its depre- ciated condition could be reproduced. The only way to repro- duce it would be to reproduce it new, operate it, and get it into its present condition, in which case the cost of this process would be the cost of reproducing it new. It could not be reproduced with depreciated materials. If the value of a property is the cost of reproducing it in its present condition, then the value of a railroad property properly maintained is the cost of reproducing it new. The company is always subjected to the obligation of making replacements in kind out of earnings as they become necessary. If it cannot do this and is a distinctly losing venture then reorganization may be necessary, with reduction of its capital and fixed charges ; but so long as it has the credit to borrow money to make necessary renewals when they become due it should be allowed to do so, since it will have to pay the interest on this borrowed money as well as to make the renewals. I believe that opinion is beginning to change with reference to the propriety and fairness of deducting depreciation from value new. Members of the Massachusetts Railroad Commission severely criticized several years ago a report which the Avriter made in which he advocated making no such deduction, and it is, therefore, all the more interesting to find that the chairman of that Commission has recently made the following statement : In the matter of depreciation, so far as it has been a matter of discussion by the Public Service Commission of this State, in the various decisions which it has rendered, it has come before us in a double aspect. The problem which confronted the Commission in the first instance was to determine just what recognition should be given to accrued depreciation, in determining the fair value of the property upon which the company is entitled, under the law, to a fair return. The Commission was faced with that problem shortly after its organization, in the Middlesex and Boston rate case. The Commission in that case began, for the first time in this State, to exercise supervisory rate-making powers. It was natural, therefore, that it should examine the precedents in Commission and court decisions, throughout the rest of the country, in determining the basis which it should use in determining fair value for rate-making purposes. 190 UNIVEESITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENAEY Depreciating Investment We found that throughout the country at large, the theory which had received recognition, far and away beyond any other theory; that had almost become crystallized into a legal rule, was the rule that a return should be allowed only upon the value of the property, less depreciation. That is to say, if you had a property with a value new of $10,000,000 and if it was in the normal service con- dition of 75 per cent, the company would be entitled to a return on only seven millions and a half, although it might have ten millions of securities outstanding, which were issued under public super- vision in this State. The Commission did not believe that rule was sound or just to the men who had put their money into the properties. It did not believe, further, from an examination of the public utility field, that the application of any theory of that kind could be enforced without risking the practical bankruptcy of a large number of the street railway companies in this State. The consequence was that the Commission adopted the theory that if this money was honestly invested in the properties in the first instance, and that they were maintained with anything like a decent degree of maintenance, that the companies and the investors were not to be penalized, in the absence of mismanagement, for any depreciation of the property that had been brought about in the public service, unless it could be shown that the company had profited from that situation, rather than the car-riding public. The study of this subject, like the study of most subjects that are largely of an economic character, is interesting as a study of human nature. It discloses to us some of the virtues and many of the weaknesses and prejudices of humanity. If we are, our- selves, unprejudiced and open to conviction it perhaps makes us more tolerant and charitable toward those who differ from us in opinion, but it must convince us of the truth of the striking statement of Lecky, who says in one place : Strange veins of insanity and capacities for enthusiastic folly sometimes flaw the strongest brains, and the impetuous ebullitions of youth which impel some men in extravagances of vice impel other natures into equally wild extravagances of thought. and in another place : There is such a thing as an honest man with a dishonest mind. There are men who are wholly incapable of deliberate willful un- truthfulnes, but who have the habit of quibbling with their con- victions and by skillful casuistry persuading themselves that what they wish is right. At all events it should make us more careful and moderate in forming our own opinions and more tolerant of differences of opinion, if coming from men whom we personally respect, whose motives we do not question, and who express their criticisms and differences with courtesy and kindness rather than with malignity. SPECIAL LECTURES 191 Finally, it seems to the speaker that there is one portion of the decision of the Supreme Court in the Knoxville case which has not been quoted or regarded so extensively as it deserves to be. It indirectly recognizes the fact that the property of the public service corporation is private property. It reads as follows : Our social system rests largely upon the sanctity of private property, and that State or community which seeks to invade it will soon discover the error in the disaster which follows. The slight gain to the consumer, which he would obtain from a reduc- tion in the rates charged by public service corporations, is as nothing compared with his share in the ruin which would be brought about by denying to private property its just reward, thus un- settling values and destroying confidence. 192 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFOENIA SEMICEi\TENAEY THE E. T. EARL LECTURES OF THE PACIFIC SCHOOL OF RELIGION FOR THE YEAR 1918 on THE CIVILIZATION OF EGYPT AND ITS PLACE IN HISTORY DELIVERED AT THE FIRST CONGREGATIONAL CHURCH OF BERKELEY FOURTH LECTURE* THE EARLIEST INTERNATIONALISM JAMES HENRY BREASTED, Ph.D., LL.D. Professor of Egyptology and Oriental History, Director of the Ilaskell Oriental Museum, University of Chicago The foreign relations of the Egyptians are earlier discernible than those of any other people. In the thirtieth century B.C. the Pharaoh Snefru dispatched a fleet of forty ships to bring cedar from the forests of Lebanon. This was two thousand years before Solomon procured his cedar there for the temple at Jerusalem. Egyptian salt water navigation, the earliest known in history, had begun well back of 3000 B.C. From the Pyramid age (about 3000 to 2500 B.C.) we even have relief pictures of the Egyptian ships, which had then become a common sight in the eastern Mediter- ranean from Crete and the Aegean on the west and north to Phoenicia and the Nile Delta on the east and south. This leader- ship of Egyptian navigation, introducing the first craft propelled by sails, is traceable as far east as East Indian and Malayan waters, where native craft displaying unique peculiarities of ancient Egyptian origin are still in use at the present day. This early expansion of the Nile-dweller's world resulted in the transmission of the earliest civilization to southeastern Europe. The process continued on a larger scale in the Feudal age, after 2000 B.C. At the same time Egyptian knowledge of neighboring Asia was so increased that a remarkable romance of the age was staged in western Asia. It tells of the flight of The other five lectures in this course are still unpublished. SPECIAL LECTUEE8 193 an Egyptian fugitive, named Sinuhe, who found refuge in Syria, and lived a life of heroic adventure and enviable prosperity there a life described with epic simplicity, affording us our earliest glimpses into pre-Hebrew conditions in Syria. Similarly Egyptian navigation of the Red Sea had brought the gates of the Indian Ocean into the purview of literature, and a pictur- esque tale of the time relates the voyage of an Egyptian sailor in this region, where this earliest Sindbad, as the sole survivor, was cast away on an enchanted island. There he gained fabulous wealth and returned home to tell the tale. Thus the life of men across far waters was beginning to play a part in the life of the Nile-dwellers, and the background of their foreign environment was greatly expanded. It was not until the Empire (1580 to 1150 B.C.) however, that this process went so far as to make Egypt feel itself a part of the larger world around it. The dominant influences had hitherto been those of an environment restricted to the limits of the lower Nile valley. These had gone as far as they could, when a career of imposing foreign expansion of national power enlarged the theatre of thought and action. This imperial expansion northward and southward, until the Pharaoh 's power had united the contiguous regions of Asia and Africa into the first stable Empire in history, is the commanding fact in the history of the East in the sixteenth century B.C. "The consolidation of that power by Thutmose Ill's twenty years' campaigning in Asia is a stirring chapter of military im- perialism in which, for the first time in the East we can discern the skillfully organized and mobile forces of a great state, as they were brought to bear with incessant impact upon the nations of Western Asia, until the Egyptian supremacy was undisputed from the Greek Islands, the coasts of Asia Minor, and the high- lands of the Upper Euphrates on the north, to the Fourth Cataract of the Nile on the south."* Egyptian conquest of land and sea had gained control of a strategic situation paralleled only by that of Constantinople. In * Quotation marks without indication of source designate the author's History of Egypt, and his Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt. 194 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENAEY spite of Libyan rivalry Egypt had long been undisputed mistress of northeastern Africa, had now gained control of southwestern Asia, and was impregnably seated astride a grand inter-conti- nental highway linking Asia and Africa. But Suez is far more than an inter-continental highway. It has again been made by modern enterprise, what the Egyptian Pharoahs had already made it nearly four thousand years ago, an inter-oceanic high- way. It is, therefore, today, as it was under the Egyptian Em- pire, not only a link between two continents but also a link between two seas, making it a great inter-continental, inter- oceanic cross-roads. In strategic importance it surpasses even Constantinople. It will be seen that under the Empire Egypt had made this grand cross-roads her safe and unchallenged pos- session by erecting a deep buffer of vassal states on the Asiatic side, a precaution absolutely necessary to ensure its possession by any power entrenched in Egypt. It is all the more remark- able that we find England taking this obvious precaution only after her hold upon Egypt had been seriously threatened from Asia. Having thus gained a firm hold upon the contiguous portions of two continents, having developed a navy which ensured her unchallenged control of the seas on either side, and having long before linked those two seas together so that her war fleets could pass quickly from one to the other, Egypt had made her- self mistress of a commanding world. It was a situation pos- sessing a strategic power, economic, commercial, naval, and mili- tary, which enabled the Pharaohs to build up an imperial supremacy which lasted for several centuries. The creation of a dominant state like this resulted in a fabric of cosmopolitan, international life which the ancient world had never seen before. It was most tangibly discernible in Egypt itself, as the horizon of the Nile-dwellers rapidly expanded and the life of surrounding peoples began to interpenetrate with that of Egypt as never before. Visible results of Egypt's far-reach- ing foreign power began to appear. Engraved on the walls of the Karnak temple, the Egyptians of the imperial capital at Thebes began to see "long annals of the Pharaoh's victories in Asia, endless records of the plunder he had taken, with splendid SPECIAL LECTURES 195 reliefs picturing the rich portion which fell to the god of the Egyptian state." In successive lists the same walls bore the names of over three hundred and sixty Asiatic towns which had submitted to Thutmose III. "In the garden of Amon's temple, . . . grew strange plants of Syria-Palestine, while animals un- known to the hunter of the Nile valley wandered among trees equally unfamiliar. Envoys from the north and south were con- stantly appearing at Court. Phoenician galleys, such as the upper Nile never had seen before, delighted the eyes of the curious crowds at the docks of Thebes; and from these landed whole cargoes of the finest stuffs of Phoenicia, gold and silver vessels of magnificent workmanship, from the cunning hand of the Tyrian artificer or the workshops of distant Asia Minor, Cyprus, Crete and the Aegean Islands; exquisite furniture of carved ivory delicately wrought ebony, chariots mounted with gold and electrum, and bronze implements of war. ' ' In all these things the Egyptian could recognize products of a craftsmanship which had long ago been borrowed from his ancestors in the Nile valley. Besides all these things there were "fine horses for the Pharaoh 's stables and untold quantities of the best that the fields, gardens, vineyards, orchards and pastures of Asia produced. Under heavy guard emerged from these ships too, the annual tribute of gold and silver in large commercial rings, some of which weighed as much as twelve pounds each. . . . Winding through the streets, crowded with the wondering Theban multi- tude, the strange-tongued Asiatics in long procession bore their tribute to the Pharaoh 's treasury. ' ' We can still look upon these scenes as they have been perpetuated in gorgeous paintings on the chapel walls in the tombs of the Theban nobles of the Empire. "The amount of wealth which thus came into Egypt was enor- mous for those times, and on one occasion the treasury was able to weigh out some eight thousand nine hundred and forty-three pounds of gold-silver alloy. ' ' In the same way the Pharaoh was absorbing the wealth of inner Africa, the Sudan of today, through Nubia. Besides these resources great numbers of slaves from both Africa and Asia were pouring into Egypt. With the death of Thutmose III in the middle of the fifteenth century B.C. the first imperial age which the world had ever seen 196 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY was at its full noontide. "Traditional limits disappeared, the currents of life no longer eddied within the landmarks of tiny kingdoms, but pulsed from end to end of a great Empire em- bracing many kingdoms and tongues from the upper Nile to the upper Euphrates and the Greek Islands. The wealth of Asiatic trade, circulating through the eastern Mediterranean, which once flowed down the Euphrates to Babylon, was thus diverted to the Nile Delta, centuries earlier united with the Red Sea by canal. All the world traded in the Delta markets." . . . The Nile from the Delta to the cataracts was alive, therefore, with the freight of all the surrounding world, which flowed into it from the Red Sea fleets and from long caravans passing back and forth through the Isthmus of Suez, the oldest inter-continental highway, equipped only within the last few months with a rail- way. Some of the effects of this new internationalism which arose in the Near East under Egyptian supremacy were discernible in impressive monumental and architectural forms. Of these none was more impressive than the transformation of Thebes, the new imperial capital. It had now become a worthy seat of empire, the first monumental city of antiquity. On either side of the mighty river, which itself formed a majestic central avenue, were ranged successive groups of gardens, villas, and imposing temple pre- cincts, which were connected with the river by splendid avenues of sculptured rams and sphinxes. The effect of the symmetrical monumental structure of the city as a whole was marvellously enhanced by the splendor of the individual temple groups, which must have been ' ' imposing in the extreme. The brilliant hues of the polychrome architecture, with columns and gates overwrought in gold and floors overlaid with silver, the whole dominated by towering obelisks clothed in glittering metal, rising high above the rich green of the nodding palms and sumptuous tropical foliage which embowered the mass, all this must have produced an impression both of gorgeous detail and overwhelming gran- deur, of which the sombre ruins of the same buildings, impressive as they are, offer little hint at the present day." The history of ancient architecture has yet to be written, but it is well to remember that there were at this time no great SPECIAL LECTURES 197 monumental cities anywhere else in the early world. The con- temporary cities of Asia were but dingy groups of sun-dried brick dwellings, with at most a Babylonian temple tower rising in their midst; while the castles of Tiryns and Mycenae, the palace of Phaestos in Crete, or the burial circles at Stonehenge, marked the beginnings of architecture in stone in the European world. The architectural glories of Periclean Athens were still one thousand years in the future. Nowhere was there a monumental city on an impressive scale when the Theban architects of the Empire began their work. Whence came the imposing concep- tions of which they were the authors? These architects had no predecessors in the task which had been set them, and I think we can only conclude that their architecture was a product of ex- panding vision quickened by the stimulus of Egypt's imperial leadership. "As at Athens in the days of her glory, the Egyptian Empire was fortunate in the possession of men of sensitive and creative mind, upon whose quick imagination her greatness had profoundly wrought, until they were able to embody her external manifestations in forms of beauty, dignity and splendor." The influence of international leadership on architecture, thus tangibly discernible in monumental terms, may serve to suggest to us its broadening effect in every direction. Thrown for the first time into a larger arena, the men of Egypt, like ourselves at the present crisis in our own history, were suddenly confronted by a more spacious outlook and were obliged to think in larger terms. In religion the result was a revolution which shook the old Egyptian traditions to the foundations. In the Pyramid age the Sun-god was conceived as a Pharaoh whose kingdom was Egypt. The state had long since made its impressions on religion, but that state had hitherto been a kingdom confined to the lower Nile valley. As that kingdom had long since found expression in religion, so now the empire must inevitably find similar expression. It had semed natural to call the god "king." The Pharaoh had thus become a kind of vehicle through which the thought of the Egyptians transferred sovereign qualities to the Sun-god, who became for them a kind of glorified and magnified Pharaoh. Larger visions of power were now dawning upon the minds of 198 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENAEY the Egyptians of the Empire as they contemplated their rulers. Thutmose III was the first personality of universal aspect, the first world-hero. As such he made a profound impression on his age. The idea of sovereign power, world-wide in scope, was thus visibly and tangibly bodied forth in his career, and the Egyptian caught it thus expressed rather than in far-reaching commercial connections or in the wide supremacy of natural law. It was universalism expressed in terms of imperial power which first caught the imagination of the thinking men of the Empire and disclosed to them the universal sweep of the Sun-god's power as a physical fact. Monotheism was but imperialism in religion. Scattered phrases found here and there in the inscriptions of the Empire suggest these influences from the very first and are like a momentary breath from a larger world. After the Empire is a century and a half old, from the beginning of the Fourteenth Century onward such influences envelop the life of Egypt in a constant atmosphere of universalism. The great individualist Amenhotep IV, who succeeded his father about 1375 B.C., was fascinated by the larger outlook, and it appealed to him chiefly in its religious aspects, though he was deeply interested in the expansion and emancipation of all of man 's modes of self-expres- sion, especially in art. He devoted himself with absorbing zeal to the new solar universalism. In order to free himself from the compromising traditions of the old solar theology, he gave the Sun-god a new name, Aton, which had formerly designated the physical disk of the sun. He banished the immemorial symbols of the traditional Sun-god, and devised a new one which would be understood at once by all men and therefore would be of wider appeal. The new symbol depicted the sun as a disk from which diverging beams radiated earthward, each ray terminating in a human hand. It was a masterly symbol, suggesting a power issuing from its celestial source, and putting its controlling hand upon the world and the affairs of men. . . . Such a symbol was suited to be understood throughout the whole international world which the Pharaoh controlled." The king's genius in creating such a symbol will be best understood as we consider the fact that modern internationalism has no such symbol; the League of Nations has no flag. SPECIAL LECTUBES 199 With world-wide reach the new god extended his hands over all peoples, and the young king upon whose vision such a god had dawned was soon involved in the bitterest enmities with the entrenched priesthoods of the old gods, especially that of Amon at Thebes. His own name Amenhotep, meaning "Amon rests," the king changed to Ikhnaton, signifying ' ' Aton rests. ' ' Every- where, on all the great monuments throughout the land the name of Amon was expunged, although this involved the name of the king's own father, Amenhotep. Yawning holes appeared on stately buildings and massive monuments where once the name of the king 's father had stood. Even the word ' ' gods, ' ' the plural of the common noun, wherever it appeared on temple and tomb walls, was hacked out. Then, finding his life at Thebes among unfinished temples of the old gods and the disfigured walls of their ancient sanctuaries, overshadowed by oldtime associations which could not be evaded, this young revolutionary forsook the magnificent capital of his fathers, and built another residence city as a new home for his government and his new god. It is now commonly known as Tell el-Amarna. Weathered heaps of rubbish now stretch far over the plain where once the new city arose. Sweeping in a wide semicircle from the east to the north and south, the cliffs that encompass the plain still contain the tombs of the grandees who followed this extraordinary man to Amarna. Let me quote from the hymns to the new god, which were engraved on the walls of these tombs: How manifold are thy works! They are hidden from before (us), O sole God, whose powers no other possesseth. The foreign lands, Syria and Ethiopia, The land of Egypt; Thou settest every man into his place, Thou suppliest their necessities. Every one has his possessions, And his days are reckoned. The tongues are divers in speech, Their forms likewise and their skins are distinguished; For thou makest different the strangers. 200 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENAEY All cattle rest upon their pasturage, The trees and the plants flourish, The birds flutter in their marshes, Their wings uplifted in adoration to thee. All the sheep dance upon their feet, All winged things fly, They live when thou hast shone upon them. The barques sail up-stream and down-stream alike. Every highway is open because thou dawnest. The fish in the river leap up before thee, Thy rays are in the midst of the great deep. When the fledgling in the egg chirps in the shell, Thou givest him breath therein to preserve him alive. It is of course impossible to present all the evidence here, but perhaps these fragments of one of the Amarna hymns are sufficient to make it clear that Ikhnaton's endeavor was to pro- ject an international religion, a world religion, and by it to dis- place the nationalism of the existing religions which had gone on for twenty centuries. Here, then, was the earliest internationalism, expressing itself in religion as this extraordinary young idealist, by the power of his imperial station, endeavored to hold up the same god for all men. He recognizes their differences in speech and in the hue of their skins, but in spite of all these wide differences, for the first time in human history a man of universal outlook calls upon all mankind to recognize one maker and ruler as their father and god. In view of our present situation I cannot but call attention to the kindly and paternal solicitude of Ikhnaton 's god for all races of men, and even for the least of his creatures. "Thou art the father and the mother of all that thou hast made," says the young king to his God. It is a thought which anticipates much of the later development in religion even down to our own time. The picture of the lily-grown marshes, where, as he says in another hymn, the flowers are "drunken" in the intoxicating radiance of the Sun, where the birds unfold their wings and lift them "in adoration of the living Aton," where the cattle dance with delight in the sunshine, and the fish in the river beyond loap up to greet the light, the universal light \vhose beams are SPECIAL LECTURES 201 even "in the midst of the great deep;" the consciousness that this god of all creatures sustains and nourishes all men of what- ever race or color ; all this discloses a discernment of the presence of god in nature and of his fatherly goodness toward all men alike such as we find a thousand years later in the Hebrew Psalms, and still later in our own poets of nature since Words- worth. Ikhnaton had annihilated the old gods and exalted a sole god in their place; but he had failed to understand that he could not expunge the old gods from the habits, customs, and daily life of the people themselves as he had expunged the names of those gods from the monuments. Unlike a monument, a social fabric is powerfully dynamic, and cannot be fashioned like potter's clay. Hence it was in a whole land darkened by clouds of smouldering discontent that this marvellous young king and his group of followers had set up their tabernacle to the daily light, in serene unconsciousness of the fatal darkness that enveloped all around and grew daily darker and more threatening. The fair city of the Amarna plain was but a fatuous island of the blest in the midst of a sea of discontent ; a vision, a dream born in a mind fatally forgetful that the past cannot be annihilated. Ikhnaton, the first great individualist of history, was overwhelmed by the growing tide of tradition. He perished, and the first great con- structive movement toward a beneficient internationalism per- ished with him. But the monuments of his age and his reign have furnished invaluable revelations of the course of imperial power as modified by the strategic geography of the Near East. When his city at Amarna fell into ruin and the royal offices around his palace likewise collapsed, the falling walls of the room which had served as his foreign office covered a large portion of its letter files. Fortunately for us some of this correspondence consisted of clay tablets bearing cuneiform writing, and over three hundred letters from this earliest surviving foreign office file have thus been preserved. In publishing this international correspondence the modern orientalists have set a precedent which has since been followed by the Bolsheviki of Petrograd with very disquieting results, because the writers of the Petrograd documents had not been dead for thirty-three hundred years. 202 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENASY In these Amarna Letters, as we call them, written in the first half of the fourteenth century B.C., a scene of world politics un- known before in history is unfolded before us. "From the Pharaoh's court as the centre radiates a host of lines of communication with all the great peoples of the age . . . giving us a glimpse across the kingdoms of hither Asia as one might see them on a stage, each king playing his part before the great throne of the Pharaoh." Here are the kings of Babylonia, Assyria, Mitanni, Cyprus, Asia Minor, Phoenicia, and Syria- Palestine, all plotting against each other, and all seeking the favor of the all powerful Egyptian overlord. Babylonia and Mitanni have sent princesses to become the wives of the Pharaoh, and the Babylonian ruler even ventures to ask for a similar dis- tinction for himself, the gift of a princess from the palace of Egypt as his wife. If the Pharaoh refuses, says the Babylonian, send somebody anyway, adding with sound statesmanship, ' ' Who shall say that she is not a king's daughter?" The leading facts in the international situation disclosed by this extraordinary body of correspondence form a revelation without parallel in the history of research in the ancient world. The relations between these ancient peoples were already the well recognized result of long established intercourse, regulated by respected precedent. "So complete was the understanding be- tween Egypt and Cyprus that even the extradition of the prop- erty of a citizen of Cyprus who had died in Egypt was regarded by the two kings as a matter of course, and a messenger was sent to Egypt to receive the property and bring it back to Cyprus for delivery to the wife and son of the deceased. ' ' These letters reveal to us not only the relations of Egypt's vassal states, but also the situation of the leading states grouped about Egypt's Asiatic Empire, especially Babylonia, Assyria, and the Hittites. Against these outsiders the buffer of vassal states which Egypt had built up in contiguous Asia was supposed to make her safe, but one of the most important disclosures of these letters is the gradual absorption of the whole northern end of Egypt's vassal bulwark in Asia by a great influx of Hittites from Asia Minor. It is exceedingly instructive for understanding either the ancient or the modern international situation in this SPECIAL LECTURES 203 region to examine the strategic position of an army operating on the Asiatic side of Suez. England's operations in this region during the "World War have been but a repetition of a military drama enacted over and over again since the sixteenth century B.C. I might read the records still preserved on the walls of the Karnak temple at Egyptian Thebes, and if I were only to sub- stitute the name of General Allenby for that of Thutmose III, you would almost imagine I was reading the dispatches of the British commander to London during his campaign in Palestine. Egypt is and always has been protected from any invasion from the African side because her rear is flanked in all directions by the Sahara, and any intruders endeavoring to enter by de- scending the river are stopped by the cataracts. Only once in her history has Egypt suffered a serious invasion from her rear in Africa. The same desert which protects Egypt in Africa sweeps far over into Asia, enfolds Egypt also on the Asiatic side, including the Isthmus of Suez, and throws a hundred miles of desert between the Nile Delta and southern Palestine. Inci- dentally it was this hundred miles of desert which prevented the Turks from making an effective assault on the canal, and it was in this region that the army of Sennacherib suffered destruction. The British have now solved it by building a railway across it. It is furthermore of fundamental importance to observe that this Arabian desert then extends far northward merging with what is commonly called the Syrian Desert, and is thus flung out like a far-reaching bulwark almost entirely across the region of Asia neighboring on Egypt, and absolutely shutting off all approach to Egypt from any quarter in Asia, except along the eastern Mediterranean shore. An army advancing upon Egypt from Asia finds the desert on the one hand and the eastern shores of the Mediterranean on the other ; and it marches southward for over four hundred miles down a relatively narrow cultivable fringe between the desert and the sea. This contracted avenue between sea and desert is strategically a four hundred mile pro- longation of the Isthmus of Suez northward. Together with the Isthmus it forms a link like the handle of a dumb-bell between Asia and Africa, a corridor nearly five hundred miles long. In this corridor Palestine is at the south, while Syria occupies its northern portion. Every army entering Egypt must traverse 204 UNIFEESITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENAEY almost the entire length of this narrow five hundred mile corridor connecting the great communities of Asia with Egypt. Let it be noticed that we have said communities rather than Asia in gen- eral ; for the great communities are not along the corridor, where there is not sufficient space for the development of powerful states. These states were always grouped outside the north end of the corridor, on its east and north and west; on its east especially Assyria and Babylonia and on its northwest the Hittites in Asia Minor. Where then was the bridge head in Asia giving access to Africa and Egypt? It was and still is decidedly not at the Asiatic end of the Isthmus of Suez. It is four hundred miles farther north at the north end of the corridor, that is at Alex- andretta, the northeast corner of the Mediterranean. This shift of the bridge head so far north throws it directly under the gates of the westernmost bastion of Asia. On the north side of the Mediterranean Asia throws forward a great bastion, like a vast fortress salient, frowning down upon Europe and commanding Constantinople and the adjacent shores of Greece and the Balkan world. This vast peninsula of Asia Minor is a tableland from three to four hundred miles wide and six hundred and fifty to seven hundred miles long, being about as large as the state of Texas. It is thrust like a wedge far west- ward between Europe on the north and Africa on the south ; but it is separated from Europe on the north by the Black Sea and from Africa on the south by the Mediterranean. Behind it, that is, on the east, is a mountainous hinterland merging on the southeast into the alluvial plain of Babylonia. This great fortress bastion of western Asia commands the hinterland of Babylonia and the bridge head leading to Egypt. Let us note that the bridge head is right under the southeastern gates of our fortress bastion. Let it be noted also that no aggres- sive military power has ever held this great western bastion of Asia without pouring through the corridor just described and thus sweeping around the eastern end of the Mediterranean into Egypt. The Persian Cyrus saw very clearly that he must possess Asia Minor before he could advance with safety upon Babylon or Egypt. It was the possession of this western bastion which enabled the Persians not only to command the Greek world in SPECIAL LECTURES 205 neighboring Europe, but also to capture the bridge head and advance into Egypt. Alexander the Great saw this and dispos- sessed the Persians first of their western salient and then fought his crucial battle at the bridge head itself on the shores of the gulf of Alexandretta, anciently called Issus. Would that our valiant English allies had adopted Alexander 's plan of campaign in this particular. The Romans likewise having gained a foot- hoU in Asia Minor swept around the Mediterranean into Egypt, and the Turks came in the same way. Thus the great bastion of western Asia has served as the stronghold dominating the eastern Mediterranean and furnishing the base which has supported Persian, Macedonian, Roman, and Turk in the conquest of Egypt and Babylonia. Its strategic significance, demonstrated by the part it has played in history, and obvious to any military student of the region even if he lacked all knowledge of its history, was discerned from the beginning by the military masters of Ger- many. Had they been effectively blocked in this region the European war would have ended before the overthrow of the Czar of Russia. The fundamental fact of importance for our further discus- sion is, then, that the bridge head in Asia is directly under the southeastern gates of Asia Minor and that this great western bastion of Asia thus commands the approach to Egypt from Asia. At the beginning of the war the Turks held the whole and later the northern two-thirds of the corridor ; that is, they occupied not only the bridge head, but also the whole and later half or more of the bridge itself. In a similar situation the ablest of the Egyptian commanders. Thutmose III, was the first great military strategist to discern that while the desert completely protected the corridor or bridge from all attack on its east side, the sea gave access to it for a large part of its length on its west side. Having failed to gain the bridge in frontal operations by land he perfected his command of the sea, and then sailing up the Syrian coast parallel with the bridge he landed his forces along its northern half and flanked all the enemy 's positions south of his landing. By landing at the northeastern corner of the Mediterranean, directly under the gates of the Asia Minor bastion, the entire bridge between Asia and Africa is gained at a single stroke. England too commands the 206 UNIVEESITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENAEY sea, and to those familiar with the military and naval history of this region it will always remain an unsolved enigma why her plan of campaign so completely ignored the very decisive experi- ence of ancient commanders in this region. To sum up, the Asia Minor bastion commands both Egypt and Babylonia behind it, and Egypt 's only safety is to hold the entire five hundred mile bridge which connects that bastion with Africa. Today if England is to maintain her oriental line of communi- cations through Suez she must possess not only Egypt on one side of Suez but on the other side the entire five hundred mile bridge right up to the southeastern gates of the Asia Minor bastion. The teachings of a long experience and the inexorable dictates of the strategic situation will be fatally disregarded if any other solution of the problem is adopted, although the desired end might possibly be secured by a protectorate in the north maintained by some assured friend or ally of the British Empire. If these references to the present situation in this region have seemed a digression, let me remind you again that the present situation is simply a repetition of that which we are now to resume. The founders of the Egyptian Empire had taken pos- session of the bridge for five hundred miles and at its north end they had protected the bridge head by conquering the immediate region as far as the Euphrates and the Taurus. In the midst of the convulsion which was shaking all Egypt as a result of the religious revolution of Ikhnaton, that is to say, at a moment when Egyptian power was seriously paralyzed, the forces of a Hittite Empire which had slowly developed in Asia Minor poured out of the southeastern gates and took possession not only of the bridge head just outside their gates but also of about half of the bridge itself. They thus occupied a position much like that of the Turks before Allenby's last success. The northern half of Egypt's Asiatic Empire had been lopped away, and the Hittites held a dominating position, which has been interestingly illus- trated by a remarkable letter only recently discovered. It is a proposal of marriage sent to the Hittite court in Asia Minor by the widow of one of Ikhnaton 's ephemeral successors in Egypt. The widowed Egyptian princess was evidently convinced that if she could secure a Hittite prince as her husband she could with his SPECIAL LECTURES 207 help maintain herself and set up a new dynasty in distracted Egypt* It was a political move on the international chessboard which was very common in later Europe especially in the Feudal age, but we had not anticipated its appearance in the Near Orient in the fourteenth century B.C. The move failed and meantime the southern half of the bridge was absorbed by a migration of desert nomads which brought the Hebrews into Palestine. Hostile Asiatic powers then held the entire bridge and were separated from Egypt only by the hundred miles of desert lying between Egypt and Palestine ; that is, things were in exactly the situation of the British in Egypt at the opening of the great war, when the Turks attacked the canal. At this dangerous crisis Egypt and a portion of her Empire were saved by the wars of Seti I and Barneses II for a generation before and after 1300 B.C. The international situation then resolved itself into two rival- ries: one in the east, in the hinterland between Assyria on the north and Babylonia on the south ; the other in the west, between the Pharaohs and the Hittites. This war raged up and down the corridor as Seti I and Ramses II endeavored to thrust back the Hittites into their western Asiatic bastion, just as the English did with the Turks. By following the strategy of Thutmose III and advancing along the bridge by sea, Ramses II almost suc- ceeded in recovering the bridge head, and at one stage he was fighting the Hittites under the shadow of their own mountains; but he was unable to hold the bridge head permanently. Meanwhile the Hittite king was watching the progress of the other rivalry with some apprehension, as the rising Assyrian kingdom slowly expanded westward, and in 1300 B.C. for the first time in many centuries, an Assyrian king crossed to the west side of the Euphrates, in very uncomfortable proximity to the eastern frontier of the Hittites. The Hittite king therefore hastened to make peace with his Egyptian rival, in order to be free to devote his attention to the Asiatic situation. Ramses II was only too glad to accept the peace proffered by his formidable Hittite adversary, Khetasar, and the result was a treaty both of peace and alliance between the two powers so long at war. * See Hrozny, Mitt, der Deutschen Orient. GeselL, No. 56, Dee. 1915, and King, Jour, of Egyptian Arch., IV, 1917, p. 193. 208 UNIVESSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY Two envoys of the Hittite king Khetasar arrived in Egypt, bringing with them the completed treaty engraved on a silver tablet. It was adorned with the figures of Khetasar and his queen, each protectingly embraced by a great god or goddess of the Hittites, accompanied by the seal of the god. It was from this original on the silver tablet that the sculptors of Ramses II copied the document on the temple wall, at the same time adding a full description of the adornments just mentioned. The valu- able silver original has, of course, long ago perished. But one of the copies on the walls of the temple of Ramses II at Karnak may still be read, the earliest international treaty extant. It is headed by a caption giving the genealogy of each of the two contracting sovereigns for two generations, which reads as follows : "The treaty which the great chief of Kheta [the Hittite nation], Khetasar the valiant; the son of Merasar, the great chief of Kheta the valiant; the grandson of Seplel, the great chief of Kheta the valiant, made, upon a silver tablet for Ramses II, the great ruler of Egypt, the valiant; the son of Seti I, the great ruler of Egypt, the valiant ; the grandson of Ramses I, the great ruler of Egypt, the valiant. The good treaty of peace and broth- erhood, setting peace [between them] forever." The articles of the treaty, seventeen in number, then follow. The first article merely recalls the former relations between the two states, formerly at peace but later at war. Thereupon in varied form but with constant repetition the second article in- sistently reiterates the establishment of peace between the two sovereigns. It reads: ' ' Behold then, Khetasar, the great chief of Kheta, is in treaty relation with Ramses II, the great ruler of Egypt, beginning with this day, in order to bring about good peace and good brother- hood between us forever, while he is in brotherhood with me, he is in peace with me ; and I am in brotherhood with him. and I am in peace with him forever. Since Metella, the great chief of Kheta, my brother, succumbed to his fate, and Khetasar sat as great chief of Kheta upon the throne of his father, behold, I am together with Ramses II, the great ruler of Egypt, and he is [with me in] our peace and brotherhood. It is better than the SPECIAL LECTUEES 209 former peace and brotherhood which were in the land. Behold, I, even the great chief of Kheta, am with Ramses II, the great ruler of Egypt, in good peace and brotherhood. The children of the children of the great chief of Kheta shall be in brotherhood and peace with the children of the children of Ramses II, the great ruler of Egypt, being in our relations of brotherhood and our relations [of peace], that the [land of Egypt] may be with the land of Kheta in peace and brotherhood like ourselves for- ever. ' ' The impression of seriousness and sincerity is greatly height- ened by the excessive repetitiousness of the article, but the most interesting item in it, is the effort to bind all future generations to keep this peace unbroken. It is to be hoped that the coming peace of 1920 A.D. may be as successful as this earliest preserved compact of 1271 B.C. After an article in which each ruler completely renounces all purposes of future conquest against the other, they reaffirm two older treaties between the two countries, going back several generations. Thereupon four articles arrange a defensive and protective alliance between the two sovereigns, which obligates each to send military assistance to the other in case of need. Four articles are then devoted to arranging for the extradition of political fugitives and of emigrants from both countries. Here the document originally closed with a long article calling upon a thousand divinities of Kheta, male and female, and a thousand of Egypt, male and female, to witness the compact ; followed by imprecations on the violator and blessings on the observer of the treaty. Two remarkable articles, appended as codicils and clearly an afterthought, provide for the humane treatment of extradited persons. These now form the conclusion of this extraordinary state document of over three thousand years ago, whereby two great sovereigns, representing millions of men, pledged them- selves to mutual obligations of fairness and right, which there is every indication they kept with a loyalty singularly lacking in international dealings during the last five years. Relations of cordial friendship betwen the two western rivals, Egypt and Kheta (the Hittites), then developed. Far up in 210 UNIVEESITY OF CALIFOENIA SEMICENTENAEY Nubia, just outside the vast cliff temple of Abu Simbel, where the colossal figures of Ramses II look out in solitary grandeur across the purple river to greet the rising sun, the Pharaoh's father, there, cut in the cliffs beside the temple front is an enormous stela or tablet, containing an inscription of formidable length. Forty horizontal lines each eight feet long, making a total of 320 linear feet of inscription, although they are badly weathered, still tell the story of how the Hittite king, heading a great escort of horse and foot, came far across the mountains and valleys of Asia Minor and Syria that he might stand before the Pharaoh 's palace and present the princess his daughter as the wife of Ramses II a report of a wedding in high life 320 feet long ! There is picturesque description of how the troops of both nations, who once faced each other in deadly combat, now mingle in friendship at the gorgeous wedding feast which followed. Above the great inscription a relief panel depicts the Pharaoh enthroned in state, while before him approaches the Hittite beauty led by her royal father. This great document, relief and inscription, has received very scanty attention. Only fragments have been published, and while the University of Chicago Expedition was engaged upon an epigraphic survey of the Nubian temples, including, of course, Abu Simbel, I gave special attention to this account of the in- ternational romance. I had been sitting for many days on the scaffolding which we raised before the monument, painfully gathering from the weathered face of the inscribed stone a steadily growing fund of facts and picturesque detail in this romantic international episode, as I followed the Asiatic princess setting out upon her long journey from the Hittite capital nearly two thousand miles away, across the eastern end of the Mediter- ranean. While I was so engaged upon the Egyptian end of these Egypto-Hittite relations the German orientalist Hugo Winckler had been excavating at the Asiatic end of the negotiations nearly two thousand miles away at the Hittite capital called Kheta, a place now bearing the Turkish name of Boghaz-koi. There Winckler in a casual preliminary walk across the ruins had kicked up with his boot heel the clay tablet letters and records SPECIAL LECTURES 211 forming the official archives of Khetasar, who had made the treaty of peace which we have summarized with Kamses II. Among the first things which turned up in the midst of these Hittite archives were Khetasar 's preliminary drafts of the articles of the treaty, which must have been long discussed between the two governments before the finished treaty was ready to be engraved upon the silver tablet which Khetasar sent to Egypt. But this was not all for among the Hittite archives there came to light also a letter, likewise on a clay tablet, written imme- diately on conclusion of the treaty by the queen of Ramses II to the Hittite queen, expressing the Egyptian queen's delight that there was now peace between the two nations so long hostile. Poor lady! Her delight would have been much tempered could she have foreseen the outcome of that peace, as we have found it recorded on the great temple outside of Abu Simbel temple. From my scaffolding before that temple I could see her stand- ing, sculptured in monumental serenity beside her husband's throne, and, as the official queen, quite properly unaware of the existence of the Asiatic charmer who had issued from the Hittite palace to beguile the Pharaoh as one of the results of that very peace over which her expressions of satisfaction still lay in the far off Hittite palace from which her Asiatic rival had emerged to be perpetuated on the Abu Simbel tablet. There on the Nubian Nile they still stand today: above in lofty imperturba- bility the unmoved figure of the Egyptian queen beside the colossal form of her sovereign lord, whose deliverance from the Hittite war brought her such joy, and at their feet beside the temple front, the story of how that peace culminated in the coming of the Hittite princess to be the Pharaoh's favorite. The archives of the Hittite capital although they have as yet hardly been catalogued, furnish the last and unexpectedly im- portant developments in this age of earliest internationalism. We must recall that the international situation, as we have already indicated, might be summarized as two rivalries, that between Egypt and the Hittites in the west, and in the east the long struggle between Assyria and Babylonia. Khetasar the Hittite observed with much anxiety that the balance of power between the two rivals in the east was being upset by the strong 212 VNIVEBSITT OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENAB and aggressive policy of Assyria, and when the Assyrians under Shalmaneser I crossed to the west side of the Euphrates, Assyrian power came directly into contact with the Hittites and seriously menaced them. Hence the treaty with Ramses II and then a union of the Hittite and Egyptian royal houses by marriage. But the statesmanship of an able Hittite sovereign in the thirteenth century B.C. did not stop with this. Freed from all anxiety regarding Egypt, Khetasar devoted himself to relieving his eastern frontiers of Assyrian pressure. He cultivated the closest relations with Assyria's rival Babylon, as we discover on reading one of his letters to the young Babylonian king. For- tunately for us the Hittite ruler, with surprisingly modern busi- ness and diplomatic system, retained a copy of this important letter, and this copy was found lying in the Boghaz-koi archives, among the fragments and wreckage of the foreign office letter file. Khetasar had evidently found the Babylonian foreign min- ister a serious obstacle to his desired intimacy with the newly crowned Babylonian king, and he devoted two long introductory paragraphs to a diverting denunciation of the Babylonian states- man, whom he hopes the gods will deprive of breath, that he may utter no further calumnies. This exchange of courtesies very much reminds one of more modern interchanges between foreign ministers of Europe since 1914. The Hittite then replies to an important question from the Babylonian about the state of the former's relations with Egypt. Khetasar states the situation very frankly. He says : "As to the question which my brother [meaning the Baby- lonian] has written concerning the message of the king of Egypt . . ., let me tell my brother the following: ' [The king of Egypt] and I have become brothers-in-law and brethren, and have agreed [with one another] that we are brothers and that therefore together [we will fight] an enemy, and together we will main- tain friendship [with a] friend ! ' : With some information re- garding the claims of a wandering border chief, and the disposi- tion of a physician borrowed from the Babylonian court, Khetasar veils his eagerness to broach the real purpose which his letter is to disclose in the final paragraph. In a fatherly tone he leads up to the vital and fundamental item of Hittite policy, and with SPECIAL LECTURES 213 engaging friendliness he flatters his "brother," the young Baby- lonian sovereign. "I have learned that my brother has attained ripe manhood and is fond of hunting. [I have rejoiced] greatly that [the god] Teshub is prospering the offspring of my brother Kadashman- turgu( ?) . For this reason go and plunder the land of the enemy. And when I hear that [my brother] has smitten the enemy, then I will say of my brother: 'A king, who knows how to bear weapons !( ?) ' Hesitate not my brother; march against the land of the enemy; smite the enemy! . . . March against a land to which thou art three, yea four times superior."* "When we reflect that this letter in passing from the Hittite capital in Asia Minor to the young king of Babylonia, would unavoidably skirt the border of Assyria for a long way, we can easily understand why the letter speaks so cautiously of the "enemy" and the "land," but does not mention by name the adversary against whom the Hittite urges the Babylonian to march. The document might very easily have fallen into Assy- rian hands, with embarrassing results. Putting the United States in the place of Assyria, and Mexico in the place of Babylonia, we shall see that the most finished craftsmanship in diplomacy, which we now associate with the name of Zimmermann, was already perfectly understood at the Hittite court, and indeed throughout Western Asia in the thirteenth century B.C. Recall- ing that this amiable missive of the Hittite king was first pub- lished in Berlin, we may conjecture that Herr Zimmermann had heard of it, and may have taken courage as he reflected that such friendly letters may easily lie buried in a foreign office for three thousand years and more. He could thus contemplate its excavation with equanimity in the days of Macauley 's Hotten- tot on London Bridge. It is perhaps worth while to note that the young Babylonian king followed the Hittite 's advice and attacked Assyria. He was crushingly defeated and the outcome of the war was the cap- ture of Babylon by the Assyrians and the captivity of the Baby- lonian king. Egypt and Babylon were now rapidly declining, * See H. Winckler in Mitt, der Deutschen Orient. Gesellschaft, No. 35, pp. 21 ff. 214 UNIVEKSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENAET and the two rivalries we have mentioned narrowed down to one ; the inevitable struggle which all Khetasar's diplomatic art had failed to avert, the rivalry between Assyria and the Hittites. It resulted in the complete destruction of the Hittite Empire, and the ultimate supremacy of Assyria over all three of the other antagonists in the twofold rivalry at which we have been glanc- ing. The international leadership of Assyria, followed by that of Persia, developed the imperialistic policy and organization which found its logical culmination in the Roman Empire and the influence of oriental imperialism fundamentally affecting the history of the Roman Empire as we know it did, has through that Empire also laid a heavy hand upon the history of mankind ever since. It brought the divine right of kings into Europe, thus enabling the most powerful military sovereign of the world to set the mystic nimbus of divine right upon his brow and even in this prosaic modern world to invest himself with something of its ancient oriental splendor. SPECIAL LECTURES 215 BARBARA WEINSTOCK LECTURES ON THE MORALS OF TRADE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA THE ETHICS OF CO-OPERATION JAMES HAYDEN TUFTS, A.M., B.D., Ph.D. Professor of Philosophy in the University of Chicago According to Plato's famous myth, two gifts of the gods equipped man for living : the one, arts and inventions to supply him with the means of livelihood ; the other, reverence and justice to be the ordering principles of societies and the bonds of friend- ship and conciliation. Agencies for mastery over nature and agencies for cooperation among men remain the two great sources of human power. But after two thousand years it is possible to note an interesting fact as to their relative order of develop- ment in civilization. Nearly all the great skills and inventions that had been acquired up to the eighteenth century were brought into man's service at a very early date. The use of fire, the arts of weaver, potter, and metal worker, of sailor, hunter, fisher, and sower, early fed man and clothed him. These were carried to higher perfection by Egyptian and Greek, by Tyrian and Florentine, but it would be difficult to point to any great new unlocking of material resources until the days of the chemist and electrician. Domestic animals and crude water mills were for centuries in man's service, and until steam was harnessed no additions were made of new powers. During this long period, however, the progress of human association made great and varied development. The gap be- tween the men of Santander's caves, or early Egypt, and the civilization of a century ago is bridged rather by union of human powers, by the needs and stimulating contacts of society, than by conquest in the field of nature. It was in military, political, and religious organization that the power of associated effort was first shown. Army, state, and hierarchy were its 216 UNIVEESITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENAEY visible representatives. Then, a little over a century ago, began what we call the industrial revolution, still incomplete, which combined new natural forces with new forms of human associ- ation. Steam, electricity, machines, the factory system, rail- roads : these suggest the natural forces at man's disposal ; capital, credit, corporations, labor unions: these suggest the bringing together of men and their resources into units for exploiting or controlling the new natural forces. Sometimes resisting the political, military, or ecclesiastical forces which were earlier in the lead, sometimes mastering them, sometimes combining with them, economic organization has now taken its place in the world as a fourth great structure, or rather as a fourth great agency through which man achieves his greater tasks, and in so doing becomes conscious of hitherto unrealized powers. Early in this great process of social organization three diverg- ent types emerged, which still contend for supremacy in the worlds of action and of valuation : dominance, competition, and cooperation. All mean a meeting of human forces. They rest respectively on power, rivalry, and sympathetic interchange. Each may contribute to human welfare. On the other hand, each may be taken so abstractly as to threaten human values. I hope to point out that the greatest of these is cooperation, and that it is largely the touchstone for the others. Cooperation and dominance both mean organization. Domi- nance implies inequality, direction and obedience, superior and subordinate. Cooperation implies some sort of equality, some mutual relation. It does not exclude difference in ability or in function. It does not exclude leadership, for leadership is usually necessary to make cooperation effective. But in domi- nance the special excellence is kept isolated ; ideas are trans- mitted from above downward. In cooperation there is inter- change, currents flowing in both directions, contacts of mutual sympathy, rather than of pride-humility, condescension-servility. The purpose of the joint pursuit in organization characterized by dominance may be either the exclusive good of the master or the joint good of the whole organized group, but in any case it is a purpose formed and kept by those few who know. The group may share in its execution and its benefits, but not in its construction or in the estimating and forecasting of its values. SPECIAL LECTURES 217 The purpose in cooperation is joint. Whether originally sug- gested by some leader of thought or action, or whether a com- posite of many suggestions in the give and take of discussion or in experiences of common need, it is weighed and adopted as a common end. It is not the work or possession of leaders alone, but embodies in varying degrees the work and active in- terest of all. Cooperation and competition at first glance may seem more radically opposed. For while dominance and cooperation both mean union of forces, competition appears to mean antagonism. They stand for combination ; it for exclusion of one by another. Yet a deeper look shows that this is not true of competition in what we may call its social, as contrasted with its unsocial, aspect. The best illustration of what I venture to call social competition is sport. Here is rivalry, and here in any given contest one wins, the other loses, or few win and many lose. But the great thing in sport is not to win ; the great thing is the game, the contest ; and the contest is no contest unless the contestants are so nearly equal as to forbid any certainty in advance as to which will win. The best sport is found when no one contestant wins too often. There is in reality a common purpose the zest of contest. Players combine and compete to carry out this pur- pose; and the rules are designed so to restrict the competition as to rule out certain kinds of action and preserve friendly re- lations. The contending rivals are in reality uniting to stimu- late each other. "Without the cooperation there would be no competition, and the competition is so conducted as to continue the relation. Competition in the world of thought is similarly social. In efforts to reach a solution of a scientific problem or to discuss a policy, the spur of rivalry or the matching of wits aids the common purpose of arriving at the truth. Similar competition exists in business. Many a firm owes its success to the competition of its rivals which has forced it to be efficient, progressive. As a manufacturing friend once remarked to me : "When the other man sells cheaper, you generally find he has found out something you don't know." But we also apply the term "competition" to rivalry in which there is no common purpose ; to contests in which there is no intention to continue or repeat the match, and in which no 218 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENAET rules control. Weeds compete with flowers and crowd them out. The factory competes with the hand loom and banishes it. The trust competes with the small firm and puts it out of business. The result is monopoly. When plants or inventions are thus said to compete for a place, there is frequently no room for both competitors, and no social gain by keeping both in the field. Competition serves here sometimes as a method of selection, although no one would decide to grow weeds rather than flowers because weeds are more efficient. In the case of what are called natural monopolies there is duplication of effort instead of co- operation. Competition is here wasteful. But when we have to do, not with a specific product, or with a fixed field, such as that of street railways or city lighting, but with the open field of invention and service, we need to provide for continuous co- operation, and competition seems at least one useful agency. To retain this, we frame rules against "unfair competition." As the rules of sport are designed to place a premium upon certain kinds of strength and skill w r hich make a good game, so the rules of fair competition are designed to secure efficiency for public service, and to exclude efficiency in choking or fouling. In unfair competition there is no common purpose of public service or of advancing skill or invention ; hence, no cooperation. The cooperative purpose or result is thus the test of useful, as contrasted with wasteful or harmful competition. There is also an abstract conception of cooperation, which, in its one-sided emphasis upon equality, excludes any form of leadership, or direction, and in fear of inequality allows no place for competition. Selection of rulers by lot in a large and complex group is one illustration ; jealous suspicion of ability, which becomes a cult of incompetence, is another. Refusals to accept inventions which require any modification of industry, or to recognize any inequalities of service, are others. But these do not affect the value of the principle as we can now define it in preliminary fashion : union tending to secure common ends, by a method which promotes equality, and with an outcome of increased power shared by all. SPECIAL LECTURES 219 What are we to understand by the Ethics of Cooperation? Can we find some external standard of unquestioned value or absolute duty by which to measure the three processes of society which we have named: dominance, competition, cooperation? Masters of the past have offered many such, making appeal to the logic of reason or the response of sentiment, to the will for mastery or the claim of benevolence. To make a selection with- out giving reasons would seem arbitrary ; to attempt a reasoned discussion would take us quite beyond the bounds appropriate to this lecture. But aside from the formulations of philosophers, humanity has been struggling often rather haltingly and blindly for certain goods and setting certain sign-posts which, if they do not point to a highway, at least mark certain paths as blind alleys. Such goods I take to be the great words : liberty, power, justice ; such signs of blind paths I take to be rigidity, passive acceptance of what is. But those great words, just because they are so great, are given various meanings by those who would claim them for their own. Nor is there complete agreement as to just what paths deserve to be posted as leading nowhere. Groups characterized by dominance, cut-throat competition, or cooperation, tend to work out each its own interpretations of liberty, power, justice; its own code for the conduct of its members. Without assuming to decide your choice, I can indicate briefly what the main elements in these values and codes are. The group of masters and servants will develop what we have learned to call a morality of masters and a morality of slaves. This was essentially the code of the feudal system. We have survivals of such a group morality in our code of the gentle-- man, which in England still depreciates manual labor, although it has been refined and softened and enlarged to include respect for other than military and sportsman virtues. The code of masters exalts liberty for the ruling class and resents any restraint by inferiors or civilians, or by public opinion of any group but its own. It has a justice which takes for its premise a graded social order, and seeks to put and keep every man in his place. But its supreme value is power, likewise for the few, or for the state as consisting of society organized and directed by the ruling class. Such a group, according to Treitschke, will 220 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENARY also need war, in order to test and exhibit its power to the utmost in fierce struggle with other powers. It will logically honor war as good. A group practicing cut-throat competition will simply reverse the order: first, struggle to put rivals out of the field; then, monopoly with unlimited power to control the market or possess the soil. It appeals to nature's struggle for existence as its standard for human life. It, too, sets a high value upon liberty in the sense of freedom from control, but originating as it did in resistance to control by privilege and other aspects of domi- nance, it has never learned the defects of a liberty which takes no account of ignorance, poverty, and ill-health. It knows the liberty of nature, the liberty of the strong and the swift, but not the liberty achieved by the common effort for all. It knows justice, but a justice which is likely to be defined as securing to each his natural liberty, and which, therefore, means non- interference with the struggle for existence except to prevent violence and fraud. It takes no account as to whether the struggle kills few or many, or distributes goods widely or spar- ingly, or whether indeed there is any room at the table which civilization spreads; though it does not begrudge charity if ad- ministered under that name. A cooperating group has two working principles : first, com- mon purpose and common good; second, that men can achieve by common effort what they cannot accomplish singly. The first, reinforced by the actual interchange of ideas and services, tends to favor equality. It implies mutual respect, confidence, and good will. The second favors a constructive and progressive attitude, which will find standards neither in nature nor in humanity 's past, since it conceives man able to change conditions to a considerable extent and thus to realize new goods. These principles tend toward a type of liberty different from those just mentioned. As contrasted with the liberty of a domi- nant group, cooperation favors a liberty for all, a liberty of "live and let live," a tolerance and welcome for variation in type, provided only this is willing to make its contribution to the common weal. Instead of imitation or passive acceptance of patterns on the part of the majority, it stimulates active con- struction. As contrasted with the liberty favored in competing SPECIAL LECTURES 221 groups, cooperation would emphasize positive control over natural forces, over health conditions, over poverty and fear. It would make each person share as fully as possible in the knowledge and strength due to combined effort, and thus liberate him from many of the limitations which have hitherto hampered him. Similarly with justice. Cooperation's ethics of distribution is not rigidly set by the actual interest and rights of the past, on the one hand, nor by hitherto available resources on the other. Neither natural rights nor present ability and present service form a complete measure. Since cooperation evokes new inter- ests and new capacities, it is hospitable to new claims and new rights; since it makes new sources of supply available, it has in view the possibility at least of doing better for all than can an abstract insistence upon old claims. It may often avoid the deadlock of a rigid system. It is better to grow two blades of grass than to dispute who shall have the larger fraction of the one which has previously been the yield. It is better, not merely because there is more grass but also because men's attitude be- comes forward-looking and constructive, not pugnacious and rigid. Power is likewise a value in a cooperating group, but it must be power not merely used for the good of all but to some extent controlled by all and thus actually shared. Only as so con- trolled and so shared is power attended by the responsibility which makes it safe for its possessors. Only on this basis does power over other men permit the free choices on their part which are essential to full moral life. As regards the actual efficiency of a cooperating group, it may be granted that its powers are not so rapidly mobilized. In small, homogeneous groups, the loss of time is small ; in large groups the formation of public opinion and the conversion of this into action is still largely a problem rather than an achieve- ment. New techniques have to be developed, and it may be that for certain military tasks the military technique will always be more efficient. To the cooperative group, hoA\ r ever, this test will not be the ultimate ethical test. It will rather consider the possibilities of substituting for war other activities in which cooperation is superior. And if the advocate of war insists that war as such is the most glorious and desirable type of life, co- 222 UNIVEESITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENAR7 operation may perhaps fail to convert him. But it may hope to create a new order whose excellence shall be justified of her children. A glance at the past roles of dominance, competition, and cooperation in the institutions of government, religion, and com- merce and industry, will aid us to consider cooperation in re- lation to present international problems. Primitive tribal life had elements of each of the three prin- ciples we have named. But with discovery by some genius of the power of organization for war the principle of dominance won, seemingly at a flash, a decisive position. No power of steam or lightning has been so spectacular and wide-reaching as the power which Egyptian, Assyrian, Macedonian, Roman, and their modern successors in overlordship introduced and con- trolled. Political states owing their rise to military means naturally followed the military pattern. The sharp separation between ruler or ruling group and subject people, based on conquest, was perpetuated in class distinction. Gentry and simple, lord and villein, were indeed combined in exploitation of earth's resources, but cooperation was in the background, mastery in the fore. And when empires included peoples of various races and cultural advance the separation between higher and lower became intensified. Yet though submerged for long periods, the principle of cooperation has asserted itself, step by step, and it seldom loses ground. Beginning usually in some group which at first combined to resist dominance, it has made its way through such stages as equality before the law, abolition of special privileges, extension of suffrage, influence of public sentiment, interchange of ideas, toward genuine participation by all in the dignity and responsibility of political power. It builds a Panama Canal, it maintains a great system of education, and has, we may easily believe, yet greater tasks in prospect. It may be premature to predict its complete displacement of dominance in our own day as a method of government, yet who in America doubts its ultimate prevalence ? Religion presents a fascinating mixture of cooperation with dominance, on the one hand, and exclusiveness, on the other. The central fact is the community, which seeks some common SPECIAL LECTURES 223 end in ritual or in beneficent activity. But at an early period leaders became invested, or invested themselves, with a sanctity which led to dominance. Not the power of force, but that of mystery and the invisible raised the priest above the level of the many. And, on another side, competition between rival national religions, like that between states, excluded friendly contacts. Jew and Samaritan had no dealings; between the followers of Baal and Jehovah there was no peace but by extermination. Yet it was religion which confronted the Herrenmoral with the first reversal of values, and declared : ' ' So shall it not be among you. But whosoever will be great among you let him be your minister." And it was religion which cut across national boun- daries in its vision of what Professor Royce so happily calls the Great Community. Protest against dominance resulted, how- ever, in divisions, and, although cooperation in practical activities has done much to prepare the way for national understanding, the hostile forces of the world today lack the restraint which might have come from a united moral sentiment and moral will. In the economic field the story of dominance, cooperation, and competition is more complex than in government and re- ligion. It followed somewhat different courses in trade and in industry. The simplest way to supply needs with goods is to go and take them ; the simplest way to obtain services is to seize them. Dominance in the first case gives piracy and plunder, when directed against those without; fines and taxes, when ex- ercised upon those within: in the second case, it gives slavery or forced levies. But trade, as a voluntary exchange of presents, or as a bargaining for mutual advantage, had likewise its early beginnings. Carried on at first with timidity and distrust, be- cause the parties belonged to different groups, it has developed a high degree of mutual confidence between merchant and cus- tomer, banker and client, insurer and insured. By its system of contracts and fiduciary relations, which bind men of the most varying localities, races, occupations, social classes, and national allegiance, it has woven a new net of human relations far more intricate and wide-reaching than the natural ties of blood kin- ship. It rests upon mutual responsibility and good faith; it is a constant force for their extension. 224 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENARY The industrial side of the process has had similar influence toward union. Free craftsmen in the towns found mutual sup- port in guilds, when as yet the farm laborer or villein had to get on as best he could unaided. The factory system itself has been largely organized from above down. It has very largely as- sumed that the higher command needs no advice or ideas from below. Hours of labor, shop conditions, wages, have largely been fixed by "orders," just as governments once ruled by decrees. But as dominance in government has led men to unite against the new power and then has yielded to the more complete co- operation of participation, so in industry the factory system has given rise to the labor movement. As for the prospects of fuller cooperation, this may be said already to have displaced the older autocratic system within the managing group, and the war is giving an increased impetus to extension of the process. Exchange of goods and services is indeed a threefold co- operation: it meets wants which the parties cannot themselves satisfy or cannot well satisfy ; it awakens new wants ; it calls new inventions and new forces into play. It thus not only satisfies man's existing nature but enlarges his capacity for enjoyment and his active powers. It makes not only for comfort but for progress. If trade and industry, however, embody so fully the principle of cooperation, how does it come about that they have, on the whole, had a rather low reputation, not only among the class groups founded on militarism but among philosophers and mor- alists? Why do we find the present calamities of war charged to economic causes? Perhaps the answer to these questions will point the path along which better cooperation may be expected. There is, from the outset, one defect in the cooperation be- tween buyer and seller, employer and laborer. The cooperation is largely unintended. Each is primarily thinking of his own advantage, rather than that of the other, or of the social whole : he is seeking it in terms of money, which as a material object must be in the pocket of one party or of the other, and is not, like friendship or beauty, sharable. Mutual benefit is the result of exchange : it need not be the motive. This benefit comes about as if it were arranged by an invisible hand, said Adam SPECIAL LECTUBES 225 Smith. Indeed, it was long held that if one of the bargainers gained the other must lose. And when under modern conditions labor is considered as a commodity to be bought and sold in the cheapest market by an impersonal corporate employer, there is a strong presumption against the cooperative attitude on either side. The great problem here is, therefore: How can men be brought to seek consciously what now they unintentionally pro- duce ? How can the man whose ends are both self -centered and ignoble be changed into the man whose ends are wide and high ? Something may doubtless be done by showing that a narrow selfishness is stupid. If we rule out monopoly, the best way to gain great success is likely to lie through meeting needs of a great multitude ; and to meet these effectively implies entering by imagination and sympathy into their situation. The business maxim of "service," the practices of refunding money if goods are unsatisfactory, of one price to all, of providing sanitary and even attractive factories and homes, and of paying a minimum wage far in excess of the market price, have often proved highly remunerative. Yet I should not place exclusive and perhaps not chief reliance on these methods of appeal. They are analo- gous to the old maxim, honesty is the best policy ; and we know too well that while this holds under certain conditions, that is, among intelligent people, or in the long run, it is often possible to acquire great gains by exploiting the weak, deceiving the ignorant, or perpetrating a fraud of such proportions that men forget its dishonesty in admiration at its audacity. In the end it is likely to prove that the level of economic life is to be raised not by proving that cooperation will better satisfy selfish and ignoble interests, but rather by creating new standards for meas- uring success, new interests in social and worthy ends, and by strengthening the appeal of duty where this conflicts with present interests. The one method stakes all on human nature as it is; the other challenges man's capacity to listen to new appeals and respond to better motives. It is, if you please, idealism; but before it is dismissed as worthless, consider what has been achieved in substituting social motives in the field of political action. There was a time when the aim in political life was undisguisedly selfish. The state, in distinction from the kinship 226 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENARY group or the village community, was organized for power and profit. It was nearly a gigantic piratical enterprise, highly profitable to its managers. The shepherd, says Thrasymachus in Plato's dialogue, does not feed his sheep for their benefit, but for his own. Yet now, what president or minister, legislator or judge, would announce as his aim to acquire the greatest financial profit from his position ? Even in autocratically governed coun- tries it is at least the assumption that the good of the state does not mean solely the prestige and wealth of the ruler. A great social and political order has been built up, and we all hold that it must not be exploited for private gain. It has not been created or maintained by chance. Nor could it survive if every man sought primarily his own advantage and left the commonwealth to care for itself. Nor in a democracy would it be maintained, provided the governing class alone were disin- terested, deprived of private property, and given education, as Plato suggested. The only safety is in the general and intelligent desire for the public interest and common welfare. At this moment almost unanimous acceptance of responsibility for what we believe to be the public good and the maintenance of American ideals though it brings to each of us sacrifice and to many the full measure of devotion bears witness to the ability of human nature to adopt as its compelling motives a high end which opposes private advantage. Is the economic process too desperate a field for larger mo- tives ? To me it seems less desperate than the field of government in the days of autocratic kings. One great need is to substitute a different standard of success for the financial gains which have seemed the only test. Our schools of commerce are aiming to perform this service, by introducing professional standards. A physician is measured by his ability to cure the sick, an engineer by the soundness of his bridge and ship; why not measure a railroad president by his ability to supply coal in winter, to run trains on time, and decrease the cost of freight, rather than by his private accumulation? Why not measure a merchant or banker by similar tests? Mankind has built up a great economic system. Pioneer, adventurer, inventor, scientist, laborer, organizer, all have con- tributed. It is as essential to human welfare as the political sys- SPECIAL LECTUEES 227 tern, and like that system it comes to us as an inheritance. I can see no reason why it should be thought unworthy of a statesman or a judge to use the political structure for his own profit, but perfectly justifiable for a man to exploit the economic structure for private gain. This does not necessarily exclude profit as a method of paying for services, and of increasing capital needed for development, but it would seek to adjust profits to services, and treat capital, just as it regards political power, as a public trust in need of cooperative regulation and to be used for the general welfare. But the war is teaching with dramatic swiftness what it might have needed decades of peace to bring home to us. We are thinking of the common welfare. High prices may still be a rough guide to show men 's needs, but we are learning to raise wheat because others need it, not merely because the price is high. Prices may also be a rough guide to consumption, but we are learning that eating wheat or sugar is not merely a matter of what I can afford. It is a question of whether I take wheat or sugar away from some one else who needs it the soldier in France, the child in Belgium, the family of my less fortunate neighbor. The great argument for not interfering with private exchange in all such matters has been that if prices should by some authority be kept low in time of scarcity men would con- sume the supply too rapidly ; whereas if prices rise in response to scarcity men at once begin to economize and so prevent the total exhaustion of the supply. We now reflect that if prices of milk rise it does not mean uniform economy ; it means cutting off to a large degree the children of the poor and leaving rela- tively untouched the consumption of the well-to-do. Merely raising the price of meat or wheat means taking these articles from the table of one class to leave them upon the table of another. War, requiring, as it does, the united strength and purpose of the whole people, has found this method antiquated. In Europe governments have said to their peoples : we must all think of the common weal; we must all share alike. In this country, the appeal of the food administrator, though largely without force of law, has been loyally answered by the great majority. It is doubtless rash to predict how much peace will retain of what war has taught, but who of us will again say so 228 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFOENIA SEMICENTENABY easily, "My work or leisure, my economy or my luxury, is my own affair, if I can afford it ? " Who can fail to see that common welfare comes not without common intention? The second great defect in our economic order, from the point of view of cooperation, has been the inequality of its dis- tribution. This has been due largely to competition when parties were unequal, not merely in their ability but in their oppor- tunity. And the most serious, though not the most apparent aspect of this inequality, has not been that some have more comfort or luxuries to enjoy; it is the fact that wealth means power. In so far as it can set prices on all that we eat, wear, and enjoy, it is controlling the intimate affairs of life more thoroughly than any government ever attempted. In so far as it controls natural resources, means of transportation, organiza- tion of credit, and the capital necessary for large-scale manu- facturing and marketing, it can set prices. The great questions, then, are, as with political power: How can this great power be cooperatively used ? Is it serving all or a few ? Two notable doctrines of the courts point ways for ethics. The first is that of property affected with public interest. Ap- plied thus far by the courts to warehouses, transportation, and similar public services, what limits can we set ethically to the docrine that power of one man over his fellows, whether through his office or through his property, is affected with public interest 1 The police power, which sets the welfare of all above private property when these conflict, is a second doctrine whose ethical import far outruns its legal applications. Yet it is by neither of these that the most significant progress has been made toward removing that handicap of inequality which is the chief injustice of our economic system. It is by our great educational system, liberal in its provisions, generously supported by all classes, unselfishly served, opening to all doors of opportunity which once were closed to the many, the most successful department of our democratic institutions in helping and gaining confidence of all a system of which this University of California is one of the most notable leaders and the most useful members that fair conditions for competition and in- telligent cooperation in the economic world are increasingly possible. SPECIAL LECTURES 229 What bearing has this sketch of the significance and progress of cooperation upon the international questions which now over- shadow all else? Certainly the world canont remain as before: great powers struggling for empire ; lesser powers struggling for their separate existence ; great areas of backward peoples viewed as subjects for exploitation; we ourselves aloof. It must then choose between a future world order based on dominance, which means world empire ; a world order based on nationalism joined with the non-social type of competition, which means, every nation the judge of its own interests, continuance of jealousies, and from time to time the recurrence of war ; and a world order based on nationalism plus international cooperation, ''to estab- lish justice, to provide for comomn defense, to promote the gen- eral welfare, and to secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity." It is not necessary to discuss in this country the principle of dominance and world empire. It contradicts our whole phil- osophy. Safety for dominance lies only in a civilzation of dis- cipline from above down, in ruthless repression of all thinking on the part of the subject class or race. Nor can I see any genuine alternative in what some advo- cate reliance by each nation on its own military strength as the sole effective guarantee for its interests. After the military lessons of this war, the concentration of scientific, economic, and even educational attention upon military purposes would almost inevitably be vastly in excess of anything previously conceived. What limits can be set to the armies of France and Great Britain if these are to protect those countries from a German empire already double its previous extent, and taking steps to control the resources of eastern Europe and the near East ? What navy could guarantee German commerce against the combined forces of Great Britain and the United States? What limits to the f rightfulness yet to be discovered by chemists and bacteriologist ? What guarantee against the insidious growth of a militarist at- titude even in democratically minded peoples if the constant terror of war exalts military preparations to the supreme place ? Something has changed the Germany of other days which many of us loved even while we shrank from its militarist masters. Ts it absolutely certain that nothing can change the spirit of 230 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENARY democratic peoples? At any rate, America, which has experi- mented on a larger scale with cooperation political, economic, and religious than any other continent, may well assert steadily and insistently that this is the more hopeful path. It may urge this upon distrustful Europe. The obstacles to cooperation are: 1. The survival of the principle of dominance, showing itself in desire for political power and prestige, and in certain concep- tions of national honor. 2. The principle of non-social competition, exhibited in part in the political policy of eliminating weaker peoples, and con- spicuously in foreign trade when the use of unfair methods relies upon national power to back up its exploitation or monopoly. 3. The principle of nationalistic sentiment, itself based on cooperation, on social tradition, and on common ideals, but bound up so closely with political sovereignty and antagonisms as to become exclusive instead of cooperative in its attitude toward other cultures. The principle of dominance deters from cooperation not only the people that seeks to dominate but peoples that fear to be dominated or to become involved in entangling alliances. Doubt- less a policy of aloofness was long the safe policy for us. We could not trust political liberty to an alliance with monarchies, even as with equal right some European peoples might distrust the policies of a republic seemingly controlled by the slavery interest. At the present time one great power professes itself incredulous of the fairness of any world tribunal ; smaller powers fear the commanding influence of the great ; new national groups just struggling to expression fear that a league of nations would be based on present status, and, therefore, would give them no recognition or else a measure of recognition conditioned by past injustices rather than by future aspirations and real desert. All these fears are justified in so far as the principle of dominance is still potent. The only league that can be trusted by peoples willing to live and let live is one that is controlled by a co- operative spirit. And yet who can doubt that this spirit is spreading? Few governments are now organized on the avowed basis that military power, which embodies the spirit of domi- nance, should be superior to civil control, and even with them SPECIAL LECTVEES 231 the principle of irresponsible rule, despite its reinforcement by military success, is likely to yield to the spirit of the age when once the pressure of war is removed which now holds former protesters against militarism solid in its support. For all powers that are genuine in their desire for cooperation there is over- whelming reason to try it; only by the combined strength of those who accept this principle can liberty and justice be main- tained against the aggression of powers capable of concentrating all their resources with a suddenness and ruthlessness in which dominance is probably superior. Yet cooperation for protection of liberty and justice is liable to fall short of humanity's hopes unless liberty and justice be themselves defined in a cooperative sense. The great liberties which man has gained, as step by step he has risen from sav- agery, have not been chiefly the assertion of already existing powers or the striking off of fetters forged by his fellows. They have been additions to previous powers. Science, art, invention, associated life in all its forms, have opened the windows of his dwelling, have given possibilities to his choice, have given the dream and the interpretation which have set him free from his prison. The liberty to which international cooperation points is not merely self-direction or self-determination but a larger freedom from fear, a larger freedom from suspicion, a fuller control over nature and society, a new set of ideas, which will make men free in a far larger degree than ever before. Similarly justice needs to be cooperatively defined. A justice that looks merely to existing status will not give lasting peace. Peoples change in needs as truly as they differ in needs. But no people can be trusted to judge its own needs any more than to judge its own right. A justice which adheres rigidly to vested interests and a justice which is based on expanding inter- ests are likely to be deadlocked unless a constructive spirit is brought to bear. Abstract rights to the soil, to trade, to ex- pansion, must be subordinate to the supreme question: How can peoples live together and help instead of destroy ? This can be approached only from an international point of view. The second obstacle, unsocial competition, is for trade what dominance is in politics. It prevents that solution for many of the delicate problems of international life which cooperation 232 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENARY through trade might otherwise afford. Exchange of goods and services by voluntary trade accomplishes what once seemed at- tainable only by conquest or slavery. If Germany or Japan or Italy needs iron or coal, if England needs wheat, or the United States sugar, it is possible, or should be possible, to obtain these without owning the country in which are the mines, grain, and sugar cane. The United States needs Canada's products; it has no desire to own Canada. But in recent years the exchange of products has been subjected to a new influence. National self- interest has been added to private self-interest. This has in- tensified and called out many of the worst features of antagonism and inequality. Few in this country have realized the extent to which other countries have organized their foreign commerce on national lines. "We are now becoming informed as to the carefully worked out programmes of commercial education, mer- chant marines, trade agreements, consular service, financial and moral support from the home government, and mutual aid among various salesmen of the same nationality living in a foreign country. "We are preparing to understake similar enterprises. "We are reminded that "eighty per cent of the world's people live in the countries bordering on the Pacific Ocean, and that as a result of the rearrangement of trade routes, San Francisco's chance of becoming the greatest distributing port of the Pacific for goods en route to the markets of the Orient, are now more promising than ever before." Can the United States take part in this commerce in such a way as to help, not hinder, interna- tional progress in harmony ? Not unless we remember that com- merce may be as predatory as armies, and that we must provide international guarantees against the exclusive types of compe- tition which we have had to control by law in our own domestic affairs. An Indian or an African may be deprived of his pos- sessions quite as effectively by trade as by violence. We need at least as high standards of social welfare in foreign as in domes- tic commerce. I cannot better present the situation than by quoting from a recent article by Mr. William Notz in the Journal of Political Economy (February, 1918) : "During the past twenty-five years competition in the world markets became enormously keen. In the wild scramble for trade the standards of honest business were disregarded more and more SPECIAL LECTUBES 233 by all the various rival nations. In the absense of any special regulation or legislation, it appeared as though a silent under- standing prevailed in wide circles that foreign trade was subject to a code of business ethics widely at variance with the rules observed in domestic trade. What was frowned upon as un- ethical and poor business policy, if not illegal at home, was con- doned and winked at or openly espoused when foreign markets formed the basis of operations and foreigners were the competi- tors. High-minded men of all nations have long observed with concern the growing tendency of modern international trade to- ward selfish exploitation, concession-hunting, cut-throat competi- tion, and commercialistie practices of the most sordid type. Time and again complaints have been voiced, retaliatory measures threatened, and more than once serious friction has ensued." Mr. Notz brings to our attention various efforts by official and commercial bodies looking toward remedies for such condi- tions and toward official recognition by all countries of unfair competition as a penal offense. What more do we need than fair competition to constitute the cooperative international life which we dreamed yesterday and now must consider, not merely as a dream but as the only alternative to a future of horror ? Free trade has been not unnaturally urged as at least one condition. Tariffs certainly isolate. To say to a country, ' ' You shall manufacture nothing unless you own the raw material ; you shall sell nothing unless at prices which I fix," is likely to pro- voke the reply: "Then I must acquire lands in which raw materials are found ; I must acquire colonies which will buy my products." Trade agreements mean cooperation for those with- in, unless they are one-sided and made under duress; in any case they are exclusive of those without. Free trade, the open door, seems to offer a better way. But free trade in name is not free trade unless the parties are really free, free from ignor- ance, from pressure of want. If one party is weak and the other unscrupulous, if one competitor has a lower standard of living than the other, freedom of trade will not mean genuine co- operation. Such cooperation as means good for all requires either an equality of conditions between traders and laborers of competing nations and of nations which exchange goods, or else 234 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENART an international control to prevent unfair competition, exploi- tation of weaker peoples, and lowering of standards of living. Medical science is giving an object lesson which may well have a wide application. It is seeking to combat disease in its centers of diffusion. Instead of attempting to quarantine against the Orient, it is aiding the Orient to overcome those conditions which do harm alike to Orient and Occident. Plague, anthrax, yellow fever, cannot exist in one country without harm to all. Nor in the long run can men reach true cooperation so long as China and Africa are a prize for the exploiter rather than equals in the market. Not merely in the political sense but in its larger meanings democracy here is not safe without democracy there. Education, and the lifting of all to a higher level, is the ultimate goal. And until education, invention, and intercommunication have done their work of elevation, international control must protect and regulate. In many respects the obstacle to international cooperation which is most difficult to remove is the strong and still growing sentiment of nationality. This is not, like dominance, a waning survival of a cruder method of social order ; it is a genuine type of cooperation. Rooted as it is in a historic past, in community of ideals and traditions and usually of language and art, it wakens the emotional response to a degree once true only of religion. Born of such a social tradition the modern may be said in truth, mentally and spiritually, as well as physically, to be born a Frenchman or a German, a Scotchman or Irishman or Englishman. He may be content to merge this inheritance in an empire if he can be senior partner, but the struggles of Irish, Poles, Czechs, and South Slavs, the Zionist movement, the nationalistic stirrings in India, with their literary revivals, their fierce self-assertions, seem to point away from internationalism rather than toward it. The Balkans, in which Serb, Bulgar, Roumanian, and Greek have been developing this national con- sciousness, have been the despair of peacemakers. The strongest point in the nationalist programme is, however, not in any wise opposed to cooperation, but rather to dominance or non-social competition. The strongest point is the importance of diversity combined with group unity for the fullest enrich- ment of life and the widest development of human capacity. SPECIAL LECTURES 235 A world all of one sort would not only be less interesting but less progressive. We are stimulated by different customs, tem- peraments, arts, and ideals. But all this is the strongest argu- ment for genuine cooperation, since by this only can diversity be helpful, even as it is only through diversity in its members that a community can develop fullest life. A world organization based on the principle that any single group is best and therefore ought to rule or to displace all others would be a calamity. A world organization which encourages every member to be itself would be a blessing. Why do nationalism and internationalism clash? Because this national spirit has rightly or wrongly been bound up so intimately with political independence. Tara's harp long hangs mute when Erin is conquered. Poland's children must not use a language in which they might learn to plot against their masters. A French-speaking Alsatian is suspected of disloyalty. Professor Dewey has recently pointed out that in the United States we have gone far towards separating culture from the state, and suggests that this may be the path of peace for Europe. We allow groups to keep their religion, their language, their song festivals. It may perhaps be claimed that this maintenance of distinct languages and separate cultures is a source of weak- ness in such a crisis as we now face. Yet it may well be urged, on the other hand, that a policy less liberal would have increased rather than diminished disunion and disloyalty. The student of human progress is likely to be increasingly impressed with the interaction between ideas and institutions. How far does man build and shape institutions to give body to his ideas? How far is it the organized life with its social con- tacts, its give and take, its enlargement of its membership to see life sub specie communitatis, which itself brings ideas to birth? Desire may bring the sexes together, but it is the association and organized relationships of the family which transform casual to permanent affection and shape our conceptions of its values. A herding instinct or a common need of defense or of food supplies may bring together early groups, and will to power may begin the state, but it is the living together which generates laws and wakens the craving for liberty and the struggle for justice. Seer 236 UNIVEESITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY and poet doubtless contribute to progress by their kindling ap- peals to the imagination and sympathy; the philosopher may, as Plato claimed for him, live as citizen of a perfect state which has no earthly being, and shape his life according to its laws; but mankind in general has learned law and right, as well as the arts of use and beauty, in the school of life in common. So it is likely to be with international cooperation. Fears and hopes now urge it upon a reluctant, incredulous world. But the beginnings scientific, legal, commercial, political timid and imperfect though they be, like our own early confederation, will work to reshape those who take part. Mutual understanding will increase with common action. When men work consistently to create new resources instead of treating their world as a fixed system, when they see it as a fountain, not as a cistern, they will gradually gain a new spirit. The Great Community must create as well as prove the ethics of cooperation. SPECIAL LECTURES 237 CERVANTES AND SPAIN'S GOLDEN CENTURY OF LETTERS PROFESSOR RUDOLPH SCHEVILL, PH.D. Professor of Spanish, University of California Literary investigation is not infrequently looked upon by the average person as an innocent amusement or, at best, a harmless, because unpractical, occupation. To most college students of today it seems to imply the reading on the part of the teacher of a certain number of so-called masterpieces, in order that he may be able to talk about them in the classroom. It is logical that this should be so. For our teaching often fails to impress the student with the fundamental principle of literary research ; that it demands not only a detailed study of any particular nation's civilization, but, in the profoundest sense, a wide sym- pathy for all mankind. Moreover, when that nation is not our own, investigation of its literature must evidently begin at the beginning of all things. The student must rear for himself a wholly new edifice of traditions, history, and culture, which may, for the most part, have little in common with his own. As regards the peculiar history and literature of the Spanish Peninsula the foreigner finds himself confronted with a number of complex problems, the solution and understanding of which require not only an unclouded vision and single-mindedness, but incessant and wide reading; and, above all, an unswerving pur- pose to be enlisted by no traditional prejudices; for the mere approach to Spanish studies brings us into touch with a number of stubborn points of view, which are always associated with certain high lights in Spanish history and literature, and hinder the growth of an intelligent sympathy for everything else in her varied and fascinating civilization. I refer to the inevitable awakening of a limited number of time worn memories whenever 238 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY the name of Spain is mentioned; among them, the conquest of America (often stigmatized as cruel and inspired by mere cupidity for gold), the Inquisition, the expulsion of the Jew, the reduction of the Moor, the suppression of the Netherlands, the hatred of Protestant England, all of which are condemned as fanatical or narrow minded manifestations, without regard for an equitable application of such strictures to the world in gen- eral as it was in that age. These subjects have become for us stirring themes of adventure, matter for romance and story, when they have not been objects of unsound criticism and diatribe. Taken all in all, any interpretation of them on the part of foreigners has never been free from that unthinking antagonism born of a distant age of narrow racial and religious misunderstanding. We speak of the glamour of these great topics, but not without a complacent shudder over their repellent phases, a kind of inherited antipathy intended to show how great is the abyss between ourselves and the historical vagaries of Spain. Is it not time that these superficial points of view should give place to a very general and sincere desire to become acquainted with the real soul of the Spanish people? The possibility of any definite understanding and permanent recon- ciliation between peoples wholly different in language and traditions has been pessimistically viewed. Le genie des races s'y oppose, was the conclusion reached by a noted Frenchman. But since his day many a door has opened and many a dark avenue has been cleared for more intelligent international inter- course. Mankind has always erred; the past is not wholly flattering for any race or nation; the day must shortly dawn when mutual recriminations will cease and there can be a nobler exchange of the choice products of the spirits of all peoples. From this it must be apparent how great is the difficulty of reaching a fair estimate of all things Spanish. The deeper secrets of a foreign speech can hardly ever be wholly mastered ; the venerable codes of a different social organization cannot be grasped except after years of sympathetic investigation and contact. What way, then, lies open to one who desires to become acquainted with the Golden Age of Spain, with the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, her peculiar glory in art and letters no less than in the political realm ? He must in reality set him- SPECIAL LECTURES 239 self but one problem from the outset, and that is to reconstruct the entire edifice of Spanish society of those times. No result which is separate from the lives of men and women has any vitality. Everything which interested them must interest the investigator : their daily speech in all its varieties, their employ- ments and tasks, however humble, what they felt and contrived, as well as the more tangible routine of their education. These must be the starting point. He can then hope to judge intelli- gently what their men of letters have set down, and glean from their peculiar interpretation of life what is of abiding value. The reconstruction of a society long gone by seems a large' task; but ample indeed is the material both of the present and the past out of which we may fulfil our purpose. There are two general sources: the actual remains of older customs still to be observed in Spanish lands, and the records which speak to us in the streets of ancient towns and cities in houses, churches, and convents in printed books and unprinted material scattered through libraries and archives the world over. For manners of today which may throw light on the past we must, indeed, travel to remote places in order to become acquainted with them, as journeys through Chile and Ecuador no less than the byways of the Spanish Peninsula yield valuable results ; while the revela- tions of books and manuscripts may be sought with profit in practically all centers of learning. In all this the search is but commensurate with the name of Spain, which once reached the farthest corners of the earth. Not infrequently present and past become fused in a visit to some out of the way spot : there not only an unmarred exterior, an abandoned square, or pictur- esque patio, constitutes the setting for a past existence, but the very manners of the Golden Age may still be visualized from inherited costumes brought out on special occasions, from traditional festal dances, from ballads sung, from quaint local idioms, and conversations carried on at the public fount or in gatherings in the market-place. Incidentally the archives of some local convent library may tell of things which corroborate the inferences drawn from the life without its walls. The study of Spanish civilization would be a very romantic undertaking if it were all like this. But the amount of solid material thus gleaned is not always large, and a real insight into the details 240 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENAET of Peninsular life is best obtained from the written testimony of Spain's chief men and women. When the reader has amassed his material, what picture of Spanish society can he reconstruct therefrom ? If I may presume to take you back so many years, you must first of all forget prac- tically everything which forms both the frame and content of society today; its facile communications, its newspapers and periodicals, its many comforts and luxuries, its infinite sanitary appointments looking to the health of the community, the general aspect of street or house, the varied costumes of men and women ; all these externals must be exchanged for a setting radically different if we desire to comprehend the Spaniard in his habit as he lived. Spanish life of the Golden Age would impress the modern reader more by its relative deprivations, its simplicity, than by those things which it enjoyed. Let us form a mental image for a moment of towns and cities isolated through the lack of any of our modern communications, or, if in touch with one another at all, only through courier and diligence, or burro and pedes- trian. And it will hardly be necessary to differentiate the life at the capital from that of less prominent provincial centers, since the average disadvantages entailed were common to all. At the beginning of the reign of Philip II Madrid was chosen as capital chiefly because of the brilliant idea that it was the mathematical center of the Peninsula, and that thus all the corners of Spain could be reached with equal celerity. Any news radiating from the capital could become known throughout Spain a few weeks later. We are thus dealing with an existence of circumscribed outer activities not to be confused with the intellectual life of which I shall speak later. My presentation of the daily routine must, of course, be inadequate and omit many minor details which, nevertheless, pertain to a carefully prepared canvas. First, what are the types of men and women whom we meet in the course of the day, what is their occupation or profession, what their dress, their speech; all matters which demand the most careful attention. With the rising sun, the great play- wright, Lope de Vega, tells us, the earth becomes arrayed in the Spanish colors, gold and red, and the first sound heard is SPECIAL LECTURES 241 that of the street-cleaners' carts which pass through the unpaved thoroughfares gathering all that has been thrown out upon them during the night. Then begin one after the other the cries of the various vendors who sell fruit, brandy, marmalade, buns, bread, and the like ; some carrying their wares, others setting up a stand on the street. Taverns and shops open, clothiers dis- play their garments, the apothecaries begin to clang their mor- tars, tradesmen of every description awaken while those who have an income remain abed. The greater part of the morning is devoted to the practical features of daily routine, which brings out our next group of types, the serving classes, the criados and criadas, who go to the market, or to the river to do their wash- ing, the lackeys and pages who run errands, to say nothing of the innumerable varieties of the under world, beggars and picaros who live by their wits at the expense of those still asleep. But the bond of all society is the church service and this especially the women attend without fail. At the church door, therefore, we have ample opportunity to examine all the types from the humblest to the proudest, who arrive with coach and attendants. The women would all appear in severe black, the head covered with a veto, as the church demanded, lest worldly gazes mar their reverence and devotions. Nor would it be surprising to see some young gallant following a fair one to the service, as this offered one of the few opportunities of making his presence and interest known. As the morning advances life and movement in the streets increase, for the average Spaniard prefers to have the sky rather than a roof over his head. To see, to chat with acquaintances, to hear fresh news, to stroll in his favorite thoroughfare, to com- ment on current events, to enjoy every stimulant to a fuller existence, "to take the air, to take the sun," in short, to live, that is the question for him. For no nation is so singularly alert and intelligent. If the Spaniard always combined per- sistence and work with that rare power of give and take in mental exchanges he might well revive the spirit of the Con- quistadores and win a new realm of the mind as they conquered a new world. All cities and towns had their principal walks, either in a square or before a much frequented church, along some river 242 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY or stream, or on some avenue filled with sun in the winter and affording shade in the summer. Here idlers were wont to saunter and exchange the latest gossip ; here was posted such intelligence as the government saw fit to publish; here appeared the announcement of a new play or a public entertainment. Some- times at the end of the morning, but especially in the late afternoon, depending on the season of the year, the popular thoroughfares were gradually filled with coaches of every description as the aristocracy and moneyed class slowly paraded their finery, receiving the homage of the less privileged. What could make life interesting on an intensive scale in a society practically incommunicate ? What could they talk about ? What were their sources of information? Numerous chronicles, memoirs, letters, despatches, and no less fiction and drama give us an infinite number of details regarding this matter. Within the city walls the world was much the same day after day, yet it is not evident that any community was ever bored. The occurrences of the vast outer world could become known only imperfectly and from time to time by means of brief proclama- tions, chance publications or individual letters, the contents of which were divulged and spread by word of mouth, acquiring proper coloring in the process. For many a family had a rela- tive in foreign parts occupied in the countless interests of the vast empire. Thus news came of the wars in Flanders, of the risings of the Protestant, the campaigns in Italy and against the Turk, of the raids of Barbary pirates on Spanish coasts, of heroic journeyings through unknown stretches of the New World. Manifestly the costumes worn by men and women in the picture which has passed before us include a vast array that would be impossible to describe were it not for the abundant help given by paintings, engravings, sumptuary laws, prag- matics, inventories, novels, and plays, to mention only a few of our sources. We are able to portray to ourselves in detail all the articles worn by the various classes of society, and even to get an insight into changing vogues in the length of cloaks, the forms of shoes, or the width of hats, to say nothing of laundry bills for the latest style in collars and cuffs. But all these figures would be but moving rows of magic shadow shapes were it not for their speech, and this is as varied SPECIAL LECTURES 243 as their type or occupation. The student is, therefore, face to face with an astonishing wealth in vocabulary and expression, a variety in wit and humor, a flexibility of phrase that has no superior in the world's languages. He must become acquainted with the rogue's jargon, or the kitchen-maid's syntax, no less than the chatter of the boudoir, or the artificial and stereotyped phrases of the courtier. He must cudgel his brains to solve the terms of the card-sharper as well as the flowery figures of the culto poets. The question is frequently asked what type of literature resurrects the social and economic aspect of this world of the past in the most satisfactory manner, and with that necessary touch of warm blood. The answer must be that no single type affords a complete and reliable picture. Economic treatises were practically unknown. Histories are in general mere laudatory ex parte narratives, written to glorify the deeds and person- alities of princes or royalty, and only careful gleaning yields facts concerning the life of the people. Novels, poems, and dramas, while fullest of all in matters relating to the routine of bourgeois life, can nevertheless be exceedingly misinforming, because descriptions, episodes, and dialogue may be an imitation of an older writer and so render no image of contemporary manners. Romances such as the pastoral stories or the tales of chivalry, are an insincere form of literary art, for the life which they present is unreal and the language they speak could appeal to very few, while the imagination running riot in them deceives the reader, and takes him far from the matter-of-fact, everyday world. The other extreme is represented by the romances of roguery in which we have exaggerated realism pre- senting in pessimistic colors the shams or corruption of society. In them life is seen chiefly through the eyes of rogues and scoundrels who live by their wits at the expense of all the gullible members of society. And we are often dealing with perverted representations of fact, grotesque images of social evils, im- morality, and graft, intended to shock by their startling features as much as by their fidelity to actual conditions. In all of these the evidence must be carefully weighed. As regards the drama, the material is unspeakably vast, and throws light on every walk of life. But every estimate of the comedia and its interpreta- 244 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENARY tion of Spanish life must take into consideration the artistic formula which it represents. The Spanish drama of the Golden Age is a poetic creation of the imagination, a pure work of art in which the representation of contemporary society was greatly modified by certain characteristics which do not reveal the nature of that society. Notably the great genius of a Lope de Vega created specific dramatic features of conspicuous effect upon the stage, both in episode and the drawing of character, clothing them in unsurpassed poetic beauty, but presenting therein either idealized or reformed manifestations of the Spanish world about him. The theatre, nevertheless, furnishes numerous precious details of the language of men and women, their costumes, their habits, their daily occupation, and interests. In short, to get at trustworthy conclusions we must let every type of literature act as a control of every other type ; especially the impressions drawn from works of the imagination must be corrected by the facts discovered in archives, letters, lawsuits, deeds of sale, foreclosures, dowry's inventories, last wills and testaments, and protocols covering all those intricate bequests, complaints, misdeeds and recriminations which men have always delighted to record before a notary. Thus far I have tried to present to you the outward aspect of Spanish society of the Golden Age. Let us now consider briefly the mental life of the community, together with some of the intellectual interests of the men and women. Among them none occupies so prominent a place as the pursuit of litera- ture. The appearance of a new book was, therefore, bound to become bruited about at once and not infrequently created a stir in the world of letters. If we take the statements of con- temporaries, the number of writers, especially of verse, was out of all proportion to the population. Lope tells us it seemed to rain poets. There were naturally many stimulants to this kind of activity; but nowhere was the field so extensive as in the national theatre, which combined entertainment and the art of poetry in a singularly happy way. It is impossible to speak of the number of playwrights or the long list of dramas written during the Golden Age without incurring the charge of exagger- ation. The lowest estimates not only make the productivity of the Age miraculous, but the enduring popularity of the comedia SPECIAL LECTURES 245 constitutes a shining tribute to the aesthetic appreciation of the Spanish people. Companies of actors spread the love of the theatre over the whole Peninsula, and few were the communities which did not enjoy some dramatic spectacles during the year. The greatest of all Spanish dramatic writers, Lope de Vega, is generally credited with more than fifteen hundred plays, of which about one-fourth have survived, and if we may make any inferences from his astonishing work alone the percentage of excellent creations must have been large. It is important to recall, moreover, that the drama which held the stage during the greater part of the Golden Age, was written in verse, that the language was often figurative, involved, and highly colored, that no author hesitated to introduce literary allusions, classic instances of all kinds, together with a display of wide erudition. Is not this unusual appreciation of a work of pure art worthy of the highest praise? Does it not constitute an admirable commentary on the intelligence of the common people who frequented the theatre ? Today we are obliged to ask with some perplexity what happy influence permitted such intense enjoy- ment of Shakespeare, of Moliere, of Lope de Vega, while we yawn over the best that our fathers have left to us? If it was the very limitations, the circumscribed life to which those com- munities of three hundred years ago were subjected, which blessed them with such a sincere devotion to one of our greatest literary arts, then the benetfis of civilization and progress have indeed exacted sacrifices to be deeply regretted. I spoke of the numerous references made on the stage to the classics. This was possible only because the world of the Renascence was still imbued with the spirit of the ancients; a genuine appreciation of the language and literature of Rome and Athens, a knowledge of their history, an acquaintance with their poets and philosophers, were still vital features of all higher education. The greatest thinkers of antiquity enjoyed an unassailable prestige, and however strange or biased might be the interpretation of their ideas their names were reverenced and widely known. Nor was Latin a dead language, since it continued in sermons and rituals, and in the academic centers it had no peer. This does not mean that the mass of the people were at home in the classic writings, for the substance of the 246 UNIVEESITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY latter became known through translations, through Renascence versions, through repeated references to their contents, which exerted a subtle influence on the thoughts of the average person. It would be misleading to give the impression that an ability to read was widespread. Indeed, only a very small percentage of the nation could write, and this applies not only to the lower classes but to the aristocracy ; for one comes upon the confession of the latter from time to time that their business was only war and arms and that the sword was to them more famiilar than the pen. On the other hand, letters and the intellectual life were cultivated in the centers of learning and among the educated minority with an intensity and an earnestness of which we have no conception in our distraught world. It is impossible, there- fore, to speak of a reading public in our sense. A book was still an expensive object. To accumulate a library was beyond the means of the average man. Interesting or popular works were handed about among friends, as in the days of manuscripts ; and this accounts for the complete disappearance of many first editions of popular books. It would be futile to attempt to give any list of the most widely read productions : there were no best sellers in our sense, only from time to time a book ran through a number of editions in a year or a decade. The popularity of an author depended, therefore, then as now, on the class to which he appealed. There was a greater demand for books of a religious character than today because of the large portion of the population affiliated with church or monastery. Poetry, drama, history, miscellaneous compilations, were sought after; fiction was then as it is today likely to pass through several editions. In Spain, as in all countries, the world of letters is repre- sented by concrete names and specific master creations, and the lover of Spanish literature is at once attracted to the foremost writers of the Golden Age. I am often asked the question : has Spain any great literature? To what is this question due? To the fact that the phrase, Spain's Golden Age, has remained mean- ingless to us. I have tried to show that life in the Peninsula was intellectually and artistically 011 a very high plane; that men and women were intensely alive. It was, therefore, natural for the Spaniard to produce a body of literature conspicuous for its SPECIAL LECTUEES 247 originality and wide range of form and content. I cannot begin to tell you of the many individual works unknown among us: great mystic spirits like San Juan de la Cruz, Santa Teresa, and Luis de Granada, whose writings show such high aesthetic and philosophic charm, are strangers to us; the long list of gifted playwrights, Lope, Alarcon, Tirso, Rojas, Moreto, Calderon, and others, is recited occasionally like a roster of superannuated names ; such poets as Garcilaso, Luis de Leon, Figueroa, Herrera, Ereilla, are remarkable no less for the variety of their style, their music, their unsurpassed technical skill, than the sincerity of their inspiration and the beauty and elevation of their thoughts. Yet these are unknown to us even through trans- lation. Francisco de Quevedo, scholar, philosopher, poet, satirist, and the foremost intellect of the day, was a great force in his time; but who amongst us has read his Suenos, Visions of the hereafter, those mighty gripping comments on the spiritual and social Spain of the Renascence? Among all these truly great names one stands out promi- nently, that of Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra, spoken of by the whole world only as Cervantes. Indeed, it may be said that he occupies the stage by himself, completely overshadowing his great contemporaries. This is as unfortunate as it is unjust, and has given rise to such statements as that made by Montesquieu, to wit, that the only great book which the Spaniards possess, Don Quixote, ridicules all the rest. Spanish writers of the last hundred years have been chiefly to blame for this estimate of Peninsular letters. The vast majority of critical or literary essays which have seen the light since Mayans attempted the first biography of Cervantes in 1737 have dealt only with the author of Don Quixote. This, however, does not mean that anything definitive has been attempted regarding either his text, or a comprehensive aesthetic study of all that he has written. There have been, at long intervals, isolated works of great impor- tance, such as Navarrete's biography in 1819, the bibliography of Rius, and the hitherto unprinted documents published by Perez Pastor and Rodriguez Marin in more recent times. There have been editions of the writings of Cervantes, especially of the Don Quixote, with erudite commentaries and illuminating discussions of a thousand and one details; but in the large 248 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY majority of these editions no fixed and acceptable principle has been pursued with regard to the text itself; frequently it is mere opinion that controls the editor's policy. Indeed, it is much easier to set down imaginary conclusions than the facts gleaned after years of painstaking labor. In so far as we are all bound to make mistakes in our judgment we must gratefully acknowledge all efforts, however modest, to push out the boun- daries of our imperfect human knowledge, but our criticism may be rightly directed against those over zealous lovers of Cervantes who have set him on a pedestal by himself to the prejudice of other great Spaniards; who have fastened upon him such absurd designations as the prince of our geniuses, the king of our lan- guage, the only Cervantes ; who have seen in him in turn an authority in various branches of learning, a great poet, a philosopher, and who have thereby thrown his simple and true greatness into a false light. Few national idols have suffered so greatly in the same way. In Spain these aesthetic vagaries have worked havoc in so far as they have focussed too much atten- tion on a single individual and prompted scores of jejeune or unscholarly minds to give utterance to eloquent essays in praise of one man, seemingly the only superior product of Spanish culture. In consequence we have no useable critical texts of Lope de Vega, whose vast production is one of the purest inspira- tions in Spanish literature ; there is no worthy edition of the forceful satirist Francisco de Quevedo, one of the master minds of the whole European Renascence ; there is practically not a single definitive edition of the many lyric poets, who form one of the chief glories of the Golden Age. The greatness of Cer- vantes would not have suffered if one-half of the efforts devoted to Don Quixote had been spent upon other works of his time. His achievement would then be seen in its true light, and the world would at the same time realize that he does not stand alone ; that he was possible only in an age which produced many other highly gifted men. Cervantes himself never laid claim to any endowment except that of literary inventiveness. The chil- dren of his fancy were the only objects of his solicitude. On his death-bed he wrote that beautiful passage in which he regrets only that he can compose 110 more of those figures to which his imagination had once given shape. "Farewell, jests! farewell, SPECIAL LECTURES 249 witty fancies ! farewell, my merry friends ! for I am dying and hope to see you soon contented in the next life. ' ' Great, indeed, are the obstacles encountered in investigating the lives of these rare men. It never seems to have occurred to them to tell us anything deliberately about their own careers. Biographies were still unknown. In Spain, moreover, an adverse fate seems to have determined on the destruction of an infinite number of treasures in libraries and archives which otherwise would have yielded much of the material we desire. In the case of Cervantes this is peculiarly so. Of the first twenty-one years of his life, precisely the formative period of his extraordinary gifts, we know absolutely nothing. We are tempted to infer many things from his own works, from the events of his time, and from the assertions of his contemporaries. But here facile criticism is too apt to go wrong, and gradually there have crept into his biography some interesting details that have no founda- tion in fact. Cervantes has a tantalizing way of mingling truth and fancy, history and fiction, autobiographical details with imaginary episodes, which leaves us guessing after these many years what the facts of his early career really were. Moreover, his own life surpassed, in unusual, varied experiences, anything that could be attempted in romance, making it frequently prob- able that the fanciful occurrences on which he dwells formed a part of his own recollections. This rare power of combining the life he lived with the world of his own creation made his writings one of the most illuminating documents of his age. In recent years, a number of assiduous seekers in Spanish archives have been very successful in discovering new material regarding the family of Cervantes, particularly the name and station of some of his more immediate relatives. Interesting as this is, how much more welcome would be a single letter or one personal document telling something of his life and of his associates; something about his own art. It is, of course, im- portant to know who his great grandfather was and where he resided, inasmuch as the locality in which a family originates may influence, if not wholly determine very peculiar gifts of the intellect. But in this case we are too often limited to a document which deals only with economic difficulties, with lawsuits of every description, broken contracts, and unpaid debts. If these strokes 250 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENAKY of misfortune can be inherited Cervantes may be said to have continued the traits of his forebears. He lived the career of a large number of very different characters. In his youth he was an adventurer in many parts of the world, and a brave soldier, terms often synonymous in those days. He was a captive among a piratical African people for five years, and several times clapped into jail by his own government; he was a wanderer in search of a bare livelihood the greater part of his later life ; he was socially, from all reliable indications, a man of very humble station, and withal a writer of immortal books. How could he achieve so much? Simply because out of all his mani- fold experiences he absorbed the greatest conceivable grasp on the fullness of life. He lived unflinchingly all parts which fate and fortune obliged him to play, and retained their multiform im- pressions. He suffered and toiled, and did not succumb, but kept to the end of his life a sane cheerfulness of view. As an adventurer and soldier he must have met men of every walk of life, and acquired the universal character of his best work, those portrayals which make him belong to the literature of every people. As a slave and prisoner he learned that the freedom of the soul is our greatest heritage, and he developed wide sympathies for the sufferings and the shortcomings of all men. As a homeless wanderer with no social status to boast of, at a time when all preferment was dependent on the protection of the privileged class, he trained himself in his own phrase, to ' ' patience in adversity. " To be sure, so much experience might have served him but little if Nature had not endowed him with an unusually clear vision ; a unique faculty of assimilating what he saw; a gift of distinguishing the essentials of life from those which do not make the soul of a man; a power of topping For- tune's favors with a sense of humor and of proportions; and with a pleasing aesthetic balance which permitted his spirit to attain the mellowness and maturity of old age, while yet wearing, at the same time, the coronal of perpetual youth. How is this rarest of narrators related to the social life which was outlined above? His pages are unquestionably the most satisfactory record preserved for us; his canvas, of enormous proportion, embraces it all : the richness and comprehensiveness of its portraitures have never been surpassed. Were it not for SPECIAL LECTURES 251 the career of the man it would be difficult to understand how he could grasp so much humanity. All the phases and interests of Spanish society have their just and adequate share in the painting. And herein lies the simple and enduring greatness of the art of Cervantes : he has known how to make these pictures real and unfading to all mankind ; the creatures of his fancy are understood and admired far beyond the confines of Spain her- self. His contemporaries, Lope de Vega and Francisco de Quevado, have far excelled him in some peculiar gifts: the one in his varied poetic vein, his magical powers of improvization ; the other in depth of thought, in incisive and pungent satire of social vices and vagaries. But the work of neither has the wide applicability, the serene vision, the simplicity of process and the aesthetic sincerity attained by the greatest pages of Cer- vantes. Detailed study of these pages manifestly goes hand in hand with an equally scrupulous analysis of his time. The variety of language which he employs is very taxing; the provinces over which he carries us, and the customs which he delineates embrace all those manifold distinctions brought about by the successive influences of foreign cultures on the civilization of the Spanish Peninsula. If we wish to view the South sympathetically, to appreciate fully Spanish life there even today we must bear in mind the results of centuries of contact of Spaniard and Moor, the distinctive blending of phases of both civilizations, manifest no less in the racial traits of men and women, in their spiritual and mental attitudes, in the routine of their lives, than in the songs they sing or the dwellings they have raised. If we desire to find nothing inexplicable in the North, the characteristics of climate and landscape, the varying fortunes of political history, both local and national, the effects of native institutions, the admixture of northern rather than oriental influence, all these merit consideration. And likewise for every part of Spain. To this larger aspect of his native land Cervantes applied his gift for details, presenting what he saw with that sympathy which he had acquired during his long wanderings. His attitude of mind toward what he visualizes is, therefore, not unintelligibly provincial, it has made him, as it did no other writer, a universal voice. 252 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENARY "When Cervantes returned from his military campaign in Italy and from captivity in Algiers he was in his thirty-fourth year. The indications are that he always had the ambition to accomplish something in the world of letters. Upon entering the capital, Madrid, he seems to have formed the resolution definitely of exchanging the sword for the pen. To any gifted man the intense intellectual activities of the literary coteries must have held out irresistible attractions, and for a number of years immediately following his return Cervantes may be identi- fied with the life of the court city. But in studying the growth of his mind, his singular gifts, it is noteworthy that his literary efforts during the years under consideration, up to his fortieth year, do not venture out of the established order of things. He is apparently actuated by the same ambitions which filled those about him, to write for the stage, to continue the pastoral vein, above all to compose verse and be counted as a poet. Curiously enough, his attitude of mind toward expressions of literature for which he had only slight gifts, was never abandoned by him. Even after he had found himself, and was giving undying expression to an original vein of narrative he still yearned to write as others did, to continue his pastoral attempts, to win success in the theatres in short to write poetry which might compete with such great lyric geniuses as Lope, Gongora, the Argensolas, Quevedo, and many others. Nor did he fail to recognize his inferiority in this form of expression, that verse was not his proper medium, for on one occasion he laughingly admits that a bookseller had told him that much was to be expected from his prose, but from his poetry nothing; and in the Journey to Parnassus he says, not without a touch of regret and disillusionment: I must ever toil and keep vigil That I may seem to have of the poet Those gifts with which Heaven did not favor me. Sound criticism must, therefore, admit that all of Cervantes' early efforts, his occasional verse, his Galatea, and the little that we have of his drama, are of interest only in so far as they contain germs of his great creations, the Novels and the Don Quixote; in so far as they reveal a growth of his art. In any other sense they are mere literary curiosities. SPECIAL LECTURES 253 Posterity has decreed, and rightly so, that only his Exemplary Novels and Don Quixote may be placed among the world's master works. Few, indeed, today are the readers of his Numantia, his Persiles, his Galatea. On the other hand his Don Quixote has reached an incredibly large number of editions; it has been translated into more languages than any other book except the Bible; it has never been denied its unique place. What drew Cervantes out of a commonplace career and caused him to write in his old age a book that has delighted innumerable readers? His literary ventures had not raised him above his associates, and without fame or income, he saw himself obliged to cope once more with prosaic realities, privation, suffering; to bear the whips and scorns of time, the oppressor's wrong, the proud man's contumely, which manifested itself in the insolence of office and in the spurning of patient merit. For many years he saw himself forced to fulfill tasks which to us at least could not be more uncongenial. As government employee with an insig- nificant daily wage he journeyed over Spain, and in his irksome rounds stored up those infinite details of the inner as well as the outer life of the men and women made immortal in his narrative. In Madrid he had remained more or less an imitator; in the great world he found himself without a model, and there matured in his brain not only a novel conception of the art of fiction, but a number of living creations, episodes, and descriptions which few have dared to imitate and none have equalled. But not all original works are enduring, nor are they at once recognized in their full meaning. It was so with Cervantes. Lope de Vega expressed himself tartly by saying that no one would be so absurd as to laugh over Don Quixote. Whole hearted and intelligent praise of the work only found a voice as time went on. It is not my intention here to speak in detail of Cervantes' master work. Few books have received so much praise from readers of all nationalities, a thing all the more to be wondered at if the obstacles to its fullest enjoyment be taken into con- sideration : the defects of a wretchedly printed first edition, our only criterion; the textual difficulties of many a passage; con- stant allusions to books which inspired him, or to people and events long forgotten ; absence of plan ; and carelessness of style. To them must be added the occasional confusion caused by com- 254 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFOENIA SEMICENTENABY mentators who disagree and cloud the issue by injecting into it their own personalities. But the great and enduring worth of Don Quixote is apparent at once to all who read the book intelli- gently. Although the work has something in it to please readers of every age, young or old, as Cervantes himself asserted, saying that it is thumbed and read and got by heart by people of all sorts; although children turn its leaves, and young people read it, the grown up understand it and old folks praise it, still it is essentially a book for a mature mind. It is one of those rare works in which are felt the depth, the beauty, and the pathos of all human endeavor. It pronounces all struggle noble ; it teaches us in a genuine Renascence spirit to despise death while relishing life, "a mepriser la mart en savourant la vie;" to set the philosophy of self forgetfulness and cheerful persistence above unprofitable introspection and melancholy inaction. It lays more stress on an idealized world within our dreams than on the brutal facts that hold us to the ground; it demonstrates that a broken spear or rusty helmet and a feeble arm need not deter an unconquerable spirit. In short, it is a book which gives courage, which ennobles, which teaches us to greet the unseen with a cheer. In this sense no other book is so fine a classic ; no book can be re-read so often. Saint Beuve, whom one delights to quote, has said, "Perhaps there will come an age when nothing more will be written. Happy are those who read and re-read, those who unhindered can follow their own inclinations in their reading. There comes a season of life, when, all journeys over, and all experiences realized, there is no deeper joy than to examine and to dwell upon what one knows, to relish what one feels, like seeing again and again the people one loves. It is thus that the word classical acquires its real meaning, that it can be defined for a person of culture as the inevitable choice of what he loves best. The reader's taste has become mature, it is formed and definite. At that time of life one no longer desires to make experiments, nor sally forth on voyages of discovery. One clings to those friends whom long intercourse has tested. Old wine, old books, old friends": among these, one may add, Don Quixote has a secure place. The book has for us foreigners an even greater meaning if we connect it with the civilization of the Spanish people; if we SPECIAL LECTUEES 255 let it become their voice among us; if it can throw light on a nation to which we have not given all the serious study and sympathy it deserves. There is in Don Quixote a vein running through the whole which may be characterized as the spirit of cheerfulness; the Spaniards themselves might call it el genio alegre. It is neither frivolous nor superficial, for it is associated with the deeepst and most abiding trait in the Spanish character, that willingness to be reconciled to all the tragic disillusionments, the unfulfiled ambitions which constitute human life. But, as in Don Quixote buoyancy, good humor, and laughter offset the defeats to which the hero finds himself subjected, so in the character of the Spaniard abides a virile genio alegre. From this we have much to learn, the spirit which leavens all being. "We should study not only the outward signs of Spanish civilization, not only its conquests, its institutions, together with their evils and failure ; we should also seek out the soul of the people, and appreciate their vie intime. We need in our lives the balance-wheel of a point of view wholly different from our own. You may recall that Shakespeare has Sir Toby ask the puritan Malvolio: "Dost thou think, because thou art virtuous, there shall be no more cakes and ale?" Shall we, self-satisfied, surrender our souls to relentless material progress, to the grinding activities of commercialism, to the search for gain, unrequited by the gifts which permit us to enjoy the results? Shall we know nothing of the relaxation demanded by the mind in order to relish things of the mind ? I do not plead for the spirit which calls for the "pipe and bowl and fiddlers three," but for the principle that nature, art, great books, the intellectual inheritance of mankind, in other words, the elements of existence which afford light and beauty, be more widely fos- tered. The Latin races, especially Spaniards and Italians, have never unlearned the great need of leisure to enjoy these things. And we have been wont to think of the Spaniard a little too often as much inclined to the attractions of manana; we have interpreted idleness of all kinds as so much waste of precious time to be invested only in material gain. There is a happy mean which we could well acquire by combining the point of view of both the Spanish and American people. Progress, and visible, ostentatious well-being may be tempered by a love of 256 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENARY human intercourse not based solely on bartering our commodi- ties; they may be enriched by the enjoyment of stimulating conversation, and the appreciation of what the imagination of man has achieved. This is the balance-wheel we need in our dizzying form of existence; to acquire a genio alegre, to relish the gifts of life, to mingle its serious and commonplace features with sweetness and light. This is imperative to make living at all worth while. For in the words of Cervantes "men cannot be forever occupied with business however important it may be. There are hours of recreation in which the harassed spirit may repose: for this purpose avenues are planted, fountains are sought after, slopes are levelled, and gardens cultivated with devotion. ' ' Cervantes may thus well be the interpreter to us of the soul of the Spanish people. He may point the way that will lead us not merely to sordid mercantile associations with Spain and Spanish America, but to a finer understanding of what their language and literature have produced. In Cervantes we shall always have a striking example of a man who, though destined to eke out a livelihood in soul racking daily routine still found time to pen the most comprehensive and entertaining picture of his fellowmen. After all, it is a question with us of looking up now and then from our tasks to behold the stars. There is always something bigger, something better than the matter at which we are laboring. We are not betraying any trust if we put off just enough of our toil for tomorrow to enable us to enjoy an hour of the best of today: old wine, old books, old friends, some treasure we have been privileged to store up for that end. In all this Cervantes can speak to us most convincingly out of his enduring wisdom, his simple humanity. SPECIAL LECTURES 257 JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU AND THE RENAISSANCE OF MORAL INTUITION PROFESSOR CHARLES CESTRE of the University of Bordeaux Jean Jacques Rousseau has been of late the butt of hostile critics, who object to him in the name of dogmatic religion, dogmatic classicism, or dogmatic philosophy. They all stand for authority, whether in the realm of belief, of politics, or of thought. So far as law, even rigid law, stands as a necessary element of man 's thought, artistic expression, or action the critics are right and their rebuke justified. But they are ruthless and bloodthirsty: they do not mean only to point out shortcomings, they will wipe out a dangerous opponent. For them Rousseau is the arch-fiend who introduced into religion the doctrine of the inner light and of the spontaneous ascent of the soul toward the higher realities, into literature the preeminence of the ego, the free play of passion and of fantasy into morals and politics, the new force of sentiment, and the irresistible aspiration to happiness. Barring out Rousseau's splendid achievement as a novelist, as the introducer of natural description and lyric emotion into prose writing, as the promoter of political progress and social advancement, as a master of literature, and the fore- runner of the French Revolution, they heap upon him the responsibility for all the vagaries which have marred some forms of romanticism and disgraced some developments of the revolu- tionary spirit. My intention is not to rehabilitate the character of Rousseau as an individual. His acts were often singularly at odds with his doctrine. There is no vindicating some of his private doings. His is clearly a case where genius is strangely dissociated from personal dignity and even balance of mind in the daily walk of conduct. But that genius which produced L'Emile and Le Contrat Social and a dozen other masterpieces deserves to be recognized, accorded justice, and accredited for the great bene- 258 UNIVEESITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY ficial novelties that it introduced into the world. Let Rousseau 's worth be attributed primarily, if you will, to the fact that he expressed the thought of his time ; let him be praised mostly as the exponent of the surging forces of thought, feeling, and con- science that must needs then have found a channel. There remains the fact that he was the inspired medium of that current of ideas and, as such, entitled to careful and sympathetic study. Rousseau was the heir to a twofold movement of intellectual tendencies that had been gathering strength ever since the advent of Christianity, through the fruitful period of the Revival of Learning, when the best of ancient thought had vitalized the most precious legacy of the Middle Age, and through the seven- teenth and eighteenth centuries, when exact science and the science of nature made such rapid progress. The influences that he received from the past and from his own period may be defined by the terms humanism and naturalism. Humanism was the final overpowering triumph of human reason over the forces of prejudice, blind tradition, authority, conformity, and willing obedience. The intellect, in possession of sure methods of research and reasoning, confident in the existence of human truth in reference to moral and social problems, set itself reso- lutely to work out a new conception of the universe, and to reshape the relations of man to man and of man to things. In this overhauling of the whole scheme of life, the claims of the physical elements of our nature were not overlooked. A novel sense asserted itself of the importance of man's inclina- tions, aspirations, and passions, either with regard to the outside world, or to society, or to the welfare of the individual : this was the new doctrine of naturalism. Conformably to the naturalistic standpoint, satisfaction to the yearnings of sentiment, the intellect, or the conscience was no longer to be sought in the other world, beyond the tomb, but, to use the words of Words- worth (who is, like Rousseau, representative of the new mode of thought) : in this very world, Which is the world of all of us, where we Find our happiness or not at all. This trust in human reason and this belief in the promise of the world were backed by a powerful force of emotionalism SPECIAL LECTUBES 259 which had risen with the ascent of the plebeian class. Although still under political and social oppression the masses in France had become alive to their importance in the state and to their prerogatives as human persons. They were no longer passive and resigned, but conscious and eager to emerge. Rousseau rep- resented this plebeian aspiration, with all the emotional impetus that accompanied it. This groundswell of ancient passion, put to the service of the acquired knowledge and creative originality of his self-taught, impressionable mind, accounts for the genius and the influence of Rousseau. His mental and sentimental energy was especially applied to the awakening of a new moral consciousness, which was the motive power of the French Revolution and of all the progress that that great event was to set astir in the world. Here, objections will not fail to be raised. How can we speak of "moral consciousness" in reference to a man who was notoriously incapable, himself, of moral behavior, properly so called ? Indeed, we must not look to Rousseau for any strength- ening of the traditional rules of morality that had for ages past acted on men 's minds as a curb and a restraining power. Rousseau did not ignore the precepts of Christian ethics which exert them- selves in human action through inhibition, interference ; but he knew them only as they aroused remorse in him after his too frequent lapses into self indulgence. His particular contribution was to awake that form of moral intuition which we may term expansive, which calls forth the vital forces to eager, buoyant, and joyous action. His conception of conduct was essentially dynamic ; his appeal was especially apt to bring to being a new social force, the collective conscience. Some persons in my audience may demur at recognizing in Rousseau a devotee of progress. Was not he the author of the two famous Discourses, that tended to prove that the arts and the sciences had caused mankind to degenerate and had actually closed the avenues to happiness? Here we have first to remem- ber that Rousseau was a great paradox monger. He, first of the moderns, resorted to that well known literary device (so much used and abused today) of taking the reader by surprise, and compelling attention by emphatically stating the counterpart of generally accepted ideas. When he wrote the Discourses (his 260 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENAEY two maiden productions as a writer), he consciously rushed into paradox to startle his contemporaries. But in every paradox there is a part of truth. Rousseau was already impelled by his vocation to play the moralist. The Discourses, rightly interpreted, mean : Because men have cultivated the arts and the sciences with a mere view to material improvement (to secure comforts, enjoyments, luxury), neglecting the moral issues (purity of heart, intensity and sincerity of feeling, simplicity, and temperance), they have failed to reach happiness. The necessary conclusion was (as we find it actually stated in many a passage) : Do away with your commercialism, your artificiality, your perfect but inhumane knowledge; return to nature, and you will be safe ! Closely connected with that denunciation, not of civilization tout court but of soulless civilization, we come across his famous theory of the state of nature. Here again, objectors will be found to point the irreconcilable opposition of this theory with any sound notion of progress. But Rousseau's etat de nature has to be interpreted in correlation with his whole work. The skit of Voltaire : " M. Rousseau gives us a violent desire to walk on all fours, ' ' is delightful, but very misleading irony. Rousseau stated time after time that he did not wish his contemporaries to return to savageness. What he advocated was what we call today the simple life. It happened that the minds of men in his day were much engrossed by the relations of the Jesuit Fathers of northern America and believed in the descriptions of "les bons sauvages," which they read in those books. Rous- seau laid hold of this fiction, which suited his purpose and was sure to appeal to the imagination of his readers, and created a myth, as so many poets and initiators of great doctrines had done before him. L'etat de nature stands in his work as the "Golden Age" in ancient fable, the "Earthly Paradise" in Christian mythology, the myths of Plato, "universal goodness" in Christian Science. Therefore, there is no inner contradiction in the work of Rousseau that prevents us from considering him essentially as a moralist and an advocate of progress. We shall proceed now to set forth what seems to us to have given special force to his work to promote a revival of moral intuition. SPECIAL LECTURES 261 The most banal remark that may be expressed concerning Rousseau is that he stands as the first thorough, ardent, and impassioned individualist. It is as a worshiper of the ego that he sought the thrill of love and became a great painter of human passions. It is, again, as an individualist that he pondered over his own sentiments and aspirations, analyzed his yearning for the beautiful, the great and the good, and became an eloquent ex- ponent of moral intuition. He discovered in his consciousness (whether because placed there by the divine will, or because of his Christian education, or because of his humanistic culture, or of his idealism as a simple man, a man of the people, I will not enquire) a natural desire for all noble things and an aspiration toward the Supreme Good, that contains them all. "S'il n'y a rien de moral dans le coeur de I'homme, d'ou lui viennent done ces transport, d'admiration pour les grandes dmesf Cet enthousiasme pour la vertu, quel rapport a-t-il avec noire interet prive?" He felt deeply the full uplifting force of enthusiasm ; in the intense workings of the human heart he discovered the chief source of generous, powerful, superhuman action. "II n'y a que les dmes de pen qui sachent combattre et vaincre. Tons les grands efforts, toutes les actions sublimes sont leur ouv- rage. La froide raison n'a jamais rien fait d'illustre ..." His moral fervor under the influence of his early associations naturally took the bent of religious adoration. His admiration for the all-beautiful and the all-loveable expanded into the divine. He thought and felt sub specie infinitudinis : he saw God. "Nous ne savons pas ce qu'il est, mais nous savons qu'il est. Que cela nous suffice ..." Every one has present in his memory the famous apostrophe in Emilius: "Conscience! Conscience, divine instinct!" In the presence of Nature with its uncountable and unaccountable beauties, in the heightening of vital and mental energy that is brought to us by the keen bracing air of the forest, crested mountain, the Vicaire Savoyard had a sudden insight of the mystery and the unity of Being. He was no longer urged, like Descartes, to utter a syllogism, "Je pense, done je suis," but an affirmation risen from the depths of his soul, "Je suis." This primal expression of the fact of life contains, as he perceives 262 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENARY in a flash of soul illumination, not only physical existence but the nobleness of the heart and the spiritual Substance that accounts for both. Self -consciousness and self-assertion, then, in Rousseau's doc- trine, apply to the higher forms of being, which in the feeling and thinking animal, that man is, are of moral and spiritual quality. Eousseau, taking cognizance of his soul, in a moment of clearer inward vision (which the mystics of old called "ecstasy") interprets this revelation in terms of ethics. As his age, the heir of ages of thought and of collective progress, was mostly concerned with social problems, it is mostly in the social line that his ethics will develop. Here we see the feeling of sympathy intervening both to limit and to guarantee the aspirations of individualism. The acute sense of being, with all its moral offshoots, inspires the individual with the desire of securing for himself the physical, moral, and social means of welfare. Persevering in his being, nay, ascending to better being becomes his aim, the locus of his exertions in society. The normal individual, neither cramped by oppression nor corrupted by pride of place, will feel that his fate is indissolubly linked with that of the other individuals who live with him in the city or in the state. This feeling, interpreted by his reason, will call forth in his mind respect for others, a wish to cooperate, a ready willingness to grant to fellow citizens due scope to work and to act provided the same advantage is guaranteed to him. These ideas were not new: they form the substance of the speculation of Plato; but they had never been conceived with such universality and such uncompromisingness of abstraction ; nor had they ever been expressed at a time when the minds of men were so ready to welcome them. The feelings in which they originated were not new: recognition of the dignity of the human person and advocacy of brotherly love among men had been the teaching of Christianity for sixteen centuries ; but now the Christian ideal was to be realized here below, no longer post- poned till the disembodied soul had flown far away from this world. In fact, Rousseau's mental procedure consists in an organic working of both intuition and the intellect. Intuition provides SPECIAL LECTUBES 263 the motive power : the intellect sets the aim to the aspirations of the heart and the imagination. Rousseau conceived and uttered for the first time clearly and eloquently the notion of right as attached to the sacredness of the human person, and the notion of justice, as referring to the mutual relations of individuals within the boundary of the state. These are ideas, formed by the intellect, evolved by means of reasoning, resting upon a logical sequence of propositions, and leading to a conclusion that satisfies the craving of the mind for consistent truth. They are the outcome of the effort, sustained for twenty-four cen- turies by the laboring elite of thoughtful men who gradually conceived the means of raising mankind from servile subserv- ience to force, upward to a more and more perfect conception of political and social law, opening a wider and wider outlook to the masses. They set up the notion of artificial society, of a scheme of collective life no longer entirely submitted to prece- dent, historical necessity, and the harsh durance of conquest, but derived according to the requirements of reason, enforced by the will, countenanced by the consent of all. This is the theme of the Contrat Social, which is the work of a logician, trained in the school of Descartes, and of a humanist trained in the tradition of Plato and the ancients. We could expect no less from a man who began by belonging to the group of the Encyclopaedists, and separated from them (after the " revela- tion" of Vincennes) not so much because he swerved from their conclusions as because he wished to emphasize his own personal and original way of reaching those conclusions. His personal and original contribution to the philosophy which was to bring about the great upheaval of the French Revolution is the appeal to sentiment and imagination, his trust in the conscience ; in other words, the revival of moral intuition. At the same time that he furnished the guiding principles of the new ideal he provided it with impetus ; he breathed into the hearts of his generation the dynamic feeling that was to renovate the world, the spirit of revolt. Assuredly the spirit of revolt has its dark side. The terrible vicissitudes through which France was to pass before reaching a noble form of republican and democratic government is a proof of it. It has left in our orderly, lawful, regulated democracy dangerous ferments, which 264 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENAEY may go even as far as the spirit of anarchy. But Rousseau must not be made responsible for the excesses and vagaries of individualism any more than for the eccentricities and dissolving ingredients of romanticism. The new sense of the "eminent dignity of the human person ' ' and the new principle of ' ' justice in the relations among men," supported as they were by a powerful elan of the conscience, were great moral forces, akin to the spiritual forces that had been thus far the mainstay of religion. A new religion was founded : the religion of humanity. Kant recognized as much when, in the first phase of his mental development, he became the enthusiastic disciple of Rous- seau. The stimulus which he received from the initiator of the moral revival of the eighteenth century accounts, in great part, for the moralizing view of his philosophy in later periods. From Rousseau he learned, not only as an illuminating concept but as a living inspiration, that conscience was dynamic and that noble enthusiasm might become the source of the greatest actions. Of course, this tribute to the natural nobleness of man's soul does not constitute the whole of Kant's ethics: he was later on to lay stress on the binding injunction of the categorical im- perative. But he retained his faith in the power of moral beauty and the pure joy of well-doing. There is such a thing as a passion for devotion and sacrifice ; loving kindness can inspire the noblest acts of service ; altruism is often the source of hero- ism; collective emotion, among generous peoples, can lead to an habitual practice of disinterestedness and humanity. Here again let us quote Wadsworth : We live by Admiration, Hope and Love. The mention of Kant's indebtedness to Rousseau recalls an- other moral field where the German philosopher (at a time when there was a great German philosophy) followed in the footsteps of the French thinker: the field of the international relations of nations. Kant's Proposal for Perpetual Peace is the work- ing out of Abbe de Saint Pierre's book on that subject and of Rousseau's revision of the same (Examen du Pro jet de I' Abbe St. Pierre). In Rousseau's mind the idea of justice dealt to the citizens of a nation was, logically and as a natural consequence of his moral idealism, to expand into the idea of a legal status regu- SPECIAL LECTUSES 265 lating the relations between nations. A nation, viewed from the moral standpoint (which, according to the dictates of the new morality, ought to prevail over the conception of brute force) is essentially the aggregate of the individual consciences, a col- lective person, a higher soul. It rests upon a physical basis, namely, the necessary conditions of geographical unity, historical growth, racial and linguistic characteristics; but it lives, finds its being as well as its conscience, in the commonalty of feelings, aspirations, and ideals, in the memory of joys or trials jointly experienced in the past, in the conjunction of wills and the co- operation of minds. When the nation should possess those spiritual forces it would have rights and be entitled to its share of justice, whether great or small, powerful or weak. Respect for a moral entity must not be meted out in proportion to its size, the number of its citizens, or its military strength. It is due, in reason and in equity, to the contribution that it brings to the sum total of civilizing influences in the world. Civiliza- tion is the joint work of nations, just as the national ideal is the joint work of citizens. Diversity is a necessary element of universal progress, for no race has a monopoly of creative genius. Therefore, great nations ought to spare, and support, and do justice to small states. Rousseau was no Utopian, as his adversaries represent him. He did not wholly deal in abstractions. Though his aim was to formulate principles that would hold good for the whole of mankind, he knew how to introduce modalities in his doctrine according to the variations of circumstances, and to respect the stern lessons of facts. "With reference to the possible appli- cation of the "social compact" and the enforcement of the institutions meant to giv