THE 
 
 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO, 
 
 THE TRANSLATION OF MARSDEN REVISED, 
 WITH A SELECTION OF HIS NOTES. 
 
 EDITED BY 
 
 THOMAS WRIGHT, ESQ. M.A. F.S.A. ETC 
 
 CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE INSTITUTE OF FRANCE. 
 
 LONDON : GEORGE BELL & SONS, YORK STREET, 
 COVENT GARDEN. 
 
 18SG.
 
 LONDON : 
 
 PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, 
 8TAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CISOSS.
 
 Stack 
 
 Annex 
 
 G- 
 
 210 
 
 CONTEXTS. 
 
 BOOK I. 
 
 PACE 
 
 PROLOGUE ........................ 1 
 
 CHAPTER 1 ......................... 2 
 
 CHAPTER II. Of Armenia Minor Of the Port of Laiassui And of the Boun- 
 
 daries of the Province ................... 25 
 
 CHAPTER III. Of the Province cailed Turkomania, where are the Cities of 
 
 Kogni, Kaisariah. and Sevasta. and of its Commerce ........ 27 
 
 CHAPTER IV. Of Armenia Major, in which are the Cities of Arzingan. Argiron. 
 and Darzii Of the Castle of Paipurth Of the Mountain where the Ark of 
 Noah rested Of the Boundaries of the Province And of a remarkable 
 Fountain of Oil .................... 29 
 
 CHAPTER V. Of the Province of Zo-zania and its Boundaries Of the Pass 
 where Alexander the Great constructed the Gate of Iron And of the 
 miraculous Circumstances attending a Fountain at Teflis ...... 32 
 
 CHAPTER VI Of the Province of Mosul and its different Inhabitants Of the 
 
 People named K'wds And of the Trade of this Country ...... 37 
 
 CHAPTER VII. Of the great City of Baldach or Bagadet, anciently called 
 Babylon Of the Navigation from thence to Balsara, situated in what is 
 termed the Sea of India, but properly the Persian Gulf And of the various 
 Sciences studied in that City ................ 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. Concerning the Capture and Death of the Khalif of Baldach. 
 
 and the miraculous Removal of a Mountain ........... 4C 
 
 CHAPTER IX. Of the noble City of Tauris, in Irak, and of its Commercial and 
 
 other Inhabitants .................... 44 
 
 CHAPTER X. Of the Monastery of Saint Barsamo, in the Neighbourhood of 
 
 Tauris ........................ 45 
 
 CHAPTER XI. Of the Province of Persia ............. it. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. Of the Names of the Eight Kingdoms that constitute the Pro- 
 
 vince of Persia, and of the Breed of Horses and of Asses found therein . . iS 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. Of the City of Yasdi and its Manufactures, and of the 
 
 Animals found in the Country between that place and Kierman .... 52 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. Of the Kingdom of Kierman, by the Ancients named Kar- 
 mania Of its Fossil and Mineral Productions Its Manufactures Its 
 Falcons And of a great Descent observed upon passing out of that 
 Country ............ ' ......... . . J3 
 
 CHAPTER XV. Of the City of Kamandu, and District of Reobarle Of certain 
 Birds found there Of a peculiar kind of Oxen And of the Karaunas, a 
 Tribe of Robbers .................... 55 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. Of the City of Ormus, situated on an Island not far from the 
 Main, in the Sea of India Of its Commercial Importance And of the hot 
 Wind that blows there ................... . : 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. -Of the Shipping employed at Ormns Of the Season in 
 which the Fruits are produced And of the Manner of Living and Customs 
 of the Inhabi.ants ................... 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. Of the Country travelled over upon leaving Ormus. and 
 returning to Kierman by a different Route ; and of a bitterness in the Bread 
 occasioned by the Quality of the Water ............ 
 
 CHAPTEH XIX. Of the desert Country between Kierman and Kebiam, and 
 of the bitter Quality of the Water ............. 
 
 . 2
 
 IV CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 CHAPTER XX. Of the Town of Kobiam, and its Manufactures ..... 70 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. Of the Journey from Kobiam to the Province of Timochain on 
 the Northern confines of Persia And of a particular Species of Tree . . 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. Of the Old Man of the Mountain Of his Palace and 
 Gardens Of his Capture an<i his Death 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. Of a fertile Plain of six Days journey, succeeded by a 
 Desert of eight, to be passed in the Way to the City of Sapurgan Of the 
 excellent Melons produced there And of the City of Balach 77 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. Of the Castle named Th&ikan Of the Manners of the Inha- 
 bitants And of Salt-Hills 80 
 
 CHAPTER XXV. Of the Town of Scassem, and of the Porcupines found there 81 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI. Of the Province of Balashan Of the Precious Stones found 
 there and which become the Property of the King Of the Horses and the 
 Falcons of the Country Of the salubrious Air of the Mountains And of 
 the Dress with which the Women adorn their Persons 83 
 
 CHAPTER XXVII. Of the Province of Bascia lying South of the former Of 
 the golden Ornaments worn by the Inhabitants in their Ears And of their 
 Manners 87 
 
 CHAPTER XXVIII. Of the Province of Kesmur situated towards the south- 
 east Of its Inhabitants who are skilled in Magic Of their Communication 
 with the Indian Sea And of a Class of Hermits, their Mode of Life, and 
 extraordinary Abstinence 83 
 
 CHAPTER XXIX. Of the Province of Vokhan Of an Ascent for three Days, 
 leading to the Summit of a high Mountain Of a peculiar Breed of Sheep 
 found there Of the Effect of the great Elevation upon Fires And of the 
 Savage Life of the Inhabitants 91 
 
 CHAPTER XXX. Of the City of Kashcar, and of the Commerce of its Inha- 
 bitants 94 
 
 CHAPTER XXXI. Of the City of Samarcan, and of the Miraculous Column in 
 
 the Church of St. John the Baptist 95 
 
 CHAPTER XXXII. Of the Province of Karkan, the Inhabitants of which are 
 
 troubled with swollen Legs and with Goitres 97 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIII. Of the City of Kotan, which is abundantly supplied with 
 
 all the Necessaries of Life 98 
 
 CHAPTKR XXXI V. Of the Province of Peyn Of the Chalcedonies and Jasper 
 
 found in its River And of a peculiar Custom with regard to Marriages . 99 
 
 CHAPTER XXXV. Of the Province of Charchan Of the kinds of Stone found 
 in its Rivers And of the Necessity the Inhabitants are under, of flying to 
 the Desert on the approach of the Armies of the Tartars 100 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVI. Of the Town of Lop Of the Desert in its Vicinity And 
 
 of the strange Noises heard by those who pass over the latter 101 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVII. Of the Province of Tanguth Of the City of Sachion Of 
 the Custom observed there upon the Birth of a Male Child And of the 
 Ceremony of burning the Bodies of the Dead 104 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVIII.- Of the District of Kamul, and of some peculiar Customs 
 
 respect.-.^ the Entertainment of Strangers 109 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIX. Of the City of Chinchitalas 112 
 
 CHAPTER XL. Of the District of Succuir, where the Rhubarb is produced, 
 
 and from whence it is carried to all parts of the World 113 
 
 CHAPTER XLI. Of the City of Kampion, the principal one of the Province of 
 Tanguth Of the nature of their Idols, and of the Mode of Life of those 
 amongst the Idolaters who are devoted to the services of Religion Of the 
 Almanac they make use of And the Customs of the other Inhabitants with 
 regard to Marriage 115 
 
 CHAPTER XLII. Of the City of Ezina Of the kinds of Cattle and Birds found 
 
 there And of a Desert extending forty Days' Journey towards the North 1 18 
 
 CHAPTER XLIII. Of the City of Karakoran, the first in which the Tartars 
 
 fixed their Residence 119 
 
 CHAPTER XLIV. Of the Origin of the Kingdom of the Tartars Of the Quarter 
 from whence they came And of their former Subjection to Un-Khan, a 
 Prince of the North, called also Prester John 120 
 
 CHAPTER XLV. Concerning Chingis-Khan, first Emperor of the Tartars, and 
 his Warfare with Un-Khan. whom he overthrew, and of whose Kingdom he 
 possessed himself 122
 
 CONTENTS. T 
 
 PAGE 
 
 CHAPTER XLVI. Of six successive Emperors of the Tartars, and of the Cere- 
 monies that take place when they are carried for Interment to the Mountain 
 of Altai 12.' 
 
 CHAPTER XLVII. Of the Wandering Life of the Tartars Of their Domestic 
 
 Manners, their Food, and the Virtue and useful Qualities of their Women 12$ 
 
 CHAPTER XLVIII. Of the Celestial and Terrestrial Deities of the Tartars, 
 and of their Modes of Worship Of their Dress. Arms, Courage in Battle, 
 Patience under Privations, and Obedience to their Leaders 132 
 
 CHAPTER XLIX. Of the Tartar Armies, and the manner in which they are 
 constituted Of their Order of Marching Of their Provisions And of 
 their Mode of attacking the Enemy 13t 
 
 CHAPTER L. Of the Rules of Justice observed by these People And of an 
 imaginary Kind of Marriage contracted between the deceased Children of 
 different Families 13? 
 
 CHAPTER LI. Of the Plain of Bargu near Kara-Koran Of the Customs of its 
 Inhabitants Of the Ocean, at the Distance of forty Days' Journey from 
 thence Of the Falcons produced in the Country on its Borders And of the 
 Bearings of the Northern Constellation to an Observer in those Parts . . 13!' 
 
 CHAPTER LII. Of the Kingdom of Erginul, adjoining to that of Kampion, 
 and of the City of Singui Of a Species of Oxen covered with extremely fine 
 Hair Of the Form of the Animal that yields the Musk, and the Mode of 
 taking it And of the Customs of the Inhabitants of that Country, and the 
 Beauty of the Women HI 
 
 CHAPTER LIII. Of the Province of Egrigaia, and of the City of Kalacha Of 
 
 the Manners of its Inhabitants And of the Camelots manufactured there 113 
 
 CHAPTER LIV. Of the Province of Tenduk, governed by Princes of the Race 
 of Prester John, and chiefly inhabited by Christians Of the Ordination of 
 their Priests And of a Tribe of People called Argon, the most personable 
 and the best-informed of any in these Countries H(> 
 
 CHAPTER LV. Of the Seat of Government of the Princes of the Family of 
 Prester John, called Gog and Magog Of the Manners of its Inhabitants 
 Of their Manufacture of Silk And of the Mines of Silver worked there US 
 
 CHAPTER LVI. Of the City of Changanor Of different Species of Cranes 
 And of Partridges and Quails bred in that Part by the Orders of the Grand 
 Khan 15C 
 
 CHAPTER LVII. Of the Grand Khan's osautiful Palace in the City of Shandu 
 Of his Stud of White Brood-Mares, with whose Milk he performs an 
 Annual Sacrifice Of the wonderful Operations of the Astrologers on occa- 
 sions of Bad Weather Of the Ceremonies practised by them in the Hall of 
 the Royal Palace And of two Descriptions of Religious Mendicants, with 
 their Modes of Living 152 
 
 BOOK II. 
 
 CHAPTER I. Of the admirable Deeds of Kublai-Kaan, the Emperor now 
 reigning Of the Battle he fought with Nayan, his Uncle, and of the Vic- 
 tory he obtained ICC 
 
 CHAPTER II. Of the Return of the Grand Khan to the City of Kanbalu after 
 his Victory Of the Honour he confers on the Christians, the Jews, the Ma- 
 hometans, and the Idolaters, at their respective Festivals And the Reason 
 he assigns for his not becoming a Christian 167 
 
 CHAPTER III. Of the kind of Rewards granted to those who conduct them- 
 selves well in Fight, and of the Golden Tablets which they receive . . . 1C9 
 
 CHAPTER IV. Of the Figure and Stature of the Grand Khan Of his four 
 principal Wives And of the annual Selection of Young Women for him in 
 the Province of Ungut 171 
 
 CHAPTER V. Of the number of the Grand Khan's Sons by his four Wives, 
 whom he makes Kings of different Provinces, and of Chingis his First-born 
 Also of the Sons by his Concubines, whom he creates Lords 17-1 
 
 CHAPTER VI. Of the great and admirable Palace of the Grand Khan, near to 
 
 the City of Kanbalu 1 73 
 
 CHAPTER VII. Of the new City of Tai-du, built near to that of Kanbalu Of 
 a Rule observed respecting the Entertainment of Ambassadors And of the 
 nightly Police of the City 181
 
 VI CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. Of the treasonable Practices employed to cause the City of 
 Kanbalu to rebel, and of the Apprehension and Punishment of those con- 
 cerned 187 
 
 CHAPTER IX. Of the Personal Guard of the Grand Khan 192 
 
 CHAPTER X. Of the Style in which the Grand Khan holds his Public Courts, 
 and sits at Table with all his Nobles Of the Manner in which the Drinking 
 Vessels of Gold and Silver, filled with the Milk ef Mares and Camels, are 
 disposed in the Hall And of the Ceremony that takes place when he drinks 193 
 CHAPTER XI. Of the Festival that is kept throughout the Dominions of the 
 Grand Khan on the Twenty-eighth of September, being the Anniversary of 
 
 his Nativity 197 
 
 CHAPTER XII. Of the White Feast, held on the First Day of the Month of 
 February, being the Commencement of their Year Of the Number of Pre- 
 sents then brought And of the Ceremonies that take place at a Table 
 
 whereon is inscribed the Name of the Grand Khan 1 99 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. Of the Quantity of Game taken and sent to the Court, during 
 
 the Winter Months 205 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. Of Leopards and Lynxes used for hunting Deer Of Lions 
 habituated to the Chase of various Animals And of Eagles taught to seize 
 
 Wolves ih. 
 
 CHAPTER XV. Of two Brothers who are principal Officers of the Chase to the 
 
 Grand Khan 206 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. Of the Grand Khan's proceeding to the Chase, with his Ger- 
 falcons and Hawks Of his Falconers And of his Tents 208 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. Of the Multitude of Persons who continually resort to and 
 
 depart from the City of Kanbalu And of the Commerce of the Place . 214 
 CHAPTER XVIII. Of the kind of Paper Money issued by the Grand Khan, and 
 
 made to pass current throughout his Dominions 215 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. Of the Council of Twelve great Officers appointed for the 
 Affairs of the Army, and of Twelve others, for the general Concerns of the 
 
 Empire 219 
 
 CHAPTER XX. Of the Places established on all the great Roads for supplying 
 Post-Horses Of the Couriers on Foot And of the Mode in which the Ex- 
 pense is defrayed . . 221 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. Of the Relief afforded by the Grand Khan to all the Provinces 
 
 of his Empire, in Times of Dearth or Mortality of Cattle 227 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. Of the Trees which he causes to be planted at the Sides of 
 
 the Roads, and of the Order in which they are kept 228 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. Of the kind of Wine made in the Province of Cathay And 
 
 of the Stones used there for burning in the manner of Charcoal .... 229 
 CHAPTER XXIV. Of the great and admirable Liberality exercised by the Grand 
 Khan towards the Poor of Kanbalu, and other Persons who apply for Relief 
 
 at his Court 23ft 
 
 CHAPTE.R XXV. Of the Astrologers of the City of Kanbalu 232 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI. Of the Religion of the Tartars Of the Opinions they hold 
 
 respecting the Soul And of some of their Customs 234 
 
 CHAPTER XXVII. Of the River named Pulisangan, and of the Bridge over it 237 
 
 CHAPTER XXVIII. Of the City of Gouza 239 
 
 CHAPTER XXIX. Of the Kingdom of Ta-in-fu 242 
 
 CHAPTER XXX. Of the City of Pi-an-fu 243 
 
 CHAPTER XXXI. Of the Fortress of Thaigin or Tai-gin ib. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXII. Of the very large and noble Riyer called the Kara-moran. 248 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIII. Of the City of Ka-chan-fu 247 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIV. Of the City of Ken-zan-fu 248 
 
 CHAPTER XXXV. Of the Boundaries of Cathay and Manji 249 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVI. Of the Province of Sin-din-fu, and of the great River Kian 25) 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVII. Of the Province of T^iebeth 253 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVIII. Of the Province of Kain-du 25S 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIX. Of the gret Province of Karaian, and of Yachi its prin- 
 cipal City 261 
 
 CHAPTER XL. Of the Province named Karazan 264 
 
 CHAPTER XLI. Of the Province of Kardandan and the City of Vochang . . 267 
 CHAPTER XLII. Of the Manner in which the Grand Khan effected the Con- 
 quest of the Kingdom of Mien and Bangala 271
 
 CONTEXTS. VI 
 
 VAGB 
 
 CHAPTER XLIIT. Of an uninhabited Region, and of the Kingdom of Mien . 276 
 
 CHAPTER XLIV. Of the City of Mien, and of a grand Sepulchre of its King . 277 
 
 CHAPTER XLV. Of the Province of Bangala 279 
 
 CHAPTER XLVI. Of the Province of Kangigu 281 
 
 CHAPTER XLVII. Of the Province of Amu 282 
 
 CHAPTER XLVIII. Of Tholoman 283 
 
 CHAPTER XLIX. Of the Cities of Chintigui, Sidinfu, Gingui, and Pazanfu . 284 
 
 CHAPTER L. Of the City of Chan-glu 288 
 
 CHAPTER LI. Of the City of Chan-gli 2!-'9 
 
 CHAPTER 1,11. Of the City of Tudin-fu ib. 
 
 CHAPTERLHI. Of the City of Singui-matu 291 
 
 CHAPTER LIV. Of the great River called the Kara-moran, and of the Cities 
 
 of Koi-gan-zu and Kuan-zu 2S3 
 
 CHAPTER LV. Of tlie most noble Province of Manji, and of the Manner in 
 
 which it was subdued by the Grand Khan 294 
 
 CHAPTER LVI. Of the City of Koi-gan-zu 298 
 
 CHAPTER LVII. Of the Town of Pau-ghin 2U9 
 
 CHAPTER LVIII. Of the City of Kain 300 
 
 CHAPTER LIX. Of the Cities of Tin-gui and Chin-gui ib. 
 
 CHAPTER LX. Of the City of Yan-gui, of which Marco Polo held the Go- 
 vernment 301 
 
 CHAPTER LXI. Of the Province of Nan-ghin 302 
 
 CHAPTER LXII. Of the City of Sa-yan-fu, that was taken by the means of 
 
 Nicolo and Maffeo Polo ib. 
 
 CHAPTER LXIII. Of the City of Sin-gui, and of the very great River Kiang . 305 
 
 CHAPTKR LXIV. Of the City of Kayn-gui 308 
 
 CHAPTER LXV. Of the City of Chan-ghian-fu 309 
 
 CHAPTER LXVI. Of the City of Tin-gui-gui 310 
 
 CHAPTER LXV1L Of the Cities of Sin-gui and Va-giu '. 311 
 
 CHAPTER LXVIII. Of the noble and magnificent City of Kin-sai .... 313 
 
 CHAPTER LXI X. Of the Revenues of the Grand Khan 336 
 
 CHAPTER LXX. Of the City of Ta-pin-zu 337 
 
 CHAPTER LXXI. Of the City of Uguiu 338 
 
 CHAPTER LXXII. Of the Cities of Gen-gui, Zen-gian, and Gie-za .... ib. 
 CHAPTER LXXIII. Of the Kingdom or Viceroyalty of Kon-cha, and its capi- 
 tal City named Fu-giu 339 
 
 CHAPTER LXXIV. Of the City of Kue-lin-fu 341 
 
 CHAPTER LXXV. Of the City of Un-guen 342 
 
 CHAPTER LXXVI. Of the City of Kan-giu 343 
 
 CHAPTER LXXV II. Of the City and Port of Zai-tun, and the City of Tin-gui . ib. 
 
 BOOK III. 
 
 CHAPTER I Of India, distinguished into the Greater, Lesser, and Middle Of 
 the Manners and Customs of its Inhabitants Of many remarkable; and 
 extraordinary Things to be observed there; and, in the first place, of the 
 
 kind of Vessels employed in Navigation 347 
 
 CHAPTER II. Of the Island of Zipangu 350 
 
 CHAPTER III. Of the nature of the Idols worshipped in Zipangu, and of the 
 
 People being addicted to eating Human Flesh 354 
 
 CHAPTER IV. Of the Sea of Chin, between this Island and the Province of 
 
 Manji 355 
 
 CHAPTER V. Of the Gulf of Keinan, and of its Rivers 357 
 
 CHAPTER VI. Of the Country of Ziamba, of the King of that Country, and of 
 
 his becoming tributary to the Grand Khan 358 
 
 CHAPTER VII. Of the Island of Java 361 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. Of the Islands of Sondur and Condur, and of the Country of 
 
 Lochac 362 
 
 CHAPTER IX. Of the Island of Pentan, and of the Kingdom of Malaiur . . 364 
 
 CHAPTER X. Of the Island of Java Minor 365 
 
 CHAPTER XI. Of the Kingdom of Felech, in the Island of Java Minor . . . 366 
 
 CHAPTER XII. Of the Second Kingdom, named Basman 367 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. Of the Third Kingdom, named Samara 369 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. Of the Fourth Kingdom, named Dragoian 3"2 
 
 CHAPTER XV. Of the Fifth Kingdom, named Lambri 373
 
 Till CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. Of the Sixth Kingdom, named Fanfur, where Meal is pro- 
 cured from a certain Tree 374 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. Of the Island of Nocueran 376 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. Of the Island of Angaman 377 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. Of the Island of Zeilan ib. 
 
 CHAPTER XX. Of the Province of Maabar 380 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. Of the Kingdom of Murphili or Monsul 398 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. Of the Province of Lac, Loac, or Lar 400 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. Of the Island of Zeilan 405 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. Of the City of Kael 408 
 
 CHAPTER XXV. Of the Kingdom of Koulam 410 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI. Of Komari 413 
 
 CHAPTER XXVII. Of the Kingdom of Dely 414 
 
 CHAPTER XXVIII. Of Malahar 416 
 
 CHAPTER XXIX. Of the Kingdom of Guzzerat 418 
 
 CHAPTER XXX. Of the Kingdom of Kanan 419 
 
 CHAPTER XXXT. Of the Kingdom of Kambaia 420 
 
 CHAPTER XXXII. Of the Kingdom of Servenath 421 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIII. Of the Kingdom of Kesmacoran 422 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIV. Of the Islands of Males and of Females 423 
 
 CHAPTER XXXV. Of the Island of Soccotera 425 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVI. Of the great Island of Madagascar 427 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVII. Of the Island of Zenzihar 431 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVIII. Of the multitude of Islands in the Indian Sea. . . . 434 
 CHAI-TER XXXIX. Of the Second or Middle India,named Abascia (or Abyssinia) 435 
 
 CHAPTER XL. Of the Province of Aden 438 
 
 CHAPTER XLI. Of the City of Escier 440 
 
 CHAPTER XLII. Of the City of Dulfar 442 
 
 CHAPTER XLIII. Of the City of Kalayati ib. 
 
 CHAPTKRXLIV. Of Ormus . . 444 
 
 CHAPTER XLV. Of those Countries which are termed the Region of Darkness 449 
 
 CHAPTER XLVI. Of the Province of Russia 451 
 
 CHAPTER XLVIL Of Great Turkey 453 
 
 CHAPTER XLVIII. What the Grand Khan said of the Injuries clone to him 
 
 by Kaidu 456 
 
 CHAPTER XLIX. Of the Daughter of King Kaidu,how strong and valiant she was ib. 
 
 CHAPTER L. How Abaga sent Argon his Son with an Army 457 
 
 CHAPTER LI. How Argon succeeded his Father in the Sovereignty .... 45S 
 
 CHAPTER LH. How Acomat went with his Host to fight Argon 459 
 
 CHAPTER LIII. How Argon held Council with his Barons before encounter- 
 ing Acomat ib. 
 
 CHAPTER LIV. How the Barons replied to Argon 464 
 
 CHAPTER LV. How Argon sent his Messengers to Acomat 46' 
 
 CHAPTER LVI. Acomat's Reply to the Message of Argon ib. 
 
 CHAPTER LVII. The Battle between Argon and Acomat 462 
 
 CHAPTER LVIII. How Argon was liberated ib. 
 
 CHAPTER LIX. How Argon recovered the Sovereignty 463 
 
 CHAPTERLX. How Argon caused his Uncle Acomat to be put to death . . ib. 
 
 CHAPTER LXI. The Death of Argon 464 
 
 CHAPTER LXII. How Quiacatu seized upon the Sovereignty after Ifce Death 
 
 of Argon 465 
 
 CHAPTER LXIII. HowBaidu seized upon the Sovereignty after the Death of 
 
 Quiacatu ib. 
 
 CHAPTER LXIV. Of the Lords of the Tartars of the West 466 
 
 CHAPTER LXV. Of the War between Alau and Berca, and the Battle they 
 
 fought ib. 
 
 CHAPTER LXVI. How Berca and his Host went to meet Alau 467 
 
 CHAPTER LXVII. Alau's Address to his Men ib. 
 
 CHAPTER LXVIII. Of the great Battle between Alau and Berca 468 
 
 CHAPTER LXIX. How Totamangu was Lord of the Tartars of the West . . 469 
 
 CHAPTER LXX. How Toctai sent for Nogai to Court ib. 
 
 CHAPTEH LXXI. How Toctai proceeded against Nogai 470 
 
 APPENDIX 472 
 
 INDEX 477
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 So much has been written on the subject of the celebrated 
 Venetian traveller of the middle ages, Marco Polo, and the 
 authenticity and credibility of his relation have been so well 
 established, that it is now quite unnecessary to enter into 
 this part of the question; but the reader of the following 
 translation will doubtless be desirous of learning something 
 more about the author than is found in the narration of his 
 adventures. We are informed by the Italian biographers, 
 that the Polos were a patrician family of Venice, but of Dal- 
 matian extraction. Andrea Polo da S. Felice had three sons, 
 named Marco. Maffeo. and Nicolo, the two latter of whom 
 were great merchants in a city where the profession of com- 
 merce was anything but incompatible with nobility. They 
 were probably hi partnership; and about 1254 or 1255, they 
 proceeded on a voyage to Constantinople, between which 
 city and Venice the commercial relations were at this tune 
 very intimate. 
 
 Under the stern rule of the Tartar mouarchs, the interior 
 of Asia, knit together in one vast empire, was far more acces- 
 sible to strangers than it has been since that empire was 
 broken up ; and many European merchants and artisans pro- 
 ceeded thither to trade, or to find employment at the courts 
 of the different princes of the race of Jengiz. The two 
 brothers, Maffeo and Nicolo, learning at Constantinople that 
 a market for certain costly articles was to be found among 
 the Western Tartars, purchased a valuable stock of jewellery, 
 and with it crossed the Euxine to a port in the Crimea; and 
 travelling thence by land and water, reached at length the 
 court or camp of Barkah, the brother or the son of Batn, 
 grandson of Jengiz-khan, whose places of residence were 
 Sarai and Bolghar, well known to the geographers of the
 
 X INTRODUCTION. 
 
 middle ages. After turning their jewels to good account, 
 they were preparing for their return, at the end of twelve 
 months, when their plans were interrupted by hostilities 
 between Barkah and Hulagu, his cousin, the chief of another 
 horde or army of Tartars, who, in consequence of their 
 approach from the eastern side of the Caspian, were then 
 denominated Eastern Tartars, but were principally Moghuls, 
 as the former were Turki, or natives of Turkistan. They arc 
 said to have crossed the Oxus, on their march from the head- 
 quarters of Mangu-kaan, in the year 1255. By the defeat 
 of Barkah's army which ensued, and the advance of his 
 opponents, the road to Constantinople was cut off from our 
 travellers, and they were compelled to take a circuitous 
 route, which led them round the head of the Caspian, across 
 the Jaik and Jaxartes rivers, and through the deserts o 
 Transoxiana, till they arrived at the great city of Bokhara. 
 
 During their stay there, it happened that a Tartar noble- 
 man, sent by Hulagu to Kublai' his brother, came thither, 
 and in an interview with the two brothers, was so gratified 
 with hearing them converse in his native language, and with 
 the information he derived from them, that he invited them 
 to accompany him to the emperor's court, where he assured 
 them of a favourable reception, and an ample compensation 
 for the labour of their journey. Recommending themselves, 
 therefore, to the Divine protection, they prosecuted their 
 journey towards what they considered to be the extremity of 
 the East, and after travelling twelve months, reached the 
 imperial residence. The manner in which they were received 
 by the grand khan is told in the following narrative. He 
 determined upon sending them back to Italy, accompanied 
 by one of his own officers, as his ambassadors to the see of 
 Rome, professedly with the view of persuading his Holiness 
 to supply him with a number of preachers of the Gospel, who 
 should communicate religious instruction to the unenlight- 
 ened people of his dominions, but more probably to en- 
 courage a hostile spirit amongst the princes of Christendom 
 against the soldan of Egypt and the Saracens, the enemies of
 
 INTRODUCTION. xi 
 
 his family. They accordingly set out on their return ; but in 
 the early part of their journey, their Tartar companion fell 
 sick, aud was left behind. With the assistance, however, of 
 the imperial tablet or passport with which they were pro- 
 vided, and which commanded respect and insured them 
 accommodation in all the places through which they passed, 
 they made their way homewards, and at the end of three 
 years reached the port of Giazza, or Ayas, in Lesser Armenia. 
 Here they embarked for Acre, then in the possession of the 
 Christians, where they arrived in the month of April 1269; 
 and on lauding, received the first intelligence of the death of 
 Pope Clement IV., which happened in November 1268; and 
 it was recommended to them by the legate on the spot, to 
 take no further steps in the business of their embassy until 
 the election of a new Pope. This interval they thought would 
 be most properly employed in a visit to their family, and for 
 that purpose they engaged a passage in a ship bound to 
 Negropout and Venice. Upon their arrival, Xicolo Polo found 
 that his wife, whom he had left with child, was dead, after 
 giving birth to a son, to whom she had given the name of 
 Marco, in respect for the memory of her husband's eldest 
 brother, and who was now advancing towards the age of 
 manhood. In consequence of the long delay in the election 
 of a Pope, our two Venetians became impatient ; and, appre- 
 hensive of incurring the displeasure of their employer, after 
 having resided two years in Italy, they returned to the legate 
 in Palestine. On this occasion they were accompanied by 
 young Marco, then in his seventeenth or eighteenth year. 
 Taking letters from the legate to the Tartar emperor, they 
 embarked for Ayas; but scarcely had they got under weigh, 
 when advice was received at the former place of the choice of 
 the cardinals having at length fallen upon the legate himself, 
 M. Tebaldo di Vicenza, who assumed the name of Gregory X. 
 He immediately recalled the two brothers, and gave them 
 letters papal in a more ample and dignified form, and sent 
 them, along with two friars of the order of Preachers, who 
 were to be the bearers of his presents. These transactions
 
 Xll INTRODUCTION. 
 
 took place about the end of the year 1271, at which period 
 the northern parts of Syria were invaded by the soldan of 
 Egypt; and such was the alarm caused by his approach to the 
 borders of Armenia Minor, that the two friars were deterred 
 from proceeding, and returned for safety to the coast. The 
 Polo family, in the meantime, prosecuted their journey to the 
 interior of Asia, in a north-easterly direction, undismayed by 
 the prospect of dangers they might have to encounter. Of 
 their particular course few indications are given, but it must 
 evidently have been through the Greater Armenia, Persian 
 Irak, Khorasan, and by the city of Balkh into the country of 
 Badakhshan, amongst the sources of the Oxus, where they 
 remained twelve months. This long detention might have 
 been occasioned by the necessity of waiting for a large assem- 
 blage of travelling merchants, under an adequate escort, pre- 
 paratory to crossing the great ranges of mountains called 
 in maps the Belut-tag and Muz-tag; but it may also be 
 accounted for by the circumstance of Marco's illness at this 
 place. Their road now lay through the valley named Vokhan, 
 from whence they ascended to the elevated and wild regions 
 of Pamer and Belor, on their way to the city of Kashghar, 
 which belonged to the extensive dominions of the grand 
 khan, and is known to have been a principal place of resort 
 for caravans. They next proceeded to Khoten, a town of 
 much celebrity, and afterwards through places little known 
 to geographers, till they reached the desert of Lop or Kobi, 
 which is circumstantially described. This being traversed in 
 a tedious journey of thirty days, they entered the compre- 
 hensive district, of Tangut, and passed through the country 
 of those whom the Chinese call Si-fan or Tu-fan, as well as 
 the strong place named Sha-cheu, or the town of the sands. 
 From thence the direct road is to So-cheu, at the western 
 extremity of the province of Shen-si. This place is within 
 the boundary of what is now China proper, but was then, as 
 well as the city of Kan-cheu, considered as belonging to 
 Tangut. At Kan-cheu they experienced another long delay, 
 which our author briefly says was occasioned by the state of
 
 INTRODUCTION. XU1 
 
 their concerns. From Kan-cheu, it would seem that they 
 took the road of Si-ning (just within the nominal line of the 
 Great "Wall, which on that side was built of sandy earth, and 
 had mostly fallen to decay), leading through the heart of the 
 province of Shen-si, and directly into that of Shan-si. In the 
 capital city of this latter, named Tai-yuen-fu, it was that the 
 grand khan, who in the early part of his reign is known to 
 have made it his winter residence, received notice of their 
 arrival in his dominions; and as their account says, that at 
 the distance of forty days' journey from that place, he sent 
 forward directions for preparing everything necessary for 
 their accommodation, we may understand this to mean, that 
 upon his coming to the western part of China, and hearing of 
 the detention of his Italian messengers at Kan-cheu, he com- 
 manded that they should be immediately forwarded to his 
 presence, at his expense, and with the attentions usually shown 
 to foreign ambassadors. 
 
 The reception given to them by the emperor was as 
 favourable as they were justified in expecting. After the 
 customary prostrations and delivery of the letters, they were 
 desired to relate all the circumstances that had taken place 
 in the business of their mission, to which he condescendingly 
 listened. He commended their zeal, and accepted with com- 
 placency the presents from the Pope, and with reverence a 
 vessel of the holy oil from the sepulchre of our Lord, that 
 had been brought from Jerusalem at his desire, and which he 
 concluded, from the value set upon it by Christians, might 
 possess extraordinary properties. Observing young Marco, 
 he made inquiries respecting him ; and being informed that 
 he was the son of Nicolo, he took him under his protection, 
 and gave him an appointment in his household. In this 
 situation he adopted the manners of the country, and ac- 
 quired a knowledge of the four languages most in use. He 
 thus beeame a favourite with the grand khan, who employed 
 him on services of importance in various parts of the empire, 
 even to the distance of six months' journey. On these mis- 
 sions he availed himself of every opportunity of examining 
 
 6
 
 XIV INTRODUCTION. 
 
 into the circumstances of the countries he visited and the 
 customs of their inhabitants, and made notes of what he 
 observed,; for the information of the grand khan, whose 
 curiosity on such subjects appears to have been insatiable; 
 and to this habit of taking notes it is that we are indebted 
 for the substance of that account of his travels which, after 
 his return, he was induced to give to the world. On the 
 occasion of the inability of a member of one of the great 
 tribunals, who was nominated Fu-yuen, or governor, of the 
 city of Yaug-cheu-fu, in the province of Kiang-nan, to pro- 
 ceed to his charge, Marco Polo was appointed to act as his 
 deputy, and held this high office during the usual period of 
 three years. Marco's father and uncle were also partakers 
 of the monarch's regards; and in one instance, immediately 
 after their arrival at his court, they were eminently useful to 
 him, in suggesting to his officers the employment of certain 
 projectile machines, or catapultae, and superintending their 
 construction, thereby contributing in. an essential manner to 
 the fall of the strong and important Chinese city of Siang- 
 yang-fu, which had resisted the efforts of his besieging army 
 for upwards of three years/ 
 
 When about seventeen years had elapsed from the arrival 
 of our travellers within the territories of the grand khan, the 
 natural desire of revisiting their native land, notwithstanding 
 the splendid advantages of their situation, began to work 
 forcibly upon their minds, and the great age and precarious 
 life of the grand khan determined them to effect their pur- 
 pose with as little delay as possible. The grand khan refused 
 absolutely to part with them, until an accidental circumstance 
 gave them the opportunity of gratifying their desires. An 
 embassy happened about that time to arrive at the court 
 of Kubla'i, from a Moghul-Tartar prince named Arghun, the 
 grandson of Hulagu (and consequently the grand-nephew of 
 the emperor), who ruled in Persia. Having lost his principal 
 wife, who was a princess of the imperial stock, he sent this 
 deputation to his sovereign and the head of his family, to 
 solicit from him a wife of their own lineage. A princess was
 
 INTRODUCTION. XT 
 
 accordingly selected from amongst his grandchildren, and the 
 ambassadors being satisfied as to her beauty and accomplish- 
 ments, set out with her on a journey to Persia, with a 
 numerous suite to do honour to the betrothed qiieen; but 
 after several months' travelling, found themselves obstructed 
 by the disturbed state of the country through which their 
 route lay, and were obliged to return to the capital. In this 
 dilemma, Marco Polo arrived from a voyage to some of the 
 East Indian islands, and laid before his master the observa- 
 tions he had made respecting the safe navigation of those 
 seas. The ambassadors, when they heard this, put themselves 
 in communication with the Venetian family; and upon its 
 being understood that they had all a common interest, each 
 party being anxiously desirous of effecting their return to their 
 own country, it was arranged between them that the Per- 
 sians should urgently represent to the grand khan the ex- 
 pediency of their availing themselves of the experience of 
 the Christians in maritime affairs, to convey their precious 
 charge by sea to the gulf of Persia. His reluctant consent 
 for their departure was thus obtained, and preparations were 
 made on a grand scale for the expedition. When the period 
 of their departure w.as at hand, the monarch addressed the 
 Polo family in terms of kind regard, and required from them 
 a promise that after having visited their own country and 
 kindred, they would return to his service. He at the same time 
 gave them authority to act as his ambassadors to the principal 
 courts of Europe, furnished them with the passports neces- 
 sary for their protection and accommodation in the countries 
 acknowledging his sovereignty, and made them presents of 
 many valuable jewels. 
 
 In the details that are given of the voyage, there is but 
 little that personally regards our author. The first place at 
 which they appear to have touched (if the expedition did not 
 in fact proceed from thence in the first instance) was the 
 port of Zaituu, in the province of Fo-kien. supposed to be 
 either Tsuen-cheu, or the neighbouring port of Hia-muen, by 
 us called Amoy. Passing by the island of Hai-nan, they kept
 
 XT1 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 along the coast of Anan, or Cochin-Chiua, to the adjoining 
 country of Tsiampa, which Marco Polo informs us he had 
 previously visited in the year 1280. Mention is next made 
 of the island of Java, although it is evident from the circum- 
 stances that they did not touch there, and also of two unin- 
 habited islands near the coast of Kamboja. From the latter 
 they steered for the island of Bintan, near the eastern entrance 
 of the straits of Malacca. From this place they made a short 
 run to the north-eastern coast of Sumatra, in one of the ports 
 of which they were detained five months, waiting for a 
 favourable season to pursue their voyage across the bay 
 of Bengal. 
 
 After passing some of the smaller islands, they visited 
 Ceylon, and from thence they crossed the narrow strait, to the 
 southern part of the coast of the peninsula, called by our 
 author, in imitation of the Arabian and Persian writers, the 
 country of Maabar, which must not be confounded with 
 Malabar. In his subsequent route, it is difficult to determine 
 which of the places mentioned in his narrative he visited, 
 and which he describes from information gained from 
 others. 
 
 At Ormuz, in the Persian gulf, the course of his description 
 may be considered as brought to a close ; and there is every 
 reason to infer that the Chinese expedition, after a navigation 
 of eighteen months in the Indian seas, terminated at that 
 place. 
 
 Upon the arrival of the expedition in Persia, information 
 was received by our travellers that the Moghul king Arghun, 
 for whose consort the princess had been intended, had died 
 some time before (1291) ; that the country was then governed 
 by a regent or protector, who was supposed to have views to 
 the sovereignty; and that the son of the late king, named 
 Ghazan, who afterwards became much celebrated, was en- 
 camped, with a large army under his command, on the north- 
 eastern frontier of the kingdom, towards Khorasan, waiting, 
 as it appeared, for a favourable opportunity of asserting his 
 rights to the throne, for which his extremely diminutive
 
 INTRODUCTION. XV71 
 
 figure was thought to have rendered him unfit. To this prince 
 they were directed to deliver their royal charge ; and, after 
 having done this, they repaired to the court of Arghun, 
 at Tauris, where for nine months they reposed themselves 
 from the fatigue of their long travels. Having received from 
 him the customary passports, which they found the more 
 necessary, as the unpopularity of his government occasioned 
 tumults in the country, and rendered strong escorts indispen- 
 sable, they proceeded on their journey homewards, taking the 
 road of Arjis on the lake of Van, Arzerrum, and the castle of 
 Baiburt, and reached the city of Trebizond on the coast 
 of the Euxine ; from whence, by the way of Constantinople, 
 and of Negropont or Eubcea, they finally arrived in their 
 native city of Venice in 1295, after an absence of twenty 
 four years. 
 
 Up to this period our narrative of the adventures of the 
 Polo family has been framed from the materials, however 
 scanty, which Marco himself had directly or indirectly fur- 
 nished. For what is to follow, we must principally rely upon 
 the traditionary stories prevalent amongst his fellow-citizens, 
 and collected by his industrious editor Ramusio, who wrote 
 nearly two centuries and a half after his time. Upon their 
 first arrival, he says, they were not recognised even by their 
 nearest relations, the more so as rumours of their death had 
 been current, and were confidently believed. By the length of 
 time they had been absent, the fatigues they had undergone in 
 journeys of such extent, and the anxieties of mind they had 
 suffered, their appearance was quite changed, and they seemed 
 to have acquired something of the Tartar both in countenance 
 and speech, their native language being mixed with foreign 
 idioms and barbarous terms. In their garments also, which 
 were mean and of coarse texture, there was nothing that 
 resembled those of Italians. The situation of their family 
 dwelling-house, a handsome and lofty palace, was in the street 
 of S. Giovanni Chrisostomo, and still existed in the days of 
 Ramusio, when, for a reason that will hereafter appear, it 
 went by th2 appellation of " la corte del Millioni." Of this
 
 XV111 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 house possession had been taken by some persons of their 
 kindred, and when our travellers demanded admittance, it 
 was with much difficulty that they could obtain it by making 
 the occupiers comprehend who they were, or persuading 
 them that persons so changed and disfigured by their dress, 
 could really be those members of the house of Polo who for 
 so many years had been numbered with the dead. In order, 
 therefore, to render themselves generally known to their con- 
 nexions, and at the same time to impress the whole city 
 of Venice with an adequate idea of their importance, they 
 devised a singular expedient, the circumstances of which, 
 Ramusio says, had been repeatedly told to him when a youth 
 by his friend M. Gasparo Malipiero, an elderly senator of 
 unimpeachable varacity, whose house stood near that of the 
 Polo family, and who had himself heard them from his father 
 and his grandfather, as well as from other ancient persons of 
 that neighbourhood. 
 
 With these objects in view, they caused a magnificent en- 
 tertainment to be prepared in their own house, to which 
 their numerous relatives were invited. When the hour for 
 assembling at table was arrived, the three travellers came 
 forth from an inner apartment, clothed in long robes of crim- 
 son satin reaching to the floor, such as it was customary 
 to wear upon occasions of ceremony in those days. When 
 water had been carried round for washing hands, and the 
 guests desired to take their places, they stripped themselves ot 
 these vestments, and putting on similar dresses of crimson 
 damask, the former were taken to pieces, and divided amongst 
 the attendants. Again, when the first course of victuals had 
 been removed, they put on robes of crimson velvet, and 
 seated themselves at table, when the preceding dresses were 
 in like manner distributed; and at the conclusion of the 
 feast, those of velvet were disposed of in the same way, and the 
 hosts then appeared in plain suits, resembling such as were 
 worn by the rest of the comrany. All were astonished at 
 what they saw, and curious to know what was to follow this 
 scene. As soon, however, as the cloth was removed, and the
 
 INTRODUCTION. XIX 
 
 domestics had been ordered to withdraw, Marco Polo, as being 
 the youngest, rose from table, went into an adjoining room, 
 and presently returned with the three coarse, threadbare 
 garments in which they had first made their appearance 
 at the house. With the assistance of knives, they proceeded to 
 rip the seams, and to strip off the linings and patches with 
 which these rags were doubled, and by this operation brought 
 to view a large quantity of most costly jewels, such as rubies, 
 sapphires, carbuncles, diamonds, and emeralds, which had 
 been sewn into them, and with so much art and contrivance, 
 as not to be at all liable to the suspicion of containing such 
 treasures. At the time of their taking their departure from 
 the court of the grand khan, all the riches that his bounty 
 had bestowed upon them were by them converted into the 
 most valuable precious stones, for the facility of conveyance. 
 The display of wealth, so incalculable in its amount, which 
 then lay exposed on the table before them, appeared some- 
 thing miraculous, and filled the minds of all who were spec- 
 tators of it with such wonder, that for a time they remained 
 motionless; but upon recovering from their ecstasy, they 
 felt entirely convinced that these were in truth the ho- 
 nourable and valiant gentlemen of the house of Polo, of 
 which at first they had entertained doubts, and they accord- 
 ingly exhibited every mark of profound respect for their 
 hosts. 
 
 Of the degree of credit due to this anecdote, vouched as it 
 is, the reader will form his o\vn judgment; but, be this as it 
 may, Ramusio proceeds to acquaint us, that as soon as an 
 account of the scene just described was spread about the 
 city of Venice, great numbers of the inhabitants of all ranks, 
 from the nobles down to the mechanics, hastened to their 
 dwelling, in order to have an opportunity of embracing them, 
 and of testifying their good-will. MafTo, the elder brother, 
 was honoured with an office of much importance in the 
 magistracy. To Marco the young men resorted, to enjoy 
 the pleasure of his conversation. Finding him polite ana 
 communicative, they paid him daily visits, making iuquir:^
 
 XX INTRODUCTION. 
 
 respecting Cathay and the grand khan ; and to all of them 
 his answers were so courteous, that each considered himself 
 as personally obliged. In consequence, however, of their 
 persevering curiosity, which occasioned frequent repetitions 
 of the amount of the imperial revenues, estimated at ten or 
 fifteen millions of gold ducats, as well as of other computa- 
 tions regarding the wealth and population of the empire, 
 which were necessarily expressed in millions also, he at 
 length acquired amongst them the surname of Messer Marco 
 Millioni, or, in the modern orthography, Milione. " By 
 this appellation," Ramusio (who was himself high in office) 
 adds, " I have seen him mentioned in the public records of 
 this republic, and the house in which he lived has, from that 
 time to the present, been commonly termed, 'la corte del 
 Millioni.'" It must at the same time be remarked, that 
 Sansovino, in his " Venetia Descritta," attributes the popular 
 application of this surname to the immense riches possessed 
 by the Polo family at the period of their return to their own 
 country. In this sense the French apply the term "mil- 
 lionnaire" to a great capitalist. 
 
 Not many months after their arrival in Venice, intelligence 
 was received that a Genoese fleet, commanded by Lampa 
 Doria, had made its appearance off the island of Curzola, on 
 the coast of Dalmatia ; in consequence of which a Venetian 
 fleet, consisting of a superior number of galleys, immediately 
 put to sea under the orders of Andrea Dandolo. To the 
 command of one of these, Marco Polo, as an experienced 
 sea-officer, was appointed. The fleets soon came in sight of 
 each other, and an engagement ensued, in which the latter 
 were defeated with great loss. This event is said by some 
 writers to have happened on the 8th of September, 1296. 
 Amongst the prisoners taken by the Genoese, besides Dandolo 
 himself, was our traveller, who belonged to the advanced 
 division, and bravely pushing forward to attack the enemy, 
 but not being properly supported, was compelled to sur- 
 render, after receiving a wound. From the scene of action 
 he w\s conveyed to a prison in Genoa, where his personal
 
 INTRODUCTION. XX' 
 
 qualities and his surprising history becoming soon known, he 
 was visited by all the principal inhabitants, who did every- 
 thing in their power to soften the rigours of his captivity; 
 treating him with kindness as a friend, and liberally supply- 
 ing him with everything necessary for his subsistence and 
 accommodation. His rare adventures were, as in his own 
 country, the subject of general curiosity, and the frequent 
 necessity he was under of repeating the same story unavoid- 
 bly became irksome to him. He was, in consequence, at 
 length induced to follow the advice of those who recom- 
 mended his committing it to writing. With this view he 
 procured from Venice the original notes he had made in the 
 course of his travels, and had left in the hands of his father. 
 Assisted by these documents (of which he speaks on more 
 than one occasion), and from his verbal communications, the 
 narrative is said to have been drawn up, in the prison, by 
 a person named Eustighello or Rustigielo, who, according to 
 Ramusio, was a Genoese gentleman with whom he had formed 
 an intimacy, but, according to the manuscripts, a native of 
 Pisa, and his fellow-prisoner; and we finally learn from the 
 French text, which is now known to be the original, that this 
 Rustigielo was Rusticien de Pise, a well-known medieval writer, 
 who made a compilation in French of the romances of the 
 cycle of king Arthur. The Travels of Marco Polo are said to 
 have been written, and the manuscript circulated, in 1298. 
 
 The imprisonment of Marco was the occasion of much 
 affliction to his father and his uncle, and the more particularly 
 as it had long been their intention that he should form a 
 suitable matrimonial alliance upon their return to Venice. 
 Their plans were now frustrated, and it became daily more 
 uncertain what the duration of his captivity might prove, as 
 all attempts to procure his liberation by the offer of money 
 had failed, and it was even doubtful whether it might not 
 terminate only with his life. Under these circumstances, 
 finding themselves cut off from the prospect of having heirs 
 to their vast wealth, they deliberated upon what was mest 
 proper to be done for the establishment of the family, and it
 
 XX 11 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 was agreed that Nicob, although an dd man, but of a hale 
 constitution, should take to himself a second wife. 
 
 It happened at length, after a lapse of four years, that 
 Marco, in consequence of the interest taken in his favour 
 amongst the leading people in Genoa, and indeed by the 
 whole city, was released from his captivity. Upon returning 
 home, he found that his father had by that time added three 
 sons to the family, whose names were Stefauo, Maffeo, and 
 Giovanni. Being a man of good sense and discretion, he 
 did not take umbrage at this change of circumstances, but 
 resolved upon marrying also, and effected it as soon as he 
 found a suitable match. By his marriage, however, he had 
 not any male descendant, but only two daughters, one of 
 whom is said to have been called Moretta, and the other 
 Fantina, which, from their signification, may be thought to 
 have been rather familiar terms of endearment, than baptismal 
 names. Upon the death of his father, as became an affec- 
 tionate and pious son, he erected a monument to his memory, 
 of hewn stone, which, Ramusio says, was still to be seen in his 
 days under the portico in front of the church of St. Lorenzo, 
 upon the right hand side as you enter, with an inscription 
 denoting it to be the tomb of Nicolo Polo, who resided in 
 the street before mentioned. Respecting the age to which 
 our author himself attained, or the year in which his death 
 took place, his countrymen have not given us any informa- 
 tion, nor, as it would seem, was any endeavour made at an 
 early period to ascertain the facts. Sansovino, the most 
 elaborate historian of their city, observes only, that " under 
 the passage to the church of St. Lorenzo, which stands on one 
 of the islets named Gemelle, lies buried Marco Polo, suruamed 
 Milione, who wrote the account of ' Travels in the New 
 World,' and was the first, before Columbus, who discovered 
 new countries ; " on which expressions we may remark, that 
 independently of the geographical ignorance displayed, there 
 is room to conjecture (if Ramusio be correct) that he has 
 confounded the tomb of the father with that of the son. In 
 the chronicle of Jacopo de Aqui it is reported, that when upon
 
 INTRODUCTION. XX111 
 
 his death-bed he was exhorted by his friends, as matter of 
 conscience, to retract what he had published, or at least to 
 disavow those parts which the world regarded as fictitious, 
 he scorned their advice, declaring at the same time, that so 
 far from having exaggerated, he had not told one half of the 
 extraordinary things of which he had been an eye-witness. 
 His will is said to have been dated in the year 1323; in 
 which case his life may be supposed (without pretending to 
 accuracy, but also without the chance of material error) to 
 have embraced the period between 1254 and 1324, or about 
 seventy years. 
 
 With regard to the other members of the family, Marco, 
 the eldest of the three brothers, appears to have died before 
 the departure of Nicolo and Maffeo for Constantinople; and 
 it was with the intention of doing honour to his memory, 
 that the wife of the former, in the absence of her husband, 
 gave to her son, our author, the name of his deceased uncle. 
 Of the three children of Nicolo by the second marriage, one 
 only, Maffeo, lived to have a family. This consisted of five 
 sons, and one daughter named Maria; and, as all the sons 
 died without leaving issue, she, upon the death of her last 
 surviving brother, who likewise bore the name of Marco, 
 inherited all the possessions of their father. With this event, 
 which took place in 1417, the family became extinct in the 
 male line, and the illustrious name of Polo was lost. The 
 heiress married into the noble house of Trivisino, eminently 
 distinguished in the fasti of the Venetian republic. 1 
 
 The book of the Travels of Marco Polo, containing so 
 much that must be attractive to all classes of readers, became 
 extremely popular during the three centuries which followed 
 his death, and was reproduced in almost every European 
 language which could boast of a literature ; manuscripts are 
 very numerous, independent of printed editions, and they differ 
 very much from each other. From this latter circumstance, 
 
 1 The arms borne by the Polo family, as Ramusio found them bla- 
 zoned in ancient books of heraldry, were, azure, on a bend, argent, thre 
 poles (graculi or jackdaws), sable.
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 the choice of a text for translation is not a question of easy 
 solution. Marsden, assuming that the book was originally 
 written in Italian, translated from the text printed by Ramusio, 
 who seems to have taken some liberties with his original. 
 Since Marsden's time, several more critical editions of Marco 
 Polo, in different languages, have appeared. In 1827, an 
 Italian text, from an early manuscript, superior in authority 
 to that of Ramusio, was published by Count Baldelli Boni. 1 
 The manuscript appears to have been of the fourteenth cen- 
 tury. Previous to this publication, in 1824, the Society of 
 Geography of Paris, in the first volume of its Recueil de 
 Voyages et de Me"moires, 2 had printed from manuscripts of 
 the fourteenth century two texts of Marco Polo, of a class 
 which had not before been examined very critically, one being 
 in Latin, and the other in French. Neither of these texts is 
 very well edited, but they are of considerable importance, 
 especially the latter, in relation to the literary history of the 
 Travels of Marco Polo. 
 
 It has been, I think, most satisfactorily demonstrated by 
 M. D'Avezac, that the original text of Marco Polo, which 
 came from the traveller's own dictation, was written in the 
 French language. I will give the reasons on which this 
 judgment is established in the words of M. D'Avezac himself, 
 as he has stated the question in a postscript to some remarks 
 on the Relation of Plan du Carpin, in the Bulletin of the 
 Society of Geography for August 1841. "The observations 
 we have just made," says this able geographer, " having led 
 us to recur to certain passages of Marco Polo, we have had 
 occasion to remark again, in the Italian and Latin texts, some 
 of those gross blunders arising from verbal equivocations, of 
 which the only possible explanation is found in recognising 
 them as the work of unskilful translators from a French text ; 
 
 1 II Milione di Marco Polo, testo di lingua del secolo decimoterzo, ora 
 per la prima volta pubblicato ed illustrate dal Conte Gio. Batt. Baldelli 
 Boni. Firenze, da' Torchi di Giuseppe Pagani, M.DCCO.XXVII. 4 vols. 4to. 
 
 ' Recueil de Voyages et de Me"moires, public par la Socie"te" de 
 Geographic. Tome premier. Paris, de 1'Imprimerie d'Everat, Rue du 
 Cadran, No. 16. M.DCCC.XXIV. 4to.
 
 INTRODUCTION. XIV 
 
 an argument already invoked by Baldelli, and which must have 
 struck any man who made a comparative examination of the 
 different editions of this famous relation. After the chapter 
 devoted to Tangut in general, and before that which con- 
 tains the description of its capital, are three chapters treating 
 successively of the provinces of Camul, Ginchintalas, and 
 Juctang, in the latter of which we find this passage : ' Et la 
 grant provence jeneraus ou ceste provence (Juctang) est, et 
 ceste deux (Camul et Ginchintalas) que je vos ai contes en 
 arrieres, est appelles Tangut.' In the version of Ramusio this 
 is rightly translated : ' E la gran provincia generale nella 
 qual se contiene questa provincia et altre due provincie sub- 
 sequenti, si chiama Tanguth.' But Ramusio professes himself 
 to give a corrected text, whereas the celebrated manuscript 
 of La Crusca, published by Baldelli, and the manuscript of 
 Pucci, of which he gives the various readings, have : ' Ella e 
 graude provincia, ha nome Jeneraus' etc. ; thus proving that 
 the Italian translator of 1309 took the French adjective 
 ieneraw (generalis) for a proper name of a province, as he 
 had on another occasion taken the adverb jadis for a proper 
 name of a king ! A mistake equally curious, and into which, 
 as far as we know, all the translators, old or modern, of 
 Marco Polo have fallen, occurs, and is repeated many times, 
 in the recital of the war of Prester John against ' un rois qe 
 fu appeles le roi d'or.' Marsden has justly observed that this 
 denomination must have been the translation of the Chinese 
 name of the dynasty of Kin, or Altoun of the Moguls, since 
 these words mean or (gold) in French. But it is evident that 
 if a French translator could write that the monarch Kin was 
 ' appele le roi d'Or,' it would be absurd to translate in Italian, 
 ' un re chiamato Dor,' or in Latin, ' unus rex qui fuit vocatus 
 rex Dor.' Evidently the translators took the French appel- 
 lation in the genitive, d'or, for a proper name. Moreover, to 
 all the motives given before by Baldelli, by M. Paulin Paris, 
 and by ourselves, to demonstrate that the original text of 
 the relation of Marco Polo was written in French, we can add 
 the authority of a formal testimony, which we have already 
 communicated to the Society of Geography, and which we
 
 XXVI INTRODUCTION. 
 
 are astonished not to have found cited by our predecessors. 
 But, -which is still more surprising, this testimony was known 
 to the learned Abb6 Lebeuf, and cited by him in his ' Dis- 
 sertations sur 1'Histoire ecclesiastique et civile de Paris,' 
 without his being aware of its importance, or apparently 
 suspecting that it related to the illustrious Venetian; he 
 says simply ' Un nomine Marc, qui avait ete envoye en 
 Tartarie et aux Indes, fit en frangais un livre des Merveilles 
 de ce pays la, que Jean d'Ypres, en sa chronique, dit qu'il pos- 
 sedait.' Now, this 'nomme Marc' was Marco Polo himself; 
 and Jean d'Ypres said so, not in an obscure mention, lost in 
 the midst of matters foreign to those which might awaken 
 the attention of the reader to so remarkable a declaration: 
 far from that, the chronicler expressly devotes a chapter to 
 treat ' De Legatis Tartarorum ad Papam missis ;' and there 
 he says in full : ' Nuntii qui venerunt erant duo cives Vene- 
 tiarum, nomine dominus Nicolaus Pauli et frater ejus dominus 
 Maffeus Pauli,' etc. Then he relates their return from the 
 East, and adds : ' Dominusque Nicolaus Pauli filium suuin, 
 viginti vel circiter annorum, juvenem aptum valde, nomine 
 Marcum Pauli, secum adduxit ad Tartaros.' After this comes 
 the history of their embassy, and this recital terminates 
 with the following passage : ' Marcus Pauli cum imperatore 
 retentus, ab eo miles effectus, sed et cum eo mansit spatio 
 viginti-septem annorum ; quern Chaam, propter suam habili- 
 tatem in suis negotiis, ad diversas Indiae et Tartarian partes et 
 insulas misit, ubi illarum partium multa mirabilia vidit, de qui- 
 bus postea librum in vulyari gallico composuit, quern librum 
 mirabilium cum pluribus similibus penes nos habemus.' And 
 the man who wrote this is the same Jean Lelong, of Ypres, 
 abbot of St. Bertin at St. Omer, who translated from Latin 
 into French the relations of Hayton of Armenia, of Ricold 
 de Montecroce, of Oderic of Friulia, of William of Boldensel, 
 and of John de Cor, archbishop of Solthanyeh; he was the 
 man of his time the most profoundly acquainted with the 
 various travels into the East, and whose testimony ought to 
 carry the greatest authority in this matter." 
 
 With the new importance which is thus given to the
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 French text of Marco Polo, I hope that my learned friend 
 will not let us wait long for a new and perfect edition of it, 
 one which will be worthy of himself, and of the language in 
 which it forms so interesting a monument. 
 
 Since the appearance of the editions already mentioned, 
 two others have appeared which are worthy of notice. An 
 edition of the old German version, edited by August Biirck, 
 in 1845. l and an Italian edition by Vincenzo Lazari, in 1847. 2 
 Singularly enough, neither of these editors appears to have 
 been aware of the direct evidence of John d'Ypres to the 
 fact of the original text having been written in French, 
 although it had been so publicly stated by M. D'Avezac 
 several years before. 
 
 Most of the editions I have mentioned contain long and 
 learned dissertations on Marco Polo's travels. 3 It was the 
 original intention, in the present edition, merely to reprint 
 the text of Marsden's translation, 4 with a selection from the 
 notes. Marsden's notes are rather lengthy, and a good part 
 of them consists only of repetitions of statements and autho- 
 rities in support of the credibility of Marco Polo's narration ; 
 
 1 Die Reisen des venezianers Marco Polo im xiii len - Jahrhundert, znm 
 ersten male vollstandig nach den besten Ausgaben Deutsch, mit einem 
 Kommentar von August Biirck ; nebst Zusatzen und Verbesserungen 
 von Karl Friedrich Neumann. Leipzig, Druck und Verlag von B. G. 
 Teubner. 1845. 8vo. 
 
 2 I Viaggi di Marco Polo veneziano, tradotti per la prima volta 
 dall' originale francese di Rusticiano di Pisa, e corredati d' illustrazioni 
 e di document! da Vincenzo Lazari, pubblicati per cura di Lodovico 
 Pasini membro eff. e segretario dell' T. R. Istituto veiieto. Venezia, coi 
 tipi di Pietro Naratovich. 1847. 8vo. 
 
 3 Another learned work on Marco Polo deserves to be called atten- 
 tion to ; it was published in the same year as Marsden's translation. 
 " Di Marco Polo, e degli altri viaggiatori Veneziani piu illustri, Disser- 
 tazioni del P. ab. D. Placido Zurla ; con appendice sopra le antiche 
 mappe lavorate in Venezia, e con quattro carte geografiche. In Veuezia 
 presso Gio. Giacomo Fuchs co' tipi Picottiani. M.DCCC.XVIII." 2 vols. 4to. 
 
 4 The title of Marsden's edition, which was one of the most learned 
 and remarkable books of the day, was : " The Travels of Marco Polo, 
 a Venetian, in the thirteenth century; being a description, by that 
 early traveller, of remarkable places and kings in the eastern parts of 
 the world. Translated from the Italian, with notes, by William 
 Marsden, F.R.S., &c. London, printed for the Author, ic. M.DCCC.XVIU." 
 4to.
 
 XXV111 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 and as this question is now more generally understood than 
 it was in Marsden's time, these corroborations are no longer 
 necessary. When, however, I came to compare this transla- 
 tion with the new editions of the text, I found that it was 
 desirable to give it a general revision, comparing it with the 
 texts published more recently. All the texts differ so much 
 from one another, that it is not easy to form anything like 
 a perfect text from them ; but a comparison enables us to 
 correct some of the dates, names, distances, &c., which were 
 evidently wrong in the text that Marsden followed; to set 
 right one or two mistakes into which he fell from his 
 want of knowledge of the medieval literature of Western 
 Europe ; and to restore passages which had been lost from 
 the texts he used. The supplementary chapters added at 
 the end of the present volume are translated from the early 
 French text. From the historical dates to which some of 
 these refer, they may have been an addition to the original 
 compilation of Marco Polo's Travels, and, from the peculiar 
 phraseology in which they are written, they seem to have 
 been translated into prose from a narration in verse. This 
 phraseology is sometimes so diffuse, that I have found it 
 necessary to compress it in the translation, especially in 
 the descriptions of battles, which are almost copies of one 
 another. 
 
 We cannot conclude these remarks without acknowledging 
 the kindness with which Colonel Leake, the present repre- 
 sentative of the translator, has given his permission to make 
 use of Mr. Marsden's text and notes, 
 
 T . W. 
 
 14, SYDNEY STREET, 
 September 1 364
 
 THE 
 
 TRAVELS OE MAKCO POLO 
 
 BOOK I. 
 
 PROLOGUE.^ 
 
 YE emperors, kings, dukes, marquises, earls, and knights, 
 and all other people desirous of knowing the diversities of the 
 races of mankind, as well as the diversities of kingdoms, pro- 
 vinces, and regions of all parts of the East, read through this 
 book, and ye will find in it the greatest and most marvellous 
 characteristics of the peoples especially of Armenia, Persia, 
 India, and Tartary, as they are severally related in the present 
 work by Marco Polo, a wise and learned citizen of Venice, 
 who states distinctly what things he saw and what things he 
 heard from others. For this book will be a truthful one. It 
 must be known, then, that from the creation of Adam to the 
 present day, no man, whether Pagan, or Saracen, or Christian, 
 or other, of whatever progeny or generation he may have 
 been, ever saw or inquired into so many and such great 
 things as Marco Polo above mentioned. Who, wishing in his 
 secret thoughts that the things he had seen and heard should 
 be made public by the present work, for the benefit of those 
 who could not see them with their own eyes, he himself being 
 in the year of our Lord 1295 ' 2 in prison at Genoa, caused the 
 things which are contained in the present work to be written 
 by master Rustigielo, a citizen of Pisa, who was with him in 
 the same prison at Genoa ; and he divided it into three 
 parts. 
 
 1 This prologue, omitted by Marsden. is here translated from the 
 Latin text published by the French Geographical Society. It is found 
 in the early French version published by the same society, and in some 
 of the Italian manuscripts; but is only given in an abridged form in 
 lioni's Italian text. 
 
 2 The early French translation gives the date 1298, with which the 
 Italian prologues seem to agree.
 
 TRAVELS OP MARCO POTO. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 1. IT shouli be known to the reader that, at the time 
 when Baldwin II. was emperor of Constantinople, 1 where a 
 magistrate representing the doge of Venice then resided, 2 and 
 in the year of our Lord 1250, 3 Nicolo Polo, the father of the 
 
 1 Baldwin II. count of Flanders, and cousin of Louis IX. king of 
 France, who reigned from 1237 to 1261, was the last of the Latin 
 emperors of Constantinople. 
 
 2 The passage which in Ramusio's text is, " dove all' hora soleva stare 
 un podesta di Venetia, per nome di messer lo Dose," and upon which he 
 has written a particular dissertation, has nothing corresponding to it 
 in the Latin or French versions, or in the Italian text published by 
 Boni. The city of Constantinople and the Greek provinces had been 
 conquered, in 1204, by the joint arms of the French and the Venetians, 
 the latter of whom were commanded by their doge, the illustrious 
 Henry Dandolo, in person. Upon the division of the territory and the 
 immense spoil that fell into their possession, a larger share (including 
 the celebrated bronze horses of Lysippus) was assigned to the republic 
 than to the emperor elected on the occasion, and the aged doge, who 
 had himself declined the imperial title, but accepted that of Prince of 
 Romania, maintained an independent jurisdiction over three parts out 
 of eight of the city, with a separate tribunal of justice, and ended his 
 days at the head of an army that besieged Adrianople. It is doubtful 
 whether any of his successors in the high office of chief of the republic 
 made the imperial city their place of residence. " The doge, a slave of 
 state," says Gibbon, " was seldom permitted to depart from the helm 
 of the republic; but his place was supplied by the bail, or regent, 
 who exercised a supreme jurisdiction over the colony of Venetians." 
 Such was the podesta, sometimes termed bailo, and sometimes des- 
 poto, whose cotemporary government is here spoken of, and whose 
 political importance in the then degraded state of the empire, was 
 little inferior to that of Baldwin: whilst in the eyes of the Polo 
 family, as Venetian citizens, it was probably much greater. The name 
 of the person who exercised the functions at the time of their arrival, 
 is said, in the Sorenzo manuscript, to have been Misier Ponte de 
 Veniexia, and, in 1261, when the empire, or rather the city, was recon- 
 quered from the Latins, the podest& was Marco Gradenigo. 
 
 3 There are strong grounds, Marsden says, for believing that this 
 date of 1250, although found in all the editions, is incorrect. In the 
 manuscript, of which there are copies in the British Museum and Berlin 
 libraries, the commencement of the voyage is placed in 1252, and soma
 
 THE BROTHERS POLO AT COXSTAXTIXOPLE. 
 
 said Marco, and Maffeo, the brother of Nicolo, respectable 
 aud well-informed men, embarked in a ship of their own, witi 
 a rich and varied cargo of merchandise, and reached Constan- 
 tinople in safety. After mature deliberation on the subject 
 of their proceedings, it was determined, as the measure most 
 likely to improve their trading capital, that they should pro- 
 secute their voyage into the Euxine or Black Sea, 1 With this 
 view they made purchases of many fine and costly jewels, and 
 taking their departure from Constantinople, navigated that 
 sea to a port named Soldaia, 2 from whence they travelled on 
 horseback many days until they reached the court of a 
 powerful chief of the Western Tartars, named Barka, 3 who 
 
 of the events related in the sequel render it evident that the departure, 
 at least, of our travellers from Constantinople, must have been some 
 years later than the middle of the century, and probably not sooner 
 than 1255. How long they were detained in that city is not stated : 
 but, upon any calculation of the period of their arrival or departure, it 
 is surprising that Grynseus, the editor of the Basle and Paris edition of 
 1532, and after him the learned Miiller and Bergeron, should, notwith- 
 standing the anachronism, introduce into their texts the date of 1269, 
 which was eight years after the expulsion of the emperor Baldwin, and 
 was, in fact, the year in which they returned to Syria from their first 
 Tartarian journey. 
 
 1 The prosperity, riches, and political impoiiance of the state of 
 Venice having arisen entirely from its commerce, the profession of a 
 merchant was there held in the highest degree of estimation, and its 
 nobles were amongst the most enterprising of its adventurers in foreign 
 trade. To this illustrious state might have been applied the proud 
 character drawn by Isaiah of ancient Tyre, which he describes as " the 
 crowning city, whose merchants are princes, whose traffickers are the 
 honourable of the earth." 
 
 2 Soldaia was the name given in the middle ages to the place (the 
 Tauro-Scythian port of the ancients) now called Sudak, situated near 
 the southern extremity of the Crimea or Tauric Chersonesus. It i% 
 described in these words : " About the midst of the said province 
 towards the south, as it were upon a sharp angle or point, standeth a 
 city called Soldaia, directly against Synopolis. And there doe all the 
 Turkic merchants, which traffique into the north countries, in their 
 journey outward, arrive, and as they return homeward also from 
 Russia, and the said northern regions, into Turkie." Purchas, voL iii. 
 p. 2. 
 
 3 This Tartar prince is usually named Bereke, the successor, and 
 said to be the brother, of Batu, the son of Tushi, eldest son of Jengiz- 
 khan ; who inherited, as his portion of the dominions of his grand- 
 father (although not in full sovereignty), the western countries of 
 Kapchak or Kipchak, Allan, Russ, and Bulgar, and died in 1256. 
 
 B '2
 
 4 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 dwelt in the cities of Bolgara and Assara, 1 and had the repu- 
 tation of being one of the most liberal and civilized princes 
 hitherto known amongst the tribes of Tartary. He expressed 
 much satisfaction at the arrival of these travellers, and re- 
 ceived them with marks of distinction. In return for which 
 courtesy, when they had laid before him the jewels they 
 brought with them, and perceived that their beauty pleased 
 him, they presented them for his acceptance. The liberality 
 of this conduct on the part of the two brothers struck him 
 with admiration; and being unwilling that they should sur- 
 pass him in generosity, he not only directed double the value 
 of the jewels to be paid to them, but made them in addition 
 several rich presents. 
 
 The brothers having resided a year in the dominions of this 
 prince, they became desirous of revisiting their native country, 
 but were impeded by the sudden breaking out of a war be- 
 tween him and another chief, named Alau, who ruled over the 
 Eastern Tartars. 2 In a fierce and very sanguinary battle 
 
 1 The Bolgar, Bulgar, or Bulghar, here spoken of, is the name of a 
 town and an extensive district in Tartary, lying to the eastward of the 
 Wolga. and now inhabited by the Bashkirs, sometimes distinguished 
 from the Bulgaria on the Danube, by the appellation of the Greater 
 Bulgaria. Assara is the city of Sarai (with the definitive article pre- 
 fixed), situated on the eastern arm of the Wolga, or Achtuba. " The 
 Astraehan mentioned by Balducci Pegoletti was not on the same spot 
 where that town stands now, but the ancient Astrachau was demo- 
 lished, together with Saray, by the emperor Timur, in the winter of 
 1395. The old town of Saray was pretty near the ancient Astraehan.'' 
 Forster. 
 
 2 These Eastern Tartars, as they are relatively termed, but whose 
 country extended no further to the east than the provinces of Persia 
 and Khorasau, were so named to distinguish them from the Western 
 (or more properly, North- Western) Tartars mentioned in the preceding 
 note, who occupied the countries in the neighbourhood of the Wolga, 
 and from thence to the confines, or beyond the confines, of Europe. 
 Their chief, here named Ala-u or Hala-u, is the celebrated Hulagu, the 
 son of Tuli or Tulwi, and equally with Batu, Mangu, and Kublai' (the 
 latter of whom were his brothers), the grandson of Jengiz-khan. Being 
 appointed by his elder brother Mangu, to command in the southern 
 provinces of the empire, he left Kara-korum, a short time before the 
 visit of Rubruquis to that Tartar capital, and in the year 1255 crossed 
 the Jihun or Oxus, with a large army. In the following year, he 
 destroyed the race or sect of the Ismaelians, called also Malahidet, of 
 whom a particular account will be given hereafter, and then turned his 
 arms against the city of Baghdad, which he sacked in 1258; putting to 
 death Mostasem Billah, the last of the Abbassite khalifs. Upon the
 
 THE BROTHERS A7 BOKHARA. 5 
 
 that ensued between their respective armies, Alaii was vie 
 torious, in consequence of which, the roads being rendered un 
 safe for travellers, the brothers could not attempt to' return 
 by the way they came ; and it was recommended to them, as 
 the only practicable mode of reaching Constantinople, to pro- 
 ceed in an easterly direction, by an unfrequented route, so as 
 to skirt the limits of Barka's territories. Accordingly they 
 made their way to a town named Oukaka, 1 situated on the 
 confines of the kingdom of the Western Tartars. Leaving 
 that place, and advancing stih 1 further, they crossed the Tigris, 2 
 one of the four rivers of Paradise, and came to a desert, the 
 extent of which was seventeen days' journey, wherein they 
 found neither town, castle, nor any substantial building, but 
 only Tartars with their herds, dwelling in tents on*the plain. 3 
 Having passed this tract they arrived at length at a well-built 
 city called Bokhara, 4 iu a province of that name, belonging to 
 the dominions of Persia, and the noblest city of that kingdom, 
 but governed by a prince whose name was Barak. 5 Here, 
 from inability to proceed further, they remained three years. 
 
 death of Mangu, in 1259, Hulagu became effectively the sovereign of 
 Persian and Babylonian Irak, together with Khorasan ; yet he still con- 
 tinued to profess a nominal and respectful allegiance to his brother 
 Kubla'i, who was acknowledged as the head of the Moghul family, and 
 reigned in China. His death took place in 1265, at Tauris or Tabriz, 
 his capital. 
 
 1 There can be little doubt of this being the Okak of Abulfeda; 
 from hence the route of our travellers may be presumed to have lain 
 towards the town of Jaik, on the river of that name, and afterwards, in 
 a south-easterly direction, to the Sihun. 
 
 2 The great river crossed by our travellers, and which from its mag- 
 nitude they might think entitled to rank as one of the rivers of Para- 
 dise, was evidently the Sihun, otherwise named the Sirr. 
 
 3 The desert here mentioned is that of Karak, in the vicinity of the 
 Sihun or Sirr, which travellers from the north must unavoidably pass, 
 in order to arrive at Bokhara. 
 
 * This celebrated city, the name of which could not be easily mis- 
 taken, and has not been disguised by the transcribers, serves materially 
 to establish the general direction of their course ; for, having pro- 
 ceeded northwards from the Crimea, they could not have reached 
 Bokhara otherwise than by crossing the several rivers which discharge 
 themselves into the upper or northern part of the Caspian. 
 
 5 This appears to be the prince whom Petis de la Croix names 
 Berrac Can, ami D'Herbelot Barak-khan, great-grandson of Jagata'i, the 
 second son of Jengiz-khan, who inherited Transoxiana, or the region 
 now possessed by the Usbek Tartars. Barak is said, by the latter, to 
 have attempted to wrest the kingdom of Khorasan from the dominion
 
 6 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 It happened while these brothers were in Bokhara, that a 
 person of consequence and gifted with eminent talents made 
 his appearance there. He was proceeding as ambassador from 
 Alau before mentioned, to the grand khan, supreme chief of 
 all the Tartars named Kublai', 1 whose residence was at the 
 extremity of the continent, in a direction between north-east 
 and east. 2 Not having ever before had an opportunity, 
 although he wished it, of seeing any natives of Italy, he was 
 gratified in a high degree at meeting and conversing with these 
 brothers, who had now become proficients in the Tartar lan- 
 guage ; and after associating with them for several days, and 
 finding their manners agreeable to him, he proposed to them 
 that they should accompany him to the presence of the great 
 khan, who* would be pleased by their appearance at his court, 
 which had not hitherto been visited by any person from their 
 country; adding assurances that they would be honourably 
 received, and recompensed with many gifts. Convinced as 
 they were that their endeavours to return homeward would 
 expose them to the most imminent risks, they agreed to this 
 
 of Abaka the son of Hulagu ; but this must be a mistake, as the death 
 of Barak is placed by the generality of historians in 1260 (by D'Herbe- 
 lot, unaccountably, in 1240), and that of Hulagu in 1265. 
 
 1 Mangu appointed Kublai his viceroy in China, and gave to Hulagu 
 the government of such of the southern provinces of Asia as he could 
 reduce to obedience. Returning himself to China in 1258, he died at 
 the siege of Ho-cheu, in the province of Se-chuen, in the following 
 year. Kublai was at this time in the province of Hu-kuang, and perse- 
 vered in his efforts to render himself master of Vu-chang-fu, its capital, 
 until he was called away to suppress a revolt excited by his younger 
 brother Artigbuga, whom Mangu had left as his lieutenant at Kara- 
 korum. Contenting himself with exacting from the emperor of the 
 Song, who ruled over Manji, or southern China, the payment of an 
 annual tribute, he retreated to the northward, and in 1260 was pro- 
 claimed grand khan, at Shang-tu, which from that time became his 
 summer residence. We are told, however, that he had hesitated for 
 some time to assume the title, and did not declare his acquiescence 
 until the arrival of an envoy sent by his brother Hulagu (by some 
 supposed to have been the elder), who urged him to accept the empire. 
 This envoy we may reasonably presume to have been the person who 
 an ived at Bokhara, in his way from Persia to Khatai, during the time 
 that Nicolo and MafFeo Polo were detained in that city ; and the period 
 is thereby ascertained to have been about the year 1258. 
 
 2 This vague designation of the place of residence of the grand khan 
 must be understood as applying to Khatai, or northern China, from 
 which, or the adjoining district of Karchin, where Shang-tu waa 
 situated, he was rarely absent.
 
 THE GKAXD KHA>' KUBLAi. 4 
 
 proposal, and recommending themselves to the protection of 
 the Almighty, they set out on their journey in the suite of 
 the ambassador, attended by several Christian servants whom 
 they had brought with them from Venice. The course they 
 took at first was l>etween the north-east and north, and an en- 
 tire year was consumed before they were enabled to reach the 
 imperial residence, in consequence of the extraordinary delays 
 occasioned by the snows and the swelling of the rivers, which 
 obliged them to halt until the former had melted and the 
 floods had subsided. Many things worthy of admiration were 
 observed by them in the progress of their journey, but which 
 are here omitted, as they will be described by Marco Polo, in 
 the sequel of the book. 
 
 2. Being introduced to the presence of the grand khan, 
 Kublai. the travellers were received by him with the conde- 
 scension and affability that belonged to his character, and as 
 they were the first Latins who had made their appearance in 
 that country, they were entertained with feasts and honoured 
 with other marks of distinction. Entering graciously into 
 conversation with them, he made earnest inquiries on the 
 subject of the western parts of the world, of the emperor of 
 the Romans, 1 and of other Christian kings and princes. He 
 wished to be informed of their relative consequence, the ex- 
 tent of their possessions, the manner in which justice was ad- 
 ministered in their several kingdoms and principalities, how 
 they conducted themselves in warfare, and above all he ques- 
 tioned them particularly respecting the pope, the aflairs of the 
 church, and the religious worship and doctrine of the Chris- 
 tians. Being well instructed and discreet men, they gave 
 appropriate answers upon all these points, and as they were 
 perfectly acquainted with the Tartar (Moghul) language, they 
 expressed themselves always in becoming terms ; insomuch 
 that the grand khan, holding them in high estimation, fre- 
 quently commanded their attendance. 
 
 When he had obtained all the information that the two 
 brothers communicated with so much good sense, he expressed 
 
 1 By the emperor of the Romans is meant the emperor, whether 
 Greek or Roman, who reigned at Constantinople. Those countries 
 which now form the dominion of the Turks in Europe and Asia Minor. 
 are vaguely designated, amongst the more Eastern people, by the name 
 of Rum, and their inhabitants by that of RumL
 
 8 TRAVELS OP MARCO POLO. 
 
 himself well satisfied, and having formed in his mind the de- 
 sign of employing them as his ambassadors to the pope, after 
 consulting with his ministers on the subject, he proposed to 
 them, with many kind entreaties, that they should accom- 
 pany one of his officers, named Khogatal, on a mission to the 
 see of Rome. His object, he told them, was to make a request 
 to his holiness that he would send to him a hundred men of 
 learning, thoroughly acquainted with the principles of the 
 Christian religion, as well as with the seven arts, and qualified 
 to prove to the learned of his dominions, by just and fair 
 argument, that the faith professed by Christians is superior to, 
 and founded upon more evident truth than, any other; that 
 the gods of the Tartars and the idols worshipped in their 
 houses were only evil spirits, and that they and the people of 
 the East in general were under an error in reverencing them 
 as divinities. He moreover signified his pleasure that upon 
 their return they should bring with them, from Jerusalem, 
 some of the holy oil from the lamp which is kept burning over 
 the sepulchre of our Lord Jesus Christ, whom he professed to 
 hold in veneration and to consider as the true God. 1 Having 
 heard these commands addressed to them by the grand khan, 
 they humbly prostrated themselves before him, declaring their 
 willingness and instant readiness to perform, to the utmost of 
 
 1 We may reasonably suspect (without entertaining any doubt of the 
 embassy itself) that the expressions here put into the mouth of the 
 emperor, both as they regard the worship of the Tartars and the 
 divinity of Christ, have been heightened by the zeal of Christian tran- 
 scribers. The circumstance of Kubla'i, who is known to have been of 
 an active and inquisitive mind, requesting to be furnished with a 
 number of missionaries from Europe, to instruct his ignorant Tartar 
 subjects in religion, and more especially in the practice of useful arts, 
 is no more than what has been frequently done since, by the princes of 
 half-barbarous nations, amongst whom the doctrine of the Koran had 
 not already taken root. With regard to the holy oil, we find its impor- 
 tance thus stated by Chardin : " Ce qu'il (le clerge Arme'nien) vend le 
 plus cher, ce sont les saintes huiles, que les Grecs appellent myrone. 
 La plupart des chre"tiens orientaux s'imaginent que c'est un baume 
 physiquement salutaire centre toutes les maladies de 1'ame. Le pa- 
 triarche a seul le droit de la consacrer. II la vend aux eVeques et aux 
 pretres. II y a quelques douze ans que celui de Perse se mit en tete 
 d'empecher les ecclesiastiques Arme"niens de tout 1'orient, de se pour- 
 voir des saintes huiles ailleurs que chez lui. Ceux de Turquie s'en 
 fournissent depuis long-terns a Jerusalem, aupres du patriarche Arme'- 
 nien qui y reside, et qui est le chef de tous les Chretiens Armeniens da 
 1'empire Ottoman." Voy. en Perse, torn, i- p. 170, 4 to.
 
 RETURN OF THE RROTHERS. b 
 
 their ability, whatever might be the royal will. Upon which 
 he caused letters, in the Tartarian language, to be written in 
 his name to the pope of Rome, and these he delivered into 
 their hands. He likewise gave orders that they should be 
 furnished with a golden tablet displaying the imperial cipher, 1 
 according to the usage established by his majesty ; in virtue 
 of which the person bearing it, together with his whole suite, 
 are safely conveyed and escorted from station to station by the 
 governors of all places within the imperial dominions, and are 
 entitled, during the time of their residing in any city, castle, 
 town, or village, to a supply of provisions and everything 
 necessary for their accommodation. 
 
 Being thus honourably commissioned they took their leave 
 of the grand khan, and set out on their journey, but had not 
 proceeded more than twenty days when the officer, named 
 Khogatal, their companion, fell dangerously ill, in the city 
 named Alau. 2 In this dilemma it was determined, upon con- 
 sulting all who were present, and with the approbation of the 
 man himself, that they should leave him behind. In the pro- 
 secution of their journey they derived essential benefit from 
 being provided with the royal tablet, which procured them 
 attention in every place through which they passed. Their 
 expenses were defrayed, and escorts were furnished. But not- 
 withstanding these advantages, so great were the natural dif- 
 ficulties they had to encounter, from the extreme cold, the 
 snow, the ice, and the flooding of the rivers, that their progress 
 was unavoidably tedious, and three years elapsed before they 
 were enabled to reach a sea-port town in the lesser Armenia, 
 named Laiassus. 3 Departing from thence by sea, they arrived 
 
 1 Frequent mention is made in the Chinese writings of the tchi- 
 kouei, or tablet of honour, delivered to great officers on their appoint- 
 ment ; upon which their titles are set forth in gold letters, and which 
 entitles them to considerable privileges in travelling. That which is 
 here spoken of may be supposed to have been of nearly the same kind. 
 In the vulgar European dialect of Canton, it is termed the emperor's 
 grand chop, a word used to express " seal, mark, warrant, licence, or 
 passport." 
 
 2 The name of the place where Khogatal was left is omitted in 
 Marsden, and in the French and some of the Italian texts. 
 
 3 We have given the name Laiassus from the Latin text, instead of 
 Giazza, given in Marsden's text, which is an evident corruption. The 
 place meant is a port on the northern side of the gulf of Scandaroon, 
 or Issus, which in our modern maps and books of geography has the 
 various appellations of Lajazzo, Aiazzo, Aiasso, L'A'ias, aud Layassa.
 
 10 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 at Acre 1 in the month of April, 1269, and there learned, with 
 extreme concern, that pope Clement the Fourth -was recently 
 dead. 2 A legate whom he had appointed, named M. Tebaldo 
 de' Vesconti di Piacenza, was at this time resident in Acre, 3 
 and to him they gave an account of what they had in com- 
 mand from the grand khan of Tartary. He advised them by 
 all means to wait the election of another pope, and when that 
 should take place, to proceed with the objects of their em- 
 bassy. Approving of this counsel, they determined upon 
 employing the interval in a visit to their families in Venice. 
 They accordingly embarked at Acre in a ship bound to Negro- 
 pont, and from thence went on to Venice, where Nicolo Polo 
 found that his wife, whom he had left with child at his de- 
 parture, was dead, after having been delivered of a son, who 
 received the name of Marco, and was now of the age of nine- 
 teen years. 4 This is the Marco by whom the present work is 
 
 1 Acre, properly Akka, the ancient Ptolemais, a maritime city of 
 Palestine, was taken from the Saracens, in 1110, by the Crusaders. 
 In 1187 it fell into the hands of Saladin or Salah-eddin ; and in 1191 it 
 was wrested from him by the Christian forces, under Philippe Auguste, 
 king of France, and Richard Cceur de Lion, king of England. In 
 1265, and again in 1269 (about the period at which our travellers 
 arrived there), it was unsuccessfully attacked by Bibars, sultan of 
 Egypt. In 1291 it was finally conquered from the Christians, and 
 in great part demolished, by Khalil, another Egyptian sultan, of 
 the dynasty of Mameluk Baharites. In modern days, it suddenly 
 arose from the obscurity in which it had lain for five centuries, and 
 once more became celebrated for the determined and triumphant 
 resistance there made, in 1798 and 1799, by Jezzar Pasha, assisted by 
 a small British squadron and the gallantry of its distinguished com- 
 mander, against the furious and sanguinary efforts of the invader of 
 Egypt. 
 
 2 Clement IV. died on the 29th of November, of the year 1268. 
 The event was consequently a recent one when our travellers arrived 
 at Acre, in April 1269. It may be observed that the date of their 
 arrival is differently stated in the MSS., some reading 1260, the Lathi 
 text having 1270, and others 1272. Some MSS. specify the 30th of 
 April as the day of their arrival. 
 
 3 That Acre was the residence of a legate from the papal see about 
 this period is proved by other records. 
 
 * The Basle, as well as the earlier Latin version, and the Italian 
 epitomes, state the age of Marco, who was to become the historian of 
 the family, to have been then only fifteen years. If this reading be 
 correct, as probably it is, the father, who arrived at Acre in 1269, and 
 may be presumed to have reached Venice in 1270, must have left 
 home about the year 1255. (See Note 3 , on p 2.) The age of nineteen
 
 ELECTION OP POPE GREGORY X. 11 
 
 omposed, and who will give therein a relation of all those 
 matters of which he has been an eye-witness. 
 
 3. In the meantime the election of a pope was retarded 
 by so many obstacles, that they remained two years in 
 Venice, continually expecting its accomplishment ; a when at 
 length, becoming apprehensive that the grand khan might be 
 displeased at their delay, or might suppose it was not their 
 intention to revisit his country, they judged it expedient to 
 return to Acre; and on this occasion they took with them 
 young Marco Polo. Under the sanction of the legate they 
 made a visit to Jerusalem, and there provided themselves 
 with some of the oil belonging to the lamp of the holy 
 sepulchre, conformably to the directions of the grand khan. 
 As soon as they were furnished with his letters addressed to 
 that prince, bearing testimony to the fidelity with which they 
 had endeavoured to execute his commission, and explaining to 
 him that the pope of the Christian church had not as yet 
 been chosen, they proceeded to the before-mentioned port of 
 Laiassus. Scarcely however had they taken their departure, 
 when the legate received messengers from Italy, despatched 
 by the college of cardinals, announcing his own elevation to 
 the papal chair; and he thereupon assumed the name of 
 Gregory the Tenth. 2 Considering that he was now in a 
 situation that enabled him fully to satisfy the wishes of the 
 Tartar sovereign, he hastened to transmit letters to the king 
 of Armenia, 3 communicating to him the event of his election, 
 
 seems to have been assigned in order to make it consistent with the 
 supposed departure in 1250. 
 
 1 A vacancy in the papal see, for a period of nearly three years, 
 occurred on this occasion, in consequence of the cabals existing in the 
 Sacred College ; when, at length, it was determined to refer the choice 
 of a pope to six of the cardinals, who elected Tebaldo of Piacenza, on 
 the first day of September, 1271. In order to prevent the incon- 
 venience and scandal of such delays for the future, the institution of 
 the Conclave (upon a principle that resembles the impanelling of our 
 English juries) was established. 
 
 2 In the list of sovereign pontiffs we find him styled " B. Gregorius X. 
 Placentinus." His election, as has been mentioned, took place on the 
 1st of September, 1271. He was then acting as legate in Syria; but, 
 having early notice of the event, he was enabled to take his departure 
 from thence so soon as the 18th November following, and landed at 
 Brindisi, near Otranto. in January, 1272. 
 
 3 At this time Leon, or Livon IL, reigned in the lesser Armenia, the 
 capital of which was Sis, and Aias, or Aiazzo, its chief port. His father,
 
 12 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 and requesting, in case the two ambassadors who were on 
 their way to the court of the grand khan shoxild not have 
 already quitted his dominions, that he would give directions 
 for their immediate return. These letters found them still in 
 Armenia, and with great alacrity they obeyed the summons 
 to repair once more to Acre; for which purpose the king 
 furnished them with an armed galley; sending at the same 
 time an ambassador from himself, to offer his congratulations 
 to the sovereign pontiff. 
 
 Upon their arrival, his holiness received them in a distin- 
 guished manner, and immediately despatched them with 
 letters papal, accompanied by two friars of the order of 
 Preachers, who happened to be on the spot; men of letters 
 and of science, as well as profound theologians. One of 
 them was named Fra Nicolo da Vicenza, and the other, Fra 
 Guielmo da Tripoli. To them he gave licence and authority 
 to ordain priests, to consecrate bishops, and to grant abso- 
 lution as fully as he could do in his own person. He also 
 charged them with valuable presents, and among these, 
 several handsome vases of crystal, to be delivered to the 
 grand khan in his name, and along with his benediction. 
 Having taken leave, they again steered their course to the 
 port of Laiassns, 1 where they lauded, and from thence pro- 
 ceeded into the country of Armenia. Here they received 
 intelligence that the soldan of Babylonia, named Bundokdari, 
 had invaded fhe Armenian territory with a numerous army, 
 
 whom we call Haiton, and the Arabian writers Hatem, had acted a 
 conspicuous part in the late transactions, having accompanied Hulagu 
 from the court of Mangu-khan to Persia, and assisted in his wars with 
 the Mussulmans. In 127,0 he had obtained the consent of Abaka the 
 son of Hulagu, then his liege sovereign, for transferring the crown of 
 Armenia, on account of his age and infirmities, to his son Leon. The 
 principal actions of his life are recorded by his namesake, relation, and 
 cotemporary, who, having long distinguished himself as a soldier, 
 became an ecclesiastic. His work was edited by Grynjeus, at Basle and 
 Paris, in 1 532, under the title of " Haithonis Armeni de Tartaris liber," 
 and again, by Andreas Miiller, in 1671, under that of " Haithoni Ar- 
 meni Historia Orientalis : quse eadem et de Tartaris inscribitur." See 
 also Abul-Pharajii Hist. pp. 328 357 ; and De Guignes, Hist. Ge"n. 
 liv. xv. pp. 125249. 
 
 1 As it may be presumed that our travellers commenced their journey 
 about the time of the sailing of Pope Gregory from Acre, the period ia 
 fixed by authority that will scarcely admit dispute, to the end of the 
 year 1271, or beginning of 1272.
 
 THE BROTHERS REACH CHINA. 13 
 
 and had overrun and laid waste the country to a great 
 extent. 1 Terrified at these accounts, and apprehensive for 
 their lives, the two friars determined not to proceed further, 
 and delivering over to the Venetians the letters and presents 
 entrusted to them by the pope, they placed themselves under 
 the protection of the master of the knights templars, 2 and 
 with him returned directly to the coast. Nicolo, Maffeo, and 
 Marco, however, undismayed by perils or difficulties (to which 
 they had long been inured), passed the borders of Armenia, 
 and prosecuted their journey. After crossing deserts of 
 several days' march, and passing many dangerous denies, 
 they advanced so far, in a direction between north-east and 
 north, that at length they gained information of the grand 
 khan, who then had his residence in a large and magnificent 
 city named Cle-men-fu. 3 Their whole journey to this place 
 
 1 This soldan was Bibars, surnamed Bundokdari, Mameluk sultan of 
 Egypt (which is meant by Babylonia), who had conquered the greater 
 part of Syria, and had already (in or about 1266) invaded Armenia, 
 and plundered the towns of Sis and Ais. In 1270 he made himself 
 master of Antioch, slew or made captives of all the Christian inha- 
 bitants, and demolished its churches, the most magnificent and cele- 
 brated in the East. It must have been about the beginning of the year 
 1272 that our travellers entered Armenia; and, although it is not stated 
 specifically that any irruption by the soldan took place at that time, it 
 is evident that he had not ceased to harass the neighbouring country 
 of Syria ; and, notwithstanding the formidable combination just men- 
 tioned, we find him again, in 1276, invading the province of Rum, 
 immediately bordering on the lesser Armenia to the northward. The 
 alarms must have been perpetual, and these alone may have been 
 sufficient to deter the two theologians from proceeding with their 
 more adventurous companions ; who did not, however, meet with the 
 enemy. 
 
 2 It is well known that the knights of th^ hospital of St. John of 
 Jerusalem, and the knights of the Temple, were two great monastic 
 military orders that arose from the fanaticism of the crusades, and 
 became the most regular and effective support of the Christian cause in 
 Asia. It is not unlikely that a body of the latter may have been 
 stationed in this part of Armenia (which we should term the pashalic 
 of Marash), for its defence, and the ecclesiastics would naturally seek 
 the protection of its commander, who may have been the master, but 
 was more probably only a knight of the order. 
 
 3 The ordinary residence of Kubla'i at this period must have been 
 Yen-king (near the spot where Peking now stands), whilst he was 
 employed in laying the foundations of his new capital of Ta-tu, of 
 which particular mention will be made in the sequel. The operations 
 of war, or the regulations of newly-conquered provinces, might, how- 
 ever, occasion his visiting other cities j and our travellers may have
 
 H TRAVELS OP MARCO POLO. 
 
 occupied no less than three years aud a half ; but, during the 
 winter months, their progress had been inconsiderable. 1 The 
 grand khan having notice of their approach whilst still 
 remote, and being aware how much they must have suffered 
 from fatigue, sent forward to meet them at the distance of 
 forty days' journey, and gave orders to prepare in every place 
 through which they were to pass, whatever might be requi- 
 site to their comfort. By these means, and through the 
 blessing of God, they were conveyed in safety to the royal 
 court. 
 
 4. Upon their arrival they were honourably and gra- 
 ciously received by the grand khan, in a full assembly of his 
 principal officers. When they drew nigh to his person, they 
 paid their respects by prostrating themselves on the floor. 
 He immediately commanded them to rise, aud to relate to 
 him the circumstances of their travels, with all that had 
 taken place in their negotiation with his holiness the pope. 
 To their narrative, which they gave in the regular order of 
 events, and delivered in perspicuous language, he listened 
 with attentive silence. The letters and the presents from 
 pope Gregory were then laid before him, and, upon hearing 
 the former read, he bestowed much commendation on the 
 fidelity, the zeal, and the diligence of his ambassadors; and 
 receiving with due reverence the oil from the holy sepulchre, 
 he gave directions that it should be preserved with religious 
 care. Upon his observing Marco Polo, and inquiring who 
 he was, Nicolo made answer, " This is your servant, and my 
 son ;" upon which the grand khan replied, " He is welcome, 
 and it pleases me much," and he caused him to be enrolled 
 amongst his attendants of honour. And on account of their 
 return he made a great feast and rejoicing; and as long as 
 the said brothers and Marco remained in the court of the 
 grand khan, they were honoured even above his own courtiers. 
 
 found him in the western part of his dominions. " II 6tablit sa cour 
 d'abord," says Du Halde, " a Tai-yuen-fou, capitale de la province de 
 Chan-si, et ensuite il la transporta a Peking." Descript. de la Chine, 
 torn. i. p. 496. 
 
 1 When the Teshu Lama of Tibet visited (in 1779-80) the late 
 emperor of China, at Peking, his journey (although from what we con- 
 sider a neighbouring country, and which has since been garrisoned by 
 Chinese troops) occupied ten months, during four of which he was 
 detained at one place by the snow.
 
 MARCO AT THE COURT OF KUBLAI. 15 
 
 if&rco was held in high estimation and respect by all belong- 
 ing to the court. He learnt in a short time and adopted 
 the manners of the Tartars, and acquired a proficiency in 
 four different languages, which he became qualified to read 
 and write. 1 Finding him thus accomplished, his master was 
 desirous of putting his talents for business to the proof, and 
 sent him on an important concern of state to a city named 
 Karazan, 2 situated at the distance of six months' journey 
 from the imperial residence ; on which occasion he conducted 
 himself with so much wisdom and prudence in the manage- 
 ment of the affairs entrusted to him, that his services became 
 highly acceptable. On his part, perceiving that the grand 
 khan took a pleasure in hearing accounts of whatever was 
 new to him respecting the customs and manners of people, 
 and the peculiar circumstances of distant countries, he endea- 
 voured, wherever he went, to obtain correct information on 
 these subjects, and made notes of all he saw and heard, in 
 order to gratify the curiosity of his master. In short, during 
 seventeen years 3 that he continued in his service, he rendered 
 
 1 Perhaps the Moghul or Mungal, Ighur. Manchu, and Chinese. The 
 last will be thought the least probable ; but no inference should be 
 drawn from his orthography of Chinese names in European characters, 
 and particularly in the corrupted state of the text. The Latin text 
 says that Marco learnt " the Tartar and four other languages ;" the 
 French text says, " their language and four different characters" of 
 writing. 
 
 2 Having here the name merely, without any circumstance but that 
 of its remoteness from the capital of China, we must presume it to be 
 intended for a city of Khorasan , to which there is no objection but 
 the probability of his having passed through that province when he 
 first visited Tartary, and that it is not here spoken of as a place with 
 which he had been previously acquainted. It was then (together with 
 Persia) under the dominion of the second son of Hulagu, who suc- 
 ceeded his brother Abaka, and took the name of Ahmed Khan, upon 
 his embracing the Mahometan religion. It would, perhaps, be taking 
 a liberty with the orthography to suppose that the name might be 
 intended for Khorasmia, the Kharism of modern geographers. 
 
 s In Ramusio's text the period is said to be ventisei anni, " twenty- 
 six years," and Purchas endeavours to explain in what sense this 
 number should be understood ; but I prefer, in this instance, the read- 
 ing of the Latin version, which has " XYII annos," as more consistent 
 with the fact. It is certain that the family did not leave Acre, on their 
 return to China, before the end of 1271 ; and as there is reason to 
 believe that they did not reach the emperor's court before 1273 or 
 1274, nor remain there beyond 1291. it follows that the period of
 
 16 TRAVELS CP MAUCO POLO. 
 
 himself so useful, that he was employed on confidential 
 missions to every part of the empire and its dependencies; 
 and sometimes- also he travelled on his own private account, 
 but always with the consent, and sanctioned by the authority, 
 of the grand khan. Under such circumstances it was that 
 Marco Polo had the opportunity of acquiring a knowledge, 
 either by his own observation, or what he collected from 
 others, of so many things, until his time unknown, respecting 
 the eastern parts of the world, and which he diligently and 
 regularly committed to writing, as in the sequel will appear. 
 And by this means he obtained so much honour, that he pro- 
 voked the jealousy of the other officers of the court. 
 
 5. Our Venetians having now resided many years at the 
 imperial court, and in that time having realized considerable 
 wealth, in jewels of value and in gold, felt a strong desire to 
 revisit their native country, and, however honoured and 
 caressed by the sovereign, this sentiment was ever predomi- 
 nant in their minds. It became the more decidedly their 
 object, when they reflected on the very advanced age of the 
 grand khan, whose death, if it should happen previously to 
 their departure, might deprive them of that public assistance 
 by which alone they could expect to surmount the innume- 
 rable difficulties of so long a journey, and reach their homes 
 in safety ; which on the contrary, in his lifetime, and through 
 his favour, they might reasonably hope to accomplish. 
 Nicolo Polo accordingly took an opportunity one day, when 
 he observed him to be more than usually cheerful, of throw- 
 ing himself at his feet, and soliciting on behalf of himself 
 and his family to be indulged with his majesty's gracious 
 permission for their departure. But far from showing himself 
 disposed to comply with the request, he appeared hurt at the 
 application, and asked what motive they could have for wishing 
 to expose themselves to all the inconveniences and hazards of 
 a journey in which they might probably lose their lives. If 
 gain, he said, was their object, he was ready to give them the 
 double of whatever they possessed, and to gratify them with 
 honours to the extent of their desires; but that, from the re- 
 gard he bore to them, he must positively refuse their petition. 
 
 Marco's service could not have exceeded seventeen years by more than 
 a few months. Twenty-six years include the whole of the period 
 elapsed since the first visit of his father and uncle iu 1264 or 1265.
 
 QUEEN BOL3ANA. 17 
 
 It happened, about this period, that a queen named 
 Bolgana, 1 the wife of Arghun, 2 sovereign of India, died, and 
 as her last request (which she likewise left in a testa- 
 mentary writing) conjured her husband that no one might 
 succeed to her place on his throne and in his affections, 
 who was not a descendant of her own family, now settled 
 under the dominion of the grand khan, 3 in the country of 
 
 1 Although we do not find in the histories of this period that have 
 come to our hands, any mention of the consort of Arghun-khan, yet the 
 name that is here written Bolgana, and in the Latin of the Basle 
 edition, as well as that of the British Museum manuscript, Balgana, 
 occurs, with little difference of orthography, amongst the females of 
 the family. The daughter of Jagatai, son of Jengiz-khan and uncle of 
 Hulagu, was named Bolghan-khatun, as appears from the "Rou/at 
 alsafa" of Mirkhond. The Latin and French texts, and the Italian text 
 in Boni's edition, call the queen Bolgara. 
 
 2 Arghun-khan, the son of Abaka-khan, and grandson of Hulagu-il- 
 khan, succeeded his uncle Ahmed-khan Nikodar on the throne of 
 Persia, Khorasan, and other neighbouring countries, in 1284 ; and his 
 first act, as we are informed by De Guignes (Liv. xvii, p. 265) was to 
 send to the emperor Kubla'i, as the head of the family and his liege 
 sovereign, to demand the investiture of his estates. The death of his 
 queen, here spoken of, must, from the circumstances mentioned in the 
 sequel, have taken place about the year 1287, and he himself died in 
 1291. The name in all the versions of the work is uniformly written 
 Argon, which approaches extremely near to the Persian orthography. 
 
 3 The grand khan, at whose court the family of this queen is said 
 to have resided in Kataia, was the grand-uncle of Arghun, her husband, 
 and the queen herself was probably of the same royal Moghul family, 
 from the common stock of Jengiz-khan. Her anxiety therefore was, 
 that her husband should not degrade himself and her memory, by 
 contracting a marriage with any person of less noble lineage than their 
 own. Viewing the circumstances therefore in their proper light, it 
 will be found that what might at first be thought a romantic story, of 
 a king of India sending an embassy to an emperor of China, for the 
 purpose of obtaining a wife, resolves itself into the simple and natural 
 transaction, of one of the younger members of a great family applying 
 to the head of the house to be allowed to strengthen the connexion, 
 by marrying from amongst those who were probably his cousins in 
 the second degree ; for we may presume that if this female had not 
 been one of Kubla'i's own immediate race, (a granddaughter, perhaps, 
 as he was then advanced in years,) there would not have existed a 
 necessity for making so formal a demand. In regard to the distance 
 between Persia and China, which might be considered an objection to 
 the probability of the fact, it is well known that amongst all the 
 branches of this Moghul family, however remote from each other, a 
 continual intercourse had, up to that period, been maintained, and 
 Arghun himself had applied for and received his investiture from the
 
 18 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 Kathay. 1 Desirous of complying with this solemn entreaty, 
 Arghun deputed three of his nobles, discreet men, whose 
 names were Ulatai, Apusca, and Goza, 2 attended by a nu- 
 merous retinue, as his ambassadors to the grand khan, with a 
 request that he might receive at his hands a maiden to wife, 
 from among the relatives of his deceased queen. The appli- 
 cation was taken in good part, and under the directions of 
 his majesty, choice was made of a damsel aged seventeen, 
 extremely handsome and accomplished, whose name was 
 Kogatin, 3 and of whom the ambassadors, upon her being 
 shown to them, highly approved. When everything was 
 arranged for their departure, and a numerous suite of attend- 
 ants appointed, to do honour to the future consort of king 
 Arghun, they received from the grand khan a gracious dis- 
 missal, and set out on their return by the way they came. 
 Having travelled for eight months, their further progress was 
 obstructed and the roads shut up against them, by fresh wars 
 that had broken out amongst the Tartar princes. 4 Much 
 
 same monarch. In the event, however, it proved that the difficulties 
 attending the returning journey, over land, had become insuperable. 
 
 1 The situation of Khata'i, or Kataia, (or as it was usually called by 
 the medieval -writers, Cathay,) has been a subject of much discussion 
 amongst the learned ; but it cannot, I think, be doubted by those who 
 consult the eastern geographers and historians rather than the Greek, 
 that they apply the name to the northern provinces of what we call 
 China, which were conquered by Jengiz-khan, and his son, Okta'i, not 
 from a Chinese government, but from a race of eastern Tartars, called 
 Niu-che and Kin, by whom they had been subdued about one hundred 
 and twenty years before. Whether they confine it strictly to these 
 provinces, or include some of the adjoining parts of Tartary, without- 
 side the wall, it is not easy to determine, as their accounts of these 
 regions are far from being precise ; but the former I should judge to 
 be the case. 
 
 2 These names vary considerably in the different versions and 
 editions, where they appear in the forms of Ulatai and Gulatay, 
 Apusca, Apusta, and Ribusca, Goza, and Coyla ; all of them, probably, 
 much disfigured by transcribing from indistinct manuscripts. The 
 Latin text calls them Oulata, Alpusca, and Cor. They are not, how- 
 ever, of any historical importance. 
 
 3 One of the wives of Hulagu, and mother of Ahmed-khan Nikodar 
 (the uncle of Arghun), was named Kutai-khatun, of which Kogatin, 
 (otherwise written Gogatim and Koganyn) may perhaps be a corrup- 
 tion. The word khatun, which signifies "lady," is very frequently 
 annexed to, or forms parts of proper names, borne by Persian and 
 Tartar women of rank. 
 
 * These wars must have taken place about the year 1289, and pro-
 
 RETURN OF THE BROTHERS. 19 
 
 against their inclinations, therefore, they were constrained to 
 adopt the measure of returning to the court of the grand 
 khan, to whom they stated the interruption they had met 
 with. 
 
 About the time of their reappearance, Marco Polo hap- 
 pened to arrive from a voyage he had made, with a few 
 vessels under his orders, to some parts of the East Indies. 1 
 and reported to the grand khan the intelligence he brought 
 respecting the countries he had visited, with the circumstances 
 of his own navigation, which, he said, was performed in those 
 seas with the utmost safety. This latter observation having 
 reached the ears of the three ambassadors, who were extremely 
 anxious to return to their own country, from whence they had 
 now been absent three years, they presently sought a con- 
 ference with our Venetians, whom they found equally desirous 
 of revisiting their home ; and it was settled between them 
 that the former, accompanied by their young queen, should 
 obtain an audience of the grand khan, and represent to him 
 with what convenience and security they might effect their 
 return by sea, to the dominions of their master ; whilst the 
 voyage would be attended with less expense than the journey 
 by land, 2 and be performed in a shorter time ; according to 
 the experience of Marco Polo, who had lately sailed in those 
 parts. Should his majesty incline to give his consent to 
 
 bably in the country of ilawaralnahr, or Transoxiana, amongst the 
 descendants of Jagatai or Zagatai, whose history ia particularly obscure ; 
 but there is reason to believe that they (or any of the Moghul princes) 
 were seldom in a state of tranquillity. Troubles were also excited, 
 nearer to China, by a younger brother of Kublai, who attempted to 
 dispute with him the right to the empire. 
 
 1 What are here termed the East Indies must not be understood 
 of the continent of India, but of some of the islands in the eastern 
 archipelago, perhaps the Philippines, or possibly the coast of Tsiarupn, 
 or Champa, which, in another port of the work, our author speaks of 
 having visited. The voyage here mentioned was subsequent to the 
 grand and disastrous expedition which the active genius of Kublai 
 led him to fit out against the kingdom of Japan. It should be observed 
 that the Latin and French texts, and the Italian published by Boni, say 
 nothing of the ships, but merely state that he was returning from an 
 embassy to India. 
 
 2 The suggestion of this economical motive may seem extraordinary, 
 but attachment to money was one of the weak parts of Kublai' 3 
 character, and the practices he adopted, or connived at, for raising it, 
 have been the subject of much reprehension. 
 
 c2
 
 20 TRAVELS OP MAJICO POLO. 
 
 their adopting that mode of conveyance, they were then to 
 urge him to suffer the three Europeans, as being persons 
 well skilled in the practice of navigation, to accompany them 
 until they should reach the territory of king Arghun. The 
 grand khan upon receiving this application showed by his 
 countenance that it was exceedingly displeasing to him, 
 averse as he was to parting with the Venetians. Feeling 
 nevertheless that he could not with propriety do otherwise 
 than consent, he yielded to their entreaty. Had it not been 
 that he found himself constrained by the importance and 
 urgency of this peculiar case, they would never otherwise 
 have obtained permission to withdraw themselves from his 
 service. He sent for them, however, and addressed them 
 with much kindness and condescension, assuring them of his 
 regard, and requiring from them a promise that when they 
 should have resided some time in Europe and with their own 
 family, they would return to him once more. With this 
 abject in view he caused them to be furnished with the 
 golden tablet (or royal chop), which contained his order for 
 their having free and safe conduct through every part of his 
 dominions, with the needful supplies for themselves and their 
 attendants. He likewise gave them authority to act in the 
 capacity of his ambassadors to the pope, the kings of France 
 and Spain, and the other Christian princes. 1 
 
 At the same time preparations were made for the equip- 
 ment of fourteen ships, each having four masts, and capable 
 of being navigated with nine sails, 2 the construction and 
 
 1 In the Latin version it is said that he appointed ambassadors of 
 his own to these monarchs to accompany the expedition; but as no 
 allusion is afterwards made to such personages, although an obvious 
 occasion (that of the mortality) presents itself, the Italian reading is 
 considered as preferable. 
 
 2 For the modern practice, in the northern part of China, and par- 
 ticularly on the Pe-ho, of rigging vessels intended to be employed in 
 foreign voyages, with four masts, we have the authority of Barrow, 
 who says : " It is impossible not to consider the notices given by this 
 early traveller (Marco Polo) as curious, interesting, and valuable ; and 
 s far as they regard the empire of China, they bear internal evidence 
 ef their being generally correct. He sailed from China in a fleet con- 
 sisting of fourteen ships, each carrying four masts, and having their 
 
 holds partitioned into separate chambers We observed many 
 
 hundreds of a larger description, that are employed in fc reign voyages, 
 all carrying four masts." Travels in China, p. 45. In the Latin
 
 RET U UN OF THE BROTHERS. 21 
 
 rigging of which would admit of ample description ; but, to 
 avoid prolixity, it is for the present omitted. Among these 
 vessels there were at least four or five that had crews of two 
 hundred and fifty or two hundred and sixty men. On them 
 were embarked the ambassadors, having the queen under 
 their protection, together with Nicolo, MafFeo, and Marco 
 Polo, when they had first taken their leave of the grand khan, 
 who presented them with many rubies and other handsome 
 jewels of great value. He also gave directions that the ships 
 should be furnished with stores and provisions for two years.' 
 6. After a navigation of about three months, they arrived 
 at an island which lay in a southerly direction, named Java, 2 
 where they saw various objects worthy of attention, of which 
 notice shall be taken in the sequel of the work. Taking 
 their departure from thence, they employed eighteen months 
 in the Indian seas before they were enabled to reach the 
 place of their destination in the territory of king Arghun ; 3 
 and during this part of their voyage also they had an oppor- 
 tunity of observing many things, which shall, in like manner, 
 be related hereafter. But here it may be proper to mention, 
 that between the day of their sailing and that of their arrival, 
 they lost by deaths, of the crews of the vessels and others 
 who were embarked, about six hundred persons; and of the 
 three ambassadors, only one, whose name was Goza, survived 
 the voyage; whilst of all the ladies and female attendants 
 one only died. 4 
 
 version the words are, " quarum quselibet habebat quatuor maloe, et 
 multae ex illis ibant cum duodecim velis," " of which each had four 
 masts, and many of them went with twelve sails." It IB well known 
 that now Chinese vessels do not carry any kind of topsail. 
 
 1 The sailing of this remarkable expedition from the Pe-ho, or river 
 of Peking, we may infer, from circumstances mentioned in different 
 parts of the work, to have taken place about the beginning of 1291, 
 three years before the death of the emperor Kubla'i, and four years 
 previous to the arrival of the Polo family at Venice, in 1295. 
 
 2 Some details of thw part of the voyage are given in book iii. 
 chap x., where the island here called Java, is termed Java minor, and 
 is evidently intended for Sumatra. It will appear that they waited the 
 change of the monsoon hi a northern port of that island, near the 
 western entrance of the straits of Malacca. 
 
 3 The place where the expedition \iltimately arrived is not directly 
 mentioned in any part of the work ; but there are ttrong grounds for 
 inferring it to have been the celebrated port of Ormuz. With respect 
 to the prince named Arghun-khan, see note 2 , on p. 17. 
 
 * This mortality is no greater than might be expected in vessels
 
 22 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 Upon landing they were informed that king Arghun had 
 died some time before, 1 and that the govemment of the 
 country was then administered, on behalf of his son, who was 
 still a youth, by a person of the name of Ki-akato. 2 From 
 him they desired to receive instructions as to the manner in 
 which they were to dispose of the princess, whom, by the 
 orders of the late king, they had conducted thither. His 
 answer was, that they ought to present the lady to Kasan, 3 
 the son of Arghun, who was then at a place on the borders of 
 Persia, which has its denomination from the Arbor secco/ 
 
 crowded with, men unaccustomed to voyages of such duration, and who 
 had passed several months at an anchorage in the straits of Malacca ; 
 and although it should have amounted to one-third of their whole 
 number, the proportion would not have exceeded what was suffered by 
 Lord Anson and other navigators of the seventeenth and eighteenth 
 centuries. 
 
 1 Arghun-khan, according to the authorities followed by De Guignes, 
 died in the third month of the year 690 of the hejrah, answering to 
 March in the year of our Lord 1291. 
 
 2 The person here named Ki-akato, or Chiacato in the Italian 
 orthography, and described as the ruler of the country in the name of 
 the late king's son, was Kai-khatu, the second son of Abaka-khan, and 
 consequently the brother of Arghun, upon whose death he is said to 
 have seized the throne (although perhaps only as regent or protector), 
 to the prejudice of his nephew, then a minor. 
 
 3 The prince whose name is here written Kasan, or Casan, and by 
 De Guignes Cazan, was Ghazan-khan, the eldest son of Arghun. He 
 did not succeed to the throne of Persia until the end of the year 1295, 
 nearly five years after the death of his father, who had sent him to 
 /eside in Khorasan, under the tutelage of an atabeg, or governor, 
 named Nu-roz, by whose persuasion he afterwards embraced the Mus- 
 sulman faith, and took the name of Mahmud. It does not appear that 
 le was molested in that province by his uncle Kai-khatu, and this 
 recommendation, that the princess should be conveyed to him as the 
 representative of his father, serves to show that they were not upon 
 terms of actual hostility. It is further proved by the circumstance, 
 that when, upon the murder of Kai-khatu, the government fell into 
 the hands of Baidu (a grandson of Hulagu in a different line), and 
 Ghazan marched with an army to Rey (Rages) to assert his hereditary 
 claims, the first demand he made was, that the assassins of his uncle 
 should be delivered up to him. After a doubtful struggle maintained 
 during a period of eight months, the defection of his principal officers 
 led to the destruction of the usurper, and Ghazan ascended the throne 
 of Persia, about two years subsequently to the arrival of the princess, 
 of whom nothing further is recorded. 
 
 * More circumstantial mention is made of this district, and of the 
 tree from whence it is said to derive its appellation, in chap, xx of 
 this book.
 
 THE BROTHERS IN PERSIA. 23 
 
 where an army of sixty thousand men was assembled for the 
 purpose of guarding certain passes against the irruption of the 
 enemy. 1 This they proceeded to carry into execution, and 
 having effected it, they returned to the residence of Ki-akato, 
 because the road they were afterwards to take lay in that 
 direction. 2 Here, however, they reposed themselves for the 
 space of nine months. 3 When they took their leave he fur- 
 nished them with four golden tablets, each of them a cubit in 
 length, five inches wide, and weighing three or four marks of 
 gold.* Their inscription began with invoking the blessing of 
 the Almighty upon the grand khan, 3 that his name might be 
 
 1 This is the important pass known to the ancients by the appellation 
 of Portse Caspiae or Caspian Straits (to be distinguished from those of 
 Derbend, as well as of Rudbar), and termed by Eastern geographers 
 the Straits of Khowar, or Khawr, from a Persian word, signifying a 
 valley between two mountains, or from a small town near the eastern 
 entrance which bears the same name. "This remarkable chasm," says 
 Rennell, " is now called the strait or passage of Khowar (Chora of the 
 ancients), from a town or district in the neighbourhood. It is situated 
 at the termination of the great Salt Desert, almost due north from 
 Ispahan, and about fifty miles to the eastward of the ruins of Rey (or 
 Rages). Alexander passed through it in his way from Rages towards 
 Aria and Bactria. Delia Valle and Herbert amongst the modems, and 
 Pliny amongst the ancients, have described it particularly. It is eiglit 
 miles through, and generally forty yards in breadth." Geographical 
 System of Herodotus examined and explained, p. 174, note. 
 
 2 From the preceding part of the narrative we might be led to 
 suppose the residence of Kai-khatu to have been in one of the southern 
 provinces of Persia ; but here, on the contrary, we find, that, con- 
 formably with the histories of the times, it lay in the route between 
 the place where Ghazan was encamped, on the eastern side of the 
 Caspian straits, and the country of Armenia, towards which our tra- 
 vellers were advancing. By D'Herbelot, De Guignes, and others, we 
 are accordingly told that the capital of the princes of this dynasty 
 was the city of Tauris or Tabriz, in Aderbijan, but that they fre- 
 quently resided (especially in summer) at Hainadan, in Aljebal, in 
 order to be nearer to the Syrian frontier. 
 
 3 From what has been said in the preceding note, we may presume 
 this place to have been Tabriz. 
 
 4 The mark being eight ounces, the tablets must have been unneces- 
 sarily expensive and inconveniently ponderous. The other versions 
 do not specify either weight or size, and some state them to be only 
 two additional tablets. 
 
 5 This shows that the sovereignty of the head of the family was 
 still acknowledged by these branches, and Kai-khatu might have par- 
 ticular motives for courting its sanction. Ghazan is said to have been 
 the first who.renounced this slight species of vassalage, and probably 
 did not send an ambassador to China to demand the investiture.
 
 24 TRAVELS OP MARCO POLO. 
 
 held in reverence for many years, and denouncing the punish- 
 ment of death and confiscation of goods to all who should 
 refuse obedience to the mandate. It then proceeded to 
 direct that the three ambassadors, as his representatives, 
 should be treated throughout his dominions with due honour, 
 that their expenses should be defrayed, and that they should 
 be provided with the necessary escorts. All this was fully 
 complied with, and from many places they were protected by 
 bodies of two hundred horse; nor could this have been dis- 
 pensed with, as the government of Ki-akato was unpopular, 
 and the people were disposed to commit insults and proceed 
 to outrages, which they would not have dared to attempt 
 under the rule of their proper sovereign. 1 In the course of 
 their journey our travellers received intelligence of the grand 
 khan (Kubla'i) having departed this life; 2 which entirely put 
 
 1 In the conduct here described we have a proof of the general 
 doubt entertained respecting his right to the throne, although the 
 Moghul chiefs affected to consider it as dependent upon their election. 
 The historians all agree in reprobating his habits aa debauched and 
 infamous, and these chiefs, indignant at being governed by a prince so 
 corrupt, " equally hated by his subjects and despised by foreigners," 
 resolved to remove him, and made an offer of the crown, not to Ghazan, 
 whom they might think still too young, or too feeble in bodily frame, 
 for their purpose, but to Baidu, a grandson of Hulagu, and cousin of 
 the late king, who was then governor of Baghdad. A battle was 
 fought, in which Kai khatu, personally brave, found himself deserted 
 by a principal officer who commanded a wing of his army, was de- 
 feated, and subsequently strangled. For a circumstantial detail of 
 these transactions on the authority of Khondemir, see the Bibliotheque 
 Orientale, under the article Baiclu. See also the article Gangiatu, 
 " que Ton trouve aussi nomine" Caictu, et Caicatu." '' Khondemir 
 remarque que le veritable nom de ce prince etoit Aicatu, ou Gaicatu." 
 We should learn from hence to hesitate before we condemn the ortho- 
 graphy of our author, whose mode of writing this uncouth name 
 differs so little, if at all, from some of these high authorities. It 
 is a circumstance extremely remarkable, that one of the principal 
 motives assigned for the revolt of the Moghul chiefs against this prince, 
 was his having attempted to establish in his dominions a system of 
 paper-money, like that of China. De Guignes, Hist, des Huns, Liv. 
 xvii. p. 267. 
 
 2 Kublai, whose name the Chinese pronounce Hupili or Hupile", 
 whilst hi their annals they bestow on him that of Chi-tsu, was pro- 
 claimed grand khan in the year 1260, became emperor of China upon 
 the destruction of the dynasty of the Song, who reigned in Manji or 
 the provinces south of the great river Kiang, in 1280, and died in the 
 beginning of 1294, at the age of eighty years. It is not surprising
 
 A.JOOUNT OF AKMENIA. 25 
 
 an end to all prospect of their revisiting thcfee regions 
 Pursuing, therefore, their intended route, they at length 
 reached the city of Trebizond, from whence they proceeded 
 to Constantinople, then to Negropont, 1 and finally to Venice, 
 at which place, in the enjoyment of health and abundant 
 riches, they safely arrived in the year 1295. On this occasion 
 they offered up their thanks to God, who had now been 
 pleased to relieve them from such great fatigues, after having 
 preserved them from innumerable perils. The foregoing 
 narrative may be considered as a preliminary chapter, the 
 object of which is to make the reader acquainted with the 
 opportunities Marco Polo had of acquiring a knowledge of 
 the things he describes, during a residence of so many years 
 in the eastern parts of the world. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 OP ARMENIA MINOR OP THE POBT OP LAIASSrS AND OF THE BOUN- 
 DARIES OF THE PROVINCE. 
 
 IN commencing the description of the countries which Marco 
 Polo visited in Asia, and of things worthy of notice which 
 he observed therein, it is proper to mention that we are to 
 distinguish two Armenias, the Lesser and the Greater. 2 The 
 
 that the news of an event so important to all the tribes of Moghuls or 
 Tartars should have found its way to the court of Persia, and conse- 
 quently to our travellers, with extraordinary ezpedition. 
 
 1 Their most direct route from Tabriz would have lain through 
 Bedlis in Kurdistan to Aleppo, but at this time the sultans of Egypt, 
 with whom the kings of Persia were continually at war, had possession 
 of all the seaports of Syria, and would pay little respect to their pass- 
 ports. By the way of Georgia to Trebisond, on the Euxine, their 
 land-journey was shorter and more secure, and when at that place 
 they were under the protection of the Christian prince, whose family 
 reigned in the small independent kingdom of Trebisond, from 1204 to 
 1462. 
 
 2 This distinction of the Armenias into the Greater and the Lesser, 
 is conformable to what we find in Ptolemy and the geographers of the 
 middle ages ; although other divisions have taken place since that 
 part of Asia has been subject to the Ottoman empire. The Les ei 
 Armenia is defined by Biisching as comprehending that part of Cap- 
 padocia and Cilicia which lies along the western side of the Greater 
 Armenia, and also on the western side of the Euphrates. That in
 
 26 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 king of the Lesser Armenia dwells in a city called Sebastoz, 1 
 and rules his dominions with strict regard to justice. The 
 towns, fortified places, and castles are numerous. There 
 is abundance of all necessaries of life, as well as of those 
 things which contribute to its comfort. Game, both of 
 beasts and birds, is in plenty. It must be said, however, 
 that the air of the country is not remarkably healthy. In 
 former times its gentry were esteemed expert and brave 
 soldiers ; but at the present day they are great drinkers, 
 pusillanimous, and worthless. On the sea-coast there is a 
 city named Laiassus, 2 a place of considerable traffic. Its port 
 is frequented by merchants from Venice, Genoa, and many 
 other places, who trade in spiceries and drugs of different 
 sorts, manufactures of silk and of wool, and other rich 
 commodities. Those persons who design to travel into the 
 
 the days of Haiton it extended south of Taurus, and included Cilicia 
 (campestris), which was not the case in more ancient times, we have the 
 unexceptionable authority of that historian. 
 
 1 As it appears from the passage quoted in the preceding note, as 
 well as from other authorities, that Sis was the capital of the Lesser 
 Armenia during the reigns of the Leons and Haitons, we are led to 
 suppose the Sebastoz here mentioned to have been the ancient name of 
 that city, or of one that stood on the same site. It is obvious, indeed, 
 from the geography of Ptolemy, that there were many places in Asia 
 Minor that bore the names of Sebastia, Sebagte, and Sebastopolis 
 (besides one in Syria), and in his enumeration of the towns of Cilicia, 
 we find a Sebaste, to which, in the Latin translation, published at 
 Venice in 1562, the epithet of "augusta" is annexed. Upon the 
 foundations of this, Leon I. (from whom the country is called by the 
 Arabians, Belad Leon, as well as Belad Ste), may have built the 
 modern city, and the Greek name may have been still prevalent. We 
 are told, however, that the city which preceded Sis, as the capital of 
 Armenia Minor, was named Messis, Massis, or Massissa, the ancient 
 Mopsuestia, and it must be confessed that if authority was not in 
 opposition to conjecture, the sound of these names might lead us to 
 suppose that the modern name was only an abbreviation of Mes-sis, 
 and Sebastoz a substitution for Mopsueste. In a subsequent part of 
 the chapter the city of Sevasta or Sevaste, the modern Siwas or Sivas, 
 is spoken of under circumstances that appear to distinguish it entirely 
 from the Armenian capital; having been recently conquered by the 
 Moghuls from the Seljuk princes. 
 
 2 Lajazzo, or A'ias, is situated in a low. morassy country, formed by 
 the alluvion of the two rivers Sihon and Jihon (of Cilicia), and (as 
 observed to me by Major Rennell) at the present mouth of the latter. 
 Its trade has been transferred to Alexandretta or Scanderoon, on the 
 opposite or Syrian side of the gulf.
 
 PROVINCE OF TURKOMANIA. 27 
 
 interior of the Levant, 1 usually proceed in the first instance 
 to this port of Laiassus. The boundaries of the Lesser 
 Armenia are, on the south, the Land of Promise, now occupied 
 by the Saracens; 2 on the north, Karamania, inhabited by 
 Turkomans ; towards the north-east lie the cities of Kaisariah, 
 Sevasta, 3 and many others subject to the Tartars; and on the 
 western side it is bounded by the sea, which extends to the 
 shores of Christendom. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 OF THE PROVINCE CALLED TURKOMANIA, WHERE ARE THE CITIES OP 
 KOGNL, KAISARIAH, AND SEVASTA, AND OF IT8 COMMERCE. 
 
 THE inhabitants of Turkomania 4 may be distinguished into 
 three classes. The Turkomans, who reverence Mahomet and 
 follow his law, are a rude people, and dull of intellect. They 
 
 1 Levant is a translation of the word Anatolia or Anadoli, from the 
 Greek a.varo\ri, " ortus, oriens," signifying the country that lies eastward 
 from Greece. As the name of a region therefore it should be equivalent 
 to Natolia, in its more extensive acceptation ; and it is evident that 
 our author employs it to denote Asia Minor. Smyrna is at present 
 esteemed the principal port in the Levant, and the term seems to be 
 now confined to the sea-coast and to mercantile usage. 
 
 2 For the Land of Promise, or Palestine, which extends no further to 
 the north than Tyre, is here to be understood Syria, or that part of it 
 called Coalo-Syria, which borders on Cilicia or the southern part of 
 Armenia Minor. As the more general denomination of Syria includes 
 Palestine, ;md the latter name was, in the time of the Crusades, more 
 familiar to Europeans than the former, it is not surprising that they 
 should sometimes be confounded. The Saracens here spoken of were 
 the subjects of the Mameluk sultans orsoldans of Egypt, who recovered 
 from the Christian powers in Syrid, what the princes of the family of 
 Salad in, or of the Ayubite dynasty, had lost. In other parts of the 
 work the term is employed indiscriminately with that of Mahometan. 
 
 3 The Turkomans of Karamania were a race of Tartars settled in 
 Asia Minor, under the government of the Seljuk princes, of whom aa 
 account will be found La the following note. Kaisariah or Csesarea, 
 and Sevasta or Sebaste, the Sebastopolis Cappadocise of Ptolemy and 
 Siwas or Sivas of the present day, were cities belonging to the same 
 dynasty, that had been conquered by the Moghuls in the year 1242. 
 
 4 By Turkomania we are to understand, generally, the possessions 
 of the great Seljuk dynasty in Asia Minor, extending from Cilicia and 
 Pamphylia, in the south, to the shores of the Euxine sea, and from
 
 28 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 dwell amongst the mountains and in places difficult of access, 
 where their object is to find good pasture for their cattle, 
 as they live entirely upon animal food. There is here an 
 excellent breed of horses which has the appellation of Turki, 
 and fine mules which are sold at high prices.' The other 
 classes are Greeks and Armenians, who reside in the cities 
 and fortified places, and gain their living by commerce and 
 manufacture. The best and handsomest carpets in the world 
 are wrought here, and also silks of crimson and other rich 
 colours. 2 Amongst its cities are those of Kogni, Kaisariah, 
 and Sevasta, in which last Saint Blaise obtained the glorious 
 crown of martyrdom. 3 They are aU subject to the great 
 
 Pisidia and Mysia, in the west, to the borders of Armenia Minor; 
 including the greater part of Phrygia and Cappadocia, together with 
 Pontus, and particularly the modern provinces of Karamania and 
 Rumiyah, or the country of Rum. Of the former of these, the capital 
 was Iconiurn, corrupted by the oriental writers to Kuniyah, and by 
 those of the Crusades to Kogni ; of the latter, Sebaste or Sebastopolis, 
 corrupted to Siwas or Sivas. The chief from whom the dynasty of 
 Seljuks derived its appellation, was by birth a Turkoman, of Turkistan. 
 on the north-eastern side of the river Sihon or Jaxartes, but in the 
 service of a prince of Khozar, on the Wolga, from which he fled and 
 pursued his fortune in Trausoxiana ; as did some of his family in 
 Khorasan. Having acquired great celebrity, they were at length 
 enabled, by the means of numerous tribes of Turkomans who joined 
 their standard, to establish a sovereignty, or, in point of extent, an 
 empire, the principal seat of which was in Persia. Another branch, 
 about the year 1080, wrested the fine provinces of Asia Minor from 
 the Greek emperors, and formed the kingdom of which we are now 
 speaking. Through its territory the Christian princes repeatedly forced 
 their way in their progress to the Holy Land, and it is computed by 
 historians that not fewer than six hundred thousand men perished in 
 this preliminary warfare. At length the power of the Seljuks yielded 
 to the overwhelming influence of the house of Jengiz-khan, and in 
 our author's time they were reduced to insignificance ; but from their 
 ruins sprang the empire of the Ottomans, the founder of which had 
 been in the service of one of the last sultans of Iconium. 
 
 1 The pastoral habits of the Turkoman Tartars are preserved to this 
 day, even in Asia Minor, and the distinction of their tribes subsists 
 also. The Turki breed of horses is esteemed throughout the East, for 
 spirit and hardiness. 
 
 3 " Et ibi fiunt soriani et tapeti pulchriores de mundo et pulchrioris 
 ooloris," are the words of the Latin text. 
 
 3 " Blaise, bishop of Sebasta, in Cappadocia, in the second and third 
 centuries," says the Biographical Dictionary, "suffered death under 
 Diocletian, by decapitation, after being whipped and having his flesh 
 torn with iron combs It is difficult to say how the invention
 
 CTTT O? ARZLKGAX. 29 
 
 khan, emperor of the Oriental Tartars, who appoints governors 
 to them. 1 We shall now speak of the Greater Armenia. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 OF ARMENIA MAJOR, IK WHICH ABB THE COTES OF ARZHTGAIT, ABGIROX, 
 ASD DARZIZ OF THE CASTLE OF PAIPURTH OF THE JCOUKTAUT 
 
 WHERE THE ARK OF NOAH RESTED OF THE BOUNDARIES OF THE 
 
 PROVINCE AXD OF A REMARKABLE FOCSTAIS OF OIL. 
 
 ARMENIA Major is an extensive province, at the entrance of 
 which is a city named Arzingan, 5 where there is a manufacture 
 of very fine cotton cloth called bombazines,* as well as of 
 many other curious fabrics, which it would be tedious to 
 enumerate. It possesses the handsomest and most excellent 
 
 (of wool combing) came to be attributed to him ; but it had probably 
 no better origin than the circumstance of his being tortured with the 
 instruments used in the combing of wooL" 
 
 1 It is the family of Hulagu, and the tribes who followed his 
 standard from the north, whom our author always designates by the 
 name of Oriental Tartars, to distinguish them from the descendants of 
 Batu, who settled near the Wolga, on the north-western side of the 
 Caspian, and extended their conquests towards Europe; whilst the 
 former entered Persia from the Eastern quarter, by the way of Traas- 
 cxiana and Khorasan. 
 
 2 Arzengan, or, as written by the Arabians, who have not the Persian 
 g, Arzenjan, is a city near the frontier of Rumiyah, but just within the 
 limits of Armenia Major. " Cette ville," says D'Herbelot, " appartient 
 plutot a I'Armenie, et fut prise par les Mogols ou Tartares Tan 640 
 del'H^gire, de J. C. 1242, apres la defaite de Kaikhosrou, fils d'Aladin 
 le Selgiucide, aussi bien que les villes de Sebaste et de Cesaree." By 
 an oriental geographer it is said to be, " Oppidum celeberrimum, 
 elegans, amoenum, copiosum bonis rebus, incolisque : pertinens ad 
 Armeniam : inter Rumseas provincias et Chalatam situm, baud procul 
 Arzerroumo : esseque incolas ejus maixmam partem Armenios." Alberti 
 Schultens Index Geographicus in Yitam Saladini Josaphat Barbaro, a 
 Venetian, who travelled into Persia, in the fifteenth century, speaks of 
 Arsengan as a place that had formerly been of consequence, but was 
 then mostly in ruins. 
 
 * The name of a species of cloth which I have here translated 
 " bombazine," is in the Italian of Ramusio, " bochassini di bambagio," 
 and in the Latin versions " buchiranus, buchyramis, and bucaramua." 
 Ita substance or texture is not clearly explained in our dictionaries. 
 That of Cotgrave, printed in 1611, defines " boccasin," to be " a kind
 
 30 TRAVELS OP MARCO POLO. 
 
 baths 3f warm water, issuing from the earth, that are any- 
 where to be found. 1 Its inhabitants are for the most part 
 native Armenians, but under the dominion of the Tartars. 
 In this province there are many cities, but Arzingan is the 
 principal, and the seat of an archbishop; and the next in 
 consequence are Argiron 2 and Darziz. 3 It is very extensive, 
 and, in the summer season, the station of a part of the army 
 of the Eastern Tartars, on account of the good pasture it 
 affords for their cattle ; but on the approach of winter they 
 are obliged to change their quarters, the fall of snow being so 
 very deep that the horses could not find subsistence, and for 
 the sake of warmth and fodder they proceed to the south- 
 ward. Within a castle named Paipurth, 4 which you meet 
 
 of fine buckeram, that hath a resemblance of tafFata, and is much used 
 for lining ; also the stuffe callimanco." But this, it is evident, cannot 
 apply to a manufacture of bombagio or cotton ; and the Vocabolario 
 della Crusca, as well as the Glossary of Du Cange, speak of " buche- 
 rame foianchissima," and " bucherame bambagino," and both of them 
 quote our author for the use of the word. All the examples convey 
 the idea of fine, white, and soft cotton cloth ; the reverse of what is 
 now called buckram. The early Latin text speaks of boccorame and 
 bambace as two distinct things. 
 
 1 Natural warm baths are found in many parts of Asia Minor, and 
 particularly near Ancyra, the modern Angora or Anguri, which are 
 still much frequented. Their situation is denoted by the word Thermae, 
 in Rennell's map explanatory of the Retreat of the Ten thousand. 
 They are also spoken of at Teflis in Georgia ; but of their existence at 
 Arzengan I have not been able to find notice in the works of the 
 Eastern geographers. 
 
 2 Argiron, or, in the Latin versions, Argyron, is a corruption of 
 Arzerrum, Erzerum, or Arzen er-rum, a distinctive name given to a 
 city called Arzen, as being the last strong place, in that direction, 
 belonging to the Greek empire. " Arzerrum," says Abulfeda, " est 
 extreinus finis regionum Rumaeorum ab oriente. In ejus orientali et 
 septentrionali latere est fons Euphratis." 
 
 3 Darziz, which in the Basle edition is Darzirim, in the older Latin, 
 Arziu, and in the Italian epitomes, Arciri and Arziri, is the town 
 now called Arjis, situated on the border of the Lake Van, anciently 
 named Arsissa .palus. " Argish," says Macdonald Kinneir, " is a town 
 containing six thousand inhabitants, situated on the north-west side of 
 the lake, three days' journey from Van. There are four islands in 
 the lake, on one of which is an Armenian monastery, and three hundred 
 priests." Memoir of the Persian Empire, pp. 328, 329. These places, it 
 may be observed, lay in our author's returning route, from Tauris to 
 Trebisond. 
 
 * Paipurth, the Baiburt of D' Anville's and Rennell's maps, is situated 
 among the mountains, in a northerly direction from Arzerrum. A?
 
 NOAH'S ARK. 31 
 
 with h going from Trebisond to Tauris, there is a rich mine 
 of silver. 1 In the central part of Armenia stands an exceed- 
 ingly large and high mountain, upon which, it is said, the 
 ark of Noah rested, and for this reason it is termed the 
 mountain of the ark. 2 The circuit of its base cannot be 
 compassed in less than two days. The ascent is impracticable 
 on account of the snow towards the summit, which never 
 melts, but goes on increasing by each successive fall. In the 
 lower region, however, near the plain, the melting of the 
 snow fertilizes the ground, and occasions such an abundant 
 vegetation, that all the cattle which collect there in summer 
 from the neighbouring country, meet with a never-failing 
 supply. 3 Bordering upon Armenia, to the south-west, are 
 the districts of Mosul and Maredin, which shall be described 
 hereafter, and many others too numerous to particularize. 
 To the north lies Zorzania, near the confines of which there 
 is a fountain of oil which discharges so great a quantity as to 
 
 the word purt signifies a castle in the Armenian language, and as the 
 Arabian geographers, from not having the letter p in their alphabet, are 
 obliged to substitute the 6, it is probable that the former is the more 
 genuine orthography. This castle is particularly noted by Josaphat 
 Barbaro, -who says, " Partendo d' essa (Trabisonda) per andar a Thauris 
 . . . . il primo luogo notabile che si trova, e uno castello in piano in 
 una valle d' ognitorno circondata da monti, nominato Baiburth, cast3l 
 forte e murato. .... Cinque giornate piu in la, ci trova Arsengan. 
 .... Poi si ritrova un castello nominato Cprpurth." Viaggio in 
 Persia, p. 48, ed. 1545, 12mo. 
 
 1 Although this particular mine m&y have been exhausted, silver 
 mines are known to exist in this part of Armenia. 
 
 2 The mountain of Armenia (the Ararat of Scripture) upon which 
 the ark is believed by the Christians of that country to have rested, 
 stands not far from the city of Erivan or Irwiln. The Mahometans, 
 however, assign to it a different situation. " L' opinion commune dea 
 Orientaux," says D'Herbelot, " est que 1'arche de Noe s'arreta BUT la 
 montagne de Gioudi, qui est une des croupes du mont Taurus ou Gor- 
 diaeus en Armenie, et cette tradition est autorise en ce pays-la par 
 plusieurs histoires qui approchent fort de la fable." "Joudi," say a 
 Ibn Haukal, " is a mountaki near Xisibin. It is said that the ark of 
 Noah (to whom be peace,) rested on the summit of this mountain." 
 Ouseley's translation, p. 60. MajorRennell observes, that Jeudi is the 
 part of the Carduchian mountains opposite to the Jezirat ibn Omar, 
 and that the dervishes keep a light burning there, in honour of Xoah 
 and his ark. 
 
 3 This fertility of the country in the vicinity of the mountains, is 
 noticed by Moses Chorenensis, who says, " Habet autem Araratia 
 montes camposque, atque omnem fcecunditatem," Geographia, p. 361.
 
 32 TRAVELS OP MARCO POLO. 
 
 furnish loading for many camels.' The use made of it is not 
 for the purpose of food, but as an unguent for the cure of 
 cutaneous distempers in men and cattle, as well as other 
 complaints ; and it is also good for burning. In the neigh- 
 bouring country no other is used in their lamps, and people 
 come from distant parts to procure it. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 OP THE PROVINCE OP ZORZANIA AND ITS BOUNDARIES OF THE PASS 
 
 WHERE ALEXANDER THE GREAT CONSTR0CTED THE GATE OF IRON 
 
 AND OF THE MIRACULOUS CIRCUMSTANCES ATTENDING A FOUNTAIN 
 AT TKFLIS. 
 
 IN Zorzania 2 the king is usually styled David Melik, which in 
 our language signifies David the king. 3 One part of the 
 country is subject to the Tartars, and the other part, in con- 
 
 1 Springs of petroleum or earth (properly, rock) oil, are found in 
 many parts of the world. The spring or fountain here spoken of is 
 that of Baku in Shirvan, on the border of the Caspian. " Near to this 
 place," says John Cartwright, hi what are termed the Preacher's Travels, 
 " is a very strange and wonderful fountain under ground, out of which 
 there springeth and issueth a marvellous quantity of black oyl, which 
 serveth all the parts of Persia to burn in their houses ; and they 
 usually carry it all over the country upon kine and asses, whereof you 
 shall oftentimes meet three or four hundred in company." Oxford 
 Coll. of Voyages, vol. i. (vii.) p. 731. Strahlenberg speaks of this as a 
 spring of white naphtha, which he distinguishes from the black sort of 
 bitumen ; but the most satisfactory account of both white and black 
 naphtha in this district is given by Ksempfer, in his Amoenitates 
 Exotics, p. 274281. 
 
 2 By Zorzania is meant the kingdom of Georgia, bordering on 
 Armenia, and of which Teflis was the capital. The substitution of the 
 z for the soft g, belonged to the old Venetian dialect, in which the 
 original of our author's work is understood to have been written, and 
 the orthography has been preserved in some of the Latin, as well as in 
 the vulgar Italian versions. The early Latin text reads Georgia. 
 
 3 The name of David or Davit frequently occurs in the list of kings 
 who have reigned in Georgia, and their predilection for it is traced 
 to a very remote source. It is not surprising, therefore, that a travel.er 
 should suppose the names of the Georgian kings to have been, inva- 
 riably, David. The title of Melik shows that our author's information 
 was derived from Arabs or Moghuls, who would naturally substitute it 
 for the native title of Meppe.
 
 SITTATIOX OP GEORGIA. 33 
 
 sequence of the strength of its fortresses, has remained in the 
 possession of its native princes. It is situated between two 
 seas, of which that on the northern (western) side is called the 
 Greater sea (Euxine), and the other, on the eastern side, is 
 called the sea of Abaku (Caspian). 1 This latter is in circuit 
 two thousand eight hundred miles, and partakes of the nature 
 of a lake, not communicating with any other sea. It has 
 several islands, with handsome towns and castles, some of 
 which are inhabited by people who fled before the grand 
 Tartar, when he laid waste the kingdom or province of 
 Persia, 2 and took shelter in these islands or in the fastnesses 
 of the mountains, where they hoped to find security. Some 
 of the islands are uncultivated. This sea produces abundance 
 of fish, particularly sturgeon and salmon at the mouths of the 
 rivers, as well as others of a large sort. 3 The general wood of 
 the country is the box-tree. 4 I was told that in ancient times 
 the kings of the country were born with the mark of an eagle 
 on the right shoulder. 5 The people are well made, bold 
 
 1 The Caspian, which ia generally termed by oriental writers the sea 
 of Khozar, was also called by the Persians the sea of Baku, and by this 
 name (Mar di Bachau) it appears in the maps to an edition of Ptolemy, 
 printed at Venice in 1562. It derives the appellation from the cele- 
 brated city and port of Baku, on its south-western coast 
 
 * This refers to the conquest and devastation of Persia by the armies 
 of Jengiz-khan, about the year 1221. The islands, to which it is not 
 improbable a number of the wretched inhabitants fled for security, 
 are at present uninhabited, or frequented only by fishermen. 
 
 3 The fishery of the Caspian, especially about the mouths of the 
 "Wolga, has at all periods been important. " Among the great variety 
 of fish with which this river abounds," says P. H. Bruce, " the. stur- 
 geon is none of the least considerable, whose eggs afford what the 
 Russians call ikari, and we caviar : the beluga, or white fish, deserves 
 also to be mentioned ; they are from five to six yards long, and thick 
 in proportion. Besides these it yields also the osotrin, another very 
 large fiah, very fat and delicious : this river also abounds with salmon, 
 sterlitz, a most delicious fish, and innumerable other sorts too tedious 
 to mention." Memoirs, p. 236. Strahlenberg also notices the beluja 
 as " the largest eatable river-fish in the world, having seen one fifty-six 
 feet in length, and eighteen in girth." P. 337. 
 
 4 By modern travellers the box-tree is merely enumerated amongst 
 the vegetable productions of the country, without any notice of ita 
 prevalence : but by Ambrogio Cantareno, who travelled in the fifteenth 
 century, it is more particularly distinguished. " Era in detta pianura," 
 he says, in speaking of Mingrelia, " di molti arbori in modo di bussi, 
 ma molto maggiorL" P. 65, 12mo. 
 
 4 By this pretended tradition it may be understood that they were, 
 
 D
 
 34 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 sailors, expert archers, and fair combatants in battle. They 
 are Christians, observing the ritual of the Greek Church, and 
 wear their hair short, in the manner of the Western clergy. 
 This is the province into which, when Alexander the Great 
 attempted to advance northwards, he was unable to penetrate, 
 by reason of the narrowness and difficulty of a certain pass, 
 which on one side is washed by the sea, and is confined on 
 the other by high mountains and woods, for the length of 
 four miles ; so that a very few men were capable of defending 
 it against the whole world. Disappointed in this attempt, 
 Alexander caused a great wall to be constructed at the 
 entrance of the pass, and fortified it with towers, in order to 
 restrain those who dwelt beyond it from giving him molesta- 
 tion. From its uncommon strength the pass obtained the 
 name of the Gate of Iron, 1 and Alexander is commonly said 
 to have enclosed the Tartars between two mountains. It is 
 not correct, however, to call the people Tartars, which in those 
 days they were not, but of a race named Cumani, 2 with a 
 mixture of other nations. In this province there are many 
 towns and castles; the necessaries of life are in abundance; 
 the country produces a great quantity of silk, and a manu- 
 
 or affected to be thought, a branch of the imperial family of Constan- 
 tinople, who bore the Roman eagle amongst their insignia. 
 
 1 This is the celebrated pass between the foot of Mount Caucasus 
 and the Caspian sea, where stands the small but strong city of Derbend, 
 called by the Arabs, Bab-al-abuab, or the " Gate of gates," by the Turks, 
 Demir-capi, or the " Gate of iron," and by the Persians, Derbend, or the 
 " Barrier," between Georgia and the Persian province of Shirvan. " The 
 natives in general are of opinion," says P. H. Bruce, " that the city of 
 Derbent was built by Alexander the Great, and that the long wall that 
 reached to the Euxine, was built by his order, to prevent the incursions 
 of the Scythians into Persia." Memoirs, p. 284. The wall is said to 
 have been repaired by Yezdegerd II. of the Sassanian dynasty, who 
 reigned about the middle of the fifth century, and again by Nushirvan, 
 of the same family, who died in 579. 
 
 2 The notices we have, respecting the people named Comani or 
 Comanians, are in general obscure and vague. It appears, however, 
 that in the thirteenth century they were the inhabitants of the coun- 
 tries lying on the north-western side of the Caspian, and extending 
 from the Wolga towards the Euxine, who were afterwards subdued and 
 supplanted by the Kapchak Tartars. "The Comans," says Gibbon, 
 " were a Tartar or Turkman horde which encamped in the Xlth and 
 Xllth centuries on the verge of Moldavia. The greater part were 
 pagans, but some were Mahometans, and the whole horde waa converted 
 to Christianity (A. D. 1370) by Lewis, king of Hungary."
 
 LEGEND OP THE LAKE OF GELUCHALAT. 35 
 
 facture is carried on of silk interwoven with gold. ' Here are 
 found vultures of a large size, of a species named avigi.* The 
 inhabitants in general gain their livelihood by trade and 
 manual labour. The mountainous nature of the country, 
 with its narrow and strong denies, have prevented the Tartars 
 from effecting the entire conquest of it. At a convent of 
 monks dedicated to Saint Lunardo, the following miraculous 
 circumstances are said to take place. In a salt-water lake, 
 four days' journey in circuit, upon the border of which the 
 church is situated, the fish never make their appearance until 
 the first day of Lent, and from that time to Easter-eve they 
 are found in vast abundance ; but on Easter-day they are no 
 longer to be seen, nor during the remainder of the year. It 
 is called the lake of GeluchaJat. 3 Into the before-mentioned 
 sea of Abaku, which is encompassed with mountains, the 
 great rivers Herdil; 4 Geihon, Kur, and Araz, with many 
 
 1 Some of the provinces of Georgia, as well as of Armenia and the 
 adjoining parts of Persia, have in all ages been famous for the culture 
 of the silk-worm and commerce in silk. 
 
 1 I know not what species of vulture is here meant, nor can we be 
 certain of the correctness of the orthography of the word arigi. That 
 the country is noted for birds of this class, appears from the writings 
 of several travellers. When Chardin arrived in Mingrelia he found it 
 necessary to deceive the Turks by giving out that he was a merchant, 
 whose object in visiting the country was to procure birds of prey for 
 the European market. 
 
 3 Within the proper boundaries of Georgia I am unable to identify 
 this large salt-water lake of Gelu-chalat. Upon an island in that near 
 Erivan, which D'Anville names Gheuk-sha ou Eau bleu, stands a very 
 ancient monastery, which Chardin tells us was founded six hundred 
 years before his time, or in the eleventh century, and must therefore 
 have existed in our author's days ; but on the other hand, its waters 
 are described as being fresh and sweet, and it is separated from 
 Georgia by a ridge of mountains. There is more reason for supposing 
 it to be the lake now called Van or Wan, and formerly Arjish, although 
 this lies still further within the boundary of Armenia. In its neigh- 
 bourhood was situated a town of some celebrity, named Khalat and 
 Akhlat. Its circumference is described by Abulfeda as being of four 
 days' journey, and he says it is noted for a peculiar species of fish 
 called tharnag, said to resemble the herring. 
 
 4 By the Arabians and Turks the name of Etol is given to the Wolga, 
 and it is here corrupted to HerdiL This river, according to Ibn Haukal, 
 comes from the countries of Russ and Bulgar, and at the season when 
 its waters are collected, it is said to be greater than the river Jihun, 
 rushing into the sea with such a body that it seems to conquer the 
 waters of the Caspian. See Ouseley's translation, pp. 185 187. The 
 
 D 2
 
 36 TRAVELS OP MARCO POLO. 
 
 others, disembogue. The Genoese merchants have recently 
 begun to navigate it, and they bring from thence the kind of 
 silk called ghellie. 1 In this province there is a handsome 
 city named Teflis, 2 around which are suburbs and many 
 fortified posts. It is inhabited by Armenian and Georgian 
 Christians, as well as by some Mahometans and Jews ; 3 but 
 these last are in no great numbers. Manufactures of silks 
 and of many other articles are carried on there. Its inha- 
 bitants are subjects of the great king of the Tartars. 4 
 Although we speak only of a few of the principal cities in 
 each province, it is to be understood that there are many 
 others, which it is unnecessary to particularise, unless they 
 happen to contain something remarkable ; but should the 
 occasion present itself, these will be hereafter described. 
 Having spoken of the countries bordering on Armenia to the 
 north, we shall now mention those which lie to the south and 
 to the east. 
 
 names of Jihon or Oxus, Kur or Cyrus, and Araz or Araxea, do not 
 require any particular remark. 
 
 1 The province of Ghilan (called also al-Ghil), on the Caspian, being 
 famous for its trade in silk, we can scarcely doubt that this word 
 ghellie or ghilli was a name given to the article on that account ; as 
 florentine, a species of silk, has (or may be presumed to have) its 
 appellation from Florence. The red silk of Ghilan is mentioned by 
 Niebuhr ; and Elphinstone, speaking of the trade of Caubul with 
 Persia, says, " The imports are raw silk of Gheelaun and Reaht, silken 
 stuffs made at Yezd and Kashaun." P. 295. 
 
 2 For a particular account of the city of Teflis, the capital of 
 Georgia, see Chardin, p. 220, fo. with the Plate. Our author's route 
 from Tabriz to Trebisond did not carry him to this city, and there is 
 reason to conclude that what little he says of it is from the report of 
 others. 
 
 3 In Chardin's time this city contained fourteen churches, of which 
 six belonged to the Georgian, and eight to the Armenian Christians. 
 Being then subject to the Persian government, frequent attempts were 
 made by the Mahometans to erect mosques, but without success ; the 
 populace never failing to demolish the work. 
 
 4 By the king of the (Moghul) Tartars must here be understood the 
 descendant of Hulagu, who ruled over Persia and the neighbouring 
 countries ; not the grand khan.
 
 CHRISTIANS OF MOSUL. 37 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 OF THE PROVINCE OF MOSUL AND ITS DIFFERENT INHABITANTS OF 
 THE PEOPLE NAMED KURDS AND OF THE TRADE OF THIS COUNTRY. 
 
 MOSUL is a large province 1 inhabited by various descriptions 
 of people, one class of whom pay reverence to Mahomet, and 
 are called Arabians. 2 The others profess the Christian faith, 
 but not according to the canons of the church, which they 
 depart from in many instances, and are denominated Nes- 
 torians, Jacobites, and Armenians. They have a patriarch 
 whom they call Jacolit, 3 and by him archbishops, bishops, 
 and abbots are consecrated and sent to all parts of India, to 
 Cairo, to Baldach (Baghdad), and to all places inhabited by 
 Christians ; in the same manner as by the pope of the 
 Romish church. All those cloths of gold and of silk which 
 we call muslins 4 are of the manufacture of Mosul, and all the 
 
 1 The city of Mosul, or according to the Arabic pronunciation, 
 Mausil, formerly the capital of Mesopotamia and now of the Turkish 
 pashalik bearing its own name, stands upon the right or western bank 
 of the Tigris, opposite to the site of the ancient Nineveh, with which 
 it ia connected by a bridge of boats. It is described by Abulfeda and 
 all the oriental geographers as one of the most distinguished cities 
 under the Mahometan government. Although our author terms it a 
 province, he may be thought to describe it rather as a city ; but the 
 district itself is called by the Arabians Diyar Mausil as well as Diyar 
 al-Jezirah. 
 
 2 The bulk of the population ia at this day Arabian, and that lan- 
 guage is the general medium of communication amongst the inhabitants, 
 whatever their national origin or religion may be. 
 
 3 Thi word, in some editions written Jacolich, presents a striking 
 example of the degree of corruption our author's text has unfor- 
 tunately experienced, being no other than the title of Catholicos, by 
 which the patriarchs of the Greek church in Georgia and Armenia are 
 distinguished. The extent of their jurisdiction I am unable to ascer- 
 tain, but suppose it embraces all the communities of the same sect, 
 wherever situated. The Catholicos or Patriarch of Georgia, who was 
 at the same time brother to the Mahometan prince of the country, is 
 mentioned by Chardin. 
 
 4 The origin of the word " muslin," in French, " mousseline," and in 
 Italian (from whence the others are borrowed), " mussolo e mussolino, 
 aorta di tela bambagina, cosi detta dal nome del paese dove per lo piii 
 ei fabbrica," is here satisfactorily pointed out ; but our author, if his 
 editors have not misrepresented his meaning, includes under >hat
 
 38 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 great merchants termed Mossulini, who convey spices and 
 drugs, in large quantities, from one country to another, are 
 from this province. In the mountainous parts there is a 
 race of people named Kurds, some of whom are Christians of 
 the Nestorian and Jacobite sects, and others Mahometans. 
 They are all an unprincipled people, whose occupation it is to 
 rob the merchants. 1 In the vicinity of this province there 
 are places named Mus and Maredin, 2 where cotton is pro- 
 duced in great abundance, of which they prepare the cloths 
 called boccasini, and many other fabrics. The inhabitants 
 are manufacturers and traders, and are all subjects of the 
 king of the Tartars. We shall now speak of the city of 
 Baldach. 
 
 denomination articles of a nature very different from that to which 
 we apply the name. It is not, however, improbable that the city 
 of Mosul, being at this time one of the greatest entrep6ts of eastern 
 commerce, and also itself a place of considerable manufacture, may 
 have given the appellation to various productions of the loom conveyed 
 from thence to the Mediterranean, although in later days the word mus- 
 solino has been exclusively applied to the well-known Indian fabric or 
 its imitations. When Ives, in the account of his journey, tells us that 
 " this city's manufacture is mussolen (a cotton cloth), which they make 
 very strong and pretty fine, and sell for the European and other 
 markets," it is evident that he does not describe a cloth of the delicate 
 or flimsy texture that we call muslin, but rather the kind that with 
 us has acquired the name of calico, from the city of Calicut in the 
 East Indies. 
 
 1 Kurdistan, which formed the northern part of the ancient Assyria, 
 is a mountainous region to the eastward of the Tigris, and immediately 
 at the back of Mosul, Nisibin, and Maredin. The inhabitants for the 
 most part speak a corrupt dialect of Persian, but in their habits and 
 manners resemble the Bedouin Arabs, and like them make a practice of 
 robbing the caravans when not adequately protected. Cartwright 
 terms them " a most thievish people ;" and the accounts of all subse- 
 quent travellers agree in describing them as systematical plunderers : 
 a state of society that results from then: local situation, being that of 
 a mountainous tract which must necessarily be traversed in passing 
 from one rich country to another. The principal articles of commerce 
 in this country appear to be gall-nuts, cotton, and a species of silk 
 called Jcas or Ms, described by Niebuhr as growing on trees. Voyage, 
 torn. ii. p. 268. 
 
 2 For an account of Maredin, a city of Mesopotamia, in the district 
 of Diyar-Rabiah, see the Voyage par Niebuhr. He speaks of its manu- 
 factures of flax and cotton. Mush is a town on the borders of Kur- 
 distan and Armenia, between Bedlis and the Euphrates in the upper 
 part of its course.
 
 THE CITY OF BALDACH. 39 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 OF THE GREAT CITY OP BALDACH OB BAGADET, ANCIENTLY CALLED 
 BABYLON OF THE NAVIGATION FROM THENCE TO BALSARA, SITUATED 
 IS WHAT IS TERMED THE SEA OF INDIA, BUT PROPERLY THE PERSIAN 
 
 . GCLF AND OF THE VARIOUS SCIENCES STUDIED IN THAT CITY. 
 
 BALDACH is a large city, heretofore the residence of the 
 khalif ' or pontiff of all the Saracens, as the pope is of all 
 Christians. A great river flows through the midst of it,*, by 
 means of which the merchants transport their goods to and 
 from the sea of India; the distance being computed at 
 seventeen days' navigation, in consequence of the windings of 
 its course. Those who undertake the voyage, after leaving 
 the river, touch at a place named Kisi, 3 from whence they 
 proceed to sea : but previously to their reaching this an- 
 chorage they pass a city named Balsara, 4 in the vicinity of 
 
 1 The city of Baghdad was built by Abu Jafar al-Mansur, second 
 khalif of the Abbassite dynasty, about the year 765, and continued to 
 be the residence of his successors until the death of the last khalif of 
 that race, in the year 1258, when it fell under the dominion of the 
 Moghuls. 
 
 2 This river is the Tigris, named Dijleh by the Arabs, which falla 
 into the Euphrates, when their united streams acquire the appellation 
 of Shat-al-arab, and discharge themselves into the Persian Gulf. The 
 modern city of Baghdad stands on the eastern bank, and is connected 
 with the suburb on the western side of the river by a bridge of boats . 
 but on that side there are also found the ruins of buildings that be- 
 longed to the ancient city or seat of the khalifs ; and our author is 
 therefore correct in describing it as divided by the river in bis time. 
 Abulfeda speaks of it as occupying both banks of the Tigris. 
 
 3 Kisi, or Chisi in the Italian orthography, is a small island on the 
 eastern aide of the Gulf of Persia, named Kis or Kes, to which the 
 trade of Siraf, a port on the neighbouring continent, much celebrated 
 by eastern geographers, was transferred ; in consequence, aa it may be 
 presumed, of wars in that quarter, and of injuries sustained by the 
 merchants. The exact situation of the latter is not now pointed out by 
 any remains. 
 
 * Balsara, more commonly written Balsora, but properly Basrah, is a 
 city of great commercial importance, situated on the south-west side of 
 the Shat-al-arab, about half-way between the point where the Euphrates 
 and Tigris unite their streams, and the Persian Gulf. It lies, con- 
 sequently, in the way (as our author remarks) of those who navigate 
 from Baghdad to the island of Kis.
 
 40 TBAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 which are graves of palm-trees producing the best dates in 
 the world. In Baldach there is a manufacture of silks 
 wrought with gold, and also of damasks, as well as of velvets 
 ornamented with the figures of birds and beasts. 1 Almost 
 all the pearls brought to Europe from India have undergone 
 the process of boring, at this place. The Mahometan law 
 is here regularly studied, as are also magic, physics, astro- 
 nomy, geomancy, and physiognomy. It is the noblest and 
 most extensive city to be found in this part of the world. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 CONCERNING THE CAPTURE AND DEATH OF THE KHALIF OF BALDACH, 
 AND THE MIRACULOUS REMOVAL OF A MOUNTAIN. 
 
 TfiE above-mentioned khalif, who is understood to have 
 amassed greater treasures than had ever been possessed by 
 any other sovereign, perished miserably under the following 
 circumstances. 2 At the period when the Tartar princes 
 began to extend their dominion, there were amongst them 
 four brothers, of whom the eldest, named Mangu, reigned in 
 the royal seat of the family. Having subdued the country 
 of Cathay, and other districts in that quarter, they were not 
 satisfied, but coveting further territory, they conceived the 
 idea of universal empire, and proposed that they should 
 divide the world amongst them. With this object in view, it 
 was agreed that one of them should proceed to the east, that 
 another should make conquests in the south, and that the 
 
 1 It may be suspected that instead of " velluti " (velvets), we should 
 here read " tappeti " (carpets), for the manufacture of which Persia has 
 always been celebrated. With respect to the figures of animals, the 
 Mahometans of the Shiah sect have never been strict, as those of the 
 Sunni are known to be, in prohibiting the representation of them in 
 their ornamental works. 
 
 - Mostasem Billah, the last of the Abbassite khalifs of Baghdad, 
 began to reign in 1242, and was put to death in 1258. His character 
 was that of a weak, indolent, voluptuous, and at the same time avari- 
 cious prince, who neglected the duties of his government, and com- 
 mitted them to the hands of a wicked minister, by whom he was at 
 length betrayed to his mortal enemy.
 
 BALDACH CAPTURED BY THE TARTARS. 41 
 
 other two should direct their operations against the remaining 
 quarters. The southern portion fell to the lot of Ulau, who 
 assembled a vast army, and having subdued the provinces 
 through which his route lay, proceeded in the year 1255 to 
 the attack of this city of Baldach. 1 Beiug aware, however, of 
 its great strength and the prodigious number of its inha- 
 bitants, he trusted rather to stratagem than to force for its 
 reduction, and in order to deceive the enemy with regard to 
 the number of his troops, which consisted of a hundred 
 thousand horse, besides foot soldiers, he posted one division 
 of his army on the one side, another division on the other 
 side of the approach to the city, in such a manner as to be 
 concealed by a wood, and placing himself at the head of the 
 third, advanced boldly to within a short distance of the gate. 
 The khalif made light of a force apparently so inconsiderable, 
 and confident in the efficacy of the usual Mahometan ejacula- 
 tion, thought of nothing less than its entire destruction, and 
 for that purpose marched out of the city with his guards; 
 but as soon as Ulau perceived his approach, he feigned to 
 retreat before him, until by this means he had drawn him 
 beyond the wood where the other divisions were posted. By 
 the closing of these from both sides, the army of the khalif 
 was surrounded and broken, himself was made prisoner, and 
 the city surrendered to the conqueror. Upon entering it, 
 Ulau discovered, to his great astonishment, a tower filled 
 with gold. He called the khalif before him, and after 
 reproaching him with his avarice, that prevented him from 
 employing his treasures in the formation of an army for the 
 defence of his capital against the powerful invasion with 
 which it had long been threatened, gave orders for his being 
 shut up in this same tower, without sustenance ; and there, 
 in the midst of his wealth, he soon finished a miserable 
 existence. 
 
 I judge that our Lord Jesus Christ herein thought proper 
 to avenge the wrongs of his faithful Christians, so abhorred 
 
 1 This date is given in the early Latin text. Marsden has 1250 ; but ha 
 observes that according to the most accurate oriental historians, it -was 
 not until the year 1255 that Hulagu (whom Haiton calls Haolanus or 
 Haolo, P. Gaubil Holayou, and our author Ula-u) crossed the Oxus. In 
 1256 he required Mostasem to assist him in the reduction of the Isma- 
 elians, and in 1258 obtained possession of Baghdad. P. Gaubil, upon 
 the authority of the Chinese annals, places this event in 1257.
 
 42 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 by this khalif. From the time of his accession in 1225, his 
 daily thoughts were employed on the means of converting to 
 his religion those who resided within his dominions, or, upon 
 their refusal, in forming pretences for putting them to death. 
 Consulting with his learned men for this purpose, they 
 discovered a passage in the Gospel where it is said: " If ye 
 have faith as a grain of mustard seed, ye shall say unto 
 this mountain, Remove hence to yonder place, and it shall 
 remove," (upon prayer to that effect addressed to the Divine 
 Majesty ;) and being rejoiced at the discovery, persuaded as 
 he was that the thing was utterly impossible, he gave orders 
 for assembling all the Nestorian and Jacobite Christians who 
 dwelt in Baghdad, and who were very numerous. To these 
 the question was propounded, whether they believed all that 
 is asserted in the text of their Gospel to be true, or not. 
 They made answer that it was true. " Then," said the 
 khalif, " if it be true, let us see which of you will give the 
 proof of his faith ; for certainly if there is not to be found 
 one amongst you who possesses even so small a portion of 
 faith in his Lord, as to be equal to a grain of mustard, I 
 shall be justified in regarding you, from henceforth, as a 
 wicked, reprobate, and faithless people. I allow you there- 
 fore ten days, before the expiration of which you must 
 either, through the power of Him whom you worship, remove 
 the mountain now before you, or embrace the law of our 
 prophet ; in either of which cases you will be safe ; but 
 otherwise you must all expect to suffer the most cruel 
 deaths." The Christians, acquainted as they were with his 
 merciless disposition, as well as his eagerness to despoil them 
 of their property, upon hearing these words, trembled for 
 their lives ; but nevertheless, having confidence in their 
 Redeemer, that He would deliver them from their peril, they 
 held an assembly and deliberated on the course they ought to 
 take. None other presented itself than that of imploring the 
 Divine Being to grant them the aid of his mercy. To obtain 
 this, every individual, great and small, prostrated himself 
 night and day upon the earth, shedding tears profusely, and 
 attending to no other occupation than that of prayer to the 
 Lord. When they had thus persevered during eight days, a 
 divine revelation came at length, in a dream, to a bishop of 
 exemplary life, directing him to proceed in search of a
 
 THE CHEISTIANS SAVED MIRACULOUSLY. 43 
 
 certain shoemaker (whose name is not known) having only 
 one eye, whom he should summon to the mountain, as a 
 person capable of effecting its removal, through the divine 
 grace. Having found the shoemaker and made him ac- 
 quainted with the revelation, he replied that he did net feel 
 himself worthy of the undertaking, his merits not being such 
 as to entitle him to the reward of such abundant grace. 
 Importuned, however, by the poor terrified Christians, he at 
 length assented. It should be understood that he was a man 
 of strict morals and pious conversation, having his mind pure 
 and faithful to his God, regularly attending the celebration 
 of the mass and other divine offices, fervent in works of 
 charity, and rigid in the observance of fasts. It once hap- 
 pened to him, that a handsome young woman who came to 
 his shop in order to be fitted with a pair of slippers, in pre- 
 senting her foot, accidentally exposed a part of her leg, the 
 beauty of which excited in him a momentary concupiscence ; 
 but recollecting himself, he presently dismissed her, and 
 calling to mind the words of the Gospel, where it is said, 
 " If thine eye offend thee, pluck it out and cast it from 
 thee ; for it is better to enter the kingdom of God with one 
 eye, than having two eyes, to be cast into hell fire," he imme- 
 diately, with an instrument of his trade, scooped out his 
 right eye ; evincing by that act, beyond all doubt, the excel- 
 lence of his faith. 
 
 The appointed day being arrived, divine service was per- 
 formed at an early hour, and a solemn procession was made 
 to the plain where the mountain stood, the holy cross being 
 borne in front. The khalif likewise, in the conviction of its 
 proving a vain ceremony on the part of the Christians, chose 
 to be present, accompanied by a number of his guards, for 
 the purpose of destroying them in the event of failure. Here 
 the pious artisan, kneeling before the cross, and lifting up his 
 hands to heaven, humbly besought his Creator that he would 
 compassionately look down upon earth, and for the glory and 
 excellence of his name, as well as for the support and confir- 
 mation of the Christian faith, would lend assistance to his 
 people iii the accomplishment of the task imposed upon 
 them, and thus manifest his power to the revilers of his law. 
 Having concluded his prayer, he cried with a loud voice: 
 " In the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, I corn-
 
 44 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 rnand thee, mountain, to remove thyself ! " Upon these 
 words being uttered, the mountain moved, and the earth at 
 the same time trembled in a wonderful and alarming manner. 
 The khalif and all those by whom he was surrounded, were 
 struck with terror, and remained in a state of stupefaction. 
 Many of the latter became Christians, and even the khalif 
 secretly embraced Christianity, always wearing a cross con- 
 cealed under his garment, which after his death was found 
 upon him ; and on this account it was that they did not 
 entomb him in the shrine of his predecessors. In comme- 
 moration of this singular grace bestowed upon them by God, 
 all the Christians, Nestorians, and Jacobites, from that time 
 forth have continued to celebrate in a solemn manner the 
 return of the day on which the miracle took place; keeping 
 a fast also on the vigil. 1 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 OP THE NOBLE CITY OF TAURIS, IN IRAK, AND 0V ITS COMMERCIAL 
 AND OTHER INHABITANTS. 
 
 TAURIS is a large and very noble city belonging to the pro- 
 vince of Irak, which contains many other cities and fortified 
 places, but this is the most eminent and most populous. 2 The 
 inhabitants support themselves principally by commerce and 
 manufactures, which latter consist of various kinds of silk, 
 some of them interwoven with gold, and of high price. It is 
 
 1 The pretended miracle is here more minutely detailed than in 
 other versions, and the Latin text states it to have taken place at 
 Tauris, and not at Baghdad, although that would have been incon- 
 sistent with the presence of the khalif. [The early Latin text saya it 
 occurred in 1275, "inter Baldach et Mesul;" and the French text 
 agrees with it.] 
 
 2 The city of Tauris, by the Persians and other orientals named 
 Tabriz, is situated in the province of Aderbijan, which borders on 
 that of Al-Jebal, or the Persian Irak, and formed with it the ancient 
 kingdom of Media. It has been, at all periods, a place of great impor- 
 tance. Upon the conquest of Persia by the Moghuls, about the year 
 1255, it became the principal residence of Hulagu and his descendants, 
 until the founding of Sultaniyah, in the beginning of the fourteenth 
 century.
 
 THE CITY OP TAURIS. 45 
 
 so advantageously situated for trade, that merchants from 
 India, from Baldach, Mosul, Cremessor, 1 as well as from dif- 
 ferent parts of Europe, resort thither to purchase and to sell 
 a number of articles. Precious stones and pearls in abun- 
 dance may be procured at this place. 2 The merchants con- 
 cerned in foreign commerce acquire considerable wealth, but 
 the inhabitants in general are poor. They consist of a mixture 
 of various nations and sects, Nestorians, Armenians, Jacobites, 
 Georgians, Persians, and the followers of Mahomet, who form 
 the bulk of the population, and are those properly called 
 Taurisians. 3 Each description of people have their peculiar 
 language. The city is surrounded with delightful gardens, 
 producing the finest fruits. 4 The Mahometan inhabitants are 
 treacherous and unprincipled. According to their doctrine, 
 whatever is stolen or plundered from others of a different 
 faith, is properly taken, and the theft is no crime; whilst 
 those who suffer death or injury by the hands of Christians, 
 are considered as martyrs. If, therefore, they were not pro- 
 hibited and restrained by the powers who now govern them, 5 
 they would commit many outrages. These principles are 
 common to all the Saracens. When they are at the point of 
 death, their priest attends upon them, and asks whether they 
 believe that Mahomet was the true apostle of God. If their 
 
 1 Cremessor, otherwiss written Cremosor, Cormosa, Cremos, and 
 Cormos, is no other than the famous city of Ormuz or Hormuz, by the 
 ancients called Hannuza, at the entrance of the Persian Gulf; of which 
 there will be occasion to speak more particularly hereafter. Baldach, 
 we have already seen, is the city of Baghdad. 
 
 8 Chardin mentions a particular bazaar (" le plus beau de tous ") for 
 the sale of jewels, and other articles of extraordinary value. The pearls, 
 both from the fisheries of Ceylon, and from Bahrein in the Gulf of 
 Persia, appear to have been conveyed in the first instance to Baghdad, 
 where they were polished and bored, and from thence to the other 
 markets of Asia and Europe, particularly to Constantinople. 
 
 3 These Persians, as distinguished from the Mahometans, must have 
 been the original inhabitants of Farsistan, who retained the ancient 
 religion of Zerdusht, or Zoroaster, the characteristic of which was the 
 worship of fire, and whom (in their modern state of expatriation) we 
 term Parsia. They constitute at this time the most wealthy, as well as 
 the most ingenious class of native inhabitants, living under the English 
 protection at Bombay. 
 
 * Abulfeda praises its gardens ; and the abundance and variety of its 
 fruits are noticed by Chardin. 
 
 * That is, by their new lords, the Moghul Tartars.
 
 46 TRAVELS OP MARCO POLO. 
 
 answer be that they do believe, their salvation is assured to 
 them; and in consequence of this facility of absolution, which 
 gives free scope to the perpetration of everything flagitious, 
 they have succeeded in converting to their faith a great pro- 
 portion of the Tartars, who consider it as relieving them from 
 restraint in the commission of crimes. From Tauris to Persia 
 is twelve days' journey. 1 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 OF THE MONASTERY OF SAINT BARSAMO, IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF 
 TADRIS. 
 
 NOT far from Tauris is a monastery that takes its name from 
 the holy saint Barsamo, 2 and is eminent for devotion. There 
 is here an abbot and many monks, who resemble the order 
 of Carmelites in the fashion of their dress. That they may 
 not lead a life of idleness, they employ themselves continually 
 in the weaving of woollen girdles, which they place upon the 
 altar of their saint during the celebration of divine service, 
 and when they make the circuit of the provinces, soliciting 
 alms (in the same manner as do the brethren of the order of 
 the Holy Ghost), they present these girdles to their friends 
 and to persons of distinction ; being esteemed good for rheu- 
 matic pains, on which account they are devoutly sought for 
 by all ranks. 
 
 CHAPTER XT. 
 
 OF THE PROVINCE OF PERSIA. 
 
 PERSIA was anciently a large and noble province, but it is 
 now in great part destroyed by the Tartars. In Persia there 
 is a city which is called Saba, from whence were the three 
 
 1 This must be understood of Persia Proper, Fars or Farsistan, of 
 which Persepolis was the ancient capital, as Shiraz is the modern ; but 
 he probably means the distance from Tauris to Kasbin, which he speaks 
 of in the next chapter as the first city upon entering Persia. 
 
 2 This saint is no doubt St. Barsimseus, bishop of Edessa in the 
 second century.
 
 STORY OF THE THREE MAGI. 47 
 
 magi who came to adore Christ in Bethlehem; and the three 
 are buried in that city in a fair sepulchre, and they are all 
 three entire with their beards and hair. One was called Bal- 
 dasar, the second Caspar, and the third Melchior. Marco 
 inquired often in that city concerning the three magi, and 
 nobody could tell him anything about them, except that the 
 three magi were buried there in ancient times. After three 
 days' journey you come to a castle which is called Palasata, 
 which means the castle of the fire-worshippers ; and it is true 
 that the inhabitants of that castle worship fire, and this 
 is given as the reason. The men of that castle say, that 
 anciently three kings of that country went to adore a certain 
 king who was newly born, and carried with them three offer- 
 ings, namely, gold, frankincense, and myrrh : gold, that they 
 might know if he were an earthly king; frankincense, that 
 they might know if he were God; and myrrh, that they 
 might know if he were a mortal man. When these magi 
 were presented to Christ, the youngest of the three adored 
 him first, and it appeared to him that Christ was of his 
 stature and age. The middle one came next, and then the 
 eldest, and to each he seemed to be of their own stature and 
 age. Having compared their observations together, they 
 agreed to go all to worship at once, and then he appeared to 
 them all of his true age. "When they went away, the infant 
 gave them a closed box, which they carried with them for 
 several days, and then becoming curious to see what he had 
 given them, they opened the box and found in it a stone, 
 which was intended for a sign that they should remain as 
 firm as a stone in the faith they had received from him. 
 When, however, they saw the stone, they marvelled, and 
 thinking themselves deluded, they threw the stone into a 
 certain pit, and instantly fire burst forth in the pit. When 
 they saw this, they repented bitterly of what they had done, 
 and taking some of the fire with them they carried it home. 
 And having placed it in one of their churches, they keep it 
 continually burning, and adore that fire as a god, and make 
 all their sacrifices with it ; and if it happen to be extinguished, 
 they go for more to the original fire in the pit where they 
 threw the stone, which is never extinguished, and they take 
 of njne other fire. And therefore the people of that country 
 worship fire. Marco was told all this by the people of the
 
 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 country; and it is true that one of those kings was of Saba, 
 and the second was of Dyava, and the third was of the 
 castle. 1 Now we will treat of the people of Persia and of 
 their customs. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 OP THE NAMES OF THE EIGHT KINGDOMS THAT CONSTITUTE THE PROVINCE 
 OP PERSIA, AND OF THE BREED OF HORSES AND OF ASSES FOUND 
 THEREIN. 
 
 IN Persia, which is a large province, there are eight king- 
 doms, 2 the names of which are as follows : The first which 
 you meet with upon entering the country is Kasibin ; 3 the 
 second, lying towards the south (west), is Kurdistan; 4 the 
 
 1 This story of the magi is no doubt of Eastern origin, as it does not 
 coincide with the Western legends. In other manuscripts the name is 
 written Kalasata-perinsta. The idea of a well ignited by celestial fire is 
 obviously founded on the existence of burning wells or caverns in 
 various parts of Asia, particularly at Baku, near the Caspian, and on 
 the coast of Karamania, seen by Capt. Beaufort ; but to the Persian 
 scholar the name of the place will present the strongest criterion of 
 veracity, as he must perceive that the words Kala sata-perinsta are 
 intended for Kalkt perestan, or perhaps Kalah atish perestftn, literally, 
 the " Castle of the fire-worshippers." The name of Saba, which is cer- 
 tainly not to be discovered among the towns of Persia, may be thought 
 to have a reference to the doctrines of Saba'ism, so nearly connected 
 with those of the Guebers. 
 
 2 In the ordinary use of these terms, a kingdom is understood to 
 consist of provinces; but upon the partition of the immense empire 
 inherited by the descendants of Jengiz-khan, the province assigned (as 
 a fief) to each of his sons or grandsons comprehended what were, 
 before his conquests, independent kingdoms. 
 
 3 Upon entering Persian Irak from the side of Tauris, the first great 
 city (Sultaniyah not being then built) is Kasbin, or more properly 
 Kazvin, which has at different periods of its history been a royal resi- 
 dence. In the enumeration of these eight kingdoms, our author some- 
 times gives the name of the capital, as in this instance, and sometimes 
 that of the province or district, as in those which immediately follow. 
 He seems to have written down or dictated the names as they occurred 
 to his recollection, without system, and with little regard to arrange- 
 ment. 
 
 * We should not have expected to find Kurdistan, which belonged 
 to the ancient Assyria, stated as one of the component parts of Persia, 
 although many parts of it have at tunes been brought under sub- 
 jection to that monarchy; nor, if included, can it be said to lie to
 
 PROVINCES OF PERSIA. 49 
 
 third is Lor; 1 towards the north, the fourth is Suolistan;- 
 the fifth, Spaan; 3 the sixth, Siras; 4 the seventh, Soncara; 6 
 the eighth Timocain, 6 which is at the extremity of Persia. 
 
 the south. It may, indeed, be conjectured that Khuriatan (often written 
 Khuzistan), the ancient Susiana, situated at the head of the Persian 
 gulf, and consequently south from Kazvin, and not Kurdistan, which 
 lies to the west, is the district intended. " Churestan, ait 01 Musch- 
 tarek, etiam Chuzestau appellatur. Est ampla provincia, multas urbea 
 tenens, inter Al Basram et Persiam." Abulfedae Geographia. 
 
 1 If the former place be meant for Khuristan, Lor or Lur may with 
 propriety be said to lie to the north of it, although with respect to 
 Kazvin, and Persia in general, it is a southern province. " II ne faut 
 pas confondre," says D'Herbelot, " le pays de Lor avec celui de Lar ou 
 Laristan, qui s'etend le long du gulfe Persique. Celui de Lor ou Lour 
 est montagneux, et dependoit autrefois de la province nominee Kouzis- 
 tan, qui est 1'ancienne Susiane." Biblioth Orient. 
 
 2 Of Suolistan it would be difficult to form any conjecture; but 
 finding the name, in other versions, written Cielstam, Ciliestam, and in 
 the early Italian epitome, Ciestan, I have little doubt of its being 
 intended for Sejestan, also written Siyestan, a province which lies in 
 the eastern quarter of Persia. 
 
 3 The city of Spaan, Spahan, or Ispahan, by the Arabians called 
 Isfahan, situated in the southern part of Persian Irak, is well known 
 as the magnificent capital of the kings of the Sefi family, which, espe- 
 cially during the reign of Shah Abbas II., exceeded in splendour, as 
 well as extent, most Asiatic cities. It fell under the dominion of the 
 Moghuls in 1221, and was taken, plundered, and nearly destroyed by 
 Tamerlane in 1387. 
 
 4 Shiraz, the capital of Fars or Persia proper, and, at some periods, 
 of the Persian empire, is also too well known, by the description of 
 travellers, to render it necessary to say more here than that it ranks 
 next to Ispahan amongst the royal cities. 
 
 5 This much corrupted name, which is Soncara in Ramusio's text, 
 Socham in that of the Basle edition, Sontara in the earlier Lathi, Con- 
 cara in the B. M., and Soncara (according to Miiller) in the Berlin 
 manuscript, Corcata in the Italian epitomes, and Corchara in the old 
 English version, is the Korkan or Gurkan of eastern geographers, and 
 evidently connected with the Hyrcania of the ancients. Its situation is 
 at the south-eastern extremity of the Caspian, north of the Damaghau 
 range and of the province of Kumis or Comisene. 
 
 6 However distant the resemblance of the names may be thought, 
 Timocain (which in the Basle edition k Tymochaim, and in the older 
 Latin, Thymachaym) is undoubtedly intended for Damaghan, the 
 capital of the small province of Kumis, in the north-eastern quarter of 
 Persia. By Josaphat Barbaro, the Venetian ambassador to that court, 
 it is called Tremigan ; and by our countryman, Thomas Herbert, Diur- 
 gument : but this, we find, was not his own corruption ; for in one of 
 the letters of Pietro della Valle, he complains of this abuse and uncer- 
 tainty an the names of places : " Come per essempio, quel Diargument, 
 che 1'Epitome Geografica die* esser nome moderno dell' Hircania."
 
 00 TRAVELS OP MARCO POLO. 
 
 All these kingdoms lie to the south, excepting Timocain, and 
 this is to the north, near the place called Arbor Secco. 1 The 
 country is distinguished for its excellent breed of horses, 
 many of which are carried fc<r sale to India, and bring high 
 prices, not less in general than two hundred livres tournois. 2 
 It produces also the largest and handsomest breed of asses 
 in the world, which sell (on the spot) at higher prices than 
 the horses, because they are more easily fed, are capable of 
 carrying heavier burthens, and travel further in the day than 
 either horses or mules, which cannot support an equal degree 
 of fatigue. The merchants, therefore, who in travelling from 
 one province to another are obliged to pass extensive deserts 
 and tracts of sand, where no kind of herbage is to be met 
 with, and where, on account of the distance between the 
 wells or other watering places, it is necessary to make long 
 journeys in the course of the day, are desirous of providing 
 themselves with asses in preference, as they get sooner over 
 the ground and require a smaller allowance of food. Camels 
 also are employed here, and these in like manner carry great 
 weights and are maintained at little cost, but they are not 
 so swift as the asses. The traders of these parts convey the 
 horses to Kisi, 3 to Ormus, and to other places on the coast of 
 the Indian sea, where they are purchased by those who carry 
 them to India. In consequence, however, of the greater heat 
 of that country, they do not last many years, being natives 
 of a temperate climate. In some of these districts, the people 
 are savage and bloodthirsty, making a common practice of 
 wounding and murdering each other. They would not re- 
 
 1 The district to which the appellation of Arbor Secco was given has 
 already been adverted to, and will be found more particularly men- 
 tioned in a subsequent chapter. 
 
 2 The excellence of the Persian horses, for which they may perhaps 
 be indebted to the mixture of the Arabian and the Turki breed, is well 
 known. A detailed account of their qualities is given by Chardin (torn. ii. 
 chap. viii. p. 25, 4to) ; and also by Malcolm (Hist, of Persia, vol. ii. p. 
 516). As the livre tournois, in the fourteenth century, was at the pro- 
 portionate value of twenty-five to one livre of the present times, it 
 follows that the price at which the Persian horses sold in India was 
 frojn fifteen hundred to two thousand rupees. 
 
 3 Kisi or Chisi has been shown (p. 39, note,) to be the island of Kia 
 or Kes, to which the trade of Siraf, in the Persian gulf, was removed. 
 Of the celebrated port of Ormuz, there will be occasion to speak here- 
 after.
 
 PRODUCTS OF PERSIA. 51 
 
 frain from do.ng injury to the merchants and travellers, were 
 they not in terror of the eastern Tartars, 1 who cause them to 
 be severely punished. A regulation is also established, that 
 in all roads where danger is apprehended, the inhabitants 
 shall be obliged, upon the requisition of the merchants, tc 
 provide active and trusty conductors for their guidance and 
 security, between one district and another; who are to be 
 paid at the rate of two or three groats 2 for each loaded beast, 
 according to the distance. They are all followers of the 
 Mahometan religion. In the cities, however, there are mer- 
 chants and numerous artisans, who manufacture a variety of 
 stufis of silk and gold. 3 Cotton grows abundantly in this 
 country, as do wheat, barley, 4 millet, and several other sorts 
 of grain; together with grapes and every species of fruit. 
 Should any one assert that the Saracens do not drink wine, 
 being forbidden by their law, it may be answered that they 
 quiet their consciences on this point by persuading them- 
 selves that if they take the precaution of boiling it over the 
 fire, by which it is partly consumed and becomes sweet, they 
 may drink it without infringing the commandment ; for 
 having changed its taste, they change its name, and no longer 
 call it wine, although it is such in feet. 5 
 
 1 By " the eastern Tartars" are meant the Moghul Tartars, who 
 entered Persia from the eastern side of the Caspian. 
 
 3 The Italian grossi, or groats, were a small silver coin, which have 
 differed in weight and value at different periods. 
 
 3 ' Je ne parlerai point," says Chardin, " d'une infinite" de sortes 
 d'Stoffes de soye pure, ni des e'toffes de soye avec du coton. . . . Je ne 
 parlerai que de leurs brocards, Ils appellent le brocard Zerbafe, c'est- 
 i-dire, tissure d'or. . . . n ne se fait point d'toffe'si chere par tout le 
 monde." (torn. iL p. 86, 4to.) Pottinger, speaking of the manufactures of 
 Kashan, says : " Its staples are copper-ware, carpets, and coloured and 
 flowered silks, which latter are exquisitely beautiful. I purchased 
 some of them made in scarfs, in imitation of the richest Kashmeer 
 shawls." Travels in Beloochistan, p. 244. 
 
 4 \Vheat grows in the northern provinces of Persia, and also in the 
 southern, although less commonly. il Barley," says Malcolm, " is often 
 sold in Persia at one farthing per pound, and wheat is not on the 
 average more than a third of the price dearer than barley." Hist, of 
 Persia, voL iL p. 519. 
 
 5 The practice of boiling wine is known to be common amongst the 
 eastern people, but whether the motive for it here assigned be the 
 true one, or whether we should not rather conclude that they prefer 
 the taste, may be doubted. The Persians have always been less strict 
 than the other more orthodox Mahometans, in regard to indulgence in 
 
 2
 
 52 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 OF THE CITY OF YASDI AND ITS MANUFACTURES, AND OF THE ANIMAL! 
 FOUND IN THE COUNTRY BETWEEN THAT PLACE AND KIERMAN. 
 
 YASDI is a considerable city on the confines of Persia, where 
 there is much traffic. 1 A species of cloth of silk and gold 
 manufactured there is known by the appellation of Yasdi, 
 and is carried from thence by the merchants to all parts of 
 the world. 2 Its inhabitants are of the Mahometan religion. 
 Those who travel from that city, employ eight days in passing 
 over a plain, in the course of which they meet with only 
 three places that afford accommodation. 3 The road lies 
 through extensive groves of the date-bearing palm, in which 
 there is abundance of game, as well beasts as partridges and 
 quails; and those travellers who are fond of the amusements 
 of the chase, may here enjoy excellent sport. Wild asses 4 are 
 
 wine ; and Pietro della Valle mentions two ordinances of Shah Abbas ; 
 the one forbidding the use of it, which shows that the religious precept 
 had failed of its effect ; and a second annulling the prohibition, upon 
 his finding that the people, and especially the soldiers, had substituted 
 for wine a liquid preparation of opium, by which their health was 
 injured. 
 
 1 Yezd is the most eastern city of the province of Fars or. Persia 
 Proper. Captain Christie, by whom it was visited in 1810, describes 
 it as " a very large and populous city, situated on the edge of a sandy 
 desert, contiguous to a range of mountains running east and west." 
 " It is celebrated," he observes, " by all merchants, for the protection 
 afforded to speculators, and the security of its inhabitants and their 
 property. It is the grand mart between Hindoostan, Khorasan, Bagdad, 
 and Persia, and is said to be a place of greater trade than any other in 
 the latter empire." Trav. in Beloochistan, App. p. 421. 
 
 2 D'Herbelot observes that " les 6toffes de soye qu'on y travaille, et 
 que Ton appelle en Turc et en Persan comasche Yezdi, la rendent fort 
 marchande." In the Memoirs of Abdulkurrim, also, we read of a 
 donation made to an ambassador, by Nadir Shah, consisting of twenty- 
 five pieces of Yezdy brocade. 
 
 3 This is usually named the Desert of Kirman. 
 
 4 We read of wild asses delivered as presents, and consequently as 
 curiosities, to Shah Abbas, and other kings of Persia. Rennell observes 
 that " the wild asses remarked by Xenophon for their swiftness, bear 
 much the same character at present. Texeira in 1606 saw herds of 
 them in the Arabian desert, immediately opposite to the desert of 
 Mesopotamia, where Xenophon saw them." Illustrations, p. 100.
 
 THE PROVINCE OF KIRMAX. 53 
 
 likewise to be met with, very numerous and handsome. 
 At the end of eight days you arrive at a kingdom named 
 Kierman. 1 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 OF THE KINGDOM OF KIERMAX, BY THE AXCIEXTS NAMED KARMAXIA 
 
 OF ITS FOSSIL AXD MINERAL PRODUCTIOXS ITS MANUFACTURES ITS 
 
 FALCOXS AXD OF A GREAT DESCEXT OBSERVED UPOX PASSIXG OUT 
 OF THAT COUXTRT. 
 
 KIERMAN is a kingdom on the eastern confines of Persia, 2 
 which was formerly governed by its own monarchs, in here- 
 ditary succession ; but since the Tartars have brought it under 
 their dominion, they appoint governors to it at their pleasure. 
 In the mountains of this country are found the precious 
 stones that we call turquoises. 3 There are also veins of 
 
 1 The distance between Yezd and the capital of Kirman is about one 
 hundred and sixty geographical miles, which would be at the rate of 
 twenty miles per day. But the average travelling rate of a light 
 caravan, as deduced by Major RennelL, is only fifteen to fifteen and a 
 half, with camels, or seventeen to eighteen with mules ; when on long 
 journeys. It may, indeed, be understood that the desert alone, exclu- 
 sive of some portion of cultivated, country, employed eight days. 
 Some of the manuscripts have seven days. 
 
 2 Kirman is a province of Persia, situated at the south-eastern ex- 
 tremity of that kingdom. Its capital city appears to be most usually 
 called by the same name, but is also known by that of Sirgan, as the 
 word is pronounced by the Persians, or Sirjan, as pronounced by the 
 Arabs. " The city of Kirman," says Pottinger, " is situated on the 
 western side of a capacious plain, so close to the mountains, that two 
 of them, on which there are ancient decayed forts, completely command 
 it It was once the most flourishing in Persia, and in size was second 
 to none, except the capital, Isfahan. . . . No city in the East has been 
 more subject to reverses of fortune, or oftener the scene of the most 
 destructive wars, both foreign and domestic, than Kirman." P. 222. It 
 would seem that our author did not consider Kirman as being, in his 
 time, an integral part of Persia, from his not including it amongst the 
 eight provinces or kingdoms which he enumerates ; and in this light 
 also it was held by Edrisi, who wrote in the twelfth century, and says, 
 " Et vero terra Karman interjacet terrae Persia et tente Mecran." 
 P. 129. 
 
 3 " La plus riche mine de Perse," says Chardin, " est celle des tur- 
 quoises. On en a en deux endroits, a Nichapour en Carasson, et dans 
 une rnontagne qui est entre 1'Hyrcanie et la Parthide, a quatre jour-
 
 54 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 steel 1 and of antimony 2 in large quantities. They manufacture 
 here in great perfection all the articles necessary for warlike 
 equipment, such as saddles, bridles, spurs, swords, bows, 
 quivers, and every kind of arms in use amongst these people. 
 The women and young persons work with the needle, in embroi- 
 deries of silk and gold, in a variety of colours and patterns, 
 representing birds and beasts, with other ornamental devices. 3 
 These are designed for the curtains, coverlets, and cushions 
 of the sleeping places of the rich; and the work is executed 
 with so much taste and skill as to be an object of admiration. 
 In the mountainous parts are bred the best falcons that any- 
 where take wing. They are smaller than the peregrine falcon ; 
 reddish about the breast, belly, and under the tail ; and their 
 flight is so swift that no bird can escape them. Upon leaving 
 Kierman, you travel for seven days along a plain, by a 
 pleasant road, and rendered still more delightful by the 
 abundance of partridges and other game. 4 You also meet 
 frequently with towns and castles, as well as scattered habita- 
 
 neesdela Mer Caspienne, nommgePhirous-cou." Tom. ii. p. 24, 4to. "In 
 these mountains," says Malcolm, speaking of Nishapore, " the Ferouzah 
 or turquoise stone is found." Hist, of Persia, vol. ii. p. 220, note. 
 
 1 " Les mines de fer," says Chardin, " sont dans 1'Hyrcanie, dans 
 la Medie septentrionale, au pais des Parthes, et dans la Bactriane. 
 Les mines d'acier se trouvent dans les memes pais, et y produisent 
 beaucoup." P. 23. He then proceeds to describe its particular quali- 
 ties, and to compare it with the steel of India. 
 
 2 The word "andanico" of Ramusio's text, or "andanicum" of the Basle 
 edition, is not to be found in any dictionary, nor have preceding trans- 
 lators attempted to render it by any corresponding term, but have let 
 the word stand as they found it in their copy. I should not, from any 
 resemblance of sound, have hazarded the conjecture of its being in- 
 tended for " antimonio ;" but learning from the travels of Chardin that 
 antimony is the produce of countries on the eastern side of Persia, of 
 which our author here speaks, I consider the probability of such a 
 corruption as having some weight. 
 
 3 " I learn," says Pottinger, " from a manuscript history of the con- 
 quest of Mukran, in the ninetieth year of the hijree, that Kirman was 
 then a very extensive city, full of riches, and celebrated for the excel- 
 lence of the shawls and arms made in it." P. 222. " The trade of 
 Kirman, though still considerable, has never revived in a manner to be 
 
 compared to what it was previous to its last depopulation Its 
 
 manufactures of shawls, matchlocks, and numuds or felts, are celebrated 
 all over Asia, and are said to afford employment to upwards of one- 
 third of the inhabitants, whether male or female." P. 225. 
 
 " Les perdrix de Perse," says Chardin, " sont, comme je crois, lea 
 plus grosses perdrix du rnonde, et du gout le plus excellent." P. 30.
 
 TUB CITY OF KAMAXDD. 55 
 
 tions; until at length you arrive at a mountain whence there 
 is a considerable descent, which occupies two days. Fruit 
 trees are found there in great numbers ; the district having 
 formerly been peopled, though at present without inhabitants, 
 except herdsmen alone, who are seen attending the pasturing 
 of their cattle. In that part of the country which you pass 
 before you reach the descent, the cold is so severe that a man 
 can with difficulty defend himself against it by wearing many 
 garments and pelisses. 1 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 Or THE CITY OF KAMANDU, AND DISTRICT OF REOBARLE OF CERTAIH 
 BIRDS FOUND THERE OF A PECULIAR KIND OF OXEN AND OF THS 
 KARAUNAS, A TRIBE OF ROBBERS. 
 
 AT the end of the descent of this mountain, you arrive at a 
 plain that extends, in a southern direction, to the distance of 
 five days' journey; at the commencement of which there is a 
 town named Kamandu, 2 formerly a very large place and of 
 
 1 The road from the city of Kirman towards the Persian Gulf, here 
 described, probably lay through the town of Bam or Bumm, which 
 stands near the boundary line between what are considered as the cold 
 and the warm regions of Kirman. " The province of Nurmansheer," 
 says Pottinger, " extends from the waste dividing it from Beloochistan 
 to the city of Bumm. . . . Its boundary to the westward is the pro- 
 vince of Kirman, of which, I believe, it is now deemed a component 
 district ; to the eastward it has the desert, as already mentioned ; and, 
 north and south, two ranges of mountains, the last of which are by 
 much the highest, and I imagine, at all seasons, crowned with snow, &a 
 they were when I saw them, at which period it was exceedingly hot in 
 the plain beneath," P. 199. These appear to be the mountains of 
 Maren, which, says Ibn Haukal, " belong to the cold region of Kirman ; 
 snow falls on them." P. 141. 
 
 * The geography of the country lyinsr between the capital of the 
 province of Kirman and the Persian Gulf is very imperfectly known ; 
 and even Pottinger's map, the most modern we possess, exhibits but 
 one solitary name in that tract, although the chains of hills are there 
 laid down with an appearance of precision. It is difficult therefore to 
 ascertain the place intended by Kamandu (in the B. M. and Berlin 
 manuscripts, Camandi, and in the Italian epitomes, Edpamad), even if 
 there were grounds to believe that this town, which had lost its conse- 
 queuce before our author's time, is still in existence. It may perhaps
 
 5G TRAVELS OP MARCO POLO. 
 
 much consequence, but not so at this day, having been re- 
 peatedly laid waste by the Tartars. The neighbouring district 
 is called Reobarle. 1 The temperature of the plain is verv 
 warm. It produces wheat, rice, and other grains. On thav> 
 part of it which lies nearest to the hills, dates, pomegra- 
 nates, quinces, and a variety of other fruits, grow, amongst 
 which is one called Adam's apple, 2 not known in our cool 
 climate. Turtle-doves are found here in vast numbers, occa- 
 sioned by the plenty of small fruits which supply them with 
 food, and their not been eaten by the Mahometans, who hold 
 them in abomination. 3 There are likewise many pheasants 
 and francolins, which latter do not resemble those of other 
 countries, their colour being a mixture of white and black, 
 with red legs and beak. 4 Among the cattle also there are 
 some of an uncommon kind, particularly a species of large 
 white oxen, with short, smooth coats (the effect of a hot 
 climate), horns short, thick, and obtuse, and having between 
 the shoulders a gibbous rising or hump, about the height of 
 two palms. 5 They are beautiful animals, and being very 
 
 be the Memaun of D'Anville's map, which, is called Mahan by Ibn 
 Haukal, or else the Koumin of the latter : but these are offered as 
 mere conjectures. 
 
 1 Reobarle is obviously meant for Hud-bar, a descriptive term applied, 
 in numerous instances, to towns or districts in Persia and the neigh- 
 bouring countries. It signifies " a river in a valley, the channel of a 
 torrent, and also a place where many streams run ;" and the district 
 here spoken of as answering that description, would seem from the 
 ch-cumstances to have occupied the banks of the river which in 
 D'Anville's and Malcolm's maps bears the name of Div Rud, and must 
 be crossed in the way from Kirman to Ormuz. 
 
 2 Pomus Adami is a name that has been given to the fruit called 
 pumple-nose, shaddock, or citrus decumanus of Linnaeus ; but here it 
 may probably be intended for the orange itself, or pomum aurantium, 
 named by the Arabians and Persians naranj. 
 
 3 This objection to the flesh of doves, as food, may have been a local 
 prejudice; for it does not appear that they are generally regarded as 
 an unclean meat by a Mahometan. 
 
 * The tetrao francolinus, or francoline partridge of the Levant, has 
 red legs and beak, as here described. Dr. Russell calls it francolinus 
 olince, " known to the French by the name of gelinot (gelinotte)." The 
 flesh, he says, is delicious, but the bird is not to be met with at less 
 than a day's journey from the city. (Nat. Hist, of Aleppo.) 
 
 5 This species of ox, commonly employed at Surat and other places 
 on the western coast of India, in drawing the carriages called hakkries, 
 was probably introduced from thence to the eastern provinces of Persia
 
 ZOOLOGY OF PERSIA. 57 
 
 strong are made to carry great weights. Whilst loading, 
 they are accustomed to kneel down like the camel, and then 
 to rise up with the burthen. We find here also sheep that 
 are equal to the ass in size, with long and thick tails, weigh- 
 ing thirty pounds and upwards, which are fat and excellent 
 to eat. 1 In this province there are many towns encompassed 
 with lofty and thick walls of earth, 2 for the purpose of de- 
 It has been described by many writers, and among others by Niebuhr. 
 bee Voyage en Arable, &c. torn. ii. p. 52. tab. xii. 
 
 1 This extraordinary breed of sheep (orit laticaudata) is a natiTe 
 of various parts of Asia and Africa, and has been often described. In 
 the Natural History of Aleppo, the following circumstantial account 
 of it is given, with a plate : " They have two sorts of sheep," says 
 Russell, " in the neighbourhood of Aleppo : the one called Beduin 
 sheep, which differ in no respect from the larger kinds of sheep in 
 Britain, except that their tails are somewhat longer and thicker : the 
 others are those often mentioned by travellers on account of their 
 extraordinary tails ; and this species is by much the most numerous. 
 This tail is very broad and large, terminating in a small appendage 
 that turns back upon it. It is of a substance between fat and marrow, 
 and is not eaten separately, but mixed with the lean meat in many of 
 their dishes, and also often used instead of butter. A common sheep 
 of this sort, without the head, feet, skin and entrails, weighs about 
 twelve or fourteen Aleppo rotoloes (of five pounds), of which the tail 
 is usually three rotoloes or upwards; but such as are of the largest 
 breed and have been fattened, will sometimes weigh above thirty 
 rotoloes, and the tails of these, ten (or fifty pounds) ; a thing to some 
 scarce credible. These very large sheep being, about Aleppo, kept up 
 in yards, are in no danger of injuring their tails; but in some other 
 places, where they feed in the fields, the shepherds are obliged to fix 
 a piece of thin board to the under part of the tail, to prevent its being 
 torn by bushes, thistles, &c. ; and some have small wheels, to facilitate 
 the dragging of this board after them ; whence, with a little exag- 
 geration, the story of having carts to carry their tails," P. 51. 
 Chardin's account of " les moutons a grosse queue," of Persia, whose 
 tails, he says, weigh thirty pounds, corresponds exactly with the 
 above. 
 
 2 Frequent mention is made by Hamilton of these mud entrench- 
 ments. " The Ballowches," he says, " appeared near the town of 
 Gombroon, on a swift march towards it, which scared the (Persian) 
 governor so much, that, though there was an high mud wall between 
 him and them, he got on horseback and fled. .... The Ballowchea 
 came first to the west quarter of the town, where our factory stands, 
 and soon made passages through the mud walla" Xew Account of the 
 East Indies, vol. L p. 108. " The village of Bunpoor," says Pottinger 
 " is small and ill-built : it has been at one time surrounded by a low 
 mud wall, with small bastions at intervals ; but the whole is now gone 
 to decay." Travels in Beloochutan and Sinde, p. 176.
 
 58 TRAVELS OP MARCO POLO. 
 
 fending the inhabitants against the incursions of the Karaunas, 
 who scour the country and plunder every thing within their 
 reach. 1 In order that the reader may understand what 
 people these are, it is necessary to mention that there was a 
 prince named Nugodar, the nephew of Zagatai', who was 
 brother of the Grand Khan (Okta'i), and reigned in Turkestan. 2 
 This Nugodar, whilst living at Zagatai's court, became am- 
 bitious of being himself a sovereign, and having heard that 
 in India there was a province called Malabar, 3 governed at 
 
 1 The early Latin text calls them " Scarani et Malandrini." The Ka- 
 raunas we may presume to be the inhabitants of Makran, a tract of 
 country extending from the vicinity of the Indus towards the Persian 
 Gulf, and which takes its name from the word kardna, signifying a 
 " shore, coast, or border." They appear to differ little from the neigh- 
 bouring people of Baluchistan, if they be not in fact the same race: 
 and what our author states of them is a faithful picture of the preda- 
 tory habits ascribed to the latter. "The Boloujes," says Ibn Haukal, 
 " are in the desert of Mount Kefes, and Kefes in the Parai language ia 
 Kouje ; and they call these two people Koujes and Boloujes. The 
 Boloujes are people who dwell in the desert ; they infest the roads, 
 and have not respect for any person." P. 140. Of the habits of this 
 people we have the most particular account in the journal of Lieut. 
 Pottinger, who says, " The Nharooe's are the most savage and predatory 
 class of Belooches ; and whilst they deem private theft dishonourable 
 and disgraceful in the extreme, they contemplate the plunder and devas- 
 tation of a country with such opposite sentiments, that they consider it 
 an exploit deserving of the highest commendation ; and steeled by that 
 feeling, they will individually recount the assistance they have rendered 
 on such occasions, the numbers of men, women, and children they 
 have made captives and carried away or murdered, the villages they 
 have burned and plundered, and the flocks they have slaughtered when 
 unable to drive them off." P. 58. "We are now in Mukran," said a 
 native of Beloochistan to the same traveller, "where every individual is 
 a robber by caste, and where they do not hesitate to plunder brothers 
 and neighbours." P. 139. 
 
 2 Nikodar Oghlan was the son of Hulagu, and grand nephew of 
 Jagata'i ; he succeeded his brother Abaka in the throne of Persia, by the 
 name of Ahmed Khan, and was the first of his family who made public 
 profession of Mahometanism. If the Nikodar, who pushed his fortune, 
 as we are here told, on the side of India, did actually visit the court of 
 Jagata'i, who died in 1240, he must have belonged to the preceding 
 generation, as it was not until 1282 that Ahmed Khan Nikodar became 
 the sovereign of Persia, and forty-two years is an interval too great to 
 admit of our supposing him to have been the eastern adventurer. 
 There may have been an earlier Nikodar amongst the numerous grand- 
 sons of Jengiz-khan, and in fact the consistency of the story requires 
 that the event should have taken place long before our author's time. 
 
 3 I must here be indulged in a conjecture, which, however bold it
 
 CONQUEST OF DELHI. 59 
 
 that time by a king named As-idin Sultan, 1 which had not 
 yet been brought under the dominion of the Tartars, he 
 secretly collected a body of about ten thousand men, the 
 most profligate and desperate he could find, and separating 
 himself from his uncle without giving him any intimation of 
 his designs, proceeded through Balashan 2 to the kingdom of 
 Kesmur, b where he lost many of his people and cattle, from 
 the difficulty and badness of the roads, and at length entered 
 the province of Malabar. 4 Coming thus upon As-idin by 
 surprise, he took from him by force a city called Dely, as 
 well as many others in its vicinity, and there began to reign. 5 
 
 may seem, will be justified by the sequel : that instead of Malabar or 
 Malawar (as it is often written) the word should be, and was in the 
 original, Lahawar, or, as commonly pronounced, Lahore ; for through 
 this province, and certainly not through Malabar, this adventurer must 
 necessarily have passed in his way to Delhi. 
 
 1 Azz-eddin, Ghiyas-eddin, and Moazz-eddin, with the addition of 
 Sultan, were common titles of the Patan sovereigns of Delhi, as well 
 as of the princes who governed the provinces of their empire. 
 
 2 Badakhshan, near the sources of the Oxus, lies on that side of 
 Jagata'i's country which is nearest to the heads of the Indus and 
 Ganges, and consequently in the line of march towards Delhi 
 
 3 Kesmur can be no other than Kashmir, which lies in the direction 
 from Badakhshan towards Lahore, Sirhind, and the capital. The 
 more common route is by Kabul, but the object of this petty invader 
 was, to keep amongst the mountains, and thereby conceal his inten- 
 tions. 
 
 4 Here it becomes perfectly obvious, that the country into which he 
 penetrated upon leaving Kashmir was the Panjab, of which Lahawar 
 or Lahore is the principal city. 
 
 5 We do not re&d in any native historian, of this conquest of Delhi 
 by the Moghul Tartars, antecedent to the invasion by Tamerlane. But 
 we learn from the History of Hindustan, as translated by Dow from 
 the text of Ferishta, that Moazz-eddin Byram Shah, kvng of Delhi, 
 whose reign began in 1239 and ended in 1242, was involve^ hi troubles 
 with his vizir and pi-incipal omrahs, by whom a mutiny was excited 
 amongst his troops. At this crisis, " news arrived that the Moghuls of 
 the great Zingis had invested Lahore ; that Malek, the viceroy of that 
 place, finding his troops mutinous, had been obliged to flee in the night, 
 and was actually on his way to Delhi ; and that Lahore was plundered 
 by the enemy, and the miserable inhabitants carried away prisoners." 
 " The vizir, in the meantime, advanced with the army to the capital, 
 which he besieged for three months and a half. Rebellion spreading 
 at last among the citizens, the place was taken in the year 1241. 
 Byram was thrown into prison, where, in a few days, he came to z. 
 tragical end. The Moghuls, after plundering the provinces on the 
 banks of the five branches of the Indus, returned to Ghizni." Thus we 
 perceive that at the very period in question, which was a little before
 
 60 TRAVELS OP MARCO POLO. 
 
 The Tartars whom he carried thither, and who were men of 
 a light complexion, mixing with the dark Indian women, 
 produced the race to whom the appellation of Karaunas is 
 given, signifying, in the language of the country, a mixed 
 breed ; l and these are the people who have since been in the 
 practice of committing depredations, not only in the country 
 of Reobarle, but in every other to which they have access. In 
 India they acquired the knowledge of magical and diabolical 
 arts, by means of which they are enabled to produce darkness, 
 obscuring the light of day to such a degree, that persons are 
 invisible to each other, unless within a very small distance. 2 
 Whenever they go on their predatory excursions, they put 
 this art in practice, and their approach is consequently not 
 perceived. Most frequently this district is the scene of their 
 operations; because when the merchants from various parts 
 assemble at Ormus, and wait for those who are on their 
 way from India, they send, in the winter season, their horses 
 and mules, which are out of condition from the length of 
 their journeys, to the plain of Reobarle, where they find 
 abundance of pasture and become fat. The Karaunas, aware 
 that this will take place, seize the opportunity of effecting a 
 general pillage, and make slaves of the people who attend the 
 
 or after the death of Jagata'i in 1240, an army of Moghuls did advance 
 into provinces subject to the king of Delhi, and plundered his frontier 
 cities. 
 
 1 One of the meanings of the Sanskrit word karana is, "a person of 
 a mixed breed." 
 
 2 The belief in such supernatural agency was the common weakness 
 of the darker ages. Although the appearance and effects are mate- 
 rially different, it may be suspected that there is some connexion 
 between this story of mists produced by enchantment, and the optical 
 deception noticed by Elphinstone, in his journey across what may be 
 considered as an extension of the same desert, notwithstanding the 
 separation of its parts by the country through which the Indus takes 
 its course. " Towards evening," he says, " many persons were aston- 
 ished with the appearance of a long lake, enclosing several little 
 
 islands It was, however, only one of those illusions which the 
 
 French call mirage, and the Persians sirraub. I had imagined this 
 phenomenon to be occasioned by a thin vapour (or something resem- 
 bling a vapour), which is seen over the ground in the hot weather in 
 India, but this appearance was entirely different, and, on looking along 
 the ground, no vapour whatever could be perceived. ... I shall not 
 attempt to account for this appearance, but shall merely remark, thai 
 it seems only to be found in level, smooth, and dry places." Account 
 of Caubul, p. 16.
 
 DESCRIPTION OF HORMUZ. 61 
 
 cattle, if they have not the means of ransom. Marco Polo 
 himself 1 was once enveloped in a factitious obscurity of this 
 kind, but escaped from it to the castle of Konsalmi. 2 Many 
 of his companions, however, were taken and sold, and others 
 were put to death. These people have a king named Corobar. 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 OF THE CITY OF OBMUS, SITUATED ON AN ISLAND NOT FAB FROM THE 
 MAIN, IN THE SEA OF INDIA OF ITS COMMERCIAL IMPORTANCE AND 
 OF THE HOT WIND THAT BLOWS THERE. 
 
 AT the extremity of the plain before mentioned as extending 
 in a southern direction to the distance of five days' journey, 
 there is a descent for about twenty miles, by a road that is 
 extremely dangerous, from the multitude of robbers, by whom 
 travellers are continually assaulted and plundered. 3 This 
 declivity conducts you to another plain, very beautiful in its 
 appearance, two days' journey in extent, which is called the 
 plain of Ormus. Here you cross a number of fine streams, 
 and see a country covered with date-palms, amongst which 
 are found the francoline partridge, birds of the parrot 
 kind, and a variety of others unknown to our climate. At 
 
 1 The story may amount to nothing more than that these robbers, 
 having their haunts in the neighbourhood of mountains, availed them- 
 selves of the opportunity of thick mists, to make their attacks on the 
 caravans with the more security ; whilst their knowledge of the coun- 
 try enabled them to occupy those narrow defiles through which the 
 travellers must unavoidably pass. 
 
 2 This castle of Konsalmi, or, according to another reading, Kano- 
 salim, is not now to be discovered in our maps, but it may be remarked 
 that the Persian words Khanah al-salam signify, " the house of safety, 
 or peace." " A small but neat tower," says Elphinstone, " was seen in 
 this march (through the desert), and we were told it was a place of 
 refuge for travellers, against the predatory hordes who infest the route 
 of caravans." P. 17. 
 
 3 " In the mountains near Hormuz, it is said, there is much cultivated 
 land, and cattle, and many strong places. On every mountain there is 
 a chief, and they have an allowance from the sultan or sovereign ; yet 
 they infest the roads of Kirman, and as far as the borders of Fars and 
 Sejestan. They commit their robberies on foot and it is said that 
 their race is of Arabian origin, and that they have accumulated vast 
 wealth." Sir W. Ouseley's transl. of Ibn Haukal, p. 140.
 
 62 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 length you reach the border of the ocean, where, upon an 
 island, at no great distance from the shore, stands a city 
 named Ormus, 1 whose port is frequented by traders from all 
 parts of India, who bring spices and drugs, precious stones, 
 pearls, gold tissues, elephants' teeth, and various other articles 
 of merchandize. These they dispose of to a different set of 
 traders, by whom they are dispersed throughout the world. 
 This city, indeed, is eminently commercial, has towns and 
 castles dependent upon it, and is esteemed the principal 
 place in the kingdom of Kierman. 2 Its ruler is named Ruk- 
 
 1 The original city of Ormuz, or Hormuz, was situated on the 
 eastern shore of the Gulf of Persia, in the province of Mogostan, and 
 kingdom of Kirman. Ibn Haukal, about the latter part of the tenth 
 century, speaks evidently of this city, on the main, when he says : 
 " Hormuz is the emporium of the merchants in Kirman, and their 
 chief sea-port : it has mosques and market-places, and the merchants 
 reside in the suburbs." P. 142. It was destroyed by one of the princes 
 who reigned in Kirman, of the Seljuk dynasty, according to some 
 accounts, or the Moghul, according to others. The exact period is not 
 satisfactorily ascertained. On this occasion, the inhabitants removed, 
 with their most valuable effects, to the neighbouring island of Jerun, 
 about thirteen geographical miles from the former situation, where the 
 foundation of the new city of Hormuz, or Ormuz, destined to acquire 
 still greater celebrity than the former, was laid, although under the 
 disadvantages of wanting water, and of a soil impregnated with salt 
 and sulphur. Abulfeda, who wrote in the early part of the fourteenth 
 century, and was a contemporary of our author, describes the insular 
 city. This island was taken from the native princes, in 1507, by the 
 Portuguese, under the famous Alfonso Albuquerque. " In their hands," 
 says Robertson, " Ormuz soon became the great mart from which the 
 Persian empire, and all the provinces of Asia to the west of it, were 
 supplied with the productions of India ; and a city which they built on 
 that barren island, destitute of water, was rendered one of the chief 
 seats of opulence, splendour, and luxury in the eastern world." His- 
 torical Disquisition, p. 140. From them it was wrested, in 1622, by 
 Shah Abbas, with the assistance of an English squadron. Its fortifica- 
 tions, and other public structures, were razed by that conqueror ; and 
 its commerce was transferred to a place on the neighbouring coast, 
 called Gambrun, to which he gave the name of Bandar Abbassi. But 
 in the meantime the discovery of the passage from Europe by the 
 Cape of Good Hope operated to divert the general trade into a new 
 channel, and that which was carried on by the medium of ports in the 
 Gulf of Persia rapidly declined. In the year 1765, when Niebuhr 
 visited these parts, the island on which Hormuz stood was possessed 
 by a person who had been in the naval service of Nadir Shah, and the 
 place was become quite insignificant. 
 
 2 By this must be meant, that H ormuz exceeded the other cities in 
 opulence, and perhaps in population ; but Sirgan or Sirjan, also called
 
 DESCRIPTION OF HORMfZ. 63 
 
 medin Achomak, 1 who governs with absolute authority, but 
 at the same time acknowledges the king of Kierman 2 as his 
 liege lord. When any foreign merchant happens to die withiu 
 his jurisdiction, he confiscates the property, and deposits the 
 amount in his treasury. 3 During the summer season, the 
 inhabitants do not remain in the city, on account of the 
 
 Kirman, was the capital of what we term the province of that name, 
 and there the sovereign resided. 
 
 1 In the list of sultans of Hormuz furnished by Texeira in his trans- 
 lation of the annals of Turan-shah, we find one named Rukn-eddin 
 Mahmud, who, although the dates are very imperfect, may be supposed 
 to have reigned about the period of our author's visit to the Gulf of 
 Persia, and to be the prince here called Rukmedin Achomak. The 
 latter name is evidently intended for Achmet, in which mode that of 
 Ahmed has been commonly though improperly written ; and it is well 
 known that oriental writers themselves frequently commit errors by 
 confounding the three names of Ahmed, Muhammed, and Mahmud. 
 
 2 No record ',i the kings of Kirman can be traced to a later date 
 than the year 1187, when Malik Dinar, of the race of All (a Seyed), 
 expelled the last of the Seljuk princes, and established himself on the 
 throne ; but under Hulagu and his successors, who conquered Persia 
 in the following century, and formed a Moghul dynasy, it must have 
 become again a province or fief of that empire, governed (as it is at the 
 present day) by a branch of the reigning family. De Barros (Decade 
 ii. liv. iL cap. 2) informs us that a king or chief of Hormuz (in the 
 district of Mogostan, on the main,) obtained from his neighbour, the 
 Malek of Kaez, a cession of the island of Jerun, lying near hia part of 
 the coast, and established there a naval force, for the purpose of com- 
 manding the straits ; that in the event of a war, provoked by this 
 assumption of power, he became master of the island of Kaez also; 
 that the king of Persia (or, rather, the ruler of Kirman), to whom the 
 Malek had been used to pay tribute, marched an army into Mogostan, 
 and compelled the king of Hormuz to abandon his city on the continent, 
 and to take refuge in the island of Jerun, where he founded the new 
 city of Hormuz; that upon his consenting to acknowledge vassalage and 
 pay tribute (a share of the tolls on shipping) to the Persian king, he 
 was suffered to remain in possession of both islands ; and that in his 
 new establishment he afterwards reigned thirty years. The circum- 
 stances thus stated by De Barros agree in the material parts with what 
 our author relates at this place, and more particularly in book iii. 
 chap, xliii. ; but the Portuguese historian refers all the transactions to 
 the single reign of Gorduu-shah, who, he says, obtained the cession of 
 Jerun in 1273, and who, according to Texeira's list, where he is named 
 Azz-eddin Gordan-shah, died in 1318. There is reason, however, to 
 believe that he gives an unfounded extension to this reign, and that 
 the earlier events spoken of belonged to those of Seif-eddin and Rukn- 
 eddin, who were probably the father and grandfather of *hat prince. 
 
 3 This odious right is known to have been exercised in Europe,, in 
 very modern times, under the name of " droit d'aubaine."
 
 64 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 excess) *e heat, which renders the air unwholesome, but retire 
 to their gardens along the shore or on the banks of the rivers, 
 where with a kind of ozier-work they construct huts over the 
 water. These they enclose with stakes, driven in the water 
 on the one side, and on the other upon the shore, making a 
 covering of leaves to shelter them from the sun. Here they 
 reside during the period in which there blows, every day, 
 from about the hour of nine until noon, a land-wind so 
 intensely hot as to impede respiration, and to occasion death 
 by suffocating the person exposed to it. None can escape 
 from its effects who are overtaken by it on the sandy plain. 1 
 As soon as the approach of this wind is perceived by the 
 inhabitants, they immerge themselves to the chin in water, 
 and continue in that situation until it ceases to blow. 2 In 
 
 1 The hot wind known in Italy by the name of II Sirocco, and in 
 Africa by that of Harmatan, has been often described by travellers. 
 In the deserts of the south of Persia its effects are perhaps most 
 violent. " The winds in this desert," says Pottinger, " are often so 
 scorching (during the hot months from June to September) as to kill 
 anything, either animal or vegetable, that may be exposed to them, and 
 the route by which I travelled is then deemed impassable. This wind 
 is distinguished everywhere in Beloochistan, by the different names of 
 Julot or Julo (the flame), and Bade" sumoom (the pestilential wind). 
 So powerfully searching is its nature, that it has been known to kill 
 camels, or other hardy animals ; and its effects on the human frame 
 were related to me, by those who had been eye-witnesses of them, as 
 the most dreadful that can be imagined : the muscles of the unhappy 
 sufferer become rigid and contracted ; the skin shrivels ; an agonizing 
 sensation, as if the flesh was on fire, pervades the whole frame, and in 
 the last stage it cracks into deep gashes, producing hemorrhage, that 
 quickly ends this misery." P. 136. 
 
 2 For this practice of immersion we have the testimony of Pietro 
 della Valle, who was in the Gulf of Persia during the siege of HOITUUB, 
 and visited the island immediately after its falling into the hands of 
 the Persians. "Hormuz," he writes in his letter of the 18th January, 
 1623, " comunemente si stima la piu calda terra del mondo. ... E mi 
 dicono, che in certo tempo dell' anno, le genti di Hormuz non potreb- 
 bero vivere, se non vi stessero qualche hora del giorno immersi fin' alia 
 gola nell' acqua, che, a questo fine, in tutte le case, tengono in alcune 
 vasche, fatte a posta." Although additional testimony be not wanting, 
 I shall give that of Schillinger, an intelligent Swabian traveller, wha 
 visited these countries in the year 1700, and furnishes a good descrip 
 tion of Hormuz and Gambrun. " Wann die grosse Hitze einfallet," he 
 says, " legen sich die Innwohner den gantzen Tag durch in darzu 
 bequemte Wasser-trb'ge, oder stehen in mit wasser angefiillten Fasseru 
 biss an hals, umb also zu ruhen, und sich der unleydentlichen Hitze zu 
 erwehren." Persianische Reis, p. 279.
 
 EXTRAORDINARY HEAT AT HORMUZ. G5 
 
 proof of the extraordinary degree of this heat, Marco Polo 
 says that he happened to be in these parts when the following 
 circumstance occurred. The ruler of Ormus having neglected 
 to pay his tribute to the king of Kiermau, the latter took the 
 resolution of enforcing it at the season when the principal 
 inhabitants reside out of the city, upon the main land, and 
 for this purpose despatched a body of troops, consisting of 
 sixteen hundred horse and five thousand foot, through the 
 country of Reobarle, in order to seize them by surprise. In 
 consequence, however, of their being misled by the guides, 
 they failed to arrive at the place intended before the approach 
 of night, and halted to take repose in a grove not far distant 
 from Ormus j but upon recommencing their march in the 
 morning, they were assailed by this hot wind, and were all 
 suffocated; not one escaping to carry the fatal intelligence to 
 his master. When the people of Ormus became acquainted 
 with the event, and proceeded to bury the carcases, in order 
 that their stench might not infect the air, they found them 
 so baked by the intenseness of the heat, that the limbs, upon 
 being handled, separated from the trunks, and it became 
 necessary to dig the graves close to the spot where the bodies 
 lay. 1 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 OF THE SHIPPING EMPLOYED AT ORMUS OF THE SEASON IN WHICH THE 
 FRUITS ARE PRODUCED AND OF THE MANNER OF LIVING AND CUS- 
 TOMS OF THE INHABITANTS. 
 
 THE vessels built at Ormus are of the worst kind, and dan- 
 gerous for navigation, exposing the merchants and others 
 
 1 With, regard to the state of the bodies, however extraordinary the 
 circumstances may appear, they are fully corroborated by Chardin, 
 who, speaking further of this wind, says, " Son efiet le plus surprenant 
 n'est pas meme la mort qu'il cause ; c'est que les corps qui eu meurent 
 Bont comme dissous, sans perdre pourtant leur figure, ni me"me leur 
 couleur, en sorte qu'on diroit qu'ila ne sont qu'endorinis, quoiqu'ils 
 Boient morts, et que si on les prend quelque part, la piece demeure a la 
 main." He then proceeds to adduce some recent facts in proof of his 
 assertion. Tom. ii. p. 9, 4to. 
 
 9
 
 66 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 \vho make use of them to great hazards. Their defects 
 proceed from the circumstance of nails not being employed in 
 the construction; the wood being of too hard a quality, and 
 liable to split or to crack like earthenware. When an attempt 
 is made to drive a nail, it rebounds, and is frequently broken. 
 The planks are bored, as carefully as possible, with an iron 
 auger, near the extremities; and wooden pins or trenails 
 being driven into them, they are in this manner fastened (to 
 the stem and stern). After this they are bound, or rather 
 sewed together, with a kind of rope-yarn stripped from the 
 husk of the Indian (cocoa) nuts, which are of a large size, and 
 covered with a fibrous stuif like horse-hair. This being 
 steeped in water until the softer parts putrefy, the threads or 
 strings remain clean, and of these they make twine for sewing 
 the planks, which lasts long under water. 1 Pitch is not used 
 for preserving the bottoms of vessels, but they are smeared 
 with an oil made from the fat of fish, and then caulked with 
 oakum. The vessel has no more than one mast, one helm, 
 and one deck. 2 When she has taken in her lading, it is 
 covered over with hides, and upon these hides they place the 
 horses which they carry to India. They have no iron an- 
 
 1 We know little of the shipping employed in the Gulf of Persia before 
 the conquest of Hormuz by the Portuguese ; and since that period the 
 influence and example of these and other Europeans have much changed 
 the system of Persian and Indian navigation ; yet the account given 
 by our author corresponds in every essential particular with the kind 
 of vessel described by Niebuhr. Such also are the boats employed 
 at the present day on the coast of Coromandel, called chelingues 
 by the French, and masulah boats by the English, which are thus 
 described by Le Gentil : " Les bateaux dans lesquels se passent cea 
 barres, se nomment chelingues ; Us sont faits expres ; ce sont des 
 planches raises 1'une au-dessus de 1'autre, et cousues 1'une a 1'autre, 
 avec du fil fait de 1'^corce interieur du cocotier (de la noix du coco) ; 
 les coutures sont calfate"es avec de 1'^toupe faite de la mthne e"corce, et 
 enfoncee sans beaucoup de fasons avec un mauvais couteau. Le fond 
 de ces bateaux est plat et form6 comme les bords; ces bateaux ne sont 
 guere plus longs que larges, et il n'entre pas un seul clou dans leur 
 construction." (Voyage, torn, i p. 540.) This twine, manufactured from 
 the fibrous husk of the cocoa-nut (not from the bark of the tree, as M. 
 Le Gentil supposed), is well known in India by the name of coire, and 
 is worked into ropes for running-rigging and cables. 
 
 2 It is to be observed thab the numerous praws which cover the seas 
 of the further East, are steered, in general, with two helms or kamudis ; 
 and that such vessels had recently been under the notice of our author 
 in his passage to the straits of Malacca.
 
 DIET OF THE NATIVES. 67 
 
 chore, but in their stead employ another kind of ground- 
 tackle; 1 the consequence of which is, that in bad weather, 
 (and these seas are very tempestuous,) they are frequently 
 driven on shore and lost. 
 
 The inhabitants of the place are of a dark colour, and are 
 Mahometans. They sow their wheat, rice, and other grain in 
 the month of November, and reap their harvest in March.- 
 The fruits also they gather in that month, with the exception 
 of the dates, which are collected in May. Of these, with 
 other ingredients, they make a good kind of wine. 3 When it 
 is drunk, however, by persons not accustomed to the beverage, 
 it occasions an immediate flux; but upon their recovering 
 from its first effects, it proves beneficial to them, and con- 
 tributes to render them fat. The food of the natives is 
 different from ours; for were they to eat wheat en bread and 
 flesh meat their health would be injured. They live chiefly 
 upon dates and salted fish, such as the thunnus, cepole (cepola 
 tania), and others which from experience they know to be 
 wholesome. Excepting in marshy places, the soil of this 
 country is not covered with grass, in consequence of the 
 extreme heat, which burns up everything. Upon the death 
 of men of rank, their wives loudly bewail them, once in the 
 course of each day, during four successive weeks ; and there 
 are also people to be found here who make such lamentations 
 
 1 Neither are the vessels of the Malays commonly provided with 
 iron anchors ; which I presume to be what is meant by " ferri di 
 sorzer," although the term is not to be met with either in the general 
 or the marine dictionaries. Their anchors are formed of strong and 
 heavy wood, have only one arm or fluke, and are sunk by means of 
 heavy stones attached to them. 
 
 2 We might not expect to read of wheat being cultivated in so hot 
 climate, but the fact is well ascertained. 
 
 3 What has usually been termed palm-wine, or toddy, is a liquor 
 extracted from trees of the class of palms, by cutting off the shoot for 
 fructification, and applying to the wounded part a vessel into which 
 the liquor distils ; but we read also of an inebriating liquor pre- 
 pared from ripe dates, by steeping them in warm water, until ther 
 undergo vinous fermentation. Pottinger, speaking of the people of 
 Mukran (adjoining to the province of Kirman), says; " They likewise 
 drink great quantities of an intoxicating beverage, made from the fer- 
 mented dates, which must be exceedingly pernicious in its effects."' 
 (P. 306.) In the Anabasis of Xenophon, this liquor is spoken of ae 
 having been met with by the Greeks in the villages of Babylonia. 
 
 F 2
 
 OS TRAVELS OP MARCO POLO. 
 
 a profession, and are paid for uttering them over the corpses 
 of persons to whom they are not related. 1 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 OF THE COUNTRY TRAVELLED OVER UPON LEAVING ORMUS, AND RETURN- 
 ING TO KIERMAN BY A DIFFERENT ROUTE ; AND OF A BITTERNESS IN 
 THE BREAD OCCASIONED BY THE QUALITY OF THE WATER. 
 
 HAVING spoken of Ormus, I shall for the present defer treat- 
 ing of India, intending to make it the subject of a separate 
 Book, and now return to Kierman in a northerly direction. 
 Leaving Ormus, therefore, and taking a different road to that 
 place, you enter upon a beautiful plain, producing in abun- 
 dance every article of food; and birds are numerous, espe- 
 cially partridges : but the bread, which is made from wheat 
 grown in the country, cannot be eaten by those who have not 
 learned to accommodate their palates to it, having a bitter 
 taste derived from the quality of the waters, which are all 
 bitter and salsuginous. On every side you perceive warm, 
 sanative streams, applicable to the cure of cutaneous and 
 other bodily complaints. Dates and other fruits are in great 
 plenty. 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 OP THE DESERT COUNTRY BETWEEN KIERMAN AND KOBIAM, AND OF 
 THE BITTER QUALITY OF THE WATER. 
 
 UPON leaving Kierman and travelling three days, you reach 
 the borders of a desert extending to the distance of seven 
 
 1 These excessive lamentations, so common in the East, and not 
 unknown in some parts of Europe, as well as the practice of hiring 
 professional mourners, have been often described by travellers. " Les 
 femmes sur tout," says Chardin, " s'emportent aux exces de fureur et 
 de desolation les plus outrez, qu'elles entremelent de longues com- 
 plaintes, de recits tendres et touchans. et de doulloureuses apostrophes 
 au cadavre insensible." (Tom. ii. p. 385.) " It is usual," says Fryer, "to 
 hire people to lament ; and the widow, once a moon, goes to the grave 
 with her acquaintance to repeat the doleful dirge." (Account of East 
 India and Persia, p. 94.) It may be observed, that in the early Latin 
 and other early texts the time of mourning is stated to be four years 
 instead of four weeks.
 
 SALT-SPKIXGS OF KIRMA.N. 69 
 
 days' journey, a the end of which you arrive at Kobiam. 1 
 During the first three days (of these seven) but little water 
 is to be met with, and that little is impregnated with salt, 
 green as grass, and so nauseous that none can use it as drink. 
 Should even a drop of it be swallowed, frequent calls of nature 
 will be occasioned; and the effect is the same from eating 
 a grain of the salt made from this water. 2 In consequence 
 of this, persons who travel over the desert are obliged to 
 carry a provision of water along with them. The cattle, how- 
 ever, are compelled by thirst to drink such as they find, and 
 a flux immediately ensues. In the course of these three days 
 not one habitation is to be seen. The whole is arid and 
 desolate. Cattle are not found there, because there is no 
 subsistence for them. 3 On the fourth day you come to a 
 
 1 Kobiam (Gobiam in the early Latin text, Kobinam in others) ia the 
 Kabis of D'Anville, the Chabis of Edrisi, the Khebis, Khebeis, and 
 Khubeis of Ibn Haukal, and the Khubees of Pottinger. " Khebeis," 
 says Ibn Haukal, " is a town on the borders of this desert, with 
 running water and date-trees. From that to Durak is one merhileh ; and 
 during this stage, as far as the eye can reach, everything wears the 
 appearance of ruin arid desolation ; for there is not any kind of water." 
 (Ouseley's translation, p. 199.) " It formerly flourished," says Pot- 
 tinger, " and was the residence of a Beglerbeg on the part of the chief 
 of Seistan, but now is a miserable decayed place, and the inhabitants 
 are notorious robbers and outcasts, who subsist by infesting the high- 
 ways of Khorasan and Persia, and plundering karawans." P. 229. 
 
 2 The salt springs and plains incrusted with salt, which Pottinger 
 met with in Kirman and the adjacent countries, are thus spoken of : 
 " We crossed a river of liquid salt, so deep as to take my horse to the 
 knees ; the surface of the plain for several hundred yards on each side 
 was entirely hid by a thick incrustation of white salt, resembling a fall 
 of frozen snow, that crackled under the horse's hoofs." (P. 237.) " The 
 whole of these mountains (of Kohistan) abound with mineral produc- 
 tions : in several places there are brooks of liquid salt, and pools of 
 water covered with a scum similar to the naphtha, or bitumen, found 
 near the Caspian sea." (P. 312.) "On the high road from Kelat to 
 Kutch Gundava there is a range of hills, from which a species of salt, 
 perfectly red in its colour, is extracted, that _ possesses very great 
 aperient qualities. Sulphur and alum are to be had at the same place." 
 (P. 323.) It would seem from its effects that the salt of these deserts 
 contains sulphate of magnesia, and the green colour noticed by our 
 author may proceed from a mixture of sulphate of iron. 
 
 3 " On the east," says Ibn Haukal, " the desert of Khorasan partly 
 borders the province of Makran and partly Seistan ; to the soutn it 
 
 has Kirman and Fars, and part of the borders of Isfahan This 
 
 desert is almost totally uninhabited and waste It is the haunt 
 
 of robbers and thieves, and without a guide it is very difficult to find
 
 70 TRAVELS OP MARCO POLO. 
 
 river of fresh water, but which has its channel for the most 
 part under ground. In some parts however there are abrupt 
 openings, caused by the force of the current, through which 
 the stream becomes visible for a short space, and water is to 
 be had in abundance. Here the wearied traveller stops to 
 refresh himself and his cattle after the fatigues of the pre- 
 ceding journey. 1 The circumstances of the latter three days 
 resemble those of the former, and conduct him at length to 
 the town of Kobiam. 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 OF THE TOWN OF KOBIAM, AND ITS MANUFACTURES. 
 
 KOBIAM is a large town, the inhabitants of which observe 
 the law of Mahomet. They have plenty of iron, accai-um, 
 and andanicum. Here they make mirrors of highly polished 
 steel, of a large size and very handsome. Much antimony 
 or zinc is found in the country, and they procure tutty which 
 makes an excellent collyrium, together with spodium, by the 
 following process. They take the crude ore from a vein that 
 is known to yield such as is fit for the purpose, and put it 
 into a heated furnace. Over the furnace they place an iron 
 grating formed of small bars set close together. The smoke 
 or vapour ascending from the ore in burning attaches itself to 
 the bars, and as it cools becomes hard. This is the tutty; 
 whilst the gross and heavy part, which does not ascend, but 
 remains as a cinder in the furnace, becomes the spodium. 2 
 
 the way through it, and one can only go by the well-known paths." 
 Pp. 192194. 
 
 1 This place of refreshment may perhaps be Shur, which Ibn Haukal 
 terms a stream of water in the desert, on the road which begins from 
 the Kirman side. In another place he says it is one day's journey 
 from Durak, (mentioned in note ', p. 69,) and describes it as a broad 
 water-course of rain-water. No notice, however, is there taken of its 
 passing under ground ; and the identity, therefore, is not to be insisted 
 upon ; but the subterraneous passage of rivers is not very uncommon. 
 
 2 In Note 2 , p. 54, a reason was assigned for supposing that by the 
 word andanico was meant antimony, which is stated by Chardin 
 and others to be found in the quarter of Persia here spoken of ; but 
 from the process of making tutty and spodium so particularly de- 
 scribed in this place, we should be led to infer that lapis calaminaris, 
 or zinc, is the mineral to which our author gives that name, or rather,
 
 PROVINCE OF DAMAGHAX. 71 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 OF THE JOURNEY FROM KOBIAif TO THE PROVINCE OF TUfOCHAET OS 
 THE XORTHERX CONFINES OF PERSIA AXD OF A PARTICULAR SPE- 
 CIES OF THEE. 
 
 LEAVING Kobiam you proceed over a desert of eight days' 
 journey exposed to great drought; neither fruits nor any 
 kind of trees are met with, and what water is found 'has 
 a bitter taste. Travellers are therefore obliged to carry with 
 them so much as may be necessary for their sustenance. 
 Their cattle are constrained by thirst to drink such as the 
 desert affords, which their owners endeavour to render palat- 
 able to them by mixing it with flour. At the end of eight 
 days you reach the province of Timochain, situated towards 
 the north, on the borders of Persia, in which are many towns 
 and strong places. 1 There is here an extensive plain remark- 
 
 the name of which andanico IB the corruption. How far the qualities 
 of antimony and of zinc may render them liable to be mistaken for 
 each other, I do not pretend to judge, but upon this point there seems 
 to exist a degree of uncertainty that may excuse our author, if he sup- 
 posed that the former, instead of the latter, was employed in the 
 manufacture of tutia or tutty. " The argillaceous earth," says Bontius, 
 " of which tntty is made, is found in great quantities in the province 
 of Persia called Kirmon, as I have often been told by Persian and 
 Armenian merchants." (Account of Diseases, Xatural Hist. &c. of the 
 East Indies, chap. xiii. p. 180.) Pottinger, in the journal of his travels 
 through Beloochistan towards Kirman, speaks of a caravansery " called 
 Soormu-sing, or the stone of antimony, a name which it derives from 
 the vast quantities of that mineral to be collected in the vicinity." 
 (P. 38.) That the coUyrium so much in use amongst the eastern people, 
 called surmek by the Persians, and an/an or unjun by the natiyes of 
 Hindustan, has tutty for its basis, will not, I suppose, be disputed: 
 but in the Persian and Hindustani dictionaries it will be found that 
 Burmeh and unjan are likewise the terms for antimony. Whatever 
 may be the proper application of the names, he is at least substan- 
 tially correct in the fact that tutty, employed as a collyrium or 
 ophthalmic unguent, is prepared from a mineral substance found in 
 the province of Kirman. 
 
 1 It has already been shown that the Timocain or Timochain of our 
 text is no other than Damaghan, a place of considerable importance 
 on the north-eastern confines of Persia, having the ancient Hyrcania, 
 from which it is separated by a chain of mountains, to the north, the 
 province of Khorasan to the east, and the small province of Kronis, of 
 which it is the capital, together with the salt-desert, to the south. In
 
 72 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 able for the production of a species of tree called the tree of 
 the sun, and by Christians arbor secco, the dry or fruitless 
 tree. Its nature and qualities are these : It is lofty, with 
 a large stem, having its leaves green on the upper surface, but 
 white or glaucous on the under. It produces husks or cap- 
 sules like those in which the chestnut is enclosed, but these 
 contain no fruit. The wood is solid and strong, and of a yellow 
 colour resembling the box. 1 There is no other species of tree 
 near it for the space of a hundred miles, excepting in one 
 quarter, where trees are found within the distance of about 
 ten miles. It is reported by the inhabitants of this district 
 that a battle was fought there between Alexander, king of 
 Macedonia, and Darius. 2 The towns are well supplied with 
 every necessary and convenience of life, the climate being 
 temperate, and not subject to extremes either of heat or cold. 3 
 
 this neighbourhood it was that Ghazan the son of Arghun, heir to the 
 throne of Persia, then occupied by his uncle, was stationed with an 
 army to guard the important pass of Khowar or the Caspian Straits, 
 at the period of the arrival of the Polo family from China ; and thi- 
 ther they were directed to proceed, in order to deliver into his hands 
 their precious charge, a princess of the house of Kubla'i. 
 
 1 This tree, to which the name of arbor secco was applied, would 
 seem to be a species of fagus, and to partake of the character of the 
 chestnut. But from various passages of later writers, we shall be 
 justified in considering it was intended for a variety of the platanus, 
 or plane-tree. The epithet of secco seems to imply nothing more 
 than this : that when the form of the husk promises an edible nut, 
 the stranger who gathers it is disappointed on finding no perceptible 
 contents, or only a dry and tasteless seed. 
 
 2 The last battle fought between Alexander and Darius was at 
 Arbela (Arbil), in Kurdistan, not far from the Tigris, but in the sub- 
 sequent operations, the vanquished king of Persia was pursued from 
 Ecbatana (Hamadan), through the Caspian Straits or pass of Khowar, 
 which Alexander's troops penetrated without opposition, into the pro- 
 vince of Comisene (Kumis), of which Hecatompylos (supposed to be 
 Damaghan) was the capital ; nor did the pursuit cease until the unfor- 
 tunate monarch was murdered by his own subjects not far from the 
 latter city. Alexander himself advanced by a nearer way, but across 
 a desert entirely destitute of water. Traditions respecting the Mace- 
 donian conqueror abound in this part of the country. 
 
 * The mildness of the climate, and at the same time its extreme 
 unhealthiness, along the southern shore of the Caspian, is noticed by 
 Olearius, Chardin, and other travellers ; but the district about Da- 
 maghan, here spoken of, is separated by a chain of mountains from the 
 swampy tract between Asterabad and Ferhabad (the places chiefly 
 visited by Europeans during the reign of Shah Abbas, who frequently 
 held his court in them), and occupies a much more elevated region.
 
 THE OLD MAN OP THE MOUNTAIN. 73 
 
 The people are of the Mahometan religion. They are in 
 general a handsome race, especially the women, who, in my 
 opinion, are the most beautiful in the world. 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 OP THE OLD MAN OF THE MOUNTAIN OP HIS PALACE AND GARDENS 
 OF HIS CAPTUKE AND HIS DEATH. 
 
 HAVING spoken of this country, mention shall now be made 
 of the old man of the mountain. 1 The district in which his 
 residence lay obtained the name of Mulehet, signifying in the 
 language of the Saracens, the place of heretics, and his people 
 that of Mulehetites, 2 or holders of heretical tenets; as we 
 
 1 The appellation so well known in the histories of the crusades, of 
 " Old man of the mountain," is an injudicious version of the Arabic 
 title Sheikh al Jebal, signifying " chief of the mountainous region." 
 But as the word sheikh, like signor, and some other European terms, 
 bears the meaning of "elder," as well as of "lord or chief," a choice 
 of interpretations was offered, and the less appropriate adopted. The 
 places where this personage, who was the head of a religious or fana- 
 tical sect, exercised the rights of sovereignty, were the castles of 
 Alamut, Lamsir, Kirdkuh, and Maimun-diz, and the district of Rudbar ; 
 all situated within the limits of that province which the Persians name 
 Kuhestan, and the Arabians Al-jebal. " La position d'Alamout," saya 
 De Sacy, in his Memoire sur la Dynastie des Assassins et sur 1'Origine 
 de ieur Nom, " situe"e au milieu d'un pays de montagnes, fit appeler le 
 prince qui y re"gnoit schtikh-aldjebal, c'est-a-dire, le scheikh ou prince 
 des montagnes, et I'^quivoque du mot scheikh, qui signifie egalement 
 vieillard et prince, a donne" lieu aux historiens des croisades et ah 
 cSlebre voyageur Marc Pol, de le nommer le Vieux de la montagne." 
 
 2 This correct application of the Arabic term, Mulehet or Mulehed, 
 is one of the many unquestionable proofs of the genuineness of our 
 author's relation, and would be sufficient to remove the doubts of any 
 learned and candid inquirers on the subject of his acquaintance with 
 oriental matters. Under the article Melahedah, in the Bibliotheque 
 Orientale of D'Herbelot, we read : " C'est le pluriel de Melhed. qui 
 signifie un irnpie, un homme sans religion. Melahedah Kuhestan : 
 Les Impies de la Montagne. C'est ainsi que sont appelles les Ismaelians 
 qui ont regne dans 1'Iran, et particulierement dans la partie montueuse 
 4e la Persa" This opprobrious epithet was bestowed by the orthodox 
 Mussulmans upon the fanatic sect of Ismaelians, Batenians, or, as they 
 style themselves, Refik, or Friends, who, under the influence of an 
 adventurer named Hasan ben Sabbah, began to flourish in Persia about 
 the year 1090, during the reign of Malik Shah Jelal-eddin, third sove
 
 74 TRAVELS OP MARCO POLO. 
 
 apply the term of Patharini to certain heretics amongst 
 Christians. 1 The following account of this chief, Marco Polo 
 testifies to having heard from sundry persons. He was 
 named Alo-eddin, 2 and his religion was that of Mahomet. In 
 a beautiful valley enclosed between two lofty mountains, he 
 had formed a luxurious garden, stored with every delicious 
 fruit and every fragrant shrub that could be procured. Pa- 
 laces of various sizes and forms were erected in different parts 
 of the grounds, ornamented with works in gold, with paintings, 
 and with furniture of rich silks. By means of small con- 
 duits contrived in these buildings, streams of wine, milk, 
 honey, and some of pure water, were seen to flow in every 
 direction. The inhabitants of these palaces were elegant and 
 beautiful damsels, accomplished in the arts of singing, play- 
 \ng upon all sorts of musical instruments, dancing, and espe- 
 cially those of dalliance and amorous allurement. Clothed in 
 rich dresses they were seen continually sporting and amusing 
 themselves in the garden and pavilions, their female guardians 
 being confined within doors and never suffered to appear. 
 The object which the chief had in view in forming a garden 
 of this fascinating kind, was this : that Mahomet having pro- 
 mised to those who should obey his will the enjoyments of Para- 
 dise, where every species of sensual gratification should be found, 
 in the society of beautiful nymphs, he was desirous of its 
 being understood by his followers that he also was a prophet 
 and the compeer of Mahomet, and had the power of admitting 
 
 reign of the Seljukian dynasty. With respect to the two grand divisions 
 of the Mussulman political faith, they professed themselves to belong 
 to the Shiahs or Eafedhi (as they are termed by their adversaries), who 
 maintain the legitimate right to the khalifat in the descendants of Ali. 
 Their particular tenets appear to have been connected with those of 
 the more ancient Karmats and modern Wahabis. 
 
 1 The Paterini are more generally known by the name of Waldenses, 
 Albigenses, and amongst the French writers by that of Patalins or 
 Patelins. 
 
 2 Ala-eddin, the Ismaelian prince, was killed, after a long reign, 
 about the end of the year 1255, and was succeeded by Rukn-eddin ben 
 Ala-eddin, who reigned only one year before the destruction of his 
 power under the circumstances our author proceeds to relate. He is 
 correct therefore in attributing the actions which roused the indigna- 
 tion of the world to the former ; but he does not appear to have been 
 aware that it was the son against whom the attack of the Moghuls was 
 directed, although the expedition must hare been undertaken against 
 A.la-eddin, the father.
 
 THE OLD MAN OF THE MOUNTAIN. 75 
 
 to Paradise such as he should choose to favour. In order 
 that none without his licence might find their way into this 
 delicious valley, he caused a strong and inexpugnable castle 
 to be erected at the opening of it, through which the entry 
 was by a secret passage. At his court, likewise, this chief 
 entertained a number of youths, from the age of twelve to 
 twenty years, selected from the inhabitants of the surrounding 
 mountains, who showed a disposition for martial exercises, and 
 appeared to possess the quality of daring courage. To them 
 he was in the daily practice of discoursing on the subject of 
 the paradise announced by the prophet, and of his own power 
 of granting admission ; and at certain times he caused opium 
 to be administered to ten or a dozen of the youths; and 
 when half dead with sleep he had them conveyed to the 
 several apartments of the palaces in the garden. Upon 
 awakening from this state of lethargy, their senses were 
 struck with all the delightful objects that have been described, 
 and each perceived himself surrounded by lovely damsels, 
 singing, playing, and attracting his regards by the most fas- 
 cinating caresses, serving him also with delicate viands and 
 exquisite wines; until intoxicated with excess of enjoyment 
 amidst actual rivulets of milk and wine, he believed himself 
 assuredly in Paradise, and felt an unwillingness to relinquish 
 its delights. When four or five days had thus been passed, 
 they were thrown once more into a state of somnolency, and 
 carried out of the garden. Upon their being introduced to 
 his presence, and questioned by him as to where they had 
 been, their answer was, " In Paradise, through the favour of 
 your highness :" and then before the whole court, who listened 
 to them with eager curiosity and astonishment, they gave 
 a circumstantial account of the scenes to which they had been 
 witnesses. The chief thereupon addressing them, said : " We 
 have the assurances of our prophet that he who defends his 
 lord shall inherit Paradise, and if you show yourselves devoted 
 to the obedience of my orders, that happy lot awaits you." 
 Animated to enthusiasm by words of this nature, all deemed 
 themselves happy to receive the commands of their master, 
 and were forward to die in his service. 1 The consequence of 
 
 1 This story was the current belief of the people of Asia, who seem 
 to have thought it necessary to assign extraordinary causes for an 
 effect so surprising as that of the implicit devotion of these religious
 
 76 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 this system was, that -when any of the neighbouring princes, 
 or others, gave umbrage to this chief, they were put to death 
 by these his disciplined assassins ; none of whom felt terror 
 at the risk of losing their own lives, which they held in little 
 estimation, provided they could execute their master's will. 
 On this account his tyranny became the subject of dread in 
 all the surrounding countries. He had also constituted two 
 deputies or representatives of himself, of whom one had his 
 residence in the vicinity of Damascus, and the other in Kur- 
 distan; 1 and these pursued the plan he had established for 
 training their young dependants. Thus there was no person, 
 however powerful, who, having become exposed to the enmity 
 of the old man of the mountain, could escape assassination. 
 His territory being situated within the dominions of Ulau 
 (Hulagu), the brother of the grand khan (Mangu), that prince 
 had information of his atrocious practices, as above related, 
 as well as of his employing people to rob travellers in their 
 passage through his country, and in the year 1262 sent one 
 of his armies to besiege this chief in his castle. It proved, 
 however, so capable of defence, that for three years no im- 
 pression could be made upon it ; until at length he was forced 
 to surrender from the want of provisions, and being made 
 prisoner was put to death. His castle was dismantled, and 
 his garden of paradise destroyed. 2 And from that time there 
 has been no old man of the mountain. 
 
 enthusiasts to the arbitrary will of their master. The name of As- 
 sassins, given to these people by other writers, is not found in Marco 
 Polo. 
 
 1 I cannot discover any traces of an establishment of Ismaelians, 
 under a regular chief, in Kurdistan, although dais or missionaries of the 
 sect were frequently employed there ; but of the existence of the subor- 
 dinate government in Syria here mentioned we have ample testimony. 
 (See De Sacy, Memoire, p. 6, and De Guignes, Hist. ge'n. des Huns, liv. vL 
 p. 342.) I am the more particular in citing these authorities, to prove, in 
 confirmation of what Marco Polo asserts, that the Persian was the 
 original government, although the Syrian branch became better known 
 in Europe, and to its sheikhs the title of " old man of the mountain " 
 seems to have been generally if not exclusively applied. 
 
 2 The circumstances attending the destruction of this sect, which, as 
 we have seen in the preceding notes, had erected itself into an inde- 
 pendent sovereignty, are noticed by Abu'lfaraj, Hist. Dynast, p. 330, as 
 well as by others amongst the Oriental writers, who record the actions 
 of the descendants of Jengiz-khan, but by none with so much historical 
 detail as by Mirkhond, whose account of the dynasty of the Ismaelians of
 
 THE ROAD TO SAPURGAN. 77 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 OF A FERTILE PLAIN OF SIX DAYS' JOURNEY, SUCCEEDED BY A DESERT 
 OF EIGHT, TO BE PASSED IN THE WAT TO THE CITY OP SAPURGAN 
 OF THE EXCELLENT MELONS PRODUCED THERE AND OF THE CITY 
 OF BALACH. 
 
 LEAVING this castle, the road leads over a spacious plain, 
 and then through a country diversified with hill and dale 
 where there is herbage and pasture, as well as fruits in great 
 abundance, by which the army of Ulau was enabled to remain 
 so long upon the ground. This country extends to the dis- 
 tance of full six days' journey. It contains many cities and 
 fortified places, 1 and the inhabitants are of the Mahometan 
 religion. A desert then commences, extending forty or fifty 
 miles, 2 where there is no water ; and it is necessary that the 
 traveller should make provision of this article at his outset. 
 As the cattle find no drink until this desert is passed, the 
 greatest expedition is necessary, that they may reach a watering 
 
 Persia was translated and published at Paris, together with the original 
 text, by M. Jourdain. With regard to the date of 1262, which our 
 author assigns to the commencement of these operations, there must 
 be a mistake of about six years, as all the historians agree that 
 Hulagu's expedition against the Mulhedites was prior to that against 
 Baghdad, and the latter is known with sufficient certainty to have 
 fallen in the year 1258. We have, at the same time, the circumstantial 
 authority of Mirkhond for the reduction of the castles of the former in 
 the years 1256 and 1257. This and similar inaccuracies of Marco Polo 
 may be excused on the ground that the events having happened many 
 years before the commencement of his travels, he must have depended 
 upon the information of others for their dates, which may have been 
 expressed according to modes of reckoning that required a calculation 
 to reduce them to the Christian era. 
 
 1 From Damaghan his course was nearly east, or in the direction of 
 Balkh, and seems to have lain through Jan-Jerm and Nishapur towards 
 Meru-ar-rud; but the number of days' journeys is evidently too small, 
 unless we can suppose him to have travelled at double the rate of the 
 ordinary caravans, or full forty miles per day ; which is less probable 
 than that an omission of some stages has been made in the narrative. 
 
 2 The country of Khorasan, through which the route, whether from 
 Alamut or from Damaghan to the place next mentioned must have 
 lain, is said to be in general level, intersected with sandy deserts and 
 irregular ridges of lofty mountains
 
 78 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 place. At the end of the sixth day's journey, 1 he arrives 
 at a town named Sapurgau, 2 which is plentifully supplied 
 with every kind of provision, and is particularly celebrated foi 
 producing the best melons in the world. These are preserved 
 in the following manner. They are cut spirally, in thin slices, 
 as the pumpkin with us, and after they have been dried in the 
 sun, are sent, in large quantities, for sale, to the neighbouring 
 countries; where they are eagerly sought for, being sweet 
 as honey. 3 Game is also in plenty there, both of beasts and 
 birds. 
 
 Leaving this place, \ve shall now speak of another named 
 Balach ; a large and magnificent city. 4 It was formerly still 
 more considerable, but has sustained much injury from the 
 Tartars, who in their frequent attacks have partly demolished 
 its buildings. It contained many palaces constructed of 
 marble, and spacious squares, still visible, although in a 
 ruinous state. 5 It was in this city, according to the report of 
 
 1 It is quite necessary to the sense that this should mean six days' 
 journey from the eastern side of the desert just mentioned. 
 
 2 Of the identity of this place, which at first might seem to be in- 
 tended for Nishapur, there can be no doubt. " Cheburgan, ville da 
 Corassane, pres du Gihon et de Bale," says Pe'tis de la Croix, the trans- 
 lator of Sherefeddin, "a 100 degres de long, et 36 45' de latitude." In 
 the tables of Nassir-eddin, from which the above situation is taken, it 
 is named Ashburkan ; in D'Anville's map, Ashburgan ; in Strathlen- 
 berg's, Chaburga ; in Macdonald Kinneir's, Subbergan ; and in Elphin- 
 stone's, Shibbergaun. By the last writer it is spoken of as a dependency 
 of the government of Balkh. 
 
 3 The province of Khorasan is celebrated by all the eastern writers 
 for the excellence of its fniits, and the importance here given to its 
 melons is fully supported by the authority of Chardin. (Tom. ii. p. 1 9, 
 4to.) On the subject of the " melon du Khorasan," see also Relation de 
 1'Egypte, notes, p. 126. 
 
 4 Balach or Balkh, the " Bactra regia " of Ptolemy, which gave name 
 to the province of Bactriana, of which it was the capital, is situated 
 towards the heads of the Oxus, in the north-eastern extremity of 
 Khorasan. It is one of the four royal cities of that province, and 
 has been the seat of government perhaps more frequently even than 
 Nishapur, Herat, or Meru-shahjan. 
 
 5 Jengiz-khan, who took this city by assault in 1221, from the 
 Khorazmians, caused all the inhabitants to be massacred (as we are 
 told by his historian, Abu'lghazi) and the walls to be razed to their 
 foundation. In 1369 it was taken from the descendants of that con- 
 queror by Tamerlane, whose family possessed it until they were obliged 
 to give place to the Uzbek Tartars, between whom and the Persians it 
 was subsequently the subject of perpetual retention. "All the
 
 DESOLATION OF BALKH. 79 
 
 the inhabi .ants, that Alexander took to wife the daughter of 
 king Darius. 1 The Mahometan religion prevails here also. 2 
 The dominion of the lord of the Eastern Tartars extends to this 
 place ; and to it the limits of the Persian empire extend, in a 
 north-eastern direction. 3 Upon leaving Balach and holding 
 the same course for two days, you traverse a country that is 
 destitute of every sign of habitation the people having all fled 
 to strong places in the mountains, in order to secure them- 
 selves against the predatory attacks of lawless marauders, by 
 whom these districts are overrun. Here are extensive waters, 
 and game of various kinds. Lions are also found in these 
 parts, 4 very large and numerous. Provisions, however, are 
 scarce in the hilly tract passed during these two days, and the 
 traveller must carry with him food sufficient both for himself 
 and his cattle. 
 
 Asiatics/' Elphinstone observes, " are impressed with an idea of its 
 
 being the oldest city in' the world This ancient metropolis is 
 
 now reduced to insignificance. Its ruins still cover a great extent, and 
 are surrounded with a wall, but only one corner is inhabited." (P. 464.) 
 The houses are described by Macdonald Kinneir as being of brick, and 
 the palace of the khan, an extensive building, nearly all of marble, 
 brought from quarries in the neighbouring mouutains. 
 
 1 The Persian marriages of Alexander with Barsine or Statira, the 
 daughter of Darius, and with Parisatis, the daughter of Ochus, are 
 generally understood to have taken place at Susa. 
 
 2 Abu'lghazi informs us that at the time of the destruction of Balkh 
 by Jengiz-khan, it contained no fewer than 12,000 mosques; which, 
 although an exaggeration, shows at least the prevalence of Islamism in 
 that city. 
 
 3 Khorasan being so frequently subject to Persian dominion, and 
 particularly under the descendants of Hulagu, who possessed it at the 
 time our author travelled there, it was natural for him to consider it 
 as an integral part of the Persian empire. Balkh is correctly stated as 
 lying on the north-eastern frontier. The Latin says," usque ad istam 
 terram durat dominium domini de Levante." 
 
 * Chardin enumerates lions amongst the wild animals of Persia, and 
 especially in the frontier provinces. " Partout ou il y a des bois," he 
 says, " comme en Hircanie et en Curdistan, il y a beaucoup de betes sau- 
 vages, des lions, des ours, des tigres, des leopards, des porc-epy, et dee 
 sangliers." Tom. ii. p. 29, 4to.
 
 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 OF THE CASTLE NAMED THAIKAN OP THE MANNEKS OF THE INHA- 
 BITANTS AND OP SALT-HILI& 
 
 AT the end of these two days' journey you reach a castle 
 named Thaikan, where a great market for corn is held, it being 
 situated in a fine and fruitful country. The hills that lie to 
 the south of it are large and lofty. 1 They all consist of 
 white salt, extremely hard, with which the people, to the 
 distance of thirty days' journey round, come to provide 
 themselves, for it is esteemed the purest that is found in the 
 world ; hut it is at the same time so hard that it cannot be 
 detached otherwise than with iron instruments. 2 The quan- 
 tity is so great that all the countries of the earth might be 
 supplied from thence. Other hills produce almonds and 
 
 1 This account of Thaikan or Taikan (written Caycam in the manu- 
 scripts, and Taitham in the Italian epitomes), which is situated amongst 
 the sources of the Oxus, will be found remarkably correct. " Of Tok- 
 harestan," says Ibn Haukal, " the largest city (town) is Taikan, situated 
 on a plain in the vicinity of mountains. It is watered by a consider- 
 able river, and has many orchards and gardens." (P. 224.) " From 
 Taikan to Badakshan is seven days' journey." (P. 230.) See also Abul- 
 feda. These authors clearly distinguish it from a place named Taikan, 
 lying south-west of Balkh, near Meru-er-rud, and situated on a steep 
 rock ; but Edrisi gives to the former the name of Taikan, and has been 
 followed by modern geographers, and particularly by D'Anville, in 
 whose map both places are written with the same letters. " Their 
 course," says Lieut. Macartney, speaking of the streams of the Oxus, 
 near whose junction Talikan (or Taikan) stands, "is through a moun- 
 tainous country, but containing many excessively rich and fertile 
 valleys, producing all kinds of fruit in the greatest abundance." 
 Elphinstone's Account of Caubul, Appendix, p. 650. 
 
 2 This kind of hard fossil salt is found in several parts, and is thus 
 described by Chardin : " Dans la M6die et a Ispahan le sel se tire des 
 mines, et on le transporte par gros quartiers, comme la pierre de taille. 
 II est si dure en des endroits, comme dans la Caramanie d6serte 
 (Kirman) qu'on en employe les pierres dans la construction des maisons 
 des pauvres gens." (Tom. ii. p. 23.) " The road beyond," says Elphin- 
 stone, speaking of a place in the country of the Afghans, " was cut out 
 of solid salt, at the foot of cliffs of that mineral, in some places more 
 than one hundred feet high above the river. The salt is hard, clear, 
 and almost pure." Account of Caubul, p. 37.
 
 TOWN OF SCASSEM. 81 
 
 pistachio nuts, 1 in which articles the natives carry on a consi- 
 derable trade. Leaving Thaikan and travelling three days, 
 still in a north-east direction, you pass through a well in- 
 habited country, very beautiful, and abounding in fruit, corn, 
 and vines. The people are Mahometans, and are blood-thirsty 
 and treacherous. They are given also to debauchery, and to 
 excess in drink, to which the excellence of their sweet wine 
 encourages them. 2 On their heads they wear nothing but 
 a cord, about ten spans in length, with which they bind them 
 round. They are keen sportsmen, and take many wild 
 animals, wearing no other clothing than the skins of the 
 beasts they kill, of which materials their shoes also are made. 
 They are all taught to prepare the skins. 
 
 CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 DURING a journey of three days there are cities and many 
 castles, and at the end of that distance you reach a town 
 named Scassem, 3 governed by a chief whose title is equivalent 
 
 1 Both almonds and pistachio nuts are enumerated by Chardin 
 amongst the productions of the northern and eastern parts of Persia. 
 
 " II crolt des pistaches a Casbin et aux environs Us ont de plus 
 
 les amandes, les noisettes, &c. Le plus grand transport de fruits se 
 fait de Yesde." -Tom. ii. p. 21. 
 
 2 This country has since been overrun by a different race of people. 
 " The Uzbeks," says Elphinstone, " first crossed the Jaxartes about the 
 beginning of the sixteenth century, and pouring on the possessions of 
 the descendants of Tamerlane," who were themselves invaders, " soon 
 drove them from Bokhaura, Khoarizm, and Ferghauna, and spread 
 terror and dismay to the remotest parts of their extended empire. 
 They now possess besides Bulkh (Balkh), the kingdoms of Khoarizm 
 (or Orgunge), Bokhaura and Ferghauna, and perhaps some other little 
 countries on this side of Beloot Taugh. I am told that they are to be 
 found beyond Beloot Taugh, and as far east as Khoten at least ; but of 
 this I cannot speak with confidence. They belong to that great divi- 
 sion of the human race which is known in Asia by the name of Toork, 
 and which, with the Moghjils and Manshoors, compose what we call the 
 Tartar nation. Each of these divisions has its separate language, and 
 that of the Toorks is widely diffused throughout the west of Asia." 
 Account of Caubul, p. 465. 
 
 3 This name, which in the Latin texts as well as in that of Ramusio 
 is Scassem, and in the Italian epitomes Echasem, is evidently the 
 
 G
 
 82 IRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 to that of our barons or counts; and amongst the mountains 
 he possesses other towns and strong places. Through the 
 midst of this town runs a river of tolerable size. Here are 
 found porcupines, which roll themselves up when the hunters 
 set their dogs at them, and with great fury shoot out the 
 quills or spines with which their skins are furnished, wound- 
 ing both men and dogs. The people of this country have 
 their peculiar language. The herdsmen who attend the cattle 
 have their habitations amongst the hills, in caverns they form 
 for themselves ; nor is this a difficult operation, the hills con- 
 sisting, not of stone, but only of clay. Upon departing from 
 this place you travel for three days without seeing any kind 
 of building, or meeting with any of the necessaries required 
 by a traveller, excepting water ; but for the horses there is 
 sufficient pasture. You are therefore obliged to carry with 
 you every article for which there may be occasion on the road. 
 At the end of the third day you arrive at the province of 
 Balashan. 1 
 
 Keshem of D'Anville's map, and the Kishm-abad of Elphinstone's, 
 situated near the Ghori river which falls into the Oxus, and somewhat 
 to the eastward of the meridian of Kabul or Caubul. Ibn Haukal, who 
 describes it immediately after speaking of Taikan, and before he enters 
 upon Badakhshan, names it Khesh, and says it is " the largest town in 
 this mountainous country." J. R. Forster (Voyages in the North, p. 
 125) supposes Scassem to be Al-shash, on the river Sirr or Jaxartes, 
 but against all probability, considering its vast distance from the last 
 mentioned place ; whilst Keshem or Kishm is not only in the vicinity, 
 but in the direct route to that which is next described. 
 
 1 This place is unquestionably Badakhshan, as the name is correctly 
 written by Ibn Haukal and other geographers, although often pro- 
 nounced Balakhshfm. By D'Herbelot its situation is thus described : 
 " Badakschian et Balakhschian, pays qui fait une partie de la province 
 de Thokharestan, et qui s'etend vers la tete du fleuve Gihon ou Oxus, 
 par lequel il est borne du cote du levant et du septentrion." " Bu- 
 dukhshaun," says Elphinstone, in his Account of Caubul, " though an 
 extensive country, seems to be but one great valley running up from 
 the province of Bulkh (Ealkh) to Beloot Taugh, between the islands 
 connected with the Pamere and the range of Hindoo Koosh." P. 628
 
 THE PROVINCE OF BALASHAX. 83 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI. 
 
 OF THE PROVINCE OF BALASHAN OP THE PRECIOUS STONES FOUHD 
 
 THERE AND WHICH BECOME THE PROPERTY OF THE KIXG OF THH 
 
 HORSES AND THE FALCONS OF THE COUNTRY OF THE SALUBRIOUS 
 
 AIB OF THE MOUNTAINS AND OF THE DRESS WITH WHICH THE 
 WOMEN ADORN THEIR PERSONS. 
 
 In the province of Balashan, the people are Mahometans, 
 and have their peculiar language. It is an extensive king- 
 dom, being in length full twelve days' journey, and is go- 
 verned by princes in hereditary siiccession, who are all 
 descended from Alexander, by the daughter of Darius, king 
 of the Persians. All these have borne the title in the Sara- 
 cenic tongue of Zulkarnen, being equivalent to Alexander. 1 
 In this country are found the precious stones called balass 
 rubies, of fine quality and great value, so called from the 
 name of the province. 2 They are imbedded in the high 
 
 1 Abu'lfazl, speaking of the districts of Sewad and Bijore, which he 
 describes as consisting of hills and wilds, and inhabited by the tribe 
 of Yousef Zy. proceeds to say : " In the time of Mirza Ulugh Beg 
 (1450), the tribe of Sultan, who assert themselves to be the descendants 
 of the daughter of Sultan Secunder Zulkernain, came from Cabul, and 
 possessed themselves of this country. They say that Secunder left 
 treasure in Cabul under the care of some of his relations : and some 
 of their descendants, who carry their genealogical table in their hands, 
 now dwell in the mountainous parts." (Ayin Akbari, voL ii. p. 195.) 
 This filiation is also noticed by Lieut. Macartney, who says in his 
 Memoir : " The king of Derwauz (near the sources of the Oxus) claims 
 his descent from Alexander the Great, and his pretensions are admitted 
 by all his neighbours." (Account of Caubul, App. p. 628.) It is almost 
 unnecessary to observe that the word zuf-kamein signifies "having 
 horns," and that it was given by the orientals to Alexander, whom they 
 name Sekunder, from the appearance of his head on the Greek coins, 
 which long circulated, and were afterwards imitated, in Persia. 
 
 2 Every writer who has treated of this country, mentions its two 
 productions, the balass ruby (classed by the orientals as a species of 
 hyacinth) and the lapis lazuli " Badakhshan," says Ibn Haukal, 
 "produces the ruby (laaT), and lapis lazuli (lajaward). The mines are 
 in the mountains." (P. 225.) " C'est dans ses montagnes," says D"Her- 
 belot. "que se trouve la mine des rubis que les orientaux appellent 
 Badakhschiani et Balakhschiani. et que nous nommons rubis balavs." 
 " The part of Beloot Taugh within Budukhshaun." says Elphinstone, 
 " produces iron, salt, and sulphur, as well as abundance of lapis lazuli ; 
 out the celebrated mines of rubies, which occasion Budukhshaxin to be 
 so often alluded to by the Persian poets, are situated in the low er hills 
 near the Oxus. They are not now wrought." P. 629.
 
 84 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 mountains, but are searched for only in one, named Sikinan. 1 
 In this the king causes mines to be worked, in the same 
 manner as for gold or silver; and through this channel alone 
 they are obtained ; no person daring, under pain of death, to 
 make an excavation for the purpose, unless as a special fa- 
 vour he obtains his majesty's licence. Occasionally the king 
 gives them as presents to strangers who pass through his 
 dominions, as they are not procurable by purchase from 
 others, and cannot be exported without his permission. His 
 object in these restrictions is, that the rubies of his country, 
 with which he thinks his credit connected, should preserve 
 their estimation and maintain their high price; for if they 
 could be dug for indiscriminately, and every one could purchase 
 and carry them out of the kingdom, so great is their abundance, 
 that they would soon be of little value. Some he sends as 
 complimentary gifts to other kings and princes; some he 
 delivers as tribute (to his superior lord); and some also he 
 exchanges for gold and silver. These he allows to be exported. 
 There are mountains likewise in which are found veins of lapis 
 lazuli, the stone which yields the azure colour (ultramarine), 2 
 here the finest in the world. The mines of silver, copper, and 
 lead, are likewise very productive. It is a cold country. 
 The horses bred here are of a superior quality, and have great 
 speed. Their hoofs are so hard that they do not require 
 
 1 It may be thought a vain attempt to find corresponding authority 
 for the name of the particular mountain from whence these stones 
 were procured; but one which strongly resembles that of Sikinan 
 presents itself as belonging to a district in the vicinity of the places of 
 which we have been speaking. " The river Jihun (or Oxus)," says Ibn 
 Haukal, " rises within the territories of Badakhshan, and receives the 
 
 waters of many other streams The Wekhshab comes out of 
 
 Turkestan into the land of Wekhsh, near a mountain where there is 
 a bridge between Khotlan and the borders of Weish-kird (the Vash- 
 
 gherd of D'Anville) Near Wekhsh there are some districts (of 
 
 Mawaralnahr), such as Dekhan and Sekineh : these two belong to the 
 
 infidels There are mines of gold and silver in Wekhshab." 
 
 \P. 239.) By "infidels " are probably here meant the race of people 
 named Kafirs, whose country and peculiarities are described in the 
 Appendix to Elphinstone's Account of Caubul, under the head of Cau- 
 firistaun, p. 617 ; and whom some suppose to be the descendants of the 
 Greeks of Bactriana. 
 
 2 Speaking of Badakhshan, Abulfeda says : " Inde eSertur oi lazurd 
 et ol bellaur, seu lapis lazuli et beryllus." (Geogr. p. 352.) See also 
 H passage to the same effect, from Ibn Haukal, in note 2 , p. 83.
 
 PRODUCTIONS OF BALASHAN' 85 
 
 shoeing.! The natives are in the practice of galloping them 
 on declivities where other cattle could not or would not 
 venture to run. They asserted that not long since there 
 were still found in this province horses of the breed of Alex- 
 ander's celebrated Bucephalus, which were all foaled with a 
 particular mark in the forehead. The whole of the breed 
 was in the possession of one of the king's uncles, who, upon 
 his refusal to yield them to his nephew, was put to death ; 
 whereupon his widow, exasperated at the murder, caused them 
 all to be destroyed ; and thus the race was lost to the world. 
 In the mountains there are falcons of the species called saker 
 (falco sacer), which are excellent birds, and of strong flight; 
 as well as of that called laner, (falco lanarius). There are 
 also goshawks of a perfect kind (falco axtur, or palumbarius), 
 and sparrow-hawks (falco nisus). The people of the country 
 are expert at the chase both of beasts and birds. Good wheat is 
 grown there, and a species of barley without the husk 2 There 
 is no oil of olives, but they express it from certain nuts, and 
 from the grain called sesame. 3 which resembles the seed of 
 fiax. excepting that it is light-coloured; and the oil this 
 yields is better, and has more flavour than any other. It is 
 used by the Tartars and other inhabitants of these parts. 
 
 In this kingdom there are many narrow defiles, and strong 
 situations, which diminish the apprehension of any foreign 
 power entering it with a hostile intention. The men are 
 good archers and excellent sportsmen; generally clothing 
 themselves with the skins of wild animals; other materials 
 for the purpose being scarce. The mountains afford pasture 
 
 1 Elphinstone observes that " by far the best breeding country (for 
 horses) in the Caubul dominions is Bulkh (Balkh), and it is from that 
 province (bordering on Badakhshani and the Toorkmun country lower 
 down the Oxu.*, that the bulk of those exported are brought." (P. 296.) 
 The practice of shoeing horses seems to be unnecessary where the 
 country is not stony nor particularly hard. In Sumatra they are never 
 shodden, nor in Java, excepting in some instances for the paved streets 
 of Batavia. 
 
 1 The barley here described is the kind known by the appellations 
 of hordeum nudum, hordeum glabrum, and hordeum vulgare seminibus 
 decorticatis. Our author's expression of senza scorza is exactly there- 
 fore the specific name given to it by Linnaeus. 
 
 3 In India oil is chiefly procured from this grain, the sesamum. orien- 
 tale. Both walnuts and hazel nuts, from which oil may be extracted, 
 mre found in the northern parts of Persia.
 
 86 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 for an innumerable quantity of sheep, which ramble about in 
 flocks of four, five, and six hundred, all wild; and although 
 many are taken and killed, there does not appear to be any 
 diminution. 1 These mountains are exceedingly lofty, inso- 
 much that it employs a man from morning till night to ascend 
 to the top of them. Between them there are wide plains 
 clothed with grass and with trees, and large streams of the 
 purest water precipitating themselves through the fissures of 
 the rocks. In these streams are trout and many other deli- 
 cate sorts of fish. On the summits of the mountains the air 
 is so pure and so salubrious, that when those who dwell in 
 the towns, and in the plains and valleys below, find them- 
 selves attacked with fevers or other inflammatory com- 
 plaints, they immediately remove thither, and remaining for 
 three or four days in that situation, recover their health. 
 Marco Polo affirms that he had experience in his own person 
 of its excellent effects; for having been confined by sickness, 
 in this country, for nearly a year, 2 he was advised to change 
 the air by ascending the hills; when he presently became 
 convalescent. A peculiar fashion of dress prevails amongst 
 the women of the superior class, who wear below their waists, 
 in the manner of drawers, a kind of garment, in the making 
 of which they employ, according to their means, an hundred, 
 eighty, or sixty ells of fine cotton cloth; which they also 
 gather or plait, in order to increase the apparent size of their 
 hips ; those being accounted the most handsome who are the 
 most bulky in that part. 3 
 
 1 " Les provinces de Perse les plus abondantes en betail," says 
 Chardin, " sont la Bactriane, &c. J'y ai vu des troupeaux de moutons 
 qui couvroient quatre a cinq lieues de pa'is." Tom. ii. p. 29, 4to. 
 
 2 The residence in Badakhshan to which our author here adverts, 
 must have taken place at the period when he was sent on a mission by 
 the emperor Kubla'i to the province of Khorasan or of Khorasmia, of 
 which mention is made in the latter part of the first chapter. 
 
 3 In describing the dress worn by the Belooche women, Pottinger 
 says : " Their trowsers are preposterously wide, and made of silk, or 
 a fabrication of that and cotton mixed." Travels in Beloochistan and 
 Sinde, p. 65.
 
 PROVINCE OF BASCrX. 87 
 
 CHAPTER XXVII. 
 
 OP THE PROVINCE OF BASCIA LTINQ SOUTH OP THE FORMER OP THE 
 GOLDEN ORNAMENTS WORN BY THE INHABITANTS IN THEIR EARS 
 AND OF THEIR MANNERS. 
 
 LEAVING Balashan and travelling in a southerly direction 
 for ten days, you reach the province of Bascia, 1 the people of 
 which have a peculiar language. They worship idols; are of 
 a dark complexion, and of evil disposition ; and are skilled in 
 the art of magic, and the invocation of demons, a study to 
 which they continually apply themselves. They wear in 
 their ears pendent rings of gold and silver, adorned with 
 pearls and precious stones. 2 The climate of the province is 
 
 1 From the southerly, or rather south-easterly, situation of this place 
 with respect to the province of Badakhshan, its distance of about two 
 hundred miles, and other circumstances, I should infer that by Bascia 
 (in the epitomes Bassia) is meant Paishore or Peshawer, a city not far 
 from the principal confluence of the rivers that form the Sind or 
 Indus. It is described by Forster as large and populous, and in con- 
 sequence of its well chosen position an important mart, the residence 
 of wealthy merchants. He says, indeed, that it was founded by Akbar. 
 whose reign began in 1556; but although that enlightened monarch 
 might have improved Paishore, and did actually found Attok, lower 
 down on the river, there is evidence in his own Institutes that the 
 former was in existence before his time. It is there said : " Bekrarn, 
 commonly called Paishore, enjoys a delightful spring season. Here is 
 a temple called jorekehtery, a place of religious resort, particularly 
 for jowgies." (A^in Akbari, vol. ii. p. 205.) This is not the description 
 of a city of recent date ; nor if built by his master, would Abu'lfazl 
 have mentioned it in such slight terms. It is probable upon the whole 
 that Forster applied to Paishore what he had been told of Attok. 
 
 2 It is evident that the people here described, if not actually Indians, 
 are nearly allied to them. " The houses, food, and habits of life of the 
 tribes of Peshawer." says Elphinstone, " resemble those of the Eu- 
 sofzyes. The dress has also some resemblance, being a mixture of that 
 of the Indians with that of the Afghauns." P. 359.
 
 88 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 in some parts extremely hot. 1 The food of the inhabitants is 
 meat and rice. 2 
 
 CHAPTER XXVIII. 
 
 OF THE PROVINCE OP KESMUR SITUATED TOWARDS THE SOUTH-EAST 
 OF ITS INHABITANTS WHO ARE SKILLED IN MAGIC OF THEIR COM- 
 MUNICATION WITH THE INDIAN SEA AND OF A CLASS OF HERMITS, 
 THEIR MODE OF LIFE, AND EXTRAORDINARY ABSTINENCE. 
 
 KESMUR is a province distant from Bascia seven days' jour- 
 ney. 3 Its inhabitants also have their peculiar language. 4 They 
 are adepts beyond all others in the art of magic ; insomuch 
 
 1 " The heat of Peshour," says Forster, " seemed to me more intense 
 than that of any other country I have visited in the upper parts of 
 
 India The atmosphere in the summer solstice becomes almost 
 
 inflammable." (Vol. ii. p. 50.) "Peshawer," says Elphinstone, "is 
 situated in a low plain, surrounded on all sides except the east with 
 hills. The air is consequently much confined, and the heat greatly 
 increased. In the summer of 1809 .... the thermometer was for 
 several days at 112 and 113, in a large tent artificially cooled." 
 P. 132. 
 
 2 " The markets," Forster adds, " are abundantly supplied with pro- 
 visions of an excellent kind, particularly the mutton, which is the 
 flesh of the large-tailed sheep." P. 50. 
 
 3 Kesmur or Chesmur (Chesimur in the Latin versions and Cassimur 
 in the Italian epitomes) is undoubtedly intended for Kashmir. The 
 distance, indeed, from Paishore or Peshawer, as it cannot be less than 
 two hundred miles, and in a mountainous country, should be more 
 than seven days' journey; but we must not look for strict accuracy in 
 this respect; and our own maps differ considerably in the relative 
 position of the two places. For circumstantial accounts of this in- 
 teresting country, the reader may consult the Ayin Akbari, Bernier's 
 and Forster's Travels, Rennell's Memoir of a Map of Hindoostan, and 
 Elphinstone' s Account of Caubul. In the age in which our author wrote 
 its population appears to have been chiefly Hindu ; as in more ancient 
 times it was esteemed one of the principal seats of that religion and of 
 Sanskrit literature. The wealth derived from its celebrated manu- 
 facture, and its idolatrous sanctity, tempted the avarice, and roused the 
 fanatic zeal of the Mahometans, by whom it was invaded at an early 
 period ; but as it did not fall under the dominion of Jengiz-khan or his 
 immediate successors, it is here spoken of as an independent kingdom. 
 
 4 " The language of Kashmir," says Forster, " evidently springs 
 from the Sanskrit stock, and resembles in sound that of the Mahrattas." 
 (P. 22.) " The Cashmerians," says Elphinstone, " are a distinct nation 
 vf the Hindoo stock, and differ in language and manners from all their 
 neighbours." P. 506.
 
 DESCRIPTION OF KASHMIR. 89 
 
 that they can compel their idols, although by nature dumb 
 and deaf, to speak; they can likewise obscure the day, and 
 perform many other miracles. They are preeminent amongsf 
 the idolatrous nations, and from them the idols, worshipped 
 in other parts, proceed. 1 From this country there is a com- 
 munication by water with the Indian Sea. 2 The natives are 
 of a dark complexion, but by no means black; and the women, 
 although dark, are very comely. Their food is flesh, 3 with 
 rice and other grains; yet they are in general of a spare 
 habit. The climate is moderately warm. 4 In this province, 
 besides the capital, there are many other towns and strong 
 places. There are also woods, desert tracts, and difficult 
 passes in the mountains, which give security to the inhabi- 
 tants against invasion. 5 Their king is not tributary to any 
 
 1 This is consistent with what we are told in the Ayin Akbari, 
 that " the Hindoos regard all Cashmeer as holy land, where forty -five 
 places are dedicated to Mahadeo, sixty-four to Bishen, three to Brahma, 
 and twenty-two to Durga (the goddess of mountains)." (Vol. ii.p. 156.) 
 It is therefore by no means improbable that the Brahmins of this 
 remote and sacred country may have supplied southern India with 
 many of those images of their deities in stone and copper with which 
 the temples abound : for idols of home manufacture, we may presume, 
 have less honour in their own country than those imported from distant 
 places of holy repute. 
 
 2 " Most of the trade of the country," says the Ayin Akbari, " is 
 carried on by water." The river Jeilum or Behut, which flows through 
 the valley of Kashmir, and is there navigable, falls into the Indus, after 
 uniting its waters with those of the Chenab and the Ravi, not far from 
 the city of Multan: but as its course, after leaving that valley, is 
 through a mountainous country, the navigation must be interrupted in 
 some places. 
 
 3 If the population of Kashmir was at that time Hindu, as we have 
 every reason to suppose, although it had been occasionally subdued by 
 Mahometans, it may be thought difficult to reconcile to the customs of 
 those people what is here said of their food consisting in part of flesh ; 
 but in fact, the Hindu castes are not practically so strict in regard to 
 meats, as the precepts of their religion would lead us to believe. Add 
 to this, that the Kashmirians being noted at all periods for their light 
 and dissolute character, it is not among them (however holy their land) 
 that we are to look for a strict observance of the Vedas. 
 
 4 The temperateness of its climate has always been a subject of 
 panegyric, and was the occasion of its being the summer residence of 
 the Moghul emperors of Hindustan. " The whole of this soobah," 
 says the Ayin Akbari, " represents a garden in perpetual spring." 
 VoL ii. p. 152. 
 
 4 The valley of Kashmir, embosomed within the Hindu-koh or Indian 
 Caucasus, is nearly surrounded bj lofty mountains, and is consequently
 
 90 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 power. They have amongst them a particular class of devotees, 
 who live in communities, observe strict abstinence in regard 
 to eating, drinking, and the intercourse of the sexes, and 
 refrain from every kind of sensual indulgence, in order that 
 they may not give offence to the idols whom they worship. 
 These persons live to a considerable age. They have several 
 monasteries, in which certain superiors exercise the functions 
 of our abbots, and by the mass of the people they are held in 
 great reverence. 1 The natives of this country do not deprive 
 any creature of life, nor shed blood, and if they are inclined 
 to eat flesh-meat, it is necessary that the Mahometans who 
 reside amongst them should slay the animal. 2 The article of 
 coral carried thither from Europe is sold at a higher price 
 than in any other part of the world. 
 
 If I were to proceed in the same direction, it would lead 
 me to India; but I have judged it proper to reserve the 
 description of that country for a third book ; and shall there- 
 fore return to Balashan, intending to pursue from thence the 
 
 difficult of access to an army; but yet, from the unwarlike character 
 of the natives, it has been exposed to frequent invasions. " The forti- 
 fications with which nature has furnished it," Abu'lfazl adds, "are of 
 an astonishing height." 
 
 1 These monks appear to resemble the talapoins of Ava and Siam, 
 and gylongs of Tibet, who reside in communities, under the discipline 
 of a superior, termed a sankra in the former countries, and a lama in 
 the latter. Like them also they were evidently Buddhists ; and although 
 that proscribed sect may have since disappeared from Kashmir, as from 
 most of the other provinces of Hindustan, Abu'lfazl, who wrote in the 
 sixteenth century, notices some remains of them in his days. " The 
 third time," he says, " that the author followed the imperial stirrup to 
 the delightful territory of Kashmir, he met with some old men of this 
 religion." (Vol. iii. p. 158.) In another place he tells us that " the most 
 respectable people of this country are the mshis, who although they do 
 not suffer themselves to be fettered with traditions (stories of the 
 Puranas), are doubtless true worshippers of God. They revile not any 
 other sect, and ask nothing of any one ; they plant the roads with fruit 
 trees to furnish the traveller with refreshment; they abstain from 
 flesh ; and have no intercourse with the other sex. There are near 
 two thousand of this sect in Kashmir." Vol. ii. p. 155. 
 
 2 Abu'lfazl, speaking of the priests of the religion of Buddha in 
 Kashmir, observes, that although they will not kill an animal, they do 
 not refuse any kind of food that is offered to them ; and whatever dies 
 of itself they consider to be killed by God, and therefore eat it. (Vol. 
 iii. p. 158.) Amongst the Hindus many castes are allowed to eat of 
 certain kinds of animal food, who yet are restrained from shedding 
 blood.
 
 PROVINCE OF VOK.HAN, 91 
 
 straight road to Cathay, and to describe, as has been done 
 from the commencement of the work, not only the countries 
 through which the route immediately lies, but also those in 
 its vicinity, to the right and left. 1 
 
 CHAPTER XXIX. 
 
 OF THE PROVINCE OF VOKHAN OF AN ASCENT FOR THREE DATS, LEADING 
 TO THE SUMMIT OF A HIGH MOUNTAIN OF A PECULIAR BREED OF 
 
 SHEEP FOUND THERE OF THE EFFECT OF THE GREAT ELEVATION UPON 
 
 FIRES AND OF THE SAVAGE LIFE OF THE INHABITANTS. 
 
 LEAVING the province of Balashan, and travelling in a 
 direction between north-east and east, you pass many castles 
 and habitations on the banks of the river, belonging to the 
 brother of the king of that place, and after three days' jour- 
 ney, reach a province named Vokhan ; which itself extends in 
 length and width to the distance of three days' journey. 2 
 
 1 Our author here gives a consistent and intelligible account of the 
 plan he pursues in his description of the several countries that came 
 within the scope of his observation or knowledge : and it is only to be 
 regretted that he has not drawn a clearer line of distinction between 
 those places which he actually saw himself, and those respecting 
 which he collected information from others. I am inclined to believe 
 that he did not visit the Panjab (or country embraced by the streams 
 which form the Indus), and that what he relates of Peshawer and 
 Kashmir was furnished to him during his long residence at Badakh- 
 shan, by persons who frequented those places for the purposes of 
 trade. 
 
 2 After having traced our author's line of description through coun- 
 tries where the writings of other travellers enabled us to recognise 
 his steps, if we should now find ourselves in a region of greater 
 uncertainty, the change is not to be attributed so much to any 
 additional obscurity on his part, as to the want of corresponding 
 information on ours, this tract being very imperfectly known to us. 
 With respect, however, to the name and situation of Vokhan (the 
 orthography of which differs little in the several versions), we are not 
 entirely without lights, both ancient and modern. It is identified, in 
 the first instance, by its connexion with a place named Weishgerd or 
 "Weishkird; concerning which Ibn Haukal says : " The river Wekhshah 
 comes out of Turkestan, into the land of Wekhsh, near a mountain 
 where there is a bridge between Khotlan and the borders of Weishkird. 
 From that it runs towards Balkh, and falls into the Jihoon at Termed." 
 (P. 239.) In the following passage from the work of Edrisi, we find
 
 92 TRAVELS OP MARCO POLO. 
 
 The people are Mahometans, have a distinct language, are 
 civilised in their manners, and accounted valiant in war. 
 Their chief holds his territory as a fief dependent upon 
 Balashan. They practise various modes of taking wild ani- 
 mals. Upon leaving this country, and proceeding for three 
 days, still in an east-north-east course, ascending mountain 
 after mountain, you at length arrive at a point of the road, 
 where you might suppose the surrounding summits to be the 
 highest lands in the world. Here, between two ranges, you 
 perceive a large lake, from which flows a handsome river, that 
 pursues its course along an extensive plain, covered with the 
 richest verdure. Such indeed is its quality that the leanest 
 cattle turned upon it would become fat in the course of ten 
 days. In this plain there are wild animals in great numbers, 
 particularly sheep of a large size, having horns, three, four, 
 and even six palms in length. Of these the shepherds form 
 ladles and vessels for holding their victuals; and with the 
 same materials they construct fences for enclosing their cat- 
 tle, and securing them against the wolves, with which, they 
 say, the country is infested, and which likewise destroy many 
 of these wild sheep or goats. 1 Their horns and bones being 
 
 the Vokhan of our text brought into contact with the places here men- 
 tioned : " De regionibus finitimis Vachas (Wekhsh or Wakhsh) et Gil, 
 suut Vachan (Vokhan) et Sacqita (Sakitah), in terra Tore. Inter Va- 
 chan et Tobbat intercedit iter octodecim dierum. In Vachan extant 
 fodines argenti." (P. 141.) Weishgerd here appears to be the country 
 intermediate between Badakhshan and Vokhan, which our author tells 
 us was governed by a brother of the king of the former. What Edrisi 
 states respecting this valley, as well as our author's account of it, are 
 fully justified by the Memoir explaining the map prefixed to the Ac- 
 count of Caubul, where Lieut. Macartney, speaking of the river Ammu 
 or Oxus, says : " This river . . . has its source from the high lands of 
 Pamer. It issues from a narrow valley, two or three hundred yards 
 broad, in Wukhan, the southern boundary of Pamer. This valley is 
 inclosed on three sides by the high snowy mountain called Pooshtikhur, 
 to the south, east, and west. The stream is seen coming from under 
 the ice." (Appendix, p. 646.) The mere verification of the name and 
 position of a district so secluded must be allowed to furnish an unex- 
 ceptionable test of the genuineness of our traveller's relation. 
 
 1 From the length of the horns of these animals, and the uses to 
 which they were applied, we might suppose them to be a species of 
 ibex or mountain goat ; and although called monfoni in the first in- 
 stance, they are afterwards spoken of as becchi or boucs. In Elphin- 
 stone's Account of Caubul, this conjecture is justified, where he says : 
 " Goats are common in all the mountainous parts of the country, and
 
 ROAD OVER THE MOUNTAINS. 93 
 
 found in large quantities, heaps are made of them at the 
 sides of the road, for the purpose of guiding travellers at the 
 season when it is covered with snow. For twelve days the 
 course is along this elevated plain, which is named Pamer ; l 
 and as during all that time you do not meet with any habita- 
 tions, it is necessary to make provision at the outset accord- 
 ingly. So great is the height of the mountains, that no birds 
 are to be seen near their summits; and however extra- 
 ordinary it may be thought, it was affirmed, that from the 
 keenness of the air, fires when lighted do not give the same 
 heat as in lower situations, nor produce the same effect in 
 dressing victuals. 
 
 After having performed this journey of twelve days, you 
 have still forty days to travel in the same direction, over 
 mountains, and through valleys, in perpetual succession, pass- 
 ing many rivers and desert tracts, without seeing any habita- 
 tions or the appearance of verdure. Every article of provision 
 must therefore be carried along with you. This region ia 
 called Beloro. 2 Even amidst the highest of these mountains, 
 there live a tribe of savage, ill-disposed, and idolatrous people, 
 who subsist upon the animals they can destroy, and clothe 
 themselves with the skins. 
 
 are by no means scarce in the plains. Some breeds have remarkably 
 long and curiously twisted horns." (P. 144.) J. Rh. Forster observes 
 that these animals are termed mouflons and muffioni, by the French and 
 Italian writers. 
 
 1 We find the elevated plain of Pamer, Pamire, or Pamir, in all the 
 maps of Persia and the neighbouring countries. In that which accom- 
 panies Macdonald Kinneir's Geographical Memoir, it occuplies a place 
 corresponding to the bearings we should infer from our author's de- 
 scription. 
 
 2 This alpine region, named by eastern geographers Belur or Belor, 
 is laid down in Strahlenberg's map, from whence, apparently, it has 
 been transferred to those of D'Anville ; but its position relatively to 
 Pamir and Badakhshan will be found still more conformable to our 
 author's account, in the recent constructions of Macdonald Kinneir and 
 Macartney. With respect to the nature of the country, it is spoken of 
 hy Elphinstone, in terms little differing from those employed in the 
 text. " Izzut-Hoollah," he says, " gives a frightful picture of the cold 
 and desolation of this elevated tract, which extends for three marches 
 on the highest part of the country between Yarkund and Ley (or 
 Ladauk)." Note, p. 113.
 
 94 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 CHAPTER XXX. 
 
 Or THE CITY OF KASHCAR, AND OP THE COMMERCE OP ITS 
 INHABITANTS. 
 
 AT length you reach a place called Kashcar, which, it ie 
 said, was formerly an independent kingdom, but it is now 
 subject to the dominion of the grand khan. 1 Its inhabit- 
 ants are of the Mahometan religion. The province is ex- 
 tensive, and contains many towns and castles, of which 
 Kashcar is the largest and most important. 2 The language of 
 the people is peculiar to themselves. They subsist by com- 
 merce and manufacture, particularly works of cotton. They 
 have handsome gardens, orchards, and vineyards. Abundance 
 of cotton is produced there, as well as flax and hemp. Mer- 
 chants from this country travel to all parts of the world ; but 
 in truth they are a covetous, sordid race, 3 eating badly and 
 drinking worse. Besides the Mahometans there are amongst 
 the inhabitants several Nestorian Christians, who are per- 
 mitted to live under their own laws, and to have their 
 churches. The extent of the province is five days' journey. 
 
 1 Kashgar, or Kashghar, is a well-known city and emporium for the 
 trade carried on between Tartary, India, and China. It is situated in 
 that part of Turkistan which Europeans term the Lesser Bucharia. and 
 was formerly the capital of a kingdom of the same name. It was 
 amongst the places overrun by the irresistible arms of Jengiz-khan, 
 and upon the division of his empire, was included in the patrimony of 
 his son Jagata'i. About a century after our author's time, it was con- 
 quered by Tamerlane ; and, in 1683, by the Kontaish, or great khan of 
 the Kalmucks, from whom the eastern part of the Lesser Bucharia was 
 wrested, in 1718, by the Chinese. 
 
 2 " Al Bergendi dit," says D'Herbelot, " qu'elle est fort grande, et 
 qu'elle passe pour la capitale de tout le pays; que ses habitans sont 
 Mussulmans, et que beaucoup de scavans- homines en sont sortis." 
 Macdonald Kinneir's Itineraries speak of it as being situated on a well- 
 cultivated plain, near a fine river, but not navigable, on the southern 
 side of a range of mountains called Teeruck Duan. 
 
 3 The people of Bucharia, in the central parts of Asia, appear to 
 resemble, in their commercial habits and parsimony, the Armenians 
 who frequent the principal cities of India, and whom Forster, in his 
 Travels, describes as being industrious, servile, and dishonest; pur- 
 suing the different roads of traffic with unremitting ardour, and in- 
 variably measuring their pleasures by the mere extent of their wealtL 
 -Vol. ii. p. 117.
 
 THE CITY OF SAMARKAND. 95 
 
 CHAPTER XXXI. 
 
 OF THE CITY OF SAMARCAN, AND OF THE MIRACULOUS COLUMN IN TH3 
 CHURCH OF ST. JOHN THE BAPTIST. 
 
 SAMAKCAN is a noble city, adorned with beautiful gardens, 
 and surrounded by a plain, in which are produced all the 
 fruits that man can desire. 1 The inhabitants, who are partly 
 Christians and partly Mahometans, are subject to the do- 
 minion of a nephew of the grand khan, with whom, however, 
 he is not iipon amicable terms, but on the contrary there is 
 perpetual strife and frequent wars between them. 2 This city 
 lies in the direction of north-west. A miracle is said to 
 have taken place there, under the following circumstances. 
 Not long ago, a prince named Zagatai, who was own bro- 
 ther to the (then reigning) grand khan, became a convert 
 to Christianity; greatly to the delight of the Christian 
 inhabitants of the place, who under the favour and protection 
 of the prince, proceeded to build a church, and dedicated 
 it to St. John the Baptist. It was so constructed that all 
 the weight of the roof (being circular) should rest upon a 
 
 1 It is obvious here, that in order to introduce the description of 
 a place so important as Samarkand, which our author had probably 
 visited in one of his official journeys, he departs from the course he 
 was pursuing towards Kataia, and makes what may be considered as an 
 excursion into the Greater Bucharia, or Transoxiana. This celebrated 
 city was taken from the Persians by the khalif Walid in the year 704, 
 and from the sultan of Khaurizm in 1220, by Jengiz-khan, who gave it 
 up to pillage and destroyed many of its buildings. From this, how- 
 ever, it might have recovered in the course of fifty or sixty years that 
 intervened before the period of which we are speaking. By Timur or 
 Tamerlane it was restored to all its ancient splendour, about the year 
 1370, and became the capital of his vast dominions ; but falling subse- 
 quently into the hands of the Uzbek Tartars, with whom it remained 
 at the close of the last century, its consequence had much declined. 
 
 2 Kashgar being the place last mentioned, it might be presumed that 
 he speaks of the bearing of Samarkand from thence, but as the actual 
 direction, instead of being north-west (maestro), is nearly west-south- 
 west, we are justified in looking rather to Badakhshan, where he had 
 long resided, and from whence he professes to begin his account of the 
 route to Kataia. The latitude of Samarkand, as taken with the famous 
 mural quadrant of Ulug Beig, the grandson of Tamerlane, is 39 37' N., 
 and its longitude, as estimated by Major Rennell, is about 64 15' E. of 
 Greenwich, or 7 W. of Kasbgar" By D'Auville they are placed several 
 degrees further to the eastward.
 
 96 TRAVELS OP MARCO POLO. 
 
 column in the centre, and beneath this, as a base, they fixed 
 a square stone, which, with the permission of the prince, 
 they had taken from a temple belonging to the Mahometans, 
 who dared not to prevent them from so doing. But upon 
 the death of Zagatai, his son who succeeded him showing no 
 disposition to become a Christian, the Mussulmans had in- 
 fluence enough to obtain from him an order that their oppo- 
 nents should restore to them the stone they had appropriated ; 
 and although the latter offered to pay them a compensation 
 in money, they refused to listen to the proposal, because they 
 hoped that its removal would occasion the church to tumble 
 down. In this difficulty the afflicted Christians had DO other 
 resource than with tears and humility to recommend them- 
 selves to the protection of the glorious St. John the Baptist. 
 When the day arrived on which they were to make restitu- 
 tion of the stone, it came to pass that through the inter- 
 cession of the Saint, the pillar raised itself from its base to 
 the height of three palms, in order to facilitate the removal 
 of the stone ; and in that situation, without any kind of sup- 
 port, it remains to the present day. 1 Enough being said of 
 this, we shall now proceed to the province of Karkan. 
 
 1 This is one of the stories, in the way of episode, that have tended 
 to bring our author's work into disrepute. Zagatai was in fact, as he 
 says, the brother of Oktai, who succeeded his father as grand khan of 
 the Moghuls ; but we have no authority for his having embraced Chris- 
 tianity, although the Christians experienced much indulgence under 
 Jengiz-khan and his immediate successors, and Mangu, his grandson, 
 the nephew of Zagatai, is said by Rubruquis and Haiton to have been 
 baptized. The text from which Marsden translated states that the cir- 
 cumstance referred to occurred a hundred and twenty-five years before 
 this book was written, upon which he observes that, doubtful or im- 
 probable as the circumstance of Zagatai's conversion may be, the diffi- 
 culty it occasions would be more easily surmounted than that of the 
 anachronism; for as he began to reign about the year 1227, and died 
 in 1240, the time elapsed at the period when Marco Polo's Travels 
 were written could not be more than about seventy years, even if the 
 event took place at the commencement of his reign ; whereas the 
 space of 125 years, as stated in the text, would carry it back to 
 1173, when his father was only nine years of age, and the family 
 obscure. This species of absurd error I can neither account for nor 
 palliate, otherwise than by supposing that the date, which does not 
 appear in the Latin versions or Italian epitomes, has been an inter- 
 polation in one of the manuscripts followed by Ramusio. [All the early 
 manuscripts agree in the phrase translated in the present edition non 
 e gran tempo che -non est magnum tempus quod il fu voir qu'il ne a 
 encore granment de tens que.]
 
 DISEASES PREVALENT IX KARKAX. $7 
 
 CHAPTER XXXTL 
 
 Or THE PBOVTSCB OT KARKAJf, THE EfHABITAKTS OF WHICH ARE 
 TROUBLED WITH SWOLLEK LEGS ASD WITH GOITRES. 
 
 DEPARTING from thence you enter the province of Karkan. 1 
 which continues to the distance of five days' journey. Its 
 inhabitants, for the most part Mahometans, with some Nes- 
 torian Christians, are subjects of the grand khan. Provisions 
 are here in abundance, as is also cotton. The people are 
 expert artisans. They are in general afflicted with swellings 
 in the legs, and tumours in the throat, occasioned by the 
 quality of the water they drink. 2 In this country there is 
 not anything further that is worthy of observation. 
 
 1 The visit to Samarkand being excursive, or out of the line of 
 his present route, our author leads us back to a place in the Lesser 
 Bueharia which at that time belonged to the kingdom of Kashgar. 
 noticed in the preceding chapter. Carchan, or Karkan, was intended 
 for the district, or rather its chief town, which is most generally known 
 by the name of Yerken ; although its orthography has been exposed to 
 as much variation amongst the writers of latter times, as in the copies 
 of our author's work. By the Portuguese missionary Benjamin Goez 
 the word is written Hiarchan ; by Du Halde, Yarkian ; by Strahlen- 
 bere, in his map, Jerken, Hyarehan, or Gurkan ; by D'Anville, Jerken : 
 by De Guignes. Yerken ; and by our modern travellers from the side of 
 Hindustan, Yarkund. " It appears," says Lieut. Macartney, "that after 
 five days' journey north-east of Cashmeer, an evident ascent com- 
 mences, which is very great for three or four days' journey, after which 
 it is less on to Leh (or Ladak). The ascent continues even on to the 
 great ridge which separates Tibet from Yarkund." Account of Cau- 
 bnl, p. 646. Appendix. 
 
 2 The permanent oadematous swelling of the leg to a monstrous size 
 is a disorder well known in several parts of the East, and Tulgarly 
 termed in India the " Cochin leg." For an account of this species of 
 elephantiasis, see Cordiner's Description of Ceylon, vol. L p. 182. Re- 
 specting the cause of those glandulous tumours at the throat called 
 gmtm, much has been written by travellers and medical persons, who 
 in general attribute it to the quality of the water, although the notion 
 of its proceeding from snow-water has been exploded. I have eke- 
 where ventured to express an opinion that these affections of the 
 glands of the throat are occasioned by the dense mists which settle in 
 the valleys between high mountains, and are not dispersed until a late 
 hour of the day. (Hist, of Sumatra, 3d edit., p. 48.) See an insenious 
 paper on this subject by Dr. Reeves, published in the Phil. Trans, for 
 the year 1808, T>_ xcviiL p. 111.
 
 98 TRAVELS OP MARCO POLO. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIII. 
 
 OP THE CITY OP KOTAN, WHICH IS ABUNDANTLY SUPPLIED WITH ALL TH1 
 NECESSARIES OF LIFE. 
 
 FOLLOWING a course between north-east and east, you next- 
 come to the province of Kotan, 1 the extent of which is eight 
 days' journey. It is under the dominion of the grand khan, 
 and the people are Mahometans. It contains many cities 
 and fortified places, but the principal city, and which gives 
 its name to the province, is Kotan. Everything necessary for 
 human life is here in the greatest plenty. It yields likewise 
 cotton, flax, hemp, grain, wine, and other articles. The in- 
 habitants cultivate farms and vineyards, and have numerous 
 gardens. 2 They support themselves also by trade and manu- 
 factures, but they are not good 'soldiers. We shall now speak 
 of a province named Peyn. 
 
 1 The name of Kotan is indubitably Khoten (the Yu-tien and Ho- 
 tien of the Chinese, who soften the Tartar pronunciation), a place 
 familiar to us, by name at least, as that from whence a great part of 
 Asia is supplied with musk, which the natives rank amongst the most 
 exquisite perfumes, and the Persian poets never cease to extol. Beyond 
 this circumstance our information concerning it is very imperfect. 
 " Khoten," says Malcolm, " was formerly of some importance, and its 
 chiefs are often mentioned. It was conquered, with Kashgar, Yarkund, 
 and other provinces in the same quarter, by the Chinese, in 1757, and 
 now forms part of that great empire. A respectable inhabitant of Tar- 
 tary, who visited the town of Khoten about twenty years ago, describes 
 it as in a flourishing state, though inferior in size to the city of Yar- 
 kund, from which it is distant about 140 miles. Khoten is still, 
 according to this traveller's account, celebrated for its musk." Hist, of 
 Persia, vol. i. p. 324, note. 
 
 2 Although we do not meet with direct authority for the cultivation 
 of the vine at Khoten, there can be. little doubt of the fact, as we read 
 of vineyards at Hanii, or Kharuil, to the eastward, as well as at Kash- 
 gar, to the northward of this place, and within the same canton or 
 district.
 
 SINGULAR MATRIMONIAL CUSTOK. 99 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIV. 
 
 OF THE PROVINCE OF PETN OF THE CHALCEDONIES ASD JASPER FODND 
 IN ITS RIVER AND OF A PECULIAR CUSTOM WITH REGARD TO MAR- 
 RIAGES. 
 
 PETN is a province of five days' journey in extent, in the 
 direction of east-north-east. 1 It is under the dominion of 
 the grand khan, and contains many cities and strong places, 
 the principal one of which is likewise named Peyn. Through 
 this flows a river, and in its bed are found many of those 
 stones called chalcedonies and jasper. 2 Ail kinds of provision 
 are obtained here. Cotton also is produced in the country. 
 The inhabitants live by manufacture and trade. They have 
 this custom, that if a married man goes to a distance from 
 home to be absent twenty days, his wife has a right, if she is 
 inclined, to take another husband ; and the men, on the same 
 principle, marry wherever they happen to reside. All the 
 before-mentioned provinces, that is to say, Kashcar, Kotan, 
 Peyn, and as far as the desert of Lop, are within the limits 
 of Turkistan. 3 Next follows the province of Charchan. 
 
 1 Our author's course of description now leads us to places situated 
 on the eastern side of Khoten, and in the neighbourhood of the great 
 sandy desert, where we are left without any guidance excepting the 
 scanty notices with which he has furnished us. The situation assigned 
 by D'Anville to Peyn or Pe-yn (which in the epitomes is Poim or Poin), 
 being seven degrees of longitude from Khoten, seems to be too far to 
 the eastward, and to approach too nearly to the frontier of China. In 
 this opinion, which applies equally to the intermediate places which 
 are the subject of the following chapters, I am warranted by that of 
 Major Rennell, who says : " I think that our maps are in a great error 
 with respect to the positions of the countries lying between Bucharia 
 and China ; all of which, in my idea, have been made to recede too 
 much from Bucharia towards China." Memoir of a Map of Hindostan, 
 p. 191. 
 
 2 The jasper, or a hard kind of stone resembling jasper, is noticed 
 by several writers as the production of this part of Tartary ; and Goez 
 epeaks of its being procured from the bed of the river at Khoten, which 
 iray probably be the same stream that afterwards runs to Peyn. 
 
 3 The eastern limits of Turkistan, or Turquestan, are not well de- 
 fined ; but it may be considered generally as extending throughout 
 that tract of Central Asia in which dialects of the Turki or Turko- 
 Tartarian language are spoken ; and as the Bukhar or Bucharian, 
 
 H 2
 
 foo 
 
 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO 
 
 CHAPTER XXXV. 
 
 OF THE PROVINCE OF CHARCHAN OF THE KINDS OF STONE FOUND IH 
 
 ITS RIVERS AND OF THE NECESSITY THE INHABITANTS ARE UNDER, 
 
 OF FLYING TO THE DESERT ON THE APPROACH OF THK ARMIES OF 
 THE TARTARS. 
 
 CHARCHAN is also a province of Turkistan, lying in an east- 
 north east direction (from Peyn). In former times it was 
 flourishing and productive, but has been laid waste by the 
 Tartars. The people are Mahometans. Its chief city is 
 likewise named Charchan. 1 Through this province run 
 several large streams, in which also are found chalcedonies 
 and jaspers, which are carried for sale to Cathay, 2 and such is 
 their abundance that they form a considerable article of com- 
 merce. The country from Peyn to this district, as well as 
 throughout its whole extent, is an entire sand, 3 in which the 
 
 although much mixed with Persian words, is one of these dialects, it 
 follows that our author is warranted in considering places that belong 
 to what Europeans term the Lesser Bucharia, and Eastern writers the 
 kingdom of Kashgar, as forming a part of Turkistan, which conse- 
 quently reaches to the borders of the great desert of Kobi. For the 
 courenience of geography, it is distinguished into Chinese and Inde- 
 pendent Turkistan, separated from each other by the great moun- 
 tainous range of Belur-tag and Mush-tag or Imaus. Elphinstone refers 
 to this division when he says : " Those (caravans from the side of 
 India) which go to Chinese Toorkistaun, set off from Cashmeer and 
 Peshawer: Caubul is the great mart of Independent Toorkistauu." 
 (Account of Caubul, p. 293.) [The words of the early Latin version are, 
 " Sunt de magna Turchia."] 
 
 1 Charchan (in Ramusio, Ciarcian ; in the Basle edition and older 
 Latin, Ciartiam ; and in the Italian epitome, Ciarchian) appears t^> cor- 
 respond with .the St-hachan of Strahlenberg's map, although its situation 
 seems to be rather that of Karashai. De Guignes speaks of a district 
 named Chen-chen, to the south of Kami, and near the lake of Lop, 
 which can be no other than this. See Hist. ge"n. des Huns, torn. i. 
 part. ii. p. 11. 
 
 2 The name of the place to which these jaspers are said to be carried 
 is in Ramusio's text Ouchah or Oukah, but evidently by mistake. In 
 the Basle edition the words are, " quos negotiatores deferunt ad pro- 
 viuciam Cathai," and in the manuscripts it is Catay : which is known 
 to be the fact. 
 
 3 In the Italian epitomes it is here said, rather more precisely : 
 " Questa provincia e tutta plena de sabion per la inazor parte ; e dj 
 Cata (Kataia) infino a Poin (Peyn) e molto sabion."
 
 TERROR CAUSED BY THE TARTARS. 1 I 
 
 water is for the most part bitter and unpalatable, although ir. 
 particular places it is sweet and good. When an army of 
 Tartars passes through these places, if they are enemies the 
 inhabitants are plundered of their goods, and if friends their 
 cattle are killed and devoured. For this reason, when they 
 are aware of the approach of any body of troops, they flee, 
 with their families and cattle, into the sandy desert, to the 
 distance of two days' journey, towards some spot where they 
 can find fresh water, and are by that means enabled to subsist. 
 From the same apprehension, when they collect their harvest, 
 they deposit the grain in caverns amongst the sands ; taking 
 monthly from the store so much as may be wanted for their 
 consumption ; nor can any persons besides themselves know 
 the places to which they resort for this purpose, because the 
 tracks of their feet are presently effaced by the wind. Upon 
 leaving Charchan the road lies for five days over sands, 
 where the water is generally, but not in all places, bad. 
 Nothing else occurs here that is worthy of remark. At the 
 end of these five days you arrive at the city of Lop, on the 
 borders of the great desert. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVI. 
 
 OP THE TOWN OF LOP OF THE DESERT IX ITS VICINITY AXD OP THB 
 STRANGE XOISES HEARD BY THOSE WHO PASS OVER THE LATTER. 
 
 THE town of Lop is situated towards the north-east, near the 
 commencement of the great desert, which is called the Desert 
 of Lop. 1 It belongs to the dominions of the grand khan, and 
 
 1 The lake of Lop appears in the Jesuits' and D'Anville's maps. In 
 the latter we find also a town named " Tantabe'e ou Tankabash, resi- 
 dence de 1'ancien khan de Tagnzgaz, ville de Lop dans Marc-Paul ;" but 
 his authority for this supposition does not appear. " Ces deux ville.-; 
 dont je viens de parler," says De Guignes, speaking of Ciartiam (or 
 Charchan) and Lop, " paroissent 6tre les memes que celles de Kan- 
 tcheou et de Hankiun-tcheou, que les envoyes Chinois trouverent dans 
 leur route de Cha-tcheou a Khoten, mais il me paroit impossible d'eu 
 assignor la veritable position." (P. 17.) Instead of the name of Lop, 
 which thia desert bears in Ramusio's as well as in most of tlie other 
 versions, the word in the early Italian epitomes is Job ; and this varia- 
 tion of orthography give* rise to the conjecture that it may have been 
 intended for Kobi, which is said to be the original Tartar name. " Tout
 
 102 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 its inhabitants are of the Mahometan religion. Travellers 
 who intend to cross the desert usually halt for a considerable 
 time at this place, as well to repose from their fatigues as to 
 make the necessary preparations for their further journey. 
 For this purpose they load a number of stout asses and 
 camels with provisions and with their merchandise. Should 
 the former be consumed before they have completed the pas- 
 sage, they kill and eat the cattle of both kinds ; but camels 
 are commonly here employed in preference to asses, because 
 they carry heavy burthens and are fed with a small quantity 
 of provender. The stock of provisions should be laid in for 
 a month, that time being required for crossing the desert in 
 the narrowest part. To travel it in the direction of its length 
 would prove a vain attempt, as little less than a year must be 
 consumed, and to convey stores for such a period would be 
 found impracticable. 1 During these thirty days the journey 
 is invariably over either sandy plains or barren mountains ; 
 but at the end of each day's march you stop at a place where 
 water is procurable; not indeed in sufficient quantity for 
 large numbers, but enough to supply a hundred persons, to- 
 gether with their beasts of burthen. At three or four of these 
 halting-places the water is salt and bitter, but at the others, 
 amounting to about twenty, it is sweet and good. In this 
 tract neither beasts nor birds are met with, because there is 
 no kind of food for them. 2 
 
 cet espace," says Du Halde, " n'est qu'un terrain sec et sablonneux, le 
 plus sterile qui soit dans toute la Tartarie. C'est ce que les Chiiiois 
 appellent ordinairement Chamo (Shamo), quelquefois Kan-hai, comme 
 qui diroit 'mer de sable. Les Tartares le nomment Gobi." Tom. iv. 
 p. 26. 
 
 1 In the Jesuits' map prefixed to Du Halde's " Description de la 
 Chine," the desert is made to extend, with a partial interruption, from 
 the meridian of Peking, westward to the thirty-fifth degree of longitude 
 reckoned from that city. The impracticability, therefore, of travelling 
 over it in that direction, as observed by our author, is evident. 
 
 2 The general conformity of this description, as it regards the dreary 
 aspect of the country and the nature of the halting places, with the 
 account given by that excellent traveller John Bell of Antermony, who 
 crossed another part of the same desert, in his route from Selinginsky 
 to Peking, will be found very striking; and it is remarkable that the 
 number of days employed was in the one case thirty, and in the other 
 twenty-eight. The most material difference between them is, that Bell, 
 during several days of his journey, met with sheep, and afterwards 
 hei-ds of antelopes, as well as a flock of plovers, whereas our author
 
 THE SPIRITS OF THE DESERT. 103 
 
 It is asserted as a well-known fact that this desert is the 
 abode of many evil spirits, which amuse travellers to their 
 destruction with most extraordinary illusions. If, during the 
 day-time, any persons remain behind on the road, either when 
 overtaken by sleep or detained by their natural occasions, 
 until the caravan has passed a hill and is no longer in sight, 
 they unexpectedly hear themselves called to by their names, 
 and in a tone of voice to which they are accustomed. Sup- 
 posing the call to proceed from their companions, they are 
 led away by it from the direct road, and not knowing in what 
 direction to advance, are left to perish. In the night-time 
 they are persuaded they hear the march of a large cavalcade 
 on one side or the other of the road, and concluding the noise 
 to be that of the footsteps of their party, they direct theirs to 
 the quarter from whence it seems to proceed; but upon the 
 breaking of day, find they have been misled and drawn into 
 a situation of danger. Sometimes likewise during the day 
 these spirits assume the appearance of their travelling com- 
 panions, who address them by name and endeavour to conduct 
 them out of the proper road. It is said also that some per- 
 sons, in their course across the desert, have seen what appeared 
 to them to be a body of armed men advancing towards them, 
 and apprehensive of being attacked and plundered have taken 
 to flight. Losing by this means the right path, and ignorant 
 of the direction they should take to regain it, they have 
 perished miserably of hunger. Marvellous indeed and almost 
 passing belief are the stories related of these spirits of the 
 desert, which are said at times to fill the air with the sounds 
 of all kinds of musical instruments, and also of drums and 
 the clash of arms ; obliging the travellers to close their line 
 of march and to proceed in more compact order. 1 They find 
 
 saw neither beasts nor birds in his passage. But it is not improbable 
 that the desert may be more barren and inhospitable towards its western 
 extremity ; and it is at the same time reasonable to suppose that the 
 line of road taken by the Chinese government for their communication 
 with the Russian dominions, should be through that part where there 
 was the best chance of finding the means of subsistence. It is also 
 possible that some changes may have taken place in the coivrse of four 
 hundred and fifty years, and that a breed of sheep may have been 
 carried to those spots which exhibited symptoms of vegetation. 
 
 1 We find in the works of the Chinese geographers that these idle 
 stories are the subject of general belief in the part of Tartary here 
 described.
 
 104 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 it necessary also t ; take the precaution before they repose for 
 the night, to fix an advanced signal, pointing out the course 
 they are afterwards to hold, as well as to attach a bell to each 
 of the beasts of burthen for the purpose of their being more 
 easily kept from straggling. Such are the excessive troubles 
 and dangers that must unavoidably be encountered in the 
 passage of this desert. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVII. 
 
 OF THE PROVINCE OF TANGUTH OF THE CITY OF SACHION OF THE 
 CUSTOM OBSERVED THEUE UPON THE BIRTH OF A MALE CHILD AND 
 OF THE CEREMONY OF BURNING THE BODIES OF THE DEAD. 
 
 WHEN the journey of thirty days across the desert has been 
 completed, you arrive at a city called Sachion, 1 which belongs 
 to the grand khan. The province is named Tanguth. 2 The 
 
 1 Having crossed a narrow part of the great desert, in a direction 
 from the towns of the kingdom of Kashgar towards the nearest point 
 of China, our author's course naturally leads him to a place named 
 Cha-tcheou, according to the French, or Sha-cheu according to our 
 orthography. " A 1'est du lac de Lop," says De Guignes, " on trouve 
 une ville que M. Paul appelle Sachion, la Cha-tcheou ou ville de sable 
 des Chinois " (P. 12.) The corruption of this name from Sha-cheu to 
 Sachion will appear to have arisen chiefly from the difficulty of dis- 
 tinguishing the u from n in manuscripts ; and it will be found that 
 a great proportion of the Chinese names for towns, in the subsequent 
 parts of the work, are affected by the same error. The place is situated 
 about four degrees to the westward of So-cheu (an important garrison 
 at the western extremity of the province of Shen-si), and commands 
 the entrance of a famous pass or gorge of the mountains, named Yang- 
 kuan. In the history of Jengiz-khan by Petis de la Croix it is observed, 
 that his occupation of this strong post was of the greatest advantage 
 to his subsequent operations against the southern provinces of China. 
 (P. 481.) It may appear an objection to this identifying of Sachion 
 with Sha-cheu, which lies in the direct way to, and not very distant 
 from the Chinese province of Shen-si, that in the next chapter he pro- 
 ceeds to speak of a place not intermediate, but on the contrary still 
 further from the borders, and in a different direction. But it must be 
 recollected that our author's work is not a simple itinerary, and that 
 he professes to describe parts not in the line of his original journey, 
 but which he might have visited subsequently whilst in the service of 
 the emperor. Here, too, we may remark that he does not give any 
 estimation of distance, as if the route were continuous, but breaks off 
 in order to speak of other places, " at the head of the desert." 
 
 2 It is not unusual to consider the names of Tangut and Tibet, both
 
 THE PEOPLE OF TAXGCT. 105 
 
 people are worshippers of idols. 1 There are Turkomans 
 among them, with a few Nestorian Christians and Maho- 
 metans, Those who are idolaters have a language distinct from 
 the others. 2 This city lies towards the east-north-east. They 
 are not a commercial, but an agricultural people, having much 
 wheat. There are in this country a number of monasteries 
 and abbeys, which are filled with idols of various descriptions. 3 
 
 of which have been adopted by the Persians from the Ifoghuls, as 
 synonymous; but the former applies to a larger portion of Tartary, 
 bordering upon the western provinces of China, and including Tibet in 
 its southern division, whilst its northern contains the districts of which 
 our author now proceeds to speak. According to Du Halde's definition, 
 however, it does not extend quite so far northward as the situation 
 assigned to Cha-tcheou in the Jesuits' map. 
 
 1 The inhabitants of the countries on the western side of the desert 
 of Lop or Kobi were described by our author as being chiefly Ma- 
 hometans ; but upon crossing that tract and entering the province of 
 Tangut, or Sifan, as it is termed by the Chinese, he properly speaks of 
 the people as idolaters. By idolatry is here meant the religion gene- 
 rally known as that of the grand lama, or spiritual sovereign, whom 
 his followers believe to be immortal, by means of successive regenera- 
 tion of the same individual in different bodies, but do not worship, as 
 has been supposed. Their adoration is paid to a number of images of 
 deities, but principally to one, which is often of a colossal size, and is 
 named by them Shakia-munL This is the Buddha of the Hindu 
 mythology, whose doctrines are more extensively disseminated through- 
 out the east than even those of Mahomet. In Ava and Pegu the same 
 idol is worshipped by the name of Gautama (equally with Shakia an 
 epithet or attribute of Buddha), in Siam by that of Samana-kodom, in 
 Cochin-China and Tonkin by that of But and Thika-mauni, in Japan 
 by that of Shaka and Amida Buth, and in China, where the game 
 system prevails amongst the bulk of the population, by that of Fo or 
 Fuh. Many of the other objects of worship appear to belong to the 
 Brahmanic mythology, and some are of a local character. It is evident 
 at the same time that with respect to forms and ceremonies, of which 
 there will be occasion to say more hereafter, many of them have been 
 adopted from the Xestorian Christians. 
 
 2 This we term the language of Tibet, which is monosyllabic in its 
 principle, like the Chinese, but in every other respect differs from it. 
 The written character bears more commonly the appellation of Tangut 
 or Tangutian, and in its alphabetic arrangement acknowledges a nagri 
 or Sanskrit origin. 
 
 3 Of the numerous and capacious buildings erected in a country 
 where every fourth male of a family is devoted to the monastic life, 
 we find frequent mention in the writings of travellers, and parti- 
 cularly in the accounts of Bogle's mission in 1774, and Turner's in 
 1783, to the court of the southern grand lamx The plates annexed to 
 the latter will furnish the curious reader with a perfect idea of tht
 
 106 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 To these, which they regard with the profoundest reverence, 
 they also offer sacrifices ; and upon the birth of a son, they 
 recommend him to the protection of some one of their idols. 
 In honour of this deity the father rears a sheep in his house 
 until the expiration of a year, when, upon the day of the 
 idol's peculiar festival, they conduct their son, together with 
 the sheep, into its presence, and there sacrifice the animal. 
 The flesh they seethe, and then they carry it and lay it before 
 the idol, and stand there until they have finished a long 
 prayer, the subject of which is to entreat the idol to preserve 
 the health of their child; 1 and they believe that during this 
 interval it has sucked in all the savoury juices of the meat. 
 The remaining substance they then carry home, and, assem- 
 bling all their relations and friends, eat it with much devout 
 festivity. They collect the bones, and preserve them in hand- 
 some urns. The priests of the idol have for their portion 
 the head, the feet, the intestines, and the skin, together with 
 some parts of the flesh. In respect to the dead, likewise, 
 these idolaters have particular ceremonies. Upon the decease 
 of a person of rank, whose body it is intended to burn, 2 the 
 relations call together the astrologers, and make' them ac- 
 quainted with the year, the day, and the hour in which he 
 
 exterior appearance of these monasteries, some of which contain from 
 two to three thousand gylongs or monks. An engraving of the same 
 subject appears also amongst the plates connected with Lord Macart- 
 ney's Embassy to China : various circumstances relative to the interior 
 of the establishments will be found in Turner's pleasing narrative, and 
 a general description, with a ground plan, in the Alphabetum Tibeta- 
 num of Georgi, p. 407. In the Mem. cone, les Chinois, torn, xiv., we 
 find an elaborate account of the great miao or abbey of Putala, at 
 Lhassa, which has " 367 pieds quatre pouces de hauteur." 
 
 1 The ceremony here described, in which the sacrifice of the sheep 
 appears to be intended as a ransom for the child, who, at his birth, 
 may have been devoted rather than recommended to the guardian 
 deity, is consistent with what is remarked by the younger De Guignes, 
 of a practice amongst the neighbours of this people. " Comme les 
 Chinois," says this traveller, " implorent les ggnies dans toutes les cir- 
 constances de la vie, il n'est pas surprenant qu'ils les invoquent pour 
 en obtenir la conservation de leurs enfans. Lorsqu'ils craignent de les 
 perdre, ils les consacrent a quelque dieu." (Voyages a Peking, &c., torn, 
 ii. p. 359.) A similar custom is said to exist in Bengal. 
 
 2 It is only on the bodies of personages of the highest rank that 
 the honours of the funeral pile are bestowed; those of the inferior 
 orders being exposed in unfrequented places, and sometimes on tha 
 tops of mountains, to be devoured by birds and other wild animals.
 
 FUNERAL CUSTOMS IN TANGUT. 107 
 
 was born ; whereupon these proceed to examine the horoscope, 
 and having ascertained the constellation or sign, and the 
 planet therein presiding, declare the day on which the funeral 
 ceremony shall take place. If it should happen that the same 
 planet be not then in the ascendant, they order the body to 
 be kept a week or more, and sometimes even for thfe space of 
 six months, before they allow the ceremony to be performed. 
 In the hope of a propitious aspect, and dreading the effects of 
 a contrary influence, the relations do not presume to burn the 
 corpse until the astrologers have fixed the proper time. 1 It 
 being necessary on this account that, in many cases, the body 
 should remain long in \he house, in order to guard against 
 the consequences of putrefaction, they prepare a coffin made 
 of boards a palm in thickness, well fitted together and painted, 
 in which they deposit the corpse, and along with it a quantity 
 of sweet-scented gums, camphor, and other drugs; the joints 
 or seams they smear with a mixture of pitch and lime, and 
 the whole is then covered with silk. During this period the 
 table is spread every day with bread, wine, and other pro- 
 visions, which remain so long as is necessary for a convenient 
 meal, as well as for the spirit of the deceased, which they 
 suppose to be present on the occasion, to satisfy itself with 
 the fumes of the victuals. Sometimes the astrologers signify 
 to the relations that the body must not be conveyed from the 
 house through the principal door, in consequence of their 
 having discovered from the aspect of the heavens, or other- 
 wise, that such a course would be unlucky, and it must there- 
 fore be taken out from a different side of the house. 2 In 
 
 1 The implicit deference paid to the skill of astrologers in deter- 
 mining the days and hours proper for the performance of all acts, 
 public and domestic, solemn or trivial, is general throughout the 
 East. 
 
 2 This custom is found to prevail also amongst the Chinese, with 
 whom the inhabitants of a country so near to the borders of the 
 empire, as that which our author is now describing, must have much 
 in common. " C'est parmi eux," adds Du Halde, " un usage de faire de 
 nouvelles ouvertures a leurs maisons, quand on doit transporter le 
 corps de leurs parens decddez au lieu de leur sepulture, et de les re- 
 fermer aussitot, afin de s'6pargner la douleur que leur causeimt le fre- 
 quent souvenir du defunt, qui se renouvelleroit toutes les fois qu'ila 
 passeroient par la meme porte ou est passe le cerciieil." (P. 128.) Nor 
 is the prejudice here described confined to the eastern parts of the 
 world ; for in a town or village of North Holland (as I vas informed
 
 108 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 some instances, indeed, they oblige them to break through 
 the wall that happens to stand opposite to the propitious and 
 beneficent planet, and to convey the corpse through that aper- 
 ture; persuading them that if they should refuse to do so, 
 the spirit of the defunct would be incensed against the family 
 and cause them some injury. Accordingly, when any mis- 
 fortune befalls a house, or any person belonging to it meets 
 with an accident or loss, or with an untimely death, the 
 astrologers do not fail to attribute the event to a funeral not 
 having taken place during the ascendency of the planet under 
 which the deceased relative was born, but, on the contrary, 
 when it was exposed to a malign influence, or to its not having 
 been conducted through the proper door. As the ceremony 
 of burning the body must be performed without the city, 
 they erect from space to space, in the road by which the 
 procession is to pass, small wooden buildings, with a portico 
 which they cover with silk; and under these, as it arrives 
 at each, the body is set down. They place before it meats 
 and liquors, and this is repeated until they reach the ap- 
 pointed spot, believing, as they do, that the spirit is thereby 
 refreshed and acquires energy to attend the funeral pile. 
 Another ceremony also is practised on these occasions. They 
 provide a number of pieces of paper, made of the bark of 
 a certain tree, upon which are painted the figures of men, 
 women, horses, camels, pieces of money, and dresses, and 
 these they burn along with the corpse, under the persuasion 
 that in the next world the deceased will enjoy the services 
 and use of the domestics, cattle, and all the articles depicted 
 on the paper. 1 During the whole of these proceedings, all 
 the musical instruments belonging to the place are sounded 
 with an incessant din. 2 Having now spoken of this city, 
 others lying towards the north-west, near the head of the 
 desert, shall next be mentioned. 
 
 on the spot) a corpse is never carried out through the front or principal 
 door, but from the rear of the house. 
 
 1 Could we suppose the missionaries to have derived their know- 
 ledge of the customs of these people from the writings of our author, 
 the parallel could not be more complete than it will be found hi various 
 passages of Du Halde. 
 
 2 All accounts of the ceremonies of these people notice the loud 
 clangour of their music.
 
 THK DISTRICT OF KAMUL. 109 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVIII. 
 
 OF THE XISTKICT OP KAMUL, AND OF SOME PECULIAR CUSTOMS RESPECT- 
 ING THE ENTERTAINMENT OF STRANGERS. 
 
 KAMUL is a district situated within the great province of 
 Tanguth, subject to the grand khan, and contains many towns 
 and castles, of which the principal city is also named Kamul. 1 
 This district lies in the intermediate space between two deserts; 
 that is to say, the great desert already described, and another 
 of smaller extent, being only about three days' journey across. 2 
 The inhabitants are worshippers of idols, and have their pecu- 
 liar language. 3 They subsist on the fruits of the earth, which 
 they possess in abundance, and are enabled to supply the 
 wants of travellers. 4 The men are addicted to pleasure, and 
 
 1 Kamul, which the Tartars are said to pronounce Khamil., or Hamii 
 with a strong aspiration, is the Hami of the Jesuits' map, softened iu 
 the Chinese pronunciation, as the title of khan is changed to han. 
 Iu the narrative of B. Goez it is stated, that after leaving a place named 
 Cialis (the Juldus of Strahlenberg's map), and passing another named 
 Pucian, also belonging to the kingdom of Cascar, they reached Turphan 
 and remained there a month. " Apres ils parvindrent & Aramuth, et 
 puis a Camul, place garnie de bonnes deffences. Ilz reposerent icy 
 avec leurs chevaux un autre mois. . . . Estana partis de Camul ilz arri- 
 verent dans neuf jours a ces murs septentrionaux du royaume de la 
 Chine, en un lieu nomme Chiaicuon (Kia-yu-kuan). . . . Aians done 
 enfiu este recus dans 1'enclos de ces murailles, ilz arriverent en un jour 
 en la ville de Socieu (So-cheu)." (Histoire de 1'Expedition Chrestienne, 
 par Trigault, pp. 482 485.) The distance, however,from Hami to So-cheu, 
 the most western town of China, being by the maps about 280 miles, 
 would render it a journey, for a caravan, of more than ten days. 
 
 - This account of the position of Kamul will be found to correspond 
 exactly to that of Hami, which together with Turfan occupies a tract 
 of cultivable land that seems nearly to divide the great desert of Kobi 
 into two parts. See the Jesuits' maps accompanying Du Halde's " De- 
 scription de la Chine." 
 
 3 At the period of Shah Rokh's embassy, which was about a century 
 and a half later than our author's visit to this place, it was under a 
 Mahometan government. 
 
 4 " Le pays," says Gerbillon, "est fort chaud en etc; il y croit 
 qnintitd de bons fruits." (P. 54.) The AbbiS Grosier observes that 
 ' the country of Hami, though surrounded by deserts, is accounted one 
 of the most delightful in the world. The soil produces abundance of 
 grain, fruits, leguminous pla: is, and pasture of every kind. The rice
 
 110 TRAVELS OP MARCO POLO. 
 
 attend to little else than playing upon instruments, singing, 
 dancing, reading, writing, according to the practice of the 
 country, and the pursuit, in short, of every kind of amuse- 
 ment. 1 When strangers arrive, and desire to have lodging 
 and accommodation at their houses, it affords them the 
 highest gratification. They give positive orders to their 1 wives, 
 daughters, sisters, and other female relations, to indulge their 
 guests in every wish, whilst they themselves leave their homes, 
 and retire into the city, and the stranger lives in the house 
 with the females as if they were his own wives, and they send 
 whatever necessaries may be wanted; but for which, it is to 
 be understood, they expect payment : nor do they return to 
 their houses so long as the strangers remain in them. This 
 abandonment of the females of their family to accidental 
 guests, who assume the same privileges and meet with the 
 same indulgences as if they were their own wives, is regarded 
 by these people as doing them honour and adding to their 
 reputation ; considering the hospitable reception of strangers, 
 who (after the perils and fatigues of a long journey) stand in 
 need of relaxation, as an action agreeable to their deities, 
 calculated to draw down the blessing of increase upon their 
 families, to augment their substance, and to procure them 
 safety from all dangers, as well as a successful issue to all 
 their undertakings. The women are in truth very handsome, 
 very sensual, and fully disposed to conform in this respect to 
 the injunction of their husbands. It happened at the time 
 when Mangu Khan held his court in this province, that the 
 above scandalous custom coming to his knowledge, he issued 
 
 which grows here is particularly esteemed in China. . . . There is uo 
 fruit more delicate or more in request than the melons of Hami, which 
 are carried to Peking for the emperor's table . . . but the most useful 
 and most esteemed production of the country is its dried raisins." 
 General Description of China, vol. i. p. 333. 
 
 1 " Leurs divertisaemens," says P. Amiot, speaking of the inhabi- 
 tants of this part of the country, " consistent en chants et en danses. 
 Us Be mettent par bandes de cinq ou six homines et femmes pele-mele, 
 se prennent par la main, et tournent ensemble, en faisant de terns en 
 terns quelques sauts." (Mem. concern, les Chinois, torn. xiv. p. 152.) We 
 should not have expected to find reading and writing classed amongst 
 light and effeminate occupations; but allowance must be made for the 
 prejudices of a person educated in a Tartar court. A detailed account 
 of the manner and instruments of writing amongst these people will be 
 found in the AJphabetuin Tibetanum, pp. 5t>l 567.
 
 SINGULAR XOTIOXS OF HOSPITALITY. Ill 
 
 an edict strictly commanding the people of Kamul to relin- 
 quish a practice so disgraceful to them, and forbidding indi- 
 viduals to furnish lodging to strangers, who should be obliged 
 to accommodate themselves at a house of public resort or 
 caravanserai. In grief and sadness the inhabitants obeyed 
 for about three years the command of their master; but 
 finding at length that the earth ceased to yield the accustomed 
 fruits, and that many unfortunate events occurred in their 
 families, they resolved to despatch a deputation to the grand 
 khan, in their names, to beseech him that he should be 
 pleased to suffer them to resume the observance of a custom 
 that had been solemnly handed down to them by their fathers, 
 from their ancestors in the remotest times ; and especially as 
 since they had failed in the exercise of these offices of hospi- 
 tality and gratification to strangers, the interests of their 
 families had gone progressively to ruin. The grand khan, 
 having listened to this application, replied : " Since you 
 appear so anxious to persist in your own shame and 
 ignominy, let it be granted as you desire. Go, live according 
 to your base customs and manners, and let your wives con- 
 tinue to receive the beggarly wages of their prostitution." 
 AVith this answer the deputies returned home, to the great 
 delight of all the people, who, to the present day, observe 
 their ancient practice. 1 
 
 1 In ElphiiiBtone's account of Caubul he gives a description of man- 
 ners prevailing in the tribes that inhabit the eastern part of the Paro- 
 pamisan mountains, so nearly similar to what our author mentions, that 
 I am gratified by the occasion of verifying his statement by authority 
 so respectable. " The women," he says, " are often handsome. ... It 
 is universally agreed that they are by no means remarkable for chastity ; 
 but I have heard different accounts of their libertinism. In the north- 
 east, which is the most civilized part of the country, the women would 
 prostitute themselves for money, while their husbands were out of the 
 way. ... In other parts of the country there prevails a custom called 
 Kooroo Bistaun, by which the husband lends his wife to the embraces 
 of his guests. This," he adds in a note, " is Moghul : one of the laws 
 of the Yasa forbids adultery. The inhabitants of Caiader applied for, 
 and received an exemption, on account of their old usage of lending 
 their wives to their guests." P. 483.
 
 112 TRAVELS OF MAROO POLO. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIX. 
 
 OF THE CITY OP CHINCHITALAS. 
 
 NEXT to the d. strict of Kamul follows that of Chinchitalas, 
 which in its northern part borders on the desert, and is in 
 length sixteen days' journey. 1 It is subject to the grand khan, 
 and contains cities and several strong places. Its inhabitants 
 consist of three religious sects. A few of them confess Christ, 
 according to the Nestorian doctrine; others are followers of 
 Mahomet; and a third class worship idols. There is in this 
 district a mountain where the mines produce steel, and also 
 zinc or antimony. 2 A substance is likewise found of the 
 nature of the salamander, for when woven into cloth, and 
 thrown into the fire, it remains incombustible. 3 The following 
 mode of preparing it I learned from one of my travelling 
 
 1 Mention is made in L'Hist. generale des Huns of a place named 
 Chen-chen, which has been supposed to be the Chinchitalas of our 
 author. Tala, it should be observed, signifies in the Moghul-Tartar 
 language, "a plain," and talai or dalai, "a sea or extensive. lake :" 
 talas may therefore be considered as an appellative, distinct from 
 the proper name. " Ce pays," says De Guignes, " qui dans les histo- 
 riens Chinois porte les deux noms de Leou-lan et de Chen-chen, est 
 situe 1 au midi de Hami. II formoit anciennement un petit royaume 
 dont la capitale dtoit Kan-ni-tching voisine du lac de Lop. Tout ce 
 pays est sterile, plein de sables, et Ton y rencontre peu de bonnes terres. 
 On y comptoit environ quinze cents families. Ces peuples cherchent 
 les paturages oh ils nourissent des anes, des chevaux et des chameaux. 
 Ils tirent des pays voisins leurs denrees : ils ont les memes moeurs que 
 les peuples du Tibet qui sont leurs voisins au sud-est. . . . Je pense 
 que c'est dans ce canton qu'il faut placer la province que M. Paul appelle 
 Chin-chin-talas, voisine du grand desert, et ou il y avoit des Nestoriens, 
 des Mahometans, et des idolatres." (Tom. i. pt. ii. p. xi.) It may, however, 
 be doubted whether Chinchitalas is not the Cialis or Chialis of B. Goez, 
 which he describes as a place dependent upon the king of Kashgar, and 
 not far distant from Turfan and Kamul. 
 
 2 Respecting this mineral, which in the Latin is andanicum or au- 
 danicum, and in the Italian of the epitomes, andranico and amdronico, 
 see notes on pp. 54 and 70. 
 
 3 There can be no doubt that what the texts here call salamander 
 was really the asbestos. [The passage in the early Latin text is, " Et in 
 ista montana est una alia vena unde fit salamandra. Salamandra auteru 
 non est bestia sicut dicitur qusc vivat in igue, sed dicam vobie quomodo 
 :it saJarnandra.]
 
 THE COUNTRY OF RHUBAHE. 113 
 
 companions, named Curficar, a very intelligent Turkoman, 
 who had the direction of the mining operations of the pro- 
 vince for three years. The fossil substance procured from the 
 mountain consists of fibres not unlike those of wool. This, 
 after being exposed to the sun to dry. is pounded in a brass 
 mortar, and is then washed until all the earthy particles are 
 separated. The fibres thus cleansed and detached from each 
 other, they then spin into thread and weave iuto cloth. In 
 order to render the texture white, they put it into the fire, 
 and suffer it to remain there about an hour, when they draw 
 it out uninjured by the flame, and become white as snow. 
 By the same process they afterwards cleanse it, when it hap- 
 pens to contract spots, no other abstergent lotion than an 
 igneous one being ever applied to it. 1 Of the salamander 
 under the form of a serpent, supposed to exist in fire, I could 
 never discover auy traces in the eastern regions. It is said 
 that they preserve at Rome a napkin woven from this material, 
 in which was wrapped the sudarium of our Lord, sent as a 
 gift from one of the Tartar princes to the Roman Pontiff. 
 
 CHAPTER XL. 
 
 OF THE DISTRICT OF SUCCUIR, WHERE THE RHUBARB IS PRODUCED, ASD 
 FROM WHENCE IT IS CARRIED TO ALL PARTS OF THE WORLD. 
 
 UPON leaving the district last mentioned, and proceeding for 
 ten days in the direction of east-north-east, through a country 
 where there are few habitations, and little of any kind worthy 
 
 1 The asbestos is described as " a fossile stone that may be split into 
 threads or filaments, from one to ten inches in length, very fine, brittle, 
 yet somewhat tractable, silky, and of a greyish colour. It is indis- 
 soluble in vater. and endued with the wonderful property of remain- 
 ing unconsumed in the fire." " L'asbeste a eu autrefois," says M. 
 Brongniart, " des usages assez remarquables. Les anciens, qui bru- 
 loient les corps, 1'ont employe coinme drap incombustible pour conserver 
 les cendres des corps sans melange. Lorsque les filamens de cette pierre 
 eont assez longs, assez doux, et assez flexibles, on parvient a les filer, 
 Bur-tout si on les mele avec du lin. On peut en tisser une toile qui a 
 line solidite et une flexibility convenable, lors meme qu'elle a etc privee. 
 par le moyeu du feu, du fil vegetal qu'elle contenoit. Lorsque cette 
 toile eat salie. le feu lui rend son premier ^clat." Traite elementaire 
 de Minl-ralogie, tonx 1 p. 482. 
 
 1
 
 114 TRAVELS OP MARCO POLO. 
 
 of remark, you arrive at a district named Succuir, in which 
 are many towns and castles, the principal one being likewise 
 named Succuir. 1 The inhabitants are in general idolaters, 
 with some Christians. 2 They are subject to the dominion of 
 the grand khan. The extensive province, which contains 
 these and the two districts which shall be next mentioned, 
 is called Tanguth, and throughout all the mountainous parts 
 of it the most excellent kind of rhubarb is produced, in large 
 quantities, and the merchants who procure loadings of it on 
 the spot convey it to all parts of the world. 3 It is a fact that 
 when they take that road, they cannot venture amongst the 
 mountains with any beasts of burthen excepting those ac- 
 customed to the country, on account of a poisonous plant 
 growing there, which, if eaten by them, has the effect of 
 causing the hoofs of the animal to drop off; but those of the 
 country, being aware of its dangerous quality, take care to 
 
 1 This appears, from all the circumstances mentioned, to be intended 
 for So-cheu, a fortified town in the extreme western part of the pro- 
 vince of Shen-si, or frontier of China in that quarter. Formerly, how- 
 ever, it did not belong to the empire, but to an independent Tartar 
 nation. " Les places lea plus occidentals de la province de Chensi," 
 says De Guignes, " ayant fait partie de la Tartarie, nous croyons devoir 
 !es nommer ici d'autant plus que ce que nous en diront pourra servir a 
 cclaircir M. Paul. . . . Sous le regne des Soui, on appella tout ce pays 
 So-tcheou. ... II passa ensuite sous la domination des peuples du 
 Toufan, et quelque terns apres, les Chinois le reprirent ; il fait aujour- 
 d'hui partie du Chensi." (Tom. i. pt. ii. p. ix.) The first notice we have 
 of this place, after the time of our author, is by Shah Rokh's ambas- 
 sadors, in 1420. " Sekgiou (which De G-uignes, perhaps from a different 
 translation, writes Sokjou) est une ville grande et forte, en forme de 
 quarre parfait. . . . cette ville est done la premiere de Khata'i, I'loignce 
 de quatre-vingt-dix-neuf journees de la ville de Kan-Balik, qui est le 
 lieu de la residence de 1'empereur, par tin pais tres-peup!6, car chaque 
 jburnue on loge dans un gros bourg." Relations de Thevenot, torn. ii. 
 
 2 During the long interval of three centuries that had elapsed between 
 our author's time and that of Benedict Goez, an entire change appears 
 to have taken place with respect to the Christian population, which he 
 no longer found to exist ; an effect that was produced by the ascendancy 
 of the Mahometans in that quarter. 
 
 3 The abundant growth of rhubarb in the mountainous region that 
 forms the western boundary of China, is noticed by all the writers who 
 have treated of these provinces. In the writings of Professor Pallas 
 will be found a particular account of the trade in this article, which 
 the Russians at Kiakta procure from the country of which wa aro 
 speaking, through the agency of merchants from Buchari: 1 . residing oil 
 the spot.
 
 THE CITY OF KAMPION. 115 
 
 avoid it. The people of Succuir depend for subsistence upon 
 the fruits of the earth and the flesh of their cattle, and do 
 not engage in trade. The district is perfectly healthy, and 
 the complexion of the natives is brown. 
 
 CHAPTER XLI. 
 
 OP THE CITY OF KAMPION, THE PRINCIPAL ONE OP THE PROVINCE OP 
 
 TANGUTH OF THE NATURE OF THEIR IDOLS, AND OP THE MODE OF 
 
 LIFE OF THOSE AMONGST THE IDOLATERS WHO ARE DEVOTED TO THE 
 
 SERVICES OF RELIGION OF THE ALMANAC THEY MAKE USE OF 
 
 AND THE CUSTOMS OF THE OTHER INHABITANTS WITH REGARD TO 
 MARRIAGE. 
 
 KAMPION, the chief city of the province of Tanguth, 1 is large 
 and magnificent, and has jurisdiction over all the province. J 
 The bulk of the people worship idols, but there are some 
 who follow the religion of Mahomet, and some Christians. 
 The latter have three large and handsome churches in the 
 city. 3 The idolaters have many religious houses, or monasteries 
 
 1 If it be admitted that Suceuir is intended for So-cheu, it will follow 
 that Kam-pion, or as it appears in other versions, Kan-pion, Kam-pition, 
 and Kam-picion, is the city of Kan-cheu, the Kam-giou of the Persian 
 ambassadors, the Kam-chick of Johnson, and Kan-ceu of Goez. John- 
 son mentions its being at the distance of five stages from the former. 
 
 2 The relative importance of Kan-cheu, with respect to So-cheu and 
 other towns in that part of Shen-si, has continued the same at all 
 periods. Shah Rokh's ambassadors observe, that the governor who 
 resided there was superior to all the other governors of bordering 
 places ; and Goez says, " En 1'une de ces villes de la province de Scensi 
 uommc'e Kanceu, demeure le viceroy avec les autres principaux magis- 
 trate"?. 486. 
 
 3 The disappearance in the course of three centuries, or even in a 
 much shorter period, of these churches, which were probably built of 
 wood, is no argument against their having existed in our author's time. 
 It was not iintil the end of the sixteenth century that the Jesuits ob- 
 tained a footing in China, and began to investigate the subject of an 
 earlier dissemination of Christianity in that part of the world. During 
 this interval an entire revolution had taken place in the Chinese govern- 
 ment, and the Yuen or Moghul-Tartar family, distinguished for its 
 t< lerance or indifference in matters of religion, had been succeeded by 
 the native dynasty of the Ming, whose princes were influenced by a 
 different policy, and proscribed the lamas, as well as the Christian 
 priests, to whom their predecessors were thought to have been too
 
 116 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLC. 
 
 and abbeys, built after the manner of the country, and in 
 these a multitude of idols, some of which are of wood, some 
 of stone, and some of clay, are covered with gilding. They 
 are carved in a masterly style. Among these are some of very 
 large size, and others are small. 1 The former are full ten 
 paces in length, and lie in a recumbent posture; the small 
 figures stand behind them, and have the appearance of dis- 
 ciples in the act of reverential salutation. 2 Both great and 
 small are held in extreme veneration. Those persons amongst 
 the idolaters who are devoted to the services of religion lead 
 more correct lives, according to their ideas of morality, than 
 the other classes, abstaining from the indulgence of carnal 
 and sensual appetites. 3 The unlicensed intercourse of the 
 sexes is not in general considered by these people as a serious 
 
 much attached. About this period also the Mahometans, becoming 
 numerous at Kashgar and other places on the borders of the desert, 
 were active and apparently successful in their endeavours to exterminate 
 their rivals. A strong picture is drawn by Goez, of the intolerant in- 
 solence of these bigots, hi the towns through which his route lay, from 
 Hindustan, by the way of Lahore and Cabul, to China. 
 
 1 In all countries where the religion of Buddha prevails, it appear.-* 
 to be an object of religious zeal to erect images representing him of an 
 enormous magnitude, and not unfrequently to cover them with gilding. 
 This we find to be the practice in Japan, Siain, and Ava, as well as in 
 Tartary and China. Shaka-muni is one of the Hindu names of Buduhu. 
 P. (Jerbillon, who accompanied the emperor of China into Tartary, 
 speaks also of such gigantic images, one of which being measured with 
 a quadrant, was found to be fifty-seven Chinese feet in height. 
 
 - Although the images of Buddha are usually represented sitting, 
 with the legs crossed, some of these monstrous statues are in a recum- 
 bent posture, and surrounded with figures in an attitude of prayer or 
 salutation. The ambassadors who visited this city of Kau-cheu in 
 1420, mention idols of the same extraordinary kind, and in a striking 
 manner confirm the authenticity of our author's account. " In every 
 complete temple," says Cordiner in his Description of Ceylon, " one 
 colossal image of Buddha is represented in a sleeping posture, and a 
 great many others of the saiae, sitting and standing, not larger than 
 the life." Vol. i. p. 150. 
 
 3 " Their sole occupation," says Turner, speaking of the religious 
 orders of Tibet, " lies in performing the duties of their faith. They 
 are exempt from labour; enjoined sobriety and temperance, and inter- 
 dicted all intercourse with the other sex." (P. 170.) According to 
 Morrison's Chinese Dictionary, the priests of the sect of Fuh or Fo 
 (who are denominated Ho-shang, Sang, and Shamun,) " receive the five 
 precepts : Not to kill living creatures ; not to steal, or rob ; not to 
 practise lewdness ; not to say what is untrue ; not to drink wine." 
 P. 157.
 
 MAXXEKS OF THE FRDVIXCE OF TAXGUT. 117 
 
 offence; and their maxim is, that if the advances are made 
 by the female, the connexion does not constitute an offence, 
 but it is held to be such when the proposal comes from the 
 man. They employ an almanac, in many respects like our 
 -iwn, according to the rules of which, during five, four, or 
 three days in the month, they do not shed blood, nor eat 
 flesh or fowl ; as is our usage in regard to Friday, the Sab- 
 bath, and the vigils of the saints. 1 The laity take to them- 
 selves as many as thirty wives, some more, some fewer, 
 according to their ability to maintain them; for they do not 
 receive any dowry with them, but, on the contrary, settle 
 dowers upon their wives, in cattle, slaves, and money. 2 The 
 wife who is first married always maintains the superior rank 
 in the family; but if the husband observes that any one 
 amongst them does not conduct herself well to the rest, or if 
 
 1 " The same superstition," says Turner, " that influences their view 
 of the affairs of the world, pervades equally their general calculations. 
 On this principle it is, that they frame their common calendar of time. 
 I have one now in my possession; and as far as I can understand it 
 from what has been explained to me, a recapitulation of lucky and un- 
 lucky times constitutes the chief merit of the work." P. 320. 
 
 2 Nothing has hitherto occurred* in the course of the work, in which 
 the direct assertion of our author is so much at variance with modern 
 information, as this of the prevalence of the custom of polygamy 
 amongst the people of Tangut. Bogle expressly tells us, that in the 
 sense in which ve commonly receive the word, polygamy is not in use 
 in Tibet ; but that it exists in a manner still more repugnant to Euro- 
 pean ideas, in the plurality of husbands; and that it is usual for the 
 brothers in the family to have a wife in common. (PhiL Trans, vol. 
 IxviL p. 477, and Craufurd's Sketches, vol. ii. p. 177.) This is confirmed 
 by Turner, who says : " The number of husbands is not, as far as I 
 could learn, defined or restricted within any limits; it sometimes hap- 
 pens that in a small family there is but one female; and the number 
 may seldom perhaps exceed that, which a native of rank, during my 
 residence at Teahoo Loomboo, pointed out to me in a family resident in 
 the neighbourhood, in which five brothers were then living together 
 very happily, with one female, under the same connubial compact. Nor 
 is this sort of league confined to the lower ranks of people alone." 
 (P. 349.) To these authorities we can only oppose the qualified observa- 
 tion of M. Pallas, who tells us that polygamy, though forbidden by 
 their religion, is not uncommon amongst the great. (Xeue Nordische 
 Beytrage, b. i. p. 204.) The distance, however, between Lhasa and 
 Xhan-cheu is so considerable (about ten degrees of latitude and eight of 
 longitude) that although the inhabitants of each, as well as of the 
 greater part of Tartary, follow the same religious worship, there maj 
 yet exist essential differences in their domestic manners.
 
 118 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 she becomes otherwise disagreeable to him, he can send her 
 away. They take to their beds those who are nearly related 
 to them by blood, and even espouse their mothers-in-law, 
 Many other mortal sins are regarded by them with indiffer- 
 ence, and they live in this respect like the beasts of the field. 
 In this city Marco Polo remained, along with his father and 
 incle, about the space of one year, which the state of their 
 concerns rendered necessary. 1 
 
 CHAPTER XLII. 
 
 OF THE CITY OF EZINA OF THE KINDS OF CATTLE AND BIRDS FOUND 
 THERE AND OF A DESERT EXTENDING FORTY DAYS' JOURNEY TO- 
 WARDS THE NORTH. 
 
 LEAVING this city of Kampion, and travelling for twelve days 
 in a northerly direction, you come to a city named Ezina, 2 at 
 
 1 It is remarkable that Goez, who, although a missionary, travelled in 
 the character of an Armenian merchant, was in like manner detained 
 upwards of a year at the neighbouring town of So-cheu. The regula- 
 tions of police appear to have required then, as they do at this day, 
 that pel-mission should be received from Peking before strangers are 
 suffered to advance into the country. 
 
 - Having reached the borders of northern China, and spoken of two 
 places that are within the line of what is termed the Great Wall, (but 
 which will hereafter be shown to have consisted on this side of a mound 
 of earth only, and not to have been the stupendous work of masonry 
 it is described on the northern frontier,) our author ceases to pursue a 
 direct route, and proceeds to the account of places lying to the north 
 and south, some of them in the vicinity, and others in distant parts of 
 Tartary, according to the information he had acquired of them on 
 various occasions. Nor does he in the sequel furnish any distinct idea 
 of the line he took upon entering China, in company with his father 
 and uncle, on their journey to the emperor's court; although from what 
 occurs in chap. lii. there is reason to believe that he went from Kan-cheu 
 to Si-ning (by Professor Pallas called Selin), and there fell into the great 
 road from Tibet to Peking. His description now takes a northerly 
 course to a place named Ezina, which stood on a small river .which flows 
 by Kan-cheu towards the great desert of Kobi, which he had already 
 crossed in a more western and narrower part. This town is known to 
 us from the operations of Jengiz-khan, who took possession of it when 
 he invaded Tangut in 1224 according to Petis de la Croix, or 1226 
 according to De Guignes, and made it for some time the head-quarters 
 of his army.
 
 THE CITY OF E2IXA. 119 
 
 the commencement of the sandy desert, and within the pro- 
 vince of Tanguth. The inhabitants are idolaters. They 
 have camels, and much cattle of various sorts. Here you 
 find lanner-falcons and many excellent sakers. The fruits of 
 the soil and the flesh of the cattle supply the wants of the 
 people, and they do not concern themselves with trade. 
 Travellers passing through this city lay in a store of pro- 
 visions for forty days, because, upon their leaving it to 
 proceed northwards, that space of time is employed in tra- 
 versing a desert, where there is not any appearance of dwelling, 
 nor are there auji inhabitants excepting a few during the 
 summer, among the mountains and in some of the valleys. 
 In these situations, frequented by wild asses and other ani- 
 mals equally wild, 1 they find water and woods of pine-trees. 
 Having passed this desert, you arrive at a city on the northern 
 side of it, named Karakoran. All the districts and cities 
 previously mentioned, that is to say, Sakion, Kamul, Chin- 
 chitalas, Succuir, Kampion, and Ezina, belong to the great 
 province of Tanguth. 
 
 CHAPTER XLIIL 
 
 OF THE CITY OP KARAKORAX, THE FIRST IN WHICH THE TARTARS 
 FIXED THEIR RESIDENCE. 
 
 THE city of Karakoran 2 is about three miles in circuit, and is 
 the first place in which the Tartars established their residence 
 
 1 The wild ass here mentioned is probably that animal which the 
 missionaries, rather unaccountably, call the wild mule, and describe as 
 an inhabitant of this desert region. The wild ass or onager is the 
 equus asiniis of Linn., and the animal denominated the wild mule is the 
 equug he in ion us. 
 
 2 The name of this city is properly written Kara-korum, but often 
 Kara-turn (signifying black sand). By the Chinese it is called Holin, 
 which answers to Korin in Tartar pronunciation. It was built, or 
 rather rebuilt, by Oktal-khan, the son and successor of Jengiz-khan, 
 about the year 1235 ; whose nephew, Mangu-khan, made it his principal 
 residence. No traces of it have been in existence for some centuries, 
 but its position is noted in the tables of Ulug-beig, and also in the 
 Jesuits' and D'Anrille's maps. It was visited in the year 1254 by 
 William de Rubruquis, a friar minor, who together with some other 
 ecclesiastics was Bent by Louis IX. of France on a general mission to 
 the Tartar princes. The account he gives of it conveys no high idea of
 
 120 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 in remote times. It is surrounded with a strong rampart 
 of earth, there not being any good supply of stone in that 
 part of the country. On the outside of the rampart, but 
 near to it, stands a castle of great size, in which is a hand- 
 some palace occupied by the governor of the place. 
 
 CHAPTER XLIV. 
 
 OF THE ORIGIN OF THE KINGDOM OF THE TARTARS OF THE QUARTER 
 FROM WHENCE THEY CAME AND OF THEIR FORMER SUBJECTION TO 
 UN-KHAN, A PRINCE OF THE NORTH, CALLED ALSO PRESTER JOHN. 
 
 THE circumstances under which these Tartars first began to 
 exercise dominion shall now be related. They dwelt in the 
 northern countries of Jorza and Bargu, 1 but without fixed 
 habitations, that is, without towns or fortified places; where 
 there were extensive plains, good pasture, large rivers, and 
 plenty of water. They had no sovereign of their own, and 
 were tributary to a powerful prince, who (as I have been 
 
 its importance as a city, nor does his description of the court, of the 
 state of civilization to which these conquerors had attained : but his 
 whole narrative exhibits the illiberal prejudices of a vulgar mind. 
 
 1 What may be considered as the proper, although perhaps not the 
 most ancient country of the Moghuls, as they are called by the Persians, 
 or Mungals as the name is pronounced in the northern parts of Asia, 
 including Kalmuks or Eleuts, Burats, and Kalkas, appears to be that 
 tract which lies between the upper streams of the Amur river on the 
 east, and those of the Yanisei and Irtish rivers, together with the Altai' 
 range of mountains on the west ; having on the north the Baikal lake, 
 and on the south the great desert, which separates it from the country of 
 Tangut, and the kingdom of China; including within these boundaries the 
 Selinga river, near to which, in the former part of the last century, was 
 the urga (station or encampment) of the Tush-du-khan or modern prince of 
 the Mungals. The exact situation of the plains of Giorza, Jorza, or 
 Joija, and Bargu cannot be determined. In Strahlenberg's map there 
 i? a district adjoining to the south shore of Baikal, named " Campus 
 Bargu ; " but circumstances would lead us to suppose the places here 
 spoken of to lie further te the north, and hi D'Anville's map the name 
 of Bargu appears on the north-east side of that lake. According to 
 Klaproth the name by which the Manchou people (whom he considers to 
 be the same race with the Tungusi) are known to the Tartars, is Chur- 
 ohur or Jurjur, by Abu'lghazi written Jurjit. These seem to be the 
 Jorza tribes of our author; and the island of Zorza (to which criminals 
 were banished) mentioned in book iii. chap. 2, may be that which lies 
 off the mouth of the Sagalien-ula or river Amur.
 
 ORIGIN OF THE TARTARS. 121 
 
 informed) was named in their language, Un-khan, 1 by some 
 thought to have the same signification as Prester John in 
 ours. a To him these Tartars paid yearly the tenth part of 
 (the increase of) their cattle. In process of time the tribe 
 multiplied so exceedingly that Un-khan, that is to say, Prester 
 John, becoming apprehensive of their strength, conceived the 
 plan of separating them into different bodies, who should take 
 up their abode in distinct tracts of country. With this view- 
 also, whenever the occasion presented itself, such as a rebel- 
 lion in any of the provinces subject to him, he drafted three 
 or four in the hundred of these people, to be employed on the 
 service of quelling it; and thus their power was gradually 
 diminished. He in like manner despatched them upon other 
 
 1 This celebrated prince, whom our author names Umcan, or, with 
 an allowable correction of the orthography of his language, Un-khan, 
 and whom the historian Abu'lfaraj names Ung-khan, was chief of the 
 tribe of Kera-it or Kerrit, and reigned in Kara-korum, which was after- 
 wards rebuilt by Oktai and became his capital, as well as that of 
 Mangu-khan his successor. He appears to have been the most powerful 
 of the chiefs in that part of Tartary, and in the histories of his time 
 is often termed the grand khan. By P. Gaubil, however, and those 
 who follow the Chinese authorities, he is considered as a vassal of the 
 Niu-tche Tartar emperor, Altun-khan, of the dynasty of Kin, who, 
 besides his kingdoms of Leao-tung and Korea, ruled over the northern 
 part of China, or Kataia. They further assert that his appellation of 
 Ouang-han, as they write it, is no other than the Chinese title of Ouang 
 or Vang (reyulus), bestowed upon him by the sovereign for distinguished 
 services, prefixed to his native title of khan, his original name having 
 been Toghrul. According to J. R. Forster, following the authority of 
 Fischer's Hist, of Siberia, " he reigned over the Karaites, a tribe re- 
 siding near the river Kallassui (Karasibi), which discharges itself into 
 the Abakan, and afterwards into the Jenisea; and here at this very 
 day live the Kirgises, who have a tribe among them which they call 
 Karaites." Voyages, &c. p. 141. 
 
 2 Whatever absurdity and ridicule may be thought to attach to this 
 extraordinary appellation of Prester or Presbyter John, as applied to 
 a Tartar prince, it is not to be placed to the account of our author, 
 who only repeats, and in terms of particular caution, what had already 
 been current throughout Europe and amongst the Christians of Syria 
 and Egypt, respecting this imaginary sacerdotal character, but real 
 personage. Nothing is here asserted on his own knowledge ; the trans- 
 actions were understood to have taken place nearly a century before 
 the time when he wrote, and in speaking of them he employs the 
 guarded expression, " come intesi." [The best information on the sub- 
 ject of Prester John will be found in the Introduction to the " Relation 
 des Mongols ou Tartares ; par le frere Jean du Plan de Carpin," by M. 
 D'A^ezac.]
 
 122 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 expeditions, and sent among them some of his principal 
 officers to see that his intentions were carried into effect. At 
 length the Tartars, becoming sensible of the slavery to which 
 he attempted to reduce them, resolved to maintain a strict 
 union amongst themselves, and seeing that nothing short of 
 their final ruin was in contemplation, they adopted the 
 measure of removing from the places which they then 
 inhabited, and proceeded in a northerly direction across a 
 wide desert, until they felt assured that the distance afforded 
 them security, when they refused any longer to pay to Un- 
 khau the accustomed tribute. 1 
 
 CHAPTER XLV. 
 
 CONCERNING CHINGIS-KHAN, FIBST EMPEROR OF THE TARTARS, AND HIS 
 WARFARE WITH UN-KHAN, WHOM HE OVERTHREW, AND OF WHOSE 
 KINGDOM HE POSSESSED HIMSELF. 
 
 SOME time after the migration of the Tartars to this place, 
 and about the year of our Lord 1162, 2 they proceeded to 
 elect for their king a man who was named Chingis-khan, one 
 of approved integrity, great wisdom, commanding eloquence, 
 and eminent for his valour. He began his reign with so much 
 justice and moderation, that he was beloved and revered as 
 
 1 This assertion of independence is attributed by the Persian and 
 Arabian historians to the enterprising character and military talents of 
 Temujin (afterwards Jengiz-khan), who, when he had passed eighteen 
 years in the service of Ung-khan, became the object of his jealousy, 
 and was compelled to a precipitate flight in order to save his life. The 
 successful issue of some partial engagements that ensued having in- 
 creased considerably the number of those who were attached to him, 
 he retired, with his little army, to the country of the Mungals, of 
 which he was a native. Being received with open arms, he concerted 
 with them his schemes of vengeance against his enemies. 
 
 2 Our author appears in this instance to have mistaken the year of 
 Jengiz-khan's birth (though some place it in 1155) for that of his 
 elevation to the throne. It was not until the year 1201 that he is 
 stated to have acquired the command of the Mungal armies, nor until 
 1202 according to the authorities followed by P<5tis de la Croix, or 
 1206 according to De Guignes, that he was declared grand khan or 
 emperor. About the same period it was that he changed his original 
 name of Temujin for that by which he was afterwards ICE own. The 
 Latin and other texts give this date as 1187.
 
 JKXGIZ KHAN. 123 
 
 their deity rather than their sovereign ; and the fame of his 
 great and good qualities spreading over that part of the world, 
 all the Tartars, however dispersed, placed themselves under 
 his command. Finding himself thus at the head of so many 
 brave men, he became ambitious of emerging from the deserts 
 and wildernesses by which he was surrounded, and gave them 
 orders to equip themselves with bows and such other weapons 
 as they were expert at using, from the habits of their pastoral 
 life. He then proceeded to render himself master of cities 
 and provinces; and such was the effect produced by his cha- 
 racter for justice and other virtues, that wherever he went, 
 he found the people disposed to submit to him, and to esteem 
 themselves happy when admitted to his protection and favour. 
 In this manner he acquired the possession of about nine pro- 
 vinces. Nor is his success surprising, when we consider that 
 at this period each town and district was either governed by 
 the people themselves, or had its petty king or lord ; and as 
 there existed amongst them no general confederacy, it was 
 impossible for them to resist, separately, so formidable a 
 power. Upon the subjugation of these places, he appointed 
 governors to them, who were so exemplary in their conduct 
 that the inhabitants did not suffer, either in their persons or 
 their properties; and he likewise adopted the policy of taking 
 along with him, into other provinces, the principal people, on 
 whom he bestowed allowances and gratuities. 1 Seeing how 
 prosperously his enterprises succeeded, he resolved upon 
 attempting still greater things. With this view he sent am- 
 bassadors to Prester John, charged with a specious message, 
 which he knew at the same time would not be listened to by 
 that prince, demanding his daughter in marriage. 2 Upon 
 receiving the application, the monarch indignantly ex- 
 claimed : " Whence arises this pi-esumption in Chingis-khau, 
 
 1 It was at the court of the grandson of Jengiz-khan that our author 
 acquired an idea much too favourable of the virtues, although not 
 perhaps of the military talents, of this extraordinary man, who should 
 be regarded as one of those scourges of mankind, which, like plague, 
 pestilence, or famine, is sent from time to time to visit and desolate 
 the world. 
 
 2 According to the writers whom Petis de la Croix has followed, 
 Temujin had been already married to the daughter of Ung-khan, when 
 the intrigues of his rivals drove him from the court of his father-in- 
 law, to whom he had rendered the most important military services.
 
 124 TRAVELS OP MARCO POLO. 
 
 who, knowing himself to be my servant, dares to ask for the 
 hand of my child? Depart instantly," he said, "and let 
 him know from me, that upon the repetition of such a de- 
 mand, I shall put him to an ignominious death." Enraged at 
 this reply, Chingis-khan collected a very large army, at the 
 head of which he entered the territory of Prester John, and 
 encamping on a great plain called Tenduk, sent a message 
 desiring him to defend himself. The latter advanced likewise to 
 the plain with a vast army, and took his position at the dis- 
 tance of about ten miles from the other. 1 In this conjuncture 
 Chingis-khan commanded his astrologers and magicians to 
 declare to him which of the two armies, in the approaching 
 conflict, should obtain the victory. Upon this they took a 
 green reed, and dividing it lengthways into two parts, they 
 wrote upon one the name of their master, and upon the other 
 the name of Un-khan. They then placed them on the ground, 
 at some distance from each other, and gave notice to the king 
 that during the time of their pronouncing their incantations, 
 the two pieces of reed, through the power of their idols, 
 would advance towards each other, and that the victory would 
 fall to the lot of that monarch whose piece should be seen to 
 mount upon the other. The whole army was assembled to 
 be spectators of this ceremony, and whilst the astrologers were 
 employed in reading their books of necromancy, they per- 
 ceived the two pieces begin to move and to approach, and 
 after SDme small interval of time, that inscribed with the 
 name of Chingis-khan to place itself upon the top of its 
 adversary. 2 Upon witnessing this, the king and his band of 
 
 1 The name of this plain, which in the older Latin as well as in 
 llamusio's text is Tenduch, and in the Basle edition Tanduc, is Tangut 
 iu the Italian epitomes. This last may probably be a mistake, and cer- 
 tainly this place is not to be confounded with the Taugut already 
 spoken of as connected with Tibet ; but there is much reason to sup- 
 pose that our author meant the country of the Tungusi (a name that 
 bears no slight resemblance to Tangut), which is about the sources of 
 the Amur, and in the vicinity of the Baikal lake. According to De 
 Guignes and P. Gaubil, the meeting of the armies took place between 
 the rivers Toula and Kerlon, where other great Tartar battles have 
 since been fought, in consequence, as may be presumed, of the local 
 circumstances being suited to the operations of large bodies of cavalry. 
 
 2 The mode of divination by what the French term baguettes is 
 common in the East. Petis de la Croix upon introducing into his text 
 Shis story of " la canne verte," from our author's work, observes in
 
 HISTOI1Y OF THE TARTARS. 125 
 
 Tartars marched with exultation to the attack of the army of 
 Un-khan, broke through its ranks and entirely routed it. 
 Un-khau kimself was killed, his kingdom fell to the conqueror, 
 and Chingis-kban espoused his daughter. After this battle 
 he continued during six years to render himself master of 
 additional kingdoms and cities ; until at length, in the siege 
 of a castle named Thaigin, 1 he was struck by an arrow in the 
 knee, and dying of the wound, was buried in the mountain of 
 Altai. 
 
 CHAPTER XLVI. 
 
 OF SIX SUCCESSIVE EMPERORS OF THE TARTARS, AND OF THE CEREMO- 
 NIES THAT TAKE PLACE WHEN THEY ARE CARRIED FOR INTERMENT 
 TO THE MOUNTAIN OF ALTAI. 
 
 To Chiugis-khan succeeded Chyn-khan] the third was Bathyn- 
 khan, the fourth Esu-khan, the fifth Mougu-khan, the sixth 
 Kublai-khan, 2 who became greater and more powerful than all 
 
 a note : " Cette operation des Cannes a ^t6 en usage chez les Tartares. 
 et 1'est encore a present chez les Africains, chez les Turcs et autres 
 nations Mahometanes." P. 65. 
 
 1 The accident here said to have befallen Jengiz-khan is not men- 
 tioned by any of the historians; nor does it appear what place is 
 intended by the name of Thaigin. He is said, on the contrary, to have 
 died of sickness (in 1226), shortly after the reduction of the city of 
 Liu-tao, in the province of Shen-si, from whence he had retired, on 
 account of the bad quality of the air where his army was encamped, 
 to a mountain named Leou-pan. It is not, however, to be concluded 
 that our author is therefore wrong, or that Jengiz did not receive 
 a wound, which in an unwholesome climate might have occasioned or 
 accelerated his death. 
 
 2 This account of the successors of Jengiz-khan being so much less 
 accurate than might be expected from one who was many years in the 
 service of his grandson, it is not unreasonable to presume that some of 
 the. barbarous names of these princes may have been omitted and 
 others disfigured by the early transcribers. We are the more warranted 
 in this supposition, because in the different versions we find the names 
 to vary considerably ; and instead of the Chyn, Bathyn, and Esu of 
 Ramusio's edition, we have in one text Cui, Barchim, and Allau, and in 
 another, Carce, Sairn, and Rocon. In the name of Mongu, or Mangu, 
 only they are all nearly agreed. As the most effectual way of detect- 
 ing, and in some instances of reconciling the inaccuracies, I shall state
 
 126 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 the otaers, inasmuch as he inherited what his predecessors 
 possessed, and afterwards, during a reign of nearly sixty 
 
 the filiation according to the authority of historians, and compare with 
 it the confused lists attributed to our author. 
 
 Jengiz-khan, who died about the end of the year 1226, had four sons, 
 whose names were Juji, Jagatai, Okta'i, and Tuli; of these Juji, the 
 eldest, who in other dialects is called Tushi and Dushi, died during the 
 lifetime of Jengiz, leaving a son named Batu, called also, by the Maho- 
 metan writers, Saien-khan and Sagin-khan. He inherited, in right of 
 his father, that portion of the empire which included Kapchak and 
 other countries in the neighbourhood of the Wolga and thet)on ; and 
 his conquests on the side of Russia, Poland, and Hungary, rendered 
 him the terror of Europe. He did not succeed to the dignity of grand 
 khan, or head of the faniily, and died in 1256. This was evidently the 
 Bathyn of one version of our text, and the Saim of another ; but the 
 Barchim of a third seems rather to be intended for Barkah, his brother 
 and successor. Jagatai, or Zagata'i, had for his portion of his father's 
 dominions the country beyond the Oxus, Turkistan, or, as it has since 
 been termed, the country of the Uzbek Tartars. He died in 1240, and 
 also without having succeeded to the imperial dignity. His name, 
 although elsewhere mentioned by our author, is here omitted, as would 
 on that account have been proper, if the name of Batu had not been 
 iutroduced. Oktai, or Ugda'i, the third son, was declared by Jengiz nis 
 successor as grand khan, or supreme head of the dynasty, with the 
 new title of kaan. His particular share of the empire was the original 
 country of the Moghuls or Mungals, with its dependencies, and the 
 kingdom of the Niu-tche' Tartars, including so much of Northern 
 China as was then conquered. The total omission of his name, who 
 was one of the most distinguished of the family, and particularly in 
 the wars of the last-mentioned country, not more than thirty -five years 
 before the arrival of our author, is quite extraordinary, if to be im- 
 puted to ignorance or want of recollection on his part. Oktai died in 
 1241, and was succeeded in the imperial station (after a female regency 
 of five years) by his son Kaiuk, or Gaiuk, who reigned only one year, 
 and died in 1248. By Piano Carpini, a friar minor, (who was sent by 
 Pope Innocent IV. to the court of Batu, whom he terms the Duke 
 Baatu or Bathy, and by him to Gaiuk, his sovereign, then newly 
 elected,) he is named Cuyne, by the Chinese Key-yeu, and by our 
 author Chyn or Cui, according to different readings. The fourth son 
 of Jengiz, whose name was Tuli or Tulu'i, died in 1232, during the reign 
 of his brother Okta'i, leaving four sons, named Mangu, Kublai, Hulagu, 
 and Artigbuga, besides others of less historical fame. Of these, Mangu 
 or Mongu was chosen, in 1251, to succeed his cousin Gaiuk as grand 
 khan, and chiefly through the influence of Batu, who had a superior 
 claim, as the son of the eldest brother, but seems not to have affected 
 that dignity. One of the first acts of Mangu was to send Hulagu (from 
 Kara-korum, his capital) with a powerful army that enabled him to 
 subdue the countries of Khorasan, Persia, Chaldea, and a great part of 
 Syria. He founded the great dynasty of the Moghuls of Persia, which
 
 FUNERALS OF THE TABTAK MONARCH8. 127 
 
 years, 1 acquired, it maybe said, the remainder of the world. The 
 title of khan or kaan, is equivalent to emperor in our lan- 
 guage. It has been an invariable custom, that all the grand 
 khans, and chiefs of the race of Chingis-khan, should be carried 
 for interment to a certain lofty mountain named Altai, and in 
 whatever place they may happen to die, although it should 
 be at the distance of a hundred days' journey, they are never- 
 theless conveyed thither. It is likewise the custom, during 
 the progress of removing the bodies of these princes, for 
 those who form the escort to sacrifice such persons as they 
 chance to meet on the road, saying to them, " Depart for the 
 next world, and there attend upon your deceased master," 
 being impressed with the belief that all whom they thus slay 
 do actually become his servants in the next life. They do tht 
 same also with respect to horses, killing the best of the stud, 
 in order that he may have the use of them. When the 
 corpse of Mongu was transported to this mountain, the horse- 
 after a few generations threw off its dependence, more nominal than 
 real, upon the head of the empire. The name of Hulagu, which in 
 other parts of the work is softened to Alau, seems to be that which is 
 here still further corrupted to Esu, by the mistake of a letter, for Elu. 
 In the Latin version of the same passage it is Allaii. Mangu died in 
 1259 (or 1256), in the province of Se-chuen in China, whilst engaged in 
 the prosecution of the war in that country. Respecting his name there 
 is no ambiguity. Kubla'i, who was upon the spot, assumed the com- 
 mand of the army, and was soon after chosen grand khan, although 
 with much opposition on the part of his brother Artigbuga, who w;is 
 strongly supported, and ventured to set up the imperial standard at 
 Kara-korum. Kublai proceeded, in 1268, to subdue the kingdom of 
 Manji, or Southern China, at that time ruled by the dynasty of Song, 
 whose capital, named Hong-cheu, was taken in 1276, and the whole was 
 annexed to his empire in 1280 ; from which year his reign, as emperor 
 of China, is made to commence in the Chinese annals, where he appears 
 by the title of Yuen-chi-tsu. His death is placed in the beginning; of 
 1294, being then in the eightieth year of his age. He was the fifth 
 grand khan of this family, and after his decease the descendants of 
 then- common ancestor, who ruled the provinces hi the west and south, 
 no longer acknowledged a paramount sovereign. 
 
 1 As Kubla'i was elected grand khan in 1260, and died in 1294. his 
 reign was strictly about thirty-four years ; but having been appointed 
 viceroy to his brother Mangu, in China, so early as 1251. it may be 
 considered as having lasted forty-three; and he was probably employed 
 there in the command of armies at a period still earlier. The assertion, 
 however, of his having reigned sixty years cannot be justified, :md 
 must have originated, in a mistake or transposition of figures, which 
 should perhaps have been I*L instead of LX.
 
 128 TRAVELS OP MARCO POLO. 
 
 men who accompanied it, having this blind and horrible per- 
 suasion, slew upwards of twenty thousand persons who fell in 
 their way. 1 
 
 CHAPTER XLVII. 
 
 OP THE WANDERING LIFE OP THE TARTARS OP THEIR DOMESTIC MAN- 
 NERS, THEIR FOOD, AND THE VIRTUE AND USEFUL QUALITIES OF THEIR 
 WOMEN. 
 
 Now that I have begun speaking of the Tartars, I will tell 
 you more about them. The Tartars never remain fixed, but 
 as the winter approaches remove to the plains of a warmer 
 region, in order to find sufficient pasture for their cattle; and 
 in summer they frequent cold situations in the mountains, 
 where there is water and verdure, and their cattle are free 
 from the annoyance of horse-flies and other biting insects. 
 During two or three months they progressively ascend higher 
 ground, and seek fresh pasture, the grass not being adequate 
 in any one place to feed the multitudes of which their herds 
 and flocks consist. 2 Their huts or tents are formed of rods 
 
 1 The existence of such an atrocious custom amongst the Monghul 
 Tartars has been questioned. But the Chinese annals are not without 
 instances of the practice of immolation at funerals ; and we find that, 
 so late as the year 1661, the Tartar emperor Shun-chi commanded a 
 human sacrifice upon the death of a favourite mistress. " Voluit ta- 
 men," says P. Couplet, " triginta hominum spontanea morte placari 
 manes concubinse, ritu apud Sinas execrando, quern barbarum morem 
 successor deinde sustulit." (Tab. Chronologica Monarchic Sinicae, p. 
 100.) In the account of the conquest of China by the Mantchou Tar- 
 tars, written by the Jesuit Martiuius, we are told that the Mantchou 
 king Tien-ming, invading China to avenge the murder of his father, 
 swore that, in allusion to the customs of tne Tartars, he would cele- 
 brate the funeral of the murdered king by the slaughter of two hundred 
 thousand Chinese. This supports Marco Polo's story in a remarkable 
 manner. The number stated to have been sacrificed by those who 
 accompanied the body of Mangu-khan varies considerably in the dif- 
 ferent versions, and in the epitomes is made to amount to 300,000. 
 Marsden's text states it at 10,000, but the authority of the early manu- 
 scripts seems to be in favour of the number given in our text. 
 
 2 This periodical migration of the Tartar tribes is matter of so much 
 notoriety, that our author's account of it scarcely needs to be cor- 
 roborated by authorities ; but the following passage from Du Halde 
 will be found circumstantially applicable: "Tons les Mongous vivent
 
 MANNERS OF THE TARTARS. i29 
 
 Covered with felt, and being exactly round, and nicely put 
 together, they can gather them into one bundle, and make them 
 up as pcickages, which they carry along with them in their 
 migrations, upon a sort of car with four wheels. 1 When they 
 have occasion to set them up again, they always make the 
 entrance front to the south. 2 Besides these cars they have 
 a superior kind of vehicle upon two wheels, covered likewise 
 with black felt, and so effectually as to protect those within 
 it from wet, during a whole day of rain. These are drawn by 
 oxen and camels, and serve to convey their wives and children, 
 their utensils, and such provisions as they require. 3 The 
 
 aussi de la menie maniere, errans ca et 1^ avec leurs troupeaux, et 
 demeurans campez dans les lieux ou ils sont commode'ment, et oil ils 
 trouvent le meilleur fourage. En ete ils se placent ordinairement dans 
 des lieux decouverts pres de quelque riviere ou de quelque etang, et 
 s'il n'y en a point, aux environs de quelque puits : en hyver ils cher- 
 chent les montagnes et les collines, ou du moins ils s'6tablissent der- 
 riere quelque hauteur, ou ils soient a couvert du vent de Nord, qui est 
 en ce pays-la extremement froid ; la neige supplge a 1'eau qui leur 
 manque. Ohaque souverain demeure dans son pays, sans qu'il soit 
 peruiia ni a lui, ui a ses sujets, d'aller dans les terres deb autres; mais 
 dans 1'etendue des terres qui leur appartiennent ils cainpent oil ils 
 voulent." (Tom. iv. p. 38.) " The summer station," says Elphinstone, 
 " is called eilauk, and the winter station kish-lauk, two words which 
 both the Afghauns and Persians have borrowed from th Tartars." 
 Account of Caubul. p. 390. 
 
 1 The tents are thus described by Bell, as he saw them among the 
 Kalmuks, encamped near the Wolga : "'The Tartars had their tents 
 pitched along the river side. These are of a conical figure ; there are 
 several long poles erected inclining to each other, which are fixed at 
 the top into something like a hoop, that forms the circumference of an 
 aperture for letting out the smoke or admitting the light : across the 
 poles are laid some small rods, from four to six feet long, and fastened 
 to them by thongs. This frame is covered with pieces of felt, made of 
 coarse wool and hair. These tents afford better shelter than any other 
 kind, and are so contrived as to be set up, taken down, folded, and 
 packed up, with great ease and quickness, and so light that a camel 
 may carry five or six of them." (Tom. i. p. 29.) See also Du Halde. 
 
 2 " When they take downe their dwelling houses (from off their 
 carts), they turn the doores always to the south." (Purchas, Journal of 
 Rubruquis, vol. iii. p. 3.) This opening of the door-way to the south 
 appears to be the universal practice in Tartary, as well with fixed as 
 with moveable houses, in order to guard as much as possible against 
 the rude effects of. the northerly wind. It will be seen hereafter that 
 the same custom subsists in the northern provinces of China. 
 
 3 " They make certayne four-square baskets of small slender wickers 
 as bigge as great chests ; and afterward, from one side to another, 
 they frame an hollow lidde or cover of such like wickers, and make a 
 
 K
 
 130 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 women it is who attend to their trading concerns, who buy 
 and sell, and provide everything necessary for their husbands 
 and their families; 1 the time of the men being entirely 
 devoted to hunting and hawking, and matters that relate 
 to the military life. They have the best falcons in the 
 world, and also the best dogs. They subsist entirely upon 
 flesh and milk, eating the produce of their sport, and a cer- 
 tain small animal, not unlike a rabbit, called by our people 
 Pharaoh's mice, which, during the summer season, are found 
 in great abundance in the plains. 2 But they likewise eat 
 flesh of every description, horses, camels, and even dogs, pro- 
 vided they are fat. They drink mares' milk, which they 
 prepare in such a manner that it has the qualities and flavour 
 of white wine. They term it in their language kemurs. s 
 
 doore in the fore-side thereof. And then they cover the said chest or 
 little house with black felt, rubbed over with tallow or sheep's milk to 
 keep the rain from soking through, which they deck likewise with 
 painting or wifh feathers. And in such chests they put their whole 
 household-stuffe and treasure. Also the same chests they do strongly 
 binde upon other carts, which are drawne with camels." Purchas, 
 vol. iii. p. 3. 
 
 1 This custom of the men committing to the females the manage- 
 ment of their trading concerns, is authenticated by P. Gerbillon, who 
 accompanied the emperor Kanghi in his expeditions. (Du Halde, torn, 
 iv. p. 115.) Elphinstone, also, speaking of a tribe in the Afghan country, 
 called Hazoureh, and whom he considers as the remnant of a Tartar 
 army left there, remarks that " the wife manages the house, takes care 
 of the property, does her share of the honours, and is very much con- 
 sulted in all her husband's measures." Account of Caubul, p. 483. 
 
 2 " On these hills (near the Selinga river) are a great number of 
 animals callad marmots, of a brownish colour, having feet like a badger, 
 and nearly of the same size. They make deep burrows on the decli- 
 vities of the hills ; and it is said that in winter they continue in these 
 holes, for a certain time, even without food. At this season, however, 
 they sit or lie near their burrows, keeping a strict watch, and at the 
 approach of danger rear themselves on their hind feet, giving a loud 
 whistle, and then drop into their holes in a moment." (Bell's Travels, 
 vol. i. p. 311.) The description given of the animal by Du Halde ac- 
 cords best with our author's account : " Get animal (ausai petit qu'une 
 hermine) est une espece de rat de terre, fort commun dans certains 
 quartiers des Kalkas. Les tael-pi se tiennent sous la terre, ou ils 
 creusent une suite d'autant de petites tanieres qu'il y a de males dans 
 leur troupe: un d'eux est toujours au dehors, qui fait le guet, mais qO 
 fuit des qu'il apper9oit quelqu'un, et se precipite en terre aussitot 
 qu'on s'approche de lui. . . . On en prend a la fois un tres-grand 
 nombre." Tom. iv. p. 30. 
 
 3 The word here written chemurs or kei/iurs, and in the Latin edition
 
 THE TARTAR WOME>., i3l 
 
 Their women are not excelled in the world for chastity and 
 decency of conduct, nor for love and duty to their husbands. 
 Infidelity to the marriage bed is regarded by them as a vice not 
 merely dishonourable, but of the most infamous nature; 1 whilst 
 on the other hand it is admirable to observe the loyalty of the 
 husbands towards their wives, amongst whom, although there 
 are perhaps ten or twenty, there prevails a degree of quiet 
 and union that is highly laudable. No offensive language is 
 ever heard, their attention being fully occupied with their 
 traffic (as already mentioned) and their several domestic 
 employments, such as the provision of necessary food for the 
 family, the management of the servants, and the care of the 
 children, which are amongst them a common concern. And 
 the more praiseworthy are the virtues of modesty and chastity 
 in the wives, because the men are allowed the indulgence of 
 taking as many as they choose. 2 Their expense to the husband 
 is not great, and on the other hand the benefit he derives 
 from their trading, and from the occupations in which they 
 are constantly engaged, is considerable; on which account it 
 is, that when he receives a young woman in marriage, he pays 
 a dower to her parent. 3 The wife who is the first espoused has 
 
 chuinis and chemius, is that which, by other travellers is called kimmiz 
 or kimmuz, and (vulgarly.) cosmos. It is a preparation of mares' milk, 
 put into a state of fermentation by heat, beaten in a large skin bag (for 
 the purpose, as it would seem, of separating the butter), and by euch. 
 process rendered intoxicating to a certain degree. It will in this state 
 bear keeping for several months, and is the favourite drink of all the 
 tribes of Tartars. "The national beverage" of the Uzbeks, Elphin- 
 stone observes, " is kimmiz, an intoxicating liquor, well known to be 
 prepared from mares' milk." (P. 470.) This (distilled) spirit, although 
 produced from the same materials, must be distinguished from the 
 kimmuz. with which, however, it is confounded by some writers. Ru- 
 bruquis furnishes a circumstantial account of these preparations of 
 milk in all their stages. 
 
 " It must be observed," says Bell, " to the honour of their women, 
 that they are very honest and sincere, and few of them lewd : adultery 
 is a crime scarce ever heard of." Vol. i. p. 31. 
 
 " Quoique 1 polygamie," says P. Gerbillon, "ne soit plus defendue 
 parmi eux, ils n'ont ordinairement qu'une femme." (Du Halde, torn. iv. 
 p. 39.) The practice is described by other writers as more general; 
 but in one tribe it may be more prevalent than in others. 
 
 3 " Ils ne donnent point de douaire a leurs femmes," says Thevenot, 
 " mais les maris font des presens a leur pere et a leur frere sans lesqueis 
 ils ne trouveroient point de femmes." (Relation des Tartares, torn. i. 
 p. 19.) " As touching marriages." says Rubruquis, " no man can have a 
 wife till he hath bought her." Purchas, vol. iii. p. 7. 
 
 K 2
 
 132 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 the privilege of superior attention, and is held to be the moat 
 legitimate, which extends also to the children borne by her. 
 In consequence of this unlimited number of wives, the off- 
 spring is more numerous than amongst any other people. 
 Upon the death of the father, the son may take to himself 
 the wives he leaves behind, with the exception of his own 
 mother. They cannot take their sisters to wife, but upon the 
 death of their brothers they can marry their sisters-in-law. 1 
 Every marriage is solemnized with great ceremony. 
 
 CHAPTER XLVIII. 
 
 OF THE CELESTIAL AND TERRESTRIAL DEITIES OF THE TARTARS, AND OF 
 THEIR MODES OP WORSHIP OF THEIR DRESS, ARMS, COURAGE IN 
 BATTLE, PATIENCE UNDER PRIVATIONS, AND OBEDIENCE TO THEIR 
 LEADERS. 
 
 THE doctrine and faith of the Tartars are these : They believe 
 in a deity whose nature is sublime and heavenly. To him 
 they burn incense in censers, and offer up prayers for the 
 enjoyment of intellectual and bodily health. 2 They worship 
 
 1 " II n'y a que cette difference," adds the translator of Abu'lghazi, 
 " entre le* Tartares Mahometans et les autres, que les premiers ob- 
 servent quelques degre's de parente dans lesquels il leur est deTendu 
 de se marier, au lieu que les Callmoucks et Moungales, a 1' exception de 
 leurs meres naturelles, n'observent aucune proximite du sang dana 
 leurs mariages." (P. 36, note.) " The sonne," says Rubruquis, " mar- 
 rieth sometimes all his father's wives except his owne mother." Pur- 
 chas, vol. iii. p. 7. 
 
 2 " The religion of the Buraty," says Bell, " seems to be the same 
 with that of the Kalmucks, which is downright paganism of the grossest 
 kind. They talk, indeed, of an almighty and good Being, who created 
 all things, whom they call Burchun ; but seem bewildered in obscure 
 and fabulous notions concerning his nature and government. They 
 have two high priests, to whom they pay great respect ; one is called 
 Delay -lama, the other Kutukhtu." (Bell's Travels, vol. i. p. 248.) " The 
 Vlongalls believe in and worship one almighty Creator of all things. 
 They hold that the Kutukhtu is God's vicegerent on earth, and that 
 there will be a future state of rewards and punishments." (P. 281.) " I 
 am informed that the religion of the Tonguts is the same with that of 
 the Mongalls ; that they hold the same opinions with respect to the 
 transmigration of the Delay-lama as the Mongalls do about the Ku- 
 tukhtu, and that he is elected in the same manner." (P. 283.) The 
 hierarchy of which the Dalai or Grand Lama is generally considered aa
 
 RELIGION OF THE TARTARS. 133 
 
 another likewise, named Natigay, whose image, covered with 
 felt or other cloth, every individual preserves in his house. 
 To this deity they associate a wife and children, placing the 
 former on his left side, and the latter before him. in a posture 
 of reverential salutation. Him they consider as the divinity 
 who presides over their terrestrial concerns, protects their 
 children, and guards their cattle and their grain. 1 They 
 show him great respect, and at their meals they never omit to 
 take a fat morsel of the flesh, and with it to grease the mouth 
 of the idol, and at the same time the mouths of its wife and 
 children. They then throw out of the door some of the 
 liquor in which the meat has been dressed, as an offering tc 
 the other spirits. 2 This being done, they consider that their 
 deity and his family have had their proper share, and proceed 
 to eat and drink without further ceremony. The rich amongst 
 these people dress in cloth of gold and silks, with skins of 
 the sable, the ermine, and other animals. All their accoutre- 
 ments are of an expensive kind. Their arms are bows, iron 
 maces, and in some instances, spears; but the first is the 
 weapon at which they are the most expert, being accustomed, 
 from children, to employ it in their sports. 3 They wear 
 defensive armour made of the thick hides of buffaloes and 
 
 the head, was not established until so late as about the year 1426, 
 according to Gaubil ; but the lamas simply, as priests of Shakia-muni, 
 appear to have existed from a remote period, and the shamuns, in the 
 northern parts of Tartary, to be lamas in a ruder state of society. Th<j 
 Kutukhtus stand in the same relation to the Grand Lama as the cardi- 
 nals, or perhaps more nearly the cardinal-legates, to the pope. 
 
 1 This Tartar idol, whose name is written Natagai in the Latin 
 editions, and Nachigai in the Italian epitomes, is the Itoga of Plan de 
 Carpin ; by whom the superstitious practices of these people are de- 
 scribed in the following manner : " Us s'adonnent fort aux predictions, 
 augures, vol des oiseaux, sorcelleries, et enchantemens. Lorsque le 
 diable leur fait quelque re'ponse, ils croient que cela vient de Dieu 
 merne, et le nomment Itoga." Bergeron, p. 32. 
 
 2 " Then goeth a servant out of the house," says Rubruquis, " with 
 
 a cup full of drinke, sprinkling it thrice towards the soxith, &c 
 
 When the master holdeth a cup in his hand to drinke, before he tasteth 
 thereof, he poureth his part upon the ground." (Purchas, vol. iii. p. 4.) 
 [The words in the early Latin text of our author are, " Postea acci- 
 piunt de brodio et projiciunt super eum per ostium domus suse earner 
 ubi stat ille deus eorum."] 
 
 3 " They are armed," says Bell, " with bows and arrows, a sabre and 
 lance, which they manage with great dexterity, acquired by constant 
 practice from their infancy." Vol. i. p. 30.
 
 134 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 other beasts, dried by the fire, and thus rendered extremely 
 hard and strong. They are brave in battle, almost to despe- 
 ration, setting little value upon their lives, and exposing 
 themselves without hesitation to all manner of danger. Their 
 disposition is cruel. They are capable of supporting every 
 kind of privation, and when there is a necessity for it, can 
 live for a month on the milk of their mares, and upon such 
 wild animals as they may chance to catch. Their horses are 
 fed upon grass alone, and do not require barley or other 
 grain. The men are habituated to remain on horseback during 
 two days and two nights, without dismounting; sleeping in that 
 situation whilst their horses graze. No people upon earth 
 can surpass them in fortitude under difficulties, nor show 
 greater patience under wants of every kind. They are per- 
 fectly obedient to their chiefs, and are maintained at small 
 expense. From these qualities, so essential to the forma- 
 tion of soldiers, it is, that they are fitted to subdue the 
 world, as in fact they have done in regard to a considerable 
 portion of it. 
 
 CHAPTER XLIX. 
 
 OF THE TARTAR ARMIES, AND THE MANNER IN WHICH THEY ARE CON- 
 STITUTED OF THEIR ORDER OF MARCHING OF THEIR PROVISIONS 
 AND OF THEIR MODE OF ATTACKING THE ENEMY. 
 
 WHEN one of the great Tartar chiefs proceeds on an expe- 
 dition, he puts himself at the head of an army of an hundred 
 thousand horse, and organises them in the following manner. 
 He appoints an officer to the command of every ten men, and 
 others to command an hundred, a thousand, and ten thousand 
 men, respectively. Thus ten of the officers commanding ten 
 men take their orders from him who commands a hundred; 
 of these, each ten, from him who commands a thousand ; and 
 each ten of these latter, from him who commands ten thou- 
 sand. By this arrangement each officer has only to attend to 
 the management of ten men or ten bodies of men ; and when 
 the commander of these hundred thousand men has occasion 
 to make a detachment for any particular service, he issues his 
 orders to the commanders of ten thousand to furnish hirn
 
 TARTAR WARFARE. 135 
 
 with a thousand men each ; and these, in like manner, to the 
 commanders of a thousand, who give their orders to those 
 Commanding a hundred, until the order reaches those com- 
 manding ten, by whom the number required is immediately 
 supplied to their superior officers. A hundred men are in 
 this manner delivered to every officer commanding a thou- 
 sand, and a vhousand men to every officer commanding ten 
 thousand. 1 The drafting takes place without delay, and all 
 are implicitly obedient to their respective superiors. Every 
 company of a hundred men is denominated a tuc, and ten of 
 these constitute a toman. 2 When the army proceeds on ser- 
 vice, a body of men is sent two days' march in advance, and 
 parties are stationed upon each flank and in the rear, in order 
 to prevent its being attacked by surprise. When the service 
 is distant, they carry but little with them, and that, chiefly 
 what is requisite for their encampment, and utensils for 
 cooking. They subsist for the most part upon milk, as has 
 been said. Each man has, on an average, eighteen horses 
 and mares, and when that which they ride is fatigued, they 
 change it for another. They are provided with small tents 
 made of felt, u-nder which they shelter themselves against 
 rain. Should circumstances render it necessary, in the exe- 
 cution of a duty that requires despatch, they can march for 
 ten days together without dressing victuals, during which 
 time they subsist upon the blood drawn from their horses, 
 each man opening a vein, and drinking from his own cattle, 3 
 They make provision also of milk, thickened and dried to 
 the state of a hard paste (or curd), which is prepared in the 
 following manner. They boil the milk, and skimming off the 
 rich or creamy part as it rises to the top, put it into a sepa- 
 rate vessel as butter ; for so long as that remains in the inilk, 
 
 1 The correctness of our author's account of the constitution of the 
 Mungal armies will appear from comparing it with the detailed account 
 in the French translation of Abu'lghazi's History of the Tartars. 
 
 2 Toman is the usual Persian term for a body of 10,000 men. The 
 word tuc, as signifying " a hundred." is not to be found in the dic- 
 tionaries. It may, perhaps, be an orthographical corruption of duz, 
 sus, yv.z, by which that number is expressed in the dialects of different 
 Tartar tribes. 
 
 3 The Scythian or Sarmatian practice of drawing blood from horses, 
 as an article of sustenance or luxurious indulgence, and also that of 
 preserving milk for use, in a concrete form, were well known to th 
 ancients..
 
 136 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 it will not become hard. The latter is then exposed to the 
 sun until it dries. Upon going on service they carry with 
 them about ten pounds for each man, and of this, half a 
 pound is put, every morning, into a leathern bottle, or small 
 outre, with as much water as is thought necessary. By their 
 motion in riding the contents are violently shaken, and a thin 
 porridge is produced, upon which they make their dinner. 1 
 When these Tartars come to engage in battle, they never mix 
 with the enemy, but keep hovering about him, discharging 
 their arrows first from one side and then from the other, 
 occasionally pretending to fly, and during their flight shooting 
 arrows backwards at their pursuers, killing men and horses, as 
 if they were combating face to face. In this sort of warfare 
 the adversary imagines he has gained a victory, when in fact 
 he has lost the battle ; for the Tartars, observing the mischief 
 they have done him, wheel about, and renewing the fight, 
 overpower his remaining troops, and make them prisoners in 
 spite of their utmost exertions. Their horses are so well 
 broken-in to quick changes of movement, that upon the signal 
 given, they instantly turn in every direction ; and by these 
 rapid manoeuvres many victories have been obtained. All that 
 has been here related is spoken of the original manners of the 
 Tartar chiefs; but at the present day they are much cor- 
 rupted. 2 Those who dwell at Ukaka, forsaking their own 
 laws, have adopted the customs of the people who worship 
 
 1 " On long marches," saya Bell, " all their provisions consist of 
 cheese, or rather dried curd, made up into little balls, which they 
 drink when pounded and mixed with water." (Vol. i. p. 34.) "We were 
 presented," says Turner, " with a profusion of fresh, rrch milk, and a 
 preparation called, in the language of India, dhy, which is milk acidu- 
 lated by means of buttermilk boiled in it, and kept till it is slightly 
 coagulated. The kummuz of the Tartars is mares' milk, prepared by 
 the same process : this is sometimes dried in masses till it resembles 
 chalk ; and is used to give a relish to the water they drink, by solution 
 with it. I have been told that the operation of drying it is sometimes 
 performed by tying the dhy tight in bags of cloth, and suspending it 
 under the horses' bellies." Embassy to Tibet, p. 195. 
 
 2 By the corruption of manners he may be supposed to'allude to the 
 effects produced by the conquest of China, which gave to these rude 
 and hardy people a taste for the enjoyment of ease and luxuries. So 
 enervated did the Mungals become, before the expiration of a century, 
 that they were ignominiously driven back to their deserts ;y an insur- 
 rection of the Chinese population.
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE. 137 
 
 idols, and those who inhabit the eastern provinces have 
 adopted the manners of the Saracens. 1 
 
 CHAPTER L. 
 
 OF THE RULES OF JUSTICE OBSERVED BY THESE PEOPLE AND OF AX 
 IMAGINARY KIND OF MARRIAGE CONTRACTED BETWEEN THE DECEASED 
 CHILDREN OF DIFFERENT FAMILIES. 
 
 JUSTICE is administered by them in the following manner. 
 When a person is convicted of a robbery not meriting the 
 punishment of death, he is condemned to receive a certain 
 uumber of strokes with a cane, seven, seventeen, twenty- 
 seven, thirty-seven, forty-seven, or as far as one hundred and 
 seven, according to the value of the article stolen and circum- 
 stances of the theft; and many die under this chastisement. 2 
 When, for stealing a horse or other article that subjects the 
 offender to capital punishment, he is condemned to suffer 
 death, the sentence is executed by cutting his body in two 
 with a sword. 3 But if the thief has the means of paying nine 
 times the value of the property stolen, he escapes all further 
 punishment. It is usual for every chief of a tribe or other 
 person possessing large cattle, such as horses, mares, camels, 
 oxen, or cows, to distinguish them by his mark, and then to 
 suffer them to graze at large, in any part of the plains or 
 mountains, without employing herdsmen to look after them; 
 and if any of them should happen to mix with the cattle of 
 other proprietors, they are restored to the person whose mark 
 
 1 As the situation of Ukaka, or Ouchacha, is here placed in opposi- 
 tion to that of the eastern provinces, we may presume it to be Okak, or 
 Okaka, of Abulfeda, on the banks of the Etel or Wolga, not far from 
 Sarai, which was visited by the father and uncle of our author, in their 
 first journey. The relative term eastern is not, however, intended to 
 apply to those provinces which we, in respect to China, call Eastern 
 Tartary, but to the country lying eastward of the Caspian. 
 
 2 To this punishment, which is known to be common in China, the 
 Portuguese have given the name of bastanado (from bastano, a staff or 
 cane). 
 
 3 In China, where the criminal law of the Tartars may be supposed 
 to have had much influence, the punishments of decapitation and of 
 cutting the bodies into many pieces, are in use for certain great 
 offences.
 
 138 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 they bear. Sheep and goats, on the contrary, have people to 
 attend them. Their cattle of every kind are well-sized, fat, 
 and exceedingly handsome. 1 When one man has had a son, 
 and another man a daughter, although both may have been 
 dead for some years, they have a practice of contracting a 
 marriage between their deceased children, and of bestowing 
 the girl upon the youth. They at the same time paint upon 
 pieces of paper human figures to represent attendants with 
 horses and other animals, dresses of all kinds, money, and 
 every article of furniture; and all these, together with the 
 marriage contract, which is regularly drawn .up, they commit 
 to the flames, in order that through the medium of the smoke 
 (as they believe) these things may be conveyed to their 
 children in the other world, and that they may become husband 
 and wife in due form. After this ceremony, the fathers and 
 mothers consider themselves as mutually related, in the 
 same manner as if a real connexion had taken place between 
 their living children. 2 Having thus given an account of the 
 manners and customs of the Tartars, although not yet of the 
 brilliant acts and enterprises of their grand khan, who is lord 
 
 1 " Their horned cattle," says Bell, " are very large. Their sheep 
 have broad tails, and their mutton is excellent. They have also great 
 abundance of goats." Vol. i. p. 246. 
 
 2 This custom, however extraordinary, is of the same character as 
 many of the grave absurdities to be found in the Chinese institutions. 
 We are told by P. Navarette that it exists in one of the northern pro- 
 vinces-, bordering on the country of the Mungals, and where of course 
 we may look for a similarity of practices. " In the province of Shan-si," 
 he says, " they have a ridiculous custom, which is, to marry dead folks. 
 F. Michael Trigauciua, a Jesuit, who lived several years in that province, 
 told it us whilst we were confined. It falls out that one man's son and 
 another's daughter die. Whilst the coffins are in the house (and they 
 use to keep them two or three years or longer) the parents agree to 
 marry them; they send the usual presents as if they were alive, with 
 much ceremony and music. After this they put together the two 
 coffins, keep the wedding dinner before them, and lastly they lay them 
 together in one tomb. The parents from this time are looked upon 
 not only as friends but relations, as they would have been had their 
 children been married living." (Churchill's Collect, vol. L p. 69.) 
 " This," says Malcolm, " is said to be still an usage in Tartary. They 
 throw the contract in the fire, and conceive the smoke ascends to the 
 departed children, who marry in the other world. Petit de la Croix, 
 in his life of Chenghiz, mentions this fact; and I find it stated in 
 a Persian manuscript written by a man of learning and information." 
 iliat. of Persia, vol. i. p. 413. note.
 
 THE PLAIN OF BARGU. 139 
 
 of all the Tartars, we shall now return to our former subject, 
 that is, to the extensive plain which we were traversing when 
 we stopped to relate the history of this people. 
 
 CHAPTER LI. 
 
 OF THE PLAIN OF BARGU NEAR KARA-KORAN OF THE CUSTOMS OF ITS 
 
 INHABITANTS OF THE OCEAN, AT THE DISTANCE OF FORTY DATS* 
 
 JOURNEY FROM THENCE OF THE FALCONS PRODUCED IN THE COUNTRY 
 ON ITS BORDERS AND OF THE BEARINGS OF THE NORTHERN CON- 
 STELLATION TO AN OBSERVER IN THOSE PARTS. 
 
 UPON leaving Kara-koran and the mountains of Altai', the 
 burial-place, as has been said, of the imperial Tartar family, 
 you proceed, in a northern direction, through a country 
 termed the plain of Bargu, extending to the distance of about 
 forty days' journey. 1 The people who dwell there are called 
 Mekriti, a rude tribe, who live upon the flesh of animals, 
 
 1 The name of Bargu appears in Strahlenberg's map of Tartary, near 
 the south-western part of the lake or sea of Baikal, and in D'Anville's 
 on the north-east side, but by our author it is applied to the country 
 extending from thence, many days' journey towards the Frozen Ocean, 
 and seems to correspond to what we term Siberia. This misapplication 
 (as he considers it) is noticed by Strahlenberg, who observes, that 
 " the name of Bargu is to be found in the old map of Great Tartary, 
 though in a very wrong place, viz. towards the Mare Glaciale.'' (Note 
 3, p. 14.) It may have happened, however, that in the course of four 
 centuries one vague appellation may have superseded another; and I 
 believe it will not be contended that Siberia is the indigenous name of 
 the region on which it has been bestowed. 
 
 2 Of this tribe of Mekriti, which in the epitomes is Mecriit, but in 
 the Latin edition Meditae (Mecaci in the early Latin), frequent mention 
 is made in the Tartar histories, by the names of Merkit and Markat, 
 whose country was amongst the first of the conquests made by Jengiz- 
 khan, being in his immediate vicinity. Its situation is not pointed 
 out with any degree of precision, but that it is far northwards may be 
 inferred from a passage in L'Histoire generale des Huns, where, speaking 
 of the defeat of the Naimans and dispersion of their princes, it is 
 said : " Tous prirent la fuite, et se retirerent vers la riviere d'Irtisch, 
 oil ils s'etablirent, et y formerent un puissant parti qui etoit soutenu 
 par Toctabegh, khan des Merkites." (Liv. xv. p. 23.) " Ceux de la 
 tribu des Markats," says Abu'lghazi. " avoient du temps de Zingis-Chan 
 un chan appelle Tochtabegi, qui estoit tousjours aux prises avec Zingis- 
 Chan." (Hist, geneal. p. 130.) This was probably the most northern
 
 140 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 the largest of which are of the nature of stags; and these 
 they also make use of for the purposes of travelling. 1 They 
 feed likewise upon the birds that frequent their numerous 
 lakes and marshes, as well as upon fish. It is at the moulting 
 season, or during suaimer, that the birds seek these waters. 
 and being then, from want of their feathers, incapable of 
 flight, they are taken by the natives without difficulty. This 
 plain borders on the ocean at its northern extremity. The 
 customs and manners of the people resemble those of the 
 Tartars that have been described, and they are subjects of the 
 grand khan. They have neither corn nor wine ; and although 
 in summer they derive subsistence from the chase, yet in 
 winter the cold is so excessive that neither birds nor beasts 
 can remain there. 2 Upon travelling foi'ty days, as it is said, 
 you reach the (northern) ocean. 3 Near to this is a mountain, 
 in which, as well as in the neighbouring plain, vultures and 
 peregrine falcons have their nests. Neither men nor cattle 
 are found there, and of birds there is only a species called 
 bargelak, and the falcons to which they serve for food. The 
 former are about the size of a partridge, with tails like the 
 swallow, claws like those of the parrot kind, and are swift of 
 flight. When the grand khan is desirous of having a brood 
 of peregrine falcons, he sends to procure them at this place ; 
 and in an island lying off the coast, gerfalcons are found in 
 such numbers that his majesty may be supplied with as many 
 of them as he pleases. 4 It must not be supposed that the 
 
 tribe with whose name our author was acquainted, and although fee 
 now proceeds to speak (in very general terms) of those extensive regions 
 which lie between the rivers Oby and Lena, it may be presumed that 
 he knew nothing of them but from the report of others; nor does he 
 attempt to make it understood that he had visited them in person. 
 
 1 This is the well-known rein-deer, a large and beautiful species of 
 cervus, in size equal to the elk, and in shape not unlike our red deer. 
 
 2 The description of these people and their country corresponds 
 with what we read of many of the savage tribes that wander over 
 
 . those inhospitable deserts through which the great northern rivers 
 flow. 
 
 3 This distance of forty days' journey must be understood to com- 
 mence from the plain or steppe of Bargu. He speaks of it in a qualified 
 manner, and not as of a tract that he had himself visited. 
 
 * " In the province of Dauria," says Strahlenberg, " and near the 
 river Amour (the Saghalien oula of the Jesuits) there are a great many 
 Tiilk-white falcons, which are sent in great numbers to China." (P. 361.)
 
 THE KINGDOM OF ERGINUL. 141 
 
 gerfalcons sent from Europe for the use of the Tartars are 
 conveyed to the court of the grand khan. They go only to 
 some of the Tartar or other chiefs of the Levant, bordering 
 on the countries of the Comanians and Armenians. This 
 island is situated so far to the north that the polar constel- 
 lation appears to be behind you, and to have in part a 
 southerly bearing. 1 Having thus spoken of the regions in 
 the vicinity of the northern ocean, we shall now describe the 
 provinces lying nearer to the residence of the grand khan, 
 and shall return to that of Kampion, of which mention has 
 already been made. 
 
 CHAPTER LIT. 
 
 OF THE KINGDOM OF ERGINCL, ADJOINING TO THAT OF KAMPION, AND 
 OF THE CITY OF SINGUI OF A SPECIES OF OXEN COVERED WITH 
 EXTREMELY FINE HAIR OF THE FORM OF THE ANIMAL THAT YIELDS 
 THE MUSK, AND THE MODE OF TAKING IT AND OF THE CUSTOMS OF 
 THE INHABITANTS OF THAT COUNTRY, AND THE BEAUTY OF THE 
 WOMEN. 
 
 UPON leaving Kampion, and proceeding five days' journey 
 towards the east, in the course of which travellers are fre- 
 quently terrified in the night-time by the voices of spirits, 
 they reach a kingdom named Erginul, 2 subject to the grand 
 
 " I could not but admire." says Bell, " the beauty of these fine birds. 
 .... They are brought from Siberia, or places to the north of the 
 river Amoor." (Travels, vol. ii. p. 79.) Among the presents sent by 
 the Czar Ivan Basiliewitz, by his ambassador, to Queen Mary, in 1556 
 (as mentioned by Hakluyt), was "a large and fair white jerfawcon, for 
 the wild swan, crane, goose, and other great fowls." 
 
 1 The Italian words, " la stella tramontana," which in the text is 
 translated " the polar constellation," should perhaps be. in strictness, 
 the " polar star." We must presume his meaning to have been that the 
 conspicuous stars in the tail of the lesser bear, or perhaps what are 
 called the pointers of the greater, appeared to the south of a person 
 situated at the extreme part of the northern continent. In Fra 
 Mauro's map we find the words : " Qui la Tramontana roman in 
 mezzodi." 
 
 2 By the corrupted name of Erginul or Ergi-nur, is meant (as may 
 be conjectured from the circumstances) that district of Tangut which 
 is called by the Tartars Kokonor, and by the Chinese, Hohonor or 
 Hohonol, and is by some considered as Tangut Proper. The distance 
 of its lake from the city of Kampion or Kan-cheu is about one hundred
 
 142 TRAVELS OP MARCO POLO. 
 
 khan, and included in the province of Taugut. Within the 
 limits of this kingdom are several principalities, the inhabi- 
 tants of which are, in general, idolaters, with some few Nes- 
 torian Christians and worshippers of Mahomet. Amongst 
 many cities and strong places the principal one is Ergiuul. 
 Proceeding from thence in a south-eastern direction, the road 
 takes you to Cathay, and in that route you find a city called 
 Singui, 1 in a district of the same name, where are many 
 towns and castles, in like manner belonging to Tangut, and 
 under the dominion of the grand khan. 2 The population of 
 this country consists chiefly of idolaters; but there are also 
 some Mahometans and Christians. Here are found many 
 wild cattle that, in point of size, may be compared to 
 elephants. Their colour is a mixture of white and black, and 
 they are very beautiful to the sight. The hair upon every 
 
 and forty miles, in a direction nearly south, which could scarcely 
 be travelled in five days, through a mountainous tract; but the situ- 
 ation of its principal town may have been much nearer to that place, 
 and perhaps to the eastward of its meridian, on the banks of the Olan- 
 muren. In the Basle edition the name is written Erigimul, in the 
 older Latin, Ergimul, and in the Italian epitomes, Ergiuul ; but none 
 of them, apparently, more correct than the Ergi-nul of Ramusio; the 
 latter part of which seems to be the word ndr or n6>; signifying a 
 lake. 
 
 1 Singui (as the name appears in the texts of Ramusio, of the Basle 
 edition, and of the older Latin, but in the manuscripts, Signi and Sigui, 
 and in the epitomes, Sirigai) has been supposed by some to mean the 
 city of Si-gnan-fu, the capital of the province of Shen-si. But tbe latter 
 is situated near the eastern border of the province, and in the heart of 
 China; whereas it is Tangut that our author is still describing; and 
 although the western extremity of Shen-si formerly belonged to the 
 Sifan or Tufan (people of Tangut), such was not the case with respect 
 to the interior part of the province. Singui or Signi, on the contrary, 
 was, I have no doubt, intended for the celebrated mart of Si-ning (the 
 Selin of Pallas), on the western verge of Shen-si, and distant only 
 a fw days' journej, in a south-eastern direction, from Hohonor. It has 
 been at all periods, and is at this day, the great halting-place for tra- 
 vellers between Tibet and Peking, and therefore properly said to lie in 
 the road to Cathay. 
 
 2 These numerous castles or forts are likewise noticed by Du Halde, 
 who describes the western part of Shen-si as consisting of two great 
 valleys, diverging from a point, and advancing, the one in a northern, 
 the other in a western direction, into the country of the Sifan. This 
 tract formed no original part of the empire, but was a conquered dis- 
 trict, taken from Tangut (to which our author considers it as belonging 
 in his time) and annexed to Shen-si.
 
 THE ANIMAL PRODUCING MUSK. 143 
 
 part of their bodies lies down smooth, excepting upon the 
 shoulder, where it stands up to the height of about three 
 palms. This hair, or rather wool, is white, and more soft and 
 delicate than silk. 1 Marco Polo carried some of it to Venice, 
 as a singular ctiriosity, and such it was esteemed by all who 
 saw it. Many of these cattle taken wild have become do- 
 mesticated, and the breed produced between them and the 
 common cow are noble animals, and better qualified to 
 undergo fatigue than any other kind. They are accustomed 
 to carry heavier burthens and to perform twice the labour in 
 husbandry that could be derived from the ordinary sort, being 
 both active and powerful. 2 In this country it is that the 
 finest and most valuable musk is procured. 8 The animal 
 which yields it is not larger than the female goat, but in form 
 resembles the antelope. It is called in the Tartar language, 
 gudderi. Its coat is like that of the larger kind of deer: 
 its feet and tail are those of the antelope, but it has not 
 the horns. It is provided with four projecting teeth or 
 tusks, three inches in length, two in the upper jaw pointing 
 
 1 This fine species of bos is particularly described by Turner, as well 
 in his Embassy to Tibet, as in the Asiatic Researches, vol. iv., by the 
 name of the yak of Tartary, or bushy-tailed bull of Tibet. " Over the 
 shoulders," he observes, " rises a thick muscle, covered with a profusion 
 of soft hair, which in general is longer and more copious than that 
 along the ridge of the back to the setting on of the tail. The tail is 
 composed of a prodigious quantity of long flowing, glossy hair. . . The 
 shoulders, rump, and upper part of the body are clothed with a sort of 
 soft, thick wool ; but the inferior parts with straight, pendent hair, 
 that descends below the knee. . . . There is a great variety of colours 
 amongst them, but black or white are the most prevalent." (Embassy, 
 p. 186.) With respect to its height, which our author has magnified, it 
 is said by Turner to be about that of the English bull ; but, from the 
 profuse quantity of hair with which it is covered, it seems to be " of 
 great bulk." It is distinguished by the name of bos grunniens. 
 
 2 " They (the yaks, Turner adds) are a very valuable property to tLe 
 tribes of itinerant Tartars called Dukba, who live in tents, and tend 
 them from place to place; they at the same time afford their herdsmen 
 an easy mode of conveyance, a good covering, and wholesome sub- 
 sistence. They are never employed in agriculture," (it is obvious that 
 this may not be the case in every district,) " but are extremely useful 
 as beasts of burden ; for they are strong, sure-footed, and carry a great 
 weight." (P. 187.) These qualities are strongly exemplified in Moor- 
 croft's Journey to Lake Mnnasarovera. Asiat. Res. vol. xii. 
 
 3 It is generally asserted that the musk of Tibet, or of the part of 
 Tartary bordering upon the north-west of China, is superior to that 
 procured in the Chinese provinces.
 
 144 TRAVELS OF MAR JO POLO. 
 
 downwards, and two in the lower jaw pointing upwards; 
 email in proportion to their length, and white as ivory. 
 Upon the whole it is a handsome creature. The musk is 
 obtained in the following manner. At the time when the 
 moon is at the full, a bag or imposthume of coagulated blood 
 forms itself about the umbilical region, and those whose 
 occupation it is to take the animal avail themselves of the 
 moonlight for that purpose, when they cut off the membrane, 
 and afterwards dry it, with its contents, in the sun. 1 It 
 proves the finest musk that is known. Great numbers are 
 caught, and the flesh is esteemed good to eat. 2 Marco Polo 
 brought with him to Venice the head and the feet of one of 
 them dried. The inhabitants of this country employ them 
 selves in trade and manufactures. They have grain in abun- 
 dance. The extent of the province is twenty-five 3 days' 
 journey. Pheasants are found in it that are twice the size of 
 
 1 From Turner we have a particular, although unscientific, account of 
 what is usually termed the musk deer, which in the language of Tibet he 
 says, is called la, and the vascular covering of the musk, latcka. After 
 speaking of the long-haired cattle, he proceeds in the next place (as does 
 our author) to say : " The musk-deer too, which produce a valuable article 
 of revenue, are in great abundance in the vicinity of these mountains. 
 This animal is observed to delight in the most intense cold, and is 
 always found in places bordering on snow. Two long curved tusks, 
 proceeding from the upper jaw, and directed downwards, seem intended 
 principally to serve him for the purpose of digging roots, which are 
 said to be his usual food; yet it is possible they may also be weapons 
 of offence. . . . They are about the height of a moderately-sized hog, 
 which they resemble much in the figure of the body; but they are still 
 more like the hog-deer, so termed in Bengal, from the same similitude. 
 They have a small head, a thick and round hind quarter, no scut, and 
 extremely delicate limbs. The greatest singularity in this animal, is 
 the sort of hair with which it is covered, which is prodigiously copious, 
 and grows erect all over the body, between two and three inches long, 
 lying smooth only where it is short, on the head, legs, and ears. . . . 
 The colour, at the base, is white, in the middle black, and brown at the 
 points. The musk is a secretion formed in a little bag or tumour, re- 
 sembling a wen, situated at the navel; and is found only in the male." 
 (Embassy to Tibet, p. 200.) In a work published at Calcutta in 1798, 
 called the "Oriental Miscellany," (vol. L p. 129,) there is a scientific 
 description of the " Thibet Musk," by Dr. Fleming, with a plate from 
 an accurate drawing of the animal, made by Mr. Home. See also an 
 engraving of the head, in Kirkpatrick's Account of Nepaul. 
 
 2 The circumstance of the fiesh servLig for food is noticed by several 
 aioclern writers. 
 
 3 [The early Latin text reads fifteen.J
 
 MARKERS OF THE PEOPLE OF ERGIXUL. 145 
 
 ours, but something smaller than the peacock. The tail 
 feathers are eight or ten palms in length. 1 There are other 
 pheasants also, in size and appearance like our own, as well as 
 a great variety of other birds, some of which have beautiful 
 plumage. The inhabitants are idolaters. 2 In person they are 
 inclined to corpulency, and their noses are small. Their 
 hair is black, and they have scarcely any beard, or only a few 
 scattered hairs on the chin. 3 The women of the superior 
 class are in like manner free from superfluous hairs; their 
 skins are fair, and they are well formed ; but in their manners 
 they are dissolute. The men are much devoted to female 
 society ; and, according to their laws and customs, they may 
 have as many wives as they please, provided they are able to 
 maintain them. If a young woman, although poor, be hand- 
 some, the rich are induced to take her to wife, and in order 
 to obtain her, make valuable presents to her parents and 
 relations, beauty alone being the quality held in estimation. 
 We shall now take our leave of this district, and proceed to 
 speak of another, situated further to the eastward. 
 
 CHAPTER LIII. 
 
 or THE PROVINCE OF EGRIGAIA, AND OF THE crrr OF KALACHA OF 
 THE MANNERS OF ITS INHABITANTS AXD OF THE CAMELOTS MANU- 
 FACTURED THERE. 
 
 DEPARTING from Erginul. and proceeding easterly for eight 
 days, you come to a country named Egrigaia, still belonging 
 to the great province of Tangut, and subject to the grand 
 khan, in which there are many cities and castles, the prin- 
 cipal one of which is called Kalacha. 4 The inhabitants are in 
 
 1 This is probably the argus-pheasant (pkatiantu argus), which, 
 although a native of Sumatra, is said to be also found in the northern 
 part of China. 
 
 2 The religion of the lamas, which is idolatrous, prevails in the 
 neighbourhood of Si-rung, as well as in all the countries bordering on 
 the provinces of Shen-si and Se-chuen, to the westward. 
 
 [The early Latin text reads, " non habent barbam nisi in mento."] 
 * Neither the names of Egrigaya, Eggaya, Egygaia, or Egregia, nor 
 those of Kalacha, Calacia Colatia. or Calatia, appear in any map that 
 can be cited as authority. The former, however, has some resemblanca
 
 146 TRAVELS OP MARCO POLO. 
 
 general idolaters ; but there are three churches of Nestorian 
 Christians. In this city they manufacture beautiful camelote, 
 the finest known in the world, of the hair of camels and like- 
 wise of white wool. 1 These are of a beautiful white. They 
 are purchased by the merchants in considerable quantities, 
 and carried to many other countries, especially to Cathay. 
 Leaving this province, we shall now speak of another situated 
 towards the (north-)east, named Tenduk, and shall thus enter 
 upon the territory of Prester John. 
 
 CHAPTER LIV. 
 
 OP THE PROVINCE OF TENDUK, GOVERNED BY PRINCES OF THE RACE OF 
 PRESTER JOHN, AND CHIEFLY INHABITED BY CHRISTIANS OF THK 
 ORDINATION OF THEIR PRIESTS AND OF A TRIBE OF PEOPLE CALLED 
 ARGON, THE MOST PERSONABLE AND THE BEST INFORMED OF ANY IN 
 THESE COUNTRIES. 
 
 TENDUK, 2 belonging to the territory of Prester John, 3 is an 
 eastern province, in which there are many cities and castles, 
 
 to Uguria, Iguria, or the country of the Eighurs ; and the latter to the 
 name of the town called by Rubruquis, Cailac, and by B. Goez, Cialis ; 
 the supposed situation of which will be found in the map prefixed to 
 Sherefeddin's History of Timur Bee, translated by P6tis de la Croix, at 
 some distance to the westward of Turfan, by the name of Yulduz or 
 Cialis. " We found one great citie there," says Rubruquis, " wherein 
 was a mart, and great store of merchants frequenting it. ... All this 
 country was wont to be called Organum ; and the people thereof had 
 their proper language, and their peculiar kind of writing." . . . . " The 
 first sort of these idolaters are called Jugures, whose land bordereth 
 upon the foresaid land of Organum, within the said mountains east- 
 ward. . . . The citizens of the foresaid citie of Cailac had three idol- 
 temples, and I entered into two of them, to behold their foolish super- 
 stitions." Purchas, vol. iii. p. 20. 
 
 1 It has been doubted (since the material used in the manufacture 
 of shawls is known to be wool of a particular breed of sheep) whether 
 the hair of camels is actually woven into cloth of any kind ; but we 
 learn from Elphinstone, that " oormuk, a fine cloth made of camels' 
 woo), a quantity of cotton, and some lambs' skins are imported (into 
 Caubul) from the Bokhara country." P. 295. 
 
 2 The plain of Tenduk has already been mentioned (p. 124, note ') as- 
 the scene of a famous battle, in which the army of Ung-khan was 
 defeated and destroyed by Jengiz-khan ; and although the name is not 
 to be found in the Jesuits' map, its situation is nearly identified fcy 
 
 3 See Appendix. I.
 
 THE COUNTRY OF PRESTER JOHN'. 147 
 
 subject to the rule of the grand khan; all the princes of that 
 family having remained dependent, since Chingis, the first 
 emperor, subdued the country. The capital is likewise named 
 Tenduk, The king now reigning is a descendant of Prester 
 John, and is still Prester John, and named George. He is 
 both a Christian and a priest; the greater part of the inha- 
 bitants being also Christians. This king George holds his 
 country as a fief of the grand khan ; not, indeed, the entire 
 possessions of the original Prester John, but a certain portion 
 of them ; and the khan always bestows upon him, as well as 
 upon the other princes of his house, his daughters, and other 
 females of the royal family, in marriage. In this province, 
 the stone of which the azure colour is made is found in abun- 
 dance, and of fine quality. Here likewise they manufacture 
 stuffe of camels' hair. The people gain their subsistence by 
 agriculture, trade, and mechanical labours. Although sub- 
 ject to the dominion of the grand khan, the king being a 
 Christian, as has been said, the government of the country is 
 in the hands of Christians. Amongst the inhabitants, how- 
 ever, there are both worshippers of idols and followers of the 
 law of Mahomet. 1 There is likewise a class of people known 
 by the appellation of Argon, 2 because they are produced from 
 
 P. Gaubil's informing us that the battle was fought in the space be- 
 tween the rivers Tula and Kerlon, whose sources approximate about 
 the forty-eighth or forty-ninth degree of latitude. It was also in this 
 tract, on the northern border of the desert, that the Kaldan or chief of 
 the Eluts was defeated by the forces of the emperor Kang-hi, in the 
 year 1696. I am strongly inclined to believe that the name of Tenduk, 
 which Petis de la Croix has confounded with Tangut, is no other than 
 Tungus ; as we find in the maps, the tribes of the Tungusi inhabiting 
 this region, and particularly between the Amur river and Baikal lake. 
 Adelung, indeed, remarks that in their language the names of the 
 domesticated animalr. are the same as in that of the Mungals, from 
 whom they received them ; which is a proof of their ancient proximity 
 and intercourse. 
 
 1 Under the dynasty of the Seljuks of Persia, which commenced in 
 the eleventh century, the Mahometans established themselves in consi- 
 derable numbers at Kashgar, and from thence gradually spread over 
 Tartary in their character of merchants. During the reigns of the 
 Moghul or Mungal emperors of China, they appeared in a higher 
 capacity, frequently commanding armies and presiding xt tribunals. 
 Renaudot labours to prove that their earliest connexion with that 
 country was by sea; which may have been the case with respect to *he 
 Arabs, although not to the Mahometans of Persia and Khorasan. 
 
 2 This name of Argon appears to be the Orgon of the Jesuita ai.J 
 
 L2
 
 148 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO 
 
 a mixture of two races, namely, those natives of Tenduk who 
 are idolaters, and the Mahometans. The men of this country 
 are fairer complexioned and better looking than those in the 
 other countries of which we have been speaking, and also 
 better instructed, and more skilful traders. 
 
 CHAPTER LV. 
 
 OF THE SEAT OF GOVERNMENT OF THE PRINCES OF THE FAMILY OF 
 
 PRESTER JOHN, CALLED GOG AND MAGOG OF THE MANNERS OF ITS 
 
 INHABITANTS OF THEIR MANUFACTURE OF SILK AND OF THE MINES 
 OF SILVER WORKED THERE. 
 
 IN this province (of Tenduk) was the principal seat of govern- 
 ment of the sovereigns styled Prester John, when they ruled 
 over the Tartars of this and the neighbouring countries, and 
 which their successors occupy to the present hour. George, 
 above-mentioned, is the fourth in descent from Prester John, 
 of whose family he is regarded as the head. There are two 
 regions in which they exercise dominion. These in our part 
 of the world are named Gog and Magog, but by the natives 
 Ung and Mongul ; in each of which there is a distinct race of 
 people. In Ung they are Gog, and in Mongul they are Tar- 
 tars. 1 Travelling seven days through this province, in an 
 
 Archon of Bell's map. The river so called runs through the part of 
 Tartary here described, and being joined by the Tula, their united 
 streams fall into the Selinga. On the north-western bank of the Orgon 
 we find, in modern times, the urga, or station of the grand lama of the 
 Mungals. In nearly the same latitude, but more towards the east by 
 several degrees, appears also another and more considerable river, 
 named in the Jesuits' map Ergone, or Argun, forming the boundary 
 between the dominions of China and Russia in that quarter ; near to 
 which is a town or city called Argun-skoi. 
 
 1 This passage, it must be confessed, is wholly unintelligible as it 
 now stands, and we are to presume that the words of our author have 
 been misunderstood and perverted, although it may be found imprac- 
 ticable to restore them to a consistent sense. His object apparently 
 was to explain the distinction between the two races of which the sub- 
 jects of Ung-khan consisted, viz. Mungals and Turkis or Turks, to 
 whom, in latter times, the general name of Tartars or Tatars is exclu- 
 sively applied : a distinction which, notwithstanding the marked diver- 
 sity of language, is rendered obscure from the mixture of tribes undei
 
 THE PEOPLE OP GOG AND MAGOG. 149 
 
 easterly direction, towards Cathay, you pass many towns 
 inhabited by idolaters, as well as by Mahometans and Nes- 
 torian Christians. 1 They gain their living by trade and manu- 
 factures, weaving fine-gold tissues, ornamented with mother- 
 of-pearl, named nascici, and silks of different textures and 
 colours, not unlike those of Europe ; together with a variety 
 of woollen cloths. These people are all subjects of the grand 
 khan. One of the towns, named Sindichin, is celebrated for 
 the manufacture of all kinds of arms, and every article neces- 
 sary for the equipment of troops. In the mountainous part 
 of the province there is a place called Idifa, in which is a rich 
 mine of silver, from whence large quantities of that metal are 
 obtained. 2 There are also plenty of birds and beasts. 
 
 the same government ; for, in consequence of the splendid reputation 
 acquired by the immediate dependants of Jengiz-khan, the various 
 auxiliary tribes affected to consider themselves as Mungals ; whilst, on 
 the other hand, it is evident that the Chinese applied to them indis- 
 criminately the appellation of Tata or Tartars. It may be observed 
 with respect to the scriptural names of Gog and Magog, that they are 
 here spoken of as being improperly given to these people by Europeans, 
 and not as appellations known in the country. By the generality ot 
 Arabians and Persians, who pronounce the names Yajuj and Majuj, 
 they are understood to belong to the inhabitants of the mountainous 
 region on the north-western side of the Caspian Sea, or ancient Scy- 
 thians, against whose predatory incursions the strong rampart of Der- 
 bend, together with the line of works extending from it, and regarded 
 as supernatural, were constructed at a very remote period. Other 
 situations, however, have been assigned to this wandering and terrific 
 description of people, by the oriental writers of the middle ages, some 
 of whom place them hi the northern part of Tartary. 
 
 1 During the successive reigns of the Mungal emperors of China, 
 many considerable towns were built in that part of Tartary which lies 
 between the river Kerlon and the Chinese province of Pe-che-li ; but 
 they were afterwards destroyed, upon the expulsion of that dynasty 
 by those of the Ming, whose object it was to deface every vestige of the 
 power of their late masters. 
 
 2 The name of Sindicin or Sindichin, which in the Basle edition is 
 Sindacui, in the Italian epitomes Sindatoy, in the early Latin Sindatus, 
 and which should perhaps be Sindi or Sinda-cheu, (the last syllable 
 denoting the word " town,") is not to be traced in the Jesuits' map. b\it 
 may have belonged to one of the places destroyed by the Ming, as men- 
 tioned in the preceding note. Idifa, Idifu, or Idica, has equally eluded 
 my research, although the circumstance- of a silver mine in its neigh- 
 bourhood might have helped to point out its situation. Upon the whole, 
 indeed, and particularly from the description of the manufactures said 
 to flourish there, I am inclined to think that a transposition of matter 
 (of which some indubitable examples will be hereafter observed)
 
 150 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 CHAPTER LVI. 
 
 OF THE CITY OF CHANQANOR OF DIFFERENT SPECIES OF CRANES- -AND 
 OF PARTRIDGES AND QUAILS BRED IN THAT PART BT THE ORDERS OF 
 THE GRAND KHAN. 
 
 LEAVING the city and province last mentioned, and travelling 
 three days, you arrive at a city named Changa-nor, which 
 signifies, the "white lake." 1 At this place the grand khan has 
 a great palace, which he is fond of visiting, because it is sur- 
 rounded with pieces of water and streams, the resort of many 
 swans; and there is a fine plain, where are found in great 
 numbers cranes, pheasants, partridges, and other birds. He 
 derives the highest degree of amusement from sporting with 
 gerfalcons and hawks, the game being here in vast abun- 
 dance. Of the cranes they reckon five species. 2 The first 
 
 has taken place in this instance, and that the passage beginning with 
 the words, " Travelling seven days through this province," to the con- 
 clusion of the chapter, has no proper connexion either with what pre- 
 cedes it, respecting the country of the Mungals, or what follows 
 respecting Changanor, but must have applied to a more civilized 
 country, nearer to the borders of China. 
 
 T The Cianganor or Changanor of Ratnusio, Cianiganiorum of the 
 Basle edition, Cyagamorum of the older Latin, Cyangamor of the B.M. 
 and Berlin manuscripts, and Cyagnuorum of the Italian epitomes, are 
 obviously intended for the Tsahan-nor, Chahan-nor, or White Like of 
 the "maps ; and it is probable that the Changai mountains of Strahlen- 
 berg, or Hangai-alin of the Jesuits, derive their appellation from the 
 same quality, real or imaginary, of whiteness. In the Kalmuk-Mun- 
 galian vocabulary of the former, the word for " white " is zagan, (pro- 
 bably a soft pronunciation of chagan,) and in the Mancheu dictionary 
 of Langles it is changuien. 
 
 2 These birds being termed gru in the Italian versions, and grus in 
 the Latin, I have called them cranes in the English translation; but it 
 may be doubted whether the heron (ardea), or the stork (ciconia), be 
 not rather meant by our author's description of them. " On trouve," 
 says the translator, or the commentator of Abu'lghazi, " une grande 
 quantite d'oiseaux d'une beauti particuliere dans les vastes plaines de 
 la Grande Tartarie, et 1'oiseau dont il est parle en cet endroit pour- 
 roit bien estre une espece de heron, qu'on trouve dans le pays des 
 Moungales vers les frontieres de la Chine, et qui est tout blanc, excepte 
 le bee, les ailes, et la queue, qu'il a d'un fort beau rouge. . . . Peut estre 
 aussi que c'est d'une cicogne dont nostre auteurveut parler." Hist, 
 gene'al. des Tatares, p. 205. This is the Crus Leucogeranus or Siberian 
 en ne of Pennant.
 
 THE PRESERVATION' OP GAME. 151 
 
 sort are entirely black as coals, arid have long wings. The 
 second sort have wings still longer than the first, but are 
 white, and the feathers of the wings are full of eyes, round 
 like those of the peacock, but of a gold colour and very 
 bright ; the head is red and black, and well formed ; the neck 
 is black and white, and the general appearance of the bird is 
 extremely handsome. The third sort are of the size of ours 
 [in Italy]. The fourth are small cranes, having the feathers 
 prettily streaked with red and azure. The fifth are of a grey 
 colour, with the head red and black, and are of a large size. 1 
 Nigh to this city is a valley frequented by great numbers of 
 partridges and quails, for whose food the grand khan causes 
 millet, panicum, and other grains suitable to such birds, to be 
 sown along the sides of it every season, and gives strict com- 
 mand that no person shall dare to reap the seed; in order 
 that they may not be in want of nourishment. Many keepers, 
 likewise, are stationed there for the preservation of the game, 
 that it may not be taken or destroyed, as well as for the pur- 
 pose of throwing the millet to the birds during the winter. 
 So accustomed are they to be thus fed, that upon the grain 
 being scattered and the man's whistling, they immediately 
 assemble from every quarter. The grand khan also directs 
 that a number of small buildings be prepared for their shelter 
 during the night ; and, in consequence of these attentions, he 
 always finds abundant sport when he visits this country ; and 
 even in the winter, at which season, on account of the severity 
 of the cold, he does not reside there, he has camel-loads of 
 the birds sent to him, wherever his court may happen to be 
 at the time. 2 Leaving this place, we shall now direct our 
 course three days' journey towards the north-east. 
 
 1 [The early Latin text has, " Quarta generatio sunt parvse et habent 
 ad aures pennaa nigras. Quinta generatio est quia sunt omnes grigiee 
 et maxime, et habent caput nigrum et album."] 
 
 2 Game in large quantities is brought from Tartary to Peking during 
 the winter in a frozen state. Lettres dif. torn. xxii. p. 177. ed. 1781.
 
 152 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 CHAPTER LVII. 
 
 OF THE GRAND KHAN'S BEAUTIFUL PALACE IN THE CITY OP SHANDU 
 OF HIS STUD OF WHITE BROOD-MARES, WITH WHOSE MILK HE PER- 
 FORMS AN ANNUAL SACRIFICE OF THE WONDERFUL OPERATIONS OF 
 THE ASTROLOGERS ON OCCASIONS OP BAD WEATHER OF THE CERE- 
 MONIES PRACTISKD BY THEM IN THE HALL OF THE ROYAL PALACE 
 AND OF TWO DESCRIPTIONS OF RELIGIOUS MENDICANTS, WITH THEIR 
 MODES OP LIVING. 
 
 DEPARTING from the city last mentioned, and proceeding 
 three days' journey in a north-easterly direction, you arrive at 
 a city named Shandu, built by the grand khan Kublai, now 
 reigning. 1 In this he caused a palace to be erected, of marble 
 and other handsome stone, admirable as well for the elegance 
 of its design as for the skill displayed in its execution. The 
 halls and chambers are all gilt, and very handsome. It 
 presents one front towards the interior of the city, and the 
 other towards its wall; and from each extremity of the 
 building runs another wall to such an extent as to enclose 
 sixteen miles in circuit of the adjoining plain, to which there 
 is no access but through the palace. 2 Within the bounds of 
 this royal park there are rich and beautiful meadows, watered 
 by many rivulets, where a variety of animals of the deer and 
 goat kind are pastured, to serve as food for the hawks and 
 
 1 Shandu is the Chang-tou (Shangtu) of the Jesuits' map, and by 
 P. Couplet, in his Notes to the " Observations Chronologiques " of 
 P. Gaubil, is spoken of as " Ville dStruite; elle e"toit dans le pais de 
 Kartchin en Tartarie." Lat 40 22' NN.E. of Peking. (P. 197.) In the 
 year 1691 it was thus spoken of by P. Gerbillon: "Nous fimes encore 
 quarante lys dans une plaine qui s'appelle Cabaye, sur le bord d'une 
 petite riviere nominee Chantou, le long de laquelle etoit autrefois batie 
 la ville de Chantou, ou les einpereurs de la famille des Yuen tenoient 
 leur cour durant Nte". On en voit encore les restes." (Du Halde, torn, 
 iv. p. 258.) If the distance between Changa-nor and this place was 
 only three days' journey, the former could not have been on the 
 northern side of tl>e desei-t; but the numbers, from inattention in 
 transcribing, are extremely incorrect, and the decimals may, in this 
 instance, have been omitted. 
 
 2 " This forest," says Bell, speaking of the hunting-seat of the em- 
 peror Kang-hi, " is really a most delightful place ; it is well stored with 
 a great variety of game, and is of great extent, as will easily be con- 
 ceived from the account I have given of our two days' hunting. It ia 
 all enclosed with a high wall of brick." Travels, vol. ii. p. 84.
 
 THE KHAN'S PALACE AT SHANDU. 153 
 
 other birds employed in the chase, whose mews are also in 
 the grounds. The number of these birds is upwards of two 
 hundred ; and the grand khan goes in person, at least once in 
 the week, to inspect them. Frequently, when he rides about 
 this enclosed forest, he has one or more small leopards carried 
 on horseback, behind their keepers; 1 and when he pleases to 
 give direction for their being slipped, they instantly seize a 
 stag, or goat, or fallow deer, which he gives to his hawks, and 
 in this manner he amuses himself. In the centre of these 
 grounds, where there is a beautiful grove of trees, he has 
 built a royal pavilion, supported upon a colonnade of hand- 
 some pillars, gilt and varnished. Round each pillar a dragon, 
 likewise gilt, entwines its tail, whilst its head sustains the 
 projection of the roof, and its talons or claws are extended to 
 the right and. left along the entablature. 2 The roof is of 
 bamboo cane, likewise gilt, and so well varnished that no wet 
 can injure it. The bamboos used for this purpose are three 
 palms in circumference and ten fathoms in length, and being 
 cut at the joints, are split into two equal parts, so as to form 
 gutters, and with these (laid concave and convex) the pavilion 
 is covered ; but to secure the roof against the effect of wind, 
 each of the bamboos is tied at the ends to the frame. 3 The 
 
 1 This animal, if it be not the ounce, is the felis jubata or hunting 
 leopard, much smaller in size than the common species. In Hindustan 
 it is named the chita, and is employed by the native princes in the 
 chase of the antelope. See an account of "the Manner of Hunting 
 amongst the Princes of Hindostan," in the Asiatic Miscellany, vol. ii. 
 p. 68, where this animal is called the cheetar or panther. 
 
 2 It is well known that the dragon with five claws (instead of four, 
 as in the ordinary representations) is the imperial symbol, and forms 
 a conspicuous part of every article of dress, piece of furniture, or 
 ornament connected with the court of China. 
 
 3 The mode of covering here described is well known in the eastern 
 islands, and is mentioned in the following passage of the History of 
 Sumatra: "There is another kind of house, erected mostly for a 
 temporary purpose, the roof of which is flat, and is covered in a very 
 uncommon, simple, and ingenious manner. Large straight bamboos are 
 cut of a length sufficient to lie across the house, and being split exactly 
 in two, and the joints knocked out, a first layer of them is disposed in 
 close order, with the inner or hollow sides up; after which a second 
 layer, with the outer or convex sides up, is placed upon the others in 
 such manner that each of the convex falls into the two contiguous 
 concave pieces, covering their edges; the latter serving as gutters to 
 carry off the water that falls upon the upper or convex layer." P. 58, 
 third edition.
 
 1 54: TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 building is supported on every side (like a tent) by more than 
 two hundred very strong silken cords, as otherwise, from the 
 lightness of the materials, it would be liable to oversetting by 
 the force of high winds. The whole is constructed with so 
 much ingenuity of contrivance that all the parts may be 
 taken asunder, removed, and again set up, at his majesty's 
 pleasure. This spot he has selected for his recreation on 
 account of the mild temperature and salubrity of the air, 
 and he accordingly makes it his residence during three 
 months of the year, namely, June, July, and August ; and 
 every year, on the twenty-eighth day of the moon, in the last 
 of these months, it is his established custom to depart from 
 thence, and proceed to an appointed place, in order to per- 
 form certain sacrifices, in the following manner. It is to be 
 understood that his majesty keeps up a stud of about ten 
 thousand horses and mares, which are white as snow; 1 and of 
 the milk of these mares 110 person can presume to drink who 
 is not of the family descended from Jengiz-khan, with the 
 exception only of one other family, named Boriat, to whom 
 that monarch gave the honourable privilege, in reward of 
 valorous achievements in battle, performed in his own pre- 
 sence. 2 So great, indeed, is the respect shown to these horses 
 that, even when they are at pasture in the royal meadows or 
 forests, no one dares to place himself before them, or other- 
 wise to impede their movements. The astrologers whom he 
 entertains in his service, and who are deeply versed in the 
 diabolical art of magic, having pronounced it to be his duty, 
 annually, on the twenty-eighth day of the moon in August, 
 to scatter in the wind the milk taken from these mares, as a 
 libation to all the spirits and idols whom they adore, for the 
 purpose of propitiating them and ensuring their protection 
 of the people, male and female, of the cattle, the fowls, the 
 
 1 Establishments of brood mares and stallions, on as great a scale, 
 have been kept up by later emperors. The white colour does not 
 now appear to be thought so essential as it was by the Mungal-Tartar 
 emperors. 
 
 - This family name is variously written Boriat, Horiach, Horiath, 
 Orati, and Orari. It was no doubt the eminent Tartar family of which 
 Malcolm speaks in his History of Persia, where he says : " The powerful 
 tribe of Byat came originally from Tartary with Chinghiz-khan. They 
 were long settled in Asia Minor, and a number of them fought in the 
 rmy of Bajazet against Timour." Vol. ii. p. 218, note.
 
 THE SACRIFICE OF MARES* MILK. 155 
 
 grain and other fruits of the earth; on this account it is 
 that his majesty adheres to the rule that has been mentioned, 
 and on that particular day proceeds to the spot where, with 
 his own hands, he is to make the offering.of milk. On such 
 occasions these astrologers, or magicians as they may be 
 termed, sometimes display their skill in a wonderful manner ; 
 for if it should happen that the sky becomes cloudy and 
 threatens rain, they ascend the roof of the palace where the 
 grand khan resides at the time, and by the force of their 
 incantations they prevent the rain from falling and stay the 
 tempest ; so that whilst, in the surrounding country, storms 
 of rain, wind, and thunder are experienced, the palace itself 
 remains unaffected by the elements. 1 Those who operate 
 miracles of this nature are persons of Tebeth and Kesmir, two 
 classes of idolaters more profoundly skilled in the art of 
 magic than the natives of any other country. They persuade 
 the vulgar that these works are effected through the sanctity 
 of their own lives and the merits of then- penances; and 
 presuming upon the reputation thus acquired, they exhibit 
 themselves in a filthy and indecent state, regardless as well of 
 what they owe to their character as of the respect due to those 
 in whose presence they appear. They suffer their faces to con- 
 tinue always uncleansed by washing and their hair uncombed, 
 living altogether in a squalid style. 2 They are addicted, 
 moreover, to this beastly and horrible practice, that when any 
 culprit is condemned to death, they carry off the body, dress 
 it on the fire, and devour it; but of persons who die a natural 
 death they do not eat the bodies. 3 Besides the appellations 
 
 1 That magical arts were commonly resorted to by the princes of the 
 family of Jengiz-khan appears from other accounts. 
 
 2 These appear to have been Indian yogis or goseins, who are known 
 to travel by the way of Kashmir into Tibet, and from thence, fre- 
 quently, to the northern parts of Tartary. Their naked and squalid 
 appearance has been the subject of description at all periods, as well as 
 their extraordinary penances or mortifications. 
 
 3 The agreement between the account here given of this barbarous 
 practice, and what is known of the Batta people of Sumatra, who 
 devour the bodies of condemned criminals, is so striking, that a doubt 
 can scarcely be entertained of a transposition having taken place in the 
 order of our author's notes, by which a remark upon the peculiar 
 manners of the latter, amongst whom he resided several months, has 
 been detached from its proper place, and introduced into this chapter, 
 where savages of a different description, and to whom cannibalism has 
 not been imputed by any traveller since his time, are the subject.
 
 15Q TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 before mentioned, by which they are distinguished from each 
 other, they are likewise termed baksi, which applies to their 
 religious sect or order, as we should say, friars, preachers, 
 or minors. 1 So expert are they in their infernal art, they 
 may be said to perform whatever they will and one instance 
 shall be given, although it may be thought to exceed the 
 bounds of credibility. When the grand khan sits at meals, 
 in his hall of state (as shall be more particularly described in 
 the following book), the table which is placed in the centre is 
 elevated to the height of about eight cubits, and at a distance 
 from it stands a large buffet, where all the drinking vessels 
 are arranged. Now, by means of their supernatural art, they 
 cause the flagons of wine, milk, or any other beverage, to 
 fill the cups spontaneously, without being touched by the 
 attendants, and the cups to move through the air the distance 
 of ten paces, until they reach the hand of the grand khan. 
 As he empties them, they return to the place from whence 
 they came ; and this is done in the presence of such persons 
 as are invited by his majesty to witness the performance. 2 
 These baksis, when the festival days of their idols draw near, 
 
 1 We find in the Ayin Akbari of Abu'lfazel, a confirmation of what 
 is here asserted to be the meaning of the term baksi, bakshi, or, accord- 
 ing to the Bengal pronunciation of Persian, bukshi, which is not fur- 
 nished by the dictionaries. Under the head of the "Doctrine of 
 Boodh," he says : " The learned among the Persians and Arabians call 
 the priests of this religion Bukshee, and in Tibbet they are stiled Lama." 
 (Vol. iii. p. 157.) Klaproth, in his " Abhandlung iiber die Sprache und 
 Schrift der Uiguren," observes that the word Bakschi is of Mongol 
 origin, and is the usual appellation of the sages (gelehrten) of that 
 country, who are by the Chinese named Schu (Shu). P. 77, note. 
 
 2 What is here ascribed to sorcery appears to have been nothing 
 more than a pantomimical trick, and capable of being effected by no 
 extraordinary artifice. The emperor, we may presume, and perhaps 
 also such of his confidential servants as had the honour of sitting near 
 his elevated table, might be aware of the machinery employed ; but the 
 guests in general, and even the courtiers or mandarins of inferior rank, 
 iiniongst whom was probably our author's place, might be deceived; 
 their distance being such as to render imperceptible the wires by which 
 the vessels were made to move, as if spontaneously, from one part of 
 the hall of entertainment to the other. The peculiar fancy of these Tartar 
 princes for having their liquor (an object always of the first importance) 
 served in a manner calculated to raise surprise, is well exemplified in the 
 travels of Rubruquis, who describes a curious piece of machinery con- 
 structed by a French artist, for conveying into the hall a variety of 
 liquors, which issued from the mouths of silver lions.
 
 FEATS OF THE MAGICIAN'S. 15? 
 
 go to the palace of the grand khan, and thus address him : 
 "Sire, be it known to your majesty, that if the honours of a 
 holocaust are not paid to our deities, they will in their anger 
 afflict us with bad seasons, with blight to our grain, pestilence 
 to our cattle, and with otter plagues. On this account we 
 supplicate your majesty to grant us a certain number of 
 sheep with black heads, 1 together with so many pounds of 
 incense and of lignum aloes, in order that we may be enabled 
 to perform the customary rites with due solemnity." Their 
 words, however, are not spoken immediately to the grand 
 khan, but to certain great officers, by whom the communi- 
 cation is made to him. Upon receiving it he never fails to 
 comply with the whole of their request; and accordingly, 
 when the day arrives, they sacrifice the sheep, and by pouring 
 out the liquor in which the meat has been seethed, in the 
 presence of their idols, perform the ceremony of worship. 
 In this country there are great monasteries and abbeys, so 
 extensive indeed that they might pass for small cities, some 
 of them containing as many as two thousand monks, who are 
 devoted to the service of their divinities, according to the 
 established religious customs of the people. 2 These are clad 
 
 1 " A peculiar species of sheep," says Turner. " seems indigenous to 
 this climate, marked almost invariably by black heads and legs. They 
 are of a small size, their wool is soft, and their flesh, almost the only 
 animal food eaten in Tibet, is, in my opinion, the finest mutton in the 
 world." (P. 302.) A similar breed is noticed by Hamilton on the 
 coast of Yemen. " Their sheep," he says, "are all white, with jet black 
 heads, and small ears, their bodies large, and their flesh delicate." 
 Vol. i. p. 15. 
 
 2 The extensive monasteries in the province of Tangut have been 
 spoken of before. A particular description of them will be found in 
 the Alphabetum Tibetanum, and an enumeration in the Memoires 
 concern, les Chinois, torn. xiv. p. 219, under the head of "Miao ou 
 temples qui sont dans le pays des Si-fan," and commencing with 
 that of Pou-te-la, near the city of La-sa. There were many like- 
 wise in more northern parts of Tartary; but these have been mostly 
 destroyed in the wars that took place upon the extinction of the Mon- 
 gal dynasty of China, not only between the new dynasty and the 
 adherents of their predecessors, but amongst the independent tribes 
 themselves, under the denomination of Eluths and Kalkas. With 
 respect to the number of persons here said to be contained in these 
 monastic establishments, it is entirely consistent with the accounts 
 given by our modern travellers. Turner informs us that there were 
 two thousand five hundred gylongs (or monks) in one of the monas- 
 teries which he visited.
 
 158 TRAVELS OP MARCO POLO. 
 
 in a better style of dress than the other inhabitants ; they 
 shave their heads and their beards, 1 and celebrate the festivals 
 of their idols with the utmost possible solemnity, having bands 
 of vocal music and burning tapers. Some of this class are 
 allowed to take wives. 2 There is likewise another religious 
 order, the members of which are named sensim, who observe 
 strict abstinence and lead very austere lives, having no other 
 food than a kind of pollard, which they steep in warm water 
 until the farinaceous part is separated from the bran, and in 
 that state they eat it. This sect pay adoration to fire, and 
 are considered by the others as schismatics, not worshipping 
 idols as they do. 8 There is a material difference between them 
 in regard to the rules of their orders, and these last described 
 never marry in any instance. They shave their heads and 
 beards like the others, and wear hempen garments of a black 
 or dull colour; but even if the material were silk, the colour 
 would be the same. 4 They sleep upon coarse mats, and suffer 
 
 1 All accounts we have of these people speak of the attention paid 
 to uniformity of dress amongst the persons devoted to the offices of 
 religion and the monastic life, according to their several classes and 
 ranks; as well as of the colours (yellow and red) affected by the two 
 great sects into which the lamas are divided. The tonsure also is 
 mentioned by different authorities. " The priests of this religion," 
 says the Ayin Akbari, " shave their heads, and wear dresses of leather 
 [evidently a mistake for the word yellow] and red cloth." (Vol. iii. 
 p. 158.) Rubruquis also, describing the Tartars of Kara-korum, ob- 
 serves that, " All their priests had their heads and beards shaven quite 
 over, and they are clad in saffron-coloured garments." Purchas, 
 vol. iii. p. 21. 
 
 2 Although celibacy appears to be usually enjoined to the priests of 
 Buddha, Shakia-muni, or Fo, it is not universal. " Ce mandarin," says 
 P. Magalhanes, " apres s'en estre inform*} avec soin, me dit que dans la 
 seule ville et cour de Pe-kim il y avoit 10,668 bonzes non mariez, et que 
 nous appellons ho-xam (ho-shang), et 5,022 mariez." Nouv. Relat. de la 
 Chine, p. 57. 
 
 3 The word sensim or sensin seems to be intended for the two Chinese 
 monosyllables seng-sin, the former of which (according to De Guignes) 
 signifies bonzes or priests of Fo. In Morrison's dictionary, under the 
 word sang, we read : " Priests of the sect of Fuh, who are otherwise 
 called sha-mun; also denominated shang-jin. There are several other 
 names by which they are designated ; ho-shang is that most commonly 
 given to them." From the account of their diet we are led to con- 
 clude them Hindu devotees, and perhaps Sannyasis, who amongst a 
 people where the religion of Buddha prevailed would be regarded aa 
 Bohismatics. 
 
 4 The circumstance of the dark-coloured dresses (nere e biave) worn
 
 RELIGIOUS ORDERS AMONG THE TARTARS. 159 
 
 greater hardships in their mode of living than any people 
 in the world. 1 We shall now quit this subject, and proceed 
 to speak of the great and wonderful acts of the supreme 
 lord and emperor, Kublaii-kaan. 
 
 by this class, seems to have been mentioned in order to distinguish 
 them from the ho-shang and lamas, who are always clad in yellow or 
 red, according to their sect, and adds to the probability that they were 
 not Buddhists. 
 
 1 The austerities to which, under the name of penances, the Indian 
 yogis, sannyasis, goseins, and other denominations of ascetics, expose 
 themselves, have been already adverted to. Their pilgrimages cften 
 lead them to the borders of China and to the remote provinces cf 
 Tartary.
 
 160 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 BOOK II. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 OF THE ADMIRABLE DEEDS OF KUBLAI-KAAN, THE EMPEROR NOH 
 
 REIGNING OF THE BATTLE HE FOUGHT WITH NAYAN, HIS UNCLE, 
 
 AND OF THE VICTORY HE OBTAINED. 
 
 1. IN this Book it is our design to treat of all the great and 
 admirable achievements of the grand khan now reigning, who 
 is styled Kubla'i-kaan ; the latter word implying in our lan- 
 guage lord of lords, 1 and with much propriety added to his 
 name; for in respect to number of subjects, extent of terri- 
 tory, and amount of revenue, he surpasses every sovereign 
 that has heretofore been or that now is in the world; nor 
 has any other been served with such implicit obedience by 
 those whom he governs. This will so evidently appear in 
 the course of our work, as to satisfy every one of the truth of 
 our assertion. 
 
 Kublai-kaan, it is to be understood, is the lineal and legiti- 
 mate descendant of Jengiz-khau the first emperor, and the 
 rightful sovereign of the Tartars. He is the sixth grand 
 khan, 2 and began his reign in the year 1256. 3 He obtained 
 the sovereignty by his consummate valour, his virtues, and 
 his prudence, in opposition to the designs of his brothers, 
 supported by many of the great officers and members of his 
 
 1 Kaan was the title which Jengiz directed his son and successor 
 Oktai to assume, and which is explained in dictionaries, as it is in our 
 text, by the terms khan of khans, or lord of lords. 
 
 2 He was properly the fifth, not the sixth emperor. Our author 
 seems to have included Batu in his enumeration, who was the eldest or 
 the grandsons of Jengiz, but waved his right to the sovereignty in 
 favour of Mangu his nephew. 
 
 3 As emperor of China the reign of Kubla'i is not understood to 
 have commenced till 1280, when the conquest of the southern provinces 
 was completed, and the ancient dynasty destroyed.
 
 THE GRAND xHAN KUBLAI. 161 
 
 own family. But the succession appertained to hini of right. 1 
 It is forty -two years since he began to reigri to the present 
 year, 1288, and he is fully eighty-five years of age. Previously 
 to his ascending the throne he had served as a volunteer in 
 the army, and endeavoured to take a share in every enter- 
 prise. Not only was he brave and daring in action, but in 
 point of judgment and military skill he was considered to be 
 the most able and successful commander that ever led the 
 Tartars to battle. From that period, however, he ceased to 
 take the field in person, 2 and entrusted the conduct of expe- 
 ditions to his sons and his captains; excepting in one instance, 
 the occasion of which was as follows. A certain chief named 
 Nayan, who, although only thirty years of age, was kinsman 
 to Kublai', 3 had succeeded to the dominion of many cities and 
 provinces, which enabled him to bring into the field an army 
 of four hundred thousand horse. His predecessors, however, 
 had been vassals of the grand khan. 4 Actuated by youthful 
 
 1 The right of succession, according to our ideas, would have been 
 in one of the sons of Mangu, of whom the eldest was named Asutai ; 
 but amongst the Mungals this hereditary claim was modified by cir- 
 cumstances, and the dying sovereign generally nominated that person of 
 the family who was best qualified, from his age and talents, to hold the 
 reins of government, or rather to command the armies; an appointment 
 which was, however, to be subject to the approval or rejection of the 
 chiefs of tribes, in a grand assembly or diet, termed Kurultai. Accord- 
 ingly we find that whilst the succession was for a time disputed between 
 Kublai and his younger brother, the sons of Mangu, instead of asserting 
 their own rights, took part with him who eventually proved to be the 
 weaker of their uncles. 
 
 2 That is, from the period of his becoming emperor of China, in 
 1280, or, what is more to the point, subsequently to our author's 
 arrival at his court j for in 1262 he proceeded in person against his 
 brother Artigbuga. 
 
 3 In the Latin version the relationship of Nayan to Kubla'i is expressed 
 by the word patruus, in the Italian epitomes by avo, and in Ramusio's 
 text by barba, which the dictionaries inform us is the Lombard term 
 for zio, or uncle; but as he was the younger person by thirty or forty 
 years (according to what is here stated), it is nearly impossible that he 
 could have stood in that degree of consanguinity, and it is reasonable 
 to suppose that the original phrase must have been misunderstood ly 
 the translators. With more plausibility he might have been called his 
 nephew; but the actual relationship was much more distant, their com- 
 mon ancestor being the father of Jengiz-khan. Kublai was the grand- 
 son of that monarch, and Nayan the great-grandson of Belgatai his 
 brother. Consequently they were second cousins once removed, accord- 
 ing to the English mode of expression. 
 
 4 The dominions which this prince inherited from his ancestor, the 
 
 M
 
 162 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 vanity upon finding himself at the head of so great a force, he 
 formed, in the year 1286, the design of throwing off his alle- 
 giance, and usurping the sovereignty. With this view he 
 privately despatched messengers to Kaidu, another powerful 
 chief, whose territories lay towards the greater Turkey, 1 and 
 who, although a nephew of the grand khan, was in rebellion 
 against him, and bore him determined ill-will, proceeding 
 from the apprehension of punishment for former offences. To 
 Kaidu, therefore, the propositions made by Nayan were highly 
 satisfactory, and he accordingly promised to bring to his 
 assistance an army of a hundred thousand horse. Both 
 princes immediately began to assemble their forces, but it 
 could not be effected so secretly as not to come to the know- 
 ledge of Kublai, who upon hearing of their preparations lost 
 no time in occupying all the passes leading to the countries of 
 Nayan and of Kaidu, in order to prevent them from having 
 any information respecting the measures he was himself 
 taking. He then gave orders for collecting, with the utmost 
 celerity, the whole of the troops stationed within ten days' 
 march of the city of Kambalu. These amounted to three 
 hundred and sixty thousand horse, to which was added a 
 body of a hundred thousand foot, consisting of those who 
 were usually about his person, and principally his falconers 
 and domestic servants. 2 In the course of twenty days they 
 were all in readiness. Had he assembled the armies kept up 
 for the constant protection of the different provinces of Ca- 
 thay, it must necessarily have required thirty or forty days ; in 
 which time the enemy would have gained information of his 
 arrangements, and been enabled to effect their junction, and to 
 
 fourth brother of Jengiz-khan, lay in eastern Tartary; as those of Kaidu 
 comprehended generally the country westward from the great desert 
 and Altai mountains, towards Kashgar. These chiefs were bound, 
 of course, to do homage to the person who was considered as the head 
 of the family, and are therefore said to have been the vassals of 
 Kublai. 
 
 1 Turkistan, or the country possessed by the Turk! tribes, to whom 
 the name of Tartars or Tatars has of late been exclusively applied. 
 
 2 The employment of troops of this description (corresponding to the 
 bostangis, or gardeners of the Turkish seraglio), marks the already per- 
 ceptible decline of that vigorous system which enabled the Tartars to 
 subdue their civilized and luxurious neighbours, but which inevitably 
 became relaxed from inactivity and indulgence in the manners of the 
 conquered.
 
 INSURRECTION OP NAT AN. 163 
 
 occupy such strong positions as would best suit with their 
 designs. His object was, by promptitude, which is ever the 
 companion of victory, to anticipate the preparations of Nayan, 
 and by falling upon him whilst single, destroy his power with 
 more certainty and effect than after he should have been 
 joined by Kaidu. 
 
 It may be proper here to observe, whilst on the subject of 
 the armies of the grand khan, that in every province of Cathay 
 and of Manji, 1 as well as in other parts of his dominions, 
 there were many disloyal and seditious persons, who at all 
 times were disposed to break out in rebellion against their 
 sovereign, 2 and on this account it became necessary to keep 
 armies in such of the provinces as contained large cities and 
 an extensive population, which are stationed at the distance of 
 four or five miles from those cities, and can enter them at their 
 pleasure. These armies the grand khan makes it a practice to 
 change every second year, and the same with respect to the 
 officers who command them. By means of such precautions 
 the people are kept in quiet subjection, and no movement nor 
 innovation of any kind can be attempted. The troops are 
 maintained not only from the pay they receive out of the 
 imperial revenues of the province, but also from the cattle 
 and their milk, which belong to them individually, and which 
 they send into the cities for sale, furnishing themselves from 
 thence, in return, with those articles of which they stand in 
 need. 3 In this manner they are distributed over the country, 
 in various places, to the distance of thirty, forty, and even 
 sixty days' journey. If even the half of these corps were to 
 
 1 By these we are to understand Northern and Southern China, 
 separated by the great river Hoang-ho on the eastern, and by the 
 southern limits of Shen-si on the western side. 
 
 2 Not only a great part of the population, especially of Southern China, 
 must have been loyally attached to the ancient race of their kings, but 
 also there were in all the western provinces numerous partisans of the 
 rival branches of Kublai's own family, who were eager to seize all 
 opportunities of fomenting disturbance. 
 
 3 These details, so probable in themselves, are not, I believe, to be 
 found in any other original writer. It must have been the policy of 
 Kubla'i to keep his Tartarian troops as distinct as possible from the 
 Chinese, and therefore, instead of quartering them in the great towns, 
 they were encamped at the distance of some milea from them, and the 
 semblance at least of their former pastoral life was preserved, whilst 
 they were surrounded with their herds and flocks. 
 
 H2
 
 164 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 be collected in one place, the statement of their number would 
 appear marvellous and scarcely entitled to belief. 
 
 2. Having formed his army in the manner above 
 described, the grand khan proceeded towards the territory 
 of Nayan, and by forced marches, continued day and night, 
 he reached it at the expiration of twenty-five days. So 
 prudently, at the same time, was the expedition managed, 
 that neither that prince himself nor any of his dependents 
 were aware of it, all the roads being guarded in such a man- 
 ner that no persons who attempted to pass could escape 
 being made prisoners. Upon arriving at a certain range of 
 hills, on the other side of which was the plain where Nayan's 
 army lay encamped, Kubla'i halted his troops, and allowed 
 them two days of rest. During this interval he called upon 
 his astrologers to ascertain by virtue of their art, and to 
 declare in presence of the whole army, to which side the 
 victory would incline. They pronounced that it would fall 
 to the lot of Kubla'i. It has ever been the practice of the 
 grand khans to have recourse to divination for the purpose of 
 inspiriting their men. Confident therefore of success, they 
 ascended the hill with alacrity the next morning, and pre- 
 sented themselves before the army of Nayan, which they 
 found negligently posted, without advanced parties or scouts, 
 whilst the chief himself was asleep in his tent, accompanied 
 by one of his wives. Upon awaking, he hastened to form his 
 troops in the best manner that circumstances would allow, 
 lamenting that his junction with Kaidu had not been sooner 
 effected. Kubla'i took his station in a large wooden castle, 
 borne on the backs of four elephants, 1 whose bodies were 
 protected with coverings of thick leather hardened by fire, 
 over which were housings of cloth of gold. The castle con- 
 tained many cross-bow-men and archers, and on the top of it 
 
 1 Elephants have never been commonly used in China, either for war 
 or parade ; but during the operations carried on by Kublai (whilst 
 acting as his brother's lieutenant) in the province of Yunnan, bordering 
 on Ava and other countries where these noble animals abound, he 
 must have become well acquainted with the uses to which they might 
 be rendered subservient ; and it appears in a subsequent chapter, that 
 only three years before the period of which we are speaking, he had 
 taken a number of elephants from the king of Mien or Ava (whom hia 
 generals defeated in 1283), and employed them in his armies. Thia 
 consistency of circumstances is not unworthy of observation.
 
 THE GREAT BATTLE WITH NAT AN. 165 
 
 was hoisted the imperial standard, adorned with representa- 
 *ions of the suu and moon. His army, which consisted of 
 thirty battalions of horse, each battalion containing ten 
 thousand men, armed with bows, he disposed in three grand 
 divisions ; and those which formed the left and right wings 
 he extended in such a manner as to out-flank the army of 
 Nayan. In front of each battalion of horse were placed five 
 hundred infantry, armed with short lances and swords, who, 
 whenever the cavalry made a show of flight, were practised to 
 mount behind the riders and accompany them, alighting 
 again when they returned to the charge, and killing with 
 their lances the horses of the enemy. As soon as the order 
 of battle was arranged, an infinite number of wind instru- 
 ments of various kinds were sounded, and these were suc- 
 ceeded by songs, according to the custom of the Tartars 
 before they engage in fight, which commences upon the signal 
 given by the cymbals and drums, and there was such a 
 beating of the cymbals and drums, and such singing, that it 
 was wonderful to hear. This signal, by the orders of the 
 grand khan, was first given to the right and left wings ; and 
 then a fierce and bloody conflict began. The air was instantly 
 filled with a cloud of arrows that poured down on every side, 
 and vast numbers of men and horses were seen to fall to the 
 ground. The loud cries and shouts of the men, together 
 with the noise of the horses and the weapons, were such as to 
 inspire terror into those who heard them. When their arrows 
 had been discharged, the hostile parties engaged in close 
 combat with their lances, swords, and maces shod with iron ; 
 and such was the slaughter, and so large were the heaps of 
 the carcases of men, and more especially of horses, on the 
 field, that it became impossible for the one party to advance 
 upon the other. Thus the fortune of the day remained for a 
 long time undecided, and victory wavered between the con- 
 tending parties from morning until noon ; for so zealous was 
 the devotion of Nayan's people to the cause of their master, 
 who was most liberal and indulgent towards them, that they 
 were all ready to meet death rather than turn their backs to 
 the enemy. At length, however, Nayan, perceiving that he 
 was nearly surrounded, attempted to save himself by flight, 
 but was presently made prisoner, and conducted to the 
 presence of Kublai. who gave orders for his being put tc
 
 166 TRAVELS OF MARCO rOI,O. 
 
 death. 1 This was carried into execution by enclosing him 
 between two carpets, which were violently shaken until the 
 spirit had departed from the body; the motive for this 
 peculiar sentence being, that the sun and the air should not 
 witness the shedding of the blood of one who belonged to the 
 imperial family. 2 Those of his troops which survived the 
 battle came to make their submission, and swear allegiance 
 to Kubla'i. They were inhabitants of the four noble provinces 
 of Chorza, Karli, Barskol, and Sitingui. 3 
 
 Nayan, who had privately undergone the ceremony of 
 baptism, but never made open profession of Christianity, 
 thought proper, on this occasion, to bear the sign of the 
 cross in his banners, and he had in his army a vast number 
 of Christians, who were left amongst the slain. When the 
 Jews 4 and the Saracens perceived that the banner of the 
 cross was overthrown, they taunted the Christian inhabitants 
 with it, saying, " Behold the state to which your (vaunted) 
 banners, and those who followed them, are reduced ! " On 
 account of these derisions the Christians were compelled to 
 lay their complaints before the grand khan, who ordered the 
 former to appear before him, and sharply rebuked them. 
 " If the' Cross of Christ," he said, " has not proved advan- 
 tageous to the party of Nayan, the effect has been consistent 
 with reason and justice, inasmuch as he was a rebel and a 
 
 1 The particulars of the combat, as given in the text, do not well 
 agree with the account furnished by De Guignes ; but this is not sur- 
 prising when we consider how rarely two descriptions of any great 
 battle are found to correspond. It may be remarked that Marco Polo 
 seems to have been present. 
 
 2 This affectation of avoiding to shed blood in the act of depriving 
 of life a person of high rank, is observable in many instances, and may 
 perhaps have given occasion to the ue of the bow-string in the Turkish 
 seraglio. 
 
 3 It is not possible to identify in any modem map or account of 
 Northern Tartary the names of these tribes, which may have long 
 ceased to exist under the same denominations. The difficulty is fur- 
 ther increased by the extraordinary corruption of the words in dif- 
 ferent versions and editions. 
 
 4 This is the first occasion on which our author speaks of Jews in 
 Tartary or China. Of their existence in the latter country, at an early 
 period, there is no room to doubt. In the relations of the Mahometan 
 travellers of the ninth century, we are told that in the massacre which 
 took place at the city of Canfu, when taken by a rebel leader after an 
 obstinate siege, many of that race perished.
 
 THE CHRISTIANS IN TARTART. 167 
 
 traitor to his lord, and to such wretches it could not afford 
 its protection. Let none therefore presume to charge with 
 injustice the God of the Christians, who is Himself the per- 
 fection of goodness and of justice." 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 OP THE RETURN OF THE GRAND KHAN TO THE CITY OP KANBALC 
 AFTER HIS VICTORY OF THE HONOUR HE CONFERS ON THE CHRIS- 
 TIANS, THE JEWS, THE MAHOMETANS, AND THE IDOLATERS, AT THEIR 
 RESPECTIVE FESTIVALS AND THE REASON HE ASSIGNS FOR HIS 
 NOT BECOMING A CHRISTIAN. 
 
 THE grand khan, having obtained this signal victory, re- 
 turned with great pomp and triumph to the capital city of 
 Kanbalu. This took place in the month of November, and 
 he continued to reside there during the months of February 
 and March, in which latter was our festival of Easter. Being 
 aware that this was one of our principal solemnities, he com- 
 manded all the Christians to attend him, and to bring with 
 them their Book, which contains the four Gospels of the Evan- 
 gelists. After causing it to be repeatedly perfumed with 
 incense, in a ceremonious manner, he devoutly kissed it, and 
 directed that the same should be done by all his nobles who 
 were present. This was his usual practice upon each of the 
 principal Christian festivals, such as Easter and Christmas ; 
 and he observed the same at the festivals of the Saracens, 
 Jews, and idolaters. 1 Upon being asked his motive for this 
 conduct, he said : " There are four great Prophets who are 
 reverenced and worshipped by the different classes of man- 
 kind. The Christians regard Jesus Christ as their divinity ; 
 the Saracens, Mahomet; the Jews, Moses; 2 and the idolaters, 
 
 1 This conduct towards the professors of the several systems of faith 
 is perfectly consistent with the character of Kublai, in which policy 
 was the leading feature. It was his object to keep in good humour all 
 classes of his subjects, and especially those of the capital or about the 
 court, by indulging them in the liberty of following unmolested their 
 own religious tenets, and by flattering each with the idea of possessing 
 his special protection. Many of the highest offices, both civil and 
 military, were held by Mahometans. 
 
 2 Neither do those who profess the Mussulman faith regard Mahomet 
 as a divinity, nor do the Jews so regard Moses ; but it is not to be 
 expected that a Tartar emperor should make very accurate theologicaJ 
 distinctions.
 
 168 TRAVElj OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 Sogomombar-kan, 1 the most eminent amongst their idols. I 
 do honour and show respect to all the four, and invoke to my 
 aid whichever amongst them is in truth supreme in heaven " 
 But from the manner in which his majesty acted towards 
 them, it is evident that he regarded the faith of the Christians 
 as the truest and the best; nothing, as he observed, being 
 enjoined to its professors that was not replete with virtue and 
 holiness. By no means, however, would he permit them to 
 bear the cross before them in their processions, because upon 
 it so exalted a personage as Christ had been scourged and (ig- 
 nominiously) put to death. It may perhaps be asked by some, 
 why, if he showed such a preference to the faith of Christ, he 
 did not conform to it, and become a Christian? His reason 
 for not so doing, he assigned to Nicolo and Maffio Polo, 
 when, upon the occasion of his sending them as his ambas- 
 sadors to the Pope, they ventured to address a few words to 
 him on the subject of Christianity. "Wherefore," he said, 
 " should I become a Christian? You yourselves must perceive 
 that the Christians of these coimtries are ignorant, inefficient 
 persons, who do not possess the faculty of performing any- 
 thing (miraculous) ; whereas you see that the idolaters can do 
 whatever they will. When I sit at table the cups that were 
 in the middle of the hall come to me filled with wine and 
 other beverage, spontaneously and without being touched by 
 human hand, and I drink from them. They have the power 
 of controlling bad weather and obliging it to retire to any 
 quarter of the heavens, with many other wonderful gifts of 
 that nature. You are witnesses that their idols have the 
 faculty of speech, and predict to them whatever is required. 
 Should I become a convert to the faith of Christ, and profess 
 myself a Christian, the nobles of my court and other persons 
 who do not incline to that religion will ask me what sufficient 
 motives have caused me to receive baptism, and to embrace 
 Christianity. 'What extraordinary powers,' they will say, 
 ' what miracles have been displayed by its ministers? Whereas 
 the idolaters declare that what they exhibit is performed 
 through their own sanctity, and the influence of their idols.' 
 
 1 This word, probably much corrupted by transcribers, must be 
 intended for one of the numerous titles of Buddha or Fo, who, amongst 
 the Mungals, as in India also, is commonly termed Shakia-muni, and in 
 Siam, Sommona-kodom.
 
 KUBLAI AND THE CHRISTIANS. 169 
 
 To this I shall not know what answer to make, and I shall 
 be considered by them as labouring under a grievous error ; 
 whilst the idolaters, who by means of their profound art can 
 effect such wonders, may without difficulty compass my death. 
 But return you to your pontiff, and request of him, in cay 
 name, to send hither a hundred persons well skilled in your 
 law, who being confronted with the idolaters shall have power 
 to coerce them, and showing that they themselves are endowed 
 with similar art, but which they refrain from exercising, 
 because it is derived from the agency of evil spirits, shall 
 compel them to desist from practices of such a nature in 
 their presence. When I am witness of this, I shall place 
 them and their religion under an interdict, and shall allow 
 myself to be baptized. Following my example, all my no- 
 bility will then in like manner receive baptism, and this will 
 be imitated by my subjects in general ; so that the Christians 
 of these parts will exceed in number those who inhabit your 
 own country." From this discourse it must be evident that 
 if the Pope had sent out persons duly qualified to preach the 
 gospel, the grand khan would have embraced Christianity, 
 for which, it is certainly known, he had a strong predilection. 
 But, to return to our subject, we shall now speak of the re- 
 wards and honours he bestows on such as distinguish them- 
 selves by their valour in battle. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 OP THE KIND OF REWARDS GRANTED TO THOSE WHO CONDUCT THEM- 
 SELVES WELL IN FIGHT, AND OF THE GOLDEN TABLETS WHICH THEY 
 RECEIVE. 
 
 THE grand khan appoints twelve of the most intelligent 
 amongst his nobles, whose duty it is to make themselves 
 acquainted with the conduct of the officers and men of his 
 army, particularly upon expeditions and in battles, and to 
 present their reports to him, 1 and he, upon being apprised 
 
 1 In the establishment of a board of this nature it is probable that 
 Kubla'i only conformed to the s\ stem of the former or ancient Chinese 
 government, which placed the various concerns of the state under the 
 management of distinct tribunals named pfi, to each of which another
 
 170 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 of their respective merits, advances them in his service, raising 
 those who commanded an hundred men to the command of a 
 thousand, and presenting many with vessels of silver, as well 
 as the customary tablets or warrants of command and of 
 government. 1 The tablets given to those commanding a 
 hundred men are of silver; to those commanding a thousand, 
 of gold or of silver gilt; and those who command ten thou- 
 sand receive tablets of gold, bearing the head of a lion ; 2 the 
 former being of the weight of a hundred and twenty saggi, 3 
 and these with the lion's head, two hundred and twenty. At 
 the top of the inscription on the tablet is a sentence to 
 this effect: "By the power and might of the great God, and 
 through the grace which he vouchsafes to our empire, be the 
 name of the kaan blessed; and let all such as disobey (what 
 is herein directed) suffer death and be utterly destroyed." 
 The officers who hold these tablets have privileges attached 
 to them, and in the inscription is specified what are the 
 duties and the powers of their respective commands. He 
 who is at the head of a hundred thousand men, or the com- 
 mander in chief of a grand army, has a golden tablet weighing 
 three hundred saggi, with the sentence above mentioned, and 
 at the bottom is engraved the figure of a lion, together with 
 representations of the sun and moon. He exercises also the 
 
 word, expressive of the particular nature of the department, is pre- 
 fixed. " La quatrieme cour souveraine," says Du Halde, " se nomme 
 ping-pou, c'est-a-dire, le tribunal des armes. La milice de tout 1'empire 
 est de son ressort. C'est de ce tribunal que dependent les officiers de 
 guerre gencraux et particuliers," &c. (Tom. ii. p. 24.) Under a warlike 
 monarch, who owed the empire of China to his sword, it might well 
 have been considered as the first in consequence, although now inferior 
 in rank to three others. 
 
 1 See note 1, p. 9, where some account is given of these tablets or 
 letters patent, called tchi Icouel, according to the French orthography. 
 
 2 The Chinese representation of a lion, like the singa of the Hindu 
 mythology, from whence it seems to have been borrowed, is a grotesque 
 figure, extremely unlike the real animal. An engraving of it will be 
 found in Staunton's Account of Lord Macartney's Embassy, (vol. ii. 
 p. 311 ;) and the figure is not uncommon in our porcelain collections. 
 Occasion will be taken hereafter to show that where the lion is spoken 
 of by our author as a living animal, and an object of hunting sport, 
 the tiger must be understood. 
 
 3 The saggio of Venice being equal to the sixth part of an ounce, 
 these consequently w sighed twenty ounces, and the others in proportion 
 up to fifty ounces.
 
 PERSONAL APPEARANCE OF KCBLAI. 171 
 
 privileges of his high command, as set forth in this magnifi- 
 cent tablet. Whenever he rides in public, an umbrella is 
 carried over his head, denoting the rank and authority he 
 holds; 1 and when he is seated, it is always upon a silver 
 chair. The grand khan confers likewise upon certain of his 
 nobles tablets on which are represented figures of the gerfalcon, 2 
 in virtue of which they are authorized to take with them as 
 their guard of honour the whole army of any great prince. 
 They can also make use of the horses of the imperial stud at 
 their pleasure, and can appropriate the horses of any officers 
 inferior to themselves in rank. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 OF THE FIGURE AND STATURE OF THE GRAND KHAN OF HIS FOUR 
 
 PRINCIPAL WIVES AND OF THE ANNUAL SELECTION OF YOUNG 
 
 WOMEN FOR HIM IN THE PROVINCE OF UNGUT. 
 
 KCBLAI, who is styled grand khan, or lord of lords, is of the 
 middle stature, that is, neither tall nor short ; his limbs are 
 well formed, and in his whole figure there is a just proportion. 
 His complexion is fair, and occasionally suffused with red, 
 like the bright tint of the rose, which adds much grace to his 
 countenance. His eyes are black and handsome, his nose is 
 well shaped and prominent. He has four wives of the first 
 rank, who are esteemed legitimate, 3 and the eldest born son 
 
 1 In many parts of the East, the parasol or umbrella with a long 
 handle, borne by an attendant, is a mark of high distinction, and even 
 denotes sovereignty when of a particular colour. Du Halde, in de- 
 scribing the parade of a tsong-tti or viceroy of a province, enumerates 
 amongst the insignia " un parasol de soye jaune a triple etage." 
 
 2 Amongst the emblematical ornaments worn by great officers, the 
 eagle ia mentioned by Du Halde, but it may probably have been in- 
 tended for the gerfalcon, a bird more prized aa the instrument of 
 royal sport. 
 
 3 " II avoit epouse plusieurs femmes," says De Guignes, " dont cinq 
 portoient le titre d'imp6ratrices ;" but it is probable that not more 
 than four of these (if so many) were contemporaneous; and the 
 legitimacy of the latter number, which does not appear to be sanc- 
 tioned by the ancient Chinese institutions, may have been suggested by 
 the Mahometan usage. Three queens are mentioned by P. Magalhanes 
 as belonging to the emperor Kang-hi, and the establishment of the late 
 emperor Kien Long consisted, in like manner, of one female with the 
 rank of empress, two queens of the second order, and six of the third.
 
 172 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 of any one of these succeeds to the empire, upon the decease 
 of the grand khan. 1 They bear equally the title of empress, 
 and have their separate courts. None of them have fewer 
 than three hundred young female attendants of great beauty, 
 together with a multitude of youths as pages, and other 
 eunuchs, as well as ladies of the bedchamber; so that the 
 number of persons belonging to each of their respective 
 courts amounts to ten thousand. 2 When his majesty is 
 desirous of the company of one of his empresses, he either 
 sends for her, or goes himself to her palace. Besides these, 
 he has many concubines provided for his use, from a province 
 of Tartary named Ungut, having a city cf the same name, 
 the inhabitants of which are distinguished for beauty of 
 features and fairness of complexion. 3 Thither the grand 
 khan sends his officers every second year, or oftener, as it 
 may happen to be his pleasure, who collect for him, to the 
 number of four or five hundred, or more, of the handsomest 
 of the young women, according to the estimation of beauty 
 
 1 According to the laws of China, as we are told by Du Halde, the 
 eldest son (or son of the superior wife), though he may have a preferable 
 claim, has not an indefeasible right to the succession. Amongst the 
 predecessors of Kublai, also, in the Moghul empire, we have instances 
 of the hereditary claim being set aside, and Oktaii himself was named 
 grand khan by his father, in preference to Jagata'i, the eldest son. Our 
 author must therefore be understood to say, that the son first born to 
 any one of the four empresses was considered as the presumptive heir ; 
 and this in fact having been the case with respect to the eldest son of 
 Kublai, whose succession, had he outlived his father, was undoubted, 
 the prevailing sentiment of the court might naturally be mistaken for 
 the established custom of the empire. 
 
 2 This number appears excessive, but we are not to measure the 
 extravagancies of enormous and uncontrolled power by any standard of 
 our own ideas. Perhaps besides the establishment of female attendants 
 and of eunuchs, old and young, a numerous military guard of honour 
 might be attached to the court of each of the empresses. The early 
 Venice edition, however, states the number much lower : " Ciascuna 
 de queste quatro regine hanno in sua corte piu de quatro millia persone 
 infra homini e donne." P. Martini speaks of numerous females, below 
 the rank of concubines, for the service of the palace. 
 
 3 The country her? named Ungut is in other versions called 
 Origiach, Origiathe, and Ungrac. There is little doubt of its being 
 intended for that of the Ighurs, Eighurs, or Uighurs, who in the time 
 of Jengiz-khan possessed the countries of Turfan and Hami or Kamil, 
 and were always considered as superior, in respect both of person and 
 acquirements, to the other nat'C-ns of Tartary.
 
 THE HAREM OF THE GRAXD KHAN. 173 
 
 communicated to them in their instructions. The mode of 
 their appreciation is as follows. Upon the arrival of these 
 commissioners, they give orders for assembling all the young 
 women of the province, and appoint qualified persons to 
 examine them, who, upon careful inspection of each of them 
 separately, that is to say, of the hair, the countenance, the 
 eyebrows, the mouth, the lips, and other features, as well as 
 the symmetry of these with each other, estimate their value 
 at sixteen, seventeen, eighteen, or twenty, or more carats, 
 according to the greater or less degree of beauty. 1 The num- 
 ber required by the grand khan, at the rates, perhaps, of 
 twenty or twenty-one carats, to which their commission was 
 limited, is then selected from the rest, and they are conveyed 
 to his court. Upon their arrival in his presence, he causes a 
 new examination to be made by a different set of inspectors, 
 and from amongst them a further selection takes place, when 
 thirty or forty are retained for his own chamber, at a higher 
 valuation. These, in the first instance, are committed sepa- 
 rately to the care of the wives of certain of the nobles, whose 
 duty it is to observe them attentively during the course of 
 the night, in order to ascertain that they have not ary 
 concealed imperfections, that they sleep tranquilly, do not 
 snore, have sweet breath, and are free from unpleasant scent 
 in any part of the body. Having undergone this rigorous 
 scrutiny, they are divided into parties of five, one of which 
 parties attends during three days and three nights, in his 
 majesty's interior apartment, where they are to perform every 
 service that is required of them, and he does with them as he 
 likes. When this term is completed, they are relieved by 
 another party, and in this manner successively, until the whole 
 number have taken their turn; when the first five recom- 
 mence their attendance. But whilst the one party officiates 
 in the inner chamber, another is stationed in the outer apart- 
 ment adjoining; in order that if his majesty should have 
 
 1 If by this gold weight is meant the carat consisting of four grains, 
 the estimated value of beauty must have been very low in that age 
 and country, as twenty carats or eighty graina of gold, at four pounds 
 sterling the ounce, amount to no more than thirteen shillings and four- 
 pence. But the probability is that our author's words expressed some 
 Chinese weight (the tad, perhaps, or the mace, which latter would 
 bring it to about eight or nine pounds sterling), and the foreign term 
 he employed may have been inaccurately rendered by carato.
 
 174 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 occasion for anything, such as drink or vict aals, the former 
 may signify his commands to the latter, by whom the article 
 required is immediately procured : and thus the duty of wait- 
 ing upon his majesty's person is exclusively performed by 
 these young females. 1 The remainder of them, whose value 
 had been estimated at an inferior rate, are assigned to the 
 different lords of the household ; under whom they are in- 
 structed in cookery, in dressmaking, and other suitable works ; 
 and upon any person belonging to the court expi-essing an 
 inclination to take a wife, the grand khan bestows upon him 
 one of these damsels, with a handsome portion. In this 
 manner he provides for them all amongst his nobility. It 
 may be asked whether the people of the province do not feel 
 themselves aggrieved in having their daughters thus forcibly 
 taken from them by the sovereign ? Certainly not ; but, on 
 the contrary, they regard it as a favour and an honour done 
 to them ; and those who are the fathers of handsome children 
 feel highly gratified by his condescending to make choice of 
 their daughters. "If," say they, "my daughter is born under 
 an auspicious planet and to good fortune, his majesty can best 
 fulfil her destinies, by matching her nobly; which it would 
 not be in my power to do." If, on the other hand, the daughter 
 misconducts herself, or any mischance befalls her (by which 
 she becomes disqualified), the father attributes the disap- 
 pointment to the malign influence of her stars. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 OF THE NUMBER OP THE GRAND KHAN'S SONS BY HIS FOUR WIVES, 
 WHOM HE MAKES KINGS OF DIFFERENT PROVINCES AND OF CHIN- 
 CIS HIS FIRST-BORN ALSO OF THE SONS BY HIS CONCUBINES, WHOM 
 HE CREATES LORDS. 
 
 THE grand khan has had twenty-two sons by his four legiti- 
 mate wives, the eldest of whom, named Chingis, 2 was designed 
 
 1 It would appear from hence that Kublai, although he adopted the 
 Chinese custom of employing eunuchs as the attendants or guards of 
 his females, did not BO far forget his original manly habits as to admit 
 them near his own person. 
 
 2 Gaubil and De Guignes name this prince Tchingkin and Tchenkin, 
 and such may perhaps have been the manner in which it was pro-
 
 KUBLAIS CHILDREN. 175 
 
 to inherit the dignity of grand khan, with the government 
 of the empire; and this nomination was confirmed to him 
 during the life-time of his father. It was not, however, his 
 fate to survive him; but leaving a son, whose name is 
 Themur, he, as the representative of his father, is to succeed 
 to the dominion. 1 The disposition of this prince is good, 
 and he is endowed with wisdom and valour; of the latter he 
 has given proofs in several successful battles. Besides these, 
 his majesty has twenty-five sous by his concubines, all of them 
 brave soldiers, having been continually employed in the mili- 
 tary profession. These he has placed in the rank of nobles. 
 Of his legitimate sons, seven are at the head of extensive 
 provinces and kingdoms, 2 which they govern with wisdom 
 and prudence, as might be expected of the children of one 
 whose great qualities have not been surpassed, in the general 
 estimation, by any person of the Tartar race. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 CK THE GBEAT AND ADMIRABLE PALACE OP THE GRAND KHAN, NEAR 
 TO THE CITY OF KANBALU. 
 
 THE grand khan usually resides during three months of 
 the year, namely, December, January, and February, in the 
 great city of Kanbalu, situated towards the north-eastern 
 extremity of the province of Cathay; 3 and here, on the 
 
 nounced by the Chinese, who terminate all their monosyllables either 
 with a vowel or a nasal ; but the name as found in most of the versions 
 of our author is apparently more correct, being that of the great 
 ancestor of the family ; and in the early Venice epitome it is expressly 
 said : " So primo hebbe nome Chinchis chan per amor de Chinchis." 
 
 1 The name here written Themur, and in other versions Temur, 
 is evidently the well-known Tartar name of Timur, although the great 
 conqueror so called did not acquire his celebrity until a century after. 
 
 2 De Guignes enumerates ten of his sons, born of five empresses, 
 and mentions the provinces of Shensi, Sechuen, and Tibet as being 
 governed by Mangkola, the third son. P. Magalhanes notices the custom 
 of sending the princes of the royal family into the provinces with the 
 title of kings ; but in the reign of Kang-hi their authority was merely 
 nominal. 
 
 3 Relatively to the vast extent of the whole empire at that period, 
 Cathay, or Northern China, is termed by our author a province, 
 although it contained the capital of that empire, aud the seat of 
 government.
 
 17G TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 southern side of the new city, is the site of his vast palace, 
 the form and dimensions of which are as follows. In the first 
 place is a square enclosed with a wall and deep ditch ; each 
 side of the square being eight miles in length, 1 and having 
 at an equal distance from each extremity an entrance-gate, 
 for the concourse of people resorting thither from all quartern 
 Within this enclosure there is, on the four sides, an open 
 space one mile in breadth, where the troops are stationed ; 2 
 and this is bounded by a second wall, enclosing a square of 
 six miles, 3 having three gates on the south side, and three on 
 the north, the middle portal of each being larger than the 
 other two, and always kept shut, excepting on the occasions 
 of the emperor's entrance or departure. Those on each side 
 always remain open for the use of common passengers. 4 In the 
 middle of each division of these walls is a handsome and 
 spacious building, and consequently within the enclosure 
 there are eight such buildings, in which are deposited the 
 royal military stores ; one building being appropriated to the 
 reception of each class of stores. Thus, for instance, the 
 bridles, saddles, stirrups, and other furniture serving for the 
 equipment of cavalry, occupy one storehouse; the bows, 
 strings, quivers, arrows, and other articles belonging to archery, 
 occupy another ; cuirasses, corselets, and other armour formed 
 
 1 These dimensions, as applicable to a palace, even for an emperor of 
 China, appear at first view to be extravagant ; but the seeming diffi- 
 culty arises from the misapplication of a term, in calling that a palace 
 which was, in fact, the enclosure of a royal park and encampment. 
 
 2 The area allotted to the troops upon this plain would be twenty- 
 eight square miles. Their number was, of course, very great, and being 
 chiefly cavalry, the barracks or sheds for their accommodation would 
 necessarily occupy a vast range. In the early part of the last century, 
 the cavalry stationed in and about Peking was reckoned at 80,000. 
 Supposing it to have been about 112,000 in the days of Kubla'i, this 
 would allow only a square mile for 4,000 horse. 
 
 3 As this second enclosure not only contained the royal arsenals, 
 eight in number, for every description of military store, but formed 
 also a park for deer, there is nothing remarkable in its extent. It ia 
 not easy, however, to reconcile its position in respect to the city with 
 some of the circumstances here mentioned ; but we must suppose that 
 the interior enclosure (afterwards described), which contained the 
 palace properly so called, was situated towards the northern side of 
 this park, and was at the same time contiguous to the southern wall of 
 the city, 
 
 4 The custom of reserving particular gates for the exclusive use of 
 the emperor is still observed.
 
 IMPERIAL PALACE OF KAXBALU. 177 
 
 of leather, a third storehouse; and so of the rest. Within 
 this walled enclosure there is still another, of great thickness, 
 and its height is full twenty -five feet. The battlements or 
 crenated parapets are all white. This also forms a square 
 four miles in extent, each side being one mile, and it has six 
 gates, disposed like those of the former enclosure. 1 It con- 
 tains in lie manner eight large buildings, similarly arranged, 
 which are appropriated to the wardrobe of the emperor. 2 The 
 spaces between the one wall, and the other are ornamented 
 with many handsome trees, and contain meadows in which 
 are kept various kinds of beasts, such as stags, the animals 
 that yield the musk, roe-bucks, fallow-deer, and others of the 
 same class. Every interval between the walls, not occupied 
 by buildings, is stocked in this manner. The pastures have 
 abundant herbage. The roads across them being raised three 
 feet above their level, and paved, no mud collects upon them, 
 nor rain-water settles, but on the contrary runs off, and con- 
 tributes to improve the vegetation. Within these walls, which 
 constitute the boundary of four miles, stands the palace of 
 the grand khan, the most extensive that has ever yet been 
 known. It reaches from the northern to the southern wall, 
 leaving only a vacant space (or court), where persons of rank 
 aud the military guards pass and repass. It has no upper 
 floor, but the roof is very lofty. 3 The paved foundation or 
 
 1 To this last enclosure it is that the appellation of the Palace should 
 be restricted; and when we read the description of the Meidan of 
 Ispahan, or of the Escurial with its twenty-two courts, we shall not 
 deem the area of a square mile any extraordinary space to be occupied 
 by the various buildings required for such an establishment as that of 
 Kublai. It is at the same time to be remarked that there is a striking 
 agreement between the measure here stated and that assigned to the 
 modern palace in the descriptions we hare from the Jesuits. 
 
 * It is well known to have been the practice of Eastern monarchs, 
 from the earliest ages, to deliver changes of raiment to those whom 
 they meant to distinguish by their favour. The Persian term Ichildt is 
 generally applied to these vestments, which consist of pelisses in the 
 northern parts of Asia, and of dresses of cloth, silk, or muslin, in the 
 temperate and warmer climates. We read of vast numbers of them 
 being distributed on the occasion of great victories, or the dismissal of 
 important embassies ; and this may account for the bulk of the ward- 
 robes or buildings for what are here termed the paramenti of the 
 emperor, which may also include the regalia carried in their splendid 
 processions. 
 
 J It will be seen in the plates accompanying the accounts of various 
 N
 
 178 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 platform on which it stands is raised ten spans above the level 
 of the ground, and a wall of marble, two paces wide, is built 
 on all sides, to the level of this pavement, within the line of 
 which the palace is erected; so that the wall, extending be- 
 yond the ground plan of the building, and encompassing the 
 whole, serves as a terrace, where those who walk on it are 
 visible from without. Along the exterior edge of the wall is 
 a handsome balustrade, with pillars, which the people are 
 allowed to approach. 1 The sides of the great halls and the 
 apartments are ornamented with dragons in carved work and 
 gilt, figures of warriors, of birds, and of beasts, with represen- 
 tations of battles. The inside of the roof is contrived in such 
 a manner that nothing besides gilding and painting presents 
 itself to the eye. 2 On each of the four sides of the palace 
 there is a grand flight of marble steps, by which you ascend 
 from the level of the ground to the wall of marble which 
 surrounds the building, and which constitute the approach to 
 the palace itself. The grand hall is extremely long and wide, 
 and admits of dinners being there served to great multitudes 
 of people. The palace contains a number of separate cham- 
 bers, all highly beautiful, and so admirably disposed that it 
 seems impossible to suggest any improvement to the system 
 of their arrangement. The exterior of the roof is adorned 
 with a variety of colours, red, green, azure, and violet, and 
 the sort of covering is so strong as to last for many years. 3 
 
 embassies to Peking, that although the flooring of the palaces is ele- 
 vated from the ground, they consist of but a single story. The height 
 of the ornamented roofs is a striking feature in the architecture of 
 these people. 
 
 1 The height of the terrace is said, in Ramusio's text, to be died 
 pal/mi, or about seven feet ; but in the epitomes it is doi brazza e rnezo, 
 or about twice that elevation; and this accords best with modern 
 descriptions. All the accounts of missionaries and travellers serve to 
 show that, in point of structure, materials, and style of embellishment, 
 there has existed a perfect resemblance between the buildings of Kublai, 
 as described by our author, and those of Kang-hi and Kien-long, in the 
 seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. 
 
 2 " Cette salle," adds Du Halde, " a environ cent trente pieds de 
 longueur, et est presque quarree. Le lambris est tout en sculpture 
 vernisse' de verd, et charge de dragons dorez : les colonnes qui soutien- 
 nent le toit en dedans sont de six a sept pieds de circonference par le 
 bas : elles sont incrustees d'une espfece de p3.te enduite d'un vernis 
 rouge." Tom. i. p. 117. 
 
 3 The roofs are invariably covered with baked tiles, which, for the
 
 THE IMPERIAL PALACE OF KANBALU. 179 
 
 The glazing of the windows is so well wrought and so delicate 
 as to have the transparency of crystal. 1 In the rear of the 
 body of the palace there are large buildings containing several 
 apartments, where is deposited the private property of the 
 monarch, or his treasure in gold and silver bullion, precious 
 stones, and pearls, and also his vessels of gold and silver 
 plate. 2 Here are likewise the apartments of his wives and 
 concubines ; and in this retired situation he despatches busi- 
 ness with convenience, being free from every kind of inter- 
 ruption. On the other side of the grand palace, and opposite 
 to that in which the emperor resides, is another palace, in 
 every respect similar, appropriated to the residence of Chingis, 
 his eldest son, at whose court are observed all the ceremonials 
 belonging to that of his father, as the prince who is to suc- 
 ceed to the government of the empire. 3 Not far from the 
 
 principal buildings, have a vitrified glazing of a bright colour. Such as 
 are used for the palaces at the present day are exclusively yellow ; but 
 this etiquette may not have been so strictly adhered to under the 
 dynasty of the Yuen. " Le tout est couvert de tuiles vernissees d'un si 
 beau jaune, que de loin elles lie paroissent gueres moins eclatantes, que 
 si elles <$toient dorees." Du Halde, torn. i. p. 116. 
 
 1 Ramusio employs the word vitreate, which I have translated glazing, 
 although there is no reason to suppose that glass was used for windows 
 in China at that period. The meaning may be, that the pellucid sub- 
 stance employed for glazing (perhaps talc or laminae of shells) was so 
 delicately wrought (cosi ben fatte e cosi sottilmente) as to have nearly 
 the transparency of crystal. " Les fenetres des maisons," says De 
 Guignes, " sont garnies avec des coquilles minces et assez transparentes, 
 ou avec du papier." (Tom. ii. p. 178.) Staunton mentions that the 
 windows of some of the yachts or barges had glass panes, but the 
 manufacture was probably European. 
 
 2 In the modern palace, the buildings for this purpose are described 
 as being (less appropriately) round the court, in front of the great hall 
 of audience ; but we ought not to be surprised at any variation with 
 respect to the arrangement of these buildings, when we learn that the 
 whole of the palace has been repeatedly destroyed by fire. 
 
 3 " A Test de la meme cour est un autre palais, habite par le prince 
 heritier, lorsqu'il y en a un de declare." (De L'isle, Descr. de la Ville 
 de Peking, p. 16.) It will not escape the observation of the reader that, 
 in a previous page, our author noticed the untimely death of this 
 prince, (see pp. 174, 175,) who, notwithstanding, is here mentioned as a 
 living person. This is obviously to be accounted for from the circum- 
 stance of the work being composed, not from recollection merely, but 
 from notes made at different periods, amongst which a description of 
 the palaces might have been one of the earliest. Kublai also, the 
 event of whose death is related in the course of the returning journey, 
 is spoken of throughout the work as the emperor actually reigning. 
 
 N2
 
 180 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 palace, on the northern side, and about a bow-shot distance 
 from the surrounding wall, is an artificial mount of earth, the 
 height of which is full a hundred paces, and the circuit at 
 the base about a mile. It is clothed with the most beautiful 
 evergreen trees; for whenever his majesty receives informa- 
 tion of a handsome tree growing in any place, he causes it to 
 be dug up, with all its roots and the earth about them, and 
 however large and heavy it may be, he has it transported by 
 means of elephants to this mount, and adds it to the verdant 
 collection. From this perpetual verdure it has acquired the 
 appellation of the Green Mount. On its summit is erected 
 an ornamental pavilion, which is likewise entirely green. The 
 view of this altogether, the mount itself, the trees, and the 
 building, form a delightful and at the same time a wonderful 
 scene. In the northern quarter also, and equally within the 
 precincts. of the city, there is a large and deep excavation, 
 judiciously formed, the earth from which supplied the material 
 for raising the mount. 1 It is furnished with water by a small 
 rivulet, and has the appearance of a fish-pond, but its use is 
 for watering the cattle. The stream passing from thence 
 along an aqueduct, at the foot of the Green Mount, proceeds 
 to fill another great and very deep excavation formed between 
 the private palace of the emperor and that of his son Chingis ; 
 and the earth from hence equally served to increase the eleva- 
 tion of the mount. In this latter basin there is great store 
 and variety of fish, from which the table of his majesty is 
 supplied with any quantity that may be wanted. The stream 
 discharges itself at the opposite extremity of the piece of 
 water, and precautions are taken to prevent the escape of the 
 fish by placing gratings of copper or iron at the places of its 
 entrance and exit. It is stocked also with swans and other 
 aquatic birds. From the one palace to the other there is 
 a communication by means of a bridge thrown across the 
 water. Such is the description of this great palace. We 
 shall now speak of the situation and circumstances of the 
 city of Taidu. 
 
 1 This artificial hill exists at the present day, and retains its original 
 name of King-shan, or the Green Mountain but it would seem, from 
 modern relations, that four others of inferior size have since ceeb 
 added.
 
 THE CITT OP TAI-DU. 181 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 OF THB HEW CITY OF TAI-DU, BUILT XEAB TO THAT OF KAXEALU OF 
 A BULK OBSERVED BESPECTIXG THE EXTEBTAI>~MEXT OF AMBASSADORS 
 A5D OF THE SIGHTLT POLICE OF THE CUT. 
 
 THE city of Kanbalu is situated near a large river in the 
 province of Cathay, and was in ancient times eminently mag- 
 nificent and royal. The name itself implies " the city of the 
 sovereign;" 1 but his majesty having imbibed an opinion 
 from the astrologers, that it was destined to become rebel- 
 lious to his authority, resolved upon the measure of building 
 another capital, upon the opposite side of the river, where 
 stand the palaces just described: so that the new and the 
 old cities are separated from each other only by the stream 
 that runs between them. 2 The new-built city received the 
 
 1 The name of thia celebrated city, which oar author writes Cambalu 
 (for Canbalu, the m being substituted for at the end of a syllable, in 
 the old Italian, as well as in the Portuguese orthography), is by the 
 Arabians and Persians written Khan-balik and Khan-baligh, signifying, 
 in one of the dialects of Tartary, the " city of the khan or sovereign." 
 This terminating appellative is not uncommon, as we find it in Ka- 
 b&ligh and Bish-baligh, cities of Turkistan ; in Ordn-baligh, one of the 
 names of Kara-korum ; and in Mu-baligh, or the " city of desolation," a 
 name given to Bamian, in the territory of Balkh, upon the occasion of 
 its destruction by Jenziz-khan. With respect to the particular situation 
 of the city, it is said, in the words of Ramusio, to have been " aopra 
 un gran fiume," but in the Latin version, "juxta magnum fluvitun," 
 which affords more latitude. By this river must be understood the 
 Pe-ho, which is navigable for loaded vessels up to Tong-eheu, within 
 twelve miles of the capital; but in the higher part of its course it 
 seems to approximate nearer. Our knowledge of the country that sur- 
 rounds Pe-king is, however, extremely imperfect ; nor do the different 
 maps accord with respect to the number or course of the streams that, 
 coming from the neighbouring mountains of Tartary, appear to unite 
 at or above Tong-cheu. It should be observed, also,, that the old city 
 of Yen-king, or Khan-balig, might have stood some miles nearer to the 
 Pe-ho than the site of the more modern city of Peking. 
 
 * This would seem to imply a removal of the capital to a different 
 side of the Pe-ho, or lararer river just mentioned"; but i may be 
 thought more probable that our author here speaks only of the rivulet 
 which at the present day passes between what are denominated the 
 Chinese and the Tartar cities, over which (however insignificant the 
 stream) there is a handsome bridge of communication. Martini, hi his 
 " Atlas Sinensis," distinguishes two streams as contributing to supply 
 the city with water.
 
 182 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 name of Tai-du, 1 and all the Cathaians, that is, all those of the 
 inhabitants who were natives of the province of Cathay, were 
 compelled to evacuate the ancient city, and to take up their 
 abode in the new. Some of the inhabitants, however, of 
 whose loyalty he did not entertain suspicion, were suffered 
 to remain, especially because the latter, although of the 
 dimensions that shall presently be described, was not capable 
 of containing the same number as the former, which was of 
 vast extent. 2 
 
 This new city is of a form perfectly square, and twenty- 
 four miles in extent, each of its sides being neither more nor 
 less than six miles. 3 It is enclosed with walls of earth, that 
 
 1 The name of Tai-du (more correctly written Ta-tu) signifies the 
 " great court," and was the Chinese appellation for the new city, which 
 the Tartars, and the western people in general, continued to name 
 Khan-baligh. A doubt may be entertained whether the city of Yen- 
 king, which Kubla'i, from motives of superstition or of policy, aban- 
 doned, occupied the site of that now called the ancient or Chinese city, 
 which is separated from the other only by a rivulet, and by the wall of 
 the latter. But there is evidence of a positive kind of their being the 
 same ; for Yong-lo, the rebuilder of Peking, after it had been nearly 
 destroyed in the preceding wars, erected within the bounds of what 
 was equally in his time denominated the old city, and which could be 
 no other than that depopulated by Kubla'i a century and a half before, 
 two remarkable temples, one of them dedicated to the Heavens and the 
 other to the Earth, which temples are to be found in Du Halde's and 
 De Lisle' s plates, and exist in the Chinese city at the present day. All 
 the works of this great monarch, the third of the dynasty by which the 
 Mungals were driven out, and who sat on the throne at the period of 
 Shah Rokh's embassy, were begun about the year 1406, and completed 
 about 1421. 
 
 2 In the " Me"moireg concernant les Chinois," we find the following 
 account of the extent of its walls at different periods : " Sous le Kin 
 (the dynasty overturned by Jengiz-khan) dont il fut aussi la capitale, il 
 eut soixante-quinze li de tour, ou sept lieues et demie. Les Yuen qui 
 le nommerent d'abord la capitale du milieu, puis la grande capitale, ne 
 lui donnerent que six lieues de tour et onze portes, lorsqu'ils en 
 reparerent les mines en 1274. Le fondateur de la dynastie des Ming 
 rasa deux de ces portes du cote du Midi pour le degrader ; et Yong-k', 
 qui en rebatit les murailles en 1409, ne leur donna que quatre lieues de 
 tour: c'est leur rnesure d'aujourd'hui, e"tant restees les memes. Quant 
 a la ville Chinoise, ce fut Chin-tsong, de la dynastie prec6dente, qui en 
 fit faire 1'enceinte en murs de terre 1'an 1524. . . Ce ne fut qu'en 1564 
 qu'elle obtint 1'honneur d'etre incorporee a 1'ancienne ville, avec celui 
 d* avoir des murailles et des portes en briques." Tom. ii. p. 553. 
 
 3 The square form prevails much amongst the cities and towns of 
 China, wherever the nature of the ground and the course of the waters
 
 THE CITY OF TAI-DU. 183 
 
 at the base are about ten paces thick, but gradually diminish 
 to the top, where the thickness is not more than three paces. 1 
 In all parts the battlements are white. 2 The whole plan of 
 the city was regularly laid out by line, and the streets in 
 general are consequently su straight, that when a person 
 ascends the wall over one of the gates, and looks right for- 
 ward, he can see the gate opposite to him on the other side 
 of the city. 3 In the public streets there are, on each side, 
 booths and shops of every description. 4 All the allotments 
 of ground upon which the habitations throughout the city 
 were constructed are square, and exactly on a line with each 
 other; each allotment being sufficiently spacious for hand- 
 some buildings, with corresponding courts and gardens. One 
 of these was assigned to each head of a family; that is to 
 
 admit of it. This probably had its origin in the principles of castra- 
 metation. The dimensions of the present Tartar city, according to 
 De Lisle, are eleven li in the length from north to south, by nine in 
 width from east to west, making forty li or fifteen miles in the whole 
 extent. He adds, that in the time of Kubla'i the extent was sixty li, 
 or twenty-two miles and a half, which does not differ materially from 
 the measurement in the text. It appears, therefore, that when Yong-lo 
 rebuilt the walls of the ruined city, he contracted its limits, as it was 
 natural for him to do. 
 
 1 When it is said that the walls of the capital were of earth (di terra), 
 I am inclined to think that terra cotta or bricks should be understood ; 
 as they were in general use amongst the Chinese from the earliest ages, 
 and employed in the construction of the great wall. It may be proper 
 to observe, that the distinguishing appellations of Tartar and Chinese 
 cities did not take place under the Yuen or Mungal dynasty, nor until 
 the subjugation of the empire by the Tsing or present race of Manchu 
 Tartars, who succeeded to the Ming or Chinese dynasty, and drove the 
 native inhabitants from what is commonly termed the new or northern 
 city into the old or southern, to make room for their Tartar followers. 
 
 2 These battlements or merli must have been of solid materials 
 (whether of white bricks or stone) ; which seems to be inconsistent with 
 the supposition of a mud or turf rampart, unless there was at least 
 a revdtement of masonry. " The parapet," says Staunton, " was deeply 
 crenated, but had no regular embrazures." Vol. ii. p. 116. 
 
 3 The straightness of the streets of Peking is apparent from De 
 Lisle's plan, and corroborated by the accounts of all who have visited 
 that city. 
 
 " In front of most of the houses in this main street," says Staunton, 
 " were shops painted, gilt, and decorated like those of Tong-choo-foo, 
 but in a grander style. Over some of them were broad terraces 
 
 covered with shrubs and flowers Outside the shops, as well as 
 
 within them, was displayed a variety of goods for sale." Vol. ii. 
 p. 118.
 
 184 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 say, such a person of such a tribe had one square allotted to 
 him, and so of the rest. Afterwards the property passed 
 from hand to hand. In this manner the whole interior of 
 the city is disposed in squares, so as to resemble a chess- 
 board, and planned out with a degree of precision and beauty 
 impossible to describe. The wall of the city has twelve gates, 
 three on each side of the square, and over each gate and 
 compartment of the wall there is a handsome building; so 
 that on each side of the square there are five such buildings, 
 containing large rooms, in which are disposed the arms of 
 those who form the garrison of the city, 1 every gate being 
 guarded by a thousand men. 2 It is not to be understood 
 that such a force is stationed there in consequence of the 
 apprehension of danger from any hostile power whatever, but 
 as a guard suitable to the honour and dignity of the sove- 
 reign. Yet it must be allowed that the declaration of the 
 astrologers has excited in his mind a degree of suspicion with 
 regard to the Cathaians. In the centre of the city there is 
 a great bell suspended in a lofty building, which is sounded 
 every night, and after the third stroke no person dares to be 
 found in the streets, 3 unless upon some urgent occasion, such 
 as to call assistance to a woman in labour, or a man attacked 
 with sickness; and even in such necessary cases the person is 
 required to carry a light. 4 
 
 1 The practice of erecting places of arms over the gates subsists at 
 the present day. 
 
 2 This would seem to be the number that usually constitutes the 
 guard of important gates in that country. " Having travelled about 
 six or eight miles," says John Bell, " we arrived at the famous wall of 
 China. We entered at a great gate, which is shut every night, and 
 always guarded by a thousand men." Tom. i. p. 336. 
 
 3 " II y a dans chaque ville," says Du Halde, " de grosses cloches, ou 
 un tambour d'une grandeur extraordinaire, qui servent a marquer les 
 veilles de la nuit. Chaque veille est de deux heures : la premiere com- 
 mence vers les huit heures du soir. Pendant les deux heures que dure 
 cette premiere veille, on frappe de terns en terns un coup, ou sur la 
 cloche, ou sur le tambour. Quand elle est finie, et que la seconde veille 
 commence, on frappe deux coups tant qu'elle dure : on en frappe troia 
 a la troisieme, et ainsi de toutes les autres." (Tom. ii. p. 50.) To this third 
 or midnight watch it is that our author alludes, when a treble stroke 
 is given. Staunton also speaks of " the great fabric, of considerable 
 height, which includes a bell of prodigious size and cylindric form, 
 that, struck on the outside with a wooden mallet, emits a sound dis- 
 tinctly heard throughout the capital." Tom. ii. p. 122. 
 
 4 " Les petites rues qui aboutissent aux grandes, ont des portes faitea
 
 SUBURBS OF TAI-DU. 185 
 
 Withoutside of each of the gates is a suburb so wide thnt 
 it reaches to and unites with those of the other nearest gatea 
 on both sides, and in length extends to the distance of three 
 or four miles, so that the number of inhabitants in these sub- 
 urbs exceeds that of the city itself. Within each suburb there 
 are, at intervals, as far perhaps as a mile from the city, many 
 hotels, or caravanserais, in which the merchants arriving from 
 various parts take up their abode; 1 and to each description 
 of people a separate building is assigned, as we should say, 
 one to the Lombards, another to the Germans, and a third to 
 the French. The number of public women who prostitute 
 themselves for money, reckoning those in the new city as well 
 as those in the suburbs of the old, is twenty-five thousand. 2 
 To each hundred and to each thousand of these there are 
 superintending officers appointed, who are under the orders 
 
 de treillis de bois, qui n'empechent pas de voir ceux qui y marcheut. 
 .... Les portes a treillis sont ferme'es la nuit par le corps de garde, 
 et il ne la fait ouvrir que rarement, a gens connus, qui ont une lanterne 
 a la main, et qui sortent pour une bonne raison, comme seroit celle 
 d'appeller un me'decin." Du Halde, torn. i. p. 115. 
 
 1 These establishments for the accommodation of persons arriving 
 from distant countries are incidentally noticed by Trigault (Histoire 
 du Royaume de la Chine), who speaks of " le palais des estrangers " at 
 Peking. It would seem, however, that they are now situated within 
 the walls of the Chinese town, rather than in the suburbs. 
 
 2 It is evident that there is here a mistake in Ramusio's text, as not 
 only all the modern aiithorities agree in the fact of the public women 
 being excluded from the city and confined to the suburbs, but it is 
 expressly so stated in the other versions of our author. This regu- 
 lation of police appears to have been equally enforced under later 
 dynasties. " II y a," says Du Halde, " des femmes publiques et pros- 
 tituees a la Chine comme ailleurs, mais comme ces sortes de personnes 
 sont ordinairement la cause de quelques desordres, il ne leur est paa 
 permis de demeurer dans I'enceinte des villes : leur logement doit etre 
 hors des murs; encore ne peuvent-elles pas avoir des maisons par- 
 ticulieres; elles logent plusieurs ensemble et souvent sous la conduite 
 d'un homme, qui est responsable du de'sordre, s'il en arrivoit ; au reste 
 ces femmes libertines ne sont que tolerees. et on les regarde comme 
 infames-." (Tom. il p. 51.) Respecting their numbers, \inder the reign 
 of Kang-hi, the missionaries do not furnish us with any information. 
 [In the early Latin text of Marco Polo, printed by the Paris Geogra- 
 phical Society, we here read : " Et istae mulieres quse fallunt pro pecunia 
 sunt bene viginti millia ; et omnes habent satisfacere, propter multam 
 gentem quae illuc concurrit de mercatoribus et aliis forensibus. Et sic 
 potestis videre si in ista civitate est maxima gens, si malse mulieres 
 Bunt tot."]
 
 186 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 of a captain-general. The motive for placing them under 
 such command is this : when ambassadors arrive charged with 
 any business in which the interests of the grand khan are 
 concerned, it is customary to maintain them at his majesty's 
 expense, and in order that they may be treated in the most 
 honourable manner, the captain is ordered to furnish nightly 
 to each individual of the embassy one of these courtezans, 
 who is likewise to be changed every night, for which service, 
 as it is considered in the light of a tribute they owe to the 
 sovereign, they do not receive any remuneration. Guards, 
 in parties of thirty or forty, continually patrol the streets 
 during the course of the night, and make diligent search for 
 persons who may be from their homes at an unseasonable 
 hour, that is, after the third stroke of the great bell. When 
 any are met with under such circumstances, they immediately 
 apprehend and confine them, and take them in the morning 
 for examination before officers appointed for that purpose, 1 
 who, upon the proof of any delinquency, sentence them, 
 according to the nature of the offence, to a severer or lighter 
 infliction of the bastinade, which sometimes, however, occa- 
 sions their death. It is in this manner that crimes are 
 usually punished amongst Ijhese people, from a disinclination 
 to the shedding of blood, which their baksis or learned astro- 
 logers instruct them to avoid. 2 Having thus described the 
 interior of the city of Tai-du, we shall now speak of the 
 disposition to rebellion shown by its Cathaian inhabitants. 
 
 1 " Ils ne pennettent a personne de marcher la nuit, et ils interrogent 
 me'me ceux que 1'empereur auroit envoy6 pour quelques affaires. Si 
 leur reponse donne lieu au moindre soup?on, on les met en arret au 
 
 corps de garde C'est par ce bel ordre, qui s'observe avec la 
 
 derniere exactitude, que la paix, le silence, et la suret^ regnent dans 
 toute la ville." Du Halde, torn. i. p. 115. 
 
 2 It has been already observed, that the priests of Buddha, who in 
 Tibet are called lamas, are by the Arabians and Persians named bakshi; 
 and it is well known, that to abstain from shedding of blood, and par- 
 ticularly from bloody sacrifices, is the characteristic precept of that 
 sect, in which, say the Brahmans, his disciples make virtue and religion 
 to consist.
 
 TREASONS OF ACHMAC. 187 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 OF THE TREASONABLE PRACTICES EMPLOYED TO CAUSE THE CITY OF 
 KANBALU TO REBEL, AND OF THE APPREHENSION AND PUNISHMENT 
 OF THOSE CONCERNED. 
 
 PARTICCLAB mention will hereafter be made of the establish- 
 ment of a council of twelve persons, who had the power of 
 disposing, at their pleasure, of the lands, the governments, 
 and everything belonging to the state. Amongst these was 
 a Saracen, named Achmac, 1 a crafty and bold man, whose 
 influence with the grand khan surpassed that of the other 
 members. To such a degree was his master infatuated with him 
 that he indulged him in every liberty. It was discovered, in- 
 deed, after his death, that he had by means of spells so fascinated 
 his majesty as to oblige him to give ear and credit to whatever 
 he represented, and by these means was enabled to act in all 
 matters according to his own arbitrary will. He gave away all 
 the governments and public offices, pronounced judgment upon 
 all offenders, and when he was disposed to sacrifice any man 
 to whom he bore ill-will, he had only to go to the emperor 
 and say to him, " Such a person has committed an offence 
 against your majesty, and is deserving of death," when the 
 emperor was accustomed to reply, ''Do as you judge best;" 
 upon which he caused him to be immediately executed. So 
 evident were the proofs of the authority he possessed, and of 
 his majesty's implicit faith in his representations, that none 
 had the hardiness to contradict him in any matter; nor was 
 there a person, however high in rank or office, who did not 
 stand in awe of him. If any one was accused by him of 
 capital crime, however anxious he might be to exculpate him- 
 self, he had not the means of refuting the charge, because 
 he could not procure an advocate, none daring to oppose the 
 will of Achmac. By these means he occasioned many to die 
 unjustly. Besides this, there was no handsome female who 
 became an object of his sensuality that he did not contrive 
 to possess, taking her as a wife if she was unmarried, or 
 otherwise compelling her to yield to his desires. When he 
 
 1 The name of this powerful and corrupt Arabian minister, whom 
 the Chinese call Ahama, was doubtless Ahmed, the Achmet of our 
 Turkish historians.
 
 188 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 obtained information of any man having a beautiful daughter 
 he despatched his emissaries to the father of the girl, with 
 instructions to say to him: "What are your views with 
 regard to this handsome daughter of yours 1 You cannot do 
 better than give her in marriage to the Lord Deputy or 
 Vicegerent " l (that is, to Achmac, for so they termed him, as 
 implying that he was his majesty's representative). "We shall 
 prevail upon him to appoint you to such a government or to 
 such an office for three years." Thus tempted, he is prevailed 
 upon to part with his child; and the matter being so far 
 arranged, Achmac repairs to the emperor and informs his 
 majesty that a certain government is vacant, or that the 
 period for which it is held will expire on such a day, and 
 recommends the father as a person well qualified to perform 
 the duties. To this his majesty gives his consent, and the 
 appointment is immediately carried into effect. By such 
 means as these, either from the ambition of holding high 
 offices or the apprehension of his power, he obtained the 
 sacrifice of all the most beautiful young women, either under 
 the denomination of wives, or as the slaves of his pleasure. 
 He had sons to the number of twenty-five, who held the 
 highest offices of the state, and some of them, availing them- 
 selves of the authority of their father, formed adulterous 
 connexions, and committed many other unlawful and atro- 
 cious acts. Achmac had likewise accumulated great wealth, 
 for every person who obtained an appointment found it 
 necessary to make him a considerable present. 
 
 During a period of twenty-two years he exercised this 
 uncontrolled sway. 2 At length the natives of the country, 
 that is, the Cathaians, no longer able to endure his multiplied 
 
 1 The term employed by Ramusio is Bailo, -which particularly be- 
 longed to the person who represented, at Constantinople, the republic 
 of Venice; not as ambassador (when the appointment first took place), 
 but as joint sovereign with the Latin emperor. It is not easy to find 
 an equivalent term in our language; nor does the Chinese title of Colao 
 convey the idea intended to be given, of his inordinate power. The 
 Arabs indeed might have styled him Khalifah, which signifies a substi- 
 tute, deputy, or vicegerent. 
 
 2 His death took place in 1281, and his functions of Minister of 
 Finance are first noticed by De Guignes (Histoire des Mogols de la 
 Chine) in 1262; which includes a space of nineteen years : but he might 
 have been in office some time before his extortions gave notoriety to 
 his name.
 
 CONSPIRACY AGAINST ACHMAC. 189 
 
 acts of injustice or the flagrant wickedness committed against 
 their families, held meetings in order to devise means of 
 putting him to death and raising a rebellion against the 
 government. Amongst the persons principally concerned in 
 this plot was a Cathaiau, named Chen-ku, a chief of six 
 thousand men, who, burning with resentment on account 
 of the violation of his mother, his wife, and his daughter, 
 proposed the measure to one of his countrymen, named 
 Van-ku, who was at the head of ten thousand men, 1 and 
 recommended its being carried into execution at the time 
 when the grand khan, having completed his three months' 
 residence in Kanbalu, had departed for his palace of Shan-du, 2 
 and when his son Chingis also had retired to the place he 
 was accustomed to visit at that season ; because the charge of 
 the city was then entrusted to Achmac, who communicated 
 to his master whatever matters occurred during his absence, 
 and received in return the signification of his pleasure. 
 Van-ku and Chen-ku, having held this consultation together, 
 imparted their designs to some of the leading persons of the 
 Cathaians, and through them to their friends in many other 
 cities. It was accordingly determined amongst them that, 
 on a certain day, immediately upon their perceiving the 
 signal of a fire, they should rise and put to death all those 
 who wore beards; and should extend the signal to other 
 places, in order that the same might be carried into effect 
 throughout the country. The meaning of the distinction 
 with regard to beards was this ; that whereas the Cathaians 
 themselves are naturally beardless, the Tartars, the Saracens, 
 and the Christians wear beards. 3 It should be understood that 
 the grand khan not having obtained the sovereignty of Cathay 
 
 1 I apprehend that these were not military commands, but that the 
 civil jurisdiction of tho country was established on a footing analogous 
 to that of the army. At the present day every tenth Chinese inhabitant 
 is responsible for the conduct (so far as the public peace is concerned) 
 of nine of his neighbours. Such was also the principle of our English 
 tithiugs and hundreds. These conspirators were evidently citizens, 
 not soldiers. 
 
 2 It will appear that, according to the Chinese authorities, this 
 opportunity of the emperor's periodical absence was actually seized by 
 the conspirators. 
 
 3 It is not in strictness a fact that the Chinese are naturally beard- 
 less ; but, like the Malays, their beards are slight, and the growth of 
 them is discouraged, excepting in particular cases.
 
 190 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 by any legal right, but only by force of arms, had no con- 
 fidence in the inhabitants, and therefore bestowed all the 
 provincial governments and magistracies upon Tartars, Sara- 
 cens, Christians, and other foreigners, who belonged to his 
 household, and in whom he could trust. In consequence of 
 this, his government was universally hated by the natives, 
 who found themselves treated as slaves by these Tartars, and 
 still worse by the Saracens. 1 
 
 Their plans being thus arranged, Van-ku and Chen-ku 
 contrived to enter the palace at night, where the former, 
 taking his place on one of the royal seats, caused the apart- 
 ment to be lighted up, and sent a messenger to Achmac, who 
 resided in the old city, requiring his immediate attendance 
 upon Chkigis, the emperor's son, who (he should say) had 
 unexpectedly arrived that night. Achmac was much asto- 
 nished at the intelligence, but, being greatly in awe of the 
 prince, instantly obeyed. 2 Upon passing the gate of the 
 (new) city, he met a Tartar officer named Kogatai, the com- 
 mandant of the guard of twelve thousand men, who asked him 
 whither he was going at that late hour. He replied that he 
 was proceeding to wait upon Chingis, of whose arrival he had 
 just heard. "How is it possible," said the officer, "that he can 
 have arrived in so secret a manner, that I should not have 
 been aware of his approach in time to order a party of his 
 guards to attend him 1 ?" 3 In the meanwhile the two Cathaians 
 felt assured that if they could but succeed in dispatching 
 Achmac they had nothing further to apprehend. Upon 
 
 1 "Les historians Chinois," says P. Gaubil, "exag&rent les defautsde 
 Houpilie (Kubla'i), et ne pax-lent gueres de ses vertus. Us lui reprochent 
 beaucoup d'entetement pour les superstitions et les enchantemens des 
 lamas, et ils se plaignen-t qu'il a donne" trop d'autorite aux gens 
 d'Occident." Observ. Chronol. p. 201. 
 
 2 The jealousy with which this prince regarded the conduct of the 
 minister is repeatedly noticed. 
 
 3 It must have been at the southern gate that the minister, on his 
 way from the old city, was challenged by the officer commanding the 
 guard, whilst the prince, had he arrived as wae pretended, would have 
 entered by the northern or the western gates, being those which opened 
 towards the country palaces. The words of the latter must therefore 
 be understood as expressive only of surprise that he should not have 
 had an immediate report from the proper officer, and not as implying 
 a direct contradiction of the fact. From the sequel it appears that 
 this officer as well as Ahama proceeded on the supposition of the prince 
 being actually in the palace.
 
 SLAUGHTER OP AGHMAC. 191 
 
 Ms entering the palace and seeing so many lights burning, he 
 made his prostrations before Yan-ku, supposing him to be 
 the prince, when Chen-ku, who stood there provided with 
 a sword, severed his head from his body. Kogatai had 
 stopped at the door, but upon observing what had taken 
 place, exclaimed that there was treason going forward, and 
 instantly let fly an arrow at Van-ku as he sat upon the 
 throne, which slew him. He then called to his men, who 
 seized Chen ku, and despatched an order into the city, that 
 every person found out of doors should be put to death. The 
 Cathaians perceiving, however, that the Tartars had discovered 
 the conspiracy, and being deprived of their leaders, one of 
 whom was killed and the other a prisoner, kept within their 
 houses, and were unable to make the signals to the other 
 towns, as had been concerted. Kogatai immediately sent 
 messengers to the grand khan, with a circumstantial relation 
 of all that had passed, who, in return, directed him to make 
 a diligent investigation of the treason, and to punish, accord- 
 ing to the degree of their guilt, those whom he should find 
 to have been concerned. On the following day, Kogatai 
 examined all the Cathaians. and upon such as were principals 
 in the conspiracy he inflicted capital punishment. The same 
 was done with respect to the other cities that were known to 
 have participated in the guilt. 
 
 When the grand khan returned to Kanbalu, he was desirous 
 of knowing the causes of what had happened, and then learned 
 that the infamous Achmac and seven of his sons (for all were 
 not equally culpable) had committed those enormities which 
 have been described. He gave orders for removing the 
 treasure which had been accumulated by the deceased to an 
 incredible amount, from the place of his residence in the old 
 city to the new. where it was deposited in his own treasury. 
 He likewise directed that his body should be taken from the 
 tomb, and thrown into the street to be torn in pieces by the 
 dogs. 1 The sons who had followed the steps of their father 
 
 1 " Kublai n'ouvrit lea yeux snr la conduite d'Ahama qu'apri>a 
 cution; il fit deterrer, mettre en pieces le corps du ministre Ahairia, et 
 livra toua sea biens au pillage." (P. 174.) The manner in which our 
 author states the wealth to have been disposed of, is more consistent 
 both with the particular character of Kublai and with the general 
 practice of the country than the giving it up to plunder
 
 192 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 in his iniquities he caused to be flayed alive. Reflecting also 
 upon the principles of the accursed sect of the Saracens, 
 which indulge them in the commission of every crime, and 
 allow them to murder those who differ from them on points 
 of faith, so that even the nefarious Achmac and his sons 
 might have supposed themselves guiltless, he held them in 
 contempt and abomination. Summoning, therefore, these 
 people to his presence, he forbade them to continue many 
 practices enjoined to them by their law, 1 commanding that in 
 future their marriages should be regulated by the custom of 
 the Tartars, and that instead of the mode of killing animals 
 for food, by cutting their throats, they should be obliged to 
 open the belly. At the time that these events took place 
 Marco Polo was on the spot. We shall now proceed to what 
 relates to the establishment of the court kept by the grand 
 khan. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 OP THE PERSONAL GUARD OP THE GRAND KHAN. 
 
 THE body-guard of the grand khan consists, as is well known 
 to every one, of twelve thousand horsemen, who are termed 
 kasitan, which signifies "soldiers devoted to their master." 2 
 It is not, however, from any apprehensions entertained by 
 him that he is surrounded by this guard, but as matter of 
 state. These twelve thousand men are commanded by four 
 superior officers, each of whom is at the head of three thou- 
 sand; and each three thousand does constant duty in the 
 palace during three successive days and nights, at the expira- 
 tion of which they are relieved by another division. When 
 all the four have completed their period of duty, it comes 
 
 again to the turn of the first. During the day-time, the nine 
 
 t 
 
 1 Interdicts of this nature, regarding only foreigners, the Chinese 
 annals were not likely to notice, and we have no other authority than 
 that of our author for this humiliation of the Mahometans. Many of 
 them were subsequently employed in tb.3 higher ranks of the army. 
 
 2 I cannot trace this word (probably much corrupted) in any Mungal 
 vocabulary, and dare not trust myself in the dubious paths of Chinese 
 etymology, where the sound only ia to be the guide. [In the early Latin 
 tort it is quiesitani.]
 
 THE COURT OF THE GRAXD KHAN. 193 
 
 thousand who are off guard do not, however, quit the palace, 
 unless when employed upon the service of his majesty, or 
 when the individuals are called away for their domestic con- 
 cerns, in which case they must obtain leave of absence through 
 their commanding officer ; and if, in consequence of any 
 serious occurrence, such as that of a father, a brother, or any 
 near relation being at the point of death, their immediate 
 return should be prevented, they must apply to his majesty 
 for an extension of their leave. But in the night time these 
 nine thousand retire to their quarters. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 OF THE STYLE IN WHICH THE GRAND KHAN HOLDS HIS PUBLIC COURTS, 
 
 AND SITS AT TABLE WITH ALL HIS NOBLES OF THE MANNER IN WHICH 
 
 THE DRINKING VESSELS OF GOLD AND SILVER, FILLED WITH THE 
 SItLK OF MARES AND CAMELS, ARE DISPOSED IN THE HALL AND OF 
 THE CEREMONY THAT TAKES PLACE WHEN HE DRINKS. 
 
 WHEN his majesty holds a grand and public court, those who 
 attend it are seated in the following order. The table of the 
 sovereign is placed before his elevated throne, and he takes 
 his seat on the northern side, with his face turned towards 
 the south ; and next to him, on his left hand, sits the empress. 
 On his right hand, upon seats somewhat lower, are placed his 
 sons, grandsons, and other persons connected with him by 
 blood, that is to say, who are descended from the imperial 
 stock. The seat, however, of Chingis, his eldest son, is raised 
 a little above those of his other sons, whose heads are nearly 
 on a level with the feet of the grand khan. The other princes 
 and the nobility have their places at still lower tables; and 
 the same rules are observed with respect to the females, tM 
 wives of the sons, grandsons, and other relatives of the grand 
 khan being seated on the left hand, at tables in like manner 
 gradually lower ; 1 then follow the wives of the nobility and 
 
 1 At the modern Chinese festivals no women, of any class whatever, 
 make their appearance; but during the reign of Kublai, tbe Tartar 
 customs were blended with the Chinese at the imperial court ; and 
 according to those, the females were regarded as efficient members of 
 society. Even at the present day the Tartar women (who are dis- 
 
 O
 
 194 TRAVELS OP MAROO POLO. 
 
 military officers : so that all are seated according to their 
 respective ranks and dignities, in the places assigned to them, 
 and to which they are entitled. The tables are arranged in 
 such a manner that the grand khan, sitting on his elevated 
 throne, can overlook the whole. It is not, however, to be 
 understood that all who assemble on such occasions can be 
 accommodated at tables. The greater part of the officers, 
 and even of the nobles, on the contrary, eat, sitting upon 
 carpets, in the hall; and on the outside stand a great multi- 
 tude of persons who come from different countries, and bring 
 with them many rare and curious articles. Some of these 
 are feudatories, who desire to be reinstated in possessions that 
 have been taken from them, and who always make their 
 appearance upon the appointed days of public festivity, or 
 occasions of royal marriages. 1 
 
 In the middle of the hall, where the grand khan sits at table, 
 there is a magnificent piece of furniture, made in the form of 
 a square coffer, each side of which is three paces iu length, 
 exquisitely carved in figures of animals, and gilt. It is 
 hollow within, for the purpose of receiving a capacious vase, 
 shaped like a jar, and of precious materials, calculated to 
 hold about a tun, and filled with wine. 2 On each of its four 
 
 tinguished as such, although descended of families who have been 
 settled in China for many generations) enjoy a degree of liberty to 
 which the Chinese women are strangers. Under the dynasty which 
 succeeded that of the Yuen or Mungals, the females of rank were spec- 
 tators of the festival, although themselves unseen. 
 
 1 It seems to have always been the policy of the Chinese court to 
 defer the reception of ambassadors and their presents, until the 
 occasion of some public festival; by which the double purpose is 
 answered, of giving additional splendour to the business of the day, 
 and at the same time of impressing the strangers with the magnificence 
 of the ceremony attending the delivery of their credentials. It may 
 likewise be observed in the accounts of all European embassies, that 
 their presentations are accompanied by those of the envoys or deputies 
 of the neighbouring or dependent states. 
 
 2 Although the juice of the grape is expressed in some parts of China, 
 what is usually termed Chinese wine is a fermented liquor from grain. 
 " This conversation being finished," says John Bell, "the emperor gave 
 the ambassador, with his own hand, a gold cup, full of warm tarasxun 
 (written dirasoun in the journal of Shah Rokh's embassy), a sweet, fer- 
 mented liquor, made of various sorts of grain, as pure and strong as 
 canary wine, of a disagreeable smell, although noi unpleasant to the 
 taste." (Vol. ii. p. 8.) "During the repast," says Staunton, "he sent 
 them (the English) several dishes from his own table; and, when it was
 
 MAVXER Of FEASTING AT COURT. 195 
 
 sides stands a smaller vessel, containing about a hogshead, 
 one of which is filled with mare's milk, another with that of 
 the camel, and so of the others, according to the kinds of 
 beverage in use. 1 Within this buffet are also the cups or 
 flagons belonging to his majesty, for serving the liquors. 
 Some of them are of beautiful gilt plate. 2 Their size is such 
 that, when filled with wine or other liquor, the quantity 
 would be sufficient for eight or ten men. Before every two 
 persons who have seats at the tables, one of these flagons is 
 placed, 3 together with a kind of ladle, in the form of a cup 
 with a handle, also of plate; to be used not only for taking 
 the wine out of the flagon, but for lifting it to the head. 
 This is observed as well with respect to the women as the 
 men. The quantity and richness of the plate belonging to 
 his majesty is quite incredible.* Officers of rank are likewise 
 
 over, he sent for them, and presented with his own hands to them a 
 goblet of warm Chinese wine, not unlike Madeira of an inferior quality." 
 (YoL iL p. 237.) Pallas says that the tarassun may be compared to a 
 mixture of brandy with English beer. (Reise, dritter Theil, p. 131.) 
 " Ds ne laissent pas de boire souvent du Yin," says Du Halde: "ils le 
 font d'une espece particuliere de ris, different de celui dont ils se nour- 
 rissent." Tom. iL p. 118. 
 
 1 That milk is the favourite beverage of the Tartars is well known ; 
 and as the court and the army were, at the period in question, almost ex- 
 clusively of that nation, we must not be surprised to find it introduced 
 at a festival in the capital of China. With respect to the probability of 
 camels' milk being found there, Staunton notices the employment of 
 camels or dromedaries hi great numbers, for the conveyance of goods, 
 in the parts of Tartary bordering on the northern provinces of that 
 country, and Du Halde enumerates " lea chameaux a deux bosses" 
 amongst the Chinese animals- 
 
 s Ramusio's expression is, " Sonvi alcuni d'oro bellissimi, che si chia- 
 mano vernique," and he again uses vtmiqua as the name of the vessel. 
 I suspect, however, some confusion. Vernicato d'oro (from wntee, var- 
 nish.) signifies gilt or washed with gold, and remiqua seems to be con- 
 nected with this meaning. Besides, it is obvious that vessels capable 
 of containing liquor for eight or ten persons, would, if formed of massive 
 gold, be much too ponderous for use. 
 
 * The tables at Chinese feasts are small, and generally calculated for 
 two persons only. 
 
 4 After plundering a great part of the world, it is not surprising that 
 the family of Jengiz-khan should be possessed of a quantity of the 
 precious metals enormously large in proportion to what circulated in 
 Europe or Asia before the discovery of the Mexican and Peruvian 
 mines. Frequent mention is made of golden cups or goblets, and Bell 
 speaks of large dishes of massive gold sent by the emperor to their 
 lodgings. 
 
 o 2
 
 196 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 appointed, whose duty it is to see that all strangers who happen 
 to arrive at the time of the festival, and are unacquainted 
 with the etiquette of the court, are suitably accommodated 
 with places ; and these stewards are continually visiting every 
 part of the hall, inquiring of the guests if there is anything 
 with which they are unprovided, or whether any of them wish 
 for wine, milk, meat, or other articles, in which case it is 
 immediately brought to them by the attendants. 1 
 
 At each door of the grand hall, or of whatever part the 
 grand khan happens to be in, stand two officers, of a gigantic 
 figure, one on each side, with staves in their hands, for the 
 purpose of preventing persons from touching the threshold 
 with their feet, and obliging them to step beyond it. If by 
 chance any one is guilty of this offence, these janitors take 
 from him his garment, which he must redeem for money ; or, 
 when they do not take the garment, they inflict on him such 
 number of blows as they have authority for doing. But, as 
 strangers may be unacquainted with the prohibition, officers 
 are appointed to introduce them, by whom they are warned 
 of it; and this precaution is used because touching the 
 threshold is there regarded as a bad omen. 2 In departing 
 from the hall, as some of the company may be affected by 
 the liquor, it is impossible to guard against the accident, 
 and the order is not then strictly enforced. 3 The numerous 
 persons who attend at the sideboard of his majesty, and who 
 serve him with victuals and drink, are all obliged to cover 
 their noses and mouths with handsome veils or cloths of 
 worked silk, in order that his victuals or his wine may not 
 be affected by their breath. When drink is called for by 
 him, and the page in waiting has presented it, he retires 
 three paces and kneels down, upon which the courtiers, 
 
 1 For the degree of civilization which these attentions imply, we 
 should give credit to the long-established usages of the conquered people, 
 rather than to any regulations introduced by the family then on the 
 throne. All our travellers concur in their description of the order and 
 propriety observed at these entertainments, where a silence reigns 
 approaching to solemnity. 
 
 2 This superstition is noticed both by Plan de Carpin and Rubruquis 
 as existing amongst the Tartars. 
 
 3 This is one of the innumerable instances of naivete or honest sim- 
 plicity in our author's relations and remarks. Inebriety was the favourite 
 vice of the Tartars, and at this period it had been but partially cor- 
 rected by the more sober example of the Chinese.
 
 FESTIVE PERFORMANCES. 197 
 
 and all who are present, in like manner make their prostra- 
 tion. At the same moment all the musical instruments, of 
 which there is a numerous band, begin to play, and continue 
 to do so until he has ceased drinking, when all the company 
 recover their posture ; and this reverential salutation is made 
 so often as his majesty drinks. 1 It is unnecessary to say 
 anything of the victuals, because it may well be imagined 
 that their abundance is excessive. When the repast is finished, 
 and the tables have been removed, persons of various descrip- 
 tions enter the hall, and amongst these a troop of comedians 
 and performers on different instruments, as also tumblers 
 and jugglers, who exhibit their skill in the presence of the 
 grand khan, to the high amusement and gratification of all 
 the spectators. 2 When these sports are concluded, the people 
 separate, and each returns to his own house. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 OK THE FESTIVAL THAT IS KEPT THROUGHOUT THE DOMINIONS OP THE 
 GRAND KHAN ON THE TWENTY-EIGHTH OP SEPTEMBER, BEING THB 
 ANNIVERSARY OF HIS NATIVITY. 
 
 ALL the Tartar and other subjects of the grand khan cele- 
 brate as a festival the day of his majesty's birth, which took 
 place on the twenty-eighth day of the mouth of September ; 3 
 and this is their greatest festival, excepting only that kept on 
 the first day of the year, which shall be hereafter described. 
 
 1 Music invariably accompanies these festivities. " The music," 
 Bays John Bell, " played all the time of dinner. The chief instruments 
 were flutes, harps, and lutes, all tuned to the Chinese taste." VoL 
 ii. p. 12. 
 
 2 These histrionic, athletic, and juggling exhibitions, which at all 
 periods have very much resembled each other, will be found circum- 
 stantially described in the accounts of the several embassies to Pekin, 
 from that of Shah Rokh, in the beginning of the fifteenth century, to 
 those of the English and Dutch, in the latter part of the eighteenth. 
 
 3 According to the " Histoire ge"ne"rale de la Chine" (p. 282), Kublai 
 or Hupila'i (as the Chinese pronounce the name), was born in the 
 eighth moon of the year corresponding to 1216; which, as will be 
 seen in a subsequent note respecting the commencement of the Kataian 
 year, answers satisfactorily to the month of September, as stated by 
 our author.
 
 198 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 Upon this anniversary the grand khan appears in a superb 
 dress of cloth of gold, and on the same occasion full twenty 
 thousand nobles and military officers are clad by him in 
 dresses similar to his own in point of colour and form ; but 
 the materials are not equally rich. They are, however, of 
 silk, and of the colour of gold; 1 and along with the vest they 
 likewise receive a girdle of chamois leather, curiously worked 
 with gold and silver thread, and also a pair of boots. 2 Some 
 of the dresses are ornamented with precious stones and pearls 
 to the value of a thousand bezants of gold, and ai - e given to 
 those nobles who, from their confidential employments, are 
 nearest to his majesty's person, and are termed quiecitari? 
 These dresses are appointed to be worn on the thirteen solemn 
 festivals celebrated in the thirteen (lunar) months of the year, 4 
 when those who are clad in them make an appearance that is 
 truly royal. When his majesty assumes any particular dress, 
 the nobles of his court wear corresponding, but less costly, 
 dresses, which [are always in readiness. 5 They are not annu- 
 ally renewed, but on the contrary are made to last about ten 
 
 1 Although yellow has long been the imperial colour in China, it is 
 said not to have been such at all periods, some of the early dynasties 
 having affected red and other colours. It may be conjectured that the 
 attachment to it has proceeded from its being worn by the predominant 
 sect of lamas in Tibet, to whose superstitions the emperors of China 
 have been zealously addicted; although, on the other hand, it is possible 
 that this sect of lamas may have adopted the imperial colour. To 
 Kubla'i, indeed, the establishment of the lama hierarchy, on its present 
 footing, is by some attributed, and the first Dalai lama is said to have 
 been nominated by him. Others, however, suppose that the titles of 
 Dalai lama and Panchan lama were not conferred before the reign of 
 Hiuen-te, fifth emperor of the Ming. Both dynasties appear to have 
 been assiduous in their encouragement of these ecclesiastics, through 
 whose influence they were enabled to govern the western provinces 
 with more facility. 
 
 2 " People of condition," says the Abbe" Grosier, " never go abroad 
 but in boots, which are generally of satin." This article of dress is 
 again mentioned in chap. xxvi. 
 
 3 This word appears to be bastard Italian, a noun of agency formed 
 from the verb " quiescere," and may be thought to denote those per- 
 sons who, throughout the East, are employed, in various modes, to lull 
 great personages to rest. 
 
 4 "Le calendrier ordinaire," observes the younger De Guignes, 
 " divise ranne"e par mois lunaires." Voy. a Peking, torn. ii. p. 418. 
 
 5 This uniformity of court-dress is not the practice in modern times ; 
 on the contrary, the imperial colour is confined to the family of the 
 sovereign.
 
 THE WHITE FEAST. 199 
 
 years. From this parade an idea may be formed of the mag- 
 nificence of the grand khan, which is unequalled by that of 
 any monarch in the world. 
 
 On the occasion of this festival of the grand khan's nativity, 
 all his Tartar subjects, and likewise the people of every king- 
 dom and province throughout his dominions, send him valuable 
 presents, according to established usage. Many persons who 
 repair to court in order to solicit principalities to which they 
 have pretensions, also bring presents, and his majesty accord- 
 ingly gives direction to the tribunal of twelve, who have 
 cognisance of such matters, to assign to them such territories 
 and governments as may be proper. 1 Upon this day likewise 
 all the Christians, idolaters, and Saracens, together with every 
 other description of people, offer up devout prayers to their 
 respective gods and idols, that they may bless and preserve 
 the sovereign, and bestow upon him long life, health, and 
 prosperity. Such, and so extensive, are the rejoicings on the 
 return of his majesty's birth-day. We shall now speak of 
 another festival, termed the White Feast, celebrated at the 
 commencement of the year. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 OF THE WHITE FEAST, HELD ON THE FIRST DAT OF THE MONTH OF 
 FEBRUARY, BEING THE COMMENCEMENT OF THEIR YEAR OF THE 
 
 NUMBER OF PRESENTS THEN BROUGHT AND OF THE CEREMONIES 
 
 THAT TAKE PLACE AT A TABLE WHEREON IS INSCRIBED THE NAME 
 OF THE GRAND KHAN. 
 
 IT is well ascertained that the Tartars date the commence- 
 ment of their year from the month of February, 2 and on that 
 
 1 It may be inferred from hence that all the feudal principalities, 
 governments, and public offices, were bestowed upon those who brought 
 the richest presents, or, in other words, were sold to the highest bid- 
 ders. The boundless expenditure of this monarch, on the one hand, 
 and the avaricious propensity with which he is reproached, appear to 
 have produced a system of general rapacity. It is probable, however, 
 that the avarice may have been only inferred from the extortion. 
 
 2 In this assertion our author presents a most unexceptionable test 
 of his authenticity. It must be observed that, in stating the com- 
 mencement of the year to be reckoned from the month of February 
 (fhl mese di Febraio), he does not fix it to any precise day of our calen- 
 dar ; which, in fact, he could not have done with correctness ; and
 
 20C TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 occasion it is customary for the grand khan, as well as all 
 who are subject to him, in their several countries, to clothe 
 themselves in white garments, which, according to their ideas, 
 are the emblem of good fortune ; 1 and they assume this dresa 
 at the beginning of the year, in the hope that, during the 
 whole course of it, nothing but what is fortunate may happen 
 to them, and that they may enjoy pleasure and comfort. 
 Upon this day the inhabitants of all the provinces and king- 
 doms who hold lands or rights of .jurisdiction under the grand 
 khan, send him valuable presents of gold, silver, and precious 
 
 although Ramusio, in his title to the chapter, mentions the first day of 
 the month, and the Latin version implies the same by the phrase of 
 " in die calendarum Februarii," it is otherwise in the Italian epitomes, 
 and their reading is justified by the actual circumstances. In the 
 " Epochs celebriores'' of Ulugh Beig (the son of Shah Rokh), translated 
 by the learned Greaves, we are informed that the solar year of the 
 Kataians and Igurians commences on that day in which the sun attains 
 the middle point of the constellation of Aquarius; and this we find 
 from the Ephemeris fluctuates between the third and the fifth of 
 February, according to our bissextile. With respect to their civil year, 
 which must be that of which our author speaks, we have a satisfactory 
 account of it in the "Voyage de la Chine" of P. Trigault, compiled 
 from the writings of the eminent Matt. Ricci, who says : " A chasque 
 nouvelle an, qui commence a la nouvelle lune qui precede ou suit 
 prochainement le cinquiesme de Fe"vrier, duquel les Chinois content le 
 commencement du printemps, on envoye de chasque province un am- 
 bassadeur pour visiter officieusement le roy " (p. 60) : by which we 
 should understand, the new moon that falls the nearest to (either 
 before or after) the time of the sun's reaching the middle point of 
 Aquarius; and consequently the festival cannot be assigned to any 
 particular day of the European calendar. 
 
 1 The superstition of considering white, which is naturally the 
 emblem of purity, as having an influence in producing good fortune, 
 has been very prevalent throughout the world ; as black, on the con- 
 trary, from its connexion with impurity, darkness, and the grave, has 
 been thought the foreboder of ill-luck, and become the type of sadness. 
 The Chinese, however, whose customs, in many respects, run counter 
 to those of other nations, have judged proper to establish the former, 
 instead of the latter, as their mourning dress ; but Kubla'i, although he 
 adopted most of the civil institutions of his new and more civilized 
 subjects, did not, and possibly could not, even if he had wished it, 
 oblige his own people to change their ancient superstitions. It accord- 
 ingly appears that, during his reign at least, and probably so long as his 
 dynasty held the throne, the festival of the new year was celebrated in 
 white dresses, and white horses were amongst the most acceptable pre- 
 sents to the emperor. When the dynasty of the Ming, which was native 
 Chinese, succeeded to that of the Mungals, the use of white on this 
 occasion was again proscribed.
 
 PRESENT'S TO THE GRAND KHAN. 201 
 
 Btones, together with many pieces of white cloth, which they 
 add, with the intent that his majesty may experience through- 
 out the year uninterrupted felicity, and possess treasures 
 adequate to all his expenses. With the same view the nobles, 
 princes, and all ranks of the community, make reciprocal 
 presents, at their respective houses, of white articles; em- 
 bracing each other with demonstrations of joy and festivity, 
 and saying (as we ourselves are accustomed to do), " May 
 good fortune attend you through the coming year, and may 
 everything you undertake succeed to your wish." 1 On this 
 occasion great numbers of beautiful white horses are presented 
 to the grand khan ; or if not perfectly white, it is at least the 
 prevailing colour. In this country white horses are not 
 uncommon. 
 
 It is moreover the custom in making presents to the grand 
 khan, for those who have it in then: power to furnish nine 
 times nine of the article of which the present consists. Thus, 
 for instance, if a province sends a present of horses, there are 
 nine times nine, or eighty-one head in the drove; so also of 
 gold, or of cloth, nine times nine pieces. 2 By such means his 
 
 1 " The first day of the new year, and a few succeeding days," Barrow 
 observes, " are the only holidays, properly speaking, that are observed 
 by the working part of the community. On these days the poorest 
 peasant makes a point of procuring new clothing for himself and hia 
 family ; they pay their visits to friends and relations, interchange civi- 
 lities and compliments, make and receive presents ; and the officers of 
 government, and the higher ranks, give feasts and entertainments." 
 (Trav. in China, p. 155.) " Their whole time," says L'Abbe Grosier, " is 
 employed in plays, diversions, and feasting. The shops are everywhere 
 shut ; and all the people, dressed out in their richest attire, go to visit 
 their parents, friends, and patrons. Nothing in this respect can have a 
 greater resemblance to our visits on the first day of the new year." 
 Vol. ii. p. 323. 
 
 2 The superstitious ideas prevailing amongst the nations of Tartary 
 respecting the properties of this number are circumstantially detailed 
 by Strahlenberg, from whose well-known work the following passage, 
 which will be found abundantly sufficient to justify our author's asser- 
 tion, is extracted : " I shall therefore proceed to relate," says this 
 observing traveller and laborious investigator, " what I myself have 
 observed in those North-eastern parts, as also what I have remarked in 
 other writers, who have treated of this part of the world, concerning 
 this subject, and particularly with regard to the number Nine, what 
 yet remains among the inhabitants of these parts. L'Histoire du grand 
 Ghenghizcan, par M. Petis de la Crcix, p. 79. informs us, that when 
 Temugin was elected Great Chan, and named Ghenghiz-can. all the
 
 202 TRAVELS OP MARCO POLO. 
 
 majesty receives at this festival no fewer than an hundred 
 thousand horses. On this day it is that all his elephants, 
 amounting to five thousand, are exhibited in procession, 
 covered with housings of cloth, fancifully and richly worked 
 with gold and silk, in figures of birds and beasts. 1 Each of 
 these supports upon its shoulders two coffers filled with vessels 
 of plate and other apparatus for the use of the court. Then 
 follows a train of camels, in like manner laden with various 
 necessary articles of furniture. 2 When the whole are properly 
 arranged, they pass in review before his majesty, and form a 
 pleasing spectacle. 
 
 On the morning of the festival, before the tables are spread, 
 all the princes, the nobility of various ranks, 3 the cavaliers, 
 astrologers, physicians, and falconers, with many others holding 
 
 people bowed their knees to him nine times, to wish him a prosperous 
 continuation of his reign : and this is yet a custom with the Chinese- 
 Tartarian emperors, before whom ambassadors, when they are admitted 
 to audience, are obliged to make their obeisances kneeling, nine times 
 at their entrance, and just as often at their departure. The same cere- 
 mony is yet in use with the Usbeck Tartars ; for when a person has 
 anything of importance to ask of, or to treat with, their chan, he must 
 not only offer a present, consisting of nine particular things or curiosi- 
 ties, but when he approaches him to deliver it, must bow nine times ; 
 which ceremony these Tartars call the Zagataian audience." Intro- 
 duction, p. 86. 
 
 1 As Kubla'i had subdued Ava, and other southern provinces, where 
 elephants are found in great number, and where they had been opposed 
 to his armies in battle, it is natural that he should be inclined to add 
 these powerful animals to his establishment, if not for military pur- 
 poses, at least for parade or as beasts of burden ; and they were accord- 
 ingly delivered to him in tribute from the conquered princes. A few 
 are kept by the emperors of the dynasty now reigning, but, as it would 
 seem, merely for state. 
 
 2 It has already been mentioned that camels or dromedaries, especially 
 those with two bunches, are common in China. 
 
 3 Amongst the Chinese or Tartars there is no hereditary nobility, 
 and the term is here, and elsewhere, employed, in default of a better, 
 to express that class or rank of persons who hold the great offices or 
 state, and are in Persia and Hindustan styled Amirs. The reader must 
 be well aware that in the modern intercourse of Europeans with China, 
 officers of all degrees, civil and military, from those who manage the 
 great concerns of the empire down to the persons stationed in boats to 
 prevent (or connive at; smuggling, are indiscriminately called mandarins; 
 but of this title, although it might often be convenient in translating, 
 J do not avail myself, not only on account of the vagueness of its 
 application, but because, as it was not known in our author's time, its 
 introduction into his text would be a species of anachronism.
 
 COURT CEREMONIAL IN CHINA. 203 
 
 public offices, the prefects of the people and of thel ands, 1 
 together with the officers of the army, make their entry into 
 the grand hall, in front of the emperor. Those who cannot 
 find room within, stand on the outside of the building, in such 
 a situation as to be within sight of their sovereign. The 
 assemblage is marshaJed in the following order. The first 
 places are assigned to the sons and grandsons of his majesty 
 and all the imperial family. Next to these are the provin- 
 cial kings 2 and the nobility of the empire, according to their 
 several degrees, in regular succession. When all have been 
 disposed in the places appointed for them, a person of high 
 dignity, or as we should express it, a great prelate, 3 rises and 
 says with a loud voice : " Bow down and do reverence;" when 
 instantly all bend their bodies until their foreheads touch the 
 floor. Again the prelate cries : " God bless our lord, and long 
 preserve him in the enjoyment of felicity." To which the 
 people answer : " God grant it." Once more the prelate says : 
 " May God increase the grandeur and prosperity of his em- 
 pire; may he preserve all those who are his subjects in the 
 blessings of peace and contentment; and in all their lands 
 may abundance prevail." The people again reply: "God 
 grant it." They then make their prostrations four times. 4 
 
 1 With a view not only to political security, but to the more ready 
 collection of the capitation and other taxes, the people were numbered, 
 and divided into classes, on a progressive decimal scale, from ten to ten 
 thousand, over each of which a responsible officer presided ; and as the 
 revenue from the lands was collected in kind, officers, not unlike the 
 zemindars of the Moghul government in Hindustan, were appointed by 
 the emperor to watch over and transmit the produce to the royal 
 granaries near Pekin. 
 
 2 The Chinese title of vang, which the Portuguese render by the 
 word regulo, and the French Jesuits by roitelet and roi, was usually con- 
 ferred on the tributary princes throughout Tartary. 
 
 3 The term prelato, which has nothing corresponding to it in the other 
 versions, seems to be gratuitous on the part of Ramusio. in the Basle 
 edition the words are, " surgit unus in medio," and in the epitomes, 
 " el se leva uno huomo in mezo." [In the best Italian text, that pub- 
 lished by Boni, the words are, " si leva un grande parlato."] 
 
 4 " Le maitre des ceremonies," says the younger De Guignes, " qui 
 est un des premiers mandarins du Ly-pou, ou tribunal des rites, s'etant 
 place pres de la porte Ou-men, crie d'une voix haute et per?ante : 
 ' Mettez-rous en ordre; tournez-vous ; mettez-vous a genoux; frappez 
 la tete centre terre; frappez encore; frappez de nouveau; levez-vous.' 
 On se remet encore a genoux, et Ton recommence deux fois le salut; 
 ainsi 1'hommage consiste a faire trois fcis trois saluts. Apres le dernier,
 
 204 TRAVELS OP MARCO PCLO. 
 
 Tliis being done, the prelate advances to an altar, richly 
 adorned, upon which is placed a red tablet inscribed with the 
 name of the grand khan. Near to this stands a censer of 
 burning incense, with which the prelate, on the behalf of all 
 who are assembled, perfumes the tablet and the altar, in a 
 reverential manner; when every one present humbly pro- 
 strates himself before the tablet. 1 This ceremony being 
 concluded, they return to their places, and then make the 
 presentation of their respective gifts; such as have been men- 
 tioned. When a display has been made of these, and the grand 
 khan has cast his eyes upon them, the tables are prepared 
 for the feast, and the company, as well women as men, arrange 
 themselves there in the manner and order described in a 
 former chapter. Upon the removal of the victuals, the 
 musicians and theatrical performers exhibit for the amuse- 
 ment of the court, as has been already related. But on this 
 occasion a lion is conducted into the presence of his majesty, 
 ?o tame, that it is taught to lay itself down at his feet. 2 The 
 sports being finished, every one returns to his own home. 
 
 le mandarin crie : ' Levez-vous ; tournez-vous ; mettez-vous en ordre :' 
 puis il SB met a genoux lui-me'me devant la porte, et dit : ' Seigneur, lea 
 ce're'monies sont termine'es." ' (Voy. a Peking, &c. torn. iii. p. 44.) An 
 account agreeing precisely in substance with the above, but more cir- 
 cumstantial in the detail, will be found in the Nouv. Relat. of P. Magal- 
 hanes, p. 304. " The master of the ceremonies," says John Bell, 
 " brought back the ambassador, and then ordered all the company to 
 kneel, and make obeisance nine times to the emperor. At every third 
 time we stood up and kneeled again. Great pains were taken to avoid 
 this piece of homage, but without success. The master of the cere- 
 monies stood by, and delivered his orders in the Tartar language, by 
 pronouncing the words morgu and boss; the first meaning to bow, and 
 the other to stand; two words which / cannot soon forget." (Vol ii. 
 p. 7.) All the editions of our author's work agree in stating that this 
 ceremony was repeated four times ; whereas it is well known that the 
 repetitions are three and nine. Either his memory must have failed 
 him, or, which is more probable, the numeral figures of an early manu- 
 script may have been mistaken by the copyists. 
 
 1 The ceremony of making prostrations before the empty throne, or 
 before a tablet on which is written the name of the emperor, appears 
 to belong rather to the festmJ. of his nativity, than to that of the new 
 year. 
 
 2 Frequent mention is made of lions (which are not found either in 
 China or Chinese Tartary) being sent as presents from the western 
 potentates.
 
 HUNTING ESTABLISHMENT OF TEE GRAND KHAN. 205 
 
 CHAPTER XITI. 
 
 OF THE QUANTITY OF GAME TAKEN AND SENT TO THE COURT, DURISG 
 THE WINTER MONTHS. 
 
 AT the season when the grand khan resides in the capital of 
 Cathay, or during the months of December, January, and 
 February, at which time the cold is excessive, he gives orders 
 for general hunting parties to take place in all the countries 
 within forty stages of the court; and the governors of dis- 
 tricts are required to send thither all sorts of game of the 
 larger kind, such as wild boars, stags, fallow deer, roebucks, 
 and bears, which are taken in the following manner: All 
 persons possessed of land in the province repair to the places 
 where these animals are to be found, and proceed to enclose 
 them within a circle, when they are killed, partly with dogs, 
 but chiefly by shooting them with arrows. 1 Such of them as 
 are intended for his majesty's use are first paunched for that 
 purpose, and then forwarded on carriages, in large quantities, 
 by those who reside within thirty stages of the capital. Those, 
 in fact, who are at the distance of forty stages, do not, on 
 account of the length of the journey, send the carcases, but 
 only the skins, some dressed and others raw, to be made use 
 of for the service of the army as his majesty may judge 
 proper. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 OF LEOPARDS AND LYNXES USED FOR HUNTING DEER OF LIONS HABI- 
 TUATED TO THE CHASE OF VARIOUS ANIMALS AND OF EAGLES 
 TAUGHT TO SEIZE WOLVES. 
 
 THE grand khan has many leopards and lynxes kept for 
 the purpose of chasing deer, and also many lions, which are 
 larger than the Babylonian lions, have good skins and of a 
 handsome colour being streaked lengthways, with white, 
 black, and red stripes. They are active in seizing boai-s, wild 
 oxen and asses, bears, stags, roebucks, and other beasts that 
 
 1 This mode of hunting by surrounding the game within extensive 
 lines, gradually contracted, has been oftsn described by travellers.
 
 206 TRAVELS OP MARCO POLO. 
 
 are the objects of sport. It is an admirable sight, when the 
 lion is let loose in pursuit of the animal, to observe the 
 savage eagerness and speed with which he overtakes it. His 
 majesty has them conveyed for this purpose, in cages placed 
 upon cars, 1 and along with them is confined a little dog, with 
 which they become familiarised. The reason for thus shutting 
 them up is, that they would otherwise be so keen and furious 
 at the sight of the game that it would be impossible to keep 
 them under the necessary restraint. It is proper that they 
 should be led in a direction opposite to the wind, in order 
 that they may not be scented by the game, which would 
 immediately run off, and afford no chance of sport. His 
 majesty has eagles also, which are trained to stoop at wolves, 
 and such is their size and strength that none, however large, 
 can escape from their talons. 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 OP TWO BBOTHEKS WHO ABE PRINCIPAL OFFICERS OF THE CHASE TO 
 THE GRAND KHAN. 
 
 His majesty has in his service two persons, brothers both by 
 the father and the mother, one of them named Bayan 2 and 
 
 1 It has already been observed that the Moghuls of Hindustan keep 
 small leopards, to be employed in hunting. It would seem, how- 
 ever, that the largest animals of this genus were also tamed for the 
 imperial sport. The former are described as being carried on horseback, 
 behind their keepers ; but these in cages on a sort of car. By some other 
 of the old Italian writers they are termed " home domestice da cacciare." 
 It is evident from this description, as well as from the whole context, 
 that the beast here spoken of as the lion is in fact no other than the 
 tiger, and ought to have been so named; but whether the mistake is to 
 be attributed to our author himself, who might have forgotten some of 
 the terms of his native language, or to his first translators, we have 
 not the means of determining. The lion is known to be of a tawny 
 colour, nearly uniform, whereas the tiger is marked with the colours 
 mentioned above, if only for red we substitute a reddish yellow. It 
 will not be thought an improbable supposition that the confounding of 
 these appellations may have proceeded from our author's intercourse 
 with Persians and other Mahometans, in his journey from China to 
 Europe, as it is well known to oriental scholars that with these people 
 the same terms are almost indiscriminately applied to both species 01 
 animal 
 
 * This may have been the person of the same name who so emi-
 
 HCSTIXG ESTABLISHMENT OF THE GRAND KHAN. 207 
 
 the other Mingan, who are, what in the language of the 
 Tartars are called, chivichi, 1 that is to say, "masters of the 
 chase," having charge of the hounds fleet and slow, and of 
 the mastiffs. Each of these has under his orders a body of 
 ten thousand chasseurs ; those under the one brother wearing 
 a red uniform, and those under the other, a sky-blue, when- 
 ever they are upon duty. The dogs of different descriptions 
 which accompany them to the field are not fewer than five 
 thousand. 2 The one brother, with his division, takes the 
 ground to the right hand of the emperor, and the other to 
 the left, with his division, and each advances in regular order, 
 until they have enclosed a tract of country to the extent of a 
 day's march. By this means no beast can escape them. It 
 is a beautiful and an exhilarating sight to watch the exertions 
 of the huntsmen and the sagacity of the dogs, when the em- 
 peror is within the circle, engaged in the sport, and they are 
 seen pursuing the stags, bears, and other animals, in every 
 direction. The two brothers are under an engagement to 
 furnish the court daily, from the commencement of October 
 to the end of March, with a thousand pieces of game, quails 
 being excepted; and also with fish, of which as large a 
 
 iiently distinguished himself as commander-m-chief of Kublai's armies, 
 and who is mentioned in a subsequent chapter as the conqueror of 
 Southern China, In the early Italian epitomes the names of the two 
 brothers are written Baxam and Mitigam. 
 
 1 Our vocabularies of the Mungal language are so imperfect, that 
 even if the words occurring in the text had been correctly written and 
 preserved, we might fail in our endeavours to identify them ; but cor- 
 rupted as they are by transcription, the attempt is vain. This, which 
 in Ramusio's version is etrxct, (or chivichi according to our ortho- 
 graphy,) is, in the Italian epitome of 1496, written civitri, in the earliest 
 Latin edition cynici, and in the B. M. and Berlin manuscripts canici; 
 from which latter, if the spelling has not been perverted by the fancy 
 of copyists, we might be led to suppose the word a derivative from the 
 Italian cane, a dog. [In the Latin text published by the French 
 Geographical Society, it is cinuchi.] 
 
 2 It is not common to find any mention of sporting dogs amongst 
 the Chinese or Chinese Tartars ; but of their existence Bell furnishes UB 
 with direct proof. " After this entertainment," he says, "the Aleggada 
 (colao) carried us first to see his dogs, of which he had great variety. 
 I formerly observed that this gentleman was a great sportsman. He 
 took greater pleasure in talking of hounds than of politics ; though 
 at the same time he had the character of a very able minister and an 
 honest man." Vol. ii p. 22.
 
 208 TRAVELS OP MARCO POLO. 
 
 quantity as possible is to be supplied, estimating the fish that 
 three men can eat at a meal as equivalent to one piece of 
 game. 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 OF THE GRAND KHAN'S PROCEEDING TO THE CHASE, WITH HIS GER- 
 FALCONS AND HAWKS OF HIS FALCONERS AND OF HIS TENTS. 
 
 WHEN his majesty has resided the usual time in the metro- 
 polis, and leaves it in the month of March, he proceeds in a 
 north-easterly direction, to within two days' journey of the 
 ocean, 1 attended by full ten thousand falconers, who carry 
 with them a vast number of gerfalcons, peregrine falcons, 
 and sakers, as well as many vultures, in order to pursue the 
 game along the banks of the river. 2 It must be understood 
 that he does not keep all this body of men together in one 
 place, but divides them into several parties of one or two 
 hundred or more, who follow the sport in various directions, 
 and the greater part of what they take is brought to his 
 majesty. He has likewise with him ten thousand men of 
 those who are termed taskaol, 3 implying that their business 
 is to be upon the watch, and, who, for this purpose, are 
 
 1 The simple construction of the words in Ramusio's text, " incli 
 partendosi il mese di Marzo, va verso Greco al mare oceano, il quale da 
 li e discosta per due giomate," would imply that he proceeded from 
 the capital to the ocean, which was distant from thence two days' 
 journey : but either the author's sense must have been misunderstood, 
 when he meant to say that the route was to a country situated within 
 two days' journey of the ocean, or there must be a gross error in the 
 number of days, which should rather be read, months; for the whole 
 context shows that he is speaking of one of the emperor's distant 
 progresses, through the Manchu country, into the wilds of Eastern 
 Tartary, and by no means of a petty excursion to the shore of the 
 Yellow Sea, which is only a few stages from Pekin. 
 
 2 The river here spoken of may be either the Songari, which was the 
 limit of Kang-hi's expedition, or it may be the Usuri, to which latter 
 I incline, as it is the most eastern, and consequently the nearest to the 
 ocean, of the great streams that unite with the Sagalieu ula, and con- 
 tribute to form the Amur, the boundary between the Russian and 
 Chinese dominions in that quarter. 
 
 3 The word, which in diiferent versions takes the forms of toscaol, 
 toscaor, roscanor, roschaor, restaor, and, in the early Italian epitome, 
 tastori, I am unable to refer to any known language. In the Basle 
 edition it is translated " custodes ;" by Ramusio, " huomini che stanno 
 alia custodia."
 
 PRECAUTIONS RELATING TO LOST PROPERTT. 209 
 
 detached in small parties of two or three to stations not 
 far distant from each other, in such a manner as to encompass 
 a considerable tract of country. Each of them rs provided 
 with a call and a hood, by which they are enabled, when 
 necessary, to call in and to secure the birds. Upon the 
 command being given for flying the hawks, those who let 
 them loose are not under the necessity of following them, 
 because the others, whose duty it is, look out so attentively 
 that the birds cannot direct their flight to any quarter where 
 they are not secured, or promptly assisted if there should be 
 occasion. Every bird belonging to his majesty, or to any of 
 his nobles, has a small silver label fastened to its leg, on 
 which is engraved the name of the owner and also the name 
 of the keeper. In consequence of this precaution, as soon 
 as the hawk is secured, it is immediately known to whom 
 it belongs, and restored accordingly. If it happens that, 
 although the name appears, the owner, not being personally 
 known to the finder, cannot be ascertained in the first in- 
 stance, the bird is, in that case, carried to an officer termed 
 bulangazi, 1 whose title imports that he is the "guardian of 
 unclaimed property." If a horse, therefore, a sword, a bird, 
 or any other article is found, and it does not appear to whom 
 it belongs, the finder carries it directly to this officer, by 
 whom it is received in charge and carefully preserved. If, on 
 the other hand, a person finds any article that has been lost, 
 and fails to carry it to the proper depositary, he is accounted 
 a thief. Those by whom any property has been lost make 
 their application to this officer, by whom it is restored to 
 them. His situation is always in the most elevated part of 
 the camp, and distinguished by a particular flag, in order 
 that he may be the more readily found by such as have 
 occasion to apply to him. The effect of this regulation is, 
 that no articles are ultimately lost. 
 
 When his majesty makes his progress in this manner, 
 
 1 All endeavours to ascertain by any probable etymology the true 
 orthography of this word, also, have been unsuccessful. It is written 
 in the different versions, bulangazi, balangugi, bularguci, bugtami. and 
 bit grim. The first two may be presumed the more nearly correct, 
 because all the nouns in the Kalmuk-Mungalian language that denote 
 employments terminate in tzchi, according to the German of Strahlen- 
 berg, which is equivalent to the Italian zi or ci. The establishment of 
 uch an office does credit to the police of a Tartar camp. 
 
 P
 
 210 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 towards the shores of the oceau, many interesting occurrences 
 attend the sport, and it may truly be said that it is unrivalled 
 by any other amusement in the world. 1 On account of tho 
 narrowness of the passes in some parts of the country where 
 the grand khan follows the chase, he is borne upon two 
 elephants only, or sometimes a single one, being more con- 
 venient than a greater number; but under other circum- 
 stances he makes use of four, upon the backs of which is 
 placed a pavilion of wood, handsomely carved, 2 the inside 
 being lined with cloth of gold, and the outside covered with 
 the skins of lions, 3 a mode of conveyance which is rendered 
 necessary to him during his hunting excursions, in conse- 
 quence of the gout, with which he is troubled. In the pavilion 
 he always carries with him twelve of his best gerfalcons, with 
 twelve officers, from amongst his favourites, to bear him 
 company and amuse him. Those who are on horseback by 
 his side give him notice of the approach of cranes or other 
 birds, upon which he raises the curtain of the pavilion, and 
 when he espies the game, gives direction for letting fly the 
 gerfalcons, which seize the cranes and overpower them after 
 a long struggle. The view of this sport, as he lies upon his 
 couch, affords extreme satisfaction to his majesty, as well as 
 to the officers who attend him, and to the horsemen by whom 
 
 1 Our author, who, from this and many other expressions in the 
 course of his work, appears to have been passionately fond of the 
 sports of the field, must have recommended himself to the favour of 
 his master by this congenial taste. 
 
 2 It does not appear that any of the modern emperors of China have 
 made use of these grand animals for their personal conveyance. '' He " 
 (the emperor Kang-hi), says Bell, "was seated, cross-legged, in an open 
 machine, carried by four men, with long poles rested on their shoul- 
 ders. Before him lay a fowling-piece, a bow, and sheaf of arrows. This 
 has been his hunting equipage for some years, since he left off riding ; 
 but in his youth he went usually, every summer, several days' journey 
 without the long wall, and carried with him all the princes his sons, 
 and many persons of distinction, to the number frequently of some 
 thousands, in order to hunt in the woods and deserts, where he con- 
 tinued for the space of two or three months." Travels, vol. ii. p. 76. 
 
 3 That is, of tigers or leopards, the skins of which are known 
 to be in common use for covering seats, and other similar purposes, 
 <enongst persons of rank in China ; as the animal itself abounds in 
 Tartary, and is the subject of royal sport ; whereas all travellers agree 
 
 assuring us that the lion is not a native of that region. See p. 206,
 
 THE TENT OP THE GRAND KHAN. 211 
 
 he is surrounded. After having thus enjoyed the amusement 
 for some hours, he repairs to a place named Kakzarmodin. 1 
 where are pitched the pavilions and tents of his sons, and 
 also of the nobles, the life-guards, 2 and the falconers; ex- 
 ceeding ten thousand in number, and making a handsome 
 appearance. The tent of his majesty, in which he gives his 
 audiences, is so long and wide that under it ten thousand 
 soldiers might be drawn up, leaving room for the superior 
 officers and other persons of rank. 3 Its entrance fronts the 
 south, and on the eastern side it has another tent con- 
 nected with it, forming a capacious saloon, which the emperor 
 usually occupies, with a few of his nobility, and when he 
 thinks proper to speak to any other persons, they are intro- 
 duced to him in that apartment. In the rear of this there 
 is a large and handsome chamber, where he sleeps ; and there 
 are many other tents and apartments (for the different 
 branches of the household), but which are not immediately 
 connected with the great tent. These halls and chambers 
 are all constructed and fitted up in the following manner. 
 Each of them is supported by three pillars of wood, richly 
 carved and gilt. The tents are covered on the outside with 
 the skins of lions, streaked white, black, and red, and so well 
 joined together that neither wind nor rain can penetrate. 
 Withinside they arj lined with the skins of ermines and 
 
 1 This name of Kakzar-modin, which in the Latin manuscript of the 
 British Museum, and early Italian epitome, is written Cacia-mordin, 
 has some resemblance to Chakiri-mondou, situated, according to the 
 Jesuits' map, at the head of the Usuri river (which falls into the Amur), 
 and about midway between a considerable lake amongst the mountains 
 and the sea. [In the Latin text of the Societe" de Geographic, it is 
 written Cacchiatriodum, and in the Italian of Boni, Tarcarmodu.] 
 
 2 The cavalieri here mentioned appear to be that military class 
 which Van Braam describes under the name of chiouais, and especially 
 those of the third order. The chiaoux of the Turkish or Ottoman court 
 perform duties analogous to those of the huissiers in France. 
 
 3 This number appears large, but it is no more than a body of one 
 hundred men in rank, and as many in file, who might also, by narrow- 
 ing their front, be drawn up under an awning of fifty yards by two 
 hundred in depth. The armies of the Tartars, as well as of the Per- 
 sians, are commonly reckoned by tomans, or brigades of ten thousand. 
 It is recorded of Timur, that he was accustomed to estimate the 
 strength of his armies, not by individual numeration, but by the 
 quantity of men who could stand within a given space, which was occu- 
 pied in succession, until the whole were measured.
 
 212 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 sables, which are the most costly of all furs; for the latter, 
 if of a size to trim a dress, is valued at two thousands besants 
 of gold, provided it be perfect; but if otherwise, only one 
 thousand. It is esteemed by the Tartars the queen of furs. 1 
 The animal, which in their language is named rondes? is 
 about the size of a polecat. With these two kinds of skin, 
 the halls as well as the sleeping-rooms are handsomely fitted 
 up in compartments, arranged with much taste and skill. 
 The tent-ropes, or cords by which they stretch the tents, are 
 all of silk. Near to the grand tent of his majesty are situated 
 those of his ladies, also very handsome and splendid. They 
 have in like manner their gerfalcons, their hawks, and other 
 birds and beasts, with which they partake in the amusement. 3 
 The number of persons collected in these encampments is 
 quite incredible, and a spectator might conceive himself to 
 be in the midst of a populous city, so great is the assemblage 
 from every part of the empire. The grand khan is attended on 
 the occasion by the whole of his family and household; that 
 is to say, his physicians, astronomers, falconers, and every 
 other description of officer. 4 
 
 In these parts of the country he remains until the first 
 vigil of our Easter, 5 during which period he never ceases to 
 
 1 The northern Chinese are curious and expensive in furs, and the 
 first of the sea-otter skins brought from the north-west coast of America 
 were purchased at extravagant prices, although not so high as the sum 
 mentioned in the text. The besant is supposed to have been equivalent 
 to the sequin, the ducat, and the Arabian dinar, or about nine shillings 
 of our money. 
 
 2 The word rondes (probably corrupted) is not to be traced in Strah- 
 lenberg's or other Mungalian vocabularies, but it evidently means the 
 sable. The animal is more particularly mentioned in book iii. chap, 
 xliv. [The early Italian text reads leroide, and the Latin, knoidce 
 pellonce.] 
 
 3 It has been before observed that the Tartar customs impose no 
 particular restraint upon the women, who, on the contrary, in their 
 camps, are said to be the principal dealers in cattle and other articles. 
 
 4 This was rather an extraordinary assemblage for a hunting expedi- 
 tion ; but, on similar occasions, Kang-hi was accustomed to have in his 
 suite some of the European missionaries who were astronomers and 
 mathematicians, and amused himself in observing with them the cul- 
 mination of the stars, and in taking with a quadrant the altitude of 
 mountains, buildings, and even of a gigantic statue of the idol Fo. It 
 may be suspected, however, that Kubla'i's astronomers were no other 
 tnan astrologers, or shamans. 
 
 * The ivataian festival* being regulated, as ours are, by the new and
 
 THE GAME LAWS OF THE TARTARS. 213 
 
 frequent the lakes and rivers, where he takes storks, swans, 
 herons, and a variety of other birds. His people also being 
 detached to several different places, procure for him a large 
 quantity of game. In this manner, during the season of his 
 diversion, he enjoys himself to a degree that no person who 
 is not an eye-witness can conceive: the excellence and the 
 extent of the sport being greater than it is possible to express. 
 It is strictly forbidden to every tradesman, mechanic, or 
 husbandman throughout his majesty's dominions, to keep a 
 vulture, hawk, or any other bird used for the pursuit of game, 
 or any sporting dog ; nor is a nobleman or cavalier to presume 
 to chase beast or bird hi the neighbourhood of the place 
 where his majesty takes up his residence, (the distance being 
 limited to five miles, for example, on one side, ten on another, 
 and perhaps fifteen in a third direction,) unless his name be 
 inscribed in a list kept by the grand falconer, or he has a 
 special privilege to that effect Beyond those limits it is 
 permitted. There is an order, however, which prohibits 
 every person throughout all the countries subject to the grand 
 khan, whether prince, nobleman, or peasant, from daring to 
 kill hares, roebucks, fallow deer, stags, or other animals of 
 that kind, or any large birds, between the months of March 
 and October; to the intent that they may increase and 
 multiply; and as the breach of this order is attended with 
 punishment, game of every description increases prodigiously. 
 When the usual time is elapsed, his majesty returns to the 
 capital by the road he went ; continuing his sport during the 
 whole of the journey. 
 
 full moons before or after the sun's reaching certain fixed points of 
 the heavens, it is not surprising that the emperor's movements should 
 seem to be regulated by our calendar. In the diaries of Plan de Carpin 
 and Rubruquis, all the events of their journeys are noted according to 
 the feasts, fasts, or Saints' days of their rubric, instead of the days of 
 the month.
 
 214 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 OF THE MULTITUDE OF PERSONS WHO CONTINUALLY RESORT TO AND 
 DEPART FROM THE CITY OF KANBALU AND OF THE COMMERCE OF 
 THE PLACE. 
 
 UPON the return of the grand khan to his capital, he holds a 
 great and splendid court, which lasts three days, in the course 
 of which he gives feasts and otherwise entertains those by 
 whom he is surrounded. The amusements of these three days 
 are indeed admirable. The multitude of inhabitants, and the 
 number of houses in the city, as also in the suburbs without 
 the city (of which there are twelve, corresponding to the 
 twelve gates), is greater than the mind can comprehend. The 
 suburbs are even more populous than the city, and it is there 
 that the merchants and others whose business leads them to 
 the capital, and who, on account of its being the residence of 
 the court, resort thither in great numbers, take up their 
 abode. Wherever, indeed, his majesty holds his court, thither 
 these people flock from all quarters, in pursuit of their several 
 objects. In the suburbs there are also as handsome houses 
 and stately buildings as in the city, with the exception only 
 of the palace of the grand khan. No corpse is suffered to be 
 interred within the precincts of the city ; x and those of the 
 idolaters, with whom it is customary to burn their dead, are 
 carried to the usual spot beyond the suburbs. 2 There likewise 
 all public executions take place. Women who live by prosti- 
 tuting themselves for money dare not, unless it be secretly, to 
 exercise their profession in the city, but must confine them- 
 selves to the suburbs, where, as has already been stated, there 
 reside above five-and-tweuty thousand; nor is this number 
 greater than is necessary for the vast concourse of merchants 
 and other strangers, who, drawn thither by the court, are 
 continually arriving and departing. To this city everything 
 that is most rare and valuable in all parts of the world finds 
 
 1 " II est deTendu aux Chinois," says Du Halde, " d'enterrer leurs 
 morts dans 1' enceinte des villes, et dans les lieux qu'on habite." Tom. 
 ii. p. 125. 
 
 2 The general practice of the Chinese is to bury, and not to burn 
 their dead ; but it was otherwise with the Tartars, so long as they pre- 
 arved their original habits.
 
 PAPER MOXEY OF THE TARTAR PRIXCES. 21-5 
 
 its war ; and more especially does this apply to India, which 
 furnishes precious stones, pearls, and various drugs and spices. 
 From the provinces of Cathay itself, as well as from the other 
 provinces of the empire, whatever there is of value is carried 
 thither, to supply the demands of those multitudes who are 
 induced to establish their residence in the vicinity of the 
 court. The quantity of merchandise sold there exceeds also 
 the traffic of any other place : for no. fewer than a thousand 
 carriages and pack-horses, loaded with raw silk, make their 
 daily entry ; and gold tissues and silks of various kinds are 
 manufactured to an immense extent. 1 In the vicinity of the 
 capital are many walled and other towns, whose inhabitants 
 live chiefly by the court, selling the articles which they pro- 
 duce in the markets of the former, and procuring from thence 
 in return such as their own occasions require. 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 OF THE KTSD OF PAPER MONEY ISSUED BY THE GRAND KHAS, AXD MADE 
 TO PASS CURRENT THROUGHOUT HIS DOMINIONS. 
 
 Ix this city of Kanbalu is the mint of the grand khan, who 
 may truly be said to possess the secret of the alchemists, as 
 he has the art of producing money by the following process. '- 
 He causes the bark to be stripped from those mulberry-trees 
 the leaves of which are used for feeding silk-worms, and takes 
 from it that thin inner rind which lies between the coarser 
 bark and the wood of the tree. This being steeped, and after- 
 wards pounded in a mortar, until reduced to a pulp, is made 
 into paper, 3 resembling (in substance) that which is manufac- 
 
 1 The prodigious quantity of silk produced in China is matter of 
 notoriety. 
 
 2 This is, perhaps, the only instance in which our author relaxes 
 from the general gravity of his style, and condescends to be witty. It 
 is not in the earlier texts. 
 
 3 The accounts given by travellers of the vegetable and other sub- 
 stances from which paper is manufactured in China vary considerably, 
 and it would appear that in different provinces different materials are 
 employed. The most common, and at the same time the least pro- 
 bable assertion is, that it is made from the soft inner bark of the 
 bamboo cane (arundo bambos) ; but Du Halde informs us that it is not
 
 216 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 tured from cotton, but quite black. When ready for use, he 
 has it cut into pieces of money of different sizes, nearly 
 square, but somewhat longer than they are wide. Of these, 
 the smallest pass for a denier tournois; the next size for a 
 Venetian silver groat; others for two, five, and ten groats; 
 others for one, two, three, and as far as ten besants of gold. 1 
 The coinage of this paper money is authenticated with as 
 much form and ceremony as if it were actually of pure gold 
 or silver; for to each note a number of officers, specially 
 appointed, not only subscribe their names, but affix their 
 signets also; and when this has been regularly done by the 
 whole of them, the principal officer, deputed by his majesty, 
 having dipped into vermilion the royal seal committed to his 
 custody, stamps with it the piece of paper, so that the form 
 of the seal tinged with the vermilion remains impressed upon 
 it, 2 by which it receives full authenticity as current money, 
 and the act of counterfeiting it is punished as a capital 
 offence. 3 When thus coined in large quantities, this paper 
 currency is circulated in every part of the grand khan's domi- 
 
 from the bark, but from the substance, that paper is made. Du Halde 
 quotes the authority of a Chinese book, which relates that a certain 
 ancient emperor " fit faire un excellent papier du chanvre . . . que dans 
 la province de Fokien il se fait de tendres bambous ; (et) que dans lea 
 provinces du nord, on y emploie fecorce des muriers."P. 240. 
 
 1 The grosso or gros is the drachma or dram, being the eighth part 
 of an ounce of silver, and the coin should, if of full weight, be equi- 
 valent to about eightpence of our money. The picciolo tm-nese is the 
 denier or tenth part of the dram of silver, and consequently equal to 
 four-fifths of our penny. As the former is the tsien or mas, so the 
 latter is the fen or candorin, of the Chinese reckoning. Upon the same 
 principle, ten grossi or tsien constitute the leang or tael, which is valued 
 at six shillings and eightpence. It may be necessary to observe, that 
 the French missionaries apply the term of denier to the small Chinese 
 coin of base metal, named coxa by the Portuguese and cash by the 
 English, of which a thousand are equal to the tael. The besant, a gold 
 coin of the Greek empire, is equivalent, as has already been observed, 
 to the Venetian sequin. 
 
 2 " La matiere dont on se sert," says De Guignes fils, " pour im- 
 primer avec les cachets, est compose'e de couleur rouge, inele'e avec de 
 1'huile ; on la tient renferme dans un vase de porcelaine destin^ & cet 
 usage, et couvert avec soin de pear qu'elle ne se desseche." Voy. a 
 Peking, &c. torn. ii. p. 230. 
 
 3 " Ceux qui en feront de fausse," (says the inscription on paper- 
 money issued by the Ming,) " auront la teste coupe'e." Du Halde, 
 torn. ii. p. 168, planche.
 
 JIRCULATION OF THE PAPER MOXEY. 217 
 
 aions ; nor dares any person, at the peril ot his life, refuse to 
 accept it in payment. All his subjects receive it without 
 hesitation, because, wherever their business may call them, 
 they can dispose of it again in the purchase of merchandise 
 they may have occasion for; such as pearls, jewels, gold, or 
 silver. With it, in short, every article may be procured. 1 
 
 Several times in the course of the year, large caravans of 
 merchants arrive with such articles as have just been men- 
 tioned, together with gold tissues, which they lay before the 
 strand khan. He thereupon calls together twelve experienced 
 and skilful persons, selected for this purpose, whom he com- 
 mands to examine the articles with great care, and to fix the 
 value at which they should be purchased. Upon the sum 
 at which they have been thus conscientiously appraised he 
 allows a reasonable profit, and immediately pays for them 
 with this paper; to which the owners can have no objection, 
 because, as has been observed, it answers the purpose of their 
 own disbursements; and even though they should be inha- 
 
 1 According to P. Gaubil, paper money had already been current at 
 Pekin, under the grand khanjOkta'i, who himself only imitated what 
 had been practised by the dynasty that preceded the Yuen or family of 
 Jengiz-khan. " C*est cette annee (1234) qu'on fit la monnoie de papier; 
 les billets s'appelloient tchao. Le sceau du pou-tchin-ae, ou tr^sorier- 
 ge"neral de la province, e"toit empreint dessus, et il y en avoit de tout 
 valeur. Cette monnoie avoit deja couru sous les princes de Kin." 
 (Observ. Chronol. p. 192.) By Du Halde we are informed that its esta- 
 blishment was attempted also by the first prince of the dynasty that 
 succeeded the Mungals; and he has given an engraving of the billets, 
 from specimens still preserved by the Chinese with superstitious care, 
 as relics of a monarch who relieved them from a foreign yoke. When 
 he adds, '' On 1'avoit employe" avec aussi peu de succes sous la dynastie 
 de Yuen," the assertion may be doubted ; because the success of Kub- 
 lai's financial measures, oppressive as they were, would not, if at all 
 noticed in the Chinese records, be impartially stated. It will be seen, 
 on reference to note l , p. 24, that an attempt was made by a Moghul 
 ruler of Persia, the grand-nephew of Kul'lal, to introduce a system 
 of paper currency in his dominions, at the period when the Polo family, 
 returning from China, resided at his court; and that, upon a revolution 
 which deprived him of the throne, this measure constituted one of the 
 criminal charges against him. In Malcolm's History of Persia (vol. L 
 p. 430), the reader will find several curious facts and judicious observa- 
 tions connected with this subject, which strongly tend to confirm the 
 statements of our author; and it there appears indubitably, from the 
 native historians, that a minister on the part of the emperor of China 
 an.i Tartary had arrived at the court of Persia about this period, and 
 been consulted respecting the currency.
 
 218 TRAVELS OP MARCO POLO. 
 
 bitants of a country where this kind of money is not current, 
 they invest the amount in other articles of merchandise suited 
 to their own markets. 1 When any persons happen to be pos- 
 sessed of paper money which from long use has become 
 damaged, they carry it to the mint, where, upon the payment 
 of only three per cent., they may receive fresh notes in ex- 
 change. 2 Should any be desirous of procuring gold or silver 
 for the purposes of manufacture, such as of drinking-cups, 
 girdles, or other articles wrought of these metals, they in like 
 manner apply at the mint, and for their paper obtain the 
 bullion they require. 3 All his majesty's armies are paid with 
 this currency, which is to them of the same value as if it 
 were gold or silver. Upon these grounds, it may certainly be 
 affirmed that the grand khan has a more extensive command 
 of treasure than any other sovereign in the universe. 
 
 1 In most states the issue of government paper is the resource of an 
 exhausted treasury; but Kublai's plan seems not to have been confined 
 to the substitution of paper for cash in the public disbursements, but 
 to have gone the length of endeavouring, by the operation of a forced 
 currency, to draw all the specie and bullion of the country into his 
 exchequer ; for, although it is not expressly asserted, it is not impro- 
 bable that the merchandise which he monopolized in the manner 
 described, and paid for with his notes, was by him disposed of for gold 
 and silver. In Siam, and many other countries of the further East, the 
 king is the principal merchant of his dominions ; and no individual can 
 purchase a cargo, until his majesty's agent has exercised the right of 
 pre-emption. 
 
 2 Our author seems to consider this charge of three per cent, for 
 renewing the decayed notes as no more than what was reasonable, and 
 to explain the whole system of extortion with complacency, as affording 
 a proof of the consummate policy and grand resources of his master. 
 It appears that the dynasty of the Ming was less exorbitant, and 
 demanded only two per cent. Josaphat Barbaro, when he was at Asof 
 in the Crimea, about the year 1450, was informed by an intelligent 
 Tartar, who had been on an embassy to Cataio or China, that, " in quel 
 luogo si spende moneta di carta ; laquale ogni anno e mutata con nuova 
 stampa et la moneta vecchia in capo dell' anno si porta alia zecca, ove a 
 chi laporta e data altrettanta della nuova e bella ; pagando tutta via 
 due per cento di moneta d'argento buona, et la moneta vecchia si butta 
 nel fuoco." Viaggio alia Persia, &c. p. 44, 12mo. 
 
 3 This scheme of finance having the tendency of depriving the 
 manufacturers in gold and silver of the materials of their trade, which 
 were drawn out of the market by its vortex, a remedy became neces- 
 sary for so serious an inconvenience, and the demands were accordingly 
 supplied from the treasury.
 
 THE TWO COUNCILS OP TWELVK 219 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 OP THE COUNCIL OF TWELVE GREAT OFFICERS APPOINTED FOR THB 
 AFFAIRS OF THE ARMY, AND OF TWELVE OTHERS, FOR THE GENERAL 
 CONCERNS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 THE grand khan selects twelve noblemen of high rank and 
 consequence (as has been mentioned), whose duty it is to 
 decide upon every point respecting the army; such as the 
 removal of troops from one station to another; the change 
 of officers commanding them; the employment of a force 
 where it may be judged necessary; and the numbers which 
 it may be proper to detach upon any particular service, 
 according to the degree of its importance. Besides these 
 objects, it is their business to distinguish between officers 
 who have given proofs of valour in combat, and those who 
 have shown themselves base and cowardly, in order to advance 
 the former and to degrade the latter. Thus, if the com- 
 mander of a thousand has been found to conduct himself in 
 an unbecoming manner, this tribunal, considering him to be 
 unworthy of the rank he held, reduce him to the command 
 of an hundred men ; or, on the contrary, if he has displayed 
 such qualities as give claim to promotion, they appoint him 
 commander of ten thousand. All this, however, is done with 
 the knowledge and subject to the approval of his majesty, to 
 whom they report their opinion of the officer's merit or 
 demerit, and who, upon confirming their decision, grants to 
 him who is promoted to the command of ten thousand men 
 (for example) the tablet or warrant belonging to his rank, as 
 before described; and also confers on him large presents, in 
 order to excite others to merit the same rewards. 
 
 The tribunal composed of these twelve nobles is named 
 Thai, denoting a supreme court, as being responsible to no 
 other than the sovereign. 1 Besides this, there is another 
 tribunal, likewise of twelve nobles, appointed for the super- 
 intendence of everything that respects the government of 
 
 1 Thai is evidently the tay (No. 1121) of De Guignes' Chinese 
 Dictionary, which he renders by " eminens, altus." The usual Chinese 
 term for this tribunal denotes its military functions, but the name in 
 the text is expressly said to refer to its supremacy as a court, which 
 the word thai or tay directly implies.
 
 220 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 the thirty-four provinces of the empire. These have in 
 Kanbalu a large and handsome palace or court, containing 
 many chambers and halls. For the business of each province 
 there is a presiding law-officer, together with several clerks, 
 who have their respective apartments in the court, and there 
 transact whatever business is necessary to be done for the 
 province to which they belong, according to the directions 
 they receive from the tribunal of twelve. These have 
 authority to make choice of persons for the governments ot 
 the several provinces, whose names are presented to the 
 grand khan for confirmation of their appointments and 
 delivery of the tablets of gold or of silver appropriated to 
 their ranks. They have also the superintendence of every 
 matter that regards the collection of the revenue, both from 
 land and customs, together with its disposal, and have the 
 control of every other department of the state"; with the 
 exception only of what relates to the army. 1 This tribunal 
 is named Sing, implying that it is a second high court, 2 and, 
 
 1 This grand tribunal for the civil administration of the empire 
 appears to have united in Kubla'i's time the objects of two of those 
 six which now constitute the official government. " La fonction de la 
 premiere de ces cours souveraines qui s'appellent Lij pou, est de 
 fournir des mandarins pour toutes les provinces de 1' empire, de veiller 
 sur leur conduite, d'examiner leurs bonnes ou mauvaises qualitez, d'en 
 rendre compte a 1'empereur, &c." " La seconde cour souveraine, appel- 
 lee hou pou, c'est-a-dire, grand tre"sorier du roy, a la surintendance des 
 finances, et a le soin du domaine, des tre"sors, de la depense, et des 
 revenue de 1'empereur, &c. Pour 1' aider dans ce prodigieux detail, elle 
 a quatorze tribunaux subalternes pour les affaires des quatorze pro- 
 vinces dont est compose" 1'empire ; car la province de Pe-tche-li etant la 
 province de la cour, . . . jouit en beaucoup de choses des prerogatives 
 de la cour et de la maison de 1'empereur." (Du Halde, torn. iL p. 23.) 
 Besides these fifteen provinces of the modern empire (or sixteen includ- 
 ing the island of Hainan), Kublai had under his government all the 
 kingdoms possessed by his family before their conquest of China. In 
 this sense it is that our author speaks of thirty -four provinces as under 
 the jurisdiction of this tribunal. 
 
 2 The Chinese terms that present themselves as corresponding in 
 Bound to this of sinyh, and having at the same time an appropriate 
 signification, are sing (No. 2938 of the Dictionary), which is rendered 
 by " advertere, cognoscere," and sing (6606), by " examinare, con- 
 siderare ; " both of which, if they can be said to differ in sense, are 
 completely applicable to the nature of a high court of justice; more 
 so, perhaps, than (sing (3947), "claritas, splendor," or tslng (7698), 
 " rectum, bonum. perfectum." That it should have received its appel-
 
 THE IMPERIAL ROADS AND STATIONS. 221 
 
 like the other, responsible only to the grand khan. But the 
 former tribunal, named Thai, which has the administration of 
 military affairs, is regarded as superior in rank and dignity 
 to the latter. 1 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 OF THE PLACES ESTABLISHED OX ALL THE GREAT BOADS FOR SUPPLY- 
 ING POST-HORSES OF THE COURIERS OX FOOT AXD OF THE MODS 
 
 IN WHICH THE EXPEXSE IS DEFRAYED. 
 
 FROM the city of Kanbalu there are many roads leading to 
 the different provinces, and upon each of these, that is to say, 
 upon every great high road, at the distance of twenty-five or 
 thirty miles, accordingly as the towns happen to be situated, 
 there are stations, with houses of accommodation for travellers, 
 called yamb or post-houses. 2 These are large and handsome 
 buildings, having several well-furnished apartments, hung 
 
 lation, according to the phrase in Ramusio's text, from the circumstance 
 of its being second to any other tribunal, is not probable in itself, nor 
 justified by any analogy of sound. 
 
 1 In modern times, on the contrary, precedence is given to the civil 
 departments, and the Ping-pu or war tribunal ranks only as fourth of 
 the six high courts. That it should have been otherwise under the 
 government of a monarch who held the empire of China by the sword, 
 and that in his estimation the department of the army should be para- 
 mount to all others, is what might be expected. 
 
 2 This word, which in Ramusio's text is printed lamb, we find to be 
 ianli in the Basle edition, ianbi in the older Latin, and iamb, or, as we 
 should write it, yamb, in the B.M. manuscript; and there explained by 
 the term of " mansiones equorum." It is evident therefore that the I 
 for t, in the Italian, is a mistake of transcription, and we may con- 
 clude the word to be the Persian yam or idm which Meninski trans- 
 lates, " stationarius, veredus seu veredarius equus," but which, in the 
 journal of Shah Rokh's ambassadors, is made to denote the inn or post- 
 house (agreeably to our author's use of it), and not the post-horses. 
 Meninski remarks that it belongs to the dialect spoken in Korasmia. 
 which at the period of its conquest by Jengiz-khan and his sons was 
 amongst the most civilized countries of Asia, and the most likely to 
 have had establishments of that nature. By the Chinese their post- 
 houses are termed tchan or chan, and twenty-five or thirty miles is 
 said to be their distance from each other. The Persian marhiUh and 
 manzil equally signify, "a stage or halting-place, after a day's 
 journey (of about thirty miles)." The <nad^as, statio, mamrio, of the 
 Greeks, was of the same nature.
 
 222 TRAVELS OP MAKCO POLO. 
 
 with silk, and provided with everything suitable to persons 
 of rank. Even kings may be lodged at these stations in a 
 becoming manner, 1 as every article required may be obtained 
 from the towns and strong places in the vicinity; and for 
 some of them the court makes regular provision. At each 
 station four hundred good horses are kept in constant readi- 
 ness, in order that all messengers going and coming upon the 
 business of the grand khan, and all ambassadors, may have 
 relays, and, leaving their jaded horses, be supplied with fresh 
 ones. 2 Even in mountainous districts, remote from the great 
 roads, where there were no villages, and the towns are far 
 distant from each other, his majesty has equally caused build- 
 ings of the same kind to be erected, furnished with every- 
 thing necessary, and provided with the usual establishment of 
 horses. He sends people to dwell upon the spot, in order to 
 cultivate the land, and attend to the service of the post ; by 
 which means large villages are formed. In consequence of 
 these regulations, ambassadors to the court, and the royal 
 messengers, go and return through every province and king- 
 dom of the empire with the greatest convenience and facility; 3 
 in all which the grand khan exhibits a superiority over every 
 other emperor, king, or human being. In his dominions no 
 
 1 By kings are here meant persons of that rank which the Chi- 
 nese term Vang, and the Portuguese Regulo. They may be com- 
 pared to the Princes of the German empire, or to the Hindu Rajas 
 under the Moghul government. 
 
 2 To those who form their judgment of the ancient establishments 
 of the Chinese empire from modern descriptions, this number of horses 
 at each station, or the end of each day's ordinary journey, may appear 
 improbable; but the assertion is justified by the authority of the same 
 journal that has so often served to throw light upon our author's rela- 
 tions, although written subsequently to his time by about a century 
 and a half. 
 
 3 By ambassadors, in Chinese history and accounts of China, we are 
 to understand not only the representatives of foreign princes, to whom 
 we confine the term, but every petty vassal of the empire, or deputy of 
 such vassal, who repairs to the court, invested with a public character. 
 Those of the first mentioned class were in the practice of taking under 
 their protection, as a part of their suite, large bodies of traders, who 
 by that means had an opportunity of introducing their goods into the 
 country, in contravention of the established regulations, but obviously 
 with the connivance of the governors of frontier towns, and perhaps of 
 the court itself. .This is avowed by Shah Rokh's ambassadors, and par- 
 ticularly described by Benedict Goez, who himself travelled in the 
 capacity of a merchant.
 
 GREAT POPULATION OF THE COUNTRY. 223 
 
 fewer than tvo hundred thousand horses are thus employed 
 in the department of the post, and ten thousand buildings, 
 with suitable furniture, are kept up. 1 It is indeed so won- 
 derful a system, and so effective in its operation, as it is 
 scarcely possible to describe. If it be questioned how the 
 population of the country -can supply sufficient numbers for 
 these duties, and by what means they can be victualled, we 
 may answer, that all the idolaters, and likewise the Saracens, 
 keep six, eight, or ten women, according to their circum- 
 stances, by whom they have a prodigious number of children ;- 
 some of them as many as thirty sous capable of following 
 their fathers in arms; whereas with us a man has only one 
 wife, and even although she should prove barren, he is 
 obliged to pass his life with her, and is by that means 
 deprived of the chance of raising a family. Hence it is that 
 our population is so much inferior to theirs. With regard 
 to food, there is no deficiency of it, for these people, especially 
 the Tartars, Cathaians, and inhabitants of the province of 
 Manji (or Southern China), subsist, for the most part, upon 
 rice, pauicum, and millet ; which three grains yield, in their 
 soil, an hundred measures for one. 3 Wheat, indeed, does not 
 yield a similar increase, and bread not being in use with 
 them, it is eaten only in the form of vermicelli or of pastry. 
 The former grains they boil in milk or stew with their meat. 
 With them no spot of earth is suffered to lie idle, that can 
 possibly be cultivated; and their cattle of different kinds 
 
 1 An inconsistency in the numbers, not easy to reconcile, presents 
 itself in this place; for if by ten thousand buildings are meant so 
 many post-houses, the total number of horses, instead of being two 
 hundred thousand, should amount to four millions. It is probable that 
 a cipher should be cut off from the former, and that, for ten, we should 
 read one thousand, which would bring the error within moderate 
 b ounds ; or, it may be intended to include in that number the stations, 
 at short intervals, for couriers on foot. 
 
 2 The modern accounts of Chinese polygamy or concubinage lead 
 ua to suppose that it is not common amongst the lower classes of 
 society. 
 
 3 In Sumatra the rate of produce of up-land rice is reckoned at 
 eighty, and of low-land, at an hundred and twenty for one. This in- 
 crease, so disproportionate to what is known in Europe, I have ventured 
 to attribute rather to the saving of grain in the mode of sowing, than 
 to any superior fertility of soil See Hist, of Sumatra, third edit. p. 77. 
 See also Voy. h Peking, &c. par De Guignes fila. torn. iii. p. 332.
 
 224 TRAVELS OP MARCO POLO. 
 
 multiply exceedingly, insomuch that when they take the field, 
 there is scarcely an individual that does not carry with him 
 six, eight, or more horses, for his own personal use. From all 
 this may be seen the causes of so large a population, and the 
 circumstances that enable them to provide so abundantly for 
 their subsistence. 
 
 In the intermediate space between the post-houses, there 
 are small villages settled at the distance of every three miles, 
 which may contain, one with another, about forty cottages. 
 In these are stationed the foot-messengers, likewise employed 
 in the service of his majesty. 1 They wear girdles round 
 their waists, to which several small bells are attached, in 
 order that their coming may be perceived at a distance ; and 
 as they run only three miles, that is, from one of these foot- 
 stations to another next adjoining, the noise serves to give 
 notice of their approach, and preparation is accordingly made 
 by a fresh courier to proceed with the packet instantly upon 
 the arrival of the former. 2 Thus it is so expeditiously con- 
 veyed from station to station, that in the course of two days 
 and two nights his majesty receives distant intelligence that 
 in the ordinary mode could not be obtained in less than ten 
 days; 3 and it often happens that in the fruit season, what is 
 gathered in the morning at Kanbalu is conveyed to the grand 
 khan, at Shan-du, by the evening of the following day; 
 although the distance is generally considered as ten days' 
 journey. At each of these three-mile stations there is a clerk, 
 
 1 " Upon the road," says Bell, " we met with many turrets, called 
 post-houses, erected at certain distances from one another. . . . These 
 places are guarded by a few soldiers, who run a-foot, from one post to 
 another, with great speed, carrying letters or despatches that concern 
 the emperor. . . . The distance of one post-house from another is 
 usually five Chinese li or miles. ... I compute five of their miles to 
 be about two and a half English." Vol. i. p. 340. 
 
 2 The use of bells for this purpose would seem, from what is stated 
 by De Guignes, to be now confined to the messengers on horseback. 
 (Tom. ii. p. 223.) It is likely, however, that the foot-messengers have 
 some similar mode of making known their approach. 
 
 3 An active man may, with perfect ease, run three miles at the rate 
 of eight miles in the hour, and consequently one hundred and ninety- 
 two miles might be performed by successive couriers in twenty-four 
 hours, or nearly four hundred miles in two days and nights : but if by 
 the " ordinary mode " is to be understood ten stages of thirty miles, it 
 is only necessary that three hundred miles should be performed in that 
 time, vhich is at the rate of six miles in the hour.
 
 SERVICE OF THE PUBLIC ROADS. 225 
 
 whose business it is to note the day and hour at which the 
 one courier arrives and the other departs ; which is likewise 
 done at all the post-houses. Besides this, officers are directed 
 to pay monthly visits to every station, in order to examine 
 into the management of them, and to punish those couriers 
 who have neglected to use proper diligence. All these 
 couriers are not only exempt from the (capitation) tax, but 
 also receive from his majesty good allowances. The horses 
 employed in this service are not attended with any (direct) 
 expense ; the cities, towns, and villages in the neighbourhood 
 being obliged to furnish, and also to maintain them. By his 
 majesty's command the governors of the cities cause examina- 
 tion to be made by well informed persons, as to the number 
 of horses the inhabitants, individually, are capable of supply- 
 ing. The same is done with respect to the towns and villages; 
 and according to their means the requisition is enforced : 
 those on each side of the station contributing their due pro- 
 portion. The charge of the maintenance of the horses is 
 afterwards deducted by the cities out of the revenue payable 
 to the grand khan ; inasmuch as the sum for which each 
 inhabitant would be liable is commuted for an equivalent of 
 horses or share of horses, which he maintains at the nearest 
 adjoining station. 1 
 
 It must be understood, however, that of the four hundred 
 horses the whole are not constantly on service at the station, 
 but only two hundred, which are kept there for the space of 
 a month, during which period the other half are at pasture ; 
 and at the beginning of the month, these in their turn take 
 the duty, whilst the former have time to recover their flesh 
 each alternately relieving the other. Where it happens that 
 there is a river or a lake which the couriers on foot, or the 
 horsemen, are under the necessity of passing, the neighbour- 
 ing cities are obliged to keep three or four boats in continual 
 readiness for that purpose ; and where there is a desert of 
 several days' journey, that does not admit of any habitation, 
 
 1 It is not easy to comprehend to whom it is meant that this estab- 
 lishment was not attended with expense. If deducted from the amount 
 of taxes to which the inhabitants were otherwise liable, it was ulti- 
 mately a charge upon the revenue of the monarch. The whole is far 
 from being clear, but the probable meaning is, that it was without 
 expense, ultimately, to the individuals who performed the duty. 
 
 Q
 
 226 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 the city on its borders is obliged to furnish horses to such 
 persons as ambassadors to and from the court, that they may 
 be enabled to pass the desert, and also to supply provisions 
 to them and their suite ; but cities so circumstanced have a 
 remuneration from his majesty. Where the post stations lie 
 at a distance from the great road, the horses are partly those 
 of his majesty, and are only in part furnished by the cities 
 and towns of the district. 
 
 When it is necessary that the messengers should proceed 
 with extraordinary despatch, as in the cases of giving informa- 
 tion of disturbance in any part of the country, the rebellion 
 of a chief, or other important matter, they ride two hundred, 
 or sometimes two hundred and fifty. miles in the course of a 
 day. On such occasions they carry with them the tablet of 
 the gerfalcon as a signal of the urgency of their business and 
 the necessity for despatch. And when there are two mes- 
 sengers, they take their departure together from the same place, 
 mounted upon good fleet horses ; and they gird their bodies 
 tight, bind a cloth round their heads, and push their horses 
 to the greatest speed. They continue thus till they come to 
 the next post-house, at twenty-five miles distant, 1 where they 
 find two other horses, fresh and in a state for work; they 
 spring upon them without taking any repose, and changing 
 in the same manner at every stage, until the day closes, they 
 perform a journey of two hundred and fifty miles. In cases 
 of great emergency they continue their course during the 
 night, and if there should be no moon, they are accompanied 
 to the next station by persons on foot, who run before them 
 with lights ; when of course they do not make the same ex- 
 pedition as in the day-time, the light-bearers not being able 
 to exceed a certain pace. Messengers qualified to undergo thia 
 extraordinary degree of fatigue are held in high estimation. 
 Now we will leave this subject, and I will tell you of a great 
 act of benevolence which the grand khan performs twice 
 a -year, 
 
 1 [In otliei MSS. it ia thirty-five miles.]
 
 EENEVOLEXCE OF THE GRAXD KHAX. 227 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 C? THE RELIEF AFFORDED BY THE GRAND KHAN TO ALL THE PRO- 
 VINCES OF HIS EMFIRE, IS TIMES OF DEARTH OH MORTALITY OF 
 CATTLE. 
 
 THE grand khan sends every year his commissioners to 
 ascertain whether any of his subjects have suffered in their 
 crops of corn from unfavourable weather, from storms of 
 wind or violent rains, or by locusts, worms, or any other 
 plague ; and in such cases he not only refrains from exacting 
 the usual tribute of that year, but furnishes them from his 
 granaries with so much corn as is necessary for their subsist- 
 ence, as well as for sowing their land. With this view, in 
 times of great plenty, he causes large purchases to be made 
 of such kinds of grain as are most serviceable to them, which 
 is stored in granaries provided for the purpose in the several 
 provinces, and managed with such care as to ensure its keep- 
 ing for three or four years without damage. 1 It is his com- 
 mand, that these granaries be always kept full, in order to 
 provide against times of scarcity ; and when, in such seasons, 
 he disposes of the grain for money, he requires for four 
 measures no more than the purchaser would pay for one 
 measure in the market. In like manner where there has 
 been a mortality of cattle in any district, he makes good the 
 loss to the sufferers from those belonging to himself, which 
 he has received as his tenth of produce in other provinces. 
 All his thoughts, indeed, are directed to the important object 
 of assisting the people whom he governs, that they may be 
 enabled to live by their labour and improve their substance-. 3 
 
 1 " In such times (of scarcity) the emperor of China," says Staunton, 
 .... "orders the granaries to be opened; he remits the taxes to those 
 who are visited by misfortunes ; he affords assistance to enable them to 
 retrieve their affairs." (VoL ii. p. 89.) " In China," says Barrow, "there 
 are no great farmers who store their grain to throw into the market in 
 seasons of scarcity. In such seasons the only resource is that of the 
 government opening its magazines, and restoring to the people that 
 portion of their crop which it had demanded from them as the price 
 of its protection." The same circumstance is noticed by other 
 travellers. 
 
 * The edicts of the Chinese emperors, even of such as were kept by 
 their eunuchs and other favourites in profound ignorance of the affaire
 
 228 TRAVELS OP MARCO POLO. 
 
 We must not omit' to notice a peculiarity of the grand khan, 
 that where an accident has happened by lightning to any 
 herd of cattle, flock of sheep, or other domestic animals, 
 whether the property of one or more persons, and however 
 large the herd may be, he does not demand the tenth of the 
 increase of such cattle daring three years; and so also if a 
 ship laden with merchandise has been struck by lightning, he 
 does not collect from her any custom or share of her cargo, 
 considering the accident as an ill omen. God, he says, has 
 shown himself to be displeased with the owner of the goods, 
 and he is unwilling that property bearing the mark of divine 
 wrath should enter his treasury. 1 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 OF THE TREES WHICH HE CAUSES TO BE PLANTED AT THE SIDES OF 
 THE ROADS, AND OF THE ORDER IN WHICH THEY ARE KEPT. 
 
 THERE is another regulation adopted by the grand khan, 
 equally ornamental and useful. At both sides of the public 
 roads he causes trees to be planted, of a kind that become 
 large and tall, and being only two paces asunder, they serve 
 (besides the advantage of their shade in summer) to point 
 out the road (when the ground is covered with snow) ; which 
 is of great assistance and affords much comfort to travellers. 2 
 
 of their empire, are filled with sentiments expressive of the most 
 tender and anxious concern for the welfare of their people, whom they 
 term their children. In Kublai's actions there was probably no affec- 
 tation of philanthropy ; but from his general character it may be sus- 
 pected that a regard for his own interest was the motive that actuated 
 his benevolence to hia Chinese subjects, of whose loyalty he always 
 showed himself suspicious. 
 
 1 No direct proof of the existence of this superstition in China has 
 presented itself. That thunder and lightning are regarded with feelings 
 of extraordinary terror, is evident from the frightful representations 
 of the deity who presides over, and is supposed to wield this engine 
 of divine wrath. 
 
 2 " II y a de certaines provinces," says Du Halde, " oft les grandes 
 chemins sont comme autant de grandes allies, borde"es d'arbres fort 
 hauts." (Tom. ii. p. 52.) De Guignes describes the high roads of the 
 provinces through which he travelled, as generally planted with trees. 
 (Tom. ii. pp. 215, 216.) The paces by which the distance of the trees 
 is estimated by our author, must be understood as geometric or Reman
 
 MINERAL COAL USED IN CHINA. 229 
 
 This is done along all the high roads, where the nature of the 
 soil admits of plantation ; but when the way lies througli 
 sandy deserts or over rocky mountains, where it is impossible 
 to have trees, he orders stones to be placed and columns to 
 be erected, as marks for guidance. He also appoints officers 
 of rank, whose duty it is to see that all these are properly 
 arranged and the roads constantly kept in good order. Be- 
 sides the motives that have been assigned for these planta- 
 tions, it may be added that the grand khan is the more 
 disposed to make them, from the circumstance of his diviners 
 and astrologers having declared that those who plant trees are 
 rewarded with longr life. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 OP THE KIND OF WINE MADE IN THE PROVINCE OF CATHAY AND 
 OF THE STONES USED THERE FOR BURNING IN THE MANNER OF 
 CHARCOAL. 
 
 THE greater part of the inhabitants of the province of 
 Cathay drink a sort of wine made from rice mixed with a 
 variety of spices and drugs. This beverage, or wine as it 
 may be termed, is so good and well flavoured that they do 
 not wish for better. It is clear, bright, and pleasant to the 
 taste, and being (made) very hot, has the quality of ine- 
 briating sooner than any other. 
 
 Throughout this province there is found a sort of black 
 stone, which they dig out of the mountains, where it runs in 
 veins. When lighted, it burns like charcoal, and retains the 
 fire much better than wood; insomuch that it may be pre- 
 served during the night, and in the morning be found still 
 burning. These stones do not flame, excepting a little when 
 first lighted, but during their ignition give out a considerable 
 heat. It is true there is no scarcity of wood in the country, 
 but the multitude of inhabitants is so immense, and their 
 
 paces of five feet ; and ever, on that scale the interval is too small. It 
 is not improbable that he may in this instance, as well as in other 
 parts of the work, have expressed himself in the measures of the 
 country, which are rendered by Italian terms not strictly corre- 
 sponding ; or the passage may have been corrupted. The explanatory 
 words between brackets are added in the translation.
 
 230 TRAVELS OP MARCO POLO. 
 
 stoves and baths, which they are continually heating, so 
 numerous, that the quantity could not supply the demand ; 
 for there is no person who does not frequent the warm bath 
 at least three times in the week, and during the winter daily, 
 if it is in their power. Every man of rank or wealth has 
 one in his house for his own use; and the stock of wood 
 must soon prove inadequate to such consumption; whereas 
 these stones may be had in the greatest abundance, and at a 
 cheap rate. 1 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 OF THE GREAT AND ADMIRABLE LIBERALITY EXERCISED BY THE GRAND 
 KHAN TOWARDS THE POOR OF KANBALU, AND OTHER PERSONS WHO 
 APPLY FOR RELIEF AT HIS COURT. 
 
 IT has been already stated that the grand khan distributes large 
 quantities of grain to his subjects (in the provinces). We 
 shall now speak of his great charity to and provident care of 
 the poor in the city of Kanbalu. Upon his being apprised 
 of any respectable family, that had lived in easy circumstances, 
 being by misfortunes reduced to poverty, or who, in conse- 
 quence of infirmities, are unable to work for their living or 
 to raise a supply of any kind of grain : to a family in that 
 situation he gives what is necessary for their year's consump- 
 tion, and at the customary period they present themselves 
 before the officers who manage the department of his majesty's 
 
 1 This circumstantial account of the use made by the Chinese of 
 pit or fossil coal, at a period when its properties were so little known 
 in Europe, will deservedly be thought an interesting record of the fact, 
 as well as a proof of undoubted genuineness and originality on the 
 part of our author. " Les mines de charbon de pierre sont en si 
 grande quantity dans les provinces," says Du Halde, " qu'il n'y a 
 apparemment aucun royaume au rnonde, ou il y en ait tant, et de si 
 abondantes. II s'en trouve sans nombre dans les montagnes des pro- 
 vinces de Chen-si, de Chan-si, et de Pe-che-li : aussi s'en sert-on pour 
 tous les fourneaux des ouvriers, dans les cuisines de toutes les maisons, 
 et dans les hypocaustes des chambres qu'on allume tout 1'hyver. Sans un 
 pareil secours, ces peuples auroient peine a vivre dans des pays si froids, 
 oil le bois de chauffage est rare, et par consequent tres-cher." (Tom. i. 
 p. 29.) " Stoves," says Staunton, " are common in large buildings. 
 They are fed from without with fossil coal, found plentifully in the 
 neighbourhood." --Vol. ii. p. 338.
 
 TREATMENT OF THE POOR. 231 
 
 expenses and who reside in a palace where that business 
 is transacted, to whom they deliver a statement in writing 
 of the quantity furnished to them in the preceding year, 
 according to which they receive also for the present. He 
 provides in like manner for their clothing, which he has the 
 means of doing from his tenths of wool, silk, and hemp. 
 These materials he has woven into the different sorts of cloth, 
 in a house erected for that purpose, where every artisan is 
 obliged to work one day in the week for his majesty's service. 
 Garments made of the stuffs thus manufactured he orders to 
 be given to the poor families above described, as they are 
 wanted for their winter and their summer dresses. He also 
 has clothing prepared for his armies, and in every city has a 
 quantity of woollen cloth woven, which is paid for from the 
 amount of the tenths levied at the place. 1 
 
 It should be known that the Tartars, when they followed 
 their original customs, and had not yet adopted the religion 
 of the idolaters, were not in the practice of bestowing alms, 
 and when a necessitous man applied to them, they drove him 
 away with injurious expressions, saying, " Begone with your 
 complaint of a bad season which God has sent you ; had he 
 loved you, as it appears he loves me, you would have pro- 
 spered as I do." But since the wise men of the idolaters, and 
 especially the baksis, already mentioned, have represented 
 to his majesty that providing for the poor is a good work and 
 highly acceptable to their deities, he has relieved their wants 
 in the manner stated, and at his court none are denied food 
 who come to ask it. Xot a day passes in which there are 
 not distributed, by the regular officers, twenty thousand 
 vessels of rice, millet, and panicum. 2 By reason of this 
 
 1 At the present day the manufacture of woollen cloth or stuffs in 
 China is very inconsiderable, but it may have been affected in the course 
 of several centuries by the importations from Europe, which are known 
 to have progressively increased. For its existence in the seventeenth 
 century we have the authority of the missionaries. 
 
 2 Purchas translates scvdelle by " crowns " (ecus), and supposes that 
 grain to the amount of twenty thousand of that coin was distributed 
 daily ; but the dictionaries tell us that the Italian scuddla is the French 
 ecuelle, a pipkin or porringer ; and this meaning is the more simple and 
 natural of the two. [Instead of this, the early Latin and French texts 
 published by the French Geographical Society, say simply that thirty 
 thousand people were thus fed at court, and the Italian text of Boni 
 makes the number of persons to be three hundred thousand.]
 
 TRAVELS OF MARCS POLO. 
 
 admirable and astonishing liberality which the grand khan 
 exercises towards the poor, the people all adore him as a 
 divinity. 1 
 
 CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 OF THE ASTROLOGERS OF THE CITY OF KANBALU. 
 
 THERE are in the city of Kanbalu, amongst Christians, 
 Saracens, and Cathaiaus, about five thousand astrologers and 
 prognosticates, 2 for whose food and clothing the grand khan 
 provides in the same manner as he does for the poor families 
 above mentioned, and who are in the constant exercise of 
 their art. They have their astrolabes, upon which are de- 
 scribed the planetary signs, the hours (at which they pass the 
 meridian), and their several aspects for the whole year. The 
 astrologers (or almanac-makers) of each distinct sect annually 
 proceed to the examination of their respective tables, in order 
 to ascertain from thence the course of the heavenly bodies, 
 and their relative positions for every lunation. They discover 
 therein what the state of the weather shall be, from the paths 
 and configurations of the planets in the different signs, and 
 thence foretel the peculiar phenomena of each month : that 
 in such a month, for instance, there shall be thunder and 
 storms; in such another, earthquakes; in another, strokes of 
 lightning and violent rains; in another, diseases, mortality, 
 wars, discords, conspiracies. As they find the matter in their 
 astrolabes, so they declare it will come to pass ; adding, how- 
 ever, that God, according to his good pleasure, may do more 
 or less than they have set down. They write their predictions 
 for the year upon certain small squares, which are called 
 takuini, and these they sell, for a groat apiece, to all persons 
 who are desirous of peeping into futurity. Those whose pre- 
 dictions are found to be the more generally correct are 
 esteemed the most perfect masters of their art, and are con- 
 
 1 " He appears to his subjects," says Staunton, " as standing almost 
 in the place of Providence in their favour." Vol. ii. p. 90. 
 
 3 To account for this extraordinary number of astrologers, we must 
 suppose that the priests of every description were adepts in the occult 
 art.
 
 THE ASTROLOGERS OF EAXBALU. 233 
 
 sequently the most honoured. 1 When any person forms the 
 design of executing some great work, of performing a distant 
 journey in the way of commerce, or of commencing any other 
 undertaking, and is desirous of knowing what success may be 
 likely to attend it, he has recourse to one of these astrologers, 
 and, informing him that he is about to proceed on such an 
 expedition, inquires in what disposition the heavens appear to 
 be at the time. The latter thereupon tells him, that before 
 he can answer, it is necessary he should be informed of the 
 year, the month, and the hour in which he was born; and 
 that, having learned these particulars, he will then proceed to 
 ascertain in what respects the constellation that was in the 
 ascendant at his nativity corresponds with the aspect of the 
 celestial bodies at the time of making the inquiry. Upon this 
 comparison he grounds his prediction of the favourable or 
 unfavourable termination of the adventure. 2 
 
 It should be observed that the Tartars compute their time 
 by a cycle of twelve years ; to the first of which they give the 
 name of the lion ; to the second year, that of the ox ; to the 
 third, the dragon; to the fourth, the dog; and so of the rest, 
 until the whole of the twelve have elapsed. When a person, 
 therefore, is asked in what year he was born, he replies, In the 
 course of the year of the lion, upon such a day, at such an 
 hour and minute; all of which has been carefully noted by 
 his parents in a book. Upon the completion of the twelve 
 years of the cycle, they return to the first, and continually 
 repeat the same series. 8 
 
 1 In later times the publicatiou of the Chinese almanac has been an 
 affair of government, and none is circulated but under the sanction of 
 the emperor; the astronomical part being computed by Europeans, and 
 the astrological part invented by the Chinese. 
 
 2 It appears that the astrologers of Pekin were not exempt from the 
 suspicion of sometimes using flagitious means to make the events tally 
 with their prophecies, of which the journal of Shah Rokh's ambassadors 
 affords a remarkable instance. "Les astrologues du Khatai," they 
 observe, " avoient pronostique que cette annee le palais de 1'empereur 
 seroit endommage' du feu, et cette prediction fut le sujet de cette 
 illumination. Les 6mirs (mandarins) s'gtant assembles, 1'empereur 
 leur fit un festin, et les regala." Three months afterwards we find the 
 following passage : " La nuit suivante, par un decret de Dieu, le feu 
 prit au nouveau palais de 1'empereur, non sans quelque soupgon de 
 quelque fourberie des astrologues. L'appartement principal qui avoit 
 quatre-vingt coudees de long et trente de large .... fut entierement 
 urule." Pp. 912. 
 
 s " Les Tartares," saysDeGuignes, pcre, " ont aussi un cycle de douze
 
 234 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI. 
 
 OF THE RELIGION OF THE TARTARS OP THE OPINIONS THEY HLB 
 RESPECTING THE SOUL AND OF SOME OF THEIR CUSTOMS. 
 
 As has already been, observed, these people are idolaters, and 
 for deities, each person has a tablet fixed up against a high 
 part of the wall of his chamber, upon which is written a 
 name, that serves to denote the high, celestial, and sublime 
 God; and to this they pay daily adoration, with incense 
 burning. 1 Lifting up their hands and then striking their 
 faces against the floor three times, 2 they implore from him 
 the blessings of sound intellect and health of body ; without 
 any further petition. Below this, on the floor, they have a 
 statue which they name Natigai, which they consider as the 
 God of all terrestrial things, or whatever is produced from 
 
 ans. Les denominations de chaque anne"e sont prises des noms de 
 diffe"rens anirnaux ; ainsi Ton disoit 1'annde de la souris, du boeuf, &c., 
 pour dire la premiere on la seconde annee ; et a la fin des douze anne'es 
 on recommen9oit de la meme fa9on. Les Chinois ont quelquefois fait 
 usage de ce cycle." (Hist, des Huns, torn. i. p. xlvii.) In the names of 
 the years, as furnished by different writers, there is some variation, but 
 according to the most modern of the authorities they are as follows : 
 "the rat, ox, tiger, hare, dragon, serpent, horse, sheep, monkey, cock, 
 dog, and hog;" from whence it appears that our author's account of the 
 cycle is not merely imperfect, but incorrect, if he really placed the 
 names in the order in which they are given in the text. By the lion 
 (as has already been shown in note ', p. 206) is meant the tiger ; but 
 this animal, instead of being the first of the series, is only the third, 
 and should follow, instead of preceding the ox ; nor does the dragon or 
 the dog belong to those numerical years to which they are assigned. 
 What he has said is fully sufficient to evince a general acquaintance 
 with the Tartar calendar, and probably what he wrote or dictated 
 amounted to this, that each of the twelve years bore the name of an 
 animal, such as the lion, ox, dog, &c., without any intention of fur- 
 nishing an exact list. 
 
 1 The custom of paying adoration to a written tablet instead of the 
 image or representation of a deity was properly Kataian rather than 
 Tartar, but it might have been adopted by the latter people along with 
 other Chinese practices, and especially by the emperor. The words 
 inscribed are tien, heaven, hoang-tien, supreme heaven, skang-ti, sovereign 
 lord. 
 
 2 Sfiattere i denti is literally to gnash the teeth or strike them against 
 each other ; but this is obviously a misapprehension of what was meant 
 to express the act of prostration and striking the ground with the 
 forehead. The prostrations before the throne or tablet of the emperor 
 are three times three.
 
 RELIGION OF THE TARTARS. 235 
 
 the earth. They give him a wife and children, 1 and worship 
 him in a similar manner, burning incense, raising their hands, 
 and bending to the floor. To him they pray for seasonable 
 weather, abundant crops, increase of family, and the like. 
 They believe the soul to be immortal, in this sense, that im- 
 mediately upon the death of a man, it enters into another 
 body, and that accordingly as he has acted virtuously or 
 wickedly during his life, his future state will become, pro- 
 gressively, better or worse. 2 If he be a poor man, and has 
 conducted himself worthily and decently, he will be re-born, 
 in the first instance, from the womb of a gentlewoman, and 
 become, himself, a gentleman ; next, from the womb of a lady 
 of rank, am 7 Become a nobleman ; thus continually ascending 
 in the scale of existence until he be united to the divinity. 
 But if, on the contrary, being the son of a gentleman, he has 
 behaved unworthily, he will, in his next state, be a clown, and 
 at length a dog, continually descending to a condition more 
 vile than the preceding. 3 
 
 Their style of conversation is courteous; they salute each 
 other politely, with countenances expressive of satisfaction, 4 
 have an air of good breeding, and eat their victuals with 
 particular cleanliness. To their parents they show the utmost 
 reverence ; but should it happen that a child acts disrespect- 
 fully to or neglects to assist his parents in their necessity, 
 there is a public tribunal, whose especial duty it is to punish 
 with severity the crime of filial ingratitude, when the circum- 
 stance is known. 5 Malefactors guilty of various crimes, who 
 
 1 Staunton speaks of the worship of Fo's wife and child in the 
 Putala or temple of Zhehol (Jehol) in Tartary, vol. ii. p. 258. 
 
 2 This is the Hindu doctrine of the metempsychosis, which, along 
 with the schismatic religion of Buddha, was introduced into China (as 
 the annals of that country inform us) about the year 65 of our era. 
 It had not, however, (according to the elder De Guignes,) made any con- 
 siderable progress until the year 335, when the emperor then reigning 
 took it under his protection. 
 
 3 According to the Hindu belief the souls of men reanimate new 
 bodies, " until by repeated regenerations all their sins are done away, 
 and they attain such a degree of perfection as will entitle them to 
 what is called mukti, eternal salvation, by which is understood a release 
 from future transmigration, and an absorption in the nature of the 
 Godhead." Wilkins, Notes to Bhagvat Gita, p. 140. 
 
 * It is evidently of the Kataians, and not of the rude Tartars, that 
 our author here speaks. 
 
 * "Un fils," says De Guignes, "qui accuse son pere ou sa mere, 
 meme avec raison, est puni par 1'exil." Tom. iii. p. 117.
 
 236 
 
 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 are apprehended and thrown into prison, are executed by 
 strangling; but such as remain till the expiration of three 
 years, being the time appointed by his majesty for a general 
 gaol delivery, and are then liberated, have a mark imprinted 
 upon one of their cheeks, that they may be recognised. 1 
 
 The present grand khan has prohibited all species of 
 gambling and other modes of cheating, to which the people 
 of this country are addicted more than any others upon 
 earth ; and as an argument for deterring them from the 
 practice, he says to them (in his edict), " I subdued you by 
 the power of my sword, and consequently whatever you 
 possess belongs of right to me : if you gamble, therefore, you 
 are sporting with my property." He does not, however, take 
 anything arbitrarily in virtue of this right. The order and 
 regularity observed by all ranks of people, when they present 
 themselves before his majesty, ought not to pass unnoticed. 
 When they approach within half a mile of the place where 
 he happens to be, they show their respect for his exalted 
 character by assuming a humble, placid, and quiet demea- 
 nour, insomuch that not the loast noise, nor the voice of any 
 person calling out, or even speaking aloud, is heard. 2 Every 
 man of rank carries with him a small vessel, into which he 
 spits, so long as he continues in the hall of audience, no one 
 daring to spit on the floor ; 3 and this being done, he replaces 
 the cover, and makes a salutation. They are accustomed 
 likewise to take with them handsome buskins made of white 
 leather, and when they reach the court, but before they enter 
 
 1 The distinction in the degree of punishment between executing 
 a criminal soon after condemnation, or at the regulated period, is fre- 
 quently adverted to in the Lettres e'difiantes. 
 
 2 This perfect silence at the court of Pekjn is particularly noticed 
 by Bell, who says : " As we advanced we found all the ministers of 
 state, and officers belonging to the court, seated upon fur-cushions, 
 cross-legged, before the hall in the open air ; among these, places were 
 appointed for the ambassador and his retinue, and in this situation we 
 remained .... till the emperor came into the hall. During this 
 interval .... not the least noise was heard from any quarter." (Vol. 
 ii. p. 5.) Again he observes : " By this time the hall was pretty full, 
 and, what is surprising, there was not the least noise, hurry, or con- 
 fusion In short, the characteristic of the court of Pekin is order 
 
 and decency, rather than grandeur and magnificence." P. 9. 
 
 3 This kind of utensil is common in many parts of the East Indies, 
 where it is commonly termed, from the Portuguese, a cuspiddr. It 
 might be inferred from hence that the practice then prevailed of masti- 
 cating something of the nature of betel.
 
 RIVER OP PULISANGAN. 237 
 
 ie hall (for which they wait a summons from the grand khan), 
 they put on these white buskins, and give those in which 
 they had walked to the care of the servants. This practice 
 is observed that they may not soil the beautiful carpets, 
 which are curiously wrought with silk and gold, and exhibit 
 a variety of colours. 1 
 
 CHAPTER XXVII. 
 
 OF THE RIVER NAMED PULISANGAN, AND OP THE BRIDGE OVER IT. 
 
 HAVING thus completed the account of the government 
 and police of the province of Cathay and city of Kanbalu, as 
 well as of the magnificence of the grand khan, we shall now 
 proceed to speak of other parts of the empire. You must 
 know then that the grand khan sent Marco as his ambassador 
 to the west; and leaving Kanbalu, he travelled westward 
 during full four months; we shall now tell you all he saw 
 going and coming. 
 
 Upon leaving the capital and travelling ten miles, 2 you 
 come to a river named Pulisangan, which discharges itself 
 into the ocean, and is navigated by many vessels entering 
 from thence, with considerable quantities of merchandise. 3 
 
 1 In the modern descriptions of Chinese furniture we do not find any 
 notice taken of carpets, for which mats appear to be substituted ; but 
 it does not follow that they were equally disused in the palaces of 
 Kublai, whose family were the conquerors of Persia and other countries 
 of Asia, where the manufacture of this article of luxury was in per- 
 fection. Du Halde, however, in describing the capital city of the 
 province of Shan-si, says : " Outre differentes e"toffes qui se fabriquent 
 en cette ville. comme ailleurs, on y fait en particulier des tapis facon 
 de Turquie, de quelque grandeur qu'on lea commande." Tom. i. 
 p. 204. 
 
 2 In the epitome of 1496 and subsequent Venice editions the words 
 are, mesi x., ten months, instead of died miglia, ten miles; in which 
 latter consistent sense the Basle edition agrees with Ramusio. The 
 period also of our author's journey is extended from four to fourteen 
 months, the one error having evidently given birth to the other. 
 
 3 This river, the name of which is variously written Pulisangan, 
 Pulisangium, Pulisachniz, Pulsanchimz, and Paluisanguis, appears from 
 the circumstances stated to be the Hoen-ho of the Jesuits' map, which, 
 uniting with another stream from the north-west, forms the PS-ho or 
 White River. This, in the lower part of its course, and to the distance 
 of many miles from the Yellow Sea, into which it disembogues, is 
 navigable for vessels of considerable burthen, although too rapid for
 
 238 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO 
 
 Over this river there is a very handsome bridge of stone, 
 perhaps unequalled by another in the world. Its length ie 
 three hundred paces, and its width eight paces ; so that ten 
 men can, without inconvenience, ride abreast. 1 It has twenty- 
 four arches, supported by twenty-five piers erected in the 
 water, all of serpentine stone, 2 and built with great skill. 
 On each side, and from one extremity to the other, there is a 
 handsome parapet, formed of marble slabs and pillars arranged 
 in a masterly style. At the commencement of the ascent 
 the bridge is something wider than at the summit, but from 
 the part where the ascent terminates, the sides run in straight 
 lines and parallel to each other. 3 Upon the upper level there 
 is a massive and lofty column, resting upon a tortoise of 
 marble, and having near its base a large figure of a lion, with 
 a lion also on the top. 4 Towards the slope of the bridge 
 there is another handsome column or pillar, with its lion, at 
 
 that purpose at the part where it crossed our author's route to the 
 south-west. It may be remarked that in the Persian language the words 
 puli-sangi signify the " stone bridge," and it is not improbable that the 
 western people in the service of the emperor may have given this 
 appellation to the place where a bridge of great celebrity was thrown 
 over the river, which is here applied to the river itself. It will be found 
 to occur in Elphinstone's Account of Caubul, p. 429, and in Ouseley's 
 Ibn Haukal, p. 277. 
 
 1 Ten horsemen could not draw up abreast in a less space than thirty 
 feet, and might probably require forty when in motion. The paces 
 here spoken of must therefore be geometric ; and upon this calculation 
 the bridge would be five hundred yards in length. 
 
 2 The serpent-stone, or serpentinstein of the Germans, is a well-known 
 species, and considered as an inferior kind of jade. 
 
 3 By P. Magalhanes, who particularly notices this description, our 
 author is understood to speak here of the perfect level of the surface, 
 and not of the straightness of the sides : " Aux deux extremity's, " he 
 translates, " il est plus large qu'au haut de la mont^e : mais quand on 
 a achev^ de monter, on le trouve plat et de niveau comme s'il avoit 
 estd tire" a la ligne." (Nouv. Relat. p. 14.) But the words, "uguale 
 per longo come se fosse tirato per linea," seem rather to refer to the 
 general parallelism of the sides, although at the ends they diverged, as 
 is the case with almost all bridges. 
 
 * It has been observed before, that when our author speaks of 
 lions in China, as living animals, he undoubtedly means tigers; but 
 it is otherwise with respect to the imaginary and grotesque repre- 
 sentations of the lion, in marble, bronze, and porcelain, employed as 
 ornaments in the public buildings and gardens of these people. The 
 ideas of the symbolic lion and of the tortoise are borrowed from the 
 tinga and the Mrma of Hindu mythology.
 
 THE BRIDGE OP PULISAXGAV. 239 
 
 the distance of a pace and a half from the former ; and all 
 the spaces between one pillar and another, throughout the 
 whole length of the bridge, are filled up -with slabs of marble, 
 curiously sculptured, and mortised into the next adjoining 
 pillars, which are, in like manner, a pace and a half asunder, 
 and equally surmounted with lions, 1 forming altogether a 
 beautiful spectacle. These parapets serve to prevent accidents 
 that might otherwise happen to passengers. What has been 
 said applies to the descent as well as to the ascent of the 
 bridge. 2 
 
 CHAPTER XXVIII. 
 
 OP THE CITY OF GOUZA. 
 
 AFTER having passed this bridge, proceeding thirty miles 
 in a westerly direction, through a country abounding with 
 fine buildings, amongst vineyards and much cultivated and 
 
 1 It is difficult to understand from the words of the text (the 
 obscurity of which is likely to hare been increased by successive tran- 
 scripts) the position of these larger columns with regard to the other 
 parts of the bridge ; but it seems to be meant, that in the line of the 
 parapet or balustrade, which was formed of alternate slabs of marble 
 and pillars, there was in the middle (or over the centre arch 01 pier) 
 a column of a size much larger than the rest, having a tortoise for its 
 base or pedestal ; and it may be presumed, although not so expressed, 
 that there was a similar column in the balustrade on the opposite side. 
 Our author seems, indeed, to have been sensible of this kind of defi- 
 ciency in his description, when he says at the conclusion of the chapter, 
 " Et nelle discesa del ponte e come nelT ascesa." One of the Jesuit 
 missionaries who mentions a bridge which he had crossed in this part 
 of the province says, " Les garde'fous en sont de marbre ; on coate de 
 chaque cote 1 cent quarante-huit poteaux avec des lionceaux au-dessue 
 . . . . et airs deux bouts du pout quatre dldphans accroupis." Lett. 
 dif. torn. xvii. p. 263. 
 
 2 Notwithstanding any partial difficulties in the description, or 
 seeming objections to the credibility of the account given of this mag- 
 nificent bridge, there is unquestionable authority for the existence of 
 one similar to it in all the essential circumstances, and as nearly about 
 the situation mentioned as can be ascertained from the conciseness of 
 the itinerary, so lately as the seventeenth century. It may well, how- 
 ever, be supposed that in the lapse of four hundred years material 
 changes must have taken place, in consequence of accidents, repairs, 
 and perhaps renewals,
 
 2tO TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 fertile grounds, you arrive at a handsome and considerable 
 city, named Gouza, 1 where there are many convents of the 
 idolaters. The inhabitants in general live by commerce and 
 manual arts. They have manufactures of gold tissues and 
 the finest kind of gauze. The inns for accommodating 
 travellers are there numerous. 2 At the distance of a mile 
 beyond this place, the roads divide ; the one going in a 
 westerly, and the other in a south-easterly direction, the 
 former through the province of Cathay, and the latter 
 towards the province of Manji. 3 From the city of Gouza it 
 is a journey of ten days through Cathay to the kingdom of 
 Ta-in-fu; 4 in the course of which you pass many fine cities 
 and strong places, in which manufactures and commerce 
 flourish, and where you see many vineyards and much culti- 
 
 1 From the relative situation and other circumstances mentioned of 
 this place, I do not hesitate to consider it as intended for Tso-cheu, 
 a city of the second class, spken of in the preceding note ; and this 
 will appear the more probable when it is understood, that, although 
 corruptly written Gou-za in Ramusio's text, it is Gio-gu in the early 
 Venice epitomes, [Gio-guy in the Paris Latin text,] Geo-gui in that of 
 Basle, and Cyongium in the B. M. and Berlin manuscripts, in all of 
 which the first letter is meant to be soft, and evidently to represent 
 the Chinese sound which we more aptly express by Ts. It has already, 
 been observed, and the instances will again frequently occur, of the 
 Chinese appellative term cheu or tcheou (for a city of the second order) 
 being corrupted to gui, apparently an orthographical mistake for giu, 
 which nearly approaches to the true sound. Tso-cheu, according to 
 the journals both of Van Braam and De Guignes, is twelve French 
 leagues distant from Pekin, but as the former adds that it was a 
 hundred and twenty Chinese li, and as this is more likely to be the 
 true distance (for certainly those gentlemen did not measure it), we are 
 justified in considering it as upwards of forty Italian miles, [the 
 earliest and best MSS. have thirty, as given in our text,] at which num- 
 ber our author states it. 
 
 2 Van Braam observes, that at Tso-oheu they found an excellent con- 
 quan (kong-kuari), or inn. 
 
 3 The road by which the persons who composed the Dutch embassy 
 of 1795 travelled from Canton to Pekin was this latter, which is here 
 described as leading through Tso-cheu to Manji or Southern China. 
 The western road diverges at this point, and is that which was taken, 
 in 1668, by P. Fontaney, who particularly describes it in his journal, 
 published by Du Halde. 
 
 4 Ta-in-fu, or Tainfu, is obviously Tai-yuen-fu, the capital of the 
 modern province of Shan-si, which was frequently, in ancient times, the 
 seat of an independent government. Its directi Dn is about west-south- 
 west from Tso-cheu, and the distance aDDears to be about ten easy
 
 THE CITY OF ACHBALUCH. 241 
 
 vated land. From hence grapes are carried into the interior 
 of Cathay, where the vine does not grow. Mulberry-trees 
 also abound, the leaves of which enable the inhabitants to 
 produce large quantities of silk. A degree of civilization 
 prevails amongst all the people of this country, in consequence 
 of their frequent intercourse with the towns, which are 
 numerous and but little distant from each other. To these 
 the merchants continually resort, carrying their goods from 
 one city to another, as the fairs are successively held at each. 
 At the end of five days' journey beyond the ten that have 
 been mentioned, it is said there is another city still larger 
 and more handsome (than Ta-in-fu), named Achbaluch. 1 to 
 which the limits of his majesty's hunting-grounds extend, 
 and within which no persons dare to sport, excepting the 
 princes of his own family, and those whose names are 
 inscribed on the grand falconer's list; but beyond these 
 limits, all persons qualified by their rank are at liberty to 
 pursue game. It happens, however, that the grand khan 
 scarcely ever takes the amusement of the chase on this side 
 of the country; 2 and the consequence is, that the wild animals, 
 especially hares, multiply to such a degree as to occasion the 
 destruction of all the growing corn of the province. When 
 this came to the knowledge of the grand khan, he repaired 
 thither, with the whole of his court, and innumerable mul- 
 titudes of these animals were taken. 
 
 1 The circumstances stated do not supply the means of identifying 
 this place, which was known to our author only by report. Its situa- 
 tion was probably to the north-west, as he afterwards proceeds to speak 
 of places more remote, in a south-western direction ; and it may have 
 been intended for the city of Tai-tong-fu, which lies in that direction. 
 The name of Ach-baluch is evidently Tartar, and serves to show that 
 the want of the final guttural in Kanbalu, which the Persians give to 
 it, is an accidental omission. No mention of this city is found in the 
 Latin editions. 
 
 2 We have seen that the usual hunting expeditions of the grand khan 
 took place either at Shang-tu, which lies northward of Pekin, or in the 
 direction of Eastern Tartary and the river Amur.
 
 242 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIX. 
 
 OF THE KINGDOM OF TA-IN-FU. 
 
 AT the end of ten days' journey from the city of Go - _aa, 
 you arrive (as has been said) at the kingdom of Ta-in-fu, -whose 
 chief city, the capital of the province, bears the same name. 
 It is of th largest size, and very beautiful. 1 A considerable 
 trade is carried on here, and a variety of articles are manu- 
 factured, particularly arms and other military stores, which 
 are at this place conveniently situated for the use of the 
 grand khan's armies. Vineyards are numerous, from which 
 grapes in vast abundance are gathered ; and although within 
 all the jurisdiction of Ta-in-fu no other vines are found than 
 those produced in the district immediately surrounding the 
 capital, there is yet a sufficient supply for the whole of the 
 province. 2 Other fruits also grow here in plenty, as does the 
 mulberry-tree, together with the worms that yield the silk. 
 
 1 " La ville capitale de Tai-yuen," says P. Martini, whom Du Halde 
 copies, " a toujours este" raise au rang des plus considerables, ancienne, 
 magnifique, et bien bastie : elle a de tres-fortes murailles, environ de 
 trois lieues de circuit, fort peuple"e ; au reste, est situee dans un lieu fort 
 agreable et fort sain. . . II ne faut pas s'estonner s'il s'y trouve si 
 grande quantite" de bastimens et si magnifiques, puis que 9'a este* la 
 demeure de tant de roys." (Thevenot, torn. ii. p. 48.) It may be neces- 
 sary here to remark, that what appears to be the concluding syllable in 
 the names of Chinese towns (but which is a distinct monosyllable), 
 serves to indicate their size or rank, and municipal jurisdiction or 
 dependence : thus f& or fou denotes a city of the first class, having 
 under its superintendence a certain number of those belonging to the 
 inferior classes; cheu or tcheu denotes a city of the second class, subject 
 to the jurisdiction of its/dy and hien a city or town of the third class, 
 subject to its cheu. It also appears that each greater city contains these 
 subordinate jurisdictions within itself. 
 
 2 In this instance I have ventured to correct the text of Ramusio, by 
 substituting "grapes" for "wine," although it is in conformity with 
 the Venice epitome and the Latin version ; because I am persuaded that, 
 from ignorance of the facts, the expression of the original has been 
 misunderstood, and our author is made to assert of the liquor what 
 was only intended to apply to the fruit. " La Chine," says De Guignes, 
 " produit du raisin, mais le pays n'est pas vignoble : le raisin meme 
 paroit peu propre a faire du vin, et ce n'est qu'avec peine que les mis- 
 sionnaires a Peking re"ussissent a en faire." (Tom. iii. p. 348.) That 
 the.-se dried grapes, or raisins, a* they are termed in English, wore the
 
 FORTRESS OF THAI-GIN. 24 "5 
 
 CHAPTER XXX. 
 
 OP THE CITY OF PI-AN-FTT. 
 
 LEAVING Ta-iu-fu, and travelling westward, seven days' jour- 
 ney, through a fine country in which there are many cities 
 and strong places, where commerce and manufactures prevail, 
 and whose merchants, travelling over various parts of the 
 country, obtain considerable profits, you reach a city named 
 Pi-an-fu, which is of a large size and much celebrated. 1 It 
 likewise contains numerous merchants and artisans. Silk is 
 produced here also in great quantity. We shall not say any- 
 thing further of these places, but proceed to speak of the 
 distinguished city of Ka-chan-fu; first noticing, however, a 
 noble fortress named Thai-sin. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXI. 
 
 OF THE FORTRESS OF THAIGIN OR TAI-GIN. 
 
 IN a western direction from Pi-an-fu there is a large and 
 handsome fortress named Thai-gin, 2 which is said to have 
 
 article of trade that our author meant to describe, will, I trust, be con- 
 sidered as at least highly probable, inasmuch as the correction renders 
 him consistent with himself, and his information, with the knowledge 
 we have since acquired. 
 
 1 This is the city of Pin-yang-fu, situated in the direction of south- 
 south-west from the former, upon the same river ; the banks of which, 
 in its whole course, appear to be covered with towns. From its situa- 
 tion with respect to the Hoang-ho, or Yellow River, we are enabled to 
 ascertain it to be the city visited by Shah Rokh's ambassadors, when 
 they had crossed the famous bridge of boats, and of which, a&er 
 describing the magnificence of its great temple, it is said : " Us y 
 remarquerent trois bordels publics, ou il y avoit des filles de joye d'uue 
 grande beaute". Quoique les filles du Khata'i soient belles commune- 
 ment, neanmoins elles sont Ik plus belles qu'ailleurs, et la ville pour ce 
 sujet s'appelle la ville de la beaute"." (Thevenot, iv. partie, p. 5.) This 
 we may conjecture to be the kind of celebrity to which our author so 
 modestly alludes. 
 
 2 The place here called Thai-gin and Tai-gin is in the Latin versions 
 Chin-cui and Cay-cui, and in the Italian epitomes Chai-cui, [in the Paris 
 Latin Cay-tui] : names so unlike that it may well be thought difficult to 
 
 B2
 
 244 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 been built, at a remote period, by a king who was called Dor. 1 
 Within the walls of the fort stands a spacious and highly- 
 ornamented palace, the hall of which contains paintings of all 
 the renowned princes who, from ancient tunes, have reigned 
 at this place, forming together a superb exhibition. A re- 
 markable circumstance in the history of this king Dor shall 
 now be related. He was a powerful prince, assumed much state, 
 and was always waited upon by young women of extraordinary 
 beauty, a vast mimber of whom he entertained at his court. 
 When, for recreation, he went about the fortress, he was drawn 
 in his carriage by these damsels, which they could do with 
 facility, as it was of a small size. They were devoted to his 
 
 identify it from the orthography ; but its situation between Pin-yang 
 and the great Yellow River points it out with some probability, as the 
 Kiai-tcheou of the Jesuits' map ; nor will the sound of the word Kiai, 
 which is the essential part of the name, be found to differ materially 
 from the Cay and Chai of the Latin and early Italian versions. With 
 respect to the latter monosyllable, whether it be corruptly written gin 
 (for ffiu) or cui (for ciu), it is indubitably meant for the term cheu, 
 tcheou, giu, or ciu (according to the mode of writing it with the different 
 European alphabets), which denotes (as already observed) a city of the 
 second order. 
 
 1 The name of this prince, which in Ramusio's text, as well as hi the 
 Italian epitome, is written Dor, is in some Latin editions absurdly 
 transformed to Darius. The former, it must be confessed, bears no 
 resemblance to a Chinese, and but little to a Tartar word; yet, even on 
 the supposition of the story being merely a popular legend with which 
 our author was amused in the course of his travels through the 
 country, the names of the actors ought not to be the less in harmony 
 with the language of its inhabitants. I am therefore disposed to 
 hazard a conjecture respecting it, that by some may be thought too 
 bold, but which I am persuaded will appear most probable to those 
 readers who are best acquainted with the histories of these people. It 
 is known that, previously to the invasion of Jengiz-khan, the northern 
 provinces of China were held in subjection by a race from Eastern Tar- 
 tary, called Niuche, but whose dynasty received the appellation of Kin, 
 from a term signifying " gold" in the Chinese language. " L'an 1118," 
 says the historian of the Huns, " 0-ko-ta fut proclame" empereur, et 
 donna a sa dynastic le nom de Kin en Chinois, et d'Altoun dans la 
 langue de ces peuples, c'est-k-dire, Or; c'est de-Ik que les Arabes les ont 
 appelle's Altoun-khans." (Tom. i. p. 208.) May not the prince here 
 spoken of have belonged to this family of the Kin, who were the con- 
 temporaries of Un-khan; and may not the D'Or, or Doro, of our author 
 be intended for a translation of the Chinese term ? The word enters 
 into the composition of many proper names, and is often rendered by 
 its equivalent in European languages; as in the instance of " Kin-chaa 
 ou Montague d'or."
 
 HISTORY OP KING iX)R. 245 
 
 service, and performed every office that administered to his 
 convenience or amusement. In his government he was not 
 wanting in vigour, and he ruled with dignity and justice. 
 The works of his castle, according to the report of the people 
 of the country, were beyond example strong. He was, how- 
 ever, a vassal of Un-khan, who, as we have already stated, 
 was known by the appellation of Prester John; but, influ- 
 enced by pride, he rebelled against him. When this came to 
 the knowledge of Prester John, he was exceedingly grieved, 
 being sensible that, from the strong situation of the castle, it 
 would be in vain to march against it, or even to proceed to any 
 act of hostility. Matters had remained some time in this state, 
 when seven cavaliers belonging to his retinue presented them- 
 selves before him, and declared their resolution to attempt 
 the seizure of king Dor's person, and to bring him alive to 
 his majesty. To this they were encouraged by the promise 
 of a large reward. They accordingly took their departure 
 for the place of his residence, and feigning to have arrived 
 from a distant country, made him an offer of their services. 
 In his employment they so ably and diligently performed 
 their duties that they gained the esteem of their new master, 
 who showed them distinguished favour, insomuch that when 
 he took the diversion of hunting, he always had them near 
 his pei-son. One day when the king was engaged in the chase, 
 and had crossed a river which separated him from the rest 
 of his party, who remained on the opposite side, these 
 cavaliers perceived that the opportunity now presented itself 
 of executing their design. They drew their swords, sur- 
 rounded the king, and led him away by force towards the 
 territory of Prester John, without its being possible for him 
 to receive assistance from his own people. When they 
 reached the court of that monarch, he gave orders for 
 clothing his prisoner in the meanest apparel, and, with the 
 view of humiliating him by the indignity, committed to him 
 the charge of his herds. In this wretched condition he 
 remained for two years, strict care being taken that he should 
 not effect his escape. At the expiration of that period, Prester 
 John caused him to be again brought before him, trembling 
 from apprehension that they were going to put him to death. 
 But on the contrary, Prester John, after a sharp and severe 
 admonition, in which he warned him against suffering pride
 
 246 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 and arrogance to make him swerve from his allegiance in 
 future, granted him a pardon, directed that he should be 
 dressed in royal apparel, and sent him back to his principality 
 with an honourable escort. From that time forward he always 
 preserved his loyalty, and lived on amicable terms with Prester 
 John. The foregoing is what was related to me on the subject 
 of king Dor. 1 
 
 CHAPTER XXXII. 
 
 OF THE VERT LARGE AND NOBLE RIVER CALLED THE KARA-MORAN. 
 
 UPON leaving the fortress of Thai-gin, and travelling about 
 twenty miles, you come to a river called the Kara-moran, a 
 which is of such magnitude, both in respect to width and 
 depth, that no solid bridge can be erected upon it. Its 
 waters are discharged into the ocean, as shall hereafter be 
 more particularly mentioned. 8 On its banks are many cities 
 and castles, in which a number of trading people reside, who 
 carry on an extensive commerce. The country bordering 
 upon it produces ginger, and silk also in large quantities. Of 
 
 1 It will be observed that our author does not express himself with 
 any degree of confidence as to the authenticity of this romantic adven- 
 ture. If it was only an idle tale imposed upon him for an historical 
 fact, it must have been the invention of Tartars rather than of Chinese, 
 who would not have made a prince of Shan-si the vassal of a Tartar 
 sovereign. On the contrary, it is asserted by Gaubil that their annals 
 describe Un-khan himself as tributary to the sovereigns of the dynasty 
 of Kin ; and that the Chinese title of vang, or prince, was prefixed to 
 his original title of khan, forming together Vang-khan, of which the 
 Arabs made Ung-khan or Un-khan. [The account of his reception by 
 Prester John is told with rather more detail in the Latin text published 
 by the Paris Geographical Society.] 
 
 2 This name (written Caromoran in the Latin, Carmoro in the early 
 epitomes, and Cathametam in the Paris Latin), which signifies the 
 Black River, is well known to be the Tartar appellation of that vast 
 stream which, with a very winding course, traverses the whole of China, 
 under the name of the Hoang-ho, r Yellow River ; so called from the 
 colour of its waters, impregnated as they are with yellow clay. It is at 
 the same time not improbable that in the upper part of its course, 
 through a different and perhaps mossy soil, its hue may equally justify 
 the epithet of Black. 
 
 3 Some of the rivers of Tartary discharge themselves into lakes, 
 whilst others are lost in the sandy deserti
 
 CITY OF KA-CHAN-FU. 247 
 
 birds the multitude is incredible, especially of pheasants, 1 
 which are sold at the rate of three for the value of a Venetian 
 groat. Here likewise grows a species of large cane, in infinite 
 abundance, some of a foot, and others a foot and a half (in 
 circumference), which are employed by the inhabitants for 
 a variety of useful purposes. 2 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIII. 
 
 OF THE CITY OF KA-CHAN-FU. 
 
 HAVING crossed this river and travelled three days journey, 
 you arrive at a city named Ka-chan-fu, 3 whose inhabitants 
 are idolaters. They carry on a considerable traffic, and work 
 at a variety of manufactures. The country produces in great 
 abundance, silk, ginger, galangal, 4 spikenard, and many drugs 
 that are nearly unknown in our part of the world. Here 
 they weave gold tissues, as well as every other kind of silken 
 cloth. We shall speak in the next place of the noble and 
 celebrated city of Ken-zan-fu, in the kingdom of the same 
 name. 
 
 1 Frequent mention is made of these birds, at places in the vicinity 
 of the Yellow River. 
 
 2 The bamboo cane (arundo bambos), one of the most useful materials 
 with which nature has furnished the inhabitants of warm climates, is 
 known to be common in China. In the Me"m. concern, les Chinois, 
 torn, ii p. 532, it is observed that the greater part of the houses in the 
 province of Se-chuen are constructed of bamboos. The latitude of the 
 part of the Kara-muran or Hoang-ho here spoken of is about 35. Fur- 
 ther northward the bamboo is not likely to flourish. 
 
 3 The name of Cacianfu, or Ka-chan-fu, which in the early Venice 
 epitome is Cancianfu, and in the Basle, Cianfu (but which does not 
 occur in the B. M. manuscript, nor in the early Latin edition), cannot 
 be traced in Du Halde's map ; nor does there appear any city of the 
 first class (implied by the adjunct fu) between that part of the Hoang-lio 
 and the capital of the province of Shen-si, towards which our author's 
 route is here directed. 
 
 4 Galanga, or galangal, well known in the materia medica, ia the root 
 of the Kaempferia. By the Italian tpico I suppose is meant spikenard 
 (Nardut Indica).
 
 248 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO- 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIV. 
 
 OP THE CITY OF KEN-ZAN-FU. 
 
 DEPARTING from Ka-ohan-fu, and proceeding eight days' 
 journey in a westerly direction, you continually meet with 
 cities and commercial towns, and pass many gardens and 
 cultivated grounds, with abundance of the mulberry or tree 
 that contributes to the production of silk. The inhabitants in 
 general worship idols, but there are also found here Nestorian 
 Christians, 1 Turkomans, 2 and Saracens. The wild beasts of 
 the country afford excellent sport, and a variety of birds also 
 are taken. At the end of those eight stages you arrive at 
 the city of Ken-zan-fu, 3 which was anciently the capital of an 
 extensive, noble, and powerful kingdom, the seat of many 
 kings, highly descended and distinguished in arms. 4 At the 
 present day it is governed by a son of the grand khan, named 
 Mangalu, upon whom his father has conferred the sovereignty.* 
 It is a country of great commerce, and eminent for its manu- 
 factures. Raw silk is produced in large quantities, and 
 
 1 The province of Shen-si is understood to have been the principal 
 seat of Christianity, when preached in this country, at an early period, 
 by the Nestorians. Being the most western of the provinces that com- 
 pose the empire of China, it was the easiest of access to those who 
 travelled by land from Syria, and other countries bordering on the 
 Mediterranean. 
 
 2 By Turkomans we are not to understand the Tartars of the Desert, 
 but merchants either from Turkomania of Asia Minor (the kingdom of 
 the Seljuks of Rum), or from Bokhara, formerly the capital of Turkis- 
 tan, a place of considerable traffic and civilization. 
 
 3 However different the name of Ken-zan-fu may be from Si-ngan-fu, 
 or Si-gan-fu (as it is more commonly written), circumstances show that 
 the eminent city described in the text is meant for the capital of the 
 province of Shen-si, which appears to be distant about nine stages from 
 the passage of the Hoang-ho. The practice of changing the appellations 
 (always significant) of important places, upon the accession of a new 
 family, is matter of notoriety ; and accordingly the several names of 
 Kan-chug, Yun-ghing, Chang-gan, and Ngan-si, which under the dynasty 
 of the Ming (Ib70) was reversed and made Si-ngan, are recorded as 
 having at different periods belonged to this city. 
 
 4 See Appendix II. 
 
 5 In a list of the sons of Kubla'i, given by De Guignes (Hist. ge"n. des 
 Huns, liv. xvi. p. 189), we find the third, there named Mangkola, to 
 have been governor of Shen-si, Se-chuen, and- Tibet.
 
 CITY OF KEN-ZAN-FU. 245 
 
 tissues of gold and every other kind of silk are woven there. 
 At this place likewise they prepare every article necessary for 
 the equipment of an army. All species of provisions are in 
 abundance, and to be procured at a moderate price. The 
 inhabitants in general worship idols, but there are some 
 Christians, Turkomans, and Saracens. 1 In a plain, about 
 five miles from the city, stands a beautiful palace belonging 
 to king Mangalu, embellished with many fountains and 
 rivulets, both within and on the outside of the buildings. 
 There is also a fine park, surrounded by a high wall, with 
 battlements, enclosing an extent of five miles, where all kinds 
 of wild animals, both beasts and birds, are kept for sport. In 
 its centre is this spacious palace, which, for symmetry and 
 beauty, cannot be surpassed. It contains many halls and 
 chambers, ornamented with paintings in gold and the finest 
 azure, as well as with great profusion of marble. Mangalu, 
 pursuing the footsteps of his father, governs his principality 
 with strict equity, and is beloved by his people. He also 
 takes much delight in hunting and hawking. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXV. 
 
 OF THE BOUNDARIES OP CATHAY AND MANJI. 
 
 TRAVELLING westward three days from the residence of 
 Mangalu, you still find towns and castles, whose inhabitants 
 subsist by commerce and manufactures, and where there is 
 an abundance of silk; but at the end of these three stages 
 you enter upon a region of mountains and valleys, which lie 
 within the province of Kun-kin. 2 This tract, however, has 
 no want of inhabitants, who are worshippers of idols, and 
 cultivate the earth. They live also by the chase, the land 
 
 1 " Les Mogols ou Yuen," says the younger De Guignes, " qui s'em- 
 parerent du trone en 1279 et chasserent les Song, amenerent un grand 
 nombre de Mussulmans. Ceux-ci furent tres-nombreux jusqu'a la 
 dynastie des Ming, qui commen^a a regner en 1368, apres avoir de"truit 
 les Tartares." 
 
 2 The country to which our author's description here applies is 
 evidently the province of Se-chuen, which lies south-westward frcm 
 Si-ngan-fu, and is a mountainous region.
 
 250 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 being much covered with woods. In these are found many 
 wild beasts, such as lions (tigers), bears, lynxes, fallow deer, 
 antelopes, stags, and many other animals, which are made to 
 turn to good account. This region extends to the distance 
 of twenty days' journey, during which the way. lies entirely 
 over mountains and through valleys and woods, but still 
 interspersed with towns where travellers may find convenient 
 accommodation. This journey of twenty days towards the 
 west being performed, you arrive at a place called Ach-baluch 
 Manji, which signifies, the white city 1 on the confines of Manji, 
 where the country becomes level, and is very populous. 
 The inhabitants live by trade and manual arts. Large quan- 
 tities of ginger are produced here, which is conveyed through 
 all the province of Cathay, with great advantage to the 
 merchants. 2 The country yields wheat, rice, and other grain 
 plentifully, and at a reasonable rate. This plain, thickly 
 covered with habitations, continues for two stages, after which 
 you again come to high mountains, valleys, and forests. 
 Travelling twenty days still further to the west, you con- 
 tinue to find the country inhabited, by people who worship 
 idols, and subsist upon the produce of their soil, as well as 
 that of the chase. Here also, besides the wild animals above 
 enumerated, there are great numbers of that species which 
 produces the musk. 
 
 1 It has been already noticed that baligh is a term used in Tartary 
 for " city," and ak, in the dialects of Turkistan, is known to signify 
 " white," which justifies our author's interpretation of the name ; but 
 why he should express it in the Tartar language, unless on the sup- 
 position of his having forgotten the Chinese appellation, does not 
 appear. I confess, also, that with such imperfect lights I am unable to 
 make any satisfactory conjecture with regard to its position ; and this 
 is the more to be regretted, as it would have enabled us to ascertain 
 the north-western limits of Manji, or Southern China. 
 
 2 It may be doubted whether the root here called ginger was not 
 rather intended for that which we call China-root, and the Chinese 
 fu-lin (smilax), produced in its greatest perfection in this province, and 
 for which, as it was at that period little if at all known in European 
 pharmacy, it might be found necessary to substitute a familiar term. 
 " La vraye racine de Sina," says P. Martini, " se trouve seulement dans 
 nette province ; pour la sauvage, on la trouve par tout." P. 79.
 
 PROVINCE OF SIN-DIN-FU. 25l 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVI. 
 
 OF THE PROVINCE OF SIN-DIN-FU, AND OF THE GREAT RIVER KIAN. 
 
 HAVING travelled those twenty stages through a mountainous 
 country, you reach a plain on the confines of Manji, where 
 there is a district named Sin-din-fu, by which name also the 
 large and noble city, its capital, formerly the seat of many 
 rich and powerful kings, is called. 1 The circumference of 
 the city is twenty miles ; but at the present day it is divided 
 in consequence of the following circumstances. The late old 
 king had three sons; and it being his wish that each of them 
 should reign after his death, he made a partition of the city 
 amongst them, separating one part from the other by walls, 
 although the whole continued to be surrounded by one 
 general enclosure. These three brothers accordingly became 
 kings, and each had for his portion a considerable tract of 
 country, the territory of their father having been extensive 
 and rich. But, upon its conquest by the grand khan, he 
 destroyed these three princes, and possessed himself of their 
 inheritance. 2 
 
 The city is watered by many considerable streams, which, 
 descending from the distant mountains, surround and pass 
 through it in a variety of directions. Some of these rivers 
 are half a mile in width, others are two hundred paces, and 
 very deep, over which are built several large and handsome 
 stone bridges, eight paces in breadth, their length being 
 
 1 This city, which in the Basle edition as well as in that of Ramusio 
 is named Sin-din-fu, in the older Latin Syn-dy-fu, and in the early 
 epitomes, Sindirifa, appears from the circumstances mentioned to be 
 that now called Ching-tu-fu, situated on the western side of the province 
 of Se-chuen, of which it is the capital. The western boundary of 
 Manji, as has been observed, is not well known, but it is evident from 
 the military operations of 1236 and 1238, that the Song, who then 
 ruled it, were masters of this city of Ching-tu. When taken by the 
 Mungals it is said (with no little exaggeration) that one million four 
 hundred thousand persons were put to the sword. Hist. gen. de la 
 Chine, torn. ix. p. 219. 
 
 2 The king here spoken of must have been a tributary either of the 
 Song or of the Mungals, and might be one of those who received the 
 Chinese title of Vang, and were more or less independent, according to 
 the energy of the general government.
 
 252 TRAVELS OF MA AGO POI.O. 
 
 or less according to the size of the stream. From 
 one extremity to the other there is a row of marble pillars 
 ou each side, which support the roof; for here the bridges 
 have very handsome roofs, constructed df wood, ornamented 
 with paintings of a red colour, and covered with tiles. 
 Throughout the whole length also there are neat apartments 
 and shops, where all sorts of trades are carried on. 1 One 
 of the buildings, larger than the rest, is occupied by the 
 officers who collect the duties upon provisions and merchan- 
 dise, and a toll from persons who pass the bridge. In this 
 way, it is said, his majesty receives daily the sum of a 
 hundred besants of gold. 2 These rivers, uniting their streams 
 below the city, contribute to form the mighty river called 
 the Kian, 3 whose course, before it discharges itself into the 
 ocean, is equal to a hundred days' journey; 4 but of its pro- 
 perties occasion will be taken to speak in a subsequent part 
 of this book. 
 
 On these rivers and in the parts adjacent are many towns 
 and fortified places, and the vessels are numerous, in which 
 large quantities of merchandise are transported to and 
 
 1 This peculiarity of the bridges in Se-chuen is not noticed in the 
 meagre accounts we have of that province, which all resolve them- 
 selves into the original information given by P. Martini, in his Atlas 
 Sinensis (1655). The Latin edition of our author states, that the 
 shops or booths were set up in the morning, and removed from the 
 bridge at night. 
 
 2 In the other versions, instead of a hundred, it is stated at a thou- 
 sand besants (or sequins). 
 
 3 The numerous streams by which the city of Ching-tu is surrounded, 
 form their junction successively, and discharge their united waters into 
 the great river Kiang, as is here described, but its distance from the 
 latter is more considerable than the words of the text would lead us to 
 suppose. In the Basle edition, indeed, the Kiang is said to pass 
 through the city; "per medium hujus civitatis transit fluvius qui 
 dicitur Quianfu (Kiang-su) ; " [in the Paris Latin text the name of the 
 river is Quingia-fu;] but besides that the nature of the river disproves 
 the fact, the mistake is explained by the Italian reading of the same 
 passage, in the early epitomes, where the expression is, "per mezo 
 c/tiesta terra passa uno grande fiume," by which is to be understood, 
 as terra is here distinguished from cittd, that it flowed through the 
 district. 
 
 4 In the Latin it is said to be ninety, and in the early Italian, seventy 
 stages or days' journey. The distance from the city of Su-cheu-fu, which 
 stands at the junction of the river that runs from Ching-tu, with the 
 
 is equal to about four-fifths of the breadth of China,
 
 THE PROVINCE OP THEBETH. 253 
 
 from the city. The people of the province are idolaters. 
 Departing from thence you travel five stages, partly along 
 a plain, and partly through valleys, where you see many 
 respectable mansions, castles, and small towns. The inhabit- 
 ants subsist by agriculture. In the city there are manu- 
 factures, particularly of very fine cloths and of crapes or 
 gauzes. 1 This country, like the districts already mentioned, 
 is infested with lions (tigers), bears, and other wild animals. 
 At the end of these five days' journey you reach the desolated 
 country of Thebeth. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVII. 
 
 OF THE PROVINCE OF THEBETH. 
 
 THE province named Thebeth 2 was laid entirely waste at the 
 time that Mangu-khan carried his arms into that country. 
 To the distance of twenty days' journey you see numberless 
 towns and castles in a state of ruin ; and in consequence of 
 the want of inhabitants, wild beasts, and especially tigers, 
 have multiplied to such a degree that merchants and other 
 travellers are exposed there to great danger during the night. 
 They are not only under the necessity of carrying their 
 provisions along with them, but are obliged, upon arriving 
 at their halting places, to employ the utmost circumspection, 
 and to take the following precautions, that their horses may 
 not be devoured. In this region, and particularly in the 
 neighbourhood of rivers, are found canes (bamboos) of the 
 length of ten paces, three palms in circumference, and three 
 palms also in the space between each knot or joint. Several 
 of these, in their green state, the travellers tie together, and 
 
 1 This sentence is a continuation of the account of Sin-din-fu, and 
 ought to have had place in an earlier part of the chapter. It shows 
 the inartificial manner in which the work was composed. 
 
 2 The name of Thebeth, Thibet, or Tibet, is sometimes confined to 
 that country, on the northern side of the Himalaya mountains, which 
 is under the immediate government of the Dalai lama and Panchin 
 lama, and sometimes is made to embrace the whole of what is other- 
 wise called Tangut, including the nations bordering on the provinces of 
 Se-chuen and Shen-si, whom the Chinese term the Si-fan or Tu-fan. It 
 appears to be of this eastern part, commencing at about five days' 
 journey from the city of Ching-tu, that our author proceeds to speak.
 
 254 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 place them, when evening approaches, at a certain distance 
 from their quarters, with a fire lighted around them, when, 
 by the action of the heat, they burst with a tremendous 
 explosion. 1 The noise is so loud as to be heard at the 
 distance of two miles, which has the effect of terrifying the 
 wild beasts and making them fly from the neighbourhood. 
 The merchants also provide themselves with iron shackles, in 
 order to fasten the legs of their horses, which would other- 
 wise, when alarmed by the noise, break their halters and run 
 away ; and, from the neglect of this precaution, it has hap- 
 pened that many owners have lost their cattle. Thus you 
 travel for twenty days through a desolated country, finding 
 neither inns nor provisions, unless perhaps once in three or 
 four days, when you take the opportunity of replenishing 
 your stock of necessaries. At the end of that period you 
 begin to discover a few castles and strong towns, built upon 
 rocky heights, or upon the summits of mountains, and 
 gradually enter an inhabited and cultivated district, where 
 there is no longer any danger from beasts of prey. 
 
 A scandalous custom, which could only proceed from the 
 blindness of idolatry, prevails amongst the people of these 
 parts, who are disinclined to marry young women so long as 
 they are in their virgin state, but require, on the contrary, 
 that they should have had previous commerce with many of 
 the other sex; and this, they assert, is pleasing to their 
 deities, and that a woman who has not had the company of 
 men is worthless. 2 Accordingly, upon the arrival of a cara- 
 van 3 of merchants, and as soon as they have set up their 
 tents for the night, those mothers who have marriageable 
 
 1 The very loud explosion of burning bamboos is well known to 
 those who have witnessed the conflagration of a village or a bazaar, in 
 countries where the buildings are of that material. What most resem- 
 bles it is the irregular but incessant firing of arms of all descriptions, 
 during a night of public rejoicing, in England. 
 
 2 P. Martini, speaking of the province of Yun-nan, which adjoins to 
 that of Tibet, says of its inhabitants : " Personne n'epousoit de fille 
 parmi eux, qu'un autre n'eust eu premierement sa compagnie : ce sont 
 les paroles de nostre auteur Chinois." P. 196. 
 
 3 This is the second instance in the course of the work of the employ- 
 ment of the word "caravan," taken from the Persian karwdn, and 
 adopted into most European languages. (See book ii. chap, xviii.) The 
 Arabic term, which we might have thought more likely to have been 
 introduced by the Crusaders, is Ictifilah.
 
 IMMORAL CUSTOMS OF THEBETH. 255 
 
 daughters conduct them to the place, and each, contending 
 for a preference, entreats the strangers to accept of her 
 daughter and enjoy her society so long as they remain in the 
 neighbourhood. 1 Such as have most beauty to recommend 
 them are of course chosen, and the others return home 
 disappointed and chagrined, whilst the former continue with 
 the travellers until the period of their departure. They then 
 restore them to their mothers, and never attempt to carry 
 them away. It is expected, however, that the merchants 
 should make them presents of trinkets, rings, or other com- 
 plimentary tokens of regard, which the young women take 
 home with them. When, afterwards, they are designed for 
 marriage, they wear all these ornaments about the neck or 
 other part of the body, and she who exhibits the greatest 
 number of them is considered to have attracted the attention 
 of the greatest number of men, and is on that account in 
 the higher estimation with the young men who are looking out 
 for wives ; nor can she bring to her husband a more accept- 
 able portion than a quantity of such gifts. At the solem- 
 nization of her nuptials, she accordingly makes a display of 
 them to the assembly, and he regards them as a proof that 
 their idols have rendered her lovely in the eyes of men. 
 From thenceforward no person can dare to meddle with her 
 who has become the wife of another, and this rule is never in- 
 fringed. These idolatrous people are treacherous and cruel, 
 and holding it no crime or turpitude to rob, are the greatest 
 thieves in the world. 2 They subsist by the chase and by 
 fowling, as well as upon the fruits of the earth. 
 
 Here are found the animals that produce the musk, and 
 such is the quantity, that the scent of it is diffused over the 
 whole country. Once in every month the secretion takes 
 
 1 Such is the depravity of human nature, that not only the moral 
 but the instinctive principle may be subdued by the thirst of gain or 
 the cravings of appetite. In his journey through Cooch Bahar on the 
 road to Tibet, Turner observes that " nothing is more common than to 
 see a mother dress up her child, and bring it to market, with no other 
 hope, no other view than to enhance the price she may procure for it." 
 Embassy to Tibet, p. 11. 
 
 2 This thievish character may have belonged to the Si-fan, who 
 border on the Chinese provinces (as it has belonged to most borderers), 
 but travellers describe the manners of the people of Tibet Proper as 
 particularly ingenuous and honest.
 
 256 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 place, arid it forms itself, as has already been said, into a sort 
 of imposthume, or boil full of blood, near the navel ; and the 
 blood thus issuing, in consequence of excessive repletion, 
 becomes the musk. 1 Throughout every part of this region 
 the animal abounds, and the odour generally prevails. They 
 are called gudderi in the language of the natives, 2 and are 
 taken with dogs. These people use no coined money, nor 
 even the paper money of the grand khan, but for their 
 currency employ coral. 3 Their dress is homely, being of 
 leather, undressed skins, or of canvas. They have a language 
 peculiar to the province of Thebeth, which borders on Manji. 
 This was formerly a country of so much importance as to be 
 divided into eight kingdoms, containing many cities and 
 castles. Its rivers, lakes, and mountains are numerous. In 
 the rivers gold-dust is found in very large quantities. 4 Not 
 
 1 With respect to the supposed lunar influence on the secretion of 
 musk, Strahlenberg informs us that it is not at all times of the same 
 strength, but "is best in summer, in rutting time, and at the full of 
 the moon." P. 340. 
 
 2 The word gudderi, or any other approaching to it, is not to be 
 found in the vocabularies we have of the languages of Tartary. In the 
 northern parts, according to Bell, the animal is named kaberda, or 
 kabardyn according to Strahlenberg; and Kirkpatrick, in his account 
 of Nepaul, names it kastoora. It is not indeed improbable that gudderi 
 or gaddtri (as it is written in the Latin text) may be a corruption of 
 the Persian word kastdri, which is the common term for the drug in 
 every part of the East, and would be used by the Mahometan merchants 
 even on the borders of China. 
 
 3 It may not appear likely that the valuable red coral produced in 
 the Mediterranean should have been carried to the borders of China 
 in sufficient quantity to be there made use of as currency; nor is it 
 a substance so readily divisible as to be convenient for the purpose ; 
 but of its general use in the way of ornament ample proof is furnished 
 by Tavernier. It is remarkable that to the present day the people of 
 Tibet have no coinage of their own, but are supplied with a currency 
 by their neighbours of Nepal. 
 
 * Several of the streams which take their rise in the eastern parts of 
 Tibet, and by their junctions form the great rivers of China, yield 
 much gold, which is collected from their beds in grains or small lumps. 
 This is principally remarked of the Kin-sha-kiang. " De tant de 
 rivieres qu'on voit sur la carte," says Du Halde, " on ne peut dire 
 quelles sont celles qui fournissent tout Tor qui se transporte a la Chine 
 .... II faut qu'on en trouve dans les sables de plusieurs de cea 
 rivieres : il est certain que la grande riviere Kin-cha-kiang qui entre 
 dans la province d'Yun-nan, en charie beaucoup dans son sable, car son 
 nom aignifie, fleuve k sable d'or." (Tom. iv. p. 470.) " Les Tou-fan,
 
 MAKXERS OF THE TIBETANS. 257 
 
 only is the coral, before mentioned, used for money, but the 
 women also wear it about their necks, and with it ornament 
 their idols. 1 There are manufactures of camlet and of gold 
 cloth, and many drugs are produced in the country that have 
 not been brought to ours. These people are necromancers, 
 and by their infernal art perform the most extraordinary and 
 delusive enchantments that were ever seen or heard of. They 
 cause tempests to arise, accompanied with flashes of lightning 
 and thunderbolts, and produce many other miraculous effects. 
 They are altogether an ill-conditioned race. They have dogs 
 of the size of asses. 2 strong enough to hunt all sorts of wild 
 beasts, particularly the wild oxen, which are called beyamini* 
 and are extremely large and fierce. Some of the best laner 
 falcons are bred here, and also sakers, very swift of flight, 
 and the natives have good sport with them. This province 
 of Thebeth is subject to the grand khan, as well as all the 
 other kingdoms and provinces that have been mentioned. 
 Next to this is the province of Kaindu. 
 
 appellee Nan-mo, ont une riviere qui porte le nom de Ly-nieou, dans 
 laquelle il se trouve beaucoup d'or." Mem. cone, les Chinois, torn, 
 xiv. p. 183. 
 
 1 In describing the manners of a certain people in the Ava or Birmah 
 country, Dr. F. Buchanan observes that " some of the women wore 
 rich strings of coral round their necks." Syme's Embassy, p. 465. 
 
 2 This may appear to be an exaggeration, but other travellers de- 
 scribe the dogs of Tibet as of an uncommon size. " On the left," says 
 Turner, " was a row of wooden cages, containing a number of huge 
 dogs, tremendously fierce, strong, and noisy. They were natives of 
 Tibet; and whether savage by nature, or soured by confinement, they 
 were so impetuously furious, that it was unsafe, unless the keepers 
 were near, even to approach their dens." And in another place, " The 
 instant I entered the gate, to my astonishment, up started a huge dog, 
 big enough, if his courage had been equal to his size, to fight a lion." 
 (Embassy to Tibet, pp. 155 215.) Under this sanction our author 
 must stand excused of hyperbole, although some other accounts do not 
 convey an idea of the same magnitude. " One of them," says Captain 
 Raper, " was a remarkably fine animal, as large as a good-sized New- 
 foundland dog, with very long hair and a head resembling a mastiff's. 
 His tail was of an amazing length, like the brush of a fox, and curled 
 half-way over his back. He was however so fierce that he would allow 
 no stranger to approach him." Asiat. Res. vol. xL p. 529. 
 
 3 For an account of this animal, the bos grunniens, see before, p. 143, 
 notes * and *. Of the word beyamini (which does not occur either 
 in the Latin or the Italian epitomes) I can discover no trace. It may 
 be a corruption of brahmini. The animal is said to be called yak in 
 Tartary, cAowrt in Tibet, and suragdi in Hindustan.
 
 258 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVIII. 
 
 OF THE PROVINCE OF KAIN-DU. 
 
 KAIN-DU is a western province, which was formerly subject 
 to its own princes ; but, since it has been brought under the 
 dominion of the grand khan, it is ruled by the governors 
 whom he appoints. We are not to understand, however, that 
 it is situated in the western part (of Asia), but only that it 
 lies westward with respect to our course from the north- 
 eastern quarter. Its inhabitants are idolaters. It contains 
 many cities and castles, and the capital city, standing at the 
 commencement of the province, is likewise named Kain-du. 1 
 Near to it there is a large lake of salt water, in which are 
 found abundance of pearls, of a white colour, but not round. 2 
 So great indeed is the quantity, that, if his majesty permitted 
 every individual to search for them, their value would become 
 trifling ; but the fishery is prohibited to all who do not obtain 
 his licence. A mountain in the neighbourhood yields the 
 turquoise stone, the mines of which cannot be worked without 
 the same permission. 
 
 The inhabitants of this district are in the shameful and 
 odious habit of considering it no mark of disgrace that those 
 who travel through the country should have connexion with 
 their wives, daughters, or sisters ; but, on the contrary, when 
 strangers arrive, each householder endeavours to conduct one 
 of them home with him, and, giving up all the females of the 
 family to him, leaves him in the situation of master of the 
 house, and takes his departure. And while the stranger is 
 
 1 The city that in point of situation and other circumstances appears 
 to answer best to this description of Kain-du, is Yung-ning-tu, which 
 stands on the western side of the Ya-long-kiang, in about latitude 28 r ; 
 although from some resemblance of sound we might rather suppose it 
 fo be Li-kiang-tu, a city at no great distance from the former, but 
 standing on the western side of the Kin-sha-kiang, above its junction 
 with the former river. 
 
 2 I do not find it elsewhere asserted that the lake near Yung-ning-tu 
 yields pearls, but they are enumerated by Martini amongst the valuable 
 productions of that part of China : " On tire encore de cette province 
 des rubis, des saphirs, des agathes .... avec plusieurs pierres pre"- 
 cieuses, et des perles." (P. 194.) The fishery of pearls in a river of 
 Eiiateru Tartary is noticed by many writers.
 
 MONEY MADE OF SALT. 259 
 
 in the house, he places a signal at the window, as his hat or 
 some other thing; and as long as this signal is seen in the 
 house, the husband remains absent. And this custom pre- 
 vails throughout that province. This they do in honour of 
 their idols, believing that by such acts of kindness and hospi- 
 tality to travellers a blessing is obtained, and that they shall 
 be rewarded with a plentiful supply of the fruits of the earth. 
 The money or currency they make use of is thus prepared. 
 Their gold is formed into small rods, and (being cut into 
 certain lengths) passes according to its weight, without any 
 stamp. 1 This is their greater money: the smaller is of the 
 following description. In this country there are salt-springs, 
 from which they manufacture salt by boiling it in small 
 pans. 2 When the water has boiled for an hour, it becomes a 
 kind of paste, which is formed into cakes of the value of two- 
 pence each. These, which are flat on the lower, and convex on 
 the upper side, are placed upon hot tiles, near a fire, in order 
 to dry and harden. On this latter species of money the stamp 
 of the grand khan is impressed, and it cannot be prepared 
 by any other than his own officers. Eighty of the cakes are 
 made to pass for a saggio of gold. 3 But when these are carried 
 by the traders amongst the inhabitants of the mountains and 
 other parts little frequented, they obtain a saggio of gold for 
 sixty, fifty, or even forty of the salt-cakes, in proportion as 
 
 1 This substitute for coin resembles the farm of the Gulf of Persia, 
 but with the difference, that the latter bears an imperfect stamp. In 
 those districts of Sumatra where gold-dust is procured, commodities of 
 all kinds, even so low as the value of a single grain, are purchased with 
 it. The forming the metal into rods, and cutting off pieces as they are 
 wanted for currency, may be considered as one step towards a coinage. 
 The Chinese of Canton cut the Spanish dollar in the same manner to 
 make up their fractional payments. 
 
 3 P. Martini, in describing the town of Yao-gan, in the same pro- 
 vince, says : " Pres de la ville il y a un puits d'eau salee ; on en puise 
 pour faire du sel, qui eat tres-blanc, dont on se s^rt dans tout le pays, 
 et s'appelle Pe-yen-cing, c'est-a-dire le puitt du sel blanc." (P. 204.) The 
 name of Pe-yen-cing appears in Du Halde's map of Yun-nan. 
 
 3 The saggio of Venice was the sixth part of an ounce, and con- 
 sequently the cake of salt was in value the four hundred and eightieth 
 part of an ounce of gold, which, at the price of four pounds sterling, 
 is exactly twopence for the value of each cake : a coincidence that 
 could hardly have been expected. Its precision, however, must depend 
 on a comparison between the English pence and Venetian denari of 
 that day. 
 
 f 2
 
 200 TRAVELS OF WARCO POLO. 
 
 they find the natives less civilized, further removed from the 
 towns, and more accustomed to remain on the same spot; 
 inasmuch as people so circumstanced cannot always have a 
 market for their gold, musk, and other commodities. And yet 
 even at this rate it answers well to them who collect the 
 gold-dust from the beds of the rivers, as has been mentioned. 
 The same merchants travel in like manner through the 
 mountainous arid other parts of the province of Thebeth, last 
 spoken of, where the money of salt has equal currency. Their 
 profits are considerable, because these country people con- 
 sume the salt with their food, and regard it as an indis- 
 pensable necessary; whereas the inhabitants of the cities use 
 for the same purpose only the broken fragments of the cakes, 
 putting the whole cakes into circulation as money. Heie also 
 the animals called gudderi, which yield the musk, are taken 
 in great numbers, and the article is proportionably abun- 
 dant. 1 Many fish, of good kinds, are caught in the lake. In 
 the country are found tigers, bears, deer, stags, and antelopes. 
 There are numerous birds also, of various sorts. The wine is 
 not made from grapes, but from wheat and rice, with a mix- 
 ture of spices, which is an excellent beverage. 
 
 This province likewise produces cloves. The tree is small ; 
 the branches and leaves resemble those of the laurel, but are 
 somewhat longer and narrower. Its flowers are white and 
 small, as are the cloves themselves, but as they ripen they 
 become dark-coloured. Ginger grows there and also cassia in 
 abundance, besides many other drugs, of which no quantity 
 is ever brought to Europe. 2 Upon leaving the city of -Kain-du, 
 the journey is fifteen 3 days to the opposite boundary of the 
 
 1 The western parts of China and eastern of Tibet, or the country of 
 the Si-fan, are those in which the best musk is found. Martini, in his 
 Atlas Sinensis, speaks of it as the production of various places in 
 Yun-nan. 
 
 2 This appears to be the most unqualified error that has hitherto 
 occurred in the course of the work, as cloves' (ffarofali) and cassia or 
 cinnamon (canella) certainly do not grow in that part of the world, nor 
 anywhere beyond the tropics. The only manner in which it is possible 
 to account for an assertion so contrary to fact, is by supposing that a 
 detached memorandum of what our author had observed in the spice 
 islands (which there is great probability of his having visited whilst in 
 the service of the emperor) has been introduced in a description where 
 it is entirely irrelevant. 
 
 3 [Some of the early texts have ten instead of fifteen.]
 
 THE PROVINCE OF KARAIAX. 261 
 
 province ; in the course of which you meet with respectable 
 habitations, many fortified posts, and also places adapted to 
 hunting and fowling. The inhabitants follow the customs 
 and manners that have already been described. At the end 
 of these fifteen days, you come to the great river Brius, which 
 bounds the province, and in which are found large quantities 
 of gold-dust. 1 It discharges itself into the ocean. We shall 
 now leave this river, as nothing further that is worthy of 
 observation presents itself, and shall proceed to speak of the 
 province of Karaian. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIX. 
 
 OF THE GREAT PROVINCE OP KARAIAN, AND OF YACHI ITS PRINCIPAL 
 CITY. 
 
 HAVING passed the river above mentioned, you enter the pro- 
 vince of Karaian, which is of such extent as to be divided 
 into seven governments. 2 It is situated towards the west ; 
 
 1 However unlike a Chinese or Tartar word, most of the editions 
 agree in the orthography of the name of Brius given to this river, 
 which seems to be intended for the Kin-sha-kiang, or " river with the 
 golden sands.' 1 But if, on the other hand, Li-kiang-tu, which is situated 
 on its south-western side, should be considered as the Kain-du of the 
 text, it will follow that the Brius is either the Lan-tsan-kiang, or the 
 Nu-kiang, presumed to be the Irabatty of the kingdom of Ava. " The 
 river Nou-kian," says Major Rennell, "little if at all inferior to the 
 Ganges, runs to the south, through that angle of Yunan which ap- 
 proaches nearest to Bengal." (Memoir, 3d edit. p. 295.) [In the Paris 
 Latin text it is Ligays ; and in the early Italian, Brunis.] 
 
 2 Karaian is generally understood to be the province of Yun-nan, or 
 rather its north-western part, which is bounded, in great measure, by 
 the Kin-eha-kiang. In the "Account of an Embassy to Ava," we find 
 mention made of a race of people whose name corresponds with that of 
 Karaian, and who may have been prisoners of war brought from the 
 neighbouring country of Yun-nan, with which the people of Ava were 
 often in hostility, aiid distributed in the latter us colonists. " He told 
 me," says Colonel Symes, speaking of a respectable Italian missionary, 
 " of a singular description of people called Carayners, or Carianers, that 
 inhabit different parts of the country. . . . He represented them as a 
 simple, innocent race, speaking a language distinct from that of the 
 Birmans, and entertaining rude notions of religion. They lead quite a 
 pastoral life, and are the most industrious subjects of the state. . . . 
 Agriculture, the care of cattle, and rearing poultry is almost their only
 
 262 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 the inhabitants are idolaters; and it is subject to the dominion 
 of the grand khan, who has constituted as its king his son 
 named Cen-Temur, a rich, magnificent, and powerful prince, 
 endowed with consummate wisdom and virtue, and by whom 
 the kingdom is ruled with great justice. 1 In travelling from 
 this river five days' journey, in a westerly direction, you pass 
 through a country fully inhabited, and see many castles. The 
 inhabitants live upon flesh meat and upon the fruits of the 
 earth. Their language is peculiar to themselves, and is difficult 
 to be acquired. The best horses are bred in this province. 2 At 
 the end of these five days you arrive at its capital city, which 
 is named Yachi, and is large and noble. 3 In it are found 
 merchants and artisans, with a mixed population, consisting 
 of (the native) idolaters, Nestorian Christians, and Saracens 
 or Mahometans; but the first is the most numerous class. 
 The land is fertile in rice and wheat. The people, however, 
 do not use wheaten bread, which they esteem unwholesome, 
 but eat rice; and of the other grain, with the addition of 
 
 occupation. A great part of the provisions used in the country ia 
 raised by the Carianers, and they particularly excel in gardening." (Pp. 
 207-467.) By Dr. F. Buchanan the name is written Karayn ; and he 
 speaks also of the Ka-kiayn, " a wild people on the frontiers of China." 
 Asiat. Res. vol. vi. p. 228. 
 
 1 This prince is named in the B. M. and Berlin manuscripts, Gusen- 
 temur ; in the Basle edition, Esen-temur ; and in the Italian epitomes, 
 Hensen-temur. In the Tables Chronologiques of De Guignes he is 
 simply called Timour-khan ; but one of his successors (a nephew) 
 appears in the same list by the name of Yeson-timour, which, whether 
 more or less correct in its orthography than any of the preceding, is 
 evidently intended for the same appellation. He was, however, the 
 grandson, not the son of Kubla'i, whom he succeeded in consequence of 
 the premature death of his father Chingis. 
 
 3 " Ce pays," says P. Martini, " produit de tres-bons chevaux, de 
 basse taille pour la pluspart, mais forts et hardis." (P. 196.) This is 
 probably the same breed as the tangun or tanyan horses of Lower 
 Tibet, carried from thence for sale to Hindustan. The people of Butan 
 informed Major Rennell that they brought their tanyans thirty-five 
 days' journey to the frontier. 
 
 3 The present capital of the province of Yun-nan is a city of the 
 same name; but there appears reason to conclude that, although the 
 Karaian of our author be a part of that province, its city of Jaci, r 
 Yachi, was not Yun-nan-fu, but Tali-fu, now considered as the second 
 in rank. This, as we are informed by P. Martini, was named Ye-chu by 
 the prince who founded it, and Yao-cheu by a subsequent dynasty ; 
 whilst the name of Tali was given to it by one of the Yuen or family 
 of Kubla'i.
 
 THE PROVINCE OF KARAIAN. 263 
 
 % 
 
 spices, they make wine, which is clear, light-coloured, and 
 most pleasant to the taste. 1 For money they employ the 
 white porcelain shell, found in the sea, and these they also 
 wear as ornaments about their necks. 2 Eighty of the shells 
 are equal in value to a saggio of silver or two Venetian 
 groats, and eight saggi of good silver, to one of pure gold. 3 
 In this country also there are salt-springs, from which all the 
 salt used by the inhabitants is procured. The duty levied 
 on this salt produces a large revenue to the king. 
 
 The natives do not consider it as an injury done to them. 
 
 1 Our author, who seems to have been of a sociable disposition, 
 misses no opportunity of praising the good qualities of this liquor ; but 
 modern travellers, from prejudices perhaps, do not speak of it in such 
 advantageous terms. It is a kind of beer rather than of wine. 
 
 2 These are the well-known cowries (tan) of Bengal, called by our 
 naturalists Cypnziz monetcg, which in former times may have found 
 their way, through the province of Silhet, to the countries bordering 
 on China, and were probably current in Tun-nan before its moun- 
 taineers were brought under regular subjection, and incorporated with 
 the empire, which was a difficult and tedious measure of policy, chiefly 
 effected by transplanting colonies of Chinese from the interior. " In 
 1764," says Major Rennell, " I was told that Silhet (an inland province 
 to the north-east of Bengal) produced cowries, and that they were dug 
 up. This, of course, I disbelieved ; but when I was there in 1767 and 
 1768, I found no other currency of any kind in the country ; and upon 
 an occasion when an increase in the revenue of the province was 
 enforced, several boat-loads (not less than fifty tons each) were col- 
 lected and sent down the Burrampooter, to Dacca. Their accumulation 
 was probably the consequence of Silhet being, at that period, the most 
 remote district in which they passed current, and from whence they 
 could not find a way out but by returning to Bengal." It is not 
 uncommon to suppose that this genus of shells, called p&rcellana, 
 derives its appellation from the variegated appearance of its polished 
 coat, resembling the glazed earthenware or porcelain of China ; but the 
 early use of the word by our author renders it more likely that the 
 shell having already obtained the name of porcetlana (a diminutive of 
 porco), on account of the gibbous form of its back, the foreign ware was 
 subsequently called porcelain in Europe, from its possessing some of 
 the most beautiful qualities of the shell 
 
 3 According to this estimation, if the numbers be correct, the value 
 of the cowries must have been enormously increased by their carriage 
 from Bengal to the frontiers of China. Their average price in the 
 bazaar of Calcutta is said to be about five thousand for a rupee, which 
 may be considered as equal to three saggi of silver ; and if sold at 
 eighty for the saggio, the profit would consequently be at the rate of 
 five thousand for two hundred and forty, or more than twenty for one. 
 Perhaps, therefore, instead of eighty, we should read eight hundred 
 cowries to the saggio, which would still leave a profit of cent, per cent.
 
 Zb4 TllAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 
 
 when others have connexion with their wives, provided the 
 act be voluntary on the woman's part. Here there is a lake 
 nearly a hundred miles in circuit, in which great quantities 
 of various kinds of fish are caught ; some of them being of a 
 large size. The people are accustomed to eat the undressed 
 flesh of fowls, sheep, oxen, and buffaloes, but cured in the 
 following manner. They cut the meat into very small par- 
 ticles, and then put it into a pickle of salt, with the addition 
 of several of their spices. It is thus prepared for persons of 
 the higher class, but the poorer sort only steep it, after 
 mincing, in a sauce of garlic, and then eat it as if it were 
 dressed. 
 
 CHAPTER XL. 
 
 OP THE PROVINCE NAMED KARAZAN. 
 
 LEAVING the city of Yachi, and travelling ten days in a 
 westerly direction, you reach the province of Karazan, which 
 is also the name of its chief city. 1 The inhabitants are idol- 
 aters. The country belongs to the dominion of the grand 
 khan, and the royal functions are exercised by his son, named 
 Kogatin. 2 Gold is found in the rivers, both in small particles 
 and in lumps ; and there are also veins of it in the mountains. 
 In consequence of the large quantity obtained, they give a 
 saggio of gold for six saggi of silver. They likewise use the 
 
 1 This name of Karazan, which a Chinese might be supposed to pro- 
 nounce Ka-la-shan, seems to be only that of another portion of the pro- 
 vince of Yun-nan ; as the places mentioned in the subsequent chapter 
 unquestionably are : but so imperfect is our information respecting this 
 part of the country, that the means are wanting by which its particular 
 situation might be ascertained. It should be remarked, at the same 
 time, that the name of Karazan, as distinct from that of Karaian, does 
 not occur either in the Latin or in the early epitomes ; all the circum- 
 stances related in this chapter being there considered as applying to 
 the last-mentioned province or district. 
 
 2 The name of Kogatin does not appear in the list of the legitimate 
 sons of Kubla'i ; but he had many others. The orthography, however, is 
 more than usually uncertain. In the B. M. and Berlin manuscripts the 
 name is written 0-igaam; in the old Latin edition it is Cogatuy; in 
 the Basle, Cogracain (Cogra-khan) ; and in the early Italian epitomes, 
 Cocagio.
 
 GREAT SERPENT OF KARAZAX. 265 
 
 before-mentioned porcelain shells in currency; which, how- 
 ever, are not found in this part of the world, but are brought 
 from India. As I have said before, these people never take 
 virgins for their wives. 
 
 Here are seen huge serpents, ten paces in length, and ten 
 spans in the girt of the body. At the fore-part, near the 
 head, they have two short legs, having three claws like those 
 of a tiger, with eyes larger than a fourpenny loaf (pane da 
 quattro denari] and very glaring. The jaws are wide enough 
 to swallow a man, the teeth are large and sharp, and their 
 whole appearance is so formidable, that neither man, nor any 
 kind of animal, can approach them without terror. 1 Others 
 are met with of a smaller size, being eight, six, or five paces 
 long; and the following method is used for taking them. In 
 the day-time, by reason of the great heat, they lurk in 
 caverns, from whence, at night, they issue to seek their food, 
 and whatever beast they meet with and can lay hold of, 
 whether tiger, wolf, or any other, they devour ; after which 
 they drag themselves towards some lake, spring of water, or 
 river, in order to drink. By their motion in this way along 
 the shore, and their vast weight, they make a deep impi-essiou, 
 as if a heavy beam had been drawn along the sands. Those 
 whose employment it is to hunt them observe the track by 
 which they are most frequently accustomed to go, and fix 
 into the ground several pieces of wood, armed with sharp 
 iron spikes, which they cover with the sand in such a manner 
 as not to be perceptible. When therefore the animals make 
 their way towards the places they usually haunt, they are 
 wounded by these instruments, and speedily killed. 2 The 
 crows, as soon as they perceive them to be dead, set up their 
 scream ; and this serves as a signal to the hunters, who ad- 
 vance to the spot, and proceed to separate the skin from the 
 flesh, taking care immediately to secure the gall, which is 
 most highly esteemed in medicine. In cases of the bite of a 
 
 1 This distorted account of the alligator or crocodile is less creditable 
 to our author's fidelity than any other of his natural history descrip- 
 tions, although generally more or less defective. 
 
 2 The natives of India are particularly ingenious in their con- 
 trivances for destroying beasts of prey, particularly the tiger, which is 
 sometimes made to fall upon sharp-pointed stakes, after walking up au 
 inclined plane ; but the alligator is most commonly taken in the water, 
 with a lar^e hook.
 
 266 TRAVELS OF MAKCO POLO. 
 
 mad dog, a pennyweight of it, dissolved in wine, is admi- 
 nistered. It is also useful in accelerating parturition, when 
 the labour pains of women have come on. A small quantity 
 of it being applied to carbuncles, pustules, or other eruptions 
 on the body, they are presently dispersed ; and it is efficacious 
 in many other complaints. The flesh also of the animal ia 
 sold at a dear rate, being thought to have a higher flavour 
 than other kinds of meat, and by all persons it is esteemed a 
 delicacy. 1 In this province the horses are of a large size, and 
 whilst young, are carried for sale to India. It is the practice 
 to deprive them of one joint of the tail, in order to prevent 
 them from lashing it from side to side, and to occasion its 
 remaining pendent; as the whisking it about, in riding, 
 appears to them a vile habit. 2 These people ride with long 
 stirrups, as the French do in our part of the world ; whereas 
 the Tartars, and almost all other people, wear them short, for 
 the more conveniently using the bow; as they rise in their 
 stirrups above the horse, when they shoot their arrows. 
 They have complete armour of buffalo-leather, and cany 
 lances, shields, and cross-bows. All their arrows are poisoned. 
 I was assured, as a certain fact, that many persons, and espe- 
 cially those who harbour bad designs, always carry poison 
 about them, with the intention of swallowing it, in the event 
 of their being apprehended for any delinquency, and exposed 
 to the torture, that, rather than suffer it, they may effect their 
 own destruction. But their rulers, who are aware of this 
 practice, are always provided with the dung of dogs, which 
 they oblige the accused to swallow immediately after, as it 
 occasions their vomiting up the poison, 3 and thus an antidote 
 
 1 The flesh of the guana or inguana, an animal intermediate in size 
 between the lizard and the alligator, I have known to be eaten both by 
 Chinese and Europeans, and by the former at least to be considered as 
 a delicacy. I cannot assert the same of the alligator, but in a book of 
 Natural History I read that " the Africans and Indians eat its flesh, 
 which is white, and of a kind of perfumed (musky) flavour." 
 
 2 It appears from hence* that the practice of docking the tails of 
 horses, by separating one or more of the vertebrae, which has become 
 so common in England, existed many hundred years ago amongst the 
 people of Yun-nan, in the remotest part of China. 
 
 3 Such might have been the vulgar belief respecting the substance 
 employed as an emetic on these occasions, although perhaps with as 
 little foundation as the idea entertained by the common people in 
 England that ipecacuanha is the powder of human bones.
 
 INHOSPITABLE CUSTOM. 267 
 
 6 ready against the arts of these wretches. Before the time 
 pf their becoming subject to the dominion of the grand khan, 
 these people were addicted to the following brutal custom. 
 When any stranger of superior quality, who united personal 
 beauty with distinguished valour, happened to take up his 
 abode at the house of one of them, he was murdered during 
 the night; not for the sake of his money, but in order that 
 the spirit of the deceased, endowed with his accomplishments 
 and intelligence, might remain with the family, and that 
 through the efficacy of such an acquisition, all their concerns 
 might prosper. Accordingly the individual was accounted 
 fortunate who possessed in this manner the soul of any noble 
 personage ; and many lost their lives in consequence. But 
 from the time of his majesty's beginning to rule the country, 
 he has taken measures for suppressing the horrid practice, and 
 from the effect of severe punishments that have been inflicted, 
 it has ceased to exist. 
 
 CHAPTER XLL 
 
 OF THE PROVINCE OF KARDANDAN AND THE CITY OP VOCHAXG. 
 
 PROCEEDING five days' journey in a westerly direction from 
 Karazan, you enter the province of Kardandan, belonging to 
 the dominion of the grand khan, and of which the principal 
 city is named Vochang. 1 The currency of this country is 
 gold by weight, and also the porcelain shells. An ounce 
 of gold is exchanged for five ounces of silver, and a saggio of 
 gold for five saggi of silver; there being no silver mines in 
 this country, but much gold ; and consequently the merchants 
 
 1 What is here named the province of Kardandan, is in the B. M. 
 and Berlin manuscripts, and old Latin edition, written Ardandam, in 
 the Basle, Arcladam, and in the epitomes Caridi ; none of which can 
 be discovered in Du Halde's map ; but from the name of the chief city, i 
 which immediately follows, it is evident that the places spoken of are 
 still within the limits of the modern province of Yun-nan. The name, 
 indeed, of Vochang (or Vociam in the old Italian orthography), would 
 have been equally unascertainable with that of the province, but that 
 we are assisted in this instance by the readings of some of the other 
 versions. In the early Latin edition the word is Uncian, in the Basle, 
 Unchiam, and in the early edition of Venice, Nocian, which point out 
 the place to be the city of Yung-chang, in the western part of Yun-nan.
 
 268 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 who import silver obtain a large profit. Both the men and 
 the women of this province have the custom of covering their 
 teeth with thin plates of gold, which are fitted with great 
 nicety to the shape of the teeth, and remain on them con- 
 tinually. The men also form dark stripes or bands round 
 their arms and legs, by puncturing them in the following 
 manner. They have five needles joined together, which they 
 press into the flesh until blood is drawn ; and they then rub 
 the punctures with a black colouring matter, which leaves an 
 indelible mark. To bear these dark stripes is considered as 
 an ornamental and honourable distinction. 1 They pay little 
 attention to anything but horsemanship, the sports of the 
 chase, and whatever belongs to the use of arms and a military 
 life; leaving the entire management of their domestic con- 
 cerns to their wives, who are assisted in their duties by slaves, 
 either purchased or made prisoners in war. 
 
 These people have the following singular usage. As soon 
 as a woman has been delivered of a child, and, rising from 
 her bed, has washed and swathed the infant, her husband 
 immediately takes the place she has left, has the child laid 
 beside him, and nurses it for forty days. In the meantime, 
 the friends and relations of the family pay to him their visits 
 of congratulation ; whilst the woman attends to the business 
 of the house, carries victuals and drink to the husband in his 
 bed, and suckles the infant at his side. These people eat 
 their meat raw, or prepared in the manner that has been 
 described, and along with it eat rice. Their wine is manu- 
 factured from rice, with a mixture of spices, and is a good 
 beverage. 
 
 Tn this district they have neither temples nor idols, but 
 pay their worship to the elder or ancestor of the family, from 
 
 1 "D'autres se marquent diverses figures sur leur visage," says 
 Martini, speaking of the inhabitants of Yung-chang, " le percant avec 
 une aiguille, et appliquant du noir, comme plusieurs Indiens ont 
 accoustume de faire." Accounts of this practice of tattooing have 
 been rendered familiar to us by the voyages to the South Sea islands ; 
 but it prevails also amongst the Birmah people of the kingdom of Ava, 
 immediately contiguous to Yun-nan. The custom is noticed by the 
 old writers, and confirmed by the testimony of Colonel Byrnes, who 
 says : " They (the Binnans) tattoo their thighs and arms into various 
 fantastic shapes and figures, which they believe operate as a charm 
 against the weapons of their enemies." Embassy to Ava, p. 312.
 
 THE PROVINCE OP KARDAXDAV. 269 
 
 whom, they say, as they derive their existence, so to him they 
 are indebted for all that they possess. 1 They have no know- 
 ledge of any kind of writing, nor is this to be wondered at, 
 considering the rude nature of the country, which is a moun- 
 tainous tract, covered with the thickest forests. During the 
 summer season, the atmosphere is so gloomy and unwhole- 
 some, that merchants and other strangers are obliged to leave 
 the district, in order to escape from death. 2 When the 
 natives have transactions of business with each other, which 
 require them to execute any obligation for the amount of a 
 debt or credit, their chief takes a square piece of wood, and 
 divides it in two. Notches are then cut on it, denoting the 
 sum in question, and each party receives one of the corre- 
 sponding pieces, as is practised in respect to our tallies. Upon 
 the expiration of the term, and payment made by the debtor, 
 the creditor delivers up his counterpart, and both remain 
 satisfied. 
 
 Neither in this province, nor in the cities of Kaindu, 
 Vochang, or Yachi, are to be found persons professing the art 
 of physic. When a person of consequence is attacked with a 
 
 1 This appears to have reference to the extraordinary respect known 
 to be paid by the Chinese to their parents, or to the veneration, ap- 
 proaching to an idolatrous worship, in which they hold the manes of 
 their ancestors a superstition not only unconnected with the doctrines 
 of the two prevailing sects, but religiously observed by those who hold 
 the adoration of images in abhorrence. It seems probable that instead 
 of " il piu vecchio di casa," or according to the epitome, " lo mazor de 
 la casa," " the eldest person of the family," our author meant " the 
 common ancestor ;" for although the several descendants might subsist 
 upon the patriarchal bounty of the former, they cannot be understood 
 to have derived their possessions from him during his lifetime. 
 
 2 Districts lying near the base of great ranges of mountains, and 
 especially within the tropical latitudes, are always found to be un- 
 healthy. " At the foot of the Bootan mountains," says Turner, " a 
 plain extends for about thirty miles in breadth, choked, rather than 
 clothed, with the most luxuriant vegetation. The exhalations neces- 
 sarily arising from the multitude of springs which the vicinity of the 
 mountains produces, are collected and confined by these almost imper- 
 vious woods, and generate an atmosphere through which no traveller 
 ever passed with impunity." (Embassy, p. 21.) This pestilential quality 
 of the air extends westward, through what is called the Morung 
 country, and by analogy may be supposed to prevail on the eastern 
 side also, the Yun-nan mountains being of great height, whilst the 
 great JTu-kiang, said to be navigable between that province and Ava, 
 must flow chiefly through a plain and comparatively low country.
 
 270 TRAVELS OP MARCO POLO. 
 
 disorder, his family send for those sorcerers who offer sacn 
 fices to the idols, to whom the sick person gives an account 
 of the nature of his complaint. The sorcerers thereupon give 
 directions for the attendance of persons who perform on a 
 variety of loud instruments, in order that they may dance 
 and sing hymns in honour and praise of their idols; and 
 which they continue to do, until the evil spirit has taken 
 possession of one of them, when their musical exertions cease. 
 They then inquire of the person so possessed the cause of the 
 man's indisposition, and the means that should be used for 
 effecting his cure. The evil spirit answers by the mouth of 
 him into whose body he has entered, that the sickness has 
 been occasioned by an offence given to a certain deity. Upon 
 which the sorcerers address their prayers to that deity, 
 beseeching him to pardon the sinner, on the condition that 
 when cured he shall offer a sacrifice of his own blood. But if 
 the demon perceives that there is no prospect of a recovery, 
 he pronounces the deity to be so grievously offended that no 
 sacrifice can appease him. If, on the contrary, he judges that 
 a cure is likely to take place, he requires that an offering be 
 made of so many sheep with black heads; that so many 
 sorcerers, with their wives, be assembled, and that the sacri- 
 fice be performed by their hands ; by which means, he says, 
 the favour of the deity may be conciliated. The relations 
 comply immediately with all that has been demanded, the 
 sheep are slain, their blood is sprinkled towards the heavens, 
 the sorcerers (male and female) light up and perfume with 
 incense the whole house of the sick person, making a smoke 
 with wood of aloes. They cast into the air the water in 
 which the flesh has been seethed, together with some of the 
 liquor brewed with spices ; and then laugh, sing, and dance 
 about, with the idea of doing honour to their idol or divinity, 
 They next inquire of the demoniac whether, by the sacrifice 
 that has been made, the idol is satisfied, or if it is his com- 
 mand that another be yet performed. When the answer is, 
 that the propitiation has been satisfactory, the sorcerers of 
 both sexes, who had not ceased their songs, thereupon seat 
 themselves at the table, and proceed to feast on the meat that 
 had been offered in sacrifice, and to drink the spiced liquor, 
 of which a libation had been made, with signs of great hilarity. 
 Having finished their meal, and received their fees, they
 
 PRACTICES OF THE SORCERERS OF KARDANDAX. 271 
 
 return to their homes ; and if, through God's providence, the 
 patient recovers, they attribute his cure to the idol for whom 
 the sacrifice was performed; but if he happens to die, they 
 then declare that the rites had been rendered ineffective by 
 those who dressed the victuals having presumed to taste them 
 before the deity's portion had been presented to him. It 
 must be understood that ceremonies of this kind are not 
 practised upon the illness of every individual, but only per- 
 haps once or twice in the course of a month, for noble or 
 wealthy personages. They are common, however, to all the 
 idolatrous inhabitants of the whole provinces of Cathay and 
 Manji, amongst whom a physician is a rare character. And 
 thus do the demons sport with the blindness of these deluded 
 and wretched people. 1 
 
 CHAPTER XLTI. 
 
 OF THE MANNER IN WHICH THE GRAND KHAN EFFECTED THE CONQUEST 
 OF THE KINGDOM OF MIEN AND BANGALA. 
 
 BEFORE we proceed further (hi describing the country), we 
 shall speak of a memorable battle that was fought in this 
 kingdom of Vochaug (Unchang, or Yuu-chang). It happened 
 that in the year 1272 the grand khan sent an army into the 
 countries of Yochang and Karazan, for their protection and 
 defence against any attack that foreigners might attempt to 
 make ; 2 for at this period he had not as yet appointed 
 his own sous to the governments, which it was afterwards his 
 policy to do; as in the instance of Cen-temur, for whom those 
 places were erected into a principality. When the king of 
 
 1 The sorcerers or wizards here spoken of are evidently the shamans 
 or juggling priests of Fo, who are met with chiefly in the less civilized 
 regions of Tartary, but who probably find their way into all parte of 
 the Chinese empire. 
 
 2 This date of 1272 appears not only in Ramusio's text, but in that 
 of the Berlin manuscript and of the older Latin edition ; whilst in the 
 Basle copy (followed by Miiller) it is 1282. Some countenance is given 
 to the latter date by a passage in L'Histoire ge"n. de la Chine, torn. ix. 
 p. 411.
 
 272 TRAVELS OP MARCO POLO. 
 
 Mien l and Bangala, 2 in India, who was powerful in the num- 
 ber of his subjects, in extent of territory, and in wealth, 
 heard that an army of Tartars had arrived at Vochang, he 
 took the resolution of advancing immediately to attack it, 
 in order that by its destruction the grand khan should be 
 deterred from again attempting to station a force upon the 
 borders of his dominions. For this purpose he assembled 
 a very large army, including a multitude of elephants (an 
 animal with which his country abounds), upon whose backs 
 were placed battlements or castles, of wood, capable of con- 
 taining to the number of twelve or sixteen in each. With 
 these, and a numerous army of horse and foot, he took the 
 road to Vochang, where the grand khan's army lay, and en- 
 camping at no great distance from it, intended to give his 
 troops a few days of rest. As soon as the approach of the 
 king of Mien, with so great a force, was known to Nestardin, 3 
 who commanded the troops of the grand khan, although a 
 brave and able officer, he felt much alarmed, not having under 
 his orders more than twelve thousand men (veterans, indeed, 
 and valiant soldiers); whereas the enemy had sixty thousand, 
 besides the elephants armed as has been described. He did 
 not, however, betray any signs of apprehension, but descending 
 into the plain of Vochang, 4 took a position in which his flank 
 was covered by a thick wood of large trees, whither, in case 
 
 1 By P. Gaubil (or his commentator, P. Souciet), De Gxiignes, Grosier 
 and D'Anville, Mien has been considered as the name of the country of 
 Pegu, but it is plainly meant for the Birmah country, or, as we usually 
 term it, the kingdom of Ava, which nearly borders on the province of 
 Yun-nan, whilst the other lies far to the southward, and is unconnected 
 with any part of the Chinese territory. The name by which the Bir- 
 mahs call their own country is Myam-ma; by the Chinese writers it is 
 named Mien-tien. 
 
 2 In the Basle edition the words are, "rex Mien et rex Bangala," 
 implying two confederated sovereigns, but the whole context shows 
 that only one personage is intended, who might at that period have 
 styled himself king of Bangala as well as of Mien, from the circum- 
 stance of his having conquered some eastern district belonging to Ben- 
 gal, from which the country of Ava is separated only by forests. 
 
 3 This name, which in Ramusio's version is Nestardin, is elsewhere 
 written Neschardyn, Noscardyu, and Nastardyn; which are all corrup- 
 tions of the common Mahometan name of Nasr-eddin. 
 
 4 This we may presume to be the plain through which the Irabatty, 
 (otherwise written Irawaddy,) or great river of Ava runs, in the upper 
 >art of its course.
 
 GREAT BATTLE OF VOCHAXG. 273 
 
 of a furious charge by the elephants, which his troops might 
 not be able to sustain, they could retire, and from thence, iu 
 security, annoy them with their arrows. Calling together 
 the principal officers of his army, he exhorted them not to 
 display less valour on the present occasion than they had 
 done in all their preceding engagements, reminding them that 
 victory did not depend upon the number of men, but upon 
 courage and discipline. He represented to them that the 
 troops of the king of Mien and Bangala were raw and un- 
 practised in the art of war, not having had the opportunities 
 of acquiring experience that had fallen to their lot; that 
 instead of being discouraged by the superior number of their 
 foes, they ought to feel confidence in their own valour so 
 often put to the test; that their very name was a subject of 
 terror, not merely to the enemy before them, but to the whole 
 world; and he concluded by promising to lead them to cei-- 
 tain victoiy. Upon the king of Mien's learning that the 
 Tartars had descended into the plain, he immediately put his 
 army in motion, took up his ground at the distance of about 
 a mile from the enemy, and made a disposition of his force, 
 placing the elephants in the front, and the cavalry and 
 infantry, in two extended wings, in their rear, but leaving 
 between them a considerable interval. Here he took his own 
 station, and proceeded to animate his men and encourage 
 them to fight valiantly, assuring them of victory, as well 
 from the superiority of their numbers, being four to one, as 
 from their formidable body of armed elephants, whose shock 
 the enemy, who had never before been engaged with such 
 combatants, could by no means resist. Then giving orders 
 for sounding a prodigious number of warlike instruments, 
 he advanced boldly with his whole army towards that of the 
 Tartars, which remained firm, making no movement, but 
 suffering them to approach their entrenchments. They then 
 rushed out with great spirit and the utmost eagerness to 
 engage ; but it was soon found that the Tartar hoi-ses, unused 
 to the sight of such huge animals, with their castles, were terri- 
 fied, and wheeling about endeavoured to fly ; nor could their 
 ridei*s by any exertions restrain them, whilst the king, with 
 the whole of his forces, was every moment gaining ground. As 
 soon as the prudent commander perceived this unexpected 
 disorder, without losing his presence of mind, he instantly
 
 274 TKAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 adopted the measure of ordering his meu to dismount and 
 their horses to be taken into the wood, where they were 
 fastened to the trees. When dismounted, the men, without 
 loss of time, advanced on foot towards the line of elephants, 
 and commenced a brisk discharge of arrows; whilst, on the 
 other side, those who were stationed in the castles, and the 
 rest of the king's army, shot volleys in return with great 
 activity; but their arrows did not make the same impression 
 as those of the Tartars, whose bows were drawn with a stronger 
 arm. So incessant were the discharges of the latter, and all 
 their weapons (according to the instructions of their com- 
 mander) being directed against the elephants, these were 
 soon covered with arrows, and, suddenly giving way, fell back 
 upon their own people in the rear, who were thereby thrown 
 into confusion. It soon became impossible for their drivers 
 to manage them, either by force or address. Smarting under 
 the pain of their wounds, and terrified by the shouting of 
 the assailants, they were no longer governable, but without 
 guidance or control ran about in all directions, until at 
 length, impelled by rage and fear, they rushed into a pai*t of 
 the wood not occupied by the Tartars. The consequence of 
 this was, that from the closeness of the branches of large 
 trees, they broke, with loud crashes, the battlements or castles 
 that were upon their backs, and involved in the destruction 
 those who sat upon them. Upon seeing the rout of the 
 elephants the Tartars acquired fresh courage, and filing oft 
 by detachments, with perfect order and regularity, they re- 
 mounted their horses, and joined their several divisions, when 
 a sanguinary and dreadful combat was renewed. On the part 
 of the king's troops there was no want of valour, and he 
 himself went amongst the ranks entreating them to stand 
 firm, and not to be alarmed by the accident that had befallen 
 the elephants. But the Tartars, by their consummate skill 
 in archery, were too powerful for them, and galled them the 
 more exceedingly, from their not being provided with such 
 armour as was worn by the former. The arrows having been 
 expended on both sides, the men grasped their swords and 
 iron maces, and violently encountered each other. Then ii> 
 an instant were to be seen many horrible wounds, limbs dis- 
 membered, and multitudes falling to the ground, maimed 
 and dying; with such effusion of blood as was dreadful to
 
 GREAT BATTLE OF VCCHANG. 
 
 275 
 
 oehold So great also was the clangour of arms, and such 
 the sh ratings and the shrieks, that the noise seemed to 
 ascend to the skies. The king of Mien, acting as became 
 a valiant chief, was present wherever the greatest danger 
 appeared, animating his soldiers, and beseeching them to 
 maintain their ground with resolution. He ordered fresh 
 squadrons from the reserve to advance to the support of 
 those that were exhausted; but perceiving at length that it 
 was impossible any longer to sustain the conflict or to with- 
 stand the impetuosity of the Tartars, the greater part of his 
 troops being either killed or wounded, and all the field 
 covered with the carcases of men and horses, whilst those 
 who survived were beginning to give way, he also found 
 himself compelled to take to flight with the wreck of 
 his army, numbers of whom were afterwards slain in the 
 pursuit. 
 
 The losses in this battle, which lasted from the morning 
 till noon, were severely felt on both sides; but the Tartars 
 were finally victorious; a result that was materially to be 
 attributed to the troops of the king of Mien and Bangala not 
 wearing armour as the Tartars did, and to their elephants, 
 especially those of the foremost line, being equally without 
 that kind of defence, which, by enabling them to sustain the 
 first discharges of the enemy's arrows, would have allowed 
 them to break his ranks and throw him into disorder. A 
 point perhaps of still greater importance is, that the king 
 ought not to have made his attack on the Tartars in a posi- 
 tion where their flank was supported by a wood, but should 
 have endeavoured to draw them into the open country, where 
 they could not have resisted the first impetuous onset of the 
 armed elephants, and where, by extending the cavalry of his 
 two wings, he might have surrounded them. The Tartars 
 having collected their force after the slaughter of the enemy, 
 returned towards the wood into which the elephants had 
 fled for shelter, in order to take possession of them, where 
 they found that the men who had escaped from the over- 
 throw were employed in cutting down trees and barricading 
 the passages, with the intent of defending themselves. But 
 their ramparts were soon demolished by the Tartars, who 
 slew many of them, and with the assistance of the persons ac- 
 customed to the management of the elephants, they possessed 
 
 T2
 
 276 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 themselves of these to the number of two hundred or more. 
 From the period of this battle the grand khan has always 
 chosen to emploj' elephants in his armies, which before that 
 time he had not done. The consequences of the victory 
 were, that he acquired possession of the whole of the territories 
 of the king of Bangala and Mien, and annexed them to his 
 dominions. 
 
 CHAPTER XLIII. 
 
 OF AN UNINHABITED REGION, AND OF THE KINGDOM OF MIEN. 
 
 LEAVING the province of Kardandan, you enter upon a vast 
 descent, which you travel without variation for two days and 
 a half, in the course of which no habitations are to be found. 
 You then reach a spacious plain, 1 whereon, three days in every 
 week, a number of trading people assemble, many of whom 
 come down from the neighbouring mountains, bringing their 
 gold to be exchanged for silver, which the merchants who 
 repair thither from distant countries carry with them for this 
 purpose ; 2 and one saggio of gold is given for five of silver. 
 The inhabitants are not allowed to be the exporters of their 
 own gold, but must dispose of it to the merchants, who furnish 
 them with such articles as they require ; and as none but the 
 natives themselves can gain access to the places of their 
 residence, so high and strong are the situations, and so diffi- 
 
 1 This must be understood of the plain at the foot of the Yun-nan 
 mountains, already spoken of, from whence the river is said to be navi- 
 gable to Ava. 
 
 2 In consequence of the strict regulations of the Chinese with respect 
 to the admission of strangers within the bounds of the empire, it be- 
 comes necessary for the purposes of trade or exchange of commodities, 
 that fairs or markets should be held on the frontiers, where the mer- 
 chants arrive at stated times with their goods. " The principal article 
 of export from Ava," says Symes, " is cotton. This commodity is 
 transported up the Irrawaddy in large boats, as far as Bamoo, where it 
 is bartered at the common jee or mart, with Chinese merchants, and 
 conveyed by the latter, partly by land and partly by water, into the 
 Chinese dominions." (P. 325.) Thus also at the village of Topa, near 
 Sining, on the borders of Shen-si ; " On y trouve," says Du Halde, 
 " presque tout ce qu'on pen souhaiter de marchandises e"trangeres et 
 de la Chine, diverses drogues, du saffran, des dattes, .iu caffe', &c." 
 Torn. i. p. 40.
 
 THE CITY OF MIEN. 277 
 
 cult of approach, it is on this account that the transactions 
 of business are conducted in the plain. Beyond this, in 
 a southerly direction, towards the confines of India, lies the 
 city of Mien. 1 The journey occupies fifteen days, through 
 a country much depopulated, and forests abounding with 
 elephants, rhinoceroses, and other wild beasts, where there is 
 not the appearance of any habitation. 
 
 CHAPTER XLIV. 
 
 OF THE CITY OP MIEX, AXD OF A GRAND SEPULCHRE OF ITS KING. 
 
 AFTER the journey of fifteen days that has been mentioned, 
 you reach the city of Mien, which is large, magnificent, and 
 the capital of the kingdom. 2 The inhabitants are idolaters, 
 
 1 In this place there is a remarkable variation in the early Italian 
 epitome from all the other versions, and being of some importance in a 
 geographical point of view, I shall give the passage in its own words : 
 " Quando 1'huomo se parti de la provincia de Caraian ello trova una 
 grande desmontada par laquale ello va doe zornade pur descendendo, 
 in laqual non e habitatione alchuna ma sige (glie) uno logo in loqual se 
 fa festa tre di a la setemena. Ivi se da uno sazo doro per v. dargento. 
 E quando 1'homo & andado quelle v. zornade ello trova la provincia de 
 Michai laquale confina con 1' India et e verso lo mezo di. L'homo va 
 ben xv. zornade per salvazi paesi. Ivi se trova molti elephanti e uni- 
 corni e molte bestie salvaze e non ge (glie) niuna habitation. Quando 
 1'homo e andado xv. zornade ello trova una cita laqual ha nome Mien." 
 (Capitoli xc. et xci.) From hence it is to be understood that upon 
 descending from the heights of Karaian or Yun-nan, you do not imme- 
 diately enter the country of Mien or Ava Proper, but after a journey 
 of five days reach the province of Michai, which we may reasonably 
 suppose to be the Meckley of our maps; and from thence, after travel- 
 ling fifteen days through forests, arrive at the capital. " The space 
 between Bengal and China," says Major Eennel, " is occupied by the 
 province of Meckley, and other districts, subject to the king of Burmah 
 or Ava :" and again; "The king of Burmah, whose reputed capital is 
 Ava, and from whence the whole kingdom, though erroneously, is often 
 denominated, is said to possess not only the country of Meckley, in 
 addition to those of Pegu and Burmah, but also the whole tract which 
 lies on the north of it, between China, Thibet, and Assam." Mem. 3d 
 edit. pp. 295 297. The mention of this intermediate province adds 
 much to the consistency of the narrative. 
 
 2 The present capital, called Umnierapoora or Amrapura, is a city of 
 modern date. This of Mien must therefore either have been the old 
 city of Ava, now in ruins, or some one jf earlier times, the seat of
 
 278 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 and have a language peculiar to themselves. It is related 
 that there formerly reigned in this country a rich and power- 
 ful monarch, who, when his death was drawing near, gave 
 orders for erecting on the place of his interment, at the head 
 and foot of the sepulchre, two pyramidal towers, entirely of 
 marble, ten paces in height, of a proportionate bulk, and each 
 terminating with a ball. 1 One of these pyramids was covered 
 with a plate of gold an inch in thickness, so that nothing 
 besides the gold was visible ; and the other with a plate of 
 silver, of the same thickness. Around the balls were sus- 
 pended small bells of gold and of silver, which sounded when 
 put in motion by the wind. 2 The whole formed a splendid 
 object. The tomb was in like manner covered with a plate, 
 partly of gold and partly of silver. This the king commanded 
 to be prepared for the honour of his soul, and in order that 
 his memory might not perish. The grand khan, having re- 
 solved upon taking possession of this city, sent thither a 
 valiant officer to effect it, and the army, at its own desire, 
 was accompanied by some of the jugglers or sorcerers, of 
 whom there were always a great number about the court. 3 
 
 government having been often changed. " Pagahm," says Symes, " is 
 said to have been the residence of forty-five successive monarchs, and 
 was abandoned 500 years ago, in consequence of a divine admonition : 
 whatever may be its true history, it certainly was once a place of no 
 ordinary splendour." (P. 269.) The coincidence of dates is here 
 remarkable, as the elapsed period of five centuries would place the ruin 
 of Pagahm in 1295, or just about the time of the Mungal conquest. 
 
 1 Temples of a pyramidal form, both with square and circular bases, 
 are found wherever the religion of Buddha prevails. Many of these, on 
 a magnificent scale, are described by Colonel Symes, in the course of 
 his journey to Ava. 
 
 2 " Round the lower limb of the tee," says Symes, " are appended a 
 number of bells, which, agitated by the wind, make a continual 
 jingling." P. 189. 
 
 3 In Ramusio's text these persons who accompanied the army are 
 styled "giocolan overobujfbni," but in that of the early epitome, "zugolari 
 e incantadori," which gives an intelligible sense; as we know, both from 
 preceding passages of the work, and from general information of the 
 manners of these countries, that diviners or religious jugglers have 
 always formed a part of the staff of a military chief, who is either 
 influenced by their prognostications, or makes them subservient to his 
 designs. Purchas in his version calls them "jesters," but in Harris's 
 collection of voyages, edited by Campbell, and in some modern publi- 
 cations, the wortl "cavalry" is discreetly substituted, as being more 
 appropriate. There appears, however, to be something defective in the
 
 TOMB OF THE KINOt CF MTEX. 279 
 
 When these entered the city, they observed the two pyramids 
 so richly ornamented, but would not meddle with them until 
 his majesty's pleasure respecting them should be known. 
 The grand khan, upon being informed that they had been 
 erected in pious memory of a former king, would not suffer 
 them to be violated nor injured in the smallest degree ; the 
 Tartars being accustomed to consider as a heinous sin the 
 removal of any article appertaining to the dead. 1 In thi.s 
 country were found many elephants, large and handsome 
 wild oxen, 2 with stags, fallow deer, and other animals in great 
 abundance. 
 
 CHAPTER XLV. 
 
 OF THE PROVINCE OF BANGALA. 
 
 THE province of Bangala is situated on the southern confines 
 of India, 3 and was (not yet) brought under the dominion of 
 the grand khan at the time of Marco Polo's residence at his 
 court; (although) the operations against it occupied his army 
 for a considerable period, the country being strong and its 
 king powerful, as has been related. It has its peculiar lan- 
 guage. The people are worshippers of idols, and amongst 
 them there are teachers, at the head of schools for instruction 
 in the principles of their idolatrous religion and of necro- 
 mancy, whose doctrine prevails amongst all ranks, including 
 
 story, and that a sentence has been omitted, which should follow that 
 in which the appointment of a valiant officer is mentioned. [In the 
 Paris Latin text they are called histriones and joculatores.] 
 
 1 This laudable respect shown by the Tartar tribes to the sanctity of 
 the grave, has been the occasion of the Russians discovering in the 
 burial places of these people a great number and variety of undisturbed 
 articles, as well as large deposits of the precious metals, which former 
 conquerors had not presumed to violate. 
 
 2 This is not the chowry-tailed ox. yak, or bos grunniens, described 
 by Turner, ana mentioned by our author in a former chapter, which 
 is the native of a colder region, but the gayal, or bos yavcKus, an animal 
 found wild in the provinces on the eastern side of Bengal, and fully 
 described in vol. vili. of the Asiat. Researches. 
 
 3 Tbe name of Bangala, as applied in this place to the kingdom 
 of Bengal, approaches nearer to the genuine pronunciation and ortho- 
 graphy (Bangalah) than that in which we are accustomed to writs 
 the word.
 
 280 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 the nobles and chiefs of the country. 1 Oxen are found here 
 almost as tall as elephants, but not equal to them in bulk.' 2 
 The inhabitants live upon flesh, milk, and rice, of which they 
 have abundance. 3 Much cotton is grown in the country, and 
 trade flourishes. Spikenard, galangal, ginger, sugar, and many 
 sorts of drugs are amongst the productions of the soil; 4 to 
 purchase which the merchants from various parts of India 
 resort thither. They likewise make purchases of eunuchs, of 
 whom there are numbers in the country, as slaves ; for all the 
 
 1 This passage has an obvious reference to the Hindu schools of 
 philosophy, where the doctrine of the Vedas and Sastras is explained 
 by learned panditas and gurus, in all the principal cities of Bengal 
 and Hindustan. The cfi'handas, tantra sastra, or art of necromancy, is 
 considered by these people as one of the six great " angas or bodies of 
 learning." 
 
 2 If it were fair to justify one exaggeration by another, the authority 
 of a " British officer," quoted by Kerr and Turton in their translation 
 of the Systema Naturae of Linnaeus, might be adduced in support of 
 our author's account of the oxen of Bengal; the former of whom was 
 led to describe and figure, under the name of bos arnee, an animal four- 
 teen feet in height, (but reduced by the latter to eight feet,) said to 
 have been met in the country above Bengal; but which proves to be 
 only the wild buffalo, there called arna. The buffalo, however, or bos ' 
 bubalus, " a very large and formidable animal," is afterwards distinctly 
 mentioned by our author ; and what is here said can apply to no other 
 than the gaijal, or bos gavceus, which abounds in some of the eastern 
 districts, and can only in a figurative sense be compared to the 
 elephant. 
 
 3 Rice and milk are chief articles of sustenance with the natives of 
 Bengal ; but, although many of their castes are free from scruples about 
 eating any kind of meat excepting beef, the assertion is too strong that 
 flesh is their ordinary food. It is evident, indeed, that our author's 
 ideas of the country are formed upon what he had seen or learned of 
 the people inhabiting the mountainous districts by which Bengal is 
 bounded on the eastern side, where the manners are widely different 
 from those which prevail on the banks of the Ganges, and where the 
 gayal-ox, as well as deer, wild hogs, and wild animals in general, are 
 commonly eaten as food. The nature and extent of the scruples of 
 those amongst the mountaineers who profess Hinduism, may be judged 
 of from the following passages in a paper by Mr. Colebrooke, in the 
 Asiatic Researches : " The Hindus in this province (Chatgoan or Chit- 
 tagong) will not kill the gabay, which they hold in equal veneration 
 with the cow ; but the asl-gdyal, or selo'i, they hunt and kill, as they do 
 the wild buffalo. The animal here alluded to is another species of 
 f/aydl found wild in the hills." 
 
 4 These are well known productions of Bengal and the adjoining 
 provinces; particularly the article of sugar, which is extensively culti- 
 vated, and exported to many parts of Asia, as well as to Europe.
 
 THE PROVINCE OF KAXGIGU. 281 
 
 prisoners taken in war are presently emasculated ; and as 
 every prince and person of rank is desirous of having them 
 for the custody of their women, the merchants obtain a large 
 profit by carrying them to other kingdoms, and there dis- 
 posing of them. 1 This province is thirty days' journey in 
 extent, and at the eastern extremity of it lies a country 
 named Kangigu. 
 
 CHAPTER XLVI. 
 
 OF THE PROVINCE OF KANGIGU. 
 
 is a province situated towards the east, 2 and is 
 governed by a king. The people are idolaters, have a peculiar 
 language, and made a voluntary submission to the grand 
 khan, to whom they pay an annual tribute. The king is so 
 devoted to sensual pleasures, that he has about four hundred 
 wives; and when he hears of any handsome woman, he 
 sends for her, and adds her to the number. 3 Gold is found 
 
 1 That the courts and harams of India abounded with eunuchs, who 
 often attained to the highest offices of the state, appears frcm all the 
 histories of that country ; but it is not generally understood that any 
 number of them were supplied from Bengal. It must be observed, 
 indeed, that, with the exception of a few meagre notices in Ferishta's 
 history, we are ignorant of the affairs, and more especially of the man- 
 ners, of the people of that country in the thirteenth century ; and even 
 the dates of inscriptions on some of the principal buildings in Gaur, or 
 Luknauti, considered as its ancient capital, are no earlier than the 
 fifteenth. From the writings of Barbosa, however, which were finished 
 in 1516, and of the genuineness of which no well-informed reader can 
 doubt, we learn that in his time the practice of emasculation prevailed 
 there, although not amongst the Hindu natives, to whose ideas it would 
 be abhorrent 
 
 2 The country here named Kangigu, in the older Latin version 
 Kanziga, and in the early Italian epitome Cargingu, [in the Latin, 
 Talugigla,] appearing to lie in the route from the eastern part of Bengal 
 rewards the northern part of the Birmah country, may be either the 
 Cach'har situated between Silhet and Meckley, or else Kassay, between 
 the latter and Ava. The terminating syllable gu may probably be the 
 Chinese word koiie, or kue, " kingdom," which will be seen in the 
 Jesuits' .nap to prevail in that quarter. 
 
 3 In Mr. Colebrooke's paper (referred to in note s , p. 280) the raja of 
 Cach'har is spoken of as a Cshatriya of the Suryabansi race. In former 
 times \iis territory may have been more extensive, and his revenue
 
 282 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 here in large quantities, and also many kinds of drugs; but, 
 being an inland country, distant from the sea, there is little 
 opportunity of vending them. There are elephants in abun- 
 dance, and other beasts. The inhabitants live upon flesh, 
 rice, and milk. They have no wine made from grapes, but 
 prepare it from rice and a mixture of drugs. Both men and 
 women have their bodies punctured all over, in figures of 
 beasts and birds; and there are among them practitioners 
 whose sole employment it is to trace out these ornaments 
 with the point of a needle, upon the hands, the legs, and the 
 breast. When a black colouring stuff has been rubbed over 
 these punctures, it is impossible, either by water or otherwise, 
 to efface the marks. The man or woman who exhibits the 
 greatest profusion of these figures, is esteemed the most 
 handsome. 
 
 CHAPTER XLVII. 
 
 OF THE PROVINCE OF AMU. 
 
 AMU, also, is situated towards the east, 1 and its inhabitants 
 are subjects of the grand khan. They are idolaters, and live 
 upon the flesh of their cattle and the fruits of the earth. 
 They have a peculiar language. The country produces many 
 horses and oxen, which are sold to the itinerant merchants, 
 and conveyed to India. Buffaloes also, as well as oxen, are 
 numerous, 2 in consequence of the extent and excellence of 
 the pastures. Both men and women wear rings, of gold and 
 silver, upon their wrists, arms, and legs; but those of the 
 females are the more costly. The distance between this pro- 
 vince and that of Kangigu is twenty-five 3 days' journey, and 
 thence to Bangala is twenty days' journey. We shall now 
 speak of a province named Tholoman, situated eight days' 
 journey from the former. 
 
 more adequate to the maintenance of a haram of such magnitude, than 
 they are at the present day. The epitome reduces the number to one 
 hundred : " Lo re ha ben cento moiere." 
 
 1 Amu appears to correspond in situation with Bamu, which ia 
 described by Symea as a frontier province between the kingdom of the 
 Birmahs and Yun-nan in China. 
 
 2 These are the bos bubalits and bos yovceus. See note 2 , p. 280. 
 
 3 [The Paris Latin text reads fifteen.]
 
 PROVINCE OF THOLOMAX. 283 
 
 CHAPTER XLYIII. 
 
 OF THOLOMAX. 
 
 THE province of Tholoman lies towards the east, 1 and its 
 inhabitants are idolaters. They have a peculiar language, 
 and are subjects of the grand khan. The people are tall and 
 good-looking; their complexions inclining rather to brown 
 than fair. They are just in their dealings, and brave in war. 
 Many of their towns and castles are situated upon lofty 
 mountains. They burn the bodies of their dead; and the 
 bones that are not reduced to ashes, they put into wooden 
 boxes, and carry them to the mountains, where they conceal 
 them in caverns of the rocks, in order that no wild animal 
 may disturb them. 2 Abundance of gold is found here. For 
 the ordinary small currency they use the porcelain shells 
 that come from India; and this sort of money prevails also 
 in the two before-mentioned provinces of Kaugigu and Amu. 
 Their food and drink are the same that has been already 
 mentioned. 
 
 1 Xo name resembling Tholoman, Toloman, or Coloman. as the word 
 appears in different versions, is to be found in any map or description 
 of these parts ; but as the circumstances stated render it probable that 
 the country spoken of is that of the people variously called Birmahs, 
 Burmahs, Bomans, and Bunnans, we may conjecture that the word 
 was intended for Po-lo-man, which is known to be the mode in which 
 the Chinese pronounce Burman and Brahman, and by which they often 
 designate the people of India in general. 
 
 2 The ceremonies practised by certain mountaineers of Ava or the 
 Burmah country, named Kayn, bear a strong resemblance to what is 
 here described : " They burn their dead," says Symes, " and afterwards 
 collect their ashes in an urn, which they convey to a house, where, if 
 the urn contains the relics of a man, they keep it six days, if of a 
 woman, five ; after which it is carried to the place of interment and 
 deposited in a grave, and on the sod that covers it is laid a wooden 
 image of the deceased to pray to the mourning (deity) and protect the 
 bones and ashes." He added, " that the mourning resided on the great 
 mountain Gnowa. where the images of the dead are deposited." Em- 
 bassy to Ava, p. 447.
 
 284 TRAVELS OF MARCO PCC.O. 
 
 CHAPTER XLIX. 
 
 OP THE CITIES OF CHINTIGUI, SIDINF0, GINGUI, AND PAZANFU. 
 
 LEAVING the province of Tholoman, and pursuing a course 
 towards the east, 1 you travel for twelve days by a river, on 
 each side of which lie many towns and castles; when at 
 length you reach the large and handsome city of Chintigui, 2 
 the inhabitants of which are idolaters, and are the subjects of 
 the grand khan. They are traders and artisans. They make 
 cloth of the bark of certain trees, which looks well, and is the 
 ordinary summer clothing of both sexes. The men are brave 
 warriors. They have no other kind of money than the stamped 
 paper of the grand khan. 3 
 
 In this province the tigers are so numerous, that the inha- 
 
 1 The countries last spoken of appear indubitably to have belonged 
 to that region which geographers term " India extra Gangem." These 
 our author's route now leaves behind, and what follows in the remain- 
 ing chapters of this book applies only to China or its immediate 
 dependencies. 
 
 2 We cannot discover in the southern part of Yun-nan (towards 
 which he might be supposed to have returned) any city resembling 
 Chinti-gui or Chinti-giu in name ; but a material difference between the 
 text of Ramusio and those of the other versions occurs here, which 
 might be hoped to afford a clue for tracing the progress of the route. 
 According to the former our author prosecutes his journey from 
 Tholoman by the course of a river (whether wholly or in part only, is 
 not clearly expressed) to the city above mentioned. In the Basle 
 edition, on the contrary, it is said : " A provincia Tholoman ducit iter 
 versus orientem ad provinciam Gingui, iturque duodecim diebus juxta 
 fluvium quendam, donee perveniatur ad civitatem grandem Sinuglu :" 
 and in the early Italian epitome, " Cuigui sie una provincia verso 
 oriente laqual ello trovo 1'homo quando se parti da Toloman tu vai su 
 per uno fiume per xii. zoruade trovando cita e castelli : e trovi la cita de 
 Similgu grande e nobile;" to which city of Sinulgu or Similgu are 
 attributed all the circumstances above related of Cintigui. [The name 
 in the Paris Latin text is Funilgul.] If the reading of Cui-gui or Kui- 
 giu be -more correct than the others, we might conjecture it to be 
 intended for the Chinese province of Koei-cheu or Quei-cheu, which, 
 adjoining to that of Yun-nan on the eastern side, would be in point of 
 direction no unlikely road to the capital. 
 
 3 The circumstance of the emperor's paper money being current, 
 shows that the country here spoken of was an integral part of the 
 empire, and not one of its remote dependencies, where the sovereignty 
 was more nominal than real.
 
 ABC>*DAXCE OF TIGERS. 285 
 
 bitants, from apprehension of their ravages, cannot venture 
 to sleep at night out of their towns; and those who navigate 
 the river dare not go to rest with their boats moored near the 
 banks ; for these animals have been known to plunge into the 
 water, swim to the vessel, and drag the men from thence; 
 but find it necessary to anchor in the middle of the stream, 
 where, in consequence of its great width, they are in safety. 1 
 In this country are likewise found the largest and fiercest 
 dogs that can be met with : so courageous and powerful are 
 they, that a man, with a couple of them, may be an over- 
 match for a tiger. Armed with a bow and arrows, and thus 
 attended, should he meet a tiger, he sets on his intrepid dogs, 
 who instantly advance to the attack. The animal instinctively 
 seeks a tree, against which to place himself, in order that the 
 dogs may not be able to get behind him, and that he may 
 have his enemies in front. With this intent, as soon as he 
 perceives the dogs, he makes towards the tree, but with a 
 slow pace, and by no means running, that he may not show 
 any signs of fear, which his pride would not allow. During 
 this deliberate movement, the dogs fasten upon him. and the 
 man plies him with his arrows. He, in his turn, endeavours to 
 seize the dogs, but they are too nimble for him, and draw 
 back, when he resumes his slow march; but before he can 
 gain his position, he has been wounded by so many arrows, 
 and so often bitten by the dogs, that he falls through weak- 
 ness and from loss of blood. By these means it is that he is 
 at length taken. 2 
 
 There is here an extensive manufacture of silks, which are 
 exported in large quantities to other parts 3 by the navigation 
 
 1 Numerous instances are recorded of boats being attacked at night 
 by tigers, amongst the alluvial islands at the mouth of the Ganges, 
 called the Sunderbunds, and sometimes it happens that whole crews 
 are destroyed whilst sleeping on board. 
 
 1 If the beast here spoken of be actually the tiger and not the lion 
 (of which latter none are found in China), it must be confessed that the 
 manners ascribed to him in this story are Tery different from those 
 which usually mark his feline character. In the old English version of 
 1579 (from the Spanish), it is not the lion or tiger, but the elephant 
 that is said to be the subject of this mode of baiting with " mastie- 
 dogges." I am assured, however, that dogs do attack both tigers and 
 leopards. 
 
 3 The trade in wrought silks denotes this to be a place in China, and 
 fo the south of the Yellow River, beyond which the silkworm is not 
 reared for the purposes of manufacture
 
 28G TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 of the river, which continues to pass amongst towns an I 
 castles; and the people subsist entirely by trade. At the end 
 of twelve days, you arrive at the city of Sidin-fu, of which an 
 account has been already given. 1 From thence, in twenty 
 days, you reach Gin-gui, in which we were, and in four days 
 more the city of Pazan-fu, 2 which belongs to Cathay, and lies 
 
 1 From the context we might be led to infer that the Si-din-fu here 
 spoken of should be the same place as the Chinti-gui mentioned at the 
 commencement of this chapter, inasmuch as the journey of twelve 
 days from Tholoman is here again referred to ; but on the other hand 
 we are much more clearly given to understand that it is the city before 
 described (in chap, xxxvi.) by the name of Sin-din-fu, and which was 
 shown (in note l , p. 251) to be intended for Ching-tu-fu, the capital of 
 the province of Se-chuen. This would lie in the route from Ava and 
 the province of Yun-nan towards the city of Pekin. 
 
 ^ In this part of the work, indeed, we perceive a more than usual 
 degree of perplexity in the geographical matter, which is increased by 
 a want of agreement in the several versions, not merely in orthography, 
 but in the entire names of places as well as in circumstances. The 
 journey of twenty days stated in Ramusio's text is not mentioned 
 either in the Latin version or early Italian epitome, and it appears in 
 the first instance uncertain whether by Gin-gui is here meant that 
 southern province which in the latter is named Cui-gui, and has been 
 conjectured to be Koci-cheu, or whether it may have been intended for 
 Kin-cheu on the Kiang, or (admitting a large hiatus in the journal) for 
 another Kin-cheu in the province of Pe-che-li. For the city, likewise, 
 which Ramusio names Pazan-fu, the other versions speak of Caucasu 
 or Cancasu. But in addition to the confusion of names, we have, at 
 this point, a new difficulty to contend with ; for as the general course 
 of the journey has latterly been to the east, as expressed in the text, or 
 to the north-east, as inferred from positions, so at this place, and from 
 henceforward, we find it described as tending to the south; although 
 from the preceding chapters it might seem that the southern provinces 
 of China had been but just entered from the side of Mien or Ava. 
 Our author's want of accuracy in bearings, as they respect the inter- 
 mediate points of the compass, has often required the exercise of 
 indulgence: but this cannot be extended to the mistaking north for 
 south; nor would even a jorrection of this nature in one or two 
 instances avail us ; for we shall presently find him approaching the 
 Yellow River from the northern side, crossing that river, and, in the 
 continuance of his southerly course, describing well-known places 
 between it and the Kiang, which he likewise crosses in his way to 
 the province of Fo-kien. It is consequently in one or other of the 
 most northern provinces that we should make our search for Pazan-fu, 
 and we shall be fully justified in drawing the conclusion, that a fresh 
 itinerary, hitherto unnoticed, as it would seem, by any editor or com- 
 mentator, has commenced from some place in the vicinity of the capital ; 
 and that th^ fruitless attempt to connect this with the former route, aa
 
 THE CITT OF PAZAK-FU. 287 
 
 towards the south, in returning by the other side of the pro- 
 vince. 1 The inhabitants worship idols, and burn the bodies of 
 their dead. There are here also certain Christians, who have 
 a church. 2 They are subjects of the grand khan, and his 
 paper money is current among them. They gain their living 
 by trade and manufacture, having silk in abundance, of which 
 they weave tissues mixed with gold, and also very fine scarfs. 
 This city has many towns and castles under its jurisdiction : 
 a great river flows beside it, by means of which large quan- 
 tities of merchandise are conveyed to the city of Kanbalu ; 
 for by the digging of many canals it is made to communicate 
 with the capital. But we shall take our leave of this, and, 
 proceeding three days' journey, speak of another city named 
 Chaii-glu. 
 
 constituting one journey, has chiefly given rise to the confusion of 
 which every reader who has endeavoured to follow the course of the 
 travels must have found reason to complain. 
 
 1 It has been shown that about a mile from the town of Tso-cheu, 
 in the province of Pe-che-li, the roads are said to divide, the one 
 leading to the south-western, and the other to the south-eastern pro- 
 vinces. The first was that -which our author pursued in his former 
 route, and has described to a certain point, where either his original 
 memoranda left it incomplete, or his early transcribers, to avoid" the 
 monotonous repetition of unknown and to them uninteresting names, 
 were induced to terminate it abruptly. The latter road, to the south- 
 east, is that upon which he is now about to enter. Under the conviction, 
 therefore, of a new itinerary having commenced about this part of the 
 narrative from some place near Tso-cheu, where the roads divide, we 
 are naturally led to consider the city now called Ho-kien-fu (the first in 
 the southern route) as the Pa-zan-fu of Ramusio's test, or Ca cau-su 
 (for fu) of the Basle edition; the probability of which, however dis- 
 cordant the sound of the names, we shall find to be strengthened as we 
 proceed to the account of places subsequently visited. Ho-kien-fu (the 
 first syllable of which a Tartar would pronounce Ko) is the third city 
 of the province in rank, and derives its name from its position 
 "between the rivers." 
 
 3 The expression of certi Christiani may either mean a sect of 
 Christians distinct from the Nestorians, already so often mentioned, 
 or may refer to the Xestorians themselves, as a sort of Christians, not 
 Catholic.
 
 288 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 CHAPTER L. 
 
 OF THE CITY OF CHAN-GL0. 
 
 CHAN-QLU is a large city situated towards the south, 1 and is 
 in the province of Cathay. It is under the dominion of the 
 grand khan. The inhabitants worship idols, and burn the 
 bodies of their dead. The stamped paper of the emperor is 
 current amongst them. In this city and the district sur- 
 rounding it they make great quantities of salt, by the fol- 
 lowing process : in the country is found a salsuginous earth ; 
 upon this, when laid in large heaps, they pour water, which in 
 its passage through the mass imbibes the particles of salt, and 
 is then collected in channels, from whence it is conveyed to 
 very wide pans, not more than four inches in depth. In 
 these it is well boiled, and then left to crystallize. The salt 
 thus made is white and good, and is exported to various 
 parts. 2 Great profits are made by those who manufacture it, 
 and the grand khan derives from it a considerable revenue. 
 This district produces abundance of well-flavoured peaches, 
 of such a size that one of them will weigh two pounds troy- 
 weight. 3 We shall now speak of another city, named 
 Chan-gli. 
 
 1 To the eastward of Ho-kien, but inclining to the south, we find 
 a city of the second order, dependent on the jurisdiction of the former, 
 which in Du Halde's map is properly named Tsan-tcheu, but in 
 Martini's Atlas, Gang-cheu, incorrectly for Qang-cheu. This is evidently 
 Ciauglu or Chang-lu here mentioned. 
 
 2 From this detail of the process it may be thought that nitre or 
 saltpetre, rather than common salt, is the article so procured. The 
 following passage, from the translation of Abbe" Grosier's Description 
 gene'rale de la Chine, will leave no doubt on this point : " The earth 
 which forms the soil of Petcheli abounds with nitre ; whole fields may 
 be seen in the neighbourhood of Pe-king which are covered with it. 
 Every morning at sunrise the country in certain cantons appears as 
 white as if sprinkled by a gentle fall of snow.* If a quantity of this 
 substance be swept together, a great deal of Men, nitre, and salt may 
 be extracted from it. The Chinese pretend that this salt may be sub- 
 stituted for common salt; however this may be, it is certain that in 
 the (mountainous) extremity of the province, poor people and the 
 greater part of the peasants make use of no other. With regard to the 
 kien procured from the earth, they use it for washing linen, as we do 
 soap." Vol. i. p. 27. 
 
 * "Peso alia sottile" is explained in the dictionaries by "poids de
 
 CHAN-GLI AND TUDIN-FU. 289 
 
 CHAPTER LI. 
 
 OF THE CITY OF CHAN-QU. 
 
 CHAN-GLI also is a city of Cathay, 1 situated towards the 
 south, and belonging to the grand khan, the inhabitants of 
 which are idolaters, and in like manner make use of the 
 khan's paper currency. Its distance from Chan-glu is five 
 days' journey, in the course of which you pass many cities 
 and castles likewise in the dominions of the grand khan. 
 They are places of great commerce, and the customs levied 
 at them amount to a large sum. 2 Through this city passes 
 a wide and deep river, which affords conveyance to vast 
 quantities of merchandise, consisting of silk, drugs, and other 
 valuable articles. We shall now take leave of this place-, and 
 give an account of another city named Tudin-fu. 
 
 CHAPTER LII 
 
 OF THE CITY OF TUDIN-FU. 
 
 WHEN you depart from Chan-gli, and travel southwards 
 six days' journey, you pass many towns and castles of great 
 importance and grandeur, whose inhabitants worship idols, 
 and burn the bodies of their dead. They are the subjects of 
 the grand khan, and receive his paper money as currency. 
 They subsist by trade and manufactures, and have provisions 
 in abundance. At the end of these six days you arrive at 
 
 marchandises fines, plus Idger que 1'autre," which corresponds to th 
 difference of fourteen and seventeen, between our troy and avoirdupois 
 weights. 
 
 1 The city of Ciangli or Changli appears to be that of Te-cheu, 
 situated at the entrance of the province of Shan-tung, on the river 
 called Oei-ho in Du Halde's map, and Eu-ho, in the account of Lord 
 Macartney's Embassy. 
 
 a A transit duty (Staunton observes) is laid on goods passing from 
 one province of China to another; each province being noted, chiefly, 
 for the production of some particular article, the conveyance of which, 
 to supply the demand for it in the others, raises this duty to a con- 
 siderable sum, and forms the great internal commerce and revenue of 
 the empire. 
 
 U
 
 29') TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 a city named Tudin-fu, 1 which was formerly a magnificent 
 capital, but the grand khan reduced it to his subjection by 
 force of arms. It is rendered a delightful residence by the 
 gardens which surround it, stored as they are with handsome 
 shrubs and excellent fruits. 2 Silk is produced here in won- 
 derfully large quantities. It has under its jurisdiction eleven 
 cities and considerable towns of the empire, all places of 
 great trade, and having abundance of silk. It was the seat 
 of government of its own king, before the period of its reduc- 
 tion by the grand khan. In 1272 3 the latter appointed one 
 of his officers of the highest rank, named Lucansor, to the 
 government of this city, with a command of seventy thou- 
 sand horse, for the protection of that part of the country. 
 This man upon finding himself master of a rich and highly 
 productive district, and at the head of so powerful a force, 
 became intoxicated with pride, and formed schemes of rebel- 
 lion against his sovereign. With this view he tampered with 
 the principal persons of the city, persuaded them to become 
 partakers in his evil designs, and by their means succeeded 
 in producing a revolt throughout all the towns and fortified 
 places of the province. As soon as the grand khan became 
 acquainted with these traitorous proceedings, he despatched 
 to that quarter an army of a hundred thousand men, under 
 the orders of two others of his nobles, one of whom was 
 named Angul and the other Mongatai. When the approach of 
 this force was known to Lucansor, he lost no time in assem- 
 bling an army no less numerous than that of his opponents, 
 and brought them as speedily as possible to action. There 
 was much slaughter on both sides, when at length, Lucansor 
 being killed, his troops betook themselves to flight. Many 
 
 1 We have historical evidence that Tudin-fu is Tsi-nan-fu (by Martini 
 written Cinan-fu), the capital of the province of Shan-tung. 
 
 2 The routes of our modern travellers have not led them to visit 
 this city, but that of the Dutch embassy of 1795, in its return, passed 
 through several of the towns under its jurisdiction. Upon the approach 
 to one of these, named Ping-yuen-shen, Van Braam describes the 
 scenery in terms similar to, but more luxuriant than those employed 
 by our author, and the orchards of fruit are particularly noticed. 
 
 8 The circumstance of which our author proceeds to speak, is, by 
 L'Histoire ge"ne"rale de la Chine, assigned to a period ten years earlier. 
 The Roman numerals, in which dates are expressed in the old manu- 
 scripts, are more liable to errors than the Arabic, or rather Indian 
 figures, now in use.
 
 CITY OF SIXGUI-MATU. 291 
 
 were slain in the pursuit, and many were made prisoners. 
 These were conducted to the presence of the grand khan, who 
 caused the principals to be put to death, and pardoning the 
 others took them into his own service, to which they ever 
 afterwards continued faithful. 
 
 CHAPTER LIIL 
 
 OF THE CITY OF SISGUI-MATC. 
 
 TRAVELLING from Tudin-fu three days, in a southerly di- 
 rection, you pass many considerable towns and strong places, 
 where commerce and manufactures flourish. The inhabitants 
 are idolaters, and are subjects of the grand khan. The country 
 abounds with game, both beasts and birds, and produces an 
 ample supply of the necessaries of life. At the end of three 
 days you arrive at the city of Singui-matu. 1 which is noble, 
 large, and handsome, and rich in merchandise and manufac- 
 tures; all the inhabitants of this city are idolaters, and are sub- 
 jects of the grand khan and use paper money; within it, but 
 on the southern side, passes a large and deep river, which the 
 inhabitants divided into two branches, one of which, taking its 
 course to the east, runs through Cathay, whilst the other, 
 taking a westerly course, passes towards the province of Manji. 2 
 
 1 The circumstances here mentioned of Sin-gui-matu seem to point 
 to the large commercial town of Lin-tsin-cheu, situated at the northern 
 extremity, or commencement, of the Yun-ho or grand canaL The term 
 rnatu or mateou, subjoined to names, signifies, as we are told by Du 
 Halde (torn. i. p. 137), " lieux de commerce etablis BUT lee rivieres, pour 
 la commodity des negocians et la levee des droita de 1'empereur ;" and 
 by P. Magalhanes, md.-te& is defined to be, " lieu fre'quente' pour le 
 commerce; parceque les barques s'y assemblent et y jettent 1'ancre 
 pour y passer la nuit." Nouv. Relat. de la Chine, p. 9. 
 
 2 These expressions might be considered as intended to describe 
 the formation of the canal itself, which must, of course, have been sup- 
 plied with water by diverting so much of the stream of the river as wag 
 necessary for that purpose ; and the operation might consequently be 
 said to divide it into two branches ; but they may be thought rather to 
 refer to the following curious circumstance noticed in the Account of 
 Lord Macartney's Embassy : " On the 25th of October (the third day 
 after its departure Ax>m Lin-tsing) the yachts arrived at the highest part 
 of the canal, being about two-fifths of ita entire length. Here the river
 
 292 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 This river is navigated by so many vessels that the number 
 might seem incredible, and serves to convey from both pro- 
 vinces, that is, from the one province to the other, every 
 requisite article of consumption. It is indeed surprising to 
 observe the multitude and the size of the vessels that are 
 continually passing and repassing, laden with merchandise of 
 the greatest value. 1 On leaving Singui-matu and travelling 
 towards the south for sixteen days, you unceasingly meet 
 with commercial towns and with castles. The people 
 throughout the country are idolaters, and subjects of the 
 grand khan. They burn the bodies of their dead and use 
 paper money. At the end of eight days' journey you find 
 a city named Lingui. It is a very noble and great city ; the 
 men are warlike; and it has manufactures and commerce. 
 There are plenty of animals, and abundance of everything for 
 eating and drinking. After leaving Lingui you proceed three 
 days' journey to the south, passing plenty of cities and castles, 
 all under the grand khan. All the inhabitants are idolaters, 
 and burn their dead. At the end of these three days you 
 find a good city called Pingui, where there are all the neces- 
 saries of life, and this city furnishes a great revenue to the 
 grand khan. You go thence two days' journey to the south, 
 through fair and rich countries, to a city called Cingui, which 
 is very large, and abounding in commerce and manufactures. 
 All its inhabitants are idolaters and burn their dead ; they use 
 paper money, and are subjects of the grand khan. They 
 have much grain and wheat. In the country through which 
 
 Luen, the largest by which the canal is fed, falls into it with a rapid 
 stream, in a line which is perpendicular to the course of the canal. 
 A strong bulwark of stone supports the opposite western bank ; and 
 the waters of the Luen striking with force against it, part of them 
 follow the northern, and part the southern course of the canal a cir- 
 cumstance which, not being generally explained or understood, gave 
 the appearance of wonder to an assertion, that if a bundle of sticks 
 be thrown into that part of the river, they would soon separate and 
 take opposite directions." (Vol. ii. p. 387.) The name of this place is 
 Tci-ngin-tcheou in Du Halde's map, and Tsin-jin-tchoo in that of the 
 Embassy; which bears an evident resemblance to the Sin-gui of our 
 text. 
 
 1 " I should say, that next to the exuberance of population," says 
 Mr. Ellis, " the amount of vessels employed on the rivers is the most 
 Btrikin,' circumstance hitherto observed, belonging to the Chinese 
 empire." Journal of an Embassy, fee. p. 109.
 
 THZ RIVER KARA-MORAX. 293 
 
 you pass subsequently, you find cities, towns, and castles, 
 and very handsome and useful dogs, and abundance of wheat. 
 The people resemble those just described. 
 
 CHAPTER LIV. 
 
 O THIS GRBAT RTVEB CALLED THE KARA-MORAX, AND Of THE CITIES 
 OF KOI-GAX-ZC AXD 
 
 AT the end of two days' journey you reach, once more, the 
 great river Kara-moran, 1 which has its source in the terri- 
 tories that belonged to Prester John. It is a mile wide and 
 of vast depth, and upon its waters great ships freely sail 
 with their full loading. Large fish in considerable quantities 
 are caught there. At a place in this river, about a mile 
 distant from the sea, there is a station for fifteen thousand 
 vessels, each of them capable of carrying fifteen horses and 
 twenty men, besides the crews to navigate them, and the 
 necessary stores and provisions. 2 These the grand khai* 
 causes to be kept in a constant state of readiness for the 
 conveyance of an army to any of the islands in the (neigh- 
 bouring) ocean that may happen to be in rebellion, or for 
 expeditions to any more distant region. These vessels are 
 moored close to the bank of the river, not far from a city 
 named Koi-gan-zu, 3 on the opposite side to which is another 
 
 1 This is the Tartar name for the great river by the Chinese called 
 the Hoang-ho, and by TIB the Yellow River, which has its source in the 
 country between the western borders of China and the great desert. 
 
 * The number of fifteen thousand must be a prodigious exaggeration, 
 if we should not rather suppose it to be an error in transcribing. The 
 early Italian epitome says fifteen vessels; but this is an absurdity in 
 the opposite extreme, and it is probable that fifteen hundred was the 
 number intended. The station of these transports, instead of being 
 one mile, is said in other versions to be one day's journey from the sea. 
 
 s Both from its situation and the resemblance of name, we cannot 
 hesitate to consider this as the city of Hoai-gnan-fu, which stands near 
 the south-eastern bank of the Hoang-ho, at the part where it is crossed 
 by the line of the grand canal, and is itself connected, by means of a 
 small cut, with that river. All Chinese words commencing with the 
 aspirate are pronounced by the Western Tartars with a hard guttural 
 sound ; as, on the other hand, the guttural articulation of these people 
 is softened by the Chinese to the aspirate : thus for Khan they pro- 
 nounce Han; for Ko-ko-nor (a certain great lake), Hc-hc~nor; and for 
 Ku-tukh-tu (the second rank of lamas), Hu-tu-tu.
 
 294 TRAVELS OP MARCO POLO. 
 
 named Kuan-zu, but the former is a large place, and the 
 latter a small one. 1 Upon crossing this river you enter the 
 noble province of Manji ; but it must not be understood that 
 a complete account has been given of the province of Cathay. 
 Not the twentieth part have I described. Marco Polo, in 
 travelling through the province, has only noted such cities as 
 lay in his route, omitting those situated on the one side and 
 the other, as well as many intermediate places, because a re- 
 lation of them all would be a work of too great length, and 
 prove fatiguing to the reader. Leaving these parts we shall 
 therefore proceed to speak, in the first instance, of the manner 
 in which the province of Manji was acquired, and then of its 
 cities, the magnificence and riches of which shall be set forth 
 in the subsequent part of our discourse. 
 
 CHAPTER LV. 
 
 OP THE MOST NOBLE PROVINCE OP MANJI, AND OP THE MANNEB IN 
 WHICH IT WAS SUBDUED BY THE GRAND KHAN. 
 
 THE province of Manji is the most magnificent and the 
 richest that is known in the eastern world. 2 About the year 
 1269 it was subject to a prince who was styled Facfur, 3 and 
 who surpassed in power and wealth any other that for a cen- 
 tury had reigned in that country. His disposition was pacific, 
 
 1 The place here named Kuan-zu or Quan-zu, in the Basle edition 
 Cai-gui, and in the early epitomes Cai-cui, does not appear in the maps, 
 but seems to be the place which De Guignes mentions by the name of 
 Yang-kia-yn. 
 
 2 We have not materials for assigning precise boundaries either to 
 Manji or to Khatai; but it is evident that our author considered, gene- 
 rally, that part of China which lies southward of the Hoang-ho, or 
 Yellow River, as belonging to what he terms the province of Manji, or, 
 with some few limitations, to the empire of the Song; and the part 
 that lies northward of that river, which was conquered by the Mungals, 
 not from the Chinese, but from the dynasty of the Kin or Niuche Tar- 
 tars, by whom it had been previously subdued, as Khatai or Cathay. 
 
 3 This word Facfur was not the name of the individual prince, but 
 the title of Faghfur, applied by the Arabs and other Eastern people to 
 the emperors of China, as distinguished from the Tartar sovereigns. It 
 also denotes (according to the dictionaries) the porcelain or China-ware, 
 and probably, in general, what the French term " magots de la Chine." 
 The name of the emperor who reigned at that period was Tu-tsong.
 
 THE PRItfCE OF MANJI. 295 
 
 and his actions benevolent. So much was he beloved by his 
 people, and such the strength of his kingdom, enclosed by 
 rivers of the largest size, that his being molested by any power 
 upon earth was regarded as an impossible event. The effect 
 of this opinion was, that he neither paid any attention him- 
 self to military affairs, nor encouraged his people to become 
 acquainted with military exercises. The cities of his domi- 
 nions were remarkably well fortified, being surrounded by deep 
 ditches, a bow-shot in width, and full of water. He did not 
 keep up any force in cavalry, because he was not apprehensive 
 of attack. The means of increasing his enjoyments and 
 multiplying his pleasures were the chief employment of his 
 thoughts. He maintained at his court, and kept near his 
 person, about a thousand beautiful women, in whose society 
 he took delight. He was a friend to peace and to justice, 
 which he administered strictly. The smallest act of oppres- 
 sion, or injury of any kind, committed by one man against 
 another, was punished in an exemplary manner, without 
 respect of persons. Such indeed was the impression of his 
 justice, that when shops, filled with goods, happened, through 
 the negligence of the owners, to be left open, no person dared 
 to enter them, or to rob them of the smallest article. Tra- 
 vellers of all descriptions might pass through every part of 
 the kingdom, by night as well as by day, freely and without 
 apprehension of danger. He was religious, and charitable to 
 the poor and needy. 1 Children whom their wretched mothers 
 exposed in consequence of their inability to rear them, he 
 caused to be saved and taken care of, to the number of 
 twenty thousand annually. 2 When the boys attained a 
 
 1 His character is painted in more favourable colours by our author 
 than by the Chinese historians, who do not relieve its dark shades with 
 the light of any virtue. 
 
 2 The practice, in China of exposing infants, and especially females, 
 has become matter of notoriety since this first and unequivocal notice 
 of it by our author. "The number of children," says Barrow, "thus 
 unnaturally and inhumanly slaughtered, or interred alive, in the course 
 of a year, is differently stated by different authors, some making it 
 about ten, and others thirty thousand in the whole empire. The truth, 
 as generally happens, may probably lie about the middle. The mis- 
 sionaries, who alone possess the means of ascertaining nearly the 
 number that is thus sacrificed in the capital, differ very materially in 
 their statements : taking the mean, as given by those with whom we 
 conversed on the subject, I should conclude that about twenty-four
 
 296 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 sufficient age, lie had them instructed in some handicraft and 
 afterwards married them to young women who were brc -ght 
 up in the same manner. 1 
 
 Very different from the temper and habits of Facfur were 
 those of Kublai'-khan, emperor of the Tartars, whose whole 
 delight consisted in thoughts of a warlike nature, of the 
 conquest of countries, and of extending his renown. After 
 having annexed to his dominions a number of provinces and 
 kingdoms, he now directed his views to the subduing that of 
 Manji, and for this purpose assembled a numerous army of 
 horse and foot, the command of which he gave to a general 
 named Chin-san Bay-an, which signifies in our language, the 
 "Hundred-eyed." 2 This occurred in the year 1273. A 
 number of vessels were put under his orders, with which he 
 proceeded to the invasion of Manji. Upon landing there, he 
 immediately summoned the inhabitants of the city of Koi- 
 gan-zu to surrender to the authority of his sovereign. 3 Upon 
 their refusal to comply, instead of giving orders for an assault, 
 he advanced to the next city, and when he there received a 
 similar answer, proceeded to a third and a fourth, with the 
 same result. Deeming it no longer prudent to leave so many 
 cities in his rear, whilst not only his army was strong, but he 
 expected to be soon joined by another of equal force, which 
 
 infants were on an average, in Pekin, daily carried to the pit of death. 
 . . . This calculation gives about nine thousand yearly for the capital 
 alone, where it is supposed about an equal number are exposed to that 
 of all the other parts of the empire." Travels in China, p. 169. 
 
 1 The Latin edition describes the manner in which the emperor pro- 
 vided for a part of these children, in the following terms : " Rex tamen 
 infantes, quos sic colligi jubet, tradit divitibus quibusque, quos in 
 regno suo habet ; praesertim illis qui Liberia carent, et ut in adoptionis 
 suscipiant filios mandat. Eos vero quos ipse nutrit, matrimonio tradit 
 puellis ejusdem conditionis." It appears that in the reign of Kang-hi, 
 also, (who died in 1722,) there was a public establishment at Pekin for 
 the recovery of infants so exposed. 
 
 2 Ba-yan, or, as the Chinese pronounce the name, Pe-yen, literally 
 signifies, in that language, " a hundred eyes," and may be considered 
 as the agnomen or epithet of this distinguished warrior, derived 
 from his vigilance, circumspection, and quickness in improving an 
 advantage. 
 
 3 The earliest operation of the war against the Song, or dynasty who 
 reigned in Manji, took place (according to L'Hist. gen.) to the westward, 
 at Siang-yang, which was invested in 1269 (before our author's arrival 
 in China), although not captured till 1273.
 
 CONQUEST OF MANJI BY THE TARTARS. 297 
 
 the grand khan was to send to him from the interior, 1 he 
 resolved upon the attack of one of these cities ; and having, 
 by great exertions and consummate skill, succeeded in carry- 
 ing the place, he put every individual found in it to the 
 sword. As soon as the intelligence of this event reached the 
 other cities, it struck their inhabitants with such consternation 
 and terror, that of their own accord they hastened to declare 
 their submission. This being effected, he advanced, with the 
 united force of his two armies, against the royal city of Kin- 
 sai, the residence of king Facfur, who felt all the agitation 
 and dread of a person who had never seen a battle, nor been 
 engaged in any sort of warfare. Alarmed for the safety of 
 his person, he made bis escape to a fleet of vessels that lay in 
 readiness for the purpose, and embarking all his treasure and 
 valuable effects, left the charge of the city to his queen, with 
 directions for its being defended to the utmost; feeling 
 assured that her sex would be a protection to her, in the 
 event of her falling into the hands of the enemy. He from 
 thence proceeded to sea, and reaching certain islands, where 
 were some strongly fortified posts, he continued there till his 
 death. 2 After the queen had been left in the manner related, 
 it is said to have come to her knowledge that the king had 
 been told by his astrologers that he could never be deprived 
 of his sovereignty by any other than a chief who should have 
 a hundred eyes. On the strength of this declaration she 
 felt confident, notwithstanding that the city became daily 
 more and more straitened, that it could not be lost, because it 
 seemed a thing impossible that any mortal could have that 
 number of eyes. Inquiring, however, the name of the general 
 
 1 This was perhaps the army that had been employed in the reduc- 
 tion of Siang-yang. 
 
 2 Our author appears in this place to have crowded under one reign 
 events that belong to two or more, which followed each other in rapid 
 succession. The emperor Tu-tsong, whose unwarlike and depraved 
 character was said to have been the occasion of the misfortunes that 
 befel his country, died in 1274; when the minister by whose evil coun- 
 sels he had been implicitly governed placed his second son, an infant, 
 on the throne, and caused the empress, his mother, to be declared 
 regent during the minority. This prince, who was named Kong-tsong, 
 afterwards fell into the hands of the Tartars ; but the Chinese, who 
 still adhered to the fortunes of the expiring dynasty, conferred th* 
 imperial title upon his elder brother, named Tuan-tsong; and to kit 
 fate it is that the passage in the text applies.
 
 298 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 who commanded the enemy's troops, and being told it was 
 Chin-san Ba-yan, which means a hundred eyes, she was 
 seized with horror at hearing it pronounced, as she felt a con- 
 viction that this must be the person who, according to the 
 saying of the astrologers, might drive her husband from his 
 throne. Overcome by womanish fear, she no longer attempted 
 to make resistance, but immediately surrendered. 1 Being 
 thus in possession of the capital, the Tartars soon brought 
 the remainder of the province under their subjection. 2 The 
 queen was sent to the presence of Kublai'-khan, where she 
 was honourably received by him, and an allowance was by his 
 orders assigned, that enabled her to support the dignity of her 
 rank. Having stated the manner in which the conquest of 
 Manji was effected, we shall now speak of the different cities 
 of that province, and first of Koi-gan-zu. 
 
 CHAPTER LVI. 
 
 OF THE CITY OF KOI-GAN-ZU. 
 
 KOI-GAN-ZU is a very handsome and wealthy city, lying in 
 a direction between south-east and east, at the entrance of 
 the province of Manji, where a prodigious number of vessels 
 are continually passing, its situation (as we have already 
 observed) being near the bank of the river Kara-moran. 3 
 Large consignments of merchandise are forwarded to this 
 city, in order that the goods may be transported, by means 
 of this river, to various other places. Salt is manufactured 
 
 1 Such we may suppose to have been the popular story, which our 
 author repeats as he heard it, but which, probably, had no better 
 foundation than a Chinese Equivoque upon the name of this great 
 captain, to whose talents his master was indebted for the conquest of 
 Southern China, and of whom it is said by the Chinese historians that 
 " he conducted a large army as if it had been a single man." 
 
 2 The surrender of the capital took place in 1276, but it was not 
 until the end of the year 1279 that the conquest of China was com- 
 pleted by the issue of a great naval engagement. 
 
 3 This city is about five miles distant from the Yellow River, with 
 which it communicates by means of the grand canal.
 
 THE TOWS OF PAU-GHDf. 
 
 299 
 
 here in great quantities, not only for the consumption of the 
 city itself, but for exportation to other parts ; and from this 
 salt the grand khan derives an ample revenue. 1 
 
 CHAPTER LTII. 
 
 OF THE TOWN OF PAU-GHIN. 
 
 UPON leaving Koi-gan-zu, you travel one day's journey 
 towards the south-east, by a handsome stone causeway, lead- 
 ing into the province of Manji. On both sides of the cause- 
 way there are very extensive marshy lakes, the waters of 
 which are deep, and may be navigated; 2 nor is there besides 
 this any other road by which the province can be entered. 
 It is, however, accessible by means of shipping; and in this 
 manner it was that the officer who commanded the grand 
 khan's armies invaded it, by effecting a landing with his 
 whole force. 3 At the end of the day's journey, you reach a 
 considerable town named Pau-ghin. 4 The inhabitants worship 
 idols, burn their dead, use paper money, and are the subject? 
 of the grand khan. They gain their living by trade and 
 manufacture : they have much silk, and weave gold tissues. 
 The necessaries of life are there in abundance. 
 
 1 " Proche de la," says P. Martini, " il y a des marais salans. oil il ee 
 fait du sel en abondance." Thevenot, iii. partie, p. 321. 
 
 2 These causeways form the embankments of the canal, and separate 
 it, on a higher level, from the waters of the lake. It would seem that 
 in our author's time there was only a single embankment at this part, 
 by means of which the waters of the lake, on that side which was fed 
 by the rivulets, were kept up to an artificial level. Much of the 
 country, Staunton observes, that was formerly under water, has been 
 drained and brought into cultivation. 
 
 3 From this it must be understood that the fleet of transports entered 
 the canal, or the portion of the lake that served the purpose of a canal, 
 and conveyed the troops to the neighbourhood of the city of Hoai- 
 gnan, which stands on its bank in the midst of a swamp. 
 
 4 This is the Pau-in-chen of Van Braam's journal, the Pao-yn-hien of 
 Du Halde's map, and the Pa>yng-shien of Staunton' s.
 
 300 TRAVELS OP MARCO POLO. 
 
 CHAPTER LVIII. 
 
 OP THE CITY OF KAIN. 
 
 AT the distance of a day's journey from Pau-ghin, towards 
 the south-east, stands the large and well-built city of Kain. 1 
 Its inhabitants are idolaters, use the paper money as their 
 currency, and are the subjects of the grand khan. Trade 
 and manufactures flourish amongst them. They have fish in 
 abundance, and game also, both beasts and birds. Pheasants, 
 in particular, are in such plenty, that for a bit of silver equal 
 in value to a Venetian groat you may purchase three of 
 these birds, of the size of pea-fowls. 
 
 CHAPTER LIX. 
 
 OF THE CITIES OF TIN-GUI AND CHIN-GUI. 
 
 AT the end of a day's journey from the last-mentioned 
 place, in the course of which many villages and much tilled 
 land are met with, you reach a city named Tin-gui, not of any 
 great size, but plentifully furnished with all the necessaries 
 of life. The people are idolaters, the subjects of the grand 
 khan, and use his paper money. They are merchants, and 
 have many trading vessels. Both beasts and birds are here 
 found in plenty. The situation of this city is towards the 
 south-east, and on the left-hand that is, on the eastern side 
 of it, at the distance of three days' journey you find the sea. 
 In the intermediate space there are many salt-works, where 
 large quantities of salt are manufactured. 2 You next come to 
 
 1 However different the names may appear, this is evidently the 
 town of Kao-yu, on the banks of the lake and canal ; and it is not 
 improbable that Ka-in is a typographical mistake for Ka-iu, or Ka-yu, 
 as in almost every name we have observed the final u to be changed for 
 some other letter resembling it in form. 
 
 2 Tingui, or Tingiu, appears to be the Tai-cheu of the maps, a city of 
 the second order, dependent upon Yang-cheu-fu ; but of which, as it 
 lies out of the route of travellers, we have little information. The 
 situation, however, with respect to the sea, and in the midst of salt- 
 works, serves to establish their identity. " II y a beaucoup de salines," 
 observes Martini, "vers 1' orient de la ville (de Yang-cheu) ou le sel ae 
 fait de 1'eau de la mer." P. 129.
 
 THE CITY OF TAX-GUI 301 
 
 the large and well-built town of Chin-gui, from whence salt is 
 exported sufficient for the supply of all the neighbouring pro- 
 vinces. 1 On this article the grand khan raises a revenue, the 
 amount of which would scarcely be credited. Here also the 
 inhabitants worship idols, use paper money, and are the sub- 
 jects of his majesty. 
 
 CHAPTER LX. 
 
 OP THE CITY OF TAN-GUI, OF WHICH MARCO POLO HELD THE 
 OOVEBJUtEST. 
 
 PROCEEDING in a south-easterly direction from Chin-gui, you 
 come to the important city of Yan-gui, which, having twenty- 
 four towns under its jurisdiction, must be considered as a 
 place of great consequence. 2 It belongs to the dominion of 
 the grand khan. The people are idolaters, and subsist by 
 trade and manual arts. They manufacture arms and all sorts 
 of warlike accoutrements; in consequence of which many 
 troops are stationed in this part of the country. The city is 
 the place of residence of one of the twelve nobles before 
 spoken of, who are appointed by his majesty to the govern- 
 ment of the provinces; 3 and in the room of one of these, 
 
 1 This place, as a mart for exporting the salt to different provinces, 
 we may presume to lie near the great river, and Tsing-kiang-hien pre- 
 sents itself as favourably circumstanced for that traffic. It must, how- 
 ever, be observed that Chin-gui, or Cin-gui, as distinct from Tin-gui, is 
 not to be found in the Basle edition or Venice epitome. 
 
 * The points of the compass must here be greatly perverted; but 
 whatever may be the situations assigned to the inconsiderable places 
 just mentioned, no doubts can be entertained of Yan-gui, or Yan-giu, 
 being the city of Yang-cheu-fu ; although the jurisdiction of the latter 
 comprehended, in the seventeenth century, according to Martini, only 
 ten, instead of twenty-four towns. " C'est une ville forte marchande," 
 Bays Du Halde, " et il s'y fait un grand commerce de toutes sortes 
 d'ouvrages Chinois. . . . Le reste du canal jusqu'a Pe-king, n'a aucune 
 ville qui lui soit comparable. . . . Yang-tcheou a deux lieues de circuit, 
 et Ton y compte, tant dans la ville, que dans les fauxbourgs, deux 
 millions d'ames." (Tom. i. p. 134.) Staunton speaks of it as a city of 
 the first order, bearing the marks of great antiquity. " It still," he 
 says, " had the appearance of carrying on a considerable trade ; and 
 there were not fewer than a thousand vessels of different sizes lying at 
 anchor close to it." P. 420. 
 
 3 From the account of the Civil Tribunal of Twelve, given in
 
 302 TRAVELS OP MARCO POLO. 
 
 Marco Polo, by special order of the grand khan, acted as 
 governor of this city during the space of three years. 
 
 CHAPTER LXI. 
 
 OP THE PROVINCE OF NAN-GHIN. 
 
 NAN-GHIN is the name of a large and distinguished pro- 
 vince of Manji, situated towards the west. 1 The people are 
 idolaters, use paper money in currency, are subjects of the 
 grand khan, and are largely engaged in commerce. They 
 have raw silk, and weave tissues of silver and gold in great 
 quantities, and of various patterns. The country produces 
 abundance of corn, and is stored as well with domestic cattle 
 as with beasts and birds that are the objects of the chase, and 
 plenty of tigers. It supplies the sovereign with an ample 
 revenue, and chiefly from the imposts levied upon the rich 
 articles in which the merchants trade. We shall now speak 
 of the noble city of Sa-yan-fu. 
 
 CHAPTER LXII. 
 
 OP THE CITY OP SA-YAN-FU, THAT WAS TAKEN BY THE MEANS OP 
 NICOLO AND MAFFEO POLO. 
 
 SA-YAN-FU is a considerable city of the province of Manji, 
 having under its jurisdiction twelve wealthy and large towns. 2 
 
 chap. xix. of this book, and note ', p. 220, it did not appear, as this 
 passage implies, that the governors of the provinces, or viceroys, as they 
 are termed (tsong-tu), were chosen from their own body. Such a 
 selection may have taken place occasionally, without being the esta- 
 blished practice. 
 
 1 By Nan-ghin (in the Basle edition Nauigui, and in the manuscripts 
 as well as the epitomes Naingui) must unquestionably be meant Nan- 
 kin, formerly the name of the province to which the reigning dynasty 
 has given that of Kiang-nan. 
 
 2 In proceeding to the description of this remarkable city, our author 
 departs from the forms of an itinerary, and makes no mention of its 
 distance or its bearings from any of the places already noticed. 
 Siang-yang is situated in the northern part of the province of Hu- 
 kuang, adjoining to that of Kiaug-nan, uoon the river Han, which
 
 SIEGE OP SA-YAN-FU. * 303 
 
 It is a place of great commerce and extensive manufactures. 
 The inhabitants burn the bodies of their dead, and are 
 idolaters. 1 They are the subjects of the grand khan, and use 
 his paper currency. Kaw silk is there produced in great 
 quantity, and the finest silks, intermixed with gold, are 
 woven. Game of all kinds abounds. The place is amply 
 furnished with everything that belongs to a great city, and 
 by its uncommon strength it was enabled to stand a siege of 
 three years; refusing to surrender to the grand khan, even 
 after he had obtained possession of the province of Manjt. 2 
 The difficulties experienced in the reduction of it were chiefly 
 occasioned by the army's not being able to approach it, 
 excepting on the northern side; the others being surrounded 
 with water, 3 by means of which the place continually received 
 supplies, which it was not in the power of the besiegers to 
 prevent. When the operations were reported to his majesty, 
 he felt extremely hurt that this place alone should obstinately 
 hold out, after all the rest of the country had been reduced to 
 obedience. The circumstance having come to the knowledge 
 of the brothers Nicolo and Maffeo, who were then resident at 
 the imperial court, 4 they immediately presented themselves 
 
 discharges itself into the Kiang. The number of towns under its 
 jurisdiction at the time Martini wrote, was seven, exclusive of some 
 fortresses. 
 
 1 We are naturally surprised at these repeated assertions, that, even 
 in the central parts of the empire, the inhabitants were accustomed to 
 burn the bodies of their dead. It appears, however, from the obser- 
 vations made by the gentlemen of the Dutch embassy, in passing 
 through the province of Kiang-nan, that regular inhumation is not, 
 even now, so general as had been supposed ; and it may be fair to con- 
 jecture that, as many of the Chinese superstitions, and along with 
 them the doctrine of the metempsychosis, were borrowed from their 
 Indian neighbours, the rites of the funeral pile may formerly have 
 been still more prevalent. 
 
 2 According to those who have written on the authority of the 
 Chinese annals, Siang-yang was invested in 1269, and taken in 1273; 
 whereas Hang-cheu, the capital of the Song, was not summoned until 
 1276. Our author, therefore, instead of saying that the whole of 
 Manji had been conquered during the continuance of the siege, should 
 have confined his assertion to a considerable part. 
 
 3 The operations were directed, in the first instance, against Fan- 
 ching, on the northern side of the Han. opposite to, and a kind of 
 suburb of, Siang-yang, which appears from the plan in Du Halde to be 
 in part encompassed by a bend of that rirer. 
 
 4 In the Basle edition the author ascribes to himself a share of tha
 
 304 " TRAVELS OP MARCO POLO. 
 
 to the grand khan, and proposed to him that they should be 
 allowed to construct machines, such as were made use of in 
 the West, capable of throwing stones of three hundred pounds 
 weight, by which the buildings of the city might be destroyed 
 and the inhabitants killed. Their memorial was attended to 
 by the grand khan, who, warmly approving of the scheme, 
 gave orders that the ablest smiths and carpenters should be 
 placed under their direction ; amongst whom were some Nes- 
 torian Christians, who proved to be most able mechanics. 1 In 
 a* few days they completed their mangonels, according to the 
 instructions furnished by the two brothers ; and a trial being 
 made of them in the presence of the grand khan, and of his 
 whole court, an opportunity was afforded of seeing them cast 
 stones, each of which weighed three hundred pounds. They 
 were then put on board of vessels, and conveyed to the army. 
 When set up in front of the city of Sa-yan-fu, the first stone 
 projected by one of them fell with such weight and violence 
 upon a building, that a great part of it was crushed, and fell 
 to the ground. So terrified were the inhabitants by this 
 mischief, which to them seemed to be the effect of a thunder- 
 bolt from heaven, 2 that they immediately deliberated upon 
 the expediency of surrendering. Persons authorized to treat 
 were accordingly sent from the place, and their submission 
 was accepted on the same terms and conditions as had been 
 granted to the rest of the province. This prompt result of 
 their ingenuity increased the reputation and credit of these 
 two Venetian brothers in the opinion of the grand khan and of 
 all his courtiers. 3 
 
 merit ; the words being : " Illo enim tempore ego et pater meus atque 
 patruus fuimus in imperatoris aula ;" and in the Italian epitome : 
 " Certamente la fo presa per industria de miser Nicolo e Mafio e 
 Marco." 
 
 1 These people we might understand from the text of Ramusio to 
 be Asiatic Christians, and possibly Ighurs or Rumis, who were then 
 accounted the most ingenious and best instructed people employed at 
 the courts or in the armies of the Tartar and other p]astern princes. 
 In the Basle edition, on the contrary, they are spoken of as " fabros 
 lignarios Christianos quos nobiscum habuimus ;" and in the epitome, 
 as " maestri Venetiani che era (erano) in quelle parte." 
 
 2 Frequent notice is taken in the Chinese annals of the fall of 
 meteoric stones. See Voy. a Peking par De Guignes, torn. L pp. 
 195250. , 
 
 1 It must not here be passed unnoticed, that the consistency of our
 
 THE GREAT RIVER KIAXO. 305 
 
 CHAPTER LXIII. 
 
 Of THE CITY OF SIN-GUI, AND OP THE VERY GREAT RIVER KIASG. 
 
 LEAVING the city of Sa-yan-fu, and proceeding fifteen days 
 journey towards the south-east, you reach the city of Sin-gui. 
 which, although not large, is a place of great commerce. 1 
 The number of vessels that belong to it is prodigious, in 
 consequence of its being situated near the Kiang, which is 
 the largest river in the world, its width being in some places 
 ten, in others eight, and in others six miles. 2 Its length, to 
 
 author is put to a severe test by the date commonly assigned to the 
 reduction of Siang-yang, which, if it actually took place at the close of 
 the year 1273, allows no more than two years for the journey of the 
 Polo family from Acre, in Palestine, which they certainly left about the 
 end of 1271 (as shown in note ', p. 12), until their arrival at Pekin; 
 whilst in Ramusio's text, although not in the Basle edition, it is said to 
 have occupied three years and a half. It becomes necessary therefore 
 to adopt the opinion, either that the time they were on the road did 
 not in fact exceed the first-mentioned period, or that the siege was not 
 terminated so early as P. Gaubil and P. Mailla have stated ; to which 
 latter supposition some degree of probability is given by the repeated 
 assertion of our author that this was amongst the last places of Manji 
 that held out against the Tartars. 
 
 1 Our author had stepped out of what might be regarded as the line 
 of his route to speak of a place so remarkable as Siang-yang, and here 
 again, by a large stride, returns to the eastern provinces. There is no 
 town that appears to answer so well to the description he has given 
 of Sin-gui, as that of Kiu-kiang, at the northern extremity of the pro- 
 vince of Kiang-si, and which, as we are informed by Martini, was 
 named Tin-kiang under the dynasty of the Song. 
 
 2 At the place where the Kiang is crossed by the line of the canal, 
 the width is stated by Sir G. Staunton at about two English miles, and 
 by M. De Guignes at a French league ; but nearer to the sea it is, of 
 course, much greater. As our author should, however, be supposed to 
 speak of its width near the city he is describing 1 , we ought perhaps to 
 understand not Italian but Chinese miles, or li, which are to the former 
 in the proportion of three to eight, and consequently his estimation 
 would agree with that of the modern travellers. It is to the city of 
 Kiu-kiang that the tides of the sea, at tb full and change, are per- 
 ceived to extend ; and here, on this account, it is said to change its 
 appellation of Ta-kiang, or the great river, for that of Yang-tse-kiang, 
 or the son of the sea. 
 
 X
 
 30fi TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 the place where it discharges itself into the sea, is upwards 
 of one hundred days' journey. 1 It is indebted for its great 
 size to the vast number of other navigable rivers that empty 
 their waters into it, which have their sources in distant coun- 
 tries, A great number of cities and large towns are situated 
 upon its banks, and more than two hundred, with sixteen 
 provinces, 2 partake of the advantages of its navigation, by 
 which the transport of merchandise is to an extent that 
 might appear incredible to those who have not had an oppor- 
 tunity of witnessing it. When we consider, indeed, the length 
 of its course, and the multitude of rivers that communi- 
 cate with it (as has been observed), it is not surprising that 
 the quantity and value of articles for the supply of so many 
 places, lying in all directions, should be incalculable. The 
 principal commodity, however, is salt, which is not only con- 
 veyed by means of the Kiang, and the rivers connected with it, 
 to the towns upon their banks, but afterwards from thence to 
 all places in the interior of the country. 3 On one occasion, when 
 Marco Polo was at the city of Sin-gui, he saw there not fewer 
 than fifteen thousand vessels ; and yet there are other towns 
 along the river where the number is still more considerable. 4 
 All these vessels are covered with a kind of deck, and have 
 
 1 The length of its course is computed by Barrow at two thousand 
 two hundred miles, which would give an average of twenty-two miles 
 for each day's passage, or perhaps thirty, when the unavoidable stop- 
 pages in BO long a tract are considered. By a day's journey must not 
 in general be understood what a person could travel in a given number 
 of hours, but the interval between two accustomed resting places. 
 
 2 The division of the provinces was not the same at that period as it 
 exists at present; the whole number being now fifteen, exclusively of 
 the island of Hai-nan. 
 
 3 Salt appears to be principally manufactured in that part of 
 Kiang-nan which lies between the sea, on the east, the Kao-yeu laki 
 on the west, and the Kiang on the south. Being shipped on the latter, 
 it is conveyed to the most distant parts of China, but a considerable 
 portion goes to the metropolis. 
 
 4 The city of Kiu-kiang, which answers best to the circumstances 
 related of Sin-gui, is thus spoken of by P. Martini : " Kiu-kiang est 
 une grande ville et fort marchande BUT le bord meridional de lu riviere 
 de Kiang, oil elle se joint avec le grand lac de Poyang : on auroit de la 
 peine a croire le grand nombre de vaisseaux qu'il y a, a moiiis que de 
 1'avoir vue ; car ils viennent de tous les endroits les plus e'loigne's de 
 la Chine dans cette riviere, qui est comme leur rendez-vous, ou ils 
 B'assembient pour se mettre en mer." P. 111.
 
 TRAFFIC ON THE RIVER KIAKO. 307 
 
 a mast with one sail. 1 Their burthen is in general about 
 four thousand cantari, or quintals, of Venice, and from that 
 upwards to twelve thousand cantari, which some of them are 
 capable of loading. 2 They do not employ hempen cordage, 
 excepting for the masts and sails (standing and running 
 rigging). They have canes of the length of fifteen paces, 
 such as have been already described, which they split, in their 
 whole length, into very thin pieces, and these, by twisting 
 them together, they form into ropes three hundred paces 
 long. 3 So skilfully are they manufactured, that they are 
 equal in strength to cordage made of hemp. With these 
 ropes the vessels are tracked along the rivers, by means of 
 ten or twelve horses to each, 4 as well upwards, against the 
 current, as in the opposite direction. At many places near 
 the banks of this river t'here are hills and small rocky 
 eminences, upon which are erected idol temples and other 
 edifices, and you find a continual succession of villages and 
 inhabited places. 
 
 1 Representations of these vessels may be seen in the plates accom- 
 panying the accounts of all the Embassies to China. 
 
 2 The cantaro is commonly translated by quintal or hundredweight, 
 which would make the burthen of these vessels two hundred, and up 
 to six hundred tons : but the cantaro of some parts of Italy is smaller 
 than that of others. 
 
 3 Persons who have seen the cables belonging to praws of the Eastern 
 Islands might suppose that this account of twisting the bamboo into 
 cordage, was a mistake for the manufacture of cables by twisting or 
 platting the rattan, so commonly applied to that purpose; but our 
 author's correctness as to the material is fully proved by the testimony 
 of modern travellers. " Even the ropes," says Mr. Ellis, " by which 
 the buckets were attached to the wheel, were of bamboo." Journal, 
 &c. p. 383. 
 
 4 At the present day it would seem that vessels of every description 
 are tracked by men only, and not by horses, which, as well as other 
 cattle, are to a certain degree scarce in China; but there is reason to 
 believe that under the Mungal princes, great numbers were brought 
 from Tarfcary, and much encouragement given to breeding them. It 
 may be observed at the same time that very little is known of the 
 inland navigation of the country, excepting what is immediately con- 
 nected with the grand canal.
 
 308 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 CHAPTER LXIV. 
 
 OF THE CITY OF KAYN-GUI. 
 
 KATN-QUI is a small town on the southern bank of the 
 before-mentioned river, 1 where annually is collected a very 
 large quantity of corn and rice, the greatest part of which is 
 conveyed from thence to the city of Kanbula, for the supply 
 of the establishment of the grand khan; 2 for through this 
 place is the line of communication with the province of 
 Cathay, by means of rivers, lakes, and a wide and deep canal 
 which the grand khan has caused to be dug, in order that vessels 
 may pass from the one great river to the other, and from the 
 province of Manji, by water, as far as Kanbalu, without 
 making any part of the voyage by sea. 3 This magnificent 
 work is deserving of admiration ; and not so much from the 
 manner in which it is conducted through the country, or its 
 vast extent, as from its utility and the benefit it produces to 
 those cities which lie in its course. On its banks, likewise, 
 are constructed strong and wide terraces, or chaussees, upon 
 which the travelling by land also is rendered perfectly con- 
 venient. In the midst of the river, opposite to the city of 
 Kayn-gui, there is an island entirely of rock, upon which are 
 built a grand temple and monastery, where two hundred 
 monks, as they may be termed, reside, and perform service to 
 the idols; and this is the supreme head of many other 
 
 1 There is reason to conclude that by Kayn-gui must be meant a 
 town situated at the entrance of the canal, on the southern side of the 
 Kiang, named by P. Magalhanes Chin-kiang-keu, signifying the mouth 
 or port of Chin-kiang (the Tsin-kiang of De Guignes), a city standing on 
 the same canal, and v/hich is the subject of the succeeding chapter. 
 
 2 The journals of Van Braam and of De Guignes make frequent 
 mention of the interruption their yachts experienced from the vast 
 number of vessels laden with rice for Pekin, that were collected at this 
 part of the canal. 
 
 3 In every account of China the description of this grand canal 
 forms a prominent feature : " an inland navigation of such extent and 
 magnitude," says Barrow, " as to stand unrivalled in the history of the 
 world." Its completion, as it now exists, is said to have been effected 
 in the reign of Yong-lo, third emperor of the Ming, about the year 
 1409.
 
 CHRISTIAN CHURCHES AT CHAX-GHIAX-FU. 309 
 
 temples and monasteries. 1 We shall now speak of the city cf 
 Chan-ghian-fu. 
 
 CHAPTER LXV. 
 
 OF THE CITY OF CHAN-GHIAN-FU. 
 
 CHAN-GHIAX-FU is a city of the province of Manji, 2 the 
 inhabitants of which are idolaters, subjects of the grand khan, 
 and use his paper money. They gain their living by trade 
 and manufacture, and are wealthy. They weave tissues of 
 silk and gold. The field sports are there most excellent in 
 every species of game, and provisions are abundant. There 
 are in this city three churches of Nestorian Christians, which 
 were built in the year 1278, when his majesty appointed a 
 Nestorian, named Mar-Sachis, to the government of it for 
 three years. By him these churches were established, where 
 there had not been any before ; and they still subsist. 3 
 Leaving this place, we shall now speak of Tin-gui-gui. 
 
 1 Our author's notice of this island, so peculiarly circumstanced, at 
 the same time that it presents an unquestionable proof of the genuine- 
 ness of his observations, serves to mark with certainty the place at 
 which he crossed the Kiang. " In crossing the river," says Staunton, 
 " the attention was particularly attracted by an island situated in the 
 middle, called Chin-shan, or the golden mountain, which rose almost 
 perpendicularly out of the river. ... It belonged to the emperor, who 
 had built upon it a large and handsome palace, and on the highest 
 eminence several temples and pagodas. The island also contained a 
 large monastery of priests, by whom it is chiefly inhabited," Vol. ii. 
 ?. 424. 
 
 2 " Ceux qui liront les escrits de Marco Polo de Venise," says P. 
 Martini, " verront clairement par la situation de cette ville et le noin 
 ^u'elle a (Chin-kiang-fu) que c'est celle qu'il nomme Cingiam (Chiu- 
 gian). Elle est bastie sur le bord de la riviere de Kiang, et a 1'orient 
 d'un canal fait par artifice, qu'on a conduit jusques dans la riviere de 
 Kiang ; de 1'autre coste du canal, sur le bord qui regarde 1'occident, est 
 son fauxbourg, qui n'est pas moins peuple', et oil 1'abord est aussi grand 
 que celuy de la ville mesme." It is evident that this fauxbourg is the 
 town that has been described under the corrupted name of Kayn-gui, 
 and what has been said of the resort of shipping might have been re- 
 served for this place. 
 
 3 The existence of these churches, of which no reasonable doubt can 
 be entertained, is a curious fact in the history of the progress made by 
 the Christian religion in the eastern or remoter parts of China. The
 
 310 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 CHAPTER LXVI. 
 
 OF THE CITY OF TIN-GUI-GUI. 
 
 DEPARTING from Chan-ghian-fu, and travelling four days 
 towards the south-east, you pass many towns and fortified 
 places, the inhabitants of which are idolaters, live by arts 
 and commerce, are the subjects of the grand khan, and use 
 his paper money. At the end of these four days, you reach 
 the city of Tin-gui-gui, which is large and handsome, 1 and 
 produces much raw silk, of which tissues of various qualities 
 and patterns are woven. The necessaries of life are here in 
 plenty, and the variety of game affords excellent sport. The 
 inhabitants were a vile, inhuman race. At the time that 
 Cliinsan Ba-yan, or the hundred-eyed, subdued the country 
 of Manji, he despatched certain Alanian Christians, 2 along 
 with a party of his own people, to possess themselves of this 
 city; who, as soon as they appeared before it, were suffered 
 to enter without resistance. The place being surrounded by 
 a double wall, one of them within the other, the Alanians 
 occupied the first enclosure, where they found a large quan- 
 tity of wine, and having previously suffered rmich from 
 fatigue and privation, they were eager to quench their thirst, 
 and, without any consideration, proceeded to drink to such 
 
 name of the individual is, in the Basle edition, Mar-Sarcis, and in the 
 Berlin manuscript, Mar-Iarchis. The title or appellation of Mar, 
 equivalent, in Syriac, to Dominus in Latin, is well known to have been 
 commonly affixed to the names of Nestorian bishops, as well as of other 
 persons of rank, and as that of Mar-Sergius often occurs in the annals 
 of their church, it seems likely to have been the name of which Sachis 
 and Sards are corruptions. 
 
 1 The distance of four days' journey, in the line of the canal, from 
 the last-mentioned place, shows that this city, which in the early Venice 
 epitome is named Tin-gin-gui, and in the Berlin manuscript Chin-chm- 
 gui, must be the Tchang-tcheou-fou of Du Halde's map, or Chaug- 
 cheu-fu according to our orthography: "ville celebre et d'un grand 
 commerce, qui est situ^e proche du canal." 
 
 2 Without entering upon the ancient and obscure history of the 
 Alani or Alanians of Scythia or Turkistan, it will be sufficient to ob- 
 serve that after their defeat and dispersion by the Huns, a considerable 
 portion of them settled on the northern slope of the range of Caucasus, 
 on the western side of the Caspian, and, if not actually the same people, 
 are now confounded with the Abkhas and Cherkess or Circassians.
 
 MASSACRE AT TIX-GUI-GUI. 311 
 
 excess, that, becoming intoxicated, they fell asleep. The 
 people of the city, who were within the second enclosure, as 
 soon as they perceived that their enemies lay slumbering on 
 the ground, took the opportunity of murdering them, not 
 suffering one to escape. When Chinsan Ba-yan learned the 
 fate of his detachment, his indignation and anger were raised 
 to the highest pitch, and he sent another army to attack the 
 place. When it was earned, he gave orders for putting to 
 the sword all the inhabitants, great and small, without dis- 
 tinction of sex, as an act of retaliation. 
 
 CHAPTER LXVIT. 
 
 OF THE CITIES OF SIX-GUI AND VA-GIU. 
 
 SIN-GUI is a large and magnificent city, the circumference 
 of which is twenty miles. 1 The inhabitants are idolaters, 
 subjects of the grand khan, and use his paper money. They 
 have vast quantities of raw silk, and manufacture it, noi 
 only for their own consumption, all of them being clothed 
 in dresses of silk, but also for other markets. There are 
 amongst them some very rich merchants, and the number of 
 inhabitants is so great as to be a subject of astonishment. 
 They are, however, a pusillanimous race, and solely occupied 
 with their trade and manufactures. In these indeed they 
 display considerable ability, and if they were as enterprising, 
 manly, and warlike, as they are ingenious, so prodigious is 
 their number, that they might not only subdue the whole 
 of the province (Manji), but might carry their views still 
 
 1 By Sin-gui is to be understood the eminent city of Su-cheu, situated 
 in the line of the canal, and much celebrated by travellers, who com- 
 pare it, in some respects, to Venice. " The streets of the city of Sou- 
 choo-foo," says Staunton, ' through the suburbs of which the yachts 
 now passed, were divided, like Venice, by branches from the principal 
 canal. Over each of those branches was erected an elegant stone bridge. 
 The fleet of the embassy was nearly three hours in passing t&e suburbs 
 of Sou-choo-foo, before they arrived at the city walls." (Vol. ii. p. 427.) 
 " Les murailles de la ville de Sucheu," says Martini, " ont quarante 
 Btades Chinoises de circuit ; mais si vous y comprenez les fauxbourjrs, 
 vius en trouverez sans doute plus de cent." (P. 124.) Forty Chinese / 
 are flqual to fifteen Italian miles.
 
 312 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 further. They have amongst them many physicians of emi- 
 nent skill, who can ascertain the nature of the disorder, and 
 know how to apply the proper remedies. 1 There are also 
 persons distinguished as professors of learning, or, as we 
 should term them, philosophers, and others who may be 
 called magicians or enchanters. 2 On the mountains near the 
 city, rhubarb grows in the highest perfection, and is from 
 thence distributed throughout the province. 3 Ginger is Irke- 
 
 1 Su-cheu-fu being a place of great wealth and luxury, it is natural 
 that the medical art should there be liberally encouraged, and its prac- 
 titioners skilful. By some writers the Chinese physicians are said to 
 " have made a proficiency that would astonish the ablest of ours in 
 Europe ;" whilst others consider their elaborate process of feeling the 
 pulse, and their pretensions of being from thence enabled to ascertain 
 the seat of the disorder, as nothing better than solemn mummery. See 
 General Description of China, by the Abbe" Grosier, vol. ii. p. 480 ; and 
 Barrow's Travels in China, p. 343. 
 
 2 By philosophers and magicians, he evidently alludes to the disciples 
 of Confucius (commonly termed literati), and to those of Lao-kiun, or 
 the sect of the tao-tse ; as in other places, by the appellation of idolaters, 
 he means the worshippers of Fo, or Buddha, who constitute the most 
 numerous class. The first of these study the moral and metaphysical 
 works of their great master, and take regular degrees in philosophy, 
 which qualify them, according to their attainments, for holding the 
 several omces of government, and becoming what Europeans term 
 " mandarins of letters." The tao-tse, or " sons of immortality," as they 
 style themselves, hold doctrines which some writers describe as resem- 
 bling -those of the Hindu yogis or quietists (from whom they seem, in 
 fact, to be derived) ; whilst others, judging from their worldly habits, 
 attribute to them those of the Epicurean school ; but whatever their 
 dogmas may be, they devote themselves to the practice of magic, and 
 delude their followers by the visions and reveries of the illuminati. 
 
 3 " Le tai-hoam (more correctly, according to De Guignes, ta-hoang, 
 grand jaune) ou la rhubarbe," says P. Perennin, " croit en plusieurs 
 endroits de la Chine. La meilleure est celle de Sse-tchouen ; celle qui 
 vient dans la province de Xensi et dans le royaume de Thibet, lui est 
 fort inf^rieure." (Lett. ddif. torn. six. p. 307.) The mountains of the 
 province of Kiang-nan, being in the same latitude as the former, may 
 likewise produce a good kind, although not noticed by our modern tra- 
 vellers, who in general have had little opportunity of making botanical 
 researches beyond the borders of the canals and high roads. It is 
 evident that a mistake has here been made, probably in the arrange- 
 ment of our author's original notes. What is said of the growth of 
 rhubarb in the neighbourhood of this Sin-gui or Su-cheu, in the eastern 
 province of Kiang-nan, was undoubtedly meant to apply to anothef 
 Siugui, or Si-ning, a well-known place of trade in the western province 
 of Shen-si, and on the road to Tibet. The commerce in that article 
 narticularly belongs to the latter place, and the Russians, as Pallas
 
 THE CITY OF KIX-SAI. 313 
 
 wise produced in large quantities, and is sold at so cheap a 
 rate, that forty pounds weight of the fresh root may be had 
 for the value, in their money, of a Venetian silver groat. 
 Under the jurisdiction of Sin-gui there are sixteen respect- 
 able and wealthy cities and towns, where trade and arts 
 flourish. By the name of Sin-gui is to be understood " the 
 city of the earth," as by that of Kin-sai, "the city of heaven." 1 
 Leaving Sin-gui, we shall now speak of another city, distant 
 from it only a day's journey, named Va-giu, where, likewise, 
 there is a vast abundance of raw silk, and where there are 
 rdauy merchants as well as artificers. Silks of the finest 
 quality are woven here, and are afterwards carried to every 
 part of the province. 2 No other circumstances presenting 
 themselves as worthy of remark, we shall now proceed to the 
 description of the principal city and metropolis of the pro- 
 vince of Manji, named Kin-sai. 
 
 CHAPTER LXVIII. 
 
 OF THE NOBLE AND MAGNIFICENT CITT OF KIN-SAI. 
 
 1 . UPON leaving Va-giu you pass, in the course of three days' 
 journey, many towns, castles, and villages, all of them well 
 
 informs us, make their contracts for it with Buchanan merchants set- 
 tled there. It is not only in itself improbable that two places of the 
 same name, in opposite extremes of China, should boast of this pro- 
 duction, but the fact of its being found in any one of the eastern 
 provinces is entirely unsupported. With respect to ginger, the quan- 
 tity that might be purchased for a Venetian groat is said in the Italian 
 epitome to be five only, not forty pounds weight. [The best texts agree 
 in reading forty.] 
 
 1 Although our author may be mistaken in his etymology and in his 
 distinctive epithets of celestial and terrestrial paradise, it is plain that 
 his observation refers to a well-known Chinese saying, that, " what the 
 heavens are, above, Su-cheu and Hang-cheu are upon earth." P. Mar- 
 tini gives the proverb in the original words. Thevenot, iiime partie, 
 p. 124. 
 
 2 The city of Va-gie, of which no mention is made in the other 
 versions, must be either Ho-cheu, situated on the side of Lake Tai, 
 opposite to that on which Su-cheu stands, or else (and more probably) 
 the city called Kia-hing in modern times, and formerly Siu-cheu, which 
 is in the direct line of the canal, and midway between Su-cheu and 
 Hang-cheu. Both of them are celebrated for the richness of their corn- 
 meroe, particularly in silk, both raw and manufactured.
 
 314 TRAVKLS OF MAUCO POLO. 
 
 inhabited and opulent. The people are idolaters, and the 
 subjects of the grand khan, and they use paper money and 
 have abundance of provisions. At the end of three days you 
 reach the noble and magnificent city of Kin-sai, a name that 
 signifies "the celestial city," and which it merits from its 
 preeminence to all others in the world, in point of grandeur 
 and beauty, as well as from its abundant delights, which 
 might lead an inhabitant to imagine himself in paradise. 1 
 This city was frequently visited by Marco Polo, 2 who care- 
 fully and diligently observed and inquired into every circum- 
 stance respecting it, all of which he entered in his note's, 
 from whence the following particulars are briefly stated. Ac- 
 cording to common estimation, this city is an hundred miles 
 in circuit. 3 Its streets and canals are extensive, and there 
 are squares, or market-places, which, being necessarily propor- 
 tioned in size to the prodigious concourse of people by whom 
 they are frequented, are exceedingly spacious. It is situated 
 between a lake of fresh and very clear water on the one side, 4 
 
 1 At the time when this city, the capital of Southern China under 
 the dynasty of the Song, was surrendered to the arms of Kubla'i, the 
 Chinese annals call it by the name of Lin-gnan, This was changed by 
 the Ming for that of Hang-cheu, which it had borne at an earlier period, 
 and which it still retains. Quinsai, Kin-sai, or, according to De Guignes, 
 Kin-tsay, must therefore be considered only as a descriptive appellation, 
 grounded, perhaps, upon the proverbial saying already noticed, which 
 terms it a celestial abode, although the meaning of the component 
 words may not be precisely that which our author has assigned to 
 them. 
 
 2 The city of Yang-cheu-fu, of which he was the provisional governor 
 for three years, being distant only about a week's journey, by the 
 canal, from Hang-cheu-fu, he had consequently the opportunity of 
 occasional intercourse with that capital. 
 
 3 These dimensions, taken in their literal sense, must be regarded as 
 extravagant, even although they should be understood to include the 
 suburbs ; but there has already been frequent occasion to remark, that 
 when, in describing the size of places, our author speaks of miles, he 
 must be supposed to mean Chinese miles, or li, which are to the Italian 
 in the proportion of three to eight. Even such an extent might seem 
 excessive, were it not that the walls even of the modern city are esti- 
 mated by travellers at sixty li, and that, if in the course of five cen- 
 turies they have undergone alterations, it is to be presumed their 
 limits may have been considerably contracted. It is rarely indeed that 
 strangers can have the opportunity of measuring the works of fortified 
 places : they must derive their information from the natives, who, from 
 ignorance or vanity, are likely to deceive them. 
 
 4 The lake here spoken of is the Si-hu, or " western lake," so calla
 
 THE CITY OP KTN-SAI. 6 15 
 
 aiid a river of great magnitude on the other, the waters of 
 which, by a number of canals, large and small, are made to 
 run through every quarter of the city, carrying with them all 
 the filth into the lake, and ultimately to the sea. 1 This, 
 whilst it contributes much to the purity of the air, furnishes 
 a communication by water, in addition to that by land, to all 
 parts of the town ; the canals and the streets being of suf- 
 ficient width to allow of boats on the one, and carriages in 
 the other, conveniently passing, with articles necessary for 
 the consumption of the inhabitants. 2 It is commonly said 
 that the number of bridges, of all sizes, amounts to twelve 
 
 from its being situated on the western side of the city. Although 
 inconsiderable in point of extent, it is highly celebrated by all travel- 
 lers on account of the beauty of its surrounding scenery, and the pe- 
 culiar transparency of its waters. " The lake," says Staunton, " formed 
 a beautiful sheet of water, about three or four miles in diameter, and 
 surrounded to the north, east, and south by an amphitheatre of pic- 
 turesque mountains. ... It was in most places shallow, the water per- 
 fectly pellucid, and the bottom gravelly." (P. 444.) " The water," says 
 Barrow, who made an excursion on it, " was as clear as crystal." 
 P. 524. 
 
 1 The river upon which this ancient capital of southern China stands 
 is the Tsien-tang-kiaug. " The tide," says Staunton, " increases the 
 width of this river to about four miles opposite the city. At low water 
 there is a fine level strand near two miles broad, which extends towards 
 the sea as far as the eye can reach." (P. 438.) According to the words 
 of our author there appears to have been, in his time, a passage of 
 water from the river, through the numerous canals of the city, into the 
 lake. This would take place at the flood tide; and at the ebb. through 
 the same channels, there would be a reflux from the lake into the river, 
 necessary for the purpose of cleansing them. But in the modern 
 accounts of Hang-cheu-fu no mention is made of any such communi- 
 cation between the river and the city or the lake, and to account for 
 the disagreement we might be led to conclude that from the receding 
 of the sea, or other natural causes, a change of circumstances may 
 have been produced in so long a course of time. 
 
 2 All the modern accounts of this city conciir in describing its 
 numerous canals, but they likewise insist upon the narrowness of its 
 paved streets. Our author, it is true, in a subsequent part of his de- 
 scription, speaks of the principal street as being forty paces in width 
 (about equal to that of Pekin); but it must be considered that at the 
 period when he wrote, Hang-cheu still retained the magnificence of 
 a great capital and imperial residence, and that in a country repeatedly 
 ravaged by foreign and domestic conquerors, it cannot be supposed to 
 have escaped repeated destruction, nor, when renewed, to have ae- 
 sumed, in the new arrangement of its streets, any other chmicter 
 than that of a provincial city, although of the first class.
 
 316 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 thousand. 1 Those which are thrown over the principal canala 
 and are connected with the main streets, have arches so high, 
 and built with so much skill, that vessels with their masts 
 can pass under them, 2 whilst, at the same time, carts and 
 horses are passing over their heads, so well is the slope from 
 the street adapted to the height of the arch. If they were 
 not in fact so numerous, there wou>d be no convenience of 
 crossing from one place to another. 
 
 2. Beyond the city, and enclosing it on that side, there 
 is a fosse about forty miles in length, very wide, and full of 
 water that comes from the river before mentioned. This was 
 excavated by the ancient kings of the province, in order that 
 when the river should overflow its banks, the superfluous 
 water might be diverted into this channel ; and to serve at 
 the same time as a measure of defence. 3 The earth dug out 
 
 1 Amongst the exaggerations imputed to our author, in his account 
 of China, none has been more commonly pointed out by those who 
 take a part against him, than this assertion, that a city, whatever its 
 extent and magnificence might be, should have contained twelve thou- 
 sand bridges. It cannot be denied that the truth is here outstepped ; 
 but it must be recollected that he does not state the fact upon the 
 authority of any enumeration of his own, but merely as the popular 
 story (3 fama is the expression) related by the inhabitants of the place, 
 whose vanity, in this and other instances, led them to impose upon 
 admiring credulity. 
 
 2 " Outre ces digues," says P. Le Comte, speaking of the grand canal, 
 " on a basti une infinite de ponts pour la communication des terres : 
 ils sont de trois, de cinq, et de sept arches ; celle du milieu est extra- 
 ordinairement haute, afin que les barques en passant, ne soient pas 
 obligees d'abaisser leurs masts." (Nouv. Mem. de la Chine, torn. i. p. 
 161.) "De tous les environs," says Du Halde, in his description of 
 a neighbouring city, " on peut venir, entrer, et aller dans toute la ville 
 en bateau. II n'y a point de rue oh il n'y ait un canal ; c'est pourquoi 
 il y a quantity de ponts qui sont fort Sieve's, et presque tous d'une 
 seule arche." (Tom. i. p. 179.) But most directly to our purpose is 
 Barrow's observation, that " over this main trunk and most of the other 
 
 canals and rivers, are a great variety of bridges Some have the 
 
 piers of such an extraordinary height, that the largest vessels, of two 
 hundred tons, sail under them without striking their masts." P. 337. 
 
 3 The existence of this fosse, commencing at the lake, and ter- 
 minating at the river, may be traced in Du Halde's plan of the city. 
 Its length there appears to exceed the proportion here assigned of four- 
 tenths of the whole extent of the walls, but all the plans in that 
 collection are without scale, and seem to have been drawn by Chinese 
 artists, from memory rather than from actual survey. With regard to 
 tho object of this excavation, it may rather be thought intended to
 
 THE CITY OP KIN- SAL 317 
 
 from thence was thrown to the inner side, and has the appear- 
 ance of many hillocks surrounding the place. There are 
 within the city ten principal squares or market-places, besides 
 innumerable shops along the streets. Each side of these 
 squares is half a mile in length, 1 and in front of them is the 
 main street, forty paces in width, and running in a direct line 
 from one extremity of the city to the other. It is crossed 
 by many low and convenient bridges. These market-squares 
 (two miles in their whole dimension) are at the distance of 
 four miles from each other. In a direction parallel to that of 
 the main street, but on the opposite side of the squares, runs 
 a very large canal, on the nearer bank of which capacious 
 warehouses are built of stone, for the accommodation of the 
 merchants who arrive from India and other parts, together 
 with their goods and effects, in order that they may be con- 
 veniently situated with respect to the market-places. 2 In 
 each of these, upon three days in every week, there is an 
 assemblage of from forty to fifty thousand persons, who 
 attend the markets and supply them with every article of 
 provision that can be desired. There is an abundant quantity 
 of game of all kinds, such as roebucks, stags, fallow deer, 
 hares, and rabbits, together with partridges, pheasants, fran- 
 colins, quails, common fowls, capons, and such numbers of 
 ducks and geese as can scarcely be expressed ; for so easily 
 are they bred and reared on the lake, that, for the value of a 
 Venetian silver groat, you may purchase a couple of geese 
 and two couple of ducks. 3 There, also, are the shambles, 
 carry off the overflowings of the lake, than to receive those of the 
 river, and Staunton accordingly speaks of the stream that flowa through 
 it at ordinary times, as being supplied from the former. 
 
 1 The interior of this and of every other Chinese city must have 
 undergone an entire change since the days of our author, and the 
 bazars or market-places here mentioned are unnoticed by modern 
 travellers. According to the length of the Chinese li, as established 
 by the most accurate writers, at 296 French toises, each side of these 
 squares would be about 320 English yards, and their distance from 
 each other about 2,560. 
 
 2 The regulations of the Chinese government with regard to foreign 
 commerce appear to have been nearly the same, at a remote period, 
 as those to which the European concerns at the port of Can toe are 
 subjected at the present day. 
 
 3 Perhaps instead of the conjunction copulative "and." we should 
 here read the disjunctive " or," and consider two of the smaller of 
 these aquatic birds as an equivalent for one of the larger
 
 318 TRAVELS OP MARCO POLO. 
 
 where they slaughter cattle for food, such as oxen, calves, 
 kids, and lambs, to furnish the tables of rich persons and of 
 the great magistrates. As to people of the lower classes, they 
 do not scruple to eat every other kind of flesh, however 
 unclean, without any discrimination. 1 At all seasons there 
 is in the markets a great variety of herbs and fruits, and 
 especially pears of an extraordinary size, weighing ten pounds 
 each, that are white in the inside, like paste, and have a 
 very fragrant smell. 2 There are peaches also, in their season, 
 both of the yellow and the white kind, 3 and of a delicious 
 flavour. Grapes are not produced there, but are brought in 
 a dried state, and very good, from other parts. This applies 
 
 1 Staunton observes, that " of the larger kind (of quadrupeds) the 
 common people have little opportunity of ever tasting, unless of such 
 as die by accident or disease. In such cases the appetite of a Chinese 
 surmounts all scruple ; whether it be an ox or camel, a sheep or ass, it is 
 equally acceptable. This people know no distinction of clean and unclean 
 
 meat Quadrupeds that can find some resources for subsistence 
 
 about dwelling-houses, such as hogs and dogs, are the most common 
 animal food, and are sold at the public markets." (P. 399.) The 
 Arabian travellers of the ninth century notice in like manner the indis- 
 criminate style of feeding to which the Chinese were addicted in 
 their days, 
 
 2 Pears of the weight of ten pounds are, it must be confessed, an 
 extraordinary production of nature, and must have been of a kind still 
 unknown in Europe, where, I believe, the largest are not found to 
 exceed two pounds; nor have I been able to ascertain the weight of 
 any pear grown in England, exceeding twenty-six ounces. It is well 
 known, indeed, that the varieties of the pyrus, as well as of other 
 fruits, not only degenerate in size and quality, but in a long course of 
 years actually become extinct. But the credibility of our author's 
 assertion does not rest for support upon the mere presumption of what 
 might have been the state of Chinese horticulture in the thirteenth 
 century; for we learn from the accounts of modern travellers that 
 pears of uncommon magnitude are still produced in the eastern pro- 
 vinces of China. Mr. Henry Browne, who for many years filled the 
 situation of Chief of the Company's factory at Canton, assured Mr. 
 Marsden that he had seen pears, supposed to have been produced in the 
 province of Fo-kien, the bulk of which equalled that of a moderate 
 sized wine decanter. What is said of their inner substance resembling 
 paste, is meant to describe that quality which Van Braam terms fondante 
 or melting, and which De Guignes, speaking of the same fruit, expresses 
 by beiirrte. The latter pronounces them to be " fort grosses et excel- 
 lentea." Tom. iii. p. 355. 
 
 3 By peaches of the yellow kind it may be conjectured that our 
 autnor means apricot 3 , which, as well as peaches, are the produce of 
 that part of China. No mention is made of oranges.
 
 PRODUCE AND MANUFACTURES OP KIN-SAI. 319 
 
 also to wine, which the natives do not hold in estimation, 
 being accustomed to their own liquor prepared from rice and 
 spices. From the sea, which is fifteen miles distant, there 
 is daily brought up the river, to the city, a vast quantity oi 
 fish; and in the lake also there is abundance, which gives 
 employment at all times to persons whose sole occupation it 
 is to catch them. The sorts are various according to the 
 season of the year, and, in consequence of the offal carried 
 thither from the town, they become large and rich. At the 
 sight of such an importation of fish, you would think it im- 
 possible that it could be sold; and yet, in the course of a few 
 hours, it is all taken off, so great is the number of inhabitants, 
 even of those classes which can afford to indulge in such 
 luxuries, for fish and flesh are eaten at the same meal. Each 
 of the ten market-squares is surrounded with high dwelling- 
 houses, 1 in the lower part of which are shops, where every 
 kind of manufacture is carried on, and every article of trade 
 is sold; such, amongst others, as spices, drugs, trinkets, and 
 pearls. In certain shops nothing is vended but the wine of 
 the country, which they are continually brewing, and serve 
 out fresh to their customers at a moderate price. The streets 
 connected with the market-squares are numerous, and in 
 some of them are many cold baths, attended by servants of 
 both sexes, to perform the offices of ablution for the men and 
 women who frequent them, and who from their childhood 
 have been accustomed at all times to wash in cold water, 
 which they reckon highly conducive to health. At these 
 bathing places, however, they have apartments provided with 
 warm water, for the use of strangers, who, from not being 
 habituated to it, cannot bear the shock of the cold. All are 
 in the daily practice of washing their persons, and especially 
 before their meals. 
 
 3. In other streets are the habitations of the courtesans, 
 who are here in such numbers as I dare not venture to report: 
 and not only near the squares, which is the situation usually 
 appropriated for their residence, but in every part of the city 
 they are to be found, adorned with much finery, highly per- 
 fumed, occupying well-furnished houses, and attended by 
 
 1 The generality of Chinese houses having only one floor, those 
 which are raised to a second story may, comparatively, be termed 
 case alte.
 
 320 TRAVELS OP MARCO POLO. 
 
 many female domestics. 1 These women are accomplished, 
 and are perfect in the arts of blandishment and dalliance, 
 which they accompany with expressions adapted to every 
 description of person, insomuch that strangers who have once 
 tasted of their charms, remain in a state of fascination, and 
 become so enchanted by their meretricious arts, that they can 
 never divest themselves of the impression. Thus intoxicated 
 with sensual pleasures, when they return to their homes they 
 report that they have been in Kin-sai, or the celestial city, 
 and pant for the time when they may be enabled to revisit 
 paradise. In other streets are the dwellings of the physicians 
 and the astrologers, who also give instructions in reading and 
 writing, as well as in many other arts. They have apart- 
 ments also amongst those which surround the market-squares. 
 On opposite sides of each of these squares there are two large 
 edifices, where officers appointed by the grand khan are 
 stationed, to take immediate cognisance of any differences that 
 may happen to arise between the foreign merchants, or amongst 
 the inhabitants of the place. It is their duty likewise to see 
 that the guards upon the several bridges in their respective 
 vicinities (of whom mention shall be made hereafter) are 
 duly placed, and in cases of neglect, to punish the delinquents 
 at their discretion. 2 
 
 On each side of the principal street, already mentioned as 
 extending from one end of the city to the other, there are 
 
 1 At Kanbalu, or Pekin, it was the custom in our author's time, as 
 it is at the present day, to restrict the residence of the public women 
 to the suburbs of the city, where the numerous strangers who resort 
 to the capital were likewise quartered Here, on the other hand, they 
 are described as inhabiting the most frequented parts of the town, and 
 especially the vicinity of the squares or bazars, as if the accommo- 
 dation of the foreign merchants, in this respect also, was particularly 
 consulted. " Ces femmes " (says the second of the Arabian travellers, 
 after explaining the manner in which they were registered and licensed 
 by the officers of government) " marchent les soirs habille'es d'estoffes 
 (silks) de diverses couleurs, et elles ne portent point de voiles. Elles 
 s'abandonnent a tous les estrangers nouvellement arrives dans le pais, 
 lors qu'ils aiment la desbauche. Les Chinois les font venir chez eux, 
 et elles n'en sortent que le matin. Louons Dieu, de ce qu'il nous 
 a exemptez de semblables infamies." Anc. Rclat. p. 57. 
 
 2 In the account given by De Guignes of the several ranks of civil 
 mandarins or magistrates (kouan), he mentions "le nan-hay, chef de 
 police, et ses assesseurs ou lieutenants de quartiers." The officers 
 spoken of in the text were probably of this latter class.
 
 VAST POPULATION OF 1IX-SA1. 
 
 houses and mansions of great size, with their gardens, and 
 near to these, the dwellings of the artisans, who work in shops, 
 at their several trades ; and at all hours you see such multi- 
 tudes of people passing and repassing, on their various avo- 
 cations, that the providing food in sufficiency for their main- 
 tenance might be deemed an impossibility j 1 but other ideas 
 will be formed when it is observed that, on every market-day, 
 the squares are crowded with tradespeople, who cover the 
 whole space with tfap articles brought by carts and boats, for 
 all of which they find a sale. By instancing the single article 
 of pepper, some notion may be formed of the whole quantity 
 of provisions, meat, wine, groceries, and the like, required for 
 the consumption of the inhabitants of Kin-sai; and of this, 
 Marco Polo learned from an officer employed in the grand 
 khan's customs, the daily amount was forty-three loads, each 
 load being two hundred and forty-three pounds. 2 
 
 S 4. The inhabitants of the citv are idolaters, and thev 
 
 w, * 
 
 use paper money as currency. The men as well as the women 
 have fair complexions, and are handsome. The greater part 
 
 1 " It was difficult," says Staunton, " to pass along the streets, on 
 account of the vast concourse of people not assembled merely to see 
 the strangers, or on any other public occasion, but each individual going 
 about his own concerns." P. 439. 
 
 8 As our author professes to have obtained his information on this 
 head from an officer of the customs, it follows that the quantity of 
 pepper stated in the text was that of the importation (which alone 
 could come under his cognisance), and not the quantity consumed in 
 the city ; with which, however, it was not unlikely to be confounded 
 in the mind of the former. The daily entry being stated at 10,449 Ibs., 
 the annual quantity would be 3,813,885 Ibs., or (at the customary rate 
 of 16 cwt. to the ton, in this article) about 2,130 tons. This may be 
 thought large, but in a paper drawn up by Mr. F. Pigou, and published 
 in Dalrymple's Oriental Repertory (vol. ii. p. 305), it is asserted that 
 " the usual import, at all the trading ports of China, is about 40,000 
 peculs, or, at 133 Ibs. to the pecul, about 3,000 tons. "Les Hollandois 
 et les Auglois," says De Guignes, speaking of the modern commerce of 
 the Chinese, " ont vendu 1,465,053 livres pesant de poivre, 46,371 
 livres de girofle, et 8,979 livres de muscade. Cette quantite d'e'piceries, 
 si Ton considere la population de la Chine, est plus qu'insuffisante, et 
 n'est rien en raison de ce que 1'empire devroit consummer." (Tom. iii. 
 p. 304.) In regard to the inadequacy of this importation it should be 
 observed, that it is not upon the European trade alone the Chinese 
 depend for their supplies of pepper. Their junks frequent many of 
 the eastern islands, and at the port of Borneo Proper, hi particular, 
 annually take on board large cargoes of that article. 
 
 Y
 
 622 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 of them are always clothed in silk, in consequence of the vast 
 quantity of that material produced in the territory of Kin-sai, 
 exclusively of what the merchants import from other pro- 
 vinces. 1 Amongst the handicraft trades exercised in the 
 place, there are twelve considered to be superior to the rest, 
 as being more generally useful ; for each of which there are a 
 thousand workshops, and each shop furnishes employment 
 for ten, fifteen, or twenty workmen, and in a few instances as 
 many as forty, under their respective masters. The opulent 
 principals in these manufactories do not labour with their own 
 hands, but, on the contrary assume airs of gentility and affect 
 parade. Their wives equally abstain from work. They have 
 much beauty, as has been remarked, and are brought up with 
 delicate and languid habits. 2 The costliness of their dresses, 
 in silks and jewellery, can scarcely be imagined. Although 
 the laws of their ancient kings ordained that each citizen 
 should exercise the profession of his father, yet they were 
 allowed, when they acquired wealth, to discontinue the 
 manual labour, provided they kept up the establishment, and 
 employed persons to work at their paternal trades. 3 Their 
 houses are well built and richly adorned with carved work. 
 So much do they delight in ornaments of this kind, in paintings, 
 
 1 " The flowered and embroidered satins, and other branches in the 
 manufacture of silk, every part of which is done by women, occupy," 
 says Staunton, " vast numbers of them in Han-choo-foo. Most of the 
 men were gaily dressed; and appeared to be in comfortable circum- 
 stances." Embassy, vol. ii. p. 439. 
 
 2 The softness of feature, delicacy of shape, and languid habits of 
 the Chinese women of superior rank, may be observed in their paint- 
 ings. " Though the ladies," says Staunton, " reckon corpulence a 
 beauty in a man, they consider it as a palpable blemish in their own 
 sex, and aim at preserving a slimness and delicacy of shape." (P. 440.) 
 The practice of reducing the size and impeding the use of their feet, 
 by early bandaging, is not adverted to by our author, unless he may be 
 thought to have had it in view when he employed the phrase " alle- 
 vate morbidamente." In respect to this and some other instances of 
 extraordinary peculiarities, (such as the growth of the finger-nails to 
 the length of two or three inches, and the preserving them in cases,) he 
 may have been doubtful of gaining credit, or apprehensive of being 
 exposed to ridicule, should he relate them as facts. It may also admit 
 of question whether such fashions did actually prevail at that period. 
 
 3 If this hereditary exercise of professions was anciently a custom 
 amongst the Chinese, as it is with the people of India, it must be 
 fJJowed that the traces of it are not apparent in modern times.
 
 CHARACTER OF THE PEOPLE OF KIX-SAI. 323 
 
 and fancy buildings, that the sums they lavish on such objects 
 are enormous. The natural disposition of the native inhabi- 
 tants of Kin-sai is pacific, and by the example of their former 
 kings, who were themselves unwarlike, they have been accus- 
 tomed to habits of tranquillity. The management of arms 
 is unknown to them, nor do they keep any in their houses. 1 
 Contentious broils are never heard among them. 2 They con- 
 duct their mercantile and manufacturing concerns with perfect 
 candour and probity. 3 They are friendly towards each other, 
 and persons who inhabit the same street, both men and 
 women, from the mere circumstance of neighbourhood, appear 
 like one family. In their domestic manners they are free 
 from jealousy or suspicion of their wives, to whom great 
 respect is shown, and any man would be accounted infamous 
 who should presume to use indecent expressions to a married 
 woman. To strangers also, who visit their city in the way of 
 commerce, they give proofs of cordiality, inviting them freely 
 io their houses, showing them hospitable attention, and fur- 
 nishing them with the best advice and assistance in their 
 mercantile transactions. On the other hand, they dislike the 
 sight of soldiery, not excepting the guards of the grand khan, 
 as they preserve the recollection that by them they were 
 deprived of the government of their native kings and rulers. 
 
 1 The unwarlike disposition and habits of the Chinese are generally 
 known ; yet in the defence of their towns they have on many occasions 
 shown the highest degree of patriotic and desperate resolution; nor 
 would the Mungala have effected the subjugation of the country, if the 
 people had not been betrayed by their superior officers, 
 
 - The exterior deportment of these people is grave and placid, but 
 their temper is naturally irascible and vindictive, and the infrequency 
 of broils is chiefly to be attributed to a rigorous police. 
 
 3 To this character for probity it may be thought that the Chinese 
 traders of the present day have little claim, as all our accounts of their 
 manners abound with stories of the ingenious frauds practised at Can- 
 ton upon the less cunning Europeans ; but these apply chiefly to the 
 lower class of dealers, who, perhaps, if they could be heard in their 
 own defence, might justify their knavery upon the principle of retalia- 
 tion. In the long-continued intercourse that has subsisted between the 
 agents of the European companies and the more eminent of the 
 Chinese merchants, whatever injustice the former may have experienced 
 from the effects of court intrigue, complaints on the ground of com- 
 mercial unfairness have been extremely rare, and on the contrary their 
 transactions have been marked with the most perfect good faith and 
 mutual confidence
 
 324 TRAVELS OF MARCO FOLD. 
 
 5. On the borders of the lake are many handsome and 
 spacious edifices belonging to men of rank and great magis- 
 trates. There are likewise many idol temples, with their 
 monasteries, occupied by a number of monks, who perform 
 the service of the idols. 1 Near the central part are two 
 islands, upon each of which stands a superb building, with an 
 incredible number of apartments and separate pavilions. 
 When the inhabitants of the city have occasion to celebrate 
 a wedding, or to give a sumptuous entertainment, they resort 
 to one of these islands, where they find ready for their pur- 
 pose every article that can be required, such as vessels, nap- 
 kins, table-linen, and the like, which are provided and kept 
 there at the common expense of the citizens, by whom also the 
 buildings were erected. It may happen that at one time there 
 are a hundred parties assembled there, at wedding or other 
 feasts, all of whom, notwithstanding, are accommodated with 
 separate rooms or pavilions, so judiciously arranged that they 
 do not interfere with or incommode each other. In addition 
 to this, there are upon the lake a great number of pleasure- 
 vessels or barges, calculated for holding ten, fifteen, to twenty 
 persons, being from fifteen to twenty paces in length, with a 
 wide and flat flooring, and not liable to heel to either side 
 in passing through the water. Such persons as take delight 
 in the amusement, and mean to enjoy it, either in the com- 
 pany of their women or that of their male companions, 
 engage one of these barges, which are always kept in the 
 nicest order, with proper seats and tables, together with every 
 other kind of furniture necessary for giving an entertainment. 
 The cabins have a flat roof or upper deck, where the boatmen 
 take their place, and by means of long poles, which they 
 thrust to the bottom of the lake (not more than one or 
 
 1 " The lake," says Staunton, " formed a beautiful sheet of water, 
 about three or four miles in diameter, and surrounded, to the north, 
 east, and south, by an amphitheatre of mountains, between the base of 
 which and the margin of the lake, the narrow slip of level ground was 
 laid out in a pleasing style suitable to the situation. It was ornamented 
 with houses and gardens of mandarins, as well as a palace belonging to 
 the emperor, together with temples, monasteries for the hoshaung or 
 priests of Fo, and a number of light and fanciful stone bridges that 
 are thrown across the arms of the lake. . . . Upon the summit also 
 were erected pagodas, one of which attracted particular attention." 
 P. 444.
 
 PLEASURE PARTIES ON THB LAKE. 325 
 
 two fatVioms in depth), they shove the barges along, until they 
 reach the intended spot. These cabins are painted within- 
 side of various colours and with a variety of figures; all 
 parts of the vessel are likewise adorned with painting. 1 There 
 are windows on each side, which may either be kept shut, or 
 opened, to give an opportunity to the company, as they sit at 
 table, of looking out in every direction and feasting their eyes 
 on the variety and beauty of the scenes as they pass them. 
 And truly the gratification afforded in this manner, upon the 
 water, exceeds any that can be derived from the amusements 
 on the land ; for as the lake extends the whole length of the 
 city, on one side, you have a view, as you stand in the boat, 
 at a certain distance from the shore, of all its grandeur and 
 beauty, its palaces, temples, convents, and gardens, with trees 
 of the largest size growing down to the water's edge, whilst 
 at the same time you enjoy the sight of other boats of the 
 same description, continually passing you, filled in like 
 manner with parties in pursuit of amusement. In fact, the 
 inhabitants of this place, as soon as the labours of the day 
 have ceased, or their mercantile transactions are closed, think 
 of nothing else than of passing the remaining hours in parties 
 of pleasure, with their wives or their mistresses, either in 
 these barges, or about the city in carriages, of which it will 
 here be proper to give some account, as constituting one ot 
 the amusements of these people. 
 
 It must be observed, in the first place, that the streets of 
 Kin-sai are all paved with stones and bricks, and so likewise 
 are all the principal roads extending from thence through the 
 province of Manji, by means of which passengers can travel 
 to every pirt without soiling their feet; but as the couriers 
 of his majesty, who go on horseback with great speed, cannot 
 make use of the pavement, a part of the road, on one side, 
 
 1 ' Xavires," saya P. Martini, " qu'on pourroit appeller avec raison 
 des palais dor^s, paroe qu'ils sont peints de diverges eonleurs, et qoe 
 tout y brill e da plus fin et du meilleur or : de sorte que c'est Ik oil la 
 magnificence et la pompe des festins, des spectacles, et des jeux eclatent 
 tous les jours. Ces Chinois de Hang-cheu, qui sont autant d'esclaves de 
 la Tolupte', y trouvent en abondanoe tout ce qu'ila peuvent souhaiter." 
 (P. 141.) '' Vast numbers of barges," says Barrow, speaking of the 
 same lake, " were sailing to and fro, all gaily decorated with paint and 
 gilding and streaming colours ; the parties within them apparently all 
 in pursuit of pleasure." P. 524.
 
 326 TRAVELS OF MARv,O POLO. 
 
 is on their account left unpaved. The main street of the 
 city, of which we have before spoken, as leading from one 
 extremity to the other, is paved with stone and brick to the 
 width of ten paces on each side, the intermediate part being 
 filled up with small gravel, and provided with arched drains 
 for carrying off the rain-water that falls, into the neighbouring 
 canals, so that it remains always dry. On this gravel it is 
 that the carriages are continually passing and repassing. 
 They are of a long shape, covered at top, have curtains and 
 cushions of silk, and are capable of holding six persons. 
 Both men and women who feel disposed to take their plea- 
 sure, are in the daily practice of hiring them for that purpose, 
 and accordingly at every hour you may see vast numbers of 
 them driven along the middle part of the street. 1 Some of 
 them proceed to visit certain gardens, where the company are 
 introduced, by those who have the management of the place, 
 to shady recesses contrived by the gardeners for that purpose; 
 and here the men indulge themselves all day in the society of 
 their women, returning home, when it becomes late, in the 
 manner they came. 
 
 6. It is the custom of the people of Kin-sai, upon the 
 birth of a child, for the parents to make a note, immediately, 
 of the day, hour, and minute at which the delivery took 
 place. They then inquire of an astrologer under what sign 
 or aspect of the heavens the child was born ; and his answer 
 is likewise committed carefully to writing. When therefore 
 he is grown up, and is about to engage in any mercantile 
 adventure, voyage, or treaty of marriage, this document is 
 carried to the astrologer, who, having examined it, and 
 weighed all the circumstances, pronounces certain oracular 
 words, in which these people, who sometimes find them 
 
 1 The carriages which stand for hire in the streets of Pekin are of a 
 smaller size than these described by our author, but in other respects 
 vhe construction is the same. See plate 41, of those annexed to M. De 
 Guignes' work, where it will be observed that the carriages nearly re- 
 semble what we term in England a tilted cart. As the habits of the 
 ancient Chinese capital were much more luxurious than those of Pekin 
 under the Tartar dominion, at any period, we may conclude that the 
 vehicles of the former were fitted up with more attention to ease and 
 convenience, as well as with more splendour, than the clumsy machines 
 above described. Staunton, indeed, speaks of " cushions stufl'ed with 
 cotton, and covered with silk, to sit upon," in the waggons of Hang 
 cheu-fu. P. 447.
 
 FUNERAL CUSTOMS IN EIK-SA1. 37 
 
 justified by the event, place great confidence. Of these as ro- 
 logers, or rather magicians, great numbers are to be met 
 with in eveiy market-place, and no marriage is ever cele- 
 brated until an opinion has been pronounced upon it by one 
 of that profession. 
 
 It is also their custom, upon the death of any great and 
 rich personage, to observe the following ceremonies. The 
 relations, male and female, clothe themselves in coarse dresses, 
 and accompany the body to the place appointed for burning 
 it. The procession is likewise attended by performers on 
 various musical instruments, which are sounded as it moves 
 along, and prayers to their idols are chanted in a loud voice. 
 When arrived at the spot, they throw into the flame many 
 pieces of cotton-paper, upon which are painted representations 
 of male and female servants, horses, camels, silk wrought 
 with gold, as well as of gold and silver money. This is done, 
 in consequence of their belief that the deceased will possess 
 in the other world all these conveniences, the former in their 
 natural state of flesh and bones, together with the money and 
 the silks As soon as the pile has been consumed, they sound 
 all the instruments of music at the same time, producing a 
 loud and long-continued noise; and they imagine that by 
 these ceremonies their idols are induced to receive the soul of 
 the man whose corpse has been reduced to ashes, in order to 
 its being regenerated in the other world, and entering again 
 into life 
 
 7. In every street of this city there are stone buildings 
 or towers, to which, in case of a fire breaking out in any 
 quarter (an accident by no means unusual, as the houses are 
 mostly constructed of wood), the inhabitants may remove 
 their effects for security. By a regulation which his majesty 
 has established, there is a guard of ten watchmen stationed, 
 under cover, upon all the principal bridges, of whom five do 
 duty by day and five by night. Each of these guard-rooms 
 is provided with a sonorous wooden instrument as well as one 
 of metal, together with a clepsydra (koriuolo), by means of 
 which latter the hours of the day and night are ascertained. 1 
 As soon as the first hour of the night is expired, one of the 
 watchmen gives a single stroke upon the wooden instrument, 
 
 1 This clepsydra, or water-clock, is noticed by more modern tra- 
 vellers.
 
 328 TRAVELS OP MARCO POLO. 
 
 and also upon the metal gong (bacind), which announces to 
 the people of the neighbouring streets that it is the first 
 hour. At the expiration of the second, two strokes are 
 given ; and so on progressively, increasing the number of 
 strokes as the hours advance. 1 The guard is not allowed to 
 sleep, and must be always on the alert. In the morning, as 
 soon as the sun begins to appear, a single stroke is again 
 struck, as in the evening, and so onwards from hour to hour. 
 Some of these watchmen patrol the streets, to observe whether 
 any person has a light or fire burning after the hour appointed 
 for extinguishing them. Upon making the discovery, they affix 
 a mark to the door, and in the morning the owner of the house 
 is taken before the magistrates, by whom, if he cannot assign 
 a legitimate excuse for his offence, he is condemned to punish- 
 ment. Should they find any person abroad at an unseasonable 
 hour, they arrest and confine him, and in the morning he is 
 carried before the same tribunal. If, in the course of the 
 day, they notice any person who from lameness or other 
 infirmity is unable to work, they place him in one of the 
 hospitals, of- which there are several in every part of the city, 
 founded by the ancient kings, and liberally endowed. When 
 cured, he is obliged to work at some trade. Immediately 
 upon the appearance of fire breaking out in a house, they 
 
 1 " On distingue ordinairement," says Le Comte, " cinq (veilles de 
 la nuit) qui cominencent a sept ou hurt heures du soir. Au commence- 
 ment de la premiere on frappe un seul coup, un moment apres on re- 
 double encore, ce qu'on re"pete continuellement durant deux heures, 
 jusqu'a la seconde veille. Car alors on frappe deux coups, et on continue 
 toujours a frapper jusqu'a la troisieme veille, &c. . . . augmentant le 
 nombre des coups, a mesure qu'on passe d'une veille a 1'autre, de sorte 
 que ce sont autant d'horloges a re'pe'tition, qui font connoistre a tout 
 moment quelle heure il est. On sert encore pour marquer les mesmes 
 veilles d'un tambour, d'une grandeur extraordinaire, sur lequel on 
 frappe toute la auit selon les mesmes proportions." (Tom. i. p. 127.) This 
 continued repetition of the strokes, during the intervals of the several 
 watches (similar to calling the hours in the streets of our own metro- 
 polis), is not stated in the text. The practice may have undergone a 
 change; but it seems more likely that our author's words may have 
 been misunderstood by those who, being accustomed to the mechanical 
 striking of a town-clock, have brought his meaning to that standard. 
 It is remarkable at the same time, that what P. Le Comte has so 
 distinctly explained is not adverted to in the journals of the late em- 
 bassies. " La premiere veille," says De Guignes, " s'annonce par un 
 coup de tambour; la troisieme, par trois coups, et ainsi de suite.' 
 Tom. ii. p. 426.
 
 PRECAUTION'S AGAINST FIRES. 329 
 
 give the alarm by beating on the wooden machine, when the 
 watchmen from all the bridges within a certain distance 
 assemble to extinguish it, as well as to save the effects of the 
 merchants and others, by removing them to the stone towers 
 that have been mentioned. The goods are also sometimes 
 put into boats, and conveyed to the islands in the lake. Even 
 on such occasions the inhabitants dare not stir out of their 
 houses, when the fire happens in the night-time, and only 
 those can be present whose goods are actually removing, 
 together with the guard collected to assist, which seldom 
 amounts to a smaller number than from one to two thousand 
 men. In cases also of tumult or insurrection amongst the 
 citizens, the services of this police guard are necessary ; but, 
 independently of them, his majesty always keeps on foot a 
 large body of troops, both infantry and cavalry, in the city 
 and its vicinity, the command of which he gives to his ablest 
 officers, and those in whom he can place the greatest confi- 
 dence, on account of the extreme importance of this province, 
 and especially its noble capital, which surpasses in grandeur 
 and wealth every other city in the world. For the purposes 
 of nightly watch, there are mounds of earth thrown up, at 
 the distance of above a mile from each other, on the top of 
 which a wooden frame is constructed, with a sounding board, 
 which being struck with a mallet by the guard stationed 
 there, the noise is heard to a great distance. If precautions 
 of this nature were not taken upon occasions of fire, there 
 would be danger of half the city being consumed ; and their 
 use is obvious also in the event of popular commotion, as. 
 upon the signal being given, the guards at the several bridges 
 arm themselves, and repair to the spot where their presence 
 is required 
 
 8. When the grand khan reduced to his obedience the 
 province of Manji, which until that time had been one king- 
 dom, he thought proper to divide it into nine parts, 1 over 
 
 1 There is reason to believe that the boundaries of the several pro- 
 vinces were not, in former times, exactly the same as we find them at 
 present. Generally, however, these nine parts into which Manji, or 
 Southern China, was divided, may be considered as the provinces of 
 Kiang-nan, Kiang-si, Chekiang, Fo-kien, Kuan-toug, Kuang-si, Koei 
 cheu, Hu-kuang, and Ho-nan. Cathay or Khatai appears to have con- 
 sisted of Pe-che-li, Shan-tung, Shan-si, and the eastern part of Shen-si. 
 The remaining provinces of the fifteen, namely Se-chuen and Yun-nan,
 
 330 TRAVELS OP MARCO POLO. 
 
 each of which he appointed a king or viceroy, who should ict 
 as supreme governor of that division, and administer justice 
 to the people. 1 These make a yearly report to commis- 
 sioners acting for his majesty, of the amount of the revenue, 
 as well as of every other matter pertaining to their jurisdic- 
 tion. Upon the third year they are changed, as are all other 
 public officers. One of these nine viceroys resides and holds 
 his court in the city of Kin-sai, and has authority over more 
 than a hundred and forty cities and towns, all large and 
 rich. 2 Nor is this nu-mber to be wondered at, considering 
 that in the whole ef the province of Manji there are no fewer 
 than twelve hundred, containing a large population of indus- 
 trious and wealthy inhabitants. 3 In each of these, according 
 
 as well as the western portion of Shen-si, had been but imperfectly 
 subdued by the Chinese emperors, and seem not to have belonged, in 
 our author's time, to either of the two grand divisions. 
 
 1 The great officer or mandarin, here styled a king (re), or, more 
 properly, viceroy, is by the Chinese termed tsong-tu; of whom there 
 are eleven throughout the empire; some of them having jurisdiction 
 over more than one province. The proper governor of each province is 
 named fu-yuen, whom the missionaries frequently style the viceroy, 
 although avowedly subordinate to the former. 
 
 2 This number much exceeds what is allotted to the jurisdiction of 
 any of the great cities at the present day ; but it must be considered 
 that Hang-cheu-fu had then recently been the capital of the proper 
 Chinese empire, and its municipal influence might not have been 
 brought down to the level of other provincial cities. 
 
 3 According to Du Halde's list, the nine provinces of the south- 
 eastern part of China contain 101 cities of the first class, 84 of the 
 second, and 625 of the third, making together 810 cities; independently 
 of any portions of Yun-nan or Se-chuen that might then have belonged 
 to the kingdom of Manji. This, it will be seen, does not fall very far 
 short of ou-r author's statement, who might, besides, have intended to 
 include some populous towns of the fourth order. With respect to 
 those of the third, Du Halde observes : " Quand on parle de hien ou 
 ville du troisieme ordre, il ne faut pas s'imagiuer que ce soit un district 
 de peu d'etendue : il y a tel Itien qui a 60, 70, et meme 80 lieues de 
 circuit, et que paye a 1'empereur plusieurs millions de tribut." (Tom. L 
 p. 2.) P. Le Comte makes the number of cities more considerable 
 than Du Halde : " On les divise ordinairement," he observes, " en trois 
 ordres. Dans le premier, il y en a plus de 160; dans le second 270, et 
 dans le troisieme, pres de 1200 ; sans compter 300 autres villes murees 
 qu'on met hors de rang, quoy qu'elles soient presque toutes fort 
 peuple"es et qu'on y fasse un grand commerce." (Tom. i. p. 118.) This 
 seems to exceed also the enumeration of our author; but it must be 
 recollected that the latter speaks of Manji only, which excludes the 
 three northern provinces of China.
 
 GOVERNMENT OF KIK-SAI. 331 
 
 to its size and other circumstances, his majesty keeps a garri- 
 son, consisting, in some places, of a thousand, in others of ten 
 or twenty thousand men, accordingly as he judges the city to 
 be, in its own population, more or less powerful. It is not 
 to be understood that all these troops are Tartars. On the 
 contrary, they are chiefly natives of the province of Cathay. 
 The Tartars are universally horsemen, and cavalry cannot be 
 quartered about those cities which stand in the low, marshy 
 parts of the province, but only in firm, dry situations, where 
 such troops can be properly exercised. To the former , he 
 sends Cathaians, and such men of the province of Manji as 
 appear to have a military turn ; for it is his practice to make 
 an annual selection amongst all his subjects of such as are 
 best qualified to bear arms; and these he enrolls to serve in 
 his numerous garrisons, that may be considered as so many 
 armies. But the soldiers drawn from the province of Manji 
 he does not employ in the duty of their native cities; on Cite 
 contrary, he marches them to others at the distance of per- 
 haps twenty days' journey, where they are continued for four 
 or five years, at the expiration of which they are allowed to 
 return to their homes, and others are sent to replace them. 
 This regulation applies equally to the Cathaians. The greater- 
 part of the revenues of the cities, paid into the treasury of 
 the grand khan, is appropriated to the maintenance of these 
 garrisons. When it happens that a city is in a state of 
 rebellion (and it is not an uncommon occurrence for these 
 people, actuated by some sudden exasperation, or when intoxi- 
 cated, to murder their governors), a part of the garrison of 
 a neighbouring city is immediately despatched with orders to 
 destroy the place where such guilty excesses have been com- 
 mitted ; whereas it would be a tedious operation to send an 
 army from another province, that might be two months on 
 its march. For such purposes, the city of Kin-sai constantly 
 supports a garrison of thirty thousand soldiers; and the 
 smallest number stationed at any place is one thousand. 1 
 
 1 That it should be found necessary to station an army of that 
 number of men in or near the populous capital of a newly-conquered 
 empire is by no means improbable ; nor that a thousand men should at 
 ^iat period have constituted the ordinary garrison of cities of the first 
 or second class ; however deficient of troops they may be found (ac- 
 cording to some travellers) at the present time. In the seventeenth
 
 332 TRAVELS OP MARCO POLO. 
 
 9. It now remains to speak of a very fine palace that 
 was formerly the residence of k.ng Facfur, whose ancestors 
 enclosed with high walls an extent of ground ten miles in 
 compass, and divided it into three parts. That in the centre 
 was entered by a lofty portal, on each side of which was a 
 magnificent colonnade, on a flat terrace, the roofs of which 
 were supported by rows of pillars, highly ornamented with 
 the most beautiful azure and gold. The colonnade opposite 
 to the entrance, at the further side of the court, was still 
 grander than the others, its roof being richly adorned, the 
 pillars gilt, and the walls on the inner side ornamented with 
 exquisite paintings, representing the histories of former kings. 1 
 Here, annually, upon certain days consecrated to the service 
 of their idols, king Facfur was accustomed to hold his court, 
 and to entertain at a feast his principal nobles, the chief 
 magistrates, and the opulent citizens of Kin-sai. Under 
 these colonnades might be seen, at one time, ten thousand 
 persons suitably accommodated at table. This festival lasted 
 ten or twelve days, and the magnificence displayed on the 
 occasion, in silks, gold, and precious stones, exceeded all 
 imagination; for every guest, with a spirit of emulation, 
 endeavoured to exhibit as much finery as his circumstances 
 would possibly allow. Behind the colonnade last mentioned, 
 or that which fronted the grand portal, thsre was a wall, with 
 a passage, that divided this exterior court of the palace from 
 an interior court, which formed a kind of large cloister, with 
 its rows of pillars sustaining a portico that surrounded it, 
 and led to various apartments for the use of the king and 
 queen. These pillars were ornamented in a similar manner, 
 as were also the walls. From this cloister you entered a 
 covered passage or corridor, six paces in width, and of such 
 
 century, as we are told by P. Le Comte, the garrison of Hang-cheu 
 consisted of 10,000 men, of whom 3,000 were Chinese. (Tom, L p. 129.) 
 1 The plans of Chinese palaces seem nearly to resemble each other, 
 and particularly in respect to this kind of court, on a raised terrace, in 
 front of the principal part of the building, where those persons assemble 
 whose rank entitles them to the privilege of paying their compliments 
 to the sovereign. In the " Gezandtschaf t " of Nieuhof (p. 172) w.ill be 
 found a representation of the anterior court cf the palace of Pekin, 
 which Van Braam commends for its fidelity. The hotel or palace of a 
 great officer of state, or wealthy individual, seems to be built upon the 
 same plan, and decorated in the same manner.
 
 LUXUKIOUS HABITS OF KING FACFUR. 333 
 
 a length as to reach to the margin of the lake. On each side of 
 this there were corresponding entrances to ten courts, in the 
 form of long cloisters, surrounded by their porticoes, and each 
 cloister or court had fifty apartments, with their respective 
 gardens, the residence of a thousand young women, whom the 
 king retained in his service. 1 Accompanied sometimes by 
 his queen, and on other occasions by a party of these females, 
 it was his custom to take amusement on the lake, in barges 
 covered with silk, and to visit the idol temples on its borders. 
 The other two divisions of this seraglio were laid out in 
 groves, pieces of water, beautiful gardens stored with fruit- 
 trees, and also enclosures for all sorts of animals that are the 
 objects of sport, such as antelopes, deer, stags, hares, and 
 rabbits. Here likewise the king amused himself, in company 
 with his damsels, some in carriages and some on horseback. 
 No male person was allowed to be of these parties, but on the 
 other hand, the females were practised in the art of coursing 
 with dogs, and pursuing the animals that have been men- 
 tioned. When fatigued with these exercises, they retired into 
 the groves on the banks of the lake, and there quitting their 
 dresses, rushed into the water in a state of nudity, sportively 
 swimming about, some in one direction and some in another, 
 whilst the king remained a spectator of the exhibition. After 
 this they returned to the palace. Sometimes he ordered his 
 repast to be provided in one of these groves, where the foliage 
 of lofty trees afforded a thick shade, and was there waited 
 upon by the same damsels. Thus was his time consumed 
 amidst the enervating charms of his women, and in profound 
 ignorance of whatever related to martial concerns, the con- 
 sequence of which was, that his depraved habits and his 
 pusillanimity enabled the grand khan to deprive him of his 
 splendid possessions, and to expel him with ignominy from 
 his throne, as has been already stated. All these particulars 
 were communicated to me, when I was in that city, by a rich 
 merchant of Kin-sai, then very old, who had been a confi- 
 dential servant of king Facfur, and was acquainted with 
 every circumstance of his life. 2 Having known the palace 
 
 1 " Avant que les Tartares se fussent empards de Pempire," says D 
 Guignes, " certains empereurs Chinois out eu jusqu'a dix mille fem- 
 mes." Tom. ii. p. 284. 
 
 Tu-tsong, the faghfur or emperor of the Song, here alluded to,
 
 334 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 in its original state, he was desirous of conducting me to 
 view it. Being at present the residence of the grand khan's 
 viceroy, the colonnades are preserved in the style in which 
 they had formerly subsisted, but the chambers of the females 
 had been suffered to go to ruin, and the foundations only 
 were visible. The wall likewise that enclosed the park and 
 gardens was fallen to decay, and neither animals -nor trees 
 were any longer to be found there. 
 
 10. At the distance of twenty-five miles from this city, 
 in a direction to the northward of east, lies the sea, near to 
 which is a town named Gan-pu, where there is an extremely 
 fine port, frequented by all the ships that bring merchandise 
 from India. 1 The river that flows past the city of Kin-sai 
 forms this port, at the place where it falls into the sea. Boats 
 are continually employed in the conveyance of goods up and 
 down the river, and those intended for exportation are there 
 put on board of ships bound to various parts of India and of 
 Cathay. 
 
 Marco Polo, happening to be in the city of Kin-sai at the time 
 of making the annual report to his majesty's commissioners 
 of the amount of revenue and the number of inhabitants, 
 had an opportunity of observing that the latter were regis- 
 tered at one hundred and sixty tomans of fire-places, that is 
 to say, of families dwelling under the same roof; and as a 
 toman is ten thousand, it follows that the whole city must 
 have contained one million six hundred thousand families. 2 
 
 having ceased to reign in 1274, and the Polo family having quitted 
 China in or about the year 1291, our author might well have conversed 
 with the domestics of that prince, and particularly whilst he held the 
 government of Yang-cheu, in the adjoining province. 
 
 1 Gan-pu, here described as the seaport of Kin-sai or Hang-cheu, 
 answers to the port of Ning-po, situated on a river the entrance of 
 which is sheltered by the islands of Chu-san, where H.M. ship Lion 
 and the East India Company's ship Hindostan lay, in the year 1793. To 
 those islands Captain Macintosh, who had accompanied Lord Macartney, 
 proceeded from Hang-cheu -fu, to rejoin his ship, passing through Ning- 
 po in his route. 
 
 2 This statement of the number of families in Hang-cheu, even 
 admitting that the suburbs are meant to be included, appears excessive; 
 but it ia unfair tc measure the population of an ancient capital of 
 China, by the standard of a modern city. Yet Staunton observes that 
 " its population is indeed immense ; and is supposed to be not very 
 much inferior to that of Pekin," which he computes at about three 
 millions; remarking, at the same time, that few of the circumstances
 
 POPULATION OF KIS-8AI. 335 
 
 amongst which multitude of people there was only one 
 church of Nestorian Christians. Every father of a family, or 
 housekeeper, is required to affix a writing to the door of his 
 house, specifying the name of each individual of his family, 
 whether male or female, as well as the number of his horses. 
 When any person dies, or leaves the dwelling, the name is 
 struck out, and upon the occasion of a birth, it is added to 
 the list. By these means the great officers of the province 
 and governors of the cities are at all times acquainted with 
 the exact number of the inhabitants. The same regulation 
 is observed throughout the province of Cathay as well as of 
 Manji. 1 In like manner, all the keepers of inns and public 
 hotels inscribe in a book the names of those who take up 
 their occasional abode with them, particularising the day and 
 the hour of their arrival and departure ; a copy of which is 
 transmitted daily to those magistrates who have been spoken 
 of as stationed in the market-squares. It is a custom in the 
 province of Manji, with the indigent class of the people, who 
 are unable to support their families, to sell their children to 
 the rich, in order that they may be fed and brought up in a 
 better manner than their own povei'ty would admit. 
 
 take place in the metropolis of China, which contribute to the aggran- 
 disement of other capitals; Pekin being merely the seat of government 
 of the empire. It is neither a port nor a place of inland trade or 
 manufacture, and forms no rendezvous for pleasure and dissipation. 
 (Pp. 149, 439.) The former, on the other hand, possessed these advan- 
 tages in an eminent degree. 
 
 1 It does not appear in the writings either of the missionaries or of 
 modern travellers, that mention is made of such lists of the iuhabitantr 
 being affixed (at stated periods we may presume) on the outside of 
 houses; but I have the verbal assurance of Mr. Reeves, who resided, 
 many years in China, and is lately returned to that country, that the 
 regulation exists at the present day : to which he added his opinion that 
 it was established not merely on account of the facility it gives to the 
 officers of revenue and police, but from a regard to delicacy, that there 
 might be no pretence for intrusion into the apartments of th females. 
 The practice is adverted to by Mr. Ellis, who says : " The municipal 
 regulation existing throughout China, which requires that every house- 
 holder should affix on the outside of his house a list of the number 
 and description of persons dwelling under his roof, ought to afford 
 most accurate data in forming a census of the population." P. 432,
 
 336 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 CHAPTER LXIX. 
 
 OF THE RFVENUES OF THE GRAND KHAN. 
 
 WE shall now speak of the revenue which the grand khan 
 draws from the city of Kin-sai and the places within its 
 jurisdiction, constituting the ninth division or kingdom of 
 Mauji. In the first place, upon salt, the most productive 
 article, he levies a yearly duty of eighty tomans of gold, each 
 toman being eighty thousand saggi, and each saggio fully 
 equal to a gold florin, and consequently amounting to six 
 millions four hundred thousand ducats. 1 This vast produce 
 is occasioned by the vicinity of the province to the sea, and 
 the number of salt lakes or marshes, in which, during the 
 heat of summer, the water becomes crystallized, and from 
 whence a quantity of salt is taken, sufficient for the supply 
 of five of the other divisions of the province. 2 There is here 
 cultivated and manufactured a large quantity of sugar, 3 which 
 pays, as do all other groceries, three and one-third per cent. 
 The same is also levied upon the wine, or fermented liquor, 
 made of rice. The twelve classes of artisans, of whom we 
 
 1 Estimating the gold ducat of Venice at ten shillings English, (for 
 the sake of round numbers,) this revenue derived from the article of 
 salt would amount to the sum of 3,200,000, which may be thought 
 excessive, as applying, not to the empire at large, but to that portion 
 of China of which Hang-cheu-fu was the capital. It must, however, be 
 considered that all the northern provinces, as well as those of the 
 interior, are supplied from the south-eastern parts of the coast, and that 
 the quantity exported from the places of manufacture must conse- 
 quently be enormous. One half of the duties upon articles of produce 
 is understood to be paid in kind, and we are informed that the stock of 
 salt collected upon government account at Tien-sing on the Pe-ho, was 
 calculated by the gentlemen of Lord Macartney's embassy, at three 
 millions of bags, or six hundred millions of pounds weight. (Vol. ii. 
 p. 21.) The gabelle or revenue from salt, in France, about the year 
 1780, is stated by M. Necker to have been 54,000,060 livres, or 
 2,250,0002. 
 
 2 Sea salt is produced by a similar process of solar evaporation, in 
 many of the southern parts of Europe, as well as on the coasts of 
 India. 
 
 3 " The valleys along the river," says Staunton, speaking of that 
 which flows by Hang-cheu-fu, " were cultivated chiefly in sugar-canes, 
 then almost ripe, and about eight feet high." Tom. ii. p. 460.
 
 THE CITY OF TA-PIX-ZU. 337 
 
 Lave already spoken, as having each a thousand shops, and 
 also the merchants, as well those who import the goods into 
 the city, in the first instance, as those who carry them from 
 thence to the interior, or who export them by sea, pay, in 
 like manner, a duty of three and one-third per cent. ; but 
 goods coming by sea from distant countries and regions, 
 such as from India, pay ten per cent. So likewise all native 
 articles of the country, as cattle, the vegetable produce of the 
 soil, and silk, pa}- a tithe to the king. The account being 
 made up in the presence of Marco Polo, he had an opportu- 
 nity of seeing that the revenue of his majesty, exclusively of 
 that arising from salt, already stated, amounted in the year 
 to the sum of two hundred and ten tomans (each toman being 
 eighty thousand saggi of gold), or sixteen million eight hun- 
 dred thousand ducats. 1 
 
 CHAPTER LXX. 
 
 OF THE CITY OF TA-PIN-ZU. 
 
 LEAVING the city of Kiu-sai, and travelling one day's journey 
 towards the south-east, continually passing houses, villas, and 
 delightful gardens, where every kind of vegetable is produced 
 in abundance, you arrive at the city of Ta-pin-zu, which is 
 very handsome and large, and belongs to the jurisdiction of 
 Kin-sai.- The inhabitants worship idols, use paper money, 
 
 1 This sum is equal to 8,400,000?. of our money, and the aggregate 
 to 11,600,000?., an amount which the revenues and expenses of our 
 own country, in recent times, have taught us to consider as almost 
 insignificant. 
 
 2 No name resembling the Ta-pin-zu of our text or the Tam-pin-gr.i 
 of the Latin versions presents itself, at the distance of one day's -jour- 
 ney, in a southerly direction, from Hang-cheu-fu, nor could it under 
 those circumstances be a place of more importance than the second 
 rank of cities. P. Magalhanes (p. 10) asserts without hesitation that it 
 is intended for Tai-ping-fu in the province of Nan-king or Kiang-nan: 
 but however unexceptionable the agreement in sound may be, the 
 situation of the latter, to the north-west of Hang-cheu, presents a for- 
 midable difficulty, which cannot otherwise be resolved than by supposing 
 that liberties have been taken with our author's words, and that places 
 which he has thought proper to notice, although lying out of the direct 
 road, have been forced by his translators into the line of an itinerary, 
 to which he never professes to adhere. This remark will be found to 
 apply equally to the city spoken of in the next chapter. 
 
 Z
 
 338 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 bum the bodies of their dead, are subjects of the grand khan, 
 and gain their subsistence by trade and manual arts. This 
 place not demanding any more particular notice, we shall 
 proceed to speak of the city of Uguiu. 
 
 CHAPTER LXXI. 
 
 OF THE CITY OF UGUIU. 
 
 FROM Ta-pin-zu, travelling chree days towards the south- 
 east, you come to the city of Uguiu, 1 and still further, in the 
 same direction, two days' journey, you pass in continual suc- 
 cession so many towns, castles, and other inhabited places, 
 and such is their vicinity to each other, that to a stranger 
 they have the appearance of one extended city. All of them 
 are dependent upon Kin-sai. The people are idolatei's, and 
 the country supplies the necessaries of life in great abun- 
 dance. Here are found canes of greater bulk and length 
 than those already noticed, being four spans in girth and 
 fifteen paces long. 2 
 
 CHAPTER LXXII. 
 
 OF THE CITIES OF GEN-GDI, ZEN-GIAN, AND GIE-ZA. 
 
 PROCEEDING further, three days' journey in the same direc- 
 tion, you reach the town of Gen-gui, 3 and still advancing to 
 the south-east, you never cease to meet with towns full of 
 
 1 The name of U-guiu or U-giu, which is U-gui in the Italian epitomes, 
 but is omitted in the Basle edition, has an obvious affinity to that of 
 Hu-cheu on the bank of the lake Tai, not far from Hang-cheu, but like 
 Tai-ping is situated in a direction opposite to that of south-east, as ex- 
 pressed in the text. [The Paris Latin text calls the town Un-gui.] 
 
 2 Hu-cheu and the places subsequently mentioned being surrounded 
 by a low country, and situated in a warm climate, it is reasonable to 
 suppose that the bamboo cane should there be found in abundance and 
 perfection, and accordingly Du Halde says : " Le Tche-kiang en est 
 plus fourni qu'aucune autre province. II y en a des forets eutieres." 
 Tom. i. p. 174. 
 
 3 Gen-gui, which in the B.M. and Berlin manuscripts is written Cheu- 
 Kni, appears to be the Tchu-ki of Du Halde's map, a town of the third 
 onier. [In the Paris Latin text it is Ciausiam.]
 
 THE VICEROY ALTT OF KOX-CHA. 339 
 
 inhabitants, who are employed at their trades, and cultivate 
 the soil. In this part of the province of Manji there are 
 not any sheep to be seen, but many oxen, cows, buffaloes, 
 and goats, and of swine a vast number. 1 At the end of the 
 fourth day you arrive at the city of Zen-gian, built upon 
 a hill that stands insulated in the river, which, by dividing 
 itself into two branches, appears to embrace it. These 
 streams take opposite directions, one of them pursuing its 
 course to the south-east, and the other to the north-west. 2 
 The cities last mentioned are likewise under the dominion of 
 the grand khan, and dependent upon Kin-sai. The people 
 worship idols, and subsist by trade. There is in the country 
 abundance of game, both beasts and birds. Proceeding fur- 
 ther, three days' journey, you reach the large and noble city 
 of Gie-za, which is the last within the jurisdiction of Kin-sai. 3 
 Having passed this city, you enter upon another kingdom or 
 viceroyalty of Manji, named Kon-cha. 
 
 CHAPTER LXXII1. 
 
 OF THE KINGDOM OR VICEROTALTY OF KOX-CHA, AND ITS CAPITAL CITT 
 NAMED FU-GIU. 
 
 UPON leaving the last city of the kingdom or viceroyalty 
 of Kin-sai, named Gie-za, you enter that of Kon-cha, 4 the 
 
 1 In the journals of our modern travellers, as well as in the writings 
 of the missionaries, we find repeated remarks on the paucity of sheep 
 and abundance of pork in this part of China. 
 
 2 That Zen-gian, which in the early Italian epitome is Eian-giari, and 
 in the early Latin, Cyangy. was intended for the city of Yen-cheu (called 
 also Xian-cheu), will hardly admit of a doubt; the names approaching 
 as near as the usual corruptions of the syllable cheu or giu can be ex- 
 pected to allow. With respect to local circumstances it must be 
 admitted, that the modem city is not built upon a hill, but at the foot 
 of high mountains, and just at the meeting ^which in ascending rivers 
 is often termed the branching) of two streams that contribute to form 
 the Tsien-tang-kiang. 
 
 3 This name of Gie-za, or, as it appears in the other versions, En-giu 
 and Cu-gui, belongs evidently to the city of Kiu-cheu, situated as it is, 
 at the south-western extremity of the province of Che-kiang, on the 
 border of a distinct viceroyalty, and in the usual, perhaps the only 
 route to the provinces of Fo-kien and Kuang-tong. 
 
 4 Kon-cha, or Kon-ka, as an Italian would pronounce the word, 
 whi-ib is Kon-chay in the earlv Latin version, ind Tonza in the Italian 
 
 & 2
 
 340 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 principal city of which is named Fu-giu. 1 In the course of 
 six days' journey through this country, in a south-east direc- 
 tion, over hills and along valleys, 2 you continually pass towns 
 and villages, where the necessaries of life are in abundance, 
 and there is much field-sport, particularly of birds. The 
 people are idolaters, the subjects of the grand khan, and are 
 engaged in commerce and manufactures. In these parts 
 there are tigers of great size and strength. Ginger and 
 aiso galangal 3 are produced in large quantities, as well as 
 other drugs. 4 For money equal in value to a Venetian silver 
 groat you may have eighty pounds weight of fresh ginger, so 
 common is its growth. There is also a vegetable which has 
 all the properties of the true saffron, as well the smell as the 
 colour, and yet it is not really saffron. It is held in great 
 estimation, and being an ingredient in all their dishes, it 
 bears, on that account, a high price. 5 
 
 epitome, seems to have been the name of a viceroyalty that included 
 the provinces of Fo-kien, Kiang-si, and Kuang-tong; but at the present 
 day, Che-kiang and Fo-kien are governed by one viceroy, or tsong-tu, as 
 Kuang-tong and Kiang-si are by another. 
 
 1 The Fu-giu of our author [Fuchiu of the Paris Latin text] is the 
 city of Fu-cheu-fu, the capital of the province of Fo-kien. It is here 
 mentioned incidentally, and not as lying in the direction of his route ; 
 but it appears to be the city afterwards described in chap. Ixxvi. 
 
 2 These hills or, more properly, mountains, constitute the chain 
 which separates the province of Che-kiang from those of Kiang-si and 
 Fo-kien. The distance from Kiu-cheu to the first considerable town on 
 the south-western side of the mountains may be considered as a jour- 
 ney of six days. 
 
 J De Guignes, in his account of the articles exported from China, 
 speaking of the galanga, says : " C'est la racine noueuse d'une plante 
 qui croit a pres de deux pieds de hauteur, et dont les feuilles ressem- 
 blent a celles du myrte." Tom. iii. p. 254. 
 
 4 If I am warranted in the conjecture (which will be found to gain 
 strength as we advance) that our author's original notes have been 
 transposed in this place, it will account for the circumstance of the 
 article tea, the production of this part of China, and distinctly men- 
 tioned by the Arabian travellers of the ninth century, being here 
 omitted in the enumeration of drugs. 
 
 3 By this yellow dye is indubitably meant the curcuma longa. " Le 
 turmerick, ou terra merita, ou curcuma," says De Guignes, " est appele 
 en Chinois, cha-kiang ; il vient du Quang-tong : cette racine est bonne 
 pour la teinture : la plus longue est la meilleure." (Tom. iii. p. 264.) 
 But in China it is not commonly, if it is at all, employed in cookery 3 
 whereas amongst the Malays, and other people of the Eastern islands, 
 it enters into the composition of every dish, whilst it is by them 
 squally applied to the purposes of a dye-stuff.
 
 CANNIBALS IN CHINA. 341 
 
 The people in this part of the country are addicted to 
 eating human flesh, esteeming it more delicate than any 
 other, provided the death of the person has not been occa- 
 sioned by disease. When they advance to combat they throw 
 loose their hair about their ears, and they paint their faces of 
 a bright blue colour. They arm themselves with lances and 
 swords, and all march on foot excepting their chief, who rides 
 on horseback. They are a most savage race of men, insomuch 
 that when they slay their enemies in battle, they are anxious 
 to drink their blood, and afterwards they devour their flesh. 
 Leaving this subject, we shall now speak of the city of 
 Kue-lin-fu. 
 
 CHAPTER LXXIV. 
 
 OF THE CITY OF KUE-LIN-FU. 
 
 THE journey of six days (mentioned in the preceding chap- 
 ter) being accomplished, you arrive at the city of Kue-lin-fu, 
 which is of considerable size, and contains three very hand- 
 some bridges, upwards of a hundred paces in length, and 
 eight paces in width. 1 The women of the place are very 
 handsome, and live in a state of luxurious ease. There is 
 much raw silk produced here, and it is manufactured into 
 silk pieces of various sorts. Cottons are also woven, of 
 coloured threads, 2 which are carried for sale to every part 
 of the province of Manji. The people employ themselves 
 extensively in commerce, and export quantities of ginger and 
 galangal. I have been told, but did not myself see the 
 
 1 From its position with respect to the road across the mountains, 
 and other circumstances, there appears to be reason for agreeing in 
 opinion with P. Martini, that this is the city of Kien-ning-fu, iu the 
 province of Fo-kien. It must at the same time be observed thai, the 
 name of Quei-ling-fu belongs to the capital of the province of Kuang-si; 
 but this lies at so great a distance from the places already mentioned, 
 and is so entirely unconnected with them, that it cannot be considered 
 as the city here meant, unless on the supposition that the accounts of 
 intermediate parts have been omitted. 
 
 2 The words of the text express no more than that the cotton 
 received its colour in the yarn, and not in the piece, which would 
 scarcely deserve notice as a peculiarity ; but the Nankin cotton, which 
 is known to be, in its raw state, of the colour it bears in the manufac- 
 ture, may perhaps be that which is meant to be described.
 
 342 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 animal, that there are found at this place a species of dwmtstic 
 fowls which have no feathers, their skins being clothed with 
 black hair, resembling the fur of cats. 1 Such a sight must 
 be extraordinary. They lay eggs like other fowls, and they 
 are good to eat. The multitude of tigers renders travelling 
 through the country dangerous, unless a number of person c 
 go in company. 
 
 CHAPTER LXXV. 
 
 OF THE CITY OF UN-GUEN. 
 
 UPON leaving the city of Kue-lin-fu, and travelling three 
 days, during which you are continually passing towns and 
 castles, of which the inhabitants are idolaters, have silk in 
 abundance, and export it in considerable quantities, you reach 
 the city of Un-guen. 2 This place is remarkable for a great 
 manufacture of sugar, which is sent from thence to the city 
 of Kanbalu for the supply of the court. Previously to its 
 being brought under the dominion of the grand khan, tho 
 natives were unacquainted with the art of manufacturing 
 sugar of a fine quality, and boiled it in such an imperfect 
 manner, that when left to cool it remained in the state of a 
 dark-brown paste. 3 But at the time when this city became 
 subject to his majesty's government, there happened to be at 
 the court some persons fi-om Babylon 4 who were skilled in 
 the process, and who, being sent thither, instructed the in- 
 habitants in the mode of refining the sugar by means of the 
 ashes of certain woods. 5 
 
 1 The account of this uncommon species of fowl appears to have 
 been thought too incredible by some early translators ; yet the same 
 breed, or one equally singular, is described by Du Halde. 
 
 2 With whatever modern name that of Un guen, or U-gueu (as it 
 appears in the early Venice epitome), may be thought to accord, it is 
 evident from the circumstances that it must be one of the cities of the 
 second or third class, within the jurisdiction of Fu-gui, or Fu-cheu-fu, 
 and in the neighbourhood of that capital. 
 
 3 Sugar in that moist and imperfect state is termed jaggri in most 
 parts of the East Indies. 
 
 4 [Babylon was in the middle ages the name for Cairo in Egypt.] 
 
 5 It is well known that alkaline substances are used in the process 
 of granulating sugars. " Towards the end of this boiling," says the 
 Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, " they throw into the juice a strong 
 lixivium of wood-ashes, with some quick-lime."
 
 THE CITY OF KAN-GIU, OR CANTON. 343 
 
 CHAPTER LXXVI. 
 
 OF THE CITY OF KAN-GIU. 
 
 TRAVELLING fifteen miles further in the same direction, 
 you come to the city of Kan-giu, which belongs to the king- 
 dom or viceroyalty of Kon-cha, one of the nine divisions of 
 Man-i. 1 In this place is stationed a large army for the pro- 
 tection of the country, and to be always in readiness to act, 
 in the event of any city manifesting a disposition to rebel. 
 Through the midst of it passes a river, a mile in breadth, 
 upon the banks of which, on either side, are extensive and 
 handsome buildings. In front of these, great numbers of 
 ships are seen lying, having merchandise on board, and 
 especially sugar, of which large quantities are manufactured 
 here also. Many vessels arrive at this port from India, 
 freighted by merchants who bring with them rich assortments 
 of jewels and pearls, upon the sale of which they obtain a 
 considerable profit. This river discharges itself into the 
 sea, at no great distance from the port named Zai-tun. The 
 ships coming from India ascend the river as high up as the 
 city, which abounds with every sort of provision, and has 
 delightful gardens, producing exquisite fruits. 
 
 CHAPTER LXXVII. 
 
 OF THE CITY AND PORT OF ZAI-TUN, AXD THE CITY OF TIN-GUI. 
 
 UPON leaving the city of Kan-giu and crossing the river 
 to proceed in a south-easterly direction, you travel during 
 five days through a well-inhabited country, passing towjjs, 
 castles, and substantial dwellings, plentifully supplied witn all 
 kinds of provisions. The road lies over hills, across plains, 
 and through woods, in which are found many of those shrubs 
 from whence the camphor is procured. 2 The country abounds 
 
 1 It cannot be doubted that the word Kan-giu is here intended for 
 Kuang-cheu or Qnang-cheu, the name of the city improperly termed by 
 Europeans, Canton, being a corruption of Kuang-tong, which belongs 
 to the province of which it is the capital It is evident that the 
 Kan-giu of our author is the Can-su described by the Arabian tra\el- 
 lers ; and this latter is proved by the historical events to have been 
 Kuang-cheu, or Canton. 
 
 2 This tree, the laurus camphora of China and Japan, grows to a 
 large size, and is improperly termed by Kamusio an arboscello, or
 
 344 TRAVELS OP MARCO POLO. 
 
 also with game. The inhabitants are idolaters. They are the 
 subjects of the grand khan, and within the jurisdiction of 
 Kan-giu. At the end of five days' journey, you arrive at the 
 noble and handsome city of Zai-tun, which has a port on the 
 sea-coast celebrated for the resort of shipping, loaded with mer- 
 chandise, that is afterwards distributed through eveiy part of 
 the province of Manji. 1 The quantity of pepper imported there 
 is so considerable, that what is carried to Alexandria, to 
 supply the demand of the western parts of the world, is 
 trifling in comparison, perhaps not more than the hundredth 
 part. It is indeed impossible to convey an idea of the con- 
 course of merchants and the accumulation of goods, in this 
 which is held to be one of the largest and most commodious 
 ports in the world. The grand khan derives a vast revenue 
 from this place, as every merchant is obliged to pay ten per 
 cent, upon the amount of his investment. The ships are 
 freighted by them at the rate of thirty per cent, for fine 
 goods, forty-four for pepper, and for lignum aloes, sandal- 
 wood, and other drugs, as well as articles of trade in general, 
 forty per cent.; so that it is computed by the merchants, that 
 their charges, including customs and freight, amount to half 
 the value of the cargo ; and yet upon the half that remains 
 to them their profit is so considerable, that they are always 
 disposed to return to the same market with a further stock 
 of merchandise. The country is delightful. The people are 
 idolaters, and have all the necessaries of life in plenty : 
 their disposition is peaceable, and they are fond of ease and 
 indulgence. Many persons arrive in this city from the inte- 
 rior parts of India for the purpose of having their persons 
 ornamented by puncturing with needles (in the manner before 
 
 shrub. Staunton speaks of " the shining leaves of the thick and spread- 
 ing camphor-tree," the only species of the laurel genus growing in 
 China, and there a large and valuable timber tree. It is not to be con- 
 founded with the camphor-tree of Borneo and Sumatra, which is also 
 remarkable for its great size, but is of a genus entirely distinct from 
 the laurus. 
 
 1 This famous port of Zai-tun, named Zarten in the Basle edition, 
 Zai-zen in the older Latin, and Jaitoni in the epitome, is generaly sup- 
 posed to be the place named Tsuen-cheu by the Chinese (the Suen- 
 tcheou of Du Halde's ma})). Yet it may be thought that the descrip- 
 tion applies with equal justness to the nearly adjoining port of Hia- 
 muen, called Emoui by the French and Amoy by the English navi- 
 gators, which, until the last century, participated largely with Canton 
 in the foreign commerce of th" empire.
 
 MANUFACTURE OF PORCELAIN. 345 
 
 described), as it is celebrated for the number of its artists 
 skilled iu that practice. 1 
 
 The river that flows by the port of Zai-tun is large and 
 rapid, and is a branch of that which passes the city of Kin- 
 sai - At the place where it separates from the principal 
 channel stands the city of Tin-gui. Of this place there is 
 nothing further to be observed, than that cups or bowls and 
 dishes of porcelain- ware are there manufactured. 3 The pro- 
 cess was explained to be as follows. They collect a certain 
 kind of earth, as it were, from a mine, and laying it in a great 
 
 1 This assertion may well appear strange and improbable, and must 
 have been occasioned by some mistake either of arrangement of the 
 matter or translation of the passage ; for it cannot be supposed that 
 the inhabitants of this most frequented and civilized part of China were 
 then, or at any historical period, in the habit of puncturing or tattooing 
 their skins. It may be, that a memorandum on the subject (as in 
 other instances we have had strong grounds to suspect) belonging to a 
 description either of the Malayan islands or of Ava, where the practice 
 prevails, has been introduced in the wrong place; or, as I am more 
 inclined to think, that what has been here misunderstood for punc- 
 turing the face, was meant by our author for the art of portrait- 
 painting, in which the Chinese are such adepts, that few strangers visit 
 Canton without employing a native to take their likeness, or, as it is 
 expressed in the jargon of the factories, " make handsome face." 
 
 - Into this geographical error our author must have been led by the 
 report of the natives. In alt parts of the East there seems to be a dis- 
 jKisition to believe, and to persuade others, that several rivers proceed 
 from one common source (generally a lake), and afterwards diverge, in 
 their progress towards the sea ; however contrary this may be to the 
 known operations of nature. That there is no such community of 
 origin between the river Tsien-tang. upon which Hang-cheu or Kin-sai 
 stands, and the river Chang, which empties itself at Amoy, is obvious 
 from inspection of the maps of China ; but at the same time it will be 
 seen that the sources of the Chang, and those of the great river that 
 passes by Fn-cheu. the capital of the province, are in the same moun- 
 tains, and may be said to be intermingled. It may also be observed 
 that the northern branch of tue latter river, which passes the city of 
 Kien-ning, is separated only by another ridge from the sources of the 
 Tsien-tang, or river of Hang-cheu ; and this sort of connexion of the 
 extremes, by the intervention of a middle term, may have given rise to 
 the mistaken idea adopted by our author, upon a subject of which he 
 was not likely to have any practical knowledge. 
 
 3 The city of Ting-cheu, answering to the name of Tin-gui or Tin-giu, 
 stands near the western border of the province of Fo-kien, amongst the 
 mountains *hat give source to the Chang, mentioned in the preceding 
 note, but upon a river that empties itself near the city of Chao-cheu, in 
 the province of Kuang-tong. It is not, however, at the present day the 
 seat of porcelain works, which are principally carried on at the town of 
 Kine-te-ching, in the neighbouring province of Kiang-sL
 
 346 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 heap, suffef it to be exposed to the wind, the rain, and the 
 sun, for thirty or forty years, during which time it is never 
 disturbed. By this it becomes refined and fit for being 
 wrought into the vessels above mentioned. Such colours as 
 may be thought proper are then laid on, and the ware is 
 afterwards baked in ovens or furnaces. Those persons, 
 therefore, who cause the earth to be dug, collect it for their 
 children and grandchildren. Great quantities of the manu- 
 facture are sold in the city, and for a Venetian groat you may 
 purchase eight porcelain cups. 
 
 We have now described the viceroyalty of Kon-cha, one of 
 the nine divisions of Manji, from whence the grand khan draws 
 as ample a revenue as even from that of Kin-sai. Of the others 
 we shall not attempt to speak, because Marco Polo did not 
 himself visit any of their cities, as he has done those of Kin- 
 sai and Kon-cha. It should be observed that, throughout the 
 province of Manji one general language prevails, and one 
 uniform manner of writing, yet in the different parts of the 
 country there is a diversity of dialect, similar to what is 
 found between the Genoese, the Milanese, the Florentine, and 
 the dialects of other Italian states, whose inhabitants, although 
 they have each their peculiar speech, can make themselves 
 reciprocally understood. 
 
 Not having yet completed the subjects upon which Marco 
 Polo purposed to write, he will now bring this Second Book 
 to a close, and will commence another with a description of 
 the countries and provinces of India, distinguishing it into 
 the Greater, the Lesser, and the Middle India, parts of which 
 he visited whilst employed in the service of the grand khan, 
 who ordered him thither upon different occasions of business, 
 and afterwards when, accompanied by his father and uncle, 
 in their returning journey they escorted the queen destined 
 for king Argon. He will have the opportunity of relating 
 many extraordinary circumstances observed by himself per- 
 sonally in those countries, but at the same time will not 
 omit to notice others of which he was informed by persons 
 worthy of credit, or which were pointed out to him in the 
 sea-chart of the coasts of India. 1 
 
 1 It may be presumed that the sea-charts here spoken of were chiefly 
 in the hands of Arabian pilots, who navigated from the Persian Gulf to 
 India and China, and who might have added the results of their expe- 
 rience to the information derived from the geographical \vorkofPtolemy,
 
 347 DESCRIPTION OF I>TIA. 
 
 BOOK III. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 OF INDIA, DISTINGUISHED INTO THE GREATER, LESSER, AND MIDDLE 
 OF THE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF ITS INHABITANTS OF MANY RE- 
 MARKABLE AND EXTRAORDINARY THINGS TO BE OBSERVED THERE; 
 
 AND, IN THE FIRST PLACE, OF THE KIND OF VESSELS EilPLOYED IN 
 NAVIGATION. 
 
 HAVING treated, in the preceding parts of our work, of 
 various provinces and regions, we shall now take leave of 
 them, and proceed to the account of India, the admirable 
 circumstances of which shall be related. We shall commence 
 with a description of the ships employed by the merchants, 
 which are built of fir-timber. 1 They have a single deck, and 
 below this the space is divided into about sixty small cabins, 
 fewer or more, according to the size of the vessels, each of 
 them affording accommodation for one merchant. 2 They are 
 provided with a good helm. They have four masts, with as 
 many sails, and some of them have two masts which can be 
 set up and lowered again, as may be found necessary. 3 Some 
 
 1 The vegetable productions, and especially the timber, of southern 
 or maritime India, being different from the kinds known in Europe, it 
 is improperly (if our author is actually speaking of Indian ships) that 
 the ship -timber is said in the text to be the abete and zapino, as neither 
 the abies nor pinus are found (in any accessible situation) between the 
 tropics. But, irregular as it may seem, there will in the sequel be 
 found reason to conclude that he is describing ships built in China, 
 although for the Indian trade. 
 
 2 In the Latin of the Basle edition the number of these cabins is 
 stated at forty, and they are said to be upon, not beneath, the upper 
 deck. We know little of the interior of Indian vessels before the 
 period of European intercourse, but in modern times their cabins are 
 usually upon the after part of the quarter deck. 
 
 3 Xo mention is made of topmasts in any modern description of 
 Chinese junks; nor is it clear that such are here meant. The ex- 
 pressions may rather be understood of masts capable of being raised or 
 lowered in the manner of those belonging to our lighters, and the sense 
 of the passage may be " They have four masts (with as many sails) ; 
 two of \\hich may be set up or lowered, as occasion may require.' 1
 
 3i8 TRAVELS OP MARCO POLO. 
 
 ships of the larger class have, besides (the cabins), to the num- 
 ber of thirteen bulk-heads or divisions in the hold, formed 
 of thick planks let into each other (incastrati, mortised or 
 rabbeted). The object of these is to guard against accidents 
 which may occasion the vessel to spring a leak, such as 
 striking on a rock or receiving a stroke from a whale, a 
 circumstance that not unfrequently occurs ; for, when sailing 
 at night, the motion through the waves causes a white foam 
 that attracts the notice of the hungry animal. In expectation 
 of meeting with food, it rushes violently to the spot, strikes 
 the ship, and often forces in some part of the bottom. The 
 water, running in at the place where the injury has .been 
 sustained, makes its way to the well, which is always kept 
 clear. The crew, upon discovering the situation of the leak, 
 immediately remove the goods from the division affected by 
 the water, which, in consequence of the boards being so well 
 fitted, cannot pass from one division to another. They then 
 repair the damage, and return the goods to that place in the 
 hold from whence they had been taken. The ships are all 
 double-planked; that is, they have a course of sheathing- 
 boards laid over the planking in every part. These are 
 caulked with oakum both withinside and without, and are 
 fastened with iron nails. They are not coated with pitch, as 
 the country does not produce that article, but the bottoms 
 are smeared over with the following preparation. The people 
 take quick-lime and hemp, which latter they cut small, and 
 with these, when pounded together, they mix oil procured 
 from a certain tree, making of the whole a kind of unguent, 
 which retains its viscous properties more firmly, and is a 
 better material than pitch. 1 
 
 1 This mode of preserving the bottoms of their vessels is common to 
 the Chinese and the Indians. " At Surat," says Grose, " they excel in 
 the art of ship-building. Their bottoms and sides are composed of 
 planks let into one another, in the nature, as I apprehend, of what is 
 called rabbet-work, so that the seams are impenetrable. They have 
 also a peculiar way of preserving their ships' bottoms, by occasionally 
 rubbing into them an oil they call wood-oil, which the planks imbibe." 
 (Voyage to the East Indies, vol. i. p. 107.) The mixture of chvmam or 
 lime with a resinous oil, or with melted dammar, is commonly known 
 in the dockyards of India by the name of gul-gul. " There would be no 
 exaggeration," adds Grose, "in averring that they (the natives) build 
 incomparably the best ships in the world for duration, and that of any 
 size, even to a thousand tons and upwards. . . It is not uncommon for 
 one of them to last a century." P. 108.
 
 DESCRIPTION OF THE INDIAN SHIPS. 349 
 
 Ships of the largest size require a crew of three hundred 
 men; others, two hundred; and some, one hundred and fifty 
 only, according to their greater or less bulk. They carry 
 from five to six thousand baskets (or mat bags) of pepper. 
 In former times they were of greater burthen than they are 
 at present; but the violence of the sea having in many places 
 broken up the islands, and especially in some of the principal 
 ports, tnere is a want of depth of water for vessels of such 
 draught, and they have on thtft account been built, in latter 
 times, of a smaller size. The vessels are likewise moved with 
 oars or sweeps, each of which requires four men to work it. 
 Those of the larger class are accompanied by two or three 
 large barks, capable of containing about one thousand baskets 
 of pepper, and are manned with sixty, eighty, or one hun- 
 dred sailors. These small craft are often employed to tow 
 the larger, when working their oars, or even under sail, pro- 
 vided the wind be on the quarter, but not when right aft, 
 because, in that case, the sails of the larger vessel must 
 becalm those of the smaller, which would, in consequence, 
 be run down. The ships also carry with them as many as 
 ten small boats, for the purpose of carrying out anchors, for 
 fishing, and a variety of other services. They are slung over 
 the sides, and lowered into the water when there is occasion 
 to use them. The barks are in like manner provided with 
 their small boats. When a ship, having been on a voyage for 
 a year or more, stands in need of repair, the practice is to 
 give her a course of sheathing over the original boarding, 
 forming a third course, which is caulked and paid in the same 
 manner as the others; and this, when she needs further 
 repairs, is repeated, even to the number of six layers, after 
 which she is condemned as unserviceable and not sea-worthy. 
 Having thus described the shipping, we shall proceed to the 
 account of India; but in the first instance we shall speak 
 of certain islands in the part of the ocean where we are 
 at present, and shall commence with the island named 
 Zipangu.
 
 350 TRAVELS OP MARCO POLO. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 OF THE ISLAND OP ZIPANGU. 1 
 
 ZIPANGU is an island in the eastern ocean, b.tuated at the 
 distance of about fifteen hundred miles from the main-land, 
 or coast of Manji. 2 It is of considerable size; its inhabitants 
 have fair complexions, are well made, and are civilized in 
 their manners. Their religion is the worship of idols. They 
 are independent of every foreign power, and governed only by 
 their own kings. 8 They have gold in the greatest abundance, 
 its sources being inexhaustible, 4 but as the king does not 
 allow of its being exported, few merchants visit the country, 
 nor is it frequented by much shipping from other parts. To 
 this circumstance we are to attribute the extraordinary rich- 
 ness of the sovereign's palace, according to what we are told 
 by those who have access to the place. The entire roof is 
 covered with a plating of gold, in the same manner as we cover 
 houses, or more properly churches, with lead. The ceilings of 
 the halls are of the same precious metal; many of the apart- 
 ments have small tables of pure gold, of considerable thickness; 
 
 1 The name which is here, as well as in the B. M. and Berlin manu- 
 scripts, written Zipangu, in the Basle edition Zipangri, in the older 
 Latin Cyampagu, and in the early Italian epitomes Cimpagu, is evi- 
 dently intended for those islands which we, in a collective sense, term 
 Japan. By the Chinese they are named Ge-pen (Jy-pen according to 
 the orthography of De Guignes, or Jih-pun according to that of Mor- 
 rison), and from thence all the other names are more or less obviously 
 derived. The terminating syllable gu appears to be the Chinese word 
 Jcue, signifying " kingdom," which is commonly annexed to the names 
 of foreign countries, 
 
 2 The distance of the nearest part of the southern island from the 
 coast of China, near Ning-po, not being more than 500 Italian miles, we 
 may suppose that our author, in stating it at 1,500, speaks of Chinese 
 miles, or li, which are in the proportion of something more than one- 
 third of the former. 
 
 3 Political independence is a characteristic of the Japanese nation, 
 which does not appear, at any period of its history, to have been 
 brought permanently under a foreign yoke. 
 
 4 " Gold, the richest of all metals," says Kaempfer, " is dug up in 
 several provinces of the Japanese empire." " The emperor claims the 
 supreme jurisdiction over all the gold mines, and indeed all other 
 mines in the empire. . . Of the produce of all the mines that are 
 worked, he claims two-thirds." (Hist, of Japan, vol. i. p. 107.) " But of 
 late, as I was informed," he adds, " the veins . . . not only rin scarcer, 
 but yield not near the quantity of gold they did formerly." Ibid.
 
 ISLAXD OF ZIPAXGU. 351 
 
 and the windows also have golden ornaments. 1 So vast, indeed, 
 are the riches of the palace, that it is impossible to convey 
 an idea of them. In this island there are pearls also, in 
 large quantities, of a red (pink) colour, round iu shape, and 
 of great size, equal in value to, or even exceeding that of the 
 white pearls.- It is customary with one part of the inhabit- 
 ants to bury their dead, and with another part to burn 
 thorn. 3 The former have a practice of putting one of these 
 pearls into the mouth of the corpse. There are also found 
 there a number of precious stones. 
 
 Of so great celebrity was the wealth of this island, that a 
 desire was excited in the breast of the grand khan Kublal, 
 now reigning, to make the conquest of it, and to annex it to 
 his dominions. In order to effect this, he fitted out a nu- 
 merous fleet, and embarked a large body of troops, under the 
 command of two of his principal officers, one of whom was 
 named Abbacatan, and the other Vonsancin, 4 The expedition 
 
 1 Kaempfer, speaking of one of the ancient kings of Japan, says, " He 
 caused a stately palace, named Kojatu, to be built for his residence, 
 the floors whereof were paved with gold and silver." (VoL L p. 82.) 
 This account, though perhaps fabulous, shows the idea entertained by 
 the natives of the magnificence of their former sovereigns. 
 
 2 " Pearls, by the Japanese called kaitwtamma," says Kaempfer, 
 " which is as much as to say, shell-jewels, are found almost everywhere 
 about Saikokf, in oysters and several other shells. Everybody is at 
 liberty to fish them." Vol. i. p. 110. 
 
 3 It is necessary to mention that two religions prevail amongst the 
 people of Japan : the ancient, or that of the Sintos, who worship spirits, 
 called by them sin, and kami ; and the modern (being subsequent to 
 the date of the Christian era), or that of the Budsdos, worshippers of 
 the Indian Buddha, under the names of Fo-to-ke and Budsd. Of these, 
 the latter only, but who constitute by far the more numerous class, are 
 in the practice of burning the bodies of their dead. " One thing," says 
 Ka?mpfer, " remains worthy of observing, which is, that many, and 
 perhaps the greatest part, of those who in their lifetime constantly 
 professed the Sintos religion, and even some of the Siutosjus or moral- 
 ists, recommend their souls, on their death-bed, to the care of the 
 Budsdo clergy, desiring that the namanda might be sung for them, and 
 their bodies burnt and buried, after the manner of the Budsdoists. 
 The adherents of the Sintos religion do not believe the Pythagorean 
 doctrine of the transmigration of souls, although most universally 
 received by the Eastern nations." History of Japan, voL L p. 213. 
 
 4 These names appear to be intended for Abaka-khan, a Mungal or 
 Moghul, and Yang-san-chin, a Chinese. Many of the latter nation were em- 
 ployed by Kublai, both in civil and military capacities, and rendered him 
 ?ood service. [In the Paris Latin, the names are Abatar and VonsanchL]
 
 352 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 sailed from, the ports of Zai-tun and Kiu-sai, 1 and, crossing the 
 intermediate sea, reached the island in safety ; but in conse- 
 quence of a jealousy that arose between the two commanders, 
 one of whom treated the plans of the other with contempt and 
 resisted the execution of his orders, they were unable to gain 
 possession of any city or fortified place, with the exception of 
 one only, which was carried by assault, the garrison having 
 refused to surrender. Directions were given for putting the 
 whole to the sword, and in obedience thereto the heads of all 
 were cut off, excepting of eight persons, who, by the efficacy 
 of a diabolical charm, consisting of a jewel or amulet intro- 
 duced into the right arm, between the skin and the flesh, 
 were rendered secure from the effects of iron, either to kill or 
 wound. Upon this discovery being made, they were beaten 
 with a heavy wooden club, and presently died. 2 
 
 It happened, after some time, that a north wind began to 
 blow with great force, and the ships of the Tartars, which lay 
 near the shore of the island, were driven foul of each other. 
 It was determined thereupon, in a council of the officers on 
 board, that they ought to disengage themselves from the land; 
 and accordingly, as soon as the troops were reembarked, they 
 stood out to sea. The gale, however, increased to so violent 
 a degree that a number of the vessels foundered. The people 
 belonging to them, by floating upon pieces of the wreck, saved 
 themselves upon an island lying about four miles from the 
 coast of Zipangu. The other ships, which, not being so near to 
 the land, did not suffer from the storm, and in which the two 
 chiefs were embarked, together with the principal officers, or 
 those whose rank entitled them to command a hundred thou- 
 sand or ten thousand men, directed their course homewards, 
 and returned to the grand khan. Those of the Tartars who 
 remained upon the island where they were wrecked, and who 
 amounted to about thirty thousand men, finding themselves 
 left without shipping, abandoned by their leaders, and having 
 neither arms nor provisions, expected nothing less than to 
 become captives or to perish ; especially as the island afforded 
 no habitations where they could take shelter and refresh 
 
 1 By the port of Zai-tun is probably meant Amoy, and by Kin-sai the 
 port of Ning-po or of Chu-san, which are at the entrance cf the river 
 which flows by Hang-cheu-fu, the Kiu-sai of our author. 
 
 2 The idea of being rendered invulnerable by the use of amulets is 
 common amongst the natives of the Eastern elands.
 
 TARTAR EXPEDITION- AGAIXST JAPAX. 3-53 
 
 themselves. As soon as the gale ceased and the sea became 
 smooth and calm, the people from the main island of Zipangu 
 came over with a large force, in numerous boats, in order to 
 make prisoners of these shipwrecked Tartars, and having 
 landed, proceeded in search of them, but in a straggling, 
 disorderly manner. The Tartars, on their part, acted with 
 prudent circumspection, and, being concealed from view by 
 some high land in the centre of the island, whilst the enemy 
 were hurrying in pursuit of them by one road, made a circuit 
 of the coast by another, which brought them to the place 
 where the fleet of boats was at anchor. Finding these all 
 abandoned, but with their colours flying, they instantly seized 
 them, and. pushing off from the island, stood for the principal 
 city of Zipangu. into which, from the appearance of the 
 colours, they were suffered to enter unmolested. 1 Here they 
 found few of the inhabitants besides women, whom they 
 retained for their own use, and drove out all others. When 
 the king was apprised of what had taken place, he was much 
 afflicted, and immediately gave directions for a strict blockade 
 of the city, which was so effectual that not* any person w-as 
 suffered to enter or to escape from it, during six months 
 that the siege continued. At the expiration of this time, the 
 Tartars, despairing of succour, surrendered upon the condition 
 of their lives being spared. These events took place in the 
 course of the year 1264. 2 The grand khan having learned 
 some years after that the unfortunate issue of the expedition 
 was to be attributed to the dissension between the two com- 
 manders, caused the head of one of them to be cut off; the 
 other he sent to the savage island of Zorza, 3 where it is the 
 
 1 If the original operations were directed, as might be presumed, 
 against the ancient capital, we should infer that the city here spoken of 
 was Osakka, situated at the mouth of the river upon which, at some 
 distance from the coast, Mia-ko stands, and which is known to have 
 been formerly much frequented by Chinese shipping. But, according 
 to P. Gaubil, the island was that of Ping-hou or Firando, near the city 
 of Xangasaki ; not then a place of so much importance as it has since 
 become. 
 
 2 There is here a manifest error in the date, which, instead of 1264, 
 should rather be 1284. In the early Venice epitome it is 1269, [as well 
 as in the early texts printed by the Paris Geographical Society;] and m 
 the Basle edition, 1289. Our author cannot be made accountable for 
 these contradictions amongst his transcribers. 
 
 * No clue presents iteelf by which to discover the island meant by 
 A A
 
 354 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 custon to execute criminals in the following manner. They 
 are wrapped round both arms, in the hide of a buffalo fresh 
 taken from the beast, which is sewed tight. As this dries, it 
 compresses the body to such a degree that the sufferer is inca- 
 pable of moving or in any manner helping himself, and thus 
 miserably perishes. 1 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 OF THE NATURE OF THE IDOIS WORSHIPPED IN ZIPANGU, AND OF THE 
 PEOPLE BEING ADDICTED TO EATING HUMAN FLESH. 
 
 IN this island of Zipangu and the others in its vicinity, 
 their idols are fashioned in a variety of shapes, some of them 
 having the heads of oxen, some of swine, of dogs, goats, and 
 many other animals. Some exhibit the appearance of a single 
 head, with two countenances; others of three heads, one of 
 them in its proper place, and one upon each shoulder. Some 
 have four arms, others ten, and some an hundred; those 
 which have the greatest number being regarded as the most 
 powerful, and therefore entitled to the most particular wor- 
 ship. 2 When they are asked by Christians wherefore they 
 
 the name of Zorza, or (allowing for the Venetian pronunciation) Jorja. 
 We should be induced to look for it in some one of the lakes of 
 Tartary. 
 
 1 This must have been a Tartar, not a Chinese mode of punishment. 
 In the History of Sinde we are told of its having been inflicted by 
 Abd-al-malik, khalif of "Baghdad, upon one of his generals, who was 
 accused by certain princesses, his captives, of a heinous offence. " That 
 monarch," says Pottinger, " was highly enraged at this supposed insult, 
 and sent an order to the general who was second in command, to sew 
 Mohummud bin Kasim into a raw hide, and thus forward him to the 
 presence. . . Though consciously innocent, he allowed the unjust and 
 cruel punishment of his sovereign to be inflicted on himself. He died 
 the third day after." Travels in Beloochistan and Sinde, p. 389. 
 
 2 The idols here described belong to the Budsdo, or what Koempfer 
 terms the foreign pagan worship, and not to that of the Sintos, whose 
 objects of veneration, the Sin and Kami, seem to have been the personi- 
 fication of deceased heroes. It is true that Buddha, whom the Japanese 
 named Buds or Budz, and Siaka, is commonly represented of the natural 
 human shape, although often of 'a monstrous size; but, either along 
 with his religion (said to have been introduced in Japan about the first 
 century of the Christian era), or, probably, at an antecedent period, 
 these people, as well as the Chinese, appear to have adopted the multi-
 
 ISLAXD OF ZIPAXGU, OR JAPAX. 355 
 
 give to their deities these diversified forms, they answer that 
 their fathers did so before them. " Those who preceded us," 
 they say, "left them such, and such shall we transmit them 
 to our posterity." The various ceremonies practised before 
 these idols are so wicked and diabolical that it would be 
 nothing less than impiety and an abomination to give an 
 account of them in this our book. The reader should, how- 
 ever, be informed that the idolatrous inhabitants of these 
 islands, when they seize the person of an enemy, who has not 
 the means of effecting his ransom for money, invite to their 
 house all their relations and friends, and putting their prisoner 
 to death, dress and eat the body, in a convivial manner, 
 asserting that human flesh surpasses every other in the excel- 
 lence of its flavour. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 OF THE SEA OF CHIN, BETWEEN THIS ISLAXD AND THE PROVINCE 
 OF MAXJI. 
 
 IT is to be understood that the sea in which the island oJ 
 Zipangu is situated is called the Sea of Chin, 1 and so extensive 
 is this eastern sea, that according to the report of experienced 
 pilots and mariners who frequent it, and to whom the truth 
 must be known, it contains no fewer than seven thousand 
 
 form divinities of the Hindu mythology. Many of these, it is well 
 known, have the heads of various animals, as that of the boar, in the 
 third incarnation of Vishnu, and of the elephant, in the figures ot 
 Ganesa ; to which may be added the bull of Siva, and Hanuman, the 
 prince of monkeys. Of many-headed deities the instances, in that 
 system, are frequent, as the four heads of Brahma, the five of Maha- 
 deva-panchamukhi, and the trimurti or Hindu triad Those which 
 exhibit numerous arms are at least equally common. Such appear to 
 be at this day the idols of the Japanese ; although with some modi- 
 fications peculiar to themselves. 
 
 ' Whatever uncertainty may prevail respecting the name which the 
 Chinese themselves give to their country, it is well known that by all 
 the other people of the East it is denominated Chin and China: the 
 former being the manner in which the word is pronounced by the Per- 
 sians and natives of Hindustan, and the latter, by the Malays and other 
 islanders. That which our navigators term the China Sea, is in the 
 Malayan language invariably called Laut China.
 
 356 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 four hundred and forty islands, mostly inhabited. 1 It is said 
 that of the trees which grow in them, there are none that do 
 not yield a fragrant smell. 2 They produce many spices and 
 drugs, particularly lignum-aloes and pepper, in great abun- 
 dance, both white and black. 3 It is impossible to estimate 
 the value of the gold and other articles found in the islands; 
 but their distance from the continent is so great, and the 
 navigation attended with so much trouble and inconvenience, 
 that the vessels engaged in the trade, from the ports of Zai- 
 tun and Kin-sai, do not reap large profits, being obliged to 
 consume a whole year in their voyage, sailing in the \vinter 
 and returning in the summer. For in these regions only two 
 winds prevail; one of them during the winter, and the other 
 during the summer season; so that they must avail them- 
 selves of the one for the outward, and of the other for the 
 homeward-bound voyage. 4 These countries are far remote 
 from the continent of India. In terming this sea the Sea of 
 Chin, we must understand it, nevertheless, to be a part of the 
 
 1 The limits of the China Sea not being accurately defined, it is im- 
 possible to verify this pretended enumeration of its islands, which is 
 evidently meant to include the Moluccas or those from whence the 
 spices are chiefly procured. 
 
 2 " Les campagnes," says M. Poivre, " sont couvertes be bois odori- 
 ferens. . . . On y respire uu air embaume" par une multitude de fleurs 
 agre"ables qui se succedent toute I'anuee, et dont 1'odeur suave pdndtre 
 jusqu'a 1'ame, et inspire la volupte" la plus se'duisante." (Voy. d'un 
 Philosophe, p. 56.) This picture of the Malayan countries, though 
 certainly overcharged, is a complete justification of our author's report 
 of their pi'oductions. 
 
 3 It is remarkable that this distinction of white and black pepper, 
 which is effected by the process of blanching tin grains in their ripest 
 state, should have been noticed at so early a period. Until within the 
 last half century they were generally supposed in Europe to be the 
 productions of different plants. 
 
 4 Such also at the present day is the state of navigation amongst the 
 Chinese, whose junks are employed in trading to Java and other islands 
 of the archipelago, but not being adapted, either by their construction 
 or mode of rigging, to work against a contrary wind, require two monsoons 
 for the performance of their outward and homeward-bound voyages. 
 The account here given of these periodical winds is substantially cor- 
 rect. In the China seas the north-east or winter monsoon, being that 
 which is favourable for sailing from the southern ports of China to the 
 straits of Malacca or Java, commences about the month of October or 
 November, and lasts till about February or March : the south-west 
 monsoon sets in about April or May, and blows till August or Septem- 
 ber, during which latter season the junks return homewards.
 
 THE SEA OF CHIX. 357 
 
 ocean; for as we speak of the English Sea, or of the Egean 
 Sea. so do the eastern people of the Sea of Chin and of the 
 Indian Sea; whilst all of them are comprehended under the 
 general term of the ocean. We shall here cease to treat 
 farther of these countries and islands, as well on account of 
 their lying so far out of the way, as of my not having visited 
 them personally, and of their not being under the dominion 
 of the <rrand khan. 1 We return now to Zai-tun. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 OF THE GULF OF KEISA3T, AND OT ITS BITERS. 
 
 DEPARTING from the port of Zai-tun, and steering a westerly 
 course, but inclining to the south, for fifteen hundred miles, 
 you pass the gulf named Keinan, 2 which extends to the 
 distance of two months' navigation, along its northern shore, 
 where it bounds the southern part of the province of Manji, 
 and from thence to where it approaches the countries of Ania, 
 Toloman, and many others already mentioned. 3 Within this 
 
 1 There is much reason to believe that, whilst employed in the ser- 
 vice of the emperor, Marco Polo had visited some of the eastern islands, 
 lying the nearest to the coast of China; such, perhaps, as the Philippines. 
 A voyage of this nature is directly mentioned in book i. chap. L sect. 5. 
 By those " lying far out of the way," may be understood the Moluccas, 
 whose valuable productions must always have made their existence 
 known. 
 
 5 Keinan, or. according to the Italian orthography, Cheinan, is imlis 
 putably Hai-nan, the name of a large and important island, lying off th 
 southern coast of China, and by some enumerated as a sixteenth pro- 
 vince of that empire. It may naturally be supposed to have commu- 
 nicated its appellation to the bight or gulf in which it is situated, 
 although by our seamen the latter is commonly termed the gulf of 
 Tung-king. 
 
 3 By Ania must be understood the country of Anan or Tung-king, 
 by the Portuguese written Anam or Annam, from whence the language 
 of that country, as well as of Kochinchina, is termed in the dictionary 
 of Alexander de Rhodes, " lingua Annamitica." The Chinese, who 
 never commence a word with the sound of A, pronounce it Xgan-nan ; 
 as it stands in the Jesuits' and D'Anville's maps. With respect to the 
 name of Toloman, some conjectures have been offered in a note on 
 a former page. From the context we might be led to suppose it waa 
 here meant for Kochinchina, the Kiao-chi of the Chinese; but neither
 
 358 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 gulf there are a multitude of islands, for the most part well 
 inhabited, 1 about the coasts of which much gold-dust is 
 collected from the sea, at those places where the rivers dis- 
 charge tnemselves. Copper also and many other articles are 
 found there, 2 and with these a trade is carried on, the one 
 island supplying what another does not produce. They 
 traffic also with the people of the continent, exchanging their 
 gold and copper for such necessaries as they may require. 
 In the most of these islands grain is raised in abundance. 
 This gulf is so extensive and the inhabitants so numerous, 
 that it appears like another world. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 OF THE COUNTRY OF ZTAMBA, OF THE KING OF THAT COUNTRY, AND OP 
 HIS -BECOMING TRIBUTARY TO THE GRAND KHAN. 
 
 WE now resume our former subject. Upon leaving Zai-tun 
 and navigating fifteen hundred miles across this gulf, as has 
 been mentioned, you arrive at a country named Ziamba, 
 which is of great extent, and rich. 3 It is governed by its 
 
 is this warranted by any resemblance of sound, nor does it appear from 
 the former part of the itinerary (b. i. c. xlviii.) that Toloman or Tholo- 
 man was situated upon the coast. Our author may not, however, have 
 intended by this passage to assert its maritime situation, but only to 
 say that as the gulf was bounded on the one side by China, so it was, 
 on the other, by the land which contains Anan or Tung-king, Tolomau 
 (which may be Po-lo-man, the country of the Burmans, according to 
 Chinese pronunciation}, and other provinces of which he had before 
 spoken. 
 
 1 The account given of these islands may be supposed to apply, not 
 to the small ones lying close to the main land, at the bottom of the 
 gulf, but rather to the Philippines, together with Palawan or Paragua, 
 situated opposite to it, although at a considerable distance. This 
 appears to be justified by the subsequent mention of its vast extent. 
 
 2 Copper, as well as gold, is found in the Philippines and several of 
 the eastern islands; but the greatest quantity, and that of the finest 
 quality, is procured from Japan. 
 
 3 No doubt can be entertained of the Ziamba of Ramusio's text, 
 which in the early Latin version also is Ziamba, in the Basle, Ciamba, 
 and in the early Italian epitome Cianban, being the Tsiampa, Siampa, 
 Ciampa, or Champa, of our maps ; situated to the southward of Kochin- 
 china, in the south-eastern part of what may be termed the peninsula 
 of Kam'^oja.
 
 CONQUEST OF ZIAMBA. 359 
 
 own kings, and has its peculiar language. The inhabitants 
 are worshippers of idols. 1 An annual tribute, in elephants 
 and lignum-aloes, is paid to the grand khan, 2 the occasion 
 and circumstances of which shall be related. 3 About the year 
 1268, Kublai, having received accounts of the great wealth 
 of this kingdom, resolved upon the measure of sending a 
 htrsre force, both of infantry and cavalry, to effect the con- 
 quest of it, 4 and the country was accordingly invaded by 
 a powerful army, placed under the command of one of his 
 generals, named Sogatu. The king, whose name was Accam- 
 bale, 5 and who was far advanced in years, feeling himself 
 incapable of making resistance in the field to the forces of 
 the grand khan, retired to his strongholds, which afforded 
 him security, and he there defended himself valiantly. The 
 open towns, however, and habitations on the plains, were 
 in the meantime overrun and laid waste, and the king, per- 
 ceiving that his whole territory would be ruined by the 
 enemy, sent ambassadors to the grand khan, for the purpose 
 of representing that, being himself an old man, who had 
 always preserved his dominions in a state of tranquillity and 
 peace, he was anxious to save them from, the destruction with 
 which they were threatened, and, upon the condition of the 
 invading army being withdrawn, he was willing to pay yearly 
 
 1 " La religion de Fo," say the Memoires, speaking of Tchen-la, " est 
 la seule qui ait cours dans le pays." (P. 119.) " Leur religion," says 
 P. A. de Rhodes, speaking of the Kochinchinese, "eat la mesme <jue 
 celle de la Chine, k laquelle autrefois ils estoient attachez, aussi bien 
 que le Tunquin." Voyages et Missions, p. 64. 
 
 2 In the year 1373 we find the king of Tchen-la sending tribute (that 
 is, complimentary presents by an ambassador) to the emperor Hong-ou, 
 one of the descendants of Kublai. 
 
 3 The Chinese historians place the operations of the campaign in a 
 different, and probably a juster light. 
 
 4 Marco Polo's dates are often erroneous, probably owing to mistakes 
 of the transcribers, and they vary much in the different texts. This 
 expedition took place in 1231 or 1282. 
 
 * The name of Accambale is not to be traced in the histories- of .these 
 countries, and as it does not occur in the other versions of our author, 
 we are deprived of that chance of obtaining a more correct orthography 
 According to the historian of the Huns, the name of the king who 
 reigned in "Gan-nan or Tun -kin," from 12'J2 to 1290, was Tchin-goei- 
 hoang, otherwise called Kuang-ping; and in " Tchen-tching," or 
 KocMnchiua, Po-yeon-pou-la-tehe-ou, who in 12S2, he adds, waa engaged 
 in war with Kublal-khan. Lav. iii. pp. 171 173.
 
 360 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 an honorary tri )ute of elephants and sweet-scented wood. 
 Upon receiving this proposal, the grand khan, from motives 
 of compassion, immediately sent orders to 'Sogatu for his 
 retreat from thence with the force under his command, and 
 directed him to proceed to the conquest of other countries, 
 which was executed without delay. 1 From that time the 
 king has annually presented to the grand khan, in the form 
 of trihute, a very large quantity of lignum-aloes, 2 together 
 with twenty of the largest and handsomest elephants to be 
 found in his districts. 3 Thus it was that the king of Ziambn 
 became the subject of the grand khan. 
 
 Having related the foregoing, we shall now mention some 
 circumstances respecting this king and his country. In the 
 first place it should be noticed that in his dominions no 
 young woman can be given in marriage, until she has been 
 first proved by the king. Those who prove agreeable to him 
 he retains for some time, and when they are dismissed, he 
 furnishes them with a sum of money, in order that they may 
 be able to obtain, according to their rank in life, advan- 
 tageous matches. Marco Polo, in the year 1280, visited this 
 place, 4 at which period the king had three hundred and 
 twenty-six children, male and female. Most of the former 
 had distinguished themselves as valiant soldiers. The country 
 
 1 By the cotemporary annalists of China, the events are described in 
 a manner much less creditable to the arms of their sovereign. It h 
 possible, however, that, as the Chinese reprobated these attempts at 
 foreign conquest, they may have been led to exaggerate their disastrous 
 consequences. 
 
 2 It may be necessary to inform some readers that lignum-aloes, 
 agallochum, or agila wood, called by the Malays and other eastern 
 people kalamlak, is an unctuous, and, apparently, decayed wood, that 
 melts away in burning, like a resin, emitting a fragrant smoke that is 
 highly esteemed as a perfume. 
 
 3 it would seem that until the period of these invasions, rather than 
 conquests, of Mien or Ava, and Ngan-nan or Tung-king, the Mungal 
 emperors hafl not been in the practice of employing elephants, either ag 
 a military arm or as beasts of burthen. In latter times a few only are 
 kept for parade, or for transpDrting the baggage of the court from one 
 palace to another. 
 
 4 If this was actually in 1280, he must have been then employed on 
 a special mission, in the service of the emperor. The early Italian 
 epitome, with less appearance of being correct, assigns the date of 1275. 
 It seems probable that the fleet in which he took his final departure 
 from China, also touched there about the year 1291.
 
 THE ISLAND OF JAVA. 361 
 
 abounds with elephants and with lignum-aloes. There are 
 also many forests of ebony of a fine black, which is worked 
 into various handsome articles of furniture. 1 No other cir- 
 cumstance requires particular mention. Leaving this place^ 
 we shall now speak of the island called Java Major. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 OF THE ISLAND OF JAVA. 
 
 DEPARTING from Ziamba, and steering between south and 
 south-east, fifteen hundred miles, you reach an island of very 
 great size, named Java, 2 which, according to the reports of some 
 well-informed navigators, is the largest in the world, being in 
 circuit above three thousand miles. It is under the dominion 
 of one king only, nor do the inhabitants pay tribute to any 
 other power. They are worshippers of idols. The country 
 abounds with rich commodities. Pepper, nutmegs, spikenard, 
 galengal, cubebs, cloves, and all the other valuable spices and 
 drugs, are the produce of the island; 3 which occasion it to be 
 visited by many ships laden with merchandise, that yields to 
 
 1 In Loureiro's Flora, speaking of the " Ebenoxylum verum," or 
 true ebony, it is said : " Habitat vastas sylvas Cochinchinae, maxime 
 prope confinia Cambodia) ad 11 gradum lat. bor. ubi has arbores iterate 
 vidi. Usus. Nigredine et nitore (polish) excellit in scriniis et minori- 
 bus operibus, prsesertim quando ebure vel margaritarum conchis 
 discernitur." 
 
 2 In this chapter Marco Polo seems to have mixed together informa 
 tion which he had collected relating to two islands, Java and Borneo, 
 some of it applying to one. and some to the other. 
 
 3 Pepper is produced both in Borneo and Java ; cloves or nutmegs 
 are not the growth of either; but Batavia has been in modern times the 
 great mart for the sale of them, in consequence of the Moluccas being 
 under the dominion of those who govern Java. Such may likewise 
 have been the case at the period when the country was ruled by the 
 sovereigns of Majapahit; a subject upon which we have much curious 
 information from the pen of Sir T. Stamford Raffles, in his excellent 
 history of that interesting island. Speaking of the political occurrences 
 about this period, he observes that " All the provinces (after a rebel- 
 lion) again fell under the authority of Majapahit. According to some 
 accounts Damar Wulan had also been successful in repelling an invasion 
 from Kambdja." (Vol. ii. p. 112.) The intercourse between Java nnd 
 Tsiampa or Champa is also repeatedly noticed.
 
 u TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 the owners considerable profit. The quantity of gold col 
 lected there exceeds all calculation and belief. From thence 
 it is that the mercnauts of Zai-tun and of Manji in general 
 have imported, and to this day import, that metal to a great 
 amount, and from thence also is obtained the greatest part 
 of the spices that are distributed throughout the world. 1 
 That the grand khan has not brought the island under sub- 
 jection to him, must be attributed to the length of the voyage 
 and the dangers of the navigation. 2 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 OF THE ISLANDS OF SONDUR AND CONDTJB, AND OF THE COUNTRY 
 OF LOCHAC. 
 
 UPON leaving the island of Java, and steering a course 
 between south and south-west, seven hundred miles, you fall 
 in with two islands, the larger of which is named Sondur, and 
 the other Kondur. 3 Both being uninhabited, it is unnecessary 
 
 1 Java is not celebrated for the production of gold; in Borneo, on the 
 contrary, much is collected. 
 
 2 This observation is much more applicable to Java than to Borneo, 
 as the navigation to the latter, from the southern ports of China, is 
 neither distant nor attended with any particular difficulty. It may be 
 proper to notice in this place, that the Chinese historians speak of a 
 kingdom named Koua-oua against which an expedition was sent by 
 Kubla'i, about the year 1287, according to P. Amiot, or in 1292, accord- 
 ing to the elder De Guignes. 
 
 3 If, as there is reason to presume, the Kondur here mentioned be 
 the Condore of our maps (by the Malaya named Kondur, signifying a 
 species of gourd), it is evident that the bearings and distance assigned 
 must be erroneous, as a south-south-west course from Java, instead of 
 leading to an island on the coast of Kamboja, would carry the navigator 
 into the southern ocean. Such errors appear to have arisen from 
 a misconception of the itinerary, into which our author, avowedly, 
 introduces places of which he had only hearsay information, along with 
 those which he actually visited. That his voyage did not lead him to the 
 island of Java (as distinguished from that which he afterwards terms 
 Java Minor) is apparent from his own words ; but upon leaving China 
 and reaching Tsiampa, which he either touched at, or saw in passing, he 
 digresses in his narrative, in order to mention the distance and some 
 particulars of that celebrated island, and having so done, returns to the 
 point he had left ; from whence he proceeds (in his desultory manner) 
 with the sequel of his proper route, which naturally leads him to the
 
 THE COUNTRY OF LOCHAC. 363 
 
 to say more respecting them. Having run the distance of 
 fifty miles from these islands, in a south-easterly direction, 
 you reach an extensive and rich province, that forms a part 
 of the main land, and is named Lochac. 1 Its inhabitants 
 are idolaters. They have a language peculiar to themselves, 
 and are governed by their own king, who pays no tribute to 
 any other, the situation of the country being such as to pro- 
 tect it from any hostile attack. Were it assailable, the grand 
 khan would not have delayed to bring it under his dominion. 
 In this country sappan, or brezil wood, is produced in large 
 quantities. Gold is abundant to a degree scarcely credible ; 
 elephants are found there; and the objects of the chase, 
 either with dogs or birds, are in plenty. From hence are 
 exported all those porcelain shells, which, being carried to 
 other countries, are there circulated for money, as has been 
 already noticed. 2 Here they cultivate a species of fruit 
 called berchi, in size about that of a lemon, and having a 
 delicious flavour. 3 Besides these circumstances there is 
 
 small island of Condore. The early transcribers of his manuscript, not 
 adverting to BO material a distinction, have attempted to render the 
 journal more regular, according to their idea, by forcing these excursive 
 notices, however inconsistent with geography, into one uniform track, 
 and for that purpose assigning imaginary bearings. The name of Son- 
 dur cannot be identified. If hi fact a distinct place, and not another 
 reading of Kondur (which itself consists of a greater and a smaller 
 island^, it may be meant for Pulo Sapata, which lies in the route, but at 
 a considerable distance from the former. 
 
 1 The Lochac of Ramusio's text, and Lochach of the epitome, is 
 Laach in one early Latin, and Boeach in the Basle edition. In one 
 version it is said to lie in a south-east, and in another, in a south-south- 
 west direction from Kondur : both equally inconsistent with the geo- 
 graphical fact. It appears from the circumstances to be intended for 
 some part of the country of Kamboja, the capital of which was named 
 Loeoh, according to the authority of Gaspar de Cruz, who visited it 
 during the reign of Sebastian, king of Portugal. (See Purchas, vol. iii. 
 p. 169.) In D'Anville's map the name is written Levek. 
 
 2 Excepting at Sulu, near the north-eastern coast of Borneo, I am not 
 aware of the production of cowries hi any part of the eastern or China 
 seas, and suspect that there may have been here a transposition or mis- 
 take of some other kind, as the words of the text are applicable to the 
 Maldives alone. In the Latin version it is said : " U tuntur incolae pro 
 moneta glebis quibusdam aureis;" by which may be understood small 
 humps of gold, such in form as those pieces of silver resembling flat- 
 tened bullets, which are current in Siam : but these could not be 
 exported for circulation in other countries. 
 
 3 Without a more particular description, it 13 impossible, even with
 
 3G4 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 nothing further that requires mention, unless it be that the 
 country is wild and mountainous, and is little frequented by 
 strangers, whose visits the king discourages, in order that his 
 treasures and other secret matters of his realm may be as 
 little known to the rest of the world as possible. 1 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 OP THE ISLAND OF PENTAN, AND OP THE KINGDOM OF MALAIUR. 
 
 DEPARTING from Lochac, and keeping a southerly course for 
 five hundred miles, you reach an island named Pentan, 2 the 
 coast of which is wild and uncultivated, but the woods 
 abound with sweet-scented trees. Between the province of 
 Lochac and this island of Pentan, the sea, for the space of 
 sixty miles, is not more than four fathoms in depth, which 
 obliges those who navigate it to lift the rudders of their ships 
 (in order that they may not touch the bottom). 3 After sailing 
 these sixty miles, in a south-easterly direction, and then pro- 
 ceeding thirty miles further, you arrive at an island, in itself 
 a kingdom, named Malaiur, which is likewise the name of its 
 
 the assistance of Loureiro's Flora Cochinchinensis, to ascertain the kind 
 of fruit here named berci or berchi. In a country where the mangustin 
 (garcinia mangostana) should be found, it might be thought to merit 
 this special notice; but we are not informed of that exquisite fruit 
 being a native of Kamboja. 
 
 1 Very different reasons are assigned in the several versions for this 
 seclusive state of the country. Here we find it attributed to motives of 
 jealous policy; in the Basle edition the occasion is said to be, "adeo 
 inhumani sunt habitatores ejus;" and in the early epitome, "perche 
 elli si e fora de via;" which last, as it is the simplest, may be the most 
 genuine cause. 
 
 2 Pentan, which in the Basle edition is Petan. but in the older Latin, 
 Pentayn, appears to be the island of Bintan, or, as it is more commonly 
 written, Bintang, near the eastern mouth of the straits of Malacca, 
 whose port, called Riyu or Rhio, is a place of considerable trade. ' The 
 course to it from Kamboja is nearly south, as stated both in the Italian 
 and the Latin texts, and the distance does not materially differ from 
 five hundred miles. 
 
 3 In the navigation from the coast of Kamboja to the island of Bin- 
 tan and straits of Malacca, there are numerous shoals and coral reefs, 
 but the particular tract of shallow water to which the passage in the 
 text refers cannot be precisely ascertained.
 
 JAVA MINOR, OR SUMATRA. 365 
 
 chief city. 1 The people are governed by a king, and have 
 their own peculiar language. The town is large and well- 
 built. A considerable trade is there carried on in spices and 
 drugs, with which the place abounds. Nothing else that 
 requires notice presents itself. Proceeding onwards from 
 thence, we shall now speak of Java Minor. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 OF THE ISLAND OF JAVA MINOR. 
 
 UPON leaving the island of Pentan, and steering in the 
 direction of south-east for about one hundred miles, you 
 reach the island of Java the Lesser. 2 Small, however, as it 
 may be termed by comparison, it is not less than two thousand 
 miles in circuit. In this island there are eight kingdoms, 
 governed by so many kings, and each kingdom has its own 
 proper language, distinct from those of all the others. The 
 people are idolaters. It contains abundance of riches, and all 
 sorts of spices, lignum-aloes, sappan-wood for dyeing, and 
 various other kinds of drugs, 3 which, on account of the length 
 of the voyage and the danger of the navigation, are not 
 
 1 By the island and kingdom of Malaiur (in the Basle edition Maletur, 
 but hi the older Latin, Maleyur) it will scarcely be doubted that our 
 author means to speak of the kingdom of the Malays (orang maldyu), 
 founded about a century before, at the south-eastern extremity of the 
 peninsula that bears their name; for although about the year 1252 the 
 seat of government was transferred to Malacca, the appellation of Tanah 
 malayu, " the Malayan land," seems to have been always applied em- 
 phatically to that part of the country where the original establishment 
 was formed, which is now included in the kingdom of Johor. From 
 the name of their first city, the straits, formed by an island which l*s 
 close to the extreme point of the land, obtained the appellation of the 
 straits of Singa-pura, or, vulgarly, Singapore. 
 
 2 Every circumstance tends to confirm the opinion that by the Giaua 
 Minor of Raniusio's text, and the Jaua Minor of the Latin, is meant the 
 island of Sumatra, a name very little known to the natives, and pro- 
 bably of Hindu origin. 
 
 3 The other drugs here alluded to. are probably the gum benzoin and 
 the native camphor (as distinguished from the factitious camphor of the 
 shops, imported from China and Japan) ; both of them staple articles of 
 trade in Sumatra.
 
 366 TT.AVELS OP MARCO POLO. 
 
 imported intc our country, but which find their way to the 
 provinces of Mauji and Cathay. 
 
 We shall now treat separately of what relates to the inha- 
 bitants of each of these kingdoms ; but in the first place it is 
 proper to observe that the island lies so far to the southward 
 as to render the north star invisible. 1 Six of the eight king- 
 doms were visited by Marco Polo ; and these he will describe, 
 omitting the other two, which he had not an opportunity of 
 seeing. 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 OF THE KINGDOM OP FELECH, IN THE ISLAND OF JAVA MINOR. 
 
 WE shall begin with the kingdom of Felech, which is one of 
 the eight. 2 Its inhabitants are for the most part idolaters, 
 but many of those who dwell in the seaport towns have been 
 converted to the religion of Mahomet, by the Saracen mer- 
 chants who constantly frequent them. 3 Those who inhabit 
 the mountains live in a beastly manner; they eat human 
 
 1 The island being intersected by the equinoctial line, the north star 
 must be invisible to the inhabitants of all the southern portion ; and 
 even by those of the northern it can be seen but rarely, and only under 
 particular circumstances. 
 
 - The name here written Felech is in the Latin edition Ferlech, and 
 in the Italian epitomes Ferlach, equivalent to Ferlak. It appears there- 
 fore to be intended for a place named Peiiak, situated at the eastern 
 extremity of the northern coast; and as we find in the sequel that the 
 detention of the fleet in a port of this island was occasioned by the 
 unfavourable circumstances of the weather, it may be conjectured that 
 after leaving the island of Bintan, and having nearly cleared the straits, 
 they were encountered by westerly gales, as they made the high land of 
 Tanjong Perlak, or the Diamond Point of our charts, and they would be 
 forced to seek for shelter in a neighbouring bay. 
 
 3 The assertion of our author's finding Mahometans amongst these 
 people, about the year 1291, is fully justified by the authority of the 
 annals of the princes of Malacca, which state that in the peninsula the 
 establishment of that religion took place during the reign of a king 
 who ascended the throne in 1276 and died in 1333; whilst at the same 
 time it is obvious that the conversion of individuals, even in great 
 numbers, may have preceded by many years the adoption of Islamism 
 as the religion of the government. See Hist, of Sumatra, 3d edit. 
 F- 343.
 
 THE DIFFERENT KINGDOMS IX SUMATRA. 367 
 
 flesh, 1 and indiscriminately all other sorts of flesh, clean and 
 unclean. 2 Their worship is directed to a variety of objects, 
 for each individual adores throughout the day the first thing 
 that presents itself to his sight when he rises in the morning. 3 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 OF THE SECOXD KIXGDOM, NAMED BASMAX. 
 
 UPOX leaving the last-mentioned kingdom, you enter that 
 of Basman, 4 which is independent of the others, and has its 
 peculiar language. The people profess obedience to the 
 grand khan, but pay him no tribute, and their distance is 
 so great, that his troops cannot be sent to these pirts. The 
 whole islaud, indeed, is nominally subject to him, and when 
 ships pass that way the opportunity is taken of sending 
 
 1 This character plainly refers to the people named Battas, who 
 inhabit a considerable part of the interior of Sumatra, towards its 
 northern extremity, and whose cannibalism has been noticed by tra- 
 vellers and writers of all periods since the island was first known to 
 Europeans. 
 
 2 " It is only on public occasions that they (the Battas) kill cattle for 
 food ; but not being delicate in their appetites, they do not scruple to 
 eat part of a dead buffalo, hog, rat, alligator, or any wild annual with 
 which they happen to meet." Hist, of Sumatra, 3d edition, p. 380. 
 
 3 A. similar assertion is made by Ludovico Barthema respecting the 
 people of Java : '' La fede loro e questa," says this extraordinary, but 
 genuine traveller: "alcuni adorano gli idoli come fanno in Calicut (that 
 is, they worship those of the Hindus), e alcuni sono che adorano il sole ; 
 altri la luna, molti adorano il bue; gran parte la prima cosa che scon- 
 trano la mattina."- -Ramusio, torn. L p. 168. 
 
 4 The Basma of Ramusio's and of the older Italian tert, or Basman 
 of the Basle edition, has been supposed, from a fair analogy of sound, 
 to refer to Pasaman, on the western coast, immediately under the 
 equinoctial line; but there is no probability of our author's having 
 visited any place on that side of the island, and especially one so far to 
 the southward. All the circumstances, on the contrary, lead us to con- 
 clude that it is intended for Pase (by the old travellers written Pa^ern), 
 on the northern coast, not far from Diamond Point. " Pedir," says 
 J. de Barros, " was the principal city of these parts before the founding 
 of Malacca ; but subsequently to that period, and particularly after the 
 arrival of the Portuguese, it began to decline, and Pacem, in its vicinity, 
 to rise in importance." Decad. iii. foL 115.
 
 368 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 him rare and curious articles, and especially a particular sort 
 of falcon. 1 
 
 In the country are many wild elephants and rhinoceroses, 
 which latter are much inferior in size to the elephant, but 
 their feet are similar. Their hide resembles that of the 
 buffalo. In the middle of the forehead they have a single 
 horn; but with this weapon they do not injure those Whom 
 they attack, employing only for this purpose their tongue, 
 which is armed with long, sharp spines, and their knees or 
 feet; their mode of assault being to trample upon the person, 
 and then to lacerate him with the tongue. 2 Their head is 
 like that of a wild boar, and they carry it low towards the 
 ground. They take delight in muddy pools, and are filthy in 
 their habits. 8 They are not of that description of animals 
 which suffer themselves to be taken by maidens, as our people 
 suppose, but are quite of a contrary nature. 4 There are found 
 in this district monkeys of various sorts, and vultures as black 
 as crows, which are of a large size, and pursue the quarry in 
 a good style. 
 
 It should be known that what is reported respecting the 
 dried bodies of diminutive human creatures, or pigmies, 
 
 1 This account is rendered probable by the known ambition of 
 Kubla'i to extend the fame of his empire to places situated beyond the 
 reach of his arms, and particularly to establish a vassalage, though 
 merely nominal, amongst the princes of the Eastern islands. 
 
 2 Both the elephant and rhinoceros are well known to be natives of 
 Sumatra. With respect to the uses of its horn as a weapon of offence, 
 and the spiny structure of the tongue, our author was deceived by 
 what he was told or had read. The belief of its tearing the flesh by 
 licking was general throughout the world, from the days of Pliny to a 
 very modern period. Bontius, a Dutch physician, who wrote at Batavir. 
 in 1629, tells us that "if it be exasperated, it will toss up a man and 
 horse like a fly, whom it will kill with licking, while by the roughness 
 of its tongue it lays bare the bones." An Account of the Diseases, &c., 
 p. 183. 
 
 3 What is said of its delighting in muddy pools is conformable to 
 the known habits of the animal. " Like the hog," says the Hist, of 
 Quadruped.",, " the rhinoceros is fond of wallowing in the mire." 
 P. 177. 
 
 4 [It was a common superstition of the middle ages, set forth in all 
 the treatises on Natural History (or Bestiaries, as they were called), 
 that there was only one way of taking the unicorn, which was by 
 placing a pure virgin near his haunts. It was believed that the animal 
 immediately became so tame, that he went and laid his head in the 
 maiden's bosom, while the hunter seized the opportunity of killing him.]
 
 THE MAXCFACTCRE OF PIGMIES. 369 
 
 brought from India, is an idle tale, such pretended men 
 being manufactured in this island in the following manner. 
 The country produces a species of monkey, of a tolerable size, 
 and having a countenance resembling that of a man. Those 
 persons who make it their business to catch them, shave off 
 the hair, leaving it only about the chin, and those other 
 parts where it naturally grows on the human body. They 
 then dry and preserve them with camphor and other drugs; 
 and having prepared them in such a mode that they have 
 exactly the appearance of little men. they put them into 
 wooden boxes, and sell them to trading people, who carry 
 them to all parts of the world. But this is merely an imposi- 
 tion, the practice being such as we have described ; and 
 neither in India, nor in any other country, however wild (and 
 little known), have pigmies been found of a form so diminu- 
 tive as these exhibit 1 Sufficient having been said of this 
 kingdom, which presents nothing else remarkable, we shall 
 now speak of another, named Samara. 
 
 CHAPTER XIIL 
 
 OF THE THIRD KINGDOM, KAMED SAMARA. 
 
 LEAVING Basman, you enter the kingdom of Samara, 2 being 
 another of those into which the island is divided. In this 
 Marco Polo resided five months, during which, exceedingly 
 against his inclination, he was detained by contrary winds. 3 
 
 1 At a period when the eastern part of the world was little known 
 to the people of Europe, who were credulous in proportion to their 
 ignorance, it is by no means improbable that such impositions were 
 practised by the travelling Mahometan and Armenian traders who 
 yisited the islands where the orang utan or pongo (simia sctfyrtu) was 
 found, and might have been hi the practice of selling their stuffed 
 carcases to the virtuosi of Italy, for the mummies of a pigmy race 
 of men. 
 
 2 The place that appears to answer best to Samara is Sama-langa, 
 situated between Pedir and Pase", on the same northern coast, and 
 described in the writings of the Malays as having the advantage of a 
 well-sheltered anchorage or roadstead. 
 
 3 If the expedition which our author accompanied left China about 
 the beginning of the year 1291 (as inferred in note *, page 21), and was 
 three months on its passage to Java Minor or Sumatra (as stated by 
 
 6 B
 
 370 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 The north star is not visible here, nor even the stars that are 
 iu the wain. 1 The people are idolaters; they are governed by 
 a powerful prince, who professes himself the vassal of the 
 grand khan. 
 
 As it was necessary to continue for so long a time at this 
 island, Marco Polo established himself on shore, with a party 
 of about 2,000 men ; and in order to guard against mischief 
 from the savage natives, who seek for opportunities of seizing 
 stragglers, putting them to death, and eating them, he caused 
 a large and deep ditch to be dug around him on the land 
 side, in such manner that each of its extremities terminated 
 in the port, where the shipping lay. This ditch he strength- 
 ened by erecting several blockhouses or redoubts of wood, the 
 country affording an abundant supply of that material ; and 
 being defended by this kind of fortification, he kept the party 
 in complete security during the five months of their resi- 
 dence. Such was the confidence inspired amonst the natives, 
 that they furnished supplies of victuals and other necessary 
 articles according to an agreement made with them. 2 
 
 No finer fish for the table can be met with in any part of 
 the world than are found here. There is no wheat produced, 
 but the people live upon rice. Wine is not made ; but from 
 a species of tree resembling the date-bearing palm they pro- 
 cure an excellent beverage in the following manner. Th(y; 
 
 himself in the first chapter of the work, p. 21), it would have met the 
 south-west monsoon at the western opening of the straits of Malacca, 
 about the month of May in that year ; and having found it necessary, 
 in consequence, to anchor in one of the bays on the northern coast of 
 that island, they might have been detained there till the change of the 
 monsoon, in the month of October following, when, with the return of 
 the north-east wind, they might expect fair and settled weather. 
 
 1 When our author tells us that, at a place distant only about five 
 degrees from the equator, the polar-star was not to be seen, the fact 
 will be readily admitted ; but the further assertion, that the stars of 
 the Wain or Great Bear were also invisible, cannot be otherwise ac- 
 counted for than by imputing to him the mistaken idea that, because 
 the body of the constellation was not above the horizon in the night- 
 time, during the greater part of his stay on the island, it was not to be 
 Been at any other season. 
 
 2 It is mentioned that, in the year 1522, the Portuguese garrison of 
 a fort built at Pagem (Pase), in the vicinity of the place here spoken of, 
 was distressed from the " want of provisions, which the country people 
 withheld from them, discontinuing the fairs that they were used i'. 
 keep three times f week." Hist, of Sum. 3d ed. p. 419.
 
 LIQUOR MADE FROM THE PALM. 371 
 
 cut off a branch, and put over the place a vessel to receive 
 the juice as it distils from the wound, which is filled in the 
 course of a day and a night. 1 So wholesome are the qualities 
 of this liquor, that it affords relief in dropsical complaints, as 
 well as in those of the lungs and of the spleen. 2 When these 
 shoots that have been cut are perceived not to yield any 
 more juice, they contrive to water the trees, by bringing 
 from the river, in pipes or channels, so much water as is 
 sufficient for the purpose; and upon this being done, the 
 juice runs again as it did at first. 3 Some trees naturally yield 
 it of a reddish, and others of a pale colour. The Indian nuts 
 also grow here, of the size of a man's head, containing an 
 edible substance that is sweet and pleasant to the taste, 
 and white as milk. The cavity of this pulp is filled with a 
 liquor clear as water, cool, and better flavoured and more 
 delicate than wine or any other kind of drink whatever. 4 The 
 inhabitants feed upon flesh of every sort, good or bad, without 
 distinction. 
 
 1 " This palm, named in Sumatra anau, and by the eastern Malays 
 gomuto, is the borassus gomutus of Loreiro, and the sayuerus pinnatus of 
 the Batavian Transactions. ... In order to procure the nira, or toddy 
 (held in higher estimation than that from the coco-nut-tree), one of the 
 shoots for fructification is cut off a few inches from the stem; the 
 remaining part is tied up and beaten, and an incision is then made 
 from which the liquor distils into a vessel or bamboo, closely fasteneo 
 beneath. This is replaced every twenty-four hours." Hist, of Sum. 
 p. 88. 
 
 2 The sanative qualities of this liquor, like those of many other 
 specifics, are probably imaginary ; but our author could speak only 01 
 the popular belief as to its virtues. Indulgence in the use of it i* 
 generally thought to produce dysentery. 
 
 3 It is natural to suppose that watering the trees during the dry 
 season would have the effect of increasing the quantity of sap, r<d con- 
 sequently of the juice or liquor distilled. 
 
 4 This description of the coco-nut (cocos nucifera) is well known, 
 even to those who have only seen the fruit as brought to Europe, to be 
 perfectly just; but the grateful refreshment afforded by its liquor 
 when drunk from the young nut, whilst the outer husk is green and 
 the kernel still gelatinous, can only be judged of by those who hava 
 travelled, under a fervid sun, in those countries where it is produced. 
 
 BB 2
 
 372 TRAVELS OF MARf!O POLO, 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 OF THE FOURTH KINGDOM, NAMKD DRAGOIAN. 
 
 DRAGOIAN is a kingdom governed by its own prince, and 
 having its peculiar language. 1 Its inhabitants are uncivilized, 
 worship idols, and acknowledge the authority of the grand 
 khan. They observe this horrible custom, in cases where any 
 member of the family is afflicted with a disease : The rela- 
 tions of the sick person send for the magicians, whom they re- 
 quire, upon examination of the symptoms, to declare whether 
 he will recover or not. These, according to the opinion 
 suggested to them by the evil spirit, reply, either that he will 
 recover or the contrary. If the decision be that he cannot, 
 the relations then call in certain men, whose peculiar duty it 
 is, and who perform their business with dexterity, to close 
 the mouth of the patient until he be suffocated. This being 
 done, they cut the body in pieces, in order to prepare it as 
 victuals ; and when it has been so dressed, the relations 
 assemble, and in a convivial manner eat the whole of it, not 
 leaving so much as the marrow in the bones. Should any 
 particle of the body be suffered to remain, it would breed 
 vermin, as they observe; these vermin, for want of further 
 sustenance, would perish, and their death would prove the 
 occasion of grievous punishment to the soul of the deceased. 
 They afterwards proceed to collect the bones, and having 
 deposited them in a small, neat box, carry them to some 
 cavern in the mountains, where they may be safe against the 
 disturbance of wild animals. If they have it in their power 
 to seize any person who does not belong to their own district, 
 and who cannot pay for his ransom, they put him to death, 
 and devour him. 
 
 1 Dragoian, which is the same in the Basle and older Latin editions 
 in the manuscripts Dagoyam, and in the Italian epitomes Deragola is 
 supposed, by Valentyn and other Dutch writers, to be intended for 
 ludragiri, or, as it is more commonly written, Andragiri, a considerable 
 river on the eastern side of the island ; which, although far to the 
 southward, and consequently distant from the place where the fleet 
 anchored, might have been visited by our adventurous traveller during 
 his five months' detention.
 
 PRODUCTS OP THE KINGDOM OF LAMBRI. 3T3 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 OF THE FIFTH KINGDOM, NAMED LAMBRI. 
 
 LAMBRI, in like mauner, has its own king and its peculiar 
 language : 1 the people also worship idols, and call themselves 
 vassals of the grand khan. The country produces verzino 
 (brezil or sappan wood) in great abundance, 2 and also cam- 
 phor, with a variety of other drugs. 3 They sow a vegetable 
 which resembles the sappan, and when it springs up and 
 begins to throw out shoots, they transplant it to another 
 spot, where it is suffered to remain for three years. It is 
 then taken up by the roots, and used as a dye-stuff. 4 Marco 
 Polo brought some of the seeds of this plant with him to 
 Venice, and sowed them there ; but the climate not being 
 sufficiently warm, none of them came up. In this kingdom 
 are found men with tails, a span in length, like those of the 
 dog, but not covered with hair. The greater number of them 
 are formed in this manner, but they dwell in the mountains, 
 
 1 The name of Lambri appears without any variation in the several 
 editions, excepting that at one place, where it recurs in the early Latin, 
 it is printed Jambri. If the last-mentioned district was Indragiri, this 
 would seem to be Jambi, another large river, lying still more to the 
 southward. In the German (Niirnberg) ed. of 1477, this kingdom or 
 district is named Jambu, which approaches nearly to the name of 
 Jambi. 
 
 '' This is the ccesalpinia sappan of Lin., well known as a dye-stuff by 
 the name of Brezil wood, which it is generally supposed to have 
 acquired from the country so called ; but the reverse appears to be the 
 fact. The words verzino in Italian and barcino in Spanish, of which 
 berzin and berzil are corruptions, existed long before the discovery of 
 the New World, and the name was given to that part of South America 
 in consequence of its abounding with the tree which yields this 
 useful dye. 
 
 3 Our author might have seen camphor at the town of Jambi, but it 
 must have been carried thither, for sale, from the inland country lying 
 far to the north-west of it, as the tree does not grow anywhere to the 
 south of the Line. 
 
 * What is here said of a second kind of dye-stuff, distinct from the 
 verzino, is in the Latin editions confounded with it, and to both the 
 name of berci is applied, which is evidently connected with berzin and 
 barcino. Excepting the Indigo plant (indigofera tinctoria), I do not 
 know of any vegetable used for dying, of which the leaves, stalk, and 
 root are indiscriminately employed. The same plant is more particu- 
 larly described in chap. xx. of this Book, by the name of endigo.
 
 374 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 and do not inhabit towns. 1 The rhinoceros is a common 
 inhabitant of the woods, and there is abundance of all sorts 
 of game, both beasts and birds. 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 OF THE SIXTH KINGDOM, NAMED FANFUR, WHERE MEAL IS PROCURED 
 FROM A CERTAIN TREE. 
 
 FANFUR is a kingdom of the same island, 2 governed by its 
 own prince, where the people likewise worship idols, and pro- 
 fess obedience to the grand khan. In this part of the country 
 a species of camphor, much superior in quality to any other, 
 is produced. It is named the camphor of Fanfur, and is sold 
 for its weight in gold. 3 There is not any wheat nor other 
 corn, but the food of the inhabitants is rice, with milk, and 
 the wine extracted from trees in the manner that has been 
 described in the chapter respecting Samara. They have also 
 a tree from which, by a singular process, they obtain a kind 
 of meal. 4 The stem is lofty, and as thick as can be grasped 
 by two men. When from this the outer bark is stripped, the 
 ligneous substance is found to be about three inches in thick- 
 ness, and the central part is filled with pith, which yields a 
 
 1 The notion of the mountaineers with tails seems to have its origin 
 in the name of orang utan, or " wild men," given to certain apes that 
 more particularly resemble the human species. 
 
 2 Fanfur has been supposed to mean the island of Panchor, separated 
 from the eastern coast of Sumatra by a narrow strait ; but although 
 not warranted by analogy of sound, I incline to think it intended for 
 Kampar (which the Arabian pilots would pronounce Kanfar) on a river 
 opening into the same strait, which, at the period when Pas^ flou- 
 rished, was likewise a place of some consequence, and is frequently 
 mentioned by J. de Barros and other early writers. 
 
 3 The superiority of the native camphor, in the opinion of the 
 Chinese (who are the principal purchasers), over that prepared in their 
 own country and in Japan, has already been noticed. Its price, in 
 modern times, although by no means equal to its weight in gold, is 
 more than double its weight in silver. According to a price-current 
 of goods at Batavia, for the year 1814, the finest sort of Camphor-barus 
 is stated at 50 rupees, or 61. 5s. per lb., whilst in the market the China 
 or Japan camphor is less than one rupee, or about 2j. per lb. 
 
 4 By this is meant the sago-tree, called rumbiya and puhn sagu by 
 the Malays.
 
 THE SAGO-TREE. 375 
 
 meal or flour, resembling that procured from the acora The 
 pith is put into vessels filled with water, and is stirred about 
 with a stick, in order that the fibres and other impurities 
 may rise to the top, and the pure farinaceous part subside to 
 the bottom. When this has been done, the water is poured 
 off, and the flour which remains, divested of all extraneous 
 matter, is applied to use, by making it into cakes and various 
 kinds of pastry. 2 Of this, which resembles barley bread in 
 appearance and taste, Marco Polo has frequently eaten, and 
 some of it he brought home with him to Venice. 8 The wood 
 of the tree, in thickness about three inches (as has been men- 
 tioned), may be compared to iron in this respect, that when 
 thrown into water it immediately sinks. It admits of being 
 split in an even direction from one end to the other, like the 
 bamboo cane. Of this the natives make short lances : were 
 they to be of any considerable length, their weight would 
 render it impossible to carry or to use them. They are 
 sharpened at one end, and rendered so hard by fire that they 
 are capable of penetrating any sort of armour, and in many 
 respects are preferable to iron. 4 What we have said on the 
 
 1 The expression in the text is, " come quella del carvolo," a word 
 not to be found in the Italian dictionaries, as applied to any vegetable. 
 In Portuguese carvalho is the oak. 
 
 2 The method of preparing the sago from the farinaceous and 
 glutinous pith of the tree, has been fully described by Rumphius, 
 Poivre, and others, but more succinctly in the Asiat. Researches. 
 "The principal article of their food," says my late estimable friend 
 Mr. John Crisp, speaking of the inhabitants of the Poggy islands, lying 
 off the coast of Sumatra, " is sago, which is found in plenty on these 
 islands. The tree, when ripe, is cut down, and the pith, which forms 
 the sago, taken out, and the mealy part separated from the fibrous by 
 maceration and treading it in a large trough, continually supplied with 
 fresh water; the mealy part subsides, and is kept in bags made of a 
 kind of rush, and in this state it may be preserved for a considerable 
 time. When they take it from their store for immediate use some 
 further preparation of washing is necessary, but they do not granulate 
 it. One tree will sometimes yield two hundred pounds of sago: when 
 they cook it, it is put into the hollow joints of a thin bamboo, and 
 roasted over the fire." Vol. vi. p. 83. 
 
 3 Captain Thomas Forrest brought to England in 1778, and exhi- 
 bited at Sir Joseph Banks's, cakes of sago-bread, prepared by the natives 
 of New Guinea, as well as the earthern oven used for baking them, 
 of which there is an engraving in the account of his voyage to that 
 country, p. 388. 
 
 4 It is evident that our author has fallen into an error, in supposing
 
 376 TRAVELS OP MARCO POLC, 
 
 subject of this kingdom (one of the divisions of the island) ia 
 sufficient. Of the other kingdoms composing the remaining 
 part we shall not speak, because Marco Polo did not visit 
 them. Proceeding further, we shall next describe a small 
 island named Nocueran. 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 OF THE ISLAND OF NOCUERAN. 
 
 UPON leaving Java (minor) and the kingdom of Lambri, 
 and sailing about one hundred and fifty miles, you fall in 
 with two islands, one of which is named Nocueran, 1 and the 
 other Angaman- Nocueran is not under the government of 
 a king, and the people are little removed from the conditions 
 of beasts ; all of them, both males and females, going naked, 
 without a covering to any part of the body. They are idol- 
 aters. Their woods abound with the noblest and most valu- 
 able trees, such as the white and the red sandal, those which 
 bear the Indian (coco) nuts, cloves, and sappan ; besides which 
 they have a variety of drugs. 2 Proceeding further, we shall 
 speak of Angaman. 
 
 that this hard and heavy wood, which admits of being split longi- 
 tudinally into laths, like the bamboo cane, is the ligneous part of the 
 sago-tree, the texture of which is very different. What he describes 
 as fit for making lances is the stem of another palm growing in the 
 same parts of the country, called by the natives of Sumatra and Java 
 nibong, and by naturalists caryota urens, which he has confounded 
 with its neighbouring tree. Botanists of great celebrity, however, 
 have not shown more discrimination with regard to some of the genera 
 of which the order of palms is composed. 
 
 1 The island here called Nocueran, in the Basle edition Necuram, 
 in the older Latin Necuran, and in the Italian epitonie Necunera, is 
 evidently one of the Nicobar islands, named in our maps Noncoury, 
 Nancowrie, Noncavery, and in that of D'Anville Nicavery; which, 
 although not the largest of them, is, on account of its harbour, the 
 best known. Its distance from the extreme point of Sumatra is about 
 two degrees and a half, or one hundred and fifty nautical miles. 
 
 2 " Trees of great height and size," says a writer in the Asiatic 
 Researches, vol. iii. p. 160, " are to be seen in their woods of a compact 
 texture, well calculated for naval construction." Note. " One of these 
 our people cut down, that measured nine fathoms in circumference, or 
 fifty -four feet." Noble trees indeed ! " But the productions of which 
 they are more particularly careful are the coco and areca (betel-aut) 
 trees. . . . Wild cinnamon and sassafras grow there also."
 
 THE ISLAND OF ZEILAN. 377 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 OF THE ISLAXD OT ASGAMAH. 
 
 AXGAMAX is a very large island, not governed by a king. 1 
 The inhabitants are idolaters, and are a most brutish and 
 savage race, having heads, eyes, and teeth resembling those of 
 the canine species. 2 Their dispositions are cruel, and every 
 person, not being of their own nation, whom they can lay 
 their hands upon, they kill and eat. They have abundance 
 and variety of drugs. Their food is rice and milk, and flesh 
 of every description. They have Indian nuts, apples of para- 
 dise, 3 and many other fruits diflerent from those which grow 
 in our countrv. 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 OF THE ISLAND OF ZEILAS. 
 
 TAXING a departure from the island of Angaman, and 
 steering a course something to the southward of west, for a 
 
 ! Xo doubts will be entertained of the A-ngamAn of Ramusio's and 
 the older Latin texts, the Angania of the* Basle, and the Xangama of 
 the Italian epitomes, being intended for those islands on the eastern 
 side of the bay of Bengal, which we term the Greater and Lesser 
 Andaman. 
 
 * " The Andaman islands," says Mr. R. EL Colebrooke, " are inhabited 
 by a race of men the least civilized perhaps in the world, being nearer 
 to a state of nature than any other we read of. Their colour is of the 
 darkest hue, their stature in general small, and their aspect uncouth. 
 Their limbs are ill-formed and slender, their bellies prominent, and 
 like the Africans they have woolly heads, thick lips, and flat noses. 
 They go quite naked." (Asiat. Res. voL iv. p. 389.) " Us sont noirs," 
 says the Arabian travellers, " ils ont les cheveux crespus, le visage et 
 les yeux affreux, les pieds fort grands et presque longs d'une coude'e, 
 et ils vont tout nuds." (Anciennes Relat. p. 5.) This early description 
 sufficiently confutes the ill-founded tale of the islands having been 
 originally peopled by a cargo of African slaves preserved from the 
 wreck of a Portuguese ship, invented and credited by persons who 
 were ignorant of the circumstance of many of the eastern islands being 
 eq dally peopled with a race of negroes. 
 
 3 By the pomi paradisi are meant plantains, the pisang of the Malays, 
 and /nwa paradisiaca of Linnaeus.
 
 378 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 thousand miles, the island of Zeilan presents itself. 1 This, 
 for its actual size, is better circumstanced than any other 
 island in the world. It is in circuit two thousand four hun- 
 dred miles, but in ancient times it was still larger, its cir- 
 cumference then measuring full three thousand six hundred 
 miles, as the Mappa-Mundi says. 2 But the northern gales, 
 which blow with prodigious violence, have in a manner cor- 
 roded the mountains, so that they have in some parts fallen 
 and sunk in the sea, and the island, from that cause, no longer 
 retains its original size. It is governed by a king whose 
 name is Sender-naz. 3 The people worship idols, and are 
 independent of every other state. Both men and women go 
 nearly in a state of nudity, only wrapping a cloth round the 
 middle part of their bodies. 4 They have no grain besides 
 
 1 The name of this important island, which is pronounced Selan by 
 the Persians and people of Hindustan (who also call it Serendib), has 
 been preserved, through the several versions, more free from corruption 
 than almost any other in the work. In Ramusio's text it is written 
 Zeilan, in that of the Basle editon, Seilam, in the older Latin, Seylam, 
 and in the Italian epitomes, Silan; all of which are preferable to the 
 orthography of Ceylon, as we (from the Dutch I presume) are accus- 
 tomed to write the word. The course to the southernmost part of it, 
 from the Andamans, is nearly west-south-west, and the distance, by 
 measurement on the map, something more than nine hundred geogra- 
 phical miles. 
 
 2 [Sicut d-icit Mappa-mundi, I have given the literal translation of 
 the Latin words, rather than Marsden's version of the text of Ramusio. 
 Mappa-mundi, or Mappemonde, was the name given in the Middle 
 Ages to the sort of map of the world then in use, and it was also 
 sometimes used as the title of a treatise on geography. In fact, a map 
 of the world was in some measure a treatise on geography, as a written 
 description was commonly added to each place on the map, which 
 explains the word dicit.] The raappe-monde used by Marco Polo was, 
 no doubt, an eastern one Chinese, or Arabian. Mr. Gardiner, in his 
 Description of Ceylon, published in 1807, states it to be "a tradition 
 of the natives (supported, as it is said, by astronomical observations) 
 that the island is much diminished in size from what it was formerly ; 
 which tradition is particularly menUoned by Marco Paolo, a Venetian, 
 who visited the east in the thirteenth century." Vol. i. p. 2. 
 
 3 Indian proper names are always significant. That of Sender-naz 
 appears to be intended for Chandra-nas, implying the wane or disap- 
 pearance of the moon. Although not perhaps the king of Candy, or of 
 the whole island, he may have reigned over a district on the western 
 coast, and probably that which is inhabited by a race of people from 
 the opposite continent. 
 
 4 " The dress of the common people," says Mr. Cordiner, " is nothing 
 more than a piece of calico or muslin wrapped round the waist, the
 
 MANNEKS OF THE PEOPLE OF ZEILAN. 379 
 
 rice and sesame, of which latter they make oil. Their food 
 is milk, rice, and flesh, and they drink the wine drawn from 
 trees, which has already been described. 1 There is here the 
 best sappan-wood that can anywhere be met with. The 
 island produces more beautiful and valuable rubies than are 
 found in any other part of the world, and likewise sapphires, 
 topazes, amethysts, garnets, and many other precious and 
 costly stones. 2 The king is reported to possess the grandest 
 ruby that ever was seen, being a span in length, and the 
 thickness of a man's arm, brilliant beyond description, and 
 without a single flaw. It has the appearance of a glowing 
 fire, 3 and upon the whole is so valuable that no estimation 
 can be made of its worth in money. The grand khan, 
 Kubla'i, sent ambassadors to this monarch, with a request 
 that he would yield to him the possession of this ruby; in 
 return for which he should receive the value of a city. The 
 answer he made was to this effect : that he would not sell it 
 for all the treasure of the universe; nor could he on any 
 terms suffer it to go out of his dominions, being a jewel 
 handed down to him by nis predecessors on the throne. 4 The 
 
 size and quality of which correspond to the circumstances of the 
 wearer. The more indigent are very sparingly covered." Vol. i. p. 94. 
 
 1 " Fruit," says the same writer, " is the principal article of their 
 food. Rice is a luxury of which many of them seldom partake : fish 
 and flesh come nearly under the same description." " They occasionally 
 drink the sweet limpid water which IB found within the coco-nut, and 
 sometimes palm-wine, or liquor drawn from the top of the tree, before 
 it attains an inebriating quality." (P. 104.) " Of rice," says Knox, "they 
 have several sorts." " Tolla is a seed used to make oil." (P. 7 12.) Thia 
 is the til, or sesame" seed, of Glad win's Materia Medica. 
 
 2 " In this island," says Knox, " are several sorts of precious stones, 
 which the king, for his part, has enough of, and so careth not to have 
 more discovery made. . . . Also there are certain rivers out of which it 
 is generally reported they do take rubies and sapphires, for the king's 
 use, and cats'-eyes." (P. 31.) Mr. Cordiner enumerates, as the pro- 
 duction of Ceylon, the ruby, emerald, topaz, amethyst, sapphire, cate'- 
 eye or opal, cinnamon stone or garnet, agate, sardonix, and some 
 others. Vol. i. p. 14. 
 
 3 This description seems to be intended for what is vaguely termed 
 the carbuncle, which Woodward defines to be "a etone of the ruby 
 kind, of a rich blood-red colour," and is believed to have the quality of 
 shining in the dark. 
 
 4 If this extraordinary stone had any real existence, it may have 
 been a lump of coloured crystal ; but it is not uncommon with Eastern 
 princes, in the preambles of their letters and warrants, to boast the
 
 380 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLC. 
 
 grand khan failed therefore to acquire it. The people of this 
 island are by no means of a military habit, but, on the con 
 trary, are abject and timid; 1 and when there is occasion to 
 employ soldiers, they are procured from other countries, in 
 the vicinity of the Mahometans. Nothing else of a remark- 
 able nature presenting itself, we shall proceed to speak of 
 Maabar. 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 OF THE PROVINCE OF MAABAR. 
 
 1. LEAVING the island of Zeilan, and sailing in a westerly 
 direction sixty miles, 2 you reach the great province of Maa- 
 bar, 3 which is not an island, but a part of the continent of 
 the greater India, as it is termed, being the noblest and 
 
 possession of imaginary and improbable curiosities ; and, in this in- 
 stance, the fallacy of the pretension will account for the king's rejecting 
 the magnificent terms held out for the purchase of it by the emperor 
 of China. 
 
 1 " The Cingalese," says M. Cordiner, " are indigent, harmless, indo- 
 lent, and unwarlike, remarkable for equanimity, mildness, bashfulness, 
 and timidity." " An attempt was made some years ago to train a body 
 of them as soldiers, but, after great perseverance, it completely failed 
 of success." (P. 92.) [Other accounts, ancient and modern, agree in 
 this character.] 
 
 2 The distance between Aripo on Ceylon and the nearest part of the 
 continent is exactly sixty geographical miles, but such precision not 
 being uniform in our author's work, is not here to be insisted on; and 
 it is probable that the port in which the fleet lay was Columbo rather 
 than Aripo. 
 
 3 The name of this country, which both in the Basle edition and the 
 older Latin is Maabar, and Moabar in the epitomes, is Malabar in the 
 text of Ramusio, of which the former has been supposed a corruption ; 
 but the reverse is the case, for circumstances unequivocally point to 
 the southern part of the coast of Coromandel as the place where the 
 fleet arrived after leaving Ceylon ; and what puts the matter beyond 
 all doubt is, that the province of Malabar is afterwards distinctly men- 
 tioned in its proper place. Maabar, signifying a " passage, ferry, ford, 
 trajectus " (see the dictionaries of Meninski and Richardson), was an 
 appellation given by the Mahometans to what we call the Tinevelly, 
 Madura, and, perhaps, Tanjore countries from their vicinity, as it 
 would seem, to the celebrated chain of sand-banks and coral reefs 
 named Rama's or Adam's bridge. It is has now fallen into disuse, but 
 is to be found in the works of all the oriental geographers and his- 
 torians who have treated of this portion of India.
 
 PEARL FISHERY OF MAABAR. 381 
 
 richest country m the world. It is governed by four kings, 
 of whom the principal is named Sender-bandi. 1 Within hia 
 dominions is a fishery for pearls, in the gulf of a bay that 
 lies between Maabar and the island of Zeilan, 2 where the 
 water is not more than from ten to twelve fathoms in depth, 
 and in some places not more than two fathoms. 3 The busi- 
 ness of the fishery is conducted in the following manner. 
 A number of merchants form themselves into separate com- 
 panies, and employ many vessels and boats of different sizes, 
 well provided with ground-tackle, by which to ride safely at 
 anchor. 4 They engage and carry with them persons who are 
 skilled in the art of diving for the oysters in which the pearls 
 are enclosed. These they bring up in bags made of netting 
 that are fastened about their bodies, and then repeat the 
 operation, rising to the surface when they can no longer keep 
 their breath, and after a short interval diving again 5 In this 
 
 1 The princes of India were supposed to belong to the kshetri or 
 military tribe, and to be descended from one or other of two illustrious 
 races, termed the swnja vangsa, or race of the sun, and chandra vangsa, 
 or race of the moon. The king here spoken of appears to have belonged 
 to the latter, and his name of Chandra Bandi may be understood to 
 signify the " slave or servant of the moon." [The Paris Latin text reads 
 Sanderba rex de Var.] 
 
 2 The banks on which the fishery for pearls takes place appear to 
 occupy, to a considerable extent, the coast on both sides of the gulf 
 that separates the island of Ceylon from the continent of India, or, 
 more strictly, of that portion of the gulf which lies to the southward 
 of Adam's bridge. On the eastern side, the banks most commonly 
 fished are near the small island of Manor, and on the western or con- 
 tinental side, near the bay of Tutakorin. This latter, or some place in 
 its vicinity, may be presumed to have been the scene of our author's 
 observations. 
 
 3 " The depth of water over the different banks," says Cordiner, 
 " varies from three to fifteen fathoms ; but the best fishing is found in 
 from six to eight fathoms." (Description of Ceylon, vol. ii. p. 41.) A 
 paper in the Asiatic Res., vol. v. p. 401, states the depth at from five to 
 ten fathoms. At Sooloo, the pearl-oysters are taken from the depth of 
 from three to four fathoms only. 
 
 * It is probable that the privilege of fishing for the pearl-oysters was 
 then farmed, as at the present day, to one or more merchant ad- 
 venturers. 
 
 5 i( The crew consists of twenty-three persons, ten of whom are 
 diveis." " Each boat is supplied with five diving stones, and five netted 
 baskets." (Descr. of Ceylon, p. 41.) " These Indians, accustomed to dive 
 from their earliest infancy, fearlessly descend to the bottom in a depth 
 of from five t-: ten fathoms, in search of treasures. By two cords a
 
 382 TRAVELS OP MARCO POLO. 
 
 operation they persevere during the whole of the day, and by 
 their exertions accumulate (in the course of the season) a 
 quantity of oysters sufficient to supply the demands of all 
 countries. 1 The greater proportion of the pearls obtained 
 from the fisheries in this gulf, are round, and of a good 
 lustre. The spot where the oysters are taken in the greatest 
 number is called Betala, on the shore of the mainland ; 
 and from thence the fishery extends sixty miles to the 
 southward. 2 
 
 In consequence of the gulf being infested with a kind of 
 large fish, which often prove destructive to the divers, the 
 merchants take the precaution of being accompanied by cer- 
 tain enchanters belonging to a class of Brahmans, who, by 
 means of their diabolical art, have the power of constraining 
 and stupifying these fish, so as to prevent them from doing- 
 mischief; 3 and as the fishing takes place in the daytime 
 
 diving stone and a net are connected with the boat. The diver, putting 
 the toes of his right foot on the hair rope of the diving stone, and those 
 of his left on the net, seizes the two cords with one hand, and shutting 
 his nostrils with the other, plunges into the water. On reaching the 
 bottom, he hangs the net round his neck, and collects into it the pearl 
 shells as fast as possible during the time he finds himself able to remain 
 under water, which usually is about two minutes. He then resumes 
 his former posture, and, making a signal by pulling the cords, he is 
 immediately lifted into the boat." " When the first five divers come 
 up, and are respiring, the other five are going down with the same 
 stones. Each brings up about one hundred oysters in his net, and, if 
 not interrupted by any accident, may make fifty trips in a forenoon." 
 (Asiat. Res. vol. v. p. 401.) The account of these operations, as given 
 by Mr. Cordiner, is still more circumstantial ; but what has been stated 
 is sufficient to show the correctness of our author's relation. 
 
 1 " One boat has been known to bring to land, in one day, thirty- 
 three thousand oysters, and in another not more than three hundred." 
 " At many fisheries, upwards of two millions of oysters have been 
 brought on shore at one time." Descript. of Ceylon, p. 57. 
 
 2 In the map of the peninsula of India, given by Valentyn in his 
 fifth volume, we find a place named Wedale, or Vedale, situated at the 
 northern extremity of the bay of Tutakorin, and immediately within 
 the island of Ramiseram. This may be the Betala of Ramusio's text, 
 which is not mentioned in any other version. 
 
 3 "The superstition of the divers renders the shark-charmers a 
 necessary part of the establishment of the pearl fishery. All these 
 impostors belong to one family, and no person who does not form a 
 branch of it can aspire to that office. The natives have firm confidence 
 in their power over the monsters of the sea : nor would tney descend 
 to the bottom of the deep without knowing that one of those enchanters
 
 PEiJIL FISHERY OF MAABAR. 383 
 
 only, they discontinue the effect of the charm in the evening : 
 in order that dishonest persons who might be inclined to take 
 the opportunity of diving at night and stealing the oysters, 
 may be deterred by the apprehension they feel of the un- 
 restrained ravages of these animals. 1 The enchanters are 
 likewise profound adepts in the art of fascinating all kinds of 
 beasts and birds. The fishery commences in the month of 
 April, and lasts till the middle of May. 2 The privilege of 
 engaging in it is iarnied of the king, to whom a tenth part 
 only of the produce is allowed; to the magicians they allow 
 a twentieth part, and consequently they reserve to themselves 
 a considerable profit. 3 By the time the period above-men- 
 tioned is completed, the stock of oysters is exhausted ; and 
 the vessels are then taken to another place, distant full three 
 hundred miles from this gulf, where they establish themselves 
 in the month of September, and continue till the middle of 
 October. 4 Independently of the tenth of the pearls to which 
 
 were present in the fleet Two of them are constantly employed. One 
 of them goes oat regularly in the head pilot's boat; the other performs 
 certain ceremonies on shore." " The shark -charmer is called in the 
 Malabar language Cadal-cutti, and in the Hindoatanee Hybanda, each of 
 which signifies a binder of sharks." Descript. of Ceylon, voL iL p. 51. 
 
 1 ' Their superstition in this particular is favourable to the interests 
 of government, as, from their terror at diving without the protection 
 of the charms, it prevents any attempt being made to plunder the 
 oyster banks." (P. 53.) It may have been invented or encouraged with 
 that view. 
 
 2 Our author is correct as to the duration of the fishery, being com- 
 monly thirty days, although that period is sometimes exceeded when 
 interruptions have taken place ; but he has stated the commencement 
 later by at least one month than is the established rule. If, as some 
 suppose, there is a slow progressive variation of seasons, the monsoone 
 might formerly have changed somewhat later than they do at present ; 
 or there might, in the year 1292, have been something particular in the 
 w eather to retard the commencement, and to favour the protraction of 
 the fishery. It is, however, the most probable that, in his notes, our 
 *rthor wrote April and May by mistake for March and April. 
 
 3 Instead of taking, as the royalty, a proportion of the produce, 
 which is the more equitable, though less convenient mode, modern 
 governments have been in the practice of selling the exclusive privilege 
 for the season to the highest responsible bidder ; but the divers and 
 other agents employed in the fishery are remunerated in kind. 
 
 * It does not appear what place it was, at the distance of three 
 hundred miles, to which the vessels were accustomed to retire upon 
 quitting the fishery on this coast. According to Cordiner, " the boats. 
 Trith their crews and divers, come from y.zuir, Jaffna, Ramieseram
 
 384 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 the king is entitled, he requires to have the choice of all such 
 as are large and well-shaped; and as he pays liberally for 
 them, the merchants are not disinclined to carry them to him 
 for that purpose. 1 
 
 2. The natives of this part of the conntry always go 
 naked, excepting that they cover with a piece of cloth those 
 parts of the body which modesty dictates. 2 The king is no 
 more clothed than the rest, except that he has a piece of 
 richer cloth; but is honourably distinguished by various 
 kinds of ornaments, such as a collar set with jewels, sapphires, 
 emeralds, and rubies, of immense value. He also wears, sus- 
 pended from the neck and reaching to the breast, a fine silken 
 string containing one hundred and four large and handsome 
 pearls and rubies. The reason for this particular number is, 
 that he is required by the rules of his religion to repeat a 
 prayer or invocation so many times, daily, in honour of his 
 gods; and this his ancestors never failed to perform. 3 The 
 daily prayer consists of these words, pacauca, pacauca, 
 pacauca, which they repeat one hundred and four times, 
 
 Nagore, Tutakoreen, Travancorc, Kilkerry, and other parts on the coast 
 of Coromandel ;" but in the Asiatic Researches it is said that " the 
 denies (boats) appointed for the fishery are not all procured at Ceylon ; 
 many come from the coasts of Coromandel and Malabar." (Vol. v. 
 p. 400.) On the latter, it may be observed, the seasons are the reverse 
 of what they are on the eastern side of the peninsula. 
 
 1 At some periods the kings have required that all pearls exceeding 
 a stated size should be considered as royal property, and reserved for 
 their use. 
 
 2 " Quelquefois leur habillement," says Sonnerat, " est encore plus 
 simple; il n'est pas rare de voir des Indiens dont tout le vetement n'est 
 qu'un morceaxi de toile qui sert h cacher les parties natu^elles." (Voy. 
 aux Indes, &c., torn. i. p. 29.) " L'habito di queste genti e que vanno 
 tutte nude, salvo que portauo un pauno intorno alia parte inhoneste." 
 Itin. di Lodovico Barthema, fol. 158-2. 
 
 3 Rosaries or chaplets, the use of which is to assist the memory in 
 counting the repetition of prayers, are employed for this purpose by 
 the followers of Brahma, Buddha or Fo, and Mahomet, as well as by a 
 part of the Christian Church. The number of beads in the chaplets 
 borne by the natives of Hindustan, as well as by the worshippers of 
 Fo, is said to be one hundred and eight. It is, therefore, probable that 
 the number of one hundred and four, mentioned in the text, is an 
 error, to which the mode of notation in the old manuscripts, by Roman 
 figures, is extremely liable ; but at the same time I must avow that I 
 have not been able to ascertain with precision the divisions of th 
 rosary used either by a Hindu or Mahometan.
 
 THE COURT OF MAABAR. 385 
 
 On each arm he wears three gold bracelets, adorned with 
 pearls and jewels ; on three different parts of the leg, golden 
 bands ornamented in the same manner; and on the toes of 
 his feet, as well as on his fingers, rings of inestimable value. 1 
 To this king it is indeed a matter of facility to display such 
 splendid regalia, as the precious stones and the pearls are all 
 the produce of his own dominions. 2 He has at the least one 
 thousand wives and concubines ; and when he sees a woman 
 whose beauty pleases him, he immediately signifies his desire 
 to possess her. In this manner he appropriated the wife of 
 his brother, who being a discreet and sensible man, was 
 prevailed upon not to make it the subject of a broil, although 
 repeatedly on the point of having recourse to arms. On 
 these occasions their mother remonstrated with them, and 
 exposing her breasts, said : " If you, my children, disgrace 
 yourselves by acts of hostility against each other. I shall 
 instantly sever from my body these breasts from which you 
 drew your nourishment ;" and thus the irritation was allowed 
 to subside. 
 
 The king retains about his person many knights, who are 
 distinguished by an appellation, signifying " the devoted 
 servants of his majesty, in this world and the next." These 
 attend upon his person at court, ride by his side in proces- 
 sions, and accompany him on all occasions. They exercise 
 considerable authority in every part of the realm. Upon the 
 death of the king, and when the ceremony of burning hij 
 body takes place, all these devoted servants throw themselves 
 into the same fire, and are consumed with the royal corpse ; 
 intending by this act to bear him company hi another life. 3 
 
 1 The description of the ornaments -worn by this prince is con- 
 formable to what we read in the voyage of Lodovico Barthema, who 
 says : " Xon si potria stimare le gioie e perle che porta il re." " Por- 
 tava tante gioie nelT orrechie, e nelle mani, nelle bracchia, ne piedi e 
 nelle gambe, che era cosa mirabile a vedere." (FoL 161.) See also 
 Anciennes Relations, par Renaudot. 
 
 2 It would appear that our author does not speak of the raja of a 
 limited district contiguous to the coast of the fishery, but of a sovereign 
 whose dominions embraced the inland country where diamonds and 
 other precious stones are found. The king of Narsinga, whose capital 
 at a subsequent period was Bijanagar or Golconda, ruled at this period 
 not only the Telinga and Rarnata country, but all the coast of Coro- 
 mandel, as far southward as Cape Komari, or Comorin. 
 
 3 Th& authorities for the practice of burning the servants, as wel 1 aa 
 

 
 386 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 The following custom likewise prevails. When a king dies, 
 the son who succeeds him does not meddle with the treasure 
 which the former had amassed, under the impression that it 
 would reflect upon his own ability to govern, if being left 
 in full possession of the territory, he did not show himself as 
 capable of enriching the treasury as his father was. In con- 
 sequence of this prejudice it is supposed that immense wealth 
 is accumulated by successive generations. 
 
 No horses being bred in this country, the king and his 
 three royal brothers expend large sums of money annually 
 in the purchase of them from merchants of Ormus, Diufar, 
 Pecher, and Adem, 1 who carry them thither for sale, and 
 become rich by the traffic, as they import to the number of 
 five thousand, and for each of them obtain five hundred saggi 
 of gold, being equal to one hundred marks of silver. At the 
 end of the year, in consequence, as it is supposed, of their 
 not having persons properly qualified to take care of them or 
 to administer the requisite medicines, perhaps not three hun- 
 dred of these remain alive, and thus the necessity is occasioned 
 for replacing them annually. 2 But it is my opinion that the 
 climate of the province is unfavourable to the race of horses, 
 and that from hence arises the difficulty in breeding or pre- 
 serving them. For food they give them flesh dressed with 
 rice, and other prepared meats, 3 the country not producing 
 
 the wives, of Hindoo princes, along with the bodies of their masters, 
 are numerous : from a passage in the narrative of Barbosa, we find also 
 a confirmation of their performing the sacrifice in consequence of a 
 previous voluntary engagement. 
 
 1 The ports enumerated in the Latin version are Curnios, Chisi, 
 Durfar, Ser, and Eden. Of Curmos, Hormuz (or Ormuz), as well as of 
 Adem, Eden, or Aden, it is unnecessary to speak in this place. Chisi is 
 Kis or Kes, an island in the Persian Gulf, to which the trade of Siraf 
 was removed. Diufar and Pecher, which in the Basle edition are 
 Durfar and Ser, appear to be the same places as Escier and Dulfar of 
 chap. xli. and xlii., and consequently may be supposed the towns of 
 Sheher and Durfar on the Arabian coast, to the eastward of Aden. 
 
 2 Even at the present day there is no breed of horses in the southern 
 part of the peninsula, and all the cavalry employed there are foreign. 
 
 :i However extraordinary it may be thought, the fact is certain, that 
 on the coast oi Coromandel, in addition to gram (dolichos bijloris, Lin.) 
 and the roots of grass, the horses are occasionally fed with meat, chiefly 
 of boiled sheeps' heads, made up into balls. Similar expedients are 
 employed in other places. *' In questo paese," says Barbosa, speaking 
 of the coast of Sind, " mangiano li peschi secchi et ancho li danno a 
 maugiare alii cavalli e ad altri bestiami." Fol. 295.
 
 JUDICIAL SUICIDE. 387 
 
 any grain besides rice. A mare, although of a large size, 
 and covered by a handsome horse, produces only a small 
 ill-made colt, with distorted legs, and unfit to be trained for 
 riding. 
 
 The following extraordinary custom prevails at this place. 
 When a man who has committed a crime, for which he has 
 been tried and condemned to suffer death, upon being led to 
 execution, declares his willingness to sacrifice himself in 
 honour of some particular idol, his relations and friends 
 immediately place him in a kind of chair, and deliver to him 
 twelve knives of good temper and well sharpened. In this 
 manner they carry him about the city, proclaiming, with a 
 loud voice, that this brave man is about to devote himself to 
 a voluntary death, from motives of zeal for the worship of 
 the idol. Upon reaching the place where the sentence of the 
 law would have been executed, he snatches up two of the 
 knives, and crying out, " I devote myself to death in honour 
 of such an idol," hastily strikes one of them into each thigh, 
 then one into each arm, two into the belly, and two into the 
 breast. Having in this manner thrust all the knives but one 
 into different parts of his body, repeating at every wound the 
 words that have been mentioned, he plunges the last of them 
 into his heart, and immediately expires. 1 As soon as this 
 scene has been acted, his relations proceed, with great triumph 
 and rejoicing, to burn the body; and his wife, from motives of 
 pious regard for her husband, throws herself upon the pile, 
 and is consumed with him. Women who display this reso- 
 lution are much applauded by the community, as, on the 
 other hand, those who shrink from it are despised and 
 reviled. 2 
 
 3. The greater part of the idolatrous inhabitants of this 
 
 1 In various modern accounts we have indubitable authority for the 
 practice of self-immolation amongst the people of India, at the feasts of 
 Jagaraat'ha and other idols, where the victims of fanaticism throw 
 themselves before the wheels of ponderous machines, to be crushed to 
 death. 
 
 2 Every account of the Hindu people and their manners furnishes us 
 with a description of the ceremony of wives burning themselves with 
 the bodies of their deceased husbands, of the arts that are employed to 
 stimulate their enthusiasm, and of the disgrace and abandonment that 
 attends their refusal to comply with this horrible custom. Under the 
 Mahometan and European influence, it is supposed to be much lean 
 iommon than it was in former times. 
 
 CO 2
 
 388 TRAVELS OP MARCO POLO. 
 
 kingdom show particular reverence to the ox; and none will 
 from any consideration be induced to eat the flesh of oxen. 1 
 But there is a particular class of men termed gaui, who al- 
 though they may eat of the flesh, yet dare not to kill the 
 animal] but when they find a carcase, whether it has died a 
 natural death or otherwise, the gaui eat of it; 2 and all de- 
 scriptions of people daub their houses with cow-dung. 3 Their 
 mode of sitting is upon carpets on the ground; and when 
 asked why they sit in that manner, they reply that a seat on 
 the earth is honourable; that as we are sprung from the 
 earth, so we shall again return to it ; that none can do it 
 sufficient honour, and much less should any despise the earth. 
 These gaui and all their tribe are the descendants of those 
 who slew Saint Thomas the Apostle, and on this account no 
 individual of them can possibly enter the building where the 
 body of the blessed apostle rests, even were the strength of 
 ten men employed to convey him to the spot, being repelled 
 by the supernatural power of the holy corpse. 4 
 
 The country produces no other grain than rice and sesame". 5 
 
 1 " The people in this part of the country," says Buchanan, in the 
 journal of his route through the southern Carnatic, "consider the ox 
 as a living god, who gives them their bread ; and in every village there 
 are one or two bulls, to whom weekly or monthly worship is per- 
 formed." " On the north side of the Cavery this superstition is not 
 prevalent. The bull is there considered as respectable, on account of 
 Iswara having chosen one of them for his steed." Vol. ii. p. 174. 
 
 2 From this account of the manners of the gaui, our author may be 
 supposed to speak of the outcast tribe generally named pariah and 
 chandala, but who are known also by other appellations in different 
 parts of India. 
 
 3 " When the dung is recent," says Grose, " they make a compost of 
 it, with which they smear their houses, pavements, and sides of them, 
 in the style of a lustration." (P. 185.) " II piano della casa," says 
 Barthema, " e tutto imbrattato con stereo di vacche per honoroficentia." 
 Ramusio, fol. 161*. 
 
 4 "About this mount," says Fryer, "live a cast of people, one of 
 whose legs is as big as an elephant's, which gives occasion for the 
 divulging of it to be a judgment on them, as the generation of the 
 assassins and murtherers of the blessed apostle St. Thomas, one of 
 whom I saw at Fort St. George." New Account of East India and 
 Persia, p. 43. 
 
 5 The sesamwm indicum, called til in the Hindustani language, is 
 extensively cultivated in most parts of India, for the sake of the oil 
 obtained from its seeds. " Nell' paese di Calicut si trova gran quantita 
 di zerzelino del quale nr. fanno oglio perfetissim ." Barthema, p. 162.
 
 MANNERS OF THE PEOPLE OF MAABAR. 389 
 
 The people go to battle with lances and shields, but without 
 clothing, arid are a despicable unwarlike race. 1 They do not 
 kill cattle nor any kind of animals for food, but when de- 
 sirous of eating the flesh of sheep or other beasts, or of birds, 
 they procure the Saracens, who are not under the influence of 
 the same laws and customs, to perform the office. 2 Both 
 men and women wash their whole bodies in water twice every 
 day, that is, in the morning and the evening. Until this ab- 
 lution has taken place they neither eat nor drink ; and the 
 person who should neglect this observance, would be regarded 
 as a heretic. 3 It ought to be noticed, that in eating they 
 make use of the right hand only, nor do they ever touch 
 their food with the left. For every cleanly and delicate work 
 they employ the former, and reserve the latter for the base 
 uses of personal abstersion, and other offices connected with 
 the animal functions. They drink out of a particular kind 
 of vessel, and each individual from his own, never making 
 use of the drinking pot of another person. When they drink 
 they do not apply the vessel to the mouth, but hold it above 
 the head, and pour the liquor into the mouth, not suffering 
 the vessel on any account to touch the lips. 4 In giving 
 
 1 The effeminacy of the natives of India, and particularly of the 
 southern provinces, has been in all ages a subject of observation. 
 
 2 In Dalryrnple's Oriental Repertory, vol. i. p. 49, we find a list of 
 the Hindu castes which are restricted from eating animal food of any 
 kind, and also of those which are permitted to eat certain kinds. 
 Amongst the latter are enumerated " Woriar Brahmineys," who may 
 eat fish, mutton, and game, but not fowls ; and also " Rajahs." None, 
 however, of any caste (as is generally believed) are allowed to eat beef, 
 and to kill a cow is an offence inferior only to the murder of a 
 Brahman. 
 
 3 " According to the rules of their religion they ought to pray thrice 
 a day. . . . They should at the same time perform their ablutions, and 
 when they have an opportunity, should prefer a running Btream to 
 standing water. But it is an indispensable duty to wash themselves 
 before meals." Hindoo Sketches, vol. i. p. 221. 
 
 * This mode of pouring water into the mouth is represented in a 
 plate, p. 87, of Knox's Account of Ceylon. " When they drink," he 
 says, almost in the words of our author, '' they touch not the pot with 
 their mouths, but hold it at a distance and pour it in." This practice 
 is common, likewise, in other parts of the east. " In drinking," saya 
 the History of Sumatra, " they generally hold the vessel (a labu or 
 calabash) at a distance above their mouths, and catch the stream as it 
 falls, the liquid descending to the stomach without the action of swal- 
 lowing." Third edit. p. 61.
 
 oJO TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 drink to a stranger, they do not hand their vessel to him, 
 but, if he is not provided with one of his own, pour the wine 
 or other liquor into his hands, from which he drinks it, as 
 from a cup. 1 
 
 Offences in this country are punished with strict and ex- 
 emplary justice, and with regard to debtors the following 
 customs prevail. If application for payment shall have been 
 repeatedly made by a creditor, and the debtor puts him off 
 from time to time with fallacious promises, the former may 
 attach his person by drawing a circle round him, from whence 
 he dares not depart until he has satisfied his creditor, either 
 by payment, or by giving adequate security. Should he 
 attempt to make his escape, he renders himself liable to the 
 punishment of death, as a violator of the rules of justice. 2 
 Messer Marco, when he was in this country on his return 
 homeward, happened to be an eye-witness of a remarkable 
 transaction of this nature. The king was indebted in a sum 
 of money to a certain foreign merchant, and although fre- 
 quently importuned for payment, amused him for a long time 
 with vain assurances. One day when the king was riding on 
 horseback, the merchant took the opportunity of describing 
 a circle round him and his horse. As soon as the king 
 perceived what had been done, he immediately ceased to 
 proceed, nor did he move from the spot until the demand of 
 the merchant was fully satisfied. The bystanders beheld 
 what passed with admiration, and pronounced that king to 
 merit the title of most just, who himself submitted to the laws 
 of justice. 
 
 These people abstain from drinking wine made from grapes ; 
 and should a person be detected in the practice, so disreput- 
 able would it be held, that his evidence would not be received 
 
 1 Sonnerat (torn. i. p. 257) mentions the circumstance of boiled rice 
 being put into the hands of a mendicant who has no vessel to receive 
 it; but it is also no uncommon practice to pour liquor into the hands 
 of such a person, who for this purpose holds them close to his mouth. 
 
 2 This legal process is circumstantially described by Lodovico Bar- 
 thema. " They have a good way," says Hamilton, " of arresting people 
 for debt, viz. : there is a proper person sent with a small stick from the 
 iudge, who is generally a Brahman, and when that person finds the 
 debtor, he draws a circle round him with that stick, and charges him, 
 iu the king's and judge's name, not to stir out of it till the creditor is 
 satisfied either by payment or surety; and it is no less than death for 
 the debtor to break prison by going out of the circle." VoL L p. 21(5.
 
 PREJUDICES AND SUPERSTITIONS OF MAABAR. 391 
 
 in court. 1 A similar prejudice exists against persons fre- 
 quenting the sea, who, they observe, can only be people of 
 desperate fortunes, and whose testimony, as such, ought not 
 to be admitted. 2 They do not hold fornication to be a crime. 
 The heat of the country is excessive, and the inhabitants on 
 that account go naked. There is no rain excepting in the 
 months of June, July, and August, and if it was not for the 
 coolness imparted to the air during these three months by the 
 rain, it would be impossible to support life. 3 
 
 In this country there are many adepts in the science de- 
 nominated physiognomy, which teaches the knowledge of the 
 nature and qualities of men, and whether they tend to good 
 or evil. These qualities are immediately discerned upon the 
 appearance of the man or woman. They also know what 
 events are portended by meeting certain beasts or birds. More 
 attention is paid by these people to the flight of birds than 
 by any others in the world, and from thence they predict 
 good or bad fortune. In every day of the week there is one 
 hour which they regard as xmlucky, and this they name 
 ckoiack;* thus, for example, on Monday the (canonical) hour 
 
 1 In the Latin text the words are: "Vini usus apud eos interdictus 
 est;" nor is it by any means probable that our author should have 
 spoken of grape wine, specifically, as being prohibited, in a country 
 where it could scarcely have been known. What he meant in this and 
 several other places where the term " wine" is used, is any intoxicating 
 liquor, but more especially that made by fermentation from the juice 
 of the palm, and by distillation from that juice together with rice. 
 " No Hindoo of any of the four castes," says Craufurd, " is allowed 
 by his religion to taste any intoxicating liquor; it is only drunk by 
 strangers, dancers, players, and chandalahs or outcasts." Sketches, 
 voL L p. 140. 
 
 2 Although there are navigators amongst the Hindus, and particu- 
 larly in vessels from the coast of Coromandel to Achin and the straits 
 of Slalacca, yet the natural disposition of the people is abhorrent of 
 the sea ; nor can persons of any respectable caste embark on it without 
 the risk of pollution, both in respect to contact and foed, whatever 
 precautions may be taken to avoid it. Our author, however, attributes 
 their dislike of seafaring people to an opinion that none but those of 
 desperate fortunes and relaxed morals would devote themselves to a 
 profession where domestic comfort is sacrificed and life exposed, in the 
 pursuit of precarious advantage. 
 
 3 The rainy season here described is that which prevails on the 
 Malabar coast. 
 
 * The word Choiach or Koiach (probably much corrupted) is not to be 
 recognised amongst the barbarous astrological terms of the south of
 
 392 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 of mi-tierce, on Tuesday the hour of tierce, on Wednesday 
 the hour of none; 1 and on these hours they do not make 
 purchases, nor transact any kind of business, being persuaded 
 that it would not be attended with success. In like manner 
 they ascertain the qualities of every day throughout the year, 
 which are described and noted in their books. 2 They judge 
 of the hour of the day by the length of a man's shadow when 
 he stands erect. 3 When an infant is born, be it a boy or a 
 girl, the father or the mother makes a memorandum in wri- 
 ting of the day of the week on which the birth took place ; 
 also of the age of the moon, the name of the mouth, and the 
 hour. This is done because every future act of their lives is 
 regulated by astrology. As soon as a son attains the age of 
 thirteen years, they set him at liberty, and no longer suffer 
 him to be an inmate in his father's house ; giving him to the 
 amount, in their money, of twenty to twenty-four groats. 
 Thus provided, they consider him as capable of gaining his 
 own livelihood, by engaging in some kind of trade and thence 
 deriving a profit. These boys never cease to run aboxit in all 
 directions during the whole course of the day, buying an 
 
 India. " Parmi les natche"trons, les yogons, les tidis, les laqueuons, les 
 carenons, et les jours de la semaine," as we are informed by Sonnerat, 
 " il y en a de bons et de mauvais." " Je n'ai jamais pu savoir d'aucun 
 Brame ce que c'e"toit qu'un yogon et un carenon." " Les jours bons ou 
 mauvais. les heures funestes ou heureuses, le retour d'un voyage, la 
 guerison d'un malade, la perte de quelques effets, enfin, tout donne 
 matiere a recourir aux devins." Pp. 305 313. 
 
 1 [The canonical division of the day, called tierce (hora tertia,) began 
 at nine o'clock, A.M., and lasted till twelve. None began at three 
 o'clock, P.M. Mi-tierce (mezza-terza, or, in Latin, media tertia) is not fixed 
 in the regular lists of the canonical hours, but it may be supposed to 
 have been half way between tierce, or nine o'clock, and sext, or twelve.] 
 
 2 The books here spoken of are almanacs, called panjangan in the 
 language of the Tamuls. 
 
 3 The original Indian method of arcertaining the altitude of the sun 
 and latitude of a place, is by measuring the length of the shadow 
 thrown by a perpendicular gnomon of a determined height, or by the 
 absence of that shadow when the sun is in the zenith. Upon this 
 principle, in places situated within the tropics, and especially near the 
 equator, a man may form a tolerably correct judgment of the hour of 
 the day, by observing his own shadow, which, for example, when equal 
 to the height of his person, would show the altitude to be forty-five 
 degrees, and the hour, consequently, about nine in the morning or three 
 in the afternoon.
 
 MANNERS OF THE PEOPLE OF MAABAR. 393 
 
 article in one place, and selling it in another. 1 At the season 
 when the pearl fishery is going on, they frequent the beach, 
 and make purchases from the fishermen or others, of five, 
 six, or more (small) pearls, according to their means, carrying 
 them afterwards to the merchants, who, on account of the 
 heat of the sun, remain sitting in their houses, and to whom 
 they say: " These pearls have cost us so much; pray allow 
 such a profit on them as you may judge reasonable." The 
 merchants then give something beyond the price at which 
 they had been obtained. In this way likewise they deal in many 
 other articles, and become excellent and most acute traders. 
 When business is over for the day, they carry to their 
 mothers the provisions necessary for their dinners, which they 
 prepare and dress for them ; but these never eat anything at 
 their fathers' expense. 
 
 4. Not only in this kingdom, but throughout India in 
 general, all the beasts and birds are unlike those of our own 
 country, excepting the quails, which perfectly resemble ours; 
 the others are all different. 2 There are bats as large as vul- 
 tures, and vultures as black as crows, and much larger than 
 ours. Their flight is rapid, and they do not fail to seize 
 their bird. 3 
 
 In their temples there are many idols, the forms of which 
 represent them of the male and the female sex; and to these, 
 fathers and mothers dedicate their daughters. Having been 
 so dedicated, they are expected to attend whenever the priests 
 of the convent require them to contribute to the gratification 
 of the idol ; and on such occasions they repair thither, singing 
 and playing on instruments, and adding by their presence to 
 
 1 " Li lor figluioli," says Barbosa, " come pas8a.no dieci anni, vauno 
 facendo il medesimo come li padri, di andar comprando monete piccole, 
 et imparare il mestiere." Fol. 310 2. 
 
 2 This assertion may appear too general, but is in a great measure 
 justified by the observations of Dr. F. Buchanan, who informs us that 
 neither horses, asses, swine, sheep, nor goats are bred in the southern 
 part of the peninsula, or at least that their number is perfectly in- 
 considerable, and thdt the original natives had no poultry, even the 
 common fowls, as well as geese, ducks, and turkeys, having been intro- 
 duced by Europeans.- Vol. ii. p. 383. 
 
 3 The former of these is the vespertiliovampyrus of Lin., the wings of 
 which are four feet in extent ; the latter, " le vautour royal de Poncli- 
 cheri, dont le dos, le ventre, les ailes,etla queue, sout noirs." Sonnerut, 
 torn. ii. p. 182.
 
 394- TRAVELS OP MARCO POLO. 
 
 the festivity. These young women are very numerous, and 
 form large bands. 1 Several times in the week they cany 
 an offering of victuals to the idol to whose service they are 
 devoted, and of this food they say the idol partakes. A table 
 for the purpose is placed before it, and upon this the victuals 
 are suffered to remain for the space of a full hour; during 
 which the damsels never cease to sing, and play, and exhibit 
 wanton gestures. This lasts as long as a person of condition 
 would require for making a convenient meal. They then 
 declare that the spirit of the idol is content with its share of 
 the entertainment provided, and, ranging themselves around 
 it, they proceed to eat in their turn ; after which they repair 
 to their respective homes. The reason given for assembling 
 the young women, and performing the ceremonies that have 
 been described, is this : The priests declare that the male 
 divinity is out of humour with and incensed against the 
 female, refusing to have connexion or even to converse with 
 her; and that if some measure were not adopted to restore 
 peace and harmony between them, all the concerns of the 
 monastery would go to ruin, as the grace and blessing of the 
 divinities would be withheld from them. For this purpose it 
 is, they expect the votaries to appear in a state of nudity, with 
 only a cloth round their waists, and in that state to chaunt 
 hymns to the god and goddess. These people believe that the 
 former often solaces himself with the latter. 
 
 The natives make use of a kind of bedstead, or cot, of very 
 light cane- work, so ingeniously contrived that when they 
 repose on them, and are inclined to sleep, they can draw close 
 the curtains about them by pulling a string. This they do in 
 order to exclude the tarantulas, which bite grievously, as well 
 as to prevent their being annoyed by fleas and other small 
 vermin; whilst at the same time the air, so necessary for 
 mitigating the excessive heat, is not excluded. 2 Indulgences 
 of this nature, however, are enjoyed only by persons of rank 
 
 1 This account of females attached to the service of the temples, and 
 contributing by the prostitution of their persons to the support of the 
 establishment, might be amply corroborated by numerous authorities. 
 
 2 What is here described is the musquito curtain, formed of a kind 
 of gauze, and so contrived as effectually to exclude gnats and other 
 flying insects. The tarantulas and fleas mentioned in Ramusio's (but 
 not in the Latin) text, must have been imagined by some of our author*! 
 ingenious translators.
 
 SHRIXE OF ST. THOMAS THE APOSTLE. 395 
 
 and fortune ; others of the inferior class lie in the open 
 streets. 1 
 
 In this province of Maabar 2 is the body of the glorious 
 martyr, Saint Thomas the Apostle, who there suffered mar- 
 tyrdom. It rests in a small city, not frequented by many 
 merchants, because unsuited to the purposes of their com- 
 merce ; but, from devout motives, a vast number both of 
 Christians and Saracens resort thither. 3 The latter regard 
 him as a great prophet, and name him Ananias, signifying a 
 holy personage. 4 The Christians who perform this pilgrimage 
 collect earth from the spot where he was slain, which is 
 of a red colour, and reverentially carry it away with them , 
 often employing it afterwards in the performance of miracles, 
 and giving it, when diluted with water, to the sick, by which 
 many disorders are cured. 5 In the year of our Lord 1288, a 
 
 1 In Benares and other ancient cities, where the throughfares are 
 narrow and the circulation of air confined, it is common for the in- 
 habitants, during the hot weather, to bring their beds to the outside of 
 the houses, and to sleep with their families in the public streets. 
 
 2 It appears from this passage that our author considered the kingdom 
 of Maabar as extending from the southern extremity of the peninsula, 
 along the Coromandel coast, as far as the Tamnl language prevails, 
 which is to some distance northward of Madras: a tract which the 
 Hindu geographers term DraVida-desa. The Latin versions speak here 
 of a kingdom of Var or Vaar as forming a portion of Maabar. If this 
 is a genuine distinction, it may refer to the small territory of Maravar 
 or Marawar, near the southern extremity of the peninsula. 
 
 3 The place here spoken of is the small town of San Thome", situated 
 a few miles to the southward of Madras, where, on a mount, as it is 
 termed, or elevated rock (the more remarkable from the general flatness 
 of the neighbouring country), stands an ancient Christian church. It 
 was formerly a city of some consequence, called by the natives Malia- 
 pur. or, perhaps more correctly, Mailapur. By the Arabians it is deno- 
 minated Beit-tuma or temple of Thomas. 
 
 4 Admitting the reading of this passage in Ramusio's text to be cor- 
 rect, it must be observed that the name of Ananias has not in Hebrew 
 nor Arabic the meaning here given to it; but the internal evidence is 
 strongly in favour of a very different reading presented by the Latin of 
 the Basle edition, where it is said : " Incolae regionis illius dicunt Apo- 
 stolum prophetam magnum fuisse, vocantque eum Avarijam, hoc est, 
 sanctum virum." Here the native Hindus, and not the Mahometans, 
 are stated to be those who bestowed upon St. Thomas the appellation 
 of a holy personage, and in their writings we find the word Avyar to 
 have been the appellation of a celebrated Tamul philosopher 
 
 5 This pilgrimage is noticed by all who have written on the subject 
 of the Malabar or San Thome" Christians.
 
 396 TRAVELS OF MAROO POLO. 
 
 powerful prince of the country, 1 who at the time of gathering 
 the harvest had accumulated ^as ms proportion) a very great 
 quantity of rice, and had not granaries sufficient wherein to 
 deposit it all, thought proper to make use of the religious 
 house belonging to the church of Saint Thomas for that pur- 
 pose. This being against the will of those who had the 
 guardianship of it, they beseeched him not to occupy in this 
 manner a building appropriated to the accommodation of 
 pilgrims who came to visit the body of this glorious saint. 
 He, notwithstanding, obstinately persisted. On the following- 
 night the holy apostle appeared to him in a vision, holding 
 in his hand a small lance, which he pointed at the throat cf 
 the king, saying to him : " If thou dost not immediately 
 evacuate my house which thou hast occupied, I shall put 
 thee to a miserable death." Awaking in a violent alarm, the 
 prince instantly gave orders for doing what was required of 
 him, declaring publicly that he had seen the apostle in a 
 vision. A variety of miracles are daily performed there, 
 through the interposition of the blessed saint. The Christians 
 who have the care of the church possess groves of those trees 
 which produce the Indian nuts, and from thence derive their 
 means of subsistence, paying, as a tax to one of the royal 
 brothers, a groat monthly for each tree. 2 It is related that 
 the death of this most holy apostle took place in the following 
 
 1 It is commonly understood that the eastern side of the peninsula was 
 at this period ruled by the kings of Narsinga, whose capital was Vijaya- 
 nagara, or, in the vulgar dialect, Bija-nagar; but we learn from the re- 
 searches of Dr. F. Buchanan, that the celebrated city so named was 
 not founded until the year 1335-6, and that the southern part of the 
 coast (called DraVada by Hindu geographers) was subject to princes 
 whoso seat of government was Woragulla (Warancul of the Mussulmans 
 and Warangole of our maps) the chief place in Andray or Telingaua. 
 The king who reigned from 1268 to 1322, which includes the year 
 mentioned in the text, was named Pratdpa Rudra, and it is remarkable, 
 that in 1309, or about sixteen years after our author's visit to this part 
 of India, Telingana was invaded by the arms of Ala-ed-din, the Maho- 
 metan emperor of Dehli, and the raja of Woragulla obliged to become 
 his tributary. It may be, however, that the prince here spoken of w;w 
 only a raja, who governed the country under a superior lord. 
 
 - For "groat" it i probable we should read fanarn, the common 
 currency of the place, in value about twopence halfpenny. This 
 would make the yearly tax half-a-crown. In Sumatra the produce of 
 a coco-nut tree is commonly estimated at a Spanish dollar, or about five 
 shillings.
 
 DEATH OF ST. THOMAS. 397 
 
 manner. Having retired to a hermitage, xhere he was en- 
 gaged in prayer, and being surrounded by a number of pea- 
 fowls, with which bird the country abounds, an idolater of 
 the tribe of the Gaui, before described, who happened to be 
 passing that way, and did not perceive the holy man, shot an 
 arrow at a peacock, which struck the apostle in the side. 
 Finding himself wounded, he had time only to thank the 
 Lord for all his mercies, and into His hands he resigned his 
 spirit. 1 
 
 In this province the natives, although black, are not born 
 of so deep a dye as they afterwards attain by artificial means, 
 esteeming blackness the perfection of beauty. For this pur- 
 pose, three times every day, they rub the children over with 
 oil of sesame. 2 The images of their deities they represent 
 black, but the devil they paint white, and assert that all the 
 demons are of that colour. 3 Those amongst them who pay 
 adoration to the ox. take with them, when they go to battle, 
 some of the hair of a wild bull, which they attach to the 
 manes of their horses, believing its virtue and efficacy to be 
 such, that every one who carries it about with him is secure 
 from all kind of danger. On this account the hair of the 
 wild bull sells for a high price in these countries. 
 
 1 In giving the etymology of the names of places in this part of the 
 Indian peninsula, Paolino writes : " Mailapuri o Mailaparum, citta de 
 pavonL Meliapur o St. Tome degli Europaei." Admitting this explana- 
 tion to be correct, it may be questioned whether the legend, of which 
 the peacocks are so conspicuous a feature, may not have been suggested 
 by the name of the place. The bird itself is very common in India. 
 
 2 The original inhabitants of the southern part of the peninsula are 
 in general extremely dark, and it is probable that our author was mis- 
 taken in his supposition that there was anything artificial in their degree 
 of blackness. The practice of rubbing their children with oil may 
 have been for a different purpose. It is customary indeed in most 
 parts of India, for persons of all ages to anoint their bodies frequently. 
 
 3 The Hindu idols are most commonly either of copper, or, when 
 large, of a kind of black granite ; but be the material what it may, 
 they all acquire a sooty colour from the smoke of lamps or of incense 
 burnt within the temples, as well as from the practice of smearing 
 them with oiL The notion of the devil being painted white by those 
 of the human race who are themselves black, has been very prevalent, 
 and may be justified by particular instances of asurs or demons of the 
 Hindu mythology being represented of that complexion ; but there is 
 no personage in that mythology answering to the description of Satan 
 or Eblis. In Persian romances we read of the DIv Sefed cr white 
 demon, a celebrated antagonist of Rustam.
 
 398 TRAVELS OP MARCO POLO. 
 
 CHAPTER XXL 
 
 OF THE KINGDOM OF MURPHILI OR MONSUL. 
 
 THE kingdom of Murphili is that which you enter upon 
 saving the kingdom of Maabar, after proceeding five hundred 
 miles iu a northerly direction. 1 Its inhabitants worship idols, 
 and are independent of any other state. They subsist upon 
 rice, flesh, fish, and fruits. In the mountains of this kingdom 
 it is that diamonds are found. 2 During the raiuy season the 
 water descends in violent torrents amongst the rocks and 
 caverns, and when these have subsided the people go to 
 search for diamonds in the beds of the rivers, where they find 
 many. 3 Messer Marco was told that in the summer, when 
 
 1 The kingdom here called Murphili or Monsul (perhaps for Mousul) 
 in the Basle edition Murfili, and in the B. M. and Berlin manuscripts, 
 Muthfili, (in the Paris Latin Molfuli, for Molsuli,) but omitted entirely 
 in the epitomes, is no other than Muchlupatan, or, as it is more com- 
 monly named, Masuli-patam ; the name of a principal town, by a 
 mistake not unusual, being substituted for that of the country. 
 " This," says Rennell, " is a city and port of trade, near the mouth of 
 the Kistna river; and appears to be situated within the district named 
 Mesolia by Ptolemy." (Memoir, 1793, p. 210.) It belongs to what was 
 at one period termed the kingdom of Golconda, more anciently named 
 Telingana. With respect to Maabar, our author is consistent with himself 
 ( whatever may be thought of his geographical correctness), as he had 
 already told us that it included the place where St. Thomas was buried, 
 not far from the modern city of Madras. It is evident that he con- 
 sidered it to extend as far to the northward as the Tamul language is 
 spoken, or, in other words, to the line where the Telinga commences 
 (near the Pennar river), which we shall find to be little less than five 
 hundred miles from cape Komorin. It seems, indeed, not very impro- 
 bable that the application of the name of Maabar to that part of the 
 coast of Coromandel, may have given rise to the practice amongst 
 Europeans (who confounded the two words) of denominating the 
 natives on the eastern side of the peninsula so improperly, Malabars. 
 
 2 Golconda, of which Masulipatam is the principal seaport, is cele- 
 brated for the production of diamonds. 
 
 3 Tavernier, speaking of the mines of Sumbhulpur, in another part 
 of the country, says, " Voicy de quelle maniere on cherche les diamans 
 dans cette riviere. Apres que les grandes pluyes sont passe"es, ce qui 
 est d'ordinaire au mois de D6cembre, on attend encore tout le mois de 
 Janvier que la riviere s'eclaircisse, parce qu'en ce temps-la en plusieurs 
 
 endroits elle n'a pas plus de deux pieds On commence a chercher 
 
 dans la riviere au bourg de Soumelpour, et on va to uj ours en remontant 
 jusques aux montagnes d'cu elle sort." (Voy. des Indes, liv. ii. p. 346.)
 
 THE COUNTRY OF DIAMONDS. 399 
 
 the heat is excessive and there is no rain, they asceud the 
 mountains with great fatigue, as well as with considerable 
 danger from the number of snakes with which they are 
 infested. Near the summit, it is said, there are deep valleys, 
 full of caverns and surrounded by precipices, amongst which 
 the diamonds are found; and here many eagles and white 
 storks, attracted by the snakes on which they feed, are accus- 
 tomed to make their nests. The persons who are in quest of 
 the diamonds take their stand nenr the mouths of the caverns, 
 and from thence cast down several pieces of flesh, which the 
 eagles and storks pursue into the valleys, and carry off with 
 them to the tops of the rocks. Thither the men immediately 
 ascend, drive the birds away, and recovering the pieces of 
 meat, frequently find diamonds sticking to them. Should 
 the eagles have had time to devour the flesh, they watch the 
 place of their roosting at night, and in the morning find the 
 stones amongst the dung and filth that drops from them. 1 
 
 Mr. Thomas Motte, who visited this place in 1766. learned from a 
 person on the spot, that " it was his business to search in the river, 
 after the rains, for red earth washed down from the mountains, in 
 which earth diamonds were always found." Asiat. Miscellany, vol. ii. 
 p. 58. 
 
 1 This relation of the mode of obtaining precious stones from an 
 inaccessible valley is identical with the story in one of the adventures 
 of Sinbad the sailor in the Arabian Nights. It is probable that the 
 story of the valley of diamonds was current in India and of er parts 
 of the eastern world, and its antiquity is satisfactorily proved by the 
 following extract from Epiphanius " de duodecim lapidibus rationali 
 sacerdotis infixis," a work written in the fourth century of our era : 
 " Ibi igitur in eremo magnse ScythisB peuitiori vallis est qua} hinc atque 
 inde montibus lapideis veluti muris cincta, honiinibus est invia, Ion- 
 geque profundissima : ita ut e sublimi vertice montium tanquam ex 
 moenibus despectanti non liceat vallis solum iutueri, sed ob loci pro- 
 funditatem densae adeo sunt tenebrae, ut chaos ibi quoddam esse 
 videatur. A regibus qui illuc aliquando sunt profecti, quidam rei ad 
 ilia loca damnantur, qui mactatos agnos in vallem, detracts, pelle, pro- 
 jiciunt. Adhserescunt lapilli, seque ad eas carries agglutinant. Aquilse 
 vero, quse in illorum montium vertice degunt, uidorem carnium secuta; 
 devolant, agnosque quibus lapilli adhteserunt exportant. Dum autem 
 carnibus vescuntur, lapilli in cacumine montium rernanent. At ii qui 
 ad ea loca sunt damnati, observantes ubi carnes aquila? depaverint, 
 accurrunt feruntque lapillos." In a note he adds : " Epiphanius was 
 bishop of Salamis, and died in the year 403. He is spoken of in terms 
 of great respect by many ecclesiastical writers; and St. Jerom styles 
 the little treatise from which I have quoted, ' egregium volumen, quod 
 i legere volueris plenissimam scientiain cousequeris.' "
 
 *00 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 But you must not suppose that the good diamonds come 
 among Christians, for they are carried to the grand khan, and 
 to the kings and chiefs of that country. In this country 
 the}' manufacture the finest cottons that are to be met with 
 in any part of India. 1 They have cattle enough, and the 
 largest sheep in the world, and plenty of all kinds of food. 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 OF THE PROVINCE OF LAC, LOAC, OB LAK. 
 
 LEAVING the place where rests the body of the glorious 
 apostle Saint Thomas, and proceeding westward, you enter 
 the province of Lar, from whence the Bramins, who are 
 spread over India, derive their origin. 2 These are the best 
 
 1 At all periods the coast of Coromandel has been celebrated for the 
 finest and most perfect manufacture of cotton cloths, to which the 
 name of " calico " has been given by Europeans ; and Masulipatam, in 
 particular, for chintzes. [The Paris Latin text says here : " Item, in 
 ista contracta de Molfili fit melior vochosame et magis subtile quod 
 sit in mundo, et magis carum, et videtur tela aranei."] 
 
 2 Amongst the places on the continent of India noticed by our 
 author, there is none so little capable of being identified from any 
 resemblance of orthography as that which is the subject of the present 
 chapter; nor does it appear that it was actually visited by him. Lac, 
 Loac, or Lar, as it is variously written in Ramusio's text, Lahe in the 
 early Italian epitomes, Lae in the Basle, and Lach in the older Latin, 
 is said to be a province or district lying westward from the burial-place 
 of St. Thomas, and consequently should be that part in which stands 
 the city of Arcot (Arrukati) and also the celebrated temples or pagodas 
 of Conjeveram (Kanjipuram), where there is. at the present day, a con- 
 siderable establishment of Brahnmns. (See Buchanan's Journey from 
 Madras, &c. vol. i. p. 12.) Whether any tradition or record exists of 
 this being the spot from whence the sacred tribe dispersed themselves 
 throughout the peninsula, is a point for others to determine ; but in 
 the map annexed to D'AnvilKs " Antiquite" de 1'Inde," we find the 
 word Brachme" (on the authority of Ptolemy) placed near Arcatis and 
 in the situation of Conjeveram, which is about forty miles westward, 
 inclining to the south, from St. Thome". In the text also of that 
 learned geographer we meet with the following passage : " Les Brach- 
 mani Magi, et leur ville appele"e Brachme, entre Arcate et la mer dans, 
 Ptolemue, fixent notre vue sur Canje-varam, distante a-peu-pres e"gale- 
 ment et d' environ dix lieues d' Arcate comme de la mer; et dans 
 laquelle les Brahmenes conservent uue des plus fameuses e"coles de leur 
 doctrine." P. 129.
 
 CHARACTER OF THE BRAHMAXS. 401 
 
 and most honourable merchants that can be found. 1 No con- 
 sideration whatever can induce them to speak an untruth, 
 even though their lives should depend upon it. They have 
 also an abhorrence of robbery or of purloining the goods of 
 other persons. 2 They are likewise remarkable for the virtue 
 of continence, being satisfied with the possession of one wife. 3 
 When any foreign merchant, unacquainted with the usages of 
 the country, introduces himself to one of these, and commits 
 to his hands the care of his adventure, this Bramin under- 
 takes the management of it, disposes of the goods, and ren- 
 ders a faithful account of the proceeds, attending scrupulously 
 to the interests of the stranger, and not demanding any 
 recompense for his trouble, should the owner uncourteously 
 omit to make him the gratuitous offer. 4 They eat meat, and 
 
 1 Such occupations may seem inconsistent with the sacred character 
 supposed to belong to this caste; but we have abundant authority to 
 show, not only that brahmans are not necessarily devoted to the offices 
 of the priesthood, but that many of them employ themselves in 
 worldly pursuits. 
 
 2 Many, perhaps, will not be disposed to subscribe to this favourable 
 character of the Brahmanical order, yet our author is not singular 
 in his opinion of their virtues. " On the whole," says Moor, " the 
 Brahmans are, I think, the most moral and best behaved race of mea 
 that I ever met with." (Hindu Pantheon, p. 359.) " Summarily," ob- 
 serves the liberal author of the Ayin Akbari, " the Hindoos are religious, 
 affable, courteous to strangers, cheerful, enamoured of knowledge, fond 
 of inflicting austerities upon themselves, lovers of justice, given to 
 retirement, able in business, grateful, admirers of truth, and of un- 
 bounded fidelity in all their dealings." (Vol. iii. p. 2.) " Impartiality 
 must allow," adds the same Mahometan writer, " that those among 
 them who dedicate their lives to the worship of the Deity exceed mea 
 of every other religion (he knew little of Christians) in piety and 
 .ievotion." P. 81. 
 
 3 " Questi bramini," says Barbosa, " e cosi parimente brancani 
 (baniani), tolgano moglie all' usanza nostra, et ciascuuo piglia una sola, 
 et una volta solamente." (FoL 295-2.) Amongst our modern writings on 
 the subject of the order of brahmans, or translations from the Hindu 
 ordinances, I have not been successful in discovering any direct asser- 
 tion that polygamy is forbidden to them, and that a Brahman should 
 be "the husband of one wife," although it is everywhere implied, and 
 particularly in the Institutes of Menu, -where the propriety of abstain- 
 ing from a second marriage, upon the loss of a first wife, is likewise 
 inculcated. 
 
 4 Some parts of this description seem to apply to a class of people 
 wholly engaged in commerce; and there is much reason to believe tha*. 
 in this chapter our author treated, not of Brahmans only, but also of 
 
 D D
 
 402 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 drink the wine :>f the country. They do not, however, kill 
 any animal themselves, but get it done by the Mahometans. 1 
 The Bramins are distinguished by a certain badge, consisting 
 of a thick cotton thread, which passes over the shoulder and 
 is tied under the arm, in such a manner that the thread 
 appears upon the breast and behind the back. 2 The king is 
 extremely rich and powerful, and has much delight in the 
 possession of pearls and valuable stones. 8 When the traders 
 from Maabar present to him such as are of superior beauty, 
 he trusts to their word with respect to the estimation of their 
 value, and gives them double the sum that each is declared to 
 have cost them. Under these circumstances, he has the offer 
 of many fine jewels. The people are gross idolaters, and 
 much addicted to sorcery and divination. When they are 
 about to make a purchase of goods, they immediately observe 
 the shadow cast by their own bodies in the sunshine ; and if 
 the shadow be as large as it should be, they make the pur- 
 chase, but if it is not as entire as it should be, they make no 
 purchase that day. 4 Moreover, when they are in any shop for 
 the purpose of buying anything, if they see a tarantula, of 
 which there are many there, they take notice from which side 
 it comes, and regulate their business accordingly. Again, 
 when they are going out of their houses, if they hear any one 
 sneeze, they return into the house, and stay at home. They 
 are very abstemious in regard to eating, and live to an 
 
 the class of traders called banyans, or in the Italian, baniani, which his 
 translators, mistaking them for the same word, have confounded. 
 
 1 Mr. Wilkins, in a note to his translation of the Hitopadesa, observes 
 that " although the Brahmans are by no means confined to a vegetable 
 diet, as is generally supposed, still, like the Jews and Mussulmans, 
 they are forbidden to taste of many kinds of flesh and fish." (P. 318.) 
 This, of course, must apply more extensively to the inferior castes. 
 
 1 " The zennar, or sacred string," says Craufurd, " is hung round the 
 body from the left shoulder." Sketches, vol. ii. p. 41. 
 
 3 If this was in fact a separate kingdom, it must still have been 
 dependent upon the king of Telingana, mentioned in a former note, 
 whose dominions, after being overrun by the Patan emperor of Dehli, 
 appear to have subsequently merged in those of the Hindu king of 
 Jfarsinga, as he is commonly styled, whose capital was Bijanagar or 
 Vijaya-nagara. 
 
 4 By observing their shadows, when about to conclude a largain 
 or do any other act, no more is meant than that they ascertain the 
 hour of the day, from the altitude of the sun, in order to judge 
 whether it be propitious or otherwise.
 
 THE INDIAN FAKIRS. 403 
 
 advanced age. Their teeth are preserved sound by the use of 
 a certain vegetable which they are in the habit of masticating. 
 It also promotes digestion, and conduces generally to the 
 health of the body. 1 
 
 Amongst the natives of this region there is a class pecu- 
 liarly devoted to a religious life, who are named tingui, and 
 who in honour of their divinities lead most austere lives. 2 
 They go perfectly naked, not concealing any part of their 
 bodies, and say there can be no shame in that state of nudity 
 in which they came into the world ; and with respect to what 
 are called the parts of shame, they observe that, not being 
 with them the organs of sin, they have no reason to blush at 
 their exposure. 8 They pay adoration to the ox, and carry a 
 small figure of one, of gilt brass or other metal, attached to 
 their foreheads. 4 They also burn the bones of oxen, reduce 
 them to powder, and with this make an unguent for the 
 purpose of marking various parts of the body, which they do 
 in a reverential manner. If they meet a person with whom 
 they are upon cordial terms, they smear the centre of his 
 forehead with some of these prepared ashes. 5 They do not 
 
 1 The composition called betel is here meant, consisting of the leaf 
 of the betel plant, the areca nut, and lime of calcined shells, which is 
 too generally known to require- any further description. 
 
 2 This name of tingui, which in the early Venice epitome is cuigni, 
 but does not appear in the Latin versions, is certainly intended for 
 those ascetic philosophers, or, as others would term them, religious 
 mendicants, one class of whom are called jogi or yogi, and another 
 sannyasi. They are often termed also fakirs, but improperly, as that 
 word should apply only to mendicants of the Mahometan religion. 
 
 3 From this state of absolute nudity they were by the ancients 
 denominated gymnosophists. " Calanus," as Craufurd observes, " who 
 burnt himself in the presence of Alexander, has by some been called 
 a Brahman ; but it is evident that he was one of those devotees who 
 travel about the country. He is said to have gone naked; but the 
 Brahmans never go naked, nor commit any acts of extravagance." 
 Vol. L p. 247. 
 
 4 The ox is held in veneration chiefly by the Saivas, or sect who are 
 worshippers of Siva and Bhawdni, whose vahana, monture, or vehicle 
 that animal is ; but what they most generally wear appended to their 
 necks, is not the figure of the ox, but of the linga and yoni, which, from 
 delicacy, our author, or his translators, may have been unwilling to de- 
 scribe. (Asiat. Res. vol. vii. p. 281.) " Lingam o fallo del dio Shiva," 
 says Paolino, " simbolo della virtu generativa del Sole. Alcuni lo por- 
 tauo al collo, alteri al braccio, altri dipinto sulla fronte." P. 300. 
 
 5 All the different sects of Hindus are distinguished by peculiar 
 
 D D 2
 
 404 TRAVELS OP MARCO POLO. 
 
 deprive any creature of life, not even a fly, a flea, or a louse, 
 believing them to be animated with souls ; and to feed upon 
 any animal they would consider as a heinous sin. They even 
 abstain from eating vegetables, herbs, or roots, until they 
 have become dry; holding the opinion that these also have 
 souls. They make no use of spoons nor of platters, but 
 spread their victuals upon the dried leaves of the Adam's 
 apple, called likewise apples of paradise. 1 When they have 
 occasion to ease nature, they go to the sea-beach, and having 
 dropped their burden in the sand, immediately scatter it in 
 all directions, to prevent its giving birth to vermin, whose 
 consequent death by hunger would load their consciences 
 with a grievous offence. 2 They live to a great age, some of 
 them even to a hundred and fifty years, enjoying health and 
 vigour, although they sleep upon the bare earth. This must 
 be attributed to their temperance and chastity. 3 When they 
 die, their bodies are burned, in order for the same reason that 
 they might not breed worms. 
 
 marks worn on the forehead and breast. The ashes used in the com- 
 position employed for making or painting these marks are most com- 
 monly of cow-dung, or of whatever is burnt upon the sacrificial hearth, 
 which they mix or vary with the dust of sandal-wood and other ingre- 
 dients. " As well as the forehead," says Moor, " it will have been 
 observed that Hindus paint their arms and breasts also, and sometimes 
 their throats : sandal-powder, turmeric, chuna or lime, ashes from a 
 consecrated fire, cow-dung, and other holy combustibles, made adhesive 
 by a size of rice-water, or sometimes rubbed on dry, are the ingredients 
 and usages on this occasion. Several lines of white, ashen, or yellow 
 hue, are commonly seen drawn across the arms and breasts; and I 
 understand that yogis and sannyasis, and other pious persons, frequently 
 carry about them a little packet of these holy pigments, with which 
 they mark those who show them respect, in repayment of their atten- 
 tions." Hindu Pantheon, p. 409. 
 
 1 The plantain (musa paradisiaca of Lin., formerly named pomum 
 paradisiacum) is remarkable for the size of its leaf, a part of which is 
 commonly used by the natives as a dish for holding their boiled rice. 
 
 2 The sandy shores of the great rivers are much frequented for the 
 same purpose by those who live at a distance from the sea, and in such 
 numbers, at the same hour, as to render it remarkable. 
 
 3 Strong proofs are mentioned by various writers, as well of the 
 general austerity of their lives, as of their chastity in particular, or of 
 the degree to which the sensual feelings of these yogis or sannyasis are 
 subdued. (See Thevenot, Voyages des Indes, liv. iii. chap. vi. ; Grose, 
 Voy. to the East Indies, vol. i. p. 196.) With respect to their longevity, 
 it is difficult to find any direct evidence; but it is strongly implied in 
 the Ayin Akbari, where, in describing the char askerum, or four Hindu
 
 DESCRIPTION OF ZEILAX, OR CEYLON. 40ft 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 OF THE ISLAND OF 
 
 I AM unwilling to pass over certain particulars which I 
 emitted when before speaking of the island of Zeilan, and 
 which I learned when I visited that country in my homeward 
 voyage. In this island there is a very high mountain, so 
 rocky and precipitous that the ascent to the top is im- 
 practicable, as it is said, excepting by the assistance of 
 iron chains employed for that purpose. By means of these 
 some persons attain the summit, where the tomb of Adam. 
 our first parent, is reported to be found. Such is the account 
 given by the Saracens. 1 But the idolaters assert that it con- 
 tains the body of Sogomon-barchan, the founder of their reli- 
 gious system, and whom they revere as a holy personage. 2 
 
 degrees, and the severities of ascetic discipline, generally confined to 
 the fourth or last stage, it is said : " Some perform all these austerities 
 in the first and second degrees ; some allow twenty -five years for each 
 of these states." VoL iii. pp. 222 225. [The Latin test of Marco Polo 
 adds here : " Dormiunt nudi in terra, nullum habentes vestitum in- 
 fra nee supra, et hoc eat mirabile quomodo sani evadunt, et toto anno 
 jejunant, nee comedunt aliquid aliud nee bibiint quam pan em et aquam, 
 et habent suos regulares qui custodiunt idola Et quando volunt pro- 
 bare quod isti sunt boni et honesti, mittunt pro puellis quae sunt 
 oblatae idolis, et faciunt quod illse tangunt eos hue et illuc et in pluri- 
 bus locis corporis, et stant in magno solatio cum eis ; et si membrum 
 erigitur vel mutatur, emittunt cum et dicunt quod non est honestus ; 
 sin autem, faciunt eum servire idolis suis in monasterio illo."] 
 
 1 It is not uncommon to suppose that the lofty and remarkable 
 mountain in Ceylon, known by the name of Adam's Peak, acquired 
 that appellation from the Portuguese or other European navigators; 
 but we hare indubitable evidence that however designated by the Sin- 
 galese, or their Hindu neighbours, the Mahometans, from an early 
 period, connected it with the name and legend of the prophet Adam. 
 According to Sale, " the Mahometans say, that when they were cast 
 down from Paradise, Adam fell on the island of Ceylon or Serendib, 
 and Eve near Joddah in Arabia." The Koran, p. 5. note. 
 
 2 By the holy personage here described is meant Buddha, the founder 
 of the religious system of the Singalese, who amongst a number of 
 appellations given to him, from his supposed attributes, is most com- 
 monly known by that of Saka or Sakya-muni, signifying the " astute 
 sage." To this our author has annexed" the word barchan, for burchan, 
 signifying the "deity," in the language of the Mungal Tartars: and 
 there seems little reason to doubt that by the emperor Kublal and hia
 
 406 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 He was the son of a king of the island, who devoted himself to 
 an ascetic life, refusing to accept of kingdoms or any other 
 worldly possessions, although his father endeavoured, by 
 the allurements of women, and every other imaginable grati- 
 fication, to divert him from the resolution he had adopted- 1 
 Every attempt to dissuade him was in vain, and the young 
 man fled privately to this lofty mountain, where, in the 
 observance of celibacy and strict abstinence, he at length 
 terminated his mortal career. 2 By the idolaters he is regarded 
 
 court, who, equally with the people of Ceylon, acknowledged the 
 divinity of Buddha, he was styled Saka-muni-burchan, here corrupted 
 to Sogo-mon-barchan. Of his worship in this island we have ample 
 testimony. " There is another great god," says Knox, after speaking of 
 the Creator of heaven and earth, " whom they call Buddou, unto whom 
 the salvation of souls belongs. Him they believe once to have come 
 upon the earth. . . . He departed from the earth from the top of the 
 highest mountain on the island, called Pico Adam : where there is an 
 impression like a foot, which they say is his." (Relation of Ceylon, 
 p. 72.) " It is generally believed," says Cordiner, " that there exists 
 upon the top of it (Adam's Peak) a carved stone, called an impression 
 of the foot of Buddha, in some respects similar to those in the king- 
 doms of Ava and Siam." (Description of Ceylon, vol. i p. 8.) Hence 
 it appears that what the Mahometans believe respecting Adam is, by 
 the Indians, attributed to Buddha. 
 
 1 According to some accounts, and those entitled to the most con- 
 sideration, his birthplace was Gaya in the province of Bahdr ; according 
 to others, Kashmir; but authorities (if such they can be termed) are 
 not wanting for his being a native of Ceylon. " Le pere de Sommono- 
 codom," says M. La Loubere, speaking of the object of worship in 
 Siam, who is unquestionably the Buddha or Sakya-muni of other parts 
 of the East, " e"toit, selon ce mcme livre, Bali, un roy de Teve Lanca, 
 c'est a dire un roy de la celebre Ceylan." (Du Royaume de Siam, torn. 
 i. p. 525.) "Pour ce qui concerne la personne de Xaca," says la Croze, 
 " dont 1'idole a etc 1 nomme'e Foe apres son apothdose, il est originaire 
 des Indes, et, selon le sentiment le mieux e"tabli, il est ne dans 1'ile de 
 Ceylan." Hist, du Christianisme des Indes, p. 505. 
 
 2 There is a degree of minute correctness in this account of the 
 father's endeavours to allure his son from the life of retirement to 
 which he had devoted himself, that will not a little surprise the reader, 
 when he compares it with a passage in the "Account of the Incar: 
 nation of Boodhu," translated from the Burman language by Mr. F. 
 Carey, and given to the world, at Serampore in Bengal, by Mr. W. 
 Ward, of the Baptist Mission, in his " View of the history, literature, 
 and religion of the Hindoos." " The king, reflecting, &c., said, ' O 
 Son ! I will bestow upon thee the elephant-drivers, the charioteers, the 
 horsemen, and arrayed footmen, with delightful horses : I will also give 
 thee the maidens adorned with all sorts of ornaments; raise up pro- 
 geny by them, and thou shalt become our sovereign. Virgins well
 
 LEGDHD OF SOGOMOK-BARCHAX. 407 
 
 as a saint. The father, distracted with the most poignant 
 grief, caused an image to be formed of gold and precious 
 stones, bearing the resemblance of his son, and required that 
 all the inhabitants of the island should honour and worship it 
 as a deity. Such was the origin of the worship of idols in 
 that country; but Sogomon-barchan is still regarded as supe- 
 rior to every other. In consequence of this belief, people 
 flock from various distant parts in pilgrimage to the moun- 
 tain on which he was buried. Some of his hair, his teeth, 
 and the basin he made use of, are still preserved, and shown 
 with much ceremony. The Saracens, on the other hand, 
 maintain that these belonged to the prophet Adam, and are 
 in like manner led by devotion to visit the mountain. 1 
 
 It happened that, in the year 1281, the grand khan heard 
 from certain Saracens who had been upon the spot, the fame 
 of these relics belonging to our first parent, and felt so strong 
 a desire to possess them, that he was induced to send an 
 embassy to demand them of the king of Zeilan. After a long 
 and tedious journey, his ambassadors at length reached the 
 
 versed in dancing and singing, and perfected in the four accomplish- 
 ments, shall delight thee with their attractions. What dost thou in 
 this wilderness?'" "To show his disregard of the kingdom, M-lka- 
 stitwu (Maha-satwa, the great saint) replied, 'O Sire! why temptest 
 thou me with perishing wealth, dying (mortal) beauty, and youthful 
 bloom ? king! what is love, the pleasant look, present delight, 
 anxiety in pursuit of wealth, sons, and daughters, and wives, to me 
 who am released from the bonds of iniquity? I know that death will 
 not forget me; therefore of what use are pleasures and riches? . . . Re- 
 turn, return, king ! I have no desire for tie kingdom.' " (Pp. 407 
 409.) "In the manner and precisely at the time predicted by the 
 astrologers," says the Ayin Akbari, " it came to pass that he turned 
 his mind from the affairs of the world, and made choice of a life of 
 retirement*" " He died at the age of one hundred and twenty yeans." 
 VoL iii. p. 157. 
 
 1 These pilgrimages have been noticed by many travellers. Mr. 
 Duncan, in his historical remarks on the coast of Malabar, speaking of 
 the conversion of a king of that country (during the lifetime of Ma- 
 homet) says, on the authority of a native historian, "that it was 
 effected by a company of dervises from Arabia, who touched at Crun- 
 gloor or Cranganore (then the seat of government in Malabar) on their 
 voyage to visit the Footstep of Adam, on that mountain in Ceylon 
 which mariners distinguish by the name of Adam's Peak." In Jt note 
 he adds : " This Footstep of Adam is,, un ler the name of Sreepud or 
 the 'holy foot,' equally reverenced and resorted to by the Hindus." 
 Asiatic Res. voL v. p. 9.
 
 408 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 place of their destination, and obtained from the king two 
 large back-teeth, together with some of the hair, and a hand- 
 some vessel of porphyry. 1 When the grand khan received 
 intelligence of the approach of the messengers, on their 
 return with such valuable curiosities, he ordered all the 
 people of Kanbalu to march out of the city to meet them, 
 and they were conducted to his presence with great pomp 
 and solemnity. 2 Having mentioned these particulars respect- 
 ing the mountain of Zeilan, we shall return to the kingdom 
 of Maabar, and speak of the city of Kael. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 OF THE CITY OF KAEL. 
 
 KAEL is a considerable city, 3 governed by Astiar, one of 
 the four brothers, kings of the country of Maabar, who is 
 rich in gold and jewels, and preserves his country in a state 
 
 1 It is not stated that this extraordinary embassy proceeded to India 
 by sea. Its route must therefore have been either through the pro- 
 vince of Yun-nan to Bengal, or by the way of Tibet, to Hindustan and 
 J .he peninsula. So extensive at that time were the dominions of the 
 Moghul Tartar family, that even in the ordinary transaction of political 
 business, their people were accustomed to the performance of journeys 
 of great distance and duration. In regard to its object it is not without 
 its parallel in the histories of other countries. 
 
 2 This ceremonious introduction of a relic to the palace of the em- 
 peror, is likewise not a new circumstance in the Chinese annals. 
 " L'annde quatorzieme de son regne (says Du Halde, speaking of the 
 seventeenth prince of the dynasty of the Tang,) il fit porter avec pompe 
 dans son palais, un os de 1'idole Foe." Tom. i. p. 456. 
 
 3 In the Tamul language the word Kael or Koil signifies a temple, 
 and forms the terminating syllable in the names of several places in 
 the southern part of the peninsula. It was also, pre-eminently, the 
 name of a considerable town and port of trade, in what we now term 
 the Tinevelly country, not many miles from Tutacorin. Its situation 
 may be seen in the map prefixed to Valentyn's Beschryving van Choro- 
 maudel (vol. v.), where its ancient consequence is denoted by the addi- 
 tion of the word patnam ; but having disappeared in modern maps, we 
 may conclude that . Kael-patnam no longer exists, even as a town ; yet 
 in Dalrymple's collection of PJans of Ports we find one (from Van 
 Keulen) which lays down the situation not only of Cayl-patnam, but 
 also of Porto Cayl, and of a place termed old Cayl.
 
 MANORS OF THE PEOPLE OF KAEL. 409 
 
 of profound peace. 1 On this account it is a favourite place 
 of resort for foreign merchants, who are well received and 
 treated by the king. Accordingly all the ships coming from 
 the west as from Ormus, Chisti, Adem, and various parts of 
 Arabia laden with merchandise and horses, make this port, 
 which is besides well situated for commerce. The prince 
 maintains in the most splendid manner not fewer than three 
 hundred women. 
 
 All the people of this city, as well as the natives of India 
 in general, are addicted to the custom of having continually 
 in their mouths the leaf called tembul; which they do, partly 
 from habit, and partly from the gratification it affords. 2 Upon 
 chewing it, they spit out the saliva to which it gives occasion. 
 Persons of rank have the leaf prepared with camphor and 
 other aromatic drugs, and also with a mixture of quick lime. 3 
 I have been told that it is extremely conducive to health. 
 If it is an object with any man to affront another in the 
 grossest and most contemptuous manner, he spits the juice of 
 this masticated leaf hi his face. Thus insulted, the injured 
 party hastens to the presence of the king, states the circum- 
 stances of his grievance, and declares his willingness to de- 
 cide the quarrel by combat. The king thereupon furnishes 
 them with arms, consisting of a sword and small shield; and 
 
 1 It would seem that the king of Narsinga or Telingana placed the 
 southern provinces of his extensive dominions under the immediate 
 rule of his several brothers, who exercised the full authority of kings 
 within their respective territories. The name of Astiar is probably 
 a corruption, but the imperfect remains of Hindu annals that have 
 come to our knowledge, afford little chance of ascertaining the genuine 
 orthography. It will appear that, at a subsequent period, this part of 
 the country was wrested from the kings of Narsinga by those of Koulam 
 or Kolam, on the Malabar coast. 
 
 2 We here find the leaf of the betel called by its true Persian name, 
 tembul. 
 
 3 Besides the ordinary ingredients, it is not unusual to mix in the 
 composition cardamoms, gutta gambir, and other articles of a pungent 
 and aromatic flavour ; but I am not aware, nor is it probable from the 
 qualities of the drug, that caaiphor is ever employed in this manner. 
 It may therefore be suspected that there has been a substitution of the 
 name of one article of the composition for another, and it is to be ob- 
 served that in the Malayan language (which was more familiar to the 
 traders of the coast of Coromandel, in early times, than it is at present) 
 the word kaptir (the kafur of the Arabs) is applied not only to cam- 
 phor, but also to lime (calx viva), which is an essential ingredient in 
 the preparation of betel.
 
 410 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 all the people assemble to be spectators of the conflict, which 
 lasts till one of them remains dead on the field. They are, 
 however, forbidden to wound with the point of the sword. 1 
 
 CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 OF THE KINGDOM OF KOULAM. 
 
 UPON leaving Maabar and proceeding five hundred miles 
 towards the south-west, you arrive at the kingdom of Kou- 
 lam. 2 It is the residence of many Christians and Jews, who 
 retain their proper language. The king is not tributary to 
 any other. Much good sappan-wood grows there, 3 and pep- 
 per in great abundance, being found both in the woody and 
 the open parts of the country. It is gathered in the months 
 of May, June, and July; and the vines which produce it are 
 cultivated in plantations. 4 Indigo also, of excellent quality 
 and in large quantities, is made here. They procure it from 
 an herbaceous plant, which is taken up by the roots and put 
 into tubs of water, where it is suffered to remain till it rots; 
 when they press out the juice. This, upon being exposed to 
 the sun, and evaporated, leaves a kind of paste, which is cut 
 
 1 The circumstances of this juridical practice of duelling are par- 
 ticularly detailed by Barbosa, in speaking of Batacala, a place on the 
 opposite coast of Malabar, near Onore. 
 
 2 Koulam or Kolam, the Coulan of our maps, was a place of much 
 celebrity when India was first visited by the Portuguese, who received 
 assistance from its princes against the king of Calicut, or the Samorin, 
 as he was styled. In modern times its importance, as a place of trade, 
 seems to be lost in that of Anjengo, in its neighbourhood. The name 
 signifies a tank, pool, or basin, in the Tamul language. The distance 
 from Kael, however, is more nearly two hundred than five hundred 
 miles. 
 
 3 " Narravit mihi aliquis qui eo suscepit iter. . . . ibi esse arboreru 
 ol Bakkami (seu Brasillam) cujus lignum simile sit ligno granati mali." 
 (Abilfedse Geographia, p. 274.) Sandal-wood is more frequently men- 
 tioned as the produce of the mountains in the interior of the country. 
 
 4 " Nasce in questo luogo," says Barbosa, speaking of Koulam, 
 " molto pepe, del quale se ne caricano molte navi." (Fol. 312 2.) It 
 would be superfluous to multiply authorities for the purpose of show- 
 ing that pepper is cultivated in the Travancore country, within which 
 Koulam is situated. Our author is mistaken, however, in regard to the 
 Reasons, as on the Malabar coast the pepper-vine flowers about the 
 month of June, and the berries ripen in December.
 
 THE KINGDOM OF KOULAM. 411 
 
 int; small pieces of the form in which we see it brought 
 
 to us. 1 
 
 The heat during some months is so violent as to be scarcely 
 supportable ; yet the merchants resort thither from various 
 parts of the world, such, for instance, as the kingdom of 
 Manji and Arabia, 2 attracted by the great profits they obtain 
 both upon the merchandise they import, and upon their re- 
 turning cargoes. Many of the animals found here are 
 diffei'eut from those of other parts. There are tigers entirely 
 black ; 3 and various, birds of the parrot kind, some of them 
 as white as snow, with the feet and the beak red ; others whose 
 colours are a mixture of red and azure, and others of a dimi- 
 nutive size. The peacocks also are handsomer and larger 
 than ours, as well as of a different form, and even the do- 
 mestic fowls have a peculiar appearance. 4 The same obser- 
 vation will apply to the fruits. The cause of such diversity, 
 it is said, is the intense heat that prevails in these regions 
 Wine is made from the sugar yielded by a species of palm. 
 
 1 A tolerably correct account is here given of the rude progress of 
 manufacturing indigo. The plant itself grows, and is made use of as 
 a dye-stuff in almost every part of India. The word is endigo in Ra- 
 musio and the epitomes, and eudici (for endici) in the Basle edition. 
 
 2 There are strong grounds for believing that in early times the 
 Chinese did (reciprocally with the Arabians) trade, not only to the 
 peninsula of India, but also to the Persian gulf. This was the delibe- 
 rate opinion of Dr. Robertson, who had studied the subject : see 
 Historical Disquisitions, &c. p. 95. The Arabian travellers of the 
 ninth century leave it in some measure doubtful whether the ships 
 employed in the trade between Siraf and Canton might not have been 
 wholly Arabian, although called in Renaudot's translation, " vaisseaux 
 Chinois," as we term those employed in the same trade, China ships: 
 but the authority of Edrisi, who wrote in the twelfth century, is direct 
 to the point. " Ex ipsa," he says of a port in Yemen, " solvuntur 
 navigia Sinds3, Indise, et Sinarum, et ad ipsam deferuntur vasa Sinica." 
 (Geographia, p. 25.) Of the fact we have a corroboration on the part of 
 the Chinese themselves, as related by De Guignes. 
 
 3 It has already been noticed that our author on all occasions applies 
 the name of lion to the tiger or the leopard; and of such, although the 
 word is leoni in the text, he means to speak on this occasion. Of the 
 existence of black tigers or leopards, there is no doubt. 
 
 * The birds here described may perhaps be intended for the kokatua, 
 lury, and paroquet; although the former are not natives of the place at 
 which he saw them. Peacocks have been already mentioned as a com- 
 mon bird in India. Of domestic fowls there are some species of a 
 much larger size than those bred in Europe. See Hist, of Sumatra, 
 3d edit. p. 125.
 
 412 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 It is extremely good, and inebriates faster than the -wine made 
 from grapes. 1 The inhabitants possess abundance of every- 
 thing necessary for the food of man excepting grain, of which 
 there is no other kind than rice ; but of this the quantity is 
 very great. Among them are many astrologers and phy- 
 sicians, well versed in their art. All the people, both male 
 and female, are black, and, with the exception of a small piece 
 of cloth attached to the front of their bodies, they go quite 
 naked. 2 Their manners are extremely sensual, and they take 
 as wives their relations by blood, their mothers-in-law, upon 
 the death of their fathers, and the widows of their deceased 
 brothers. 3 But this, as I have been informed, is the state of 
 morals in every part of India. 
 
 1 What our author terms wine in this place is properly an ardent 
 spirit, distilled from the coarse, imperfectly granulated sugar, called 
 jaggri or jagory, which is itself an inspissation of the juice (tari or 
 toddy) drawn from the borassus flabelliformis, vulgarly called the brab 
 palm in the peninsula of India. 
 
 2 " II popolo minuto," says Lodovico Barthema, speaking of the 
 subjects of the king of Narsinga, " vaiino tutti nudi, salvo che intorno 
 le parti inhoneste portano un panno." (Fol. 159-2.) " These higher 
 ranks of people in Malayala (Malabar) use very little clothing, but 
 they are remarkably clean in their persons." Buchanan, vol. ii. p. 353. 
 
 3 However sensual the manners in general of these people may be, 
 I find no direct proof of incestuous marriages amongst them; but it is 
 probable that some confusion and mistake on this subject may have arisen 
 from certain extraordinary customs peculiar to them, and especially to 
 the class of Nairs, who follow, for the most part, the profession of arms. 
 According to these, it is the nephew by the eldest sister, and not the 
 son, who succeeds to the property of the father, or, in the royal family, 
 to the crown : a practice connected with another of a licentious charac- 
 ter, that will be best explained in the words of Dr. F. Buchanan: 
 " Having assembled the most respectable of the Nairs in this neigh- 
 bourhood," says this intelligent observer, "they gave rne the following 
 account of their customs. The Nair, or in the plural the Naimar, are 
 the pure Stidras of Malayala, and all pretend to be born soldiers ; but 
 they are of various ranks and professions." " The Nairs marry before 
 they are ten years of age. . . . ; but the husband never afterwards 
 cohabits with his wife. Such a circumstance indeed would be con- 
 sidered as very indecent. He allows her oil, clothing, ornaments, and 
 food; but she lives in her mother's house, or, after her parents' death, 
 with her brothers, and cohabits with any person that she chooses of an 
 equal or higher rank than her own. If detected in bestowing her 
 favours on any low man, she becomes an outcast. It is no kind of 
 reflection on a woman's character to say that she has formed the closest 
 intimacy with many persons ; on the contrary, the Nair women are 
 jroud of reckoning among their favoured loveis many Brdhmans, Raja's.
 
 THE PROVINCE OF KOMABL 413 
 
 i 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI. 
 
 OP KOilARL 
 
 1 is a province where a part of our northern 
 constellation, invisible at Java, and to within about thirty 
 miles of this place, may be just seen, and where it appears to 
 be the height of a cubit above the horizon. 2 The country is 
 
 and other persons of high birth." " In consequence of this strang 
 manner of propagating the species, no Nair knows his father; and 
 every man looks upon nis sisters' children as his heirs. He, indeed, 
 looks upon them with the same fondness that fathers in other parts of 
 the world have for their own children." "A man's mother manages 
 his family ; and after her death his eldest sister assumes the direction. 
 Brothers almost always live under the same roof; but, if one of the 
 family separates from the rest, he is always accompanied by his 
 favourite sister." Journey from Madras, &c. vol. ii. pp. 403 412. In 
 such a domestic arrangement it is not surprising th.it a traveller, who 
 had not the means of close investigation, should suspect an incestuous 
 intercourse. 
 
 1 Komari, or, as it appears in the Latin version, Comari, is the cor- 
 rect name of the extreme southern promontory of India, mentioned by 
 Ptolemy as the Kouapia dKpov,pr'jm(/ntarium Kamarice, and called by mo- 
 dern Europeans Cape Comorin. In the course of our author's route from 
 the eastern to the western coast of the peninsula, this place ought to 
 have been noticed before the city of Koulam, an inaccuracy that may 
 have arisen from the transposition of detached materials. 
 
 2 In some parts of the work la tramontana, or noxtra tramontana. 
 appears to denote, as it properly should, the north polar star, but in 
 others, the constellation of the Great Bear. Being here described as 
 partly visible, the latter must of course be understood, and our author's 
 unscientific remark can be explained only on the supposition that Una 
 Major was below the horizon, at night, during most part of the time 
 employed in hia navigation of these seas ; which is the case in low lati- 
 tudes, for about six months of the year. This solution may be equally 
 applied to a passage in Pliny (lib. vi. cap. 24,) where it is said that a 
 navigator who had been driven into the Indian ocean, and landed at 
 Hippuri in the island of Taprobane, reported, on his return to Rome, 
 that the septemtrio or Great Bear was not visible on the island. But 
 if, on the other hand, his observation was meant to apply to the polar 
 star itself, the expression might be taken in this sense : that although 
 invisible from Java Minor, yet wh/>n within a few miles of Cape Comorin 
 (in latitude 8), it was occasionally distinguishable at a small height 
 above the horizon; where a star of the third magnitude is not readily 
 seen, unless the atmosphere in that part be more clear than it is in 
 common. The mode of estiiu<iting its altitude by cubits or fathomS, in- 
 stead of degrees, however rude, appears, from the travels of Cada Mosto 
 in the fifteenth century, to ha-v e been then still in use.
 
 414 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 not much cultivated, being chiefly covered with forests, which 
 are the abode of a variety of beasts, especially apes, so 
 fonned, and of such a size, as to have the appearance of men. 1 
 There are also long-tailed monkies, very different from the 
 former in respect to magnitude. Tigers, leopards, and lynxes, 
 abound. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVII. 
 
 OP THE KINGDOM OF DELY. 
 
 LEAVING the province of Komari, and proceeding westward 
 three hundred miles, you reach the kingdom of Dely, which 
 has its proper king and peculiar language. 2 It does not pay 
 tribute to any other state. The people worship idols. There 
 is no harbour for shipping, but a large river with a safe en- 
 trance. 3 The strength of the country does not consist in the 
 
 1 The worship of Hanuman, a rational aud very amusing ape, of the 
 Hindu mythology who, with an army of his own species, assisted Rama 
 in the conquest of Ceylon, after having rescued his wife from Site the power 
 of Havana, its tyrant, by whom she had been carried off has produced 
 a feeling of veneration for the whole race, but particularly for those of 
 the larger class, whose form approaches nearest to the human. The 
 consequence of this superstition is, that the breed, being unmolested, 
 multiply exceedingly, to the great annoyance of the inhabitants of vil- 
 lages. It has been conjectured, with much plausibility, that the 
 monkeys of Rama's army were in fact the half-savage mountaineers of 
 the country near Cape Comorin. 
 
 2 The Dely of Ramusio's text, which in the Basle edition is Eli, in 
 the older Latin Hely, and in the early Venice epitome Elli, is the 
 Mount Dilla of the English, and Belli of the Dutch maps, in the 
 latitude of about 12 N., where, according to Paolino, who names ic 
 Monte D'llli, the country of Malabar or Malayala terminates, and that 
 of Kanara commences. Buchanan, however, extends the boundary of 
 the former to the Chandra-giri river, about half a decree further north 
 than Mount Dilla, which he describes as " a hill separated from the 
 continent by salt water creeks, and forming on the coast a remarkable 
 promontory, the native name of which," he observes, " is extremely 
 harsh, and can hardly be pronounced by an European, or expressed 
 in our characters. It is somewhat like Yesay Malay." Vol. ii. p. 559. 
 
 3 The river here noticed is one that discharges itself immediately to 
 the southward of Mount Dilla, not far from Cananore, after running 
 through the country of the Cherical or Colastry rajas, whose kingdom 
 flourished at the period of which our author speaks. " It derives its 
 name," says Buchanan, "from a town called Valya-pattanam." "At
 
 THE KINGDOM OF DELY. 415 
 
 multitude of its inhabitants, nor in their bravery, but in the 
 difficulty of the passes by which it must be approached, and 
 which render its invasion by an enemy nearly impossible. 1 
 It produces large quantities of pepper and ginger, with many 
 other articles of spicery. 2 Should a vessel be accidentally 
 driven within the mouth of its river, not having intended to 
 make that port, they seize and confiscate all the goods she 
 may have on board, saying : " It was your intention to have 
 gone elsewhere, but our gods have conducted you to us, in 
 order that we may possess your property." The ships from 
 Manji arrive here before the expiration of the fine- weather 
 season, and endeavour to get their cargoes shipped in the 
 course of a week, or a shorter time if possible ; the roadstead 
 being unsafe, in consequence of sand-banks along the coast, 
 which often prove dangerous, however well provided they 
 may be with large wooden anchors, calculated for riding out 
 hard gales of wind. 8 The country is infested with tigers, and 
 many other ferocious animals. 
 
 the mouth it is very wide, and immediately within the bar divides 
 into two branches, both navigable in boats to a considerable distance." 
 P. 555. 
 
 1 The opinion of our author is confirmed by Paolino, who says : 
 " Questo paese . . . e quasi inespugnabile, essendo coperto da alte 
 montagne, e tutto tagliato da' fiumi, che impediscono la cavalleria, il 
 passo delle truppe, il tragitto veloce d'un esercito, e la permanenza 
 sicura d'un inimico che non e pratico del paese. Questo fc il vero 
 motive per cui giammai fu conquistato." (P. 71.) " The rajas of 
 Malabar," observes Buchanan, " do not seem to have ever trusted to 
 fortifications for the defence of their country." P. 462. 
 
 2 After a circumstantial account of the mode of cultivating pepper 
 in these districts. Dr. Buchanan proceeds to say : " In the gardens of 
 this neighbourhood much ginger and turmeric are cultivated." " The 
 ginger intended for sale is scraped with a knife to remove the outer 
 skin ; and having been sprinkled with the ashes of cow-dung, is spread 
 out on mats, and dried eight or ten days ; when it is fit for sale." (P. 
 469.) Cardamoms are also an article of produce. 
 
 3 The circumstances of the anchorage here described are the same at 
 Tellicherry, Mahe", and Anjengo, from whence the pepper for Europe is 
 put on board the East India Company's ships, in the open road, where 
 they not unfrequently part their cables.
 
 416 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVIII. 
 
 OF MALABAR. 
 
 MALABAR is an extensive kingdom of the Greater India, 
 situated towards the west; concerning which I must not omit 
 to relate some particulars. 1 The people are governed by their 
 own king, who is independent of every other state, and they 
 have their proper language. In this country the north- 
 star is seen about two fathoms above the horizon. As well 
 here as in the kingdom of Guzzerat, which is not far distant, 
 there are numerous pirates, who yearly scour these seas with 
 more than one hundred small vessels, seizing and plundering 
 all the merchant ships that pass that way. 2 They take with 
 them to sea their wives and children of all ages, who con- 
 tinue to accompany them during the whole of the summer's 
 cruise. In order that no ships may escape them, they 
 anchor their vessels at the distance of five miles from each 
 other; twenty ships thereby occupying a space of a hundred 
 miles. Upon a trader's appearing in sight of one of them, a 
 
 1 The name of Malabar (in the other versions Melibar,) though com- 
 monly applied to the whole western coast of the peninsula, properly 
 belongs only to that part of it which lies to the southward of Mount 
 Delia, called by the natives Malayala and Malayalam. Our author is 
 guilty, therefore, of inaccuracy, in giving the name, on the contrary, to 
 the portion of the coast that extends northward from that promontory, 
 which is in fact what we term the province of Canara and the Concan, 
 instead of the tract extending northward from Cape Comorin, esti- 
 mated by him, correctly, at about three hundred miles. 
 
 2 " This multitude of small ports, uninterrupted view along shore, 
 and elevated coast, favourable to distant vision, have fitted this coast," 
 says Rennell, "for the seat of piracy; and the alternate land and sea- 
 breezes that prevail during a great part of the year oblige vessels to 
 navigate very near the shore. No wonder then, that Pliny should 
 notice the depredations committed on the Roman East India trade in 
 his time; and although a temporary check has been given to them by the 
 destruction of Angria's fleets, &c., yet we may expect the practice will 
 be continued while commerce lasts. The pirates are protected by the 
 ehallowness of their ports, and the strength of the country within." 
 (Memoir, ed. 1793, p. 30.) "It appears from the earliest antiquity," 
 says Grose, "that the inhabitants had the strongest propensity to 
 piracy; and at this day all the different principalities on the coast em- 
 ploy vessels to cruise upon those of all other nations which they can 
 overpower." VoL ii. p. 211.
 
 THE KINGDOM OF MALABAK. 417 
 
 signal is made by fire or by smoke; when they all draw 
 closer together, and capture the vessel as she attempts to 
 pass. No injury is done to the persons of the crew; but as 
 soon as they have made prize of the ship, they turn them 
 on shore, recommending to them to provide themselves with 
 another cargo, which, in case of their passing that way again, 
 may be the means of enriching their captors a second time. 
 
 In this kingdom there is vast abundance of pepper, ginger, 
 cubebs, and Indian nuts; and the finest and most beautiful 
 cottons are manufactured that can be found in any part of 
 the world. 1 The ships from Manji bring copper as ballast; 
 and besides this, gold brocades, silks, gauzes, gold and silver 
 bullion, together with many kinds of drugs not produced in 
 Malabar; and these they barter for the commodities of the 
 province. 2 There are merchants on the spot who ship the 
 former for Aden, from whence they are transported to 
 Alexandria. 3 
 
 Having now spoken of the kingdom of Malabar, we shall 
 proceed to describe that of Guzzerat, which borders on it. 
 Should we attempt to treat of all the cities of India, the 
 account would be prolix, and prove tiresome. We shall, 
 therefore, touch only upon those respecting which we have 
 particular information. 
 
 1 In speaking of Rajapore, a place near Gheriah, aud consequently 
 on what is termed the pirate-coast, Hamilton observes that the country 
 thereabouts produced the finest muslins and betillas in India. P. 243. 
 
 2 This was probably Japan copper, which has always been in high 
 request. The other articles enumerated are well known to be the pro- 
 duce of the respective countries. 
 
 3 It appears from a passage in Barbosa's travels that in his time these 
 merchants were partly at least, if not chiefly, Parsis, as we have been 
 accustomed to call those natives of Persia and their descendants, who, 
 on account of their adherence to the religion of their ancestors which 
 was that of Zerdusht or Zoroaster, and termed fire-worship were 
 driven from their own country by the Mahometans. He, however, 
 ignorantly calls them Moors, and. seems to confound them with Arabian 
 and other traders whose commercial operations he describes.
 
 418 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIX. 
 
 OP THE KINGDOM OP GUZZERAT. 
 
 THE kingdom of Guzzerat, which is bounded on the western 
 side by the Indian Sea, is governed by its own king, and has 
 its peculiar language. 1 The north-star appears from hence to 
 have six fathoms of altitude. This country affords harbour 
 to pirates of the most desperate character, 2 who, when in 
 their cruises they seize upon a travelling merchant, imme- 
 diately oblige him to drink a dose of sea-water, which by its 
 operation on his bowels discovers whether he may not have 
 swallowed pearls or jewels, upon the approach of an enemy, 
 in order to conceal them. 
 
 Here there is great abundance of ginger, pepper, and 
 indigo. Cotton is produced in large quantities from a tree 
 that is about six yards in height, and bears during twenty 
 years; but the cotton taken from trees of that age is not 
 adapted for spinning, but only for quilting. Such, on the 
 contrary, as is taken from trees of twelve years old, is suitable 
 for muslins and other manufactures of extraordinary fineness. 3 
 
 1 The name of Guzzerat, as it appears in Ramusio'a text, as well as 
 in our modern maps, has suffered less by transcription than most 
 others, being Gozurath in the Basle, and also the older Latin editions, 
 Guzurach in the B. M. and Berlin manuscripts, and Gesurach in the 
 early epitomes. In the Persian and Arabic writings it is Gujrat, or 
 Gujurat. It seems doubtful whether what is now termed the peninsula 
 of Guzerat was anciently an integral part of the kingdom so named, of 
 which Nehrwaleh or Puttan was the capital. 
 
 2 The territory of Guzerat having fallen under the dominion of the 
 Moghul emperors of Dehli, who adopted active measures for restraining 
 the inhabitants of that part of the coast from their piratical habits, the 
 navigators of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuiies do not speak of 
 depredations further to the north than Tanah, on the island of 
 Salsette. 
 
 3 According to the words of the text, our author may be thought to 
 have mistaken the bombax, or silk-cotton-tree, which grows commonly 
 to the height of from fifteen to twenty feet, for the gossypium arboreum, 
 a shrub, or the gossypium herbaceum, an annual plant ; but with these 
 latter, being the produce of the Levant, and probably cultivated in 
 some parts of Italy, both he and his countrymen must have been well 
 acquainted, and his object could only have been to describe a species of 
 cotton-bearing tree that was new to them. Such was probably the case 
 with respect to the b^i^x. He proceeds, however, to inform them
 
 THE KINGDOM OF GUZZERAT. 419 
 
 Great numbers of skins of goats, buffaloes, wild oxen, rhino- 
 ceroses, and other beasts are dressed here; and vessels are 
 loaded with them, and bound to different parts of Arabia. Co- 
 verlets for beds are made of red and blue leather, extremely 
 delicate and soft, and stitched with gold and silver thread; 1 
 upon these the Mahometans are accustomed to repose. 
 Cushions also, ornamented with gold wire in the form of 
 birds and beasts, are the manufacture of this place; and in 
 some instances their value is so high as six marks of silver. 
 Embroidery is here performed with more delicacy than in 
 any other part of the world. 2 Proceeding further, we shall 
 now speak of the kingdom named Kanan. 
 
 CHAPTER XXX. 
 
 OF THE KINGDOM OF KAXAN. 
 
 K.AXA2T is a large and noble kingdom, situated towards the 
 west. 3 We say towards the west, because Messer Marco's 
 
 that its cotton is not adapted to the purposes of the loom, and is only 
 used for quilting, or, he might have added, for stuffing pillows. When, 
 in the sequel, he is made to say, that if taken from the tree at the age 
 of only twelve years, it was fit to be employed in the manufacture of 
 fine muslins, which is contrary to the fact, there is the strongest reason 
 to believe that his sense has been perverted. No expression to that 
 purport is found in any other version of the work ; and it is evident 
 that he here means to speak of the common annual or shrub cotton, as 
 contrasted with the beautiful but almost useless sort he had just been 
 describing. 
 
 1 This may be thought an extraordinary traffic for an Indian port, 
 but Linschoten (whose voyages commenced in the year 15S3), speaking 
 of the country between Guzerat and the Indus, notices the manufac- 
 ture of leathern articles in the following terms : " Ex corio item perite 
 quzedam facta, floribusque ex bysso (silk, in the Dutch copy) variis 
 coloribus ornata. Hisque utuntur in tapetorum vicem, et lectis mens- 
 isque imponunt." (Navig. ac Itiner. cap. vii p. 12.) Xo mention is 
 made of the preparation of the skins ; but Dr. F. Buchanan, in the 
 course of his journey through the central parts of the peninsula, de- 
 scribes minutely the process used by the natives in dressing, tanning, 
 and dyeing, not only the skins of goats and sheep, but also the hides of 
 oxen and buffaloes. Vol. i. p. 227. 
 
 2 " Eadem arte," Linschoten adds, " stragula faciunt serico filo exor- 
 nata, et acu picta . . . lectica Indica, mulierum sellas, aliaque minuta." 
 Cap. ix. p. 13. 
 
 3 A more than ordinary want of conformity appears in the mode? of 
 
 E E 2
 
 420 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 journey being from the eastern side, he speaks of the coun- 
 tries in the direction in which he found them. It is governed 
 by a prince, who does not pay tribute to any other. The 
 people are idolaters, and have a peculiar language. Neither 
 pepper nor ginger grows here, but the country produces a 
 sort of incense, in large quantities, which is not white, but on 
 the contrary of a dark colour. Many ships frequent the place 
 in order to load this drug, as well as a variety of other arti- 
 cles. 1 They likewise take on board a number of horses, to be 
 carried for sale to different parts of India. 2 
 
 CHAPTER XXXI. 
 
 OF THE KINGDOM OP KAMBAIA. 
 
 THIS also is an extensive kingdom, situated towards the 
 west, governed by its own king, who pays no tribute to any 
 
 writing the name of this place, which in Ramusio's test is Canam or 
 Kanan, in the Basle edition Tana, in the older Latin Thana, Chane, 
 and Ghana, in the B. M. and Berlin manuscripts, Caria, and in the early 
 epitomes Toma. [It may be observed that t and c are constantly inter- 
 changed in Medieval manuscripts.] It is probable that among these, 
 Tana is the true reading, and such it is considered by D'Anville, who, 
 after noticing that a place of that name appears in the Tables of Nasr- 
 eddin and Ulugh-beg, observes that " Marc-Pol en parle comme d'un 
 royaume, qu'il joint a ceux de Cambaeth et de Semenat." (P. 101.) It 
 may be doubted whether the place which is the subject of this note, 
 called Tana in the Basle edition, and Toma in the epitomes, was not 
 meant for Tatta, a celebrated commercial city at the haad of the delta 
 of the Indus, rather than for Tanah of Salsette, so much to the south 
 >f G-uzerat. 
 
 1 Pepper is not produced so far to the northward as Bombay, nor is 
 there any considerable cultivation of it beyond the province of Kanara. 
 The incense here spoken of is evidently gum benzoin ; which indeed is 
 not the growth of any part of the continent of India, but would be seen 
 in large quantities in the warehouses of the merchants, by whom it is 
 imported from Sumatra, in order to supply the markets of Arabia, 
 Persia, Syria, and Asia Minor. It is generally of a dark brown colour, 
 
 he finest sort only being mixed with veins of white. 
 
 2 Horses w?re carried from the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, and places in 
 their vicinity, to the northern ports of India, from whence their breed 
 was exported to the southern provinces. Such at least appears to have 
 oaen the course of the traffic before it was disturbed by European 
 influence.
 
 KAMBAIA AND SERVENATH. 421 
 
 other, and having its proper language. 1 The people are 
 idolaters. In this country the north-star is seen still higher 
 than in any of the preceding, in consequence of its lying 
 further to the north-west. The trade carried on is very con- 
 siderable, and a great quantity of indigo is manufactured.* 
 There is abundance of cotton cloth, as well as of cotton in the 
 wool. 3 Many skins well dressed are exported from hence, and 
 the returns are received in gold, silver, copper, and tutty. 4 
 There not being anything else deserving of notice, I shall 
 proceed to speak of the kingdom of Servenath 
 
 CHAPTER XXXII. 
 
 OF THE KINGDOM OF SERVENATH. 
 
 SERVENATH, likewise, is a kingdom lying towards the west, 3 
 the inhabitants of which are idolaters, are governed by a king 
 who pays no tribute, have their peculiar language, and are 
 
 1 It has been observed that where mention was made of Guzerat, the 
 account seemed to apply not to the peninsula of that name, but to the 
 more southern part of the kingdom, which includes the city of Surat, 
 and extended along the coast as far as Tanah or Bombay. Consistently 
 with this idea, and with our author's progress towards the north, he 
 now treats, in order, of Kambaia, a celebrated port of trade, situated at 
 the bottom of the gulf to which it gives name. This place is enume- 
 rated in the Ayin Akbari, by the name of Kambayet, amongst the 
 principal cities of Gujerat, of which Nehrwaleh, commonly termed 
 Puttan (as shown by Rennell), was anciently the capital. 
 
 2 " Annil sive indigo," says Linschoten, " in Cambaia przeparatur, ac 
 per universas orbis partes distrahitur." (Navig. ac Itiner. p. 13.) The 
 Ayin Akbari, describing a place in the neighbourhood of Ahmedabad, 
 the modern capital, which stands not far from the port of Kambaia, 
 says : " Here grows very fine indigo, which is exported to Room, and 
 other distant places." VoL ii. p. 77. 
 
 3 Cotton-wool is exported in large quantities at the present day from 
 Surat and Bombay to China. 
 
 4 Tutty has been already mentioned, in Book I. chap, xx., as a pre- 
 paration from a mineral (zinc or antimony) found in the eastern part of 
 Persia. It is carried to India chiefly for the purpose of making the 
 collyrium, named suri/teh and anjan, much used by the women of 
 Hindustan. 
 
 3 Servenath, which in the Basle edition is more correctly named 
 Semeuath, and in the older Latin. Semenach, but is omitted in the early
 
 422 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 a well-disposed people. They gain their living by commerce 
 and manufactures, and the place is frequented by a number 
 of merchants, who carry thither their articles of merchandise, 
 and take away those of the country in return. I was in- 
 formed, however, that the priests who serve in the temples of 
 the idols are the most perfidious and cruel that the world 
 contains. 1 We shall now proceed to speak of the kingdom 
 named Kesmacorau. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIII. 
 
 OP THE KINGDOM OF KESMACORAN. 
 
 THIS is an extensive country, having its proper king and 
 its peculiar language. 2 Some of the inhabitants are idolaters, 
 
 epitomes (unless Sebelech be intended for it, and not for Cambaeth), is 
 obviously the place called Sumenat , celebrated for the ravages com- 
 mitted there (in the year 1025) by Mahmud of Ghizni, a Mahometan 
 bigot, who destroyed a famous Hindu temple, broke in pieces its 
 gigantic idol, and carried away the precious stones with which it was 
 adorned. 
 
 1 The cruelties exercised by the Mussulmans upon the Hindu inha- 
 bitants of this place, who, according to Abulfeda, were slaughtered in 
 great numbers " (Ea in urbe, Sumenat, ingentem Indorum numerum 
 necabat Mahmud, omnes auferebat divitias, et super idolo rogum ac- 
 cendebat)," might have produced a violent spirit of retaliation, espe- 
 cially amongst the priests, and occasioned their seizing opportunities of 
 revenging the injuries they had sustained; and it is not improbable 
 that our author may have received his information respecting their 
 character from his Mahometan shipmates. 
 
 2 The name of this place, which is Chesmacoran or Kesmacoran in 
 Eamusio's text, Resmacoram in the Basle edition, Resmacoron in the 
 older Latin, and Resmaceran in the early epitomes, seemed to present 
 great difficulties. Major Rennell identifies it with Kidg-Makran, " which 
 might have been classed at that time as belonging to India, as Kanda- 
 har and other Persian provinces have in latter times. It happens that 
 I had previously exercised my judgment on this place, and I now find, 
 by a note in Astley, that the editor thought the same. In India they 
 always join Kidg and Makran together, as is very commonly done with 
 regard to other places. Kidg, or Kedge, may have been the former 
 capital. It is, I doubt not, the Gedrosia of the ancients." Kedge is 
 spoken of by Pottinger as the modem capital of Makran, an extensive 
 province, near the sea, on the western side of the Indus. The places in 
 the vicinity of this river had been the bounds of our author's previous 
 description ; on which occasion he says (Book I. chap, xxvii.) : " If I
 
 THE ISLANDS OF MALES AXD OF FEMALES. 423 
 
 but the greater part are Saracens. 1 They subsist by trade 
 and manufactures. Their food is rice and wheat, together 
 with flesh and milk, which they have in abundance. Many 
 merchants resort thither, both by sea and land. This is the 
 last province of the Greater India, as you proceed to the 
 north-west; for, as it begins at Maabar, so it terminates here.- 
 Iii describing it, we have noticed only the provinces and cities 
 that lie upon the sea-coast; for were we to particularise those 
 situated in the interior of the land, it would render our work 
 too prolix. We shall now speak of certain islands, one of 
 which is termed the Island of Males, and the other, the Island 
 of Females. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIV. 
 
 OF THE ISLAXDS OF MALES AND OF FEMALES. 
 
 DISTANT from Kesmacoran abcut five hundred milee to- 
 wards the south, in the ocean, there are two islands within 
 about thirty miles from each other, one of which is inhabited 
 by men, without the company of women, and is called the 
 island of males; and the other by women, without men, 
 
 were to proceed in the same direction, it would lead me to India ; but 
 I have judged it proper to reserve the description of that country for a 
 Third Book :" and he is therefore consistent in terminating his account 
 of the coast of India, upon his reaching, in an opposite course, the pro- 
 vince which connects it with Persia, and which has been considered, at 
 different periods, as politically dependent on the one or the other. 
 According to the system of the ancient geographers, Makran belonged 
 to Sind, as distinguished from Hind, but both were included in their 
 definition of India, in its extensive acceptation. 
 
 1 " Many of the inhabitants of Makran," says Ebn Haukal, " resemble 
 the Arabs ; they eat fowl and fish : others of them are like the Curds, 
 Here is the extreme boundary of the land of Islam in this direction. 
 Now we shall turn back, and begin to describe Armenia, &c." (P. 155.) 
 It is remarkable that our author should have adopted nearly the same 
 grand line of division as this Arabian geographer, who preceded him by 
 about three centuries ; but it may be accounted for by his intercourse 
 with Arabian pilots. 
 
 2 By Maabar (aa distinguished from Malabar) is meant the eastern 
 coast of the peninsula, from near the Kistnah, or, perhaps more strictly, 
 from the Pennar River to Cape Comorin, or that tract in which the 
 Tamul language prevails.
 
 424 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 which is called the island of females. 1 The inhabitants of 
 both are of the same race, and are baptized Christians, but 
 hold the law of the Old Testament. The men visit the island 
 of females, and remain with them for three successive months, 
 namely, March, April, and May, each man occuping a separate 
 habitation along with his wife. They then return to the 
 island of males, where they continue all the rest of the year, 
 without the society of any female. The wives retain their 
 sons with them until they are of the age of twelve years, 
 when they are sent to join their fathers. The daughters they 
 keep at home until they become marriageable, and then they 
 bestow them upon some of the men of the other island. This 
 mode of living is occasioned by the peculiar nature of the 
 climate, which does not allow of their remaining all the year 
 with their wives, unless at the risk of falling a sacrifice. They 
 have their bishop, who is subordinate to the see of the island 
 of Soccotera. 2 The men provide for the subsistence of their 
 wives by sowing the grain, but the latter prepare the soil and 
 gather in the harvest. The island likewise produces a variety 
 of fruits. The men live upon milk, flesh, rice, and fish. Of 
 these they catch an immense quantity, being expert fisher- 
 men. Both when fresh taken and when salted, the fish are 
 sold to the traders resorting to the island, 3 but whose prin- 
 cipal object is to purchase ambergris, of which a quantity is 
 collected there. 
 
 1 Of what particular islands this tale of wonder was related to our 
 author would be difficult to ascertain with any degree of precision ; but 
 notwithstanding the objections that present themselves with regard to 
 distances, there is reason to believe them intended for those which lie 
 near the island of Socotra, called Abd-al-curia and " Les deux sceurs " 
 in some maps, or " Les deux freres " in others. In Fra. Mauro's map, 
 these islands are named Mangla and Nebila. 
 
 2 It will be seen, in the notes to the following chapter, that Chris- 
 tianity was established in this quarter (as well as in Abyssinia) at a 
 very early period. The ecclesiastical subordination to Socotra argues a 
 contiguity, although it does not amount to proof. 
 
 3 Salt-fish is well known to be an important article of trade in these 
 regions, where, from the excessive heat and arid quality of the soil, 
 vegetation is rare, and the food of men and cattle procured with diffi- 
 culty. On this account it was that the natives of the coast were termed 
 by the Greeks Ickthyophagi, or persons whose chief sustenance was fish.
 
 THE SOURCE OF AMBERGRIS. 425 
 
 CHAPTER XXXV. 
 
 OF THE ISLAND OF SOCCOTEBA. 
 
 UPON leaving these islands, and proceeding five hundred 
 miles in a southerly direction, you reach the island of Socco- 
 tera, which is very large, and abounds with the necessaries of 
 life. 1 The inhabitants find much ambergris upon their coasts, 
 which is voided from the entrails of whales. 2 Being an article 
 of merchandise in great demand, they make it a business to 
 take these fish ; and this they do by means of a barbed iron, 
 which they strike into the whale so firmly that it cannot be 
 drawn out. To the iron (harpoon) a long line is fastened, 
 with a buoy at the end, for the purpose of discovering the 
 place where the fish, when dead, is to be found. They then 
 drag it to the shore, and proceed to extract the ambergris 
 from its belly, whilst from its head they procure several casks 
 of (spermaceti) oil. 3 
 
 All the people, both male and female, go nearly naked, 
 having only a scanty covering before and behind, like the 
 idolaters who have been described. They have no other 
 grain than rice, upon which, with flesh and milk, they subsist. 
 Their religion is Christianity, and they are duly baptized, 4 and 
 
 1 This considerable island, the Socotora of D'Anville and Socotra of 
 English geographers, is situated near Cape Guardafui, the north-eastern 
 point of the continent of Africa. In Ramusio's text it is correctly 
 named Soccotera, but in the Basle edition Scoira, in the older Latin 
 Scoyran, and in the early Italian epitomes Scorsia : so inattentive have 
 the copyists been in transcribing proper names even of well-known 
 places. 
 
 2 Frequent mention is made of ambergris being found in the neigh- 
 bouring coast of Africa. 
 
 3 This mention of oil taken from the head of the fish shows it to be 
 the spermaceti whale, as stated in the paper referred to in the preceding 
 note, and is a proof of accuracy on the part of our author. The mode 
 of harpooning also is correctly described. 
 
 4 The existence of Christianity, at an early period, in the island of 
 Socotra, is proved by ample testimony. " Dans cette mer," says the 
 latter of the two Arabian travellers of the ninth century, " on trouve 
 1'iflle de Socotra, ou csoist 1'aloes socotrin. Elle est situe"e pres du pais 
 des Zinge et du pa'is des Arabes, et la pluspart des habitans de cette 
 isle sont Chrestiens, dont on rapporfce cette raison." Edrisi, who com- 
 piled his work about the middle of the twelfth century, adopts the 
 authority and employs nearly the terms of the Mahometan traveller
 
 426 TRAVELS OP MARCO POLO. 
 
 are under tne government, as well temporal as spiritual, of an 
 archbishop, who is not in subjection to the pope of Ptome, but 
 to a patriarch who resides in the city of Baghdad, by whom 
 he is appointed, or, if elected by the people themselves, by 
 whom their choice is confirmed. 1 Many pirates resort to this 
 island with the goods they have captured, and which the 
 natives purchase of them without any scruple, justifying 
 themselves on the ground of their being plundered from 
 idolaters and Saracens. 2 All ships bound to the province of 
 Aden touch here, and make large purchases of fish and of 
 ambergris, as well as of various kinds of cotton goods manu- 
 factured on the spot. 
 
 The inhabitants deal more in sorcery and witchcraft than 
 any other people, although forbidden by their archbishop, 
 who excommunicates and anathematises them for the sin. Of 
 this, however, they make little account; and if any vessel 
 belonging to a pirate should injure one of theirs, they do not 
 fail to lay him under a spell, so that he cannot proceed on his 
 cruise until he has made satisfaction for the damage; and 
 even although he should have had a fair and leading wind, 
 they have the power of causing it to change, and thereby of 
 
 Barbosa, whose voyages were performed about the end of the fifteenth, 
 speaks contemptuously of the species of Christianity found there by 
 his countrymen, the Portuguese, upon their first visits to the island ; 
 but as .the inhabitants were schismatics at best, some allowance should 
 be made for a feeling of intolerance. J. de Barros gives a circumstan- 
 tial account of Soccotora, and says of the natives, " Todos sao Christiaos 
 Jacobitas da casta dos Abexijs (Habeshis or Abyssinians), per6 que 
 muitas cousas nao guardao de sens costumes." " Sua adora?ao he a 
 Cruz, e sao tao devotos della, que per habito todos trazem hua ao 
 pescoijo." Dec. ii. 1. i. cap. iii. 
 
 1 It is evident that our author supposed the inhabitants to be Nes- 
 torians, Zatolia being a typographical mistake for Zatolic, which is itself 
 a Venetian corruption of Katholicos, the title given to the head of the 
 Nestorian church, whose seat was at Baghdad. More probably, how- 
 ever, they were Jacobites (as asserted by the Portuguese), and subject 
 to the spiritual jurisdiction of a Patriarch who resided, in early times, 
 at Antioch and at Alexandria, and afterwards at Maredin in Meso- 
 potamia. 
 
 2 That this island, before the period of its occupation by the Portu- 
 guese, should have been made a de"pot for goods plundered by piratical 
 vessels, is highly probable, and the conscientious salvo of the native 
 Christians much in character; but Abulfeda appears to have considered 
 the latter as principals in the depredations, when he says, " Incolae eiua 
 suut Ciristiani, piratse." Geographia, tab. xvi. p. 278.
 
 THL I5LAXD OF M^DAGASCAA 427 
 
 obliging him. in spite of himself, to return to the island. 
 They can, in like manner, cause the sea to become calm, and 
 at their will can raise tempests, occasion shipwrecks, and pro- 
 duce many other extraordinary effects, that need not be par- 
 ticularised. 1 We shall now speak of the island of Madagascar. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVI. 
 
 OF THE GEEAT ISLAXD OF MADAGASCAR. 
 
 the island of Soccotera, and steering a course 
 between south and south-west for a thousand miles, you 
 arrive at the great island of Madagascar, which is one of the 
 largest and most fertile in the world. In circuit it is three 
 thousand miles. 2 The inhabitants are Saracens, or followers 
 of the law of Mahomet. 3 They have four sheikhs, which in 
 our language may be expressed by "elders," who divide the 
 government amongst them. 4 The people subsist by trade 
 
 1 The belief in witchcraft and the efficacy of spells to disturb the 
 ordinary course of nature, and particularly to control the winds, was 
 prevalent at this time, and to a much later period, even in the most 
 civilized parts of the world. We are not, therefore, to be surprised at 
 finding the art imputed by navigators to the inhabitants of a remote 
 island, which, like the " still-vext Bermudas," is described as being 
 subject to violent tempests. De Barros, a grave historian of the six- 
 teenth century, speaks of the sorcery practised by the females of Soco- 
 tora, of whom he says : " For hoje serem ainda tao grandes feiticeiras, 
 que fazem cousas maravilhosas." (Dec. ii. liv. i. cap. uL) The compiler 
 of Astley's Voyages gives some curious instances of the extreme cre- 
 dulity of the Portuguese with respect to this supposed preternatural 
 agency. VoL L p. 63, note. 
 
 2 Its actual circuit is about two, not three, thousand miles. 
 
 3 The natives in general are not Mahometans; but it will appear not 
 only that the Arabs had established themselves and spread their reli- 
 gion in many districts along the coast, but that, by mixture with the 
 aborigines, there are several races of people who make profession of 
 that faith, however imperfectly they may observe its ordinances. 
 
 4 The Arabic word sheikh has the double signification of an elder (as 
 noticed in the text) and a chief or head of a tribe. In this latter sense 
 it is that we commonly find it used, and it is probable that the tribes 
 mentioned in the preceding note were governed by chiefs with the title 
 of sheikh, as those on the opposite coast of Africa, where the Arabs 
 established themselves, are known to have been.
 
 428 TRAVELS OP MARCO POLO. 
 
 aiid manufacture, and sell a vast number of elephants' teeth, 
 as those animals abound in the country, as they do also in 
 that of Zenzibar, from whence the exportation is equally 
 great. 1 The principal food eaten at all seasons of the year is 
 the flesh of camels. That of the other cattle serves them 
 also for food, but the former is preferred, as being both the 
 most wholesome and the most palatable of any to be found 
 in this part of the world. 2 The woods contain many trees 
 of red sandal, and, in proportion to the plenty in which it 
 is found, the price of it is low. There is also much amber- 
 gris from the whales ; and as the tide throws it on the coast, it 
 is collected for sale. The natives catch lynxes, tigers, and 
 a variety of other animals, 3 such as stags, antelopes, and 
 fallow deer, which afford much sport ; as do also birds, which 
 are different from those of our climates. 
 
 The island is visited by many ships from various parts of 
 the world, bringing assortments of goods consisting of bro- 
 cades and silks of various patterns, which are sold to the 
 merchants of the island, or bartered for goods in return; 
 upon all of which they make large profits. There is no resort 
 of ships to the other numerous islands lying further south, 
 this and the island of Zenzibar alone being frequented. This 
 is the consequence of the sea running with such prodigious 
 velocity in that direction, as to render their return impos- 
 sible. The vessels that sail from the coast of Malabar for 
 this island, perform the voyage in twenty or twenty-five 
 days, but in their returning voyage are obliged to struggle 
 
 1 Elephants and ivory, which abound on the African shore (as noticed 
 in the succeeding chapter), but certainly not upon the island of Mada- 
 gascar; so that Marco Polo must have been misinformed, or he has 
 confused his information. 
 
 2 Some have supposed that by the camel should here be understood 
 the Madagascar ox, or bison, which is remarkable for the protuberance 
 or hump on its shoulder. It is certain, however, that the Arabs, and 
 probably the Mahometans in general, prefer the flesh of camels, where 
 they can procure it, to every other meat. 
 
 3 It is here again apparent that the circumstances mentioned apply 
 to the opposite coast of Africa, and not to the island, where no lions, 
 nor animals of the tiger kind, are known to exist. In fact, nearly the 
 whole of what is said of Madagascar seems to be information given to 
 our author by Arabian navigators respecting the southern coast of 
 Africa, and introduced, from Ms nctes, in the wrong place.
 
 THE RCKH, OB ROC. 429 
 
 for three months; so strong is the current of water, which 
 constantly runs to the southward. 1 
 
 The people of the island report that at a certain season of 
 the year, an extraordinary kind of bird, which they call a 
 rukh, makes its appearance from the southern region. In 
 form it is said to resemble the eagle, but it is incomparably 
 greater in size ; being so large and strong as to seize an 
 elephant with its talons, and to lift it into the air, from 
 whence it lets it fall to the ground, in order that when dead 
 it may prey upon the carcase. Persons who have seen this 
 bird assert that when the wings are spread they measure 
 sixteen paces in extent, from point to point; and that the 
 feathers are eight paces in length, and thick in proportion. 
 Messer Marco Polo, conceiving that these creatures might be 
 griffins, such as are represented in paintings, half birds and 
 half lions, particularly questioned those who reported their 
 having seen them as to this point; but they maintained that 
 their shape was altogether that of birds, or, as it might be 
 said, of the eagle. The grand khan having heard this extra- 
 ordinary relation, sent messengers to the island, on the pre- 
 text of demanding the release of one of his servants who had 
 been detained there, but in reality to examine into the cir- 
 cumstances of the country, and the truth of the wonderful 
 things told of it. When they returned to the presence of 
 his majesty, they brought with them (as I have heard) a 
 feather of the rukh, positively affirmed to have measured 
 ninety spans, and the quill part to have been two palms in 
 circumference. This surprising exhibition afforded his majesty 
 extreme pleasure, and upon those by whom it was presented 
 he bestowed valuable gifts. 2 They were also the bearers of 
 
 1 The currents which set to the southward through the Mozambique 
 Channel, and then taking a westerly direction, sweep round the Cape of 
 Good Hope, are matter of notoriety to all our East Indian navigators, 
 from hence it was that a point of the main land of Africa, situated 
 opposite to St. Augustin's Bay, in Madagascar, and nearly under the 
 tropic, was named by the Portuguese discoverers, Cabo das Correnteg. 
 Our author's notice of this remarkable circumstance, in a part of the 
 globe which at that period had not been visited by Europeans, is 
 worthy of particular note. 
 
 2 All who have read the stories of the " Thousand and One Nights" 
 must be acquainted with the size and powers of this extraordinarv bird, 
 there called the roc; but its celebrity is not confined to that" work. 
 "Rukh" says the Arabic and Persian Dictionary, "is the name of a
 
 430 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 the tusk of a wild boar, an animal that grows there to tha 
 size of a buffalo, and it was found to weigh fourteen pounds. 1 
 
 monstrous bird, which is said to have powers sufficient to carry off a 
 live rhinoceros." Its existence seems, indeed, to have been universally 
 credited in the East; and those Arabian navigators with whom our 
 author conversed would not hesitate to attest a fact of such notoriety; 
 but they might find it convenient, at the same time, to lay the scene of 
 its appearance at a place so little frequented as the southern extremity 
 of Madagascar, because the chances were small of any contradiction 
 from local knowledge. The circumstance, however, of its resorting 
 thither from the southern ocean, gives room to a conjecture that the tale, 
 although exaggerated, may not be altogether imaginary, and that it 
 may have taken its rise from the occasional sight of a real bird of vast, 
 although not miraculous dimensions. This may be either the albatross 
 (diomedea ezulans), which, although the inhabitant of more southern 
 latitudes, may accidentally visit the shores of Madagascar, or the 
 condor of southern Africa. Some of the former are known to measure 
 no less than fifteen feet between the extremities of the wings, and must 
 appear to those who see them for the first time an extraordinary 
 phenomenon. Of the bulk and powers of the latter bird we are enabled 
 to form an idea from the account given of it by Barrow, in his Travels 
 in South Africa. " Crows, kites, and vultures," he says, " are almost 
 the only kinds of birds that are met with (in the Roggeveld). Of the 
 last, I broke the wing of one of that species called by ornithologists the 
 condor, of an amazingly large size. The spread of its wings was ten feet 
 and one inch. It kept three dogs for some time completely at bay, and 
 having at length seized one of them with its claws, and torn away a 
 large piece of flesh from its thigh, they all immediately retreated." 
 (Vol. i. p. 358, 2d edit.) If the passi of the text are intended for the 
 ordinary steps of two feet and a half, the measure given to the wings of 
 the roc would be forty feet. In the description of the quill-feathers, the 
 exaggeration is still greater, and those of the albatross or the condor 
 would be diminutive in comparison ; but it must be observed that with 
 respect to the specimen said to have been produced by the messengers 
 whom the grand khan had sent to examine into the natural curiosities, 
 as well as the political state of the country, our author expresses him- 
 self with caution, and employs the qualifying terms, " si come intesi," 
 and "la qual li fu affermato;" as wishing it to be understood that he 
 did not pretend to have seen the thing himself; but that he believed in 
 the existence of the bird cannot be doubted. 
 
 1 " The African wild boar, or sus ^Ethiopians," says the History of 
 Quadrupeds, " has four tusks : two very large ones proceed from the 
 upper jaw, and turn upwards like a horn ; they are nine inches long, 
 and full five inches round at the base; the two other tusks, which come 
 from the lower jaw, project but three inches from the mouth. These 
 tusks the animal makes use of as the dreadful instruments of his 
 vengeance." The tusks of boars, as well as of elephants, must differ 
 considerably in size, according to age and other circumstances : that 
 which was carried to China, and said to weigh fourteen pounds, may 
 have belonged to an uncommon animal of the species.
 
 ZENZIBAR. 431 
 
 The island contains likewise camelopards, asses, and other 
 wild animals, very different from these of our country. 
 Having said what was necessary on this subject, we shall now 
 proceed to speak of Zenzibar. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXYII. 
 
 OF THE ISLAND OF ZEXZIBAB. 
 
 BEYOND the island of Madagascar lies that of Zenzibar, 
 which is reported to be in circuit two thousand miles. 1 The 
 inhabitants worship idols, have their own peculiar language, 
 and do not pay tribute to any foreign power. In their 
 persons they are large, but their height is not proportioned 
 to the bulk of their bodies. Were it otherwise, they would 
 appear gigantic. They are, however, strongly made, and one 
 of them is capable of carrying what would be a load for four 
 of our people. At the same time, he would require as much 
 food as five. They are black, and go naked ; covering only 
 
 1 The name which in Ramusio's text is Zenzibar. in both of the 
 Latin versions Zanzibar, and in the early epitomes Tangibar, is the 
 Zanguebar of modern geography. This name is applied particularly to a 
 small island near the African shore, and also to a tract of coast within 
 that island, bounded by Melinda on the north, and Cape Dalgada on 
 the south ; but it seems probable that those persons from whom our 
 author acquired his information were in the habit of using the term in 
 a more vague sense (like that of Ethiopia), and perhaps of applying it 
 to the whole of the southern coast of Africa, inhabited, generally, by 
 the people whom the Arabs denominate Zengi, and we, Xegroes or 
 Caflrees. It may be further conjectured that as the Arabic word jeztreh 
 signifies equally an island and a peninsula, they may have intended, by 
 what our author has termed the island of Zenzibar, to denote the 
 whole southern extremity, or peninsula, of Africa, the extent of whieh, 
 from the northern part of what may be called Zanguebar Proper, is just 
 thirty degrees of latitude, or about two thousand miles. In the two 
 Arabians, and other oriental writers, we read the same name given to 
 this tract, with the title of Zingis or Zingues applied generally to all 
 the inhabitants of the eastern coast of Africa. " Le pals des Zinges 
 ou Xeeres," say the travellers above referred to, " est d'une grand e 
 estendue." (Anc. Relat. p. 111.) De Barros also gives the name of Zan- 
 guebar an extensive application ; nor is it likely, from it* import (" the 
 country of the Ethiopians"), to have been originally confined to a email 
 spot.
 
 ' TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 the private parts of the body with a cloth. 1 Their hair is o 
 crisp, that even when dipped in w,ater it can with difficulty 
 be drawn out. They have large mouths, their noses turn up 
 towards the forehead, their ears are long, and their eyes 
 so large and frightful, that they have the aspect of demons. 
 The women are equally ill-favoured, having wide mouths, 
 thick noses, and large eyes. Their hands, and also their 
 heads, are out of proportion large. 2 There are in this island 
 the most ill-favoured women in the world ; with large mouths 
 and thick noses, and ill-favoured breasts, four times as large 
 as those of other women. They feed on flesh, milk, rice, and 
 dates. 3 They have no grape vines, but make a sort of wine 
 from rice and sugar, with the addition of some spicy drugs, 
 very pleasant to the taste, and having the intoxicating quality 
 of the other. In this island elephants are found in vast 
 numbers, and their teeth form an important article of trade. 
 With respect to these quadrupeds it should be observed, that 
 their mode of copulating is the reverse of that of the brute 
 creation in general, in consequence of the position of the 
 female organ, and follows that of the human species. 4 
 
 [* The early Latin text adds here a further remark, which we leave 
 in the original language : " Sed cooperiunt suam naturam ; et faciunt 
 magnum sensum quando earn cooperiunt, eo quod habent earn multum 
 magnam et turpem, et horribilem ad videndum."] 
 
 2 The reader will judge for himself how far this description of the 
 negro race, which seems to be distorted in passing through the medium 
 of Mahometan prejudice, is conformable to his own observation. He 
 must bear in mind, at the same time, that although with respect to the 
 breadth and flatness of the nose, the thickness of the lips, and the 
 woolly texture of the hair, there is a general uniformity, yet in size, 
 figure, intensity of colour, and ferocity of aspect, the natives of one 
 part of Africa differ materially from those of another. 
 
 3 The dates here spoken of were, probably, not those of the genuine 
 kind, produced by the phcenix or pcdma dactylifera, unless imported as 
 an article of food. De Barros, it is true, speaking of the country about 
 Quiloa, says, " Ella he mui fertil de palmeiras ; " but this, although 
 the word palmeira is translated in the dictionaries, " the date or palm- 
 tree," seems to mean only the palma sylvestris of Ksempfer. This 
 species being named by the Portuguese palmeira brava, the wild palm, 
 or, as pronounced in the corrupt dialect of their eastern colonies, 
 Irabu has acquired amongst other Europeans the vulgar appellation of 
 ihe brab tree. 
 
 4 All that can be urged in excuse for this unfounded story respecting 
 the mode of copulating amongst these animals is, that the error was 
 ancient and very general, and remained uncontroverted in consequence 
 of the opportunities for disproving it being rare.
 
 ANIMALS OF ZES'ZIBAR. 433 
 
 In this country is found also the giraffe or camelopard, 
 which is a handsome beast. The body is well-proportioned, 
 the fore-legs long and high, the hind-legs short, the neck 
 very long, the head small, and in its manners it is gentle. 
 Its prevailing colour is light, -with circular reddish spots. 
 Its height (or length of the neck), including the head, is three 
 paces. 1 The sheep of the country are different from ours, 
 being all white excepting their heads, which are black; 2 and 
 this also is the colour of the dogs. The animals in general 
 have a different appearance from ours. Many trading ships 
 visit the place, which barter the goods they bring for 
 elephants' teeth and ambergris, of which much is found on 
 the coasts of the island, in consequence of the sea abounding 
 with whales. 
 
 The chiefs of the island are sometimes engaged in warfare 
 with each other, and their people display much bravery in 
 battle and contempt of death. 3 They have no horses, but 
 fight upon elephants and camels. Upon the backs of the 
 former they place castles, capable of containing from fifteen 
 to twenty men, armed with swords, lances, and stones, with 
 which weapons they fight. 4 Previously to the combat they 
 
 1 The giraffe, or cervus camelopardalis of Linnaeus, is now well known 
 in England. 
 
 2 " Their sheep," says Hamilton, speaking of the coast of Zeyla, near 
 Cape Guardafui, " are all white, with jet-black heads and small ears, 
 their bodies large, and their flesh delicate, their tails as broad as their 
 buttocks." Vol. i. p. 15. 
 
 3 " They have large strong bodies and limbs," says Hamilton, " and 
 are very bold in war." Vol. i. p. 8. 
 
 4 It is correctly stated that the coast of Africa does not furnish any 
 breed of horses ; but although wild elephants abound in the country, 
 there is no reason to believe that the natives are anywhere accustomed, 
 at the present day, to domesticate or employ them in their wars ; but 
 that it must formerly have been the case is argued with much inge- 
 nuity in the travels of the meritorious and unfortunate Park. ' It 
 has been said," he observes, " that the African elephant is of a less 
 docile nature than the Asiatic, and incapable of being tamed. The 
 Negroes certainly do not at present tame them ; but when we consider 
 that the Carthaginians had always tame elephants in their armies, and 
 actually transported some of them to Italy in the course of the Punic 
 wars, it seems more likely that they should have possessed the art of 
 taming their own elephants, than have submitted to the expense of 
 bringing such vast animals from Asia." (P. 307.) Notwithstanding 
 this, I am disposed to think that either our author was- misinformed aa 
 to the fact, or tLat his remark on the employment of elephants m7 
 
 F F
 
 434 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 give draughts of wine to their elephants, supposing that it 
 renders them more spirited and more furious in the assault. 1 
 
 CHAPTEK XXXVIII. 
 
 OF THE MULTITUDE OF ISLANDS IN THE INDIAN SEA. 
 
 IN treating of the provinces of India, I have described 
 only the principal and most celebrated; and the same has 
 been done with respect to the islands, the number of which 
 is quite incredible. I have heard, indeed, from mariners and 
 eminent pilots of these countries, and have seen in the 
 writings of those who have navigated the Indian seas, that 
 they amount to no fewer than twelve thousand seven hun- 
 dred, including the uninhabited with the inhabited islands.' 2 
 The division termed the Greater India extends from Maabar 
 to Kesmacoran, aud comprehends thirteen large kingdoms, of 
 which we have enumerated ten. The Lesser India commences 
 
 have been intended to apply to some other country than Zanzibar; 
 Abyssinia, perhaps, or Ceylon. 
 
 1 Bang, an intoxicating juice, expressed from the leaves of hemp, is 
 said to be sometimes given to Indian elephants, for the purpose of ren- 
 dering them furious and insensible to danger an expedient that must 
 be attended with no small risk to the party employing it. The Syro- 
 Macedonians appear to have used a different stimulus to produce the 
 same effect : " To the end they might provoke the elephants to fight, they 
 showed them the blood of grapes and mulberries." 1 Mace. vi. 34. 
 
 2 By this "multitude of islands" in the Indian Sea, is plainly meant 
 the extensive cluster called the Maldives, with the addition of the less 
 numerous cluster called the Laccadives. Should there be an exaggera- 
 tion in stating their total number at twelve thousand six hundred, not 
 only our author, but also those experienced pilots to whose authority 
 he refers, must stand excused, as it will be shown to have been the 
 general belief throughout India, and in the islands themselves, that the 
 former alone consisted of eleven or twelve thousand, of all descriptions. 
 ""Quidam harum insularum numerum," says Linschoten, " ad 11,000 
 ferunt ; sed non est certa ratio. Innumerabiles enim sunt." Cap. xiii. 
 p. 16. [Other old authorities might be cited to the same effect.] In 
 chap. viii. of this book, on the subject of Lochac, supposed to be Kam- 
 boja, the following sentence appeared : " From hence are exported all 
 those porcelain shells, which, being carried to other countries, are there 
 circulated for money." This assertion is strictly and almost exclusively 
 applicable to the Maldive islands, and was intended by our author (aa I 
 am fully persuaded) to be introduced at this place.
 
 ABYSSINIA. 
 
 at Ziampa, and extends to Mui'fili comprehending eight 
 kingdoms, exclusive of those in the islands, which are very 
 numerous. We shall now speak of the Second or Middle 
 India ; which is called Abascia. 1 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIX. 
 
 OF THE SECOND OR MIDDLE INDIA, NAMED ABASCIA (OR ABYSSINIA). 
 
 ABASCIA is an extensive country, termed the Middle or 
 Second India. Its principal king is a Christian. Of the 
 others, who are six in number, and tributary to the first, 
 three are Christians and three are Saracens. 2 I was informed 
 that the Christians of these parts, in order to be distinguished 
 as such, make three signs or marks (on the face), namely, one 
 on the forehead, and one on each cheek, which latter are 
 imprinted with a hot iron and this may be considered as 
 a second baptism with fire, after the baptism with water. 
 The Saracens have only one mark, which is on the forehead, 
 and reaches to the middle of the nose. The Jews, who are 
 
 1 This division of India into the Greater, the Lesser, and the Middle, 
 does not appear to have reference either to geographical position or 
 relative importance. By the Lesser is here understood what was termed 
 India extra Gangem, or, more strictly, the space included between the 
 eastern coast of the peninsula of India, and that of Kochinchina or 
 Tsiampa. The Greater is made to comprehend the whole of Hindustan 
 Proper and the peninsula, as far westward as the province of Makran, 
 or the country extending from the Ganges to the Indus inclusive. The 
 appellation of Middle or Second India our author applies expressly to 
 Abyssinia, but seems to intend that the coast of Arabia also, as far as 
 *he Persian Gulf, should be comprised in this division. 
 
 2 " Uni tamen regi," says Ludolfus, " Habessinia paret ; qui ob sub- 
 jectos quosdam regulos, regem regurn JEthiopiae semet vocat." (Hist. 
 JEthiop. Procem.) " Christianity," says Gibbon, " had raised that nation 
 above the level of African barbarism. Their intercourse with Egypt and 
 the successors of Constantine had communicated the rudiments of the 
 arts and sciences ; their vessels traded to the island of Ceylon ; and 
 seven kingdoms obeyed the Negus or supreme prince of Abyssina." 
 (Vol. iv. p. 267.) This number must have fluctuated at different periods, 
 and accordingly we find in B. Tellez, Ludolfus, and other writers, 
 enumerations of from fourteen to thirty provinces; which the latter, 
 however, in his History, reduces to nine principal. Dapper gives the 
 names of seven kingdoms, which he considers as forming the dominion* 
 of the Abyssinian monarch of his day. P. 320. 
 
 F F 2
 
 436 TRA'fELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 likewise numerous here, have two marks, and the.se upon the 
 cheeks. 
 
 The capital of the principal Christian king is in the interior 
 of the country. 1 The dominions of the Saracen princes lie 
 towards the province of Aden. 2 The conversion of these 
 people to the Christian faith was the work of the glorious 
 apostle, St. Thomas, who having preached the gospel in the 
 kingdom of Nubia, and converted its inhabitants, afterwards 
 visited Abascia, and there, by the influence of his discourses 
 and the performance of miracles, produced the same effect. 
 He subsequently went to abide in the province of Maabar; 
 where, after converting an infinite number of persons, he 
 received, as we have already mentioned, the crown of mar- 
 tyrdom, and was buried on the spot. These people of Abascia 
 are brave and good warriors, being constantly engaged in 
 hostility with the soldan of Aden, the people of Nubia, and 
 many others whose countries border upon theirs. In conse- 
 quence of this unceasing practice in arms, they are accounted 
 the best soldiers in this part of the world. 3 
 
 In the year 1288, as I was informed, this great Abyssinian 
 prince adopted the resolution of visiting in person the holy 
 sepulchre of Christ in Jerusalem, a pilgrimage that is every 
 year performed by vast numbers of his subjects; but he was 
 dissuaded from it by the officers of his government, who 
 represented to him the dangers to which he would be exposed 
 in passing through so many places belonging to the Saracens, 
 
 1 The central situation here alluded to is that of Axuma, or Akshuma, 
 the ancient capital of Abyssinia, and seat of the prince who, by Alvarez, 
 Barbosa, and other early Portuguese writers, is styled Prete Joao, or 
 Prester John, of Ethiopia. 
 
 2 It will appear hereafter more probable that the country here spoken 
 of is intended for Adel, a kingdom adjoining to Abyssinia on the 
 southern side, than for Adem, or Aden, which is divided from it by 
 the Red Sea, or Arabian Gulf. The Basle edition says, more precisely : 
 " Contingit hanc regionem (Abasiam) alia qusedam provincia Aden 
 dicta." 
 
 3 For the existence of inveterate enmity and perpetual warfare 
 between the sovereigns of Abyssinia and of Adel (whose principal port 
 is Zeila, on the south-western coast of the Red Sea), we have ample 
 authority; and particularly in the writings of Andrea Corsali, a Floren- 
 tine, and Francisco Alvarez, a Portuguese, which are to be found in 
 Ramusio, vol. i. fol. 176 260. The reader will apply these historical 
 facts to the conjecture offered in the preceding note, that Adel, not 
 Aden, was meant as the neighbouring state of Abyssinia.
 
 THE KING OF ABYSSINIA S VENGEANCE. 437 
 
 his enemies. He then determined upon sending thither 
 a bishop as his representative, a man of high reputation for 
 sanctity, who, upon his arrival at Jerusalem, recited the 
 prayers and made the offerings which the king had directed. 
 Returning, however, from that city, through the dominions 
 of the soldan of Aden, the latter caused him to be brought 
 into his presence, and endeavoured to persuade him to become 
 a Mahometan. Upon his refusing with becoming firmness 
 to abandon the Christian faith, the soldan, making light of the 
 resentment of the Abyssinian monarch, caused him to be cir- 
 cumcised, and then suffered him to depart. Upon his arrival, 
 and making a report of the indignity and violence to which 
 he had been subjected, the king immediately gave orders for 
 assembling an army, at the head of which he marched, for 
 the purpose of exterminating the soldan; who on his part 
 called to his assistance two Mahometan princes, his neigh- 
 bours, by whom he was joined with a very large force. In 
 the conflict that ensued, the Abyssinian king was victorious, 
 and having taken the city of Aden, he gave it up to pillage, 
 in revenge for the insult he had sustained in the person of 
 his bishop. 1 
 
 The inhabitants of this kingdom live upon wheat, rice, 
 flesh, and milk. They extract oil from sesame, and have 
 abundance of all sorts of provisions. In the country there 
 are elephants, lions, camelopards, and a variety of other 
 animals, such as wild asses, and monkeys that have the figure 
 of men, together with many birds, wild and domestic. 2 It is 
 
 1 Respecting this conquest made by the king of Abyssinia, whether 
 of the capital of the soldan of Adel, on the African shore, or of Aden, 
 on the Arabian side of the Red Sea, there might have been hopes of 
 obtaining some light from Bruce's Annals of that country, and particu- 
 larly as the second chapter professes to relate transactions from the 
 year 1283 to 1312, embracing the period of which our author speaks ; 
 but the information contained in it is of a general nature, and, although 
 it corroborates the accounts of interminable dissensions with Adel, 
 does not record any specific operation. 
 
 2 " The elephant, rhinoceros, giraffa, or camelopardalis, are inhabi- 
 tants of the low flat country ; nor is the lion or leopard, faadh, which is 
 the panther, seen in the high and cultivated country. There are no 
 tigers in Abyssinia, nor, as far as I know, in Africa. . . . Innumerable 
 flocks of apes and baboons, of different kinds, destroy the fields of 
 millet everywhere." (Bruce, vol. v. Appendix, p. 84.) " The number o 
 birds in Abyssinia exceeds that of other animals beyond proportion." 
 P. 149.
 
 438 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 extremely rich in gold, 1 and much frequented by merchants, 
 who obtain large profits. We shall now speak of the province 
 of Aden. 
 
 CHAPTER XL. 
 
 OF THE PROVINCE OF ADEN. 2 
 
 THE province of Aden is governed by a king, who bears 
 the title of soldan. 3 The inhabitants are all Saracens, and 
 utterly detest the Christians. In this kingdom there are 
 many towns and castles, and it has the advantage of an ex- 
 cellent port, frequented by ships arriving from India with 
 spices and drugs. The merchants who purchase them with 
 the intention of conveying them to Alexandria, unlade them 
 from the ships in which they were imported, and distribute 
 
 1 Although gold is enumerated amongst the articles of export from 
 Abyssinia, and is said to be found in its rivers, it is not spoken of by 
 modern writers as abounding in the country ; yet, as the adjoining 
 coasts of Africa have at all periods been celebrated for the production of 
 gold, it is reasonable to suppose that, during the flourishing days of the 
 empire, it may have been collected there from the southward, in large 
 quantities, and at a price to afford considerable profit when disposed of 
 to the merchants of Arabia. " On trouve," says Niebuhr, in his de- 
 scription of the latter country, " beaucoup d'or de Habbesch dans les 
 villes bien commerantes." P. 124. 
 
 '* Whatever place it may have been, against which the hostility of 
 the king of Abyssinia was directed (as mentioned in the preceding 
 chapter), there can be no doubt of the Aden here described being the 
 famous city and port of Aden, in the south-eastern extremity of 
 Yemen or Arabia Felix, and not far from the entrance of the Red Sea. 
 It is not, indeed, surprising that two places so nearly resembling each 
 other in name (as Adel and Aden), and spoken of in successive chap- 
 ters, should have been confounded by the translators of the work, and 
 mistaken for the same; nor is it impossible that our author himself 
 might have misapprehended the information he received from the 
 Arabian pilots. 
 
 3 De Guignes, speaking of the princes of the family of Saladin, who 
 reigned at Aden from the year 1180, says : " Apres la mort de ce prince, 
 qui a du arriver vers 1'an 637 de 1'Hegire, de J. C. 1239, un Turkoman, 
 appelle Noureddin Omar, qui s'e"toit empare" de ce pays, envoya demander 
 au khalif Mostauser une patente et 1'investiture en qualittS de sulthan 
 de 1'Yemen, ce qui lui fut accorde"." " Cette famille a posse"de 1'Yemen 
 jusqu'apres 1'an 800 de 1'Hegire, de J. C. 1397". (Tab. Chronol. liv. vii. 
 p. 426.) Consequently, it was one of these sultans or soldans who 
 reigned at the period of which our author treats.
 
 COMMERCE OF ADEX. 439 
 
 the cargoes on board of other smaller vessels or barks, 
 with which they navigate a gulf of the sea for twenty days, 
 more or less, according to the weather they experience. 
 Having reached their port, they then load their goods upon 
 the backs of camels, and transport them overland (thirty days' 
 journey) to the river Nile, where they are again put into 
 small vessels, called jerms, in which they are conveyed by the 
 stream of that river to Kairo, and from thence, by an artifi- 
 cial canal, named Kalizeue, at length to Alexandria. 1 This 
 is the least difficult and the shortest route the merchants can 
 take with their goods, the produce of India, from Aden to 
 that city. In this port of Aden, likewise, the merchants ship 
 a great number of Arabian horses, which they carry for sale 
 to all the kingdoms and islands of India, obtaining high 
 prices for them, and making large profits. 2 
 
 The soldan of Aden possesses immense treasures, arising 
 from the imposts he lays, as well upon the merchandise 
 that comes from India, as upon that which is shipped in his 
 port as the returning cargo ; this being the most considerable 
 mart in all that quarter for the exchange of commodities, and 
 the place to which all trading vessels resort. I was informed 
 that when the soldan of Babylon led his army the first time 
 against the city of Acre, and took it, this city of Aden fur- 
 nished him with thirty thousand horses and forty thousand 
 camels, stimulated by the rancour borne against the Chris- 
 tians. 3 We shall now speak of the city of Escier. 
 
 1 A correct account is here given of the progress of what we term 
 the overland trade from India. The merchandise collected at the port 
 of Aden, just without the Red Sea, (as, in modern times, at Mokha, 
 just within it,) was from thence transported in vessels of an easy draft 
 of water (on account of the numerous shoals) to Koseir, a place on the 
 western coast of that sea, to the northward of the ancient station of 
 Berenice. Here it was laden on the backs of camels, and in that man- 
 ner conveyed across the desert to Kus, and latterly to Ken?, on the 
 Xiie, within the territory of Egypt, where it was put into boats correctly 
 called jermt, in order to its being carried down the stream of the river 
 to Cairo, and thence by means of the khalij. or grand canal, to Alex- 
 andria, the emporium of eastern commodities for supplying the markets 
 of Europe. 
 
 2 The exportation of horses from Arabia and the gulf of Persia to 
 India, and particularly the southern provinces, has been already spoken 
 of in former notes. 
 
 * [It has been already stated that Babylon was the mediaeval name of 
 Cairo, in Egypt.]
 
 440 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 CHAPTER XLI. 
 
 OF THE CITY OF ESCIER. 
 
 THE ruler of this city is a Mahometan, who governs it 
 with exemplary justice, under the superior authority of tLe 
 sultan of Aden. Its distance from thence is about forty 
 miles to the south-east. 1 Subordinate to it there are many 
 towns and castles. Its port is good, and it is visited by many 
 trading ships from India, which carry back a number of ex- 
 cellent horses, highly esteemed in that country, and sold 
 there at considerable prices. 
 
 This district produces a large quantity of white frankin- 
 cense of the first quality, 2 which distils, drop by drop, from 
 a certain small tree that resembles the fir. The people occa- 
 sionally tap the tree, or pare away the bark, and from the 
 incision the frankincense gradually exudes, which afterwards 
 becomes hard. Even when an incision is not made, an 
 exudation is perceived to take place, in consequence of the 
 excessive heat of the climate. There are also many palm- 
 trees, which produce good dates in abundance. No grain 
 excepting rice and millet is cultivated in this country, and it 
 becomes necessary to obtain supplies from other parts. 
 There is no wine made from grapes; but they prepare a 
 liquor from rice, sugar, and dates, that is a delicious beve- 
 rage. 3 They have a small breed of sheep, the ears of which 
 
 1 Although with respect to the bearings of this place from Aden, we 
 must necessarily read north-east for south-east, and the distance is 
 considerably more than forty miles, there is little room for doubt that 
 Escier must be the Schahhr of Niebuhr (or Sheher in our orthography), 
 the Sahar of D'Anville, and the Seer of Ovington's voyage. If pro- 
 nounced with the Arabic article, Al-sheher, or, more corrctly, As-sheher, 
 it would approach still more nearly to the Italian pronunciation of 
 Escier. 
 
 2 " The product of the country," says Hamilton, " is myrrh and 
 olibanum or frankincense, which they barter for coarse calicoes from 
 India; but they have no great commerce with strangers." (Vol. i. p. 55.) 
 The native trade of that part of the world had much declined in his 
 day, from what it was at the period when Barbosa wrote, soon after 
 the Portuguese discovery. 
 
 3 The mode of obtaining a fermented and inebriating liquor from the 
 infusion of dates in warm water, as practised by people inhabiting the 
 coast of the Persian gulf, has been spoken of before. A spirit is also 
 distilled from them.
 
 
 GREAT USE OF FISH AT ESCIER. 441 
 
 are not situated like those in others of the sjecies; two 
 small horns growing in the place of them, and lower down, 
 towards the nose, there are two orifices that serve the purpose 
 of ears. 
 
 These people are great fishermen, and catch the tunny in 
 such numbers, that two may be purchased for a Venetian 
 groat. They dry them in the sun ; l and as, by reason of the 
 extreme heat, the country is in a manner burnt up, and no 
 sort of vegetable is to be seen, they accustom their cattle, 
 cows, sheep, camels, and horses, to feed upon dried fish, which 
 being regularly served to them, they eat without any signs 
 of dislike. The fish used for this purpose are of a small 
 kind, which they take in vast quantities during the months 
 of March, April, and May ; and when dried, they lay up in 
 their houses for the food of their cattle. These will also feed 
 upon the fresh fish, but are more accustomed to eat them in 
 the dried state. In consequence also of the scarcity of grain, 
 the natives make a kind of biscuit of the substance of the 
 larger fish, in the following manner : they chop it into very- 
 small particles, and moisten the preparation with a liquor 
 rendered thick and adhesive by a mixture of flour, which 
 gives to the whole the consistence of paste. This they form 
 into a kind of bread, which they dry and harden by expo- 
 sure to a burning sun. A stock of this biscuit is laid up to 
 serve them for the year's consumption. The frankincense 
 before mentioned is so cheap in the country as to be pur- 
 chased by the governor at the rate of ten besants (gold 
 ducats) the quintal, who sells it again to the merchants at 
 forty besants. This he does under the direction of the soldan 
 of Aden, 2 who monopolises all that is produced in the district 
 
 1 This part of the coast of Arabia not having been visited by Nie- 
 buhr, our information respecting it is not so direct or circumstantial as 
 it would otherwise have been; but the practice of drying fish in the 
 sun (by no means an uncommon one), although unnoticed by him under 
 the head of " Nourriture des Arabes," is sufficiently proved from other 
 authorities. 
 
 2 The importance of Aden with respect to the neighbouring countries 
 has changed considerably, at different periods. In our author's time, 
 and afterwards under the Turkish government, its influence extended 
 to Sheher, Keschin, and other places on the southern coast of Yemen 
 and that of Hadramaut. In the seventeenth century, Aden was sub- 
 ordinate to the Imam of Yemen or of Mokha. In later times it haa 
 been independent and insignificant.
 
 442 TRAVELS OP MARCO POLO. 
 
 at the above price, and derives a large profit from the re-sale. 
 Nothing further presenting itself at this place, we shall now 
 speak of the city of Dulfar. 
 
 CHAPTER XLII. 
 
 OF THE CITY OF DULFAR. 
 
 DULPAR is a large and respectable city or town, at the 
 distance of twenty miles from Escier, in a south-easterly di- 
 rection. 1 Its inhabitants are Mahometans, and its ruler also 
 is a subject of the soldan of Aden. 2 This place lies near the 
 sea, and has a good port, frequented by many ships. Num- 
 bers of Arabian horses are collected here from the inland 
 country, which the merchants buy up and carry to India, 
 where they gain considei'ably by disposing of them. Frank- 
 incense is likewise produced here, and purchased by the 
 merchants. Dulfar has other towns and castles under its 
 jurisdiction. We shall now speak of the gulf of Kalayati. 
 
 CHAPTER XLIII. 
 
 OF THE CITY OF KALAYATI. 
 
 KALAYATI is a large town situated near a gulf which has 
 the name of Kalatu, distant from Dulfar about fifty miles 
 towards the south-east. 3 The people are followers of the law 
 
 1 The Dulfar of our text is the Dafar of Niebuhr and of our charts. 
 Its direction from the last-mentioned place, conformably to that of the 
 coast in general, is about north-east, and its distance considerably 
 greater than what is here stated. 
 
 - This town has in like manner shaken off the yoke of successive 
 masters. " Dafar," says the former writer, " a son Schech indt'pen- 
 dant." (P. 248.) " The king of this place," Ovington adds, " engages 
 now and then in skirmishes and martial disputes with his neighbouring 
 princes, the kings of Seer (Escier or Sheher) and Casseen (Keschin)." 
 P. 452. 
 
 3 Kalayati is obviously Kalhat, on the coast of Oman, not far to the 
 southward of Maskat or Muscat. In D'Anville's map, the name is 
 written " Kalhat ou Kalajate." Niebuhr (p. 257) speaks of it as one of 
 the most ancient towns on that coast. The distance and bearings in the 
 text are, as too often happens, quite incorrect.
 
 THE CITY OP KALATATI. 413 
 
 of Mahomet, and are subjects to the melik of Ormus, 1 who, 
 when he is attacked and hard pressed by another power, has 
 recourse to the protection afforded by this city, which is so 
 strong in itself, and so advantageously situated, that it has 
 never yet been taken by an enemy. 2 The country around it 
 not yielding any kind of grain, it is imported from other 
 districts. Its harbour is good, and many trading ships arrivt 
 there from India, which sell their piece-goods and spiceries 
 to great advantage, the demand being considerable for the 
 supply of towns and castles lying at a distance from the 
 coast. 3 These likewise carry away freights of horses, which 
 they sell advantageously in India. 
 
 The fortress is so situated at the entrance of the gulf of 
 Kalatu, that no vessel oan come in or depart without its 
 permission. Occasionally it happens that the melik of this 
 city, who is under certain engagements with, and is tributary 
 to the king of Kermain, throws off his allegiance in conse- 
 quence of the latter's imposing some unusual contribution. 
 Upon his refusing to pay the demand, and an army being sent 
 to compel him, he departs from Ormus, and makes his stand at 
 Kalayati, where he has it in his power to prevent anj ship 
 from entering or sailing. By this obstruction of the trade 
 the king of Kermain is deprived of his duties, and being 
 thereby much injured in his revenue, is constrained to ac- 
 commodate the dispute with the melik. The strong castle 
 at this place constitutes, as it were, the key, not only of the 
 gulf, but also of the sea itself, as from thence the ships that 
 pass can at all times be discovered. 4 The inhabitants in 
 
 1 The title of melik properly signifies " king," but is often applied 
 to tributary princes and governors of provinces. The sultan or melik 
 of Ormuz (noticed in B. i. ch. xv.) acknowledged himself to be tributary 
 to, although he was often at war with, the king of Kirman. 
 
 2 The name of Kalhat has so near an affinity to kalat, a castle or 
 fortress, especially on the top of a rock, that we may consider this 
 place as having derived its appellaton from the circumstance, and to 
 have been called (like many others in different parts) the castle, 
 pre-eminently. 
 
 3 From this account of the goodness of the harbour (an advantage 
 that Kalhat itself is not supposed to possess^, we may conjecture that 
 the description was meant to include the celebrated port of Muskat, in 
 its neighbourhood, and probably at that time under its dependence; 
 which, beintr situated at the bottom of a bay or cove, our author terms 
 the gulf of Kalatu. 
 
 * By this must be understood that its prominent situation, affording
 
 444 TRAVELS OP MAROO POLO. 
 
 general of this country subsist upon dates and upon fish, 
 either fresh or salted, having constantly a large supply ot 
 both; 1 but persons of rank, and those who can afford it, 
 obtain corn for their use from other parts. Upon leaving 
 Kalayati, and proceeding three hundred miles towards the 
 north-east, you reach the island of Ormus. 
 
 CHAPTER XLIV. 
 
 UPON the island of Ormus there is a handsome and large 
 city, built close to the sea. 2 It is governed by a melik, which 
 is a title equivalent to that of lord of the marches with us, 
 and he has many towns and castles under his authority. 
 The inhabitants are Saracens, all of them professing the 
 faith of Mahomet. The heat that reigns here is extreme ; but 
 in every house they are provided with ventilators, by means 
 
 shelter to vessels equipped for cruising, and enabling its garrison to 
 discern those which approached the coast, whilst it was itself secure 
 from attack, gave the prince who possessed it the command of those 
 seas, as well as of the great commercial port in its vicinity. That it is 
 usual for ships to make this point is evident from Niebuhr's journal of 
 his voyage from Bombay to Maskdt. The kind of petty warfare 
 spoken of in the text has always subsisted, and still subsists, in this 
 quarter. 
 
 1 " The staple commodity of the country," says Ovington, " is 
 dates, of which there are whole orchards for some miles together." 
 " The dates are so plentiful, so pleasant and admired, that they mix 
 them with all their other food, and eat them instead of bread, through 
 all these parts of Arabia, both with their fish and flesh." Voyage to 
 Surat, Pp. 423 427. 
 
 2 The city of Ormuz having been already described in B. i. ch. xv., 
 what is here said of it is little more than a repetition : but although 
 this may be regarded as exposing a want of method or a confusion in 
 the plan of the work, it is on the other hand a proof of its genuine- 
 ness, and even of its consistency; for it may be perceived that this 
 distinguished city, at which our author seems to have made some stay, 
 constitutes a sort of resting-place in his description, from whence he 
 had proceeded to trace the several inland countries and principal towns, 
 intermediate between the shores of the Persian gulf and the empire of 
 China, and to which, in a circuit through the Chinese, Indian, Ethiopia, 
 and Arabian seas, he finally conducts his readers.
 
 REGIONS IN THE NORTH. 445 
 
 of which they introduce air to the different floors, and into 
 every apartment, at pleasure. Without this resource it would 
 be impossible to live in the place. 1 We shall not now say 
 more of this city, as in a former book we have given an 
 account of it, together with Kisi and Kerman. 2 
 
 Having thus treated sufficiently at length of those pro- 
 vinces and cities of the Greater India whrch are situated 
 near the sea-coast, as well as of some of the countries of 
 Ethiopia, termed the Middle India, I shall now, before I 
 bring the work to a conclusion, step back, in order to notice 
 some regions lying towards the north, which I omitted to 
 speak of in the preceding books. 
 
 It should be known, therefore, that in the northern parts 
 of the world there dwell many Tartars, under a chief of the 
 name of Kaiclu, who is of the race of Jengiz-khan, and nearly 
 related to Kublai', the grand khan. 3 He is not the subject 
 
 1 " Comme pendant le solstice d'Ete, le soleil est presque perpen- 
 diculairement au dessus de 1'Arabie, il y fait en general si chaud en 
 Juillet et en Aout, que sans un cas de necessite" pressante, personne ne 
 se met en route depuis lea 11 heures du matin jusqiies a 3 heures de 
 1'apres-midi. Les Arabes travaillent rarement pendant ce temps-la; 
 pour 1'ordinaire ils 1'employent a dormir dans un souterrain ou le 
 vent vient d'enhaut par un tuyau pour faire circuler 1'air : ce que se 
 pratique a Bagdad, dans 1'isle de Charedsj, et peut-etre en d'autres 
 villes de ce pays." (Descript. de 1'Arabie, p. 6.) " Mr. Callander,'' says 
 Major Renuell, "described to me the ventilators used at Tatta inSindi, 
 which were pipes or tubes fixed in the walls, and open to somewhat 
 cooler air, answering the same purpose as wind-sails in ships." The 
 notice of this peculiar mode of introducing fresh air to the lower 
 apartments of the houses, will be deemed no common proof of our 
 author's fidelity of observation. On the subject of these ventilators, 
 see also Relation de 1'Egypte par Abd-allatif, traduit par Silvestre de 
 Sacy, pp. 295, 301. 
 
 2 Respecting Kisi or Kis, an island of the Persian gulf, to which the 
 commerce of Siraf was transferred, see note 3 , p. 39 ; and on the sub- 
 ject of the kingdom or province of Kerman or Kirman, note 3 , p. 53. 
 
 3 In the first chapter of book ii. we were furnished with a detailed 
 account of the formidable rebellion which Nayan, in concert with 
 Kaidu, another powerful Tartar prince, raised against Kubla'i, their 
 kinsman as well as their paramount lord, and of its suppression by 
 the defeat of the combined princes and the death of the former. To 
 that chapter the reader is referred. It appears, however, from the 
 Chinese historians, that Kaidu (by them named Haitu, consistently 
 with the visual change of literal sounds) was not driven to submission 
 by this failure, but continued in a state of hostility, more or less active,
 
 446 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 of any other prince. 1 The people observe the usages and 
 manners of their ancestors, and are regarded as genuine 
 Tartars. These Tartars are idolaters, and worship a god 
 whom they call Naagai, that is, the god of earth, because they 
 think and believe that this their god has dominion over the 
 earth, and over all things that are born of it; and to this 
 their false god they make idols and images of felt, as is 
 described in a former book. Their king and his armies do 
 not shut themselves up in castles or strong places, nor even 
 in towns; but at all times remain in the open plains, the 
 valleys, or the woods, with which this region abounds. They 
 have no corn of any kind, but subsist upon flesh and milk, 
 and live amongst each other in perfect harmony; their king, 
 to whom they all pay implicit obedience, having no object 
 dearer to him than that of preserving peace and union 
 amongst his subjects, which is the essential duty of a sove- 
 reign. They possess vast herds of horses, cows, sheep, and 
 other domestic animals. In these northern districts are 
 found bears of a white colour, and of prodigious size, being 
 for the most part about twenty spans in length. 2 There are 
 
 during the remainder of Kublai's reign, and a part of that of his grand- 
 son and successor Timur-khan, when his (Kaidu's) army being entirely 
 routed on the banks of the Irtish, he relinquished the struggle, and 
 died soon after of vexation and despair. 
 
 1 When our author left the court of Pekin, about the year 1291, 
 Kaidu, however nominally the vassal of Kublai, was actually inde- 
 pendent, and, notwithstanding some checks, was still a powerful prince. 
 It would seem that, from the period of the latter's effecting the entire 
 conquest of China and instead of holding it as a province, placing 
 himself on the throne, and identifying himself with its line of mon- 
 archs the other princes of the family of Jengiz-khan considered him 
 as having virtually abandoned the Mungal-Tartar empire, founded by 
 their common ancestor, and assumed, or attempted to assume, as sove- 
 reignties, those vast dominions which they held only as fiefs. Such 
 will appear to have been the state of things in Persia, and in Western 
 as well as in Northern Tartary. 
 
 2 "The polar or great white bear, ursus albus, Lin., differs greatly," 
 says the History of Quadrupeds, "from the common bear, in the length 
 of the head and neck, and grows to above twice the size. Some of 
 them are thirteen feet long." The Italian dictionaries leave us in an 
 uncertainty with regard to the measure expressed by the word 
 " palmo," some of them rendering it by the French " empan," a span, 
 and others by "pied," afoot. According to the former acceptation 
 (which is more consistent with propriety), and reckoning the span of a 
 middle-sized man at eight inches, the two measurements would coin-
 
 THE TARTARS IX THE NORTH. 447 
 
 foxes also whose furs are entirely black, 1 wild asses in great 
 numbers, and certain small animals named roudes, which 
 have most delicate furs, and by our people are called zibe- 
 liues or sables. 2 Besides these there are various small beasts 
 of the marten or weasel kind, and those which bear the name 
 of Pharaoh's mice. The swarms of the latter are incredible; 
 but the Tartars employ such ingenious contrivances for 
 catching them, that none can escape their hands. 
 
 In order to reach the country inhabited by these people, it 
 is necessary to perform a journey of fourteen days across 
 a wide plain, entirely uninhabited and desert a state that is 
 occasioned by innumerable collections of water and springs, 
 that render it an entire marsh. 3 This, in consequence of the 
 long duration of the cold season, is frozen over, excepting for 
 a few months of the year, when the sun dissolves the ice, and 
 turns the soil to mud, over which it is more difficult and 
 fktiguing to travel than when the whole is frozen. For the 
 purpose, however, of enabling the merchants to frequent their 
 country, and purchase their furs, in which all their trade 
 consists, these people have exerted themselves to render the 
 
 cide within a trifle, twenty spans being equal to thirteen feet and four 
 inches. 
 
 1 " The black fox," says the same work, " is most valuable for ita 
 fur, which is esteemed in Russia superior to that of the finest sable. 
 A single skin will sell for four hundred roubles." " Their fur," says 
 Bell, " is reckoned the most beautful of any kind ; it is even preferred 
 to the sable, with respect to lightness and warmness." Vol. i. p. 222. 
 
 2 "The sable, mustela zibdlina, Lin., so highly esteemed for its skin, 
 is a native of the snowy regions of the North; it is found chiefly in 
 Siberia. . . . The darkest furs are the most valuable. A single skin, 
 though not above four inches broad, is sometimes valued as high as fif- 
 teen pounds. The sable differs from all other furs in this, that the 
 hair turns with equal ease to either side." (Hist, of Quadrupeds.) 
 The name of rondes, supposed to be a Mungal word, had already 
 occurred in B. ii. chap, xvi., but was not there explained to mean the sable. 
 (See note 2 , p. 212.) 
 
 3 It will be seen, by inspection of the map, that a number of great 
 rivers, which discharge themselves towards the north and the east, have 
 their sources in the high plains between the latitudes of 45 and 55, 
 the original haunts of these wandering hordes; and where, conse- 
 quently, we may look for a country of waters such as our text describes 
 " Baraba (between the Irtish and the Oby) is really what its name sig- 
 nifies, an extensive marshy plain. It is generally full of lakes and 
 marshy grounds, overgrown with tall woods of aspen., alder, willows, 
 and other aquatics." Bell's Travels, voL i. p 205.
 
 4:48 TRAVELS OP MARCO POLO. 
 
 marshy desert passable for travellers, by erecting at the en<? 
 of each day's stage a wooden house, raised some height above 
 the ground, where persons are stationed, whose business it is 
 to receive and accommodate the merchants, and on the fol- 
 lowing day to conduct them to the next station of this kind ; 
 and thus they proceed from stage to stage, until they have 
 effected the passage of the desert. 1 In order to travel over 
 the frozen surface of the ground, they construct a sort of 
 vehicle, not unlike that made use of by the natives of the 
 steep and almost inaccessible mountains in the vicinity of 
 our own country, and which is termed a tragula or sledge. 
 It is without wheels, is flat at bottom, but rises with a semi- 
 circular curve in front, by which construction it is fitted for 
 running easily upon the ice. 2 For drawing these small car- 
 riages they keep in readiness certain animals resembling dogs. 
 and which may be called such, although they approach to the 
 size of asses. They are very strong and inured to the draught. a 
 Six of them, in couples, are harnessed to each carriage, which 
 contains only the driver who manages the dogs, and one mer- 
 chant, with his package of goods. 4 When the day's journey 
 
 1 These halting places, however insignificant in respect to buildings 
 or inhabitants, are such as in the language of the Russians, whose 
 empire embraces the country here described, would be termed ostrogs 
 or villages, and the houses answer to those which travellers to and 
 from Kamchatka name balagan, rather than to the isba or log-house. 
 
 2 "The body of the sledges," says Captain King, "is about four 
 feet and a half long, and a foot wide, made in the form of a crescent, 
 of light tough wood, strongly bound together with wicker-work. . . . 
 It is supported by four legs, about two feet high, which rest on two 
 long flat pieces of wood, five or six inches broad, extending a foot at 
 each end beyond the body of the sledge. These are turned up before, 
 in the manner of a skate, and shod with the bone of some sea animal." 
 Cook's third Voyage, Continuation, vol. iii. p. 202. 
 
 3 It is now well known that dogs are employed for the purposes of 
 draught in the north-eastern parts of Tartary. In respect to their 
 size, indeed, there appears to be some exaggeration, although it is 
 possible that in the course of five hundred years the breed may have 
 degenerated. " These dogs," says Captain King, " are in shape some- 
 what like the Pomeranian breed, but considerably larger." (P. 204.) 
 
 4 " The sledges," says the Captain, " are seldom used to carry mor 
 than one person at a time, who sits aside, resting his feet on the lower 
 part of the sledge, and carrying his provisions and other necessaries 
 wrapped up in a bundle behind him. The dogs are usually five in 
 aumber, yoked two and two, with a leader." " As we did not chooee 
 
 trust to our own skill, we had each of us a man to drive and guide
 
 THE REGION OP DARKNESS. 449 
 
 has been performed he quits it, together with that set of 
 dogs, and thus changing both, from day to day, he at length 
 accomplishes his journey across the desert, and afterwards 
 carries with him (in his return) the furs that find their 
 way, for sale, to our part of the world. 
 
 CHAPTER XLV. 
 
 OF THOSE COUNTRIES WHICH ARE TERMED THE REGION OF DARKNESS. 
 
 BEYOND the most distant part of the territory of those 
 Tartars from whence the skins that have been spoken of are 
 procured, there is another region which extends to the utmost 
 bounds of the north, and is called the Region of Darkness, 
 because during most part of the winter months the sun is 
 invisible, and the atmosphere is obscured to the same degree 
 as that in which we find it just about the dawn of day, when 
 we may be said to see and not to see. 1 The men of v this 
 country are well made and tall, but of a very pallid com- 
 plexion. They are not united under the government of a 
 king or prince, and they live without any established laws or 
 usages, in the manner of the brute creation. Their intellects 
 also are dull, and they have an air of stupidity. 2 The Tartars 
 
 the sledge, which, from the state the roads were now in, proved a very 
 laborious business. ... as the thaw had advanced very considerably." 
 (Pp. 203205.) " The number of dogs that it is necessary to harness," 
 says Lesseps, "depends upon the load; when it is little more than 
 the weight of the person who mounts the sledge. . . . the team 
 consists of four or five dogs. . . . The sledges for baggage are drawn 
 by ten dogs." P. 118. 
 
 1 This is a correct description of the phenomena observed about the 
 arctic circle and polar regions, where, during the winter, or season 
 when the sun is below the horizon during the whole of the earth's 
 diurnal revolution, the strength of the twilight prevents, notwith- 
 standing, an entire darkness. 
 
 2 The people here mentioned appear to be the Tongusi, or their 
 neighbours the Samoyeds, on the one side, or, on the other, the Yakuts, 
 who inhabit the country near the river Lena. " The Tongusy," says 
 Bell, "so called from the name of the river (Tonguska), who live along 
 its banks, are the posterity of the ancient inhabitants of Siberia, and 
 differ in language, manners, and dress, and even in their persons and 
 stature, from all the other tribes of these people I have had occasion 
 
 (t a
 
 450 TRAVELS OP MARCO POLO. 
 
 often proceed 011 plundering expeditions against these people, 
 to rob them of their cattle and goods. For this purpose they 
 avail themselves of those months in which the darkneas pre- 
 vails, iu order that their approach may be unobserved; but, 
 being unable to ascertain the direction in which they should 
 return homeward with their booty, they provide against the 
 chance of going astray by riding mares that have young 
 foals at the time, which latter they suffer to accompany the 
 dams as far as the confines of their own territory, but leave 
 them, under proper care, at the commencement of the gloomy 
 region. When their works of darkness have been accom- 
 plished, and they are desirous of revisiting the region of light, 
 they lay the bridles on the necks of their mares, and suffer 
 them freely to take their own course. Guided by maternal 
 in&tinct, they make their way directly to the spot where they 
 had quitted their foals; and by these means the riders are 
 enabled to regain in safety the places of their residence. 
 
 The inhabitants of this (polar) region take advantage of 
 the summer season, when they enjoy continual daylight, to 
 catch vast multitudes of ermines, martens, arcoliui, 1 foxes, 
 
 to see. They have no houses where they remain for any time, but 
 range through the woods or along rivers at pleasure." " The men are 
 tall and able-bodied, brave, and very honest." (Vol. i. p. 225.) " It is 
 to be observed, that, from this river northward to the frozen ocean, 
 there are no inhabitants, except a few Tongusians on the banks of the 
 great rivers ; the whole of this most extensive country being overgrown 
 with dark impenetrable woods." (P. 231.) " Before I leave Elimsky," 
 says the same traveller. " I shall give a short account of some of the 
 places adjacent; particularly those to the north-east, towards the river 
 Lena, and Yakutsky, according as I have been informed by travellers, 
 on whose veracity I could entirely depend. The people who travel in 
 winter from hence to these places, generally do it in January or Feb- 
 ruary. It is a very long and difficult journey ; and which none but 
 Tongusians, or such hardy people, have abilities to perform." (P. 234.) 
 " The Yakuty differ little from the Tongusians, either in their persons 
 or way of life. Their occupation, like that of the other natives, is 
 fishing and hunting." P. 240. 
 
 1 The names of the animals which, in Ramusio's text, follow "ar- 
 mellini," or ermines, are, "vari, arcolini." The former of these are 
 the " vares seu varii " of the Latin glossaries, and the French " vairs," 
 denoting a species of marten or weasel, of a whitish grey colour. The 
 latter, which in the Basle edition are " herculini," and " erculini," I 
 am unable to trace either in dictionaries or books of natural history; 
 but in the copious list of furs enumerated by Professor Pallas, as con- 
 stituting a principal part of the Chinese trade with the Russians on the
 
 RUSSIA. 451 
 
 and other animals of that kind, the furs of which are more 
 delicate, and consequently more valuable, than those found iu 
 the districts inhabited by the Tartars, who, on that account, 
 are induced to undertake the plundering expeditions that 
 have been described. 1 During the summer, also, these people 
 cany their furs to the neighbouring countries, where they dis- 
 pose of them in a manner highly advantageous ; and, accord- 
 ing to what I have been told, some of them are transported 
 even as far as to the country of Russia; 2 of which -we shall 
 proceed to speak in this the concluding part of our work. 
 
 CHAPTER XL VI. 
 
 OF THE PROVINCE OF BCSSIA.* 
 
 THE province of Russia is of vast extent, is divided into 
 many parts, and borders upon that northern tract which has 
 been described as the Region of Darkness. 4 Its inhabitants 
 are Christians, and follow the Greek ritual in the offices of 
 
 borders, mention is made of the skin of a small animal named by the 
 Germans, rielfraa, by the French, goulu or yluuton, and by the Italian*, 
 areigoUao ; which latter word may perhaps have been corrupted to 
 arcolino. Bell notices the same anirna] in the Mungal country. 
 
 1 It is well known to those who deal in furs, that the richest are 
 procured from the coldest climates; agreeably to the usual economy of 
 nature. 
 
 * It is probable that at the period when Siberia was independ^it, 
 the furs intended for the European market were all conveyed to a. 
 place named Verchaturia, on the Russian side of Tobolsky, and near 
 the chain of mountains called Verchatursky-gori. " These mountain?," 
 ?ays Bell, "divide Russia from Siberia. They run in a ridge from 
 north to south." " What makes Verchaturia considerable, is its being 
 a frontier town, and commanding the only entry from Russia into 
 Siberia." Vol. i. p. 172. 
 
 3 Russia is here termed a province, because it had been overrun and 
 subdued, together with a considerable portion of the kingdoms of 
 Poland and Hungary, by the Tartars, under the command of Batu. the 
 grandson of Jengiz-khan, about the year 1 240, and continued till the 
 time when our author wrote, and for many years after, to groan under 
 the yoke of these barbarians. 
 
 4 This applies directly to the country of the Samoyeds, who, as 
 Pinkerton observes, "first appear beyond the river Meztn, about three 
 hundred miles to the east of Archangel, and extend to the Straits of 
 Wcygatz, far within the polar circl*
 
 452 TRAVELS OP MARCO POLO. 
 
 their Church. The men are extremely well-favoured, tall, 
 and of fair complexions; the women are also fair and of a 
 good size, with light hair, which they are accustomed to wear 
 long. The country pays tribute to the king of the Western 
 Tartars, with whose dominions it comes in contact on its 
 eastern border. 1 Within it are collected in great abundance 
 the furs of ermines, arcolini, sables, martens, foxes, and other 
 animals of that tribe, together with much wax. 2 It contains 
 several mines, from whence a large quantity of silver is pro- 
 cured. 3 Russia is an exceedingly cold region, and I have been 
 assured that it extends even as far as the Northern Ocean, 
 where, as has been mentioned in a preceding part of the work, 
 jerfalcons and peregrine falcons are taken in vast numbers, 
 and from thence are carried to various parts of the world. 
 
 1 By Western Tartars are here meant the subjects of Batu and his 
 descendants, who inherited as his portion of the dominions of Jengiz- 
 khan, the countries of "Kapchak, Allan, Russ, and Bulgar." As 
 distinguished from these, the denomination of Eastern Tartars is else- 
 where applied to the followers of Hulagu and his descendants, who 
 settled in Khorasan and Persia. 
 
 " The number of wild animals, whose furs constitute articles of 
 trade, was of course much greater in Russia when the country was less 
 populous and cultivated than it is at present. The most numerous, 
 as well as the most valuable of the furs now exported, are the produce 
 of her Siberian territories, and are partly collected as tribute or 
 revenue; but even before the discovery and conquest of that country, 
 they were procured at a moderate price, by barter on the frontier. Wax 
 is exported in large quantities, and chiefly to England. 
 
 3 It does not appear in any modern account of the country, that 
 silver mines are now worked in European Russia; but such may have 
 formerly existed and been exhausted. In the Siberian provinces both 
 gold and silver are found. [Ibn Batuta mentions the silver mines of 
 Russia.]
 
 HISTORY OP KAIDU. 453 
 
 CHAPTER XLVII.i 
 
 OP GBEAT TURKEY. 
 
 IN Great Turkey there is a king called Kaidu, who is the nephew 
 of the grand khan, for he was son of the sou of Ciagatai, who 
 was brother to the grand khan. 2 He possesses many cities and 
 castles, and is a very great lord. He is Tartar, and his men also are 
 Tartar, and they are good warriors, which is no wonder, for they are 
 all men brought up to war ; and I tell you that this Kaidu never gave 
 obedience to the grand khan, without first making great war. And 
 you must know that this Great Turkey lies to the north-west when 
 we leave Ormus, by the way already mentioned. Great Turkey is 
 beyond the river Ion, 3 and stretches out northward to the territory of 
 the grand khan. This Kaidu has already fought many battles with 
 the people of the grand khan, and I will relate to you how he came 
 to quarrel with him. You must know for a truth that Kaidu sent 
 word one day to the grand khan that he wanted his part of what 
 they had obtained by conquest, claiming a part of the province of 
 Cathay and of that of Manji. The grand khan told him that he was 
 quite willing to give him his share, as he had done to his other sons, 
 if he, on his part, would repair to his court and attend his council as 
 often as he sent for him ; and the grand khan willed further, that he 
 should obey him like the others his sons and his barons ; and on this 
 condition the grand khan said that he would give him part of their 
 conquest (of China). Kaidu, who distrusted his uncle the grand 
 khan, rejected this condition, saying that he was willing to yield him 
 obedience in his own country, but that he would not go to his court 
 for any consideration, as he feared lest he should be put to death. 
 Thus originated the quarrel between the grand khan and Kaidu, 
 which led to a great war, and there were many great battles between 
 them. And the grand khan posted an army round the kingdom of 
 Kaidu, to prevent him or his people from committing any injury to 
 his territory or people. But, in spite of all these precautions of the 
 grand khan, Kaidu invaded his territory, and fought many times with 
 the forces sent to oppose him. Now king Kaidu, by exerting him- 
 self, could bring into the field a hundred thousand horsemen, all good 
 men, and well trained to war and battle. And moreover he has witli 
 him many barons of the lineage of the emperor, that is of Jengis- 
 
 (1) This, and the following chapters, tochapter63, come in the original text between 
 the middle of chapter 44 of Marsden's translation and his 45th chapter ; but they had 
 been omitted in the texts from which Marsden translated. 
 
 (2) In illustration of the historical matters contained in these supplementary 
 chapters, the reader is referred to the text and notes in pages 22 to 24 of the present 
 volume. * 
 
 (3) The river Gihon ; the Oxut of the ancients.
 
 454 TRAVELS OP MARCO POLO. 
 
 khan, who was the founder of the empire. We will now proceed <.o 
 narrate certain battles between Kaidu and the grand khan's people ; 
 but first we will describe their mode of fighting. When they go to 
 war, each is obliged to carry with him sixty arrows, thirty of which 
 are of a smaller size, intended for shooting at a distance, but the 
 other thirty are larger, and have a broad blade ; these they use near 
 at hand, and strike their enemies in the faces and arms, and cut the 
 strings of their bows, and do great damage witli them. And when 
 they have discharged all their arrows, they take their swords and 
 maces, and give one another heavy blows with them. 
 
 In the year 1266, this king Kaidu, with his cousins, one of whom 
 was called Jesudar, assembled a vast number of people, and attacked 
 two of the grand khan's barons, who also were cousins of king Kaidu, 
 though they held their lands of the grand khan. One of these was 
 named Tibai or Ciban. They were sons of Ciagatai, who had received 
 Christian baptism, and was own brother to the grand khan Kubla'i. 
 Well, Kaidu with his people fought with these his two cousins, who 
 also had a great army, for on both sides there were about a hundred 
 thousand horsemen. They fought very hard together, and there were 
 many slain on both sides ; but at last king Kaidu gained the victory, 
 and did great damage to the others. But the two brothers, the 
 cousins of king Kaidu, escaped without hurt, for they had good 
 horses, which bore them away with great swiftness. Having thus 
 gained the victory, Kaidu's pride and arrogance increased; and he 
 returned into his own country, where he remained full two years in 
 peace, without any hostilities between him and the grand khan. But 
 at the end of two years Kaidu again assembled a great army. He 
 knew that the grand khan's son, named Nomogan, was at Caracorum, 
 and that with him was George the grandson of Prester John, which 
 two barons had also a very great army of horsemen. King Kaidu, 
 having assembled his host, marched from his own country, and, with- 
 out any occurrence worth mentioning, arrived in the neighbourhood 
 of Caracorum, where the two barons, the son of the grand khan and 
 the grandson of Prester John, were with their army. The latter, 
 instead of being frightened, prepared to meet them with the utmost 
 ardour and courage ; and having assembled their whole army, which 
 consisted of not less than sixty thousand horsemen, they marched 
 out and established their camp very well and orderly at a distance of 
 about ten miles from king Kaidu, who was encamped with his men in 
 the same plain. Each party remained in their camp till the third day, 
 preparing for battle in the best way they could, for their numbers 
 were about equal, neither exceeding sixty thousand horsemen, well 
 armed with bows and arrows, and a sword, mace, and shield to each. 
 Both armies were divided into six squadrons of ten thousand men 
 each, and each having its commander. And when the two armies 
 were drawn up in the field, and waited only for the signal to be
 
 KAIDU'S GREAT BATTLE. 455 
 
 given by sounding the nacar, 1 they sang and sounded their instru- 
 ments of music in such a manner that it was wonderful to hear. For 
 the Tartars are not allowed to commence a battle till they hear the 
 iiacars of their lord begin to sound, but the moment it sounds they 
 begin to fight ; and it is their custom, while thus waiting the signal 
 of battle, to sing and sound their two-corded instruments very 
 sweetly, and make great solace. As soon as the sound of the nacars 
 was heard, the battle began, and they put their hands to their bows, 
 and placed the arrows to the strings. In an instant the air was filled 
 with arrows like rain, and you might see many a man and many a 
 horse struck down dead, and the shouting and the noise of the battle 
 was so great, that one could hardly have heard God's thunder. In 
 truth, they fought like mortal enemies. And truly, as long as they 
 had any arrows left, those who were able ceased not to shoot; but so 
 many were slain and mortally wounded, that the battle commenced 
 propitiously for neither party. And when, they had exhausted their 
 arrows, they placed the bows in their cases, and seized their swords 
 and maces, and, rushing upon each other, began to give terrible 
 blows with them. Thus they began a very fierce and dreadful battle, 
 with such execution upon each other, that the ground was soon 
 covered with corpses. Kaidu especially performed great feats of 
 arms, and but for his personal prowess, which restored courage to 
 his followers, they were several times nearly defeated. And gn the 
 other side, the son of the grand khan and the grandson of Prester 
 John also behaved themselves with great bravery. In a word, this 
 was one of the most sanguinary battles that had ever taken place 
 among the Tartars ; for it lasted till nightfall ; and in spite of all 
 their efforts, neither party could drive the other from the field, which 
 was covered with so many corpses that it was pity to see, and many 
 a lady that day was made a widow, and many a child an orphan. 
 And when the sun set, both parties gave over fighting, and returned 
 to their several camps to repose during the night. Next morning, 
 king Kaidu, who had received information that the grand khan had 
 sent a very powerful army against him, put his men under arms at 
 daybreak, and, all having mounted, he ordered them to proceed 
 homewards. Their opponents were so weary with the previous day's 
 battle, that they made no attempt to follow them, but let them go 
 without molestation. Kaidu 's men continued their ret-re&t, until they 
 came to Samarcand, in Great Turkey. 
 
 (1) The nacar, or nacaire, was a kind of drum, or a cymbal, used !n .he east for 
 warlike music, and not unknown in the west.
 
 456 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 CHAPTER XLYIII. 
 
 WHAT THE GRAND KHAN SAID OF THE INJURIES DONE TO HIM BY KAIDU. 
 
 Now the grand khan was greatly enraged against Kaidu, who was 
 always doing so much injury to his people and his territory, and he 
 said in himself, that if he had not been his nephew, he should not 
 have escaped an evil death. But his feelings of relationship hindered 
 him from destroying him and his land; and thus Kaidu escaped from 
 the hands of the grand khan. We will now leave this matter, and 
 we will tell you a strange history of king Kaidu's daughter. 
 
 CHAPTER XLIX. 
 
 OF THE DAUGHTER OF KING KAIDU, HOW STRONG AND VALIANT 
 SHE WAS. 
 
 You must know, then, that king Kaidu had a daughter named, 
 in the Tartar language, Aigiarm, 1 which means shining moon. This 
 damsel was so strong, that there was no young man in the whole 
 kingdom who could overcome her, but she vanquished them all. Her 
 father the king wished to marry her; but she declined, saying, that 
 she would never take a husband till she met with some gentleman 
 who should conquer her by force, upon which the king, her father, 
 gave her a written promise that she might marry at her own will. 
 She now caused it to be proclaimed in different parts of the world, 
 that if any young man would come and try strength with her, and 
 should overcome her by force, she would accept him for her husband. 
 This proclamation was no sooner made, than many came from all 
 parts to try their fortune. The trial was made with great solemnity. 
 The king took his place in the principal hall of the palace, with 
 a large company of men and women; then came the king's daughter, 
 in a dress of cendal, very richly adorned, into the middle of the hall; 
 and next came the young man, also in a dress of cendal. The agree- 
 ment was, that if the young man overcame her so as to throw her 
 by force to the ground, he was to have her for wife; but if, on the 
 contrary, he should be overcome by the king's daughter, he was to 
 forfeit to her a hundred horses. In this manner the damsel gained 
 more than ten thousand horses, for she could meet with no one able 
 to conquer her, which was no wonder, for she was so well-made in 
 all her limbs, and so tall and strongly built, that she might almost 
 be taken for a giantess. At last, about the year 1280, there came 
 
 (1) In the Latin text published by the Society of Geography of Paris, ths iady'i 
 name is written Argialcucor. or Argialchucor. In the lu.ian it is Aigiarne.
 
 KING KAIDU'S DAUGHTER. 457 
 
 the son of a rich king, who was very beautiful aud young ; lie was 
 accompanied with a very fine retinue, and brought with him a 
 thousand beautiful horses. Immediately on his arrival, he announced 
 that he was come to try his strength with the lady. King Kaidu 
 received him very gladly, for he was very desirous to have this youth 
 for his son-in-law, knowing him to be the son of the king of Pamar; 
 on which account, Kaidu privately told his daughter that lie wished 
 her on this occasion to let herself be vanquished. But she said she 
 would not do so for anything in the world. Thereupon the king and 
 queen took their places in the hall, with a great attendance of botii 
 sexes, and the king's daughter presented herself as usual, and also 
 the king's son, who was remarkable no less for his beauty than for 
 his great strength. Now when they were brought into the hall, it 
 was, on account of the superior rank of the claimant, agreed as the 
 conditions of the trial, that if the young prince were conquered, he 
 should forfeit the thousand horses he had brought with him as his 
 stake. This agreement having been made, the wrestling began ; and 
 all who were there, including the king a-nd queen, wished heartily 
 that the prince might be the victor, that he might be the husband of 
 the princess. But, contrary to their hopes, after much pulling and 
 tugging, the king's daughter gained the victory, and the young prince 
 was thrown on the pavement of the palace, and lost his thousand 
 horses. There was not one person in the whole hall who did ~not 
 lament his defeat. After this the king took his daughter with him 
 into many battles, and not a cavalier in the host displayed so much 
 valour; and at last the damsel rushed into the midst of the enemy, 
 and seizing upon a horseman, carried him off to her own people. 
 We will now quit this episode, and proceed to relate a great battle 
 which fell out between Kaidu and Argon, the son of Abaga the lord 
 of the east. 2 
 
 CHAPTER L. 
 
 HOW ABAGA SENT ARGON HIS SON WITH AN ARMY. 
 
 Now Abaga, the lord of the east, held many provinces and many 
 lands, which bordered on the territory of king Kaidu, on the side 
 Towards the tree which is called in the book of Alexander, 3 Arbor 
 Ser.co. And Abaga, in consequence of the damages done to his lands 
 by king Kaidu, sent his son Argon with a very great number of 
 
 (1) This name, omitted in the French, is taken from the Italian text. In one 
 Italian MS. it is Pumar. 
 
 (2) Of the Eastern Tartars, i.e. of Persia and Khorasan. See Note 2, p. 4. 
 
 (3) The book of the wonders seen by Alexander in his eastern conquests, pretended 
 to have been written by Aristotl , was a very favourite book in the Middle Ages, and 
 was the foundation of many popular notions of geography, as well as of natural 
 history. On the arbor secco, see p. ?2 of the present volume.
 
 458 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 horsemen into the country of the Arbor Secco, as far as the river Ion, 
 where they remained to protect the country against king Kaidu's 
 people. In this manner Argon and his men remained in the plain of 
 the Arbor Secco, and garrisoned many cities and castles thereabouts. 
 Thereupon king Kaidu assembled a great number of horsemen, and 
 gave the command of them to his brother Barac, a prudent and brave 
 man, with orders to fight Argon Barac promised to fulfil his com- 
 mandment, and to do his best against Argon and his army; and he 
 marched with his army, which was a very numerous one, and pro- 
 ceeded for many days without meeting witli any accident worth 
 mentioning, till he reached the river Ion, where he was only ten miles 
 distant from the army of Argon. Both sides immediately prepared 
 for battle, and in a very fierce engagement, which took place three 
 days afterwards, the army of Barac was overpowered, and pursued 
 with great slaughter over the river. 
 
 CHAPTER LI. 
 
 HOW ARGON SUCCEEDED HIS FATHER IN THE SOVEREIGNTY. 
 
 SOON after this victory, Argon received intelligence that his father 
 Abaga was dead, for which he was very sorrowful, and he set out 
 with all his host on his way to his father's court, a distance of forty 
 days' journey, in order to receive the sovereignty. Now Abaga had 
 a brother named Acomat Soldan, who had become a Saracen, and 
 who no sooner heard of his brother Abaga's death, than he formed 
 the design of seizing the succession for himself, considering that 
 Argon was at too great a distance to prevent him. He therefore 
 collected a powerful army, went direct to the court of his brother 
 Abaga, and seized upon the sovereignty. There lie found such an 
 immense quantity of treasure as could hardly be believed, and by 
 distributing this very lavishly among Abaga's barons and knights, he 
 gained so far upon their hearts, that they declared they would have 
 no other lord but him. Moreover, Acomat Soldan showed himself 
 a very good lord, and made himself beloved by everybody. But he 
 had not long enjoyed his usurped power, when news came that Argon 
 was approaching with a very great host. Acomat showed no alarm, 
 but courageously summoned his barons and others, and within a 
 week he had assembled a vast number of cavalry, who all declared 
 that they were ready to march against Argon, and that they desired 
 nothing more than to take him and put him to death.
 
 ACOMAT AND ARGOX. 459 
 
 CHAPTER LIL 
 
 HOW ACOMAT WEST WITH HIS HOST TO FIGHT ABGOJT. 
 
 WHEN Acoraat Soldan had collected full sixty thousand horsemen, 
 he set out on his way to encounter Areon and his people, and at the 
 end of ten days' march he halted, having received intelligence that 
 the enemy was only five days' march from him, and equal in number 
 to his own army. Then Acomat established his camp in a very great 
 and fair plain, and announced his intention of awaiting his euemy 
 there, as a favourable place for giving battle. As soon as he arranged 
 his camp, he called together his people, and addressed them as 
 follows: "Lords," said he, "you know well how I ought to be liege 
 lord of all which my brother Abaga held, because I was the son of 
 his father, and I assisted in the conquest of all the lands and terri- 
 tories we possess. It is true that Argon was the son of my brother 
 Abaga, and that some pretend that the succession would go of right 
 to him; but, with all respect to those who hold this opinion, I say that 
 they are in the wrong, for as his father held the whole of so great 
 a lordship, it is but just that I should have it after his death, who 
 ought rightly to have had half of it during his life, though by my 
 generosity he was allowed to retain the whole. But since it is as 
 I tell you, pray, let us defend our right against Argon, that the 
 kingdom and lordship may remain to us all; for I assure you that all 
 I desire for myself is the honour and renown, while you have the 
 profit and the goods and lordships through all our lands and provinces. 
 I will say no more, for I know that you are wise men and love justice, 
 and that you will act for the honour and good of us all." When he 
 had ended, all the barons, and knights, and others who were there, 
 replied with one accord that they would not desert him as long as 
 they had life in their bodies, and that they would aid him against all 
 men whatever, and especially against Argon, adding that they feared 
 not but they should take him and deliver him into his hands. After 
 this, Acomat and his army remained in their camp, waiting the 
 approach of the enemy. 
 
 CHAPTER Lin. 
 
 HOW ARGOX HELD COCXCIL WITH HIS BAROXS BEFORE EXCOCXTERISO 
 ACOMAT. 
 
 To return to Argon ; as soon as he received certain intelligence of 
 the movements of Acomat, and knew that he was encamped with so 
 large an army, he was greatly affected, but he thoueht it wise to show 
 courage and ardour before his men. Havins: called all his barons
 
 4 GO TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 &nd wise counsellors into his tent, for he was encamped also in a very 
 far spot, he addressed them as follows: "Fair brothers and friends," 
 said he, "you know well how tenderly my father loved you; while 
 alive he treated you as brothers and sons, and you know in how many 
 battles you were with him, and how you helped him to conquer the 
 land he possessed. You know, too, that I am the son of him who 
 loved you so much, and I myself love you as though you were my, 
 own body. It is just and right, therefore, that you aid me against 
 him who comes contrary to justice and right to disinherit us of our 
 land. And you know further how he is not of our law, but that he 
 has abandoned it, and has become a Saracen and worships Mahomet, 
 and it would ill become us to let Saracens have lordship over Tartars. 
 Now, fair brethren and friends, all these reasons ought to give you 
 courage and will to do your utmost to prevent such an occurrence ; 
 wherefore I implore each of you to show himself a valiant man, and 
 to put fortli all his ardour that we may conquer in the battle, and 
 that the sovereignty may belong to you and not to Saracens. And truly 
 everyone ought to reckon on victory, since justice is on our side, and 
 our enemies are in the wrong. I will say no more, but again to im- 
 plore every one of you to do his duty." 
 
 CHAPTER LIV. 
 
 HOW THE BARONS REPLIED TO ARGON. 
 
 WHEN the barons and knights who were present had heard Argon's 
 address, each resolved that he would prefer death in the battle to 
 defeat; and while they stood silent, reflecting on his words, one of 
 the great barons rose and spoke thus: "Fair sir Argon, fair sir 
 Argon," said he; " we know well that what you have said to us is the 
 truth, and therefore I will be spokesman for all your men who are 
 with you to fight this battle, and tell you openly that we will not fail 
 you as long as we have life in our bodies, and that we would rather 
 all die than not obtain the victory. We feel confident that we shall 
 vanquish your enemies, on account of the justice of our cause, and 
 the wrong which they have done; and therefore I counsel that we 
 proceed at once against them, and I pray all our companions to acquit 
 themselves in such a manner in this battle, that all the world shall 
 talk of them." When this man had ended, all the others declared 
 that they were of his opinion, and the whole army clamoured to be 
 led against the enemy without delay. Accordingly, early next morn- 
 ing, Argon and his people began their march with very resolute 
 hearts, and when they reached the extensive plain in which Acomat 
 was encamped, they established their camp in good order at a distance 
 of about ten miles from him. As soon as he had encamped, Argon 
 sent twc trusty messengers on a mission to his uncle.
 
 PREPARATIONS FOR BATTLE, 461 
 
 CHAPTER LV. 
 
 HOW ARGON SENT HIS MESSENGERS TO ACO5U2. 
 
 WHEN these two trusty messengers, who were men of very advanced 
 age, arrived at the enemy's camp, they dismounted at Acomat's tent, 
 where he was attended by a great company of his barons, and having 
 entered it, they saluted him courteously. Acomat, who knew them 
 well, received them with the same courtesy, told them they were 
 welcome, and made them sit down before him. After they had 
 remained seated a short space, one of the messengers rose up on his 
 feet and delivered his message as follows : " Fair sir Acomat," said 
 he, " your nephew Argou wonders much at your conduct in taking 
 from him his sovereignty, and now again in coming to engage him in 
 mortal combat; truly this is not well, nor have you acted as a good 
 uncle ought to act towards his nephew. Wherefore he informs you 
 by us that he prays you gently, as that good uncle and father, that 
 
 ,ou restore him his right, so that there be no battle between you, and 
 e will show you all honour, and you shall be lord of all his land 
 under him. This is the message which your nephew sends you by us." 
 
 E 
 
 CHAPTER LVL 
 ACOMAT'S REPLY TO THE MESSAGE OF ARGOH. 
 
 Acomat Soldan had heard the message of his nephew 
 Argon, he replied as follows : " Sir Messenger," said he, " what my 
 nephew says amounts to nothing, for the land is mine and not his; I 
 conquered it as well as his father ; and therefore tell my nephew that 
 if he will, I will make him a great lord, and I will give him land 
 enough, and he shall be as my son, and the highest in rank after me. 
 And if he will not, you may assure him that I will do all in'my power 
 to put him to death. Now this is what I will do for my nephew, 
 and no other thing or other arrangement shall you ever have from 
 me." When Acomat had concluded, the messengers asked again, 
 "Is this all the answer which we shall have?" "Yes," said he, 
 " you shall have no other as long as I live." The messengers imme- 
 diately departed, and riding as fast as they could to Argon's camp, 
 dismounted at his tent and told him all that had passed. When 
 Argon heard his uncle's message, he was so enrajjed, that he ex- 
 claimed in the hearing of all who were near him, " Since I have 
 received such injury and insult from my uncle, I will never live or 
 hold land if I do not take such vengeance that all the world shall 
 talk of it ! " After these words, he addressed his barons and knights :
 
 462 TRAVELS OP MARCO POLO. 
 
 "Now we have nothing to do but to go forth as quickly as we can 
 and put these faithless traitors to death; and it is my will that we 
 attack them to morrow morning, and do our utmost to destroy them.' 
 All that night they made preparations for battle; and Acomat 
 Soldan, who knew well by his spies what were Argon's designs, pre- 
 pared for battle also, and admonished his people to demean themselves 
 with valour. 
 
 CHAPTER LVIL 
 
 THE BATTLE BETWEEN ARGON AND ACOMAT. 
 
 NEXT morning, Argon, having called his men to arms and drawn 
 them up skilfully in order of battle, addressed to them an encouraging 
 admonition, after which they advanced towards the enemy. Acomat 
 had done the same, and the two armies met on their way and engaged 
 without further parley. The battle began with a shower of arrows so 
 thick that it seemed like rain from heaven, and you might see every- 
 where the riders cast from the horses, and tlie cries and groans of 
 those who lay on the earth mortally wounded were dreadful to hear. 
 When they had exhausted their arrows, they took to their swords 
 and clubs, and the battle became so fierce and the noise so great that 
 you could hardly have heard God's thunder. The slaughter was very 
 great on both sides ; but at last, though Argon himself displayed ex- 
 traordinary valour, and set an example to all his men, it was in vain, 
 for fortune turned against him, and his men were compelled to fly, 
 closely pursued by Acomat and his men, who made great havoc of 
 them. And in the flight Argon himself was captured, upon which 
 the pursuit was abandoned, and the victors returned to their camp 
 and tents, glad beyond measure. Acomat caused his nephew, Argon, 
 to be confined and closely guarded, and, being a man given to his 
 pleasures, he returned to his court to enjoy the society of the fair 
 ladies who were there, leaving the command of the army to a great 
 melic, or chief, with strict orders to keep Argon closely guarded, 
 and to follow him to court by short marches, so as not to fatigue his 
 
 CHAPTER LVIII. 
 
 EDW ARGON WAS LIBERATED. 
 
 Now it happened that a great Tartar baron, who was of great age, 
 took pity on Argon, and said in himself that it was a great wicked- 
 ness and disloyalty thus to hold their lord a prisoner, and that 
 he would do his best to set him free. He began by persuading many
 
 RESTORATION OF ARGON. 4G3 
 
 other barons to adopt the same sentiments, and his personal influence, 
 on account of his age and known character for justice and wisdom, 
 was so great,, that he easily gained them over to the enterprise, and 
 they promised to be directed by him. The name of the leader of this 
 enterprise was Boga, and the chief of his fellow-conspirators were 
 named Elcidai, Togun, Tegana, Taga, Tiar Oulatai, and Samagar. 
 With these, Boga went to the tent where Argon was confined, and 
 told him that they repented of the part they had taken against him, 
 and that in reparation of their error they had come to set him free 
 and take him for their lord. 
 
 CHAPTER LIX. 
 
 HOW ARGON RECOVERED THE SOVEREIGNTY. 
 
 WHEN Argon heard Boga's words, he thought at first that they 
 came to mock him, and was very angry and cross. " Fair sirs," said 
 he, "you sin greatly in making me an object of mockery,and ought to 
 be satisfied with the wrong you have already done me in imprisoning 
 your rightful lord. You know that you are behaving wrongfully, and 
 therefore I pray go your way and mock me no more." " Fair Sir 
 Argon," said Boga, " be assured that we are not mocking you at-all, 
 out what we say is quite true, and we swear to it upon our faith.' 5 
 Then all the barons took an oath that they would hold him for their 
 lord. And Argon on his side swore that he would never trouble them 
 for what was past, but that he would hold them all as dear as his 
 father Abaga had done. And as soon as these mutual oaths had been 
 tnken, they took Argon out of prison, and received him as their lord. 
 Then Argon told them to shoot their arrows at the tent in which the 
 melic who had the command of the army wss, and they did so, and 
 thus the melic was slain. This melic was named Soldan, and was the 
 greatest lord after Acomat. Thus Argon recovered the sovereignty. 
 
 CHAPTER LX. 
 
 HOW ARGON CAUSED HIS UNCLE ACOMAT TO BE PUT TO DEATH. 
 
 AND when Argon found that he was assured of the sovereignty, he 
 
 fave orders to the army to commence its march towards the court. 
 t happened one day that Acomat was at court in his principal palace 
 making great festivity, when a messenger came to him and said : 
 " Sir, I bring you news, not such as I would, but very evil. Know 
 that the barons have delivered Argon and raised him to the sovereignty, 
 and have slain Soldan, your dear friend ; and I assure you that thej
 
 464 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 are hastening hither to take and slay you ; take counsel immediately 
 what is best to be done." When Acomat heard this, he was at first 
 so overcome with astonishment and fear that he knew not what to do 
 or say ; but at last, like a brave and prudent man, he told the mes- 
 senger to mention the news to no one, and hastily ordered his most 
 trusty followers to arm and mount their horses; telling nobody whither 
 he was going, he took the route to go to the Sultan of Babilonia, 
 believing that there his life would be safe. At the end of six days 
 he arrived at a pass which could not be avoided, the keeper of which 
 knew that it was Acomat, and perceived that he was seeking safety 
 by flight. This man determined to take him, which he might easily 
 do, as he was slightly attended. When Acomat was thus arrested, 
 he made great entreaty, and offered great treasure to be allowed to 
 go free ; but the keeper of the pass, who was a zealous partizan of 
 Argon, replied that all the treasure in the world should not hinder 
 him from doing his duty towards his rightful lord. He accordingly 
 placed Acomat under a strong guard, and marching with him to the 
 court, arrived there just three days after Argon had taken possession 
 of it, who was greatly mortified that Acomat had escaped. When 
 therefore Acomat was delivered to him a prisoner, he was in the 
 greatest joy imaginable, and commanding the army to be assembled 
 immediately, without consulting with anybody, he ordered one of his 
 men to slay his uncle, and to throw his body into such place as it 
 would never be seen again, which order was immediately executed. 
 Thus ended the affair between Argon and his uncle Acomat. 
 
 CHAPTER LXI. 
 
 THE DEATH OF ARGON. 
 
 WHEN Argon had done all this, and had taken possession of the 
 principal palace with the sovereignty, all the barons who had been in 
 subjection to his father came to perform their homages as to their 
 lord, and obeyed it as such in everything. And after this, Argon sent 
 Casan, his son, with full thirty thousand horsemen, to the Arbor Secco, 
 which is in that country, to protect his land and people. Argon thus 
 recovered his sovereignty in the year 1286 of the incarnation of Jesus 
 Christ, and Acomat had held the sovereignty two years. Argon 
 reigned six years, at the end of which he died, as was generally said, 
 by poison.
 
 ACCESSION* OF CASAN TO THE THRONE. 465 
 
 CHAPTER LXII. 
 
 HOW QCIACATC SEIZED CPOS THE SOVERKIGXTT AFTER THE DEATH 
 OF ABGOX. 
 
 WHEX Argon was dead, his uncle, named Quiacatu, seized upon 
 the sovereignty, which he was enabled to do with the more ease in 
 eonsequence of Casan being so far distant as the Ajrbor Secco. Casau 
 was greatly angered when he heard of the death of his father and of 
 the usurpation of Quiacatu, but he could not leave his post at tha* 
 moment for fear of his enemies. He threatened, however, that he 
 would find the occasion to revenge himself as signally as his father 
 had done upon Acomat. Quiacatu held the sovereignty, and all 
 were obedient to him except those who were with Casan ; and he took 
 the wife of his nephew Argon and held her as his own, and enjoyed 
 himself much with the ladies, for he was excessively given to his 
 pleasures. Quiacatu held the sovereignty two years, at the end of 
 which he was carried off by poison. 
 
 CHAPTER LXIII. 
 
 HOW BATDU SEIZED UPON THE SOVEREIGIfTY AFTEB THE DEATH OF 
 QUIACATD. 
 
 WHEN* Quiacatu was dead, Baidu, who was his uncle, and a 
 Christian, seized upon the sovereignty, and all obeyed him except 
 Casan and the army with him. This occurred in the year 1294. 
 When Casan learnt what had occurred, he was more furious against 
 Baidu than he had been against Quiacatu, and, threatening to take 
 such vengeance on him as should be talked of by everybody, he 
 resolved that he would delay no longer, but march immediately 
 against him. He accordingly provisioned his army, and commenced 
 his march. When Baidu knew for certain that Casan was coming 
 against him, he assembled a vast number of men, and marched for- 
 wards full ten days, and then encamped and waited for him to give 
 battle. On the second day Casan appeared, and immediately there 
 began a fierce battle, which ended in the entire defeat of Baidu, who 
 was slain in the combat. Casan now assumed the sovereignty, and 
 began his reign in the year 1291 of the Incarnation. Thus did the 
 kingdom of the Eastern Tartars descend from Abaga to Casan, who 
 now reigns. 
 
 ti H
 
 466 TRAVEI3 Or MARCO POLO. 
 
 CHAPTER LXIV.i 
 
 OP THE LORDS OF THE TARTARS OF THE WEST. 
 
 THE first lord of the Tartars of the West was Sain, who was a 
 rery great and powerful king. He conquered Russia, and Comania, 
 and Alania, and Lac, and Mengiar, and Zic, and Gucia, and Gazaria. 
 All these provinces were conquered by king Sain. Before this con- 
 quest, they were all Comanians, but they were not under one govern- 
 ment ; and through their want of union they lost their lauds, and 
 were dispersed into different parts of the world ; and those who 
 remained were all in, a state of serfdom to king Sain. After king 
 Sain reigned king Patu, after him king Berca, next king Mungle- 
 temur, then king Totamongur, and lastly Toctai, who now reigns. 
 Having thus given you a list of the kings of the Tartars of the West, 
 we will tell you of a great battle that fell out between Alau, the lord 
 of the East, and Berca, the lord of the West, as well as the cause of 
 the battle, and its result. 
 
 CHAPTER LXV. 
 
 OF THE WAR BETWEEN ALAU AND BERCA, AND THE BATTLE THEY 
 FOUGHT. 
 
 IN the year 1261 there arose a great quarrel between king Alau, 
 lord of the Tartars of the East, and Berca, king of the Tartars of the 
 West, on account of a province which bordered on each of their ter- 
 ritories, which both claimed, and each was too proud to yield it to the 
 other. They mutually defied each other, each declaring that he would 
 go and take it, and he would see who dared hinder him. When 
 things had come to this point, each summoned his followers to his 
 banner, and they exerted themselves to such a degree that within six 
 months each had assembled full three hundred thousand horsemen, 
 very well furnished with all things appertaining to war according to 
 their usage. Alau, lord of the East, now began his march with all 
 his forces, and they rode many days without meeting with any adven- 
 ture worth mentioning. At length they reached an extensive plain, 
 situated between the Iron Gates and the Sea of Sarain, in which they 
 encamped in good order, and there was many a rich pavilion and 
 tent. And there Alau said he would wait to see what course Berca 
 would follow, as this spot was on the borders of the two territories. 
 
 (1) The following chapters follow the last chapter in Marsden's translation.
 
 THE WAR BETWEEN BERCA AND ALAU. 467 
 
 CHAPTER LXVI. 
 
 HOW BERCA AND HI8 HOST WENT TO MEET ALAU. 
 
 Now when king Berca had made all his preparations, and knew 
 that Alau was on his march, he also set out on his way, and in due 
 time reached the same plain where his enemies awaited him, and 
 encamped at about ten miles' distance from him. Berca's camp was 
 quite as, richly decked out as that of Alau, and his army was more 
 numerous, for it numbered full three hundred and fifty thousand 
 horsemen. The two armies rested two days, during which Berca 
 called his people together, and addressed them as follows : " Fair 
 sirs," said he, " you know certainly that since I came into possession 
 of the land I have loved you like brothers and sons, and many of you 
 have been in many great battles with me, and you have assisted me 
 to conquer a great part of the lands we hold. You know that I share 
 everything I have with you, and you ought in retuni to do your best 
 to support my honour, which hitherto you have done. You know 
 what a great and powerful man Alau is, and how in this quarrel he is 
 in the wrong, and we are in the right, and each of you ought to feel 
 assured that we shall conquer him in battle, especially as our number 
 exceeds his ; for we know for certain that he has only three hundred 
 thousand horsemen, while we have three hundred and fifty thousand as 
 good men as his and better. For all these reasons, then, you must see 
 clearly that we shall gain the day, but since we have come so great 
 a distance only to fight this battle, it is my will that we give battle 
 three days hence, and we will proceed so prudently and in such good 
 order that we cannot fail of success, and I pray you all to show 
 yourselves on this occasion men of courage, so that all the world shall 
 talk of your deeds. I say no more than that I expect every one of 
 you to be well prepared for the day appointed." 
 
 CHAPTER LXVII. 
 
 ALAU'S ADDRESS TO HIS MEN. 
 
 WHEN Alau knew certainly that Berca was come with so great an 
 army, he also assembled his chiefs, and addressed them as follows : 
 " Fair brothers, and sons, and friends," said he, " you know that all 
 my life I have prized you and assisted you, and hitherto you have 
 assisted me to conquer in many battles, nor ever were you in any 
 battle where we failed to obtain the victory, and for that reason are 
 we come here to fight this great man Berca ; and I know well that 
 he has more men than we have, but they are not so good, and 1 doubt
 
 468 TRAVELS OP MARCO POLO. 
 
 not but we shall put them all to flight and discomfiture. We know 
 by our spy that they intend to give us battle three days hence, of 
 which I am very glad, and I pray you all to be ready on that day, and 
 to demean yourselves as you usea to do. One thing only I wish to 
 impress upon you, that it is better to die on the field in maintaining 
 our honour, than to suffer discomfiture ; so let each of you fight so 
 that our honour maybe safe, and our enemies discomfited and slain." 
 Thus each of the kings encouraged his men, and waited for the day 
 of the battle, and all prepared for it in the best way they could. 
 
 CHAPTER LXYIII. 
 
 OF THE GBEAT BATTLE BETWEEN ALAU AND BEBCA. 
 
 WHEN the day fixed for the battle arrived, Alau rose early in 
 the morning, and called his men to arms, and marshalled his army 
 with the utmost skill. He divided it into thirty squadrons, eash 
 squadron consisting of ten thousand horsemen ; and to each he gave 
 a good leader and a good captain. And when all this was duly 
 arranged, he ordered his troops to advance, which they did at a slow 
 pace, until they came half way between the two camps, where they 
 halted and waited for the enemy. On the other side, king Berca had 
 drawn up his army, which was arranged in thirty-five squadrons, 
 exactly in the same manner as that of Alau's, and he also 
 ordered his men to advance, which they did within half-a-mile of 
 the others. There they made a short halt, and then they moved 
 forward again till they came to the distance of about two arbalest 
 shots of each other. It was a fair plain, and wonderfully ex- 
 tensive, as it ought to be, when so many thousands of men were 
 marshalled in hostile array, under the two most powerful war- 
 riors in the world, who moreover were near kinsmen, for they 
 were both of the imperial lineage of Jengiz-khan. After the two 
 armies had remained a short while in face of each other, the nacars 
 at length sounded, upon which both armies let fly such a shower of 
 arrows at each other that you could hardly see the sky, and many 
 were slain, man and horse. When all their arrows were exhausted, 
 they engaged with swords and maces, and then the battle was so 
 fierce that the noise was louder than the thunder of heaven, and the 
 ground was covered with corpses and reddened with blood. Both 
 the kings distinguished themselves by theit valour, and their men 
 were not backward in imitating their example. The battle continued 
 in this manner till dusk, when Berca began to give way, and fled, and 
 Alau's men pursued furiously, cutting down and slaying without 
 mercy. After they had pursued a short distance, Alau recalled 
 them, and they returned to their tents, laid aside their arms, and
 
 USURPATION OF TOTAMANOU. 469 
 
 dressed their wounds ; and they were so weary with fighting, that 
 they gladly sought repose. Next morning Alau ordered the bodies 
 of the dead to be bunco, enemies as -well as friends, and the loss was 
 so great on both sides that it would be impossible to describe it. 
 After this was done, Aiau returned to his country with all his men 
 who had survived the battle. 
 
 CHAPTER LXIX. 
 
 HOW TOTAMANGU WAS LOUD OF THE TARTABS OP THE WEST. 
 
 You must know that in the "West there was a king of the Tartars 
 named Mongutemur, and the sovereignty descended to Tolobuga, 
 who was a young bachelor, 1 and a very powerful man, named Tota- 
 mangu, slew Tolobuga, with the assistance of another king of the 
 Tartars, named Nogai. Thus Totamangu obtained the sovereignty 
 by the aid of Nogai, and, after a short reign, be died, and Toctai, a 
 very able and prudent man, was chosen king. Meanwhile the two 
 sons of Tolobuga had grown to be now capable of bearing arms, and 
 they were wise and prudent The two brothers assembled a very 
 fair company, and went to the court of Toctai, and presented them- 
 selves with so much courtesy and humility on their knees that Toctai 
 welcomed them, and told them to stand up. Then the eldest said to 
 the king, " Fair sir Toctai, I will tell you in the best way I can why 
 we ure come to court. You know that we are the sons of Tolobuga, 2 who 
 was slair. by Totamangu and Xogai. Of Totamangu, I have nothing 
 to say, since he is dead ; but we claim justice on Nogai for the 
 slaugk >er of our father, and we pray you as. a righteous lord to grant 
 it us This is the object of our visit to your court." 
 
 CHAPTER LXX. 
 
 HOW TOCTAI 8EHT FOR NOGAI TO COURT. 
 
 WHEN Toctai had heard the youth, he knew that what he said was 
 true, and he replied, " Fair friend, I will willingly yield to your 
 demand of justice upon Nogai, and for that purpose we will summon 
 him to court, and do everything which justice shall require." Then 
 Toctai sends two messengers to Nogai, and ordered him to come to 
 
 (1) I.e. A youth not yet arrived at knighthood. Mongutemur and Totamangu 
 are, of course, the same names that are spelt in Chapter Ixiv. Mungletemur and 
 Totamongur. 
 
 (2) In the printed teit from which this is translated, here and during the rest of 
 this and the foliowing chapters, Totamangu is erroneously written for Tolobuga, 
 and vice rerta, making great confusion in the story : it has been thought advisable 
 to correct this in the translation.
 
 470 TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 
 
 court to answer to the sons of Tolobuga for the death of their 
 father; but Nogai laughed at the message, and told the messengers he 
 would not go. When Toctai heard Nogai's message, he was greatly 
 enraged, and said in the hearing of all who were about him, " With 
 the aid of God, either Nogai shall come before me to do justice to the 
 sons of Tolobuga, or I will go against him with all my men and 
 destroy him." He then sent two other messengers, who rode in all 
 haste to the court of Nogai, and on their arrival they presented them- 
 selves before him and saluted him very courteously, and Nogai told 
 them they were welcome. Then one of the messengers said : " Fair 
 sir, Toctai sends you word that if you do not come to his court to 
 render justice to the sons of Tolobuga, he will come against you 
 with all his host, and do you all the hurt he can both to your pro- 
 perty and person; therefore resolve what course you will pursue, and 
 return him an answer by us." When Nogai heard Toctai's message, 
 he was very angry, and replied to the messenger as follows : " Sir 
 messenger," said he, " now return to your lord and tell him from me, 
 that I have small fear of his hostility ; and tell him further, that if he 
 should come against me, I will wait for him at the entrance of my 
 territory, for I will meet him half way. This is the message you 
 shall carry back to your lord." The messenger hastened back, and 
 when Toctai received this answer, he immediately sent his messengers 
 to all parts which were under his rule, and summoned his people to 
 be ready to go with him against king Nogai, and he had soon collected 
 a great army. When Nogai knew certainly that Toctai was preparing 
 to come against him with so large a host, he also made great pre- 
 ration, but not so great as Toctai, because, though a great and 
 powerful king, he was not so great or powerful as the other. 
 
 CHAPTER LXXI. 
 
 HOW TOCTAI PROCEEDED AGAINST NOGAI. 
 
 WHEN Toctai's army was ready, he commenced his march at the 
 head of two hundred thousand horsemen, and in due time reached 
 the fine and extensive plain of Nerghi, where he encamped to wait 
 for his opponent. With him were the two sous of Tolobuga, who 
 had come with a fair company of horsemen to avenge the death of 
 their father. Nogai also was on his march, with a hundred and fifty 
 thousand horsemen, all young and brave men, and much better sol- 
 diers than those of Toctai. He arrived in the plain where Toctai 
 was encamped two days after him, and established his camp at a dis- 
 tance of ten miles from him. Then king Toctai assembled his chiefs, 
 and said to them : " Sirs, we are come here to fight king Nogai and 
 his men, and we have great reason to do so, for you know that all
 
 BATTLE BETWEEN TOCTAI A>~D XOGAI. 471 
 
 this hatred and rancour has arisen from Nogai's refusal to do justice 
 to the sons of Tolobuga; and since our cause is just, we have every 
 reason to hope for victory. Be therefore of good hope ; but at all 
 events I know that you are all brave men, and that you will do your 
 best to destroy our enemies." Nogai also addressed his men in the 
 following terms : " Fair brothers and friends," said he, " you know 
 that we have gained many great and hard fought battles, and that we 
 have overcome better men than these. Therefore be of good cheer. 
 We have right on our side ; for you know well that Toctai was not 
 my superior to summon me to his court to do justice to others. I 
 will only further urge you to demean yourselves so in this battle that 
 we shall be talked of everywhere, and that ourselves and our heirs 
 will be the more respected for it." Next day they prepared for 
 battle. Toctai drew up his army in twenty squadrons, each with a 
 good leader and captain; and Nogai's army was formed in fifteen 
 squadrons. After a long and desperate battle, in which the two 
 kings, as well as the two sons of Tolobuga, distinguished themselves 
 by their reckless valour, the army of Toctai was entirely defeated, and 
 pursued from the field with great slaughter by Nogai's men, who, 
 though less numerous, were much better soldiers than their opponents. 
 Full sixty thousand men were slain in this battle, but king Toctai, as 
 well as the two sons of Tolobuga, escaped.
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 I. NOTE ON BOOK I. CHAPTER LIV. PAGI 147. 
 
 WE here find the assertion circumstantially repeated, that not 
 Ung-khan only, but all his descendants, to the days of our author, 
 were Christians; and although it has been common to doubt the fact, 
 no arguments drawn from historical evidence have been employed to 
 disprove it. On the other hand it is supported by the testimony of 
 the travellers Carpini and Rubruquis (with some variations, however, 
 in. the circumstances), and sanctioned by the authority of Abu'lfaraj, 
 whose fidelity and discretion as an historian have not been questioned 
 upon other points. By none of these is the existence of such a cha- 
 racter in Tartary as that of Prester John spokeu of as a new discovery, 
 but as matter of previous notoriety, and especially amongst those 
 who were engaged in the crusades. 
 
 It may be asked why there should be so much hesitation to believe, 
 as if it were in itself a thing improbable, that at an early period the 
 Christian faith (according to the ritual of the Greek Church) had 
 spread extensively through Tartary and penetrated to China ? The 
 fact does not rest upon the evidence of the Catholic friars alone (who, 
 however, were much more disposed to undervalue than to exaggerate 
 the successes and political consequence of their rivals), but is cor- 
 roborated by the annals of the Nestorian Church. "Parmy ces 
 peuples, tous compris sous le nom general de Turcs et de Tartares," 
 observes the Abbe Renaudot, " il y avoit un assez grand nombre de 
 Chrestiens, non settlement lorsque Ginghiskhan establit son grand 
 empire, mais longtemps avant cette epoque. Car on trouve dans 
 1'histoire des Nestoriens, que Timothee leur Catholique, qui succeda 
 a Hananjechiia, celuy dont il est fait mention dans Pinscription 
 Chinoise et Syriaque, et qui fut ordonne vers 1'an 788 de Jesus-Christ, 
 avoit escrit au Cakhan ou empereur des Tartares, et a quelques autres 
 princes du Turkestan pour les exhorter a embrasser la Foy Chres- 
 tienne; ce qu'il fit avec deux cens mille de ses sujets. On ne pent 
 pas douter que ce peuple ne fussent de veritables Tartares ou Turcs, 
 puisque le meme Catholique fut consulte par 1'eveque qu'il envoya 
 dans le pais, touchant la maniere dont il devoit leur faire observer la 
 Caresme, et celebrer la liturgie; parce qu'ils estoient accoustumez a
 
 APPENDIX. 473 
 
 vivre de lait et de chair, et qu'ils n'avoient ni bled, ni vin . . . Depuis 
 ce temps-la, 011 trouve dans les notices ecclesiastiques de 1'Eglise 
 Nestonenne, uu Metropolitan de Turkestan, un de Tengat, un de 
 Cambalikou Cambalu, et un deCaschgar et de Xoiiakat." Anciennes 
 Relat. p. 319. See also Dissertatio de Syris IS'estorianis, by J. S. 
 Assemauus. 
 
 If then it be admitted that at an early period some of the Tartar 
 tribes, with their chiefs, were converted to Christianity, (and why 
 their conversion should be a matter less credible than that of the 
 nations in the North and West of Europe, does not appear,) there 
 can be no special reason for excepting the prince named Ung-khan, 
 whose particular tribe, it may be observed, bore the appellation of 
 Krit, Kera-it or Kerrit, which in the East is a common mode of pro- 
 nouncing the words Christ and Christian. At his baptism it may be 
 presumed that he received, from his spiritual instructors, a Syrian 
 baptismal name, and none more likely than that of Yuhanna or John 
 the Evangelist. If we further suppose, what is not an unusual cir- 
 cumstance in the history of these people, that their chief was at the 
 same time a lama, he may not have been willing to divest himself of 
 the priestly character, and the Nestorian missionaries in their reports 
 to the Katholicos or metropolitan, at Baghdad or Antioch, might 
 consequently mention him by a title equivalent to that of Johannes 
 Presbuteros. 
 
 The belief of an early spreading of the Gospel in these parts derives 
 some additional strength from an opinion entertained by some of the 
 best informed missionaries, that the lama religion itself is no other 
 than a corrupted species of Christianity; and although this may be 
 too hasty an inference from what they had an opportunity of observing 
 in the country, it will not be found upon examination so unlikely as 
 it may at first appear. Our modern acquaintance with the Hindu 
 system of mythology, and particularly with the tenets, rites, and 
 representations of Buddha, whose schism extended itself over the 
 countries lying to the north and east of Hindustan and Bengal, 
 enables us to pronounce with confidence that in its fundamental prin- 
 ciples the religion of the country which bears the names of Butan, 
 Tibet, and Tangut, is that of the Bhuddists of India; but at the same 
 time the strong resemblance between many of its ceremonies and 
 those of the Christian churches, both East and West, have been pointed 
 out by every traveller who has visited Tartary, from Carpiui and 
 Rubruquis, by whom it was first noticed, to our countrymen and 
 cotemporaries, Bogle and .Turner, who resided at the court of one of 
 the grand lamas. We find it avowed even by the Jesuit missionaries, 
 whom we cannot suppose to have been influenced in their observa- 
 tion by any undue bias (with which on some occasions they have been 
 charged), as neither their personal vanity could be gratified, nor the 
 interests of their profession advanced, by establishing the invidiovs 
 comparison.
 
 474 APPENDIX. 
 
 Uuder impressions of this kind of resemblance, it is not surprising 
 that some should have adopted an opinion that the prince who 
 acquired amongst the Christians of the East, the appellation of Prester 
 John, was no other than the supreme lama of the Tartars. 
 
 II. ADDITIONAL NOTE ON PAGE 248, NOTE 4. 
 
 776. " Si-gan," says P. Martini, " qui est la ville capitale, cede a 
 fort peu d'autres, si on regarde a sa situation dans un pays fort beau 
 et r6creatif, a sa grandeur, a son antiquite, a la force et fermete de 
 ses murailles, a la beaute de son aspect, et a son commerce . . . Vous 
 pouvez juger de son antiquite, de ce que les trois families imperiales 
 de Cheu, Gin, et Han y ont regne." Thevenot, partie iii. p. 58. 
 
 It was near this capital that an ancient inscription on stone was 
 discovered, which, in Syriac and Chinese characters, recorded the 
 state of Christianity in that province or kingdom, set forth the pro- 
 tection and indulgence it received from different emperors, and con- 
 tained a list of its bishops. " Cette province," says P. Martini, " est 
 encore celebre par une pierre fort antique, sur laquelle la loy de Dieu 
 est escrite en caracteres Syriaques et Chinois, apporte a ceux de la 
 Chine par les successeurs des Apostres : on y list le nom des evesques 
 et des prestres de ce temps-la, et celui des empereurs Chinois qui leur 
 furent favorables et leur accorderent des privileges : elle contient 
 aussi une courte explication de la loy Chrestienne, mais tout-a-fait 
 admirable, composee en langage Chinois tres-eloquent .... On 1'a 
 trouve 1'an 1625 dans la cite de San-yuen, commeon creusoit les fon- 
 demens d'une muraille : le gouverneur de la ville, ayant este informe 
 aussi-tost de ce monument qu'on avoit treuve, en oousidera ['inscrip- 
 tion de plus pres, et, comrne ils sont grands amateurs de 1'antiquite, 
 il la fit imprimer, et ensuite un ecrit a la louange du monument, et 
 puis apres tailler sur une autre pierre de mesme grandeur une copie 
 de celle qu'on avoit treuvee, en observant les mesmes traits et carac- 
 teres, avec toute la fidelite" requise. Les Peres de nostre Societe en 
 ont porte a Rome un exemplaire selon 1'original, avec 1'interpretation: 
 on la garde a present avec son interpretation, dans la bibliotheque de 
 la Maison professe de Jesus : elle fut imprimee a Rome 1'an 1631." 
 Thevenot, p. 57. Some suspicions were naturally excited in Europe, 
 as to the genuineness of a monument of so peculiar a nature, and it 
 has been the subject of much discussion ; but those who have been 
 the most forward to pronounce it a forgery, seem actuated rather by 
 a spirit of animosity against the Order of Jesuits, whose members 
 brought it to notice, than by the pure love of truth or a disposition 
 to candid inquiry ; and since that hostile feeling has subsided, its 
 authenticity appears to be no longer disputed by those who are best
 
 APPENDIX. 475 
 
 enabled to form a correct judgment. " L'etablissement des Nesto- 
 riens," says De Guignes, f., "date de 635 ans apres J. C. qu'uu 
 certain Olopuen vint a la Cbine sous Taytsong des Tan? : ce fait est 
 prouve par le monument decouvert a Sy-ngan-fou en 1625, sous Hy- 
 tsong des Ming." (Tom. ii. p. 334.) For more particular information 
 respecting this celebrated monument, see the following works : 
 Atbanasii Kircheri China illustrata (1667), where will be found a fac- 
 simile of the inscription, with a literal translation of each character : 
 Andrce Miilleri Opuscula; De monumento Sinico Commentarius, 
 (1695): Laurentii Moshemii, ad Historian! Ecclesiasticam Tartarorum 
 Appendix, monumenta et epistolas exhibens (1741) : and Memoirea 
 de 1'Academie des Inscriptions, torn. xix. p. 80i.
 
 INDEX.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 ABAC A, king, his expedition against 
 king Kaidu, 457. 
 
 Abaku, or Baku, name of the Sea 
 of Khozar, orCaspian Sea, 33, 35. 
 
 Abascia (Abyssinia), the Middle or 
 Second India; its principal king 
 a Christian, who rules over six 
 subordinate princes ; Christian, 
 Saracen.and Jewinhabitants, dis- 
 tinguished by particular marks ; 
 former converted by St. Thomas 
 the Apostle, 435 ; people brave 
 and good warriors ; king in- 
 sulted in the person of his am- 
 bassador by the soldan of Aden 
 (or Adel), whom he conquers; 
 food of the inhabitants ; oil ex- 
 tracted from sesame"; animals 
 of the country, 437; rich in 
 gold, 438. 
 
 Abbacatan, a commander in the 
 army of Kublai-khan, 351. 
 
 Ablutions, 389. 
 
 Absolution, given by Mahometan 
 priests, 45. 
 
 Abyssinia. See Abascia. 
 
 Accambale, king of Ziamba, 359. 
 
 Achbaluch, city on the confines of 
 Manji, 241, 250. 
 
 Achmac, Ahama, or Ahmed, a Sa- 
 racen, his unbounded influence 
 as minister over the grand 
 khan, 187 ; his tyranny and 
 lust; conspiracy amongst the 
 Kataians to rid themselves of, 
 188 ; he is killed, but the con- 
 spirators are seized and punish- 
 ed ; his body thrown to the 
 dogs, 191. 
 
 Acomat Soldan, 458; treachery of ; 
 raises an army against Argon, 
 459; obtains the victory, 462; 
 death of, 464. 
 
 Acre, Akka, or Aeon, a city of 
 Palestine, the residence of a 
 papal legate, 10, 12, 439. 
 
 Adam, tomb of, on a high moun- 
 tain in Zeilan, or Ceylon, 405 ; 
 his relics, according to the Sa- 
 racens, preserved there ; em- 
 bassy from the grand khan for 
 obtaining possession of them, 
 407. 
 
 Adam's apple, species of citrus, 
 56 ; confounded with the apple 
 of paradise, or musa, 404. 
 
 Adam's Peak, a mountain of Cey- 
 lon, or Serendib, note *, 407. 
 
 Adel, hostilities between, and Aba- 
 scia, or Abyssinia, 436, note 2 , 
 438. 
 
 Aden, city of, governed by a king 
 with the title of soldan ; in- 
 habited by Saracens who hate 
 the Christians; its excellent 
 port, and much frequented by 
 ships from India, 438 ; goods 
 conveyed from thence to a port 
 of the Red Sea, then to the Nile, 
 and afterwards to Cairo and 
 Alexandria ; horses shipped for 
 India; soldan possesses immense 
 treasures arising from the cus- 
 toms; assisted the soldan of 
 Babylonia (Egypt) in first siege 
 of Acre, 439; monopolises the 
 frankincense of Escier, 440. 
 
 Adoration of a tablet containing
 
 480 
 
 INDEX 
 
 the name of the Divinity, 234 ; 
 of ancestors in Kataia, 268 ; of 
 ox in Maabar, 388 ; of first 
 objects seen in the morning, 
 367. 
 
 Aigiarm, daughter of king Kaidu, 
 her great strength and valour; 
 her challenge to the young men 
 who wished to obtain her hand 
 in marriage, 456. 
 Alamut, castle of, note l , 73; note 2 , 
 
 77. 
 Alanian Christians, massaci-e of, 
 
 311. 
 
 Alau, Ulau, or Hulagu, chief of 
 the Eastern Tartars, 4 ; defeats 
 Barka; sends an ambassador 
 to the grand khan, 6 ; takes 
 Baldach, or Baghdad, and puts 
 the khalif to death, 41; besieges 
 in his castle and puts to death 
 the chief, called the Old Man of 
 the Mountain, 76. 
 
 Alexander the Great, fortifies the 
 pass called the Gate of Iron, 
 34 ; his last battle with Darius, 
 72 ; his marriage with the daugh- 
 ter of that king, 79 ; his de- 
 scendants continue to rule in 
 Balashan, or Badakhshan. 83. 
 
 Alexandria, city of, 344, 438. 
 
 Alo-eddin, name of chief of the 
 Ismaelians, 74 ; his fate, 76. 
 
 Aloes-wood. See Lignum-aloes. 
 
 Altai mountains, burial-place of 
 Chingis or Jengiz-khan, and his 
 family, 127, 139. 
 
 Ambergris, 425, 426, 428, 433. 
 
 Amu, or Bamu, province of; peo- 
 ple idolaters ; wear rings of gold 
 and silver about their wrists, 
 arms, and legs; buffaloes and 
 oxen found there, 282. 
 
 Amulets, effects of, 352. 
 
 Ancestors, veneration for, 268. 
 
 Anchors, wooden, note 1 , 67. 
 
 Andaman, island of, note 2 , 377. 
 
 Andanico, a mineral substance. 
 See Antimony. 
 
 Angaman, or Andaman, islands of, 
 inhabited by a brutish race, 
 
 whose heads resemble those of 
 the canine species, 377. 
 
 Ania, or Anan, country of, 857. 
 
 Antimony, 64, 70. 
 
 Apples of paradise, 404. 
 
 Arabians, inhabit Mosul, 37. 
 
 Ararat, mountain of, note 2 , 31. 
 
 Arbor Secco, district so called, 22, 
 50 ; tree from whence the name, 
 72, 457. 
 
 Arcolini, a kind of animal, the'fur 
 of which is valuable, 450, 452. 
 
 Arghun, a Moghul king of India 
 (Persia), sends an embassy to 
 the grand khan, to demand a 
 wife of the imperial family, 17; 
 in consequence of his death, the 
 lady is presented to his son 
 Kasan, or Ghazan, 22 ; mention 
 of him, 346. 
 
 Argiron, or Araerrum, a city of 
 Armenia, 30. 
 
 A Tgon, king, 457; obtains avictory 
 over Kadn's army, 458 ; suc- 
 ceeds his father in the sove- 
 reignty; his defeat; made pri- 
 soner, and afterwards liberated ; 
 his death, 462. 
 
 Argon, the name of a class of peo- 
 ple in Tenduk, which signifies 
 a mixture, 147. 
 
 Arjis. See Darziz. 
 
 Ark of Noah; mountain on which 
 it rested; fertility of the country 
 at its base, 31. 
 
 Armenia, the Greater, 29; the 
 summer station of a Tartar 
 family, on account of the excel- 
 lence of its pasture; contains 
 the mountain on which Noah's 
 ark rested, 31. 
 
 Armenia, the Lesser, 25 ; its capi- 
 tal, named Sebastoz ; air un- 
 healthy; inhabitants degenerate; 
 its seaport much frequented by 
 shipping, 26 ; its boundaries, 27. 
 Armies of the Tartars, manner of 
 constituting, 134 ; one of three 
 hundred and sixty thousand 
 horse, and one hundred thousand 
 foot, collected by Kublai, 162.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 481 
 
 Arms of the Tartars, 133. 
 
 Arrows, poisoned, made use of in 
 Karazan, 266. 
 
 Artigbuga, a brother of Kubla'i, 
 his pretensions, 161. 
 
 Arzerrum. See Argiron. 
 
 Arzingan, a city of Armenia, the 
 seat of an archbishop ; celebra- 
 ted for its warm baths, 29. 
 
 Asbestos. See Salamander. 
 
 Ashburgan, note 2 , 78. 
 
 As-idin, or Azz-eddin, sultan, 59. 
 
 Assara, a city belonging to the 
 Western Tartars, 4. 
 
 Assassins, note 3 , 69 ; note , 388. 
 
 Asses, fine breed of, in Persia, 50 ; 
 wild, 52, 119; employed, with 
 camels, in crossing the desert, 
 102 ; in Madagascar, 431 ; in 
 Abascia, 437; in Northern Tar- 
 tary, 447. 
 
 Astiar, name of the prince who 
 reigned in Kael ; his riches and 
 number of women, 408. 
 
 Astrolabes, 232. 
 
 Astrologers, 106, 132, 154, 232, 
 297, 320. 
 
 Axuma, or Akshuma, the ancient 
 capital of Abyssinia, note ', 436. 
 
 Azure (lapis lazuli) found in Bala- 
 shan, 83; in Tenduk, 147. 
 
 Baayan, or Pe-yen. See Chinsan. 
 Babylon. See Baldach. 
 Babylonia (meant for Egypt), 
 
 soldan of (Bundokdari), invades 
 
 Armenia, 12; (Saladin), 439; 
 
 manufacturers of sugar, from, 
 
 342. 
 
 Baghdad. See Baldach. 
 Baiburt. See Paipurth. 
 Baksi, or Bukhsi, priests of Buddha, 
 
 156, 186, 231. 
 Baku, or Abaku, 33, 35. 
 Balach, or Balkh, a city of Khora- 
 
 san, 78; stands at the limits of 
 
 the Persian empire, 79. 
 Balashan, or Badakhshan, kingdom 
 
 of, its princes descended from 
 
 Alexander; balass rubies found 
 
 there, 83; also lapis lazuli, sil- 
 
 ver, copper, and lead; horses 
 remarkably fine, 84 ; the breed 
 from Bucephalus had been long 
 preserved there, 85 ; large flocks 
 of sheep ; extraordinary fashion 
 of female dress; Marco Polo 
 resided there twelve months, 
 86. 
 
 Balass rubies, found in Balashan, 
 83. 
 
 Baldach, Bagadet, or Baghdad, 
 city of, the residence of the 
 khalifs, 39 ; taken by Ulau, 
 41 ; miracle performed there, 
 42 ; residence of a (Jacobite) 
 patriarch, 426. 
 
 Baldasar, one of the magi who 
 adored Christ at Bethlehem, 47. 
 
 Baldwin II., emperor of Constan- 
 tinople, 2. 
 
 Balkh, city of. See Balach. 
 
 Balsara, or Basrah, city of, 39. 
 
 Bamboo canes, 153, 247, 253; 
 ropes manufactured of. 307; of 
 extraordinary size, 338. 
 
 Bamu, or Amu, note 1 , 282.' 
 
 Bangala. See Bengala. 
 
 Banyans, a caste of Hindus en- 
 gaged in commerce, note, 402. 
 
 Baptism, additional, with fire, 
 practised in Abascia, 435. 
 
 Barac, a commander in Kaidu's 
 army ; his defeat by Argon, 458. 
 
 Barak, or Berrac, Tartar chief of 
 Bokhara, 5. 
 
 Bargelak, a bird of the polar re- 
 gions, 140. 
 
 Bargu, plain of, 139. 
 
 Barka, Barkah, or Bereke", chief of 
 the Western Tartars, 2; defeated 
 by Alau, 5. 
 
 Barley, species of, without husk, 
 85. 
 
 Barsamo, or Barsimaeus, Saint, 
 monastery of ; monks employed 
 in manufacture, 46. 
 
 Bascia, or Paishore, province of ; 
 complexion of the inhabitants 
 dark; they are skilled in magic; 
 wear pendants in their ears ; 
 climate hot, 87. 
 I I
 
 482 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Basman, a district of Java Minor, 
 367 ; manufacture of pigmies 
 thei-e, 369. 
 
 Bastinado, punishment of the, 
 137, 186. 
 
 Baths, warm and cold, 30, 68, 319. 
 
 Bathyn, third emperor of the Tar- 
 tars, 125. 
 
 Bats, as large as vultures, 393. 
 
 Batta, people of Sumatra, note, 
 367. 
 
 Bears, white and of great size, in 
 Northern Tartary, 446. 
 
 Bedsteads, or cots, used by per- 
 sons of rank in India, 394. 
 
 Bell, for striking the hours, in 
 Tai-du, Ta-tu, or Pekin, 184; 
 small, appended to public build- 
 ings, in Mien or Ava, 278. 
 
 Beloro, or Belur, elevated region 
 near Pamer, 93. 
 
 Bengala, kingdom of, 279 ; oxen of 
 great size ; produces cotton ; 
 eunuchs an article of traffic ; 
 have public schools, 280. 
 
 Bentan, or Bintan, an island near 
 Sumatra, note 2 , 366. 
 
 Benzoin, note 3 , 365. 
 
 Berchi, a delicious fruit produced 
 in Lochac (Kambaja), 363. 
 
 Betala or Wedale, a place in Maa- 
 bar, near to which is the best fish- 
 ing-ground for pearl oysters, 382. 
 
 Betel, mastication of, conducive 
 to health, 403 ; the leaf named 
 tembul, 409. 
 
 Bezant, or Besant, a gold coin, 
 198, 252. 
 
 Bibars Bundokdari, soldan of 
 Egypt, note, 13. 
 
 Birds, rare in very elevated re- 
 gions, 93 ; in India, differ from 
 those of other countries, 393; 
 of Zenzibar, 432. 
 
 Birmah, Burmah, or Ava country, 
 note, 277. 
 
 Bishop of Sevasta, 28 ; Arch- 
 bishop of Soccotera, or Socotra, 
 independent of the pope, but 
 subordinate to the patriarch of 
 Baghdad, 426. 
 
 Blase, bishop, 28. 
 
 Boar, wild, large tusk of. conveyed 
 
 to the grand khan, 430. 
 Body-guard of the grand khan, 
 
 192. 
 
 Bokhara, city of, 5. 
 Bolgana, or Bolghan-Khatun, wife 
 
 of Arghun, king of Persia, 1 7. 
 Bolgar, or Bulghar, a city of the 
 
 Western Tartars, 4. 
 Bombazine, boccasini,buchy-ramis, 
 
 species of cotton-cloth, 29, 38. 
 Boots or buskins, a part of the 
 
 Kataian dress, 198, 236. 
 Boriat, a Tartar family, privileged 
 
 to drink milk from mares of the 
 
 imperial stud, 154. 
 Box-tree, prevalent in Georgia, 33. 
 Bramins, or brahmans, originally 
 
 from the province of Lac or 
 
 Lar, their character ; undertake 
 
 the management of foreign tra- 
 ders ; distinguished by a string 
 
 of cotton thread, 400. 
 Brezil wood. See Sappan. 
 Bridge, remarkable one at Pusil- 
 
 angan, 238 ; at Si-din-fu, 251 ; 
 
 number of at Kin-sai, 317; at 
 
 Kue-lin-fu, 341. 
 Brius, the river, 261. 
 Bucephalus, his race long preserved 
 
 in Balashan, 85. 
 Buddha, note 2 , 235. 
 Budsdo, idols of Japan, note 2 , 
 
 354. 
 Buffaloes, in the country of Bama, 
 
 282. 
 
 Buildings in Tai-du, style of, 182. 
 Bundokdari, soldan of Egypt, 12. 
 Burials not allowed within the 
 
 city of Kanbalu, 214. 
 Burning bodies of the dead, 106, 
 
 214, 283, 288, 327. 
 
 Camels, employed in crossing the 
 desert of Lop, 102; at Ezina, 
 119; paraded before the grand 
 khan, 202 ; flesh of eaten in Ma- 
 gastar, 428 ; employed in Egypt, 
 453. 
 
 Camelopards, or giraffe, 431 ; d-
 
 INDEX. 
 
 483 
 
 ecription of, 483 ; found in 
 Abascia, 437. 
 
 Camelots manufactured at Tan- 
 gut, 147. 
 
 Camlet cloth, manufacture of, 257. 
 
 Camphor tree, produced in Kan- 
 gui, 343 ; in Java Minor, 369. 
 
 Camphor, superior kind of, found 
 at Fanfur, 374. 
 
 Canal, imperial, account of ; a con- 
 veyance by water from Manji, 
 through Kataia. to Kanbalu, ef- 
 fected by it, 291. 
 
 Canes, bamboo, 153, 247, 253; 
 ropea manufactured of, 307 ; of 
 prodigious size, 838. 
 
 Cannibalism, note 3 , 155. 
 
 Cannibals in China, 341. 
 
 Canonical hours, 384, note 3 , 389. 
 
 Canton. See Kan-giu. 
 
 Caravans, arrival of at Kanbalu ; 
 their merchandise purchased by 
 the grand khan, 217; in Tebeth, 
 254. 
 
 Carpets manufactured in Turko- 
 mania (of Asia Minor), 28. 
 
 Carriages used and let to hire in 
 Kin-sai, description of, 326. 
 
 Carts or cars of the Tartars, 1 29. 
 
 Carvolo, the fruit of a tree yield- 
 ing a mealy substance, 375. 
 
 Casan, son of king Argon, 464. 
 
 Caspian Sea, or sea of Khosar 
 See Abaku. 
 
 Caspian Straits, 35. 
 
 Cathay, province of, 162, 181, 215, 
 229. 
 
 Cattle, those of different Tartar 
 proprietors, distinguished by 
 marks, 137 ; wild cattle in Tan- 
 gut,143 ; fed upon dried fish, 441. 
 
 Causeway, a remarkable one near 
 Koi-gan-zu, 293. 
 
 Cavalry, low marshy country unfit 
 for, 331. 
 
 Celestial city, implied by the 
 name of Kin-sai, given to Hang- 
 cheu-fu, 314. 
 
 Cen-Temur, or Timur. son of Ku- 
 blai, governor of the province of 
 Karaian, 261. 
 
 Ceremony of prostration, 203. 
 
 Ceylon, Zeilan, or Selan. island of. 
 377 ; note ', 378. 
 
 Changanor, or White Lake, palace 
 of the grand khan, 150; par- 
 tridges in great numbers there ; 
 camel-loads of birds sent from 
 thence in winter to the residence 
 of the grand khan, 151. 
 
 Chang-cheu-fu, city of, note ', 310. 
 
 Chan-ghian-fu, or Chin-kiang-fu, a 
 city of Manji ; inhabitants of, 
 idolaters ; use the paper money 
 of the grand khan, and carry on 
 extensive manufactures ; two 
 Christian churches there, 309. 
 
 Changli, a city of Kataia, situated 
 on a wide and deep river, 289. 
 
 Changlu, a city of Kataia ; inha- 
 bitants are idolaters, burn their 
 dead, and use the paper money 
 of the grand khan ; salt (petre) 
 procured from the soil ; peaches 
 of a large size grown there, 288. 
 
 Chaplet or rosary worn by the 
 king of Maabar, 384. 
 
 Charcan, or Ciartiam, a town near 
 the desert of Lop.orKobi; ja.]>er 
 found in its stream ; country an 
 entire sand, 100. 
 
 Chase, or field sports, 52, 85, 150, 
 153, 205, 207, 255. 
 
 Chen-Rn, a chief of Cathay, 189. 
 
 Children, exposure of, 295 ; sale 
 of, 335. 
 
 Chin, sea of, contains a vast num- 
 ber of islands, 355 ; is a part of 
 the ocean and not an inland sea, 
 356. 
 
 Chinchitalas, a town near the de- 
 sert of Lop ; its inhabitants 
 consist of Nestorians, Mahome- 
 tans, and idolaters; country 
 produces steel and an tin: on y ; 
 the salamander (asbestos) found 
 there, 112. 
 
 Chinese trade with India, note . 2 
 411; 416. 
 
 Chingis-khan, or Jengiz-khr.n, 
 chosen king of the (Mungail 
 Tartars, 122; his progress ic 
 
 I I 2
 
 484 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 acquiring dominion ; demands 
 the daughter of Un-khan in mar- 
 riage, 123 ; encamps on the 
 plain of Tenduk; consults his 
 astrologers; fights a battle in 
 which Un-khan is killed, 124; is 
 himself killed at the siege of 
 the castle of Thaigin; buried 
 in a mountain of Altai', 125. 
 
 Chingis, son of Kublai, and his in- 
 tended successor, dies before his 
 father ; situation of his palace ; 
 his place at public festivals, 175. 
 
 Ching-tu-fu, capital of Se-chuen, 
 note, 252 ; note ', 286. 
 
 Chin-gui, town of, from whence 
 large quantities of salt are ex- 
 ported, 301. 
 
 Chin-kiang-keu, town of, note \ 
 308 ; note, 309. 
 
 Chinsan Bayan, or Pe-yen, at the 
 head of Kubla'i's army, invades 
 Manji, 296 ; takes the capital, 
 and sends the queen a prisoner 
 to his master; signification of 
 his name, 297. 
 
 Chintigui, city of; inhabitants 
 make cloth of the bark of trees ; 
 used the stamp paper of the 
 grand khan, 284 ; manufacture 
 silk, 285. 
 
 Chivichi, or masters of the chase 
 to the grand khan, 207. 
 
 Choiach, a term used in Maabar, 
 to signify unlucky hours of the 
 day, 391. 
 
 Christians, Nestorian and Jaco- 
 bite, in Armenia, 37; in Zor- 
 zania or Georgia, 38 ; at Baldach, 
 42 ; at Tauris, 45; at Kashcar, 
 94 ; at Samarkand, 95 ; at Kar- 
 kan, 97; at Succuir, 114; at 
 Kampion or Kan-cheu, 116; in 
 Erginul or Kokor, 142 ; in 
 Tenduk, 147; numbers of, in 
 the army of Nayan; complain 
 to the grand khan of being 
 taunted by the Jews and Sara- 
 cens, 166; offer up prayers for 
 the prosperity of the grand 
 khan, 199 ; churches at Chan- 
 
 ghian-fu, 309; at Koulam, 410 ; 
 in islands of males and females, 
 423; in Socotra, 425; in Aba- 
 scia, where they have particular 
 baptismal marks, 435 ; detested 
 by Saracens of Aden, 438 ; of 
 the Greek Church in Russia, 451. 
 
 Christianity treated with derision 
 by the Jews and Saracens, 166. 
 
 Churches. See Christians ; also 
 note 3 , 309. 
 
 Chyn, second emperor of the Tar- 
 tars, 125. 
 
 Circumcision performed by force 
 on an Abyssinian bishop, 437. 
 
 Cities of China distinguished into 
 classes, note 3 , 330. 
 
 Clemen-fu, city of, 13. 
 
 Clement IV. pope, death of, 10. 
 
 Clepsydra, or horiulo, used at 
 Kinsai for dividing the hours, 
 which are struck by the guard, 
 327. 
 
 Cloth, woollen, 231 ; sort of, pre- 
 pared from the bark of trees, 
 284. 
 
 Cloth, incombustible, manufac- 
 tured at Chinchitalas, 113. 
 
 Cloves, description of the tree, 
 260, 361 ; error respecting place 
 of their growth, note 2 , 260. 
 
 Coals, found in Kataia, and there 
 used for fires ; retains the heat 
 better than charcoal, 229 ; saves 
 the consumption of wood, 23U. 
 
 Coco, or Indian nuts, 371, 376, 
 377, 396, 417. 
 
 Comedians, exhibit before the 
 grand khan, 197, 204. 
 
 Comorin, or Kumari, note ', 413. 
 
 Complexions of people of Kin-sai, 
 321. 
 
 Computation of time by cycles, 
 233. 
 
 Condur, uninhabited island of, 362. 
 
 Constantinople, under tLe emperor 
 Baldwin II.; Nicolo and Maffeo 
 Polo take their departure from 
 thence, 2. 
 
 Conversation, courteous, amongst 
 . th Kalians. 235
 
 IXDEX. 
 
 485 
 
 Copper, found in Balashan, 84; in 
 islands of China sea, 35 6; brought 
 as ballast from Manji to Malabar, 
 417; imported to Kambaia, 421. 
 
 Coral, high price of, in Kesmir, or 
 Kashmir, 90 ; used as currency 
 in Tebeth, 257. 
 
 Cordage, for towing boats, made 
 of the bamboo cane, 307. 
 
 Cotton, grown in Persia, 51 ; in 
 Guzzerat, such as is taken from 
 trees of a certain age, not fit for 
 spinning, 418; produced abun- 
 dantly in Kambaia, 421. 
 
 Cottons, of thread naturally co- 
 loured, 341 ; manufacture of in 
 Murphili, 400; in Malabar, 380; 
 in Kambaia, 421 ; in Soccotera, 
 425. 
 
 Council. See Tribunal. 
 
 Couriers of the grand khan, their 
 journeys ; badge worn by, 224. 
 
 Courtesans. See Public Women. 
 
 Cow. See Ox. 
 
 Cow-dung, houses smeared with in 
 India, 388. 
 
 Cowries or porcelain shells, used as 
 currency at Yachi, 262 ; in Kara- 
 zan, 265; in Vochang, 267; in 
 Tholoman, 283 ; in Lochac, 363. 
 
 Cranes, various species of, 150. 
 
 Cremessor. See Ormus. 
 
 Cubebs, in Java, 361. 
 
 Cumani, the name of the ancient 
 inhabitants of Tartary, 34. 
 
 Curcuma, a yellow dye, note 5 , 340. 
 
 Curd of milk, how prepared by 
 Tartars, 130. 
 
 Currents, violent, settling to the 
 south, between Magastar and 
 coast of Zanzibar, 428. 
 
 Cycle of twelve years employed 
 "by people of Kan 1 alu, 233. 
 
 Dafar, town of, on coast of Arabia, 
 
 note 2 , 442. 
 
 Damaijhan. See Timochain. 
 Darkness, produced by magic, 60 ; 
 
 region of ; twilight of the ; its 
 
 inhabitants and government ; its 
 
 trade in furs, 449. 
 
 Darziz, or Arjis, a city of Armenia, 
 30. 
 
 Dates, the collection of; eaten as 
 food ; wine made from, 67, 440 ; 
 produced in Zenzibar, 432 ; at 
 Escier, 440 ; at Kalayati, 442. 
 
 David Melik, title of the king of 
 Zorzania, 32. 
 
 Debtors, peculiar law respecting, 
 in Maabar, 390. 
 
 Dely, kingdom of, on the coast of 
 Malabar ; has no harbour, but. a 
 large river; passes of the country 
 difficult ; pepper and ginger pro- 
 duced there; vessels driven there 
 are confiscated ; those from Manji 
 ship their cargoes there ; coun- 
 try infested with tigers, 414. 
 
 Derbend, or gate of iron, note. 1 , 
 34. 
 
 Desert of Kierman, or Kirman, 53 ; 
 of Kobinam or Khubeis. 70 ; of 
 Sapurgan, 78 ; of Lop, 101 ; 
 haunted by evil spirits, 103 ; of 
 Northern Tartary ; difficulty of 
 crossing it in summer, when the 
 ice thaws, 447 ; wooden huts 
 erected at the end of each day's 
 stage ; for travelling over the 
 ice, sledges drawn by dogs are 
 used, 448. 
 
 Devils painted white by people of 
 India, 397- 
 
 Devotees amongst the idolaters, 90. 
 
 Diamonds found in the kingdom 
 of Murphili, 398. 
 
 Divination by rods, 124. 
 
 Divinities, male and female, 393. 
 
 Doge of Venice, his podesta or 
 bail at Constantinople, 2. 
 
 Dogs used for sport by the grand 
 khan, 205, 207 ; a breed of, in 
 Tebeth, as large as asses, 257 ; 
 used in Northern Tartary to 
 draw sledges over the frozen 
 snow, 448. 
 
 Dor, a king so named, story re- 
 specting, 244 ; carried as a pri- 
 soner to Un-khan. who after a 
 time restores him to his do- 
 minions, 246.
 
 486 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Dovea, considered by Mahometans 
 as 1 unclean food, 56. 
 
 Dragoian, or Indragiri, a district 
 of Java Minor, 372. 
 
 Dragon, figure of, employed in 
 ornament, 153. 
 
 Dress, extraordinary mode of fe- 
 male, in Balashan, 86 ; dresses 
 given by the grand khan at fes- 
 tivals, 198 ; costly dresses of 
 women of Kinsai, 322. 
 
 Drink, poured into the throat, 389. 
 
 Droit d'aubaine, exercised at Or- 
 muz, 63. 
 
 Drugs, 247, 280, 282, 361, 369, 
 376, 438. 
 
 Duelling, juridical, 409. 
 
 Dulfar, or Dafar, a town on the 
 coast of Arabia, subject to the 
 sultan of Aden ; its inhabitants 
 Mahometans ; has a good port ; 
 exports a number of Arabian 
 horses to India ; produces frank- 
 incense, 442. 
 
 Eagles trained to stoop at wolves, 
 206 ; employed in the collection 
 of diamonds, 399. 
 
 East Indies, or Eastern Islands, 
 visited by Marco Polo, 19. See 
 Maabar. 
 
 Ebony, forests of, in Ziamba, or 
 Tsiampa, 361. 
 
 Egrigaia, or Uguria, a district of 
 Tangut; inhabitants for the most 
 part idolaters ; three churches of 
 Xestorian Christians, 145. 
 
 Elephants, employed to carry a 
 wooden castle, 164, 210; exhi- 
 bited in procession before the 
 grand khan, 202 ; in army of the 
 king of Mien, 277 ; many of 
 them captured byKublaii's forces, 
 279 ; wild, 282 ; sent as tribute 
 to the grand khan by king of 
 Ziamba. 359 ; found in Lochac 
 in Java Minor, 368 ; in Zenzibar ; 
 their mode of copulating, 432 ; 
 wine given them to render them 
 furious, 434 ; found in Abascia, 
 437. 
 
 Embroidery worked in & superior 
 manner in Guzzerat, 419. 
 
 Enchantment. See Magic. 
 
 Enrolment of men to serve in 
 Kubla'i's army, 331. 
 
 Entertainments given by the grand 
 khan, li)3, 197, 214. 
 
 Entrenchments of earth or mud, 
 57. 
 
 Erginul, Erginur, or Koko-nor, a 
 district of the province of Tan- 
 gut ; its inhabitants idolaters, 
 with some Christians and Turko- 
 mans ; south-eastern road leads 
 from Singui or Sining and Kataia, 
 141. 
 
 Ermins, 211, 450, 452. 
 
 Escier, or Sneher, city of, on the 
 coast of Arabia, within the juris- 
 diction of Aden; port frequented 
 by ships from India ; exports 
 horses ; produces large quanti- 
 ties of white frankincense, which 
 distils from a tree ; also dates, 
 but no grain excepting rice and 
 millet ; no wine there from 
 grapes, but prepared from rice, 
 sugar, and dates, 440 ; the breed 
 of sheep small ; inhabitants em- 
 ployed in fishing ; fish not salted, 
 but dried in the sun, and given 
 as food to cattle of all kinds ; 
 also made into biscuit, and laid 
 up for the year's consumption ; 
 the frankincense monopolised by 
 the soldan of Aden, 441. 
 
 Esu, fourth emperor of the Tar- 
 tars, 125. 
 
 Etel, or Herdil, the river Wolga, 
 33. 
 
 Eunuchs, employed in court of 
 the grand khan, 172 ; are pur- 
 chased in Bengali, 280. 
 
 Euxine, or Black Sea. termed the 
 Mar-maggiore, or Mar-mazor, 3. 
 
 Evil spirits, desert of Lop haunted 
 by, 103. 
 
 Execution of criminals, peculiar 
 modes of, 41. 353,354,387. 
 
 Exposure of infants, 295. 
 
 Ezina, city of, belonging to Tan
 
 INDEX. 
 
 487 
 
 gut, 113; inhabitants are idola- 
 ters; have camels; customary 
 to lay in provisions for forty 
 days at this place, 119. 
 
 Facfur, prince of Manji. See Fan- 
 fur. 
 
 Facfur, king of Kin-sai, 332 ; his 
 luxurious habits, 333. 
 
 Fairs, held in western parts of 
 Kataia, 241 ; in Kardenden, 
 where gold is exchanged for a 
 proportionate weight of silver, 
 267 ; in Java Minor, note 2 , 370. 
 
 Fakirs, the Indian, 403. 
 
 Falcons, 54, 85, 119, 130, 140, 150, 
 210, 368, 452. 
 
 Fanfur, or Fagh-fur, title of the 
 sovereign of Manji, 294 ; his 
 character, 295 ; upon the inva- 
 sion of his territory, he aban- 
 dons his capital, and leaves the 
 government to his queen, 297 ; 
 description of his palace and 
 amusements, 332 ; his loss of 
 empire the consequence of ener- 
 vating habits, 333 
 
 Fanfur, a district of Java Minor, 
 where the finest camphor is 
 produced, and a tree that yields 
 a kind of meal, 374. 
 
 Felech, a district of Java Minor, 
 366. 
 
 Ferries, 225. 
 
 Festivals, annually celebrated by 
 the Tartars, 197, 199. 
 
 Field sports. See Chase. 
 
 Fire, observed to burn sluggishly 
 in elevated regions, 93. 
 
 Fires, precautions against, at Kin- 
 sai, 327. 
 
 Fire-worship, 47 ; note \ 48. 
 
 First day of the year, in February, 
 when the Tartars dress in white, 
 199. 
 
 Fir-timber, used in ship-building, 
 347. 
 
 Fish, abundant in the Caspian, 
 33 : salted for food by the peo- 
 ple of Ormuz, 67 ; city of Kin- 
 sai plentifully supplied with, 
 
 317 ; many fine sorts on the 
 coast of Java Minor, 370 ; 
 caught in large quantities and 
 cured by people of the island 
 of males, 424 ; dried in the sun 
 on coast of Arabia, given to the 
 cattle for food, and made into 
 biscuit, 441 ; the food of inha- 
 bitants of Kalayati, 444. 
 
 Fishery for pearls. See Pearl 
 Fishery. 
 
 Fo, religion of. See Buddha. 
 
 Foot-posts in domiaions of grand 
 khan, 225. 
 
 Fornication not considered as a 
 crime in Maabar, 391. 
 
 Fowls of a peculiar breed, 342. 
 
 Foxes, black, in Northern Tartary, 
 447, 450, 452. 
 
 Francolin partridge, 56. 
 
 Frankincense, white, produced in 
 Escier, 441 ; exported from Dul- 
 far, 442. 
 
 Freight of merchandise at Zaitun, 
 344. 
 
 Fruits of Khorasan, 78. 
 
 Fugiu, or Fu-cheu, principal citv 
 of Kon-cha, 339. 
 
 Funerals, preparations for, iu 
 Tangut, 106 ; ceremonies at, in 
 Kin-sai, where pieces of paper, 
 representing various articles of 
 furniture, are thrown into the 
 flames, 327. 
 
 Funerals of the Tartar monarchs, 
 mode of conducting, 127. 
 
 Furs of various animals, 211, 447, 
 449, 451. 
 
 Galangal, Ksempferia galanga, 247, 
 
 340, 341. 
 (Jail of the alligator, its medicinal 
 
 qualities, 266. 
 Gambling prohibited by the grand 
 
 khan, 236. 
 Game, 26, 52, 56, 61, 150, 206, 
 
 207, 213, 317. 
 Gan-pu, or Ning-po, fine port of; 
 
 frequented by ships from India ; 
 
 its communication by water 
 
 with Kin-sai, 334.
 
 488 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Gaspar, one of the Magi who 
 adored Christ Ji Bethlehem. 47. 
 
 Gate of iron, a{ pellation of Der- 
 bend, 34 ; particular gate of 
 palace reserved for grand khan, 
 176. 
 
 Gaui, tribe of in Maabar. descended 
 from those who slew St. Thomas, 
 388 ; apostle killed by an arrow 
 shot at a pea-fowl by the, 397. 
 
 Gelu-khalat, lake of, 35. 
 
 Genoa, city of, 26. 
 
 George, a descendant of Prester 
 John, a Christian and a priest, 
 147, 148. 
 
 Georgia. See Zorzania. 
 
 Geu-gui, Cheu-gui, or Tchu-ki, 
 town of, 338. 
 
 Ghazan-kaan. See Kasan. 
 
 Ghillie, a kind of silk in Georgia^ 
 34. 
 
 Giazza, or Ayae in Armenia Minor, 
 9, 11, 12. 
 
 Gieza, Cu-gui, or Kiu-cheu-fu, city 
 of, 339. 
 
 Gigantic idols in Tangut, 116. 
 
 Gilding, 178, 332. 
 
 Ginger, 247, 340, 341, 418. 
 
 Gin-gui, town of, 286. 
 
 Giraffe. See Camelopard. 
 
 Glazing of windows, 179. 
 
 Goez, Benjamin, note, 118. 
 
 Gog and Magog, or Ung and Mon- 
 gul, districts under the juris- 
 diction of Prester John. 148. 
 
 Goitres, or glandular tumours of 
 the throat, 97. 
 
 Gold, found in rivers that dis- 
 charge themselves into the 
 Kiang, 256 ; in Kain-du cut 
 into rods and small pieces for 
 currency, 259 ; found in rivers 
 there, 260 ; in EiverBrius, 261; 
 in Karazan, 264; in Kardan-dan, 
 267 ; proportion in value of, to 
 silver, 264, 267, 276 ; found in 
 Kangigu, 281 ; abundance in 
 Zipangu, 350 ; in islands of the 
 sea of Chin. 356 ; in those of 
 the Gulf of Keinan, 358 ; in 
 Java, 362 ; in Lochac, 863 ; im 
 
 ported at Kambaiu, 421 ; in 
 Abascia, 438. 
 
 Gouza, or Tso-cheu, city of, has 
 many convents of idolaters ; at 
 this place the roads through 
 Kataia and towards Mauji di- 
 vide, 239. 
 
 Government, civil, established by 
 Kublai, 219 
 
 Goza, ambassador from king Ar- 
 ghun to grand khan, 18. 
 
 Granaries in Kataia, 227. 
 
 Grapes, cultivated in Ta-in-fu. 242 ; 
 imported in a dried state in 
 Kin-sai, 318. 
 
 Greek church, ritual of, followed 
 in Georgia, 34 ; in Russia, 451. 
 
 Green Mount, an artificial hill in 
 the gardens of the grand khan 
 at Ta-tu, 180. 
 
 Gregory X. pope, 11. 
 
 Grossi, Italian groats, 51, 216. 
 
 Guards of one thousand men at 
 each gate of the city of Ta-tu or 
 Peking, 184. 
 
 Guielmo da Tripoli, 12. 
 
 Guz/erat, a kingdom of India ; 
 height of north star as seen 
 from thence; affords harbour 
 for pirates ; produces ginger, 
 pepper, indigo, and cotton, 418 ; 
 hides of various animals dressed 
 there ; embroidery worked to 
 great perfection, 419. 
 
 Hai-nan, island of, note, 357. 
 
 Hair, practice of throwing it loose, 
 341 ; of wild bull carried to bat- 
 tle, 397. 
 
 Hami, or Kamil, note, 1 1 2. 
 
 Hang-cheu-fu, city of. See Kin- 
 sai. 
 
 Hawking. See Chase. 
 
 Herdil, Etel. or Wolga river, 33. 
 
 Hermits, peculiar class of, 90. 
 
 Hia-muen, or Amoy, port of, notes, 
 344, 345. 
 
 Hoai-ngan-fu, city of, note, 293. 
 
 Hoang-ho, or Yellow river. Sea 
 Karamoran. 
 
 Ho-cheu, city of, note 2 , 313.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 450 
 
 Ho-kien-fu, city of. note, 287. 
 
 Horns of the mountain goat, 82. 
 
 Horses, in Turkomania, 28 ; in 
 Persia, 50 in Balashan, 84 ; 
 effect prod ised by their eating 
 a poisououi plant, 114; horses 
 of Tartars fed on grass alone, 
 134 ; numbers possessed by in- 
 dividuals ; practice of drinking 
 their blood, 135 ; numbers em- 
 ployed in the service of the post, 
 221, 225 ; bred in Karaian, 262 ; 
 and in Karazan. from whence 
 they are sent to India ; deprived 
 of a joint of their tails, 266 ; 
 none bred in Maabar, but im- 
 ported from Arabia, 386 ; ex- 
 ported from Kanan or Tana, 
 420; from Aden, 439; from 
 Dulfar, 443. 
 
 Hospitals in the city of Kin-sad, 
 328. 
 
 Hot winds, intensity of. 64. 
 
 Hours, unlucky, 391; hour, or time 
 of day, judged of by the length 
 of the person's shadow, 392, 
 402. 
 
 Hu-cheu, city of. note, 388. 
 
 Hulagu. See Alau, or Ulau. 
 
 Human flesh, practice o r eating, 
 341, 355, 366, 372, 377. 
 
 Hunting. See Chase. 
 
 Idifa, or Idifu, a place in Tenduk, 
 where there is a silver mine, 
 149. 
 
 Idols of gigantic size.l 1 6 ; Tartar 
 idol, 133, representing male and 
 female divinities, in India ; to 
 which young women are dedi- 
 cated, 393; of a dark colour, 
 397. 
 
 Idolaters, at Bascia, 87 ; at Kes- 
 mur, or Kashmir, 88 ; at Sa- 
 chion, or Shacheu, 105; at Ka- 
 mul, or Hami, 1 09 ; at Kampion, 
 115; at Chinchitalas, 112; at 
 Succuir, 114 : at Ezina, 119 ; at 
 Ervinul, 142 ; at Singui. 142 ; in 
 Tebeth, 155 ; offer prayers for 
 prosperity to the gra*d khan, 
 
 1 99 ; prevail throughout Kataia 
 and Manji, 249, et patsim. 
 
 Ighurs, people so called, note *, 15 ; 
 note, 146. 
 
 Immersion in water, practised by 
 inhabitants of Ormuz. 64. 
 
 Incense of a dark colour, exported 
 from Kanan, or Tana. 42<J. 
 
 India, distinguished into the 
 Greater, Lesser, and Middle, 
 347, 349, 445; birds and beasts 
 of, differ from those of other 
 countries, 393 ; morals of its in- 
 habitants, relaxed, 409 ; Kesma- 
 coran. the last province of the 
 Greater India, beginning at Ma- 
 abar ; places on the sea-coast 
 only, described, 434 ; Lesser 
 India extends from Ziamba to 
 Murphili, 434; Middle or Se- 
 cond India, 435. 
 
 Indian nuts. See Coco. 
 
 Indigo, manufactured at Koulam, 
 410 ; in Guzzerat, 418 ; in Kain- 
 baia, 421. 
 
 Indragiri, a place in Sumatra, 
 note. 372. 
 
 Infants, exposure of, by parents, 
 295. 
 
 Interment of Chingis-khan and his 
 family in mountain of Alta, 
 127 ; custom of sacrificing hu- 
 man victims on way to, 127 ; at 
 Kanbalu interments take place 
 without thecity and suburbs. 2 1 4. 
 
 Irabatty, Irawaddy, or Xukiang 
 river, note, 269. 
 
 Island, in northern ocean, famous 
 for breed of gerfalcons, 150 ; 
 one of great beauty in the river 
 Kiang, 308; in lake near Kin- 
 sai, 324 ; number of, in Indian 
 sea (Maldives), 434. 
 
 Ishmaelians. See Old Man of the 
 Mountain. 
 
 Ispahan. See Spaan. 
 
 Jacolit. or Catholicos. the patriarch 
 
 of the Nestorians. 37. 
 Jaggri, or ungranulated sugar, 
 
 note s , 342.
 
 490 
 
 IXDEX. 
 
 Jambi, a place in Sumatra, note, 
 373. 
 
 Japan, islands of. See Zipangu. 
 
 Jasper and chalcedonies, found at 
 Peyn in Turkistan, 99 ; at Char- 
 can, 100. 
 
 Java, large island of; inhabitants 
 idolaters ; its productions ; gold 
 exported from thence to Zai- 
 tun ; not subdued by grand 
 khan, 363. 
 
 Java Minor, island of ; two thou- 
 sand miles in circuit, and con- 
 tains eight kingdoms; yields 
 spices and drugs, 365 ; north 
 star invisible, 366. 
 
 Jengiz-khan. See Chingis-khan. 
 
 Jerm, a kind of boat used on the 
 Nile, 439. 
 
 Jerun, island of, note, 63. 
 
 Jerusalem, journey to, for provid- 
 ing holy oil, 11. 
 
 Jews, at Teflis, 36; in Tartary, 
 166; at Koulam, 410; in Aba- 
 scia, 435. 
 
 Jorza, or Zorza, 120, 353. 
 
 Jugglers and tumblers exhibit be- 
 fore the grand khan, 197. 
 
 Justice, rules of, amongst the 
 Tartars, 137. 
 
 Kaan, import of the title, 127, 
 160. 
 
 Ka-chan-fu, city of, 247. 
 
 Kael, a considerable city of Maa- 
 bar; much resorted to by foreign 
 merchants ; horses imported 
 there from Arabia ; number of 
 women maintained by its prince, 
 named Astiar, 408, 409. 
 
 Kaidu, a powerful chief of Tur- 
 kistan, in rebellion against the 
 grand khan, 162, 453; his sub- 
 jects retain the genuine Tartar 
 manners, 446. 
 
 Kai-khatu. See Ki-akato. 
 
 Kain, or Kao-yn, town of; inha- 
 bitants are idolaters ; use paper 
 money, 300. 
 
 Kain-du. city of ; inhabitants in- 
 vite strangers to cohabit with 
 
 their wives and daughters, 
 258. 
 
 Kaisariah,or Caesarea, city of, 27,28. 
 
 Kalacha, town or castle of, in 
 Egrigaia, 145. 
 
 Kalayati, town of, on coast of 
 Arabia ; people Mahometans ; 
 harbour (Muskat) good, and 
 much frequented by shipping 
 from India ; horses exported 
 from thence ; fortress stands 
 near entrance of the gulf, 442 ; 
 inhabitants subsist upon dates 
 and fish, 443. 
 
 Kalhat, castle of, note, 442; note, 
 443. 
 
 Kalizene, khalij, or canal of Alex- 
 andria, 439. 
 
 Kamandu. town of, 35. 
 
 Kambaia, an extensive kingdom 
 in the west of India; cotton 
 produced there, and cotton cloth 
 and indigo manufactured ; skins 
 dressed and exported ; returns 
 received in gold, silver, copper, 
 and tutty, 420. 
 
 Kambalu. See Kanbalu. 
 
 Kamboja, country of, note 3 , 364. 
 
 Kampar, a place in Sumatra, note 2 , 
 374. 
 
 Kampion, or Kancheu, chief city 
 of Tangut; inhabitants chiefly 
 idolaters, 115 ; multitude of 
 idols there ; devotees lead moral 
 lives, 116; almanac in use; laity 
 have several wives, 117; are in- 
 cestuous, 118. 
 
 Kamul, Kamil, or Kami, inhabi- 
 tants chiefly idolaters; addicted 
 to pleasure. 109 ; their peculiar 
 indulgence to their guests ; the 
 custom forbidden by Mang.i- 
 kaan, but afterwards allowed, 
 110. 
 
 Kan. or Khan, title of, 127, 160. 
 
 Kanan, kingdom of, in West India; 
 produces incense of a dark co- 
 lour; exports horses, 419. 
 
 Kanbalu, Kambalu, or Khaabalig, 
 city of ; winter residence of the 
 grand khan, 175; relinquished
 
 INDEX. 
 
 491 
 
 for the new city of Tai-du, or 
 Ta-tu, 180; population of the 
 city ; suburbs ; quantity of mer- 
 chandise sold, 214 ; number of 
 astrologers, 232 ; corn and rice 
 for supply of, conveyed by the 
 canal, 308 ; people of, marched 
 out to meet embassy returning 
 from Zeilan, 408. 
 Kan-cheu, note, 116. 
 Kan-gi-gu, a province bordering on 
 Bengala; king maintains three 
 hundred wives ; gold found 
 there; people are tattooed, 281. 
 Kan-giu orKuang-cheu-fu(Canton), 
 a city of Koncha ; the station of 
 a large army ; a grand port of 
 Indian commerce. 343. 
 Kao-yu, town of, note, 300. 
 Karaian, or Yun-nan, province of, 
 governed by a son of the grand 
 khan, named Cen-Temur ; good 
 horses bred there, 261. 
 Kara-koran, or Kara-korum, city 
 of, first established residence of 
 the Tartars ; its castle and 
 palace, 119. 
 
 Karamania, of Asia Minor, 27. 
 Kara-moran, Hoang-ho, or Yellow 
 River ; does not from its size 
 admit of a solid bridge, 246; 
 has its source in the territory 
 of Un-khan, 293. 
 Karaunas, a predatory tribe, 58. 
 Karazan, or Khorasan, 15. 
 Karazan (of Yun-nan) province 
 and city of, governed by a son of 
 Kiibla'i, named Kogatin ; much 
 gold found there, 264 ; horses 
 sent from thence to India ; na- 
 tives ride with long stirrups like 
 the French ; use poisoned ar- 
 rows ; carry poison about their 
 person, 266 ; murder strangers 
 in order to possess their valu- 
 able qualities, 267 ; military 
 operations there, 271. 
 Kardandan, province of ; people 
 expert in horsemanship, 267 ; 
 have a singular custom with 
 respect to lying-in women, 268 ; 
 
 direct their worship to the an- 
 cestor of the family ; instead 
 of writing, cut notches in wood ; 
 climate unhealthy, 269. 
 
 Karkan, Yerken, or Yarkund, a 
 city of Turkistan ; inhabitants 
 consist of Mahometans and Xes- 
 torian Christians; are afflicted 
 with swollen legs and tumours 
 at the throat, 97. 
 
 Kasan. or Ghazan, the son of 
 Arghun, king of Persia, to whom 
 the Tartar princess was deli- 
 vered when brought from Kan- 
 balu, 22. 
 
 Kashcar, or Kashgar, a city of 
 Turkistan ; its inhabitants Ma- 
 hometans and Nestorian Chris- 
 tians ; merchants from thence 
 travel to all parts of the world, 
 94. 
 
 Kashmir. See Kesmur. 
 
 Kasibin, or Kazbin, a city of Per- 
 sia, 48. 
 
 Kataia, or Khatal, country, of, 
 being the northern provinces of 
 China, 91 ; jasper and chalce- 
 donies carried thither from 
 Peyn and Charcan, 99, 100; 
 camelots, from Tangut, 147 ; 
 armies stationed in provinces of, 
 162 ; city of Kanbalu, at its 
 northern extremity, 175; na- 
 tives of, prepare a sort of wine 
 from rice and various drugs ; 
 coals found in different parts 
 of, 229 ; spices carried thither 
 from Java Minor, 366. 
 
 Kayn-gui, a town near the Kiang ; 
 corn and rice collected there 
 for conveyance to Kanbalu, 308. 
 
 Kazwin, or Kazbin. See Kasibin. 
 
 Keinan, or Hai-nan, Gulf of, 357. 
 
 Ken-zan-fu, or Singnan-fu, ancient 
 city of, 248 ; governed by Man- 
 galu, a son of the grand khan ; 
 description of his palace, 249. 
 
 Kesmaeoran, or Kej - Makran, 
 country of; inhabitants idola- 
 ters and Saracens ; their foon 
 rice and wheat ; last province of
 
 492 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 the Greater India, beginning at 
 Maabar, 422. 
 
 Kesmur, or Kashmir, kingdom of; 
 inhabitants adepts in magic, 88 ; 
 manufacture idols ; communica- 
 tion with the Indian Sea; cli- 
 mate warm, 89 ; devotees there 
 live in communities ; do not 
 shed blood, 90. 
 
 Khalif, or pontiff of the Saracens, 
 39 ; last of them put to death 
 by Ulau, 41. 
 
 Khan, or Kan, title of, 127, 160. 
 
 Khan-balig. See Kanbalu. 
 
 Khatai. See Kataia. 
 
 Ka SeSs ehshnrsem.D e 
 
 Khogatal, name of an officer of 
 the grand khan, 9. 
 
 Khorasan, desert of, note, 69 ; note, 
 77 ; fruits of, note, 78. 
 
 Khoten, note, 81. 
 
 Khubeis, town of, note, 69. 
 
 Khuristan, a province of Persia, 
 note, 49. 
 
 Ki-akato, or Kai-khatu, regent of 
 Persia during the minority of 
 Kasan, 22 ; his unpopularity, 
 24. 
 
 Kiang, a great river so called ; 
 length of its course, 252 ; its 
 magnitude and importance, 305 ; 
 island in it, with a temple and 
 monastery, 308. 
 
 Kien-ning-fu, city of, note, 341. 
 
 Kiennan, or Kirman, kingdom or 
 province of Persia; produce of. 
 the country, 53 ; degree of cold- 
 in some parts of, 55 ; excessive 
 heat in others ; city of Ormus 
 depending on it, 62, 63. 
 
 Kinshan, island of, on the Kiang, 
 note, 309. 
 
 Kin-sai, Quin-sai, or Hang-cheu, 
 noble and magnificent city of, 
 313; signification of the name 
 of; its alleged extent; situated 
 between a lake of clear water 
 and a great river, 314 ; number 
 of its bridges, 315 ; its squares 
 and market-places ; its ware- 
 houses, 317 ; every kind of flesh 
 
 eaten indiscriminately by its in- 
 habitants ; pears grown there of 
 an extraordinary size, and other 
 fruits, 318; fish abundant; shops 
 and manufactories ; wine pre- 
 pared for sale ; baths, warm and 
 cold ; courtesans highly accom- 
 plished and fascinating, 319; 
 physicians and astrologers ; offi- 
 cers of police ; quantity of pep- 
 per imported ; people are idola- 
 ters, 321 ; the women brought 
 up with languid and delicate 
 habits ; houses richly orna- 
 mented. 322 ; disposition of peo- 
 ple pacific ; honest in their deal- 
 ings ; show respect to married 
 women ; dislike soldiery, 323 ; 
 amuse themselves on the lake, 
 324 ; streets paved, 325 ; de- 
 scription of carriages ; men and 
 women resort to public gardens ; 
 astrologers consulted on birth of 
 a child, 326 ; ceremony at fune- 
 rals ; precautions against fire, 327; 
 sonorous instruments struck to 
 denote the hour, 329 ; garrison 
 consists of thirty thousand men, 
 331 ; palace of former king de- 
 scribed, 332 ; palace gone to 
 decay; population of the city, 
 334 ; only one church of Nesto- 
 rian Christians ; lists of families 
 and inmates affixed to doors of 
 houses, 335. 
 
 Kisi, island of Kis or Kes, in Gulf 
 of Persia, 39. 
 
 Kiu-cheu, city of, note, 339. 
 
 Kiu-kiang, town of, note. 306. 
 
 Knights Templars, 13 ; devoted at- 
 tendants who burn themselves 
 with the body of the king of 
 Maabar, 385. 
 
 Kobi, desert of, note, 105. 
 
 Kobiam, town of ; its manufac- 
 tures, 70. 
 
 Kobinam or Khubeis, town of, 69, 
 70, 71. 
 
 Kogatin, a Tartar princess, the 
 intended wife of Arghun, king 
 of Persia; embarks for ludia
 
 INDEX. 
 
 493 
 
 from Kanbalu, 18; presented 
 to Kasan, the son of Arghun, 
 22. 
 
 Kogatin, king of Karazan, 264. 
 
 Kogni, or Iconium, city of, 28. 
 
 Koigan-zu, or Hoai-ngan-fu, city 
 of, 293. 
 
 Kokonor, or Hohonor, note, 141. 
 
 Komari, province of, 413. 
 
 Kon-cha, a vice-royalty of Manji, 
 339; its principal city named 
 Fugiu, 340 ; its limits, 346. 
 
 Kondur, island of, 362. 
 
 Konsalmi, or Khanah-as-salam, 
 castle of, 61. 
 
 Korkan, or Gurkan, an eastern 
 province of Persia, 49. 
 
 Kotan, or Khoten, province of, 
 inhabited by Mahometans ; cul- 
 tivation of farms and vineyards, 
 98. 
 
 Koua-oua, for Jaoua, account of an 
 expedition to, note, 362. 
 
 Koulain, kingdom of; adjoins to 
 Maabar on the western side ; 
 the resideace of many Jews and 
 Christians ; produces sappaii- 
 wood in abundance ; indigo ma- 
 nufactured there, and process 
 described ; heat during some 
 months intolerable, 410 ; the re- 
 sort of merchants from Manji 
 and Arabia; black tigers and 
 other uncommon animals found 
 there; wine of the country 
 made from sugar, 411 ; much 
 rice produced ; natives are black, 
 and go nearly naked ; their man- 
 ners sensual, and their mar- 
 riages often incestuous, 412. 
 
 Kuan-zu, city of, 294. 
 
 Kuang-cheu, or Canton, city of, 
 note, 343. 
 
 Kubla'i-kaan, grand khan of all 
 the Tartars, 6 ; receives Nicolo 
 and Maffeo Polo ; his inquiries 
 respecting the princes of Europe, 
 7 ; sends N. and M. Polo as his 
 ambassadors to the pope, and 
 furnishes them with a golden 
 tablet or passport, 8; his gra- 
 
 cious reception of the family on 
 their return ; notices young 
 Marco, and employs him, 14; 
 consents to their departure, and 
 makes them presents, 20 ; ac- 
 count received of his death, 24 ; 
 the sixth (fifth) in succession 
 from Chingis-khan, 125 ; his 
 achievements ; genealogy, 160 ; 
 his abilities asacommander,161; 
 collects an army to oppose Ka- 
 yan and Kaidu, 162; has re- 
 course to divination before the 
 battle ; defeats Nayan, and puts 
 him to death, 165 ; returns to 
 Kanbalu, 167; his predilection 
 for Christianity, 168 ; his mili- 
 tary council, and their insignia, 
 169 ; his stature and figure, his 
 wives and concubines, 171 ; 
 mode of selecting the latter ; 
 his sons; his winter residence 
 at Kanbalu, 172 ; his palace, 
 1 73 ; builds the new city of 
 Taidu or Ta-tu, 181; his b9dy- 
 guard, 192; his entertainmento, 
 and the arrangement of the 
 guests, 193; bestows dresses on 
 the anniversary of his birth-day, 
 198 ; is troubled with the gout, 
 210; affords relief to his sub- 
 jects, in cases of dearth and 
 other public calamities, 227 ; his 
 attention to the poor, 230; si- 
 lence and decorum observed in 
 his presence, 236; causes the 
 grand canal to be dug, 291," 
 sends embassies to king of Zei- 
 Ian, 379, 407. 
 
 Kue-lin-fu, or Kien-ning-fu, city of, 
 341. 
 
 Kumrai, Kumri, or Comorin, a 
 province of India, where the 
 polar constellation may be just 
 seen ; the country covered with 
 forests, the abode of apes having 
 the appearance of men, 413. 
 
 Kun-kin, province of, 249. 
 
 Kurdistan, for Khuristan, a pro- 
 vince of Persia, 48. 
 
 Kurds, people so named, 38.
 
 494 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Labels, attached to the legs of 
 hawks, 209. 
 
 Lac, Loac, or Lar, a province of 
 India, said to be the original seat 
 of the Bramins, or Brahmans, 
 400 ; riches of its king, and his 
 delight in the possession of pre- 
 cious stones ; people gross idola- 
 ters, and addicted to sorcery, 
 402 ; devotees there, who go 
 naked and lead austere lives, 
 403. 
 
 Lahawar, or Lahore, note, 59. 
 
 Laissus, city of, 26. 
 
 Lajazzo. See Giazza. 
 
 Lake of clear water at Kinsai, 314; 
 its islands, to which the inhabit- 
 ants resort in pursuit of amuse- 
 ment, 324. 
 
 Lambri, a district of Java Minor, 
 373. 
 
 Lamentations by professional 
 mourners, 67. 
 
 Lances, made of a hard and heavy 
 wood, in Java Minor, 375. 
 
 Language peculiar to each country 
 mentioned, passim ; general one 
 prevailing throughout Manji, 
 with diversity of dialects, 346 ; 
 languages acquired by Marco 
 Polo, note, 15. 
 
 Languid habits of women of Kin- 
 sai, 322. 
 
 Lar, province of. See Lac. 
 
 Latini, or Hatives of Italy, 7. 
 
 Lead, mines of, in Balashan, 84. 
 
 Leather, preparation of, 419. 
 
 Leg, swelling of, or species of ele- 
 phantiasis, 97. 
 
 Leon, or Livon, king of Armenia 
 Minor, note, 11. 
 
 Leopards, small kinds of, em- 
 ployed in hunting, 153, 205 5 
 common sort, 414. 
 
 Levant, entered at port of Giazzi, 
 27. 
 
 Li, or Chinese mile, about 1900 
 English feet, 180 ; note. 305. 
 
 Libations of mare's milk, 130, 195- 
 
 Liuhtning, superstition regarding 
 its effects, 228. 
 
 Lignum aloes, or agila wood, 356, 
 360, 365. 
 
 Lingui, city of, 292. 
 
 Lin-tsin-cheu, town of. note, 291. 
 
 Lions in the country of Balach, 
 79 ; tame lion led into the pre- 
 sence of the grand khan, 204; 
 said to be employed in hunting 
 deer, 205; skins of, 210; en- 
 graved figure of, 233 ; sculp- 
 tured, 238. 
 
 Lists of inhabitants placed on the 
 outside of houses, 335. 
 
 Loac, province of. See Lac. 
 
 Lochac, country of, produces sap- 
 pan or brezil-wood, gold, and 
 elephants ; also a fruit having a 
 delicious flavour, 363. 
 
 Lop, desert of, 99 ; town of, 101 ; 
 halting-place for travellers, pre- 
 viously to journey of thirty 
 days across the desert, 102 ; 
 haunted by evil spirits, which 
 endeavour to mislead travellers, 
 103. 
 
 Lor, a province of Persia, 48. 
 
 Lucansor, name of a rebel against 
 the grand khan, who is defeated 
 and slain, 290. 
 
 Lunardo, St., his convent the scene 
 of a miracle, 35. 
 
 Lynxes found in province of Ku- 
 mari, 413. 
 
 Maabar, kingdom of; governed by 
 four princes, 380 ; pearl fishery 
 belonging to, 381 ; natives go 
 nearly naked ; ornaments of the 
 king, 384 ; number of his wo- 
 men ; knights devoted to his 
 service, and who burn them- 
 selves with his body, 385 ; cus- 
 tom respecting treasure of pre- 
 ceding king ; no horses bred in 
 the country, but imported from 
 Arabia, 386; criminals devote 
 themselves to a voluntary death; 
 wives burn with their husbands, 
 387 ; ox reverenced ; mode of 
 sitting; country produces rice 
 and sesame', 388 ; people unwar-
 
 INDEX 
 
 495 
 
 like ; do not kill cattle for food ; 
 wash their bodies twice a-day ; 
 in eating, use the right hand 
 only ; pour liquor into the 
 mouth, 389 ; peculiar law with 
 regard to debtors ; do not drink 
 wine made from grapes, 390; 
 have a prejudice against those 
 who use the sea; do not hold 
 fornication to be a crime ; phy- 
 siognomy considered a science ; 
 hours held to be lucky or un- 
 lucky, 391 ; time of day judged 
 of by length of shadows ; actions 
 regulated by astrology ; youths 
 engaged in business at an early 
 age, 392 ; idols of the male and 
 female sexes ; dedication of 
 young women to them, 393 ; 
 St. Thomas the Apostle suffered 
 martyrdom in this province ; 
 pilgrimages to places where the 
 body was, performed by Chris- 
 tians and Saracens, 395; miracles 
 performed there, 396 ; natives 
 have the practice of adding to 
 their natural blackness ; blacken 
 the images of their deities, and 
 paint devils white ; carry to 
 battle hair of the wild bull, 
 397. 
 
 Machines, projectile, employed at 
 the siege of Sa-yan-fu, or Siang- 
 yan-fu, 303. 
 
 Madagascar. See Magastar. 
 
 Maeastar, or San Lorenzo, island 
 of ; three thousand miles in cir- 
 cuit ; inhabitants are Saracens, 
 and governed by four sheikhs, 
 427 ; elephants abound there 
 and at Zenzibar ; flesh of the 
 camel eaten in preference to 
 that of other cattle ; red sandal 
 found there, and also much 
 ambergris ; ships do not ven- 
 ture to the south of this place 
 and Zenzibar, 428 ; natives re- 
 port the appearance, at certain 
 seasons, of an extraordinary 
 bird called a roc or rukh; its 
 dimensions ; grand khan sent a 
 
 person to examine the island, 
 who carried back with him one 
 of the feathers, 429 ; camelopard 
 found there, 431. 
 
 Magi, the three, who adored Christ 
 in Bethlehem, 47. 
 
 Magic, or sorcery, acquired by the 
 Karaunas, from people of India, 
 58 ; practised by those of Kes- 
 mur, or Kashmir, 88 ; by the 
 astrologers of the grand khan, 
 155 ; by people of Tebeth, 257 ; 
 at Sin-gui, or Suchen, 312 ; in 
 Java Minor, 372 ; in Lac, or Lar, 
 402 ; in Soccotera, or Socotra, 
 426. 
 
 Magog, or Mongul, 148. 
 
 Mahometans. See Saracens. 
 
 Makran, district of, note 3 , 54. 
 
 Malabar, an extensive kingdom of 
 the Greater India, towards the 
 west ; north star there seen 
 above the horizon ; its coast, as 
 well as Guzzerat, infested by 
 pirates, 416 ; produces abun- 
 dance of pepper, ginger, cuhebs, 
 and Indian nuts ; copper and 
 other articles imported from 
 Manji, 417. 
 
 Malaiur, or Malayu, kingdom of; 
 its chief city a place of great 
 trade in spices ; people have 
 their peculiar language, 364. 
 
 Maldives, islands in Indian Sea, 
 note, 434. 
 
 Males and females, islands of, 423 ; 
 inhabited by Christians ; men 
 remain three months with their 
 wives, and during the remainder 
 of the year are employed at 
 another island fishing; have a 
 bishop under the see of Socco- 
 tera ; the men sow the grain, 
 and the women gather the har- 
 vest ; fish caught by the former 
 in great quantities, and salted ; 
 ambergris found there, 424. 
 
 Malefactors, punished in Kataia by 
 strangling: those who are dis- 
 charged have marks imprinted 
 on their cheeks, 236.
 
 496 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Maliapur, Ma'ilapur, or 5tn Thome", 
 town of, note, 397. 
 
 Mangalu, or Mangkola, son of 
 Kublai, governor of Ken-san-fu ; 
 his palace, 248. 
 
 Mangu-kaan, grand khan, 125 ; his 
 interment in mountain of Atta'i ; 
 number of persons killed, 127. 
 
 Manji, or Southern China, 163 ; 
 road to, 240. 250, 251, 291 ; en- 
 tered from the north on passing 
 the Kara-moran, 294 ; the richest 
 country in the eastern world 
 its king was termed Fanfur, or 
 Fagh-fur, 294 ; circumstances at- 
 tending its conquest by Chinsan 
 Ba-yan, Kubla'i's general, 296 ; 
 divided into nine districts or 
 provinces ; viceroys appointed 
 to each, who are changed on the 
 third year ; contains twelve hun- 
 dred cities and large towns, each 
 of which has a numerous garri- 
 son, 329 ; indigent class of per- 
 sons sell their children to the 
 rich, 335 ; no sheep in southern 
 provinces of, but many oxen 
 and swine, 339 ; prevailing lan- 
 guage of, 346 ; bounded on the 
 south by Gulf of Keinan, 357 ; 
 gold imported there from Java, 
 362 ; spices from Java Minor, 
 366 ; merchants from thence re- 
 sort to Koulam in India, 411 ; 
 and to other parts of the Mala- 
 bar coasts, 417. 
 
 Mar-maggiore, Euxine or Black 
 Sea, 3. 
 
 Marble, 78, 178. 
 
 Marco. See Polo. 
 
 Maredin, city of Mesopotamia, 81, 
 38. 
 
 Mares, preparation of their milk 
 called kemurs, kimmuz, or cos- 
 mos, drunk by Tartars, 130; 
 milk of white drunk by family 
 of the grand khan, 154 ; libations 
 of, 155 ; guided by instinct, they 
 find their way back to their foals 
 during the season of darkness 
 in the northern regions, 450. 
 
 Marks of Indian sects on the fore- 
 head, 403. 
 
 Marriages, rules of, amongst the 
 Tartars, 131; contracted between 
 the deceased children of different 
 parents, 138. 
 
 Mar Sachis, or Serguis, a Nestorian, 
 builds two churches at Chaii- 
 ghian-fu, of which he was go- 
 vernor, 309. 
 
 Marten, a species of weasel, 450, 
 452. 
 
 Masulipatam, city of, note, 398. 
 
 Ma-tu, meaning of Chinese term, 
 note, 291. 
 
 Meal, a kind of, procured from a 
 tree in Java Minor : specimen oi 
 the bread made of it, 374, 375. 
 
 Mekriti, or Merkit, tribe of, dwell- 
 ing on plain of Bargu ; subsist 
 on the flesh of stags used for 
 travelling, 139. 
 
 Melchior, one of the Magi, who 
 adored Christ in Bethlehem, 47. 
 
 Melik, David, title of kings of Zor- 
 zania, or Georgia, 32 ; melik of 
 Ormuz ; title equivalent to thai 
 of lord of the marches, 444. 
 
 Melons (of Khorasan), 78. 
 
 Mesopotamia, city of, note, 398. 
 
 Metempsychosis, 235. 
 
 Meteoric stones, note, 304. 
 
 Mien, or Ava, kingdom of, 27 ; 
 king of, defeated by Kubla'i's 
 forces, 275 ; city of ; people are 
 idolaters, 277 ; royal sepulchre 
 spared by the conqueror, 279. 
 
 Milk, common beverage of the Tar- 
 tar, 195. See Mares. 
 
 Millet, 51, 151, 223, 440. 
 
 Mingan, master of the chase, 206. 
 
 Miracles wrought, in Georgia, 35 ; 
 at Baldach, 42; at Samarkand, 
 95 ; at burial-place of St. Thomaa 
 the Apostle, S95. 
 
 Mirrors, manufacture of. 70. 
 
 Moghul, or Mungal Tartars, note, 
 126; note, 148. 
 
 Monasteries (of lamas), 105, 157; 
 (of bonzes), 308, 324. 
 
 Money, paper issued as, 215 ; coral
 
 INDEX. 
 
 497 
 
 used as, 257; salt made into, 
 259; white porcelain shells used, 
 as, 263, 265, 267, 283. 
 
 Mongul, or Mungal, obscure men- 
 tion of, 148. 
 
 Mongu, fifth emperor of the Tar- 
 tars, 125, 127. 
 
 Monkeys, stuffed, sold as pigmies, 
 369. 
 
 Monks, amongst the Tartars ; shave 
 their heads and beards, 158. 
 
 Monsoon, in Sea of Chin, 356 ; at 
 Java Minor. 370. 
 
 Monsul, kingdom of. See MurphilL 
 
 Mortality, on voyage from China 
 to Persia, 21. 
 
 Mostasem-Billah, khalif of Bal- 
 dach, miserable death of, 41. 
 
 Mosul, province and city of; its 
 inhabitants ; seat of the Nesto- 
 rian patriarch, 37 ; muslins de- 
 rive their name from thence, 
 38. 
 
 Mulehet, a term applied to. certain 
 Mahometan heretics, known by 
 the name of Ismaelians, 73. See 
 Old Man of the Mountain. 
 
 Mungal. See Moghul. 
 
 Murphili, Monsul, or Masulipat- 
 nam, kingdom of ; its mountains 
 yield diamonds, 398 ; manner 
 in which they are collected, 399 ; 
 the finest cotton cloth manu- 
 factured there, 400. 
 
 Mus, place so named, 38. 
 
 Musical instruments, clangour of, 
 at funerals in Tangut, 108 ; 
 at festivals, 158, 197. 
 
 Musk, finest sort of, produced at 
 Tangut, description of the ani- 
 mal, 143, 250, 255, 260. 
 
 Muskat, port of, note, 442. 
 
 Muslins, the manufacture of Mosul, 
 whose merchants are termed 
 Mossulini, 37. 
 
 Nacar, a kind of drum used in 
 battle, 455. 
 
 Nan-ghin. or Nan-king, a province 
 and city of Manji ; the people 
 idolaters ; use the grand khan's 
 
 paper money ; and are great 
 manufacturers of silk, 302. 
 Narsinga, king of, note, 385. 
 Nasr-eddin, an officer in the army 
 
 of the grand khan, note, 272. 
 Natigay, the name of a Tartar 
 idol, 133; mode of worshipping 
 it, 133, 234. 
 
 Nativities, exact time of, ascer- 
 tained, 392. See Astrologers. 
 Nayan, the origin of his rebel- 
 lion, 161 ; makes propositions 
 to Kaidu, 162; is defeated and 
 put to death by Kublal, 165; 
 had many Christians in his 
 army, 166. 
 Negropont, or Eubcea, island of, 
 
 10, 25. 
 
 Nestardin. See Nasr-eddin. 
 Nestorian Christians, at Mosul, 
 38 ; at Tauris, 45 ; at Kashcar, 
 94 ; at Karkan, 97 ; at Sachiou, 
 105; at Chinchitalas, 112; in 
 Egrigai, 145 : in Tenduk, 147; at 
 Ken-san-fu, 249; at Yachi, 262; 
 churches of, at Chan-ghian-fu, 
 309. 
 
 New year, commencement of, in 
 February ; first day of, how cele- 
 brated by the Tartars, 199. 
 Nicobar, islands of, note, 376. 
 Nicolo da Vicenza, 12. 
 Nile, river, 439. 
 
 Nine, number, superstitious atten- 
 tion to it, in making presents,201 . 
 Ning-po, port near Kin-sai, note, 
 
 343. 
 
 Noah's Ark, description of the 
 mountain on which it rested, 31. 
 Nocueran, island of, note, 376. 
 Noises, supernatural, heard in 
 crossing the desert of Lop, 103. 
 Northern Ocean, 140, 141, 451. 
 North Star, invisible in Java 
 Minor, 366, 270 ; partly visible in 
 Kumani, 413; seeu in Malabar, 
 416 ; in Guzzerat, 418; in Kam- 
 baia, 421. 
 Nugodar, or Nikodar, the nephew 
 
 of Zagatai, 58. 
 Nutmegs, 361. 
 K K
 
 498 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Oil, holy, 8, 14; bituminous, 31; 
 of sesame", 85, 379, 388 ; sper- 
 maceti, 425. 
 
 Okak. See Oukaka. 
 
 Old Man of the Mountain, chief 
 of the Mahometan sect cf 
 Mulehet, 73 ; his earthly para- 
 dise, 74 ; his influence over 
 his followers, 75; his tyranny 
 and assassinations everywhere 
 dreaded ; beseiged in his castle 
 by Ulatl ; put to death and his 
 paradise destroyed, 76. 
 
 Olibanum. See Frankincense. 
 
 Oman, coast of, note, 442. 
 
 Ormus, or Hormuz, island and city 
 of, 60, 61, 65, 443; account of 
 shipping at, 65 ; inhabitants of; 
 cultivation ; fruits ; wine ; food ; 
 extreme heat of climate, 67; 
 lamentations at funerals, 68 ; 
 Melik, or chief of, subject to the 
 king of Kierman ; ventilators 
 used for moderating the exces- 
 sive heat, 444. 
 
 Oukaka, or Okak, a town on the 
 confines of Western Tartary, 5, 
 136. 
 
 Oxen, species of, described, 56 ; 
 large and fierce in Tebeth, 257 ; 
 in Mien, 279 ; in Bengal, 280 ; 
 in Amu, 282 ; reverenced in 
 Maabar ; flesh of, eaten by tribe 
 of Gaui ; not killed for food, 
 388 ; pieces of the hair carried 
 to battle as charms, 397; reve- 
 renced in another province of 
 India, 403. 
 
 Painting, 178, 332. 
 
 Paipurth, or Baiburt, castle of, in 
 Armenia, 30; silver mine there, 
 31. 
 
 Palace, magazines, gardens, and 
 park of the grand khan, adjoin- 
 ing Kanbalu, 175 ; artificial 
 hill, called the Green Moun- 
 tain, 180 ; of those of Faghfur, 
 332. 
 
 Palasata, the castle of the fire 
 worshippers, 47. 
 
 Palm, date-bearing, 61, 370. See 
 Dates. 
 
 Pamer, or Pamir, highly elevated 
 plain beyond Vokhan, 93. 
 
 Panchor, island of, note, 374. 
 
 Panicum, 151. 
 
 Paper, manufacture of, 215 ; burnt 
 at funerals, 327. 
 
 Paper money issued by the grand 
 khan ; mode of preparing 215; 
 its circulation compulsory, 216 ; 
 exchange for new at a loss, 
 218 ; current in various cities 
 of the empire, 284, 278, 289, 
 291. 
 
 Parents, veneration towards ; ne- 
 glect of, punished, 235. 
 
 Parsls, merchants on coast of Ma- 
 labar, 417. 
 
 Partridge, 61 ; francolin, 56. 
 
 Pase", a place in Sumatra, note, 
 369. 
 
 Patharini, Christian heretics, to 
 whom the Ismaelians are com- 
 pared, 73. 
 
 Patriarch of the Greek church 
 (Nestorian^ residing at Mosul, 
 37; (Jacobite) at Baghdad, 426. 
 
 Pau-ghin, or Pao-yu-hien, town of; 
 inhabitants burn their dead; 
 use the paper money of the 
 grand khan, 299, 426. 
 
 Paved streets and roads, 325. 
 
 Pa-zan-fu, city of; inhabitants burn 
 their dead; Christians have a 
 church there ; paper money cur- 
 rent; silks woven ; communica- 
 tion with the capital by means 
 of canals, 287. 
 
 Peaches of a large size at Chan- 
 glu, 288; yellow and white, at 
 Kin-sai, 318. 
 
 Pea-fowls in Maabar, 397; at Kou- 
 lam, 411. 
 
 Pearls, where bored, 62 ; found in 
 salt water lake near Kain-du, 
 258 ; in Zipangu. 351 ; those of 
 Maabar, round and of good lus- 
 tre, 381. 
 
 Pearl-fishery between Maabar and 
 Zeilan ; mode of diving for the
 
 INDEX. 
 
 499 
 
 oysters ; precautions against 
 sharks, 381. 
 
 Pears, of great size, at Kin-sai, 318. 
 
 Pe-ho river, note, 20. 
 
 Pentan, island of, 364. 
 
 Pepper, quantity of, consumed at 
 Kin-sai, 334; imported at Zai- 
 tun, 344; produced in islands 
 of sea of Chin, 356 ; in Java, 
 361 ; at Koulam, 411 ; at Dely, 
 415; in Malabar, 417; in Guz- 
 zerat, 418. 
 
 Perlak, a place in Sumatra, note, 
 366. 
 
 Persia, divisions of, 48; exports 
 horses to India ; breeds asses 
 remarkably fine; camels also 
 used ; in some districts natives 
 savage and bloodthirsty, 50 ; 
 Mahometan religion prevails ; 
 manufactures carried on ; cotton 
 grows abundantly ; also grain of 
 different sorts, and every species 
 of fruits ; Saracens drink wine 
 after boiling it, 51. 
 
 Peshawer, or Paishore, note, 91. 
 
 Petroleum, or earth oil, 31. 
 
 Pe-yen, name of a distinguished 
 commander, note, 296. 
 
 Peyn, province and city of, to the 
 eastward of Kotan ; chalce- 
 donies and jasper found in its 
 river; peculiar custom respect- 
 ing marriage rites, 99. 
 
 Pharaoh's mice, animals so called, 
 130; taken by ingenious con- 
 trivances, 447. 
 
 Pheasants, in Tangut, have tails of 
 great length, 145; common kind, 
 247. 
 
 Philosophers, or literati, in Sin- 
 gui, 321. 
 
 Physicians, place of, supplied by 
 sorcerers in certain provinces, 
 269 ; eminent in Sin-gui, 312 ; 
 at Kin-sai, 320 ; at Koulam, 
 412. 
 
 Physiognomy, regarded as a 
 science, in Maabar, 301. 
 
 Pi-an-fu, or Pin-yaug-fu, city of, 
 243. 
 
 Pigmies, the manufacture of, at 
 Basman, 369. 
 
 Pilgrimages, to tomb of St. 
 Thomas, 395 ; to tomb of Adam, 
 405. 
 
 Pingui, city of, 292. 
 
 Pirates, on coast of Malabar ; their 
 mode of attack ; do no injury to 
 their prisoners, 41 6 ; of despe- 
 rate character on coast of Guz- 
 zerat, 418 ; resort to the island 
 of Soccotera for sale of their 
 plunder, 426. 
 
 Podesta, or magistrate, represent- 
 ing at Constantinople the doge 
 of Venice, 1. 
 
 Poisons, antidote against, 266. 
 
 Polar star and constellation, 141 ; 
 invisible in Java Minor, 366, 
 370 ; partly visible at Kumari, 
 413; seen in Maabar, 416; in 
 Guzzerat, 418. 
 
 Police of cities in China, 329. 
 
 Polo, Maffeo or Matteo, uncle of 
 Marco, accompanies his brother 
 Nicolo, 3 ; prosecutes with them 
 his second journey, 11 ; embarks 
 in Kataia, 21 ; and returns to 
 Venice, 25. 
 
 Polo, Marco, the author of the 
 work, born at Venice, in the 
 absence of his father, then on 
 his first journey, 10 ; accom- 
 panied his father and uncle it 
 their second journey, 11 ; noticed 
 by the grand khan, 14 ; acquires 
 a knowledge of four languages ; 
 is sent to different places on 
 public business ; makes notes of 
 what he observed, for the infor- 
 mation of his master; confi- 
 dentially employed duringseven- 
 teen years, 15; returns to Kan- 
 balu from a voyage in the 
 eastern seas, 19 ; embarks with 
 his father, uncle, a Tartar prin- 
 cess, and Persian ambassadors, 
 21 ; arrives at Venice ; opportu- 
 nities he had of being acquainted 
 with the circumstance* he de- 
 scribes, 25; experienced the
 
 500 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 salubrity of mountain air in Ba- 
 lashan, 86 ; states the plan of his 
 work, 90 ; resided one year at 
 Kampion or Kancheu, 118 ; car- 
 ried specimens of the hair of the 
 Tangut ox, or yak, to Venice, 
 143; also the head and feet of 
 the musk animal, 144; was on 
 the spot at the time of Achmac 
 or Ahmed's assassination, 192 ; 
 in travelling through Kataia has 
 noticed only such cities as lay 
 in his route, 237 ; acted as go- 
 vernor of Yan-gui or Yang-cheu 
 for three years, 302 ; made 
 notes of all he saw at Kin-sai, 
 314 ; did not visit the island of 
 the sea of Chin, 357; had 
 visited Ziamba, in the year 
 1280, 360; visited six of the 
 eight kingdoms of Java Minor, 
 366 ; resided five months in 
 Samara, and fortified his station, 
 369 ; carried to Venice seeds of 
 a certain dye stuff, 373; was 
 eye - witness of the king of 
 Maabar arrested for debt, 390; 
 entertained the idea that the 
 bird called a roc or rukh might 
 have been a griffin, 429. 
 Polo, Nicolo, father of Marco, ar- 
 rives at Constantinople; visits 
 the court of Barka, 3 ; detained 
 there by state of the country, 
 4 ; arrives at Bokhara, 5 ; intro- 
 duced to the grand khan, 7; 
 sent back as his ambassador to 
 the pope, 8 ; arrives with his 
 brother at Giazza or Ayas, 9 ; 
 proceeds to Acre ; arrives at 
 Venice, 10 ; returns to Acre 
 with his brother Maffeo, taking 
 with them his son Marco ; visits 
 Jerusalem, 11 ; returns with 
 letters and presents from the 
 pope to the grand khan, 12 ; 
 delivers letters and presents, 
 14 ; expresses a desire to return 
 home, 16 ; embarks for India 
 and Persia, 21 ; returns to 
 Venice, 25 ; had recommended 
 
 to the grand khan the employ- 
 ment of certain projectile ma- 
 chines, 303. 
 
 Polygamy, 117, 131, 223. 
 
 Pope of Home, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14, 
 20, 37, 426. 
 
 Population, of city of Kanbalu, 
 214 ; of Kin-sai, 334. 
 
 Porcelain, manufacture of at Tin- 
 gui, 345 ; origin of the term, 
 note, 263. 
 
 Porcelain shells. See Cowries. 
 
 Porcupines, 82. 
 
 Post-houses in dominions of the 
 grand khan; number of horses 
 maintained; number of build- 
 ings, 222, 223 ; foot-posts ; 
 quick conveyance of despatches, 
 224 ; expense of, how defrayed, 
 225. 
 
 Presents made to grand khan on 
 the festival of his nativity, 199; 
 on first day of the year, 200, 
 201. 
 
 Prester John, a title given to Un- 
 khan ; the tribe of Mungal throw 
 off his yoke and migrate to the 
 north, 121 ; is defeated and slain 
 by Chingis-khan, 125; his de- 
 scendant named George, held 
 the country of Tenduk, as a fief 
 of the grand khan, 147. 
 
 Prisoners, in Java Minor, eaten if 
 not ransomed, 372. 
 
 Prostration before the grand khai,, 
 ceremony of; before the tablet 
 on which his name is inscribed, 
 201. 
 
 Proverbial saying respecting Su- 
 cheu and Hang-cheu, note, 
 313. 
 
 Provinces, division of China into, 
 note, 330. 
 
 Public women, number of, in Kan- 
 balu, 185; at Kin-sai, 319. 
 
 Pulisangan, river and bridge of, 
 237, 238. 
 
 Puncturing the skin. See Tattoo- 
 ing. 
 
 Punishments amongst the Tartars, 
 137.
 
 I.VDEX. 
 
 501 
 
 Pv_rmies. an imposition on the 
 vV^=tern world, being no other 
 than apes stuffed in Java Minor, 
 39. 
 
 Quiacatu, king, 465. 
 Quiecitara. officers employed by 
 the grand khan, 192. 
 
 Rein-deer, employed in northern 
 parts of Tartarv, and eaten as 
 food, 139. 
 
 Religion of the Tartars, 209; of 
 the Kataians, 234. See Chris- 
 tians Saracens Idolaters. 
 
 Reobarle. Reobarda, or Rudbar, 
 district of, 56, 57. 
 
 Revenue arising to the grand khan 
 from tolls of bridges, 252 ; from 
 salt, 288, 299 ; from other mer- 
 chandise, 302 ; great part of 
 local revenue applied to the 
 maintenance of the garrisons, 
 330; amount drawn from Kin- 
 sai, 3S6 ; ten per cent, levied on 
 imports at Zai-tun, 344. 
 
 Rhinoceros, 277, 368, 374. 
 
 Rhubarb, grows near Succuir, 114 ; 
 also in Singui, 312. 
 
 Rice, 250, 260, 370, 374, 377, 387. 
 
 Right hand, only, employed in 
 taking food, 339. 
 
 River running under ground, 70; 
 jaspers found in that of Peyn, 
 99; division of the stream of 
 one near Sin-gui-matu, 289; at 
 Kin-sai, 324; at Kan-giu, 343; 
 at Zai-tun, 352. See Kiang 
 Karamoran. 
 
 Roads, public, in Kataia, planted 
 with trees, 228; near Kin-sai, 
 paved, 225. 
 
 Robbers, 38, 50, 58, 255. 
 
 Roc. See Rukh. 
 
 Rondes, zibelines, or sables, 212, 
 447. 
 
 Rosarv, worn by king of Maabar, 
 354" 
 
 Rubies, balass, 83 ; in Zeilan, 379. 
 
 Bad-bar, note, 56. 
 
 Rukh, or Roc, a bird of ous 
 
 dimensions, seen occasionally at 
 Magastar, 429. 
 
 Rukmedin Achomak, ruler of Or- 
 mus, 63. 
 
 Rum, country so named, note, 13. 
 
 Russia, a province of vast extent 
 bordering on the region of dark- 
 ness, its inhabitants are Christ- 
 ians of the Greek church, 451 ; 
 the men well-favoured and tall, 
 the women fair, with light hair ; 
 pays tribute to the king of the 
 Tartars, whose dominions are 
 on its confines; produces man'" 
 valuable furs, and much wax ; 
 has mines of silver ; its cli- 
 mate extremely cold ; jerfalcons 
 found there in great numbers, 
 452. 
 
 Saba, city of, 46 ; the residence of 
 the three Magi, who adored 
 Christ in Bethlehem, 47. 
 
 Sables, 212, 447, 452. 
 
 Sachion, or Shacheu, town of, in 
 province of Tangut, 104 ; people 
 idolaters ; have monasteries and 
 abbeys filled with idols, 105 ; 
 peculiar custom on birth of a 
 son; burn the bodies of their 
 dead, after keeping them untij 
 a time fixed by the astrologers, 
 106 ; not removed through prin- 
 cipal doorway, 107; pieces of 
 paper exhibiting the figures of 
 various articles burned with 
 them, 108. 
 
 Saffron, a kind of, (Curcuma,) 340. 
 
 Sagatu, or Sogatu, name of com- 
 mander who invaded Ziamba, 
 359. 
 
 Sago, the produce of a species of 
 palm, note, 375, 376. 
 
 Saint Barsamo, monastery of, 46. 
 
 Saint Lunardo, convent of, 35. 
 
 Sakya-muni, one of the names of 
 Buddha, note. 436. 
 
 Salamander (asbestos) found at 
 Chinchitalas ; how prepared ; 
 serpent so called not known 
 113.
 
 502 
 
 IXDEX. 
 
 Salt, water impregnated with, in 
 desert of Kirman, 52 ; fossil in 
 the neighbourhood of Thaikan, 
 80 ; cakes of, used as money at 
 Kain-du, 259; salt springs at 
 Yachi, 262; at Chan-glu, 288; 
 manufacture of, 288, 298, 300 ; 
 transported to the interior, 306 ; 
 revenue from, 336. 
 
 Salutations, polite, between the 
 Kataiana, 235. 
 
 Samara, or Sama-langa ; M. Polo 
 detained there five months'- by 
 contrary winds, 369. 
 
 Samarkan or Samarkand, city of; 
 surrounded by a rich plain ; 
 inhabitants, Christians and Ma- 
 hometans; miracles performed 
 there, 95. 
 
 Samoyeds and Yakuts, note, 449. 
 
 Sandal wood, white and red, 
 376. 
 
 San Thome", town of, note, 395. 
 
 Sappan, verzino, or brezil-wood, 
 376, 410. 
 
 Sapurgam, town of, celebrated for 
 its melons, 78. 
 
 Saracens, at Teflis, 36 ; at Baldach, 
 80; at Tauris, 45 ; at Robi- 
 nam, 70 ; at Balach, 78 ; at 
 Thaikan, 81 ; at Balashan, 83 ; 
 at Vokhan, 91 ; at Kashcar, 
 94 ; at Samarkan, 95 ; at Karkan, 
 97; at Kotan, 98 ; at Charchan, 
 100; at Lop, 101 ; at Chinchi- 
 talas, 112; at Kampion, 116; 
 at Singui, 142 ; in Tenduk, 146 ; 
 placed under an interdict by 
 Kubla'i, 192 ; they offer prayers 
 with other sects, for his pros- 
 perity, 199 ; at Ken-san-fu, 248 ; 
 at Yachi, 262 ; in Java Minor, 
 366 ; employed as soldiers at 
 Zeilan, 380 ; make pilgrimages 
 to the tomb of St. Thomas, in 
 Maabar, 395 ; and to that of 
 Adam in Zeilan, 405 ; form a 
 majority of the population in 
 Kesmacoran or Makran, 422 ; in 
 Abascia, 435 ; at Aden, 438 ; at 
 Escier, 440 ; at Ormuz, 444. 
 
 Sa-yan-fu, or Siang-yang-fu, city of, 
 
 302 ; siege of, 303. 
 Scassem, or Keshem, town of, 81; 
 
 porcupines found there, 82. 
 Schools, in Bengala, 279. 
 Sciences studied at Baldach, 40. 
 Sea, prejudice against by people 
 
 of Maabar, 391. See Mar-mag- 
 
 giore Baku Chin, &c. 
 Sea-chart shown to M. Pole, 346. 
 Sebastoz (now Sis), the capital of 
 
 Armenia Minor, 28. 
 Sejestan, or Siyestan, a province 
 
 of Persia, note, 49. 
 Seljuk dynasty, note, 27. 
 Sender-bandi, name of the king of 
 
 Maabar, 381. 
 Sender-naz, king of Zeilan, his 
 
 answer to a request from Kub- 
 
 lai, 378, 379. 
 Sen-sim, a religious order amongst 
 
 the Kataians; their discipline 
 
 severe, 158. 
 Serpentine stone, 238. 
 Serpents (or alligators) of huge 
 
 size, found in Karazan, 265 ; 
 
 mode of killing them ; their 
 
 gall used as medicine, 266. 
 Servenath, kingdom of, 421. 
 Sesame" seed, 85, 379, 388. 
 Sevasta, city of; martyrdom of 
 
 Saint Blaise at, 28. 
 Shacheu, note, 104. 
 Shadows, observation of length 
 
 of, note, 392. 
 
 Shakia-muni, a Buddha, note, 168. 
 Shallows in the sea between Lo- 
 
 chac and Pentan, 364. 
 Shandu, or Shang-tu, a city in 
 
 Chinese Tartary, built by Kub- 
 
 lai, 152. 
 Shark-charmers employed at the 
 
 pearl fishery, 382. 
 Sheep, peculiar species of, with 
 
 broad tails, 57 ; flocks of, in the 
 
 mountains of Balashan, 85 ; of 
 
 large size in mountains beyond 
 
 Vokhan, 91. 
 
 Sheher, town of, note, 441. 
 Sheikhs, chiefs so called in the 
 
 island of Magastar, 427.
 
 INDEX 
 
 503 
 
 Shipping, of Kataia, 21; of Or- 
 muz, 65 ; of India or China, 
 347. 
 
 Shiraz. See Siraz. 
 
 Siaug-yang-fu, city of, note, 305. 
 
 Sifan. See Tu-fan. 
 
 Si-hu, lake of, note, 314. 
 
 Sihun or Sirr River, note, 5. 
 
 Sikinan, a mountain in Balashan, 
 83. 
 
 Silk, 36, 37, 44, 215, 231, 237. 
 
 Silver, proportion of gold to, in 
 value, 263, 267 ; imported at 
 Kambaia, 421. 
 
 Silver mines, 31, 84. 
 
 Sindichin, town of, 149. 
 
 Sin-din-fu, city of, 251. 
 
 Si-ngan-fu, capital of Shen-si, note, 
 248. 
 
 Sing, the second court of justice 
 in Tartary, 220. 
 
 Sin-gui, a city of Tangut ; popu- 
 lation chiefly idolaters ; oxen of 
 a large size found there ; man- 
 ners of people dissolute, 142. 
 
 Sin-gui, or Su-cheu, city of; vast 
 quantities of silk manufactured 
 there ; its population immense, 
 311. 
 
 Sin-gui, a place of great commerce, 
 near the river Kiang, 305 ; the 
 number of vessels collected 
 there, 306. 
 
 Sin-gui-matu, city of, 289. 
 
 Si-ning, note, 142. 
 
 Siraz or Shiraz, a city of Persia, 48. 
 
 Sirjan, called also Kirman, note, 53. 
 
 Sis, city of, capital of Armenia 
 Minor, note, 26. 
 
 Skins or hides, dressed in Guzze- 
 rat, 419. 
 
 Sledges, drawn by dogs in northern 
 Tartary, description of, 448. 
 
 Soccotera, or Socotra, island of; 
 ambergris found on its coasts; 
 natives employed in striking 
 whales ; are Christians, 425 ; pi- 
 rates resort, ships bound to 
 Aden, touch there ; people prac- 
 tise sorcery, 426. 
 
 So-cheu, note, 114. 
 
 Sogatu, a general in Kublai-khan's 
 army, 359. 
 
 Sogomonbar-kan, or Shakya-mu- 
 ni-burchan, idol worshipped in 
 Tartary, 405 ; legend of, 406. 
 
 Soldadaia, or Sudak, a port in the 
 Euxine, 3. 
 
 Soldan, of Babylonia (for Egypt), 
 12; of Aden, 437; who rules 
 over Escier and Dulfar, 440. 
 
 Soncara, Korkan, or Gurkan, pro- 
 vince of Persia, 48. 
 
 Sondur and Kondur, islands of, 
 362. 
 
 Songari, river of Eastern Tartary, 
 note, 203. 
 
 Sorcerers; of Tebeth, 257; em- 
 ployed as physicians, 270; ac- 
 company armies, 278 ; in Java 
 Minor, 372 ; employed to charm 
 the sharks, in the pearl fisheries, 
 382 ; in Soccotera, 426. 
 
 Soul, believed by the Kataians to 
 transmigrate to another body, 
 235 
 
 Sounding boards, for giving alarm, 
 327. 
 
 South, point to which the doors or 
 openings of Tartar tents are 
 turned, 128. 
 
 Spaan, or Ispahan, city of Persia, 
 48. 
 
 Spices, in Java, 361 ; in Pentan, 
 365; in Java Minor, 365. 
 
 Spikenard, the produce of Ben- 
 gala, 280 ; and of Java, 361. 
 
 Spit, the Kataians, into vessels, 
 and not on the floor, 236. 
 
 Stags. See Rein-deer. 
 
 Stages. See Post-houses. 
 
 Stamped paper. See Paper Money. 
 
 Steel, in Kirman, 54. 
 
 Stores of grain provided by grand 
 khan against seasons of dearth. 
 See Granaries. 
 
 Stray articles, regulations for reco- 
 very of, amongst the Tartars, 
 209. 
 
 Succuir, or So-cheu, town of, 113; 
 rhubarb found in the mcuntain* 
 of, 114.
 
 504 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Su-cheu, great city of, note, 311. 
 Sugar, the production in Bengala, 
 
 280 ; near Kin-sai, 336 ; at Un- 
 
 guen, 342; at Kan-gui, 343; 
 
 wine made from, 390. 
 Suicide, a judicial, 387. 
 Sumatra, or Java Minor, note, 
 
 368. 
 Sumenat, in the peninsula of Gz- 
 
 zerat, note, 119. 
 Soulistan, a province of Persia, 
 
 49. 
 Swine, abundance of, in southern 
 
 province of China, 339. 
 
 Tablet, passport, or chop, 9, 20, 
 23 ; warrants of command, 171, 
 219; borne by couriers, 226. 
 
 Tai-cheu, town of, 226. 
 
 Tai-du, or Ta-tu, city adjoining 
 Kanbalu; inhabitantsof the latter 
 removed to, 181 ; its dimensions, 
 182; police of, 184; suburbs; 
 public women maintained at 
 expense of government, 185 ; 
 vigilance of guards, 186. 
 
 Taikan. See Thaikan. 
 
 Tails, men with, in Java Minor, 
 373. 
 
 Ta-in-fu, or Tai-yuen-fu, city of. 
 242. 
 
 Tai-ping-fu, city of, note, 337. 
 
 Tallies, or notches cut in wood, in- 
 stead of writing, 269. 
 
 Tana, or Kanan, a kingdom in the 
 west of India, note, 420. 
 
 Tanguth or Tangut, province of, 
 104 ; inhabitants are idolaters, 
 with some Turkomans, Nesto- 
 rians, and Mahometans; mo- 
 nasteries filled with idols, 105; 
 bodies of the dead kept long 
 unburied ; burned without the 
 city ; funeral ceremonies, 106, 
 107; includes Sachi on, Kamul, 
 Chinchitalas, Succuir, Kam- 
 pion, and Ezina, 119 ; also Sin- 
 gui or Si-ning ; wild cattle found 
 there, remarkable for the qua- 
 lities of the hair (yak) ; country 
 produces the finest musk, 142; 
 
 description of the animal, 14 3 
 people have black hair and 
 little beard ; women handsome 
 and dissolute ; men allowed to 
 take many wives, 145. 
 Ta-pin-zu or Tai-pin-fu, city of, 
 
 337. 
 
 Tartars, Western, prince of, named 
 Barka, 3; defeated by Ulau, 
 prince of the Eastern, 5 ; wars 
 amongst the Tartar princes, 1 2 ; 
 Armenia under dominion of, 30 ; 
 Zorzania, or Georgia, also, 32 ; 
 Baldach, subdued by, 41 ; ori- 
 gin of, 120; were tributary to 
 Un-khan, 121 ; threw off his 
 yoke, and migrated towards the 
 north, 122; chose Chingis-khan 
 for their chief, 122; succession 
 of their emperors, 125; their 
 wandering life influenced and 
 regulated by the seasons; de- 
 scription of theis tents, 128 ; 
 their women manage the do- 
 mestic and trading concerns, 
 whilst the men employ them- 
 selves in hunting or warfare ; 
 eat flesh -of every description; 
 drink mare's milk, and a pre- 
 paration of it called kemurs, 
 130 ; chastity and fidelity of the 
 women; preeminence of the 
 wife first espoused, 131 ; rules 
 of marriage ; their religion, 132 ; 
 dress, accoutrements, and arms, 
 133; bravery and cruelty; ab- 
 stinence, patience, and subor- 
 dination; constitution of their 
 army ; mode of equipment, 134 ; 
 number of horses ; provision for 
 a march, 135; mode of war- 
 fare; horsemanship; much de- 
 generated (in Kataia), 136; 
 rules of justice and punish- 
 ment ; regulations regarding 
 stray cattle and other missing 
 articles, 137; never violate the 
 depositories of the dead, 279 ; 
 many dwell in northern parts, 
 under a chief named Kai-du, 
 445 ; do not shut themselves up
 
 
 505 
 
 in towns or castles, but dwell 
 in open plains or woods ; have 
 no corn ; possess vast herds ; 
 pay implicit obedience to their 
 prince, 446; plunder their 
 northern neighbours of their 
 furs, 449 ; Western, exact tri- 
 bute from the Russians, 452. 
 
 Tartary, kingdom of; its origin, 
 120; its first emperor. 122. 
 
 Tatar. See Tartar. 
 
 :-ing, practice of, 268, '. - 1 
 
 Tauris, or Tabriz, city of, 44 ; 
 treachery of Mahometan inha- 
 bitants of, 45; monastery of 
 Saint Bersamo, 46. 
 
 Tebaldo de' Vesconti di Piacenza, 
 legate in Syria, 10; elected 
 pope, 1 1 ; despatches the Polo 
 family, with two friars, to the 
 grand khan, 12. 
 
 Tebeth, or Tibet, country of, 253 ; 
 immorality of the Tibetans, 
 255 ; coral used as money at ; 
 manners and customs of the 
 Tibetans ; camlet and gold cloth 
 manufactured ; extraordinary 
 size of the dogs and wild oxen, 
 257. 
 
 Te-cheu, city of, note, 289. 
 
 Teeth, custom of plating them 
 with gold, 268. 
 
 Teflis, city of, 35. 
 
 Templars, knights, 13. 
 
 Temples, pyramidal, in kingdom 
 of Mien, 278 ; of idols near 
 banks of the Kiang, 307 ; on an 
 island in that river, 308 ; round 
 laket Kin-sai, 325. 
 
 Temujin. See Chingis-khan. 
 
 Tenduk, province of, 146; its pro- 
 duce, 147 ; principal seat of the 
 government of Prester John, 
 14& 
 
 Tents of Tartars described. 128, 
 135 ; of the grand khan, 211. 
 
 Thai, the supreme court in Tar- 
 tarv of the Council of Twelve, 
 219. 
 
 Thaigin, or Tai-gin, a fortress in 
 Shan-si, 243. 
 
 Thaikan. or Taikan, cast.e of, 80 ; 
 manners of the inhabitants, 81. 
 
 Thebeth. See Tebeth. 
 
 Themur, or Timur, the grandson 
 and successor of Kublai. 175. 
 
 Tholoman, or Toloman, province 
 of, 2&3. 
 
 Thomas, St, the Apostle, suffered 
 martyrdom in province of Maa- 
 bar ; buried in a small city, the 
 resort of Christian and Maho- 
 metan pilgrims ; regarded by 
 the latter as a great prophet; 
 red earth carried from thence, 
 with which miracles are per- 
 formed, 395 ; appears in a vision 
 to a prince of the country, 396 ; 
 manner of his death, 397 ; people 
 of Nubia and Abyssinia had been 
 converted by him, 436. 
 
 Threshold of a Tartar palace not 
 to be touched by the feet of 
 those who go in or come out 
 196. 
 
 Tibet. See Tebeth. 
 
 Tigers (generally called lions in 
 the text), 205, 211; precautions 
 taken against. 253 ; ravages of ; 
 baited with dogs, 285 ; abound 
 in Koncha, 342 ; black at Kou- 
 lam, 411. 
 
 Tigris, one of the four rivers of 
 Paradise, name of, applied by 
 mistake to the Sihun, 5 ; that 
 on which Baldach stands. 39. 
 
 Timochain, a district of Persia, 48 ; 
 remarkable for the production 
 of a tree called the Arbor secco ; 
 said to have been the scene of a 
 battle between Alexander and 
 Darius, 72. 
 
 Tin-gui, or Ting-cheu, city of, 
 standing near the sources of the 
 rivers that have their course to 
 Zaitun and to Kin-sai ; manu- 
 facture of porcelain- ware in that 
 place, 345. 
 
 Tin-gui, or Tai-cheu, a city of 
 Manji; manv salt-works near, 
 300. 
 
 Tin-gui-gui, or Chang-cheu, citj 
 L L
 
 506 INDEX. 
 
 of; bad character of inhabitants, 
 who massacred a number of 
 Alanian Christians, 310, 311. 
 
 Toddy, or juice of a species of 
 palm, note, 371. 
 
 Toman implies the number of ten 
 thousand, 135. 
 
 Tortoise of marble, supporting a 
 pillar, 238. 
 
 Trebizond, city of, 25, 31. 
 
 Trees planted along the sides of 
 roads by grand khan ; his mo- 
 tive for so doing, 228. 
 
 Tribunal of twelve ministers (or 
 mandarins) for military affairs, 
 187, 219; of same number for 
 civil government, 21 9. 
 
 Troops, number of, kept on foot 
 by Kubla'i ; system of their en- 
 rolment, 331. 
 
 Trout in mountain streams of Ba- 
 lashan, 86. 
 
 Tsan-cheu, city of, note, 288. 
 
 Tsiampa, country of, note, 361. 
 
 Tudin-fu, or Tsi-nan-fu, city of, 
 289 ; of the abundance of silk 
 produced there, 290. 
 
 Tumblers and jugglers, 197. 
 
 Tunny-fish caught on the Arabian 
 coast, 441. 
 
 Turki breed of horses, 28. 
 
 Turkistan, a region of Tartary, 99. 
 
 Turkomania (of Karamania), pro- 
 vince of, 27 ; Kogni, Kai-sariah 
 and Sevastu, its principal cities, 
 28. 
 
 Turquoises found in Kirman, 53 ; 
 in Kain-du, 258. 
 
 Turtle-doves held in abomination 
 by the Mahometans, 56. 
 
 Uguiu, or Hu-cheu, city of; large 
 
 bamboo canes grow there, 338. 
 Ukaka, Oukaka, or Okak, a town of 
 
 Western Tartary, 5. 
 Ulau, or Hulagu. See Alau. 
 Umbrella, among the insignia of 
 
 high rank, 171. 
 Ung and Mongul. See Gog and" 
 
 Magog. 
 Un-guen, a city of the provinc-2 of 
 
 Fo-kien, remarkable for its ex- 
 tensive manufacture of sugar, 
 sent from thence to Kanbalu, 
 342. 
 
 Ungut, a province of Tartary cele- 
 brated for the beauty of its 
 women, 172. 
 
 Un-khan. See Prester John. 
 
 Vacancy in the papal see, 10, 11. 
 
 Vagiu, a city near ,Sin-gui, or Su- 
 cheu, where silks of the finest 
 quality are manufactured, 313. 
 
 Van-ku, a Cathaian chief, 189. 
 
 Venice, doge of, 1 ; city of, 7, 1 0, 
 11, 25. 
 
 Ventilators, used in houses at Or- 
 muz, 64. 
 
 Verzino, or bresil-wood. See Pap- 
 pan. 
 
 Vessels, of Kataia, with four masts, 
 20 ; number of incredible, that 
 pass Sin-gui-matu, 289 ; number 
 at Sin-gui on the Kiang, 30'3 ; 
 pleasure vessels on lake at Kin- 
 sai, 324 ; mode of building in 
 India (or China), 347. 
 
 Victuals, eaten with cleanliness by 
 the Kataians, 235. 
 
 Vineyards, numerous at Ta-in-fu, 
 242. 
 
 Virgins, extraordinary prejudices 
 with regard to, in Tebeth, 255 ; 
 peculiar right exercised by king 
 of Ziamba, with respect to, 360. 
 
 Vochang, or Yung-chang, a city of 
 Yun-nan, 267 ; a memorable 
 battle fought there, 271. 
 
 Vokhan or Wukhan, province of, 
 91. 
 
 Volga, or Wolga River. See Etel. 
 
 Vonsancin, a commander in Ku- 
 bla'i-khan's army, 351. 
 
 Vultures, a species of, called Avigi, 
 35. 
 
 Wall, great, of China, unnoticed by 
 the author; considerations on the 
 probable cause of this silence, 
 note -, p. 118.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 507 
 
 Water, salt and bitter, in desert of 
 Kierruan, 68 ; in that of Kobi- 
 nam, 71 ; none in that of Kho- 
 rasan, 77 ; bitter in that of 
 Peyn, 101 scarce in Lop, 102 ; 
 large collections of, in plains of 
 Northern Tartary, 447. 
 
 Wax, exported from Russia, 452. 
 
 Weasel kind, animals of the, 450, 
 452. 
 
 Whales, accidents to vessels from 
 the stroke of, 348 ; harpooned 
 by people of Soccotera, 425 ; on 
 coast of Zenzibar, 433. 
 
 Wheat, grown in Persia, 51 ; in 
 Kirman, 68 ; in Balashan, 85 ; 
 in Kataia, 223 ; in Kesmacoran, 
 422. 
 
 White feast on first day of the 
 vear amongst Tartars of Kataia, 
 199. 
 
 Wind, violently hot, at Ormuz, 63. 
 See Monsoon. 
 
 Wine, after boiling, drunk by Sa- 
 racens, 51 ; made from dates, 
 67 ; from grapes 98 ; drinking 
 is disreputable in Maabar, 390 ; 
 made from sugar at Koulam, 
 411 ; from rice, sugar, and dates 
 at Escier, 440. 
 
 Witchcraft. See Magic and Sor- 
 cerers. 
 
 Wives, lent to strangers by people 
 of Katnul, 110; number of al- 
 lowed to laity in Kampion or 
 Kan-cheu, 117 ; of Tartars, 130 ; 
 number of Kublai's wives and 
 concubines, 171 ; of those main- 
 tained by king of Kangegu, 281 ; 
 those of the king of Maabar; 
 burn there with the bodies of 
 their husbands, 385. 
 
 Women, remarkably handsome in 
 country of Timochain, 73 ; in 
 Balashan, wear extraordinary 
 dress, 86 ; in Tebeth prostitute 
 their daughters, 255 ; those of 
 Kue-lin-fu, handsome and luxu- 
 rious, 341 ; peculiar right exer- 
 cised by king of Ziamba, with 
 respect to, 360. 
 
 Wood-ashes used in refining sugar, 
 
 note, 342. 
 
 Wool and woollen cloth, 231. 
 Wukhau, or Wokhan. See Vok- 
 
 han. 
 
 Yachi, city of, the capital of Ka- 
 raian; wheaten bread consi- 
 dered unwholesome, 262. 
 
 Yak, or ox of Taugut; its hair 
 used as a charm by people of 
 Maabar, 397. 
 
 Yarnb, or post-houses, in Kataia, 
 221. 
 
 Yan-gui, city of, governed for three 
 years by Marco Polo, 301. 
 
 Yasdi, a city on the eastern side 
 of Persia proper, 52. 
 
 Year. See New Year. 
 
 Yellow River, or Hoang-ho. See 
 Kara-moran. 
 
 Yerken, or Yarkund. See Karkan. 
 
 Youths in Maabar, employed in 
 business at an early age, 392. 
 
 Yung-chang, a city of Yun-nan, 
 note, 258. 
 
 Yun-nan, province of, note, 254. 
 
 Zagata'i, son of Chingis-khan, 58 
 said to become a convert to 
 Christianity, 95. 
 
 Zai-tun, city of; its noble port; 
 people idolaters ; river large 
 and rapid, 344, 352. 
 
 Zanquebar. See Zenzibar. 
 
 Zatolia, Jacolich, or Catholicos, 
 patriarch of the Nestorians, 
 note, 426. 
 
 Zeilan, or Ceylon, island of, 377; 
 its great size ; inhabitants go 
 nearly naked, 378 ; their food ; 
 precious stones found there, 
 379 ; high mountain there, on 
 which is the tomb of Adam, 
 405. 
 
 Zen-gian, city of, 339. 
 
 Zenzibar, island of ; inhabitants 
 are idolaters ; their food and 
 liquor, 431; animals of, 432. 
 
 Ziamba, or Tsiampa, 358 ; country 
 of; sends elephants and aloes-
 
 508 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 wood to grand khan; invaded 
 and reduced to subjection ; pe- 
 culiar right exercised by the 
 king of, with respect to married 
 women, 359. 
 
 Zipangu, island of, 350 ; abun- 
 dance of gold found there ; 
 likewise precious stones ; expe- 
 
 dition against, 351 ; mode of 
 worshipping idols, 354; canni- 
 bals of, 355. 
 
 Zorza, island of. See Jorza. 
 
 Zorzania, or Georgia, kingdom of; 
 fountain of oil, 31; silk manu- 
 factured there, 34 ; convent of 
 St. Lunar do at, 35. 
 
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