INDIA 
 
 BY 
 
 FANNIE ROPER FEUDGE 
 
 The gorgeous East with richest hand 
 Showers on her kings barbaric pearl and gold 
 
 REVISED AND ENLARGED 
 WITH ONE HUNDRED ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 THE WERNER COMPANY 
 
 NEW YORK AKRON, OHIO CHICAGO 
 
 1899
 
 COPYRIGHT, 1895, 
 
 BY 
 THE WERNER COMPANY 
 
 History of India
 
 Stack 
 /Vnnex 
 
 PREFACE 
 
 The country treated in the volume now in the reader's hand 
 claims attention from all who speak the English tongue, not 
 only by reason of its great antiquity and the Oriental magnif- 
 icence and grandeur that adonis its history, but because it is 
 the home of those who used the language from which their 
 own is a descendant. The history of England had long been 
 intimately connected with that of India before the speech of 
 the Anglo-Saxon was suspected of having any affiliation with 
 that of the mysterious land of the Vedas, the home of 
 Guadama. 
 
 Now we recognize the truth that, as has been well said, Cen- 
 tral Asia was the cradle of the " noble and ever-progressive 
 Aryan race, the progenitor of Persian and Pelasgian, and Celt 
 and Teuton, the discoverer of well-nigh everything which is 
 great and beneficent in the arts of war and peace, the race from 
 whose bosom came Charlemagne and Alfred, Dante and Shak- 
 speare, Michael Angelo and Raphael, Newton and Descartes 
 the parent in the modern world of the metaphysical subtlety of 
 Germany, and the vivid intelligence of France, and the imperi- 
 al energy of England ; the parent in the ancient world of the 
 lofty spiritualism of India 'of the glory that was Greece and 
 the grandeur that was Rome.' " 
 
 The more intimate our acquaintance with the history of this 
 remarkable land, the more our astonishment at the marvellous 
 past, as forcibly exhibited in an architecture imposing in its
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 ruins from which the fretting tooth of time has not even yet 
 taken the delicate touches which in other days gave them a 
 ravishing heauty. The literature and language of India have 
 been brought to the knowledge of the Western world within 
 our own century, and we know comparatively little of their 
 scope and relations, but we are sufficiently well informed to be 
 filled with amazement by that little. The latest of our great 
 poems is based upon the remarkable story of the self-abne- 
 gation of one of the religious heroes of India, and its exten- 
 sive circulation is an indication of the interest that is felt in 
 the laud and its history. 
 
 The writer of the present volume was for a number of years 
 resident in India and had uncommon advantages for becom- 
 ing acquainted with the people of all ranks, and in the different 
 regions. Her experience enables her to present a view of the 
 physical traits of the country, its natural wonders and works 
 of art, its cities, towns, temples and palaces, its languages, 
 literature, laws, and religious and social customs, and her study 
 of authentic histories and books of travel have enabled her to 
 give a lively epitome of the history of the past and to add to 
 her own store of information with a freedom from error that 
 is only possible for one long personally familiar with the 
 country. 
 
 The volume purposely avoids details and statistics, which, 
 however valuable in themselves, are more appropriate in books 
 intended rather for the specialist and the student than for the 
 use of the general reader at the fireside and in the home. The 
 many illustrations will make more real the descriptions of the 
 author, and it is hoped that the volume will prove profitable as 
 well as entertaining. 
 
 A. G.
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 GEOGKAPHICAL DIVISIONS. 
 
 Names Geography of Hindustan Situation Ex- 
 treme Length Width Area Population Names 
 of Races Great Mountain Ranges Special Features 
 
 Matheran and Khandalla "Dak-bungalows " 
 Railway over the Ghauts Five Great Divisions of 
 India as separated by Mountains and Rivers Dis- 
 tinctive Features of Each The Desert Coast Line 
 
 Diversified Appearance of Coast, Bays, Harbors, 17 
 Rivers, and Islands. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 MOUNTAIN SYSTEMS. 
 
 Highest Peaks of the Himalayas Oriental Traditions 
 Mountains, Table-lands, Plains, and Valleys Botan- 
 ical Garden at Mussoorri Sikkim Hills Dharjeling 
 and its Sanitarium Its History and Surroundings 
 Mountain Vehicles Pur Pundjal Simla and its 
 Court Kalka Simoor Mountains Mountain Scen- 
 ery and People, Villages and Products, Climate and
 
 rl CONTENTS. 
 
 Minerals Bhadrinath Its Temple and Tank 
 Chirra Punjee Ajmere and Terraglmr Maghar Pa- 
 har Salt Plains Tintonni and the Tbakours 
 Black Mail Kairwarra Vindhyas and Ghauts 
 Climate and Scenery Geological Features Banga- 
 lore and Mysore Mountain Shrines and Temples 
 Neilgherry Hills Smugglers and the Discovery 
 Mount Kartery, Kaytee Pass and Kaytee House 
 Influence of Mountains on Climate and Health. 65 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 POLITICAL DIVISIONS. 
 
 British India Political Divisions Area and Population 
 Presidency of Bengal Beginning and Growth of 
 Anglo-Indian Power Battle of Plassey Calcutta 
 Its Origin and History The Black Hole Opium 
 Monopoly Products and Trade of Bengal Chan- 
 dernagore Fort William Government House 
 European and Native Quarters of Calcutta Presi- 
 dency of Madras Its Components The Carnatic 
 Varieties of Climate Bangalore and Hyder Ali 
 The Fort and its History Seringapatan and Tippoo, 
 the " Tiger " Cochin Arcot Travancore and 
 its Rajahs Rulers of Vizianagram History of the 
 Circars Cananore Vellore and its Tragedy The 
 City of Madras Its Origin and History Fort and 
 "Black Town" Mount Road Government House 
 and its Belongings Prince of Wales Liveries 
 European Dwellings Street Sights and Equipages 
 Educational Institutions, etc. 115 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 PRESIDENCY OF BOMBAY. 
 
 Presidency of Bombay Its Constituents Climate, Soil, 
 and Productions of several Sections Regulation of
 
 CO A' TEXTS. vii 
 
 Land Tax First Indian Railway Oilier Railways 
 
 The Telegraph Schools The Island of Bombay 
 
 Its Location and History The " Fort " Old and 
 New City What the Fort contains Routine of Life 
 in Indian Cities Quarters for each Race The Par- 
 sees Their Dwellings and Habits Colaba Races 
 and Residences, Crafts and Wares Arab Horse-market 
 
 Jain Hospital for Dumb Animals Kindness to 
 Brute Creatures Depredations of Tigers Cemeter- 
 ies Malabar Hill Its Trees and Shrubs Govern- 
 ment House Walkeshwar Its Temple and Legend 
 
 Tower of Silence Bycullah Mazagon and its 
 People Flowers and Serpents Palace Hospital of 
 Sir J. Jejeebhoy, Population Commercial Crisis 
 of 1863-65 Surat Broach, and its Silver Mosque 
 
 Antiquity of Callian Its Ruins and Temple 
 Poonah Situation and History Famous Temple 
 Oriental Ideas of Death Government House of 
 Poonah and What was Said of It. 162 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 PROVINCES AND PEOPLE. 
 
 Chittagong Tenasserirn Provinces Aracan Assam 
 The Brahmaputra Cultivation of Tea Other Prod- 
 ucts of Assam Climate Kishengurh Its History 
 and Capital Cashmere Its Valley, Climate and 
 Productions Cashmere Shawls History of Cash- 
 mere Condition Afghanistan Bundelcnnd Its 
 Location History Past and Recent Hurdeo Singh 
 and his Exploits The Bourdilas Noted Events in 
 History of Bundelcund Chief Towns Duttiah 
 Its Fortifications Temples Palace of Bursing Deo 
 
 Its Size, Security and Design The College of 
 Duttiah Sonnaghur and its Temples Dholepore 
 Its History C'apital Mosque Maha Rajah and 
 
 H. 12
 
 viii CONTENTS. 
 
 Prince of Wales Hindu Bridge Nourabad Tomb 
 of Mohammedan Lady Author of Last Century 
 Bridge of Boats. 205 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 GWALIOR AND SCINDIA. 
 
 Ancient Gwalior Its Fortress and History Complica- 
 tions Mali a Rajah Scindia and the English Scin- 
 dia's Character and Martial Proclivities Sir Dinkur 
 Rao and the Administration New Gwalior Its 
 Palaces and Monuments Origin and History of the 
 Scindias The Peishwa and his Slipper-bearer Ad- 
 ventures of Mahaji Scindia Daolut's Successes and 
 Reverses Territories of Scindia Gwalioka Lashka, 
 the new Capital Its Origin N Old and New Palaces 
 
 Temples " Attar and Pan " Native Government 
 
 Ceremonies Prisons. 237 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 CLIMATE AND SOIL. 
 
 Climate Monsoons Seasons Their Number and Char- 
 acter Hot Winds at Jeypore and Madras Sand 
 Showers Precautions against Heat Three Great 
 Causes of Famine Enforced Cultivation of Opium 
 
 Excessive Taxation Lack of Irrigation Lands 
 taken up by English Government and Army Evic- 
 tions in Consequence of Heavy Taxes, and consequent 
 Famine in some Collectorates Vegetable Products 
 
 Grains Fruits Water-nut of Cashmere Euro- 
 pean Vegetables Native Fruits Excellent and Abund- 
 ant Casheu-nut Banian-tree and Fruit Legend 
 
 Tamarind -tree and Foliage Famous Kabira Bar 
 on the Nerbudda Ancient Pepul of Allahabad 
 The Moh wah and Its Numerous Flowers. 2l>-2
 
 CONTENTS. ix 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 CASTE SYSTEM. 
 
 Caste Its Nature Divisions Grades Require- 
 ments Rules in regard to Marriage and Vocation 
 Effects of the System Brahmins their offspring 
 Investiture of a Son the Sacred Cord Breaking 
 Caste Its Penalties Involuntary Defilement A 
 Hundred Thousand Dollars for Restitution of Casle 
 
 Tippoo's tyranny and its results Advantages of 
 Caste to the Traveller Preponderance of Different 
 Castes Purvus Khayets Bunialis Parsees Case 
 
 in regard to Sick and Dying Incidents. 282 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 CHRISTIAN MISSIONS. 
 
 Introduction of Christianity St. Thomas of India A 
 Christian king Ecclesiastical war Portuguese ef- 
 forts A new Veda Romanism Protestant mis- 
 sions Danish missionaries The immortal Schwartz 
 
 English missions American missions Judson 
 and others The American Board Dates of estab- 
 lishment of various missions Extent of missionary 
 work Great progress. 300 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 EARLIEST HISTORY. 
 
 Antiquity of the Hindus Evidence of their Existence in 
 the Old Patriarchal Days Researches of Prinsep and 
 others Early Native Records and Poems Decipher- 
 ing of Ancient Inscriptions Rama, king of Oude, and 
 his Invasion of Ceylon Who were the " Monkeys " 
 and "Demons" Wars Hastinapura a Dynasty 
 Subsequent kings of Pandu Dynasty Kingdom of
 
 x CONTENTS. 
 
 Magada Birth and History of Gaudama, fourth 
 Buddh Ancient Language of Magada Chandra- 
 gumpta, the Soudra, and what he accomplished. 321 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 DECLINE OF THE ARAB POWER. 
 
 Reign of Dharmasoka, the First Emperor of India His 
 Wise and Virtuous Policy Propagation of Buddh- 
 ism Extent of his Dominion Internal Improve- 
 ments Decline of Magada And Subjection to Can- 
 ouj Ancient Domain of Canouj Early History of 
 Scindie Guzerat and the Rajputs Malwar and king 
 Vicramaditya The Deccan Orissa Successive 
 Conquerors and Marauders of India The Mahrattas 
 
 Alexander's Conquests Wonderful Civilization of 
 India Compared with that of other Countries, in the 
 days before the Moslem Conquests Arab Invasion 
 
 Success of Casim Sacking of Moulton Capture 
 of Dewal Rout of Rajputs A Woman's Bravery 
 Casim' s Death Decline of Arab Power in India. ;J3C 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 THE SUPREMACY OF MAHMOUD. 
 
 The death of Haroun-al-Raschid and its Results The 
 Sam an is and their Protege Promotion of Alptegin, 
 and Subsequent Career His Successor Character 
 of Sibektegin Incident indicative of Humanity 
 Furious encounters with Rajahs of Lahore, Delhi and 
 others Sibektegin always victorious Extension of 
 Afghan Dominion Sultan's Death Accession of his 
 Son Mahmoud's Victories Triumphal Feast 
 Annexation of Pun jaub and Lahore Foundation of 
 Ghaznivide Dynasty Conquest of Persia Death 
 Character Incidents. H49
 
 CONTENTS. xi 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 KHILIJI, THE SANGUINARY. 
 
 Short and troublous reigns of Mahmoud's Sons and 
 Grandsons Revolt of Lahore Accession of Farokh- 
 sad Incursions of Seljuks Wise and prosperous 
 reign of Ibrahim Expedition to the Sutlej Capture 
 of Cities Prosperous Reign of Massand II. Violent 
 death of his Son Long Reign of Behram and its con- 
 trasting Acts Flight and Death Accession of his 
 Sons and Character of their respective Reigns Divi- 
 sion of Empire Ghorian Dynasty Glorious reign of 
 Gheias-u-din Sahib, his General and Successor 
 Large Accessions of Territory Mahmoud Ghori and 
 his Reign India an Independent Kingdom " The 
 Slave Kings " Kutb-u-din His Origin and History 
 Altamsh and His Successors House of Khiliji, 
 and its Extinction. 3(51 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 THE TOGHLAK DYNASTY. 
 
 Gheias-u-din Military Governor of Punjaub The first 
 King of the Toghlak Dynasty F>ents of his Reign, 
 and violent Death A. D. 1325 Accession of his Son, 
 Mohammed Early Successors Subsequent Tyranny 
 
 Insurrections and Loss of Territory Sudden Death 
 A. D. 1351 Accession of Firuz His Character and 
 Long Reign Later Events in the Life of Firuz 
 Short Reigns of his Successors Accession of Mah- 
 moud Early Events of his Reign Revolt of States 
 
 Invasion of Tamerlane Enormities Committed by 
 Tartars Devastation of Punjaub Reduction of 
 Delhi Tamerlane, Emperor of India Atrocities at 
 Delhi Departure of the Conqueror His Policy and 
 Acts Restoration of Mahmoud Last of the Togh-
 
 xii CONTENTS. 
 
 laks Khizir Khan and His Successors Three Kings 
 of the Lodi Dynasty The Last of the Afghan Kings 
 Invasion Invited Conquest of the Capital by the 
 Tartan Baber. 373 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 EUROPEAN TRADE. 
 
 Trade of the Ancients with India Benefits of Alexan- 
 der's Expedition Former Routes and Nations en- 
 gaged in Indian trade Romans and Saracens as Pio- 
 neers Discoverers of the fifteenth century First 
 Portuguese Expedition Opposition of Moors Prompt 
 .Action of De Cabul Results in Portuguese favor 
 Second Portuguese Expedition Vasco de Gama and 
 Albuquerque Papal "Bull," Its Reception Concilia- 
 tory Policy and Subsequent Death of Albuquerque 
 Contrasting Administrations of De Souza and De 
 Castro, and their Results Death of De Castro Fran- 
 cis Xavier His Character and Influence The Inqui- 
 sition Its Doings and Results Advent of Dutch 
 Power in India Of the English Formation of East 
 India Company, A. D. 1600. 386 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 INDIAN RACES. 
 
 Races of India Rajputs a Paramount Power Their 
 Origin and History Oudeypore and its People The 
 Late and Present Maharanas Their Wonderful Ped- 
 igree, How a Maiden of the Souriavanses may be 
 Won Dress of the Maharana His Jewels State 
 and Revenue Honors and Perquisites Past and 
 Present Travel in Central India Testimony of Bishop 
 Heber in 1820 Appearance and Dress of Rajputs 
 Ladies of Rajputana Bards Pertal Singh and the 
 Moguls, in 1565 Sixteen Omras Heraldry among
 
 CONTENTS. xiii 
 
 Rajputs Maharajah Jeypore Origin and History 
 Dholac Rae and the Mynas How the Kaschwas 
 lost Caste History of the Mynas Bheels Their 
 Origin and History Appearance and Attire Reli- 
 gious Belief Customs A Legend The Bheels 400 
 and Mutiny of 1858. 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 THE MOGUL EMPIRE FROM BABER TO AKBAR. 
 Acceshion of Baber, the first Tartan|Emperor Insubordina- 
 tion of Rajahs Baber's Early Experiences and History 
 Victory at Paniput, and Subsequent Successes 
 Internal Improvements Short Reign His Death, 
 Character and Successor Prosperous Condition of 
 the country on the Accession of Hmnayun His Noble 
 traits Treachery of his Family and Nobles Escape 
 to Persia Long Exile and Return to Delhi His Sub- 
 sequent Death Akbar, the " boy-king" Long and 
 Prosperous Reign The Minister Behram Khan Sub- 
 jection of Rebellious Provinces Chittore Its History 
 Heroism "Sacrifice of Johar" thrice repeated "The 
 Holy City" deserted Ondeypore founded by the 
 Rajah of Chittore Cashmere reduced. 431 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 THE MOGUL EMPIRE FROM AKBAR TO SHAH 
 JEHAN. 
 
 Expedition into the Deccan Ahmednegar Its History 
 and Fortress Rebellion of Akbar's Son Submission 
 and Restoration to favor Akbar's Death His Acts 
 Character, Abilities Accession of Jehanghir Revolt 
 of his son Khosru Its Results Lahore, the Old and 
 the New Palace of Sehanghir Nour Mahal 
 Prince Koroun's attempt on Agra His Junction 
 with Mohabet Death of Jehanghir Immense
 
 xiv CONTENTS. 
 
 Wealth Proclamation of Shah Jehan Agra Its 
 History and Wonderful Monuments The Taj 
 Palace and Throne of Akbar A Legend Gates of 
 Somnath Mausoleum of the Princess Jehanara 
 Mumtaj Mahal Building of the Taj Its History 
 
 What People say of it The Elmaddowlah 
 Promise of Agra. 451 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 THE MOGUL EMPIRE. AURUNGZEBE. 
 
 Splendor of Shah Jehan' s Reign Immense Wealth and 
 Lavish Expenditures Peacock Throne Wise Gov- 
 ernment Military Exploits of his Reign Troubles 
 with Mahrattas Quarrels about the Succession 
 Aurungzebe gains the day Disposal of his opponents 
 
 Shah Jehan deposed Seven years in confinement 
 and Subsequent Death in 1665 Ultimate Fate of the 
 rivals of Aurungzebe Names of Emperor, Character 
 and abilities Exploits in the Deccan Towns of 
 Aurungabad and Hyderbad Fortress of Daoulatabad 
 
 Prominent Events in History of Ahmedabad 
 Troubles with the Mahrattas Failure of Afghan 
 Campaign Disaffection of His Subjects Death of 
 the Emperor, 1707. 473 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 THE MAHRATTAS. 
 
 The Mahratta Power Its Rise, History, and Wide-spread 
 Influence Sevaji and his Successors Intervening 
 History of European Nations in India Growth of 
 English Indian Power Its Obstacles and Successes 
 through several Reigns Union of Old and New East 
 India Companies Increased Privileges granted by 
 New Charter Inefficient Officers and Threatened 
 Dangers to the Colonies Renewed Depredations of
 
 CONTENTS. xv 
 
 the Mahrattas Their Ultimate Fate Sons and Suc- 
 cessors of Aurungzebe Several brief Reigns usher- 
 ing in the Accession of Mohammed Shah in 1719. 491 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 THE MOGUL DYNASTY FROM MOHAMMED SHAH 
 TO THE END OF THE DYNASTY. 
 
 Inauspicious beginning of Mohammed Shah's Reign 
 Troubles with his Vizier Hosen Ali Fate of the 
 Brothers Asof Jah and his Acts Invasion of India 
 by Nadir Shah Plunder and Massacre at Delhi 
 Spoils Rise of Rohillas Invasion of India by 
 Afghans Death of Emperor Accession of his Son, 
 Ahmed Shah Fresh Invasions of Rohillas and 
 Afghans Dissensions Deposition of Emperor 
 Violence to his Person Alarn-ghir II. on the Throne 
 
 Treachery of Ghazni-u-din Return of the Afghans 
 
 Massacre and Plunder Death of the Emperor 
 Fate of Shah Alum His Son End of Tartar Dy- 
 nasty Growth of English Power Jealousy of Dutch 
 and French Suraj-al-Daoulah and the "Black Hole," 
 
 Fleet from Batavia Landing of Troops Decline 
 
 of French and Dutch Power in India. 507 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 THE ENGLISH POWER LORDS CLIVE AND 
 HASTINGS. 
 
 Mr. Vansittart s Administration Deposition of Mir Jaf- 
 fier and Appointment of Cassim Ali Khan Disaffec- 
 tion toward Mr. Vansittart Cassim's Treachery 
 Various Military Exploits Fall of Mongheer and 
 Patna Mutinous Indications among Native Troops 
 Restoration and Death of Mir Jaffier Complaints 
 and Request of Stock-holders of the East India Com- 
 pany Appointment of Lord Clive His Absolute
 
 xvi CONTENTS. 
 
 Authority Correction of Abuses " Batta," and 
 what came of it Capture of Po- dicherry and Nizam 
 Ali's Opposition Hyder Ali Subahdar of Oudh 
 and the Rohillas New Constitution for Indian Prov- 
 inces Impeachment of Warren Hastings Rajah of 
 Nuncomar and his Sad Fate Caprice of the Governor 
 Reverses and Successes Duel between Hastings and 
 Francis Hyder The Peishwa and the English 
 French Settlement Captured Hyder Ali defeated. 523 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 THE ENGLISH POWER TIPPOO SAHIB AND HIS 
 TIMES. 
 
 Sir Eyre Coote as Governor of Madras Wars of Ilycler 
 Ali and Tippoo Taking of Dutch Settlements Gen. 
 Matthews and his Officers Treaty, March, 1784 
 Supreme Court of Calcutta Power Vested therein 
 Provincial Councils Civil Service Consolidation of 
 British Power Complicity of Gov. Hastings with 
 Nabob of Oudh General Prosperity of Colonies 
 Passage of Acts by Home Government Appointment 
 of Lord Cornwallis Treachery of Tippoo Civil and 
 Military Complications Rajah of Benares Nabob 
 of Oudh Governor's Share of Plunder Pitt's " India 
 Bill" Renewal of Hostilities Varying Results of 
 several Campaigns Treaty of 1792 Charter of East 
 India Company renewed Affairs in Oudh Tippoo 
 and the French Taking of Seringapatam Death of 
 Tippoo His Family Mysore dismembered Charac- 
 ter and Peculiarities of Tippoo Invasion of Afghan 
 King Complications among Mahratta Princes, and 
 Continuation of Hostilities Battle of Assaye, of Las- 
 warre, and others Lord Wellesley's Policy Napo- 
 leon's Influence and Aims in regard to India Cap- 
 ture of French Islands Java The Ghoorkas Sue-
 
 CONTENTS. xvii. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 cesses Close of Mahratta War Last of the Peish- 
 was Resignation of Gov. Hastings. 540 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 THE ENGLISH POWER BURMESE AND PUNJAUB 
 WARS AND THE CONQUEST OF SCINDE. 
 
 Advent of Earl of Amherst as Governor-General First 
 Burmese War Its Causes and Results Second Bur- 
 mese War Causes Duration and Results Two 
 Noted Events of Mr. Adams' Administration Adjust- 
 ment of Dutch and English Affairs Singapore 
 Queen of the Indian Seas Peaceful Administration 
 of Lord William Bentinck Important Reforms Edu- 
 cation and Religions Liberty Initiatory Steps toward 
 Opening Communication between India and the Cas- 
 pian Sea, and Ultimate " Overland " Steam-route from 
 England to India Important Changes in Charter 
 Resignation of Governor His Successor Lord Auck- 
 land's Administration a Failure The Afghan Cam- 
 paign and its Terrible Disasters Recall of Lord Auck- 
 land Administration of Lord Ellenborough Annex- 
 ation of the Punjaub Changes in Charter Lord 
 Dalhousie's Retirement Prosperity. 572 
 
 CHAPTER XXV. 
 THE SEAPOY REBELLION INDIA OF THE PRESENT. 
 
 The Seapoy Service Great Rebellion Visit of Prince of 
 Wales The Afghan War India of the Present, under 
 the Successive Administrations of the following Vice- 
 roys: Lord Lytton, the Marquis of Ripon, the Marquis 
 of Dufferin, the Marquis of Lansdowne, and the Earl of 
 Elgin. 594 
 
 Explanation of Indian Terms ... 648 
 
 General Index ...... 653
 
 MAP. PAGH 
 The Maharao Rajah of Ulwur ... -23 
 
 Sontal Village, Rajmahal .... 29 
 
 The Dakghari. Post Chaise ..... 37 
 
 Mountaineers in action ..... 43 
 
 Railway travelling in India ..... 51 
 
 An Indigo Factory, Allahabad .... 57 
 
 Peasants of the Doab ..... 61 
 
 Hindus of Western Deccan .... 67 
 
 Inhabitants of the Island of Salsette, near Bombay . 73 
 
 A child committed to the river Junna by its mother . 79 
 
 Crossing an Indian River .... 87 
 
 Mohammedan School, Allahabad ... 91 
 Entrance of Caves, Elephanta . . . .95 
 
 Interior of Great Cave, Elephanta ... 99 
 
 The Lion's Cave on the Island of Elephanta . . 102 
 
 Caves of Kenhari . . . ... . 105 
 
 Mosque on the Hooghly, near Calcutta . . . 109 
 
 Travelling Wagons ..... 113 
 
 The Mail-cart . . . . ... 121 
 
 The Chopaya, an Indian Carriage . . , 131 
 
 Simla, Western Himalayas .... 135 
 
 The Palace of the Seths, Ajmere . . . 147
 
 List of Illustrations. xix. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Cocoanut Trees . . 155 
 
 Boating on the Ganges .... 163 
 
 A European House, Calcutta . . . 1<>7 
 
 Esplanade, Calcutta . . . 16!) 
 
 Palaquin ... . 1^3 
 
 Bhistis or Water Carrier . .177 
 
 Hindoo Jewellers ..... 181 
 
 A Court of Justice in a Jungle . . 1^ ! "> 
 Jugglers . 
 
 Native of Madras . 19f) 
 Young Hindoo Woman . 
 Serpent Charmers . ... 
 Carriage of Hindoo Lady 
 
 Hindoo Women of Bombay in Ceremonial Dress 221 
 
 The Festival of the Serpents, Bombay . 225 
 
 The Cotton Market: Merchants at Bombay . 227 
 Persians in Bombay 
 
 A Parsee Merchant at Bombay . 239 
 
 A Hindoo Temple in the Black Town, Bombay 245 
 
 Religious Meeting of Jams, Bombay . 251 
 
 Parsee Lady and Her Daughter . 257 
 Travellers received on the Frontier of the State of 
 
 Puimah . . . 268 
 
 Dancing Girls at Bombay . . 269 
 
 Hill Fortress of Pawangurh . . . 277 
 
 Thugs, in the Prison of Aurungabad . . . 283 
 Meeting of Travellers with the Maharajah of Chutter- 
 
 pore 
 
 289 
 
 Facade of the Palace of Birsiug-Deo . 295 
 
 Palace of Birsing-Deo and the Lake, Duttiah . . 303
 
 xx. List of Illustrations. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 The Holy Hill of Sounaghur, seen from the village . 307 
 
 The Mohorum (New Year Festival) at Bhopal . 311 
 
 Cathacks, (Male Dancers) at Bhopal . . . 317 
 
 A Rhinoceros Fight ..... 323 
 
 Colossi of Curwhai, Gwalior .... 327 
 
 Side View of the Pal Palace at Gwalior . . 331 
 
 Mausoleum of the Scindias, at Lashkar . 337 
 
 The Gopal Bhowan in the Palace of Digh . . 343 
 Pavilion of Dewaui Khas (Great Audience Hall) at 
 
 Digh. ..... 351 
 
 The Imperial Durbar Dress Reception. . . 353 
 
 Temple of Juggernath . , . , . 357 
 
 Gentlemen of Behar . . . . . 363 
 
 Great Chaitya or Tope of Sanchi . . . 37"> 
 
 Full Dress Reception of the Maharana of Oudeypore 383 
 
 Brahmins of Bengal ..... 391 
 
 Car of Juggernath ..... 401 
 
 Feast of Ganesa, Benares .... 407 
 
 Chandni Chowk The Shopping Street, Delhi . 415 
 
 Ruins near Delhi . . . . . 421 
 
 Rajpoots, Warrior Caste ..... 433 
 
 The Bazaar of Khoja Syud, Ajmere . . . 437 
 
 The Temple of Mahadeva, Kajraha . . . 453 
 
 Sambhoo Sing, the Maharana of Meywar . . 455 
 
 Durban of the Maharah of Rewah, at Govindgurh . 465 
 
 The Start for the Hunt in India . . . . . 475 
 
 Temples of the King, at Ulwur . ... 481 
 
 The Royal Standard Bearer, in the Procession of the 
 
 Guicowar, at Baroda . . v . 493 
 
 The Valley of Ambir . . * . . 503
 
 List of Illustrations, xxi. 
 
 PAGB 
 
 Principal Gate of the Palace of the Emperors, Delhi . 513 
 
 Zemindars and Jat Peasants .... 525 
 
 The Golden Kiosk, in the Valley of Anibir . . 533 
 The Tower of Koutub, Plain of Delhi . . .541 
 
 The Princess Shah-Jehan .... 545 
 
 The Taj Mausoleum ..... 551 
 
 Gardens of the Taj ..... 559 
 
 Mausoleum of Sheik Shisti, at Futtehpore-Sikri . 563 
 
 Soldiers of the Nizam of Hyderabad . . . 575 
 
 Royal Necropolis, Golconda .... 579 
 
 Monument in the Royal Necropolis at Golconda . 585 
 
 Ruins of the Harem of the Emperor Ahmed, Sirkhej . 591 
 
 The King's Elephant, in the Great Procession at Baroda 595 
 
 Mosque of Aurungzebe, Benares . . . 599 
 
 Religious Beggar, Benares .... 607 
 
 General View of Bhurtepore .... 613 
 
 The Broad Stair-case of Funerals on the Ganges, (Cawn- 
 
 Pore) . . . . . .619 
 
 Imambara, Lucknow ..... 623 
 
 An Elephant Fight .... 629
 
 INDIA, 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL DIVISIONS. 
 
 INDIA, Hindustan, and British India, are names 
 often, indiscriminately applied as belonging 
 to the same region. Properly, the first and 
 second include the third; India and Hindustan 
 being applied to the entire Peninsula, comprising 
 within its bounds, British India, or all that portion 
 under British control, and in addition, many 
 native Principalities, some of which are entirely 
 independent, and others partially tributar}^ to the 
 British Provincial Government. 
 
 India lies between Thibet and Little Thibet on 
 H.J. 2
 
 18 Creographical Divisions. 
 
 the north, the Anglo-Burmese Provinces of Assam 
 and Aracan and the Bay of Bengal 011 the east, 
 the Indian Ocean on the south, and the sea of 
 Arabia, Beeloochistan and Afghanistan on the 
 west. It extends over the immense region lying 
 between Cape Comorin in 8 of north latitude and 
 the Himalayan mountains in 35 of north latitude, 
 and from the Delta of the Brahmaputra on the 
 east, to that of the Indus on the west. 
 
 Its extreme length is about eighteen hundred 
 miles, and its greatest breadth, along the parallel 
 of 25, is a little more than fifteen hundred miles ; 
 comprising a total area of not less than fifteen 
 hundred thousand square miles. 
 
 The population of India is reckoned at one hun- 
 dred and forty-one millions, of whom, about 
 one million are Portuguese and their descendants ; 
 one hundred thousand are Anglo-Saxons ; and the 
 remainder are Monguls, Tartars, Moors, Arabs, 
 Parsees, Burmese, Aracanese, Assamese, Peguans, 
 Chinese, Jews and Gypsies; besides the various 
 Indian races, viz. : Hindus, Bengalees, Rajputs, 
 Mahrattas, Seikhs, Ameers, Bheels, Afghans, Gen- 
 toos, Goorkas, Klings, Bhootians, Lopchas, Todars, 
 Gouuds, Khounds, Badagas, and Erulars.
 
 Mountain Ranges. 19 
 
 This great Peninsula is intersected by ranges of 
 lofty mountains, among which are the Himalayas 
 in the northern section ; the Vindhyas, Dounghers, 
 Aravalis, Kairmoor, and Rajmahal, in the central ; 
 and the several ranges of Ghauts in the southern 
 portion ; thus diversifying the whole country with 
 alternating mountains and valleys, extensive table- 
 lands, deltas, and fertile plains, that include within 
 their several bounds a very great diversity of 
 climate, soil and productions. 
 
 The great Himalayas, that form the northern 
 boundary of India, begin in Turkey, under the 
 name of the Taurus Mountains, continue their 
 course as the Elborze Mountains of Persia,, and 
 the Hindoo Koorsh of Turkistan ; then, as the 
 Himalayas, after separating Thibet from India, 
 they pass entirely across Southern China, in about 
 25 north latitude, where they are known as the 
 Nan-ling range : thus traversing the entire conti- 
 nent of Asia, from the Black Sea to the borders of 
 the Pacific Ocean, a distance of more than six 
 thousand miles in a direct line, or about seven 
 thousand five hundred in their varying course. 
 
 Of the various mountain-ranges of India, the 
 Himalayas are the highest ; the Vindhyas have the
 
 20 Geographical Divisions. 
 
 most marked results as a dividing range, between 
 different sections ; the Aravalis are richest in min- 
 erals, and have broader valleys more generally 
 furrowed by water-courses ; the Dounghers have 
 some of the wildest scenery, with narrow gorges 
 overhung with nearly black rocks, abrupt preci- 
 pices, huge blocks of white quartz gleaming in 
 the sunlight, and here and there, hidden in the 
 midst of these mountain heights, an oasis of won- 
 drous beauty ; the Kairmoors, that cross Bogel- 
 cund between the Ganges and Nerbudda rivers, 
 divide the land into two slopes, and unite two 
 mountain ranges, i. e., the Vindhyas and the group 
 of Rajmahal ; while the Ghauts have a formation 
 altogether peculiar to themselves, and are, in many 
 respects, different from any other chain in Asia. 
 Being the edges of the great table-land of the 
 Deccan, each range of the Ghauts consists of only 
 one rugged side which faces the water, forming 
 all along the sea an unbroken wall. There are 
 here and there defiles, with steps descending to 
 the sea-shore ; many of the hills are covered with 
 dense jungle ; others have been partially cleared, 
 and are adorned with lovely, picturesque little 
 villas, and bungalows half hidden in shrubs and
 
 " Dak-Bungalows:' 21 
 
 flowers; while several prominent peaks are points 
 of great interest to the tourist. On one of the 
 Western Ghauts stands a Hindu temple, its slender 
 spire girt about with vapory clouds ; another, 
 Mount Bao Mallim, has its highest peak surmounted 
 by an ancient fortress that is entered from the out- 
 side by a flight of some three hundred steps cut out 
 of the solid rock; and at the foot of a third, is prettily 
 laid out the little village of Kampouli, which leads 
 to the defile of the Bhore Ghaut, whence an Eng- 
 lish railway goes direct to the celebrated Sanita- 
 rium of Matheran. 
 
 Upon the mountain, half a mile from the Sani- 
 tarium, is the "Dak-bungalow" of Khandalla. 
 These " Daks " are quite an institution in British 
 India, a god-send to the foreign tourist he soon 
 learns to appreciate, and an absolute necessity in 
 a country like this wholly destitute of hotels at all 
 suited to the accommodation of Europeans. The 
 " Daks " are bungalows (that is, one-story dwelling 
 houses shaded by long, covered verandas) con- 
 structed by the British Government, at regular 
 intervals, on the chief military roads throughout 
 the Peninsula; and in these wayside dwellings any 
 traveller has a right to twenty-four hours' lodging,
 
 22 Geographical Divisions. 
 
 with the use of furniture and servants, for the 
 small sura of one Rupee (forty-five cents). He 
 may continue for a longer period at the same rate, 
 provided his room is not needed for a new-comer ; 
 but after having occupied it for a day and night, 
 he must, perforce, yield his place to the first trav- 
 eller who arrives, if there is no other vacant room. 
 
 Provisions, including fresh fruits and excellent 
 tea or coffee, may usually be obtained at moderate 
 rates through the " Dak " servants ; and on a 
 long journey, in that hot and unhealthy climate, 
 it is often a very great benefit to the weary trav- 
 eller to stop for a day and night where he may 
 obtain a good bed and several comfortable meals 
 before proceeding on his way. 
 
 The bungalow of the Khandalla is built on the 
 extreme edge of the table-land overlooking a deep 
 ravine, while on one side rises a mountain, and on 
 the other a magnificent cascade falls three hundred 
 feet into the valley below. 
 
 Excellent roads running all around the table- 
 land of Matheran extend along by the very edge 
 of the precipice, exhibiting a panorama rarely 
 beautiful and varied. It is only within a few 
 years past little more than a single decade
 
 THE MAHARAO RAJAH OF ULWUR.
 
 The Peninsular Railway. 25 
 
 that Matheran has been known to Europeans ; 
 and its reputation is already wide-spread, as having 
 saved many valuable lives afflicted with diseases 
 hitherto regarded as incurable in a tropical climate. 
 This is, indeed, one of the peculiarities of the 
 Ghauts table-lands, the wonderful efficacy of their 
 pure air and invigorating climate in the cure of 
 nearly all the ailments indigenous to the Indian 
 low-lands. 
 
 The works executed on the great " Indian Pe- 
 ninsular Railway," to make the passage across the 
 Ghauts Mountains, are among the most famous of 
 our day. The rugged, almost impassable moun- 
 tains, beset with thick jungles and deep ravines, 
 rendered every step of the vast enterprise full of 
 difficulty and danger, that only Anglo-Saxon 
 energy and perseverance could have success- 
 fully encountered. . The total height surmounted 
 is eighteen hundred and thirty feet, on a line 
 of fifteen miles, with a mean inclination of one 
 in forty-eight. Eight viaducts were construct- 
 ed, of from thirty to fifty arches, and from fifty to 
 one hundred and forty feet high. Twenty-two 
 tunnels were cut, of a total length of nearly two 
 miles, and embankments were made, containing
 
 26 Geographical Divisions. 
 
 upwards of six millions of cubic feet. The work 
 was completed in seven years, at a cost of 800,- 
 000, or about four millions of dollars. The entire 
 route of the road passes through regions of won- 
 drous beauty and grandeur ; alternately penetrating 
 gorges, traversing mountains, and skirting fright- 
 ful ravines dark and deep enough to turn the brain 
 giddy with a single glance into their fathomless 
 depths. This road at first only united Bombay 
 with the Deccan, but was afterwards lengthened 
 to Calcutta ; and British India is rapidly becoming 
 one vast system of railways, extending over all the 
 principal military routes, and connecting the larger 
 cities and chief, places of resort. One of the latest 
 is " The Dhoud and Vingorla State Railway," 
 through the rich Southern Marathi country, via 
 Belgaum, Kolapoor, and Satara. 
 
 Hindustan is divided into five great sections, 
 their lines marked by mountain ranges and rivers. 
 
 These divisions are as follows : First, the Delta 
 of the Indus, consisting of the north and north- 
 west portions of India. Second, the Delta of the 
 Ganges, or Eastern Hindustan. Third, Central 
 India, or all the region north of the Vindhya Moun- 
 tains between the Deltas of the Indus and Ganges.
 
 Kyber Pass. 27 
 
 Fourth, the Deccan, embracing the section south of 
 the Vindhyas, to the river Kishna. Fifth, Southern 
 India, or the region south of the Kishna to Cape 
 Comorin. 
 
 The first division lies mainly to the east of the 
 river Indus, beginning in the vicinity of Attock, 
 and extending southward and westward to the 
 region where the Indus discharges its waters into 
 the Arabian sea. This section comprehends a vast 
 territory, including the Punjaub, Scinde, and sev- 
 eral smaller states, with the addition, by the recent 
 treaty, of several portions of Afghan territory, 
 among them the famous Kyber Pass, now a British 
 outpost, with the Khurum and Khost valleys as 
 British granaries. The Punjaub, or " country of 
 the five rivers," forms the southern portion of the 
 plain of the Indus, and extends from the base of 
 the Himalayas to the confluence of the Chenaub 
 with the Indus. " The five rivers " giving name to 
 this region, are the Sutlej, Beas, Ravee, Chenaub, 
 and Jhalum, known to the ancients under the names 
 of Zaradus, Hyphasis, Hydrastes Acesines, and Hy- 
 daspes. They all have their source in the Hima- 
 layas, all observe a nearly direct course to the 
 southwest for some six hundred miles, and pour
 
 28 Geographical Divisions. 
 
 theii- united waters through the Chenab into the 
 Indus, at the northern point of the desert of 
 Scinde. 
 
 The Punjaub is inhabited mainly by Seikhs, a 
 bold, warlike race, who bravely withstood the 
 inroads of British power, and proved themselves 
 very formidable foes in some of the most hotly- 
 contested struggles of modern times. But it was 
 of no avail : the Punjaub and Scindia, king- 
 doms no longer, are now merely appendages of 
 Great Britain, with an English " Resident " gov- 
 erning at Lahore. The Punjaub is by far the most 
 fertile and populous portion of the Delta of the 
 Indus, numbering between three and four millions 
 of inhabitants. Umritsur, with a population of 
 one hundred thousand, is the sacred city of the 
 Seikhs; Lahore, their ancient capital, and now 
 the British seat of government, has eighty -five 
 thousand inhabitants; and Moulton, prettily sit- 
 uated on- the Chenab, has sixty-five thousand. 
 
 South of the Punjaub, is Scinde, formerly a 
 powerful state, governed by Ameers. Its present 
 population is little more than a million ; and of its 
 chief cities, Hydrabad, Patta, Sikkur, Shikarpore, 
 Kurrachee, not one has over twenty-five thousand
 
 The Thor. 31 
 
 inhabitants, Except in the immediate vicinity of 
 the river, the soil is sandy, and of little value for 
 agricultural purposes. The Thor or Desert is ruled 
 by Rajput Princes, petty chiefs, who are in al- 
 liance with the British Government, and carry on 
 quite a thriving trade, under foreign surveil- 
 lance a system far more tantalizing to the British 
 official, than effectual in controlling the irregulari- 
 ties of so unscrupulous a fraternity as these Rajput 
 rulers of the Thor. 
 
 The Second Division, the Plain of the Ganges, 
 includes the districts of Behar, Oudh, Pirhut, 
 Rohilcunde, Allahabad, and last, and most impor- 
 tant of all, Bengal, one of the three great Presi- 
 dencies of India. This Second Division, entirely 
 under British control, has a population of nearly 
 seventy-millions, and is by far the most fertile and 
 populous portion of British India. Behar is noted 
 as the birth-place of Buddhism ; and Patna, its cap- 
 ital, is accepted now as the Palibothra of the 
 ancients, the capital of the Mauryas Emperors 
 who received the Greek embassadors of the suc- 
 cessors of Alexander. But the present insignifi- 
 cant town, with its dirty bazaars and tumble-
 
 32 G-eographical Divisions. 
 
 down houses does violence to everything like 
 classic memories. 
 
 The Kurruckpore Hills, an offshoot of the Vin- 
 dhyas, form the boundary between Behar and the 
 Terai jungle. These Hills abound in mineral 
 springs, and are inhabited by a race of Kolee 
 savages. 
 
 Oudh or Aoudh, familiar to every reader, from 
 the names of Cawnpore and Lucknow, as associa- 
 ted with the terrible massacre of 1857, was a very 
 ancient kingdom, governed by Mahratta Princes 
 until it fell into the hands of the English. Con- 
 sisting of rich agricultural lands, watered by the 
 Ganges, and possessing several large and populous 
 cities, with considerable commercial importance, 
 it has proved to the English a rich and valuable 
 possession. The deposed king enjoys a large pen- 
 sion of $500,000 from the British Government, and 
 lives as a State prisoner in a magnificent palace 
 beautifully located at Garden Reach, near Cal- 
 cutta. 
 
 Allahabad is one of the richest provinces of 
 India. Watered by the Ganges and Jumna, as 
 well as by canals, it produces abundant crops of 
 maize, cotton, sugar, indigo and flax. Its popula-
 
 Bengal. 33 
 
 tion is nearly four millions, with an area of eleven 
 thousand eight hundred and twenty-six square miles. 
 Bengal proper is the low, fertile, and densely- 
 populated region lying on the lower Ganges, in 
 the section round about Calcutta. The Ganges, 
 the most lawless of rivers, runs riot over nearly 
 every portion of Bengal, first inundating one sec- 
 tion, destroying everything in its course, and then 
 suddenly withdrawing, and forming for itself new 
 paths to the ocean. These flat, low, swampy lands 
 are good for nothing in the world but the cultiva- 
 tion of rice, and as the birth-place of a pestilential 
 miasma, created by the constant evaporation of 
 stagnant water that escapes in the form of a blu- 
 ish vapor, filling the air with poisonous exhala- 
 tions. The laborer needs only to turn the soil 
 with his pick or shovel to find pools beneath ; and, 
 in truth, this whole region is neither land nor wa- 
 ter, but mud, mud, mud ! which, in other than a 
 tropical clime, would . be only unapproachable 
 swamp. Here cholera finds its natural home, 
 among the densely-populated villages lying half- 
 buried in the rice-fields, stifled under creeping- 
 plants, and shut out by the rank growth from the 
 
 life-giving rays of sunlight, while everything is 
 H. I. 3
 
 34 Geographical Divisions. 
 
 reeking with perpetual moisture mingled with the 
 noxious fumes of vegetable decay. Asiatic chol- 
 era, born here, travels westward with the crowds 
 of Hindu devotees who go annually to the great 
 sanctuaries of the north and west; and thence 
 it is readily conveyed to Mecca and Constantino- 
 ple by Moslem pilgrims and traders, to be scat 
 tered far and wide over both continents. Thi 
 terrible disease first appeared in the district o 
 Nuddah, in 1817, and since that period has sel- 
 dom disappeared from India. 
 
 Rice planters often disinter, from their moist 
 fields several leagues from the river, the frame-work 
 of boats, and even portions of larger vessels that 
 had been sunk in the deep waters that long ago, 
 in some unknown past, covered the rice-fields of 
 the present day. 
 
 Beyond these swamp-lands, the east of this prov 
 ince is made up of monotonous plains crowned 
 with emerald verdure, and thickly dotted with vil- 
 lages swarming with inhabitants. 
 
 Between the northern extremity of the Plain of 
 the Ganges and the Plain of the Indus is a flat, 
 sterile region, known as the Doab. It does not be- 
 long properly to either of the great Divisions of
 
 Central India. 35 
 
 India, but is mentioned here, from its proximity to 
 those named above. It is ruled by several Seikh 
 Rajahs, who are in alliance with the British ; but 
 is of little importance either politically or other- 
 wise. 
 
 Central India, the third great Division of Hindus- 
 tan, embraces all that section of the peninsula 
 north of the Vindhya, between the Deltas of the 
 Indus and Ganges. Triangular in form, its base is 
 the mountains, and its apex the region south of 
 Delhi. It is composed mainly of elevated table- 
 lands, interspersed with mountain ranges, and 
 lovely fertile plains abounding in valuable pro- 
 ducts. Nearly the whole of this Division is occu- 
 pied by native Principalities, many of which are 
 not only wholly independent, their princes main- 
 taining the state of sovereigns, but they are pos- 
 sessed of immense wealth, and have vast resources 
 for peace and war. 
 
 The Fourth and Fifth Divisions of India are the 
 Deccan and Southern India, divided only by the 
 river Kishna, and the two extending from the 
 south side of the Vindhyas to Cape Comorin. The 
 distinguishing feature of these regions is the lofty 
 mountain ranges that girt them about on every
 
 36 G-eographical Divisions. 
 
 side, and are known respectively, as the Northern, 
 Southern, Eastern and Western Ghauts. The 
 Eastern and Western ranges skirt the sea at dis- 
 tances varying from ten to about eighty miles, 
 those on the western coast approaching nearest to 
 the sea-board. At the southern extremity of this 
 range, stretching out to the eastward, are the 
 famous Neilgherry mountains, so highly esteemed 
 for their fertile soil and salubrious atmosphere. At 
 the northern extremity of the same range, immedi- 
 ately opposite Bombay, are the Mahabalipura moun- 
 tains rising something more than five thousand feet 
 above the sea-level. The British territory in the 
 Deccan, divided between the Presidencies of Bom- 
 bay and Madras, does not exceed forty thousand 
 square miles. A portion of the table-lands is very 
 fertile and well cultivated ; but the mountains 
 themselves are generally sterile, though the valleys 
 between have extensive forests of lofty timber, 
 reaching down to the plains, often to the water's 
 edge. The belt or lowlands around the peninsula, 
 between the Ghauts and the seashore, is British 
 territory exclusively. It varies widely, not only 
 in breadth, but in fertility ; the first few miles 
 nearest the sea being always flat and sandy. Where
 
 \
 
 Southern India. 39 
 
 the width of the slip does not exceed eight or ten 
 miles, there will be only this barren tract up to the 
 base of the mountains; but, where the mountains 
 are more remote from the sea, there is often inter- 
 vening between the sandy shore-land and the low- 
 est ledge of the mountains, ten, twenty, perhaps 
 fifty or more miles of extremely rich and produc- 
 tive soil ; the land gradually rising as it nears the 
 mountains, until it is merged in the jungle of teak 
 and satin-wood. The Malabar territory extends 
 from Cape Comorin to 12 north latitude ; Canara 
 from 12 to 15, and the Concoii from 15 to 22. 
 The harbor of Bombay is one of the finest in the 
 world, formed by the peculiar position and close 
 proximity of a group of islands that shut in an 
 arm of the sea along the mainland, making a 
 superb bay, of which Bombay commands the 
 entrance. These islands, located in front of the 
 estuary of the Oolas, the chief river of the Con con, 
 appear to form a sort of Delta, often so called. 
 Callian, the ancient .capital of the Concon, long 
 one of the first commercial ports of southern India, 
 is on this river. Viewed from whatever point, the 
 harbor of Bombay always unfolds a panorama of 
 surpassing beauty, its ever-changing scenes always
 
 40 Geographical Divisions. 
 
 new, and each seemingly more lovely than the last. 
 In all the East, it has scarcely a counterpart, for 
 either safety and commodiousness, or for the ra- 
 diant beauty of its surroundings. The peculiarly- 
 favorable location of Bombay in regard to com- 
 merce seems to have been understood from remote 
 antiquity, there being little doubt that this group of 
 islands is the Archipelago of Heptanesia alluded 
 to by the geographer Arrian. The island of Sal- 
 sette, the largest of the group, was that first occu- 
 pied by the Portuguese colonists, and it was at a 
 much later period, after the fortification of Tanna 
 and Bassein, that the port of Bombay was even 
 thought of. 
 
 The eastern or Madras coast-line is much ex- 
 posed to the fury of the southwest monsoon, dur- 
 ing the prevalence of which native vessels are un- 
 able to venture out, and terrible storms frequently 
 occur, endangering the safety of large ships all 
 along the coast. Coringa is the only harbor where 
 vessels of any considerable size may take refuge 
 during these violent "squalls." There being no in- 
 dentation of this coast, nor any island to break off 
 the sea, a heavy, rolling swell prevails throughout 
 the year. To avoid danger, vessels anchor in the
 
 The Eastern Coast. 41 
 
 open roads ; those of large size keeping a mile or 
 two from the shore, the swell causing them to 
 pitch and roll as though out on mid-ocean. 
 
 During the prevalence of the southwest mon- 
 soon the danger is so great that for several 
 months vessels are required to anchor still farther 
 out, and to have their cargoes loaded and unload- 
 ed by means of boats adapted for passing through 
 the surf. The anchorage looks deserted, and pas- 
 sengers to or from the ships have to be waited 
 on by catamarans a sort of broad raft, not unlike a 
 New England stone-sled. They are constructed by 
 tying together, horizontally, three flattened timbers 
 eight or ten feet long, then sharpening the point, 
 and, laying over all a slight floor or coarse mat 
 slitted where the timbers are joined. On this mat 
 the rowers sit cross-legged, with the toes bent in- 
 ward ; and in this position, which is the only one 
 the case admits, they often remain for many con- 
 secutive hours, propelling their rude crafts with 
 slender paddles sharpened at both ends, and 
 dipped first on one side and then on the other. 
 The water of course rises between the timbers 
 and washes over the little raft, wetting the rowers 
 to their hips, and sometimes they may be washed
 
 42 Geographical Divisions. 
 
 overboard ; but, in such cases, they leap nimbly 
 into their places, and row on again as nonchalantly 
 as before. The catamaran will float safely with a sea 
 so rough that an ordinary boat could not survive 
 for five minutes, and these boatmen do not mind a 
 good wetting. Their clothing is very slight in- 
 deed, consisting of but a single strip of muslin or 
 calico, with the addition of the water-proof cap, that 
 constitutes a very important part of the outfit 
 needed by a Madras boatman, in his particular vo- 
 cation. In this cap, containing more pockets than 
 a peddler's overcoat, the boatman will carry, aiui 
 keep them perfectly dry, letters, papers, and small 
 parcels of all sorts, to and from the shore. Larger 
 packages must be protected on all sides, by either 
 tin or oil-cloth covers, and lashed tightly to the 
 catamarans. In mild weather, large, deep boats 
 are used, made without ribs, of thin, wide planks 
 warped by fire to a proper shape, and tied together 
 by strong twine, which also serves to keep in place 
 the straw and mud used in calking the seams. 
 There is not a single nail in the entire craft, from 
 stem to stern, for none could, by any possible con- 
 trivance, be kept in place, under the sort of usage 
 to which Madras boats are destined. The getting
 
 MOUNTAINEERS IN ACTION.
 
 The Ganges. 45 
 
 ashore without a very respectable drenching, is cer- 
 tainly an art in which one would seem to need 
 practice in order to be made perfect, and these 
 Madras men display a skill and energy scarcely to 
 be surpassed. Keeping time to a very peculiar 
 tune, they take first a long pull and then a short 
 one, according to the motion of the waves, till at 
 length they push the boat forward on a foaming 
 surf, and she is thrown upon the beach. As she 
 recedes, some jump out with the ropes, and at each 
 returning wave they get her a little higher up, till 
 she lies motionless upon the sands, like a great 
 fish thrown high and dry upon the beach at low 
 tide. 
 
 The Ganges, the holy river of the Hindus., has 
 such a history as could be revealed by no other 
 stream in the wide world. Descending from a level 
 of fifteen thousand feet above the sea, and run- 
 ning a course of fifteen hundred miles, it receives at 
 every point the most devout adoration. " The 
 touch of its waters, nay, the very sight of them, 
 takes away all sin." So say the Hindu Shasters, 
 and to their fiat all yield unquestioning assent. 
 Drowning in the holy river is deemed an act of 
 merit; and thousands of sick people endure the
 
 46 Geographical Divisions. 
 
 fatigue of long journeys that they may die upon 
 its banks. The very name is derived from that of 
 the goddess Gunga, who, the Hindus say, was pro- 
 duced from the moisture cf Vishnu's foot, caught 
 by Brahma, and preserved in. his alms-dish ; and 
 Gunga, coming down from heaven, divided herself 
 into one hundred streams, the mouths of the 
 Ganges. In Hindu courts of justice, the water of the 
 Ganges is sworn upon, as the Bible is in ours ; and 
 it has been estimated that from three to five hun- 
 dred thousand people assemble annually at certain 
 points of this river that they may, at the most 
 propitious moment, bathe in its sacred waters ; and 
 hundreds are crushed to death in their frantic at- 
 tempts to press through the crowd. The Hooghly 
 is one of the many streams by which the Ganges 
 empties its waters into the Bay of Bengal, and 
 the most sacred of its numerous mouths. 
 
 The Indus, the great river of northwestern 
 India, rises in the Himalayas, and with its tributa- 
 ries, waters the great regions of the Punjaub and 
 Scinde, entering the ocean at the western extrem- 
 ity of the Desert. The fertilizing effects of the 
 periodical inundations of this river are felt for full 
 forty miles, not only over other portions of Sciiide,
 
 The Jumna. 47 
 
 as far as the western extremity of the province, 
 but even on the Thorr itself, where occur occa- 
 sional oases of considerable fertility. 
 
 The Indus is crossed, near Attok, by a bridge of 
 boats ; and the scenery around is picturesque and 
 beautiful. 
 
 The Nerbudda, next to the Indus, is the most 
 important of the rivers that discharge their waters 
 into the sea of Oman. It waters Central India, 
 and marks the boundary between that division and 
 the Deccan ; and, to the Hindus, it is scarcely less 
 sacred than the Ganges. The Jumna is a magnifi- 
 cent tributary of the Ganges ; and the Bangunga, 
 i. c., "Sister of the Ganges," is one of the tributa- 
 ries of the Jumna. It has its source in the Kali 
 Kho and Mewati Hills, and after a course of more 
 than two hundred miles, it discharges its waters 
 into the Jumna. The bed of the river, only a few 
 miles from its source, is full three hundred yards 
 wide, increasing to more than double this breadth 
 towards the mouth. During the rains, it rushes 
 down from the mountains in a foaming torrent, 
 not only filling this huge channel, but often over- 
 flowing its banks, and submerging the surround- 
 ing country. The entire course of this river is
 
 48 Geographical Divisions. 
 
 through a fertile and beautiful region, especially 
 opposite Sheikoabad, where it empties. 
 
 The Chenaub is the largest of the five rivers 
 from which the Punjaub derives its name. Rising 
 among the Himalayas, on the borders of Cash- 
 mere, and holding a southwest course, it unites 
 first with the Jhalum ; fifty miles farther on, with 
 the Ravee ; then with the Ghara or Lower Sutlej ; 
 from which point, it loses its name, and the united 
 stream is called Punjuud, which enters the Indus, 
 just beyond the southern boundary of the Punjaub. 
 One very singular feature of this river is, that the 
 red waters of the Chenaub and the pale waters of 
 the Ghara, each retain their distinct character for 
 many miles down the united stream, where may be 
 plainly seen the red on the western side, and the 
 pale on the eastern ; but, when weary of coquet- 
 ting, their union is finally consummated, and a 
 modified tint of paler-red or redder-pale is the 
 result. 
 
 The Chumbul is a large river of Central India 
 that rises 011 the northern slope of the Vindhyas 
 at a height of two thousand feet above the sea- 
 level. After a north and northeasterly course, it 
 unites with the Jumna, about ninety miles south-
 
 The Betwa. 49 
 
 east of Agra. Its whole length is about five hun- 
 dred and seventy miles, and it has among its trib- 
 utaries the Scinde and Parbuttee rivers. During 
 a considerable portion of its course the Clmmbul 
 forms the boundary between the Principality of 
 Gwalior and the Rajput Provinces. 
 
 The Scinde forms the boundary between the 
 wild region of Bundelcunde and the kingdom of 
 Duttiah. It is a river of importance, more than 
 half a mile broad, with high banks, and a current 
 so swift that it is very difficult to ferry across. 
 The Betwa is the most important river in Bundel- 
 cunde, has its source near Bhopal, and discharges 
 its waters into the Jumna, after a course of three 
 hundred and sixty miles. The people of Central 
 India regard it as their sacred stream ; and from 
 Oorcha to Raicia the waters are very pure. The 
 Ambramutty, in the Presidency of Madras, is a 
 branch of the Cavery, with which it unites nearly 
 forty miles northwest of Trichinopoly. On the 
 banks of the Ambramuttj^, near its junction with 
 the Cavery, is the little town of Cavoor, contain- 
 ing about a thousand houses, a fort, and a large 
 temple. This is one of the earliest Indian posses- 
 H. I. 4
 
 50 Geographical Divisions. 
 
 sions of the English, having been in their hands 
 since 1760. 
 
 The Cavery is one of the chief rivers of south- 
 ern India. It rises among the Coorg Hills near 
 he Malabar coast, four thousand feet above the 
 level of the sea, and flows in a circuitous course, 
 mainly southeast, traversing the whole breadth of 
 the peninsula ; and discharges its waters into the 
 Bay of Bengal, on the Coromandel coast. In the 
 vicinity of Trichinopoly it separates into several 
 branches, which descend in distinct falls of two 
 and three hundred feet, and enter the sea by nu- 
 merous mouths, in the province of Tanjore. 
 Though the Cavery is four hundred and seventy 
 miles long it is navigable only for small boats. 
 The only boats used are queer-looking circular 
 baskets, from nine to fourteen feet in diameter, 
 and covered with buffalo leather. In these, prod- 
 uce is readily brought down stream; but, as the 
 force of the current renders upward navigation im- 
 possible, these strange little vessels are taken to 
 pieces, and the leather carried back on the heads 
 of the crew. The Falls of the Tons are situate 
 some few miles to the north of Rewah, near the 
 road to Allahabad. The river, on reaching the
 
 The Bombay Islands. 53 
 
 confines of the plateau, dashes down from the 
 height of four hundred feet into the plain. A mag- 
 nificent landscape adds to the beauty of this superb 
 cataract the only one of any importance in 
 Northern India. 
 
 Among the islands found on the coast of India, 
 the Bomba}^ Group, as it is called, is in many re- 
 spects the most important. This group is com- 
 posed of about a dozen islands, of which Salsette is 
 the largest, and Bombay one of the smallest ; 
 though from its commercial rank the latter has 
 given name to the entire group. The derivation 
 of the name is from Bomla, one of the appella- 
 tives of the goddess Mamba Devi, to whom this 
 island is dedicated. The name of the next in im- 
 portance is Elephanta, famous for those wonderful 
 cave-temples, over the origin of which scholars of 
 two continents have been quarrelling for several 
 generations. The island is parted into two peaks, 
 rounded and completely covered with woods up to 
 their very summits. The water on the coast is so 
 very shallow that the boatmen have to wade ashore, 
 with the water waist-high, to land their passengers, 
 whom they carry in a sort of impromptu chair, 
 formed by the interweaving of two pairs of stal-
 
 54 Geographical Divisions. 
 
 wart arms. Near the landing is a colossal stone 
 elephant which, though now much mutilated and 
 sunken by its own great weight, still stands con- 
 spicuous on the shore. It was from this huge 
 sculptured quadruped that the little island re- 
 ceived its name, bestowed by the early Portuguese 
 settlers. It is called by the natives, G-arapuri ; 
 and is just five miles from Bombay. The names 
 of several of these islands are Drave, Bassein 
 Versova, and Trombay, besides some that are 
 smaller and of little importance. On the opposite 
 side from Bombay is Karanja, its mountains rising 
 in the form of a camel's back, in the midst of a 
 dense vegetation that runs riot over all the level 
 portions of the island down to the water's edge. 
 This island is famous for a Hindu temple which, 
 though only about two centuries old, lays claim to 
 extreme antiquity, and is an object of supreme 
 veneration on the ground of having been erected 
 on the site, and with the identical remains of an 
 ancient Jain temple that was thrown down by 
 some of the hordes of Hyder Ali. But beyond 
 these few leading facts, little seems to be really au- 
 thenticated concerning this wonderful island-tem- 
 ple so highly venerated by the credulous people.
 
 Karanja Island. 55 
 
 On the opposite side of the island, the vegetation 
 is of a very peculiar character, being composed of 
 gigantic trees standing apart from each other, and 
 appearing to spring from stony ground, quite de- 
 void of brushwood thus furnishing a cool shel- 
 tered retreat where the tired pilgrim may walk or 
 recline at pleasure. One of these trees, a beautiful 
 sal, of huge proportions, is noted throughout the 
 country, and regarded also with religious venera- 
 tion for its very peculiar growth. The numerous 
 branches grow straight outwards for a time, and 
 then, by reason of their great length, bend down- 
 wards to the very ground, thus forming a grand 
 circular dome, perfectly shaded, within which a 
 thousand persons may readily find shelter. Not 
 far off, is an equally-wonderful banian, said by the 
 priests to number its age by centuries, five or six 
 at least. The original trunk has entirely disap- 
 peared, and in its place has been erected a small 
 temple, thus wholly embowered in a tangled mass 
 of natural columns, that in turn support other 
 branches of the same parent stem from which their 
 own existence was derived ; and constituting a shrine 
 of weird but wondrous beauty. 
 
 The island of Salsette has for its chief town
 
 56 Geographical Divisions. 
 
 Tannah, situated about twenty miles from Bom- 
 bay. An excellent bridge, with both railway and 
 carriage road, spans the water at this point, con- 
 necting the island with the main land. Tannah 
 was one of the earliest settlements of the Portu- 
 guese, and the capital of their colony during their 
 palmy days in India. It was conquered in 1737 by 
 the Mahrattas, who devastated its fair precincts, 
 and left it almost in ruins. It came into possession 
 of the English about thirty years later, and they 
 have since held it, but it has never regained its 
 former importance. The Bombay Prison is a well- 
 regulated penal institution located here ; and there 
 are confined in it criminals of so vast a number of 
 castes, creeds, languages and proclivities, as to re- 
 quire a very peculiar discipline, enabling the rulers 
 to preserve order, and yet avoid interfering with 
 the religious prejudices of the inmates. For the 
 rest, this island is rich in memorials of antiquity, 
 containing two groups of remarkable Buddhist 
 caves at Kenhari and Magatani, and several superb 
 Brahmin caves at Jygeysir and Monpezir. The 
 island is connected with Bombay by a long, wide 
 causeway across the little strait that separates the 
 two islands. Upon the bay thus formed, are
 
 The Strait of Ghora-Banda. 59 
 
 located lovely country-seats amid groves of pict- 
 uresque palms. At the Portuguese village of 
 Mahim, there is a large convent and one or two 
 Romish churches. This was, in the days of Port- 
 uguese supremacy, an important shipping port, but 
 it has been deposed from its high position by the 
 rivalry of Bombay, as well as the very malarious 
 character of the climate. At the northern end of 
 the island a superb iron viaduct crosses the Strait 
 of Ghora-Bandar, that separates Salsette from 
 Bassem, enclosing a lovely bay, on whose smooth 
 surface is dancing, at all hours, a fleet of native 
 boats, fragile and picturesque as a bevy of wild fowl 
 sporting on the summer lake. This point commands 
 an extensive prospect of grand and beautiful scen- 
 ery. On one side are wooded banks and massive 
 rocks enclosing the blue arms of the majestic sea, 
 and on the other rises a long, steep promontory 
 crowned with the walls of the old Portuguese city 
 of Bassei'n and its lovely bay. Bassem was one of 
 the most flourishing of the Lansitanian colonies ; 
 and the remains of the great Albuquerque * lie here 
 under a marble tomb that is half buried beneath 
 the encroachments of creeping plants and the rank 
 
 * " Albuquerque, the Great, called the Portuguese Mars, was born near Lis- 
 bon, in 1452, and died at Goa on the Malabar coast, December 16, 1515.
 
 60 Geographical Divisions. 
 
 tropic growth of this fertile soil. Within the 
 walled city there remains nothing of the old 
 grmdeur, save the ruined spires of a few churches; 
 but most of the hills in the vicinity are marked 
 by the remains of castles, forts and convents, that 
 were once a beauty and a joy, but alas ! not for- 
 ever. Residing in the little villages around Bas- 
 se'in, there are quite a number of Portuguese 
 staid, matter-of-fact villagers of the olden type, 
 who seem to have stood still all these years, while 
 the rest of the world was moving onward, and 
 who live here in their quiet nook, probably just as 
 did their ancestors of the centuries agone. 
 
 At the mouth of the Hooghly, one of the 
 branches of the Ganges, is the great island of 
 Sangor, one of the most holy places of the Hindu. 
 The Hooghly being considered the true mouth of 
 the Ganges, and the junction of this sacred stream 
 with the ocean being at Sangor, great sanctity is 
 attached to the place. An annual festival is held 
 here in January, attended by thousands of Hindus, 
 some of whom come from a distance of five or six 
 hundred miles. Crowds of people, leaving their 
 boats, erect booths or tents on the adjacent sand- 
 banks, the oars of the boats being set up to sup- 
 port the tents and shops. Here, within a few
 
 PEASANTS OF THE DOAB. 
 
 61
 
 G-unga. 63 
 
 days, an uninhabited island will be transformed 
 into a large arid populous city, full of streets, lanes 
 and bazaars ; where people are buying, selling, and 
 practising various handicrafts as in a city. But 
 the masses, men, \vomen and children, are most of 
 the time busy bathing in the water, that to them 
 represents a God, worshipping Gunga by prostra- 
 tions and salaams, spreading out their offerings on 
 the shore, for the goddess to take when the tides 
 rise, and daubing their heads and breasts with the 
 mud that they regard as a panacea for sin and 
 suffering. Formerly, thousands used to throw 
 themselves and their children into the river from 
 this island, hoping thereby to gain the favor of 
 their gods ; but this is no longer permitted by the 
 British Government, and during the festival, an 
 English officer with fifty Seapoy soldiers is placed 
 here to prevent these cruel sacrifices. A few dev- 
 otees usually reside on the island, and contrive for 
 a while to avoid the tigers. The pilgrims are sup- 
 ported by the donations of boatmen, who believe 
 their own safety is ensured by the presence of these 
 holy men. Besides these, the island is occupied 
 mainly by tigers. 
 
 Another great island is Ceylon, three hundred
 
 64 Geographical Divisions. 
 
 miles long and one hundred and fifty broad at the 
 widest part. It lies in the Indian Ocean, south- 
 east of Madras, with mountain ranges towering in 
 the centre, and beneath them spread out on all 
 sides, are plains of wondrous beauty and fertility. 
 The highest peaks on the island are Pedrotalla- 
 galla, eight thousand two hundred and eighty feet 
 above the sea, Adam's Peak, seven thousand four 
 hundred and twenty feet ; and the Sanitarium of 
 Newera Ellia, six thousand two hundred and ten 
 feet ; with others, which will be mentioned farther 
 on.
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 MOUNTAIN SYSTEMS. 
 
 MOUNT Dhawalageri, twenty-eight thousand 
 one hundred and seventy-nine feet above 
 the level of the sea, is one of the loftiest peaks of 
 the great Himalayas, and was for many years 
 accredited by geographers as the culminating point 
 of our earth. But, in the year 1854, the adjacent 
 peak of Mount Everest was ascertained to be 
 twenty-nine thousand two hundred and fort}' feet 
 above the sea, or nearly eleven hundred feet 
 higher than Mount Dhawalageri ; and Mount 
 Everest has enjoyed the honorable distinction of 
 being reckoned the highest known point on the 
 globe. It is doubtless upon the ancient, wide- 
 spread reputation of Mount Dhawalageri, and the 
 H.I.-5
 
 66 Mountain Systems. 
 
 marvellous stories and traditions circulated by the 
 Hindus of its wondrous height that the Buddhists 
 have based their fiction of Mount Phrd-su-ma-ru- 
 rdt, honestly believed by them to be the grand 
 centre of our entire system of worlds. Of its 
 fabled wonders they have written whole volumes ; 
 and at its base they locate their " seven hells," the 
 unfortunate occupants of which sink lower and 
 lower in sin and suffering, just in proportion to 
 their location. The " seven heavens " also, accord- 
 ing to the Buddhists, are located around the sides 
 of this " great central mountain," each rising 
 higher and higher, until Nigban, the very summum 
 bonum is reached. 
 
 Upon the Mussoorri range of the Himalayas the 
 English have quite a famous botanic garden. The 
 climate here is not warmer than that of Central 
 Europe, and is quite as healthful and agreeable. 
 The average temperature during May and June, 
 the two hottest months, is about sixty-six degrees, 
 and on the very warmest day, the thermometer 
 does not rise above eighty in the shade. During 
 the cool season, which occurs in the months of 
 December, January and February, the average 
 range of the glass is about forty-three ; and at
 
 Dharjeling, the Sanitarium. 69 
 
 night, for several consecutive months, it falls as 
 low as thirty-two. 
 
 On the Sik-kira Hills, near the Himalayas, is the 
 English Sanitarium of Dharjeling. It is seven 
 thousand feet above the level of the sea, and the 
 climate is charmingly salubrious, in contrast with 
 the sultry atmosphere of the plains;, the thermome- 
 ter rarely rising above seventy, even in the warmest 
 months. From the summit, the snow-crowned 
 Himalayas are plainly visible ; and the scenery all 
 around the settlements is varied and beautiful, 
 uniting the delights of two zones, the lovely tropic 
 verdure, and the salubrious breezes of temperate 
 latitudes. The distance of Dharjeling from Cal- 
 cutta is nearly three hundred and fifty miles, 
 part of which, may be accomplished by means of 
 river-boats, and the remainder by palanquin over 
 good and safe roads, with the occasional help of 
 the palkeegharee. 
 
 Stretching along the lower chain of the Hima- 
 layas lies a region of peaty swamp-lands, known 
 as the Tarai. Various mountain springs, filtering 
 through the soil, keep it always moist ; while vast 
 masses of decaying vegetable matter, swept down 
 by the rains from the mountains, fill the air with
 
 70 Mountain Systems. 
 
 pestilential vapors, rendering this locality wholly 
 unfit for human habitation. Yet there is a sparse 
 population of wretched, cadaverous-looking natives, 
 who earn a scanty living by felling and sawing 
 logs, though they suffer much from jungle and in- 
 termittent fevers, and there is a great mortality 
 among them. During the years 1875 and 1876 
 two English officers, accompanied by the wife of 
 one of them, paid a two years' visit to Dharjeling ; 
 and thence, when their sojourn at the Sanitarium 
 was concluded, they set forth, with numerous 
 attache's and attendants, about seventy in all, upon 
 an impromptu exploring tour, far into the interior 
 of this mountain region. This novel and interest- 
 ing trip occupied about three months' time, during 
 which they succeeded in gaining an elevation of 
 about eighteen thousand feet above the seaboard 
 before turning their faces homeward. A portion 
 of the trip was accomplished very comfortably on 
 horseback ; but as the way grew more rugged with 
 the upward march, the ponies became valueless, 
 and the gentlemen of the party had to continue 
 their route on foot, though for the lady a dandy- 
 bareilly was improvised, and did effective service. 
 But after a while, as the ascent grew still more
 
 Dharjellng. ~ 71 
 
 steep, and the footing more uncertain, even the 
 " dandy " was no longer available ; and this enter- 
 prising lady tourist had no choice left her but to 
 be carried forward in an arm-chair strapped to the 
 back of the stoutest of her attendants. 
 
 At the beginning, when the three travellers left 
 Calcutta for Dharjeling, the first stage, of one 
 'hundred and fifty miles, was made at night by a 
 railway running parallel with the Ganges, on its 
 left bank. At dawn, the rail-car was exchanged 
 for a steamboat ; and at sunset the little party had 
 reached the town of Caragola, on the right bank 
 of the river. The second night's travel was made 
 by the " government bullock train,'' at a rate of 
 one and a half miles per hour ; which, proving a 
 somewhat exhaustive process for the patience of 
 our travellers, the government conveyance was ex- 
 changed for a palkeegharee, a native vehicle with 
 closed sides, and about sufficient space to accommo- 
 date two passengers in a recumbent posture, while 
 the servants and luggage are bestowed upon the 
 roof, and the whole is drawn by two stout oxen. 
 In this manner they journeyed to the foot of the 
 Himalaya mountains, alighting at the Terai, which,
 
 72 Mountain Systems. 
 
 though three hundred miles from Calcutta, is only 
 three hundred feet above the sea-level. 
 
 But, from this point the ascent grows more 
 abrupt. Punkabaree, the first station on the 
 mountain, is eighteen hundred feet above the sea ; 
 and Kursiong, only six miles further, is three 
 thousand feet higher. Tea of excellent quality is 
 very extensively cultivated in the region round 
 Kursiong ; and forest trees are rapidly disappear- 
 ing, to be replaced by tea-shrubs, thus utilizing, 
 but greatly diminishing the picturesque beauty of 
 these mountain regions. From Kursiong, after 
 twenty miles over a broad, smooth road winding 
 round the hill sides, the travellers halted before 
 the English cantonments, seven thousand feet 
 above the sea. Dharjeling occupies the summit of 
 a ridge, from which descend on either side deep, 
 fertile valleys, where oranges, bananas and cocoa- 
 nuts grow spontaneously, and sugar-cane is suc- 
 cessfully cultivated ; while on the " top," fires and 
 thick clothing are needed almost the year round. 
 Mount Everest, the highest peak of the Himalayas, 
 is not seen from Dharjeling, but Mount Dhawala- 
 ghiri, twenty-eight thousand one hundred and 
 seventy-nine feet in height ; Mount Juuno, twenty-
 
 INHABITANTS OF THE ISLAND OF SALSETTE NEAR BOMBAY. 73
 
 Dharjeling. 75 
 
 five thousand three hundred and eleven feet; 
 Mount Kubra, twenty-four thousand and fifteen; 
 Donkia, twenty-three thousand one hundred and 
 seventy-six feet, and Pundeem, twenty-two thous- 
 and two hundred and seven feet, with some 
 seven or eight others, each of which rises more 
 than twenty-thousand feet above the sea, are all 
 plainly visible from the military sanitarium of 
 Dharjeling. It was in the year 1835 that the 
 English Government first projected this institution ; 
 and the Rajah of Sik-kim was induced, in consider- 
 ation of the annual payment by the English of 
 three hundred pounds, to cede to them a small tract 
 of land sufficient for the erection of extensive 
 hospitals, lodging-houses for invalids, and other 
 buildings needed by a Sanitary Commission. After 
 some fifteen years, difficulties arising between the 
 contracting parties, culminating at length into 
 open hostilities, the English being the stronger 
 side, from thenceforth refused to pay any portion 
 of the three hundred pounds ; at the same time, 
 laying violent hands upon a much larger tract of 
 land, for the erection of additional sanitariums, 
 barracks, churches, etc., for which no compensation 
 was even named. In this case, as in a thousand
 
 76 Mountain Systems. 
 
 others, where the strong and the weak war against 
 each other, might was made to usurp the place of 
 right, and the Rajah had no alternative but to sub- 
 mit to the gross injustice practised on him by a 
 professedly Christian government. Besides the 
 public buildings owned by the government in 
 Dharjeling, there are many lovely cottages and 
 elegant villas owned by officers and citizens of 
 Calcutta and elsewhere. These are nearly always 
 occupied by the families or friends of the owners, 
 in constant rotation, one set going as another 
 comes, even during pleasant weather ; and in the 
 hot months, when everybody leaves Calcutta who 
 can get away, these mountain residences are filled 
 to repletion. The climate of Dharjeling has been 
 found so highly beneficial to invalids, when re- 
 sorted to in season, that the number of visitors is 
 generally limited only by the measure of accom- 
 modations. The natives have several very con- 
 venient arrangements for conveying the sick up 
 and down the mountains. First among these is 
 the dorlie, a covered litter, softly-cushioned, mus- 
 lin-curtained, and easy as a sick-room cot. It is 
 borne by " bearers," like a palanquin, without 
 jolting or fatigue to the invalid, who can sit or
 
 The Bareilly -dandy. 77 
 
 recline as most agreeable ; and unless extremely 
 ill, derives both pleasure and benefit from this 
 gentle exercise. Another native invention is the 
 bareilly-dandy, which consists of a reclining cane- 
 chair suspended by straps from a strong, boat- 
 shaped wooden frame, that terminates in a pole at 
 each end. This is carried by four " bearers," who 
 are relieved at short intervals. The " dandy " is 
 specially suited for ascending or descending moun- 
 tains, in which case it is desirable for the " team " 
 each time to be composed of two tall and two 
 short men. In going up, the short ones, of course, 
 are " to the fore," and the arrangement is reversed 
 in going down. 
 
 There is yet another ingenious contrivance for 
 the invalid traveller, less used than the others, and 
 only brought into requisition on very steep accliv- 
 ities, 01 for ladies, in localities where it would be 
 impossible for them to maintain a foothold. Only 
 the strongest and most trusty bearers are employed 
 for this variety of ton-yon, and their wages are 
 more than double the amount paid to the ordinary 
 " bearer," since both the fatigue and the responsi- 
 bility are proportionately augmented. The ton- 
 Jon is merely a cane-chair placed on the back of a
 
 78 Mountain Systems. 
 
 stout bearer and bound by means of strong leather 
 straps around his arms and forehead, while he 
 keeps his footing and plods patiently onward by 
 the aid of a trusty staff. 
 
 As the foreign residents at Dharjeling have in- 
 creased in number, native villages have sprung up 
 all around the settlement; and the population, that 
 twenty -five years ago was estimated at only five 
 thousand, now exceeds twenty thousand. Of 
 these some two thousand are Europeans and their 
 descendants ; and the remainder are mainly Bhoo- 
 tias and Lopchas, with a very small admixture of 
 natives from other portions of India chiefly 
 those iii the employ of European residents, as 
 servants. 
 
 As the tourist nears Dharjeling, he begins to 
 imagine himself " certainly in the fashion," for 
 every part of the road is crowded with ponies arid 
 pedestrians, ox-carts and hackeries drawn b}^ buffa- 
 loes, hauling passengers and their belongings, 
 lighter carriages with ladies in " full dress " on the 
 evening drive, officers in uniform, with toilettes, 
 costumes and colors in every possible variety. 
 
 The Pur Pandjal is a lofty chain of glaciers, 
 forming a formidable though by no means impass-
 
 A CHILD COMMITTED TO 'iUJi K1VER JUNNA BY ITS MOTHEK.
 
 Simla. 81 
 
 able barrier between the burning plains of the 
 Purijaub and the cool valleys of Cashmere. Dur- 
 ing the warm months, parties of native traders 
 often take this route between Serinaghur and 
 Lodiana, bringing from the former large quanti- 
 ties of the textile fibre from which the famous 
 Cashmere shawls are made, for the supply of the 
 Lodiana looms ; as well as large packages of the 
 shawls themselves, which find a ready market 
 among the native Indian Princes and Rajahs. 
 
 Almost buried in a ravine of the Himalayas, one 
 hundred and forty miles due north from Delhi, is 
 Simla, the fashionable resort during the hot 
 months of a very large proportion of the English 
 residents of Calcutta. In itself merely a large 
 village, Simla is, for about six months of every 
 year, invested with the important position of Capi- 
 tal of British India. Here the Governor-general 
 has an elegant villa, with offices and dwellings for 
 his staff and the chief functionaries of govern- 
 ment ; and with the first oppressive days of the 
 hot season the hegira commences. The whole 
 concourse of the tlite naturally follow the foot- 
 steps of the court; and thus, from April to 
 
 October, Calcutta, " City of Palaces," sinks to the 
 H. I 6
 
 82 Mountain Systems. 
 
 insignificance of a provincial town. Meanwhile, 
 vice-regal decrees emanate only from Simla, the 
 Official Gazette displays the name of the new 
 favorite at the head of its columns, and newspaper 
 reporters must draw from this little moun- 
 tain town such items of " Court News," and 
 " Personals " of the beau-monde as may be needed 
 to meet the requirements of their readers. This 
 semi-annual removal of the seat of government is 
 both inconvenient and expensive, though of late 
 years a railroad over the larger portion of the 
 route has brought the two " capitals " nearer to- 
 gether. Simla has a first-class English hotel, 
 where rousing fires, a plentiful table, and good 
 beds, well provided with snowy sheets and thick 
 blankets, give the travellers a cheery welcome. 
 
 Kalka is a pretty village at the foot of the 
 mountain, one of the lower steps to the ascent ; 
 and here, before the railroad to the summit was 
 completed, tourists had of necessity to stop, in 
 order to obtain ponies or jampans for the comple- 
 tion of the journey to Simla. The jampan is 
 another Hindu contrivance belonging especially to 
 the Himalayas. It is almost identical with the 
 " dandy," except that the former is provided with
 
 Simla. 83 
 
 a sort of oil-skin roof as a protection from the 
 sun. 
 
 The long line of the Sirmour mountains, all cov- 
 ered with glaciers and thick forests, is plainly visi- 
 ble before reaching Simla and the celebrated peak 
 of Jacko in the immediate vicinity of the little 
 town. Nevertheless, at this point are attained 
 only the lowest steps or first gradation of the 
 gigantic Himalayas, whose vast system of snow- 
 covered peaks extends so many thousands of feet 
 upwards and onwards. From here, climate, vege- 
 tation, all are changed ; even the features of the 
 people, whose small eyes, high cheek-bones, broad 
 noses, and wide mouths proclaim their Mongul 
 descent. In truth this is no longer India, though 
 of India. It is plainly annexed territory, and its 
 people are the same as those belonging to Thibet 
 and China hardy mountaineers, called by the 
 Hindus Paharis, the term being applied indiscrimi- 
 nately to all mountaineers without regard to race. 
 The very cottages seem to have been transported 
 from a distance, and the villages are those of China 
 or the mountains of Europe, while the men wear 
 trousers and woollen waistcoats in lieu of their 
 flowing tropic robes, and some have felt hats in-
 
 84 Mountain Systems. 
 
 stead of muslin turbans. Palms and mangoes dis- 
 appear altogether, and their places are usurped by 
 firs and plane-trees, while the lovely-tinted rho- 
 dodendrons lavish their wealth among rocks and 
 ravines. 
 
 Another noted mountain town is Bhadrinalh, 
 in the district of Gurhwal on the right bank of 
 the river Vishnu-gunga. It lies in a valley of the 
 Himalaya mountains, ten thousand feet above the 
 sea-level, while the peaks in the immediate vicinity 
 of the town tower aloft from twenty-one thousand 
 to twenty-three thousand feet. Bhadrimith is 
 famous for a temple of Vishnu that is reputed to 
 be very ancient, though the building has quite a 
 modern look, possibly from recent improvements. 
 Below the temple is a tank thirty feet square, fed by 
 a thermal spring with which it is connected by a 
 subterranean passage. The chief object of wor- 
 ship in the temple is an idol of black marble 
 robed in gold and silver brocade ; and the ablu- 
 tions performed in the tank are supposed to be 
 efficacious in washing away all past sin. 
 
 For nearly six months of every year, from 
 November to April, the temple is closed on ac- 
 count of the excessive cold ; but, during the
 
 Chirra Punjee. 85 
 
 remaining portion of the time, it is the resort of 
 numerous pilgrims, the number reaching fifty 
 thousand at the celebration of the Kumbh Mela 
 festival, that takes place every twelfth year and is 
 attended with much splendor and most extrava- 
 gant outlay. 
 
 Chirra Punjee is a town in northeastern India, 
 situated on the Cossya Hills at a height of four 
 thousand two hundred feet above the sea. Its 
 temperature during the hot season is full twenty 
 degrees lower than the plains in the same latitude, 
 but for some unascertained reason the climate has 
 not been found favorable to the health of Euro- 
 peans. There are valuable mines of coal and iron in 
 this region, but little effort has been made to 
 develop their wealth. 
 
 The Aravalis range, separating from the great 
 net-work of mountains in Central India, runs in a 
 northerly direction through Rajputana as far as 
 Delhi. The peaks are composed mainly of granite 
 resting on massive beds of blue slate, while the 
 valleys are rich in many-tinted quartz, and in 
 laminated slates of various hues from gold to pur- 
 ple. This is one of the richest of all the mineral 
 fields of India. Besides its untold wealth of gold,
 
 86 Mountain Systems. 
 
 silver, lead, tin, copper, carbuncles, amethysts, 
 chrysolites, garnets, emeralds and rock-crystal, it 
 contains also, black and colored marbles, gneiss 
 and sienite. The higher portions of the moun- 
 tains are inhabited by the Pal Bheels, a race who, 
 despite their present degradation, yet retain un- 
 questionable evidences of a former civilization far 
 above the people about them. 
 
 From Ajmere, some of the finest scenery of the 
 Aravalis is visible piled-up rocks, ravines and 
 mountains, out of the midst of which rises the 
 town with its far-famed fortress of Teraghur sur- 
 rounded by a belt of verdure like an oasis in a 
 desert. Sharp peaks shoot upward on all sides ; 
 ravines that seem unfathomable make the head 
 grow dizzy to look into their dreary abyss; giant 
 cacti are all aglow with their rich crimson blooms ; 
 and graceful ferns and parasites reflect the bright 
 tropic sun in rose-tinted halos. The rocky heights 
 of Teraghur are very abrupt and the ascent is dif- 
 ficult ; but the summit commands a magnificent 
 view of the town, and of all the surrounding 
 scenery. It is from this huge rock, on which is 
 built the fortress commanding the town, that 
 Ajmere (Aji-mer, " Invincible Mountain ") derives
 
 Naga Pahar. 89 
 
 its name. Near Poshkur, about ten miles from 
 Ajmere is the equally famous Naga Pahar, " Rock 
 of the Serpent," likewise associated with the mem- 
 ory of Aja Pal, the builder of the fortress of Tera- 
 ghur ; and at Naga Pahar may still be seen the 
 ruins of his ill-fated castle. 
 
 These mountains abound in springs, and for this 
 reason they have from time immemorial been a 
 favorite resort of ascetics. The Brahmins say 
 that the great Bhirtrari, the brother of King 
 Vikramaditya, lived here as a hermit for many 
 years at the shrine of Naga Pahar ; and the marble 
 slab on which this noted anchorite used to sleep is 
 still shown to thousands of credulous pilgrims 
 who come annually to kiss the sacred stone. Just 
 beyond Peshkur, between the two parallel moun- 
 tain ranges, is a long, narrow valley almost filled 
 with sand which is piled up on either side nearly 
 to the mountain tops, leaving only a narrow uncer- 
 tain path in the middle with an aspect dreary as a 
 desert the very reverse of the lovely valley 
 around Ajmere. 
 
 Between Doudon and Jeypore occur a series of 
 sandy plains with no sign of vegetation. This 
 sand is so strongly impregnated with salt that
 
 90 Mountain Systems. 
 
 simply by washing and evaporation excellent salt 
 is obtained ; and so extensive are the plains and 
 so rich the yield, that nearly the entire community 
 derive their support from the manufacture and 
 sale of salt, to the total neglect of agricultural 
 pursuits. 
 
 Among the Doungher Mountains is Tintouni, a 
 town of note, as the entrance to the defiles of the 
 mountains ; tmd also as the abode of the chief of 
 the Thakours, a haughty race whose character and 
 habits take one back to the old feudal times with 
 their tyranny, barbarisms and exactions of "black- 
 mail " tribute. It seems odd enough to find thus, 
 in the very heart of Asia, a reproduction of Euro- 
 pean customs of an age long gone by. The castle 
 of the Thakoura chief, strongly built and fortified, 
 stands on a commanding eminence with a quaint 
 medley of terraces, towers and pinnacles over- 
 looking the precipice. A very steep declivity 
 leads to the gate of the keep, which is well de- 
 fended by numerous small towers and iron-bound 
 stakes ; while the interior would seem a very 
 transcript of the old feudal fortress of half a 
 dozen centuries agone. These chiefs, despite their 
 rapacious propensities, are, as a rule, models of
 
 '".
 
 Blackmail. 93 
 
 serenity, dignity and courtliness, receiving and en- 
 tertaining their guests with a princely air and self- 
 sustained consciousness of birth and blood, that 
 one not "to the manner born," would find it im- 
 possible to imitate. During some few years past 
 the English Government has attempted to com- 
 pel these fierce warriors to renounce their system 
 of brigandage ; but they have accomplished 
 merely a modification. " Blackmail " is levied on 
 every caravan as heretofore ; but now it is called 
 " tribute," not plunder. From being the robber 
 of travellers, the chief has become their " pro- 
 tector," furnishing guides and guards for a hand- 
 some " consideration ; " and instead of pillaging, 
 he " taxes " them. So the chief gets his bonus, 
 and every traveller and trader has to " pay tithes 
 of all," but the " Blackmail " bears a different 
 name under the new regime. 
 
 Much of the country among the Dounghers is 
 indescribably wild, and some of the passes are ex- 
 tremely difficult. The number of tigers and other 
 wild beasts found here greatly adds to the danger 
 of travel, and human thieves and depredators are 
 not wanting. But the scenery is so grand and pict- 
 uresque that one willingly incurs the risk to enjoy
 
 94 Mountain Systems. 
 
 by a coup d'ceil, such a vision of superb moun- 
 tains and fertile valleys, myriads of the loveliest 
 flowers dotting every little oasis, and whole miles 
 of mountain declivities covered with grand old 
 forests that reckon their age by centuries. 
 
 At Kairwara, the English Government has 
 established an out-post for the purpose of keeping 
 the Bheels in check. The garrison is composed 
 entirely of native soldiers, commanded by some 
 half a dozen English officers. 
 
 The defiles here gradually become wider, and 
 the mountains are circular and less lofty; but the 
 summits are bare, seeming to be composed mainl}- 
 of laminated schist, with thick veins of milky 
 quartz, and are not at all adapted to vegetation. 
 
 The range of Indian mountains next in length 
 to the Himalayas, is the Vindhya, which crosses 
 the peninsula from east to west, between the 
 twenty-third and twenty-fifth parallels of north 
 latitude, and in length, extending from 74 to 84 
 of east longitude, following very nearly the valley 
 of the river Nerbudda. The highest peaks of 
 this range are about twenty-five hundred feet 
 above the level of the sea ; while in some portions 
 they do not exceed seven hundred feet. The
 
 The Vindhya Mountains. 97 
 
 greater part of the land south of the Vindhyas, as 
 far as the Gap of Coimbatore, consists of elevated 
 table-lauds skirted by mountains, which toward 
 the coast terminate in plains. Here and there 
 little villages meet the eye, and at almost every 
 eligible point this shrine-loving people have erected 
 something or other to memorialize their gods and 
 invite the offerings and adoration of every passing 
 traveller. Zayats are numerous along the high- 
 ways. These are large, covered building's with 
 open sides, where are always to be secured by the 
 weary traveller a cool resting-place, with plenty of 
 fresh water, and sometimes other conveniences for 
 as long a time as he may desire. But though the 
 peaks of the Vindhyas proper are none of them 
 very lofty, there are several offshoots that extend 
 through the district of Chittagong, from Assam to 
 Cape Negrais, the peaks of which vary in height 
 from three thousand to eight thousand feet above 
 the sea-level. These mountains are the abodes 
 of wild tribes whom no government has ever been 
 able to reduce to subjection, though Moguls, 
 Afghans, Tartars, and English have successively 
 claimed dominion over them. 
 
 The great river Chumbul has its rise on the 
 H. I. 7
 
 98 Mountain Systems. 
 
 northern slope of the Vindhyas, at an elevation of 
 two thousand feet above the sea-level, whence it 
 flows northward and north-eastward before unit- 
 ing with the Jumnai 
 
 It is in the vicinity of the Vindhyas, among the 
 hills adjacent to Cambay, that are obtained the 
 celebrated cornelians known as " Cambay stones." 
 They are found thickly embedded in the small 
 mounds between the Bowa Gore and Bowa A bbas, 
 where they are quarried by native miners. 
 
 The Deccan, south of the Vindhyas, is bounded 
 on all four sides by lofty mountain ranges known 
 as the Ghauts, and distinguished respectively as 
 the Northern, Southern, Eastern and Western 
 Ghauts. This name is given only by Europeans 
 to the mountains themselves, being applied by 
 natives to the passes, the word Ghaut meaning 
 "an opening between mountains." The Ghaut*, 
 or passes, are so very numerous on these moun- 
 tains, and are so frequently alluded to by the 
 natives, that those not very familiar with the ver- 
 nacular of the country have misunderstood the 
 meaning of the term and given this misnomer. 
 It is not unusual for a Hindu, on hearing a Euro- 
 pean express the desire or intention of " visiting
 
 100 Mountain Systems. 
 
 the Ghauts," to reply : " It will be pleasanter to 
 ascend the mountains. The Grhauts (passes) are 
 not so cool and invigorating as the tops of the 
 hills." 
 
 The Eastern Ghauts, running parallel with the 
 coast and dividing the Carnatic into two parts, 
 are a range of highlands terminating in craggy 
 granite peaks. The road from the foot is hilly 
 and rough, and bullocks instead of horses are 
 used not only for the transportation of baggage, 
 but also for drawing the light dandy in which pas- 
 sengers in India usually travel over lengthy roads. 
 A journey of about two days over granite hills 
 and through steep passes amid masses of rock 
 rolled into ravines, and the stunted mountain 
 growth, brings the traveller to the elevated plateau 
 reaching from the Eastern to the Western Ghauts, 
 with a varying elevation of from two to three 
 thousand feet above the sea. This table-land is a 
 lovely, rolling country, clothed with meadows, 
 fields and villages, looking fair and fertile com- 
 pared with the burning plains below the moun- 
 tains. The difference of climate between the 
 elevated table-lands of India and the sea-board is 
 very marked. The sea-coast of the Carnatic, ex-
 
 The Carnatic. 101 
 
 tending from latitude 16 to Cape Comorin, is the 
 hottest portion of India, the thermometer often 
 rising to 130 in the shade ; while on the moun- 
 tains, in the same latitude, the mornings and even- 
 ings are always cool : and even at noon, the glass 
 rarely shows a greater elevation than 70 in 
 the shade. Fires and thick clothing are needed 
 for three or four months of the year, close- 
 fitting glass windows are a luxury, and the pallor 
 and weariness of the sultry plains are soon re- 
 placed by roseate cheeks and a bounding pulse. 
 
 The ancient Hindu kingdom of Carnata, of 
 which Mysore was the capital, occupies this beau- 
 tiful table-land, and here in our own day, is Ban- 
 galore, the most charming and healthful of all the 
 stations of Southern India occupied by the British 
 Government. Westward from Bangalore, the 
 road runs through a hilly country well adapted to 
 the cultivation of grain. 
 
 A little to the south of Mysore, a steep hill of a 
 thousand feet high rises abruptly from the plain. 
 Its summit supplies a magnificent natural observa- 
 tory, whence may be enjoyed a view of some of 
 the most beautiful scenery of Southern India, over 
 which the cloud-capped mountains in the distance
 
 A Sacred Hill. 103 
 
 seem to be standing sentinel. This hill is noted 
 among the Hindus as the site of two very famous 
 temples, to which thousands of pilgrims annually 
 resort ; and also, as the spot whence a colossal bull, 
 an object of supreme reverence among the Hindus, 
 was cut from the solid rock. There is another of 
 these sacred mountains near Wandiwash a tall, 
 rugged granite mountain peak, rising abruptly 
 from the plain, some two miles from the town. 
 The ascent is by steps cut into the solid rock, and 
 the summit is crowned by seven small temples 
 dedicated to the elephant-headed Ganesha. The 
 architecture of the shrines is beautiful and ingen- 
 ious, resting at different elevations, partly on pil- 
 lars of rock and partly on levelled portions of the 
 peak. In the rock have been hewn also large 
 hollow cavities for offerings, where are deposited 
 gifts of oil and fruits, brought by the thousands 
 of pilgrims who flock annually to the festival held 
 at this famous spot. These offerings are carried 
 off by the Brahmins, who dispose of them as prox- 
 ies for the idols. 
 
 Every morning a Brahmin ascends to this moun- 
 tain temple to perform the daily worship ; and at 
 evening a religious ascetic purchases a degree of
 
 104 Mountain System*. 
 
 merit, by mounting the steep ascent to light a 
 lamp before the shrine. 
 
 In the prospect from the summit the great 
 temples of Conjeveram, thirty miles away, are 
 plainly visible ; and all around the craggy hills, 
 scattered here and there over the plain, are towns 
 and villages ; the houses embowered in trees, and 
 their little gardens or fields spread out before 
 them, gleaming brightly in the tropic sunshine. 
 
 Forming a connecting link between the Eastern 
 and Western Ghauts, as the} 7 approach the lower 
 end of the peninsula, are the celebrated " Neil- 
 gherry Hills," with a base of two hundred miles 
 in circumference. A dense jungle, infested with 
 ferocious beasts of prey, and the home of noxious 
 reptiles, stretches out on every side of the " Hills," 
 as if to guard the entrance to the Paradise above. 
 
 These " Hills," which are really mountains, 
 derive their name from two Hindustanee words, 
 w7a, " blue," and giri, " mountain." Towering 
 above all the other mountains south of the Hima- 
 layas their summits are seen always clothed in the 
 azure of the clouds, and hence received their name, 
 Niligiri, (" Blue Mountains,") which the English 
 have gradually changed to " Neilgherry," affixing
 
 C^VES OF KENEIARJ,
 
 106 Mountain Systems. 
 
 " Hills " to the name. Ascending by the Seegoor 
 Pass, the delighted tourist finds himself not on a 
 mountain peak, barren and cheerless, but on an 
 elevated table-land, broken into ridges, hills and 
 valleys, at a varying altitude of from six to seven 
 thousand feet; whilst the highest peak, Mount 
 Dodabetta, loses itself in the clouds almost nine 
 thousand feet above the sea-level. The public 
 road to the summit commences at Seegoor, at the 
 base of the " Hills," and passing awhile along the 
 declivity, turns in zigzag route up the face of the 
 mountain till it reaches a ravine ; then, turning 
 aside, continues its upward course, and so on to 
 the top, where the queenly Ootacamund, this 
 beautiful English city of the mountains, sits 
 enthroned six thousand feet above the level of the 
 sea. Here, only four or five hours' ride from the 
 intense heat of the torrid zone, are found invigor- 
 ating breezes, mornings and evenings delightfully 
 cool, and many of the trees and plants of temper- 
 ate latitudes. The vertical sun still manifests its 
 power at noon-day, but in the shade the glass 
 seldom rises as high as seventy in the warmest 
 weather, and there is nearly always a refreshing 
 breeze. In the winter months a thin coat of ice is
 
 Ootaoamund. 107 
 
 often found upon the ponds at early morning, 
 glass windows, in lieu of Venetian blinds, are a 
 necessity ; and a bright wood-fire on the hearth, 
 with andirons, tongs and bellows articles un- 
 heard of in Calcutta are in great repute at 
 Ootacamund, where one sleeps under blankets, and 
 gladly resigns straw matting for woollen carpets 
 and Turkish rugs. 
 
 The English had been for years in possession of 
 Coimbatore and Mysore, without a suspicion of 
 the lovely, health-restoring retreat that lay upon 
 the tops of these " Blue Mountains ; " and the 
 discovery was at last the result of a fortunate acci- 
 dent. Sometime about the year 1830, it having 
 been ascertained that tobacco was smuggled from 
 the district of Coimbatore to the western coast, 
 the existence of a path across the mountains was 
 almost an assured fact ; and two revenue officers 
 set forth in pursuit of the smugglers, and suc- 
 ceeded in tracking them by a steep and rugged 
 path to the summit. Here, outspread before their 
 astonished gaze, lay a land of fairy beauty whose 
 invigorating atmosphere, fertile valleys, cultivated 
 fields, undulating pastures and Tich woodlands 
 seemed to belong to a very Eden, compared with
 
 108 Mountain Systems. 
 
 the burning plains they had so recently left. A 
 settlement was at once begun the nucleus about 
 which has been gathered the present beautiful 
 town. This contains now about five hundred 
 English residences, several excellent roads for car- 
 riage drives, and numerous bridle-paths for eques- 
 trian exercises; while cool breezes and the invigor- 
 ating atmosphere tempt the exiled Englishman to 
 the almost-forgotten walking-feats of his native 
 land. Some few European families reside here all 
 the year round ; but to the majority, it is merely a 
 summer resort. 
 
 Another peak of the Neilgherries is Mount 
 Kartery, six thousand feet high, which boasts of 
 that great rarity in India, a lovely little waterfall. 
 It is surrounded by picturesque scenery, and the 
 hill-sides are nearly covered with coffee planta- 
 tions. 
 
 Mount Sispara is the summit of the pass to the 
 western coast of India. Beyond its huge but- 
 tresses of granite it is clothed in deep, dense, 
 unbroken forest, the home only of wild elephants 
 and buffaloes, ferocious tigers and leopards, jackals, 
 monkeys, and hosts of wild and beautiful birds
 
 A. German Mission. Ill 
 
 that rove here in pristine security, unawed by the 
 encroachments of human foes . 
 
 The Kay tee-House, four miles from Ootacamund, 
 was built by Lord Elphinstone when Governor- 
 general of India, as a place of elegant retirement, 
 entirely away from European society. 
 
 On his return to England, it passed into other 
 hands ; and of late years has become the seat of 
 the German Mission to the Badagas. The library 
 and ball-room, despoiled of their costly belong- 
 ings, have been converted into a neat and com- 
 modious chapel ; while other portions of the 
 stately mansion furnish homes for the missionaries, 
 school-rooms for natives, etc. 
 
 Distant twelve miles from Kaytee Pass, and at 
 an altitude of four thousand five hundred feet 
 above the sea, is Canoor with a climate milder by 
 several degrees than that of Ootacamund, and for 
 this reason preferred by those who desire a change 
 less sudden. 
 
 These mountains perform a most important part 
 in the physical economy of Southern India, con- 
 densing into rain the watery vapors borne upon 
 the two periodical winds, called " monsoons, " from 
 the seas of Arabia and Bengal ; and sending the
 
 112 Mountain Systems. 
 
 genial streams to cool and refresh the thirsty 
 plains. Yet still more important is their loving 
 mission from the merciful Father of all, in provid- 
 ing a health-retreat, so near at hand, and so easily 
 available to the weary invalids who, far from their 
 native land, languish and faint beneath the sultry 
 heat of India's fervid plains.
 
 H. I
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 POLITICAL DIVISIONS. 
 
 SINCE August 2d, 1858, all the territories 
 heretofore under the control of the British 
 East India Company have been vested in the 
 Crown, in the name of which all authority is exer- 
 cised. The vast region known as British India, 
 includes all the British colonies in India ; and the 
 native states that are, to a greater or less degree, 
 controlled by the English Government. It. is 
 divided into ten political districts, each under the 
 jurisdiction of a Lieutenant-governor or Commis- 
 sioner; but subject to the authority vested in the 
 Governor-general, who acts under the orders of the 
 Secretary of State for India, and he also appoints 
 the various Lieutenant-governors and Commis- 
 sioners for the several Presidencies and Provinces. 
 
 115
 
 116 Political Divisions. 
 
 The Provinces of Hyderabad, Mysore, and Coorg, 
 are under the direct administration of the Gover- 
 nor-general. These cover an area of forty-seven 
 thousand six hundred and sixty-one square miles, 
 with a population of six million three hundred and 
 eighty -nine thousand seven hundred and ninety- 
 two. The others are governed by the following 
 functionaries : Lieutenant-governor of Bengal, two 
 hundred and thirty-nine thousand five hundred 
 and ninety-one square miles, population thirty-five 
 million nine hundred and seventy-five thousand 
 two hundred and seventy four ; Lieutenant-gover- 
 nor of Northwest Provinces, eighty-three thousand 
 eight hundred and seventy-five square miles, popu- 
 lation thirty million eighty-six thousand eight 
 hundred and ninety-eight; Lieutenant-governor of 
 the Punjaub, one hundred and two thousand and 
 one square miles, population seventeen million 
 five hundred and ninety-six thousand seven hun- 
 dred and two; Chief-commissioner of Oudh, 
 twenty-four thousand and sixty square miles, popu- 
 lation eleven million two hundred and twenty 
 thousand seven hundred and forty-seven; Chief- 
 commissioner of Central Provinces, eighty-four 
 thousand one hundred and sixty-two square miles,
 
 Area and Population. 117 
 
 population seven million nine hundred and eighty- 
 five thousand four hundred and eleven ; Chief- 
 commissioner of British Burmah, ninety-eight 
 thousand eight hundred and eighty-nine square 
 miles, population two million four hundred and 
 sixty-three thousand four hundred and eighty-four ; 
 Governor of Madras, one hundred and forty-one 
 thousand seven hundred and forty-six square 
 miles, population twenty-six million five hundred 
 and thirty-nine thousand and fifty-two ; Governor 
 of Bombay, eighty-seven thousand six hundred 
 and thirty-nine square miles, population eleven 
 million ninety-three thousand five hundred and 
 twelve ; Commissioner of Scinde, fifty-four thous- 
 and four hundred and three square miles, popula- 
 tion one million seven hundred and ninety-five 
 thousand five hundred and ninety-four; making the 
 total of British possessions in India and Burmah 
 nine hundred and sixty-three thousand nine hun- 
 dred and twenty-nine square miles, population 
 one hundred and fifty-one million one hundred and 
 forty-six thousand four hundred and twenty-six ; 
 which, with the sixty or seventy native states 
 under the protection of Great Britain, will make 
 an area for all India of not less than one million
 
 118 Political Divisions. 
 
 two hundred thousand square miles, with a total 
 population of fully one hundred and seventy-five 
 millions. 
 
 Of all these states and provinces the three Pres- 
 idencies of Bengal, Madras and Bombay are best 
 known to Europeans, and really possess most in- 
 terest to the English-reading public. Bengal, the 
 largest of the three settled by the English, is 
 divided into regulation and non-regulation districts. 
 The regulation districts extend over the low, fer- 
 tile, densely-populated basin of the Ganges, and 
 are subject to a strict and systematic official admin- 
 istration. They include Bengal proper, the native 
 province of Behar, and the maritime districts of 
 Orissa. The wilder out-lying countries are com- 
 prised in the non-regulation districts ; which con- 
 sist of the hill region of Orissa, the territory south 
 of Behar, called the Southwest Frontier, and the 
 great country of Assam, through which flow the 
 Brahmapootra and its tributaries. Here civiliza- 
 tion is far less advanced than in the regulation 
 districts, and the government is comparatively in- 
 formal. The climate of Bengal is extremely warm, 
 and, to Europeans, unhealthy unless they, at the 
 occurrence of each hot season, resort to some of
 
 Native Products. 119 
 
 the Sanitariums among the hills. The soil is allu- 
 vial and consists of a rich black mould resting 
 upon a sandy clay. There is no substance so 
 coarse as gravel to be found in the great delta, nor 
 within four hundred miles of the coast. The val- 
 ley of the Ganges is noted for its fertility ; and the 
 productive power of its lands is renewed, like 
 those of Egypt, without expense to the cultivator, 
 by the annual river deposits. The methods of 
 agri culture are extremely primitive, the natives 
 knowing almost nothing of husbandry, and their 
 implements being of the very simplest and rudest 
 sort. Each ryot or native cultivator of the soil, 
 occupies usually about six acres of land, and sel- 
 dom more than twenty-four. Rice is the leading 
 cereal, and an important article of export. Wheat, 
 barley, millet, and maize are also raised on the 
 higher lands, with cotton, sugar, opium, indigo 
 and tobacco. The indigo produced in Bengal 
 alone, amounts to five-sixths of the entire quantity 
 made in the world. The growth of coffee has 
 been successfully introduced of late years, espec- 
 ially in Assam, where large tracts are devoted to 
 the cultivation of tea and coffee. The poppv is 
 grown chiefly in Behar, the opium being manu-
 
 120 Political Divisions. 
 
 factured at Patiia, and known in commerce as 
 Patna opium. No one is permitted to engage in 
 the opium business except on account of the 
 government, which makes advances to the cultiva- 
 tors, and purchases the whole crop from them at 
 an established price usually at less than one 
 dollar per pound and sells it for exportation 
 from Calcutta to China, at an enormous profit. 
 The chief sources of revenue to the government 
 are from the land-tax and the opium monopoly. 
 The commerce of Bengal is chiefly with Great 
 Britain ; and the exports consist of cotton, rice, 
 indigo, silk and saltpetre. Railways, which are 
 rapidly multiplying, have greatly facilitated inter- 
 nal trade, since their introduction in 1857. In 
 1859 there were, in the whole of Bengal, only 
 one hundred and forty-two miles of railway open 
 to the public, and there are now about two thous- 
 and miles. The East India line, the grand trunk 
 route to Delhi and the highlands of Northern 
 India, traverses the valley of the Ganges from 
 Calcutta upward. Calcutta, the seat of govern- 
 ment of the Anglo-Indian Empire, has a popula- 
 tion of about one million. The cities of Bengal 
 next in rank, are Patna, Moorshedabad, Dacca,
 
 The East India Company. 123 
 
 and Burdwan. The population of the Bengal 
 District is composed mainly of native Hindus, and 
 the Mohammedan descendants of the Moguls, the 
 former being as four to one of the latter. 
 
 It was the latter part of the seventeenth century, 
 when the English East India Company estab- 
 lished their first trading factories in Bengal, then 
 governed by a Viceroy of the Mogul Emperor of 
 Hindustan. Their settlements were small, and 
 even this limited territory they held as tenants 
 under native rulers. In 1746, the war between 
 England and France extended to Southern India, 
 whence, for the succeeding ten years, England was 
 constantly making accessions of valuable territory, 
 as well as increasing her military force ; so that 
 when, in 1756, troubles with the native rulers arose 
 the English were prepared to cope with their 
 Indian foes. In the famous battle of Plassey, that 
 occurred on June 23, 1757, Lord Clive defeated 
 the Nawaub of Nazim, with great loss, compelling 
 the notorious Nawaub, who was no other than the 
 cruel Suraj-al-Dowlah, of " Black Hole " notoriety, 
 to fly from the field. 
 
 This victory established the ascendency of the 
 English in India, giving them a prestige that re-
 
 124 Political Divisions. 
 
 mains to the present day. This was the tide that, 
 taken at the flood, led to fortune for the English. 
 How strangely the French have missed their 
 opportunity in India again and again. Chander- 
 nagore, beautifully situated on the right bank of 
 the Hooghly, only a few miles from Calcutta, in 
 1740, eclipsed that city, and governed the trade of 
 Bengal. To-da} r it is a miserable village, its streets 
 invaded by water and by rank weeds, its bazaars 
 without trade, and its harbor destitute of shipping 
 a reproach to a great nation, and a grief to all 
 who venerate la belle France ! A last opportunity 
 of retrieving the fortunes of the desolated city 
 occurred about twenty-five years ago, when the 
 Delhi railway was being laid out, and it was pro- 
 posed to have it pass through Chandernagore, and 
 to convert the ancient French town into a sort of 
 out-post of the Indian capital. Vacillation and need- 
 less delays thwarted the plan ; and the opportunity 
 was lost, not to return, at least in this generation. 
 The river Hooghly is one of the many streams 
 by which the Ganges empties its waters into the 
 Bay of Bengal, and is esteemed the most sacred of 
 its mouths. Just where the Ganges meets the sea, 
 is the island of Sangor Grunga-Sagor the Indians
 
 The Island of Sangor. 125 
 
 call it ; and it is one of the most famous of all the 
 islands on the coast famous for the human sacri- 
 fices that used to be there offered to the goddess 
 Gunga. But these are now prevented by the 
 action of the British Government, who, during the 
 annual festival, keep soldiers on guard to prevent 
 the perpetuation of such cruelties. Before reach- 
 ing Sangor, vessels bound for Calcutta are boarded 
 by pilots, who carefully guide the vessels by an un- 
 seen channel, through hidden shoals, toward the 
 mouth of the river, yet at a distance. These 
 shoals of sand and mud, known as the " Sand- 
 heads," and caused by the constant accumulations 
 of sand at the mouth, make the passage replete 
 with danger, which is increased by the total 
 absence of landmarks. But an efficient pilot ser- 
 vice, well sustained by the English Government, 
 prevents the occurrence of frequent accidents. 
 Calcutta lies a hundred miles from the mouth, and 
 between the city and the island of Sangor is a 
 low, jungly tract of land, intersected by creeks and 
 streams, and known as the " Sunderbunds." This 
 was once inhabited and cultivated by a rural popu- 
 lation, but was desolated, first by wars, and later 
 by the incursions of the river, till now it is only
 
 126 Political Divisions. 
 
 the home of wild beasts, and the abode of noxious 
 reptiles. 
 
 When the " Sunderbunds " and floating lights 
 have been passed, the shores grow perceptibly 
 nearer, allowing both banks to be seen, but the 
 river is still more than two miles wide, and rolls 
 on with a wonderful volume and swiftness toward 
 the sea. a turbid yellow current, loaded with allu- 
 vial matter from the uplands. It has been said, 
 that were two thousand ships, each bearing fifteen 
 hundred tons of soil, to sail down every day in the 
 year, they could not carry as much solid matter 
 as is borne to the ocean in a single day by the 
 Ganges. The stream still narrowing, objects of 
 interest begin to multiply. The banks are no 
 longer jungly wastes, but scattered cottages, em- 
 bowered in palms, tamarinds, and other tropical 
 growth, with fishing villages here and there, give 
 life and beauty to the scene. The exquisite green- 
 ness of the rice-fields, the waving luxuriance of the 
 sugar-cane, and all the graceful beauty of vegeta- 
 ble life, so characteristic of " the lands of the 
 Sun," lend their charm to the view ; and pres- 
 ently Gloucester, with its European residences, 
 comes in sight, and the familiar sounds of com-
 
 Cherinyhee. 127 
 
 merce and the hum of machinery fall on the ear. 
 A hundred miles above the island of Sangor, a 
 bend in the river, now but a mile wide, opens to 
 view " Garden Reach," a suburb of the great 
 " City of Palaces," with its superb array of villas 
 and country-seats, in which luxury and refinement 
 are everywhere displayed, combined with all the 
 wondrous floral wealth of that clime. As one ap- 
 proaches the city, at every step are seen splendid 
 European mansions adorned with oriental grandeur, 
 and surrounded by smooth lawns very English in 
 look, but dotted with clumps of the brightest and 
 gayest of tropical flowers ; native budyerows and 
 dinyies ply on the smooth waters, and English steam- 
 boats puff up and down, bearing crowds of passen- 
 gers, of such diversified features, complexion and 
 attire, as fairly to bewilder the unaccustomed eye. 
 A little farther advance brings into view the Fort 
 and government buildings of the Cheringhee 
 suburb ; lofty chimneys of gas-works and factories 
 rise before the eye, and the increasing din of city 
 life, the hum of voices and the throng of vehicles, 
 proclaim the presence of a great and busy city. 
 Formerly, numerous corpses were to be seen 
 floating down the stream, followed by birds of
 
 128 Political Divisions. 
 
 prey; but this ghastly and unwholesome sight is 
 no longer permitted by the English authorities, 
 who forbid the throwing of bodies into the stream, 
 and the laying of the sick upon its banks, within 
 the precincts of the city. 
 
 On the right bank of the river, a short distance 
 above the city, are the magnificent Botanical 
 Gardens, the gift of the famous Hooker to the 
 city of Calcutta. This is believed to be the 
 largest and finest botanical collection in existence, 
 embracing the most wonderful varieties from all 
 quarters of the world ; and all planted, not in 
 conservatories, under glass covers, but in the open 
 air, under the gorgeous sunlight of that unchanging 
 clime. Among the most remarkable specimens, 
 are a Baobab of Senegal, the trunk of which is 
 thirty feet in circumference ; and an Indian Banian 
 which, with its numerous branches, is sufficient to 
 shelter a thousand people. 
 
 The city of Calcutta stretches along the eastern 
 bank of the Hooghly, or Bagirathy, as it is called 
 by the natives, for a distance of six miles above 
 the fort ; a great, wealthy, prosperous city, that 
 owes its greatness entirely to the supremacy and 
 enterprise of the English. When it was granted
 
 Calcutta. 129 
 
 to them in 1717, it consisted of three small 
 villages of mud-huts, called Govindpore ; and in 
 1756 even these wretched grants were withdrawn, 
 and the English were expelled from Bengal by its 
 nizam ; now it is a " city of palaces," of which the 
 despised English are the lords paramount; and 
 scores of the descendants of such petty tyrants as 
 Suraj-al-Dowlah, are glad to eat the bread from 
 the coffers of the English treasury. Fort William, 
 the most celebrated and extensive foreign fortress 
 in India, was begun in 1757, after the battle of 
 Plassey, and is deemed almost impregnable. The 
 works are low and octagonal in outline, three sides 
 facing the Hooghly. The citadel mounts six 
 hundred and nineteen guns ; and a garrison of one 
 thousand troops are needed to defend it. The 
 Government House, the palace of the Governor- 
 general or Viceroy, is a superb structure of mas- 
 sive proportions, consisting of a large central 
 building surrounded by four extensive wings and 
 crowned by a magnificent dome. This occupies a 
 conspicuous position in the esplanades fronting a 
 park called Eden Gardens ; and near by are the 
 town hall, post-office, and other government 
 
 buildings, a great many churches belonging to 
 H. I. 9
 
 130 Political Divisions. 
 
 different nations and creeds, large costly stores, 
 and thousands of elegant private residences. The 
 latter are two storied with stuccoed fronts and 
 tall columns, spacious verandahs and close-fitting 
 Venetian blinds, and each occupies a separate 
 enclosure surrounded by a substantial wall, which 
 gives an air of grandeur and wealth. The style of 
 living is suited to the dwelling, combining the 
 luxuries of the East with the imported comforts 
 and elegancies of the West. The native portion 
 of the city, which is entirely distinct from the 
 Cheringhee or European quarter, consists of a dense 
 network of narrow, dirty streets, lined with houses 
 of small and mean appearance. Some of the 
 native residences are large and showy ; but the 
 majority of these people live in mud-huts, or in little 
 shanties formed of bamboo poles with coarse mats 
 tied over them. The bazaars are numerous and 
 extensive, consisting of whole long lines of shops 
 swarming with tradespeople, buyers and sellers, 
 and makers of various wares, who fill the shops, 
 and crowd every avenue, some exchanging pleas- 
 ant words, others clamoring for trade, and a few 
 uttering coarse jests or chaffing each other in 
 passing; but scarcely ever a profane word is spoken.
 
 The Black Hole. 133 
 
 Drunkenness and profanity, when found among 
 the Hindus at all, are imported vices, acquired by 
 intercourse with Christian nations, and not indig- 
 enous to the soil. At these little cell-like bazaar 
 shops may be purchased every conceivable variety 
 of wares, native and foreign, almost every lan- 
 guage is heard, and every style of features, com- 
 plexion and attire may be studied. A little world 
 of itself is this great busy city, full of life and 
 beauty and activity, that makes one grow stronger, 
 and more hopeful of his race as he watches the 
 energy and buoyancy, and all the concentrated life 
 of a Calcutta bazaar. 
 
 One point of interest must not be omitted. On 
 the site where the post-office now stands, was 
 once the memorable " Black Hole " a small close 
 dungeon in the old fort the scene of that terrible 
 catastrophe that has made the name of Suraj-al- 
 Dowlah infamous wherever our language is spoken. 
 When Calcutta, on the 20th of June, 1756, was 
 captured by Suraj, the British garrison, consisting 
 of one hundred and forty-six men, under the 
 command of Mr. Holwell, were locked up for the 
 night in a strongly-barred room, only eighteen 
 feet square. The weather was intensely hot ; and
 
 134 Political Divisions. 
 
 conflagrations raging in different parts of the fort, 
 rendered the atmosphere unusually oppressive. 
 The only window to the little room opened 
 toward the west, whence, under the best circum- 
 stances, but little air could enter, and this was 
 further obstructed by a projecting roof outside, 
 and thick iron bars within. In a short time the 
 sufferings of the poor prisoners became unendura- 
 ble ; every effort was made, and immense bribes 
 offered to touch the hearts of their jailers ; but in 
 vain, and when morning came, one hundred and 
 twenty-three had died of thirst and foul, stifling 
 air, some perhaps trampled to death in the dark- 
 ness by their tortured comrades. Only twenty- 
 three of the little company came out alive, and 
 were then released by their inhuman jailers. An 
 obelisk fifty feet high was afterwards erected near 
 the spot in memory of the victims of this terri- 
 ble tragedy. 
 
 On the eastern coast line of India, bordering on 
 the Bay of Bengal, is the Presidency of Madras 
 a long, narrow slip of territory, including 
 within its bounds the states of Arcot, Panjore, 
 Vizianagram, and Cochin. The. ancient province 
 of British India, formerly known as the Carnatic,
 
 The Carnatic. 137 
 
 extending from Cape Comorin to 16 north latitude, 
 with an average breadth of about ninety miles, was 
 almost synonymous with this Presidency, and 
 included all the chief cities, i. e , Madras, Pondi- 
 cherry, Arcot, Madura, Tanjore, Trichinopoly, 
 Nellore, and Vellore. The Carnatic formed origi- 
 nally the Hindu kingdom of Carnata, and after 
 various changes, was finally included in the domin- 
 ions of the nabob of Arcot ; then the contentions 
 arising from a disputed possession brought the 
 French and English into a collision, that ended in 
 the transfer of the Carnatic to the East India 
 Company, in 1801, the reigning nabob, Azim-al- 
 Omrah, receiving a pension equal to one-fifth of 
 the revenue ; and his chief officials being provided 
 for. The last titular nabob died in 1855, without 
 heirs, and the Carnatic has since been included in 
 the Presidency of Madras. The Eastern Ghauts 
 divide the Presidency of Madras into two parts, the 
 mountains running parallel with the coast, causing 
 a great difference in climate between the two sec- 
 tions. The seaboard, in dry weather, is the hottest 
 part of India, the thermometer sometimes reaching 
 130 in the shade ; while the table-lands are 
 delightfully cool and salubrious. At Bangalore,
 
 138 Political Divisions. 
 
 which belongs to the Mysore country, included in 
 the Carnatic, the climate is sufficiently temperate 
 for the cultivation of grains, vegetables and fruits, 
 that could not endure the heat of the plains 
 wheat, strawberries, and potatoes being readily 
 produced. Bangalore has connected with it many 
 associations of historic interest. While the 
 French and English were fighting in the Carnatic, 
 Hyder Ali had risen from a subordinate position to 
 the command of the army of Mysore ; and by 
 subjugating the Nairs of Malabar, and taking pos- 
 session of several small tracts of land in Southern 
 India, he had established a principality for him- 
 self. While at the head of the Mysorean army, 
 Hyder had received from his sovereign the 
 j Off hire or fief of Bangalore, from which to sup- 
 port himself while taking care of his master's 
 forces. This able and unscrupulous man, who 
 soon dethroned his sovereign to establish a dynasty 
 of his own, strongly fortified Bangalore, and made 
 it one of his chief strongholds. The fort is in 
 the shape of an oval, about a mile in circumference, 
 and surrounded by a deep ditch. By both Hyder 
 and his son Tippoo, it was deemed almost impreg- 
 nable, but did not prove strong enough to hold
 
 Bangalore. 139 
 
 out against the cannonade of British artillerists ; 
 and in 1791, being stormed by the English troops, 
 under Lord Oornwallis, it was carried with terrible 
 slaughter. It has since been held by the English, 
 and is now the principal health-station for the 
 army belonging to the Madras Presidency, espec- 
 ially adapted to this purpose by Hie salubrious cli- 
 mate and accessible position. English regiments, 
 after being quartered for several years in Madras, 
 Tanjore, Trichinopoly or other stations on the 
 plains, are transferred to Bangalore, and after 
 remaining there a year or two, give place to others, 
 needing a similar change. The barracks at Banga- 
 lore are ample for the accommodation of many 
 regiments of cavalry and infantry : and there are 
 pretty bungalows, surrounded by gardens, as 
 quarters for the officers. On the spacious parade- 
 ground the troops are daily exercised, and their 
 presence greatly enlivens the pretty town in its 
 serial elevation of three thousand feet above the 
 sea. The town of Bangalore is quite distinct 
 from the fort, and contains about a hundred 
 thousand inhabitants, some sixty thousand of 
 wKora are Canarese, and live within the mud- 
 walls of the town, and about forty thousand are
 
 140 Political Divisions. 
 
 Tamil people, living in a separate quarter, and 
 deriving their support mainly from the army. A 
 good road over a hilly country leads westward to 
 Seringapatarn, which likewise is rife with scenes 
 that suggest to the student of Indian history 
 thoughts of armed hosts and bloody encounters 
 between Mussulman and British troops, of victory 
 and defeat, with all their train of horrors, engulf- 
 ing the innocent with the guilty, and flooding the 
 land with desolation and ruin. After the capture 
 of Bangalore, in 1791, Lord Cornwallis advanced 
 upon Seringapatarn, and after capturing the hill- 
 forts between the two cities, he attacked Tippoo 
 Sahib by night, defeating him, with terrible 
 loss. Compelled to retire within his stronghold, 
 and threatened by a further advance of the Eng- 
 lish, the haughty Sultan was compelled to make 
 peace, with the surrender of half his territory. 
 But war was recommenced in 1799, and in May 
 an English force looked down from the neighbor- 
 ing heights on the water-girt fortress of Seringa- 
 patam. The English forces were led by General 
 Baird, who had himself been a prisoner within 
 the dungeons of " The city of Sri-Runga ; " and 
 here the blood-thirsty Tippoo met his fate. Sally-
 
 Death of Tippoo Sahib 141 
 
 ing out, with his usual bravery, to meet the victors, 
 when the place had been carried by storm, Tippoo 
 fell, pierced by two musket balls. An English 
 soldier not knowing who he was, and desirous to 
 possess himself of the gleaming jewels that sur- 
 rounded the Sultan's waist, attempted to unclasp 
 the girdle ; but the prince still held his sword in 
 his stiffening hand, and with it, he struck a blow, 
 his last, that severely wounded the soldier. The 
 latter, frenzied with pain and indignation shot the 
 dying man through the head, and thus perished 
 one of the greatest tyrants that ever lived. His 
 very name is synonymous with " tiger ; " and he 
 is reported to have said, that he would " rather 
 live two days as a tiger, than a hundred days as a 
 sheep." Possessed of a cruel, rapacious spirit, he 
 seems to have delighted in scenes of blood, and to 
 have found his supreme happiness in pursuing to 
 the death Christian and Pagan, Anglo-Saxon and 
 native Indian. Two magnificent tombs in the 
 beautiful Lai Bagh, " Red Garden," mark the last 
 resting-place of Hyder Ali and his son Tippoo 
 Sahib names spoken only with abhorence, even 
 by their own people, whom they alienated by injus- 
 tice and cruelty.
 
 142 Political Divisions. 
 
 The state of Cochin covers an area of one thous- 
 and three hundred and sixty square miles, with a 
 population of six hundred thousand. It is in a 
 subsidiary alliance with the British Government, 
 and pays a tribute of $ 100,000 a year. The reign- 
 ing Rajah is of the Ks-chatrya caste, and is 
 descended from a Viceroy of the Chola Kings, 
 who ruled in the ninth century. He does not 
 speak English ; but is a thorough Sanscrit scholar, 
 and well acquainted with the native literature. 
 
 Arcot, as a state, has no longer any real existence, 
 though once of the greatest importance. The 
 present representatives of the former Nawabs, 
 reside in the city of Madras, fallen from their 
 high estate, in regard to power and wealth, but 
 highly exalted by their virtues and intellectual 
 graces in the esteem of both natives and Euro- 
 peans. A pamphlet was published a few years 
 ago in Madras, setting forth their claims to con- 
 sideration, and giving, besides their genealogy, 
 such matters as notes from former governors ask- 
 ing them to breakfast, or acknowledging a supply 
 of dishes from their table. The father of the 
 present Prince, sent to Queen Victoria, in 1860, a 
 poem written by himself, congratulating Her
 
 Travancore. 143 
 
 Majesty on the accession of her new sovereignty 
 as " Empress of India ; " and closing with the 
 words : " Through the favor of the Most Holy 
 Jesus Christ, may this assumption of rule prove 
 auspicious to you ; and may your dominions last 
 till the resurrection.'' 
 
 The Rajah of Travancore, despite his Observatory 
 and his attainments in science, is a Hindu of the 
 Hindus, and of the strictest sect regarding all 
 national observances. 
 
 His fair domain is said to be one of the few 
 states that have always been under Hindu rule, 
 and governed by Hindu laws ; but the laws 
 framed in 1490 were remodelled in 1811. The 
 succession is in the female line, that is, the Rajah 
 is succeeded by the son of his daughter. Various 
 conjectures have arisen as to the cause of so 
 strange a law, of which, however, very little is 
 really known ; for these Tambarettes, or Heredi- 
 tary Queens of Travancore are, to us at least, 
 " Purdah women " in the fullest sense, of whom 
 the bare mention is about all that has come down 
 to us ; except that single romance of the young 
 Englishman with whom the queen " fell in love," 
 and who, declining to marry her, she sent away
 
 144 Political Divisions. 
 
 in 1685, loaded with costly gifts ; and even this 
 solitary story is half unwritten, for as to whence 
 the hero came, why he so persistently declined 
 this royal alliance, how he left, and whither he 
 went, we have no information Orine, the histo- 
 rian of British India, is reported to have been 
 born in Anjenga, farther north on this coast; as 
 was also Mrs. Elizabeth Draper, Sterne's " Eliza." 
 The Maharajahs of Vizianagram claim descent 
 from the Ranas of Oodeypore, the most illustrious 
 Rajput family in India, whose ancestors conquered 
 Oudh, at a very remote period, and one of whose 
 more recent progenitors, at the modest date A. D. 
 519, conquered more than two-thirds of the 
 present Madras Presidency, and established a 
 dynasty that reigned over the land for nine 
 hundred and twenty years. A chief of Viziana- 
 gram built the present fort in 1712, and enjoyed 
 great power under Aurungzebe. In 1756, when 
 M. Bussy moved into the Circars, the Rajah joined 
 him with ten thousand men. There were five of 
 these Circars, that together constituted an old 
 division of the Presidency of Madras, but have, of 
 late years, been distributed among the British 
 districts of Guntoor, Masulipatan, and others.
 
 Madras. 145 
 
 After various successes and disasters the French 
 were driven out, and overtures were made to the 
 English, who, as usual, were quite willing to step 
 into the possession of so goodly a land. In Sep- 
 tember, 1758, Lord Clive sent Colonel Ford with 
 a considerable force to aid the chief in a general 
 buccaneering expedition, in which it was stipulated 
 that the plunder should be equally divided, and 
 that conquered countries should be delivered to 
 the Rajah, who was to collect the revenues, and 
 pay fifty thousand rupees a month towards the 
 expenses of the troops. The following year, the 
 chief died without issue, and one of his wives 
 " performed suttee." Then followed trouble about 
 the succession, and the land was torn by civil dis- 
 cord ; but in 1765 the Emperor Shah Alum bestowed 
 four of these Circars upon the British East India 
 Company, as a free gift ; and Guntoor, the fifth, 
 came into possession of the Company in 1788. 
 They have since been held by the English, as con- 
 stituent portions of the Presidency of Madras. 
 
 Cananore, a seaport town in the province of 
 
 Malabar, is a town of great antiquity. It was 
 
 taken in 1501 by the Portuguese, who fortified it, 
 
 but were expelled by the Dutch in 1664. The 
 
 H. I. 10
 
 146 Political Divisions. 
 
 Dutch sold it to a native Mohammedan family, the 
 head of which, under the title of Beebee, professed 
 absolute authority over it, with a small adjacent 
 territory and the Laccadive Islands, till 1791, 
 when it became tributary to the English. 
 
 They have strengthened the fort and provided 
 accommodations for three or four regiments of 
 soldiers, and it is now the principal military 
 station in the province of Malabar. 
 
 Fifteen miles from Arcot is Vellore, a well- 
 fortified town, that was, for centuries, a stronghold 
 of the chieftains of Southern India. The ditch 
 that encircles the fort is filled with water from 
 the Palar River, and infested with swarms of 
 alligators, that serve as an invincible guard, none 
 daring to venture through the moat, lest these 
 scaly monsters should enfold them in too loving 
 an embrace. Vellore is famous for a fearful 
 tragedy enacted there in the year 1806. The 
 sons of Tippoo had been kept, after the fall of 
 their father's kingdom, in a sort of easy confine- 
 ment within this fort. The Mohammedans who, 
 with the overthrow of Tippoo's dynasty, lost their 
 own power and influence, felt aggrieved by the 
 imprisonment of the princes, and when to this
 
 THE PALACE OF THE SETHS, AJMEBE.
 
 A Seapoy Butchery. 149 
 
 source of trouble was added another, in respect to 
 some new regulations of the dress of Seapoy 
 soldiers, a general insurrection of the Seapoys 
 against the English troops was forthwith inaugu- 
 rated. In the still hour of the night, two battal- 
 ions of native soldiers surrounded the barracks of 
 the English, and poured in upon the sleeping 
 soldiers a plentiful discharge of musketry through 
 every door and window. Simultaneously with 
 this movement, the sentries, guard, and inmates 
 of the hospital were cruelly assassinated ; the 
 armed Seapoys rushing in upon their defenceless 
 victims, shooting down every one who attempted 
 to escape, and committing all manner of atrocities, 
 till, as they supposed, not one of the garrison was 
 left. But one fugitive had in some way eluded 
 their vigilance, and making all speed to Arcot, 
 told the fearful tale of the butchery of his com- 
 rades. No time was lost in dispatching a regi- 
 ment of British dragoons to the scene of the 
 frightful massacre, who, eager to avenge the mur- 
 der of their compatriots, charged through the 
 unguarded gates of the fort, and cut down, with- 
 out mercy, the mutineers, who had been so 
 engrossed with their deeds of blood and rapine as
 
 150 Political Divisions. 
 
 to have neglected all means of defence. Six 
 hundred were thus slain on the spot, and two 
 hundred more dragged from the concealments to 
 which they had fled and shot -without mercy. 
 The sons of Tippoo were shortly after removed to 
 Calcutta, and placed in durance, at a distance from 
 their father's former rule and friends, where their 
 presence was less likely to incite revolt. 
 
 The city of Madras, the capital of the Presi- 
 dency, lies upon the eastern coast, thirteen degrees 
 north of the equator. It stretches for several 
 miles along the shore of the Bay of Bengal, upon 
 a flat, sandy plain, raised but a few feet above the 
 level of the sea. The old walled city is known as 
 the " Black Town," from its being densely popu- 
 lated by Hindus. On the southern side, the large, 
 strong fort of St. George is built into the wall, 
 and gives a very commanding appearance from the 
 sea-board. Around this central town and fort is 
 the esplanade an unoccupied, beautifully level 
 space, seven hundred yards wide, and stretching 
 entirely around the fort. This esplanade prevents 
 the approach of an enemy under cover. The 
 rapidly increasing population of this portion of 
 the city, finding no room within the walls, has
 
 Founding Madras. 151 
 
 spread in a continuous semi-circle of suburbs 
 'beyond the esplanade and around the old town. 
 The residences of the English are without the 
 city, and almost entirely in the district south of 
 the fort. It was in the year 1639, just two hun- 
 dred and forty years ago, that the Rajah of 
 Chandgherry, a petty prince of the interior, 
 granted to a company of English merchants a 
 spot of .ground upon which to build a fort, and 
 factories. This was Madras, then only a small 
 village inhabited by a few fishermen and their 
 families ; and this was the nucleus about which 
 has gathered, with the lapse of years, the present 
 city of more than eight hundred thousand inhabi- 
 tants the great and growing metropolis of the 
 British possessions in Southern India. The 
 proud native princes who once held court here, 
 and looked with contempt upon the handful of 
 foreign merchants who had sought their shores for 
 purposes of trade, have passed away and been for- 
 gotten, and their descendants live upon pensions 
 granted them by the English rulers of the domains 
 of their ancestors ; while the little English colony, 
 with constantly increasing numbers, and wealth, 
 and influence, have turned their fort into a walled
 
 152 . Political Divisions. 
 
 town, the centre of widely-extended possessions, 
 and are able to dispense protection and favor, 
 where once they sought it. 
 
 Mount Road is the favorite evening drive of the 
 foreign residents of Madras. It leads from the 
 city to Mount St. Thome, the reputed burial- 
 place of the Apostle Thomas, and a holy place of 
 the Roman Catholics of India. It is an excellent 
 road, constructed at great expense by the British 
 Government, and leads past many objects of 
 interest. The old fort, with its historic memories, 
 where in the arsenal are stored the keys of 
 Pondicherry and Carnatic fortresses, cannon that 
 belonged to some of Ryder's batteries, the arms of 
 Tippoo and famous chiefs and poligars of the 
 ancient time what echoes of the past they waken ! 
 A little farther on, is the colossal equestrian statue 
 of Sir Thomas Munro, a former very distinguished 
 governor of Madras. It is a bronze figure upon a 
 lofty pedestal of stone, and an admirable work of 
 art. After crossing a bridge over the Coom a 
 little river that passes through the city the 
 Government House comes in view ; a large, half- 
 Oriental, half-European palace, with verandahs 
 and Venetian blinds protecting each story from
 
 The Government House. 153 
 
 the glaring sun of this tropical clime, and sur- 
 rounded by a spacious park, where are herds of 
 beautiful, gentle antelopes grazing beneath the 
 trees. This is one of the large handsome establish- 
 ments provided for the governor of Madras. It 
 contains elegant reception-rooms, the great ban- 
 queting-hall where the Prince of Wales was 
 entertained in that State Banquet of fifty covers, 
 to which the chief personages of the city and 
 Presidency of Madras were invited, and given by 
 the Duke of Buckingham in honor of the Prince's 
 visit ; elegant library and private sitting-rooms, 
 boudoirs, etc., all fitted in exquisite style, but 
 very different from dwellings of the same grade 
 in England or America. The rooms, as in nearly 
 all Anglo-Indian residences, are larger, the ceilings 
 higher, the windows broader and more numerous, 
 and all shaded by Venetian blinds. Rich lace 
 hangings take the place of silk ; there is neither 
 mantle nor furnace-register, not even a chimney to 
 the house, and in every room there are great 
 hand-punkahs, that are kept in constant motion to 
 cool the heated atmosphere by their lateral sway- 
 ing to and fro. Then there are at the Govern- 
 ment House in Madras, and in all the other
 
 154 Political Divisions. 
 
 Indian capitals where the English have either a 
 Governor or a " Resident," sentries at the gates 
 and the doors, and liveried servants everywhere, 
 in great numbers, with costumes specially adapted 
 to the country a sort of compromise between 
 India and England ; tasteful in many respects, but 
 startling nevertheless to unaccustomed eyes. Take 
 as an example the liveries of the Prince of Wales' 
 personal attendants at Bombay. Mr. Russell says : 
 
 " Besides the Governor's servants in their fine 
 turbans and robes, there were in attendance a 
 small battalion of those engaged for the Prince, 
 in ne\v liveries of the native fashion a flat, 
 white head-dress, with a broad band of gold lace 
 running diagonally from the scarlet top to the 
 side, scarlet surcoats buttoned to the throat, richly 
 embroidered with gold lace, and the Prince's 
 plumes in silver on the breast, laced on the sleeves, 
 edged with gold lace, and confined by rich cum- 
 mer-bunds ; but ' desinit in piscem ' * the glit- 
 tering personages, so fine above, wore thin white 
 trousers, and went barefooted." 
 
 After Government House is passed, then comes 
 the stores of jewellers, silk-mercers, milliners, con- 
 fectioners, and many other tradesmen. They are 
 
 This is a reference to the words of Horace, in allusion to incongruity, or bad 
 taste, Desinit in piscent mulier formosa suferna. A woman beautiful above, 
 ends in the tail of a fish.
 
 Street Sights in Madras. 157 
 
 usually large, handsome establishments, standing 
 in large " compounds," and are kept either by 
 Englishmen or Eurasians, (mixed breeds of Eng- 
 lish and Indian parentage) ; but men always. 
 Sales-women are not in vogue in the East, except 
 among the lower class of native dealers in the 
 bazaars, and even there they are not numerous. The 
 dwellings of European residents are still farther 
 out. They are, for the most part, superb mansions, 
 stuccoed and pillared in elegant style, combining 
 the height and grandeur of the best class of Eng- 
 lish residences, with the porticos, terraces, and 
 Venetians of the Orient ; a fair index of Anglo- 
 Indian life, combining the luxuries of two hemi- 
 spheres, and grafting the furniture, equipage, dress, 
 table-fashions, meats and wines of Europe upon 
 the stock of Indian ease, sensuousness, and intense 
 love of the beautiful in nature and art. 
 
 All along the streets, in both the old and new 
 towns, strange sights, costumes and incidents are 
 everywhere visible. Women and girls with huge 
 baskets gather ordure to be mixed with straw, and 
 dried in round balls for fuel. Grass-cutters are 
 coming in from the country, each with a bundle of 
 grass on his head, a day's supply for the one horse
 
 158 Political Divisions. 
 
 each man or woman tends. Dhobies (washer-mew), 
 with enormous bundles of clothes that they are 
 taking to some of the numerous tanks on the sub- 
 urbs to wash by beating them against the rocks, 
 plod heavily along, almost reeling beneath their 
 ponderous loads. A couple of peons or native 
 policeman, tall, fine-looking men in red turbans and 
 wide, Moorish pantaloons, walk by with stately 
 step, and keen, watchful eyes, as if ever on the 
 alert. Countrymen and travellers from other 
 towns pass loiteringly along gazing at every new 
 sight, and Coolies with great boxes on their heads, 
 or three in company, pulling an awkward, lumber- 
 ing, two-wheeled cart, piled with fruits and provis- 
 ions, stop to deliver parcels at the various houses 
 on the road. But these are not the only vehicles 
 to be seen on the mountain road. At early morn- 
 ing, before the sun is up, nearly all Europeans 
 go out to inhale the pleasant morning breeze ; and 
 in the evening, just before dark, everybody goes 
 out for a drive along the esplanade or mountain 
 road. English officers of rank roll along in their 
 phaetons, with liveried coachman and footman, and 
 a syce (groom) running beside each horse. Ladies, 
 in full dress, recline among silken cushions in their
 
 The English in Madras. 159 
 
 light pony palanquins, while a syce runs by the 
 pony's head, with an arm thrown over his neck, 
 arid a footman runs before crying out to pedes- 
 trians to clear the way. Others, perhaps a lady 
 and gentleman, or a family of parents and children, 
 fair-haired, blue-eyed English children, looking 
 very lovely among the crowd of swarthy natives, 
 will be taking their airing in an elegant silver- 
 mounted barouche behind a pair of superb Eng- 
 lish " trotters," the entire turnout a genuine im- 
 portation, unmistakably English in its substantial 
 make, strikingly in contrast with the lighter 
 palanquins and small ponies generally seen in 
 Indian cities. Young men, clerks, and people of 
 modest pretensions are driven in buggies and 
 pony palanquins, but the groom does not sit by his 
 master's side, nor at all, but runs at the horse's 
 head, holding on to the animal's mane. Occasion- 
 ally a strange-looking vehicle with a pyramidal 
 top, drawn by a pair of bullocks, and known as a 
 " bandy " passes in the crowd, its Hindu occupant 
 seated a la oriental upon a cushion laid flat on the 
 floor, while the driver, sitting at his master's feet, 
 urges on the bullocks by cries and kicks, varied 
 by an occasional vigorous twist of the animals'
 
 160 Political Divisions. 
 
 tails. Other bandies of more stylish construction 
 with gilded domes and silken curtains, and drawn 
 by pairs of pure white oxen, contain Hindu 
 ladies, only their bright eyes or jewelled noses vis- 
 ible from behind their silken screens, as they peer 
 wistfully out to catch a glimpse of the active 
 world, of which they know so little. There are 
 tiny little vehicles drawn by stunted red bullocks, 
 looking almost as diminutive as Newfoundland 
 dogs ; and perhaps only a few steps off a huge 
 elephant, loaded with camp equipage, or carrying a 
 howdah, in which a couple of sailors are enjoying 
 the novelty of their first elephant ride, as the huge 
 animal brings down his ponderous feet with a jolt, 
 that to our sailors is far more uneasy than their 
 ship's motions during a furious " nor' wester." 
 
 Madras is rich in educational institutions, among 
 which are a Medical College, School of Arts, 
 Engineering College, Harris School for Moham- 
 medans, Doveton College for Eurasians, Govern- 
 ment Normal School, Government Madrissa School 
 for Mohammedans, Military Female Orphan Asy- 
 lum, Hindu Schools for boys, Hindu Schools for 
 girls, Convent School, Free Church Schools, Scot- 
 tish Orphanage, Bishop's School, London Mission
 
 Schools of Madras. 161 
 
 Schools, Church Mission Schools for boys, and 
 for girls, Wesleyan Schools, Three Schools main- 
 tained by the Rajah of Vizianagram, Female Nor- 
 mal Schools, Hindu Proprietary, and two other 
 schools under purely native management, and 
 perhaps some others. 
 
 The Madras Museum is a valuable institution, in 
 which the educated natives are said to take much 
 interest. 
 
 The Agri-Horticultural Gardens are delightful, 
 and abound in wonderful specimens of plants and 
 animals, with some gigantic and curious specimens 
 of forest growth. 
 
 In many respects Madras is esteemed the very 
 queen of the Indian capitals ; and the whole city 
 wears an aspect of refinement, intelligence, and 
 growing prosperity. 
 
 H. I 11
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 PRESIDENCY OF BOMBAY. 
 
 THE Presidency of Bombay comprises a strip 
 of territory about nine hundred miles in 
 length, extending from the northern limit of 
 Scinde to the kingdom of Mysore on the south, 
 along more than two-thirds of the west coast of 
 Hindustan. Its greatest breadth is two hundred 
 and fifty miles. The Presidency contains twenty- 
 two districts apportioned among three Commis- 
 sioners, i.e., Scinde on the north, and the northern 
 and southern divisions of Bombay proper, in 
 which are included Ahmedabad, Kaira, Surat, 
 Broach, Bombay Island, Darwar, Candeish, Tauna 
 or North Concon, Rutnagherry or South Concon, 
 Poonah, Ahmednuggnr, and Canara. The large 
 
 feudatory states of Cutch and Guzerat, the chiefs 
 
 162
 
 Climate and Products. 165 
 
 of which are subject merely to British supervision, 
 intervene between Scinde and the northern and 
 southern divisions. The coast-line is about a thous- 
 and and fifty miles in length. In regard to soil, 
 there is a great diversity in the several regions. 
 That of Scinde comprises the low, level basin of 
 the Indus, where strips of exceedingly fertile land 
 alternate with deserts ; the two Concons form a 
 hilly region lying between the Western Ghauts 
 and the Arabian Sea ; the eastward slope of the 
 Western Ghauts forming the lovely, elevated table- 
 lands, enjoy an almost perennial verdure ; while 
 around the Gulf of Cambay the land is flat and 
 alluvial. There exists an equal variation in regard 
 to climate that of Scinde being sultry and dry, 
 with only a light rainfall ; in the Concons the heat 
 is as great as in Scinde, but the fall of rain is 
 much greater. The average annual temperature 
 of Bombay Island is about 80, and the rainfall 
 averages eighty inches per annum, while on the 
 Ghauts table-lands the climate is temperate and 
 salubrious. The vegetable products are cotton 
 and rice on the coast; sugar and indigo in Can- 
 deish ; wheat, barley, hemp and tobacco in Scinde, 
 and opium in the native states of Malwa and
 
 166 Presidency of Bombay. 
 
 Guzerat. Merchants who wish to send their opium 
 to the city of Bombay need to obtain permits 
 from the government, by whom it is purchased at 
 a certain price per chest j and the producers dare 
 not dispose of it elsewhere. Considerable quan- 
 tities of silk are raised, and there are silk manufac- 
 tories in some of the towns. The system of land 
 taxes in Bombay was very carefully arranged 
 before being put into operation, about twenty 
 years ago. There has been a survey and assess- 
 ment of all the lands ; and the fields have been 
 mapped and marked by permanent objects, the re- 
 moval of which is a penal offence. They are 
 classified for assessment with reference to soil, 
 climate, and proximity to market, and with very 
 few exceptions the land is held directly from the 
 government. When the rate of taxation was 
 fixed, it was equal to one-half the yearly value of 
 the land ; but in consequence of the general im- 
 provement of the lands, the proportion now is said 
 to be somewhat less. The land revenue is reported 
 as yielding a larger sum per capita than in any 
 other section of India. There are now very 
 nearly two thousand miles of railway in this Pres- 
 idency ; and the city of Bombay has the honor of
 
 168 Presidency of Bombay. 
 
 having had the first railway in the East Indies. 
 It was opened between that city and Tanna, April 
 6, 1853. Bombay is now the terminus of the 
 " Bombay, Baroda, and Central India Railway," 
 and of the great " Indian Peninsular Railway," as 
 well as of the steamship lines from England. 
 There is also telegraphic communication with Cal- 
 cutta, opened in 1854, and with Falrnouth, Eng- 
 land, opened 1870, by means of cables, via Aden, 
 Malta, and Gibraltar. 
 
 There are about three hundred schools in the 
 Presidency, with an attendance of about fourteen 
 thousand pupils ; five-sixths of whom are in- 
 structed in the native languages, and only one- 
 sixth in English. The Island of Bombay is one of 
 an important group that have planted themselves 
 before the estuary or wide mouth of the river 
 Oolas, seeming thereby to form a sort of delta. 
 The island, which was the first possession in India 
 ever acquired by the English, is eight miles long, 
 and about twenty miles in circumference. Shortly 
 before the marriage of Charles II. of England 
 with the Infanta Catharine of Portugal, this island 
 was conveyed to the crown of England, as part of 
 the dowry of that princess. About seven years
 
 170 Presidency of Bombay. 
 
 later the king transferred it to the East India 
 Company, who held it at an annual rental of ten 
 pounds sterling, until 1858, when the home gov- 
 ernment assumed direct control of all the British 
 East India possessions. The old town is called the 
 Kila or " Fort," and occupies the southern extrem- 
 ity of the island, facing the wide beautiful harbor. 
 To call it a " fort " is, however, something of a 
 misnomer, for there is much beside the citadel 
 within those walls ; and one meets here, at least in 
 times of peace, much more of the din of trade 
 and the hurry and bustle of commercial life than 
 of the cannon's roar, or the murderous array of 
 battle. The visitor enters, it is true, by a fortified 
 gate, and there are veritable ramparts and a strong 
 fortress well manned by native troops with Euro- 
 pean officers ; but there is a great deal else within 
 the walls of the so-called "Fort." There are 
 splendid docks, immense warehouses, a fine arse- 
 nal, and those famous cotton presses, with whole 
 mountains of the " raw material," waiting to be 
 baled and shipped to China or Europe. Higher 
 up toward the centre of the fort, and round an 
 immense square are the Banks, the Town Hall, the 
 Mint, and all the great commercial houses of the
 
 Bombay. 171 
 
 city. In a word, all that represents the enormous 
 wealth and world-wide commerce of this great, 
 busy city. But never a dwelling ! It is a stu- 
 pendous business mart : but neither native nor 
 European lives there. Going to the Fort at even 
 an hour after sunrise, one finds the long, narrow, 
 dirty streets without sign of life, save for the 
 measured tread of the peon (policeman) on duty. 
 But by half-past nine or ten o'clock the appearance 
 changes utterly ; doors are thrown open, the busy 
 hum of voices and the rumble of wheels are heard 
 everywhere, and the wide, beautiful esplanade is 
 lined with carriages from which step forth mer- 
 chants and their numerous employees, (every 
 clerk has his own palanquin, and no Europeans 
 walk in India) ; bank officers with their clerks, buy- 
 ers, sellers, jobbers, inspectors and idlers. Every- 
 body turns toward the Fort, the grand centre of 
 attraction during all the business hours of the 
 day ; but deserted again at 4 p. M., when every 
 carriage is re-occupied and rolls away as it came, 
 with its living freight ; white-robed natives, pro- 
 tected by huge umbrellas, file out with dignified 
 serenity, and again the grand business mart, lately 
 so full of life and activity, is left in silence and
 
 172 Presidency of Bombay. 
 
 solitude as complete as that of a city of the dead, 
 until once more resurrected by the " ten bells " 
 of the morning hour that wake the sleeping city 
 to new life and activity. For residence, each 
 nation has its separate "quarter," where national 
 habits and social proclivities maybe indulged with- 
 out danger of offending the prejudices of others. 
 Nearer than any other race to the business portion 
 of the city, reside the Parsees and Bhoras, two 
 eminently mercantile races, who live always at 
 their places of business, preferring to sacrifice the 
 pleasures and comforts of residence in other more 
 eligible sections in order to larger success in trade. 
 The Parsee Bazaar of Bombay is a long, winding 
 street, lined with tall, handsome, capacious man- 
 sions. Their first floor composed of substantial, 
 but rather gloomy-looking stalls, is devoted to 
 business purposes, whilst the upper stories, with 
 their broad wooden balconies painted in bright 
 colors, and numerous windows carved and orna- 
 mented, form dwelling-places of luxury and 
 elegance, despite their unfashionable location. 
 Many of these Parsee dwellings are furnished in 
 princely style, with gorgeous silk and lace hang- 
 ings, Persian carpets, exquisitely-inlaid satin-lined
 
 174 Presidency of Bombay. 
 
 furniture, and incredible quantities of gold and 
 silver plate. The owners live like lords and enter- 
 tain in sumptuous style, though shrewd financiers 
 and indefatigable traders during business hours. 
 Some Europeans reside at Colaba, a long, 
 narrow promontory at the extreme end of the 
 island to the south of the Fort. Lying between 
 the port and Back Bay, it possesses one of the 
 most salubrious climates on the island. It has 
 also excellent roads and lovely gardens laid out 
 all around the spacious, elegant bungalows that 
 form the favorite residences of wealthy merchants 
 and others in this section. These bungalows are 
 constructed on a plan specially suited to a tropical 
 climate. Being built on raised terraces of brick- 
 work, they are kept perfectly dry and free from 
 the deleterious miasma produced by the abundant 
 vegetation of ,the tropics ; the roof of very thick 
 attap-leaved thatch laid on double, secures cool- 
 ness far better than tiles or slate ; and the broad 
 verandahs on all sides protect the walls from the 
 heat of the sun, while the Venetian blinds from 
 floor to ceiling may be thrown wide open at night 
 to admit the refreshing breezes no longer freighted 
 with torrid heat. Other residents, preferring more
 
 Bombay. 175 
 
 stately mansions occupy large stone-faced dwell- 
 ings with porticoes and marble columns, in Euro- 
 pean style, that serve to give variety to the land- 
 scape'. On the extremity of the promontory are 
 built the English Barracks, so well spoken of for 
 their commodious arrangement and admirable 
 adaptation to a warm climate ; and still beyond is 
 the Colaba Light House that commands the en- 
 trance to the harbor, with her clear light plainly 
 visible for thirty miles from the shore. On the 
 northern side of the Fort and the beautiful Maidan 
 or esplanade that runs along the sea-beach in 
 front of the fort, is the " Black Town," so called 
 by Europeans, because only natives reside there. 
 All the streets that traverse this great, crowded 
 town are broad and long ; the bazaar streets are 
 bordered by small booths, the flooring of which 
 being raised several feet above the side-walk, 
 serves as a counter upon which to display the mul- 
 titudinous wares here offered for sale. The houses 
 that skirt the bazaars are of boards or brick, and 
 usually three or four stories high, with porticoes, 
 carved fronts, and pillars painted in bright colors, 
 giving a quaint appearance, not altogether un- 
 pleasing. The ground floor of many of the houses
 
 176 Presidency of Bombay. 
 
 forms the workshops of artisans, where, in gloomy 
 little dens, multitudes of half-naked workmen 
 busily ply their respective crafts, producing by the 
 aid of only the most primitive tools those marvels 
 in ebony, silver and ivory of such world-wide 
 reputation, as well as arabesques and mosaics in 
 multitudinous forms, that sell in Europe for fabu- 
 lous prices. Among the most interesting features 
 of the bazaars, two especially attract the European 
 strangers. The first is the great number of races 
 found here, characterized by such infinite diversity 
 of form, feature and costume ; and the second is 
 the wonderful Arab horse-market, where probably 
 more first-class horses are offered for sale than in 
 any other single mart in the world. The great 
 number and variety of foreign races found here 
 is due first, to Bombay's being the port of arrival 
 for emigrants from Persia, Arabia, and Africa, and 
 the point of departure for pilgrims bourd to Mecca 
 and Karbala ; and second to the immense foreign 
 trade of this great shipping city, that supplies the 
 products of Europe, Arabia, and Northern Africa 
 to at least two-thirds of India. It is worth a trip 
 across the ocean to study some of these faces, so 
 full of majestic repose and serene dignity ; and
 
 H. I. 12
 
 178 Presidency of Bombay. 
 
 even their varied costumes are worthy of inspec- 
 tion, as indices of national character and habits. 
 Here are .Persians or " Parsees " in their tall caps, 
 noting down every arrival, or discussing prices ; 
 Arabs, robed as their countrymen were in the days 
 when Joseph was carried a slave, into Egypt ; 
 stout specimens of humanity from Guzerat, each 
 with fine muslin enough to manufacture half a 
 dozen " suits," twisted in pyramidal form about 
 his shapely head, and dubbed a " turban ; " the 
 Bunniah of Cutch, whose keen black eyes gleam 
 nearly as brightly as the cornelians he is " sort- 
 ing" with evident pride; companies of blue- 
 turbaned men of Cabul, whose chief business in 
 life seems to be the perpetual munching of dates ; 
 Bedouins always, however otherwise emplo}'ed, 
 solacing themselves with the long " hubble bub- 
 bles " that are at once their joy and pride ; stately 
 Gentoos, comely and graceful, in flowing robes of 
 pure white muslin; and the filthy Hindu fakir, 
 hideous in his nakedness and deformity ; the 
 lordly Rajputs from the North, sporting their jew- 
 elled weapons, and the busy Badagas of Southern 
 India, offering for sale the small crops cultivated 
 On. their hill-side farms ; the courteous Chinese,
 
 Bombay. 179 
 
 always gentlemen, under whatever disguise of 
 poverty or provocation : the grave Burmese, the 
 cunning Malay, the stately Moor, with his insepa- 
 rable companion, the gold-mounted hookah, and 
 the smoke rising ever in graceful wreaths about 
 his turbaned head; all these, and scores of others, 
 a busy multitude, gathered it would seem, from 
 every point of the compass; and all eagerly intent 
 upon trading off his own wares at the highest 
 price, and putting down those of his neighbor to 
 the lowest. And their speech, what a veritable 
 Babel it is ! Who can be the listeners ? for they 
 all seem talking at once, and each a different lan- 
 guage. Confused and confounded, the bewildered 
 tourist turns with a sense of relief to the horses, 
 upon whose magnificent proportions he may feast 
 his eyes, without imagining that they are all ad- 
 dressing him in some unknown tongue, to which it 
 is as impossible for him to reply, as it is clearly his 
 duty to do so. So he looks on, thankful that 
 horses do not talk. 
 
 There are pure-blooded Arabs from Djowfet and 
 Nedjed, lovely, graceful creatures, with long, silky 
 manes, and eyes tender as a gazelle's; Persian 
 breeds of the most approved standard, noble ani-
 
 180 Presidency of Bombay. 
 
 mals with arched neck and fiery eye, and every 
 curve a line of symmetry and beauty ; superb 
 English trotters, and shaggy Shetlands. He must 
 be fastidious indeed whose equine desires cannot 
 be gratified in such an assortment as this, where 
 are obtained regularly all the magnificent horses 
 displayed daily on the esplanade, so noted for its 
 suberb "turnouts" on the fashionable drive. 
 Prices range from fifty dollars, to thousands ; but 
 all lower by at least a hundred per cent, than the 
 same horses would be in Europe or America; 
 many a horse being sold here for $1.500 that 
 would bring readily $3,000, in the home market. 
 
 In the "Black Town" of Bombay, are several 
 large Hindu Temples, and one noted Mohamme- 
 dan Mosque, the Jumma Musjid all handsome 
 edifices, worthy of inspection ; but of far more 
 interest to strangers is the great Jain Hospital for 
 Animals, the largest and most complete establish- 
 ment of the sort in India. This hospital is located 
 in the centre of the most densely populated 
 quarter of the Black Town. It is supported by 
 contributions from the most wealthy members oi 
 the Jain Fraternity; and here are received and 
 comfortably maintained, all sick, helpless, and de-
 
 182 Presidency of Bombay. 
 
 formed animals of every species, the nursing and 
 attendance being continued until they either die or 
 recover. Just inside the gate is a large court, 
 surrounded by sheds, where are kept only oxen 
 and cows, as these animals being regarded as sacred 
 by the Hindus, receive "the first care, and a hall or 
 area exclusively their own. In the next court are 
 disabled horses, and in another, dogs, cats and 
 monkeys. Some sheep and goats also find an 
 asylum here ; and yet, farther on, are birds, fowls, 
 insects, and even reptiles ; each class having a 
 quarter distinct from the others, where the peculiar 
 wants and habits of every individual inmate are, 
 as far as possible, provided for. Some of the 
 animals have bandages over their eyes ; others, 
 who are in a lame or helpless condition, are 
 frequently rubbed down by the attendants; and 
 both food and water are .placed within reach of 
 the lame or paralyzed. All are constantly supplied 
 with clean straw, with water in abundance, and 
 with every facility for comfort and cleanliness, 
 and are fed, bathed, and dosed when necessary, 
 with the same gentle care and tenderness that are 
 bestowed upon human beings. Bald monkeys, 
 and superannuated crows and vultures are no
 
 An Asylum for Beasts. 183 
 
 uncommon sights in this paradise of the brute 
 creation : and occasionally is found there, even a 
 wooden leg supplying the place of the original 
 member. 
 
 Oriental nations are proverbially kind to dumb 
 animals, even beggars often sharing their scanty 
 meals with stranger brutes that happen to pass 
 them when eating. The religion of both Buddhists 
 and Brahminists especially enjoins this care for 
 the well-being of dumb animals; but the Ja'ins, 
 even more than other sects, cherish for all animal 
 life this kindly regard; not content with never 
 harming a dumb creature, but rigidly inculcating 
 the obligation to protect the lives, alleviate the 
 sufferings, and supply the needs, so far as possible, 
 of every living thing, large or small. There can 
 be no question that to this injunction in regard to 
 the care of brute creatures is due the very great 
 numbers of wild beasts and noxious reptiles found 
 in every part of India, and the fearful depredations 
 they are constantly committing. Suffered for 
 ages to roam unharmed through these dense Indian 
 jungles, enjoying perfect immunity from danger, 
 they have gone on multiplying and increasing till, 
 in some regions, they seem likely to become the
 
 184 Presidency of Bombay. 
 
 lords paramount of the country. Of late years, 
 the English Government in India have put forth 
 most energetic efforts for the destruction of tigers, 
 offering a reward of from fifty to one hundred 
 rupees tor every one killed ; but so little impres- 
 sion has yet been made on the immense herds of 
 these ferocious animals, that hundreds of children 
 are annually carried off by them. In 1877, the 
 number reached, I think, nearly four hundred in 
 India alone. 
 
 The European and Mussulman Cemeteries, and 
 the Cremation Grounds of the Hindus, have all 
 their location outside the Black Town, reaching 
 toward the sea-beach, where the surging waves 
 sing a perpetual requiem well suited to the 
 solitary grandeur of this tropical city of the dead. 
 
 Farther on, toward Chowpatti, Malabar Hill, 
 the aristocratic quarter of Bombay is reached. 
 It is a hilly promontory, larger than Colaba, and 
 contains many princely dwellings, surrounded by 
 the choicest shrubbery and rare old forests of 
 venerable trees. Among the cultivated trees are 
 found the .gigantic Baobab, several varieties of the 
 Chinese Pine, quaint, dwarfed and knotted in every 
 conceivable form ; and most beautiful of all, the
 
 186 Presidency of Bombay. 
 
 "Gold of Mohur Acacia," with its gleaming 
 sprays and clusters of golden blooms glancing out 
 from among the emerald leaves. 
 
 The Governor's house is built on the summit 
 of a steep declivity at the extremity of the 
 island, and commands a noble view of the sea. 
 This is no longer the constant residence of the 
 Governor of Bombay; but being regarded as the 
 most salubrious portion of the island, it is always 
 resorted to, in times of fever or other epidemics. 
 The ordinary residence is the Parell Government 
 House, where the Prince of Wales was entertained 
 on his recent tour. 
 
 On the western coast of the Malabar promon- 
 tory is the village of Walkeshwar, diminutive 
 enough in size, but withal one of the most sacred 
 places in India. The Brahmins relate a legend 
 that has for its hero the god Rama, who, while on 
 a warlike expedition to Lunka, used to receive 
 every night, through the good offices of a geni, 
 "an emblem," whereby he was able to continue 
 his devotions to Siva. But on one occasion, when 
 the emblem had failed to appear, Rama, with his 
 hand, scooped up a little sand from the seashore, 
 and fashioned an idol. The spot whence the sand
 
 Walkeshwar. 187 
 
 was dug at once became a deep pool, that is still 
 in existence ; and a village springing up around 
 this wonderful idol, was called Walkeshwar, i. e., 
 " The god of the sands." The pool is situated in 
 the centre of a spacious square, completely sur- 
 rounded by temples ; while the water, fifty yards 
 below the level, is reached by flights of stone 
 steps, that are always thronged by crowds 
 of men and women, anxiously pressing for- 
 ward to reach the brink of the sacred pool. 
 Some kneel on the steps in contemplation ; others 
 plunge in, or sprinkle their bodies with the holy 
 water ; and all are repeating prayers and passages 
 of the sacred books. Brahmins, and devotees of 
 various orders, ask alms, and parade their religious 
 creeds, while soine of the followers of Krishna, 
 under his most shameful form, elbow their way 
 through the crowd, clothed in characteristic garb, 
 ready .for the perpetration of the most infamous 
 vices. The temples that surround the pool are of 
 great antiquity, and their columns are covered 
 with graceful sculptures. The spires, too, are of 
 wondrous beauty, but the effect is injured by their 
 diminutive size. Beyond Walkeshwar, on the 
 highest point of the road that passes along the
 
 188 Presidency of Bombay. 
 
 crest of Malabar Hill, is the " Tower of Silence," 
 where the Parsees deposit their dead ; * and beyond 
 the hill to the northward is Bycullah, another 
 great suburb of Bombay, marshy, gloomy and in- 
 salubrious, but densely populated by Parsees, half- 
 castes, and the poorest class of Europeans. 
 
 In the rear of Bycullah rise the hills of Maza- 
 gon, a quaint sort of Portuguese settlement, where 
 many descendants of the old colonists have taken 
 up their abode, and intermarrying with the natives 
 of the country, their manners, religion, dress and 
 appearance have become largely modified thereby. 
 Yet they retain the name of Portuguese Christians. 
 Their very peculiar dress is of the European order, 
 with none of the Asiatic grace or adaptation to 
 climate. Their especial mania seems to be for the 
 black silk hat, a specimen of which, though in 
 ever so dilapidated a condition, often lacking both 
 nap and brim, must be worn by every man of 
 them. 
 
 The soil of this portion of the island is ex- 
 tremely fertile ; and trees, shrubs and every kind 
 of vegetation is of the rankest growth. The 
 climate is correspondingly unhealthy, and amid the 
 
 As elsewhere explained under the head of "Ceremonies for the Dead."
 
 JUGGLERS. (See page 156).
 
 Bombay. 191 
 
 thick jungly growth, venomous serpents and 
 snakes of many varieties abound, often lying hid- 
 den within the petals of the brightest and most 
 beauteous flowers. 
 
 At the very extremity of Mazagon, is the 
 superb palace of Sir Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy, who 
 was the wealthiest Parsee merchant in Bombay, 
 and the first East Indian who ever received knight- 
 hood at the hands of a British Sovereign. The 
 palace is built in pure Gothic style, and was be- 
 queathed by Sir Jamsetjee, at his death, to the 
 city of Bombay, to be used as a hospital for the 
 sick of all nations without distinction of race or 
 creed. In front of this palace hospital the Eng- 
 lish have erected a handsome statue of the noble 
 donor, to perpetuate the memory of this munifi- 
 cent charity. 
 
 These various " quarters " and " suburbs " to- 
 gether constitute the noble city of Bombay, which 
 contains a population of eight hundred thousand, 
 of whom eight thousand are Europeans, thirty 
 thousand Parsees, one hundred and twenty thous- 
 and Mohammedans, and the residue of vari- 
 ous Hindu races. Prominent among the in- 
 stitutions of the city is the " Royal Asiatic
 
 192 Presidency of Bombay. 
 
 Society," devoted to the promotion of Oriental 
 learning. 
 
 During the years 1863-1865, when the late 
 civil war in our country was at its height, events 
 occurred in Bombay that raised that city to the 
 very summit of commercial prosperity ; but, only 
 to plunge her into the depths of a great commer- 
 cial crisis, from which she has even yet scarcely 
 recovered. By the disturbed state of affairs in the 
 United States, Europe was for the time deprived 
 of the cotton that was the one element most nec- 
 essary to her industrial existence ; and India had, 
 by most noteworthy efforts, been able to step into 
 the place thus made vacant. She was already pre- 
 pared to supply in good degree the means of 
 feeding the cotton manufactories of the world ; 
 and Bombay merchants, seizing upon the great 
 commercial advantages afforded by their city, had 
 attracted to it the entire trade in India cottons, 
 making themselves the sole arbiters of this impor- 
 tant branch of Indian trade. Even before this, 
 the trade of Bombay had been enormous; and 
 now that she had suddenly become the emporium 
 of all the cotton of India, the elation of her many 
 rich capitalists led them into the wildest specula-
 
 Cotton Speculation. 193 
 
 tions. Deeming the reconstruction of the United 
 States an impossibility, they prophesied for their 
 city a future of commercial eclat that no combi- 
 nation of circumstances could possibly reverse. 
 All sorts of speculations were entered upon, all 
 available funds invested, and the entire com- 
 munity were drawn into the wild schemes, in 
 which each saw for himself untold wealth and 
 the most encouraging openings for future opera- 
 tions. Gigantic companies were formed to develop 
 resources that had already reached their utmost 
 capacity for development. Projects were set on 
 foot to enlarge the Bombay Island, by reclaiming 
 from the sea the region known as " Back Bay ; " 
 many new Banks were formed ; and not only mer- 
 chants, but officers, public functionaries, even 
 ladies, and subordinates on small pay all were 
 drawn into the vortex, expecting to realize fabu- 
 lous fortunes; when, with the news of General 
 Lee's surrender, and the establishment of peace, 
 a crash came, and wide-spread ruin fell upon all the 
 speculators. The strongest houses shared the fate 
 of the rest, and even the Bank of Bombay was 
 compelled temporarily to suspend. The exalta- 
 tion had been unprecedently rapid, and the fall 
 H. I.-13
 
 194 Presidency of Bombay. 
 
 was sudden and terrible. But a lesson of pru- 
 dence was learned, and now, with firmer footing, 
 and broader and deeper foundations, the queenly 
 city of Bombay once again begins her onward 
 career as the commercial metropolis of India. 
 
 Surat, the name of which signifies "the good 
 city," is one of the most ancient ports of Western 
 India. The high, thick walls that form the ram- 
 parts of the city are still called Alampanah, 
 which means, "Protector of the Land," though 
 they look too dilapidated to be very much of a 
 safeguard. They are, however, strengthened by 
 numerous round towers, and form a circuit of 
 about six miles. It is a busy, enterprising town, 
 whose people seem not inclined to be idle. The 
 bazaars abound in beautiful and costly wares, 
 especially the various vessels and ornaments of 
 wrought iron, inlaid with gold and silver, for 
 which Surat is noted, the art having come down 
 to her from a remote antiquity. The city is 
 beautifully situated at the mouth of the majestic 
 Taptee, with every facility for a large trade. 
 
 Broach, about sixty miles north of Surat, has 
 long been famous for its Chandi Musjid, " Silver 
 Mosque." It contains the mausoleums of the
 
 Callian. 195 
 
 Nawabs ; and one of them, being covered with 
 plates of silver, has given name to the edifice. 
 Many of the other sarcophagi are of white marble, 
 beautifully carved, and are placed beneath superb 
 canopies of embroidered velvet. 
 
 Callian, the ancient capital of Concon, was long 
 one of the first commercial ports on the west of 
 India ; and tradition has brought down even to 
 our own day marvellous accounts of the wealth 
 and splendor it attained under the Solauki dynasty. 
 Its palaces and monuments furnished themes for 
 poets and novelists ; and a writer in the " Ratan 
 Mala," a famous Hindu poem of the seventh 
 century, thus immortalizes the grand old metropo- 
 lis : " The sun alternately passes six months of 
 the year in the north, and six months in the 
 south, for the sole purpose of being able to com- 
 pare the marvellous capital of Ceylon with the 
 superb city of Callian." It now, however, retains 
 little trace of the royal grandeur of its palmy 
 days, save in the ruins of ancient temples and 
 palaces; its present position being that of an Eng- 
 lish provincial town, with the ordinary routine of 
 " reduced " greatness. But all around the sub- 
 urbs, half-hidden by sand and jungle-grass, lie
 
 196 Presidency of Bombay. 
 
 fragments of columns of exquisite beauty, curi- 
 ously-carved lintels, bas-reliefs, and sculptures in 
 endless variety, where may be read the mournful 
 story of the past. These ruins, furnish material 
 enough to enrich half a dozen " collections " of 
 Hindu antiquities, or form the basis of a museum. 
 The grand old temple of Ambernath grand 
 and magnificent even in ruins cannot fail to in- 
 terest with its minute and exquisitely-wrought 
 sculptures, all executed with a delicacy of touch 
 and a lavishness of adornment unknown among 
 other races. 
 
 Poonah, situated upon the banks of the Moota, 
 stands in the centre of a broad plain that stretches 
 out, almost treeless, to the blue mountains of Sattara. 
 It was once the capital of the Southern Mahratta 
 country, and the residence of the Peishwahs, 
 though it now belongs to the English, and is in- 
 cluded in the Bombay Presidency. The town is 
 still essentially native in its character and sur- 
 roundings, a very large proportion of the inhab- 
 itants being Hindus; and the streets swarming 
 with well-fed Brahmins, and half-naked religious 
 devotees who live by charity the former, neatly- 
 clothed impersonations of self-satisfied ease ; and
 
 Poonah. 197 
 
 the latter, filthy and repulsive to the last extreme. 
 Through the streets roam unmolested, as in every 
 native Indian town, multitudes of sacred oxen, 
 that, as representatives of deity, are permitted to 
 enter the bazaars and shops, eat at the stalls, and 
 even to block up the streets, if they feel so inclined. 
 The town is divided into seven quarters, called 
 after the seven days of the week ; and the houses, 
 standing in the midst of pretty gardens, are built 
 in the picturesque Hindu style, with tiled roofs, 
 wooden gables, and panels painted in bright colors, 
 representing flowers and animals, with various 
 mythological figures and scenes. Several palaces 
 still remain ; among them a summer residence of 
 the Peishwahs, in the immediate vicinity of the 
 celebrated Hira Baugh^ " Garden of Diamonds." 
 In the Boudhwa, or Wednesday quarter, there are 
 many ancient houses, formerly occupied by nobles 
 of the Peish\vah r s court ; and castle-like abodes 
 with thick walls, Icop-holed windows, and great 
 ponderous doors, that remind one of the feudal 
 castles of Europe of the fourteenth and fifteenth 
 centuries. Very few of these ancient dwellings 
 are now occupied, for though many wealthy 
 Mahrattas return here to enjoy the riches accu-
 
 198 Presidency of Bombay. 
 
 mulated elsewhere, they, as a rule, prefer the 
 more modern and cheerful-looking mansions with 
 which the town abounds. Among the celebrities 
 of Poonah, is the famous temple of Parvati> which 
 gives name to the lovely hill that overlooks the 
 Hira Baugh. A flight of handsome steps leads 
 from the Peishwah's summer pavilion up to the 
 front of this temple, on the very summit. The 
 temple contains several exquisite statuettes of 
 Parvati ; but that which attracts most admiration 
 is a massive silver image of Siva, holding on his 
 knees the statues of his wife and child, Parvati 
 and the young Ganesa, executed in pure gold. 
 Large, costly sapphires form the eyes of these 
 famous images, and their altars are piled perpetu- 
 ally with the richest oblations. 
 
 At the junction of the Moota and Moola rivers, 
 is the Sangam, where the Hindus burn their dead. 
 There are also, on the banks of both rivers, numer- 
 ous small kiosks or pleasure-houses, and many 
 stately cenotaphs, designed to perpetuate the 
 memory of departed great ones, though their 
 ashes do not repose beneath the monuments. 
 These kiosks are, nearly every evening, the scenes 
 of mirth, music, and feasting ; inappropriate as to
 
 NATIVE OF MADRAS.
 
 200 Presidency of Bombay. 
 
 us seems the locality, under the very shadow of the 
 memorials of the dead. This is quite in accord 
 with the creed of the Hindu, who takes no gloomy 
 view of death, but regards this change of worlds not 
 as a cessation of being, but merely a passage from 
 one state ol existence to another, one of the many, 
 perhaps thousands of the lives to be lived ere his 
 destiny is completed ; and as each successive turn 
 of the wheel opens before him the vista of another 
 change, whether for better or for worse, he knows 
 not, and does not trouble himself to inquire. 
 
 The English Government House at Poonah is 
 the stately palace of Granesh Khind. It is an 
 imposing, marble structure, with a noble tower, 
 and is built on a commanding site, with a magnifi- 
 cent view of the varied Deccan scenery, and sur- 
 rounded by gardens and conservatories worthy of 
 an imperial palace. It was erected by Sir Bartle 
 Frere, while Governor of Bombay, at a cost of 
 $875,000. This was deemed by the English 
 Home Government an extravagant outlay, espe- 
 cially as Poonah is not the head-quarters of his 
 Excellency, but only an outside station which he 
 visits occasionally. The erection of this superb 
 marble palace was, at the time, quoted by Mr.
 
 ';" . ; ": v,s-is ; ;c?v--- 
 ;...;- .' ; , ; ' " '^^ 
 
 YOUNG HINDOO WOMAN.
 
 202 Presidency of Bombay. 
 
 Fawcett in the House, as " a t} r pical instance of 
 the extravagance and insubordination of the gov- 
 ernors of Bombay." To which implied censure 
 Sir Bartle Frere replied, that he had built a very fine 
 dwelling for future governors, that would be more 
 regularly occupied than that at Bombay had ever 
 been ; that he acted within his legal powers, and 
 was not insubordinate, and that he had not, when 
 he retired from the Government of Bomba}', ex- 
 pended all the money at his disposal ; and lastly, 
 that Poonah would be thenceforth, de facto the cap- 
 ital of the Bombay Presidency.
 
 '''*' 
 
 ^^&g>' 
 
 <- . ^jn^jj^ v 
 ;^^;.7{\V '^^>S
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 PROVINCES AND PEOPLE. 
 
 CHITTAGONG is a district of British India 
 lying beyond the Ganges, but included in 
 the Presidency of Bengal. It is one hundred and 
 eighty -five miles long, and an average of sixty to 
 eighty in length. Its chief river, the Chittagong, 
 is formed by the junction of the Kurrumfoolee and 
 the Chingree, and discharges its waters into the 
 Bay of Bengal. A large portion of the surface is 
 covered by mountains, and there are several sum- 
 mits that range from four thousand to eight thous- 
 and feet above the sea-level. The soil of the 
 plains and valleys is very fertile, yielding readily, 
 with little labor, rice, oats, hemp, sugar, tobacco, 
 coffee, indigo, betel-nut, mustard and ginger. The 
 
 aboriginal inhabitants resemble the Burmese and 
 205
 
 206 Provinces and People. 
 
 Bengalese ; but at least two-thirds of them have 
 been proselyted to the Mohammedan faith. 
 
 Chittagong seems to have belonged originally to 
 Tiperah, and to have become a part of the king- 
 dom of Bengal early in the sixteenth century. 
 During the wars between the Monguls and 
 Afghans, Chittagong was held by Aracan ; but it 
 was captured by Aurungzebe about the close of 
 the seventeenth century. In 1760, it was ceded to 
 the East India Company by the nawab of Bengal, 
 and has since been under British control. 
 
 Chittagong or Islamabad, the capital, is situated 
 on and among a group of small and abrupt hills, 
 some of which form pleasant villa residences; 
 and command fine sea-views. The natives live 
 along the valleys, in small cottages of bamboo, 
 embowered in groves of fruit trees, with neat veg- 
 etable gardens spread out in the rear. Chittagong 
 was once a place of some importance in commerce 
 and ship-building, but it has declined rapidly in 
 consequence of the unhealthiness of the climate, 
 and its ship-building interests have been trans- 
 ferred to Maulmein, of the Tenasserim Provinces. 
 These Provinces were formerly sections of the 
 Burmese Empire, but were annexed to the Anglo'
 
 Aracan. 207 
 
 Indian possessions in 1826, and are now governed 
 by a Commissioner, with the usual staff of Euro- 
 pean and native officers, and they constitute one 
 of the ten political districts of British India, ex- 
 tending from the Bay of Bengal on the west, to 
 the Mountains of Siam on the east in length 
 about five hundred miles, with an average breadth 
 of fifty miles. The country is divided into three 
 provinces, Amherst, Tavoy and Mergui, with their 
 capital at Maulmein. 
 
 Aracan is a division of British India, including 
 the districts of Akyab, Sandoway, and Ramree. 
 It has an area of twenty-three thousand five hun- 
 dred square miles, and a population of about five 
 hundred thousand. The country abounds in hills, 
 with numerous intervening plains and valleys of 
 great fertility, counterbalanced by dense jungles, 
 and pestilential marshes that render most portions 
 of the country extremely unhealthy for Euro- 
 peans. Aracan is rich in salt, timber, coal, and 
 petroleum, and produces fine crops of rice and 
 tobacco. Rudimentary education is very generally 
 diffused, nearly all the people being able to read 
 and write. This country was conquered by the 
 Burmese in 1783, and by the British in 1824. Its
 
 208 Provinces and People. 
 
 capital is Akyab, pleasantly located, but with an 
 unhealthy climate that repels immigration ; and 
 the coast has few harbors to invite commerce. 
 
 Assam is a province of the Bengal Presidency, 
 lying between two mountain ranges, offshoots of 
 the Himalayas, in the north-eastern extremity of 
 Hindustan. It was once governed by a series 
 of kings, concerning whom little is known until 
 the seventeenth century, when the Mogul Em- 
 perors endeavored to annex this country to their 
 dominions. The Assamese bravely and successfully 
 repelled the invasion ; but from about that period 
 internal dissensions arose, and the country became 
 a prey to civil war, declining gradually in power 
 until 1770, when the British troops interfered in a 
 conspiracy against the Rajah, and annexed a por- 
 tion of the province as compensation for having 
 acted as umpires between the Rajah and his rebel- 
 lious subjects. During the war with Burmah, in 
 1826, the British took full possession and annexed 
 the whole of Assam to their Indian possessions, 
 for reasons that to themselves at least were fully 
 satisfactory. This entire country, between the 
 mountain ranges that enclose it on three sides, con- 
 sists of a long, level plain, studded occasionally
 
 Assam. 209 
 
 with small hills. It is watered by the Brahma- 
 putra and sixty smaller streams, so that Assam is 
 supposed to contain more rivers than any other 
 equal extent of territory in the world. The name 
 of the Brahmaputra is derived from two Sanscrit 
 words that mean " The Creator " and " The Son," 
 and these Assamese claim not only that their great 
 river is the special favorite of their gods, but also, 
 that they are themselves the chief people of the 
 earth, having derived their origin from the Hindu 
 god Indra, who presides over the atmosphere, and 
 to whom the other gods are subordinate. The soil 
 of Assam is fertile, and the climate one of the 
 pleasantest and most salubrious in India. The 
 country is rich in mineral products, consisting of 
 coal, iron, gold dust, and petroleum. The tea- 
 plant is indigenous here, and is extensively culti- 
 vated under the auspices of the English " Assam 
 Tea Company." The country has about eighteen 
 thousand acres of land under cultivation, planted 
 with tea-shrubs, that produce an excellent article, 
 very favorably known in commerce. Sugar, 
 tobacco and wheat are also grown ; and silk is 
 produced to a limited extent. The people are 
 
 small in stature, though lithe and active, and in 
 H. 114
 
 210 Provinces and People. 
 
 person resemble the Bengalese. They live in huts 
 made of mats and bamboo-poles, are rather indo- 
 lent in disposition, and lack energy, but are gener- 
 ally kind in their families and hospitable to 
 strangers. The prevailing religion is Brahminism, 
 but there are also many Mohammedans. 
 
 The Principality of Kishengurh is one of the 
 smallest independent states in Rajputana, and was 
 for a long time, part of the kingdom of Marwar. 
 In 1613, King Oudey Singh gave it as an appanage 
 to his son, Kishan Singh, who established himself 
 in the town that he called by his own name, and 
 which retains this cognomen still. When the 
 English began to interfere with the affairs of Raj- 
 putana, this little State at once acknowledged 
 their supremacy, and has since continued under 
 British protection. Kishengurh is enclosed by the 
 kingdoms of Marwar, Mey war, and Jeypore, and the 
 province of Ajmere. The sand from the neighbor- 
 ing desert has continued its encroachments, till it 
 now covers the entire surface to the depth of 
 several feet, rendering the land barren and worth- 
 less, except for a short period immediately after 
 the rains. But the country has valuable salt- 
 works and mines, that yield the Rajah an annual
 
 Kishengurh. 213 
 
 revenue of about $300,000, and also afford ample 
 employment to his subjects. The capital, a city 
 of about sixteen thousand inhabitants, is built on 
 a high hill, and overlooks the pretty, picturesque 
 Lake Gondola. It has a citadel on the very sum- 
 mit of the hill, with a double line of ramparts ; 
 and all the approaches to the town, even the 
 streets, are steep and precipitous enough to serve 
 as fortifications. Some portions of the ramparts 
 are one hundred and fifty feet high, and overlook 
 the country around. On one side is the town, 
 with its temples, palaces, and gardens radiant in 
 their ripe, floral beauty ; and on the other, is seen 
 the Lake dotted with tiny islands, from which 
 arise pretty, picturesque kiosks and pavilions of 
 ever varying forms. 
 
 The present Rajah Adhiraj Purtwee Singh, is a 
 noble specimen of the Rajput race, fine-looking, 
 dignified and self-contained, with fierce black eyes, 
 and the air of an emperor to the purple born. 
 
 Cashmere, lying in the extreme north-western 
 section of India, is almost enclosed by the ranges 
 of the Karakorum and Himalaya mountains that 
 separate it from Tartary, Thibet, and the British 
 districtsof Lahoul and Spiti. Its area is estimated
 
 214 Provinces and People. 
 
 at seven hundred and fifty thousand square miles, 
 and includes within its limits the celebrated vale 
 of Cashmere, the provinces of Jamoo, Balti, 
 Ladakh, Chamba, and some other portions of ter- 
 ritory. The " Valley of Cashmere," so often the 
 theme of poets and novelists, is of an irregular 
 oval form, shut in by lofty mountains that securely 
 shelter it from adverse breezes ; and though some 
 of the summits are crowned with perpetual snow, 
 the temperature of the valley is mild and equable, 
 and the climate salubrious. This valley is nearly 
 six thousand feet above the sea-level ; and the 
 alluvial plain that forms its bottom is seventy 
 miles long and forty broad. It may be entered by 
 many passes, eleven of which are practicable for 
 equestrians, and several for wheeled vehicles. The 
 highest, including the Pir Panjal, have an elevation 
 of twelve thousand feet. The Jhylum, a tributary 
 of the Indus, is the principal river, and flows 
 through the Baramula Pass, receiving many tribu- 
 taries from the mountains before reaching the 
 Punjaub. Scattered through the valley are sev- 
 eral small lakes, which serve abundantly to irrigate 
 the land, which is thus rendered fertile, and pro- 
 duces often from thirty to sixty fold. Rice is the
 
 The Vale of Cashmere. 215 
 
 great staple, and the common food of the country ; 
 but wheat, barley, maize, buckwheat and tobacco 
 are also cultivated, and esculent vegetables are 
 good and abundant. Among the fruits are those 
 common in temperate latitudes : apples, pears, 
 peaches, apricots, cherries, plums, grapes and pom- 
 egranates. Flowers of rare beauty and fragrance 
 abound, especially several varieties of Cashmerian 
 rose, the " Mohur," " Cloth of Gold," " Empress/' 
 and others, unsurpassed in the whole world for 
 delicacy of tint and rare perfume. The groves 
 of chunars, poplars and cedars, with which the 
 villages are adorned, were planted in the times of 
 the Mogul Emperors, by imperial edict, and still 
 flourish luxuriantly in this favored spot. The 
 Cashmerians stand preeminent among Indian races 
 for physical beauty. The men are tall, robust and 
 athletic, and the women of wondrous beauty of 
 form, and surpassing brilliancy of complexion. 
 They are an intelligent, educated people, fond of 
 poetry, and full of life and spirit ; but have the 
 reputation of being addicted to cunning and mi- 
 truthfulness. The capital is Serin aghur or Cash- 
 mere, and the other towns Islamabad, Shupeyon, 
 Pampur, and Sopur. The principal manufactures
 
 216 Provinces and People. 
 
 in addition to the famous Cashmere shawls, are 
 lacquered ware in great variety, paper, gun and 
 pistol barrels, and attar of rose. The wool for 
 the shawls comes originally from Tartary and 
 Thibet, but is bleached, spun and dyed in Cash- 
 mere. The weaving is done mainly in the houses 
 of the workmen, after patterns furnished them 
 with the material. Each loom produces four or 
 five shawls a year, of the medium grade ; but & 
 single shawl of the best quality and most intricate 
 pattern sometimes keeps four or five workmen 
 constantly busy for one or two years. The num- 
 ber of looms employed is estimated at about six- 
 teen thousand. The weavers are brought up to 
 the trade from infancy, and spend their whole lives 
 at the work, becoming constantly more expert. 
 Besides this, there have been in families certain se- 
 crets of skill in the weaving that are transmitted as 
 heirlooms, and not communicated to others. But it 
 is said that the brilliant tints, and some of the pecul 
 iar shades, are due to the water and atmosphere o 
 the country, and cannot be produced elsewhere 
 Handsome as are the French Cashmere shawl 
 manufactured in Paris, Lyons and other cities, the 
 very best are easily distinguished by experts, fronj
 
 Cashmere. 217 
 
 the genuine India article. The Maharajah of 
 Cashmere has full control of the exports of 
 shawls, sending through his own agents to various 
 European and Asiatic markets. 
 
 Cashmere was conquered by the Mogul Emperor, 
 Akbar, in 1587 ; by the Afghans in 1752 , and by 
 the Seikhs in 1819. It was, in 1846, included in 
 the territory transferred by the Seikhs to the Eng- 
 lish, under the treaty of Lahore, and was immedi- 
 ately sold by its new owners to Gholab Singh, for 
 the sum of $3,750,000 ; but, by the compact 
 between the Maharajah and the British Govern- 
 ment, the Rajah is to be assisted in defending his 
 territory against his enemies, and British supremacy 
 is to be acknowledged. Cashmere suffered from 
 an earthquake in 1828 that destroyed twelve hun- 
 dred of her people ; only two months later Asiatic 
 cholera carried off one hundred thousand in forty 
 days ; and in 1833, famine and pestilence com- 
 mitted still more frightful ravages. Famines that 
 have occurred during the past five years have 
 again made terrible havoc among the Cashmer- 
 ians until her population which, at the beginning 
 of the present century numbered eight hundred 
 thousand, has been reduced to less than half that
 
 218 Provinces and People. 
 
 number by these various casualties of pestilence, 
 famine and earthquake. 
 
 Afghanistan possesses almost every variety of 
 soil and climate ; upon the summits of the Hindu 
 Koorsh snow lies unbroken all the year round ; 
 European fruits and vegetables are grown on the 
 hill-side terraces seven hundred feet above the 
 sea-level, while on the sandy plains, dates and 
 other palms flourish luxuriantly ; and sugar, cotton 
 and rice are grown in the valleys. The country 
 abounds in mineral wealth. Its mines of iron, 
 copper, lead, salt, sulphur, saltpetre and alum 
 being especially rich. The two chief rivers are 
 the Helmund and Cabul ; and the four most im- 
 portant cities, Cabul the capital, Herat, Guzin and 
 Candahar. The Afghans are a brave, hardy race ; 
 in religion Sunnite Mohammedans, but very toler- 
 ant towards both Christians and Pagans. 
 
 It is only since the recent war with Afghanis- 
 tan that any portion of this great country could 
 be properly reckoned as a constituent of British 
 India. But since the English are to " control the 
 foreign relations of Afghanistan," and to " have as 
 granaries the great Kurrum and Khost Vallies," 
 besides holding other important territory, formerly
 
 Bundelcund, 219 
 
 belonging to the Afghans, some description of the 
 country comes properly within the scope of the 
 present work.* 
 
 Bundelcund is the mountainous region between 
 the Vindhy ah table-land and the Jumna, and from the 
 river Scinde on the northwest to the Tousa on 
 the east. The whole country is intersected with 
 small chains of mountains, and through the val- 
 leys flow small rivers, all of which fall into the 
 Jumna. The principal of these streams are the 
 Betowah, Dhesan and Cane. The northern por- 
 tion of Bundelcund contains well-watered and 
 thickly-populated plains, but the remainder is 
 
 * 
 
 almost unbroken forests, said to be the finest in 
 India. High above the- sea-level, well-watered and 
 near the tropics, they produce the best woods of 
 both Northern and Southern India ; the mhowa, 
 catechu, bur, tulip-wood, tamarind, teak, cedar, 
 and many others. Such is Buudelcund of the 
 present ; but the past, with its ruins of cities and 
 palaces, its vast dykes and templed hills, has also 
 a history. 
 
 Three centuries before our era this mountain 
 principality was a component of the Empire of 
 
 * Uriel details of ths history of Afghanistan will be found in chapter XXIV.
 
 220 Provinces and People. 
 
 Bindousara, and was nearly associated with Mag- 
 adda. Huang Tcheng, the great Chinese traveller 
 of the seventh century, describes a journey through 
 Bundelcund, then known as Janjavati, and a " pow- 
 erful and prosperous kingdom." During the 
 eighth century it was invaded by the Rajput tribes 
 of the Chandelaclan, who were in turn displaced 
 by the Chohans of Delhi, in the tenth century. 
 Then overrun by the Mussulman invasion, Bundel- 
 cund ceased to have a political existence, and 
 became a place of refuge for all the princes dispos- 
 sessed by the Tartars. Later, it was split up into 
 various small principalities, governed by bandit 
 chiefs, who lived by pillage and plunged the 
 country into ruin In the fourteenth century, 
 Hurdeo Singh, a Rajput prince of the Gurwha 
 tribe, was expelled from the Kshatriya caste for 
 marrying a Bourdi slave-girl, and left the Rajputs 
 to go and reside at the court of one of the smaller 
 sovereigns of Central India, where a young family 
 grew up around him. In process of time the 
 king's son became enamoured of Hurdeo's beauti- 
 ful daughter, and asked her in marriage of her 
 father. Hurdeo gave his consent, on condition 
 that the king and his whole court would be present
 
 HINDOO WOMEN OF BOMBAY IN CEREMONIAL DRESS. 221
 
 Assassination. 223 
 
 at a banquet to be prepared by Hurdeo's own 
 hand, thus forfeiting, as he himself had done, the 
 right to the rank Kshatriya. From affection for 
 his son the aged king consented to set aside his 
 scruples, and on the nuptial day all the court 
 were seated at the banquet around Hurdeo's 
 princely board. There, in magnificent goblets of 
 silver and gold, drinks containing opium were 
 served to the guests who, being thus deprived of 
 the power of resistance, fell an easy prey to 
 Hurdeo's hired assassins, who stood concealed, 
 each man armed with his weapon, behind the tap- 
 estry at the upper end of the hall. The Gurwha 
 having thus gained possession of this throne, soon 
 made himself master of all the surrounding 
 country; and, with his sons and the numerous ad- 
 herents he had enlisted in his cause, he formed a 
 new clan known thenceforward as the Bourdilas, 
 or " Sons of the Slave ; " thus giving the country 
 its present name of Boundilakund or Bundelcund. 
 The Bourdilas still claim to be Rajputs ; but the 
 other tribes of Rajesthan refuse to recognize them ; 
 and regarding them as outcasts, even on their own 
 showing, will have no association with them. 
 They seem to have retained the physical traits of
 
 224 Provinces and People. 
 
 their Rajput ancestor, and to have fallen heir to 
 the courage of his race ; but they inherit also the 
 cruelty and treachery of the founder of the Bour- 
 dilas clan, and " False as a Bourdila " has come to 
 be a proverb among the Rajputs. The other 
 Hindu races regard all the Bundelcund tribes as 
 of impure blood ; and this savage country has 
 gradually become the refuge of criminals and out- 
 casts. Even the Brahmin of Bundelcund eats 
 mutton and drinks intoxicating liquors, and the 
 land has become noted for its brigandism. It was 
 in these sombre forests that the horrible religion 
 of the Thugs was born ; upon its lofty table-lands, 
 formidable insurgents waged a terrible warfare 
 against the English troops, during the mutiny of 
 1857. The shocking butchery of Jhansie took place 
 within its borders ; and there Nena Saliib took 
 refuge after the massacre of Cawnpore. There, 
 too, for years flourished the Dacoits, a horde of 
 highway robbers and assassins, who readily affiliate 
 with the barbarism that isolates the mountain re- 
 gion of this wild country from the other portions 
 of India. This ancient principality has of late 
 years been divided by the English into the dis- 
 tricts of Bandah, Hummerpore, Culpee, Jaloon,
 
 THE FESTIVAL OF THE SERPENTS, BOMBAY. 
 
 . H. I 15
 
 226 Provinces and People. 
 
 Jaitpore, Churgaon and Gurota, besides a number 
 of native states and jaghires under petty Bourdilas 
 chiefs. The chief towns are Culpee, Bandah, 
 Jhansie, Chutturpore, Jaloon, Callinger. Into its 
 mountainous regions, and the portions under 
 native control, few travellers attempt to penetrate ; 
 and they are among the least known sections of 
 the Indian Empire. 
 
 Duttiah is the capital of a small kingdom of the 
 same name in the district of Bundelcund, nearly 
 midway on the route from Agra to Sarigor. The 
 State is under the protection of the English, has a 
 territory of about eight hundred and fifty square 
 miles, and a population of rather more than two 
 hundred thousand. The town occupies a lovely, 
 picturesque position among a whole belt of lakes, 
 hills and forests. Above the red-tiled roofs of its 
 residences rise the spires of many temples ; and 
 standing out conspicuously above all, are two huge 
 square buildings crowned with domes and towers, 
 and readily recognizable as the abode of royalty. 
 The town is surrounded by a thick wall, thirty- 
 seven feet high, based upon rock, and strength- 
 ened by round towers built into the wall, access 
 being gained by fortified gates, each of which has
 
 228 Provinces and People. 
 
 its guard-house this barricade, in times of peace, 
 being rendered necessary by the wild country 
 around. The most noticeable features of the 
 internal arrangements are the extreme cleanliness 
 and excellent condition of the streets, and the 
 many little running streams through the town. 
 The temples are numerous, of simple construction, 
 and somewhat peculiar form, consisting usually of 
 a square chapel, surmounted by a high steeple 
 flanked by four clock towers. Inside, there is even 
 greater simplicity : merely painted walls, an altar 
 unadorned, and the lingam of Iswara the mystic 
 emblem Siva. 
 
 The palace erected by Birsing Deo, is a square 
 of buildings, each side being three hundred feet 
 long, and nearly one hundred feet in height ; and 
 the pinnacle of the' central dome towers one hun- 
 dred and fifty feet above the level of the terrace. 
 The facade, four stories high, has magnificent bal- 
 conies of carved stone. The whole building is of 
 granite, and constructed upon a vaulted terrace, 
 the arches of which are forty feet high. The first 
 and second stories have no court-yard, but the 
 rooms of the third and fourth run around a ter- 
 race, while on a level with the second, in the
 
 Birsing-Deo. 229 
 
 middle of this court-yard rises a square tower 
 divided into four stories. This tower supports the 
 central dome, and contains the rooms designed 
 especially for the private apartments of the 
 king.* One can see in all these details the con- 
 
 O 
 
 stant fear of assassination under which these 
 Indian Princes live, even in times of peace, and 
 the wonderful ingenuity displayed in constructing 
 the means of warding off danger. Everything is 
 massive and strong, displaying the great genius of 
 King Birsing Deo, and the guilty fears that beset 
 the notorious Bourdilas, whose very name has 
 become legendary. The enormous proportions of 
 this feudal castle unfit it for ordinary occupancy, 
 especially for so small a court as that of Duttiah ; 
 but in case of a siege, quite a large garrison could 
 be accommodated here, and the king could remain 
 in his own special apartments with all his usual 
 belongings, and even his ordinary privacy, with 
 his own family about him, and surrounded on all 
 sides by his soldiers and guards, having thus the 
 security without the publicity of life in an ordi- 
 nary fort. 
 
 *See India and its Native Princes, p. 319, from which the above is con- 
 densed.
 
 230 Provinces and People. 
 
 On the south of the city is the palace in present 
 use a large, many-storied edifice, built in a 
 mixed style of architecture. In front of the pal- 
 ace is a reservoir, with u fine fountain, around 
 which eight sculptured elephants continually spout 
 forth copious streams of clear water. 
 
 The town has an excellent college, founded by 
 the present sovereign, giving instruction to a hun- 
 dred non-resident students in Persian, Oorchoo, 
 and English, besides the ordinary course in Hindus- 
 tanee. The Professors belong to the Benares 
 University ; and the college has the reputation of 
 being well-conducted, and the discipline excellent. 
 
 Six miles northwest of Duttiah, is Mount Son- 
 naghur, the " Golden Mount," a noted place of 
 pilgrimage for the Jains of Central India. Son- 
 naghur is the last of a small chain of hills, about 
 one hundred and fifty feet high, that rise out of a 
 vast plain. The hills form pyramids of huge 
 blocks of granite, some of which stand upright, 
 and are worshipped by the people as natural lin- 
 gams. A little village runs around the base of the 
 rock, but the sides and summits of every hill are 
 crowned with temples of picturesque beauty. 
 There are about eighty in all, some of which are
 
 PERSIANS IN BOMBAY.
 
 Dholepore. 233 
 
 supposed to date back to the thirteenth century, 
 and the most modern to the sixteenth. 
 
 From a distance the temples seem piled one 
 upon another, and some hanging, as it were, over 
 the precipice, while at other points the rocks seem 
 suspended above the temples and ready to fall and 
 crush them. The scene is all the more grand that 
 there is not a tree or shrub anywhere in the vicin- 
 ity nothing to break the solemn grandeur of the 
 imposing view. 
 
 The precise date of the founding of the native 
 state of Dholepore is uncertain ; though it is 
 known that during the ninth century a Rajput 
 Prince, named Dhaula, established himself on the 
 banks of the Chumbul and built a fortress that 
 was surrendered to Baber in 1526. 
 
 By the treaty of 1806, between the Maharajah 
 of Dholepore and the English, it was agreed that 
 the king should retain absolute authority over his 
 own territory, free from all right of intervention 
 on the part of the English. 
 
 Dholepore, the capital, has about forty thousand 
 inhabitants ; though from frequent inundations of 
 the river, and from the casualties of war, the city 
 has somewhat declined during the past few years.
 
 234 Provinces and People. 
 
 The city is about thirty-six miles from Agra. It 
 contains in addition to the Maharajah's palace, a 
 Mohammedan Mosque, and several temples that 
 are worthy of notice. The Mosque, erected by 
 Shah-Jehan in 1634, is built of red sandstone, and 
 of exquisite workmanship. It is surrounded by 
 an extensive Mussulman Cemetery, that contains 
 the Mausoleum, a very marvel of beauty, erected 
 in memory of a Sayud missionary. The sacred 
 lake of Muchkounder lies hidden among the moun- 
 tains about two miles from the town. According 
 to the legend, it was created by the god Krishna 
 to reward the hero Monchou, who had saved the 
 god's life, and for this reason is held in great ven- 
 eration by the Krishnayas. 
 
 The present Maharajah, who received the Prince 
 of Wales with such empressement, is spoken of as 
 "a charming boy, who speaks English well, and 
 delights in manly sports ; and became at once the 
 friend of the Prince, who took to him greatly." 
 He furnished a grand Sowaree on the occasion of 
 the Prince's visit, and a handsome dejeuner to the 
 Europeans. This is the young grandson of the 
 genial old prince, Maharajah Rana Bag wan Singh, 
 who entertained M. Rousselet and his suite so
 
 Rana Bagwan Singh. 235 
 
 kindly in 1866, and whom he describes as having a 
 gentle, manly expression of countenance, and as 
 wearing a steel helmet attached to a narrow circle 
 of gold, and covered with shining emeralds, while 
 from his breastplate depended " innumerable chains 
 composed of pearls and diamonds." * This much- 
 adorned prince was so highly esteemed by his 
 subjects, that they bestowed on him the appel- 
 lation of the " Friend of his people." 
 
 Leaving the town of Dholepore, before reaching 
 the extreme border of the state, Nourabad comes 
 in view, opposite to which an old Hindu bridge 
 spans the river Sauk. It is built of solid granite 
 supported by seven pointed arches, and is said to 
 have been erected in the sixteenth century by a 
 society of philanthropic beggars, who obtained the 
 money by selling consecrated oils from village to 
 village. Its name, Tali-ka-paul, " Bridge of Oil 
 merchants," seems to give confirmation to the 
 tradition. 
 
 Nourabad was, in the days of the Padishas, a 
 town of note and capital of one of the provinces 
 of North Malwar. The high walls, defended by 
 square towers and superb monumental gates, are 
 
 * Native Princes of India, page 297.
 
 236 Provinces and People. 
 
 still standing ; and it contains a palace built by 
 Aurungzebe and the Mausoleum of the celebrated 
 Gonna Begum, who was the author of the famous 
 " Taza-bi-Taza," and other poems of the last cent- 
 ury. 
 
 The English high-road from Dholepore crosses 
 the Chumbul by a bridge of boats into Gwalior, 
 the territory of the powerful Maharajah Scindia.
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 GWALIOK AND SCINDIA. 
 
 ANCIENT Gwalior had its fortress on the 
 summit of an isolated rock, three hundred 
 and forty feet high, two miles long, and three hun- 
 dred yards at its greatest breadth. The great 
 citadel stands as a sentinel at the entrance of the 
 valley, and tradition places the founding at several 
 centuries before our era. In 773, Rajah Sourya 
 Sena strengthened the fortress by constructing the 
 ramparts. The Kachwas held the fortress till 
 967 ; the Chohans to 1196, when it fell into the 
 hands of Shahib-u-din, and in 1234, into those of 
 the Emperor Altamsh. The Touar Rajputs be- 
 came its masters in 1410 ; in 1519, it was annexed 
 to the crown of Delhi, by Ibrahim Lodi ; and at 
 
 the dismemberment of the Mogul Empire it fell 
 
 237
 
 238 Grwalior and Scindia. 
 
 alternately into the hands of Jats and Mahrattas. 
 After 1779, it suffered various vicissitudes ; but 
 in 1805 it was restored to the Scindias by treaty. 
 Then followed half a century of comparative 
 peace, and the Fortress itself has remained in the 
 hands of its lawful owners. But in 1857, the 
 Maharajah Scindia refusing to aid in the Seapoy 
 mutiny, the fort was attacked by one of Nena 
 Sahib's detachments, and fell temporarily into 
 their hands ; but General Rose at once dislodged 
 the enemy by planting his batteries on the sur- 
 rounding heights. The attachment of Scindia to 
 the British came very near costing him his throne, 
 and he afterwards lost prestige among his own 
 people by the discovery and surrender of a sup- 
 positious Nena Sahib, heir in their eyes of the 
 Peishwa. Yet, under the pretext of protecting 
 the young Prince from future outbreaks of his re- 
 bellious subjects, the English have ever since 
 retained possession of the plateau. By the admis- 
 sion of the English themselves, there is no ques- 
 tion that Lord Canning promised, in 1859, to 
 restore it to its rightful lord ; but the plea of to- 
 day for the non-fulfilment of the pledge, is that 
 " Lord Canning did not promise to restore it at
 
 A PARSEE MERCHANT AT BOMBAY.
 
 Maharajah Scindia. 241 
 
 once, but only that the plateau should be 
 yielded up at some convenient season/' This 
 seems but shallow reasoning, if those on the in- 
 terested side are to be the sole judges of the con- 
 veniency. But they overcome all scruples by 
 maintaining that " it is very useful to Scindia to 
 have a British garrison where he can be protected 
 against the revolt of his own army and subjects." 
 The real solution of the enigma is no doubt that 
 the Maharajah Scindia is one of the cases that 
 present formidable difficulties in the way of the 
 Anglo-Indian Empire. The Prince delights in 
 soldiering, and good judges in the English army 
 say they have few men in their own service, " who 
 could put a Division of the three arms through a 
 good field-day so well as Scindia does." His 
 " Review," before the Prince of Wales, when, 
 robed in scarlet and gold he rode at the head of 
 a " truly brilliant staff," was pronounced " a grand 
 success ; " and so powerful a ruler, with these 
 martial tendencies, and abundant leisure for brood- 
 ing and planning, must be, in his devotion to 
 " drilling and maneuvering," more or less cause oi 
 anxiety to the " Paramount Power." The admin* 
 
 istration of the government in this State is greatly 
 H. I 16
 
 242 Grwalior and Scindia. 
 
 superior to that of the majority of Indian States, 
 owing largely, no doubt, to the wise counsels of 
 Sir Dinkur Rao, a dignified, courteous, far-seeing 
 statesman, who was at the helm of state during 
 the minority of the Prince; and probably in an 
 equal degree to the noble character of the present 
 Maharajah himself. This nobleness may be in- 
 ferred from his answer, when the Bombay Gov- 
 ernment desired to buy the site for the Palace of 
 Gunnesh Khind. ' A man," was the lordly reply, 
 "does not sell his patrimony, but lie can give it to 
 hisfrind." 
 
 The counsels of Sir Dinkur Rao may have had 
 an influence in Scindia's decision to withhold his 
 powerful aid from the rebels; and it is possible 
 that the Maharajah thus preserved the independ- 
 ence of his kingdom. It is almost certain that the 
 cause of the English was saved at a very critical 
 juncture by the course of Scindia and his Minister. 
 
 The English rewarded the service of the latter 
 by conferring on him the order of knighthood ; to 
 the former, it was repaid by the unjust retention 
 of his fort, which he lost solely by refusing to join 
 hands with the foes of England in the hour of her 
 extremest need. Despite all this, the Maharajah
 
 Town of G-walior. 243 
 
 Scindia maintains in his own realm a truly regal 
 sway, while he disports a genuine royalty that is of 
 himself and not of his surroundings. 
 
 The present town of Gwalior extends to the 
 north and east of the fortress between the Rock 
 and the river Sawunrika. It was a large and 
 handsome settlement with some thirty or forty 
 thousand inhabitants ; but the founding of a new 
 capital by the Scindias, two miles off, checked the 
 growth of Gwalior, and attracted not only the 
 nobility, but the higher classes of trade to the 
 court of Lashkar. The architecture of the houses 
 of Gwalior is good, but the streets are narrow, 
 and there is but one monument of an earlier date 
 than the sixteenth century. The two most noted 
 are the Jumma Musjid, a handsome mosque flanked 
 by two lofty minarets, and the Hatti Durwaza, 
 " Gate of Elephants," a curious, triumphal arch, 
 situated on a mound at the entrance of the town. 
 Hidden among the trees, at a short distance from 
 the fortress, is a large palace, the exterior of which 
 is adorned with bright blue enamel ; and its fine 
 monumental gates, still guarded with portcullis 
 and iron doors, defend the entrances to the fort- 
 ress. From one of these there is a superb tri-
 
 244 Grwalior and Scindia. 
 
 umphal arch; and there are monuments, bas- 
 reliefs, cisterns, and caverns, while the very rocks 
 contain chambers, altars, and statues innumerable. 
 Opposite the fourth gate there is a monolith, sup- 
 posed to date back to the fifteenth century, an 
 elegant temple cut out of a single block of stone, 
 and crowned with a superb pyramidal spire. The 
 " King Pal " Palace, with its six massive towers, 
 all adorned with balconies and pilasters, its Jain 
 arches and sculptured bands, its blue and rose 
 enamels, and exquisite mosaics, is a very wonder 
 of beauty and strength ; and standing on the 
 utmost verge of the precipice, a gigantic union of 
 rampart and palace. 
 
 The Scindias are of a powerful Mahratta family 
 of husbandmen, of the Sudra caste, of the prov- 
 ince of Satara. The first who carried arms and 
 rescued their name from obscurity was Ranaji 
 Scindia who, about the year 1725, went to the 
 court of Poonah, and obtained the important post 
 of slipper-bearer to the Peishwa. One day, while 
 the Peishwa was detained longer than usual, his 
 slipper-bearer fell asleep from very weariness of 
 waiting, and when, at the conclusion of the audi- 
 ence, the Peishwa looked for his slippers, he found
 
 A HINDOO TEMPLE IN THE BLACK TOWN, BOMBAY. 2 45
 
 The Sleepy Slipper-bearer. 247 
 
 Ranaji fast asleep with the slippers clasped tightly 
 to his bosom. The Peishwa was so touched with 
 this proof of devotion that he at once raised 
 Scindia to the highest office in his gift. Ranaji 
 had the wisdom and tact to profit by his good 
 fortune, and so to make use of his daily increasing 
 influence that he became ere long one of the 
 most popular leaders of the Mahratta troops ; and 
 at his death, he left a vast kingdom in the heart of 
 Malwa to his son Mahaji. At the terrible battle 
 of Paniput, 1761, Mahaji fell, wounded by an axe, 
 and was left among the dead. Ultimately, he was 
 picked up by a water-carrier and taken to the 
 Deccan ; and later, on his return to the court of 
 Poonah, Scindia was again entrusted with the 
 administration of the government. With true 
 patriotism he devoted himself to the public ser- 
 vice, using all the power he acquired for the benefit 
 of the country, respecting its institutions, and re- 
 jecting all overtures from the English, by whom 
 he was accredited as sovereign of Malwa and 
 Doab. His death occurring in 1794, he was suc- 
 ceeded by his nephew, Daolut Rao Scindia, an 
 energetic and promising youth of thirteen, who, with 
 consummate skill in the disposition of his forces,
 
 248 Gwalior and Scindia. 
 
 extended his dominion to the Punjaub ; and 
 having obtained possession of the person of the 
 Padisha, kept him in retirement, on a comfort- 
 able pension, while he himself replaced the deposed 
 sovereign. He was the determined foe of the 
 Anglo-Indian rule, and he put forth diligent 
 effort to transform his undisciplined troopers into 
 an army capable of contesting the advances of the 
 English. His expeditions into the Deccan having 
 brought him in contact with several French adven- 
 turers, the remnants of General Lattry's army, 
 their services were secured, and through their aid, 
 the Mahratta troops were rapidly re-organized and 
 fitted for effective service. For a time the Eng- 
 lish were often defeated by these well-organized 
 battalions of Mahrattas, "\vho were brave as lions, 
 and had only needed disciplined officers to guide 
 their movements to render them almost invincible. 
 But unfortunately for them, Perron, one of their 
 best officers, swayed by private interest, accepted 
 the overtures of Wellington (then Sir Arthur 
 Wellesley), and retired to private life with a 
 handsome fortune. Another, Bourquien, was 
 defeated at Delhi and made prisoner; and thus 
 deprived of the valuable aid of his officers, Daolut
 
 Scindia Conquered. 249 
 
 Rao was completely overpowered at the battle of 
 Lasswari in November 1803, and compelled to 
 negotiate for peace with the promise to dismiss all 
 his French officers, and never again to reinstate 
 them in his army. Other defeats following, in 
 1818, Scindia agreed to a final treaty of peace with 
 the English, whereby he relinquished his possession 
 of Delhi and the Padisha, and agreed to retire 
 with his forces beyond the Chumbul, and to allow 
 the English to form two camps of occupation 
 within his territory. Dankhaji, Daolut's successor, 
 dying in 1843, without issue, quarrels concerning 
 the succession followed, but by the intervention 
 of the English, after two hard-fought battles, the 
 nephew of Dankhaji was seated on the throne, 
 and the succession established in this branch of 
 the family. 
 
 The territories of Scindia now extend from the 
 Chumbul to the Satpura Mountains, an area of 
 about thirty-three thousand miles, including West- 
 ern Malwa, part of Bundelcund, of Haracouti, 
 and of Omultwara. The population is estimated 
 variously at from five to seven millions, but in the 
 absence of a regular census it is difficult to deter- 
 mine precisely the real number. The present
 
 250 Crwalior and Scindia. 
 
 capital is Gwaliorka Lashkar, or the "Camp of 
 Gwalior " - its name agreeing well with the 
 origin of this new' city. When Mahaji invaded 
 this portion of India he established his head- 
 quarters two miles from Gwalior, and wishing to 
 maintain his Mahrattas in active service, and to 
 prevent any intercourse between them and the 
 conquered people, he formed a permanent camp on 
 the spot where he himself lived under canvas 
 among his followers. This camp became his cap- 
 ital, whence his hordes of soldiers made plundering 
 tours over all the surrounding country, returning 
 occasionally to camp, where they remained during 
 the rains. Little by little the tents were replaced 
 by houses, where the soldiers lived surrounded by 
 their families, bazaars sprang up, the king's tent 
 was transformed into a royal palace, and the camp 
 became a town. Although still called " Lashkar," 
 it is one of the most splendid cities in India, with 
 a population of full three hundred thousand. 
 The fort is separated from the new capital by a 
 plain, bounded by a picturesque range of hills 
 consecrated to the monkey-god Hunouman, and 
 the entrance to the suburb of the Satti Ghati or 
 " Broken Mountain." The name seems to indicate
 
 An Indian Elysium. 253 
 
 the deep cut through the mountain that forms the 
 road between the suburb and the town. This 
 suburb is composed of the loveliest of Indian 
 villas, the summer residences of the nobles of 
 Scindia's court a perfect Elysium wreathed in 
 orange and myrtle, the air redolent with delicious 
 perfumes, and vocal with the sweet songs of a 
 thousand birds. The town contains the old palace 
 of the Scindias, a vast group of buildings in the 
 style of Digh; and the new palace built by the 
 present king, in a mixed style of Hindu and Ital- 
 ian architecture which is less pretty than the old ; 
 but within, everything is superbly beautiful, large, 
 airy, well-ventilated apartments, with sculptures, 
 frescoes and hangings, pictures, mirrors and furni- 
 ture faultless and exquisitely lovely. Upwards 
 of three hundred thousand leaves of gold were 
 used in decorating the reception-rooms; and the 
 grand dining-room, said to be one of the finest 
 saloons in the world, has chandeliers of wondrous 
 beauty and most unique design, and the walls are 
 lined with immense mirrors of exquisite workman- 
 ship. The bedstead, washing service, and bath of 
 the prince are all of solid silver, as are also all the 
 lamps of the private apartments.
 
 254 Owalior and Scindia. 
 
 The old palace of the kings of Gwalior covers 
 an immense area on the east of the plateau. It is 
 not the work of any one prince or dynasty, but has 
 been added to by each from the time of the six- 
 teenth century. 
 
 The temple of Adinath is an unusually fine 
 specimen of the old Jam architecture of the six- 
 teenth century, similar to the ancient sanctuaries 
 of Mount Aboo ; and many of the superb ara- 
 besques that adorn the pillars are cut in the pol- 
 ished stone with wonderful effect. 
 
 The great Cihara temple, standing in the centre 
 of the plateau, must have been Buddhist at the 
 first, as there is still discernible against the wall 
 in the large apartment on the ground floor the 
 outline of a gigantic statue of Buddha, showing 
 where it stood against the wall. It is probable, 
 however, that the Jains took possession of the 
 temple and devoted it to their own worship after 
 the expulsion of the Buddhists from India. From 
 this point extend the long line of English barracks 
 which, neat, orderly and well-kept as they unques- 
 tionably are, must be a terrible source of annoy- 
 ance to the Maharajah, and a perpetual reminder 
 of the broken faith of his allies. Possiblv these
 
 Attar of Hoses. 255 
 
 associations and the foundation upon which they 
 rest may account for the sad, far-away look of the 
 eyes, and the almost melancholy expression about 
 the whole face of this noble prince, giving the 
 features when in repose an older look than their 
 forty years would warrant. But it is a noble, 
 princely face withal, and replete, as is every gest- 
 ure and attitude, with a dignity truly royal. 
 
 The ceremony of attar and pan, that always 
 concludes an Indian " Durbar," i. e., a full-dress 
 reception given by a sovereign or personage of 
 exalted rank is, at this court performed with 
 more than the ordinary expenditure of royal mu- 
 nificence. Each guest receives a dainty handker- 
 chief of delicately embroidered India muslin, 
 which he places folded on the palm of his right 
 hand; then the Maharajah rises, and going for- 
 ward to each in turn, pours attar of roses on the 
 handkerchief, and presents the visitor with betel- 
 nut, cerie'-leaves and cardamoms ; at the same time 
 throwing about the neck a garland of jessamine or 
 tube roses fastened with a string of small pearls. 
 
 It is only to European visitors and to natives of 
 the very highest rank that an Indian Maharajah 
 performs this ceremony in person, while others of
 
 256 Crwalior and Scindia. 
 
 less exalted position are waited on by one of the 
 ministers. 
 
 A single example will suffice to show the method 
 of governing adopted by the native princes of 
 India in the olden times, before the advent of 
 British rule. Meywar is one of the grandest of 
 the native states, having for its capital, Oudey- 
 pore, " City of the Rising Sun," and for its sover- 
 eign the Maharana, who is the recognized repre- 
 sentative of the famous Indian " Race of the 
 Sun," and acknowledged by all the Rajput Princes 
 as the head of their nation. Yet, in this very 
 kingdom of Meywar there has always existed a 
 Feudal Council composed of sixteen Raos or 
 Dukes, whose influence and authority is so power- 
 ful as almost to nullify the kingly prerogative, or to 
 render the power of the sovereign little more than 
 nominal. These Raos, who are usually descend- 
 ants of the Royal family, have the kingdom divided 
 among themselves into large fiefs entirely inde- 
 pendent of each other, and, to a great extent, of 
 the general government. Each governs in his own 
 capital after his own will, rarely visiting Oudey- 
 pore and still more rarely referring any decision to 
 the Maharana not opposing his authority, but
 
 . I. 17 PARSEE LADY AND HER DAUGHTER
 
 A Feudal Council. 259 
 
 almost ignoring it. The chief of these Dukes or 
 Feudal Lords is the Rao of Baidlah who, govern- 
 ing a large territory and having his capital near to 
 Oudeypore, is a frequent visitor of the Maharana, 
 presenting himself at the court without previous 
 announcement, and without any humiliating cere- 
 mony, but always with dignity and deference to 
 the king. The present Rao, a fine-looking old 
 courtier, is both genial and politic, living on ex- 
 cellent terms with his Prince, and at the same 
 time maintaining kindly relations with the Eng- 
 lish Government. He very evidently favors the 
 introduction of European commerce and improve- 
 ments, but declines to abate one tittle of the 
 splendor or ancient routine of the court of Oudey- 
 pore, or one tittle of the deference due to his Sov- 
 ereign from the " outside world," or to the feudal 
 rights of the nobles. He is, nevertheless, in high 
 favor with Queen Victoria, who presented to him 
 a magnificent jewelled sword in return for the 
 protection and support he afforded to European 
 fugitives from Indore and Neemuch during the 
 mutiny of 1857. It was due mainly to his influ- 
 ence that they were protected in the little island 
 of Jugmunder, and for so many months were fur-
 
 260 Gf-walior and Scindia. 
 
 nished with all needed supplies at the expense of the 
 Oudeypore Government. He belongs to the tribe of 
 the Chohans, and enjoys several rather curious pre- 
 rogatives, the strangest of which is, that all the in- 
 signia of royalty are sent to him at Baidlah on the 
 third of the month of Samvatsiri, when, having 
 donned the regal paraphernalia, he goes in state, 
 attended with all the pomp and parade of a sover- 
 eign, to visit the Rana, who, in person receives the 
 illustrious guest at the door and conducts him 
 within. A few hours later, he comes forth, and 
 returns to his own feudal palace, personating no 
 longer the Rana, but once more occupying his own 
 position as Rao of Baidlah. 
 
 Most native prisons are clean, comfortable and 
 well-kept. The superintendent lives on the prem- 
 ises in a separate building ; and the prisoners are 
 lodged under great sheds, where they sleep on the 
 floor in lines of fifty or more. Their chains are 
 fastened at night to long iron bars that run the 
 entire length of the halls; but the shackles are 
 riveted only to one ankle. The chain is seldom 
 heavy, except where the prisoner has attempted to 
 escape and been recaptured; and the length is 
 sufficient to permit running and lying down with
 
 Native Prisons. 261 
 
 ease. There is no special uniform for convicts, 
 but each man wears the clothes he happened to 
 have on when first brought to the prison. Scru- 
 ples of caste are carefully respected, every man re- 
 ceiving his food raw, and preparing it himself, for 
 which purpose he is permitted to light a fire and 
 draw water at option. Prisoners are generally 
 employed in making roads, and keeping them in 
 repair ; but they work only a few hours daily, and 
 are not under strict surveillance. Severe punish- 
 ments are seldom inflicted under native officers, 
 except in cases of extreme aggravation.
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 CLIMATE AND SOIL. 
 
 EXTENDING over so vast a region, there is 
 of course great diversity of climate and 
 productions in the different sections of India. 
 The Monsoons, or periodical Trade Winds, also 
 exert a decided influence on temperature, more 
 especially near the coast. The Northeast Monsoon 
 commences about the middle of November, and 
 the Southwest, towards the middle of May, though 
 the time varies somewhat in different latitudes, 
 and the change of the Monsoon is nearly always 
 attended by stormy weather, sometimes by fright- 
 ful hurricanes and destructive tornadoes. The 
 seasons are three in number ; hot, rainy, and cold. 
 The temperature of respective localities is mod- 
 ified, not only by latitude but by local surround- 
 
 262
 
 Seasons. 265 
 
 ings; but after making due allowance for these 
 causes, the hottest months all through India will 
 be March, April, May and June. Then follow 
 the rains, from June 15th to October 15th, when 
 the showers fall heavy and fast for part, at least, of 
 every day, and sometimes for many days together, 
 without intermission, till the low lands are covered 
 with water, and the roads in some localities utterly 
 impassable. In other places, fields and meadows, 
 before parched and dry, are clothed in emerald- 
 green, shrubs and flowers assume brighter tints, 
 and all nature, vegetable and animal, looks re- 
 freshed and revivified by this welcome change from 
 the long, hot, sweltering days of the exhaust- 
 ing summer. About the middle of October the 
 rains subside, the atmosphere clears, and a pure, 
 cool (not cold), salubrious temperature succeeds. 
 This is, to Europeans, the pleasantest time of all 
 the year, and the most healthful. But orientals, as 
 a rule, prefer the hot months, and seem glad when 
 the " cold season," as they call it, is over. Thus 
 every year, for eight months, the sun shines stead- 
 ily, with rarely a shadow across his cheery face ; 
 and then for four months the rain falls without 
 " let or hindrance." Yet a beneficent Father has
 
 266 Climate and Soil. 
 
 provided an antidote for what seems to us in tem- 
 perate latitudes a ruinous drought, during those 
 eight rainless months. The dews all over South- 
 ern Asia are very heavy, not only diminishing the 
 heat, but greatly refreshing vegetation and per- 
 fecting growth, that must otherwise have been 
 stunted and blasted by excessive heat. 
 
 In Jeypore, and some other portions of the Raj- 
 put territory where the lands are hilly and broken, 
 the seasons are more decided than in Southern 
 India. The winters are so cold that the thermom- 
 eter falls often to zero in the early morning hours, 
 during the month of January, while the summers 
 are dry and hot. In March, the hot winds, the 
 great scourge of Upper India, begin to blow, the 
 season being ushered in by storms of sand carried 
 along with such violence as to do great damage, 
 especially in the province of Malwa and the Jat 
 country. The heavens are overcast by pale yel- 
 low clouds, charged with sand and vapor, that in 
 falling are unpleasant beyond measure. These 
 storms are succeeded by hot winds from the west, 
 their heat being still more increased by their pass- 
 ing for hundreds of miles over the burning sands 
 of Persia and Beloochistan. Such is the intense
 
 The Madras Climate. 267 
 
 heat of these winds, that during their prevalence 
 the ground becomes parched, trees cast their 
 leaves, and vegetation is completely at a stand. 
 At Madras, this hot wind prevails during the 
 months of April and May. Sweeping over the 
 Western Ghauts, it deposits there its moisture, 
 and crossing the burning plains of Mysore and the 
 Carnatic, it reaches the eastern shore of Southern 
 India so dry and heated as to be almost as unen- 
 durable as the air from an open furnace. Animal 
 and vegetable nature wilt beneath its influence, 
 and Europeans, or those who have come from 
 colder lands, shrink from this sirocco within the 
 shelter of their houses where every window and 
 door facing the west must be carefully closed, and 
 covered with thick mats. These are kept con- 
 stantly wet, day and night, by coolies who stand 
 with buckets of water, and every half-hour give 
 the mats a thorough drenching from ceiling to 
 floor. As the result of the wind being brought in 
 contact with the mass of wet matting, it loses a 
 portion of its heat, and the surrounding air is 
 renewed and freshened. Without these precau- 
 tions it would be impossible for foreigners to live 
 in an atmosphere, exposed to which, flowers in
 
 268 Climate and Soil, 
 
 vases will turn black and crisp, as from the effects 
 of fire ; the covers of pamphlets curl up, and the 
 face, of furniture becomes so heated that one can 
 scarcely bear his hand upon it. Happily, these 
 winds are intermittent, blowing only for a few 
 weeks at a time, and then there is a brief interval 
 of less exhaustive heat, after which the hot 
 winds again prevail, and so on until about the 
 middle of June, when the blessed rain begins 
 to descend, giving new life and vigor to every- 
 thing that lives and breathes. One or two heavy 
 storms changa the whole aspect of nature the 
 sand disappears beneath a luxuriant carpet of em- 
 erald grass, bright flowers dot the meadows where 
 shortly before they would have been parched with 
 heat, and trees are clothed in verdure that will 
 be quickly followed by blossoms and ripe fruit. 
 
 But India is withal a good land to dwell in fer- 
 tile, productive and healthful to those accustomed to 
 the heat, yielding freely, and with comparatively 
 little labor, an abundance of the good things 
 needed to sustain life and supply all the wants of 
 its teeming millions. This was eminently true, 
 with only very rare exceptions, in the former times, 
 before the advent of British power in India ; and
 
 "
 
 Famines. 271 
 
 that days of plenty have, so frequently of late 
 years been supplanted by frightful and oft-repeated 
 famines, seems due, not to the country itself, nor 
 to its native inhabitants, but to three items of 
 mismanagement on the part of its foreign custo- 
 dians. The first of these is the enforced culture 
 of opium, taking up extensive tracts of the best 
 lands that might otherwise be devoted to the 
 growth of breadstuffs, and supply food to thous- 
 ands of those who annually perish from famine. 
 Much additional land has been occupied by the 
 English in the construction of railways for their 
 own accommodation, in conveying troops from 
 point to point, erecting extensive military barracks, 
 forts and arsenals, and the building of palatial 
 Government Houses, Residences and Villas with 
 extensive Parks and Gardens, thus still more 
 diminishing the area of " bread-lands " and the 
 consequent resources of the people. The second 
 cause of destitution is found in the excessive tax- 
 ation, that keeps the laboring classes, cultivators 
 especiall}*, so ground down by poverty, that they 
 can barely live in times of plenty, and, having 
 absolutely nothing laid by with which to purchase 
 redemption from death when the famine is upon
 
 272 Climate and Soil. 
 
 them, they have no alternative but to die of starva- 
 tion. The third cause is the lack of sufficient irri- 
 gation, which England might surely afford to 
 supply in return for all the territory and treasure 
 she has appropriated in that fair land. Despite 
 the injustice of the compulsory cultivation of 
 opium, and the large tracts of land thus perverted 
 from their legitimate use, it is believed by com- 
 petent judges that with such irrigation as could be 
 readily supplied, this broad land might still be 
 made to furnish abundant sustenance for all its 
 people. But impoverished as the masses are, this 
 great work of irrigation could never be done by 
 the tax-payers, and must, if accomplished at all, be 
 the work of those who appropriate the immense 
 revenues of the Indian Empire. One who was 
 upon the ground at the time, states that " The en- 
 hancement of the land-tax in 1874 and 1875 
 resulted, in the three Collectorals of Sholopore, 
 Poonah, and Satara alone, in more than forty 
 thousand evictions in a single year! What wonder 
 that the famine of 1876 and 1877 raged with 
 most severity in the Sholopore Collectorate, where 
 most of these evictions took place." 
 
 Of the warmer portions of India, rice, which is
 
 Productions. 273 
 
 the common food of the people, is the staple prod- 
 uct; but wheat, barley, millet, buckwheat and 
 maize are all extensively cultivated in different 
 sections of the land. During the past few years, 
 India has become one of the largest wheat-growing 
 countries in the world, and it is believed, that with 
 the completion of the Indus Railway the price of 
 transportation will be sufficiently reduced to en- 
 courage a very extensive exportation of wheat 
 from the Punjaub. Cotton, sugar, indigo and 
 tobacco yield abundant returns in many parts ; 
 esculents and kitchen vegetables are varied and 
 abundant, and fruits of both tropic and temperate 
 latitudes flourish in the several sections. Among 
 the specialties of India, there is one found in the 
 Cashmere Valley not common elsewhere. This is 
 the Singhara or Water-nut (tra-pa-bis-pinosa) of 
 which more than sixty thousand tons are annually 
 gathered from the Wutter Lake. This nut, though 
 rather insipid, is considered very nutritious, and 
 thousands of Cashmerians subsist on it entirely. 
 The nut is usually ground and made either into 
 paste, or baked in leaves. It is also eaten boiled 
 or roasted. Experiments prove that very many of 
 
 the European vegetables will grow readily and 
 H. I. 18
 
 274 Climate and Soil. 
 
 well on Indian soil by irrigation. Thus far, how- 
 ever, they have been cultivated only by the native 
 nobles and by the English, and they can rarely be 
 purchased either in the bazaars or from the farmers. 
 The potato seems, of all that have been tried, the 
 most difficult to acclimate ; and except on the 
 Neilgherries, the Ghauts, and the abutments of the 
 Himalayas, the potato growth has proved a fail- 
 ure. The lack of accustomed vegetables, and of 
 the light-raised bread that constitutes so impor- 
 tant" an article of diet at home, not only interferes 
 with the comfort of foreign travellers in India, 
 but is also a fruitful source of ill-health, especially 
 to the unacclimated stranger. There is, however, 
 considerable compensation found in the abundance, 
 variety and excellent quality of the fruits, of 
 which many varieties, ripe, luscious and freshly- 
 gathered may be placed on the board every day in 
 the year. 
 
 India has also its vegetable curiosities, both of 
 fruits and trees. The Cashew nut anacardium 
 occidentale is an out-branching tree, seldom more 
 than fifteen or sixteen feet high, and in appearance 
 somewhat resembling the walnut tree, with large, 
 oval, blunt, alternate leaves, and a fragrant, rose-
 
 Trees and Fruits. 275 
 
 colored flower. The fruit is pear-shaped, and its 
 curious feature is a crescent or kidney-shaped nut 
 growing on the end, outside of the fruit where it 
 looks odd enough in its grave coat of russet-brown. 
 The fruit itself has a pretty, pinkish tinge, and an 
 acid, though rather agreeable taste. The nuts, 
 roasted, are both palatable and nutritions. 
 
 The Banian, ficus Indica* is the king of the 
 Indian forests, a stately, royal-looking patriarch, 
 that stands in hoary grandeur, surrounded by his 
 descendants of three and four centuries old. It 
 has the faculty of throwing off from its branches 
 supplementary roots that grow very rapidly up- 
 ward and soon become in their turn stems for the 
 support of the parent branches, thus extending 
 wider and wider their domain. The Indians have 
 a legend that it was from a Banian in the garden 
 of Eden that our first parents " gathered fig-leaves 
 and made themselves aprons," and that it was also 
 a Banian that gave them their first idea of con- 
 structing houses for habitation. 
 
 This tree produces small figs that grow in 
 bunches on the stems and branches. Small fruit 
 for so huge a tree. But this seems one of the 
 peculiarities of the trees of the tropics. The
 
 276 Climate and Soil. 
 
 lovely tamarind tree that grows to fully a hundred 
 feet in height, and fifteen feet in circumference, 
 with branches widely extended, has a dense foliage 
 of bright green, composite leaves, in form and 
 size nearly resembling the little sensitive plant. 
 The flowers also are small, hanging in golden-hued 
 clusters, veined with scarlet, and the fruit is in 
 pods, like beans, three or four inches in length. 
 Near the village of Rataupee, on the banks of the 
 Nerbudda, is the famous Kabirabar, the oldest and 
 largest Banian in India. The Hindu tradition is, 
 that it was planted by the sage Kabira before the 
 Christian era. By the continual increase of its 
 branches, shooting downwards and sending forth 
 new stems, it had grown to cover an area of more 
 than a thousand yards ir circumference. Dur- 
 ing the first decade of the present century this 
 great tree was seriously injured by a hurricane, 
 and though gradually recovering, it does not yet 
 cover more than a circuit of seven hundred yards. 
 The central trunk has long ago disappeared, and 
 the vacancy is filled by a picturesque little temple. 
 Miss Britain, of Calcutta, while on a recent visit 
 to an ancient temple in Allahabad, saw, in a dark 
 corner of a grotto under ground, a pepul tree
 
 A Useful Tree. 279 
 
 which has been growing for hundreds of years in 
 utter darkness. The leaves of this pepul are per- 
 fectly white, frosted with the centuries, and rising 
 as an imperial crown above its hoary head. 
 
 The Mhowah or Mahwah, cassia-latifolia, is 
 one of the most important trees of the Indian 
 forest. It has a straight trunk of immense diam- 
 eter, its branches are raised gracefully like the 
 sconces of a candelabra, and its dark green foliage 
 is spread out in successive stories, casting a thick 
 shade -all about the tree. Towards the end of 
 February its leaves fall quite suddenly, leaving 
 the tree completely bare. These leaves are gath- 
 ered, and used for bedding, roofing, and caps or 
 hats. A few days after the shedding of the leaves 
 the candelabras fill rapidly with masses of flowers, 
 looking like small, round fruit, and arranged in 
 clusters. The petals, which are pale yellow, form 
 a berry about as large as an ordinary grape, which 
 leaves room for the stamen to pass through a 
 small aperture, and when fully ripe these petals 
 fall naturally. The Indians only remove the 
 brush-wood from around the tree,' and every 
 evening the fallen flowers form a thick bed which 
 is carefully collected. This shower continues for
 
 280 Climate and Soil. 
 
 several days, a single tree yielding an average 
 weight of one hundred and twenty-five pounds of 
 flowers each year. These flowers are the manna 
 of the jungle, and their greater or less abundance 
 decides the famine or plenty of the region. When 
 fresh they have rather a pleasant taste, and the 
 natives consume great quantities in this state. 
 They also make them into cakes, and into quite a 
 variety of dishes. But the larger portion is dried 
 and laid by for use during the year till the coming of 
 the next crop ; and after having been cured, the blos- 
 soms are ground into flour, that is baked in loaves 
 or cakes. By fermentation the Mhowah flowers 
 produce a pleasant wine ; by distillation a strong 
 brandy, and of the residue, good vinegar is made. 
 When the flowers have disappeared the leaves re- 
 turn, and rapidly cover the tree again ; and in 
 April the fruit comes to replace the flowers. The 
 fruit is almond-shaped, with a violet-colored shell 
 covering a smooth, hard envelope, that contains a 
 delicate almond, pure white and very luscious. 
 These nuts are used for cakes, and eaten also in 
 form of paste ; and by pressure they make an ex- 
 cellent oil, after which, the refuse serves for fatten- 
 ing buffaloes. The bark of the tree yields woody
 
 The Wiowah. 281 
 
 fibre, used for making ropes ; and the wood is val- 
 uable for building, as it is one of the few species 
 of timber that will resist the attacks of the white 
 ant. The Ghounds, Bheels, Mhairs, and Minas 
 regard this tree as equal to the gods ; they hold 
 their solemn assemblies beneath its shade, where 
 also, contracts, betrothals and marriages are ar- 
 ranged ; on its branches they suspend offerings 
 and sacrifices ; and around its roots they spread 
 those mysterious circles of stones that represent 
 their objects of worship. They will fight desper- 
 ately in defence of their Mhowahs ; and where 
 these trees disappeared the Bheel and the Ghound 
 are seen no more. This much-esteemed tree is 
 occasionally cultivated in the plain, but it is indig- 
 enous to the mountain regions.
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 THE CASTE SYSTEM. 
 
 CASTE, is a Portuguese word that is used by 
 the English to express the meaning of the 
 Hindu word Jathi, the term applied by them to 
 the distinction of classes or tribes among the 
 Hindus, though they apply the same word to for- 
 eigners, to distinguish between nations ; as the 
 English Jathi, the Portuguese Jathi, and so on. 
 
 The term Hindu, as applied by the natives, 
 means not so much the people of Hindustan as it 
 does the members of all the various sects who 
 have adopted the S3'stem of castes, and yield to 
 the supremacy of the Brahmins. Caste may be 
 called the cement that binds together all these 
 numerous sects and classes ; not merely separating 
 
 each one from all others, but compacting the 
 
 282
 
 The Four Castes. 285 
 
 whole, forming of dissimilar and uncongenial 
 units an almost impregnable wall that closely 
 binds together the whole Hindu people, but equally 
 divides them from all the rest of the world. Prop- 
 erly speaking, there are but four castes ; and ac- 
 cording to the Hindu Vedas, these were ordained 
 of the gods, while all outside of these are casteless 
 or outcasts. The four divinely-instituted castes 
 are, the Brahmin, the Kschatrya, the Vaishya, and 
 the Sudra. On the same authority it is asserted 
 that the Brahmins sprang from the head of the 
 Creator Brahma, and having thus proceeded from 
 his noblest part, they are by birth pre-eminent in 
 dignity and holiness, and by right the priests and 
 law-givers of the nation. 
 
 The Kschatryas, having sprung from the shoul- 
 ders of the god, are predestined to the kingly and 
 military offices to govern the nation and to do 
 their fighting. 
 
 The Vaishyas, who proceeded from the god's 
 body, are to provide for the pecuniary support of 
 the State, doing duty as merchants, and filling all 
 the departments of trade. 
 
 The Sudras sprang from the feet of Brahma, 
 and being thus the lowest of all they must per-
 
 286 The Caste System. 
 
 form all mechanical and servile labor for the 
 higher castes, especially the Brahmins. 
 
 Such was the divine decree, as promulgated by 
 the Brahmins, who took care to appropriate to 
 themselves the highest place ; and such was prob- 
 ably the original system as practised at first. But 
 the passing years have made great changes, the 
 military and mercantile castes have almost disap- 
 peared as distinct organizations, and the great 
 division is now between the Brahmins and Soudras. 
 But these have been divided and subdivided into 
 a great many others, until it is commonly said, 
 that there are eighteen high castes, and one hun- 
 dred and eight low castes, each trade and calling 
 having one of its own ; while a very large class, 
 known as Pariahs, or outcasts, have no caste at 
 all. But even Pariahs have grades and distinc- 
 tions of rank among themselves, of which they are 
 just as tenacious as those recognized as their supe- 
 riors can possibly be of their own. Among the 
 many subdivisions still maintained, at least in the 
 letter, if not in the spirit of this wonderful sys- 
 tem, the Brahmins have four sects, the Kschatryas 
 three, the Vaishyas three, and the Soudras eighty- 
 five, some of the last being again subdivided, as
 
 Division of Castes. 287 
 
 the class of Soudras who cultivate the soil have 
 no less than twenty distinct castes. So very rig- 
 orous are these exactions of caste, that the chil- 
 dren of a carpenter can rnarry only the offspring 
 of other carpenters ; the sons of a washerman may 
 seek wives only in the families of others of the 
 same craft ; boatmen must marr}' boatmen's daugh- 
 ters ; and so on through every vocation or busi- 
 ness, high or low. Neither may a man change his 
 calling, nor enter any other than that to which his 
 ancestors belonged. If the father and grand- 
 father have been syces or dhobis, or grass-cutters, 
 so perforce must be the sons to the latest genera- 
 tion ; and there is no possibility of any rise in 
 rank, or of bettering of the condition in life, except 
 by losing caste ; and this system gives the death- 
 blow to ever} r thing like " progress," and ambition 
 to attain to higher wisdom or excellence than their 
 forefathers. 
 
 The Brahmins are the most powerful, as they 
 are the most domineering and insolent of all the 
 castes. Assuming to themselves the rights of 
 gods, they relentlessly trample under foot those of 
 all others. They dress altogether in white attire 
 with marks of clay on their foreheads, arms, and
 
 288 The Caste System. 
 
 bodies, and the poita or sacred cord over the shoul- 
 der. They observe a strictly vegetable diet, and 
 abstain not only from intoxicating drinks, but even 
 from tobacco in every form. When the son of a 
 Brahmin is twelve days old, a festival is held in 
 honor of his naming; when six months of age, 
 another feast marks the giving of his first meal of 
 solid food, and a third season of rejoicing occurs 
 when he is two years old, at which time his head 
 is shaved, his ears bored, his nails pared, and he is 
 robed in a new style of garments. But the most 
 important epoch in the life of a Brahmin, is when 
 he is nine years of age. Then, amid feasting and 
 revelry, songs, shouts and rejoicings, he is invested 
 with " the sacred cord," consisting of a hundred 
 and eight threads, made of cotton, gathered and 
 spun by Brahmins. The cord is worn over the 
 left shoulder, and passes across the breast to the 
 right hip. At the time of the investiture, the 
 novice is taught the gayatri or Brahminical prayer, 
 that no lips but those of a Brahmin may pro- 
 nounce ; and the young heir being thereby in- 
 stated in his legal rights, is thenceforth regarded 
 as " twice born." 
 
 For the other castes no special ceremonies are
 
 MEETING OF TRAVELLERS WITH THE MAHARAJAH OF 289 
 TT i 19 CHUTTERPORE.
 
 Caste Organization. 291 
 
 prescribed, as they are deemed so far inferior to 
 the lordly Brahmins. But each caste has its sepa- 
 rate legal organization, and administers its own 
 laws, no other daring to interfere. None of those 
 belonging to one caste may enter the abode, or eat 
 in the presence of the members of another. 
 Should he presume to do so the penalty is fearful. 
 All his worldly possessions, of whatever sort, are 
 confiscated to the caste he has disgraced ; and 
 worse than all, his wife is absolved from her vows, 
 and his children no longer acknowledge him as 
 father. It is only on the most humiliating terms, 
 and by making the fullest reparation that he can 
 be restored to favor. Each caste bounds its duties 
 and hospitality by the extent of its own circle ; 
 for to give or receive favors beyond this limit 
 renders both parties to the profanation accursed. 
 Nor is it only high-castes that are thus profaned 
 by contact with others. Even the outcast Pariah, 
 who feeds on carrion, finds some one beneath him, 
 on whom he may look down ; and the very lowest 
 Soudra would deem it defilement to receive a cup 
 of tea from the hands of any king in Europe. 
 For a high-caste pauper is regarded as the supe- 
 rior of a low-caste (or no-caste) sovereign ; and
 
 292 The Caste System. 
 
 many a poor woman has, during the famines, died 
 of starvation rather than receive food from the 
 hands of benevolent foreigners. The breaking of 
 the rules of caste is punished by fines, beating, or 
 burning with red-hot irons, according to the nat- 
 ure of the offence ; besides which, if the offence be 
 serious the offender is driven out from parents, wife 
 and children, who refuse to eat with him, or give 
 him a drop of water, and his society is thencefor- 
 ward shunned by all. He not only sinks to a 
 lower caste : he becomes a Pariah, an outcast, a 
 dog, and a vagabond upon the face of the earth. 
 Though the offence should be involuntary, or acci- 
 dental, the penalty is just the same ; for it is the 
 defilement, not the sin, that makes the crime. Mr. 
 Dulles mentions a wealthy Brahmin who, from 
 pure spite, was seized by a European, and beef and 
 wine forced down his throat. He resisted to the 
 utmost of his strength, but his foe was the stronger 
 of the two, and the Brahmin became an outcast. 
 After three years, his friends spent forty thousand 
 dollars in endeavoring to have his caste restored, 
 but in vain. Later, another attempt at a cost of 
 one hundred thousand dollars was made, and the
 
 Losing Caste. 293 
 
 Brahmin was reinstated, after having to submit to 
 the most humiliating and revolting penalties. 
 
 During the reign of the cruel Tippoo Sahib, lie 
 endeavored to force the Hindus to adopt the Mos- 
 lem faith, and compelled a number of them to eat 
 beef as an evidence that they had forsaken their 
 national religion. After the overthrow and death 
 of the tyrant, these men prayed earnestly, but 
 without avail, to be reinstated in their old caste 
 privileges, and to the day of their death they had 
 to endure all the penalties of outcasts, for the 
 fault of another. No penalty was deemed suffi- 
 cient to atone for the horrible crime of sacrilege 
 in eating the flesh of the "sacred cow." For theft, 
 fraud, lying, perjury or adultery, they might have 
 atoned ; but the stain of beef-eating could neither 
 be forgiven nor washed away ! 
 
 It is quite impossible at the present day for the 
 Hindus, after centuries of subjection to foreign 
 rule, Mohammedan and English, and all the 
 changes thereby induced, to conform to and en- 
 force the rules of caste, as in the old Hindu days. 
 But there is still the old clinging to the system, 
 and a stubborn determination, as far as practica- 
 ble, to carry out the teachings of the Shasters.
 
 294 The Caste System. 
 
 With all the wrong it engenders, caste, it must be 
 admitted, offers some advantages ; and these are of 
 just the nature to find favor in the eyes of the 
 calm, contemplative, unambitious Hindu of the 
 middle and upper classes. He does not care to 
 rise above his easy, tranquil life, or to go out of 
 the stereotyped habits that have become his second 
 nature ; and he has no fear of falling out of the 
 position he has inherited, since the bounds are 
 fixed and immovable. If he travel in other sec- 
 tions of his country, however far from home, he 
 finds always a shelter and a welcome with those of 
 his own fraternity ; while no one, in his absence, 
 though it should be prolonged to years, would ever 
 risk loss of caste by interfering with his homestead 
 or rights, while the owner was away. 
 
 Different castes preponderate in different local- 
 ities ; as, for example, in Bombay, the largest depot 
 for trade and the commercial metropolis of India, 
 Kschatryas number but few, while the two wealth- 
 ier castes, Brahmins and Vaishyas (merchants) 
 greatly exceed all others. The former merely in- 
 vest capital, and reap large profits, while seeming 
 to take no part in such worldly affairs ; while the 
 Vaishyas, some classes of them especially, give all
 
 Various Castes. 297 
 
 their time and energies to trade. The Purvus, a 
 caste or class immediately below the Brahmins, 
 are a civil, upright, active set of men, filling for 
 the most part, places in the Custom House, and 
 other government establishments, and acting in 
 mercantile houses, as cashiers and shipping clerks. 
 Many of this class have filled places of responsi- 
 bility, and amassed fortunes in the European ser- 
 vice, public and private ; sometimes even rising 
 to the position of members of the Governor's 
 Council. The Purvus wear gay-colored turbans 
 of an enormous size, by which they are readily 
 recognized as far as they can be seen, and hence 
 are easily found when their services are in requisi- 
 tion. 
 
 Another class are the Khayats or Scribes, who 
 are generally good linguists, and often fill the 
 office of interpreter to ships, in courts, and else- 
 where. The Buniahs are a large and influential 
 class of merchants, and they are the most noted 
 speculators in India cottons and English linens, 
 from which Bombay derives such an immense rev- 
 enue. They are also noted as bankers and 
 brokers. The dress of the Buniahs is peculiar. 
 It consists of a Sdrong or waist-cloth, adorned
 
 298 The Caste System. 
 
 with a broad red band, and folded tight about the 
 limbs ; a long, tight-fitting calico tunic, descend- 
 ing almost to the feet, and a round turban coiled 
 
 O 
 
 like a snake about the head. These quaint tur- 
 bans are quite in contrast with the high, stiff hate 
 of the Parsees, another merchant caste of Bom- 
 bay, very numerous and noted for wealth, energy, 
 and uprightness. The Parsees and Buniahs are 
 often partners in business, but not in society. 
 
 Perhaps one of the very strangest things in re- 
 gard to caste, is its rules in respect to the sick and 
 dying. If a person supposed to be dying has 
 been taken down to the Ganges to breathe his last 
 near that holy river, and he should afterwards re- 
 cover, it is deemed by all his friends the greatest 
 misfortune that could possibly befall him and 
 them. For he thus becomes an outcast, and un- 
 clean, so that even his nearest relatives dare not 
 speak to him or permit him to enter their houses, 
 on pain of loss of caste, the great terror of the 
 Hindu. His own wife and children, however 
 dearly they may love him, can never eat with him 
 again or offer him the least attention ; and if by 
 any chance they should happen to touch him, they 
 must wash their bodies, and purify themselves by
 
 The Loss of Caste. 299 
 
 various ceremonies and offerings, to be cleansed 
 from the pollution. A gentleman travelling in 
 the East, some years ago, had with him several 
 servants and a dog ; and one day they stopped 
 near the banks of the Ganges to rest and look 
 about them. All of a sudden the dog disappeared, 
 and after considerable search he was found licking 
 A human body that was lying near the river bank. 
 
 On examination, Mr. N found that the man 
 
 who had been left here to die was still alive, and, he 
 judged from appearances, might possibly recover. 
 So he directed his servants to wash off the mud 
 from the poor fellow's face, roll him carefully in a 
 blanket and take care of him. The invalid was in 
 a few days entirely restored, but he manifested 
 such terror at the outcast life that awaited him 
 that he preferred to go with this strange gentle- 
 man to a country he knew nothing of than to be left 
 in his old home, where he was looked at as utterly 
 unclean and worse than dead. About fifty miles 
 north of Calcutta are two villages inhabited en- 
 tirely by poor creatures who have become outcasts 
 in consequence of their recovery, after having 
 been taken down to the Ganges to die.
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 CHRISTIAN MISSIONS. 
 
 OF the. first introduction of Christianity in- 
 to India we have no trustworthy record. 
 Though Eusebius speaks of St. Bartholomew's go- 
 ing to India, and Socrates, speaking of the divis- 
 ion of the Gentile world by the Apostles, says : 
 " India was assigned to St. Bartholomew," it is by 
 no means certain what part of the world was 
 alluded to under the general term of India as 
 then used. The Syrian Christians of Travancore 
 and Malabar have a tradition that St. Thomas 
 preached the Gospel in many portions of the 
 Indian Peninsula j and an original manuscript is 
 said to be in existence among the Malabar Chris- 
 tians containing the record of a visit of the 
 
 Apostle Thomas to that region, A. D. 52 ; of many 
 
 300
 
 St. Thomas of India. 301 
 
 converts being made by him; and of his being 
 subsequently put to death on the Mount outside 
 the town of Meliapore, now called by Europeans, 
 St. Thome*, and not far from the city of Madras. 
 Other writers place the date of the first introduc- 
 tion of Christianity into India, in the fourth 
 century, during the reign of Constantine ; while 
 the Nestorians claim to have been the pioneers in 
 this work, during the early part of the sixth cent- 
 ury. Amid these conflicting statements, it is now 
 impossible to determine the correctness of either ; 
 but it is certain that the early Portuguese settlers, 
 who arrived on the Malabar coast about A.D. 1504, 
 found there a Christian king, with numerous 
 churches, and a large body of professing Chris- 
 tians. Their worship is described as pure and 
 simple wholly unlike the forms and ceremonies 
 used by the new-comers, who vainly sought to 
 subjugate the Malabar Christians to the authority 
 of the Pope they persistently ignoring his right 
 to interfere with their religion, and questioning 
 the very existence of any such personage as a 
 papal head to the Christian church. They claimed 
 for themselves an existence of nearly thirteen 
 centuries, and for their bishops a regular succes-
 
 302 Christian Missions. 
 
 eion from the patriarch of Antioch, "where," said 
 they triumphantly, the " disciples were first called 
 Christians ; but where was no Pope." For more 
 than a century this ecclesiastical war was waged 
 but the oriental Christians were the weaker side, 
 and corruptions, too, had gradually crept in among 
 this simple-hearted folk, until at last, worn out 
 by opposition, they laid down their arms, as it 
 were, under protest, and were compelled to submit 
 to the dogmas of the Church of Rome ; and 
 farther, to the decree passed by the Pope, that 
 "All Syrian books on ecclesiastical subjects shall 
 be burned in order that no pretended apostolical 
 monuments may remain." The records of the 
 Syrian Christians still extant, declare that ' ' while 
 their books were burning the bishops went 
 round in procession, chanting a song of triumph." 
 But it was only among the churches on the sea- 
 coast that these violent measures achieved even a 
 partial success ; those of the interior avowed theii 
 opposition, concealed their Bibles and religious 
 books, fled to the mountains, and when pursued, 
 appealed to the native princes for protection. The 
 establishment of the Inquisition at Goa, about 
 1560, put the finishing touch to the enormities of
 
 The Portuguese. 305 
 
 the Romish priests, and drove thousands of the 
 nominal Christians, baptized by the excellent 
 Xavier, back into the Hindu and Moslem churches 
 before he had been for a single decade in his 
 peaceful tomb. 
 
 For more than two centuries the Portuguese 
 were untiring in their efforts to proselyte the 
 Hindus ; resorting, when force and severity had 
 failed, to all manner of deceptions, disguises and 
 concessions professing the warmest attachment 
 to native institutions, adopting the Hindu garb, 
 and abstaining, like the Brahmins, from all animal 
 food and stimulating drinks ; while the priests de- 
 clared themselves the immediate descendants of 
 the Hindu god Brahma ! Among those who thus 
 added perjury to hypocrisy, was the famous Robert 
 de Nobili, a nephew of Cardinal Bellarmine, and 
 a near relative of the Pope. In the furtherance of 
 his infamous plans, Nobili caused to be written in 
 Hindustanee, a new Veda, as he called the forgery 
 he attempted to palm off on the .unsuspecting 
 Brahmins as a genuine native production, in which 
 the doctrines and dogmas of the Romish church 
 were artfully interwoven with Hindu fables, and 
 
 Brahminical lore. 
 H. I. 20
 
 306 Christian Missions. 
 
 With the passing years, this amalgamation in- 
 creased till, as conceded by the Abbe* Dubois : 
 " The Hindu pageantry is chiefly seen in the festi- 
 vals celebrated by the native Christians ; " and in 
 many places the same car was used on Hindu fes- 
 tival days for idol-deities, and on Romish high-days 
 for images of the saints. 
 
 Such is Romanism in India at the present day. 
 Its adherents are composed mainly of the descend- 
 ants of the mixed marriages of Portuguese and 
 natives, and nominal converts who, but for their 
 form of baptism, differ in no respect from their 
 heathen neighbors, with a very small sprinkling of 
 foreign priests or bishops, generally Italians. The 
 majority of the clergy are natives of the country, 
 educated at Goa, frequently of intemperate habits, 
 and nearly always of debased moral character; 
 while the mass of the people are the most ignorant, 
 unpromising, and degraded class in India. The 
 Bible has always been withheld from them, no 
 portion of the Scriptures being ever translated by 
 popish missionaries into any of the languages of 
 the East ; and only the most garbled versions of 
 the inspired record communicated to the people in 
 the oral instructions of the priests.
 
 Protestant Missions. 309 
 
 The first Protestant mission in India was com- 
 menced by the Danish Government at Tranque- 
 bar, on the Coromandel coast, in the early part of 
 the eighteenth century, at the instigation of Dr. 
 Lutkins, one of the chaplains of the King of Den- 
 mark. The first missionaries were Messrs. Ziegen- 
 balg and Plutschau, who arrived at Tranquebar in 
 1705. Though opposed and persecuted oftener 
 by Europeans than Hindus their work pro- 
 gressed ; another missionary joined the first, a 
 printing-press, printer, and physician were soon 
 added, the New Testament was translated and 
 printed in Tamil, and other works, including a dic- 
 tionary of the language, were prepared and 
 printed. When Ziegenbalg died in 1719, after 
 thirteen years of most faithful and self-denying 
 labors, a noble band of three hundred and fifty- 
 five native converts attested his success in laboring 
 for their salvation. Seven years later, the number 
 had been nearly doubled ; and despite the counter- 
 acting influence of almost incessant wars between 
 the several European nations and the natives, and 
 the immoral lives led by the majority of the for- 
 eign residents, " the little one became a thousand, 
 and the small one mighty."
 
 310 Christian Missions. 
 
 In 1733, the first native pastor was ordained ; in 
 1727 the Madras Mission, under the auspices of 
 the Christian Knowledge Society, was founded by 
 Dr. Schultze, who had previously completed the 
 Tamil Old Testament, begun by Ziegenbalg ; and 
 in 1737 a third mission was established at Cudda- 
 lore, on the same coast. In 1750, the immortal 
 Schwartz began his great work in India, which was. 
 continued for forty-eight years with such unflinch- 
 ing zeal and fidelity as to evoke the highest en- 
 comiums of both Christians and pagans ; while 
 such was his reputation among Moslems that 
 the haughty Hyder Ali, when refusing to receive 
 the English Embassy, said : " Send me the Chris- 
 tian (Schwartz) ; he will not deceive me." The 
 same man, on his death-bed, sent for Schwartz, 
 and entreated him to become the guardian and 
 educator of his adopted son Serfogee, the future 
 Rajah of Tanjore, and the same who, at the demise 
 of Schwartz, sixteen years afterwards, delayed the 
 funeral " that he might look once more upon the 
 face of his friend, that he bedewed with tears, and 
 covered with cloth of gold, ere the coffin hid it 
 from his sight." The church in Tanjore, where 
 this great apostle preached, and the chapel where
 
 THE MOIIORl'M (NEW-YEAR FESTIVAL), AT BHOPAL. 3"
 
 English Missions. 313 
 
 his remains are interred, are both still used for 
 Christian worship ; and in the wall opposite the 
 pulpit of the former, is a beautiful monument of 
 white marble, by Flaxman, erected at the expense 
 of the Rajah. The design is the closing scene of 
 the missionary's life, whence, surrounded by weep- 
 ing pupils and friends, the Rajah himself among 
 them, and the dying eyes fixed upon the cross 
 held aloft by a descending angel, the good man 
 passes to his rest. Beneath is an elaborate and 
 most interesting inscription. 
 
 The first English missionaries to India were 
 Rev. Messrs. Carey and Thomas, who landed in 
 Calcutta, November, 1793. Their project, from 
 the very outset, received only ridicule from friends 
 at home, and persistent opposition and persecution 
 from their countrymen in India, until at last, they 
 were driven from Calcutta to Serampore, and found 
 under the shelter of the Danish flag the protec- 
 tion denied them by their own. Here, warmly 
 welcomed by the Danish Governor, a former friend 
 and parishioner of Schwartz, Ward, Carey, Marsh- 
 man and Thomas set themselves diligently to 
 work in studying the languages, and in the print- 
 ing and distribution of Christian tracts, as well as
 
 314 Christian Missions. 
 
 to the oral instruction of all within their reach. 
 Frederick VI., of Denmark, assured them of his 
 especial favor and protection ; multitudes flocked 
 to hear the missionaries preach, the translation of 
 the New Testament into Bengali was completed 
 and printed in February, 1801, and about the same 
 time, the first native convert was baptized in the 
 presence of the governor, and a large concourse of 
 Hindus, Mohammedans, Portuguese and English. 
 In 1816, seven hundred natives had been baptized, 
 and ten thousand children had been instructed in 
 the truths of the Christian religion. Two years 
 later, a college was founded, in which, besides San- 
 scrit, Arabic, and many Indian languages, English, 
 Greek and Hebrew were also taught. The witty 
 Sydney Smith satirized and ridiculed Carey and 
 his associates, as " consecrated cobblers " and 
 " maniacs," and, in an article for the Edinburgh 
 Review, in 1808, held up their work to derision ; 
 yet to-day their names are honored as India's best 
 and truest benefactors; and their work, then but 
 the beginning of a tiny rivulet, has gone on wid- 
 ening and deepening, receiving in its onward course 
 many tributaries, till it has become a great and 
 mighty river enriching and beautifying that broad
 
 American Missions. 315 
 
 land, and scattering joy and blessing everywhere 
 in its course. 
 
 Other lands and other societies have, as the 
 years passed on, taken part in this great work of 
 carrying the gospel to India ; but the work has 
 been easier to their successors, that these brave pio- 
 neers so effectually opened the door that world- 
 liness and bigotry would have closed. 
 
 The first missionaries to India from the United 
 States were Judson, Newell, Rice, Hall and Nott, 
 who were sent out by the "American Board" of 
 Foreign Missions, in 1812. The same arbitrary 
 power that had opposed the work of Carey and his 
 associates, for a time effectually hindered the 
 establishment of stations by the American mis- 
 sionaries anywhere within the dominions of the 
 British East India Company ; and these new-com- 
 ers were subjected to even greater annoyances and 
 persecutions than those visited upon their English 
 brethren. But, by the renewed charter of the 
 East India Company, in 1813, all restrictions to 
 missionary labor were removed ; and from that 
 period to the present, the course of this great 
 cause has been steadily onward. 
 
 The fi 'st mission in Burmah was established by
 
 316 Christian Missions. 
 
 Dr. Judson, in 1813, at Rangoon ; the first Ameri- 
 can mission in Ceylon, by Messrs. Poor, Meigs, 
 Warren, and Richards, in 1816, at Jaffna ; and the 
 first American mission at Madras, in 1836, by 
 Messrs. Winslow and Scudder. American Luth- 
 erans began their first work in India, in 1842; 
 the American Presbyterian Foreign Board, in 
 1834 ; the United Presbyterians, in 1855 ; the 
 Methodist Episcopal Church, in 1857 ; the Ameri- 
 can Baptist Missionary Union, in 1840 ; and the 
 Freewill Baptists, in 1836. The London Mission- 
 ary Society began its work in India, in 1798 ; the 
 Wesleyans, in 1816 ; the Church Missionary Soci- 
 ety, in 1815 ; the General Baptist Missionary 
 Society, in 1822 ; the Church of Scotland, in 1829 ; 
 the Basle Missionary Society, in 1834 ; the Gossner 
 Missionary Society, in 1846 ; the Moravians, in 
 1855. The Liepzig Lutherans, Irish Presbyterians, 
 Presbyterians of Canada, the Welsh Calvinists, 
 and several other societies are also engaged in 
 active efforts for the Christianization of India, 
 all vieing with each other in zeal, activity, and 
 devotion to this noble work. In a document pre- 
 pared and printed by order of the British House of 
 Commons, in 1873, some of the benefits accruing 
 from these labors are detailed, as follows :
 
 CATHACKS (MALE DANCERS), AT BHOPAL.
 
 Effects of Missions. 319 
 
 " The Protestant Missions of India, Burmah, 
 and Ceylon are carried on by thirty-five societies, 
 in addition to local agencies ; and now employ the 
 services of six hundred and six foreign mission- 
 aries, of whom five hundred and fifty are ordained. 
 They occupy five hundred and twenty-two princi- 
 pal stations, and two thousand five hundred subor- 
 dinate stations. Apart from their special duty as 
 public preachers and pastors, the foreign mission- 
 aries constitute a valuable body of educators ; they 
 contribute greatly to the cultivation of the native 
 languages and literature ; and all who are resident 
 in rural districts are appealed to for medical help. 
 They have prepared hundreds of works suited both 
 for schools and for general circulation in the fifteen 
 most prominent languages of India, and in several 
 other districts ; they are the compilers of several 
 dictionaries and grammars ; they have written im- 
 portant works on the native classics and the system 
 of philosophy ; and they have largely stimulated 
 the great increase of the native literature prepared 
 in recent years by educated native gentlemen. 
 A great increase has taken place in the number 
 of converts the last twenty years. They are 
 now at least five hundred thousand. The gov- 
 ernment of India cannot but acknowledge the
 
 320 Christian Missions. 
 
 great obligation under which it is laid \yy the 
 benevolent exertions of these six hundred mis- 
 sionaries, whose blameless example and self- 
 denying labors are infusing new vigor into the 
 stereotyped life of the great populations placed 
 under English rule, and are preparing them to be 
 in every way better men and better citizens of the 
 great Empire in which they dwell." * 
 
 To all this may be added the wide diffusion of 
 Christian knowledge ; the arousing of the Hindu 
 mind from its long torpor to the earnest discussion 
 of the merits and claims of Christianity ; the abo- 
 lition of the suttee, of female infanticide, and 
 hook-swinging, except in districts remote from 
 foreign influence ; the loosing of the bonds of 
 caste, the diminished influence of Brahminical 
 power, and the desire and earnest efforts put forth 
 for the education of woman during the present 
 decade. In view of all this, and much that can- 
 not here be detailed, it is evident that India's long 
 night of superstition and moral ignorance is pass- 
 ing away, and the dawn of a glorious day already 
 at hand. 
 
 * For many of these statistics, the writer acknowledges indebtedness to articles 
 of Rev. S. Hatchings in the Missionary Review.
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 EARLIEST HISTORY. 
 
 THE early history of India, like that of all 
 oriental nations, is. involved in much obscu- 
 rity. Their own records furnish nearly all the in- 
 formation now obtainable of that great country 
 during the first centuries of its existence ; . and the 
 fact that these records must be drawn mainly from 
 their poetical works, render it no easy task to sep- 
 arate the real from the fabulous. The utmost 
 efforts of such indefatigable oriental scholars as 
 Sir William Jones, Prinsep and Wilson, have not 
 been sufficient to open to us all those sealed por- 
 tals of the past ; but they do enable us to fix with 
 considerable accuracy the dates of many leading 
 events. Sir William Jones says that " India and 
 Persia, and all the South of Asia, were but parts 
 H. I. 21 321
 
 322 Earliest History. 
 
 of one great empire of antiquity, called Iran, 
 which was the earliest settled in the world." 
 Indian traditions preserve the name of Merit, a 
 planter of vines and cultivator of the soil. This 
 probably is the account they had somehow received 
 of Noah's vine planted after the subsidence of the 
 flood. The Agni Purana says : " When the flood 
 was gathering, a fish fell into Meru's hand. It 
 quickly grew into an enormous size, and had a 
 horn on which to support an ark. Into this ark, 
 Meru, with his sons and their women, and the seed 
 of every thing living entered, and were supported 
 on the horn of the great fish throughout the great 
 flood." This same Meru was called, like the 
 Egyptian Menes, the " Son of the Sun," the name 
 that till to-day the Rajputs lay claim to. Of late 
 years, Mr. Prinsep has discovered a key by which 
 may be read many inscriptions on the columns and 
 walls of rock-cut temples, which formerly set at 
 nought all attempts to decipher them. The lan- 
 guage has turned out to be Bali, the sacred lan- 
 guage of India, and indeed of all Southern Asia ; a 
 dialect which is now engaging the attention of 
 many oriental scholars, by the light of which, 
 many hitherto obscure portions of Hindu history
 
 The Ramayana. 325 
 
 may be, in a measure, comprehended. There can 
 be no question that while Joseph was ruling under 
 Pharoah, in Egypt, there were organized govern- 
 ments in India, and reigning princes who could 
 bring large armies into the field. 
 
 The " Ramayana," an epic poem detailing the 
 adventures of the god Rama, though containing, 
 without doubt, many fables and exaggerations, is 
 also a shadowing forth of events and exploits that 
 actually took place. The first mention made of this 
 nation, locates them in a tract of land between the 
 rivers Sersuti and Caggar, distant from Delhi not 
 more than one hundred miles to the northwest. 
 It then bore the iiame of Brahmaverti, and is 
 described as the abode of the gods, " the scene of 
 the adventures of princes, and the residence of 
 famous sages." Moses describes the precious 
 stones of India in the requisitions for making the 
 tabernacle ; and some writers have believed that 
 the term " shittim-wood," in our version of the 
 Bible, which the " Seventy " rendered " Incorrupt- 
 ible-wood," may have referred to the precious Aloe 
 wood found near Cape Comorin. This is the most 
 precious of all woods, obtainable only at a few 
 places in the world, and worth, even in our own
 
 326 Earliest History. 
 
 clay, its weight in gold. The Phoenicians and 
 Egyptians, Greeks and Romans, successively re- 
 paired to the coasts of Malabar for their drugs, 
 indigo and gum-lac, for their ivory, mother-of- 
 pearl and precious stones. Herodotus, also with 
 Strabo, Pliny and Ptolemy, confirm the accounts of 
 the great antiquity of India. According to the 
 "Vishnu Purana," their territory was, at the first, 
 only sixty-five miles long and forty broad ; but at 
 an early period from their first records the Hindus 
 appear to have enlarged the bounds of their king- 
 dom, making it include the present districts of 
 Oude, Agra, Allahabad, Lahore and Delhi. 
 
 The city of Oude was then called Aoudha, and 
 was the capital of the kingdom in the early days. 
 Hindu records state that there were born, as em- 
 anations from Brahma, two princes, whose descend- 
 ants were known as the "solar and lunar races." 
 
 Various fabulous and most extravagant accounts 
 of sixty races of these are given ; but it is only in 
 following the details of the Ramayana, or the 
 exploits of Rama, that any available facts are 
 reached. Rama, the hero of this oriental Epic, 
 seems to have been a real personage, one of the 
 earlier kings of Oude, who having, after the fash-
 
 328 Earliest History. 
 
 ion of many oriental monarchs, resolved on a pro- 
 tracted period of penance, retired with his beauti- 
 ful wife Sita, to the seclusion of the forests of 
 Aoudha. The Island of Ceylon, which claims to 
 date back its historical records to the twenty-fourth 
 century before our era, was supposed in the former 
 days to have been a portion of the mainland, and 
 to have been inhabited by a race, of demons who 
 made constant depredations into the surrounding 
 country. On one of these marauding expeditions 
 Ravana, the king of Ceylon, chanced to meet the 
 beautiful queen Sita, and becoming desperately 
 enamored of her charms, carried her off to his 
 capital at Lanka. Rama, stung to desperation by 
 the loss of his beloved wife, and fearing to en- 
 counter this company of " demons," with only his 
 own small army, called to his aid Hanouman, the 
 king of a race of wonderful monkeys. Uniting 
 their powers, the allies marched with all possible 
 speed across the Deccan, and on reaching the ex- 
 tremity of the mainland found a miraculous bridge 
 had been thrown across the Pambero Passage for 
 their special accommodation. Upon this, they 
 crossed into Ceylon, surprised Ravana just as he 
 was entering Lanka with his valued prize, rescued
 
 The Ramayana. 829 
 
 the queen after a terrible battle, and were about 
 setting out on their return, when Rama accident- 
 ally killed his brother Lachman. Overwhelmed 
 with despair he threw himself into the water, and 
 dying was reunited to the divinity. The powerful 
 monkey-king fell heir to the beautiful Sita, and 
 carried her off to his own realm, despite the deter- 
 mined resistance of Havana and his " demons." 
 
 Amid this maze of the marvellous and the ro- 
 mantic, there is doubtless a broad vein of truth. 
 This invasion of Ceylon by the king of Oude, it 
 is believed, took place about the fourteenth cent- 
 ury before our Lord's advent, and that Rama did 
 not live to return from his unfortunate expedition, 
 while the queen Sita, the innocent cause of all the 
 trouble, was carried off an unwilling captive by 
 the ally of her former lord. The " monkeys " 
 were probably a race of wild mountaineers pressed 
 suddenly into service by king Rama to aid him in 
 his hurried pursuit ; and the " demons " may have 
 been so called by the infuriated husband either on 
 account of this lawless act of violence, or from 
 their dark complexions. 
 
 Little is recorded of the immediate successors of 
 Rama, or of the domain they ruled over, beyond
 
 330 Earliest History. 
 
 the fact of the removal of the capital from Oude 
 to Canouj." 
 
 Another great Indian Epic, the " Maha Barat" 
 deals somewhat more in facts, with perhaps less 
 commingling of the marvellous and fictitious than 
 the Ram ay ana. 
 
 There are loosely-written records of a great war 
 between two rival branches of the house of Ha,s- 
 tinapura, supposed to represent the country lying 
 on the Ganges, northeast of Delhi. Into this quar- 
 rel most of the princes of India seem to have 
 been drawn, and the war appears to have raged 
 with great fury for a considerable period, and to 
 have devastated some of the most flourishing dis- 
 tricts of Hindustan.* The Pandu branch were 
 the victors ; but they were so impoverished, both 
 in men and money, by this violent and protracted 
 contest that they did not for several generations re- 
 cover their former position. The precise date of this 
 war is not known ; but it may be safely placed 
 within the fourteenth century before our era. Of 
 the succeeding Pandu kings we know almost noth- 
 ing the records, such as they are, not agreeing 
 even as to the number, some placing it at twenty- 
 
 * Malcolm's " Indian Mutiny."
 
 SIDE VIEW OF THE PAL PALACE, AT GWALIOB. 331
 
 G-audama. 333 
 
 nine, and others swelling the list to sixty-four. 
 Despite this paucity of details in regard to the 
 kings, there may be gleaned from the pages of the 
 " Maha Barat" many interesting facts concerning 
 the relative position of the several kingdoms and 
 independent states, their social condition, and 
 gradual development. Six distinct kingdoms are 
 mentioned in this part of India, most prominent 
 among which is the sovereignty of Magada, whose 
 king, at the time of the great war, was Maha-Deva ; 
 and from his reign down to A. D. 436, there is an 
 unbroken line of kings. Of most of them, how- 
 ever, little has come down to us besides their 
 names. In this kingdom of Magada, South Behar, 
 Gaudamd,* the founder of the Buddhistic religion, 
 was born, B.C. 656. He was the only son of the 
 reigning king; a prince of noble endowments, 
 physical, mental and moral, and well fitted for the 
 important part he was to perform in the affairs of 
 his country and the world. He was about forty 
 years of age when he began to preach his new 
 doctrines ; and from that time to the close of his 
 life, at the advanced age of eighty-four, he seems 
 to have been untiring in his efforts to reform the 
 
 * Regarding Gaudama, see " The Light of Asia," by Edwin Arnold.
 
 334 Earliest History. 
 
 clergy, and to inculcate among the people honesty, 
 virtue, truth, temperance and kindness, his own 
 life furnishing the best commentary on his teach- 
 ings. There is no reason to believe that he ever 
 claimed to be more than a religious teacher, and it 
 was not until after his death that he was wor- 
 shipped as a god. His death occurred B. c. 572. 
 This portion of Hindu history is certainly no 
 fable, nor the hero a myth, but all the details of 
 his life are well authenticated facts. It is in the 
 Pali or Bali, the ancient language of Magada, 
 that the sacred books of the Buddhists are always 
 written. 
 
 Alexander's invasion of the Punjaub, by break- 
 ing the power of the Brahmins, tended to the 
 increase of Buddhism, at least for a time. The 
 Pandu dynasty of Magada, in South Behar, was 
 overthrown by Chandragumpta, a Soudra, or low- 
 caste, who murdered the reigning king, the four- 
 teenth of his line. Sir William Jones has shown 
 plainly that Chandragumpta is synonymous with 
 the Sandrakottus of the Greek historians : he who 
 freed the Punjaub from Macedonian rule, and re- 
 ceived Megasthenes at his court in Pataliputra. 
 About the year B. c. 310, he concluded a treaty
 
 Sandrakottus 335 
 
 with Seleucns, one of Alexander's successors. 
 Through his origin, as a Soudra, the Brahmins 
 were greatly scandalized, and their power curtailed 
 during this reign and several succeeding ones.
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 DECLINE OP THE ARAB POWER. 
 
 DHARMASOKA, the grandson of Chandra- 
 gumpta, was the greatest king of the Maurya 
 dynast}-, and the first who seems to have had 
 any real title to be called lord paramount, or 
 Emperor of India. The researches of Mr. Prinsep, 
 and the numberless old inscriptions he has un- 
 earthed from various remote sections of the 
 Empire, have settled beyond a doubt the mooted 
 question in regard to the extent of the dominion 
 of this famous king. These dominions, as shown 
 by indubitable proof, must have reached from far 
 northward of Delhi to the island of Ceylon (the 
 Taprobane of the ancients), and embraced a wide 
 extent of country from east to west. The same 
 
 inscriptions show that his government was far 
 
 336
 
 II. I. 22 MACSOL EUM OF THE SCINBIAS, AT LASHKAR. 337
 
 338 Decline of the Arab Power. 
 
 advanced in civilization ; and many ancient edicts 
 were, found for the establishment of hospitals and 
 dispensaries in distant portions of the realm, and 
 for the sinking of shafts and wells, and the plant- 
 ing of shade trees along the public highways, for 
 the benefit of travellers.* 
 
 Under the name of Piyadasi (love-gifted) this 
 great king published many humane edicts ad- 
 dressed to his people, and Avritten so that they 
 could understand them in the ordinary dialects of 
 the country, instead of Sanscrit or Bali that would 
 have been intelligible only to the learned. Many 
 of these edicts have been found engraven on col- 
 umns at Delhi and Allahabad, and on rocks near 
 Peishwar, Guzerat and Orissa. Under the com- 
 mand of king Dharmasoka, a sort of church council 
 was again held at Pataliputra to endeavor to heal 
 divisions that had arisen between priests of dif- 
 ferent orders, and to harmonize the old and new 
 creeds ; and also to correct abuses among the 
 clergy. An earthquake occurring at the close of 
 the council, it was regarded as an approval of its 
 decrees. 
 
 None of the writings of Buddha dated prior to 
 
 * Malcolm in " Indian Mutiny "
 
 Graudama. 339 
 
 this council are considered valid. It must be re- 
 membered that none of the teachings of the 
 Buddh Gaudama were written during his life- 
 time ; but after his death, by his disciples and 
 followers. And because of corruptions that had 
 crept in, by either accident or design, these writ- 
 ings were all carefully examined, and the decrees 
 of preceding councils modified by this. This king 
 seems to have very heartily approved of the doc- 
 trines of Buddhism, and by his express command 
 priests and teachers were sent far and wide, pro- 
 claiming the new faith. Siam, Burmah, China, 
 Ceylon, Cashmere, and even the wilds of Kafiris- 
 tan, were all instructed in the teachings of Gau- 
 dama ; and this mild, peace-loving system carried 
 the elements of Indian civilization to many a 
 savage tribe that had hitherto been noted for dark 
 and cruel practices. 
 
 After the death of Dharmasoka, the Magada 
 kingdom seems gradually to have declined ; and in 
 the fifth century of our era it was subjected to the 
 kings of Canouj, and no longer regarded as a sep- 
 arate state. Canouj appears to have been not 
 only one of the most ancient states of India, but 
 also far advanced in civilization and the arts.
 
 340 Decline of the Arab Power. 
 
 This is attested, even at the present day, by the 
 splendid ruins of its ancient capital on the banks 
 of the Ganges. In the former days, known as 
 Panchala, Canouj extended from Banar and Chum- 
 bul eastward as far as Nepal, which was also in- 
 cluded in its territory. 
 
 Scinde is spoken of at the date of the Malm 
 Barat as an independent kingdom. It was still so 
 when Alexander's invasion took place,* though 
 divided into several separate states. In the 
 seventh century it was reunited, in the eighth in- 
 vaded by the Arabs, in the ninth retaken by the 
 Rajputs, and A. D. 1015 it became subject to the 
 rulers of the Ghorian dynasty. 
 
 Guzerat, under a Rajput race of rulers, had its 
 capital, in the second century, at Balibi ; but in 
 A. D. 524 these rulers were expelled by the Indo- 
 Bactrians, for a brief period, recovering sway in 
 531. The Balibi princes having been succeeded 
 in the eighth century by the Chaura Rajputs, the 
 capital was removed to Patan. This race be- 
 coming extinct in A. D. 931, was succeeded by 
 
 * The conquest of India by Alexander III., of Macedon, was completed B.C. 
 327. An account of the Asiatic expedition of this conqueror is given by Arria- 
 nus, the friend of Epictetus, who wrote also a work entitled Indica, in which he 
 gave excellent descriptions of the interior of India and of portions of its coast.
 
 Aboriginal Inhabitants. 341 
 
 the Rajput tribe of Salonka, who remained in 
 power for about three centuries. It was subju- 
 gated by the Mohammedans in 1297. 
 
 Vicramaditya, one of the kings of Malwar, 
 seems to have acquired vast dominions, extending 
 his rule over nearly the whole of India ; but the 
 Mohammedan invasion, when it swept over Hin- 
 dustan, carried everything before its crushing 
 power. 
 
 The aboriginal . inhabitants of the Deccan are 
 said to have been foresters, and wild mountain- 
 tribes, leading a lawless and marauding life. But 
 this was probably at a remote period, for the 
 Greeks mention only an advanced civilization in 
 their notices of Southern India. Of all the States 
 of the Deccan, Paudya and Chola are most 
 ancient, the latter including at one time a large 
 portion of the Carnata. 
 
 From the Maha Barat, we learn that the ancient 
 kingdom of Orissa was for a long period in a very 
 flourishing condition, and that it was occupied suc- 
 cessively by Salivahana and Vicramaditya. Later, 
 the government was in the hands of the Kesari 
 race, with constantly recurring wars, then it fell 
 into the hands of the Rajputs and Talingas, re-
 
 342 Decline of the Arab Power. 
 
 spectively, and about the year 1590, it Avas annexed 
 by Akbar to the empire. 
 
 Thus it is evident that the whole history of India, 
 from very remote ages,' has been one of almost 
 continuous war and bloodshed, foreign incursions 
 and domestic brawls the decline of one empire 
 or dynasty and the rise of another. Its later his- 
 tory is but a repetition of the earlier. First 
 shaken by Persian invasions, then a prey to the in- 
 vincible Macedonians under Alexander ; next par- 
 alyzed by the Moslem zealots of Mahmoud of 
 Ghuzni ; and again trampled by the Tartan hosts 
 of Janghis Khan, till finally crushed beneath the 
 incubus of the great Mogul dynasty of the re- 
 nowned Tamerlane. 
 
 The Moors, during their palmy days, fed upon 
 India, Venice grew rich on her wealth, the Portu- 
 guese opened the highway by a new route to the 
 same precious mine, the Dutch followed suit, and 
 England was not slow to enter the lists. The end 
 is not yet. 
 
 Powerful as the Mahrattas afterward became, 
 and extensively as their language is spoken, we 
 find less of them in the early times of India than 
 of almost any other race. Until mentioned by
 
 Alexander in India. 345 
 
 Mohammedan writers after the conquest, there was 
 little to mark their existence save the bare men- 
 tion of their capital. Tagara, as a place of some 
 importance, and even of this the site has long 
 since been lost. 
 
 When Alexander first turned his attention to 
 India, the flourishing condition of the whole coun- 
 try was evidently a matter of surprise ; the im- 
 mense wealth of native princes, their settled 
 government, the advances made in the arts and 
 sciences, the forces Indian kings were capable of 
 bringing into the field, the excellence and variety 
 of their weapons, and the domestic and social 
 habits of the people, were all very much as found 
 in our own day, and very far in advance of the 
 majority of the nations of the earth. Alexander 
 evidently did no more than touch upon the out- 
 skirts of the great country. Having checked the 
 advance of his immense army on the banks of the 
 Hyphasis, with scarcely a glance at the broad land 
 outspread before him, his steps were bent toward 
 the southwest, and passing onward between the 
 desert and the Indus, he bade India a final adieu, 
 leaving only a few garrisons behind him, and one 
 or two kings and chiefs allied to his government.
 
 346 Decline of the Arab Power. 
 
 Among the latter, was the celebrated Porus, whom 
 he first vanquished, severely wounding him in 
 battle, and then received as an ally. 
 
 Though as early as the reign of the Calif Omar 
 there were frequent incursions of Arabs into the 
 Scinde country, it was only as piratical parties 
 bent on plunder ; and it was not until the year 
 664 A. D. that there was any regularly organized 
 expedition of Arabs against India for purposes of 
 conquest. At this period the Arabs penetrated 
 into the Afghan country as far as Cabul, made its 
 ruler a tributary governor, and then, with a por- 
 tion of their troops, under the command of the 
 celebrated Mohalib, they pushed on to Mooltan, 
 sacked the city, and carried off a large body of 
 prisoners. Shortly after this, a piratical vessel 
 putting into one of the seaports of Scinde, and 
 committing some depredations, was seized by the 
 inhabitants and destroyed. This excited the 
 vengeful ire of the Arabs, and led to the invasion 
 of the country by a large army under the com- 
 mand of Mohammed Casim, the younger son of the 
 Governor of Basra. The youthful warrior gained 
 a complete victory, captured the fortified city of 
 Dewal, made the Rajah's son prisoner, and devas-
 
 A Heroine. 347 
 
 tated the whole country as far as the capital. 
 Here the Rajah of Daher, with fifty thousand men 
 and a large body of elephants opposed him ; but 
 met complete defeat, in consequence of a rout 
 caused by the wounding of the Rajput's elephant 
 under him, and the wild scene of confusion that 
 followed. Daher acted with distinguished valor, 
 but finding it impossible to retrieve his lost fort- 
 unes, he rushed into the thickest of the fight, and 
 fell covered with wounds. His wife, with wonder- 
 ful bravery, endeavored to rally the discomfited 
 soldiers, and finding this impossible she took 
 refuge in Brahmanabad, and held the city for 
 some time, under great odds. Finding their 
 efforts vain, all the women and children were im- 
 molated on an immense funeral pile, and the brave 
 garrison of Rajputs rushed out and met death at 
 the points of the Arab swords. Some few who 
 had remained within the fort were slaughtered 
 without mercy, and several youths carried away 
 captives. Casim met with little opposition in his 
 onward progress, and was not only rapidly subdu- 
 ing the country he had invaded, but establishing a 
 good and wise administration over the conquered 
 territory, when his successes were terminated by
 
 348 Decline of the Arab Power. 
 
 his sudden death. Though subsequent expeditions 
 were less successful, the Moslem rule in Scinde 
 continued until A. D. 750, when the united forces 
 of the Rajputs and Hindus expelled the invaders 
 from the country. The decline of the Arab power 
 in India began from this period, and was never 
 again firmly established.
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 THE SUPREMACY OF MAHMOUD. 
 
 THE demise of the Calif Haroun-al-Raschid 
 was followed by the secession of Khorassan 
 and other important provinces, thus still farther 
 weakening the already decaying power of the 
 Arabs in India. 
 
 Among the petty dynasties of the northern 
 provinces of the Arab dominions were the Samanis, 
 a family of Bokhara descent, established in Kho- 
 rassin, over which they had ruled for more than a 
 century. Abdulmelek, the fifth prince of the 
 house of Samani, had in his family a Turkish slave 
 named Alptegin, who, by his natural abilities and 
 faithfulness, so won the esteem of his master as to 
 be promoted to the high office of governor of 
 Khorassan. This command he held till his master's 
 death, when, having in some way offended the new 
 349
 
 350 The Supremacy of Mahmoud. 
 
 ruler, he was obliged to seek safety in flight, and 
 took refuge among the Gazni hill tribes. These 
 mountaineers were a bold, hardy race, eager for 
 adventures, and never afraid to use their own 
 weapons or face those of their adversaries. So, 
 nothing loth to place themselves under a leader so 
 daring as Alptegin, they gave the adventurer a 
 hearty welcome, and enlisted themselves and their 
 swords in his service. To the day of his death, 
 which occurred fourteen years later, he maintained 
 his position in the Ghaznivide country as the bold 
 and always successful leader of an able and in- 
 trepid band of Afghans and Mamelukes. Among 
 his followers was an especial favorite, a soldier 
 who had been, like himself, a slave, and like him- 
 self had been for faithfulness and ability promoted 
 to the position next his master's. When the death 
 of Alptegin occurred in A. D. 976, the favorite 
 Sibektegin succeeded to the mountain throne of his 
 late master, and by marrying the dead chief's daugh- 
 ter, he rendered his position still more secure. Lord 
 Elphinstone relates a popular story of the young 
 Sibektegin, while yet a private soldier, that, if true, 
 speaks well for his humanity : " One day, in hunt- 
 ing, he succeeded in riding down a fawn, but
 
 352 The Supremacy of Mahmoud. 
 
 when he was carrying off his prize in triumph he 
 observed the dam following his horse, and showing 
 such evident marks of distress, that he was touched 
 with compassion, and at last released his captive, 
 pleasing himself with the gratitude of the mother, 
 that several times turned back to gaze at him as 
 she went off to the forest with her fawn. That 
 night, t,he Prophet appeared to him in a dream, 
 and told him that God had given him a kingdom 
 as a reward for his humanity, and enjoined him 
 not to forget his feelings of mercy when he came 
 to the exercise of power." 
 
 Shortly after the accession of Sibektegin to. the 
 throne of his mountain kingdom, his territory was 
 invaded by Jeipal, the Rajah of Lahore, at the 
 head of a large army. The Hindu Princes on the 
 east of the Indus had become restive of the estab- 
 lishment of Moslem power so contiguous to their 
 own country, and determining to drive out the in- 
 truders, the Rajah of Lahore had taken the initia- 
 tive, while others were to follow him to the field. 
 But just when the Indus had been crossed, and he 
 was approaching Gazni, a fierce storm of hail and 
 wind came on, in the midst of which he encoun- 
 tered Sibektegin and his hardy warriors. A fierce
 
 I _23 
 
 IMPERIAL DURBAR DRESS RECEPTION.
 
 Sibektegin Victorious. 355 
 
 encounter ensued, in which the Hindus, unused to 
 cold and to mountain tactics, got the worst of the 
 fray, and Jeipal was compelled to treat with his 
 adversary on the latter's own terms, which were 
 the payment on the spot of fifty elephants and 
 the forwarding on the Rajah's return of a large 
 sum of money. The elephants were handed over 
 as stipulated ; but the money the Rajah refused to 
 forward, when safe within his own lines. The 
 Tartar chief declining to pocket such an insult 
 crossed the Indus at the head of an immense 
 force ; but Jeipal met him with one much more 
 numerous, having summoned to the defence of 
 their common cause the Rajahs of Delhi, Ajmere, 
 Calingar, and Canonj, their united forces number- 
 ing a hundred thousand cavalry, and a vast army 
 of foot soldiers. But numbers availed nothing 
 against the determined valor and perfect discipline 
 of Sibektegin's splendid army. The Hindus suf- 
 fered a terrible defeat, and fled precipitately from 
 the field, pursued hotly by Sibektegin as far as the 
 Indus, where he at once established his authority, 
 leaving a governor and a numerous body of troops 
 in command of the Peishwar region. 
 
 Sibektegin might have carried his success farther,
 
 356 The Supremacy of Mahmoud. 
 
 but he was summoned at this time to aid his 
 former masters, the Samauis, in subduing their re- 
 bellious subjects to obedience. This had scarcely 
 been accomplished ere Sibektegin's aggressive 
 measures were cut short by his sudden death. 
 His son, Mahmoud, a daring, ambitious spirit, suc- 
 ceeded him with the title of Sultan, and began at 
 once aggressions on his Indian neighbors. Four 
 expeditions across the Indus followed each other 
 in quick succession, in all of which, Mahmoud was 
 victorious, and in the last captured immense 
 amounts of treasure and precious stones. A tri- 
 umphal feast followed, during which the Indian 
 spoils were publicly exhibited on tables of pure 
 gold, thus adding to his prestige in the eyes of his 
 people, and increasing the influence he wielded 
 over his soldiers, whose admiration for their dar- 
 ling leader was such that they would have followed 
 him to the world's end. His next step was the 
 assembling of an immense force of one hundred 
 thousand cavalry and twenty thousand foot, with 
 which he was thundering at the gates of Canouj 
 before his approach was even suspected. The 
 whole of the Punjaub was soon annexed to the 
 kingdom of Ghuzni, and the conquest of Lahore
 
 358 The Supremacy of Mahmoud. 
 
 followed, by which the foundation of the Ghuzni- 
 vide dynasty in India was securely laid, and the 
 Mohammedan conqueror brought within the limits 
 of India. This was in A. D. 1022, and two years 
 later he fitted out his twelfth and last expedition 
 into India. The object of this was the great 
 temple of Somnat, situated on the southern border 
 of Guzerat, and noted alike for the immense 
 wealth belonging to its shrine and for the very 
 great sanctity that attached to this famous temple. 
 The Hindus offered a gallant resistance ; but it 
 availed not, and their gorgeous temple, with its 
 vast treasures, fell into the hands of the Moslem. 
 His last conquest, that of Persia, followed quickly 
 after the taking of Somnat ; and then, ere these new 
 laurels had lost their first bloom, the founder of the 
 Afghan-Indo dynasty sank to his last repose, and 
 another reigned in his stead. 
 
 Mahmoud, uniting in himself the characteristics 
 of a great general and a great sovereign, was 
 assuredly one of the most remarkable men of his 
 times, having many noble and striking qualities 
 not very common in those days, with very few of 
 the faults and defects most prevalent among men 
 in power at the period in which he lived. Just,
 
 Ferdousi. 359 
 
 considerate, and kind to all, he was possessed of an 
 innate nobility that would never permit him to be 
 either unduly elated at his own good fortune, or 
 unmindful of the claims of those vanquished. 
 Among other noble acts, he founded in his capital 
 an excellent college, with a library and mu- 
 seum attached, and appropriated fully fifty thous- 
 and dollars a year to the payment of profes- 
 sors and the maintenance of poor students. Lord 
 Elphinstone mentions the case of a poor woman 
 who complained to this Sultan of the loss of her 
 only son, who had been slain by robbers in a 
 distant part of the empire. The Sultan answered 
 that it was impossible for him alwaj's to enforce 
 the laws in the border-provinces, so far removed 
 from his immediate control. " Why, then," was 
 the spirited reply, " do you take more territory than 
 you can govern." Mahmoud, it is said, saw the 
 pertinence of the reproof and instituted more 
 effective measures for the protection of his sub- 
 jects at a distance from the capital. 
 
 It was in the reign of this monarch that the 
 eminent poet, Ferdousi, flourished. He was at- 
 tracted to the court of Mahmoud by the Sultan's 
 general patronage of literature, but for some
 
 360 The Supremacy of Mahmoud. 
 
 reason, Ferdousi proved almost the solitary excep- 
 tion. He spent thirty whole years in compos- 
 ing a grand epic of sixty thousand couplets, 
 a work that has been deservedly admired alike by 
 oriental and occidental scholars; yet he received 
 no recompense, and it .is said, actually died of 
 want, of which, however, the Sultan was not cog- 
 nizant, an over-sensitiveness restraining the poet 
 from any revelation of his needs.
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 KHILIJI, THE SANGUINAKY. 
 
 MOHAMMED, Mahmoud's second son, was 
 by his late father's express wish placed on 
 the throne ; but the popular will soon deposed the 
 new Sultan, and put in his stead the more warlike 
 and popular brother. Then followed five short 
 reigns, including those of the two sons and two 
 grandsons of Mahmoud. who successively suffered 
 violent deaths, and whose entire reigns were filled 
 with revolts, insurrections, and murders. The 
 last of the five, Abdul Rashid, was besieged in 
 Ghazni by a revolted chief, captured, and mur- 
 dered with all his family. The successful assassin 
 placed himself on the throne, but was deposed and 
 put to death within a month, and the army began 
 
 to search for some member of the rightful family 
 361
 
 362 Khiliji, The Sanguinary. 
 
 to fill the vacant seat. After considerable delay, 
 the choice fell upon Farokhsad, a young prince 
 whose brief life had been spent mainly in prison, 
 in consequence of the civil wars and jealousies 
 that had rent the country from the time of 
 Mahmoud's death. 
 
 During these troublous years nearly all the ac- 
 quisitions of the great Mahmoud had been lost; 
 all the cities east of the Sutlej, Lahore, the Pun- 
 jaub, and Nargacot, the seat of the magnificent 
 temples of Sumnat destroyed by Mahmoud, had 
 successively passed into possession of their former 
 owners, and disaffection everywhere prevailed 
 among the .Hindu subjects of the Afghan em- 
 peror, while the incursions of the Seljuks, a power- 
 ful tribe of Tartars on the north of the Oxus, 
 were constantly becoming more ominous and 
 harassing. Such was the condition of the country 
 over whose affairs the young Farokhsad was called 
 to preside : and though his brief six years' reign 
 was quiet, and even prosperous compared with sev- 
 eral that had preceded his accession, he fell at 
 last by the hands of an assassin. He was suc- 
 ceeded A. D. 1058, by his brother, the wise, peace- 
 loving Ibrahim, whose peaceful and prosperous
 
 Ibrahim. 365 
 
 reign of forty-one years was fruitful of the best 
 results for his country arid people, but leaves 
 slender material for the historian's pen. Only a 
 single military expedition of any note is recorded 
 of all these years of Ibrahim's reign an expe- 
 dition to the Sutlej, resulting in the capture of 
 several cities from the Hindus. The great desire 
 of this monarch seems to have been for peace, 
 coupled with the wise administration of the affairs 
 of his realm, the happiness of liis people, and the 
 encouragement of learning. He died A. D. 1089, 
 and was succeeded by Majsaud II., whose quiet 
 reign of fifteen years was spent in legislating and 
 improving the condition of his subjects, and was 
 marked by no great military exploits. Arslan suc- 
 ceeded his father for a few months, beginning his 
 brief interval of power by imprisoning all his 
 brothers, and ending it by meeting himself a 
 bloody death. He was succeeded by his brother 
 Behram, who was placed by the Seljuk Sultan on 
 the throne. During a reign of rather more than 
 twenty years he gathered about his court philos- 
 ophers, poets, and learned men, by whose influence 
 on the character of the people they began to cul- 
 tivate the arts of peace, and no longer to regard
 
 366 Khiliji, The Sanguinary. 
 
 conquest and an increase of territory as the 
 chief good to be attained. But this wise and 
 peaceful reign set under a cloud of treachery and 
 blood that forever obscured its early lustre. This 
 dire event was the murder by the king of his son- 
 in-law, Kutb-u-din, the prince of Ghor, a crime 
 that provoked the vengeance of the Ghor princes, 
 and led ultimately to the murder of a second 
 prince, the brother of the first. As the conse- 
 quence of this double crime, Behram was driven 
 from Ghazni b Ala-u-din, younger brother of the 
 murdered Ghors, and obliged to take refuge in his 
 Indian possessions, where he shortly after died of 
 grief. He was succeeded by his son, Khosru, who 
 ruled over the Indian portion of the Empire from 
 1124 to 1130, while Ala-u-din reigned at Ghazni, 
 neither seeming to be molested by the other. 
 Khosru Malik succeeded his father Khosru, enjoy- 
 ing a quiet, tranquil reign of twenty-seven years, 
 at the end of which he was attacked by the Ghor 
 kings, and subsequently defeated and slain. Froir 
 this period, A. D. 1157, the kingdom of Lahore was- 
 again annexed to the Ghaznivide territory, gor . 
 erned by the new line of kings, beginning with 
 Gheias-u-din, the " Ghorian Sultan of Ghazni and
 
 Grheias-u-din. 367 
 
 Lahore." This reign lasting forty-five years, was 
 productive of vast results, especially in the con- 
 quest of Indian territory. The Sultan had an 
 able assistant in his brother Shahib, to whose great 
 military ability is due the success that attended 
 the Afghan arms at this period. Delhi was the 
 first point attacked, and resisted bravely in the 
 outset, but fell at last with their Rajah a prisoner, 
 and a terrible rout of their troops. This victory 
 was followed by others in quick succession. First 
 Canouj, then Gwalior in Bundelcund, portions of 
 Rohilcund, and the next year the rich provinces of 
 Oudh, Behar and Bengal. 
 
 At the death of Gheias-u-din, his brother suc- 
 ceeded, in the year 1202, to the throne his great 
 military exploits had made so glorious during 
 Gheias-u-din's forty-five years of sovereignty. Sha- 
 hib was scarcely established in his kingly position 
 before difficulties in his western possessions in- 
 volved him in war with the Sultan of Kharism, 
 which terminated unfavorably for Shahib-u-diu ; 
 and while preparing for a new expedition he was 
 assassinated, having reigned only four years. 
 
 His nephew, Mahmoud Ghori, was at once pro- 
 claimed king, A. D. 1206 ; but his rule was con-
 
 368 Khiliji, The Sanguinary. 
 
 fined to the Glior country, and he resigned his 
 claim to the possession of India by voluntarily re- 
 linquishing the insignia of royalty to Kutb-u-din, 
 the viceroy of India, then resident at Delhi. Thus 
 India became an independent power, and the line 
 of the " Slave Kings of Delhi," began in the per- 
 son of Kutb-u-din. 
 
 This monarch had, in his youth, been a slave of 
 the great general Shahib, who highly appreciating 
 the many noble qualities of his bondsman, had 
 promoted him from time to time, till he was ulti- 
 mately made viceroy of Delhi. This post he had 
 filled with honor and ability for twenty years, 
 when, by the voluntary relinquishment of Mah- 
 moud Ghori, he became king. A good and useful 
 reign of four years was terminated by the lamented 
 death of Kutb-u-din A. D. 1210, when he was suc- 
 ceeded by his son Aran. This prince was, how- 
 ever, shortly after deposed for inefficiency, and 
 Altamsh, the son-in-law of Kutb-u-din was put in 
 his place. 
 
 Altamsh, too, had been a slave, promoted for his 
 talents and courage ; and the confidence of the 
 people, in placing him on the throne, seems to have 
 been warranted by his subsequent career, though
 
 Jenghis Khan. 369 
 
 few details have come down to us beyond the re- 
 volts of Behar, Malwar and Gwalior, all of which 
 were successfully quelled by the decision and 
 firmness of the sovereign. It was during the 
 reign of Altamsh that the raids of Jenghis Khan 
 and his Mogul hordes over other portions of Asia 
 began to excite alarm for the safety of the Indian 
 monarchy. Altamsh died at Delhi, about A. D. 
 1234, and was succeeded by his son Ruku-u-din, a 
 weak, dissipated prince, who was shortly deposed 
 in favor of his sister Rezia. Prejudices against 
 her sex excited factions, followed by a civil war, 
 during which the Sultana was made prisoner, and 
 wantonly slain. Two short reigns of Behrain and 
 Massaud followed, with no noteworthy events save 
 the attempted invasion of India, at several points, 
 by the Moguls, and their being repelled without 
 serious results. 
 
 Nasir-u-din, a grandson of Altamsh, was the 
 next sovereign, coming to the throne in 1246, and 
 reigning for about twenty years. His vizier, a 
 former Turkish slave of Altamsh, seems to have 
 been the real head of the government, and a man 
 fitted by his brilliant talents for the important 
 
 position. He promptly quelled revolt whenever it 
 H. I 24
 
 370 Khiliji, The Sanguinary. 
 
 arose, and effectually checked the advances of the 
 Moguls at every point. In a word, he made him- 
 self so necessary to his country that at the death 
 of Nasir-u-din, A. u. 1266, the vizier, Gheias-u-din 
 Bulbun stepped, without opposition, into the vacant 
 place. His reign, lasting twenty years, was full of 
 insurrections and wars within and without, but the 
 vizier-king seems always to have been equal to the 
 occasion, and his administration, though marked 
 with severity towards all he suspected of being 
 opposed to his interests, was nevertheless pro- 
 motive of the prosperity and aggrandizement of 
 the country. 
 
 His successor, Kai-Kobad, was the last of the 
 " Slave Kings," and reigning but a short time, was 
 followed by three monarchs of the house of Khiliji. 
 The reigns of these kings were a succession of 
 plots, intrigues and murders, but were marked 
 also by several great military exploits. During 
 the reign of the second of the Khiliji sovereigns, 
 Allah-u-din, several of the independent Rajahs 
 were reduced to subjection and compelled to pay 
 tribute ; and the Moguls of his army, to the 
 number of fifteen thousand, were dismissed from 
 his service and driven from the country. This
 
 Conquest of Malabar. 371 
 
 measure, hailed at first as one promising only 
 good to the Indian people, was afterwards, no 
 doubt, the cause of more vengeful ire on the part 
 of the Moguls, leading them, as soon as they had 
 gained a footing on Indian soil, to greater cruelties 
 and excesses than they might otherwise have com- 
 mitted. 
 
 The death of Allah-u-din, which occurred in 
 A. D. 1316, was believed to have been occasioned 
 by poison administered by his favorite general, 
 who immediately had the infant son of Allah pro- 
 claimed king. This was, however, declared invalid 
 by the nobles and army of Delhi who cuised 
 Mubarik, the eldest son of their late king, to be 
 crowned with all due honors ; the child, who had 
 been the puppet of the suspected general, was pri- 
 vately executed, and tranquillity was for the time 
 restored. 
 
 The conquest of the whole Malabar country 
 was the first act of the new king, covering his 
 name with glory ; but the next step, that of ap- 
 pointing as his chief officer a low Hindu named 
 Mallek Khosru, cost him first the confidence of his 
 people, and then his own life. Mallek conspired 
 against his royal master, and before his designs
 
 372 Khiliji, The Sanguinary. 
 
 were even suspected, he had taken the lives of 
 King Mubarik and every member of the royal 
 family. The traitor was executed of course, and 
 his adherents disbanded and banished from the 
 country. But the throne was vacant, the royal 
 house of Khiliji was extinct, and a new dynasty 
 was to be inaugurated that of the House of 
 Tocjhlak.
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 THE TOGHLAK DYNASTY. 
 
 AFTER the assassination of Mubarik and his 
 family, the extermination was so complete 
 that it became necessary to elect a king from 
 another family : and the choice of the nobles fell 
 upon one of their own number, Gheias-u-din 
 Toghlak, then governor of the Punjaub. He had 
 already acquired a high reputation, not only for 
 his military skill, but his wise statesmanship as 
 governor had won for him a wide-spread confi- 
 dence that during his brief reign was well-sus- 
 tained. The Moguls, still threatening the north- 
 western border, were promptly repulsed, and 
 another line of ramparts thrown up by the new 
 sovereign all along the Afghan border. He also 
 annexed the territory of Dacca to his dominion ; 
 
 373
 
 374 The TogUak Dynasty. 
 
 and on his return from this expedition he was 
 welcomed by his eldest son, in a new bungalow 
 erected for the occasion, under the pretext of do- 
 ing honor to his father and sovereign. But there 
 were strong suspicions of premeditated treachery 
 on the part of the son who, by the death of his 
 father, secured a diadem for himself. Gheias-u-din 
 had reigned only four years ; and his son, Moham- 
 med Toghlak, succeeded him A. D. 1325. The first 
 acts of the new king evinced the great ability for 
 which he was noted ; and his patronage of men of 
 learning was quite in accordance with his fine lit- 
 erary tastes. 
 
 An army of Moguls, who had effected a landing 
 in the Punjaub, were bought off by the payment 
 of a large sum of money ; the subjugation of the 
 Deccan, begun by the father, was completed by 
 the son, and good order was instituted in every 
 part of the kingdom, even to the most remote 
 borders. But other steps followed less advan- 
 tageous to the interests of the country. The king 
 invaded Persia with a large army, and then at- 
 tempted the conquest of China, but returned from 
 both expeditions suffering from terrible defeats, 
 and the loss and disaffection of a large portion of
 
 Death of Mohammed. 377 
 
 the splendid armies with which he had set out. 
 To meet the expenses of all these aggressive meas- 
 ures his people were excessively taxed, and cruelly 
 oppressed ; the currency was altered in a manner 
 that induced general discontent, and everywhere, 
 during the next dozen years, there were revolts 
 and outbreaks among his subjects that kept the 
 monarch busy and anxious. Many of the insur- 
 rections he succeeded in quelling ; but the people 
 of Bengal, the Carnatic, and Malabar country, 
 boldly defied the authority of the tyrant, and 
 maintained their independence. In the midst of 
 all this disaffection and discord, Mohammed died 
 suddenly, A. D. 1351, after a busy and troublous 
 reign of about twenty-six years, during which, 
 despite his undoubted ability both as general and 
 statesman, a large portion of the territory gained by 
 his father was lost to the crown. Mohamm ed's death 
 was said to have been caused by a surfeit of fish ; but 
 so embittered against him were his officers and the 
 mass of his people that there existed strong suspi- 
 cion of poison having been used to rid the country 
 of the hated tyrant. As he left no immediate 
 family, his nephew, Firuz Toghlak, was chosen to 
 succeed him. The character of Firuz seems to
 
 378 The Toghlak Dynasty. 
 
 have been different in every respect from that of 
 his uncle. With no ambition for conquest or mili- 
 tary glory, he devoted himself to the interests of 
 his people and country with untiring fidelity, re- 
 versing the oppressive acts of the last reign, and 
 seeking rather to add to the resources of the king- 
 dom than to its territorial extent. His long reign 
 of nearly forty years was fruitful of results in the 
 prosperity and happiness of all classes of his sub- 
 jects. From increasing years and infirmity, the 
 cares of sovereignty became at length burdensome, 
 and twice after Firuz had passed his eighty-sixth 
 year he resigned the reins of government to other 
 hands, but was compelled to resume them again. 
 First, his vizier, and then his son had been en- 
 trusted with the administration, but both proving 
 unfaithful, the minister was banished, and the son 
 had to flee for his life from the just indignation of 
 the nobles ; and the aged king, then lacking only 
 a year or two of ninety, once more placed himself 
 at the helm of state. When his death occurred, 
 about the year 1390, the succession of his son, who 
 had so disgraced his position previous to his 
 father's death, was opposed by the nobles ; and two 
 grandsons of Firuz, reigned successively, but each
 
 Tamerlane. 379 
 
 only for a few months, after which, Nasir, the 
 reprobate son of Firuz; returning, was proclaimed 
 king. He reigned for three years, and was suc- 
 ceeded by his eldest son, Humayun, who lived only 
 forty-five days after his accession, and was followed 
 by his brother, Mahmoud, A. D 1394 ; four reigns 
 between the death of Firuz and the proclamation 
 of Mahmoud having filled little more than three 
 and a half years. The new king was yet a minor 
 when he ascended the throne, and the country was in 
 so unsettled a state that when the states of Malwar, 
 Guzerat, and Juanpoor revolted, the king had no 
 power to compel their allegiance, and the speedy 
 dissolution of the empire was feared. Before 
 order' could be restored at home the danger from 
 without, that had been so long impending, was 
 fully realized. The great conqueror, Tamerlane or 
 Timur Bee, having already overrun Persia and 
 Mesopotamia, and some portions of Russia and 
 Siberia, with his immense hordes of Tartars, now 
 (A. D. 1398), turned his face toward India, and 
 sent forward his grandson, Fir Mohammed, to pre- 
 pare the way for the main body of the invaders. 
 The whole of the Punjaub was devastated by 
 these lawless Tartars, and the fortified city of
 
 380 The Toghlak Dynasty. 
 
 Moulton occupied by Mohammed, while Tamerlane, 
 after effecting a passage across the mountain defiles 
 and crossing the Indus at Attok, reached Samana, 
 having cruelly butchered the inhabitants in great 
 numbers in every town through which ~ie passed. 
 He next united his forces with those of his grand- 
 son, and marched on Delhi, where Mahmoud was 
 waiting with a great army and a retinue of ele- 
 phants to receive him. But though the Indian 
 army fought bravely, they were utterly defeated, 
 and the slaughter was immense. Mahmoud fled to 
 Guzerat, where he was hospitably received, as 
 though the state had still been in fealty to the 
 crown ; but the shattered army submitted to the 
 conqueror, as emperor of India, and made terms to 
 remain in Delhi after his proclamation. The 
 plunder and butchery of the inhabitants by the 
 Tartars went on even after the city had capitu- 
 lated ; and historians say that " some streets were 
 rendered impassable by heaps of dead ; and the 
 gates being forced, the whole invading army gained 
 admittance, and a scene of the utmost horror en- 
 sued." Acquisition of territory seems to have 
 been no part of Tamerlane's programme, but 
 merely the fame of a conqueror, with such treasure
 
 Lodi Dynasty. 381 
 
 as he was able to carry with him on his way to 
 meet other foes. Leaving Delhi, and taking with 
 him all the booty, he could collect, and a long 
 train of captives of all ranks, he marched up the 
 banks of the Ganges, across Lahore into the 
 Ghazni country, by the same route he had followed 
 on entering India, which he "found a garden and 
 left a desert," with the additional bequests of fam- 
 ine and pestilence. When the conqueror was 
 gone, a new cause of dispute and even bloodshed 
 arose as to the occupancy of the vacant throne ; 
 but Mahmoud reasserted his claim, and assumed 
 the reins of government. His death followed in a 
 few years, and with him ended the Toghlak 
 dynasty. Several brief, unimportant reigns, those 
 of Khizer Khan and his sons and grandsons, fol- 
 lowed, and then the Lodi dynasty was ushered in 
 by the accession of Behlol Lodi, a governor of the 
 Punjaub, descended from an Afghan family of 
 rank, whose influence had been sufficient to cause 
 the deposing of Seyd Allah, the last king. 
 
 Behlol's reign of twenty-eight years was prosper- 
 ous and beneficial to the country, but not fruitful 
 of important events. He was succeeded by his 
 wise and prudent son, Secander, whose vigorous
 
 382 The Toyhlak Dynasty. 
 
 policy not only retained intact the conquests of 
 his father, but added to them the territory of 
 Behar. The great fault of his administration was 
 his bitter persecution of the Brahmins, an evil 
 that was zealously prosecuted by his son and suc- 
 cessor, Ibrahim Lodi, who came to the throne at 
 the death of his father, A. D. 1516. His cruelty 
 and oppression soon drove the nobles into open re- 
 bellion, and induced them to invite the interfer- 
 ence of Baber, a descendant of Tamerlane, then 
 reigning at Ghazni. Baber very willingly re- 
 sponded, and at the head of a well-appointed army 
 crossed the Indus. Advancing toward Delhi, he 
 was met by Ibrahim with an army in numbers far 
 superior to his own ; but by superior tactics, and 
 better disciplined troops, the Tartar chief gained 
 the day, and Ibrahim Lodi, the last of his dynasty 
 and the last of the Afghan race of Indian mon- 
 archs, fell on the battle-field, leaving Baber in quiet 
 possession of the throne and the empire. He at 
 once decided to fix his court at Delhi, and to live 
 permanently among his Indian subjects, hoping 
 thereby not only to strengthen his position but to 
 add to his territory. 
 
 Baber, the " Tiger," of mixed Tartar and Mogul
 
 Saber, the Tiger. 385 
 
 descent, the first resident emperor of Tartan blood 
 was descended in a direct line from Tamerlane on 
 his father's side, and from Jenghis Khan, the 
 Mogul conqueror, on his mother's, thus uniting in 
 his own person not only the claims, but many of 
 the talents, with the indomitable resolution and 
 untiring perseverance of both his famous ances- 
 tors 
 
 H. I 25
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 EUROPEAN TRADE. 
 
 BEFORE entering on this new race of rulers, 
 the Tartan Emperors of India, let us pause 
 to look at the beginning of European intercourse 
 with the people of that great country. Though, 
 as before stated, India sent, even in the days of the 
 Patriarchs, of her gold, spices, and manufactures, 
 for the supply of the nations of Western Asia, 
 and though centuries before our era, there seems to 
 have existed an overland communication between 
 India and Arabia and Persia, yet, to the times of 
 Alexander the Great, and his eastern expedition, 
 India remained in the fullest sense a terra incog- 
 nita to the people of Europe. With his great 
 conquests, Alexander carried at least a measure 
 of civilization ; and almost our first glimpses of the 
 
 386
 
 Alexander's Conquests. 387 
 
 rich, hoary lands of the sun were the reports that 
 floated westward with the return of the Mace- 
 donian army. But for the early death of Alex- 
 ander, an empire might have arisen and a pros- 
 perous trade been opened at once as the fruit of his 
 exploits. As it was, all this eastern trade remained 
 in the hands of Arab and Egyptian merchants for 
 several centuries longer; and the route was mainly 
 by way of the Red Sea, the Nile, and the Mediter- 
 ranean, the chief ports being Berenice, Coptos, 
 and Alexandria. 
 
 There were, however, two other outlets for this 
 Indian trade, but both were difficult and danger- 
 ous routes, and the traffic limited. The first route 
 was through Persia and Arabia to the Syrian cities, 
 the only halting-place being " Tadmor of the 
 Desert " as called in Bible days, or Palmyra, as 
 known to us, and so named from the luxuriant 
 growth of its abundant palms. It was doubtless 
 its Indian trade that raised Palmyra to such im- 
 portance as to excite the jealousy of imperial 
 Rome, and provoked the destructive war that 
 ended in the capture of the noble queen, Zenobia, 
 the devastation of the grand old city, and the ex- 
 tinction of the trade begun in the days of the
 
 388 European Trade. 
 
 Patriarchs. The other route, and one still used to 
 convey to Russian cities immense quantities of the 
 silks, shawls, muslins, and spices of India, was by 
 the rocky passes of the Hindu Koorsh Mountains 
 and Caspian Sea, and thence on by various land and 
 water routes to the points of destination. Trav- 
 ellers by both these routes suffered iii those lawless 
 times from the ravages of banditti, and the con- 
 quests of the Roman emperors ; and for a time 
 the trade greatly declined, but it was revived 
 by the removal of the seat of government from 
 Rome to Constantinople, and later by the invasions 
 of the Saracens. These enterprising conquerors 
 were active in forming commercial depots, and open- 
 ing a trade where natural facilities existed ; but were 
 too much absorbed in military operations to follow up 
 such openings, that were left for the benefit of those 
 less shackled with conflicting enterprises. Turkish 
 rulers were content with the commercial greatness 
 of their capital as the centre of trade at that 
 period ; the bold and hardy Arabs had revived 
 their trade through Egypt, and by way of the Red 
 Sea on into India ; and the Venetians in Egypt 
 were beginning to share in the Indian trade, when 
 the great discoverers of the fifteenth century
 
 Vasco de drama. 389 
 
 opened a new world for commerce as for other im- 
 portant enterprises. 
 
 Christopher Columbus, searching for the East, 
 found a new world in the West ; and Diaz found a 
 route to India by the " Cape of Storms." Eleven 
 years later, (A. D. 1498), while the Lodi dynasty 
 of Afghan Idngs were ruling in India, the first 
 Portuguese expedition for India, under the com- 
 mand of Vasco de Gama, sailed from Lisbon 
 around this same Cape of Storms. Diaz had given 
 this name in consequence of the terrible stormy 
 weather that had so nearly made shipwreck of hi.s 
 little fleet ; but De Gama found favoring breezes 
 that he deemed good omens of future success, and 
 so conferred the new cognomen that has ever since 
 belonged to the " Cape of Good Hope." Ten long 
 months from the sailing of Vasco de Gama's fleet 
 elapsed before it anchored in the roads of Calicut 
 on the Malabar coast ; but the rich cargo of beauti- 
 ful India goods they were able to take back repaid 
 the navigators for all the dangers they had braved. 
 The king of Portugal was jubilant over the success 
 of his first venture upon the eastern seas ; but the 
 merchants of Egj-pt and Italy looked on with un- 
 disguised alarm.* 
 
 * Malcolm's " Indian Mutiny."
 
 390 European Trade. 
 
 The monopoly of the eastern seas was plainly 
 at an end. Despite the complicity of Venetian 
 merchants with Egyptian Mamelukes, despite even 
 the opposition of the buccaneering Moorish traders 
 who had so long monopolized the commerce of the 
 Indian seas, this broad field for national and in- 
 dividual enterprise was now open to the competi- 
 tion of the world. King Emmanuel of Portugal, 
 whose subjects had been the first to enter the field, 
 was aware equally of the advantages and the 
 dangers of his new position ; and every fleet went 
 manned and armed for fighting, as well as for trad- 
 ing. The expedition commanded by Alvarez de 
 Cabral, that followed that of De Gama, numbered 
 thirteen sail, and carried upwards of a thousand 
 soldiers ; and De Cabral was empowered to nego- 
 tiate with the Zamorin of Calicut, " with the view 
 of obtaining permission to form a settlement for 
 trading purposes within his territories." This he 
 readily accomplished ; a treaty was arranged be- 
 tween the Portuguese settlers and the Zamorin, and 
 the former had already opened within the city a 
 factory for trade, when the native populace, incited 
 by the Moors, attacked the little colony of Portu- 
 guese, and cruelly murdered all the residents of the
 
 Calicut Threatened. 393 
 
 factory. This treachery was promptly avenged by 
 De Cabral, who, turning his guns first upon the 
 Moorish vessels lying under the walls of Calicut, 
 and then upon the defenceless city, nearly annihi- 
 lated both, until the Zamorin was glad to purchase 
 a cessation of hostilities by a new treaty far more 
 favorable to the Portuguese than the first had 
 been. Besides this, the promptitude and success of 
 this operation so impressed the neighboring princes 
 that they readily entered into friendly treaties with 
 the Portuguese sovereign, and permitted trading 
 factories to be established all along the Malabar 
 coast, giving to this pioneer nation the prestige 
 and supremacy they so long enjoyed. 
 
 The next Portuguese expedition was "a fleet of 
 twenty sail, all good ships, and royally found," 
 under the command of Vasco de Garna, who 
 opened friendly relations with many native princes 
 and left the interests of his government in India 
 on a firmer basis of prosperity than they had be- 
 fore enjoyed. The inefficiency and maladministra- 
 tion of Loche, the officer left by De Gama in 
 charge of the settlements, soon brought trouble 
 upon the little colony ; but prosperity was restored 
 by the appointment of Albuquerque as Captain-
 
 394 European Trade. 
 
 general, and his wise and prudent administration. 
 The promulgation of a papal " bull," couched in 
 most arrogant and offensive terms, and assigning 
 to the king of Portugal " the sovereignty of India 
 with all its people and possessions," so excited the 
 just indignation of those proud oriental potentates, 
 that they made common cause with each other and 
 determined on the utter extermination of the in- 
 terlopers : a resolve that, but for the wise and con- 
 ciliatory conduct of Albuquerque, would probably 
 have been carried into effect. Under the excellent 
 administration of this able superintendent, not 
 only were the name and reputation of the Portu- 
 guese restored to their old footing, but new acces- 
 sions of territory were made ; Goa was taken, and 
 strongly fortified, and many powerful native princes 
 offered their friendly alliance, while the Portuguese 
 ports were filled with shipping and alive with 
 thrifty trade. The death of Albuquerque, a man 
 reverenced and esteemed by natives as well as by 
 foreigners, occurred after a brilliant rule of only 
 five years, and was followed by the advent of 
 officers less faithful and less efficient, greatly to 
 the detriment of the Portuguese interests. The 
 death of king Emmanuel, and the accession of his
 
 The Portuguese. 395 
 
 successor, was succeeded by the appointment of 
 the veteran De Gain a, under the title of Count de 
 Vidigueyra, to the Captain-generalship of the 
 Indian colony, for which he sailed immediately on 
 his third and last Indian campaign. Though he 
 lived but three months after his arrival, his coming 
 was productive of the happiest results ; advantages 
 that were, however, soon lost by the misrule of 
 inefficient governors, till the once prosperous colony 
 was on the verge of dissolution. Corruption and 
 oppression ruled in high places, and the total lack 
 of integrity and good faith shown by the Portu- 
 guese toward their Indian allies had so widened 
 the breach between them that reconciliation seemed 
 impossible ; while the* notorious cruelties and 
 oppressions of De Souza were remembered only 
 with threats of vengeance by both natives and 
 Europeans. War had already been declared 
 against the Portuguese settlers by the Rajahs of 
 Guzerat and the Deccan, who had also laid siege 
 to one of their towns, when the opportune arrival 
 of De Castro gave a new aspect to affairs in gen- 
 eral. The new viceroy at once raised the siege, 
 and defeated the besieging army with great slaugh- 
 ter, and then pushed the war so successfully into
 
 396 European Trade. 
 
 the enemy's country as to compel the sovereigns 
 of Guzerat and the Deccan to sue for peace. 
 This decisive action towards the foes of his coun- 
 try was followed by a wise and conciliatory policy 
 that made the viceroy every day new friends, and 
 so reversed the state of anarchy in which he had 
 found the colony, that " never at any other period 
 of their Indian history could the Portuguese be 
 said to have attained an equal measure of pros- 
 perity as during the wise rule of De Castro. 
 Their ports were crowded with shipping, their 
 factories teemed with produce and merchandise, 
 and on all sides were heard the sounds of busy in- 
 dustry." De Castro seems to have united in a 
 wonderful degree the excellences of two rival 
 professions those of a military chieftain and a 
 civil ruler in both of which he was alike brill- 
 iant and exemplary. His famous victory over the 
 Moors, at Diu, was celebrated by the poet Camoens ; 
 and a beautiful statue to his memory was erected 
 at Goa. He died at Goa, A. D. 1547, during the 
 reign of Humayun, the father of Akbar the 
 Great. 
 
 It was about this period that the celebrated 
 monk, Francis Xavier, in the interests of Jesuit
 
 St. Francis Xavier. 397 
 
 missions, established himself in Goa, and prose- 
 lyted large numbers to a nominal Christianity in 
 an incredibly short period of time. He exerted 
 also a wide influence in political matters, and 
 helped to carry out the plans of civil reform in- 
 augurated by De Castro. But after the death of 
 the viceroy, the efforts of Xavier were not suffi- 
 cient to check the tide of corruption that again 
 overspread the land, and threatened to engulf its 
 very existence ; a calamity that was hastened by 
 two causes of very opposite character. The first 
 of these was the establishment of the Inquisition 
 at Goa that engine of bigotry and evil passions 
 that inflicted upon this fair land tortures and suf- 
 fering far worse than those of heathenism ; and 
 that made the very name of Christian an offence 
 and a reproach to its friends, and a bitter taunt 
 upon the lips of its enemies. The Inquisition had 
 already become an Indo-Portuguese institution in 
 the days of Don Sebastian ; but by the accession 
 of the bigoted and sanguinary Philip it received 
 a terrible impulse, that deluged in tears of blood 
 one of earth's fairest domains, and caused the 
 native converts to turn with horror from the 
 bloody standard of this so-called Christian faith to
 
 398 European Trade. 
 
 embrace that of the more merciful Moslem or 
 Hindu. 
 
 The other cause of the decay of Portuguese 
 power in India was the advent of Dutch oriental 
 enterprise, and the formation of an East India 
 Company, for the protection of its foreign trade. 
 The prudent, plodding Hollanders were just the 
 people to profit by the reports that soon spread 
 concerning the trade and possessions of the Portu- 
 guese in India ; and they at once fitted out and 
 dispatched a fleet of merchant ships to secure a 
 share of the costly spoils of the Orient. From 
 the arrival in India of this first armament from 
 Holland may be dated the decline of the Indo- 
 Portuguese Empire ; while the power of the 
 Dutch increased steadily, and waxed stronger with 
 the passing years, gaining continually in favor with 
 the native princes, especially those ruling on the 
 Malabar and Coromandel coasts. 
 
 In the very footsteps of the Dutch came the 
 English, the fame of " the lands of the sun " hav- 
 ing reached also across the British waters, and 
 gained eager credence among London merchants 
 and capitalists. The advantages of procuring 
 India goods by direct route in their own ships, in-
 
 The East India Company. 399 
 
 stead of through the Venetians, or by Turkish 
 ports, were too apparent not to find ready advo- 
 cates. Accordingly, in A. D. 1600, five years before 
 the close of the reign of the great Akbar, a com- 
 pany of London merchants formed themselves into 
 an association for foreign trade, with a capital of 
 ,369,891, or nearly $1,850,000, and obtained from 
 Queen Elizabeth, then Sovereign of Great Britian, 
 a charter, under the style of " The Governor and 
 Company of Merchants of London trading to the 
 East Indies." This was the basis of the u British 
 East India Company " that for two centuries and 
 a half controlled almost the entire foreign trade 
 of Great Britian, and grew at length into such a 
 mammoth concern, such a complication of enter- 
 prises, prerogatives and abuses, as to render its 
 dissolution a matter of necessity.
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 INDIAN RACES. 
 
 PAUSING in our history to consider the origin, 
 character, and abodes of some of the numer- 
 ous races of India, who seem generally to have 
 filled the leading parts of the great drama, we find 
 the Rajputs stand out prominently as the ruling 
 race. Few nations have a history so replete with 
 heroic deeds and unflinching patriotism as the 
 Rajputs of Meywar. They alone of all the Indian 
 races refused to bow before Mohammedan des- 
 potism ; and despite the most horrible persecutions, 
 they proudly maintained their independence ; 
 which was proof equally against the blandish- 
 ments of imperial favor, and the furious onslaught 
 of the armed foe. 
 
 Kashatrya is a name that belonged originally to 
 400
 
 CAB OF JUGGERNATH. 
 
 H. I 26
 
 The Rajputs. 403 
 
 the Aryan race of warriors, who, in company with 
 the Brahmins or priests, established themselves on 
 the lofty table-lands of Hindustan some two 
 thousand years before our era. This title of 
 Kashatrya is now claimed by the Rajputs, together 
 with a descent from the god Rama, the conqueror 
 of Lanka, who was the king of the " Race of the 
 Sun," at the date of the first colonization of India 
 by the Aryans. It is now believed that the inva- 
 sion of India occurred at a somewhat later period 
 than that claimed by its own records ; but 
 whether the ancient Kashatryas are the veritable 
 ancestors of the modern Rajputs, it is impossible 
 now to determine. In opposition to the Rajput 
 theory, the Brahmins contend that several centu- 
 ries before our era the Kashatryas were all 
 destroyed in a general up-rising of the other castes, 
 by a decree of Parasourama, an incarnation of 
 Vishnu. Yet another theory, advanced by several 
 historians, is, that these redoubtable Rajputs, \vho 
 have generally managed to gain the day in their 
 constantly-recurring disputes, are none other than 
 the descendants of the Scythian tribes who, com- 
 ing over in small parties, at different periods, 
 gained a footing and formed colonies along the
 
 404 Indian Races. 
 
 western frontier of India. In favor of this last 
 theory, it is alleged that both in physique and 
 many of their national customs, as also in their 
 fairer complexion, the Rajputs more nearly re- 
 semble the Parthians and Scythians than they do 
 any of the Hindu races ; while their religious 
 creed inclines to the Jam type, and their older 
 traditions make frequent reference to Mount 
 Aboo. Though there are now no well-authorized 
 data upon which to base any positive decision of 
 these mooted points, it is certain that the Rajputs 
 did not make their de"but upon the political stage 
 of India prior to the sixth century, and that, if 
 not destroyed, they were at least supplanted by 
 the Mauryas, and other races of Soudras, who suc- 
 cessively occupied the imperial throne of Magadha. 
 Between the sixth and seventh centuries, however, 
 the Rajputs, who had remained for a long time 
 quietly settled on the banks of the Indus, began 
 to cast adrift and to make their power felt in the 
 struggle for position. The Chohans and Rahtores 
 took possession of Canouj and Delhi ; the Ohan- 
 delas, of Malwar ; arid the Ghelotes and Baghelas, 
 of Mey war and Guzerat ; and it was at about this
 
 Oudeypore. 405 
 
 period that the Rajputs first began publicly to 
 claim the title of Kashatrya. 
 
 Oudeypore, the capital of Meywar, has an 
 elevated position on the water-shed between the 
 Bombay and Bengal Presidencies. Its surround- 
 ings of lofty hills, and its outlook upon a lovely 
 lake with island palaces, water gardens and tem- 
 ples, secure for it the reputation of being the 
 fairest sight in Rajputana. The city has a salubri- 
 ous climate, with a population of about thirty- 
 eight thousand inhabitants, who, in common with 
 all the people of this native state of Meywar, are 
 noted for their manliness and independence of 
 character. Mons. Rousselet, writing of his late 
 visit, says : " At length we passed around the last 
 hill, and Oudeypore, the capital of Meywar, lay 
 before us. My men shouted and danced for joy. 
 As for myself, I stood in ecstasy, gazing at the 
 sublime panorama spread out at my feet. Never 
 had I even hoped to see anything so beautiful. It 
 resembled one of the fairy cities of the ' Arabian 
 Nights.' In the foreground, a long line of forts, 
 pagodas, and palaces stood out from a background 
 of gardens, above which appeared the town, a 
 fantastic assemblage of bell-turrets, towers, and
 
 406 Indian Races. 
 
 kiosks built up the side of a pyramidal hill, on the 
 summit of which was an immense palace of white 
 marble, in striking contrast with the dark blue tints 
 of the mountains behind it. This palace, with its 
 perfect proportions and great magnitude seems to 
 soar, like a New Jerusalem, above a terrestrial cit} r ." 
 Neither pen nor pencil can portray the marvellous 
 splendor of this superb town, so justl} r named 
 Oudeypore, "City of the Rising Sun."* At- 
 tractive as is the prospect, desolate ravines, that 
 guard the entrance, must first be crossed ere this 
 terrestrial paradise can be entered. But when 
 these have been left behind the visitor is richly re- 
 paid by the enchanting vision of temples, palaces, 
 arches, columns, and a thousand objects of interest 
 that every where challenge his admiration, not alone 
 for their intrinsic beautj^, but as the surroundings 
 of a most remarkable race of truly regal princes. 
 The late Maharana Sambhoo Singh, who died 
 when scarcely in his prime, was among his country- 
 men a personage of note a Rajput Ghelote, of 
 the clan Sesoudias, the recognized representative 
 of the Souriavanses, the famous Indian " Race of 
 the Sun." This was the noble prince who was in 
 
 * India and its Native Princes, page 145.
 
 The Rajah of Rajputana. 409 
 
 power at the time of M. Rousselet's visit. The 
 present Rajah Maharana, who received the Prince 
 of Wales so handsomely, is a cousin of the last, 
 and his adopted heir. He is described by Russell, 
 as " tall, good-looking, and very fair of fairer 
 hue than the average Europeans of the South, of 
 very dignified manners and carriage, with an air as 
 if he were conscious of his origin, and meant to 
 keep up the traditions of his house." Tod says 
 of this family, that they are the -representatives of 
 the only dynasty which, with the exception of 
 Jaisalmir, "outlived eight centuries of foreign 
 domination in the same land where conquest 
 placed them ; and who now hold the territory 
 their ancestors held when the conqueror from 
 Ghazni first crossed the blue waters of the Indus 
 to invade India." 
 
 Such is the estimation in which this very aristo- 
 cratic sovereign is held by the other races of his 
 own country that marriage with a daughter of 
 his house can be had only at the cost of a prov- 
 ince. Sir Thomas Roe gravely asserts, that this 
 most royal house is descended from Porus ; they 
 themselves, that they come of celestial origin ; and 
 everybody who looks into the pedigree of this
 
 410 Indian Races. 
 
 Maharana of Oudeypore concurs in the opinion 
 that it is the very oldest in the world, as he cer- 
 tainly belongs to the highest race in India. His 
 every motion is that of a king to the sceptre born ; 
 and though in the first years of young manhood, 
 he displays great energy and force of character. 
 His usual dress is pure white turban, robe, and 
 pantaloons ; sometimes embroidered silk or satin, 
 and at others, the finest linen or India muslin ; but 
 there is always the golden belt set with magnifi- 
 cent diamonds, the aigrette of other diamonds still 
 more superb and costly on his head-dress, and 
 upon neck and arms strings of huge pearls, rubies 
 and other precious stones of priceless value. The 
 Sirdars of his suite wear green satin and brocade, 
 with white silk turbans, and jewels as handsome, if 
 not altogether so costly as those of their chief. The 
 state contains eleven thousand six hundred and four- 
 teen square miles, with a population of one million 
 one hundred and sixty-eight thousand inhabitants ; 
 and a revenue of $2,000,000, of which $100,000 is 
 paid in taxes to the British Government". 
 
 Besides the illustrious descent of this royal 
 house, their importance arises from yet another
 
 The Head of Indian Nobility. 411 
 
 source. For this family not only opposed the 
 Mussulman invasion, but they preserved their 
 purity of caste at the cost of blood and treasure, 
 by sundering, during all the Mohammedan rule, 
 every form of connection with the imperial family, 
 which many other Indian princes eagerly accepted. 
 This has placed the Maharana of Oudeypore at 
 the very head of the Indian nobility, and given 
 him many additional honors and prerogatives. In 
 assemblies of the Rajput princes, he always occu- 
 pies the seat of honor, and takes precedence in 
 speaking. He is also the arbiter of disputes on 
 all national points, and from his decision there is 
 no appeal. Among the genealogical claims of the 
 lianas, are two which, if well-founded, may justify 
 the name they-have assumed, its signification being 
 " Sons of Kings." They claim connection with 
 the kings of Persia, through a daughter of the last 
 Chosroes, the great Noushirvau, who married one 
 of the Ranas ; and with the Roman emperors of 
 Constantinople in the same way, through the mar- 
 riage of an imperial maiden with another of the 
 Maharanas of Oudeypore. These claims are said 
 to be well authenticated ; and further, there is 
 probably " not another family in the world that
 
 412 Indian Races. 
 
 possesses a pedigree so correctly traced from fabu- 
 lous times as that of the Ranas of Chittore and 
 Oudeypore." Here also are found the most per- 
 fect physical types of the noble Rajput race, and 
 the many loyal and chivalrous traits ascribed to 
 them by Tod, their appreciative historian. 
 
 Amid the present degree of civilization, and the 
 splendid receptions now given by native Princes 
 all over India to stranger visitors from every land, 
 one finds it difficult even to conceive of the obsta- 
 cles and dangers that beset the path of Bishop 
 Heber, the priest and poet-traveller of 1820, when 
 he attempted a tour of the Rajput states. He 
 says : " The journe}' was hardly less to be dreaded 
 than one into the centre of Africa the whole 
 interior of India being overrun by bands of brig- 
 ands, and these scarcely more dangerous to for- 
 eigners than the inhabitants of villages and rural 
 districts." How different in our own day, when, 
 despite all the wrongs and oppressions of which 
 the people of Hindustan have been the recipients 
 at the hands of European races, strangers meet 
 everywhere only courtesy and kindness from her 
 people of every grade. It is at Oudeypore, above 
 every other city in India, that are to be found the
 
 " Sons of Kings:' 413 
 
 high representatives of the chief Rajput tribes, 
 and of purest blood, till it has passed into a 
 proverb that "a courtier of the court of Oudey- 
 pore is the model of bon-ton for all India." 
 
 Neither Mogul nor English have in any way 
 been able to influence these princely Rajputs to 
 amalgamate with other races : and despite inva- 
 sion and contact with foreigners they have pre- 
 served intact their purity of blood and caste. 
 And what grand, noble specimens of manhood 
 they are these calm, silent, dignified " Sons of 
 Kings," every one of them, with their tall, well- 
 developed forms, expressive features, and princely 
 air. They wear the beard very long, divided into 
 two pointed whiskers, which is the ne plus ultra of 
 the barber's art in Oudeypore. The turbans of 
 the Rajputs are always of fine material, and always 
 tastefully folded, though not by any means of cor- 
 responding size or form. Very many are small 
 and tightly-fitting, with the edges turned up like a 
 cap ; others are more voluminous ; and some quite 
 fantastic as to form. Their usual attire consists 
 of a tight-fitting tunic, full trousers, or a waist- 
 cloth worn long and so arranged as to resemble 
 the aforesaid garment, and a jewelled girdle decked
 
 414 Indian Races. 
 
 out with a complete armament of swords, daggers, 
 and dirks ; with the addition in times of active 
 service, of the traditional rhinoceros-skin shield, 
 circular, semi-transparent, and pendant from the 
 shoulders by a cord of the same material, the 
 shield itself fairly aglow with a super-abundance 
 of golden knobs. The women are tall and well- 
 formed, sprightly, graceful, and sometimes very 
 pretty. Only the very highest claims are kept in 
 seclusion, the remainder going about ad libitum; 
 and vails are never worn. Nevertheless, a pretty, 
 graceful coyness is one of the attractions of the 
 Rajput fair, leading her, when too closely observed, 
 to draw the long, silken sarri, pendant always 
 from her head, over her features, until the inquisi- 
 tive gazer has passed. The costume of Rajput 
 ladies is pretty and graceful, consisting of a long, 
 full-plaited skirt, descending below the knee, a 
 tight bodice of some bright color, and the long 
 sarri or scarf of thin silk, fastened in a tasteful 
 knot upon the top of the head, and suffered to 
 float at will over the neck and shoulders. An 
 abundance of gold and silver ornaments, as in 
 every oriental costume, completes the attire. 
 
 Among Rajput families of distinction, the house-
 
 The Household Bard. 417 
 
 hold bard holds an important place. Not only the 
 sovereign, courtiers, and chiefs, have each an 
 especial bard and poet, but even private families 
 of wealth and position have their own, each keep- 
 ing the pedigree of his master's house, preserving 
 intact the traditions that belong to' the family, and, 
 on grand occasions, reciting the ancestral catalogue 
 with the deeds that have rendered each name illus- 
 trious. The very person of the bard is held 
 sacred ; and no undue familiarity, still less neglect 
 or injury, is ever permitted toward him ; and 
 among the desert tribes he is far more venerated 
 than even the Brahmin priests. He deals largely 
 in astrology also, professing to draw all his deduc- 
 tions, public and private, from the stars ; and from 
 their omens and decrees as promulgated by him, 
 there is never a doubt, or thought of appeal. He 
 is the bearer of all important messages in the 
 arranging of treaties and negotiations of every 
 sort, and when he dies, the whole clan mourn his 
 departure as a national calamity, second only to 
 that of their chief. 
 
 When, in 1565, Pertab Singh was deposed by 
 the Mogul emperor, Akbar, and after a gallant re- 
 sistance was driven with his brave Rajputs from 
 H. I 27
 
 418 Indian Races. 
 
 the domain of his ancestors, there remained to him 
 only the territory comprised within the semi-circle 
 of the Gurvva Mountains. But his brave spirit 
 was unconquered, and tradition sa} r s, that halting 
 before Chittore, the ancient city of the Ranas, he 
 vowed a terrible vengeance against the invaders 
 of his native soil ; and that thenceforward, refus- 
 ing all the honors offered by the Mogul emperor, 
 as the price of submission to his authority, Pertab, 
 to the very end of his life, waged implacable and 
 uncompromising war against the whole Mogul 
 race. His brave defence of the Dhobarri Pass is 
 well known. With a handful of nobles who had 
 remained faithful to him, and the help of the fierce 
 Bheels he had enlisted as soldiers, he sustained the 
 shock of the imperial forces; and subsequently, 
 by dint of an unfaltering heroism, he recovered by 
 degrees, the whole of Meywar, (which in spite of 
 all odds, the Rajputs have retained), and at last, 
 the powerful Jehanghir was able to conclude a 
 treaty with them, only on their own terms. Tod, 
 in his " Annals of Rajesthan," styles the powerful 
 Jehanghir, "the Mogul emperor, a commentator, 
 like Caesar, on the history of the Sesoudias ; " and 
 quotes the language of Jehanghir, " the Supreme
 
 The iSesoudias. 419 
 
 Head of the twenty-two Satrapies of India," as 
 exulting with pride on the treaty concluded with 
 the Rajput king, " he thanks Heaven for having 
 reserved to him the success which neither his im- 
 mortal ancestor, Baber, the founder of the Mogul 
 dynasty, nor Humayun had been able to attain ; 
 and which even his father, the illustrious Akbar, 
 had but partially achieved." 
 
 The sixteen Omras who surround the Rana at 
 his Durbars are the representatives of the little 
 band of heroes who, for an entire century, val- 
 iantly maintained the independence of their flag, 
 without once yielding the day, turning their backs 
 on the foe, or being seduced by the brilliant offers 
 of the emperors. It is said that the poorest Raj- 
 put Sesoudia of the present day can trace back 
 the genealogy of his tribe for a dozen centuries at 
 least, and may dwell with pride on the purity of 
 his lineage, unstained by any alliance with the 
 Tartars. Before even the beginning of our era 
 this "race of the suri " appear to have owned an 
 immense territory, and to have reigned over 
 wealthy cities, and luxuriated in gorgeous palaces 
 and superb monuments while many European 
 nations were yet in their infancy, and the very
 
 420 Indian Races. 
 
 existence of our Western Continent had never been 
 thought of, by even the wisest heads. 
 
 Every Rajput noble has his own standard and 
 coat of arms, and many have names corresponding 
 with the devices emblazoned on their banners. 
 These possess the genuine stamp of antiquity, 
 showing that their heraldry could not have been 
 imported from Europe as some writers have sup- 
 posed. In the Mahabarata, and many others of 
 their sacred books, the heroes are represented as 
 carrying off the banners of their foes ; while in 
 Hindu romances, the knights are nearly always 
 distinguished by the devices on their shields. 
 
 The Maharajah Ram Singh, of Jeypore, is the 
 chief of the Kachwas (Tortoises), one of the prin- 
 cipal Rajput clans. They, too, trace their descent 
 from the divine Rama of Aoudha, the ancestor of the 
 Souriavanses, through his second son, Gush, one of 
 whose descendants built the celebrated fortress of 
 Rhotas in Behar, and took the name of Kachwa. In 
 A. D. 295, Nal Pal, one of their kings, removed west- 
 ward to Nishida, now Narwar, and their third capi- 
 tal was Gwalior. In 967 Dhola Rae was driven 
 from the country by a usurper, and forced to seek 
 refuge among the Mynas of Dhoundhar, by whom
 
 RUINS NKAR DELHI.
 
 The Kachwas. 423 
 
 he was very kindly received ; and whom, by a long 
 course of treachery, he dispossessed of their coun- 
 try. At the time of the Mussulman invasion the 
 Kachwa kings of Ambir were among the first to 
 seek their alliance ; and in the reign of Akbar, 
 Bhagwandas gave one of his daughters in mar- 
 riage to Prince Selim, afterwards the Emperor 
 Jehanghir. The name of this Rajah is conse- 
 quently held in reproach, for having been the first 
 to stain the pure, unmixed blood of a Rajput by a 
 union with the abhorred Moslems ; and for this 
 act, the clan of Kachwas are to this day regarded 
 as inferior to all other Rajputs. 
 
 The Mynas, the ancient owners of Jeypore, 
 were one of the great aboriginal races of India, 
 who, like the Bheels, the Gounds, and Jats, peo- 
 pled the broad lands since occupied by the Rajputs. 
 The Mynas of Dhoundhar were divided into five 
 great tribes, called Panchwara, and inhabited the 
 whole region of the Kalikho Mountains from 
 Ajmere to Delhi. Their chief towns were Ambir, 
 Khogaum, and Mauch. This race was not entirely 
 subjugated until about the thirteenth century ; 
 and they had attained an advanced degree of civil- 
 ization, but driven back to the mountains, they
 
 424 Indian Races. 
 
 have gradually relapsed almost into barbarism, 
 and their wild tribes now spread themselves nearly 
 to the mountains of Central India. All the 
 aboriginal races of Rajputana, the Mynas, as well 
 as the Bheels, and Mhairs, live in villages called 
 Pals, which circumstance has given them the 
 generic name of Palitas. The habits of the 
 Mynas resemble those of the Bheels. They live 
 by hunting and brigandage rather than agriculture ; 
 and they always carry their bows and lattis (bam- 
 boos, pointed with iron). They have dark, swarthy 
 skins, long, silk}' black hair, and their features are 
 more refined and intelligent than those of the Bheels. 
 Bheel is derived from the Sanscrit bhila, " sep- 
 arate," i. e., outcast, a name applied to one of the 
 aboriginal races alluded to above, who have from 
 remote ages been described as a distinct people. 
 According to their own traditions, they sprang 
 from the union of the god Mahadeo with a beauti- 
 ful woman he met in a forest, and whose descend- 
 ants becoming numerous settled the country of 
 West Candeish, Malwar, Rajputana, the Aravalis, 
 Vindhyas, and Salpura Mountains. They still 
 people the whole of Bagur, a part of the chain of 
 the Aravalis, and nearly all the Viiidhyas.
 
 The Bheels. 425 
 
 Along the Vindhya range, from Jain to West 
 Mandu, almost the entire population are Bheels, 
 though many of the chiefs are descended from 
 Rajput fathers and Bheel mothers, and are known 
 as Chomijahs. One of the most noted of these 
 was Nadir Singh, famous for his murderous ex- 
 ploits. They woi-ship Mahadeo and his consort, 
 Devi, the goddess of small-pox. For other objects 
 of worship they select the several elements, and 
 special maladies ; and for the gigantic tree Mhowa, 
 from which they obtain both oil and spirits, they 
 have a supreme reverence. They rarely erect 
 regular temples, but heap up a mass of stones and 
 smear them with red ochre, then lay on a rudely- 
 sculptured flagstone upon which to deposit offer- 
 ings, and their sanctuary is complete. Equally 
 simple is their toilette. A single twist of their 
 long hair is wound around the temples to serve as 
 a turban, while the remainder hangs neglected 
 about the shoulders that are bare and bronzed. A 
 single waist-cloth forms usually the entire costume 
 for men, while the women have also their shoulders 
 partially covered, and a succession of bangles and 
 bracelets reaching, the former from knee to ankle, 
 and the latter from wrist to elbow. Denounced
 
 426 Indian Races. 
 
 for centuries as thieves and outlaws, the Bheels, 
 in bitter sarcasm, style themselves " the thieves of 
 Mahadeo," and declare perpetual enmity against 
 the Hindus, who have banished them from their 
 legal rights. Withdrawing into inaccessible dis- 
 tricts, and sheltered in their fastnesses from the 
 strong arm of the law, they live apart from the 
 residue of mankind, pay tribute to none, make 
 terrible reprisals on those who injure or offend 
 them, and scatter terror among merchants and 
 travellers who pass their way. Their^ " pals " or 
 villages are always built on heights command- 
 ing the roads ; each house is a fortress of itself, 
 looking, as it stands perched on the very summit 
 of some abrupt cliff, like a gigantic aerie, and 
 every chief of a clan is the commander of a troop 
 of brigands. When danger threatens, the clans 
 make common cause the women, children and 
 cattle are sent to the ravines for safety, while the 
 men either sally forth to meet their foes, or launch 
 their arrows at them from an intrenchment of 
 cactus and boxwood. Sentinels are always on the 
 lookout for danger, and for " game ; " and not a 
 movement along the road escapes their observa- 
 tion.
 
 A Legend. 427 
 
 Treated like wild beasts, hunted down, de- 
 nounced and defamed by the Brahmins, whom 
 they abhor and denounce in return, they seem in a 
 great measure to have forgotten their ancient 
 civilization, and have fallen into the state of 
 degradation, in which they are found at the present 
 day. In their legends and traditions, however, 
 they have preserved many memorials of their days 
 of renown, when their rule extended over fertile 
 plains as well as rugged mountains. One of these 
 legends seems to explain the origin of the hatred 
 existing between the Bheels and Brahmins. The 
 legend says : " A Brahmin one day chanced to 
 meet in the jungle a natural son of Mahadeo, 
 wandering about in search of food. As he was 
 very black, and of giant strength, the Brahmin 
 sneeringly called him, ' NichadiJ or Bheel, i. e., 
 ' outlaw,' and charged him with the murder of 
 Nandi, the sacred ox of the god. This scion of 
 divinity, indignant at the wanton insult, slew the 
 offending Brahmin on the spot, and returning 
 home boasted of the exploit to his people, who 
 adopted thenceforward the name of 'Bheel' in 
 commemoration of his deed." The Brahmins 
 choose to aver that the ox was verily slain, and
 
 428 Indian Races. 
 
 the crime of all most odious in the eyes of a 
 Hindu really committed by the son of the very 
 god the Bheels worship ; while the proud Bheel 
 scorns to disavow the base slander, but declines 
 nevertheless to submit to the yoke of the impe- 
 rious Brahmin ; and so the two are at perpetual 
 variance. Despite their outlawry, the Bheels have 
 noble traits. They are said to be very humane to 
 their prisoners taken from other races, showing 
 them the hospitality due to strangers and guests. 
 They are likewise excellent husbands ; and wives 
 exercise considerable influence in the domestic 
 menage. The Bheels are noted also for their 
 grateful remembrance of favors received ; and for 
 the faithful observance of promises. The point of 
 honor is carried so far that they have been known 
 repeatedly to allow richly-freighted caravans to 
 pass unmolested, solely because a safe conduct had 
 been innocently promised by some of their own 
 little children ; or their protection invoked by the 
 travellers themselves. They have no prejudices of 
 caste, nor any in regard to food, for their several 
 tribes intermarry with each other, and frequently 
 also with the Rajputs ; and they eat any food they
 
 The Bheels. 429 
 
 find agreeable or convenient, irrespective of its 
 source. 
 
 The pure Bheels are said to number about two 
 millions in India, besides many thousands of 
 Bhilalas, a mixed race, the progeny of Rajputs 
 and Bheels who have intermarried. The Bheels 
 are of medium height, and more robust than the 
 average Hindu, though less graceful in carriage. 
 They are remarkably strong, athletic, and skilful 
 in the use of their bows and arrows, using them 
 even in tiger and panther hunting, and readily hit- 
 ting their mark at twenty or twenty-five yards 
 distance. The Bheel women, as a rule, are of a 
 handsome type, fairer than the men, more elegantly 
 formed, and extremely dignified and stately. 
 
 The Bheels joined in the Indian mutiny of 1857 
 and 1858 ; and Lieutenant Henry, Superintendent 
 of Police, was killed in endeavoring to dislodge 
 them from a strong position in Candeish. In 
 another engagement, fought January 20, 1858, 
 near the frontier of the Nizam's territory, where 
 the Bheels were strongly entrenched, the English 
 lost fifty European soldiers and officers. At other 
 points, however, when friendship and protection 
 had been shown them by the English, they evinced
 
 430 Indian Races. 
 
 their appreciation of these favors by protecting their 
 allies when menaced by mutinous seapoys ; and 
 some of the Bheels who entered the British army 
 rendered faithful and effective service. The 
 British Government has, in return, endeavored 
 to put a stop to the Rajput raids that formerly 
 proved so destructive to the crops and villages of 
 the Bheels. The attacks of the Rajputs were nearly 
 always made when the mountaineers were away on 
 some distant expedition, from which they would re- 
 turn to find only a smouldering heap of ruins in lieu 
 of their growing crops and picturesque ' pals." 
 Both of these turbulent races, the Bheels and the 
 Rajputs, though at first somewhat restive of con- 
 trol, from whatever source, are gradually, under 
 the influence of wise laws and the stringency of 
 military discipline, toning down from their preda- 
 tory habits into more peaceful and law-abiding 
 communities.
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 THE MOGUL EMPIRE FROM BABER TO AKBAR. 
 
 THE reign of Baber, the first Tartan Emperor 
 who attempted to reside among his Indian 
 subjects, was by no means a welcome one to the 
 Rajputs and chiefs of his new domain. Very 
 many of them were in open rebellion, and boldly 
 defied him ; and nearly all had availed themselves 
 of the recent disturbed state of the country to 
 act independently of any ''Paramount Power," 
 and were not disposed to resign to the new-made 
 emperor any of their recently acquired preroga- 
 tives. But Baber's early experiences had taught 
 him how to conquer rebellious princes ; and he 
 had reached the throne of Delhi through too many 
 victories to have any fear of future defeat. His 
 father, who had been Sultan of Khokan, dying 
 431
 
 432 The Mogul Empire. 
 
 when Baber was a lad of twelve, his uncle, the 
 Sultan of Samercand, had seized the patrimony of 
 the youthful sovereign ; but Baber, with a spirit 
 and bravery beyond his years, asserted his rights, 
 and maintained them against his far more experi- 
 enced relative for several years. Becoming in- 
 volved in disputes with several of his neighbors, 
 at the same time, they united against him, and 
 Baber was compelled to seek safety in flight. 
 With only three hundred followers, he took refuge 
 in Khorasan, and was for several years involved in 
 dissensions concerning his paternal domain. After 
 enlisting in his service a large company of Moguls 
 in addition to his Afghan troops, Baber, in 1519, 
 crossed the Indus, and conquered several towns 
 in the Punjaub ; but no further attempt was made 
 on India for nearly five years. In 1524 he ad- 
 vanced to Lahore, which he captured ; but after- 
 wards formed an alliance with its Rajah, for the 
 su-bjugation of other provinces. His next advance 
 was to Paniput, the " battle-field of India," fifty 
 miles from Delhi, where he fought the great battle 
 that gave him an empire, and left Ibrahim Lodi, 
 the last of the Afghan monarchs of India, dead on 
 the battle-field. Baber's lieutenants occupied
 
 H. T.-28
 
 Baber's Success. 435 
 
 Delhi and Agra, while his son, Humayun, routed 
 another Afghan army, and Baber marched south- 
 ward and gained a decisive victory over Rana 
 Sanka, the most powerful of the Hindu princes. 
 From this time Baber busied himself in quelling 
 insurrections, and reducing his refractory Rajahs 
 and governors to obedience. The Afghan chiefs 
 and Hindu troops fought with great valor, and 
 disputed every battle with the energy of despera- 
 tion. Several times Baber, who was always in 
 the thickest of the fight, came near falling into 
 the hands of the enemy ; but his usual good fort- 
 une never forsook him ; and it was without even a 
 wound that, at the end of four years' hard con- 
 flicts, Baber set himself to the reconstruction of 
 his extensive dominions, with nearly every province 
 once more under the dominion of Delhi. He had 
 roads built and repaired, with way-stations for the 
 accommodation of travellers ; caused a new survey 
 of lands, with reference to equable taxation, 
 planted gardens and fruit trees, and established a 
 line of post-houses from Agra to Cabul. All these 
 improvements, in addition to the founding of an 
 empire that lasted nearly three centuries, was the 
 work of that brief reign of only five years, four
 
 436 The Mogul Empire. 
 
 of which were spent in warfare. But now that 
 all his projects seemed fulfilled, and all the plans 
 he had formed brought to a happy conclusion, 
 Baber saw that he was not to live to enjoy his suc- 
 cesses. A life of many vicissitudes, with great 
 physical fatigues and the hardships of camp life, 
 had made inroads upon his constitution not to be 
 shaken off; and conscious that his end was ap- 
 proaching, he made judicious arrangements for the 
 future government of the country, which he be- 
 queathed to his son Humayun, and expired in 
 December, 1530, in the forty-eighth year of his 
 age, having reigned over India years five only. 
 To great political and military abilities, Baber 
 joined literary tastes and accomplishments of no 
 mean order. He wrote a history of his own life 
 in the Mogul language, which has been translated 
 into English ; and so far as his busy life of warfare 
 permitted, he encouraged men of letters about his 
 court. Humayun inherited his father's talents 
 and virtues ; and few monarchs have ascended a 
 throne with more brilliant prospects of success. 
 The empire seemed firmly established ; the turbu- 
 lent nobles were once more at peace with each 
 other and the supreme government ; the revenues
 
 THE BAZAAR OF KHOJA 8YUD, AJMERE.
 
 Humayun. 439 
 
 were in a flourishing condition ; and the young 
 king himself had so well profited by his father's 
 training and example, both as general and states- 
 man, that he seemed admirably adapted to fill with 
 credit to himself, and to the happiness of his peo- 
 ple, the exalted position to which he was called. 
 But his mild, peace loving character was not suffi- 
 ciently in unison with the warlike age ; and his 
 literary and social tastes were too far in advance 
 of his restless, turbulent nobles, who could adapt 
 themselves only to an iron rule. It shortly be- 
 came necessary for him to undertake an expedition 
 into Guzerat, and another into his Afghan terri- 
 tories ; and though in both he was victorious, he 
 came near falling a victim to treachery. Then his 
 two brothers revolted, and making common cause 
 with several restless chiefs, they incited a formid- 
 able rebellion against him. After several unsuccess- 
 ful attempts to restore order, Humayun took refuge 
 at the court of Persia, where he was cordially wel- 
 comed, and assistance promised him against his 
 enemies. Sixteen years however elapsed before 
 Jie re-entered Delhi in triumph ; and then he lived 
 only a brief period to enjoy the restoration of his 
 kingdom. Walking on a terrace of his palace, his
 
 440 The Mogul Empire. 
 
 foot slipped and he fell to the ground, so severely 
 injured that his death followed in a few days. 
 Akbar, his son and successor, was then only thir- 
 teen years of age, and as usual among those turbu- 
 lent chieftains on the death of a sovereign, 
 insurrections and revolts broke out in various 
 parts of the empire. The good order restored by 
 Baber had failed utterly under the" less successful 
 administration of Humayun ; and especially dur- 
 ing his long absence from the country, many states 
 threw off their allegiance entirely, and now re- 
 fused to submit to the sway of the boy-king, 
 whom they deemed wholly unequal to the enforce- 
 ment of his claims. But the youth and inexperi- 
 ence of Akbar found adequate compensation in 
 the ripe years and mature wisdom of his dis- 
 tinguished vizier, Behram Khan, the general and 
 prime minister of his late father ; while the bud- 
 ding genius of Akbar himself, that rendered him 
 afterwards so illustrious, soon began to be recog- 
 nized. 
 
 The ceremonial of coronation was scarcely over 
 when Behram, accompanied by the youthful sover- 
 eign, set forth with the utmost energy and deter- 
 mination to bring the refractory Rajahs to their
 
 Akbar. 441 
 
 duty. Herau a powerful Hindu prince, who had 
 assumed the title of emperor on. the demise of 
 Humayun, was the first to be reckoned with. 
 Hemu, with a powerful army of the bitterest foes 
 of Mohammedan rule, was strongly entrenched at 
 Paniput, and they fought with the desperate en- 
 ergy of religious fanaticism ; but victory declared 
 in favor of Akbar ; and Hemu, wounded and a 
 prisoner, was brought to the royal tent, where 
 Behram requested the emperor to strike the first 
 blow at the usurper as a signal for his death. 
 But the brave young monarch refused to strike a, 
 wounded man and a prisoner, and this so enraged 
 the vizier, that he struck off the head of the cap- 
 tive with his own hand without waiting for the 
 formality of a regular execution. This victory 
 was followed by others in rapid succession, till 
 Delhi, Agra, the Punjaub, Guzerat, and Bengal 
 were all brought back to their fealty. The si rong 
 fort, Chittore, in Meywar, was also besieged and 
 taken after a gallant defence. Its rich jewels and 
 royal treasures too, were carried off by the captors ; 
 but Oudey Singh, its brave defender and most 
 precious treasure was never taken, and the coun- 
 try continued to hold out against Akbar during his
 
 442 The Mogul Empire. 
 
 entire reign. Chittore is a fortified town, built on 
 the summit of an isolated peak, about three miles 
 from the Pathar Mountains. It was the ancient 
 capital of Meywar, built by Chitrung Mori, the 
 Puar king ; and for several centuries it was the 
 only important town that was able to hold out 
 against the encroachments of Moslem power. The 
 plateau on which it is built lies southwest jnd 
 northeast, and is about three miles long, at a vary- 
 ing height of from two hundred and fifty to four 
 hundred feet above the plain. It is a naturally 
 strong position, surmounted by admirable works, 
 the sides of the mountain being perpendicular, 
 and a line of embattled ramparts, supported by 
 large round towers, running along the edge of the 
 precipice, render it almost invulnerable. Nor 
 could it be reduced by famine, being well supplied 
 with water from numerous reservoirs, and contain- 
 ing also immense store-houses and granaries. Yet, 
 despite all these advantages, Chittore has been 
 oftener reduced by siege than almost any other 
 town in India. Its weak point is a little plateau 
 on the south side of the mountain, and this has 
 in every instance been the successful point of re- 
 duction. Tradition says that this plateau was
 
 Chittore. 443 
 
 erected by Sultan Ala-u-din, as the place from 
 which to make his assault in 1303, and that the 
 garrison succumbed to his forces after resisting a 
 siege of twelve years. It was also from this point 
 that the Maharajah Scindia bombarded the town. 
 in 1792. Dense forests, full of ferocious beasts of 
 prey, surround the base of the mountain, except 
 the small portion occupied by the town of Toulaiti, 
 about half-way up the western side. There is only 
 one entrance to Chittore, which is. defended by 
 seven gates placed at intervals up the ascent. 
 Between the third and fourth is built a small 
 cenotaph of white marble, to mark the spot where 
 the two heroes, Jeimul and Puttore, fell during the 
 siege of the town by Akbar ; and near by is the 
 tomb of Ragonde, another martyr of the Rajput 
 cause, who is now worshipped as a demi-god. 
 Indeed, the whole history of Chittore, as recorded 
 by its bards, and handed down by tradition, is one 
 of touching devotion and almost unparalleled 
 heroism on the part of the Rajputs even the 
 gentler sex vieing with their husbands and fathers 
 in love and zeal for the honor of their devoted 
 city. More than once the entire garrison has per- 
 ished to a man, kings and princes have calmly laid
 
 444 The Mogul Empire. 
 
 down their lives for their country, and gentle 
 women, with their tender babes, have faced suffer- 
 ing and death by violence and by the still more 
 cruel "sacrifice of Johur," without a murmuring 
 word. 
 
 Among the numerous monumelits of this once 
 famous city, perhaps the most noted is the Kherut 
 Khoumb, or " Tower of the Victory of Kho- 
 umbhou," erected by the Rana of that name to 
 commemorate the victory gained over the allied 
 armies of the Sultans of Malwar and Guzerat. 
 The Kherut is a square tower of singular beauty, 
 more than a hundred feet high, built in nine 
 stories, and once profusely adorned with superb 
 balconies, sculptures, mouldings, and cornices, 
 some of which yet remain ; but many have been 
 destroyed by the vandalism of Moslem invaders. 
 The ninth stor} T , which serves the purpose of lan- 
 tern tower, is surmounted by a modern dome, the 
 ancient one having been destroyed by lightning. 
 Here were also laid up the slabs of white marble 
 containing the records of the genealogy and chief 
 acts of all the Ranas. Of these, but one slab re- 
 mains, which records a fulsome tribute to the 
 builder of the tower, and the date of its erection,
 
 Pudmanee's Sacrifice. 445 
 
 1307. According to the accounts of the time, the 
 ouilding of this superb tower cost ninety lacs of 
 rupees, or 14,500,000; and that at a period when 
 the proportionate value of money was so much 
 greater than in our own day. 
 
 Among other remarkable monuments, are the 
 palace of the Puar king, Chitrurig Mori, the 
 founder of Chittore, which is the oldest edifice in 
 the fortress ; the palace of the patriotic Bhimsi, 
 and his beautiful queen, Pudmanee ; and near the 
 sacred fountain of Q-aee Moukh or the " Cow's 
 Mouth," is an aperture in the rock that leads into 
 the immense subterranean galleries, called by the 
 Hindus, Rani-Bindar, " Queens' Chamber." It 
 was in this cavern that the peerless queen, Pud- 
 manee, and all the other women of Chittore, 
 amounting to several thousand in number, sacri- 
 ficed their lives rather than to fall into the hands 
 of the Moslem invaders of their country, at the 
 sacking of Chittore by Ala-u-din in 1290. After 
 the most gallant but unsuccessful defence, the 
 brave Rajputs filled the subterranean apartments 
 of the Rani-Bindar with inflammable materials, 
 and on these were heaped all the women and chil- 
 dren, the jewels, diamonds and treasure, all that
 
 446 The Mogul Empire. 
 
 their Moslem foes would care to possess, and the 
 torch being applied, all perished together. This is 
 
 the " Sacrifice of Johur " never resorted to bu;. 
 
 
 
 in such desperate cases, to save women of rank 
 from being dishonored. 
 
 When their most precious possessions had been 
 thus provided for, the gates of the fortress were 
 thrown open, and its last defenders, with the Rana 
 at their head, rushing with drawn swords upon 
 Ala's army, perished to a man, though not without 
 inflicting a terrible vengeance on the Moslems, 
 whom they hacked and butchered without mercy, 
 probably ten for one. On entering Chittore, the 
 Sultan found only a silent and deserted town, over 
 which hung a cloud of foetid smoke, rising out of 
 the vaults where all that he had coveted lay in 
 smouldering ashes. His avowed object in laying 
 siege to Chittore, both in 1275, and again in 1290, 
 had been to possess himself of the beautiful queen 
 Pudmanee, whose wondrous graces of person and 
 character are still handed down by tradition. 
 Twice the Moslem conqueror had been foiled by 
 this lady fair : first, by a well executed ruse on her 
 part, and this time by her self-immolation ; and 
 his rage vented itself in the demolition of all the
 
 Chittore. 447 
 
 buildings within the fortress, save only the palace 
 where the beautiful queen had perished. 
 
 When this grand, invincible people had again 
 rallied from their disaster, and Chittore phoenix- 
 like had risen from the ashes of desolation to a 
 higher prosperity under the glorious reign of 
 Khoumbhou, the builder of the tower that bears 
 his name, and of numerous other stately architect- 
 ural wonders, Chittore was again besieged in 1537, 
 by Sultan Bahadour Bajazet, king of Guzerat. 
 This time, the fortress of the devoted city was un- 
 dermined, taken and again sacked ; but not until 
 the brave garrison had fallen almost to a man, and 
 their wives and daughters, more than a thousand 
 in number, led by the queen Kurriaveti, had im- 
 molated themselves, by taking their position on a 
 rock that had been undermined, when firing the 
 train, they ail perished in an instant. 
 
 Twenty years later, in 1557, having once more 
 risen from its ruins, Chittore was again besieged, 
 this time by Akbar. He was at first repulsed 
 with heavy loss by Oudey Singh and his brave 
 Rajputs ; but the little garrison was finally over- 
 powered by numbers, fighting as they were against 
 the whole force of the Tartan emperor. The
 
 448 The Mogul Empire. 
 
 flower of the Mey war chivalry were cut to pieces ; 
 the widow of one of the Omras, who, taking her 
 dead husband's place, went out to battle beside her 
 son, a youth of sixteen, and her young daughter- 
 in-law, fell fighting bravely while both lay dead 
 before her : two heads of tribes, Jeimul and Put- 
 tore, defended the sacred city with a bravery re- 
 membered even to this day by Moslems as well as 
 Rajputs ; and at last Jeimar, when he had been 
 mortally wounded by the hand of Akbar him- 
 self, gave the signal for the Johur, and nine 
 queens, five princesses, and more than a thousand 
 other women, together ascended the funeral pyre, 
 while their last defenders, satisfied that their honor 
 was preserved, rushed to meet death in the battle- 
 field. When' the. city fell into Akbar's hands, he 
 caused the immolation of every living thing found 
 within its borders, not sparing even its beautiful 
 monuments from desecration and defacement. But 
 the race that had proved such invincible opposers. 
 of Moslem rule could not be extinguished. Be- 
 sides those scattered over the mountain villages, 
 the illustrious Rana Oudey Singh had escaped 
 with a band of brave adherents ; and he shortly
 
 Chittore Deserted. 449 
 
 after laid the foundation of Oudeypore, " City of 
 the Rising Sun," to commemorate his name. 
 
 Chittore, the invincible, was deserted, and this 
 royal abode that for a thousand years had towered 
 above all the surrounding region, has become the 
 haunt of wild beasts, with its sacred places dese- 
 crated or in ruins. Formerly it was called the 
 " Holy Town," but now, though still considered a 
 sacred place of the former times, " it is given over 
 to evil spirits, and the Ranas are solemnly forbid- 
 den to enter its precincts." Not one of them has 
 set foot on the rock since Oudey Singh left its hor- 
 rors on that fatal day ; and " those who have at- 
 tempted to enter the desecrated town have felt 
 themselves repelled by an unseen hand." 
 
 The great conqueror returned from the reduc- 
 tion of Chittore with more than ordinary elation, 
 though nearly all his military expeditions were 
 crowned with success. But the cruel and jealous 
 spirit of his vizier, Behram, grew more and more 
 unbearable, till Akbar found it necessary to dis- 
 miss him, and, as the least objectionable method 
 of doing so, sent him on a pilgrimage to Mecca ; 
 and on the road thither he was assassinated by one 
 29
 
 450 The Mogul Empire. 
 
 of the many enemies he had made by his imperious 
 and unjust despotism as vizier. 
 
 A war with the Afghans of the North-eastern 
 Provinces followed Akbar's other aggressive move- 
 ments ; and then one with Cashmere, both of 
 which were soon " compelled to accept the terms 
 offered them, namely, complete subjection to 
 Akbar's authority." His power was now firmly 
 established throughout the whole of Central India ; 
 and Cashmere seems from this time to have been 
 the summer residence of the emperors of Delhi, so 
 long as this monarchy lasted.
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 THE MOGUL EMPIRE FROM AKBAR TO SHAH 
 JEHAN. 
 
 IN 1596, the Deccan became the scene of Akbar's 
 military exploits. Several of his generals 
 were first dispatched to different fields in that 
 country ; and after about two years, he joined 
 them at the scene of operations before Ahmed- 
 negar. 
 
 This city was founded by Ahmed Nizam Shah, 
 in 1493. It was a part of the Tartan empire from 
 1634 to 1707, when it was captured by the Mah- 
 rattas. In 1797 it was taken by Scindia, and six 
 years later was wrested from him by General 
 Wellesley. Soon afterwards, it was restored to 
 the Peishwa, and did not revert to the English 
 until 1817. Its fortress is considered one of the 
 
 451
 
 452 The Mogul Empire. 
 
 strongest in India, being surrounded by an impen- 
 etrable hedge of prickly-pear, in addition to its 
 stone walls of thirty feet high. Akbar's purpose was 
 not to destroy the city, but to compel the reigning 
 princes to submit to his authority ; and this end he 
 fully accomplished before quitting the Deccan, 
 which he left in the hands of his minister, Abul Fazl, 
 whilst he proceeded with all speed to Agra. " This 
 was rendered necessary by the rebellious conduct 
 of his oldest son, Selim, who, instigated by bad 
 advisers, and under the influence of opium and 
 wine, had seized upon Allahabad and declared him- 
 self king of Oudh and Behar. This rupture was, 
 however, healed shortly afterward ; Selim was de- 
 clared heir to" the throne, admitted at court, and 
 permitted to wear royal ornaments." * 
 
 Akbar was now on the verge of sixty, and the 
 exposures and hardships of his military life were 
 beginning to affect his health and bring on pre- 
 mature infirmities. For several years he continued 
 to have frequent and severe attacks of illness, one 
 of which terminated his life, in the autumn of 
 1605, when he had just completed the sixty-third 
 year of his age, and had entered the fiftieth of his 
 
 * Malcolm's " Indian Mutiny."
 
 THE TEMPLE OF MAHADEVA, KAJRAHA
 
 454 The Mogul Empire. 
 
 reign. Nearly his whole life had been passed in 
 warfare ; yet he found time for the exercise of the 
 arts of peace, and it was often said of him that 
 " he deemed no department of his government, 
 and no details of his vast and splendid establish- 
 ment too insignificant to deserve its special share 
 of regular attention." While possessed of great 
 military genius, he was also a lover of science and 
 literature, encouraged learning, instituted schools, 
 promoted commerce, improved the roads, reformed 
 the revenue laws, diminished the taxes of his peo- 
 ple, and gave the fullest liberty of conscience, 
 allowing no man to be persecuted for his religious 
 creed or practice. His eldest son, Selim, was with 
 him during his last days, and received from his 
 dying hands the royal scymeter. No opposition 
 was made to the succession of Selim, who, under 
 the title of Jehanghir or " Conqueror of the 
 World," ascended the throne rendered immortal 
 by Akbar's brilliant reign. The first trouble of 
 the new monarch was caused by the rebellion of 
 his own son, Khosru, who proceeded with a body 
 of troops he had levied to seize on the city of 
 Lahore ; but he was defeated in the very first en- 
 gagement with his father ; was taken back to the
 
 Lahore in its Grlory. 457 
 
 Capital loaded with chains, and kept close pris- 
 oner for a year. Lahore was in its glory then, as 
 seen by Lalla Rookh, when " mausoleum and shrines, 
 magnificent and numberless, affected her heart and 
 imagination, and where death appeared to share 
 equal honors with heaven." Now many of the old 
 monuments have disappeared, and others have 
 been changed, as for example, the magnificent 
 tomb of a cousin of Akbar has been converted 
 into a very commodious residence for the lieuten- 
 ant-governor, and other mausoleums were used as 
 dwellings for Seikh officers before the English 
 came into possession. The flat roofs and carved 
 lattices give to Lahore of the present day an 
 aspect rather of Cairo than India ; and there is, iill 
 over the city, with all its gayety and splendor, a 
 quaint admixture of Tartar dwellings and soft 
 oriental scenery, and of many nations, with cos- 
 tumes and linguals innumerable. This city is sup- 
 posed to have been founded sometime during the 
 fourth or fifth century of our era, but it was not 
 until the reign of Akbar that it attained any 
 supremacy. Jehanghir was fond of it as a resi- 
 dence, and fixed his court here in 1622, a court 
 graced by the peerless Nour Mahal, " Light of the
 
 458 The Mogul Empire. 
 
 Harem," whom Jehanghir had wedded in 1611. 
 She was the widow of a late governor of Bengal, 
 and had won the emperor's regards by her great 
 beauty and accomplishments. She is said to have 
 exerted an extraordinary influence over this proud 
 potentate ; but she was less a favorite with his 
 sons. Especially was she disliked, and her undue 
 influence suspected as being opposed to his inter- 
 ests, by the third son, Korrun, afterwards Shah 
 Jehan, the successor of Jehanghir. So restive 
 did the prince become under her influence and 
 plottings, that at length he left the court in indig- 
 nation, and raised the standard of revolt by laying 
 siege to Agra. In this daring attempt he was de- 
 feated with heavy loss, but he refused the proffered 
 reconciliation of his father and continued to absent 
 himself from court, awaiting opportunity for a new 
 outbreak. About this time a difficulty with 
 Mohabet Khan, the governor of the Punjaub, 
 occurred, of which, also Nour Mahal was the chief 
 cause, and which came very near proving fatal to 
 the emperor. Mohabet so far succeeded as to get 
 possession of the person of Jehanghir. He was, 
 however, released by a well-directed ruse of Nour 
 Mahal ; and a reconciliation was then effected be-
 
 Death of Jehanghir. 459 
 
 tween the emperor and the governor, who was 
 placed at the head of an army, and dispatched to 
 the South against Shah Jehan, who still continued 
 in open revolt. But Mohabet, instead of attack- 
 ing the young prince, united with him against their 
 common foe, Nour Mahal. 
 
 While affairs were in this posture, 1627, the 
 emperor, whose health had for some time been in 
 a precarious condition, set out for Cashmere, in- 
 tending to spend a month or two in resting and 
 recruiting among the mountains. But the change 
 proving unfavorable, his physicians directed an 
 immediate return to a warmer climate. As a last 
 hope he was conveyed toward Lahore, but expired 
 suddenly on the way to that city, in the sixtieth 
 year of his age, and the twenty -second of his 
 reign. It was during the reign of this monarch, 
 in 1615, that the English Embassy, under the guid- 
 ance of Sir Thomas Roe, visited Ajmere, the object 
 being to form a treaty of amity with the " Great 
 Mogul," as the emperor was then called. Sir 
 Thomas spent some three years in the country, 
 and wrote a most vivid description of the court of 
 Delhi, and the state of the country at that period. 
 This work contains frequent allusions to the
 
 460 The Mogul Empire. 
 
 emperor Jehanghir, and his luxurious mode of 
 living, as well as many incidents of his private 
 life and character. The great wealth of this 
 monarch may be judged from several circumstances 
 mentioned by Sir Thomas Roe, among others, the 
 gifts presented by him to the bride of one of his 
 sons, namely : " A pearl necklace valued at 
 $300,000, a ruby worth $125,000, and a yearly 
 maintenance of $150,000." 
 
 As soon as tidings of the emperor's death 
 reached Shah Jehan, he repaired by forced marches 
 to Agra, taking Mohabet with him, and there 
 caused himself to be proclaimed. There was an 
 attempt at resistance made by Nour Mahal, with 
 the hope of securing the sceptre for her protege, 
 Shah Riah, Jehanghir's second son, but without 
 effect. At the first encounter, Nour Mahal's forces 
 were defeated and her favorite slain, and she soon 
 after retired to private life ; while Shah Jehan was 
 left in quiet possession of his inheritance, an 
 empire and a throne, with the beautiful Agra for 
 his capital, A. D. 1627. 
 
 Agra was only an insignificant Jat town when 
 the emperor Secunder took possession of it in 
 1488 ; and it was more than a third of a century
 
 Agra and the Taj. 461 
 
 later, when Shere Shah, who had been the rival of 
 Humayun, and succeeded in driving him into 
 exile, built the citadel around the palace. The 
 splendor of Agra dates back no farther than the 
 reign of Akbar, who, in 1556, made it his capital, 
 under the name of Akbarabad, and enriched it 
 with many monuments. By him the old Pathan 
 fortress was razed to the ground, and replaced 
 from the ver\ r foundations by a vast citadel, with 
 marble palaces and mosques ; while his successors, 
 Jehanghir and Shah Jehan, endowed Agra with 
 the Etmaddowlah and the wonderful Taj. But 
 when the beloved wife, the empress Mumtazi 
 Mahal, for whose mausoleum the Taj was erected, 
 had been laid away among its splendors, the sor- 
 rowing emperor forsook the royal abode her pres- 
 ence no longer graced, and took up his residence 
 at Delhi, which has since been the sole capital of 
 India, as it had long been one of the imperial 
 residences. In 1761, Agra was sacked by the 
 savage Jats of Souraj Mull ; about fifteen years 
 later the Mahrattas carried off what the Jats had 
 spared; and in 1803 the city was taken from 
 Scindia by General Lake, and has since remained 
 under the control of the British Government.
 
 462 The Mogul Empire. 
 
 During the Seapoy rebellion of 1857, most of 
 the European houses were destroyed ; but the 
 English and other foreign residents took refuge in 
 the fort, and maintained a gallant defence until 
 relieved by Colonel Greathed. Its population, 
 which had greatly diminished under its various 
 reverses, has rapidly increased of late years, and 
 now numbers about two hundred and fifty thous- 
 and. 
 
 Agra is held in high veneration by the Hindus, 
 as the city of the incarnation of Vishnu, under the 
 name of Parasu Rama. Agra, now the capital of 
 the northwest provinces, is noted throughout 
 India for its superb monuments. The city is sit- 
 uated on the right bank of the Jumna, and is con- 
 nected by various railways with Bengal, the Pun- 
 jaub and the Deccan, and holds commercial 
 intercourse also with Rajputana and the Doab. 
 
 It is a bright, clean, cheerful city, its dwellings 
 comparatively new, though built in the main from 
 debris of former buildings from the times of 
 Akbar, on to the conquest of the city by the English. 
 In the southwest section, almost a mile from the 
 city proper, are the English cantonments, contain- 
 ing besides the barracks, bazaars and churches for
 
 Buildings of Agra. 463 
 
 the troops, many fine mansions surrounded by 
 gardens and green lawns. The great fortress of 
 Akbar is in the southern section. It is built 
 mainly of red sandstone, and looks imposing, but 
 is by no means formidable, and could not stand 
 against a sharp cannonade, as was proved by 
 General Lake's siege in 1803. 
 
 The Jummah Musjid or Cathedral Mosque of 
 Agra, is a superb structure of the time of Akbar, 
 and built of red sandstone and white marble, 
 standing on a marble terrace, and the whole sur- 
 mounted by three Mogul domes of great height. 
 
 The Dewani Am or " Palace of Justice," was 
 once a grand palace built on the plan of the 
 Dewan Khas of Ambir ; but it is now the arsenal 
 of the citadel, and the " Court " is filled with can- 
 non and shot. Among the curiosities collected 
 there by the English, are the throne of Akbar, and 
 the celebrated gates of Somnath. The throne of 
 Akbar is a long seat of marble inlaid with pre- 
 cious stones, and surmounted by a graceful canopy 
 of white marble. " The gates of Somnath " are 
 two heavy doors of finely-carved wood, four yards 
 high. In the beginning of the Christian era, they 
 guarded the entrance to the temple of Krishna at
 
 464 The Mogul Empire. 
 
 Somnath in Guzerat ; but in the tenth century, 
 Sultan Mahmoud, the fierce iconoclast, after de- 
 stroying all the idols of Somnath, and pillaging 
 the town, carried off these gates to his capital at 
 Ghazni. The Brahmins offered immense bribes 
 for the redemption of the image of Krishna, but 
 the Sultan destroyed it with his own hands, and in 
 doing so, found within it, jewels of immense value. 
 So it is probable the pious Brahmins had other 
 motives besides a holy veneration for the image of 
 their god in wishing to rescue it from the hands 
 of the Moslems. After the conquest of Afghan- 
 istan, when Ghuzni fell into the hands of the 
 English, Lord Ellenborough removed these gates 
 to Agra, and made them the subject of a grand 
 proclamation. Behind the arsenal is the imperial 
 palace, in a perfect state of preservation, consist- 
 ing of numerous pavilions, with gilded domes, con- 
 nected by terraces, galleries and castellated walls, 
 all built of the pure white marble of Rajputana ; 
 and the courts are still planted with flowers, the 
 plats intersected by numerous small canals. The 
 interior of the spacious apartments is adorned with 
 exquisite mosaics, and the windows are half-closed 
 by curtains of marble, so finely carved as to repre-
 
 H. I 30
 
 A Marvellous Stone. 467 
 
 sent lace. The emperor's bath-room has panels of 
 lapis-lazuli inlaid with gold, silver mirrors and 
 fountains, and all the appointments that the most 
 sensuous taste could contrive. 
 
 On the terrace fronting the Dewan Khas, is a 
 large slab of black marble, where Akbar the Great 
 used to sit to administer justice to his people. 
 The slab is broken in half, and in the centre are 
 two red spots. Tradition says that when Agra 
 was taken by the Jats, in 1761, Souraj Mull seated 
 himself on this slab, which immediately gaped 
 open and blood was seen to issue from the apper- 
 ture ; and years afterward, when Lord Ellenbor- 
 ough made the same attempt, the stone broke 
 quite in two. Near the imperial seat is a smaller 
 slab of white marble, designed for the court buf- 
 foon, who used to mimic every action of the 
 emperor. 
 
 The Taj was built by the emperor Shah Jehan, 
 as a mausoleum for the empress Mumtazi or Mum- 
 taj Mahal, his favorite wife, who died in giving 
 birth to her eighth child, the princess Jehanara. 
 In the great cemetery around the mausoleum of 
 Nizam-u-din, on the road to Delhi, not far from
 
 468 The Mogul Empire. 
 
 the Kootub, is the tomb of this princess, the Begum 
 Jehanara, on which is inscribed the epitaph : 
 
 " Let no rich canopy cover my grave, 
 
 This grass is the best covering for the poor in Spirit, 
 
 The humble, transitory Jehanara, the disciple of the holy men 
 
 of Cheist, 
 The daughter of the Emperor Shah Jehan." 
 
 But despite this humble prayer, the dust of this 
 royal lady reposes in a regal sarcophagus, sur- 
 rounded by a screen of marble. 
 
 The Empress Mumtaj Mahal, famous alike for 
 her beauty and her talents, inspired in her hus- 
 band such supreme love and admiration that he 
 resolved, after her death, to raise to her memory 
 the most beautiful monument that had ever been 
 built within the memory of man. After long con- 
 sultation with all the architects of the countries 
 around, the plan of Isa Mohammed was adopted, 
 and the building was begun in the year 1630. Its 
 construction occupied twenty thousand men for 
 twenty-two years; and nearly every part of the 
 empire was levied on for the various materials 
 used. Rajputana furnished the marble and pink 
 sandstone, one hundred and forty thousand cart 
 loads in all ; the jaspers came from the Punjaub, 
 cornelians from Broach, turquoises from Thibet
 
 The Taj. 469 
 
 agates from Yeman, coral from Arabia, Onyx from 
 Persia, lapis-lazuli from Ceylon, garnets from 
 Bundelcund, diamonds from Punnah, chalcedonies 
 from Arabia, rock-crystals from Malwar, sapphires 
 from Columbo, and conglomerates from Jesulmore, 
 Gwalior, and Sikri. Outside these gratuitous dona- 
 tions, and the forced labor of workmen, the cost 
 of the Taj was estimated at three millions of dol- 
 lars. Almost every visitor to the Taj essays a 
 description of what lie in the very outset admits 
 to be indescribable. Yet as there are thousands of 
 readers who are not travellers, and who cannot 
 therefore see the Taj for themselves, the following 
 statistics are given as a means of judging of the 
 size and proportions of this most wonderful monu- 
 ment. 
 
 The Taj, which is built near the banks of the 
 Jumna, about a. mile east of the fort, stands on a 
 terrace of pink sandstone nine hundred and sixty 
 feet long, and three hundred and eighty feet wide, 
 one end being laved by the Jumna, and the other 
 rising a few feet above the level of the garden. 
 In the centre of this terrace stands a superb plat- 
 form of white marble which is fifteen feet high, 
 and two hundred and eighty-five feet on each side.
 
 470 The Mogul Empire. 
 
 This forms a pedestal for the mausoleum itself, an 
 irregular octagon, its longest sides measuring one 
 hundred and twenty feet. It has a terraced roof, 
 with a pavilion at each corner, and a magnificent 
 dome in the centre, its golden crescent rising two 
 hundred and seventy feet above the level of the 
 river. Each facade is pierced with a high Sara- 
 cenic gate, flanked on the outer side by two rows 
 of niches ; and every line and proportion has been 
 calculated with such consummate art, that not the 
 slightest defect can be detected. One lady, while 
 gazing on this wonderful structure, said to her 
 husband : " I cannot criticise, but I can feel in 
 such a presence as this ; and I know I would will- 
 ingly die to-morrow to have such a tomb as this 
 Taj." Others have said, or written : " The Taj 
 was built by Titans and finished by goldsmiths." 
 "'The inspiration was from heaven, and the execu- 
 tion worthy of the conception." " A poem in 
 marble ! " " The sigh of a broken heart ! " " Po- 
 etic marble arrayed in eternal glory ! " " Too pure 
 to be the work of human hands ! " The entire 
 edifice, from base to summit, is built of pure white 
 marble, inlaid in mosaics, forming inscriptions, 
 arabesques, and devices, all arranged with ex-
 
 The Taj. 471 
 
 quisite taste, and perfect conception of tints and 
 shades ; every particle of inlaying done with the 
 patient care and unwearying assiduity of a Chinese 
 artist. The beauty of the interior surpasses, it' 
 possible, the outside ; ceiling, walls, and tomb- 
 stones being one mass of mosaics, representing 
 birds, flowers, and fruits. The tombs of the 
 empress and Shah Jehan are in the centre of the 
 hall enclosed by a marble screen of lace-work, 
 through which the subdued light is reflected in 
 mellow tints, and a tender, musical echo, as from 
 fairy-land, falls softly on the ear. This echo is 
 caused by the dome being completely closed by 
 the ceiling of the hall, thus forming a gigantic 
 whispering gallery. Among other decorations of 
 the interior, is the entire letter-press of the Koran 
 from beginning to end iu exquisite mosaics of 
 costly gems. 
 
 The left bank of the Jumna is connected with 
 the town by a viaduct and railway, quite a little 
 village having sprung up on that side of the river. 
 Near by is the famous Etmaddowlah, the mauso- 
 leum erected in 1610, by the emperor Jehanghir, 
 over the tomb of his father-in-law, Kevaji Acias, 
 <rand Akmet-oud-dowlah, (of which Etmaddowlah
 
 472 The Moyul Empire. 
 
 is a corruption), a treasurer of the empire, and 
 lather of the famous Nour Mahal, Jehanghir's 
 favorite wife. 
 
 The Province of Agra is one of the six north- 
 western provinces of British India, that together 
 constitute one of the ten administrations into 
 which India is divided. It contains an area of 
 nine thousand four hundred and seventy-nine 
 square miles, with a population of about four and 
 a half millions, mostly Hindus. The land, though 
 generally flat and arid, is well watered by the 
 Ganges, Jumna, and Chumbul, and by means of 
 irrigation produces good crops of grain, cotton, 
 indigo and pulse.
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 THE MOGUL EMPIRE AURUNGZEBE. 
 
 THE reign of Shah Jehan was marked from its 
 very beginning by the greatest extrava- 
 gance and extreme love of display. Beautiful and 
 costly buildings were erected ; and the anniversa- 
 ries of his accession were kept with a profusion of 
 outlay that was unusual even in those days of 
 oriental lavishness. The first of these celebrations 
 is said to have cost nearly ten millions of dollars. 
 The city of Delhi was rebuilt by him, in a style of 
 wondrous beauty and on an extensive scale. His 
 famous peacock throne, the wonder of his own 
 age, and of many succeeding ones, was one blaz- 
 ing mass of precious stones, diamonds, sapphires, 
 emeralds, rubies, opals and pearls, so arranged as to 
 represent the plumage of a peacock in its natural 
 
 473
 
 474 The Mogul Umpire. 
 
 state. This superb throne is said to have cost 
 thirty-two and a half millions of dollars. The 
 revenues of his kingdom must have been immense, 
 for with all his profuse expenditures, and costly 
 wars, there was at one time an accumulation in 
 his treasury of coined mone}^ not less than one 
 hundred and twenty millions of dollars, besides 
 fabulous quantities of costly jewels and massive 
 gold plate, and adornments of the state apart- 
 ments. Despite his undutiful conduct prior to his 
 father's death, he was as a sovereign most ex- 
 emplary in the performance of public and private 
 duties, in which he displayed uniformly a wise 
 consideration, united with a generous liberality. 
 Even the large sums expended on the throne and 
 the Taj, his two most costly works, gave employ- 
 ment and the means of living to thousands of his 
 subjects, to whom it was undoubtedly better to 
 pay wages than alms. As a ruler, a warrior and a 
 legislator, he has had few equals among oriental 
 monarchs ; and despite his lavish outlays, un- 
 equalled by those of any of his race, his people 
 were subjected to no extra taxation for a single 
 time during his reign of thirty years, but were in
 
 Reign of Shah Jehan. 477 
 
 the main more lightly burdened than any of their 
 ancestors- had been.* 
 
 The chief military exploits of this reign were 
 the effectual repulse of the Uzbee invaders of 
 Cabul, who were driven back with frightful loss ; 
 the summary chastisement inflicted on the Afghan 
 general, Lodi, in his repeated iiivasions of the 
 Deccan ; and the quelling of various internal dis- 
 sensions and revolts. Less happily ended some 
 difficulties with the Mahratta chieftain, Sevaji ; and 
 several acts of insubordination on the part of 
 Aurungzebe, the emperor's third son, culminating 
 at last in a severe encounter between the three 
 princes : Dara, the eldest son on one side, with an 
 army of some fifty thousand horse, and the 
 younger princes, Morad and Aurungzebe, on the 
 other, with a somewhat smaller, but better-dis- 
 ciplined army, that gained a decisive victory, thus 
 closing the brilliant reign of Shah Jehan, and 
 ushering in that of Aurungzebe. Prince Dara's 
 defeat was so desperate that with about two thous- 
 and followers, he fled toward Delhi ; Shah Jehan 
 who was alarmingly ill at Agra, was imprisoned 
 there in his palace for the remaining seven years of 
 
 ' Malcolm's " Indian Mutiny."
 
 478 The Mogul Empire. 
 
 his life ; Prince Morad was confined in the strong 
 fort of Gwalior, where he was afterwards executed 
 by the order of Aurungzebe ; and the conqueror 
 was proclaimed emperor under the title of Alam- 
 ghir, the name by which he is always spoken of 
 by Indians. Dara, the eldest brother, wandered 
 as a fugitive for several years in the vicinity of 
 Delhi and Ahmedabad, when he was captured and 
 put to death at Delhi. Shan Jehan lived seven 
 years after his imprisonment, in indifferent health, 
 but comfortably provided for amid the scenes of 
 his early felicity ; perhaps not unwilling to resign 
 the cares of sovereignty for retirement and rest in 
 his declining years. He died in his own beautiful 
 citadel at Agra, A. D. 1666. 
 
 Among the varied endowments of the new 
 emperor, seems to have been a trio of names. His 
 proper name, and that by which he was long called, 
 was Mohammed ; as a special favorite of his grand- 
 father, Jehanghir, he was called by him, Aurung- 
 zebe, i. e., " Ornament of the Throne," and when 
 about to be proclaimed, he himself selected the 
 cognomen, Alam-ghir, " Conqueror of the World ; " 
 and he was accustomed to have carried before him, 
 as his symbol, a golden globe. But to show that
 
 Aurungzebe. 479 
 
 he had not yet entered into full possession of his 
 dominions, he used to tear off a corner of every 
 sheet of paper used in his correspondence. 
 
 In the year 1650, when about thirty years of 
 age, this prince had been appointed by his father 
 viceroy of the Deccan, where he had previously 
 commanded several military expeditions. Here, 
 while affecting great zeal for the Moslem faith, 
 and unqualified obedience to the commands of his 
 father and sovereign, the ambitious prince was 
 amassing for himself great wealth, and gathering 
 experience as a military leader, to be used against 
 his own parent ; his treasonable plottings resulting, 
 as we have seen, in the erection of his own fortune 
 upon the ruins of his entire family. Talents of a 
 brilliant order were the heritage of Aurungzebe ; 
 and he seems to have possessed withal the happy 
 tact of profiting by opportunities whenever they 
 presented. His reign was the period of greatest 
 prosperity in the history of his race in India, where 
 his empire included nearly the entire peninsula, 
 with Cabul on the west and Assam on the east. 
 For the first ten years of his administration, the 
 country enjoyed almost unbroken peace ; and his 
 wisdom was especially manifest in anticipating and
 
 480 The Mogul Empire. 
 
 assuaging a famine ; and later in suppressing an 
 insurrection of Hindu devotees headed by a female 
 saint. A far greater misfortune lay in store for 
 Aurungzebe in the doings of the Mahrattas a 
 race of men of whom little was known prior to 
 the reign of Shah Jehan, save their casual mention 
 by one of the Mohammedan historians ; and whose 
 influence has been scarcely recognized, until they 
 were brought into notice by an adventurer named 
 Sevaji. Against this almost invincible leader, 
 Aurungzebe sent in vain his most experienced 
 generals, and he determined to take the field in 
 person against this redoubtable foe. From this 
 period he resided over twenty years in the Deccan, 
 bringing the Carnatic into quiet submission and 
 ruling an empire, that in wealth and population, 
 has seldom been surpassed. India owes to Aurung- 
 zebe several of her finest bridges, hospitals and 
 mosques. Among the latter is one in the town of 
 Aurungabad, built in connection with the beauti- 
 ful mausoleum of Rahia Dourani, erected by 
 Aurungzebe in memory of his favorite daughter. 
 It was the design of this emperor to build as 
 gorgeous a tomb as the celebrated Taj, of which 
 this is an evident copy, but in no respect its equal.
 
 H. I. 3.1
 
 Aurungabad. 483 
 
 The town contains another mausoleum of even 
 greater notoriety than that of the Rahia the 
 tomb of Shah Sonfi, the famous Moslem saint, 
 standing in the centre of a beautiful sheet of 
 water in the suburbs of the town. Aurungabad, 
 formerly the capital of a province of the same 
 mme, was for a short time the residence of 
 Aurungzebe and his court ; but it contains now 
 little besides its ruins to remind one of a royal 
 city. Scarcely enough remains of the emperor's 
 palace on the banks of the Doundhna, to judge of 
 its original appearance. Probably even in its 
 palmiest days, this now forsaken abode of royalty 
 was inferior in splendor to most of the monuments 
 left by the " Great Moguls ; " and the pillaging pro- 
 pensities of the Mahrattas doubtless found exer- 
 cise in dismantling it while in their possession. 
 The province, which contains about fifty thousand 
 square miles, was incorporated with the empire by 
 Shah Jehan in 1633 ; later it was taken by the 
 Mahrattas, then by the Nizam, and last of all it 
 passed under British rule. 
 
 About four leagues north of the city is the 
 celebrated fortress of Daoulatabad, built on a huge 
 conical block of granite, that stands isolated in
 
 484 The Mogul Empire. 
 
 solitary grandeur, in the midst of a vast plain. 
 From its peculiar position, it is a very conspicuous 
 object seen from a great distance, and is one of the 
 most impregnable fortresses in India Its name sig- 
 nifies, " Abode of Fortune." The road leading 
 to the summit is a long tunnel bored into the rock, 
 to which light and air are communicated through 
 dormer windows. The ascent is by an easy incline, 
 passing gratings, portcullises, and trap-doors, that 
 stand as checks to whoever may have eluded the 
 sentries. About midway, there is a very steep 
 staircase closed in by a horizontal plate of iron 
 pierced with holes. At the outcome of this road, 
 a handsome Saracen gate opens on the exterior 
 rampart, a wall some sixteen feet thick and fifty- 
 two feet high, with a circumference of more than 
 two and a half miles. The interior of the fortress 
 is divided into nine parts, by as many concentric 
 enclosures, rising one above another, up to the last, 
 which overlooks all the rest.* 
 
 At the base of the fort rises the town in which 
 some travellers and historians believe they recog- 
 nize the famous Tagara of the Greeks. Under 
 the name of Deogurh, " Dwelling of God," this 
 
 Rousselet's " India and its Native Princes." p. 75.
 
 Daoulatabad. 485 
 
 town was long the capital of the Deccan, and 
 passed through strange vicissitudes. In 1294 it 
 was occupied by the emperor Ala-u-din ; and sub- 
 sequently, Mohammed Toghlak, one of Ala's suc- 
 cessors, desiring, on account of its impregnable 
 fortress, to make it the capital of the Indian 
 Empire, compelled the inhabitants of Delhi, sixty 
 thousand in number, to remove their effects to 
 Daoulatabad. Pipalghat, a neighboring acclivity, 
 was the work of a noble of the court of Aurung- 
 zebe. Two columns still standing on the road 
 testify to this fact, and that the sculptures and 
 decorations used everywhere, even for the nagging 
 of the pathway, were all taken from the remains 
 of Hindu temples that had been devastated during 
 the wars. This desecration of things made sacred 
 by religious worship, and so opposed to oriental 
 ideas of fitness, was in the case alluded to, a 
 special ovation to the fanatical zeal of Aurungzebe, 
 and was doubtless very pleasing to the royal bigot, 
 whose so-called religious zeal seems to have kept 
 pace with the violence and selfishness of his life- 
 long career. The plain spreading out from the 
 road is nearly covered with mausoleums, very 
 many of them in a ruinous condition, with their
 
 486 The Mogul Empire. 
 
 domes and minarets half hidden behind the luxu- 
 riant tropic growth, and the over-hanging branches 
 of time-honored trees. Beyond the plain, is the 
 little village of Rauzah, " Paradise," surrounded 
 by a Moslem cemetery that is made famous as 
 containing the tomb of Aurungzebe, and also of 
 that of the noted saint Berham-u-din, a descendant 
 of the prophet. 
 
 The province of Aurungabad formed part of the 
 populous native state of Hyderabad, frequently 
 spoken of as the territory of the Nizam. The 
 famous fortress of Golconda is perched on the very 
 summit of a steep and rocky hill. This fortress is 
 also the treasury of the Nizam, where are kept the 
 state funds and jewels ; and it may be that from 
 this fact has arisen the custom of using Golconda 
 as the synonym for great wealth. The diamond 
 mines of Golconda are located several miles east 
 of the fortress. The city of Hyderabad, capital 
 of the Nizam, is three hundred miles east of 
 Poonah, and contains the Jumma Musjid, a superb 
 Mohammedan mosque, built of white stone, and 
 an exact copy of the Mosque at Mecca. It is alto- 
 gether a city of Moslems population and pro-
 
 Ahmedabad. 487 
 
 clivities, prince and palace, partaking of the same 
 character. 
 
 The town of Ahmedabad, where the fugitive 
 prince Dara concealed himself prior to his capture 
 and execution by Aurungzebe, was the ancient 
 capital of the Sultans, and is still one of the most 
 magnificent cities of India. It was founded in 
 1412, by Sultan Ahmed, whose name it bears, on 
 the site of a Hindu town of some notoriety. 
 Ahmed, having in his conquests sacked several im- 
 portant Rajput cities, applied the beautiful and 
 costly materials to the early building of the superb 
 mosques and palaces with which this city abounds. 
 His architects and builders, being of Hindu origin, 
 preserved in the temples of their adopted faith, the 
 style of architecture peculiar to the country, which 
 is quite distinct from the Saracen order introduced 
 into India with the Tartar dynasty. 
 
 About the year 1570, Ahmedabad came into the 
 possession of Akbar, and under his reign and that 
 of his successors, was the seat of one of the most 
 opulent viceroyalties of the empire. Among other 
 personages of note, the beautiful Nour Mahal, 
 wife of Jehanghir, held her court here at one 
 time ; and the emperor himself was fond of seek-
 
 488 The Mogul Empire. 
 
 ing rest and relaxation in this beautiful city, away 
 from state cares. In 1737, it was annexed to the 
 kingdom of Baroda, and in 1818 it was given up 
 to the English, who have since held it. The 
 superb ramparts of the cit} r make a circuit of 
 nearly eight miles, enclosing unquestionably the 
 richest city in India, as regards mosques, monu- 
 ments and mausoleums. 
 
 The mosques, full fifty in number, are all built 
 on high stone terraces, which gives them a pecul- 
 iarly commanding appearance, amid the other 
 architectural adornments of the city, as their 
 gilded domes and minarets stand out boldly, with 
 the azure of the clear Indian sky for a background. 
 
 Among the mausoleums, the most beautiful is 
 that of Shah Allum, two miles from the city. 
 The tomb is of porphyry, and the chamber where 
 it rests is inlaid with mother-of-pearl, on which 
 the light falls with prismatic radiance from a deli- 
 cate trellis-work of stone. 
 
 The great scourge of Aurungzebe was the 
 Mahratta power, rapidly on the increase, during 
 the last half of his reign. As Charlemagne wept 
 on beholding the Norman ships on the Seine, so 
 Aurungzebe foresaw in these incursions of hordes
 
 Death of Aurungzele. 489 
 
 he could neither conciliate nor conquer, the coming 
 ruin of his race. Repeatedly he opposed their 
 advances, often gaining a temporary advantage, 
 but he was never able fully to annihilate their 
 power every attempt to do so seeming like fight- 
 ing the sands of the sea-shore, where a new cloud 
 always overwhelms the combatant, as he success- 
 fully puts aside the first. 
 
 This source of annoyance, together with the 
 utter failure and severe losses of several Afghan 
 campaigns, seems greatly to have soured the 
 temper of Aurungzebe, and led to sundry offen- 
 sive edicts, and oppressive taxation of his subjects 
 to meet the expenses of these lengthy military cam- 
 paigns. Murmurs arose on all sides, his troops 
 clamored for pay, and in the midst of financial em- 
 barrassments, and general dissatisfaction, the weary 
 and troubled monarch saw that his end was ap- 
 proaching, and that his busy, anxious life had 
 failed to secure either peace for himself or the full 
 measure of appreciation he had desired from his 
 countrymen. Yet, in the main, success had at- 
 tended his expeditions during all his long reign ; 
 and except for the late troubles in the Deccan, the 
 empire was in a most prosperous condition, while
 
 490 The Mogul Empire. 
 
 few monarchs ever devoted their whole lives more 
 assiduously to what they deemed the interests of 
 their people. The dying emperor declined having 
 his sons summoned to his bedside ; but he wrote a 
 letter to each, filled with wise counsels, and he 
 dictated a will dividing the empire between them 
 and assigning to each his particular domain.* 
 
 Then full of regrets for the past, and fears for 
 the future, Aurungzebe expired at Ahmednegur, 
 February 21, 1707, in the eightieth year of his age, 
 and the fiftieth of his reign. 
 
 * Elphinstone's India.
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 THE MAHRATTAS. 
 
 ONE of the most formidable powers opposed to 
 each of the successive invaders of India, 
 has been the Mahratta. Proud, brave, self-reliant, 
 and capable of enduring all manner of hardships, 
 they are a foe always formidable, and never to be 
 turned aside by bribery or threats. Every man 
 among them seems born to the saddle, and their 
 country abounds in small, strong, sure-footed 
 horses just suited to the sort of guerilla warfare 
 they carry on. Armed with lances, their mounted 
 hordes spread like locusts over the country during 
 the days of Moslem supremacy, making rapid ad- 
 vances over the worst roads, impeded by no obsta- 
 cles, and appearing just where they were least 
 expected, they committed all manner of depreda- 
 491
 
 492 The Mahrattas. 
 
 tions on the camps and outposts of the invaders , 
 and then loaded with plunder, disappeared as sud- 
 denly as they came. General Malcolm refers to 
 these harassing guerillas, against whom he had 
 constantly to contend ; of their flocking to the 
 Mahratta standard each year, immediately after 
 the rains ; and the whole immense army setting 
 forth on the campaign, with no other provision 
 than the food and forage each soldier carried at his 
 saddle-bow. Of course they had to levy on the 
 country for subsistence ; but there was no lawless- 
 ness in their plunder. They took only from their 
 armed foes, sparing the country people when it 
 was practicable ; and whatever booty they captured 
 was carried to camp and divided among all. Thus 
 they overran the richest provinces ; and not only 
 was their army constantly receiving recruits, by 
 the accession of Hindu adventurers and malecon- 
 tents, but it actually derived prestige from seem- 
 ing defeats, growing all the time stronger and 
 more powerful. The Mahrattas were the great 
 scourge of Aurungzebe ; the only opponents 
 against whom he seemed to make no headway ; 
 and after his death, they continued their en- 
 croachments, adding occasionally to their territo-
 
 THE ROYAL STANDARD BEARER, IN THE PROCESSION OF 
 THE GCICOWAR, AT BARODA.
 
 Europeans in India. 495 
 
 ries, sometimes suffering loss, but seldom was any 
 real advantage gained over them ; while the 
 empire daily grew weaker, and needed only some 
 sudden shock to cause its entire dismemberment. 
 
 Meanwhile, the possessions and influence of the 
 English in India had been constantly increasing ; 
 but the French also had appeared on the arena, 
 and their naval forces, under the command of 
 Labourdonnais, had for the time, put an effectual 
 check on the operations of the English. When, 
 however, peace had been restored between these 
 powers, they each opened hostilities on various 
 native princes, finding always some frivolous pre- 
 text by which to excuse their ambitious scheming 
 after the wealth and power of the Indies. The 
 first English fleet had been dispatched to India in 
 1601 ; and this was followed by others, which in 
 time so aroused the jealousy of the Dutch as well 
 as the Portuguese that the two made common 
 cause against the English, and frequently attacked 
 their ships on the high seas. This led the Eng- 
 lish Company to send out much larger ships, 
 well armed with heavy cannon. The result was 
 almost annihilation to the Portuguese fleet that in 
 1605 attacked the English off Surat, and other
 
 496 The Mahratta*. 
 
 similar engagements following, in which both the 
 Dutch and Portuguese suffered severely, the Eng- 
 lish began to acquire prestige on the Indian seas, 
 not only in the eyes of these European nations, 
 but also with the native princes ; that led the lat- 
 ter to seek the alliance of the English, as they had 
 formerly that of the Portuguese. Then followed 
 the embassy of Sir Thomas Roe to the court of 
 Delhi, in the reign of Akbar, that resulte'd so favor- 
 ably for British commerce. During the reigns of 
 James I. and Charles I. not much progress was 
 made ; and the rapidly-growing power of the 
 Dutch was gaining the ascendency, until the active 
 mind of Cromwell saw the importance of giving 
 to Anglo-Indian trade the prominence it merited. 
 After the war he so successfully waged with Hol- 
 land, Cromwell dictated his own terms in regard 
 to Indian affairs; and in April 1654, a treaty was 
 concluded, in which " the rights and privileges of 
 the British India Company were fully and honor- 
 ably maintained." The marriage of Charles II., 
 with the Infanta of Portugal, as before stated, 
 gave to the English, in 1669, full possession of the 
 island of Bombay, out of which has grown the 
 immense commerce between that port and Eng-
 
 The East India Company. 497 
 
 land. The incapacity and unfaithfulness of their 
 own officers in India greatly retarded the growth 
 at this period of the Anglo-Indian colonies. The 
 conduct especially of Sir John Child, one of the 
 governors of Bombay, during the reign of James 
 II., became so violent and offensive, that the 
 emperor of Delhi openly declared war against the 
 English, when the timely death of the governor 
 prevented the sacking of Bombay, and restored 
 peace between the English and their Indian allies. 
 Then followed some years of bitter animosity be- 
 tween a new East India Company and the old one, 
 until in 1708 the two were united, and a new 
 charter was obtained which gave to the company 
 the right of holding courts of session and appeal, 
 and also a mayor's court, in each of the three 
 Presidencies then created at Madras, Bombay and 
 Calcutta. The Court of Directors was better con- 
 stituted, and new life and vigor began to appear in 
 every department of the service. This brings us 
 back to the troublous times that immediately pre- 
 ceded and followed the death of Aurungzebe, in 
 connection with the Mahrattas". Maha Rachtra, 
 " The Great Kingdom," is the name that for more 
 
 than two centuries has been applied to the country 
 H. I. 32
 
 498 The Mahrattas. 
 
 of the Mahrattas, a vast region of well-watered 
 and fertile valleys, intersected by mountain ranges, 
 and now divided into the Provinces of Poonah, 
 Candeish, Nagpore, Aurungabad, and Bejapore, be- 
 sides the later acquisitions of Gwalior, Baroda, and 
 Indore. We find no certain data as to the origin 
 of this race ; and it was not until the latter part 
 of the reign of Shah Jehan that they attracted 
 particular attention. Beginning then, under the 
 leadership of the noted Sevaji, to strengthen their 
 position in the Deccan, they ultimately acquired 
 sufficient importance not only to change the Mos- 
 lem destinies of India, but at one period to cause 
 serious trouble to the Anglo-Indian Government. 
 And it seems quite probable that, but for the in- 
 crease of British power in the country, India 
 would, through the Mahrattas, have been restored 
 to the Hindus. Even in our own day, despite the 
 stringency of British rule, the Mahrattas have, to 
 a great extent, preserved their ancient institutions, 
 their elective assembly, and the independence of 
 their communes governed by the mayors of then- 
 villages. 
 
 Sevaji Bhousa, the founder of the Mahratta 
 dynasty in the Deccan, was born A. D. 1627,
 
 Sevaji Bhousa. 499 
 
 when scarcely eighteen years of age was admitted 
 by his father to the joint management of the 
 jaghire of Poonah. This afforded him opportu- 
 nity of indulging the wandering, romantic life of 
 which he seemed so fond : and furthermore of col- 
 lecting around him a band of brave and trusty 
 followers, through whose help he secured several 
 hill forts, and then laid violent hands on the reve- 
 nues of his father's fief. His next step was revolt 
 against the king of Bijapore, the capture of other 
 forts, and the conquest of the whole Northern Con- 
 con. This threw into his hands immense treasure, 
 and enabled him with largely augmented forces to 
 enter the imperial territories, take the town of 
 Juner, and carry off considerable booty. These 
 atrocities seem to have been overlooked by Aurung- 
 zebe, who was just at that time occupied in secur- 
 ing the crown of Delhi for himself, and putting 
 his father and brothers out of the way. At a 
 later period, during the absence of the emperor in 
 Cashmere, Sevaji, after devastating several towns 
 in the Deccan, made a successful raid into Surat, 
 sacked the town, assumed the title of Rajah, and 
 even commenced the coining of money with his 
 own effigy. These high-handed measures brought
 
 500 The Mahrattas. 
 
 upon Sevaji the chastisement of the emperor, to 
 whom the bandit-chief made submission, and soon 
 after received a commission in the Delhi army, 
 where he served with such gallantry as to elicit 
 the warmest praises of Aurungzebe. But the 
 next year found Sevaji again in the field on his 
 own account, as invincible a foe to his imperial 
 master as he had been useful as an ally. 
 
 Bijapore and Golconda both purchased immunity 
 at the hands of the Mahratta chief by the pay- 
 ment of immense sums of money, thus practica 1 '}' 
 acknowledging his supremacy. An attempt of 
 Aurungzebe to seize the person of Sevaji, proving 
 unsuccessful, afforded to the chief a pretext for 
 open war, whereby the Mahrattas recovered pos- 
 session of several important hill forts, and gained 
 firmer footing in Candeish and Surat. 
 
 The attention of Aurungzebe was at this period, 
 1680, diverted by the failure of his efforts to re- 
 duce his Rajput subjects to submission, by the 
 murmurs of the Hindu portion of his empire at 
 the offensive edicts whereby all but Moslems were 
 debarred from offices of trust under the govern- 
 ment, and the jezzia or " poll-tax on infidels " was 
 revived; and more than all, by his own jealous
 
 G-olconda Subdued. 501 
 
 dread of " coming events," that seemed to " cast 
 their shadows before." This combination of 
 troubles not only emboldened the Mahrattas, but 
 equally unfitted the emperor to cope with his per- 
 sistent adversaries ; and though the indomitable 
 chief, Sevaji, had died of a sudden illness just after 
 one of his raids for the annexation of Mysore to 
 his territories, the emperor found in Sambaji, the 
 son and successor of Sevaji, a foe equally harass- 
 ing and far more unscrupulous than the father. 
 Sambaji, with his hordes, ravaged Guzerat, and 
 though often unable to cope with the large forces 
 of the emperor, he continued by repeated sorties 
 from his hill forts, to cut off supplies, plunder the 
 envoys, and effectually to embarrass the move- 
 ments of the imperial army. Bijapore was, how- 
 ever, taken and dismantled by Aurungzebe, the 
 subjugation of Golconda followed, and soon after, 
 Sambaji fell into the hands of the imperialists, and 
 was beheaded in prison. But the Mahrattas were 
 not subdued. Sambaji's brother assumed com- 
 mand, the old tactics were continued, their foes 
 harassed in every conceivable way, and themselves 
 rarely exposed to danger. Aurungzebe, with all 
 his indomitable energy and perseverance, began to
 
 502 TJie Mahrattas. 
 
 be discouraged after the more than ten years lie 
 had spent with his immense army, in pursuing this 
 Hydra-headed foe from point to point, with no 
 perceptible progress made in subduing- them. 
 Finding it impossible longer to maintain his large 
 army in the Deccan, under so nian^ disadvantages, 
 and worn out with fatigue, he ordered a retreat, 
 and deemed himself fortunate in arriving at 
 Ahmednagur, with the loss of a considerable por- 
 tion of his once proud and invincible army.* 
 
 Here, shortly after, occurred the death of this 
 warrior king, the least happy of all the Tartan 
 monarchs a man whose selfish and hollow nat- 
 ure did more to undermine his own happiness and 
 alienate the affections of his people than even acts 
 of cruelty or injustice could have done. 
 
 The bequests and injunctions of Aurungzebe to 
 his sons, concerning the succession, were wholly 
 unheeded b} r them, Moazzim, the elder causing 
 himself to be proclaimed emperor of all India, at 
 Cabul, under the title of Bahadur Shah, and 
 Azim, the second son taking the same step at 
 Agra. To settle the disputed point, the rivals 
 took the field, and in the first battle Azim and his 
 
 * Duff's History of the Mahrattas.
 
 Mohammed Shah. 505 
 
 two sons were all killed, leaving Bahadur Shah in 
 possession of the field and the crown. This being 
 disputed by Prince Cambakhsh, the younger 
 brother, he was attacked near Hyderabad, his 
 army defeated, and himself mortally wounded. 
 Behadar Shah having thus waded to the throne as 
 his father had done, through the blood of all his 
 brothers, lived but five years to enjoy the dearly- 
 purchased sovereignty. These years were spent in 
 settling the existing troubles with the Rajputs; 
 arranging the succession that was being disputed 
 between the nephew of the late Mahratta Rajah 
 and the guardians of his infant son ; and lastly in 
 an expedition to the Punjaub against the Seikhs, 
 where he captured several forts and drove back 
 those rude warriors to their own territories. Re- 
 turning to Lahore, Bahader Shah died after a brief 
 illness, in the seventy-first year of his age, A. D. 
 1712. After his death followed disputes between 
 his four sons for the throne, the brief reign of the 
 eldest, his deposition by his relative, Tarokhsir, 
 and sundry plottings and murders by sovereigns 
 and viziers, with several brief, unimportant reigns 
 marked only by treachery and blood, till the acces- 
 sion of Mohammed Shah in 1719.
 
 506 The Mahrattas. 
 
 Meanwhile the Mahrattas continued their depre- 
 dations, attacking the imperial forces at various 
 points, invading large portions of the country, and 
 pillaging its treasures. Several times Delhi was 
 threatened by them ; and nearly the whole coun- 
 try, from the Himalaj^as to the Krishna, felt the 
 influence of their incursions, which would have 
 proved still more destructive but for the constantly 
 recurring dissensions among themselves. The 
 English taking advantage of these internal troubles 
 pushed their own cause with such skill and energy 
 that ultimately nearly the whole Mahratta coun- 
 try was annexed to the possessions of the East 
 India Company, the sovereigns of the several prin- 
 cipalities governing under " English protection," 
 i. e., English control. The last battle in which the 
 Mahrattas figure as a distinct people, was that of 
 Paniput against the Durani Shah of Afghanistan, 
 in 1761, when they suffered a terrible defeat, and 
 few escaped to tell the tale of their disasters ; 
 after which, years elapsed before the Mahrattas 
 were again in a position to exercise any influence 
 in Indian affairs. Most of the nobles and military 
 chiefs went into exile, finding refuge at the courts of 
 the reigning princes of Gwalior, Baroda and Indore.
 
 CHAPTER XXL 
 
 THE MOGUL DYNASTY FROM MOHAMMED 
 SHAH TO THE END OF THE DYNASTY. 
 
 FEW monarchs ever ascended a throne under 
 more discouraging circumstances than sur- 
 rounded Mohammed Shah on his accession, in 1719. 
 The oppressive and presumptuous acts of the vizier 
 of Farokhsir, and the plottings of Hosen Ali, his 
 military Commander-in-chief, together with the 
 secret murder of the late monarch, had so estranged 
 the affections of the people from the ruling powers, 
 that they looked with suspicion if not with an- 
 imosity, upon the new occupant of the throne. 
 The whole country was in disorder, the treasuiy 
 empty, and many of the nobles in revolt ; while 
 insurrections seemed the rule, and a quiet, orderly 
 administration the evident exception. Among 
 other disturbances was the revolt of Asof Jah, 
 
 507
 
 508 The Mogul Dynasty. 
 
 governor of Mai war, who raised a large army, 
 marched into the Deccan, and by the co-operation 
 of the Mahrattas established himself as an in- 
 dependent chief. To put down this daring at- 
 tempt, Hosen Ali, accompanied by the emperor 
 (whom the general compelled to accompany him), 
 set out for the Deccan. On the way Mohammed, 
 who was becoming disgusted with the persistent 
 arrogance of his general, caused him to be assassin- 
 ated ; and this led to the revolt and ultimate ruin 
 of the vizier, Abdallah, who was the brother of 
 Hosen Ali, the general, and to the recall and 
 appointment of Asof Jah to the viziership. A 
 single year's service resulted in the resignation of 
 the minister, and his return to the Deccan, where 
 he again took up arms against the emperor. No 
 decisive action was taken, however, nor any im- 
 portant advantage gained on either side. In truth, 
 there seems little worthy of record in the history 
 of the times, till the year 1738, when Nadir Shah, 
 the ambitious king of Persia, having already con- 
 quered a large portion of the Afghan territories, 
 crossed the Indus, confident that an easy conquest 
 and a rich booty awaited him in India. Rousing 
 himself from the effeminate frivolity that had
 
 Nadir Shah. 509 
 
 occupied the greater portion of his reign, Moham- 
 med went forth at the head of such troops as could 
 be hastily summoned to meet the invader. A de- 
 cisive battle took place at Carnal, resulting in the 
 defeat of Mohammed and his submission to the 
 Persian monarch. Nadir Shah permitted the em- 
 peror to remain unguarded in his own quarters, 
 till they set out for Delhi, where the two monarchs 
 resided under the same roof. The sojourn of Nadir 
 Shah in the Indian capital was only fifty-three 
 days ; but though so brief, in it was recorded such 
 a story of rapacity and bloodshed as long outlived 
 the perpetrators of those atrocities. An indis- 
 criminate massacre of the inhabitants of the city 
 lasted for a whole day, and the number of lives 
 sacrificed has been variously estimated at from 
 thirty thousand to one hundred and fifty thousand. 
 Then followed a general plunder of the capital 
 from the king's treasury down to the meanest 
 dwelling. The spoils appropriated by the Persian 
 monarch, as payment for this most unwelcome 
 visit, were about forty-five millions of dollars in 
 coin, more than that amount in jewels, and gold 
 and silver plate ; and whole droves of the finest 
 horses, elephants and camels the country afforded,
 
 510 The Mogul Dynasty. 
 
 besides hundreds of artisans in gold and silver, 
 who were carried captive to the Persian capital. 
 Before leaving Delhi, Nadir Shah seated Moham- 
 med on his throne, and with his own hands re- 
 placed the regal diadem on his brow, at the same 
 time enjoining on the chiefs and nobles, the strict- 
 est obedience to the reinstated emperor. The 
 prospect was certainly desperate enough an ex- 
 hausted treasury, devastated cities, and his people 
 without the means of living these were the 
 inheritance upon which the restored monarch had 
 entered. More troubles in the Carnatic, the in- 
 terference of the Nizam, then of the French 
 commandant of Pondicherry, and the predatory 
 incursions of Chanda Sahib, the deposed nabob of 
 the Carnatic, were the events of the next eight 
 years, when in 1748, the death of the Nizam at 
 the age of one hundred years, gave rise to conten- 
 tions as to the succession, in which both the French 
 and English took such part as might best subserve 
 their own interests. 
 
 The only events of historic importance occurring 
 at this period, were the rise of the Rohillas, an 
 Afghan tribe inhabiting a mountain region near 
 Oudh, and the invasion of India by the Afghan
 
 The Rohillas. 511 
 
 chief, Ahmed Shah Durani. The former was 
 repelled by the emperor in person ; the latter, by 
 prince Ahmed, his son, with heavy loss. These 
 events had scarcely transpired when by the sudden 
 death of his father, the young prince succeeded to 
 the throne, under the title of Ahmed Shah. His 
 father had reigned just twenty-nine years, and ex- 
 pired 1748, leaving his son in undisputed possession 
 of a devastated empire and a discontented people. 
 
 To repel a fresh incursion of the Rohillas, the 
 new monarch dispatched his vizier, Safder Jang, 
 who, proving unequal to the task, was compelled 
 to call in the aid of Hoikar and Scindia, two 
 Mahratta chiefs whose names, then almost un- 
 known, became afterwards so famous in Indian 
 warfare. These invincible chieftains not only 
 obtained a decisive advantage over the Rohillas, 
 but drove them back to the foot of the Himalayas, 
 where they were glad to sue for peace on any 
 terms.* 
 
 The next foe to be met, was the Afghan king, 
 who after inarching into the Punjaub, and seizing 
 upon Lahore, demanded of the emperor the cession 
 of this entire region, to be held independently of 
 
 *Elphinstone's India.
 
 512 The Mogul Dynasty. 
 
 the Indian Empire ; and Ahmed, conscious of his 
 ability to cope with his foe, was compelled to 
 yield to this unjust claim. 
 
 Dissensions between the sovereign and his vizier 
 followed, culminating in the deposition of Ahmed, 
 violence to the royal person, and the placing of a 
 new emperor on the throne, under the title of 
 Alam Ghir II. A. D. 1754. The violent conduct 
 of the vizier, Ghazi-u-din, toward the new sover- 
 eign, and his evident determination to govern 
 according to his own pleasure, while his royal 
 master looked on approvingly, rendered the office 
 of the emperor a mere sinecure, destitute of power 
 over himself and his subjects. This atrocity of 
 Ghazi-u-din, and his extreme severity toward the 
 people led to open mutiny ; and his violation of 
 the recent treaty with the Afghan king, brought 
 him again across the Indus, and resulted in the 
 plunder of Delhi, and the indiscriminate slaugh- 
 ter of the inhabitants. The devastated capital, 
 thus robbed of what had escaped the rapacity of 
 the Persians, was left by the Afghan king in the 
 hands of a Rohilla chief, while the conqueror re- 
 turned to his own country. Ghazi-u-din now 
 called in the aid of the Mahrattas, and by their
 
 H. I. 33
 
 Cf-hazi-u-din. 515 
 
 help, he shortly took violent possession of Delhi, 
 assassinated the unfortunate Alamghir, and ulti- 
 mately wrested from the Afghans the whole of the 
 country ceded to them by Ahmed Shah. This 
 brought the irate Durani once more across the 
 Indus, and marching with a formidable army, 
 southward he met the Mahratta forces on the 
 plains of Paniput, near the Jumna, where in 1761, 
 occurred that last battle, before mentioned, in 
 which the Mahrattas figured as a distinct peo- 
 ple. The invading army having thus effect- 
 ually destroyed the last remnants of the Tartar 
 Empire of India, retired beyond the Indus, leaving 
 the desolated country to its fate. The fugitive 
 Shah Alum, the heir to the throne of Delhi, sub- 
 sequently obtained possession of the capital of his 
 ancestors ; but having no power to retain it he fell 
 into the hands of a Rohilla chief, who after put- 
 ting out his eyes, gave him over to Scindia, the 
 latter retaining him in close confinement at Delhi, 
 till that city was taken by the British forces, in 
 1803. Shah Alum and his son, Akbar Shah both 
 died pensioners on the bounty of the East India 
 Company ; and with these princes ended the race 
 of the Tartar kings of India.* 
 
 * Malcolm's " Indian Mutiny."
 
 516 The Mogul Dynasty. 
 
 Meanwhile the growth of Anglo-Indian power 
 had been steady and sure : the dissensions that so 
 completely annihilated the Tartar Empire, turning 
 every way to the advantage of the British. The 
 rapid decay of Portuguese and Dutch power in 
 India, had left the French the chief rivals of the 
 English on the eastern waters ; and a cordial hatred 
 existed between these nations. The first expedi- 
 tion against Pondicherry having failed through the 
 superior valor and skill of the French admiral, 
 Labourdonnais, .who, in 1747 had in turn attacked 
 and reduced the English settlement of Madras, the 
 British made a second attempt against Pondicherry 
 under the admiral, Boscawen. This also proved a 
 failure ; but the reputation of British arms was 
 more than vindicated by the brilliant victories 
 achieved at Arcot in 1751, by Lieutenant (after- 
 wards Lord) Clive, whose name just then, be- 
 gan to appear in the annals of Anglo-Indian 
 history. Not only did Clive obtain possession of 
 the town and citadel, but with only two hundred 
 English and three hundred Seapoys, he effectually 
 resisted a siege of nearly two months, against nine 
 thousand native, and nearly two hundred French 
 troops, and finally pursued the retreating foe, and
 
 Lord Olive. 517 
 
 dispersed them with heavy loss. This terminated 
 hostilities between the French and English for a 
 short time ; and after some other less important 
 passages of arms, peace having in the meantime 
 been declared between these hostile powers in 
 Europe, an amicable arrangement was entered 
 into, whereby the French and English East India 
 Companies should thereafter act in concert. The 
 French meanwhile, had been losing favor with the' 
 native princes, while the latter were becoming in- 
 creasingly friendly to the British. Suraj-al-Daoulah 
 who had succeeded his uncle, Alverdi Khan, as 
 viceroy of Bengal, was however, an exception, 
 seeming to cherish for these foreigners who had 
 found shelter in his domain, a most cordial hatred, 
 and to watch for opportunities to injure and annoy 
 them. It was during the administration of the 
 uncle, that the emperor Mohammed Shah had, in 
 gratitude for the valuable services of the medical 
 officer attached to the English embassy, conceded 
 all they desired in regard to Calcutta, giving them 
 many privileges of trade not before enjoyed, 
 though quite in opposition to the wishes of the 
 viceroy, who was likewise vizier to the emperor. 
 This enmity of Alverdi seems to have been trans-
 
 518 The Mogul Dynasty, 
 
 mitted, with interest, to his successors who, not 
 
 satisfied with the accumulated treasures of his 
 
 uncle, determined to seize on the British factory at 
 
 Calcutta, which, from the extensive commerce 
 
 carried on, he supposed to be of great value. 
 
 Taking advantage of their defenceless condition, 
 
 Suraj marched suddenly upon the little band who 
 
 garrisoned the Britisli factory, and despite their 
 
 gallant resistance, he took possession of the place, 
 
 and gave up the town to the pillage of his lawless 
 
 troops. All the English residents who could do so 
 
 took refuge in the few English ships anchored in 
 
 the harbor ; but one hundred and forty-six, under 
 
 the command of Mr. Holwell, fell into the hands of 
 
 the viceroy, who ordered them to be confined for 
 
 the night, in a small close room, known as the 
 
 "Black Hole." It was the 20th of June, (1756), 
 
 the weather was intensely hot, the cell miserably 
 
 ventilated, and only eighteen feet square, and the 
 
 sufferings of the unfortunate victims beggars 
 
 description. Many fell fainting to the ground and 
 
 were trampled to death, some fought desperately 
 
 to reach the small hole that served as a window, 
 
 and expired in raving madness while struggling 
 
 bravely for life ; and of the whole number thrust
 
 The "Black Hole" 519 
 
 into that den of despair, only twenty-six remained 
 alive. To avenge their terrible tragedy, Clive, 
 with such forces as could be spared from Madras, 
 was despatched to Calcutta, and not only re- 
 captured the city, but compelled the viceroy to 
 sue for peace ; and the treacherous Suraj, proving 
 a dangerous foe, was shortly after deposed by 
 English authority. On the 22nd of June, 1757, 
 the battle of Plassy was fought, which ended not 
 only in a great victory to the English, but the 
 death of the late viceroy, Suraj, who, falling into 
 the hands of the son of Mir Jaffier, was assassin- 
 ated by his order. War having again been de- 
 clared between England and France, Major Coote 
 was sent to expel the French from Behar, which 
 was promptly effected, and an amicable treaty 
 arranged with the native governor. An unsuc- 
 cessful attempt to reduce Trichinopoly, and other 
 aggressive measures, were undertaken by the 
 French in retaliation ; but no advantage was 
 gained until the capture of Fort St. David on 
 the Carnatic coast, June 1, 1758, and the establish- 
 ment of French power in the Deccan at about the 
 same time. The severity of the French general, 
 Lally, had alienated not only the native nobles
 
 520 The Mogul Dynasty. 
 
 but even his own troops ; and the former were 
 easily diverted from their allegiance, whilst the 
 latter were discouraged in the performance of their 
 duties ; so that his siege of Tanjore seemed fruit- 
 less mainly from want of co-operation. The siege 
 of Madras failed also, and shortly afterwards Lally 
 suffered a total defeat before Wandiwash, with 
 heavy losses of artillery and baggage ; while the 
 English arms, especially under Generals Coote, 
 Clive, and Forde, carried victory and renown 
 everywhere in their course. Arcot, Timery, Devi- 
 cotah, Valdore, Cafical, Cillambaram, Trincomalee, 
 Cuddalore, Pennacoil and Alamparva all were sur- 
 rendered to the English ; and Vizigapatam having 
 been captured from the French by Rajah Amun- 
 deraz, was by him made over to the Madras 
 Government, in return for aid rendered him in 
 subjugating the Circars. Forde's victory at Masul- 
 ipatam, in April 1759, was a most brilliant affair, 
 and the results great and lasting in establishing 
 the prestige of British arms over those of the 
 French, and awakening the confidence of the 
 native princes. Soon after, the governor of Ben- 
 gal was aided by Clive, in retaining possession of 
 his province, and in return made his benefactor an
 
 Decadence of French Powc*-. 521 
 
 Omra of the empire, and bestowed on him a jag- 
 hire near Calcutta, worth $150,000 a year.* 
 
 In the Madras Presidency, the star of the Eng- 
 lish was still in the ascendency. The French 
 after various defeats fell back upon Pondicherry, 
 to find themselves completely at the mercy of the 
 English ; and after sustaining a siege of eight 
 months, the fort and town capitulated. From this 
 period the decay of Franco-Indian power was 
 steady and sure ; though a feeble existence was 
 maintained for about a score of years longer. In 
 1779, all their settlements fell into the hands of 
 the English, and as military posts, they were com- 
 pletely dismantled. Bussy was killed in battle ; 
 Lally, on his return to Europe, was tried for treason 
 and executed ; and though subsequently, some 
 spasmodic attempts have been made to revive their 
 oriental trade, the French as a nation have long 
 ceased to take any important part in Indian affairs. 
 But at the taking of Pondicherry in 1760, France 
 lost her prestige in India, and this was really the 
 beginning of the end. 
 
 Though peace was at this time existing between 
 England and Holland, the Dutch became so jealous 
 
 * Malcolm's "Indian Mutiny.''
 
 522 The Mogul Dynasty. 
 
 of the growth of British power and territory in 
 India, that they sent an expedition from Batavia, 
 consisting of seven ships, manned by seven hun- 
 dred Europeans and eight hundred Malays. The 
 ships entered the Hooghly and landed their forces 
 near Calcutta, intending to march to their settle- 
 ment at Chinsura. General Forde, acting under 
 the orders of the English governor, so effectually 
 interposed to prevent their progress, that of the 
 entire number, only fourteen men reached their 
 destination, all the others being killed or captured. 
 The ships surrendered, and the Dutch were re- 
 quired to pay the expenses of the whole affair, or 
 be driven from the Province of Bengal. They 
 chose the former, and seemingly convinced of their 
 inability to cope with the stronger power, they 
 retired from the field as the Portuguese and French 
 had done, leaving the victorious Britons masters ot 
 the course.
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 THE ENGLISH POWER LORDS OLIVE AND 
 HASTINGS. 
 
 THE prospect of political calm that followed 
 the events of the last chapter, enabled Gen- 
 eral Clive once more to revisit his native land for 
 the purpose of recruiting his impaired health. 
 This step left Colonel Calliand acting commander- 
 in-chief ; and Mr. Vansittart was appointed by the 
 " Court of Directors " as the head of the execu- 
 tive during Clive's absence. This appointment 
 excited much dissension in the Calcutta Council, 
 as contrary to usage ; and Mr. Vansittart's conduct, 
 in arranging his plans with a secret committee, 
 without consulting the " Board," naturally tended 
 to the increase of unfriendly feeling. The treas- 
 ury too, was empty, Mir Jaffier, the viceroy of 
 
 523
 
 524 The English Power. 
 
 Bengal was in arrears with his officers, and the 
 troops at Patna were clamoring for pay. Amidst 
 these complicated disputes and difficulties, arising 
 out of the absence of Clive, the viceroy, Jaffier 
 was deposed by Vansittart, arid Cassim Ali Khan, 
 Jafficer's son-in-law, appointed in his stead. The new 
 viceroy, Cassim, proved himself equally treacher- 
 ous and grasping ; and to secure his own ends, he 
 by false accusations, compassed the death of Rain- 
 narain, the Hindu governor of Bezar, though this 
 governor had always been a faithful ally of the 
 English, and had committed no fault but that of 
 having a full treasury, that Cassim desired to ap- 
 propriate to his own use. Sundry outbreaks 
 occurred between the respective parties of the old 
 and new viceroys, Vansittart's administration be- 
 coming daily less popular, while it was generally 
 believed that his partiality for Cassim was the 
 effect of corruption. Mr. Ellis, one of Vansittart's 
 most determined opposers, was sent as resident to 
 Patna where he paid no deference to Mir Cassim, 
 and arrested his officers for interfering with the 
 transit of goods ; and Cassim, in retaliation, abol- 
 ished all transit duties in his domain, thus placing 
 native dealers on an equal footing with Europeans.
 
 ZEMINDARS AND JAT PEASANTS.
 
 Vansittart, 527 
 
 These dissensions culminated in several skirmishes, 
 and ultimately in more important engagements : 
 the first, with the van of the viceroy's army near 
 Moorshedabad, on the 2nd of July, 1763, with the 
 view on the part of the Calcutta council, of re- 
 moving Cassim, and restoring Mir Jaffier to his 
 old position. This action resulted unfavorably for 
 Cassim who was again attacked on the 2nd of 
 August, and totally defeated, with the loss of all 
 his baggage and guns, besides a hundred and fifty 
 boats loaded with provisions. Falling back aftet 
 each defeat, Cagsim was pursued by the victorious 
 army ; and on the 5th of September a sudden 
 assault was made compelling him to retreat within 
 his capital, Mongheer, which in a few days sur- 
 rendered to the English, with a garrison of two 
 thousand men. On the 6th of November, Patna 
 fell by storm, and Mir Cassim fled to Oudh, and 
 sought the protection of the nabob. A mutinous 
 spirit began to show itself among the native troops 
 in the English service; and prompt, even severe 
 discipline had to be used by the English higher 
 officers, in order to check this spirit of insubordi- 
 nation that seemed rapidly on the increase. One 
 entire battalion of Seapoys went over to the
 
 528 The English Power. 
 
 Indian army, taking with them their arms and 
 accoutrements. These were pursued and taken, 
 and twenty-four of the chief offenders condemned 
 to be blown from cannon mouths a sentence ex- 
 ecuted under protest from the native soldiers, and 
 not without considerable intimidation on their 
 part. The firmness of Major Hector Munro was 
 especially successful in reducing the mutinous 
 troops to submission, and in quelling the wide- 
 spread spirit of disaffection, as well as in destroy- 
 ing the forces of the nabob of Oudh, who had 
 aided and abetted the deserters, and with whom 
 the treacherous Cassim found refuge after his ear- 
 lier defeats. 
 
 It was at this period, that the emperor, Shah 
 Alum, during his brief season of power, made 
 overtures to the English, and concluded a treaty 
 of alliance with them, giving to the East India 
 Company full control of the province of Bengal, 
 and other immunities of commerce. On the death 
 of Mir Jaffier, that occurred shortly after his rein- 
 statement as viceroy, the council appointed his 
 second son to succeed him, January 1765. 
 
 The stock-holders in the British East India 
 Company had thus far been allowed no voice in
 
 The East India Company 529 
 
 the control of Indian affairs ; and they were be- 
 ginning to feel restive under the evident insubordi- 
 nation that prevailed among all ranks of their 
 employees so far removed from their observation 
 and direction. They consequently signed a peti- 
 tion to the directors, requesting the appointment 
 of the newly created peer, Lord Clive, to the post 
 of chief-director, as one most likely to compass the 
 difficulties arising out of a mutinous army and a 
 destitute treasury. The request was acceeded to, 
 and Lord Clive was appointed, though after con- 
 siderable show of opposition on the part of the 
 other directors with whom he had not been on 
 good terms, previous to his leaving India. He 
 accepted now, the position offered, on condition of 
 being made commander-in-chief of the army, pres- 
 ident of the Board of Directors, and governor of 
 Bengal ; and " being empowered to act without 
 consulting the council, or being subject to its con- 
 trol." Invested with this supreme power, Lord 
 Clive once more sailed for India. The first abuses 
 the new governor attempted to deal with, were the 
 private trade carried on by officials of the govern- 
 ment, and their habit of extorting presents from 
 
 native princes and rulers, in return for offices and 
 H. I. 34
 
 530 The English Power. 
 
 oher favors. Lord Clive compelled all the civil 
 and military servants of the company to sign a 
 document, whereby they pledged themselves not 
 to receive, under any pretext whatever, presents 
 from native princes or rulers. With the free trade 
 problem he found it more difficult to cope, as it 
 had been carried on from the first, to piece out in- 
 sufficient salaries. To meet this difficulty, lie 
 created a monopoly in salt, betel-nut and tobacco, 
 for the benefit of the higher officers, to be appor- 
 tioned according to their respective grades. His 
 defence of this questionable proceeding was, that 
 the company was itself a monopoly, and that the 
 servants were merely adopting the practise of their 
 superiors. The extra allowance to officers engaged 
 in field service, known as " batta," was ordered to 
 cease from January, 1766, except where specially 
 ordered by the chief director. This created great 
 displeasure among the higher officers, who threat- 
 ened unless their batta was restored by a certain 
 day, to throw up their commissions simultane- 
 ously ; whereupon Clive ordered fresh officers 
 from Calcutta and Madras, and had the chief con- 
 spirators arrested. Many were tried and dismissed 
 the service, among them, General Sir R. Fletcher,
 
 Hyder All. 531 
 
 who was, however, afterwards reinstated by means 
 of family influence, and subsequently appointed 
 commander of the forces at Madras. At the 
 end of January, 1767, Lord Clive resigned and 
 returned to England, in consequence of failing 
 health ; and a " select committee," with Mr. 
 Verelst at the head was placed in charge, with 
 a revenue that was scarcely meeting the expenses 
 of the government. The capture of Ponclicherry 
 had given the English the control of the Carnatic; 
 but this was disputed by Nizam Ali, who having 
 assassinated his brother, Salabat Jing, Subahdah of 
 the Deccan in order to secure for himself the 
 ascendenc3 r , now invaded and laid the country 
 desolate ; while he resisted all attempts of the 
 English to take possession of the country, until 
 they agreed to pay him an annual tribute, and to 
 assist him with troops whenever it should be nec- 
 essary. This arrangement however, brought them 
 into difficulties with Hyder Ali, the governor of 
 Mysore, who, rising from a subordinate position to 
 the command of the army, had, by various expedi- 
 ents gained possession of the domain of the Nairs 
 of Malabar, arid other small tracts of land in 
 Southern India, of which he had constituted a
 
 532 The English Power. 
 
 diminutive kingdom for himself. Of this, the 
 rapacious Nizam wished to gain the control, and 
 the English, as agreed in the recent treaty, joined 
 him in the invasion of Hyder's territory. But the 
 treacherous Nizam suddenly broke faith with his 
 English allies, made peace with Hyder, and offered 
 to deliver into his hands the whole body of Eng- 
 lish troops. Ultimately, after several skirmishes, 
 Colonel Wood commanding the English forces, was 
 drawn, by a ruse of Hyder, from Madras, when 
 Tippoo Sahib, Hyder's son, by forced marches, 
 appeared suddenly before the city, at the head of 
 six thousand horse, compelling the English to sue 
 for peace on the conqueror's own terms. Next 
 arose troubles between the Subahdar of Oudh and 
 the Rohillas, the English furnishing troops to the 
 former, in compliance with the treaty entered into 
 by Warren Hastings, then governor of India ; and 
 the result, in which the English had a full share of 
 the shame, was not only a terrible defeat of the 
 innocent and peaceable Rohillas, but the annexa- 
 tion of their country to Oudh. In the meantime, 
 October, 1774, a new constitution had been framed 
 by the British parliament, for the Indian provinces, 
 and three commissioners from England were sent
 
 THE GOLDEN KIOSK, IN THE VALLEY OF AMBIR. 533
 
 Hastings Resigns. 535 
 
 out to act in concert with the governor (Hastings), 
 in enforcing its adoption. Disagreements in re- 
 gard to policy, arose also, between the home gov- 
 ernment and the Indian colonies, resulting in 
 jealousy and confusion. It was at this period that 
 the impeachment of Hastings occurred, the charges 
 being peculation and bribery, based upon the reve- 
 lations of Rajah Nuncomar, to the effect that his 
 son Goordas, and Munny Begum, had both paid the 
 governor fur the offices they held. Nuncomar was, 
 at the instance of certain influential parties, cited 
 first for conspiracy and then for perjury, tried 
 before a jury consisting altogether of Englishmen, 
 convicted and hanged. Perjury was not a capital 
 offence, nor was there sufficient proof of the guilt 
 of the Rajah, to have convinced an unprejudiced 
 jury ; and as the circumstances have come down 
 to us, there can be little doubt that the law was 
 shamefully perverted in order to get rid of a 
 troublesome personage. Governor Hastings next 
 sent in his resignation, which was accepted, and 
 when his successor had been appointed, Hastings 
 saw fit, for some reason to reverse his own decision, 
 and insisted on retaining his office of governor. 
 On an appeal being made to the courts of law,
 
 536 The English Power. 
 
 they pronounced in his favor. Whilst this most 
 disgraceful policy, attended by constant bickerings 
 and recriminations on both sides, was being enacted 
 in the civil department, military affairs were not 
 progressing more favorably. Colonel Leslie's nego- 
 tiations with diiferent native chiefs, and his hesita- 
 tion in acting with the Bombay army, caused him 
 to be suspected of dishonorable intentions, and led 
 to his being superseded in his command by 
 Colonel Goddard. The Mahrattas were still giving 
 trouble by their incursions and depredations ; but 
 in January, 1770, Colonel Goddard surprised both 
 Scindia and Holkar in their camps, and dispersed 
 them with heavy loss on their side ; and ver} r soon 
 after, he gained possession of Dubhoy and Ahmed 
 abad ; and the Mahrattas were driven back into 
 their own country. The fort of Gwalior, believed 
 by the natives to be impregnable, was also taken, 
 sending terror "to the hearts of the Mahrattas. 
 But even these successes were the occasion of re- 
 newed dissensions between the governor and his 
 council, culminating in a duel between Mr. Hast- 
 ings and Mr. Francis, in which the latter was 
 wounded, and finally returned to England, con- 
 vinced that any amicable arrangement between
 
 French Losses. 537 
 
 himself and the governor would be impossible. In 
 July, 1770, Admiral Sir John Lindsay reached 
 Madras, as a commissioner from the home govern- 
 ment, but to little purpose, so far as the settlement 
 of the pending disputes was concerned. In 1769, 
 the English in their treaty with Hyder, had agreed 
 to assist him when necessary, against the Peishwa, 
 and twice failing to render this aid when sought, 
 in 1777 llyder formed an alliance with the French 
 who gladly supplied him with arms, ammunition, 
 and stores to be used against their old enemies, 
 the English, while Sir R. Rum bold, then governor 
 of Madras, took no measures preparatory to any 
 approach of Hyder in that direction. Meanwhile, 
 intelligence being received in India of the renewal 
 of hostilities between France and England, steps 
 were immediately taken to capture the French 
 settlements, left in so precarious a condition. 
 Chandernagore, Carical, and Masulipatam sur- 
 rendered at once ; Poridicherry capitulated after 
 a vigorous defence, and the garrison marched out 
 with the honors of war. All the fortifications and 
 defenses were destroyed. The small fort and 
 settlement of Mahe was the sole representative of 
 French power in India ; and this was taken by
 
 538 The English Power. 
 
 Colonel Braithwaite, in March 1779. In the fol- 
 lowing November, the nabob of the Carnatic gave 
 the Madras Executive warning, that Hyder, the 
 Nizam and the Mahrattas, had formed a combina- 
 tion to expel the English from India.* 
 
 On the 21st of July, Hyder crossed the frontier, 
 with one hundred thousand men and more than a 
 hundred pieces of artillery. Then followed a 
 series of severe engagements that cannot, within 
 the limits of this work, be followed in detail. 
 Arcot was besieged by Hyder and captured; at 
 Perambaneam, Baillie's force was attacked by 
 Tippoo Sahib, and on the 9th of September a des- 
 perate engagement took place, in which, after a 
 most gallant resistance, Bailie's force, reduced to 
 four hundred, was compelled to yield the day. 
 
 On the 7th of November, Sir Eyre Coote took 
 his seat in the Madras council, after which, a more 
 vigorous policy was pursued. At Tanjore, Col- 
 onel Braithwaite's force fought bravely for twenty- 
 six hours gallantly defending themselves against 
 nearly four times their own number, but were 
 finally overpowered, and the survivors all made 
 prisoners, by Tippoo and his French auxiliaries. 
 
 * Malcolm's " Indian Mutiny."
 
 Trichinopoly. 539 
 
 The arrival of a French fleet at Pondicherry, led 
 the French to attempt to retrieve their recent 
 losses ; and Sir Eyre Coote marched boldly on to 
 the city, disarmed the inhabitants, removed the 
 stores, and destroyed the boats ; and then he 
 marched on after Hyder in the direction of Trich- 
 inopoly. In this vicinity a battle occurred which, 
 after six hours' hard fighting, resulted in the com- 
 plete defeat of the army of Mysore.
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 THE ENGLISH POWER TIPPOO SAHIB AND 
 HIS TIMES. 
 
 FOR several years after the appointment of Sir 
 Eyre Coote, the whole Presidency of Madras 
 and the region round about, was devastated by 
 fierce wars against the marauding forces of the 
 famous Hyder Ali, and his son, Tippoo Sahib, the 
 most able native generals of the time. In the 
 main, the English, by dint of superior skill, and 
 better munitions of war, came off conquerors ; and 
 after the death of Hyder, as Tippoo, after re- 
 peated trials of his skill, became convinced of his 
 utter inability to cope with the English, he, on the 
 24th of February, 1792, signed a treaty which, 
 though very favorable to the interests of the East 
 India Company, was alike discreditable to himself 
 540
 
 THE TOWER OF KOUTUB, PLAIN OF DELHI.
 
 Treaty with Tippoo. 543 
 
 and unjust to his people ; and left moreover, two 
 of his sons in the hands of the English, as hostages, 
 for the performance of the stipulations of the 
 treaty. But before this peaceful ending of this 
 terrible war, thousands of England's brave sons 
 laid down their lives, tens of thousands of the 
 children of that sunny land came to bloody deaths, 
 and one of the fairest and most populous portions 
 of earth's domain was desolated by war, pestilence, 
 and famine. 
 
 England and Holland being now at war, Lord 
 Macartney, who had just arrived at Madras, as 
 governor, determined to attack at once, the Dutch 
 settlements in India. Palicat and Sadras both sur- 
 rendered on the first summons, and such energy 
 and ability were displayed at the siege of Naga- 
 patam, as compelled the governor in less than three 
 weeks to lay down their arms, and sue for peace. 
 The capture of Trincomalee in Ceylon followed 
 very soon after the others ; and in January 1782, 
 Tellicherry and Calicut were taken and garrisoned 
 with English troops. The following May, Scindia 
 signed a treaty of peace at Salbyc ; and the death 
 of Hyder Ali took place in December. Tippoo 
 found it necessary soon after his father's demise,
 
 544 The English Power. 
 
 to visit Western India to repel an invasion of the 
 Seikhs ; and during his absence, the English army 
 separated, one division going to Tillicherry and the 
 other to Merjee. The latter being joined by Gen- 
 eral Matthews with a large force passed the 
 Ghauts, and took Bidnore and Ananpore, and com- 
 pelled Mangalore to capitulate. General Matthews 
 retained in his own possession the immense treas- 
 ures found in these cities, instead of using it to 
 pay off his troops ; and this produced such disaf- 
 fection, that three of the officers, Colonels McLeod 
 and Mackenzie and Major Shaw, left precipitately, 
 to complain of him at headquarters. Receiving 
 the redress they desired, they set out to return by 
 sea, and were overtaken by a Mahratta fleet. 
 Neither party knew of the treaty signed by Scindia, 
 and an engagement followed, in which Shaw was 
 killed, Mackenzie mortally wounded, and McLeod 
 wounded and made prisoner. Nor was this all the 
 harm done by this ill-omened treasure. Tippoo 
 returning, invested Bidnore, and forced it to capit- 
 ulate ; and General Matthews, before inarching 
 out, distributed the treasure among his own sol- 
 diers. This, Tippoo deemed a violation of the 
 terms agreed on, and made it a pretext for the im-
 
 f/ #" -; / 
 
 THE PRINCESS SHAH JEHAN. 
 
 H. I. 35
 
 Peace. 547 
 
 prisonment of Matthews, who was shortly after 
 assassinated, and his associates in arms were also 
 subjected to an exceedingly rigorous confinement. 
 The English and French fleets had an engagement 
 off Cuddalore, in which the English won a decided 
 victory ; and about the same time, peace being 
 declared between France and England, hostilities 
 in their colonies ceased. 
 
 At this juncture General Stuart was, for his 
 tardiness and inefficiency, dismissed from the com- 
 pany's service, and refusing to submit to the 
 sentence was arrested and sent to England, by 
 Lord Macartney. Meanwhile Colonel Fullerton 
 was achieving great victories in Southern India, 
 where he captured Palagatcherry and Coimbatore, 
 and would have pushed on to the relief of Man- 
 galore that was invested by Tippoo's troops, but 
 for counter orders. 
 
 A treaty of peace was signed between the com- 
 batants, March llth 1784, and ratified by the 
 Supreme Council of Calcutta during the absence 
 of Governor Hastings, who desired after his re- 
 turn, to introduce several modifications, but these, 
 Lord Macartney honorably rejected. 
 
 The Supreme Court of Calcutta consisted of
 
 548 The English Power. 
 
 one chief and three puisne judges ; and its juris- 
 diction compassed all claims of the company 
 against British subjects, and of British subjects 
 against natives, presuming that the disputants 
 acquiesced in appealing to its decisions. In crimi- 
 nal cases, it extended to all British subjects and 
 servants of the company ; but the act did not 
 define what constituted a British subject, and the 
 judges were in the habit of regarding all over 
 whom the company exercised any influence, as 
 coming within its jurisdiction. Difficulties in con- 
 sequence of this vagueness often arose, especially 
 in collecting debts, revenues, etc. In collecting 
 the revenue, the power of exercising summarj^ en- 
 forcement was vested in the provincial councils 
 called Dewani Adaulut ; but with these the power 
 of the Supreme Court often conflicted, the defend- 
 ant being able to take out a writ of habeas corpus 
 in the Supreme Court, when the judges took bail 
 for the appearance of the parties, and liberated 
 them. The company had also reserved to the 
 nabob of Bengal the administration of all civil 
 cases ; but the Supreme Court declined to recog- 
 nize this reservation ; and Mr. Hastings instituted 
 a new court, the Sudder Dewani Adaulut, and
 
 Oheyt Singh. 549 
 
 committed the administration of it to Sir Elijah 
 Impey. As the office and emoluments were held 
 at the pleasure of the governor and council, it 
 was supposed that the presiding officer would not 
 admit the pretensions of the Supreme Court 
 against the Dewani Adaulut, but would rather 
 effect a reconciliation between them. These pro- 
 ceedings were however, censured by the House of 
 Commons, and Sir Elijah Impey was recalled to 
 answer criminal charges. The governor made also 
 important changes in the finance department ; and 
 afterwards attempted to replenish the depleted 
 treasury by very questionable measures. Extor- 
 tion and violence done to the person of Cheyt 
 Singh, the Rajah of Benares resulted in a popular 
 outbreak, and despite the Rajah's offers of submis- 
 sion, he was deposed from office, his treasure 
 seized, a new ruler appointed, and the laws placed 
 under the control of the company. Equally 
 reprehensible was the course of the governor in 
 regard to the nabob of Oudh, who being in arrears 
 to the government, a new President was appointed, 
 empowered to enforce payment, though the reve- 
 nues of the nabob had been exhausted in the sup- 
 port of the English troops forced upon him. By
 
 550 The English Power. 
 
 the connivance of the governor, and the atrocious 
 complicity of the resident and nabob, two royal 
 ladies of Lucknow who had inherited immense 
 wealth, were seized and kept prisoners, until large 
 sums had been extorted from them, in payment of 
 the nabob's dues, and for the relief of the govern- 
 ment treasury. Hastings share in these proceed- 
 ings was rewarded by a gift from the nabob of a 
 hundred thousand pounds sterling which he asked 
 the company's permission to accept, in payment 
 for his services. 
 
 The money thus obtained, supplied the means of 
 prosecuting the war with renewed energy, and 
 probably saved England her valuable Eastern 
 Empire ; but such measures certainly did not win 
 for Great Britain a throne in the affections of her 
 Indian subjects, and probably paved the way for 
 the troubles of later years. The power of Great 
 Britain in India being now consolidated, and her 
 authority recognized, several years of peace fol- 
 lowed, during which Governor Hastings tendered 
 his resignation, and in 1785 returned to England. 
 
 Most unfavorable reports had from time to time 
 reached Parliament concerning the peculation and 
 oppression practised by the servants of the East
 
 Lord Cornwallis. 553 
 
 India Company, and when a new governor had 
 been appointed, Pitt, then Prime Minister, intro- 
 duced and carried his " India Bill," which estab- 
 lished a Board of Control, composed of six privy 
 councilors chosen by the sovereign of Great Brit- 
 ain, and empowered to hold in check, the more 
 important functions of the company. Lord Corn- 
 walk's was the governor appointed to succeed Mr. 
 Hastings, and reached his post in September, 1786, 
 the government having been administered in the 
 interim, with great ability, by Mr. Macpherson, 
 the Senior Member of the Council. The peace 
 that smiled so propitiously on the advent of Lord 
 Cornwallis, was soon broken and the horrors of 
 civil war once more clouded the Indian atmos- 
 phere. The restless, ambitious Tippoo was the 
 first to begin trouble by an invasion of the territory 
 of the Rajah of Travancore, an English ally ; but 
 before they had time to interfere, the intrepidity of 
 a small body of Nairs, had achieved a complete 
 victory over the great army of Tippoo, who was 
 hotly pursued by the Nairs, and had difficulty in 
 escaping with his life. This treacherous foe next 
 renewed his attack more successfully, and on the 
 7th of May 17 90,' captured the city, and devastated
 
 554 The English Power. 
 
 the surrounding country. This brought the forces 
 of General Meadows from Madras, and those of 
 General Abercrombie from Bombay, both of whom 
 penetrated far into the Mysore county ; but the 
 campaign terminated in Tippoo's favor. The sec- 
 ond campaign was conducted by Lord Cornwallis 
 in person, who gained some decided advantages, 
 but was compelled to suspend operations, by the 
 advance of the season, and the increasing sickness 
 among his troops. The third campaign opened by 
 the capture of the two celebrated fortresses of 
 Savendroog and Octadroog, followed by the reduc- 
 tion of a strongly fortified camp of the Mysorean 
 army of ten thousand men, with a large quantity 
 of guns and stores. The fortress of Lamaga fell 
 next in the hands of the English, and Tippoo sued 
 for peace ; but the victorious army pushed on to 
 lay siege to Seringapatam, which on the 7th of 
 February, 1792, fell before this valiant onslaught 
 of the English besiegers, Tippoo's loss amounting 
 to over four thousand, and that of the English to 
 five hundred and thirty-five. On the 24th, Tippoo 
 signed a treaty, giving up one half his territories 
 to the English, agreeing to pay all the expenses of 
 the war, and leaving in the hands of his conquer-
 
 Wellington. 555 
 
 ors, two of his sons as hostages for the performance 
 of these stipulations. 
 
 The charter of the East India Company was 
 renewed in 1793 ; and Lord Cornwallis retiring, 
 was succeeded by Sir John Shore, as governor. 
 The terms of the treaty having been fulfilled, the 
 sons of Tippoo were delivered with due honors ; 
 but Tippoo received the officer who accompanied 
 them, with haughty reserve, and declined any 
 further advances of the governor. 
 
 Affairs in Oudh were again in an unsettled state, 
 and those in the Carnatic looked still more un- 
 promising, in the midst of which, Sir John Shore 
 having been elevated to the peerage as Lord 
 Teignmouth, sailed for England, and was suc- 
 ceeded by Lord Mornington, May, 1798. Tippoo 
 about this period sent officers to the Mauritius to 
 form an alliance with the French, and to solicit 
 aid to drive the English out of Southern India, 
 offering also to pay handsomely for volunteers. 
 War was accordingly declared against Tippoo, and 
 preparations begun for the immediate commence- 
 ment of aggressive movements. At Mallavely the 
 first engagement occurred, Colonel Wellesley, after- 
 ward the Great Duke of Wellington, commanding
 
 556 The English Power. 
 
 the left wing. The English here achieved a great 
 victory, and pushed forward to Seringpatara, which 
 was laid siege to, and taken by assault on the 4th 
 of May. At one o'clock, Syed Goffhar, Tippoo's 
 best general, was killed by a cannon ball ; and late 
 in the evening, Tippoo's body was found where he 
 had fallen, in the thickest of the fight, pierced by 
 musket balls. The next day, his body was placed 
 in the tomb of Hyder AH, attended by the highest 
 military honors ; and his family were taken under 
 the protection of the English, and treated with 
 the respect due to their exalted position. 
 
 Thus ended the career of one of the most implac- 
 able foes of the British race in India. His emblem, 
 the one he liked best to emblazon on shields and 
 flags, was a tiger, an appropriate emblem of his 
 own savage disposition ; and he so delighted in 
 these ferocious animals, that he kept numbers of 
 them about his palace, and often made them the 
 ministers of his vengeance. It is said that a favor- 
 ite toy of his was the figure of a tiger in the act 
 of tearing a European to pieces ; and that by 
 turning a crank, the machine was made to emit a 
 dual sound, resembling the mingled growls of a 
 tiger -and the agonized groans of a dying man.
 
 Tippoo's Death. 557 
 
 His love of war seems to have grown out of a 
 cruel delight in the miseries it occasions ; and he 
 seems to have taken especial pleasure in exercising 
 his ferocity upon such English prisoners as fell 
 into his hands. Death by the sword was the most 
 merciful fate that came to any so unfortunate as to 
 be left to his disposal; and "terrible atrocities 
 were revealed when his death unloosed the tongues 
 of his oppressed people." 
 
 The death of the Sultan gave his country into 
 the possession of the conquerors without any show 
 of opposition ; and all the Mysorean strongholds 
 were at once occupied by English troops. Colonel 
 Wellesley was appointed governor of Mysore, and 
 assumed the military charge of Seringapatam, 
 governing with a union of moderation and firm- 
 ness quite in contrast with the cruelty and capri- 
 ciousness of the tyrant Tippoo, and soon restoring 
 order throughout the province. 
 
 The next event of most importance to be 
 noticed in connection with Indian history, is the 
 invasion, in 1795, and again in 1797, of Punjaub 
 and Lahore, by Shah Zeinan, the Afghan king who 
 in the second instance, had succeeded in the occu- 
 pation of Lahore, when he was prevented from
 
 558 The English Power. 
 
 making farther advances by a rebellion in his own 
 capital. A similar attempt was made the follow- 
 ing year, when he again had to withdraw, to pro- 
 tect his territory from an attack of the Persians ; 
 and in 1801, he was deposed and imprisoned by 
 his brother. 
 
 At Benares, difficulties occurred in connection 
 with the deposed Rajah of Oudh, whom it was 
 proposed to remove to Calcutta, for greater safety. 
 The resident and several other Englishmen were 
 murdered in cold blood, when Vizir Ali fled, seek- 
 ing protection from a Rajput chief, but he was 
 afterward surrendered to the English. The gov- 
 ernment of Oudh was shortly after, assumed by the 
 company, and the court and family of the nabob 
 provided for. After various difficulties with their 
 respective governments, Surat, Tanjore, and the 
 Carnatic were placed under British control ; and 
 negotiations were opened with the Peishwa, who 
 was nominally the Mahratta sovereign, though in 
 reality both Holkar and Scindia exerted far more 
 power and influence. Holkar's family had been 
 for nearly a century, the acknowledged head of 
 the northern, states, but at this period, there arose 
 a disagreement about the succession, that gave to
 
 Gruicowar of Baroda. 561 
 
 Scindia, the pretext for interference, who declared 
 Cashee Rao sovereign, and put Mulhar Rao to 
 death, but retained a posthumous son of the latter, 
 as a check on the uncle. But another claimant 
 arose in the person of Holkar's illegitimate son 
 whose first attempt was however, defeated near 
 Indore, on the 14th of October, 1801. The next 
 year, he again opposed the united forces of Scindia 
 and the Peishwa, near Poonah, where, after a 
 severe engagement, he obtained a decided victory. 
 The terrified Peishwa took no part in the battle, 
 and after its conclusion sent for the English resi- 
 dent and offered to maintain six battalions of 
 Seapoys, and yield twenty-five lacs of rupees out 
 of his revenues for their support, in return for aid 
 from the English ; and despite all that could be 
 said to reassure him, he fled in an English ship to 
 Bassein. Holkar also sent for the resident, and 
 expressed a desire for his mediation and for an am- 
 icable arrangement with Scindia and the Peishwa. 
 The death of the Guicowar of Baroda in 1800, 
 gave rise to disputes in that direction ; his son 
 being an imbecile, and therefore inelligible, the 
 choice lay between the prime minister, Nowjee 
 
 Apajee, and an illegitimate brother of the deceased 
 H. I. 36
 
 562 The Enyliah Power. 
 
 sovereign. The English decided in favor of the 
 minister, who was accordingly invested as sover- 
 eign, and began his reign by dismissing a band of 
 Arabs who had been in the service of the late 
 Guicowar. These, however, refused to disband, 
 and mutinying seized and imprisoned the Guicowar. 
 The English immediately besieged Baroda which 
 in ten days succumbed, and the mutineers were 
 driven from Guzerat. 
 
 After Bajee Rao's flight to Bassein, and the 
 proclamation of Amrut Rao as Peishwa, the most 
 violent excesses were pepetrated, and the English 
 had again to interfere. The former Peishwa was 
 restored to govern under English protection ; all 
 Europeans hostile to the English were to be ban- 
 ished from the territory, and all points of dispute 
 between the Guicowar and Peishwa were to be 
 submitted to the English for decision. Amrut 
 Rao was also awarded a pension and a residence 
 at Benares. This arrangement resulted in a re- 
 newal of hostilities between the English and the 
 Mahrattas. General Lake was assigned command 
 in the north ; and Colonel Wellesley in the Deccan, 
 where his first step was the redemption of the 
 strong fort of Ahmednagur, and his next to pursue
 
 Battle of Assaye. 565 
 
 the Mahrattas and bring them to a decisive action. 
 The battle of Assaye, so famous in Indian history, 
 took place on the 23rd of September, 1803, and 
 was a most brilliant victory to the English, though 
 with fearful loss on both sides. The city of 
 Burhampore and the fort of Asseeghur were taken 
 on the 24th while the Baroach fell into the hands of 
 the Guzerat troops. At the north, General Lake 
 took Alijurh, and then advanced upon Delhi, 
 which was captured after great slaughter upon 
 both sides, and the emperor Shah Alum delivered 
 from the Mahratta captivity. Lake's next move was 
 upon Agra, which before the outbreak, had been 
 in the hands of Seapoy soldiers commanded by 
 English officers. These had been seized, when hos- 
 tilities began, and confined by their own men. 
 Seven battalions of Scindia were taken by Lake, 
 and then the garrison capitulated, allowing the 
 captive officers to retire with their private effects. 
 On the 1st of November occurred the battle of 
 Laswarre, that destroyed the power of Scindia in 
 Northern India; and at the same time Bundel- 
 cund was brought under English power. In the 
 Deccan, the battles of Argoam, Nagpore, and 
 others, resulted in the same way, with large acces-
 
 566 The English Power. 
 
 sions of territory to the English. New treachery 
 on the part of Holkar, and constant plunder of his 
 people, brought down the English again in that 
 direction. On the 17th of November, Lake, in an 
 engagement with Holkar, at Furruckabad, killed 
 three thousand of his men, and ten days later 
 Deeg was stormed and taken, leaving only Bhurt- 
 pore as a refuge for Holkar. This was invested in 
 January, 1805, but the Rajah suing for peace, it 
 was granted on favorable terms. 
 
 Col. Wellesley's policy from the first, had been 
 to strip the natives of military power, thus giving 
 the East India Company easy control of them. 
 This he had now nearly accomplished, a very large 
 portion of territory was either in the hands of the 
 English, or under their " protection ; " the power 
 of the Mahrattas, well named " The Great Power " 
 was broken, and though not yet quite overthrown, 
 was becoming rapidly under control. Still the in- 
 domitable Lake pushed on after the retreating foe, 
 nor paused .till he had crossed the line of Alex- 
 ander's conquests, and pitched his tents on the 
 banks of the Hyphasis (the Beas) where in the 
 long ago, the " Conqueror of the World" had en- 
 camped. Yet he was not permitted to grasp the
 
 A Disastrous Treaty. 567 
 
 boon for which he had toiled and risked so much. 
 When almost within sight of Holkar's retreat, he 
 was directed by the acting governor, Sir George 
 Barlow, to conclude a peace with the Mahratta 
 chief, and he had no alternative but to submit. 
 This treaty restored all his lost territory to. 
 Holkar, broke off the English alliance with Jey- 
 pore, and sent the army back to Delhi. 
 
 This disgraceful treaty was destined to prove a 
 failure, and ere long all the sad lessons of the last 
 campaign with their losses and sufferings, were re- 
 peated. We cannot in our limited space, follow 
 all the details, but must touch on the leading 
 events. After some new atrocities Holkar became 
 insane, and remained so until his death in 1811, 
 thus removing one obstacle to the peace of India. 
 Meanwhile Lord Minto had succeeded to the office 
 of governor. A statesman of great ability and in- 
 dependence, he at once abandoned the non-interven- 
 tion policy of Sir George Barlow, and determined 
 upon protecting the innocent, but equally upon 
 punishing the guilty cause of turmoil and violence. 
 
 It was in the year 1808, that rumors began to 
 spread, of the efforts of the Great Napoleon to
 
 568 The English Power. 
 
 injure or jeopardize the Anglo-Indian cause, and 
 of attempted complicity with the court of Persia. 
 During the same year a number of French frigates 
 sailed from various ports, to the great detriment 
 of trade in the Indian Seas ; and Lord Minto pro- 
 ceeded to deprive them of ports of refuge by at- 
 tacking the islands of Bourbon, Mauritius and 
 Java. The reduction of the first two was readily 
 accomplished ; though in Java, garrison after garri- 
 had to be taken before Jansen, the Dutch governor, 
 would submit ; but on the 16th of September, the 
 island was given up to the English. The next 
 source of trouble was the incursions of the 
 Ghookas, a warlike race on the north-eastern 
 frontier. These were finally reduced, but at the 
 cost of much blood and treasure, as was also the 
 expedition into Nepaul, in which these Ghoorkas 
 bore a strong hand against the English. For, 
 whether in the entrenched fortress of their own 
 mountain ridges, or in their incursions into the 
 surrounding country, this was a brave and warlike 
 race, not easily intimidated. In February, 1816, 
 proposals for peace having been made, to which 
 the Nepaulese refused to accede, further aggressive
 
 The Mahrattas. 569 
 
 measures were decided on, when they themselves 
 sued for peace, and gladly accepted terms they had 
 before refused. 
 
 The British reverses at the beginning of this 
 war, had given new impulse to their old enemies, 
 the Mahrattas. Mr. Elphinstone, the resident at 
 Poonah, inade several attempts for an amicable 
 arrangement, but was as often foiled by the 
 Peishwa and his depraved minister Trimbuckjee, 
 and various complications, especially with the 
 Guicowar, until the English forced them to ac- 
 cept either war or submission ; and Bajee Rao, the 
 last of the Peishwas, on the 18th of June, 1817, 
 reluctantly signed a treaty, renouncing his preten- 
 sions as head of the Mahratta chiefs, and giving 
 up to the English, besides the strong fortress of 
 Ahmednagur, a considerable portion of other terri- 
 tory. A supplementary treaty was arranged the 
 following November, with the Guicowar, in which 
 the Peishwa's claims were settled by the annual 
 payment of four lacs of rupees ($200,000) and 
 the English received as their share of the bargain, 
 the city of Ahmedabad, the capital of Guzerat, 
 and a place of large political importance.
 
 570 The English Power. 
 
 Scindia failing in some stipulations he had made 
 to furnish a contingent to act with the British, 
 under a British officer, in the reduction of the 
 Pindarries, and to allow the use of his forts of 
 Assurghur and Scindia during the war, the Eng- 
 lish eventually besieged and captured the fort, 
 when evidences of Scindia's insincerity were found 
 in his own writing. As a penalty the English 
 demanded absolute cession of Assurghur, to be 
 retained permanently in their keeping. The battle 
 of Kirkee in November, 1817 was another brilliant 
 victory to the English, as was also that of Naffpore, 
 on the 26th of the same month. Chandore-Galna 
 and Unktunky were occupied by British troops 
 shortly after, and the war was virtually ended by 
 the capture of Bajee Rae and Trimbukcee, both of 
 whom remained prisoners for life, within the British 
 lines, the former with the handsome pension of 
 80,000 or 1400,000 a year. Assurghur, after an 
 obstinate defence, yielded on the 9th of April, 1819, 
 and with its fall ended this famous Mahratta war. 
 Early in 1822, Governor Hastings resigned, having 
 filled this high office for nine years, during which 
 the power of the Mahrattas and Pindarries had
 
 Hastings Reigns Again. 571 
 
 been successfully broken, Scindia alone remaining, 
 and he no longer a formidable foe ; while the name 
 and reputation of the East India Company had 
 been widely extended, and both trade and revenue 
 were rapidly on the increase.
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 THE ENGLISH POWER BURMESE AND PUNJAUB 
 WARS AND THE CONQUEST OF SCINDE. 
 
 WITH the close of the administration of Gov- 
 ernor Hastings ended the Mahratta war ; 
 but with the advent of his successor, the Earl of 
 Amherst, was ushered in another contest equally 
 tedious and annoying. The first Burmese war 
 lasted two years, from 1824, to 1826, and ended in 
 the cession of Assam and the Tenasserim Prov- 
 inces, to the East India Company. It is not our 
 purpose to trace the progress of this war, but 
 merely to glance at its causes and results, and pass 
 on to that which pertains strictly to the history of 
 India. An old source of dissatisfaction had ex- 
 isted between the governments of Burmah and 
 
 572
 
 The Burmese War. 578 
 
 British India from the year 1798, when some 
 thirty thousand Mugs, a race inhabiting a section 
 of Arracan, fled from Burmese tyranny, and took 
 refuge in the British district of Chittagong, where 
 they settled down in villages and towns, in various 
 pursuits. Requisition had more than once been 
 made by His Burmese Majesty, for the return of 
 these " slaves " to their liege lord ; but as Eng- 
 land does not recognize slavery, she declined to 
 deliver up, nolens volens, these quiet, peaceable 
 subjects of her empire* This was the old grudge 
 entertained by " His golden-footed Majesty " 
 against his " Cousins of England ; " but the im- 
 mediate cause of hostilities was a dispute concern- 
 ing the island of Shaporee, an unimportant tract 
 at the entrance of Tek Nauf, the arm of the sea 
 that divides Chittagong from Arracan. This the 
 Burmese took forcible possession of, and pro- 
 claimed it a part of their empire, besides doing 
 violence to the small English garrison found on 
 the island. Other larger bodies of ^troops from 
 Assam and Munnipore shortly crossed the frontier, 
 and early in January 1824, Lord Amherst issued 
 a " manifesto," preparatory to a formal declaration 
 of war. This conflict lasted till February, 1826,
 
 574 The English Power. 
 
 resulting in the annexation of the valuable prov- 
 inces before named. 
 
 The cause of the second breaking out of hostil- 
 ities between the English and Burmese, was the 
 maltreatment in the fort of Rangoon, of certain 
 British merchant-captains, who were, at the instiga- 
 tion of the native governor, subjected to spoliation 
 and insult. The demand for apolog\ r and restitu- 
 tion having been rejected, war was declared, hostil- 
 ities beginning April 2nd 1852, and ending in 
 December of the same year, by the annexation of 
 the Province of Pegu. 
 
 The temporary administration of Mr. Adams, 
 pending the arrival of the newly-appointed gov- 
 ernor, has been rendered somewhat notorious by 
 the exercise of a power, that though vested in the 
 government, had not hitherto been resorted to in 
 the whole history of the Anglo-Indian Colonies. 
 This was the " censorship of the press ; " and 
 added to it, was the discretionary power of " ban- 
 ishing from Jthe company's territories any trouble- 
 some or refractory editor." This power was 
 exercised by Mr. Adams, against the editor of the 
 Calcutta Journal, who having published some 
 strictures upon the acts of the executive, was noti-
 
 l 'S/'.'-S ; '- -~ -/-"* "" Jr~i-':- ".' 
 ' ' . / . ***^ -^< ^ 
 
 SOLDIERS OF THE NIZAM OF HYDERABAD.
 
 A Financial Failure. 577 
 
 fied to quit the country within a few days. This 
 despotic proceeding called forth much censure in 
 England, but was sustained by the supreme gov- 
 ernment. 
 
 Another event of this period was the failure of 
 the commercial firm of Palmer and Company, 
 who, certainly with the cognizance, and probably 
 with the approval of Governor Hastings, had for a 
 series of years, contracted loans of money to the 
 Nizam of the Deccan, amounting in the aggregate, 
 to 700,000 or 83,500,000. Some difficulty having 
 arisen between the contracting parties, appeal was 
 made to the governor-general, who declared the 
 transaction illegal, and that the firm could recover 
 nothing from the Nizam, the company having re- 
 served to itself the sole right of entering upon 
 monetary transactions with native powers. The 
 result was the immediate insolvency of this large 
 and wealthy house, and with them, of very many 
 of the " Service," who had employed Palmer and 
 Company as their bankers, and with whom were 
 invested their entire fortunes. About this period, 
 negotiations among the several European powers 
 relative to Dutch settlements, captured during the 
 
 late wars, was brought to a final issue, by the 
 H. I. 37
 
 578 The English Power. 
 
 British ceding to Holland, the islands of Sumatra 
 Bencoolen, arid retaining possession of Malacca 
 and Singapore. The last, under the fostering care 
 of Sir Stamford Raffles, rose rapidly to a commer- 
 cial importance exceeding that of any other Anglo- 
 oriental colony ; and is at the present day, with 
 its salubrious climate, its wonderful development, 
 and enormous trade, the very Queen of the Indian 
 Seas. 
 
 In 1827, previous to his departure for England, 
 Lord Amherst made a tour of the upper provinces, 
 and visited Delhi, for the express purpose of set- 
 ting aside the merely nominal sovereignty of 
 Akbar Shah, the last of the oriental monarchs of 
 India. 
 
 The administration of the successor of Lord 
 Amherst began with the year 1828, and unlike 
 any that had preceeded it, Lord William Bentich's 
 term of office was marked by no great military ex- 
 ploits ; the inroads of some petty hill-tribes, the 
 deposition of the Rajah of Coorg, and some other 
 unimportant regulations in regard to territory, 
 being the only exceptions in this reign of peace. 
 The new governor's attention was therefore given 
 to internal improvements, and especially to needed
 
 Progress. 581 
 
 reforms in the civil service. Many new privileges 
 to the natives, were also secured to them, and 
 among the most important, was an enactment 
 freeing seceders from the Hindu or Mohammedan 
 faith, within the Bengal Presidency, from all the 
 penalties that under the old native laws, attached 
 to such act, i. e. the forfeiture of all personal and 
 family property and rights. Education, too re- 
 ceived a fresh impulse ; and to this day, many of 
 the best educational enterprises of the country are 
 associated with the name of this excellent gov- 
 ernor. 
 
 To this administration belongs also the begin- 
 ning of steam communication to the Caspian Sea, 
 and the great " overland route " from England to 
 India. The former, having in view the extension 
 of British commerce, and the ascertaining of the 
 feasibility of Russian invasion from that quarter 
 was entrusted to Lieutenant, afterwards, Sir Alex- 
 ander Burnes. To Lieutenant Waghorn belongs 
 the fame of arranging and carrying to a successful 
 termination the plan of overland communication 
 between India and Great Britain, by way of the 
 Red Sea, Egypt, and the Mediterranean. The 
 navigation of the rivers, Ganges and Indus, by
 
 582 The English Power. 
 
 steam-vessels was introduced about the same 
 time. Railroads came later the first opened in 
 India, being that between Bombay and Tanna, 
 April 6th 1853. 
 
 The' year 1833 was marked by several very im- 
 portant changes in the functions of the East India 
 Company, among which, were the following : That 
 the company should retain its political rights, and 
 give its entire attention to the government of 
 India ; that it should cease to be a commercial 
 body, and should resign its monopolies of China 
 and India, both being declared free to every 
 British subject ; with sundry other regulations re- 
 garding finance and dividends. 
 
 In 1835, Lord William Bentich resigned his 
 office of governor, on account of failing health, 
 and returned to England. Lord Auckland was 
 appointed his successor, and made his advent 
 under most auspicious circumstances, the political 
 horizon being without a cloud ; but he left it wrapped 
 in gloom, with the horror of great darkness enshroud- 
 ing the entire community. Shah Shujah, the im- 
 becile ruler of Afghanistan had been recently 
 expelled from his domain by his turbulent subjects, 
 and had taken refuge in the British fortress of
 
 Afghan War. 583 
 
 Ludiana. The Punjaub was under control of 
 Runjet Singh, a man who for his valor and energy 
 had been dubbed u The Lion of Lahore." His 
 territory formed the barrier between British India 
 and Afghanistan, and was nearly always involved 
 in turmoils with the turbulent Afghans. In 1837, 
 a mission to Cabul was undertaken by Captain 
 Burnes, but was fruitful of no results ; and a mis- 
 sion to the Punjaub, while courteously received, 
 accomplished nothing. Lord Auckland at once 
 decided to declare war against Dost Mohammed, 
 the Afghan usurper, restore the deposed monarch 
 to his rights, with the ultimatum of annexing both 
 Afghanistan and the Punjaub, to the company's 
 possessions, or helping their rulers to govern under 
 " British protection." In October, 1838, war was 
 declared, and by the end of the year, the Bengal 
 and Bombay troops were already massed at the 
 appointed rendezvous, Shikapore in Scincle. From 
 the very outset it was a campaign, rife with dis- 
 asters ; cholera, insufficient means of transport, 
 and lack of needed stores, but prepared the way 
 for other and far greater sufferings. When they 
 had only reached the foot of the Western moun- 
 tains, provisions were so short that the allowance
 
 584 The English Power. 
 
 to the troops was reduced one half, and many of 
 the camp followers, of whom there are said to 
 have been one hundred thousand at the outset, 
 were compelled to subsist on roots and herbs. On 
 the 20th of May, when Candahar was reached the 
 hundred thousand had been reduced to twenty 
 thousand. Ghazni and Cabul were stormed and 
 taken, and both occupied by British troops, who 
 though badly supplied with provisions and other 
 necessaries, they managed to live through the first 
 winter with comparatively little suffering. But 
 with the opening spring, marauding parties poured 
 in upon them from every quarter, shooting down 
 stragglers, cutting off supplies, and harrassing the 
 troops in every possible way. Dost Mohammed 
 had given himself up to the British envoy and 
 with his numerous family had been sent beyond 
 the frontier ; but Akbar Khan, his " fighting son " 
 went everywhere rousing the people to resistance 
 of the invaders, and leading large bodies against 
 them, continually diminishing their numbers, and 
 destroying all hope of success. Thus the months 
 wore away, till the 2nd of November, 1841, ush- 
 ered in a general uprising of the people of Cabul, 
 and from that fatal morning, all the horrors of that
 
 Massacre at Cabul. 587 
 
 terrible storm burst upon the defenceless victims, 
 Burnes, with every officer, woman and child found 
 with him in the city, was massacred, the forces at 
 Jelialabad were closely besieged with their small 
 and ill-provided garrisons while Candahar and 
 Ghazni were threatened. At this point it was 
 arranged between the British envoy and Akbar 
 Khan, that the British army should evacuate 
 Afghanistan and be guaranteed safe passage to 
 India, and a supply of provisions. But at the last 
 conference, while conversing with the chief, the 
 British envoy was killed by a pistol shot, said to 
 have been fired by the treacherous Akbar. On 
 the 6th of January, 1842, the humiliating retreat 
 began, and no sooner had they cleared the city, 
 than parties of armed Afghans attacked them at 
 intervals all along the route, that was tracked day 
 and night by the dying and dead soldiers. Such 
 was the severity of the weather, and the horrible 
 suffering of the weary travellers, that " first their 
 wounded, and then their women and children were 
 given up to the Afghans as the only hope of saving 
 them, till finally giving up all hope of escape, 
 hundreds lay down to die on the snow, or fell in 
 the rear and were shot down by Afghan bullets.
 
 588 The English Power. 
 
 Gradually the parties that attacked them became 
 larger, and the work of slaughter sped more 
 rapidly, until of all that host of twenty-six thous- 
 and who began the disastrous retreat, but one 
 Englishman, Dr. Brydon and a few Sesipoys and 
 followers, escaped with the terrible tidings to 
 Jellalabad, where the gallant Sale still held his 
 position."* 
 
 Whilst this was occurring hundreds of other 
 officers, women and children were lingering out a 
 terrible captivity in Afghan dungeons, from which 
 few lived to escape. The troops of Akbar contin- 
 ued to harass every port where there were English 
 in possession. Candahar and Jellalabad held out 
 until relief came, but at Ghazni, Palmer had to 
 yield, and every man, woman and child was 
 butchered in cold blood. It was August before 
 any combined movement of English troops could 
 be made to rescue the captives ; and then the 
 Khoord and Kyber Passes had to be passed before 
 safety could be assured. When the last dangers 
 were over, and those who yet lived had been 
 rescued, a terrible vengeance was taken on the 
 Afghans, by the now victorious troops, sent to the 
 
 * Malcolm's " Indian Mutiny."
 
 Vengeance and Peace. 589 
 
 help of their unfortunate countrymen ; thousands 
 of skeletons were gathered up from the roads liter- 
 ally strewed with these sad memorials ; and the 
 citadel, forts and every building of any strength 
 in the capital were destroyed ere the army again 
 crossed the Indus, on their homeward march. 
 
 The winter of 1843, was marked by fresh re- 
 volts on the part of the Ameers of Scinde. An 
 expedition commanded by Sir Charles Napier was 
 sent against them, and after most desperate fight- 
 ing, they were subdued, and their territory annexed 
 to the company's territories. 
 
 Lord Auckland had meantime been recalled, 
 and Lord Ellenborough sent out in his place ; and 
 it was under his vigorous management that the 
 Afghan disasters were in a measure retrieved, and 
 subsequent victories gained, not the least of which 
 was the pacification of Gwalior, and the permanent 
 occupation of its grand old fortress. 
 
 In the Punjaub, new conquests awaited the 
 British arms, not achieved however, without 
 large expenditures of blood and treasure. A more 
 complete and effectual overthrow, it would be diffi- 
 cult to conceive, than that which, on the 21st of 
 February, 1849, was meted out to the Seikh force
 
 590 The English Power. 
 
 before Guzerat. For three hours the deadly fire 
 of artillery did its work, and then the whole force 
 of the British infantry and cavalry being let loose 
 upon the enemy, the bayonet, lance, and sword 
 accomplished the rest of the bloody task. The 
 principal chiefs made an unconditional surrender, 
 the Afghans fled across the Indus, the Seikh forces 
 were disbanded, and the Punjaub was declared " an- 
 nexed to the British territories of India." 
 
 When, after the conclusion of the second Burmese 
 war before spoken of, peace was again established, in 
 1853 other changes were made in the company's 
 charter. The number of directors chosen by the 
 stock-holders was reduced to twelve, in addition to 
 whom six were to be appointed by the crown, who 
 must have resided at least ten years in India. 
 They were no longer to hold the civil patronage of 
 the court, and nominations to the Indian civil 
 service, were thrown open to competition. The 
 local government of Bengal was placed in the 
 hands of a lieutenant-governor ; and the Legis- 
 lative Council was separated from the Supreme 
 Council, greatly to the benefit of both. 
 
 In 1856, Lord Dalhousie retired from the guber- 
 natorial office. Among the benefits of Lord Dalhou-
 
 Dalhousies Administration. 593 
 
 sie's brilliant administration, should be mentioned 
 the introduction of the uniform, low-rate postage 
 throughout the vast empire, and the opening of 
 several new lines of railway one line of a hun- 
 dred and twenty miles, from Calcutta to Rane- 
 gunge*, a second line from Bombay to Wasindra, of 
 fifty-one miles, and a third of fifty miles in the 
 Madras Presidency, were all monuments of the 
 wise policy of an able administrator. But the 
 crowning glory that reflects most honor on a noble 
 name, was the opening, on the 8th of April, 1854, 
 of the main stream of the Ganges canal, for a 
 distance of five hundred and twenty miles, which 
 subsequently, when completed, reached a .total 
 length, including the branches, of about nine hun- 
 dred miles, irrigating an area of one million four 
 hundred and seventy thousand acres ; and crown- 
 ing with the richest verdure, whole tracts of other- 
 wise barren and worthless land. After eight years 
 triumph in war, and the exercise of enlightened 
 statesmanship, he handed over to his successor, 
 Viscount Canning, an immense empire, in the en- 
 joyment of external peace, and internal prosperity. 
 H. I. 38
 
 CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 THE SEAPOY REBELLION INDIA OF THE 
 PRESENT. 
 
 IT was in the year 1746, that native troops were 
 first trained to European tactics, by the 
 French, at the siege of Cudalore. The English 
 Seapoy Service was begun in 1757, being just a 
 century old at the time of the great rebellion. 
 After the " Black Hole " tragedy had been 
 avenged, and peace was again restored, the first 
 battalion of Bengal Seapoys was raised, their offi- 
 cers being supplied from a detachment that had 
 accompanied Lord Clive from Madras. Upon the 
 foundation then laid, the vast superstructure ot 
 the existing native army of India, has been grad- 
 ually raised, and the system perfected by officers, 
 who have led these armies from triumph to triumph 
 
 594
 
 The Stapoy Service. 597 
 
 until the British flag floats victoriously over the 
 strongholds of the most powerful native princes of 
 India. Thus England governs India with Hindu 
 soldiers; and subdues new provinces with levies 
 on those already united to the empire. And the 
 Hindu fights bravely beside the Briton, laying 
 down his life to increase the power of the flag 
 under which he has enlisted. On the military 
 parade grounds, the manoeuvres of the native 
 troops show great aptitude in learning the tactics 
 of the service ; and freshly-arrived cadets who are 
 hereafter to serve as officers in the army of India, 
 are often drilled by grave, dignified, and noble- 
 looking native Subahdars. 
 
 In the Seapoy Service, each battalion has one 
 European commanding officer, with lieutenants 
 and ensigns, who act as field officers, besides a 
 native commander and adjutant, one Subahdanind 
 three Jemidars to each company. A company is 
 composed of seventy Seapoys, under the direction 
 of five Havildars and four Naiks ; two drummers 
 and one trumpeter being supplied to each company, 
 who also carry colors bearing the device of the 
 Subahdar. 
 
 An unfortunate recognition of the privileges of
 
 598 The Seapoy Rebellion. 
 
 caste, by the Anglo-Indian Government, in the 
 outset, gave rise at a later period, to many evils 
 and inconveniences. Instead of an equality of 
 wages and perquisites to all native officers and 
 soldiers of the same grade in the army, the 
 Brahmin Seapoy, because he belongs to a class 
 that claims superiority, and with whom the mili- 
 tary profession is second in honor only to that of a 
 priest, has from the beginning of the Seapoy ser- 
 vice, been allowed higher pay, and many more 
 comforts and immunities than the farmer or 
 mechanic. Both in field and cantonment, he has 
 been treated by his English employer, not only as 
 equal, but in many respects as the superior of the 
 European soldier in the same service. Frequent 
 furloughs on high days and festivals were allowed 
 them ; and the fear of interfering with their relig- 
 ious scruples, has led to concessions and indulgen- 
 ces that came to be looked upon as matters of 
 right, to the serious obstruction of military duty, 
 and the too lax enforcement of proper discipline. 
 Instead of being taught that prominence and pro- 
 motion were due to superior ability and soldierlj- 
 qualities, they were allowed to claim them by 
 seniority and the absurd distinctions of caste.
 
 Caste the Cause of the Rebellion. 601 
 
 Thus they retained the power of dictation in their 
 own hands, and escaped many of the hardships of 
 the service. Officei-s in charge of companies had 
 little power to reward or punish their own men, 
 some caste regulation being always the outcry, 
 when a point was to be gained. In cases of mu- 
 tiny, though the cause might occasionally be a 
 question of pay or provisions ; by far the most 
 frequent and formidable ground of complaint has 
 been a suspicion of meditated interference with 
 the privileges of caste. 
 
 Among the immediate causes of the great rebell- 
 ion,* this stands forth as one of the most promi- 
 nent of all, especially in the case of the cartridges, 
 where the Brahmins were informed by one who 
 professed to have heard it at headquarters, that 
 "presently, Brahmins as well as Soudras would 
 have to bite cartridges covered with the fat of 
 cows and pigs " the former the most sacred of 
 all animals, the latter an object of hatred and 
 abhorrence to the Hindu, neither of which he 
 may taste or handle, without loss of caste. In 
 this case, intelligence of the facts, fortunately 
 
 *See British India, an article by Charles Creighton Hazwell in the Atlantic 
 Monthly for November, 1857, and The Indian Revolt, an article in the same 
 magazine for December 1857 by Mr Charles Eliot Norton.
 
 602 The Seapoy Rebellion. 
 
 came to the knowledge of the European officer in 
 command, who immediately had all the native 
 troops paraded before him, and asked if they had 
 any complaint to make. Promptly and respect- 
 fully, all the native officers, and many of the men 
 stepped to the front, and through one of their 
 number, stated their fears, and begged that some 
 substitute should be used in making up the car- 
 tridges, by which their loss of caste would not be 
 hazarded. The matter was at once reported to 
 General Hearsey, and the desired concession made 
 by order of government. Unobjectionable ingredi- 
 ents for greasing the cartridges were obtained from 
 the bazaar, and the men were allowed to make 
 them up in their own quarters, that they might be 
 satisfied there was no desire on the part of their 
 officers to interfere with their faith or practice. It 
 is a note-worthy fact, that during the entire rebell- 
 ion, this regiment gave their officers no trouble, 
 but remained true to the end, to the flag under 
 which they had enlisted. 
 
 Another of the immediate causes of the mutiny, 
 was undoubtedly, the action taken with regard to 
 the titular dignity of the royal House of Delhi. 
 On the death of the heir-apparent in 1849, the
 
 The Dynasty of Timour. 603 
 
 Court of Directors had authorized Lord Dalhonsie 
 to " terminate the dynasty of Timour, whenever 
 the reigning king should die." To alleviate the 
 unpleasantness of this, the Governor had ventured 
 on a compromise agreeing to recognize the king's 
 grandson, as heir-apparent, on condition that the 
 family should quit the fortress of Delhi, for the 
 royal palace of Kootub. The royal household 
 were powerless to dispute the point ; but they felt 
 sorely humiliated ; and for many a day, the " in- 
 sult " was brooded over by the Delhi Moham- 
 medans, who were ready, at the first outbreak to 
 avenge their grievance by joining the malcontents. 
 Among the remote causes of the mutiny, was the 
 vague impression cherished alike by Hindus and 
 Mohammedans, that ultimately the system of 
 castes was to be abolished, and a foreign religion 
 to be forced upon all the races of the empire. 
 Coexistent with this, was the very natural aversion 
 the people of this ancient empire entertained to 
 being ruled over by a race of foreigners for whom 
 they had no special liking, and of whom the} r had 
 not even heard, until within a few hundred years. 
 On these several points, the races of India were 
 sufficiently of one mind to be mutual helpers
 
 604 The Seapoy Rebellion. 
 
 when the day of trouble came, and to join shoulder 
 to shoulder in a mighty effort to expel the foreign 
 intruders from the entire peninsula. 
 
 The first positive outbreak began at Berhampore 
 in the district of Moorshedabad, about a hundred 
 miles from Calcutta, on the 25th of February, 
 1857, by a portion of the 19th native regiment 
 who refused to accept the objectionable cartridges, 
 and afterwards declined to lay down their arms 
 when ordered to do so, until certain conditions of 
 their own had been complied with. 
 
 The spirit of mutiny made its next appearance 
 in Viziana^ram in the Madras Presidency, where 
 
 o / * 
 
 on the 28th of February, the 1st Madras Regiment 
 was under orders to march for Kurnool, without 
 their families. This, the men positively refused to 
 do ; and when their colonel ventured to remon- 
 strate, he was met by shouts of defiance and ridi- 
 cule. There being no force at hand to compel 
 obedience the point was yielded ; probably render- 
 ing it thereby, more difficult to subdue the next 
 revolt. On the morning of the 31st of March the 
 19th Regiment was disbanded, and the men 
 marched to Chinsura and there ordered to disperse 
 which they did with sullen and defiant air, to
 
 Another G-rievance. 605 
 
 scatter far and wide, the germs of treason and re- 
 volt. The disbanding of a regiment, is in India a 
 very weighty penalty, since every officer thereby 
 looses his position, and every Seapoy his pension ; 
 and as recruits for the Indian army are not re- 
 ceived after a certain age, those who have attained 
 it, or are Brahmins of high caste are deprived of 
 the means of earning a livelihood, as they have no 
 choice of labor but to remain soldiers. In April, 
 indications of revolt began to appear in Lucknow, 
 the capital of Oudh : where, in addition to the 
 cartridge trouble the Seapoys had a private griev- 
 ance of their own. An English physician, wishing 
 to be sure that the medicine he had prescribed for 
 a Brahmin patient, was properly prepared, put the 
 bottle to his own lips to taste the mixture before 
 handing it over to the sick man. This kindly- 
 meant action was construed into an attempt to 
 break down the distinctive barriers of caste, and 
 was repaid by the immediate burning down of the 
 doctor's bungalow, by the Seapoys of the regiment. 
 Nightly meetings took place, the men looked dark 
 and defiant, and conflagrations were becoming very 
 frequent. At this juncture, the British Resident, 
 Sir Henry Lawrence, telegraphed the governor'
 
 606 The Seapoy Rebellion. 
 
 general, " I want unlimited powers ; I will not 
 abuse them ; " and in five minutes he received the 
 desired grant. This power he used in promptly 
 putting down such mutinous demonstrations as 
 had been made, and order was quickly restored 
 without violence on either side, after which, great 
 pains was taken by Sir Henry to remove all cause 
 of discontent, by explanations and conciliatory 
 treatment. 
 
 At Meerut in the Doab, the manifestations were 
 of the most threatening character. The Bombay 
 Times of the first week in May, represented the 
 whole country, from Calcutta to Lahore, as " either 
 in open mutiny, or upon the verge of it." A plan 
 was discovered for the simultaneous uprising of 
 Meerut, Lahore, and other cities of the Punjaub, 
 after which the rebels were to fall back upon 
 Delhi, and make it the base of operations in the 
 Hindu empire, which was to be there established, 
 by the utter extermination of the whole European 
 army and population throughout India. This 
 barbarous programme failed in part, from a lack 
 of reciprocity among the leaders : but enough was 
 carried out to render one speechless with horror. 
 Infants were snatched from their mothers' arms
 
 Butchery at Delhi. 609 
 
 and murdered before their eyes. Older children 
 were compelled to look on while one or both par- 
 ents were cruelly butchered, and in some instances 
 were made to drink their blood ; neither age, sex 
 nor condition was spared, soldiers and civilians 
 shared the same fate ; and only when the curtains 
 of night closed around those scenes of terror and 
 of blood, did the fearful tragedy cease to be 
 recommenced on the coming day, in the neighbor- 
 ing city of Delhi, where by a forced march of 
 more than thirty miles, the mutineers arrived by 
 8 A. M. Monday, May the llth. 
 
 Delhi being garrisoned only by native troops, 
 the mutineers from Meerut, found ready sympathy. 
 Several of the officers were killed while seeking 
 to restrain their men from taking part in the 
 scenes of blood ; and soon the whole native force 
 of the city was engaged in murdering the 
 European residents. Some sought the citadel, 
 brought forth the king, and after representing to 
 him that the whole country was in revolt, and the 
 hated foreigners to be driven from the kingdom or 
 thrown into the sea, insisted on proclaiming 
 him emperor, and after firing a salute of twenty- 
 one guns, rushed from the palace gates, to 
 39
 
 610 The Seapoy Rebellion. 
 
 carry out their plans of treachery and blood. 
 Captain Douglass, the commandant of the guard 
 of the titular king, was the first victim ; the Chap- 
 lain of the Residency and his Iqvely young daugh- 
 ter of nineteen, the next, with such aggravation of 
 suffering as cannot here be detailed ; and others, 
 men, women and children were slaughtered by 
 wholesale. The whole city was now in arms ; and 
 every house in which it was thought a European 
 had resided, was ransacked from cellar to garret. 
 The purpose of the soldiers was murder, that of 
 the rabble, plunder; nor did the houses and shops 
 of wealthy natives escape, many of these being 
 sacrificed by the blood-thirsty mob, without appar- 
 ent reason, while they were glutting their fierce 
 hatred of the foreigners. They next plundered 
 the government treasuries, destroyed the English 
 church, and utterly demolished the premises of 
 the Delhi Gazette, throwing the presses into the 
 river, and melting the type into slugs. The em- 
 ployees of the office, attempted to escape in the 
 disguise of natives, but being detected, they 
 were literally hacked to pieces. Next to 
 their thirst for blood, was the desire to possess 
 themselves of the treasure deposited in the Delhi
 
 Pandemonium. 611 
 
 Bank. , The manager in charge, Mr. Beresford, 
 with his wife and five children had their throats 
 severed and mangled with broken glass. No 
 mercy was shown to age or sex. Delicate women, 
 mothers and young daughters were stripped of 
 their clothing, wantonly abused, and turned naked 
 into the streets, beaten with canes, pelted with 
 filth, and abandoned to the beastly lusts of the 
 rabble, until death or madness ended their misery. 
 A party consisting of eight gentlemen, eight 
 ladies, and eleven children, had found a temporary 
 refuge in a mosque ; but being without food and 
 and water, they gave themselves up, and were 
 promised safety. But instead, they were placed in 
 a row, and all shot. One lady entreated a Seapoy 
 to give her child some water, though they killed 
 her. For answer to the poor mother's appeal, 
 the wretch snatched the child from her arms, and 
 dashed out its brains on the pavement, before her 
 face. Such was the demoniac fury of the excited 
 mob, that " before noon of Monday, the llth of 
 May, the interior of Delhi was a pandemonium 
 that fiends might have shuddered to contemplate." 
 Every effort was made to save the magazine, but 
 
 * Malcolm's " Indian Mutiny."
 
 612 The Seapoy Rebellion. 
 
 without avail. A little garrison of seven brave 
 men, commanded by Lieutenant Willoughby, made 
 a gallant defence, till finding that the enormous 
 quantities of ammunition and stores must inevita- 
 bly fall into the enemies' hands, the building was 
 blown up, by these magnanimous defenders, who 
 all, with the solitary exception of Lieutenant 
 Willoughby perished in the explosion ; while from 
 one thousand five hundred to two thousand of the 
 mutineers and rabble are believed to have been 
 blown up with the magazine, or crushed in the 
 fallings ruins. This so exasperated the great army 
 of mutineers, who had been eagerly hoping to get 
 possession of the stores and ammunition, that 
 several of the leaders, rushed to the palace, and 
 demanded of the king, the immediate surrender of all 
 the Europeans, who under his promise of protec- 
 tion, had taken refuge there. The timid and vas- 
 cillating monarch durst not refuse, and these un- 
 fortunate victims of royal perfidy, were murdered 
 in cold blood, 
 
 Similar scenes to those just described were en- 
 acted at various other points. From Ferozepore to 
 the Deccan, the country was ripe witli revolt ; at 
 Baroach, the Parsees, a quiet, energetic, kindly
 
 Wholesale Murder. 615 
 
 race, were the special objects of vengeance. Their 
 high priest was murdered at the altar, their fine 
 temple desecrated, their women insulted, and peo- 
 ple of all grades cruelly butchered ; at Allahabad, 
 the carnage was frightful, attended in many in- 
 stances by the most fiendish cruelty ; one family 
 consisting of three generations was burned to 
 death, not one being spared, from the hoary grand- 
 sire to the prattling infant ; noses, lips, ears, fingers 
 and toes of men and women were slowly chopped 
 off, and the bodies deliberately dashed to death ; 
 while little infants were torn from their mothers' 
 arms, and their tender limbs chopped off with 
 tulwars yet reeking with their father's blood. More 
 that fifty Europeans were murdered in the first 
 outbreak ; and a merciless death was the least of 
 the cruelties practiced on many of the female 
 victims. 
 
 At Jhansie, the wholesale murder was attended 
 by many scenes of frightful and most revolting 
 cruelty ; Lucknow, Agra, other cities shared a like 
 fate ; while at Cawnpore only the women and 
 children of all the garrison survived the frightful 
 massacre ; and these were all foully murdered by 
 the cruel tyrant, Nana Sahib, the day before General
 
 616 The Seapoy Rebellion. 
 
 Havelock reached the city, and their bodies, the 
 dead and dying, flung into a well in the courtyard 
 of the assembly rooms. But enough has been 
 written of these horrible details of blood and 
 agony, and death. At fir t, the uprising was so 
 sudden and general, and the horror felt at the enormi- 
 ties committed, so completely paralyzing, that little 
 could be done towards quelling the great revolt, 
 while each day added to the difficulties and dan- 
 gers of the position. Then from every place came 
 sympathy and aid for the sufferers, with vows of ter- 
 rible vengeance. The Governor General dispatched 
 a vessel to Ceylon to intercept the troops that had 
 been ordered to China, in support of Lord Elgin's 
 mission. At Lucknow, Sir Henry Lawrence at- 
 tacked and defeated a large body of the mutineers; 
 but was soon after besieged in the residency, 
 which he gallantly defended against overwhelming 
 numbers, until he was mortally wounded in a rally, 
 and the hero.ic little band had to retire to a smaller 
 post. In England, men and money and stores 
 were volunteered on all sides, to meet this terrible 
 emergency. By the middle of October, 150,000 
 had been subscribed for the relief of the sufferers , 
 and within three months after the news of the
 
 England Alarmed. 617 
 
 Meerut revolt first reached England, more than 
 thirty thousand excellent troops had already left 
 the British shores ; and regiment after regiment 
 continued to be dispatched in the same direction. 
 Within forty-eight hours after the announcement 
 of General Anson's death, Sir Collin Campbell 
 was on his way to assume the chief command ; but 
 even before he had reached the field, victory was 
 already beginning to declare in favor of the Eng- 
 lish. General Havelock, taking command of sev- 
 eral regiments at Allahabad, set out with all speed 
 hoping to reach Cavvnpore, in time to rescue Sir 
 Hugh Wheeler, and his brave companions. But 
 after marching one hundred and twenty-six miles, 
 fighting four actions, and capturing many guns, in 
 eight days in the worst season of that Indian cli- 
 mate, he was yet too late to avert the terrible 
 catastrophe. On the banks of the Ganges, he for 
 the eighth time defeated the enemy, and captured 
 his guns ; and the 15th of August he marched out 
 from Cawnpore, and again drove them from Bhitoor. 
 On the 19th of September, he marched with a 
 large reinforcement, to the relief of Lucknow, and 
 on the 21st occurred the great battle of Mungarwar, 
 resulting in the total defeat of the rebels.
 
 618 The Seapoy Rebellion. 
 
 Delhi was taken in September, and occupied, 
 this being regarded as a virtual closing of the re- 
 bellion ; but many a hard fought battle had yet to 
 be lost and won, ere permanent peace again spread 
 its balmy wings over this distracted country. 
 
 In November, a vigorous attack was made by 
 Sir Collin Campbell, on Lucknovv, and after sev- 
 eral brilliant victories, by dint of a well executed 
 ruse on the night of the 22d he silently decamped, 
 taking with him his whole force, the relieved garri- 
 son, a thousand women and children, and all valua- 
 ble stores. 
 
 On the 3d of February 1858, Fort Sawyer on 
 the Nerbudda, was relieved by Sir Hugh Rose. 
 Here four hundred Europeans, of whom nearly 
 half were women and children, had been shut up 
 for seven months. On the 17th the almost impreg- 
 nable stronghold of Rhotosgur was captured ; on 
 the 19th of March the last post of the mutineers 
 in Lucknow fell before the English; the conquest 
 of Jhansie followed in April, and other victories 
 and successes soon after, and before the close of 
 the year, this terrible mutiny was over. 
 
 Quite in contrast with the scenes we have been 
 describing, was the brilliant reception of the Prince
 
 The Prince of Wales. 621 
 
 of Wales in his recent tour over this same ground, 
 during the years of 1875-'76 ; and the cordial 
 affection and loyalty every where manifested toward 
 him, throughout the Indian Empire. 
 
 Yet the same races, many of the same people, 
 were actors in both ; with the interval of only 
 about seventeen years between the two events. 
 But the}' have been years of growth to the rulers 
 and the ruled ; in which both have learned to un- 
 derstand each other better, and the relative position 
 and acquirements of the two countries, and their 
 respective inhabitants. Both probably learned wis- 
 dom by the sad experiences of those troublous 
 years of war and bloody reprisal, and the later 
 years of comparative tranquillity and prosperity, as 
 contrasted with the former, have surely inculcated 
 the lesson that peace is better than war. 
 
 Yet in the autumn of 1878, and during the early 
 months of the year 1880, another war cloud 
 darkened the Indian horizon. The English mind, 
 always keenly susceptible of alarm, in regard to 
 the invasion of her Indian Empire ; and subject to 
 what may be called periodic visitations of fear ; 
 has for years past been kept in a " chronic state of 
 unrest" by the occasional movements of Russia,
 
 622 The Seapoy Rebellion. 
 
 tending apparently toward the Indian frontier. 
 Such was doubtless the origin of Lord Auckland's 
 unfortunate invasion of Afghanistan in 1838, that 
 ended so disastrously for the English colonies of 
 India. This same desire to secure possession of 
 the Afghan Passes, as a wall of security against 
 Russian invasion, led the " British Mission to the 
 Ameer's Court," during the year 1879. But the Mis- 
 sion met with a repulse the Embassador be- 
 ing prevented by force from entering the coun- 
 try ; and this repulse occasioned intense excitement 
 throughout India. The Bombay Times of that 
 period, reports a special meeting of the Viceroy's 
 Council, held at Simla, and also that General Rob- 
 erts had started for Peshawur, with secret orders. A 
 large force was ordered to be in readiness on the 
 frontier, where twelve thousand men had been 
 already massed. 
 
 The Times of India of September 25th said: 
 " The Mission to Cabul has already become trans- 
 formed into an expedition, or, as it would seem, 
 into three expeditions, which will start from differ- 
 ent bases. One column, variously estimated at 
 six thousand to eight thousand men, is to assemble 
 at Moulton. All these except one regiment are
 
 M
 
 The Afghan Campaign. 625 
 
 Europeans. They assemble at Moultau, lor the 
 purpose of marching right across to Quetta, and 
 consternating [szc] Shere Ali, in the south. Another 
 column of six thousand is being assembled in tho 
 Koorum Valley, and will be moved to Kohat 
 General Roberts himself is in command of thL 
 column, which is obviously intended to march 
 through the Kohat Pass, and turn the flank of the 
 Khyber Pass, so as to facilitate the entrance, 
 through that dangerous channel, of a third column, 
 which appears to be in active preparation. In this 
 way, in a few days indeed we are told, the 
 troops are expected to march in three days time- 
 the three important passes of Bolan, Kohut, and 
 Khyber will be occupied, and this summary measr 
 ure may not improbably, bring the Ameer to his 
 senses." 
 
 A proclamation of the Viceroy of India re- 
 counts the history of the relations between India 
 and Afghanistan, during these last ten years. It 
 says: "In return for the kindness of our acts 
 and intentions, as witnessed by the Ameer's recep- 
 tion at Uinballa, by the material aid we afforded 
 to him from time to time, and by the free commerce 
 
 with India, accorded to the Afghans, we gained 
 H. I. 40
 
 626 The Seapoy Rebellion. 
 
 only ill-will and discourtesy. The Ameer openly 
 and assiduously attempted, by words and deeds, 
 to stir up religious hatred, and bring about a war 
 upon the British Empire in India, and although he 
 had repelled all efforts for amicable intercourse by 
 the Indian Government, he formally received a 
 Russian Embassy, and finally, while the Russian 
 Mission was still at Cabul, he forcibly repulsed the 
 English envoy, whose coming had been duly noti- 
 fied to him, and met our attempts to promote 
 friendly relations, with open indignity and defiance. 
 
 It looks somewhat significant that the Russian 
 Czar, through General Kaufman, should, just at this 
 juncture, present the Ameer with a costly sword, on 
 the blade of which is the following inscription, in 
 the Persian tongue : " May God give the victory 
 over the infidels." 
 
 The advance of the Britisli army in Afghanistan, 
 was steady and successful. Shere Ali, the Afghan 
 Ameer, fled from the country; leaving his son 
 Yakoob Khan, in control of the government. Pre- 
 vious to this, during the month of November, the 
 British ultimatum requiring the withdrawal of the 
 Russian Embassy, and that the Ameer enters into 
 no Russian alliance was handed to the Afghan
 
 Terms of Peace. 627 
 
 commander at All Musjid, and a copy was sent by 
 post, to the Ameer. In reply, the Ameer declared 
 himself bound by no Russian alliance, and that he 
 was at liberty to make any new treaty he might 
 find desirable. 
 
 The British victories Avere so dedided that 
 Yakoob Khan was obliged to sue for peace, and to 
 acceptiton the Viceroy's own terms, i. e. Jellalabad 
 and Candahar were to be evacuated, and given 
 back to the Afghans ; the famous Khyber Pass to 
 become an Anglo-Indian out-post ; the Khurmur 
 and Khost Valleys to be converted into Indian- 
 graneries; and an intrenched camp to be estab- 
 lished within four days march of the Ameer's cap- 
 ital ; while the main gateway in the mountains, 
 between Quettah and Candahar, was to be fortified 
 and garrisoned. These accessions of territory af- 
 ford satisfactory evidence that this well planned 
 and boldly executed campaign was not in vain ; 
 the conquerors having made peace on their own 
 terms, and accomplished all they sought to do. 
 The Russian intrigue at Cabul has been brought to 
 naught ; while Great Britain has acquired increased 
 
 prestige as an Oriental Power, besides having had 
 ascendency restored in the neutral zone, between
 
 628 India of the Present 
 
 India and Turkistan as a " scientific frontier," probably, 
 not unacceptable, even to Lord Beaconsfield. 
 
 The year 1880 saw the close of the war and the acces- 
 sion to power of a new liberal ministry, pledged to aban- 
 don the aggressive policy in Afghanistan, instituted by 
 Lord Lytton. On hearing the results of the elections in 
 Great Britain, Lord Lytton sent in his resignation, leav- 
 ing behind him memories of an administration notable 
 for several measures not altogether satisfactory to the na- 
 tives, at least. In March, 1878, he had forced through 
 the Legislative Council an act which placed vernacular 
 papers under rigorous censorship, and he also incurred a 
 heavy debt for which there was no good reason. During 
 his rule, however, many beneficent measures were enacted. 
 One of the best was the act of 1879, by which the peas- 
 antry of Southern India was protected from the pitiless 
 oppression of money lenders, and the unjust decisions of 
 the civil courts. Thereafter all means of inquiry and ar- 
 bitration must fail before the peasant's holding could be 
 absolutely taken from him, even for a term of years, nor 
 could he be imprisoned for debt. In 1879, also the right 
 of natives to a share in the government of their country 
 was acknowledged by the creation of a civil service sys- 
 tem, the candidates for which were to be selected by the 
 local governments. 
 
 Lord Lytton wae replaced by Lord Ripon, and under
 
 Native Administration Restored. 631 
 
 his wise administration India's progress was brisk and 
 peaceful. Of the twenty millions which India had ex- 
 pended on the late war, one-fourth was repaid her from 
 the imperial treasury; a new impulse was imparted to 
 foreign trade, a succession of good seasons promoted ag- 
 riculture, and the government was thus enabled to re- 
 plenish the treasuries without levying new taxes. Public 
 works were prosecuted vigorously with every promise of 
 final success. The railway system was especially consid- 
 ered. New roads were projected, having special refer- 
 ence to the state lines recently decided on, and some of 
 the old roads began to yield substantial profit. 
 
 In March, 1881, the state of Mysore, which for fifty 
 years had been under British rule, was restored to native 
 administration, but the young Maharaja, who succeeded 
 to the sovereignty with the same powers as the rulers of 
 other native states, was surrounded by English counsel- 
 ors, and in matters of serious import was expected to 
 defer to their decisions. During this period the British 
 outposts, all the way from Burmah to Pishin, were being 
 constantly annoyed by border outbreaks, arid it was at 
 last determined to send a large expedition against the 
 Mahsud section of the Waziri tribe, who were the lead- 
 ing cause of the disturbances, and who had plundered 
 Tank and other villages in 1879. 
 
 An engagement took place in May at Shahalum, but
 
 632 India of the Present 
 
 as a skirmishing resistance only was offered the advanc- 
 ing columns, the chiefs were soon captured and easily 
 forced into submission. 
 
 A reduction of the salt duties in 1882 meant no cur- 
 tailment of the revenue, while it proved of immeasurable 
 good to millions of poor ryots. In the same year were 
 abolished the last of the duties on cotton imports, as were 
 also the import duties on all articles except arms, alco- 
 holic drinks and opium. Of exports, rice alone contin- 
 ued to pay duty. 
 
 At this time a commission was appointed to look into 
 the working of the educational system, first organized in 
 1854, and the result of the investigation was a scheme by 
 which the state outlay on the higher education was lim- 
 ited, thereby making possible the improvement of the 
 primary and middle schools, which were still in a very 
 imperfect condition. A radical change was introduced 
 in the municipal system of India, having for its aim the 
 training of the people for the management of their local 
 affairs. In nearly all the provinces the municipal coun- 
 cils were remodeled on a basis of popular election, and the 
 native press was restored to its former freedom. In his 
 desire to secure absolute justice for the people he gov- 
 erned, Lord Ripon met, at least once, with violent oppo- 
 sition from a majority of his own countrymen. Under 
 the Viceroy's supervision a bill was drawn up by Mr. II-
 
 Lord Dufferin's Administration. 633 
 
 bert, law member of the viceregal council, which gave 
 to native rural magistrates jurisdiction in all criminal 
 cases that came before the district courts. The Euro- 
 peans in India became enraged at what they considered 
 an attempt to destroy their privileges as the dominant 
 race, and in order to dissipate the violence Lord Ripon 
 consented to several changes in the bill, which, thus mod- 
 ified, became a law. 
 
 In 1884, the Earl of Dufferin succeeded Lord Ripon 
 as Viceroy of India, and to his administration may be 
 credited the development and enforcement of the reform 
 inaugurated by the rent law oi 1859. The Bengal ten- 
 ancy act of 1885, secured fixity of tenure and just rent 
 to every ryat who had possession for three years, and a 
 tenant of twelve years' standing was insured against 
 increase in his rent on any pretext whatever. 
 
 In 1885, a commission, composed of Russian and Eng- 
 lish officers, was appointed to clearly define the northern 
 frontiers of Afghanistan, and the misunderstandings and 
 discussions which arose in connection with this matter oc- 
 casioned the wildest excitement throughout Europe and 
 Asia, especially in India. Wise statesmanship, and the 
 Ameer's peaceful inclinations, however, averted serious 
 entanglements, and the Afghan frontier was decided on 
 without further trouble. The conquest and annexation 
 of Upper Burmah were inevitable. The British Govern-
 
 634 India of the Present. 
 
 merit had long awaited an opportunity for making war 
 on this kingdom. Burmah's trade with France and It- 
 aly had never pleased the British, and on the accession 
 of Theebaw, a despotic and cruel prince, in 1878, the 
 British consul at Mandalay was withdrawn on the 
 grounds of violence and insufferable eccentricity on the 
 part of the king. No further move was made by the 
 government in India until 1885. In the fall of that year, 
 owing to French intrigue, it was said, Theebaw suddenly 
 and peremptorily imposed an additional burden on the 
 Bombay and British Trading company, which held the 
 concessions of the teak forests in Burmah. The addi- 
 tional fine amounted to twenty-three laks of rupees. 
 
 This radical step on the part of the Burmese king fur- 
 nished the pretext that Great Britain was seeking, and 
 led to an ultimatum couched in sharp, decisive terms an- 
 nulling the king's order. At the same time preparations 
 were made for war. Theebaw's reply was evasive in ef- 
 fect and defiant in tone, and determined the course of the 
 British. Had any cause for hastening the conquest been 
 wanting, it was found in the king's proclamation urging 
 his subjects to rise and repel the invaders. 
 
 In the early part of November, 1885, a force of fifteen 
 thousand men marched up the Irrawaddy and attacked 
 Mandalay. They had met but feeble resistance and en- 
 tered the town with little fighting. On November 28,
 
 The Burmese War. ~ 635 
 
 Theebaw was taken prisoner, and sent to Rangoon. A 
 month of unquiet in the kingdom was followed on Janu- 
 ary 1, 1886, by the annexation of Burmah to the British 
 Empire. This was done by the Viceroy's proclamation, 
 and was followed by a publication of all the Burmese 
 correspondence since the accession of Theebaw to the date 
 of the publication. The annexation was confirmed by 
 vote of Parliament, and on March 31, Mr. Barnard 
 arrived and assumed the reins of government at Man- 
 dalay. 
 
 The overthrow of the king and the transition in state 
 affairs left the country unsettled. After a month of more 
 or less quiet the Burmese, although broken, attempted to 
 harass their new rulers, and it was only after a severe 
 campaign that they were completely subjugated. In 
 many parts of the country arose various pretenders to the 
 throne, who, by unsystematic attacks, tried to force the 
 British to recognize their respective claims. These were 
 the Alaungpra princes whose small armies were a source 
 of infinite annoyances to the conquerors. The English 
 civil commissioners were at first successful in maintaining 
 peace, but on the appearance of the pretenders the na- 
 tive officials gave the latter allegiance, and soon the Brit- 
 ish found that the conquest had been only nominal. On 
 April 15, bands of men led by the Nyinzaing prince, one 
 of the pretenders and a brother of Theebaw, fired Man-
 
 636 India of the Present. 
 
 dalay in four places, destroying the treasury and post 
 office and threatening the palace. In August, the river 
 embankment at Mandalay was cut by the Dakoitan reb- 
 els and what had not burned of the town was swamped. 
 In October, the army of occupation counted one thousand 
 three hundred and twenty-eight British infantry ; fifteen 
 thousand six hundred and eighty-four native infantry ; 
 two thousand two hundred and seventy-three native cav- 
 alry, and nine hundred and ninety-one artillery. 
 
 Boshway, a robber chief in the valley of the Irrawaddy, 
 was the strongest of the insurgents, next to the Nyinzaing 
 prince, to whom numerous of the minor leaders gave 
 sympathy. Boshway attacked the naval launches on 
 the Sittang river and killed Englishmen without pity. 
 Theebaw's brother, the Pretender, burned villages 
 friendly to the English, and in many ways made his 
 power felt. Such was the condition of affairs when Gen- 
 eral Frederick Roberts took command at Rangoon, re- 
 placing General MacPherson, who had just died of fever 
 Reinforcements were sent from India. Columns moved 
 on Boshway, dissipated his forces, and drove him and 
 the remnant of his army to the Arakan hills. In the 
 north a detachment was sent against the Hla-oo as soon 
 as the forces arrived, and his strength was broken and 
 his forces scattered after numerous engagements. The 
 Limbin prince was the last to succumb. His confeder-
 
 The Jubilee Celebrations. 637 
 
 acy was already breaking when he was taken prisoner 
 and sent to Rangoon. 
 
 The affairs of Burmah were now quiet. In two subse- 
 quent skirmishes with Boshway, the robber was utterly 
 routed and withdrew from the field even as a marauder. 
 British supremacy was now fixed in Burmah, so to re- 
 main. On his return to India, General Roberts was re- 
 ceived with every expression of satisfaction from his gov- 
 ernment. 1887, the Jubilee year, was celebrated with 
 extraordinary manifestations of loyalty. Magnificent 
 ceremonials were held at Calcutta, presided over by the 
 Viceroy, and governors and lieutenant-governors in their 
 several administrations held receptions at which repre- 
 sentatives from public institutions and cities were enter- 
 tained, and chiefs offered addresses assuring the govern- 
 ing power of their unwavering loyalty. Illuminations 
 and fireworks, on a vast scale, delighted the multitudes, 
 public feasts for the poor were inaugurated, and twenty- 
 five thousand prisoners were released as a mark of royal 
 clemency. Throughout the empire there appeared per- 
 fect unanimity and undeniable effort of the people to 
 make the occasion one of unusual splendor. At the close 
 of the ceremonials in India many of the most eminent 
 princes and chiefs went to England to be present at the 
 celebrations there, and were received in a manner that 
 accorded with their exalted rank and historical position.
 
 638 India of the Present. 
 
 In the midst of all this extravagant, if loya*, display, 
 the government of India was confronted with a grave fi- 
 nancial dilemma. Notwithstanding the expansion of for- 
 eign trade and the exercise of the strictest economy in 
 the ordinary public expenditures, and the steady increase 
 of revenues, the annually compounding deficit was rolling 
 up the national debt to enormous proportions. In 1886, 
 though the ordinary revenues amounted to seventy-four 
 million four hundred and seventy-six thousand pounds, 
 there was a deficit of two million eight hundred and one 
 thousand seven hundred and twenty-six pounds. The 
 British garrison, in 1886, consequent upon the war with 
 Burmah, had been increased to five thousand one hundred 
 and ninety-two officers and one hundred and eighty-three 
 thousand five hundred and ninety-four men, including 
 native troops, the maintenance of which alone taxed the 
 treasury to the extent of twenty million ninety-seven thou- 
 sand seven hundred and seventy -nine pounds. In addi- 
 tion to this, the outlay in connection with public works 
 notably for the construction and maintenance of military 
 railways reached the sum of nearly twenty-one million 
 pounds additional, rendering it impossible to appropri- 
 ate more than one million five hundred thousand pounds 
 for the protection of the famine sufferers out of the spe- 
 cial insurance fund. At the expiration of 1887, six 
 million pounds had been borrowed from this government
 
 Financial Embarrassment. 639 
 
 trust fund to meet the cost of this imperative military- 
 railway construction. The public debt, in 1886, 
 amounted to one hundred and seventy-four million five 
 hundred and twenty-four thousand one hundred and one 
 pounds, the yearly interest on which was over four mil- 
 lion three hundred thousand pounds. The fall in the 
 rate of the exchange value of the rupee further tended 
 to the existing financial embarrassment, and necessitated 
 either " fresh taxation, withdrawal of railway appropria- 
 tions, or the diversion of the available famine insurance 
 fund," to meet the shortage. The government accepted 
 the latter alternative. 
 
 Up to 1887, seven teen hundred million rupees had been 
 expended on the construction of fourteen thousand three 
 hundred and eighty-three miles of railway. During the 
 fiscal year of 1886-7, the net loss on the construction and 
 operating of these lines of road exceeded ten million 
 rupees. 
 
 In 1857, the public debt of India was fifty-nine million 
 nine hundred and forty-three thousand eight hundred 
 and fourteen pounds, and though at an intervening period 
 it had been reduced by about four million five hundred 
 thousand pounds, at the close of the year 1883 eighty- 
 nine million pounds sterling had been added to the 
 national indebtedness. 
 
 The following year the strength of the army, however,
 
 640 India of the Present. 
 
 was reduced to two thousand five hundred and fifty-one 
 officers and sixty-nine thousand two hundred and forty 
 men. 
 
 This crisis served to show the loyalty of the Indians, 
 as many of the native princes offered free gifts of money 
 or loans on liberal terms to the government. 
 
 The supreme power in India had never regarded Thi- 
 bet with anything but conciliatory and pacific intentions, 
 but when, in 1888, it was proposed to send thither a 
 mission, having for its object the establishment of benefi- 
 cial relations of trade and commerce, the Thibetans not 
 only refused to respond, but occupied Lingtu, and pro- 
 ceeded to build a fortified wall across the Jalapla pass, 
 the most important inlet to Thibet. This action was 
 undeniable invasion of the rights of the government ; the 
 Jalapla pass is in Sikkim, a dependency of the govern- 
 ment, and warlike demonstrations on that ground could 
 not be tolerated. Complications were multiplied by the 
 position assumed by the Raja, whose possessions were 
 partly in Thibet, and partly in India, and from whom, 
 therefore, was due a double allegiance. The occupied 
 town was on the Indian side, but the Raja ignored the 
 fact and encouraged the influx of Thibetans into his 
 Indian territory. 
 
 The Chinese emperor was appealed to as the acknowl- 
 edged suzerain of the Lamas, and his influence requested
 
 War ivith the Raja of Sikkim. 641 
 
 to secure an amicable adjustment. But all endeavor in 
 this direction failing to have the desired effect, the Dalai 
 Lama was officially notified that while the government 
 of India had no hostile intentions toward Thibet or de- 
 sire to meddle with his rights in Sikkim, the position at 
 Lingtu could not be allowed, and a limit was placed on 
 the time which he was given to withdraw his forces. This 
 decision was received with silence and inaction, and 
 the British troops advanced, took the stockade at Jeluk 
 by storm, forced the Thibetans to retreat with apparent 
 loss and demoralization, and advancing on Lingtu found 
 it deserted. 
 
 The Raja, however, had no intention of giving up the 
 fight. His army took up a position at Jalapla pass and 
 sent for reinforcements. The English entrenched at 
 Gnatong, became aware of the determination of the Raja 
 to overcome Sikkim in India, and notwithstanding a 
 reduction in their own numbers, and a knowledge of 
 strong reinforcements of the enemy's ranks, an attack 
 was made which resulted in absolute rout of the recalci- 
 trants with a loss of one thousand men. The Raja's 
 papers were captured, but he fled precipitately, and see- 
 ing no further possibility of resistance, the English 
 retired within their borders. 
 
 During this period, the turbulent tribes of the Black 
 
 Mountains gave the government considerable trouble. 
 H. I. 41
 
 642 India of the Present. 
 
 For many years murders and robberies had been of con- 
 stant occurrence, the perpetrators afterwards retiring 
 across the borders to absolute security. In June, 1888, 
 two British officers, in command of a reconnoitering 
 party, were set upon and murdered, and this brought 
 matters to a crisis. A heavy fine was imposed, and on 
 failure to pay, the government sent a force of eight 
 thousand men into the fastnesses occupied by the offend- 
 ers. The unruly tribes fought with desperation and 
 courage, but being beaten in all parts, and awed by the 
 superior tactics of the British, hastened to make submis- 
 sion and paid the fines which were imposed, before the 
 troops were withdrawn. 
 
 In the beginning of 1890, the government resolved to 
 completely subjugate the troublesome tribes on the bor- 
 ders of Burmah and India, and with this object in view, 
 two expeditions advanced from opposite sides of the 
 mountains. From Yokma, which is the chief village of 
 the southern Baungshe Chins, a large detachment of 
 troops was sent against the Tashons, or northern branch 
 of the tribe ; but they were not easily induced to submit. 
 After they had paid their fine, the English returned to 
 their fortified camps, whence small columns were sent 
 out to punish the Seyin and Kanhow Chins for cutting 
 telegraph wires. One of the chief objects of the expedi- 
 tion was to find a route for a railroad between Upper
 
 Demolition of the Temple of Benares. 643 
 
 Burmah and Lower Bengal. The troops, with the ex- 
 ception of small garrisons, were withdrawn in a short 
 time. 
 
 In addition to the trouble that is certain to occur when 
 Hindus and Mohammedans mob each other, on the occa- 
 sion of their religious festivals, the British authorities 
 had to contend with a serious riot that they provoked 
 themselves, by destroying a Hindu temple in the sacred 
 city of Benares, for the purpose of using the site for a 
 water works. Indignation was intense, and the whole 
 population gathered in the streets. Soldiers were posted 
 throughout the district and around the principal build- 
 ings, yet, when the workmen began to raze the shrine, 
 the violence of the mob could not be restrained and 
 wholesale arrests followed. The Hindus and Buddhists 
 throughout India shared in the anger against the destruc- 
 tion of the ancient temple. 
 
 Lord Lansdowne's administration, which covered 
 the period from 1888 to 1893, was marked by 
 many reforms and legislative measures, which, although 
 seemingly of minor importance were of incalculable bene- 
 fit to the population of India, both native and European. 
 Special attention, with a view to amendment and im- 
 provement, was directed to the ancient custom of child 
 marriage, and the ruinous cost of funeral and marriage 
 rites, and many of the princes and chiefs of the native
 
 644 India of the Present 
 
 states joined hands with the controlling power in this 
 attempt at reform. 
 
 In 1891, the attention of the government was directed 
 to Kelat, on the extreme southern frontier of India, 
 where, for years, the Khan, a brutal and pitiless ruler, 
 had been guilty of the most horrible atrocities and wan- 
 ton murders, under the guise of legal executions. For 
 some trivial cause and without a shadow of justifiable 
 excuse, the prime minister had lately suffered death at 
 the order of the tyrant, and the government of India in- 
 structed Sir James Brown, the British agent at Kelat, 
 to force the abdication of the despot in the interest of his 
 subjects. This move was accomplished and Mir Mah- 
 mud Khan was placed in control toward the last of the 
 year. The deposed Khan admitted that he had put to 
 death three thousand men and women during the thirty- 
 six years of his despotic rule. 
 
 In June, 1893, the Indian Government, with the con- 
 sent of the English cabinet, decided on a suspension of 
 the free coinage of silver, with a view to the introduc- 
 tion of a gold standard, and a measure was also passed 
 finally fixing the value of the rupee at one shilling and 
 four pence, which did not prevent the marketable value 
 of the much abused coin from subsequently falling to 
 one shilling and three pence, and even a fraction less. 
 The closing of the mints, however, did not stop the im-
 
 A National Congress. 645 
 
 portation of silver bullion, and an import tax on un- 
 coined silver was advocated. According to the latest 
 official returns the present national debt of the Indian 
 Empire is over twenty-one hundred million rupees. In 
 1894, the Earl of Elgin was appointed to succeed 
 Lord Lansdowne, and under his rule the country contin- 
 ues peaceful and prosperous. It has already been 
 marked by the abolition of the Presidential Army sys- 
 tem, by the imposition of import duties on all articles 
 except cotton yarns and goods, and by the conversion of 
 the Indian rupee debt from four to three and one-half 
 per cent. A convention with China regarding the north- 
 eastern frontier of Burmah has also been concluded and 
 negotiations for the division of British, Russian and 
 Chinese spheres of influence on the Pamirs are now in 
 progress. The manners and institutions of India of to- 
 day evince, in a marked degree, the elevating influence 
 of English example. 
 
 A national congress, composed of several hundred del- 
 egates from all parts of the country, meets once a year in 
 one of the great cities to discuss important questions. 
 This congress was inaugurated under the indulgent rule 
 of Lord Ripon, for the purpose of making known to the 
 government, in an orderly, but forcible, manner, the 
 wishes and views of the native population in political 
 affairs, and to secure a larger share in the administrative
 
 646 India of the Present. 
 
 power of their own country. Although the government 
 has persistently striven to check its onward movement, 
 the national congress has steadily gained strength and is 
 rapidly becoming a fact which the supreme power cannot 
 afford to ignore. 
 
 Since the transfer in 1858, of the powers of the British 
 East India Company, to the Crown, there has been a 
 steady increase of territory, prosperity, and commercial 
 influence; and to-day, the Anglo-Indian empire has 
 "lengthened its cords and extended its stakes," beyond 
 the bounds of any former period of its existence. The 
 more thorough knowledge the governed and governing 
 races now seek and acquire of each other, is an omen for 
 good, as is also the higher education, and increased social 
 influence of woman. But the most cheering symptom of 
 the future good government of India, is the increased dis- 
 position of British rulers to associate natives of character 
 and ability with themselves, in high offices of administra- 
 tion. Parliament, so long ago as 1 833, laid down the 
 principal that " no native shall, by reason of his religion, 
 place of birth, or color, be disabled from holding office." 
 The Queen of England also, in 1858, proclaimed her will, 
 that "so far as may be, our subjects of whatever race or 
 creed, be impartially admitted to offices in our service, the 
 duties of which they may be qualified by their education, 
 ability, and integrity, duly to discharge." That there are
 
 Growth and Progress. 647 
 
 abuses and defects, things to be deplored, and some hard 
 to be borne, cannot be denied ; but there is growth, real, 
 unquestionable progress, despite these defects; and the 
 former serf is gradually being developed into a freeman, 
 with such aspirations, and aims, and longings as past gen- 
 erations never dreamed of, even in that grand old empire. 
 But India is a land of vicissitudes, a land of which 
 Lord Lansdowne said it is impossible to predict the fu- 
 ture. " From the poor ryot, who sees his scanty crop 
 swept off the face of the earth in a few hours by a swarm 
 of locusts, to the ^financial member of the council who 
 sees his hopes of a surplus suddenly wrecked by agencies 
 which he cannot control all are liable to see their cloud- 
 built castles and golden dreams shattered and dissipated 
 by visitations as unlocked for as they are overwhelming. 
 India never ceases to be conscious that the gaunt spec- 
 ters of war, famine, and insolvency, are hovering in the 
 distance, ready to descend upon her at any moment." 
 
 NOTE: The population of British India, according to the official 
 census taken by Jervois Baines in 1891, was two hundred and twenty- 
 one million one hundred and seventy-two thousand nine hundred 
 and fifty-two, showing an increase of over thirty million, within a 
 decade. The population of the Feudatory States was sixty-six mil- 
 lion fifty thousand four hundred and seventy-nine. The territorial 
 area of continental India now comprises one million five hundred 
 and sixty thousand one hundred and sixty square miles, about sixty- 
 two per cent, of which constitutes the British possessions. The pov- 
 erty of the people which the growth of population 11 per cent. 
 in the last ten years tends perhaps to enhance, is, according to 
 Whitaker, the most permanent difficulty which the government is 
 called upon to meet.
 
 EXPLANATION OF INDIAN TERMS. 
 
 Abad. An abiding place. It is used in composition as the 
 terminal appellation of many cities : Allahabad, the abode 
 of God; Ahmedabad, the city of Ahmed. It also means 
 fertile. 
 
 Anna. Copper money, representing the eighth part of an Eng 
 lish shilling, or of a half-rupee. 
 
 Ayah. Nurse, lady's maid, female servant. 
 
 Bagh. A garden. 
 
 Bahadour. Brave, a title of nobility 
 
 Bang. A compound of opium and hemp-seed. 
 
 Baoli. A well, or cistern of cut stone. 
 
 Begum. A Mahoraedan princess. 
 
 Biggaree. Porter or guide. 
 
 Bheestee Water-carrier. 
 
 Biri. A kind of cigarette. 
 
 Brahmins. Hindoos of the priestly caste. 
 
 Bulbul. The Indian nightingale. 
 
 Bund. A dyke or dam. 
 
 Bungalow. European residence. 
 
 Bungalow (Travellers') Establishments kept up by the gov- 
 ernment for the accommodation of travellers on postal 
 routes. 
 
 Bungheeas. Sweepers, the lowest caste. 
 
 Burra. Great; a term usually applied to the principal Eng- 
 lish resident at a place. 
 
 Chditya. A sacred place, containing objects dedicated to the 
 divinity Buddhist. 
 
 Chaoree. The adit to a temple, also a fan of yak tails used in 
 ceremonies. 
 
 648
 
 Explanation of Terms. 649 
 
 Chatri. Pavilion on four columns. 
 
 Cheetah. An animal trained for deer-hunting. It has semi- 
 retraclile claws, and is the connecting link between dog 
 and cat. 
 
 Chiboutra. Kiosk, frequently the principal place in a square. 
 Ckobdar. Bearer of stick of office, ceremonial messenger. 
 Choor. Robber. 
 
 Chopaya. Carriage on four or six wheels 
 Chota. Small. 
 
 Choutri. Pavilion raised on numerous columns. 
 Chowkeydar. Night-watchman. 
 Crore. One hundred lakhs of rupees. A lakh is equal to ten 
 
 thousand pounds. 
 
 Daghobn. Buddhist altar; also a depostory for relics. 
 Dak. The post; administration of relays. 
 Deva. God; the term Mahadeva, or Great God, is specially 
 
 applied to Siva. 
 
 De-wan. Principal minister of State. 
 Dhobee. Washerman. 
 
 Dhotee. Hindoo clothing for the lower limbs. 
 Durbar. A court reception, in full dress. 
 Durwaza. A door. 
 
 Fakeer. Religious mendicant, usually Mohammedan. 
 Gadi. Throne. Raised seat reserved for princes. 
 Gaum. A village, 
 
 Ghari. A carriage. Dak-yhari, post-chaise; Ag-yhari, loco- 
 motive. 
 
 Ghir, Ghiri, Ghur. A mountain or fortress. 
 Ghaut. A quay, a flight of steps going down to water, also a 
 
 mountain pass. English, Gate. 
 Gossains. Religious beggars. 
 Ghur. House or residence. 
 Gurrha. Water-vessel of earthenware. 
 Hamul. Domestic servant, bearer. 
 Howdah. A seat used for riding elephants. 
 Hulkara. A messenger, generally in livery.
 
 650 Explanation of Terms. 
 
 Jains. A sect of Hindoos. 
 
 Jemadar. Native military officer, or chief of servants. 
 
 Jhageer. Hereditary estate. 
 
 Jheel. A swamp. 
 
 Jungle. Uncultivated ground, forest. 
 
 Khansamah. Major-domo, purveyor. 
 
 Kshtruyas. Hindoos of the warrior caste. 
 
 Kutcherry. Office. 
 
 Lakh. Equal to ten thousand pounds. 
 
 Langouti. Loin-cloth. 
 
 Lascar. Servant in charge of tents. 
 
 Lai. Monolithic column. 
 
 Lingam. Mystic emblem of Siva. 
 
 Maha, Used in composition, signifying " great." 
 
 Mahal. A palace. 
 
 Mahout. Elephant driver. 
 
 Mahunt. Chief priest. 
 
 Mohr. Gold coin, worth about thirty-five English shillings, but 
 
 rarely in circulation. 
 Moollah. Mohammedan priest. 
 Moonshee. Interpreter, teacher of languages. 
 Mukkam. Halting-place. 
 Mundil. Turban. 
 Mundir. Temple. 
 Musjld. Mosque. 
 Musnud. Throne. 
 
 Nautch. A dance performed by girls. 
 Nautchni. Female dancer. 
 Nawab. Mohammedan chieftian. 
 Nuddee. A river. 
 Nullah. A small stream, often dry in summer, and becoming 
 
 a torrent in the rains. 
 Nuzzur. A tribute or offering. 
 Palki. Palanquin. 
 Peer. Mohammedan saint. 
 PeMwan. Athlete, wrestler.
 
 Explanation of Terms. 651 
 
 Pe'isa. Copper money ; four pice make one anna. 
 
 Peshwah. Head of the Mahratta dynasty. 
 
 Pie. The smallest copper coin. 
 
 Poor. Used in combination with other words as a terminal, 
 signifying town: Oodeypoor, Jeypoor, and many hun- 
 dreds of others. 
 
 Pundit. A learned man. 
 
 Purwana. Firman, imperative order. 
 
 Rdis. Prince. 
 
 Raj. Kingdom, territory. Rajah. King or sovereign. 
 
 Rana. The same; but this title is not equivalent to that of 
 rajah in all cases. 
 
 Ranee. Queen. 
 
 Rao. Usually a title pertaining to royalty. 
 
 Rupee. The Government coinage, value about two shillings; 
 there are however, rupees from native mints also of va- 
 rious values. 
 
 Rutt. A covered carriage, drawn by a pair of bullocks, com- 
 monly used by women. 
 
 Sahib. Sir, gentleman. 
 
 Sdivas. Worshippers of Siva, 
 
 Salaam. Salutation, ceremonial bow. 
 
 Sani. Riding dromedary. 
 
 Sapwalla. Snake-charmer. 
 
 Sarree. Women's garment universally worn in civilized parts 
 of India. 
 
 Shiyram. An oblong close carriage to carry four persons. 
 
 Sing. Lion a title frequently added to the names of Raj- 
 poots and Sikhs. 
 
 Sirdar. Noble. 
 
 Sirkar. The state. Sirkaree. Belonging to the state. 
 
 Soubah. Governor of a province. 
 
 Soudras. Hindoos of the artisan class, agriculturists. 
 
 Sowar. Horseman, usually a soldier. 
 
 Sowarree. A procession, chiefly mounte 
 
 Syud. Mohammedan, descended from the prophets.
 
 652 Explanation of Terms. 
 
 Tal, taloa. Lake. 
 
 Thakoor. Rajpoot chief. 
 
 Thannadar. Chief of a fortified place. 
 
 Tirthankar. Jain philosopher. 
 
 Tope. Sacred building, also a piece of ordnance 
 
 Vihara. Buddhist religious establishment. 
 
 Zemindar. Hereditary occupier of the soil. 
 
 Zenana. Apartments of ladies of raiik.
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Adinath, temple of 254 
 
 Afganistan 218 
 
 Afganistan evacuated 587 
 
 Afganistan in 1878 and 1879 622 
 
 Afgans, defeated 477 
 
 Afghans invade the Pubjaub 557 
 
 Afghans, war with 450 
 
 Agra 460 
 
 Ahmedabad 487 
 
 Alimednegar 451 
 
 Ajmere 86 
 
 Allahabad 32 
 
 Ala-u-din 366 
 
 Albuquerque 59, 394 
 
 Alexander in I ndia 334 
 
 Altamsh 368 
 
 Alum, Shah 528 
 
 Animals, hospitals for 180 
 
 Arab power lost 348 
 
 Aracan 207 
 
 Aravalis range, The 85 
 
 Arcot and its Nawabs 142 
 
 653 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 j Arcot captured by Hyder Ali 538 
 
 Assam 118,208 
 
 j Assaye, battle of 565 
 
 j Attar and Pan 255 
 
 Aurungzebe 144, 477, 500 
 
 Baber, the Tiger 382, 431 
 
 Bangalore 101, 138 
 
 i Banian, The 275 
 
 ! Behram Khan 440 
 
 i Bengal 33, 118 
 
 I Bentich, Lord William 578 
 
 j Bhadrinath 84 
 
 Bheels, The 424 
 
 Birsing Deo 228 
 
 Black Hole, The 133,518 
 
 Blackmail 93 
 
 Bombay 36, 161 
 
 Bombay Islands 53 
 
 Botanic garden on the Mussoori 
 
 mountains 66 
 
 Bourdillas 223
 
 6 54 
 
 General Index. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Brahmins 285 
 
 Brahmaputra 209 
 
 Bundelcund 219 
 
 Bungalows 21 
 
 Buniahs 297 
 
 Burmah, missions in 319 
 
 Burmese war 571 
 
 Cabul 218 
 
 Cabul, mission to 583 
 
 Cabul stormed 584 
 
 Calcutta 127 
 
 Callian 195 
 
 Cambay stones. 98 
 
 Cananore 145 
 
 Candahar 218 
 
 Canouj 339 
 
 Carnatic, The 138 
 
 Cashew nut, The 274 
 
 Cashmere 213 
 
 Caste 598 
 
 Caste system, The 282 
 
 Catamarans 41 
 
 Cavery, The 50 
 
 Cawnpore, the mutiny at 615 
 
 Ceylon 63 
 
 Chenaub, The 48 
 
 Chittagong . . .- 205 
 
 Chittore 442 
 
 Chumbul, The 48 
 
 Climate of Dharjeling 76 
 
 Clive, Lord 145, 516, 530 
 
 Cochin 142 
 
 Columbus 389 
 
 Commercial troubles 577 
 
 Coote, Sir Eyre 538 
 
 Cornwalhs, Lord 140 
 
 Cotton famine 192 
 
 Dalhousie, Lord, his brilliant ad- 
 ministration 593 
 
 PAGE. 
 " Dandy,' ' The 77 
 
 Daoulatabad . . 483 
 
 Deccan, The 35,98 
 
 Deccan, early inhabitants of 341 
 
 Delhi, scenes at 609 
 
 Dewani Am, the, at Agra 463 
 
 Dharjeling 70 
 
 Dharmasoka 336 
 
 Dhobarri Pass, the defence of 418 
 
 Dholepore 233 
 
 Diamond mines 436 
 
 Dutch in India 398 
 
 Dutch jealous of England 522 
 
 Duttiah 226 
 
 Dying, The 298 
 
 East India Company, The 115, 528, 555 
 
 Elephanta 13 
 
 Elphinstone, Lord 569 
 
 English ascendency established . . . 124 
 
 English in India 495 
 
 English power in India 516 
 
 Esplanade, the, at Bombay 175 
 
 Everest, Mount 65 
 
 Fakirs , 7 8 
 
 Farokhsad 362 
 
 Ferdousi 359 
 
 Frere, Sir Bartle 202 
 
 Ganesha 103 
 
 Ganges, The 19, 98 
 
 Gheias-u-din 367, 373 
 
 Ghuzni, fall of 464 
 
 Golconda 486 
 
 Gunga, the goddess 63 
 
 Guzerat 340 
 
 Gwalior 237 
 
 Hastings, Warren 534 
 
 Havelock 616
 
 General Index. 
 
 655 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Heber, Bishop 412 
 
 Herdeo Singh 220 
 
 Himalayas, The 19 
 
 Holkar 566 
 
 Hooghly, The 60, 124 
 
 Horse-market at Bombay 176 
 
 Huang Tcheng 220 
 
 Humayum 435,439 
 
 Hyderabad 486 
 
 Hyder Ali 138, 531, 539 
 
 Ibrahim 362 
 
 I ndus, The 46 
 
 Inquisition, the, at Goa 302 
 
 Irrigation 272 
 
 Jains 404 
 
 Jampna, The 82 
 
 Janghis Khan 342 
 
 Jehan, Shah 473 
 
 Jeejeebhoy, Sir Jamsetjc 191 
 
 Jahanghir 418 
 
 Jeypore 420 
 
 Jones, Sir William 321 
 
 Jumna. The 47 
 
 Kaytee-house in 
 
 Khandalla 21 
 
 Khayats or Scribes 297 
 
 Kherut Khoumb 446 
 
 Khiliji, house of 370 
 
 Kyber Pass 588, 627 
 
 Krishna, image of 464 
 
 Kschatrya caste 142, 223, 285, 399 
 
 Kutb-u-din 368 
 
 Lashkar 250 
 
 Lingam, The 226 
 
 Lucknow, the, mutiny at 618 
 
 Madras 40, 134, 150, 157 
 
 Maha Barat, The 330 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Mahmoud, of Ghuzni 342, 358 
 
 Mahrattas, The 342, 491 
 
 Mahrattas defeated by Aurungzebe 479 
 
 Mahrattas, incursions of 536 
 
 Makwah, the tree 279 
 
 Malabar hill 184 
 
 Malabar territory 29 
 
 Matheran, The 22 
 
 Maurya dynasty, The 336 
 
 M issions 300 
 
 Mohammed Shah ... 506 
 
 Monsoons 262 
 
 Moors, the, in India 342 
 
 Mountains 74 
 
 Munro, Sir Thomas 152 
 
 Mysore 101, 138 
 
 Napoleon 568 
 
 Neilgherry mountains 36, 105 
 
 Nena Sahib 224 
 
 Nerbudcla, The 47 
 
 Nour Mahal 458 
 
 Oudeypore 405 
 
 Oudh 32 
 
 Outlaws 427 
 
 Palmer and Company, failure of .. 577 
 
 Paniput, battle of 247 
 
 Parsee Bazaar in Bombay 172 
 
 Parsees 178 
 
 Patna, fall of 527 
 
 Peace 547 
 
 Plassy, battle of 519 
 
 Pondicherry 539 
 
 Pondicherry capitulates 521 
 
 Poonah 194 
 
 Portuguese, the, in India 392 
 
 Potato, The 274 
 
 Presidencies, the three 1 18 
 
 Provinces 1 16 
 
 Pudmanee 446
 
 6 5 6 
 
 General Index. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Punjaub. The 27 
 
 Punjaub, victories in 589 
 
 Purvus 297 
 
 Races of India 400 
 
 Railways 120, 166 
 
 Rain 265 
 
 Rajputs, The 413 
 
 Rajputana 210 
 
 Rama, legend of 186 
 
 Ramayana, The 325 
 
 Rao, Sir Dinkur 242 
 
 Raos, the, of Meywar 256 
 
 Rebellion, the Sepoy 601 
 
 Rice 272 
 
 Rohillas, rise of 510 
 
 Rousselet 234 
 
 Sacrifices, human 125 
 
 Salsette 55 
 
 Samanis, The 349 
 
 Sangam 198 
 
 Sangor, on the Hooghly 60 
 
 Sanitarium 69 
 
 Sanitarium, A 107 
 
 Schools 160, 168 
 
 Schwartx 310 
 
 Scinde 28, 240, 340 
 
 Scindia conquered 544 
 
 Scindias The 244, 249 
 
 Sepoys 565, 593 
 
 Sepoys, an insurrection of 149 
 
 Seasons 265 
 
 Seikhs, the race of 28 
 
 Selim, Jehanghir 454 
 
 Seringapatam 14 
 
 Seringapatam besieged .'. 554 
 
 Sevaji Bhousa 493 
 
 Shah Alum 528 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Shah Jehan 473 
 
 Shawls 216 
 
 Simla .. .81 
 
 Sirmour mountains, The 83 
 
 Sik-kim hills 69 
 
 Sonaghur 230 
 
 Sudras 285 
 
 Sunderbunds, The 125 
 
 Surat 193 
 
 Taj, The 46? 
 
 Tanjore 53 
 
 Teraghur 86 
 
 Thakours, The 90 
 
 Thomas, St., of India 152, 300 
 
 Tippoo Sahib 138, 532, 543, 553 
 
 Toghlak dynasty 373 
 
 Ton-jon, The ". 77 
 
 Trade with Europe 386 
 
 Travancore, the Rajah of 143 
 
 Vaishyas 285 
 
 Vansittart 523 
 
 Vasco de Gama 389 
 
 Vegetables in India 274 
 
 Vellore : 146 
 
 Vikramaditya 89 
 
 Vindhyas, The 19, 94, 425 
 
 Vishnu, temple of 84 
 
 Vfzianagram M4 
 
 Wales, Prince of 153, 234, 24' 
 
 Walkeshwar, the god of the sands. . 187 
 
 Xavier, St. Francis 305, 396 
 
 Yakoob Khan 626 
 
 Zayats 97
 
 Supplementary Index. 
 
 657 
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY INDEX. 
 
 Afghanistan, war with 628, 633 
 
 Army, strength of 638, 640 
 
 Benares, destruction of Temple . 643 
 
 Bosh way 636 
 
 Burmah, war with 634 
 
 conquest of 635 
 
 Coinage 644 
 
 Congress 645 
 
 Dacoits, fight with 636,637 
 
 Debt, national 638, 639 
 
 Dufferin, Marquis of 633 
 
 Education, commissioners of. . . . 632 
 Elgin, Earl of 645 
 
 Finances 638 
 
 India, of to-day 646, 647 
 
 Jalapla Pass, battle of 640 
 
 Jubilee, year of 637 
 
 Kelat, deposition of Khan of 644 
 
 Lansdowne, Marquis of 643 
 
 Lytton, Lord 628 
 
 Mandalay, capture of 634 
 
 Municipal Bill, changes in 632 
 
 Mysore, native administration 
 restored 631 
 
 Population 647 
 
 Ripon, Lord 628, 631 
 
 Roberts, General Sir Fred 637 
 
 Salt, reduction of duties on.... 632 
 Shahalum, battle of. 631 
 
 Tashons, war with 642 
 
 Theebaw, King 634 
 
 Thibet, war with 640
 
 A 000 191 958