RUSSELL SAGE FOUNDATION WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT- BY CLARENCE ARTHUR PERRY INTRODUCTION BY LUTHER HALSEY GUL1CK, M.D. NEW YORK CHARITIES PUBLICATION COMMITTEE . MCMX I a * Copyright, 1910, by THE RUSSELL SAGE FOUNDATION Printed December, 1910 Reprinted July, 1911 PRESS OF WM. F. FELL CO. PHILADELPHIA PREFACE THE following pages contain the results of an inquiry into the utilization of school prop- erty after day-class hours which has been carried on during the past year and a half by the Department of Child Hygiene of the Russell Sage Foundation. The information has been gathered from the reports of school authorities and voluntary or- ganizations as well as by means of personal inves- tigation. In the collection of material city super- intendents and boards of education also, to a number that forbids individual mention here, have rendered generous assistance. They have written long letters, filled in tiresome question- naires, and given or loaned valuable photographs. Without their co-operation the investigation would have been greatly handicapped. Pains have been taken to secure accurate data; but the extension of the various after-school activities is progressing so rapidly that the con- ditions in many cities will in a short time be misrepresented by this account. Since, however, events and situations have been selected, not for the sake of local history, but because they reveal some aspect or stage in the development of the undertaking, it is hoped that this limitation will not affect the usefulness of the book. New York. October 20, 1910 V 242903 INTRODUCTION ONLY upon the basis of personal under- standing and mutual confidence is effi- cient and coherent social action possible. This is the foundation of democracy. Communi- ties must have, therefore, material and social machinery by which various classes shall come to know each other; some instrument that shall cross-section racial, financial and social strata; something that shall go beneath these and touch fundamental human interests. Of these the cen- tral one is the love of children and the machinery most natural, as well as most available, is the public school system. This volume endeavors to show how the educa- tional equipment of American cities is already being used to bring about this mutual under- standing. Mr. Perry has deliberately selected the most successful aspects of the work in all parts of the country. He has not portrayed the failures and there have been many; he has not spent time in magnifying the difficulties although they are real. All the illustrations represent actual un- dertakings, and being the best in each field, they may give the general reader the impression that the battle has already been won, that all obstacles to the wider use have been removed. The truth, vii INTRODUCTION however, is quite otherwise. While based en- tirely upon facts the account does not purport to show the conditions existing in the average com- munity. My own study of the situation and of the mate- rial contained in this book has led me to three conclusions: (1) The school is the natural focal point of the community's social life since it centers the uni- versal interest in children and cuts through social, religious and even racial lines. (2) As the school plant already belongs to the people it is proper to employ it for their social activities. Making it useful for twelve instead of five hours a day would involve few administra- tive changes and a comparatively slight expen- diture of money. Indeed, the improvement of education resulting directly from the wider use legitimizes such action by school boards. We can no longer restrict the word "education" to the inculcation of the few fundamental operations so often characterized as the "three R's." The newer ideal does not limit its application to the schooling of children but extends it to the intel- lectual progress of all who would follow the paths of learning. (3) In every case this movement for using school property and machinery to meet the larger community needs requires additions to the staff. The principals and teachers of the day school, even though willing to sacrifice time and energy viii INTRODUCTION in the wider work, should not be permitted to do so, their best service to the community being possible only when they are not overburdened. In presenting this subject to audiences of school people I have been puzzled time and again at their almost complete lack of interest, only to discover, upon inquiry, that they saw in it large additions of labor and responsibility which they could not hope to carry and do their daily work well. In manner of treatment Mr. Perry has confined himself mainly to the description of what is actually being done, showing how it was done, what it cost, who did it, and kindred matters. He has not dwelt upon the relative values of the different after-school activities nor indulged in theoretical abstractions, believing that the con- crete cases, if presented with sufficient realism, would make the best possible argument for the wider use of the school plant. LUTHER HALSEY GULICK New York, October 17, 1910 IX TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE INTRODUCTION vii BY Luther Halsey Gulick, M. D. List of Illustrations xiii - I. The Wider Use 3 II. Evening Schools . . . . . . 19 III. Evening Schools Abroad . . . -55 IV. The Promotion of Attendance at Evening Schools 81 V. Vacation Schools 117 VI. School Playgrounds ... . 149 VII. Public Lectures and Entertainments . .187 VIII. Evening Recreation Centers .... 217 IX. Social Centers * 249 - X. Organized Athletics, Games and Folk Danc- ing 291 - XL Meetings in School Houses . . . -335 'XII. Social Betterment through Wider Use . 359 Chart Showing Social Betterment through Wider Use 381 APPENDICES A. Local Lecture Sources 385 B. Regulations Covering the Use of Rochester School Buildings 392 INDEX 397 XI LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FACING PACE Discussing the Duties of an Alderman in a Ro- chester School House . . Frontispiece A Neglected Opportunity 5 An Opportunity Embraced 1 1 Producing Illustrators in a New York Evening School 23 Trimming Their Own Hats in an Evening School 30 The "Baby Class" in English .... 30 Dressmaking in a Brockton Class Room . . 40 The Cleveland Technical High School Runs Eve- nings ... . ... 40 A Buffalo School House Helping Working Boys to Become More Efficient 47 Learning to Draw a Larger Salary in a Pittsburgh Evening High School 83 Pittsburgh Young People Making a Profitable Use of Public Property 93 French Canadians of Lowell, Massachusetts . 102 Class of Greek Boys in Lowell . . . . 102 A Summer Occupation in New York . . . 120 They Came Because They Wanted To. . . 120 Learning Through Play in New York . . . 129 First Aid Methods. Pittsburgh Summer Schools 140 Clay Modeling. Pittsburgh Summer Schools . 140 Practicing Housekeeping: Laundry Work. New- ark, N. J., Play School .... 152 A Lesson in Sweeping. Newark, N. J., Play School 152 The Nursery. School Yard Nursery in Cleveland 1 58 "In Tiny Cool Cots." School Yard Nursery in Cleveland 158 Trained in Newark Play Schools . . . . 164 xiii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS i PAGE Newark Boys Exhibiting for the Family . . 164 Playground Drill in New York . . . . 167 What the School Board of Detroit Now Provides 174 Professional Advice on Care of Teeth Afforded Cleveland Taxpayers in a Free School House Lecture 191 Community Keeping Up with Science, New York 200 Instruction Everybody Needs .... 200 Shakespeare for the People in Brooklyn . . 204 Yiddish Audience in a New York School . . 204 Competing Against Street Loafing in a New York Center 220 A Quiet Corner in a Girls' Center . . . 220 Training for Civic Life in an Evening Center . 224 Evening Study in "Quiet Surroundings" . . 224 Commercialized Dancing 230 Dancing in a School Building .... 230 "Number Nine." One of Rochester's Community- Used Schools 251 How Rochester Women Keep Attractive . . 266 School Library in Good Use Saturday Night . 266 A Close Finish in School Sports .... 304 Touching Off in the Relay 304 "Reaping the Flax" I. In a New York School Yard 316 "Reaping the Flax" II 316 The " Carrousel " Where There's Room . . 324 The "Tarantella" in No Danger from Traffic . 324 Improving Their Skill After Hours. New York Evening Schools 366 Learning to Make Their Own Furniture. New York Evening Schools 366 New York School Girls Breaking Down Race Prejudice 373 Constructive Play in the School Yard. Buffalo Vacation Schools 378 Prompting Domestic Happiness. Buffalo Vaca- tion Schools 378 xiv I THE WIDER USE CHAPTER I THE WIDER USE THE children who went to school back in the eighties skipped out of the school house door at half past three and scampered down the street shouting with glee. Instruction was finished for the day and the building turned over to the janitor for sweeping. After he fin- ished his work he locked the doors, and the school house was not used by anybody during the rest of the twenty-four hours. On Friday afternoon the premises were closed until the following Monday morning. On Saturday and Sunday the grounds were shunned as forbidden territory and during the long summer months no one entered them, except possibly workmen to make repairs. During one hundred and eighty days out of the year the whole school property was used a scant seven hours daily less than one-half of the total usable period. The rest of the time it was abso- lutely idle. It was not only of no service; it was deteriorating. Within a couple of decades all this has changed. Public school buildings are now open in some places every week-day in the year. They are open not only days but evenings. Classes occupy 3 'WIDHR USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT them during July and August as well as during the winter months. Children go to them Satur- days as well as Mondays, and in some places the school rooms are not left unvisited even on Sun- days. In a word, the school equipment is not nowadays employed merely and solely for the ordinary day-school work. It is being devoted to a wider use. The school house has become a place where children may both play and study; where they may do things with their hands as well as pore over books; where youths can con- tinue an interrupted education and shop girls enjoy exhilarating physical exercises after the day's grind; where neighbors may gossip and mothers come together to learn how they can supplement the teacher's work in their own homes. The activities now carried on in the school houses and yards during the margin of the time left by the regular day-school work, constitute the wider use of the school plant. EVENING SCHOOLS The earliest work of this kind to be undertaken was that of the evening schools. They have now become a very important branch of public in- struction and are generally held during the winter months. The courses vary with the character of the population, but in most American cities the same methods obtain in their instruction, organiza- tion and administration. 4 THE WIDER USE The evening schools of New York City include practically all of the types found in this country. They are divided into elementary, high and trade schools. The elementary classes are held four nights a week beginning early in October, and continue for ninety evenings. Tuition is entirely free, no charge being made even for the materials used. All applicants must be above fourteen years of age. The subjects taught are reading, arithmetic, composition, penmanship, drawing, geography, hygiene, physical training, American history, civics, bookkeeping, sewing, millinery, dressmaking and cooking. Another part of the evening elementary work is that of teaching English to foreigners. These classes are made up of Italians, Russians, Hebrews, Poles, and repre- sentatives from thirty-two other immigrant races. Wherever possible each class is composed en- tirely of members of the same tongue, but in the case of the sparsely represented races they are grouped together in mixed classes. The New York evening high schools begin the latter part of September and run for one hundred and twenty nights, requirements for admission being the same as for the day high schools. The applicant must either be a graduate of an ele- mentary school or have an equivalent education. Those offering the latter are required to demon- strate it in a satisfactory test. No fees are charged in any of these higher courses. The subjects taught include Latin, the modern languages, the 5 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT natural sciences, English composition and litera- ture, stenography and typewriting, history and political science, free-hand drawing, dressmaking, millinery and domestic science. To the evening trade schools only those are admitted who are regularly occupied during the day. A pupil under twenty-one must furnish rec- ommendations from responsible persons vouching for his sincerity of intention to continue in the class throughout the school year. The subjects taught are carpentry and joinery, cabinet making, pattern making, blacksmithing, plumbing, machine- shop work, printing and typesetting, mathematics, free-hand, architectural and mechanical drawing, machine design, applied electricity, steam engi- neering, electric wiring and installation, industrial chemistry, applied physics, advanced dressmaking, millinery and domestic science. VACATION SCHOOLS Another form of activity which, like that of the evening school, bears a similarity to the regular day-school work, is carried on during the summer months and is known as the vacation or summer school. New York again affords us an excel- lent example. Attendance is entirely voluntary. Once the children have entered a class they are encouraged to continue in it throughout the sum- mer term. The instruction is nearly all of the nature of hand work, the only exception being a class made up of children who either have 6 THE WIDER USE failed in their studies or wish to get ahead of their grades. By attending the summer course many deficient children are enabled to secure promo- tion at the opening of school in September. The visitor entering one of the New York vacation schools will be struck with the at- mosphere of happy relaxation which pervades the class rooms. Systematic, diligent work is carried on, but the children enjoy it so thoroughly that very little discipline is required. The children receive instruction in chair making, basketry, bench work and fret sawing, elementary wood- work, Venetian ironwork, knitting, elementary sewing, dressmaking, millinery and embroidering. They are also instructed in the domestic arts and cooking. The very small children are given kinder- garten work. As a rule, these classes are held only during the morning, and as the session is short the child generally spends the whole morning in one class. At the end of the term the pupils are allowed to take home the things they have made. Vacation schools are very much alike all over the country, though in some places more emphasis is laid upon the academic features than in others, and certain cities have added new courses, such as lessons in first aid, clay modeling and kite making. SCHOOL PLAYGROUNDS Another "wider use" of the school plant during the summer is that of the vacation playground. 7 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT These playgrounds are open in the afternoon, frequently in the yards of the schools which were occupied by classes in the morning. The work conducted in the school yards of Newark, New Jersey, furnishes a good illustration of the possibilities of directed play. It is gener- ously supported by a progressive board and very efficiently administered by an unusually -large force of expert leaders. The Newark yards are of a fair size and are well equipped with play- ground apparatus. The exercises open at half past one with a brief ceremony consisting of a talk or a story by one of the teachers, a song and a flag salute, and then the boys and girls are marched to their respective quarters on the grounds. Before using the apparatus the boys* and girls' divisions are given what are called "setting-up" exercises. After these the groups are divided into squads and assigned to various games and sports or to the use of the apparatus. Immediately the yard takes on the appearance of an out-of- door gymnasium. Here is a group of boys doing stunts on the horizontal bar. Just beyond, a line of youngsters wait their turns on the climbing ropes. The boy who climbs clear to the top can ring the bell there and everybody looks up at him. It's like making a bull's eye in the shooting gallery. Other boys practice jumping, pulling them- selves up the inclined ladder, or stretching their arms on the flying rings. In another corner 8 THE WIDER USE of the yard an exciting basket ball game is in progress. Over there a string of boys are playing leap-frog. On the girls' side happy groups play ring-toss, bean-bag, prisoners' base and various other games. Inside the school house in a class room from which the seats and desks have been removed there is folk dancing by successive classes of girls. As they throw themselves into the Shoemaker's Dance and the Highland Fling, or whirl about in the Tarantella, the joy depicted on their flushed faces leaves no doubt as to the healthful effects of these rhythmic exercises. In connection with the Newark school play- grounds some hand work is also given. At cer- tain periods the boys are set to whittling, chair caning, kite making or basket weaving, while the girls take their turn at crocheting, sewing, doll- making, hat weaving, and cardboard and fancy sewing. In the "kitchen-gardening" department, the girls also learn how to build fires, set the table, sweep, wash, and a number of other household activities. The children fix up the playground themselves. The boys clear it, dig jumping pits and mark baseball diamonds, while the girls are called upon to make bases for games, bean-bags, aprons, bloomers, and thecurtainfor "curtain ball." PUBLIC LECTURES AND ENTERTAINMENTS One of the commonest uses now being made of our modern school buildings during the winter 9 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT evenings is for free lectures and entertainments. Some cities offer occasional lectures with a sprink- ling of concerts, recitals and theatricals, given under the auspices of local societies or clubs. In others this sort of work forms a definite part of the educational program and large sums of money are appropriated for its support. The most extensive public lecture work under- taken by any board of education in the United States is that carried on in New York City. These lectures are given mainly, but not entirely, in the public school buildings. Their subjects are taken from all departments of human knowl- edge. Geography, science, literature, history, sociology and biology are only a few of the fields from which the lecturers bring messages. Many of the topics are presented in a related series of addresses from the same lecturer. A more definite notion of the character of both the lectures and lecturers can be obtained from the following selections taken from the pro- gram of the year 1907-08: "Benjamin Franklin," by Professor Harry G. Paul, of the University of Illinois; "The Great American Poets," by Pro- fessor Curtis Hidden Page, of Columbia Uni- versity; "Reminiscences of the Great War," by General Horatio C. King; "Labor's Part in Industry," by Professor James Walter Crook, of Amherst College; "How to Look at Pictures," by Mr. Alex. J. Van Laer; and the "Story of the Stars," by Miss Mary Proctor. 10 THE WIDER USE While most of the lectures are given in English, a number are given in the Italian, Yiddish and German languages. Lectures susceptible of such treatment are illustrated by stereopticon pictures or by laboratory demonstrations, the latter con- ducted upon the stage with suitable apparatus. At the close there are frequent conferences between the speakers and their audiences, and study at home of the subjects discussed is stimulated by the distribution of syllabi and books. The approval of these lectures as attested by the large attendance, the genuine interest shown by the auditors, and the wide information contributed, all bear out the contention of their enthusiastic pro- moter, Dr. Henry M. Leipziger, that they form a veritable " University for the People/' EVENING RECREATION CENTERS In winter time the school buildings help meet the needs of children through a "wider use" known as the evening recreation center. The most highly elaborated and efficiently organized recreation centers in this country are conducted by the New York Board of Education. These centers are supposed to receive only those boys and girls who are no longer in school. If any known day-school pupils appear, they are sent home unless they have come to use the study room, which at some of the centers is maintained under the care of a regular teacher for the benefit of those children who are unable to study at home. ii WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT For the sake of breaking up the crowd into small, fixed groups which can be made to rotate in the use of the various privileges, the youngsters are urged to join some one of the numerous liter- ary or debating clubs conducted by a competent club-organizer and member of the principal's staff. These literary societies meet in class rooms certain nights in the week and deliver essays and orations, or conduct mock trials or debates. On the other nights they play basket ball or use the gymnasium apparatus. The unattached youngsters take their turn at shuffle-board, ring-toss, ping-pong or some of the quiet games such as checkers, chess and dominoes. In the girls' centers folk dancing prevails in place of the rougher sports liked by the boys. A read- ing room and circulating library is also found at the recreation centers. SOCIAL CENTERS The other recreational use which is made of school buildings during the ''winter months is designed more especially for adults. The school house here becomes a social center, and a con- spicuous example of successful work of this kind has been attained by the Rochester Board of Education. Certain of the school houses were equipped with gymnasiums, shower baths, chairs, tables, a travel- ing library from Albany and a set of table crock- ery. Men's civic clubs, women's civic clubs and 12 THE WIDER USE "coming" civic clubs for the young people were organized. During the early part of the week the clubs rotate in the use of the meeting room and the various other facilities. On Fridays the men and women meet together, hear a lecture, enjoy an entertainment or a concert, and end the evening with a dance. Sometimes the clubs all get together for a " feed. " They keep the gymnasium, piano and reading room in use most of the time. When the amusing features begin to grow slack, they liven things up with a debate or put two opposing political candidates into the arena and listen to samples of campaign oratory. These clubs hold loan art exhibitions, illustrated lectures and minstrel shows at the social centers. Sometimes a civic club from one of the wealthier districts will entertain a club from a poorer dis- trict, and the latter will return the hospitality. The sentiment of the Rochester people is well expressed in the following remark, made at one of the first meetings in a social center: "This is a great dis- covery, to find that we have a beautiful club house, built and paid for, belonging to all of us and all ready for use." ORGANIZED ATHLETICS AND FOLK DANCING The Public Schools Athletic League, in New York City, holds meetings in school rooms and conducts in the gymnasiums and yards the chin- ning, jumping and other exercises which do not require much space. Certain school systems also 13 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT encourage, in school buildings after classes are dis- missed in the afternoon, folk dancing and simple games for girls. On account of the prominent place which games and dancing seem destined to hold in the scheme of public elementary education they will be treated in a separate chapter. MEETINGS IN THE SCHOOL HOUSE Only one other use of school buildings coming within the scope of this inquiry remains to be mentioned. It is that of allowing various organ- izations of a civic, educational or philanthropic nature to meet in idle class rooms or auditoriums. Several instances will serve as illustrations. A very progressive use of the school house as a meeting place is being made in Philadelphia, where a Home and School League makes use of sixty school houses. The membership of each association is composed of the teachers and parents of the children who attend that school. Lectures and addresses upon the methods and problems which arise in connection with the education of children alternate with entertain- ments. The bringing of the parents into the school house so frequently for social occasions has caused the people in the neighborhood to regard it as a social center. As an Italian paper in Philadelphia stated, "A social center is a party in the school house to which everybody can come for nothing." In Boston the North American Civic League '4 THE WIDER USE for Immigrants gives illustrated talks upon Amer- ican customs and institutions before audiences of foreigners; and in twenty-two districts schools are being used by branches of the Boston Home and School Association for parents' meetings and other public functions which are attended annually by some 25,000 people. The parents' associations have about 3000 members who pay dues. Class rooms, especially in secondary institu- tions, are also frequently used by the regular pvpils as meeting places for their literary and debating societies, congresses, school banks and social organizations. Besides the activities noted above there is another that involves more or less use of school property, but which in its larger aspects falls outside the field of our discussion. Certain schools blessed with spacious premises are profit- ably and beautifully devoting their yards to gardening; but it is seldom that American school grounds have room for this work, beyond the maintenance of ornamental plots and borders, after the equally wholesome demand for play space has been satisfied. The school garden move- ment in its commonest form either utilizes vacant lots and home gardens or requires the purchase of additional ground and thus removes itself from this discussion, which is limited to the use of the existing school plant. A further reason for omitting this subject lies in the fact that it has just '5 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT been fully .treated by M. Louise Greene in an ad- mirable book entitled "Among School Gardens."* The activities, then, which will be treated in the following pages are the familiar types known as evening and vacation schools, playgrounds in school yards, public lectures and entertainments, evening recreation and social centers, organized athletics and folk dancing, and the use of school rooms as meeting places for various civic and social organizations. In their treatment an effort will be made to present them in actual operation, describe the various forms of administration, and give perti- nent details as to cost, development, and the social amelioration which they are effecting. REFERENCES DEWEY, JOHN: The School as a Social Centre. Elementary School Teacher. Vol. 3, page 73. ' DUTTON, SAMUEL TRAIN, and SNEDDEN, DAVID: Administration of Public Education in the United States. Macmillan Company, New York. Contains full bibliography. Pages 601. ELIOT, CHARLES W.: The Full Utilization of the Public School Plant. Proceedings of National Education Association, 1903. Page 241. LINDSAY, S. M. : New Duties and Opportunities for the Public Schools. Social Education Quarterly, March, 1907. Page 79. * Greene, M. Louise, Ph.D.: Among School Gardens. New York, Charities Publication Committee, 1910. Russell Sage Foundation Publication. 16 II EVENING SCHOOLS CHAPTER II EVENING SCHOOLS ON East Fifteenth Street in New York City is a stone edifice five stories high which occupies nearly an acre of ground. Within its walls are forty-eight class rooms, six laboratories, twenty shops, a capacious audi- torium and a suite of modernly appointed offices. The entire plant cost the taxpayers $1,445,937.20, and is known as the Stuyvesant High School. During the months from September to June this immense building is used about seven hours a day, by boys and girls from thirteen to twenty years of age. When the teachers de- part, at five o'clock or thereabouts, the building is turned over to the janitors. For a period the doors are closed, the machinery in the shops is silent, the apparatus remains untouched in the laboratories the factory rests. Not for long, however, for scarcely have the clerks from the stores and workmen from shops and factories finished their evening meal when the windows of the big building begin to light up, one after another, and the whole facade throws its radiance out upon the street. Soon, a man walks up the WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT front steps, inserts a key in the door and enters. He is followed by others, singly, in pairs, and in threes. Presently all the doors are opened, and men and boys come in large numbers, from the west as well as from the east. If one were to stand in the lobby of the school some evening about eight o'clock and watch these men and boys he would be struck with their serious mien and the absence of frivolity in their conduct. Each seems preoccupied and bent on the business in hand. There is no loiter- ing or confusion in the corridors. Shortly after the gong strikes, the hallways are deserted and the low hum of machinery and the buzz of voices indicate that the factory is again in operation. The principal who shows one about is also in charge of the day school. He has an assistant and a separate office for the evening work. The first rooms that one visits hold classes in shop arithme- tic, algebra, and geometry, but there is apparently little reciting. One pupil is conferring with the instructor at his desk while the others are in their seats engrossed in study. The wide differ- ences in ability and progress make class work im- possible, and the instruction is, therefore, almost entirely individual. The chemical laboratories reveal two classes, an elementary one, composed principally of drug- gists' assistants who hope to become licensed pharmacists, and another made up mainly of em- ployes in chemical manufactories studying the 20 EVENING SCHOOLS more advanced phases of the subject. "Many of these," the principal explains, "are real chem- ists. They do work of scientific quality." Both rooms are equipped with ample supplies of test- tubes, retorts, crucibles, individual working tables, and the other apparatus found in modern chemical workshops. The instructor exhibits a scroll of tracing paper upon which one of the pupils, outside of class hours, has engrossed important formulae which will be placed where all can refer to them and thus save the labor of copying. In the physics laboratory a class of youths is distributed in knots of two or three around a series of tables. Each group is provided with an electric bell outfit. Some have the apparatus separated into pieces while others have it already put together, connected with the battery, and are making it "go." They are learning, through hands, eyes and ears, the rudimentary principles governing electro-magnets and electric currents. The knowledge based on practical experiments will "stick," and does not cost them the amount of mental energy required to concentrate atten- tion upon the abstractions in a book. Across the hall, one comes upon a class in applied physics. Here are maturer pupils, men even gray-haired ones as well as youths of eighteen and nineteen. Their faces disclose the features of the Russian Hebrew, the olive com- plexion from Naples, the florid hue from Hungary, the ruddy cheeks of the Celt, and the character- 21 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT istics of other familiar immigrant types. The clothes and hands reveal the office man, the salesman, the mechanic and the day laborer. They sit in semi-circular tiers, the right arm of each seat having a flat extension which affords a resting place for their note-books. They are engaged in the study of electrical measurements and their attention is given to the instructor who stands behind a table loaded with galvanometers, voltameters, induction coils, magnets and other electrical instruments. He illustrates the lesson with apparatus, and then impresses the ideas upon his pupils' minds by the question and answer method followed in the day high schools. A class in electric wiring and installation, a little farther down the corridor, is held in a room which bears resemblance to a grape arbor. The trellis here is a low, temporary ceiling of boards having partitions a few feet apart that run down to the floor and thus make a series of booths in which the pupils work. These embryo wiremen train insulated wires, like vines, along crevices, through slits and around corners. They solder together broken ends and wrap splicings with gummy tape. Here one screws on a porcelain disk from the center of which will depend the wires for an incandescent bulb; there where his system taps the main wire another installs a fuse block with its requisite fuse plugs just as electricians do in wiring a house or a church. This same adaptation of instruction and drill 22 EVENING SCHOOLS to the practical work of the pupils is found in the pattern-making room, the blacksmith shop, the mechanical-drawing room, and the class in steam- fitting which meets down in the boiler room. Incipient cabinet makers are fashioning writing desks and parlor tables which would do credit to a "craftsman" shop. These pieces of fur- niture they take home, the only expense to them being the cost of the lumber; the use of the machinery, benches, tools and the assistance of the master is as free as the air. In the plumbing shop, among the plumbers' apprentices, there is the harness maker who foresees the shrinkage of his trade through the rise of the automobile industry and who is now preparing himself for a new occupation. The class in electrical engineering is made up chiefly of power-house employes who, at their shops, may perhaps only handle the oil can or the shovel do the specific task for which they were hired. In the evening school they take dyna- mos apart and put them together again, set electric motors in operation or study the mechanism of the arc lamp. Likewise in the machine shop the pupils run lathes and become skilled in those operations which they may not master in the specialized factories where all day long they perform over and over again one tiny part of the total manufac- turing process. In the freehand-drawing room there are budding designers and illustrators, employes of art stores 23 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT and lithograph shops. In age they range from the boy just out of grammar school to the gray- beard of fifty, and upon drawing boards tilted against tables and easels scattered among the desks they draw from plaster-of-Paris Venuses and curly-locked Jupiters. There are bas-re- liefs for those interested solely in decorative art and casts of horses for those striving to depict animal life. Frequently the class forms itself into a club, hires a model and practices drawing from life. A scholar in cap and gown intent upon his open book, a tramp with a week-old beard, coat over arm, leaning on a staff, or just a plain, everyday young man seated in a chair, in the portrayal of figures like these the students find abundant drill in handling draperies, con- tours, proportions and light-values. They thus receive an all-round training in the technique of the ornamental draftsman. The instructor in this room is an illustrator who spends his days in the practice of his profession. The policy of the authorities is to employ, so far as possible, men who are in the trades or who have had practical experience in their subjects. It is not easy to find people with these qualifica- tions who also have the requisite teaching ability; nevertheless, thirteen out of the twenty-seven members of the nocturnal staff of this school are occupied in practical work during the day- time. The remainder, who are teachers in the day schools, are employed mainly for the mathe- 24 EVENING SCHOOLS rrjatical and laboratory courses, for which outside experience is not so necessary. Such, then, are the more salient features of a New York evening trade school. It does not hope, or indeed aim, to train raw apprentices into finished artisans, but rather to give them a solid grounding in their trades and to afford those mechanics who are already caught in the industrial machinery a means of escape, an opportunity to broaden their experience and improve their skill. TYPES OF EVENING SCHOOLS NIGHT INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS. The school which has just been described is fairly representative of the night industrial schools of the country. The Springfield, Massachusetts, Evening School of Trades, which is held in the Mechanic Arts High School, narrows its efforts to meet more particu- larly the needs of the semi-skilled employes in the shops. The instruction is divided into the follow- ing departments: mechanical drawing, machine- shop practice and tool making, plumbing, wood- turning and pattern making, shop mathematics and electricity. The courses are outlined in detail and most of them involve considerable practice work. The class in mechanical drawing requires a certain amount of home study, while for this and several other courses the men have to provide part of the instruments and tools. The attend- ance at the machine-shop practice and tool-making classes has exhausted the capacity of the shops and 25 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT a waiting list has been created. A considerable return has been made to the city in the tools and other apparatus constructed by the pupils. The Cleveland Technical High School in its evening course offers, besides the usual subjects, instruction in foundry practice, sheet metal work, bookbinding, pottery, leather work, water color rendering and art metal work. Women also attend this school and there are classes for them in plain, hand and machine sewing, spring and fall millinery, art needlework, plain and fancy cookery, table service and laundry practice. The distinction made in the aims of the Buffalo Tech- nical Night High School is that it is not a place for learning the "manual parts" of a trade, al- though some hand work is done. But by far the larger part of its instruction is devoted to drawing and the " mathematical, physical, chemical and me- chanical principles which are incident to the differ- ent trades." New subjects given at this school are architectural drawing and design, sheet metal draughting, machine design, plane surveying, and gas engineering as applied to automobile and mo- tor boat. Altogether, nineteen courses are offered. The early evening industrial schools were de- voted chiefly to instruction in drawing. The Fawcett Drawing School of Newark, opened in 1885, has kept fairly close to its original purpose. Under the stress of modern demands, however, mathematics has been added to its course and 26 EVENING SCHOOLS drawing has been surrounded with a group of re- lated subjects such as painting in water colors, clay modeling, machine and architectural draw- ing and designing, arts and crafts, and a popular course in jewelry designing and manufacture. Evening industrial instruction in Cambridge, Massachusetts, is provided in three schools, two of which are devoted solely to drawing (one for freehand and the other for mechanical) and the third to manual training courses in machine-shop work, wood-turning, pattern making, forging, and foundry work. In Worcester there is a drawing school composed of mechanical, freehand and architectural departments which are not con- nected except through the relation of their respec- tive heads to the supervisor of evening schools. EVENING HIGH SCHOOLS. Coming now to the next type, the evening high school, we find the gulf bridged for us by a class of institution like that in Newark, where instruction is offered not only in mathematics, English, Latin, the modern lan- guages, science, bookkeeping, stenography and typewriting, but also in such manual subjects as drawing, shop-work, cooking, sewing, millinery, nursing and art needlework. The Cincinnati High School likewise gives its night pupils carpentry, cabinet making and mechanical drawing and has one avowed trade class in pattern making which is attended by apprentices in that craft. Stencil- ing, leather tooling and china painting are given in the Lowell, Massachusetts, High School. As a 2 7 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT rule, however, the industrial courses found in these schools are of the sort afforded by manual training shops and are better suited to the needs of amateurs than of mechanics already engaged in the trades. The most typical features of the evening high schools, aside from the usual literary, scientific and mathematical work, are the business courses and the training afforded in the vocations of women. Of the twenty-nine courses offered in New York five give a commercial training and four a preparation for dressmaking, millinery and the household occupations. In Newark, the pupils taking business courses form 23 per cent and those taking domestic science 33 per cent of the whole number of students. A large majority of the evening school certificates granted in Provi- dence go to young men and women who have completed commercial subjects. The Lawrence, Massachusetts, business department of the evening schools includes a course in penmanship and card printing which is very popular. In Newark, Worcester, and several other cities the secondary evening schools have classes for the preparation of those who wish to take the civil service examinations. Pittsburgh during a re- cent winter had one hundred pupils in this de- partment, three-quarters of whom were trying for the post office service, while the remainder intended to take the railway mail, custom house and departmental clerkship examinations. 28 EVENING SCHOOLS The closer organization of these schools, the greater homogeneity of the pupils in age and interests, and the more frequent social oppor- tunities offered to those who pass through a cur- riculum, are responsible for the existence among them of more student societies and activities than are found in the technical institutions. In the Boston schools there are organizations for self- development and parliamentary practice. The national anniversaries are celebrated with recita- tions and songs, and the pupils, assisted by talented friends, give occasional concerts and entertainments. The class-room work is inter- spersed with illustrated travel lectures and ad- dresses on topics of general interest. One of the schools has a girls' club, while the graduates of two others are organized and hold meetings. De- bating societies flourish in the Worcester school, which also has an active graduate association. Two New York schools have come together in public debates and discussed such questions as "Strikes, as They Affect the Working Man" and " The Municipal Ownership of Public Utilities." EVENING ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. The kinds of instruction given in the third type, the evening elementary school, are well illustrated by the Buffalo grammar curriculum which contains the following subjects: reading, writing, spelling, English language, geography, arithmetic, Ameri- can history and civics, bookkeeping, typewriting, stenography, domestic science, dressmaking, mil- 29 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT linery, mechanical drawing, carpentry and Eng- lish for foreigners. The same disposition to com- bine vocational instruction suitable for adults, especially women, with the common English branches, is observable quite generally in primary night-school courses. Native-born men are averse to studying the "three R's" along with youths of fourteen and sixteen and are not found as a rule in any but the technical classes. On the other hand, grown-up women will readily associate with young girls for the purpose of learning how to trim hats or to make their own clothes. In one of the New York elementary schools there is a large class in English language and composition, com- posed of middle-aged colored women, which is known as the " baby class. " Certain systems, like that of Cleveland, offer only the academic subjects, and still concentrate their energies upon the original purpose of these schools, which was to continue an interrupted elementary education or to bring it up to the point that would secure admission to the secon- dary and technical classes. While in most cities courses are outlined and pupils are expected to follow them, the grading is usually flexible. Cambridge finds the differences among pupils so great that no definite course is arranged, the in- struction being largely individual and certificates admitting to the evening high school being issued as fast as students qualify for them. The New York elementary curriculum is divided 30 TRIMMING THEIR OWN HATS IN AN EVENING SCHOOL THE " BABY CLASS" IN ENGLISH EVENING SCHOOLS into senior and junior departments, the former giving more advanced instruction in nearly the same subjects, with a section in addition devoted to the teaching of English and civics to foreigners. This latter work Superintendent Brumbaugh of Philadelphia believes will be increasingly the chief object of the American primary night school. In his city 41 per cent of the evening pupils are foreign-born, while in Chicago 57 per cent of those enrolled enter the English classes for foreigners. In New York the percentage enter- ing for the same purpose is 36. These figures have no comparative significance and serve only to indicate the importance of this part of the work in the larger city systems. The foreign classes in New York sometimes con- tain twenty or even thirty different racial groups, as it is not possible to classify according to tongue except in the case of the Italians, Russian Hebrews and one or two other groups which attend in large numbers. Consequently it would not be possible usually to provide a teacher speak- ing the same language as the pupils, and strange to say, this is not considered advisable by the school authorities even for the homogeneous classes. There are successful instructors of foreign birth in the New York City schools who teach English to immigrants, but not a few principals believe that this success depends upon the ability of the teachers rather than upon their knowledge of the language of their pupils. It is a question 3' WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT much discussed and the experience and opinions of school men differ. An Italian once attempted to get a license to teach in the New York evening classes on the ground that his compatriots were dissatisfied with the American teacher and wished some one who could understand them. The superintendent, accompanied by an Italian school commissioner, visited the class in question and in response to their countryman's inquiries the mem- bers expressed a unanimous preference for the existing system, explaining that they came to learn English and not Italian. There is, however, an attempt to grade these pupils roughly into beginners, into an intermediate group who know a little English, and an advanced section, some members of which in a short time become able to take up the regular elementary English courses. The first class are started in their acquisition of our tongue by what is called the natural method. Objects and pictures are displayed and their English names given simul- taneously and then written upon the blackboard. The actions expressed by simple verbs are per- formed before the pupils. After the foundations of a vocabulary have been laid, drill in pronun- ciation, reading and writing follow. In addition to the instruction in English the pro- gram for the advanced pupils in the New York evening schools also provides for lectures once a week from the principals or other competent per- sons upon such subjects as citizenship and its 32 EVENING SCHOOLS duties, naturalization, the municipal government, the prevention of disease, the lives of great men, and the significance of the national holidays. In Buffalo information on civics and a knowledge of American geography and history are imparted through the reading lessons or by means of in- teresting stories. Each class also learns to sing "America/' "The Red, White and Blue," and "The Star Spangled Banner. 11 In Newark a well planned system of civic instruction is carried out by special teachers who are in most cases able to speak the language of their pupils, though the foreign tongue is used only where interpretation is necessary, as it has been found that English is generally preferred by those who can understand it at all. The aim here is the inculcation of the principles of moral and civic conduct rather than the imparting of information about governmental institutions. Concrete cases are presented and data are drawn from the experience of the pupils. Topics such as the basis of family relations, or citizenship and fatherhood, are discussed through several lessons with the greatest freedom. The instructor then analyzes the various views which have been presented, causing the underlying prin- ciple to emerge with such distinctness that its formulation on the blackboard is frequently the signal for handclapping and vigorous expressions of approval. The keen appreciation which the immigrants feel toward these opportunities is demonstrated 3 33 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT by the absence of disorderliness or any other occasion for discipline. In the Newark classes it is not an uncommon sight to see a man and his wife sitting together or a woman accompanied by a couple of children she could not leave at home, while in all the cities political refugees, graduates of European universities, and highly skilled mechanics of foreign training are found side by side with the peasant and day laborer, enduring the hardships of an ill-fitting educational classifi- cation for the sake of learning the tongue of their adopted country. OTHER TYPES. Besides the well-defined types of schools which have been described, there are scattered courses and opportunities of various sorts offered during the evenings in public school buildings which are not included in the regular curricula. Thus in several of the Boston evening schools there have been popular classes in salesman- ship. The gymnasiums of a high school and two intermediate schools in Cincinnati are used on alternate evenings by classes of men and women who are instructed by competent physical train- ing teachers. The auditorium of another large school in this city is occupied on Friday nights by a chorus conducted by the supervisor of music. The students are chiefly from the evening schools, but all adults with musical ability are admitted. Brockton employed experts from Boston to come and give two courses of lectures, one on steam en- gineering, heating and ventilation, and another on 34 EVENING SCHOOLS domestic science, for which subjects it had been ascertained through advertisements in the papers that there was a demand. In discussing the possibility of a mid-term pro- motion for a pupil in a certain New England school the boy was asked if he was able to study at home. He replied that there were eight in the family and that during the evening all occupied the common living room, which was the only place in the house that was adequately heated and lighted. This difficulty has been met in Newark by opening study classes at five of the evening schools. The pupils range from the fourth year of the day school to the first and second years of the high school. Experienced teachers are in charge, reference books are brought in from the public library, and every effort is made to enable pupils to help themselves. The principals all testify to a noticeable improvement in the day work of these scholars since the study rooms have been opened. Similar privileges are offered to the children of the congested districts in New York City in connection with the evening recreation centers maintained by the board of education, to which reference is made in the chapter devoted to recreation centers. "Classes in additional subjects may be formed if a sufficient number of pupils apply ten days be- fore the opening of the term." This announce- ment at the end of the Pittsburgh Evening School Bulletin indicates the growing attitude of school 35 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT boards toward the extension of evening instruc- tion. They appreciate the fact that the willing- ness to add two hours of hard mental application $60 $55 $50 $45 $40 $35 $30 $25 $20 $15 $10 $ 5 Age 15 20 25 30 35 37 The Money Value of Industrial Training. Average Weekly Earn- ings of Graduates of the Newark Evening Technical School. Com- piled by the New Jersey Commission on Industrial Education on returns from 85 per cent of the graduates. Machine Industries. = All Classes of Graduates. to the end of an exhausting day's work shows grit and ambition above the average; and in recogni- tion of the value to the community of trained 36 EVENING SCHOOLS ability they stand ready to provide any kind of in- struction that is demanded by a class large enough to make the extra labor and expense involved ap- pear worth while. This attitude is justified by the history of night school work. The increase of the pupil's wage- earning power which it may produce under favor- able circumstances has been demonstrated by the experience of the graduates of the Newark Tech- nical School (see diagram on the opposite page). This is a state institution and makes a specialty of evening instruction, but its achievements are not beyond the capabilities of a city technical high school that has a strong evening depart- ment. References to the beneficial effects of the eve- ning classes are continually met with in school reports. Says a Cambridge principal: "I have watched the influence of our school on many a mischievous boy, and have seen him become thoughtful, industrious, ambitious, and self-re- specting." A Buffalo report refers to the students of ten years ago who " are now numbered among our leading business and professional men." In- stances like those of the ordinary laborer who, through the knowledge gained by his evening technical training, became superintendent of a department in a large industrial establishment, or the factory operative who hit upon an idea for improving his machine and studied mechanical drawing to learn how to draw the plans for the 37 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT new parts, can be duplicated many times in any of the trade schools. Many a lonely young woman in the city has found friends through her atten- dance at a sewing or millinery class, and the dress- making groups now and then disclose young brides-to-be who are making most of their trous- seaux through the munificence of the city's in- struction. Enthusiastic superintendents point to the American culinary methods which the immi- grant wives are acquiring in the cooking classes, and the good citizens which are being made of their husbands through the teaching of English and civics. From clergymen, teachers, and observers of all sorts the universal testimony is that the knowledge and skill acquired in the evening classes result not only in better dressed but in more self-reliant and self-respecting men and women. ADMINISTRATION The maintenance of public evening schools in the United States falls usually upon the local board of education. An exception to this rule is found in Massachusetts where the industrial schools of eleven cities received, through the co- operation of the State Commission on Industrial Education, a large part of their support from the state. These schools were managed, however, by the school committees. The executive in charge of New York's evening schools is one of the district superintendents de- tailed for that purpose, and is directly under one 38 EVENING SCHOOLS of the associate city superintendents with whom he consults regarding the courses of study and matters of policy. In the supervision of the class work he is assisted by the district superintendents who are assigned to the evening schools in their own districts. The directors of special subjects in the day sessions supervise the evening high school classes which are pursuing work in their fields, a plan that has given general satisfaction. It is becoming the general custom in most cities to place all of the evening schools under the charge of one man. In Cambridge he is called the "agent of the school committee," in Indianapolis, "director," but more frequently the title of "supervisor" is given to him. Quite often he is an energetic principal of a day school, or, as in Newark, he has charge of the public lectures as well as of the evening schools. The first super- visor of night instruction in Boston was also charged with the conduct of the vacation schools. In Cleveland there is one supervisor for the high and another for the elementary classes. These supervisors are usually men of high professional ability and of more than average enterprise, and their appointment is followed, as was the case in Lawrence, Massachusetts, by marked improve- ment in the efficierfcy and character of the work. In this city there had always been considerable trouble at the beginning of the term in classifying the large immigrant body. The beginners, those who knew a little English, and those more advanced 39 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT were so inextricably mixed, conversation with them was so difficult, and the names on old class lists so unmanageable, that even with the aid of in- terpreters the American teachers lost several days before a practicable grading was effected. The new supervisor hit upon the scheme of giving out, at the end of the term, different colored cards to these three groups. On resuming work in the fall those with white cards were corralled in one room, those with red and yellow ones were as- sembled in others, and the classes settled down to regular work on the second night of the term. This is only one of several important reforms which were accomplished through the employment of an expert in administration whose time and en- ergy were not consumed in the work of teaching. Another factor in the betterment of the Law- rence system was the backing which the new supervisor received from the sub-committee of the local board on evening schools. They were men who could not only appreciate educational needs, but had the back-bone requisite for removing inefficient teachers and making other beneficial changes that demanded courage. The assignment of a sub-committee of the school boards to evening schools is peculiar to New England. Of the thirty-six 6ities which do this, found by an examination of 109 lists of board committees, twenty-eight belonged to that section of the country. When it is seen that twenty of these were in Massachusetts one wonders if this 40 DRESSMAKING IN A BROCKTON CLASS ROOM THE CLEVELAND TECHNICAL H. S. RUNS EVENING EVENING SCHOOLS custom does not offer a partial explanation of the reason why that state (see page 102 for the figures) leads the country in the proportion of its inhabitants who take advantage of night school opportunities. The appointment of teachers in New York City is made from appropriate eligible lists in the order of their standing. These lists are prepared by a board of examiners after written and oral examinations, or in the case of regularly licensed day-school teachers after a close scrutiny of their records. In Newark an effort is made to secure qualified persons who are not employed in the day schools, though teachers who are and whose record for the past year was at least "good" may be so employed if other instructors are not avail- able. Here a standard teacher's certificate, or a college or normal school diploma, together with a certain amount of successful experience, may be offered in lieu of an examination for an evening- school license. "The men employed as instructors are chosen on account of their practical knowledge of, and experience in, the lines which they are to teach, and each is an expert in his profession." This statement in the prospectus of the Buffalo Tech- nical Night High School gives the aim generally followed in the selection of teachers for this class of schools. Some cities find it impossible to achieve this, however, without drawing upon the regular school force, and there is a danger then of 41 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT impairing its efficiency for the day work. To obviate this difficulty somewhat the Springfield Trade School sessions were cut from six to four nights a week. Cleveland overcomes this diffi- culty by providing a separate corps for the eve- ning classes in its Technical High School. This endeavor to avoid the employment of day teachers obtains in both the elementary and high schools among most of the larger cities but very few of the smaller ones are able to adopt the policy on account of the scarcity of instructors. The wisdom in any case, of having some sort of a civil service regulation governing the appoint- ment of the evening force has been clearly demon- strated in Philadelphia, where, prior to 1907, no certificates were required, and where the number of positions filled depended entirely upon the special appropriations which the councilmen were willing to make for their friends. During the year named a new plan was put into effect the chief features of which were the provision by the superinten- dent's office of an eligible list made up of ap- proved teachers with at least two years' expe- rience in the local schools; and the authority to reduce the number of evening classes to the point where adequate accommodations were provided for all persons over fourteen who had a right to attend. As a result of the change Philadelphia obtained better schools, more efficient teaching, and a more satisfactory service to the people at a cost of at least $30,000 less per year. 42 EVENING SCHOOLS Regarding the admission of pupils the Pennsyl- vania state law says, " No one may attend the evening schools who is under fourteen years of age, who is unemployed during the day, who can attend a day school either public or private, or who is not a resident of the school district." The same minimum age obtains in New York City and Indianapolis; in Auburn, New York, it is sixteen; in Philadelphia and Cleveland fifteen; while in St. Louis and Newark no children under twelve may attend the evening schools. Most cities also add, in effect, the provisions contained in the Pennsylvania statute regarding employ- ment and attendance at day school. For en- trance to the high schools, especially in the case of those well organized, the scholastic require- ments are practically the same as those for the day secondary schools; namely, either an ele- mentary certificate or the demonstration, in a test involving power rather than memory, of the possession of an equivalent education. COST OF MAINTAINING EVENING SCHOOLS City Year Expenditures Per Capita * Cambridge 1908 $16,575.62 $13.18 Chicago 1908 133,040.08 12.1? Newark 1909 120,067.67 19.28 New York 1909 754,112.95 17*92 Providence 1908 39,230.06 14. 1 1 St. Louis 1908 26,760.85 8. 1 1 Springfield (Mass.) 1908 17,472.65 14.21 * Based on average attendance. 43 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT The above figures give a notion of the financial aspect of evening school undertakings but they can- not fairly be used as a basis for inter-city compari- sons. They were taken from published statements, and among educational accounting practices there is a lack of uniformity in the treatment of such items as supervision, general expenses, heat and light, etc. Thus in the report of the Springfield schools the sum of $483.47 is included as the pro- portion of the general expenses of the school system allotted to the evening department, while Providence has not figured in that item at all. Besides, certain kinds of instruction are more expensive than others. The per capita cost (for average attendance) of the New York high and trade schools is $3 1 .36 while that of the elementary department is $13.73. Consequently a city with a proportionately large number of persons taking advanced studies would show a higher cost per pupil than one with a relatively small attendance in this department. Thus, the difference between the Newark and New York per capita figures is mainly due to the fact that 40 per cent of the former's pupils are in the secondary and indus- trial departments, while in New York the same class of students form only 20 per cent of the total attendance. In like manner the lowness of Chicago's figures is partly explained by the fact that only 18 per cent of her pupils are in the high schools. 44 EVENING SCHOOLS Variation in the number of sessions also has a bearing upon the relative expensiveness. Thus, Chicago with a lower per capita cost than Provi- dence (taking two cities where the high and elementary schools are run the same number of nights) expends $0.152 per pupil per evening while in the latter city the amount is $0.141. This is due to the fact that the Rhode Island city keeps her classes open one hundred nights while Chicago keeps hers open only eighty. Where the character of the instruction remains practically uniform the tendency of the cost per pupil is to decrease; this means not only that there is generally an increase in the attendance but that this increase is enough to offset the gradual rise in teachers' salaries. An example is found in the case of Providence where during the seven years ending in 1908 the per capita cost fell $0.22 while the total expenditure (mainly salaries and supervision) was augmented by $867.25. In New York City during the same length of time the average attendance increased 69 per cent, while the cost rose only 58 per cent and there was a consequent drop in the per capita cost from $19.16 to $17.92. When the elementary schools alone are considered there are some re- markable instances of growing economy. Thus, during the decade ending in 1907 the per capita cost of this kind of instruction in Cleveland fell from $8.34 to $2.83, which however is not so strange when it is discovered that the enroll- 45 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT ment increased 23 per cent during the last year alone. When, on the other hand, attention is turned to the figures for all classes of instruction in a city where there has been an enlargement of the educational facilities and a rapid growth of the secondary and industrial departments relative to the elementary division, a corre- sponding increase in expensiveness is discovered. In Newark during the seven years ending in 1907, although the average attendance was raised 88 per cent, there was also a rise of 39 per cent in the per capita cost. This increase is attributed by Superintendent Addison B. Poland to the industrial and other kinds of new work which have been introduced into the elementary and high schools, the establishment of new high schools, increase in the pay of teachers, and re- duction in the size of classes. The results of these improvements can be seen in the fact that while only sixteenth in point of size Newark ranks fifth among the cities of the United States as respects average attendance at evening schools. In both New York and Newark the pupils pay no fees for tuition or for the use of apparatus and material in the laboratory or shop courses. The Springfield Trade School, however, charges in- cidental fees ranging from $2.50 to $8.00 and non- resident pupils tuition fees in addition of from $10 to $15. All members are required to fur- nish individual outfits of tools and instruments, so 46 EVENING SCHOOLS that while the expenditures for 1908 in this school amounted to $3801.53 the return of $1102.75 in the shape of fees and receipts from the sale of lead waste brought the per capita cost (average attendance was 262.5) to tne taxpayers down to $10.28. The receipts from fees of this sort for the same year in Cleveland were $1228, in St. Louis $696, and in Los Angeles, approximately $1700. The relative importance of the different items entering into the cost of these schools is illus- trated in the following table: TABLE SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF EXPENDITURES IN CHICAGO EVENING SCHOOLS FOR THE YEAR 1907-8 Per Cent of Total Salaries, principals and teachers 81.09 engineers and janitors 8.60 Gas and electric light 6.94 Fuel 2.56 Printing .47 Cooking supplies 34 Total 100.00 In view of the prominent part played by teachers' salaries in evening school finances, the amounts obtaining in several cities, well scattered geographically, are given in the table on the fol- lowing page. 47 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT TEACHERS' SALARY SCALE IN Six CITIES PER EVENING Positions Cam- bridge New York New- ark Mil- waukee St. Louis Los An- geles * Supervisor $1000 High School Principal $4.00 $7.00 $15.00 $:>. CQ c oo Vice-Principal . . Assistant 2.OO 5.00 4.00 3.OO 4.00 13-22 3.OO - Laboratory Asst.. Junior Teacher. . . Substitute Special Subjects Supervisor 3.00 3.00 3.00 6.00 4.00 Manual Training.. Cooking - /3.oo I 3-5 3.00 }- Sewing 3.00 Stenography Drawing 3 OO 4.00 3.OO 3.OO 3. CO Elementary School Principal . 300 500 4 OO D 8? Principal, 5 rooms or more .... ,w .\j\j 4 OO Principal, under 5 rooms 3 CQ Teacher in charge. Gen'l Ass't and Head Depts.. . . Assistant I C O 4.00 3.00 300 o OO :: 2 CO 2 Vs Teacher *** 2 CQ * *7 W Substitute 2 OO D OO * Payment on basis of the term. TENDENCIES "The possibilities of the evening school, es- pecially of the industrial evening school, have scarcely as yet been imagined even by educational enthusiasts." In these words Dr. Poland voices not only the optimism of many leading educa- 48 EVENING SCHOOLS tors over the future of evening instruction but indicates the field in which the largest develop- ments seem likely to occur. Of substantially the same import is the amount of attention which American schoolmen have been giving to the study of the German continuation school system wherein much of the work is done in the margin of the day and affords training for industrial pursuits. In their reports for the year 1908 both Mr. Andrew S. Draper, Commissioner of Educa- tion of the State of New York, and Mr. E. G. Cooley, Superintendent of Schools of Chicago, give considerable space to discussions of the German Fortbildungsschulen* and the solution they offer for the problem of equipping young people for the practical business of life. Mr. F. B. Dyer, Superintendent of the Cincinnati schools, in his report for the same year also says, "It is to be hoped that the German practice of continua- tion schools may be established here." There is a feeling among the school authori- ties that costly technical equipment should be used more of the time. Superintendent Wilbur F. Gordy of Springfield expresses the desire "that in the near future all of the superior equipment of the Technical High School may be used six instead of four nights a week, and for forty or fifty instead of twenty-four weeks in the year." This disposition to increase the use of the class rooms as well as the laboratories * For description of these schools see page 66. 4 49 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT is shown by the recent action of St. Louis in ex- tending its evening school term 25 per cent, and in the establishment in New York of normal classes for teaching day teachers the new free- hand movement in penmanship. Dr. Matthew J. Elgas, who is in charge of the evening schools of this city, also recommends that other normal classes be organized in the night high schools for instruction in physical culture, music, and the teaching of English to foreigners. In support of Dr. Brumbaugh's contention that the evening elementary school will be in- creasingly an institution for the Americanization of foreign-born people, may be brought forward the following recommendations of the New York State Commission on Immigration which are endorsed by Dr. Maxwell and quoted in his 1909 report : " i . That night schools for adult aliens be established in all parts of the state where the needs of the resident non-English speaking popu- lation show that they are required; that schools be established for labor camps employing such non-English speaking laborers; and that the state either incur the expense for such schools or contribute to the support of such schools. "2. That the attention of the educational de- partments of the state, cities and towns of New York state be drawn to the following proposals with a request to consider and act upon them: "a. The opening of night schools for aliens 50 EVENING SCHOOLS during all or a part of the period from April to October." Of significance in this connection is the proposal to establish an institution to be known as the Massachusetts College, which will utilize high and normal school buildings and the services of their teachers throughout that state between the hours of 4:30 and 9:30 p.m., three days a week and a certain amount of time on Saturday and Sunday. The promoters of the plan argue that these schools have better equipped laboratories and libraries and teachers of higher scholarship and training than were possessed by the old-time colleges. Through the utilization of these educational resources, after regular day-school hours, the boys and girls of the state will be able ultimately to find a free college at every railroad and street-railway center and receive a thorough advanced education while living at home. The plan requires an endowment of $500,000 to insure its success, but whether or not it becomes an accomplished fact its projection shows the present trend toward the wider use of the school plant. REFERENCES BALLIETT, T.: The Organization of a System of Evening Schools. Proceedings of the National Education Association, 1904, page 278. CREASEY, CLARENCE H.: Technical Education in Evening Schools. Swan, Sonnenschein & Co., Ltd., London, 190*. DUTTON, SAMUEL TRAIN, and SNEDDEN, DAVID: The Administration of Public Education in the United States. Pages 480-491. The Macmillan Company, New York, 1908. Price, $1.75. WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT JONES, ARTHUR J.: The Continuation School in the United States. Bulletin of Bureau of Education, No. i, 1907. (Contains an extensive bibliography.) See also the courses of study published by the boards of education of Buffalo, Cleveland, New York, Pittsburgh and Springfield, and the annual reports of the superintendents of schools of the cities named in the text. Further references to works on evening schools are to be found on page 78. Ill EVENING SCHOOLS ABROAD CHAPTER III EVENING SCHOOLS ABROAD* ENGLAND IN the city of Nottingham a boy who drops out of the day school receives very shortly a circu- lar inviting him to attend the evening classes held, let us say, at the Bath Street school. There, if he has not completed the fifth standard of the day school, he is assigned to the "institute sec- tion" and for an hour on Monday and Wednes- day evenings his time will be taken up with the three R's. The session is two and a quarter hours long, but periods devoted to recreative exercises precede and follow the lessons. Should the boy have reached a higher stage than the fifth standard in the day school he will be allowed to enter the " preparatory section " in which classes are held five evenings a week. Here, though consisting still of elementary subjects, the work is more advanced, and in addition singing and wood- work are taught. If the pupil is a girl, the arithmetic is reduced to simple trade and household calculations, with * For much of the material used in the preparation of Chapters III and IV the author is indebted to the works of Professor Sadler and Mr. Arthur J. Jones, which are mentioned on page 78. 55 (A.)-PREPARATORY SCHOOLS Superintendent BATH STREET SCHOOL (YOUTHS) MR. H. L. JACKSON. Institute Section Preparatory Section & Special Classes Day 7-15 7-55 8-9 9 9-30 Day 7-iS 7-55 88-40 8-45 9-3 Monday 1 & Reading, Writing & Arithmetic Monday Recreation Arithmetic Singing Singing Arithmetic Writing & Reading Tuesday 7-30 to 9-30 Woodwork at Leen Side Wednes- day Writing Reading Wednes- day Reading, Writing & Arithmetic Drawing Thursday 7-30 to 9-30 WoodcarvingatShelton St. Friday 8 to 9 Drill & Physical Exercises 7-30 to 9-30 Woodwork (Leen Side) (Shelton St.) Superintendent (GIRLS) MRS. KIRK. Day Institute Section Preparatory Section 7- 3 o 7-55 8-9 9 9-15 7-408-25 8-309-15 Tuesday M Reading, Writing, Sewing, Sick Nursing & Management of Children H Reading and Writing Cookery Sewing Reading and Writing Cookery Sewing Thursday Reading, Writing Sewing Sick Nursing & Management of Children Reading and Writing Cookery Sewing Reading and Writing Cookery Sewing EVENING SCHOOLS ABROAD a course in cottage housekeeping, practical home nursing, laundry work, plain cookery, hygiene of the home and care of the baby, and art needle- work. She is also taught old English games, Morris dancing and how to sing the national ballads. These two sections constitute the " preparatory " school which is the lowest of the three grades of evening schools in Nottingham. The arrangement of hours and subjects for one week is shown in the "time table" (A.) taken from the prospectus pub- lished by the Education Committee. The next higher grade, the "continuation" school, offers four distinct courses: (i) A prepara- tory course of two years in elementary subjects; (2) an industrial course covering three years' work in English, composition, technical drawing, ex- perimental and workshop mathematics and draft- ing for building construction; (3) a commercial course of three years consisting of English, a modern language, commercial arithmetic, short- hand, bookkeeping, business correspondence, and typewriting; (4) a domestic course comprising three years' training in housecraft, all kinds of needlework, dressmaking, millinery, laundry work, domestic hygiene and care of baby. Besides those which are prescribed the pupils in all but the preparatory course are allowed to take one of the following optional subjects: English history, commercial geography, duties of citizenship, singing, ambulance nursing (first aid), physical 57 (B.)-CONTINUATION SCHOOLS ALBERT STREET SCHOOL Superintendent MR. W. LEANING. Course Day Time Subject Instructor Preparatory Mon. Tues. (Reading, English f < and Arithmetic -< Miss S. A. THOMPSON MISS A. G. WOODHEAD Thurs. 1 I MR. A. E. KNIGHTON Industrial Mon. Tues. ( English and Experi- "J < mental Mathematics > MR. A. JONES Thurs. (. Elem. Tech. Drawing ) Mon. Technical Drawing MR. E. LONGMATE Thurs. Building Construction MR. C. F. WARD Commercial Mon. Tues. J English and Commercial \ \ Arithmetic J MR. H. McCAic AND MR. T. POOLE Mon. Thurs. Bookkeeping (Elem. & Adv.) MR. T. READ Mon. Tues. Shorthand MR. L. HIND Thurs. Mon.Thurs. French Miss F. HARPER Tues. & f Commercial Correspon- | Thurs. * < dence and Office Rou- > (tine j MR. A. PARNWELL Domestic Mon. Tues. Friday 1 o Cookery ) Cookery (Advanced) j Thurs. Laundry Mon. Tues. Needlework ... MRS. HILL Wed. (Adults) ... MRS. SHEFFIELD Thurs. Miss THOMPSON Mon. Tues. Thurs. Dressmaking Miss JACKSON Mon. Tues. Sick Nursing Additional Mon. Reading & Social Sub- "1 Subjects Tues. jects 1 Laws of Health . . . f MR. R. HILL Tues. Social History . . . J Tues. Reading and Elocution MR. DAVIES Wed. Singing MR. GOOCH Thurs. Singing MISS HOPEWELL Thurs. Ambulance DR. RUCK Mon. Physical Training (Senior Girls) MR. T. MCCLUNK Tues. , ,,( Junior Girls) Friday ,,(Youths) ... Wed. & Fri. Woodwork MESSRS. ROBINSON & DANN Students are admitted to these Classes only on condition of their purchasing the special apparatus, etc., needed. 58 EVENING SCHOOLS ABROAD culture, woodwork, wood carving, and any sub- ject included in the domestic course. The arrangement of subjects and hours for a week is shown in Table B. Students in this school pay a fee of about 36 cents per term for each subject, and those desiring to take a fourth year's work in any course have to proceed to People's College, which is the short name for the Special Commercial and Technical Centre that constitutes the third member of the evening school organization under the Education Committee. This latter school is designed for pupils who have attended one of the higher day schools, those who have completed a course in the continuation school, and for other persons who are qualified to receive more advanced instruction. Its cur- riculum embraces the commercial, industrial and domestic courses given in the evening continua- tion schools besides more advanced classes along the same lines, and offers opportunities to specialize in particular subjects. The fee for each subject per term is three shillings (approximately 72 cents). The full list of courses and their dis- tribution through the week and the educational qualifications of the instructors are shown in Table C on the following page. For students who have completed the People's College evening course there are specialized tech- nical and trade courses at University College and Nottingham Municipal School of Art and Design. 59 (C.)-COMMERCIAL AND TECHNICAL CENTRE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE [Centre for Special Advanced Classes] Superintendent ... ... ... MR. J. B. COLEMAN. Day 1 Room Subject Instructor Monday 7 Mathematics, Workshop Calculations, &c.. Mr. POOL 6 Machine Construction and Drawing Mr. A. W. BIRD, B Sc. Lab. Magnetism and Electricity Mr. H. W. EVANS, B.Sc. Lab. Chemistry Mr.F.S. WATSON, M.Sc.F.C.S. H English Mr. IRVIN WEBSTER, M.A. E German Fraulein WARSHAUER 5 Spanish (Advanced) Senor L. BUSATO, Licencie* es lettres 3 Shorthand (Pitman's) Elem. Mr. HOLEHOUSE, F.Inc., S.T. i Inter. Miss MALLETT i Adv. 8 and Reporting Bookkeeping (Advanced) Mr. R. J. BOOTH Mr. E. BAILEY, A.C.I.S., Diploma (Lyons) 1000 9 (Elementary) Mr. J. W. PRIESTLEY, A.C.I.S., i Inter-Cert, of Soc. of Acct3. & a Aud. B JMillinery Miss ARCHER o Hall ^Dressmaking (at Clarendon Si St.) .... Miss COLLEY 00 ist fl'r Home Nursing and Ambu- 1 C'k ) Rm. j lance (at Clarendon St.) Cookery (at Clarendon St.) Dr. E. MABEL KENWOOD Tuesday 00 7 Experimental Mathematics and Workshop Calcula- tions Mr. POOL 5) 6 Machine Construction and l> Drawing ... ... Mr. A. W. BIRD, B.Sc. g Lab. Chemistry Mr.F.S. WATSON, M.Sc.,F.C.S. g Lab. Telephony Mr.. A. BROOKES, B.Eng. A. A. >_ (of the Brit. L. M. Ericsson <2 Manufact. Works) rt F English ... Mr. IRVIN WEBSTER, M.A. u 4 French (Advanced) Mademoiselle RABBE 5 Spanish (Elementary) Senor L. BUSATO, Licencie* es lettrci 3 Shorthand (Pitman's) Elem. Mr. HOLEHOUSE, F.Inc. S.T. a Inter. Miss MALLETT i Adv. and Reporting Mr. BOOTH G Script Shorthand Mr. LINDLEY Lee. R. Typewriting Mr. G. OLD 8 9 Bookkeeping (Elementary) Handwriting and Commer- cial Correspondence Mr. J. W. PRIESTLEY, A.C.l.S. Mr. J. W. PEET H Needlework Miss BELFORD ist fl'r Home Nursing and Ambu- C'k | lance (at Clarendon St.) Laundry Work (at Claren- Dr. E. MABEL KENWOOD Rm. J don Street) Hall {^Dressmaking Miss COLLEY 60 PEOPLE'S COLLEGE continued Day 1 Room Subject Instructor Wednes- Woodwork (at A'court Street) Mr. PUTTERGILL day at} Applied Mechanics Mr. A. BROOKES, B. Ens.. A. A. (of the Brit. L. M. Ericsson 6 Elementary Technical Manufact. Works) Drawing Mr. A. W. BIRD. B.Sc. 4 French (Elementary) Mademoiselle RABBE German ... Fraulein WARSHAUER S Spanish (Advanced) Senor L. BUSATO, Licencitf es lettres F Esperanto Mr. HODGES 3 Shorthand (Pitman's) Elem. Mr. HOLEHOUSE, F.Inc., S.T. a Inter. Miss MALLETT i Adv. and Reporting Mr. R. J. BOOTH 8 Bookkeeping (Advanced) Mr. E. BAILEY, A.C.I.S. 9 Handwriting and Commer- Ckry) R'm / cial Correspondence (Dressmaking (at Clarendon St.) Mr. J. W. PEET Miss COLLEY B {Millinery Miss ARCHER A Hall {Choral Society (at Claren- i don Street) Mr. A. RICHARDS, L.R.A.M. Thursday 2 E Economics ... ... Mr. IRVIN WEBSTER, M.A. (Econ.) X a 7 Mathematics, Workshop Calculations, &c. Mr. POOL '. 6 {Machine Construction and 2 o Phy. ) Lab. 1 Drawing ... Magnetism and Electricity Mr. BIRD, B.Sc. Mr. H. W. EVANS, B.Sc. K Chm. 1 Lab. / Chemistry ... ... Mr. F. S. WATSON, M.Sc. F.C.S. 4 French (Elementary) Mademoiselle RABBE S Spanish (Elementary) Senor L. BUSATO, Licencte es Icttres F Esperanto Mr. ROWE 3 Shorthand (Pitman's) Elem. Mr. HOLEHOUSE, F.Inc. S.T. a Inter. Miss MALLETT j Adv. G and Reporting Script Shorthand Mr. BOOTH Mr. LINDLEY I.ect. 1 R'm / Typewriting Mr. OLD 8 9 Bookkeeping (Elementary) Handwriting and Commer- Mr. J. W. PRIESTLEY, A.C.I.S. Hall cial Correspondence {Dressmaking (at Clarendon Mr. J. W. PEET St.) Miss COLLEY B D IMillinery {Orchestral Class Miss ARCHER Mr. A. RICHARDS, L.R.A.M. Friday Cookery (at Clarendon Street) Woodwork (at A'court Street) Mr. PtmrERCiLL { Students are admitted to these Classes only upon condition of their purchasing the special apparatus, etc.. required. NOTE. In connection with this School, Teachers' Voice Training at Ilkeston Road Council School on Mondays and Fridays from 6- Inttnutrest I Classes are held 30 to 8-30 p.m. MADAME FANNY LYMN. 01 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT Scholarships and free admissions to both institu- tions are obtainable without difficulty by students who have shown special qualifications in their previous work. The superintendents of the evening schools are held responsible for seeing that students are ad- mitted to the school or class for which they are educationally fit, that they are promoted only on the joint recommendation of the head teacher and the "organizer," or as a result of an examination. They are also obliged to send to the organizer, at the close of each term, the names and addresses of those who go on to the next grade. As a rule students under seventeen years of age are obliged to enter one of the regular courses of instruction, but those older may take special subjects on giving proof that their attainments justify such a course. The evening school term commences the first week of October and closes the end of July, but a five weeks' vacation is given at Christmas time, a twelve-day recess at Easter, and another one of a week at Whitsuntide. All students are obliged to "sit in" an examination at the end of the term conducted either by the school authorities or by some recognized examining body, in which latter case the pupil pays the fee charged by the organi- zation. Prizes consisting of books or mathematical instruments and ranging in value from 48 cents to 85 cents according to the grade of the school are 62 EVENING SCHOOLS ABROAD given to all pupils who (i) take one of the courses of study, (2) attend not less than nine-tenths of the class sessions, (3) obtain a mark of not less than 60 per cent in home work, and who (4) present themselves for examination at the close of the winter term. Scholarships entitling students to free admission to the different evening schools may be granted to those specially recommended by their respective head teachers. The local Edu- cation Committee may also in exceptional cases remit the tuition fees. The detailed control of the evening classes is delegated " to a Technical Committee of Evening School Management, consisting of members of the Secondary Schools Sub-Committee, together with representatives of the chief local associations of employers and workmen (for business subjects), and ladies experienced in housewifery (for domes- tic subjects)/' In the selection of the technical instructors an effort is made to secure those who possess actual business (or workshop) knowledge of their subjects and for the classes in domestic training experienced housewives are employed. In connection with the continuation schools there are swimming classes for men and for women under the direction of a local swimming associa- tion. Medallions and proficiency certificates are awarded by the Royal Life-Saving Society after an examination held at the end of the term. Bronze and silver medals are also given to those who swim a quarter and a half mile respectively. 63 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT Another collateral activity is that of the Evening Schools Choral Union which in two of the Com- mittee's buildings organizes choral and orchestral classes that are open without fee to those pupils taking at least two subjects in the regular evening schools, but which cost about 72 cents each to other persons. All members are obliged to pass the conductor's test and purchase the necessary music and instruments. The evening education system of Nottingham has been selected for description because it has not yet become so elaborate and involved that its fundamental principles are obscured. London, Manchester, Leeds, Halifax, and a* number of other cities have more highly organized, com- plex systems, but they are all governed by the same motives in their curricula and employ prac- tically the same methods in their administration as those which prevail in Nottingham. The chief differences are found in the provisions for tech- nical and trade instruction which naturally con- form to the demands of the local industries. Thus in Leeds special technical courses are given for persons engaged in the following trades: 1. Mechanical and electrical engineering 2. Electrical industries 3. Building trades 4. Leather and boot trades 5. Clothing trades 6. Chemical and allied industries 64 EVENING SCHOOLS ABROAD 7. Mining 8. Textile industries 9. Printing 10. Farriery Each course is arranged with a view to further specialization. Under the head of me- chanical engineering the instruction afforded is specially adapted to fitters, turners, pattern and boiler makers. In Manchester the technical courses exhibit an even greater range, while the London County Council supports adult schools of building, photo-engraving and lithography, engineering and engraving, arts and crafts, as well as commercial institutes, science and art centers, and lecture courses on English literature. While the various systems frequently show overlappings in the courses and other signs of a desire to accommodate persons with prospects of a limited advancement, they nevertheless usu- ally reveal a ladder-like structure which rises out of the primary room and reaches to the univer- sity hall. One of the unifying influences that helps to produce this result is undoubtedly the system of government grants by which these schools are largely supported. For each scholar over twelve years of age receiving twenty or more hours of instruction the national Board of Educa- tion pays the local Education Committee a sum ranging from is. 6d. (36 cents) in physical train- ing to 5S. or 6s. (f 1.20 or $1.44) in ordinary science subjects. In the higher courses grants are also 5 65 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT allowed for high marks of pupils obtained in examinations. The government imposes certain restrictions as to the length of the recitations and the quality of the instruction, and it further re- quires that the local authority bear at least one- quarter of the total expenditure for maintenance. GERMANY In Munich, a city of over 500,000 inhabitants, all apprentices from fourteen to eighteen years of age are compelled to attend school for at least eight hours per week during forty weeks of the year. There are over 8000 of these lads and seven-eighths of them attend classes in which all the members belong to the same trade. Barber, baker, builder, bookbinder, and so on to tin- foundryman (finngiesser) in all thirty-nine dif- ferent groups are represented in these "trade continuation schools." Boys who cannot be accommodated in any of the above classes are provided for in thirteen special schools where they receive a more general training than the pupils in the trade groups. The instruction given is of three kinds: (i) academic, (2) drawing, (3) practical. Under the first head is included German literature, commercial correspondence and arithmetic, book- keeping, civics, and information about tools and machinery. Physical exercises form a part of the curriculum and each apprentice is obliged to attend a course of religious instruction. The 66 EVENING SCHOOLS ABROAD drawing courses are made to fit in with the prac- tical work of the craft shops which are connected with these schools. In the latter the aim is to supplement the training which the apprentice receives in the outside workshop. In fact, the keynote of all the instruction is that of interesting the boy in his trade. That is not good education, the Germans believe, which makes a youth look down upon manual labor and fills him with aspira- tions for a more genteel occupation. Conse- quently they arouse the apprentice's pride in his calling by showing him its commercial and economic importance. They give his hands a love for tools by teaching them skill, and finally they make him a worthy citizen by imparting a knowledge of his duties and responsibilities to the state. Employers are obliged to allow their apprentices a certain amount of time each week during which they may attend the continuation schools, and the balance of the required time is put in on the weekly half holidays. No compulsory instruction is per- mitted after seven p. m. and the effort is to keep Sundays clear for devotions and recreation. Besides the obligatory course, however, students are permitted to take up any other subjects in which they are interested and for this voluntary work week-day evenings and Sundays are some- times used. Attendance at these schools is free to apprentices but a monthly fee of half a mark (10 cents) is charged for the material used in the WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT practical courses, unless this expense is borne by the trade guild. During the 1908-9 session, prizes amounting to 2 1 50 marks ($511.70) were awarded to sixty- one apprentices in sums of 30 and 40 marks (17.50 to$io) for the purpose of "distinguishing the best and most gifted students and lightening the burden for them of further industrial training." Commendatory diplomas were at the same time bestowed upon twenty-two other pupils and the presentations took place in "a ceremonial manner" at the City Hall before an assemblage composed of municipal and school officials, representatives of the guilds, teachers and parents of the pupils. After the apprentice has served his term he may keep on, as many do, in the same division, or he may enter the "continuation schools for journey- men and masters" in which all attendance is voluntary. The subjects taken up here comprise geometry, physics, chemistry, mechanical and freehand drawing, painting, modeling, beater's work, chased work, commercial products, work- shop and laboratory instruction. The business courses include arithmetic, bookkeeping, theory of exchange, commercial law, preparation of esti- mates and commercial correspondence. Besides these there are general courses comprising the history of industry and handicrafts, commercial geography, hygiene, trade-union systems, insur- ance laws and the constitution. The purpose of all the instruction is to increase the interest of 68 EVENING SCHOOLS ABROAD the students in their trades and deepen their sense of civic responsibility. The class hours are from seven to nine o'clock week-day evenings, and on Sundays and holidays from nine to twelve in the morning and from two to four in the afternoon. A certain number of classes are also held on work days during the morning from eight to twelve, and from two to five in the afternoon. The tuition fees for the Sunday and evening classes are only two marks (50 cents) a month for Bavarians, three marks (75 cents) for residents of other German states, and four marks (fi.oo) for foreigners. Day instruction in the trade schools costs citizens 24 marks ($6.00) for the winter semester and 20 marks ($5.00) for the summer term, and foreigners pay twice these sums respectively. Special rates are made when single courses are taken. During 1907, scholarships amounting in value to 1500 marks ($357) were awarded for superior work to twenty-eight pupils, while eleven others were honored with laudatory diplomas. During the session of 1908-09 there were 1 14 classes composed of 2049 pupils in these schools. The "Sunday" schools form another branch of Munich's educational system in which the instruction is given partly outside of the regular day-school hours. Attendance is obligatory for girls up to the age of sixteen who are not enrolled at any other secondary school. The instruction occupies but three hours a week, and covers 69 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT matters relating to the household, clothing, diet, family duties, the training of children, cookery and civic obligations. For those who cannot conveniently attend on Sunday there are classes on Wednesday. During the session of 1908-09 there were 7427 girls in attendance. They formed 226 classes which were divided into three groups: Catholic, Protestant and undenominational. Tui- tion is free. The industrial continuation schools, to which category those of Munich belong, are scattered throughout Germany, and while they may differ in respect to organization and curricula from those which have been described, they have this in common, that instruction is developed around the local industries and has the threefold aim of in- creasing the pupil's attachment to his trade, giving him a better general education, and making him a worthier citizen. They are usually or- ganized by trades and generally have the ad- vantage of a compelled attendance extending to the apprentice's seventeenth or eighteenth year. The commercial continuation schools are or- ganized on practically the same plan as those of the industrial type. Besides German and arith- metic the major part of their instruction is devoted to imparting a general knowledge of business methods. In Magdeburg this subject includes the following topics: Relations of employers and employes, ways of handling merchandise, trans- mission of money, banking and exchange, or- 70 EVENING SCHOOLS ABROAD ganization of commercial companies, means for furtherance of commerce, and the history of commerce. In the agricultural continuation schools the curriculum comprises German, general history, geography, elementary science, agricultural book- keeping, drawing, mensuration, land surveying, zoology, breeding of animals, physics and the methods of tilling the soil. The general continuation schools give a course of instruction in which the required subjects are German and arithmetic and the optional ones geometry, mensuration, drawing, and a general knowledge of history, geography and science. They endeavor to extend the knowledge already gained in the elementary schools and to lay the foundations for the pupil's success as a worker and a citizen. These schools are attended more generally in the rural districts and the smaller cities. They formed at one time the most im- portant branch of Germany's continuation system but the present* trend is toward schools of the industrial and commercial types. This is due to the increased specialization and growth in the in- dustries and to the realization that further school- ing, if it would appeal to working boys, must be related to their chief interest, and give them greater efficiency in their practical life. The course of instruction in the continuation schools varies in length from two to four years for boys and from one to three years for girls. Classes 71 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT are held from two to six hours a week, Sundays and half-holidays being used as well as the week- day evenings. Sunday instruction is not per- mitted to occur during the hours of divine wor- ship, and the tendency is now to change the class periods so far as possible to the daytime and to provide separate quarters for the continuation education. In Leipzig each trade class is divided into two sections, according to the year of ap- prenticeship, one of which attends on one day and the other on a different day, and thus the shops are not entirely depleted of apprentices at one time. In Zittau the locksmiths' classes at- tend on Monday from one to four p. m., the butchers' from two to five and the other trades on their days. Attendance upon continuation schools in 1908 was compulsory in twenty-two out of the twenty-six states which make up the German Empire; in half of the twenty-two the regulation was a state law and in the others a local by-law. The council of a continuation school is usually made up of (i) a member of the town council, or in the smaller towns the burgomaster, (2) the director of the school, and (3) representatives of those chambers of commerce and trade guilds of master workmen which contribute towards its support. In most states no special training is required by the teachers the majority of whom are secured from the elementary schools; in the large cities, however, the positions requiring technical skill are filled so far as possible with men who have 72 EVENING SCHOOLS ABROAD had practical experience with the subject they are to teach. FRANCE The number of different classes held and the kinds of courses given in the "adult" evening schools of Paris at the opening of the term in October, 1909, are shown in the following table: Course of Instruction Classes for Men Women Elementary, ist year 84 2nd year 24 Commercial, ist year 35 21 2nd year 27 16 Advanced commercial 7 i Freehand drawing 45 5 Mechanical drawing 34 Singing 22 12 Technical course. . Total 291 107 Number of school buildings used 109 45 The subjects taught are as follows: Elementary course, ist year. Ethical and civic instruction by means of conversation and reading; reading and writing; four fundamental operations with numbers; metric system; ap- plications of arithmetic to everyday life; French language; history of France in modern times (conversations, recitations and reading); geog- raphy of France and the Department of the Seine. Elementary course, 2nd year. More advanced work in the same subjects and in addition 73 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT familiar talks on elementary science and hygiene; domestic science and principles of dress-cutting (for women), and elementary notions of political economy and legal usage. The history work traces the development of France from the be- ginning down to modern times; and geography is extended to cover the subject in general be- sides giving a more particular treatment of the products of France and her colonies from an economic point of view. Commercial course, ist year. Penmanship; practical arithmetic; bookkeeping and commer- cial arithmetic; stenography and typewriting (for girls); commercial geography (for youths); French grammar and composition; modern lan- guages. Commercial course, 2nd year. More advanced work in the same courses except that French is dropped and the following subjects are added: business correspondence; elementary law; politi- cal economy. Commercial course, advanced. Above courses continued and the following taken up: algebra; commercial law; composition of reports and busi- ness papers; French, rhetoric, and translations into modern languages. Drawing. Freehand and mechanical drawing; decorative design; architectural drawing; model- ing; practical geometry and perspective; his- tory of art. Technical course. Workshop practice; plane 74 EVENING SCHOOLS ABROAD geometry; solid geometry; descriptive geometry; technology; machine drawing. All courses begin in October. The primary classes end the last of March; the commercial term ends May 31 and the others the last of June. While these classes are labeled "cours d'adultes" the elementary and commercial courses are also attended by boys and girls, usually over fourteen years of age. For entrance to the commercial classes pupils are required to furnish a certificate as evidence of the completion of the elementary day-school course or pass an equivalent examina- tion. Those under fourteen are admitted only by certificate. The hours for those classes attended mainly by adults are from eight to ten every evening of the week except Saturday. The drawing classes, however, meet either two, five or six times a week while the singing comes only twice. The technical classes are open five evenings and there is also work in the shops from eight to eleven on Sunday mornings. The young people's hours are from 7:30 to 9:30 every evening except Saturday. Tuition for all courses is free and their maintenance, which comes from the municipal budget, requires an annual appropriation of some 340,000 francs (about $65,620). The instructors are drawn mainly from the day schools. In the commercial courses certificates are given to those pupils who pass the terminal examina- tions, and the names of the successful students are 75 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT published by the school authorities and by them sent to the Chamber of Commerce and to the principal banking and commercial houses. Technical classes for apprentices, held from five to seven p. m., have been organized in several pub- lic schools of Paris. The instruction is given by artisan teachers and consists mainly of lessons in geometry, physics, chemistry, applied electricity and industrial drawing. In connection with this work the manual training rooms of the public schools are used for shop practice on Sunday mornings from eight to eleven o'clock. The classes are divided into sections according to the trades of the pupils, and the fundamental aim of the instruction is to give a knowledge of the scientific principles underlying their respective industries. On Thursdays the government in- spector gives the artisans in charge a lesson in drawing, mechanics or geometry, and further pre- pares them for the work of instruction. Before closing this account mention should be made of the important service which is rendered the laboring people by numerous associations de- voted to the promotion of popular education in all parts of France. Under their auspices courses in a large variety of subjects are held either even- ings or Sunday mornings, to which admission is usually free. The instruction is given volun- tarily by professors who frequently receive no compensation. In Paris the city government not only puts the school edifices at their disposal but 76 EVENING SCHOOLS ABROAD frequently relieves them of the expense of illumina- tion and accords them periodical subventions in considerable amounts. Among the more prominent of these societies are the Association Polytechnique and the As- sociation Philotechnique (a branch of the former) which support classes in typography, steam en- gineering, embroidery, dressmaking, millinery, cutting out for tailors, strength and texture of materials and other trade subjects. They hold lectures for their teachers and organize readings, visits to workshops and museums, excursions and traveling scholarships for the study of modern languages for their students. The Societe d'En- seignement Moderne divides its classes into sec- tions which devote themselves to the study of colonial questions, music, automobiles, stenog- raphy, etc. The Union Francaise de la Jeun- nesse has a building section, a shooting section, classes in hygiene and first aid, and also organizes lectures and visits to manufactories. The Societe Nationale pour la Propagation des Langues Etrangeres holds conversation classes and or- ganizes international correspondence and travel- ing scholarships. There are also many other associations offering classes for the "education of the people" but these are the chief ones which utilize public school buildings in Paris. 77 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT REFERENCES JONES, ARTHUR J.: The Continuation School in the United States. Bulletin of Bureau of Education, No. i, 1907. (Contains an ex- tensive bibliography.) LAVERGNE, F.: Les Ecoles et les Oeuvres Municipales d'Enseigne- ment. P. Mouillot, 13 quai Voltaire, Paris, France, IQOO. SADLER, M. E., AND OTHERS: Continuation Schools in England and Elsewhere: Their place in the Educational System of an In- dustrial and Commercial State. (Contains extensive lists of authorities.) University Press, Manchester, England, 1908 Demy 8vo, pages xxvi, 779. Price, 8s. 6d. net. See also the reports and evening school prospectuses published by the education committees of the cities of Nottingham, Manchester, Leeds, Halifax, St. Helens, Bootle, and Widnes, England; the annual reports of the English Board of Education (Wyman & Sons, Ltd., Fetter Lane, E. C., London; price 7d.); the prospectuses of the Lon- don County Council evening schools (Education Offices, Victoria Embankment, W. C., London); the annual reports of the directors of education for the cities of Berlin, Breslau, Diisseldorf, Leipzig, Magde- burg, Munich, Posen, and Zittau; and the pamphlets on evening schools by the Direction de I'Enseignement Primaire, Prefecture de la Seine, Paris. IV THE PROMOTION OF ATTENDANCE AT EVENING SCHOOLS CHAPTER IV THE PROMOTION OF ATTENDANCE AT EVENING SCHOOLS PUBLICITY 4 * ^ ^ H E man who gets the more responsible po- sition, the bigger pay envelope, and the -*- opportunity to work when many others are hit by the panic, is usually the man who is best trained. . . . Do You Know that by spending three evenings each week in evening classes you can prepare yourself to fill your present position better and a better position presently? ... It costs you nothing today; may mean fortune tomorrow. The school au- thorities are waiting for your application. Make It Now" These are some of the remarks on a circular announcing the annual opening of the Evening High School which was widely distributed in the offices, stores and shops of Pittsburgh. It also displays a picture of the youthful Abraham Lin- coln stretched out on the floor practicing composi- tion on the blade of a wooden shovel in the light of the open fire. Above it are the words: Your 6 81 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT Chance Will Come; Get Ready. Another illus- tration shows a class of mechanical draftsmen Learning to Draw what the legend underneath describes as A Larger Salary. Information is given about the date of registration, class hours, tuition, books loaned to residents, and the courses of instruction. The subjects are printed on the back of an addressed postcard. To receive an application blank the recipient needs only to check those subjects in which he is interested, inscribe address, affix stamp and mail. The inauguration in 1907 of evening sessions in this school was the occasion of an impressive public meeting, at which addresses were delivered by the mayor, the chancellor of the University of Pittsburgh, the director of the Carnegie Technical Schools and the president of the Central Board of Education. The newspapers devoted columns of space to the meeting and their editorial writers dwelt upon its great importance. The organizers of the school expected about 300 pupils but when the applications were counted they numbered over 800. But the success of the school did not rest upon skilful advertising alone. In organizing it the director, Mr. Edward Rynearson, had sought the advice of leading educators and evening high school principals, and in contriving a commercial course that should prepare pupils for busi- ness he had had the benefit of practical sug- gestions contained in one hundred letters from 82 ilfc,*.. Q PROMOTION OF ATTENDANCE AT EVENING SCHOOLS merchants and manufacturers who had replied to an inquiry on the subject made by the day department. He had exercised just as much care to secure efficient and enthusiastic teachers as if they had been for the day corps. The mem- bers of the Board High School Committee made frequent visits to the classes and showed their appreciation of the work by furnishing ample sup- plies and an adequate equipment. Then when his educational machinery was working smoothly, the director did not keep the fact hidden. He invited the principals and teachers of the city schools to visit the classes. People talk about what they have seen. Some of the evening elementary principals were so im- pressed that they organized classes in their own schools with admission to the Evening High as the reward for satisfactory work. The director en- couraged his own pupils to talk to their friends about the school. He sent letters to employers telling how many of their employes were regis- tered, pressing them to visit the classes and make suggestions, and offering to supply vacancies in their staffs with students from the school. He compiled and sent out a forty-page bulletin, illustrated with attractive pictures of classes at work and giving interesting descriptions of the courses offered. The pictures showed spruce young men and attractive young women, who in the seating were not segregated by sex but were distributed about the room in a natural, informal 83 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT manner. Sprinkled throughout the text were significant quotations from local business men as well as celebrated writers, while the typography and press work would have done credit to a pub- lisher's announcement of an edition de luxe. In addition, whenever anything of interest to the general public happened the director did not withhold it from the newspapers. During the year there were 400 additional applications for admission to the school. The amount of effective publicity which can be gratuitously obtained through a tactful and proper use of the press is being appreciated by an in- creasing number of schoolmen. Many superin- tendents and evening school principals make it a practice to lay aside items for the reporters. These may be only some figures on attendance, an incident that occurred in a class for foreigners, the professional qualifications of a new appointee, the announcement of a new course, the existence of vacancies in the typewriting class, or an anec- dote from the carpentry shop. The items may not amount to more than a paragraph but they are more valuable than a paid advertisement and prevent the reporter's visit from being fruitless. On opening nights or on the anniversary of the school the newspaper men are given all the in- formation and pictures they can use with the result sometimes of an illustrated "write-up" which carries information about the advantages of the school to thousands who would not other- 84 PROMOTION OF ATTENDANCE AT EVENING SCHOOLS wise be reached. Many school authorities hold exhibitions and graduation exercises especially for the evening classes and no small part of the value of these occasions is due to the publicity thus effected. The use of circulars to attract pupils to evening schools is quite general. In London attractive posters are extensively put out and notices are published in the newspapers. New York blazons the buildings where evening schools are held with conspicuous bulletins and illuminated signs an- nouncing the classes within. Paid advertise- ments inserted in the local foreign papers have been instrumental in bringing large numbers of immigrants to the evening classes held in Buffalo, Trenton and a number of other cities. The Jersey City Board authorized two lectures in Italian which were given in a school building for the purpose of attracting pupils. The results were gratifying but it was felt that the most effective way of increasing the enrollment of foreigners lay in securing the co-operation of progressive citizens of alien birth. In Cleveland there is a Hungarian manufacturer who sends large numbers of his compatriot workmen to the evening schools. The Auburn report for 1908 says, ''The gratifying increase in enrollment of non-English speaking men as compared with former years was partly due to the hearty co- operation of leading employers of the city in ad- vertising the school and encouraging attendance 85 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT on the part of their employes, and partly to the good influences of representative men, both American and foreign born, in urging attendance as a means of preparing for the more exacting requirements as to naturalization in the interests of better citizenship." In Jamestown, New York, the prominent Swedes exert a constant influence upon the incoming Scandinavians to make them use the night classes, while another large group composed of Albanians has been persuaded to attend through the co-operation of the home missionaries. * FOLLOWING UP DAY PUPILS The gathering into evening classes of the boys and girls who have left the day schools receives systematic attention in many cities of England. In Nottingham it is incumbent upon the head teachers of the elementary schools to send to the central office "a monthly return showing names, addresses, etc., of scholars who have left for work during the month." Circulars are then sent to these pupils inviting them to attend the evening classes. In Manchester the invitation is followed up by personal visits from the head teacher of the appropriate evening school or of a clerk from the central office. "If," says Professor Sadler, "a boy does not come after being asked the first time, he is called upon again and not allowed to rest until all efforts are obviously in vain." The London County Council asks its Children's Care 86 PROMOTION OF ATTENDANCE AT EVENING SCHOOLS Committee (composed usually of the managers of the various groups of schools) to use its "per- sonal influence" in this matter and to "impress upon the parents the great importance of their children continuing their education after leaving day schools, and of entering for a two or three years' course at evening classes." To prevent the loss of studious habits which so often follows an interval out of school many English committees offer free tuition for one session to all pupils who enter the evening classes immediately after leav- ing the day school. ATTRACTIONS The gymnasiums of several schools in Cincinnati are used evenings by classes for each sex which are directed by competent instructors in physical training. A chorus held in the capacious audi- torium of an elementary school is attended largely by students from the night high school though all adults with musical ability are admitted. In Buffalo and several other cities the instruction for foreigners includes the singing of patriotic songs, which is much enjoyed, especially by the Italians. The Lawrence teachers give their immi- grant pupils the opportunity of making at Christ- mastime baskets, calendars and other articles for gift purposes just as is done in the day schools. The presence of drilling, physical exercises and singing in the Nottingham, England, programs has already been shown (see pages 55-64). The 87 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT introduction of these lighter and more enjoyable elements has been largely due to the work of the Recreative Evening Schools Association which was formed in the eighties through the efforts of the Rev. J. B. Paton of Nottingham and under the presidency of the Princess Louise. Its early work consisted in providing singing, music, drill, and handwork in connection with the continua- tion schools established by the state; but since the amendment of the Evening School Code- brought about mainly by the Association in order to include recreative subjects and a more ob- jective method of teaching, it has confined itself to promoting the establishment of evening schools and to encouraging the authorities to make the instruction attractive and recreative as well as useful. In many of the English evening schools a half hour before or after the classes is spent by the pupils in reading illustrated papers or other pleas- ant literature and, in some cases, in playing games. Sometimes they are trained to give an entertain- ment which is attended by their parents and friends, and occasionally the school authorities arrange monthly lectures on popular subjects. In some of the London schools, social gatherings are held once a month on evenings when classes are not in session, and the feeling of fellowship thus generated is of considerable influence in attracting pupils and in holding them together. PROMOTION OF ATTENDANCE AT EVENING SCHOOLS CO-OPERATION OF EMPLOYERS A Buffalo firm during a recent winter advanced the deposits required for registration and text- books, and paid the carfare of those of their employes who attended the night high school. In Boston during the season of 1909-10 several large commercial houses joined with the School Committee in holding "continuation" classes for their employes. The instruction covered the production and sale of leather and dry goods articles. The class in the latter subject met on Mondays and Thursdays from three to five o'clock and that on the shoe and leather business on Tuesday and Friday afternoons. The employes were allowed to attend without loss of pay. The leather course, which at the time of writing has just closed, attained a success beyond the expecta- tions of the organizers. The systematic manner in which the assistance of employers is sought in England is indicated by the following from the 1909 report of the Leeds Education Committee: "A circular has been issued to the large employers of labour in Leeds asking for their co-operation, and indicating some of the means adopted by employers in other towns to encourage their younger employes to continue their general education and obtain a grasp of the principles underlying their trade/' As an illustration of the "means" used in Eng- land, that employed by a firm in Bootle may be 89 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT mentioned. It compels all of its girls who have not passed the seventh standard to attend a con- tinuation class, while the others are stimulated to do likewise by the payment of their tuition fees, by prizes, and by the personal efforts of a social secretary who gives her whole time to the super- vision of their welfare. Any boy who wishes to attend a continuation school has his tuition paid and is excused from work when it conflicts with the class-hour. In addition the head chemist holds classes at the works in practical dyeing. Attendance at these is voluntary but nearly all the male employes complete the course, which includes practical as well as theoretical instruction. In the same city several construction firms either pay the tuition fees of their boys, or, if the latter's attendance is satisfactory, repay half the fees to the boys' parents. Professor Sadler's book reports the case of a large alkali company in Widnes which "makes it a condition that all apprentices between fourteen and eighteen, whether bound by inden- ture or not, shall attend classes on three evenings in the week, their fees being paid by the company. Apprentices over eighteen will then be allowed to compete for scholarships entitling them to attend day technical classes on two afternoons without loss of wages and at the company's expense. The other manufacturers have followed this ex- ample. In the case of the shopkeepers the situa- tion is not so favourable. They appear to be quite 90 PROMOTION OF ATTENDANCE AT EVENING SCHOOLS willing that their errand boys should go. but do not always succeed in releasing them in time. The better boys, however, will not stay at shops where their attendance is habitually prevented/' The enforcement of the attendance of appren- tices at evening classes in Widnes was due chiefly to the influence of a large firm in Northwich which inaugurated the system two decades ago. When it first put the compulsory rule into effect there was trouble in the class rooms and "some of the unwilling ones threw things about to the subver- sion of discipline." The firm then summoned the parents to a meeting, informed them that it would employ no boy who did not regularly attend eve- ning classes, and recommended that they impress upon their sons the fact that the matter was "no joke" but a regulation which the firm had deter- mined to carry out. After that there was no further difficulty and "it is now a very popular arrangement both with pupils and parents." A director of the firm, in a paper read at a con- ference between the local employers and the Education Committee, stated that "Since 1905 apprentices who had a good record of three years evening school attendance at the Winnington Park Schools or other similar evening classes have been given instruction in the afternoons two days a week in the Verdin Technical School without any deduction from their wages. There are now twenty-four apprentices in the first year's and nineteen in the second year's course. This atten- 9' WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT dance forms part of the week's work of the appren- tices. The attention of apprentices to their work is remarkable. From ninety to one hundred per cent is the record of their attendance at the school and absences are almost all accounted for by sickness/' The system was begun as a matter of business, not philanthropy, and is regarded as successful by the firm. The results of an inquiry among English rail- way and industrial companies reported by Pro- fessor Sadler showed that about half of those who replied give their apprentices and pupils free time to attend technical classes during the day. Four- teen out of sixteen of the railroads "either give direct assistance toward fees or contribute to the expenses of the classes, so that their employes may attend them either free or at very low fees. In one case the wages of the best apprentices are increased upon the combined reports of the Master of the technical classes and the superintendent of the workshops/' Among engineering, ship- building and industrial concerns it was found that ten out of the thirty-four firms reporting "grant special facilities for attendance at evening classes. These take the form of (i) excuse from overtime work on the night of the class; (2) permission to leave work early on class nights; (3) permission to come to work late one morning in the week if so many classes are attended. Help in the matter of class fees, or other similar inducements to attend classes, are offered by twenty-four out of the 92 PROMOTION OF ATTENDANCE AT EVENING SCHOOLS thirty-four firms, the privileges being sometimes confined to apprentices and pupils, sometimes extended to all employes. The assistance given takes various forms: (1) Fees paid without any condition. (2) Fees paid in cases of necessity. (3) Fees refunded (generally on condition of satisfactory attendance and examination). (4) Increase of wages and access to drawing office. (5) Payment for, or loan of, books, instruments and drawing materials. (6) Scholarships, prizes, etc." An investigation of the practice among Ameri- can railway corporations made by the superin- tendent of apprentices of the New York Central lines showed that apprentices are paid to attend schools in thirteen companies while fifteen make attendance compulsory. On thirteen railroads classes are held during working hours and on five in the evening. The New York Central and several other lines carry on this instruction under regular shop conditions within their works. CO-OPERATION OF TRADE ORGANIZATIONS The Master Plumbers' Association of Springfield, Massachusetts, has voluntarily agreed, in employ- ing help, to give preference to the members of the plumbing classes in the Evening School of Trades of that city. In Cleveland the Sheet Metal Trades Association, a branch of the Builders' Exchange, 93 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT has reverted to a system of apprenticeship which requires, among other conditions, the attainment of a diploma from the Evening Technical High School. The association pays the fee and re- quires its pupils to attend regularly. The Inter- national Molders' Union has resolved that "we hereby recommend all local unions to take such steps, wherever practicable, as will enable the apprentice to take a course in this study (technical knowledge of trade including mechanical drawing), and, as a further inducement, to pay a reasonable tuition fee for him, where such tuition cannot be obtained free." In England certain branches of the Northern Counties Weavers' Association have for many years encouraged the attendance of their younger members at technical classes through rewards and the payment of tuition. The trade unions of Switzerland are allowed to arrange practical courses for journeymen which receive government support. The account of the Munich continuation schools contained in Professor Sadler's book says that "if a trade guild exists, it is asked to co-operate in the formation and maintenance of the Sunday and evening technical schools. It has the right to suggest suitable teachers to give instruction in those branches of the curriculum which are concerned entirely with trade matters. The members of the committee of any such trade organization have the right, after giving due 94 PROMOTION OF ATTENDANCE AT EVENING SCHOOLS notice to the head of the school, to be present at the instruction and to make any recommendations they deem necessary. But these privileges carry duties with them. The trade guild is pledged to support the efforts of the school by urging its members to avail themselves of the facilities afforded and by providing models for use in the instruction. The trade guild meets the cost of the materials for practical work and places at the disposal of the school any objects which may be useful for teaching purposes/' The contributions to the technical continuation schools of Munich from industrial associations in 1908 amounted to 10,326 marks ($2,581.50). In view of the greatly increased attendance at public evening instruction, which it is expected will be the result of a more perfect understanding be- tween the school authorities and organized labor, it is pertinent here to note the signs of their gradual rapprochement. That the members of workingmen's organizations believe in further education is evidenced by their support in Eng- land of Ruskin College at Oxford and of the Work- ers' Educational Association and in France by the 5000 apprenticeship classes which have been opened by the "Syndicats" and "Bourses du Travail." A similar interest in this country is demon- strated by the recent action of eight national labor unions which have undertaken to afford their members further training in their respective 95 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT crafts. The special committee on industrial edu- cation appointed by the American Federation of Labor goes on record in its recent report as follows: "The economic need and value of technical train- ing is not to be disregarded, and cognizance should be taken of the fact that throughout the civilized world evening and part-time day technical schools enroll twenty pupils to every one who attends the other types of vocational schools. And the com- mittee submits for consideration and discussion to the convention the proposition that there be established, at public expense, technical schools for the purpose of giving supplemental education to those who have entered the trades as apprentices." These words have been italicized by the writer because they tell explicitly the kind of evening instruction desired by the unions and the class of pupils to whom it should be given. The sort of instructors they favor is also told by implication in a statement made about the school established by the International Typographical Union. "It is administered by printer-tutors who have never been afflicted with pedagogical cramp, and never expect to be. . . ." Farther on the report, in connection with the day industrial schools for pupils from fourteen to sixteen which it favors, recommends that "in order to keep such schools in close touch with the trades there should be local advisory boards, including representatives of the industries, employers and organized labor." Anticipating some of these demands New York 96 PROMOTION OF ATTENDANCE AT EVENING SCHOOLS enacted in 1908 a law providing for the establish- ment of industrial and trade schools under the control of local boards of education which, how- ever, are to have the benefit of counsel from an advisory board representing the local trades and industries. The system under which they are organized is to be flexible enough to accommodate pupils who can attend (i),days, (2) part-time days, and (3) evenings only. Concerning the character of the instruction to be afforded the latter class, the above-named report interprets the purposes of the New York state authorities as follows: "The department finds the urgent need for evening trade and technical classes for better- ing the opportunities of men and women already employed in industrial occupations during the day. One of the most important services which can be rendered by existing schools that have shop and laboratory facilities is to offer such opportunities through practical courses of evening instruction. In general, these schools should be of every kind for which there is a demand on the part of the people. The system should be exceed- ingly flexible. The school should be taught by workmen who can teach, rather than by teachers who have theories about work. The instruction should be 'shoppish' rather than 'bookish/ al- though of course bookwork is always desirable/' In agreement with the demand for "supple- mental technical instruction" the New Jersey Commission on Industrial Education brought in a 97 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT report in 1909 favoring "industrial improvement schools/' The action of the American Federation of Labor in appointing an influential committee to formu- late and express its views upon the subject of industrial education, coming in addition to the growing disposition of the school authorities to furnish whatsoever instruction the masses of the people want, proves the prophetic character of the writer who said, "The educationist who would estimate the forces of the future, would be wrong if he omitted the trade unions. . . ." MAKING THE INSTRUCTION MORE PRACTICAL "We should also be pleased to have you suggest how we can make this school fit your needs better than it does at present. We want to have the course of studies stripped to its fighting clothes." These statements from a circular letter addressed by the director of the Pittsburgh Evening High School to employers, in connection with an invitation to visit the classes, illustrate the attitude of a growing number of American schoolmen. In Buffalo it was discovered that there was a demand for instruction in cooking, sewing and millinery, and courses in these subjects were inaugurated at once with the consequence of a remarkable growth in the attendance. In Brockton also, as well as in several other cities, "the courses are deter- mined largely by the demands of the pupils." The Boston school committee in charge of the 98 PROMOTION OF ATTENDANCE AT EVENING SCHOOLS leather and dry goods classes already mentioned, has the assistance of an advisory committee repre- senting the commercial houses. The eminently practical character of the instruction administered under such a combination can be seen from the study of the following list of subjects included in the dry goods course: fibers, cotton and cotton goods, wool, worsteds, woolens, silk and silk fabrics, linen and linen fabrics. The recognition and comparison of mixed fabrics are taught the pupils as well as simple tests for determining quality, and facts about coloring materials, color preservation, shrinkage, mercerization, and non- inflammable fabrics. They are also trained in the care of stock, in commercial arithmetic, geog- raphy, correspondence, and efficient salesman- ship. In the London County Council evening system "there is a consultative committee of employers to each section of the trade schools, who, as experts, advise on matters concerning the techni- cal instruction, and the superintendents will give full particulars concerning the work of their respective schools." In Leeds also, to put the technical schools in touch with practical needs, "Trade Advisory Sub-Committees have been established to co-operate in developing the various trade and craft classes at the schools." Such committees are common in English night school systems. The presence of representatives of chambers of commerce and trade guilds on the 99 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT councils of the German continuation schools has already been stated. The regard for practical instruction which characterizes the selection of teachers for the English schools is illustrated in the following in- stance reported by Mr. Jones in his bulletin on The Continuation School. "In Montrose, Mr. Strong's method of obtaining teachers is worthy of note. One principal difficulty has been in securing teachers who understand both the practical and the theoretical sides of the work. Being unable to secure such a teacher for his class in plumbing with the salary available, he effected a combina- tion by which the theoretical side was given by the regular day teacher of science, while the practical side was given by a master plumber. In order to secure the co-operation of the plumbers in the city, and at the same time secure the best man for the work, Mr. Strong called a meeting of all the master plumbers, explained what he wished to accomplish in the plumbing class, and then asked them to recommend some one of their number for the place. This they did, and the one recommended was appointed. The same plan will be adopted in the case of the cabinet-makers/' COMPULSION "The State Attendance Law provides that boys who leave school without completing the elementary course of study must attend evening school until an equivalent course has been covered. 100 PROMOTION OF ATTENDANCE AT EVENING SCHOOLS It further provides that employers are liable to prosecution and fine if after due notice they con- tinue to employ boys who are not complying with this law. The increase in attendance of evening school pupils this winter amounting to thirty-four per cent is due in a large measure to the enforce- ment of this law/' This statement appears in the 1907-08 annual report of the superintendent of education for the city of Buffalo. The Massachusetts law which exercises the most potent effect upon evening school attendance reads as follows:* "While a public evening school is maintained in the city or town in which any minor who is over fourteen years of age and who does not have a certificate signed by the superin- tendent of schools, or by the school committee, or by some person acting under authority thereof, certifying to the minor's ability to read at sight and write legibly simple sentences in the English language, resides, no person shall employ him and no parent, guardian or custodian shall permit him to be employed unless he is a regular attend- ant at such evening school or at a day school." Immigrants in Massachusetts are most affected by the provisions of this law, and in the mill towns where they are found in large numbers school superintendents make systematic efforts to get them into the evening classes. In Lowell it is customary for a representative of the school de- partment to visit each mill and give certificates, * Revised Laws of 1902, Chapter 106, Section 35. 101 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT exempting from attendance, to all foreigners who can read and write English. The plan is a con- venience to the employes because it saves them the trouble of going to the City Hall after certifi- cates. It pleases the employers because it facili- tates the discharge of their responsibilities arising from the employment of illiterate minors, and it is worth the trouble to the school department because through these means pupils who cannot read and write English are discovered and they help to swell the enrollment in the evening classes. The commanding position which Massachusetts occupies in respect to the proportion of its urban population who attend evening school is shown in the following table, and there can be no doubt but that its illiterate minors' law is a factor in pro- ducing such a satisfactory showing. ATTENDANCE AT PUBLIC EVENING SCHOOLS IN CITIES OF 8,000 AND OVER Pop. in Cities of 8,000 and Over, Average Nightly Per State Census of 1900 Attendance 1908-9 Cent Massachusetts . .2,162,830 27,830 1.28 New York 5,028,178 54>99* 1.09 New Jersey M977&3 1 1>99 -97 Connecticut 5 18,266 3>5 -67 Illinois 2,300,602 1 1,480 .49 That the application of legal pressure to require young people to continue at school for a longer period than they otherwise would is more and more occupying the minds of superintendents is evident from their reports. The advocacy of an 102 FRENCH CANADIANS OF LOWELL. MASS. CLASS OF GREEK BOYS IN LOWELL PROMOTION OF ATTENDANCE AT EVENING SCHOOLS extension of the compulsory requirements by the Cincinnati superintendent has already been men- tioned. In his 1908 report Dr. Poland of Newark devotes twelve pages to a discussion of compulsory education legislation in the course of which he sum- marizes the most important statutory provisions enacted by twenty-nine of the more progressive states. In framing compulsory legislation he believes that it is unwise to ignore " the possibili- ties offered by evening schools, " and as topics for discussion in this connection he suggests several requirements which might be incorporated in a law of this character. The most significant of these for our purpose is the following: "A pro- vision that will enable children who must go to work to support the family at the age of fourteen or fifteen years, to attend evening schools and thereby fulfill the requirements of the law. This will compel districts to provide suitable evening schools, a want not less imperative than that of providing suitable day high schools or day manual training schools." In the exhaustive work on continuation schools to which reference has been so frequently made Professor Sadler has included chapters treating of the compulsory enactments and their operation in both Germany and the United States. He also devotes a long chapter to the discussion of the question "Should Attendance at Continua- tion Schools be made compulsory in England?" which winds up with the following statement: 103 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT , " But I am convinced that in the end some form of compulsion to attend day or evening continua- tion classes, between fourteen and seventeen years of age, will be found desirable, not so much in the interest of the picked individuals as in that of the rank and file. Many of the present evils of un- employment may be traced to the lack of educa- tional care and of suitable technical training dur- ing the critical years of adolescence. Compulsion, however, should be accompanied by reduction in the hours of juvenile and adolescent labour where those are now excessive/' The account of the Munich continuation schools is followed by the answers which Dr. Georg Ker- schensteiner, the director of the schools, made to some inquiries upon the workings of the compul- sory law in his city. The fame which these schools have achieved in the educational world and the vital points Dr. Kerschensteiner touches upon in his replies justify the extent to which he is quoted below: "The question, as to whether ' compulsory or voluntary continuation schools are preferable, has, after a struggle of many years' duration, been decided in favour of the compulsory system in nearly the whole of Germany, at least for young people up to the age of sixteen, seventeen or eighteen years. All the largest towns in Germany have now such compulsory continuation schools. The compulsory system affects not the scholar alone but above all the master-workman who em- 104 PROMOTION OF ATTENDANCE AT EVENING SCHOOLS ploys him. If there is no compulsion, many capable boys and girls, keenly desirous of self im- provement, are prevented from attending con- tinuation schools through the carelessness or greed of their employers. Moreover, unless the law enforces a wider course of training, most of the scholars take advantage only of the technical training afforded and neglect the courses bearing on the duties and responsibilities of the individual to the state and to his fellows. "Compulsory attendance is as necessary for girls as for boys; indeed, for girls it is really more necessary. Care should be taken that no girl goes out into the world inadequately equipped for the duties which are likely sooner or later to devolve upon her as mother and housewife. As things are at present, most girls have to go out to earn their living at an early age. If attendance at the continuation school is not compulsory, a girl is, in many cases, prevented from receiving the training which is of the greatest value for her future duties. "In Munich attendance is compulsory (i) for boys up to the eighteenth, (2) for girls up to the sixteenth year. " By means of strict school attendance regu- lations the attendance of domestic servants of every kind is assured in Bavaria. Every girl has to attend a continuation school for at least three hours per week until she has attained her sixteenth birthday. In case of her absence without 105 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT adequate excuse, the parents and the employers are punished. "Business people and employers in general no longer complain in any way of the compulsory continuation school system. Many regard it as a burden, it is true, but those who are liberal-minded feel that it is a burden which ought to be borne. Speaking generally, public opinion among em- ployers, workpeople and apprentices alike is entirely favourable to the compulsory continua- tion schools. The apprentices especially approve the system because the schools are grouped ac- cording to trades. Their appreciation of the system is proved by the fact that a large number of them continue to attend the schools voluntarily when their period of compulsory attendance is over." Regarding the effect of enforced attendance upon discipline the director says: "The reorgani- zation of the continuation schools has not caused the slightest difficulty in regard to school attend- ance. The greatest interest is taken by the pupils in the various classes. Of course, there are always some lazy ones, but the general interest in the work is shown by the fact that there have never been fewer absences without excuse than during the last five years. "In general, there is no need of regulations to enforce attendance. The pupils come willingly and gladly. If a scholar does play truant, he is made to appear before the Education Authority 1 06 PROMOTION OF ATTENDANCE AT EVENING SCHOOLS (Schulbehorde) and cautioned. If the offense is repeated a money fine is imposed, and, if need be, the offender is imprisoned/' As to the danger of physical overstrain coming from compulsory attendance Dr. Kerschensteiner replies: "The continuation schools (at any rate those established in Munich, or those which exist in most of the Prussian towns) impose no new burden on the apprentice. Attendance is re- quired during the working day from 7 a. m. to 7 p. m. In Munich the apprentices come between 7 and 9 a. m. or between i and 7 p. m. There is no instruction after 7 p. m. Many trades accord a complete day for the attendance of apprentices at the continuation school." REWARDS FOR REGULARITY On account of "continued attendance and in- dustry" thirty-one students in 1909 were granted "free places" in the evening courses at the Leeds University. This is an instance of the English practice already mentioned in the account of the Nottingham schools of awarding prizes for regu- larity in attendance and homework, and success in the final examinations. Sometimes these rewards are called "exhibitions" which consist of grants of money for books or instruments. Thus in 1909 thirty-six senior exhibitions ranging in value from 10 to 15 shillings and 196 junior exhibitions worth from 2s. 6d. to js. 6d. were awarded evening school students in Leeds. The satisfactory char- 107 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT acter of the attendance in the evening schools of this city is indicated by the figures for 1906-07. At the beginning of the session there were 3954 students, at the eighth week 5869, and at the end of the term 5733. That these results were due primarily to the system of prize-giving is unlikely, but that it had some influence in holding the pupils throughout the course is quite certain. ADMINISTRATIVE MEANS OF PRESERVING ATTENDANCE The Milwaukee classes were at one time held four evenings a week. In 1907 they were changed to three sessions. At the same time the hours, which had been 7:30 to 9 : 30, p. m. became 7 to 9, though only those students who wished personal help from the teachers were obliged to be present before 7:30, at which time the class work began. These changes produced a more satisfactory at- tendance. In New York City the class hours have recently been changed from 7:30109:30 p. m. to a half hour later at the beginning and ending of the period (8 to 10) in order to make it more convenient for the pupils, many of whose shops and factories are far from their homes. The systematic following-up of absentees which is practiced by many successful directors of evening schools is well illustrated in Lowell. Here a printed postal sent by the principal to the parent, guardian or employer of the delinquent pupil, gives notice of the latter's absence and asks that the addressee's influence be used to 1 08 PROMOTION OF ATTENDANCE AT EVENING SCHOOLS secure greater regularity in attendance. Another postal sent out by either principal or teacher goes to the pupil, and reminds him of the writer's in- terest in him and the educational opportunity he is losing, and expresses the hope that he will continue his attendance. A third card has spaces where the teacher fills in the number of attend- ances each week and others where the parents may place their signatures when the pupil takes it home. This form is used only in the case of those pupils whose parents express a wish to be kept in- formed regarding the attendance of their children. In Halifax, England, the head teacher is obliged to report all absences to the Central Office and at the same time to give the reasons. This means that all absentees are inquired after, and possibly visited, by the teacher. Cases of con- tinued absence are also written to by the Office. Manchester has introduced a system of guarantors whereby each pupil admitted free to the evening school is obliged to furnish a form signed by some responsible person, preferably the employer, who guarantees the value of the tuition remitted if the student fails to attend satisfactorily. A simi- lar regulation covering the admission of students to the New York evening high schools reads as follows: "Pupils under twenty-one years of age will be required to furnish the principal of the school with a recommendation from their em- ployers or other responsible persons to the effect that it is the intention of these pupils to continue 109 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT in the course for which they have registered, until the end of the year." The application blank used by the students entering the Pittsburgh evening high school con- tains a place for the signature of the employer. In a letter sent to business men along with circu- lars to be distributed among their employes, the director, explaining the request for the employer's signature, says, "While this is not necessary it may make the applicant feel that you are interested in him and that you have an opportunity to find out the quality of work he does in his studies/' Six out of the nine replies received from school superintendents in answer to an inquiry as to the reasons for the unusually high percentage of at- tendance maintained in their evening classes, men- tioned the system of deposits as one of the prom- inent conditions of their success. No other reason was named so often as this one. The usual de- posit in elementary classes is f i.oo, which is re- turned if the pupil attends three-quarters of the time. In Auburn a pupil can be absent only one- fifth of the time and get his dollar back. For every absence over that he loses ten cents. In the Cleveland Technical High School there is a tuition fee of $7.50 of which $2.50 is rebated for 85 per cent or better of perfect attend- ance. Jamestown has had good results with a registration fee of $2.00 which is not returned. The Los Angeles evening high school charges tuition and reports that "a very marked improve- no PROMOTION OF ATTENDANCE AT EVENING SCHOOLS ment is noted in the personnel of the school since we began to charge fees/' In his 1909 report Dr. Maxwell repeats his "recommendation made in former years that the Board of Education should establish a small charge, say $5.00 in high schools and $2.00 in elementary schools, for material consumed, or else require students to deposit these sums to be repaid to them at the close of the term upon condition of regular attendance. To carry out this recommendation it has been found that a change in the law will be necessary/' Five of the letters received in the inquiry men- tioned above attributed the regularity of attend- ance, among other causes, to an able and experi- enced staff of instructors. Superintendent Henry P. Emerson of Buffalo said: "We employ the most skilful teachers, those who have the faculty of adapting the instruction to the various needs of the pupils and who can interest the least am- bitious. The first few weeks is the critical period. A large number of pupils find the effort greater and the work harder than they had expected. They should be encouraged to attend classes even if unprepared to take part in recitations until they are well under way/' The reorganization of the Philadelphia evening classes and the selection of teachers from an eligible list, referred to in a previous chapter, not only resulted in a notable financial economy but raised the average attendance from 52 per cent to 67 per cent. The excellent attendance obtained in Leeds WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT has already been noticed. The principal reason for it given in Professor Sadler's book is as follows: "The success of the teaching, however, is, I think, due not so much to the choice of teachers, as to the fact that Evening School teaching is recognized in Leeds as a special art, requiring special prepara- tion. Special courses for evening teachers are held by highly qualified instructors in English, arithmetic, and experimental mathematics, me- chanical laboratory work, commercial geog- raphy, commercial arithmetic, and commercial practice and bookkeeping, with the object of helping actual or intending teachers in evening schools to gain both the necessary knowledge, and, what is equally important, the right methods of imparting it. These courses have been vigorously taken up, and have introduced into the evening teaching a wider outlook and less stereotyped methods." The custom, based upon administrative neces- sity, which obtains in New York and many other cities of closing classes when the attendance falls below an average of twenty (in Cleveland the number is fifteen) acts many times as a spur upon the teacher and causes him to exert every effort to interest and to hold the class. ORGANIZING THE INSTRUCTION In American cities it is noticeable that where the evening schools are in the most flourishing con- dition the instruction has been organized into I 12 PROMOTION OF ATTENDANCE AT EVENING SCHOOLS courses which lead to graduation and a diploma, and in the elementary classes to a higher school. In England, where systematization has in some instances been carried to an even higher degree, a decided effect upon the attendance has been noticed following the introduction of the course system. An increase is not always immediate; sometimes there is a falling off with a correspond- ing gain in the quality of the students. But in- stances like the following, which is set forth in the 1908-09 report of the national Board of Edu- cation, are not uncommon: "Thus. in an impor- tant Lancashire County Borough, the year in which the course system was adopted saw an immediate increase in the number of men students in the evening schools of the town from 1161 to 1 1 80 (after a decrease in the preceding year under the old system from 1278 to 1161). The second year of the course system showed a further increase from n 80 to 1356. At the same time the percentage of students who left the school before the end of the six months' course fell from 55 per cent in the last year of the old systern to 26 per cent in the first year of the adoption of the course system, and in the second year of that system fell again to 21.8 per cent." In conclusion, it would seem that the most significant word, from the standpoint of attend- ance, which has come to the surface in the exam- ination of the various evening school systems, is organisation. Germany offering less technical 8 1,3 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT instruction than England has the better attend- ance because she has organized the getting of pupils. With less than half our population England and Wales have an attendance at public night schools more than twice that of the United States, because their national and local govern- ments are organized more definitely for the ad- ministration of evening education. Massachusetts leads the other states because she has systematized her treatment of illiterate minors, and because her school boards have more consciously faced the matter of evening instruction and organized sub- committees to provide for it. 114 V VACATION SCHOOLS CHAPTER V VACATION SCHOOLS ONE hot July morning I visited a school house down in New York's East Side. The streets were so full of people, push- carts and wagons that it was difficult to make one's way. The iron fire-escapes, jutting out from the tenements, were hung with trailing sheets and soggy pillows. Here and there a woman lolled in a window, to catch a moment's respite from the suffocation of her apartment. Passing through a small yard I entered a stone building and found myself in a long, cool corridor where a woman in fresh summer attire was giving some directions to a mother holding a child by the hand. Upon my expressing a desire to look through the building, she smiled and led the way. We had not gone far before the buzz of many voices and the sounds of hammering and sawing were heard. Entering a class room we came upon a group of boys working at benches with hammer, chisel and fret-saw. They were so busy over the brackets, key racks and wisp-broom holders they were making that many of them did not even look up. The instructor was entirely engrossed with the "7 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT difficulty a pupil was having with a joint, and it was easy to see that matters of discipline gave him no trouble. In the next room boys were caning chairs, most of which had been brought from home. The bottoms they were putting in were as even and tight as the original ones. In another room boys and girls, scattered about in little groups, were sitting on benches and desk-tops weaving baskets. When they got into difficulties or needed new material they went for help to the teacher, who herself occupied a desk-top in the front part of the room. A class in Venetian iron- work bent wrought-iron strips into pen racks and candlesticks. The work was being done in an ordinary class room, and each desk was protected by a board securely clamped to and covering its top. There were classes of girls learning to sew, and upon a line strung along the wall were displayed the handkerchiefs, aprons and petticoats already made. In another class each member was making a real dress for herself. In one of the rooms girls were twisting thread-wound wire into hat frames, while some, more advanced, were trimming the hat frames they had previously constructed. Embroidery engaged the attention of another group. Down in the domestic science kitchen a large class of girls, many of them foreigners, was learning to cook, and in the model dining room across the hall my guide and I were served with delicious lemonade and wafers. The kindergarten 118 VACATION SCHOOLS rooms were crowded with little boys and girls, many of whom had brought, and were keeping a watchful eye out for, baby brothers and sisters. These little tots did not seem to bother either teacher or pupils, the marching, singing and paper-cutting going on just as if they had not been there. Only one class was occupied with book work. It contained mainly pupils who had failed in the June examinations and who were studying in the hope of making up their deficiencies in time to go on with their classes in September. A smaller number were studying elementary subjects with a view to completing the number of days of school work required to secure the certificate which permits them to go to work. A still smaller number were endeavoring through this summer study to jump ahead of their classes and thus to hasten the day of graduation. The June examinations were barely over. The compulsory attendance law was not in operation. Yet here were 700 children coming regularly to school every morning. The principal, as well as most of her thirteen assistants, had just finished a hard year in regular day-school work. She had reports to make and an organization to keep in smooth operation. The work of each teacher was subject to the inspection of a sharp-eyed supervisor. No school regulations or professional advantages compelled these men and women to do this summer work, and yet they were giving 119 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT up six weeks of their summer's rest and staying in the hot, expensive city when they could have been in the mountains or at the seashore; neither would they have taught day-school classes for as little money as they received for this work. There were twenty-eight other schools in New York and some sixty other cities in the United States where teachers were likewise spending their vacations in the class room for merely nominal wages and in some instances for no compensation at all. There were over 9,000 other boys and girls in New York, and in the whole country hundreds of thousands, maintaining a regularity of attendance at school, during the hot season and under no compulsion, that would have been quite respectable during the regular term. The explanation of it was clear that morning in the East Side school. The boys were so busy making things, putting themselves into broom- holders, brackets, candlesticks, that represented their ability which they could show to others, they were so intent on all this that it did not occur to them to annoy their neighbors or the teacher. The girls were so occupied in learning how to make dresses and hats that they forgot to talk loudly or laugh boisterously. When the teacher helped them over a difficult step in their work their faces gleamed with gratitude; when she gave some general directions they all listened intently. On entering school their countenances reflected the satisfaction felt at home over the 120 A SUMMER OCCUPATION IN NK\V YORK THEY CAME BECAUSE THEY WANTED To VACATION SCHOOLS fact that they were neither in the street nor under foot in the house impeding the work that had to be done. Aside from the joy of making things, the children were glad to escape from their hot stuffy apartments into the cool, well ventilated school rooms. In a word, both teachers and pupils were happy because they were doing what they liked to do. Teachers taught and pupils attended this school because it was a "school of play/' Whether one considers this highly developed New York vacation school or the one which some woman's club in a small city has just started, the essential characteristics are the same. For both teacher and pupil the vacation school affords the occupation of their choice and one which, making small demands upon the head, satisfies the heart and fills the hands. ACTIVITIES FOUND IN VACATION SCHOOLS Most Common Basketry Common Iron work Least Common Paper work Sewing Raffia Dancing Woodwork Reed work Leather work Cooking Household arts Burnt wood Sloyd Physical training Shoemaking Kindergarten Excursions Gardening Drawing Chair caning Stencil cutting Cardboard work Clay modeling Picture study Nature study Millinery First aid Singing Embroidery Nursing Games Story telling Toy making Dressmaking Knitting Academic work 121 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT This list represents a composite of the subjects taught and the kinds of work given in a dozen different cities. They are set down in the order of frequency with which they are found. No one school system affords them all. In most schools a pupil receives instruction in no more than two subjects during a daily session. Cambridge gives its boys a choice between sloyd and basketry while the girls may take either basketry or cooking and sewing. At one time the two-hour sloyd period in Cambridge was divided between sloyd and drawing. 1 1 was found, however, that the boys were averse to the drawing and it was omitted. With the two hours given entirely to sloyd the boys are now able to finish more articles and their interest is greatly aug- mented. In St. Louis pupils are divided into groups according to their rank in the regular day school. CLASS GROUPS IN ST. Louis VACATION SCHOOLS Group Grade in Elementary School Kindergarten Kindergarten Primary I and II Intermediate III, IV and V Advanced Classes VI, VII and VIII The activities of the vacation kindergartens are the same as those carried on during the regular school term. The primary boys and girls have games, sewing, drawing, raffia and reed work. The girls of the intermediate and the advanced 122 VACATION SCHOOLS grades take lessons in housekeeping, which for the oldest ones include instruction in cooking. The boys of these two grades are taught bent iron work and wood carving and the oldest ones manual training. Twenty minutes of singing and story telling open the session, after which follow four recitation periods of forty minutes each. Manual training, housekeeping and cook- ing each have a period of one hour and twenty minutes. Games are introduced for both educational and social purposes. The instructor teaches the chil- dren how to play checkers, dominoes, parchesi, backgammon, authors, geographical games (dis- sected maps and card games of countries, cities, manufactures, products and races), games of the names of great persons, presidents, battles, historical places and epochs, indoor baseball, charades, guessing and observation games, pris- oners' base, blindman's buff, and many other amusements. In the selection of these, regard was had to their cheapness, so that the families of the children would be able to buy some of the games learned for the first time at the vacation schools, for home amusement during the long winter evenings. The housekeeping course in the St. Louis vacation schools is very thorough. Children are taught the details of washing (rinsing, starching, blueing and drying), ironing, sweeping, dusting, scrubbing, polishing pans, washing dishes, cleaning 123 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT windows, setting and serving a. table, making a bed, hanging pictures, the care of lamps, and keep- ing the rooms in order. New ideals of personal cleanliness are inculcated through the daily use of the baths connected with the school house. In Buffalo, the pupils are given instruction in swim- ming through the courtesy of the Y. M. C. A. gymnasium instructors. Cleveland lays more emphasis than St. Louis upon purely academic work. The Central high school and six grammar school buildings are thrown open for class work to aid students in making up studies in which they had failed during the year. Pupils from the fifth grade up are ad- mitted to these summer classes. I n Cincinnati also the summer academic work is held in separate build- ings quite apart from the other vacation classes. The vacation school work proper in Cleveland is carried on by separate schools known as the kindergarten, primary, and manual training sum- mer schools. Instruction in the primary schools is entirely oral and embraces the following exer- cises: story telling, the teaching of songs and poems, games, nature study, excursions and light work in manual training. The latter in- cludes plain sewing and embroidery, paper-cutting, weaving and pasting, raffia and reed work, drawing and water coloring, clay modeling and some con- structive work. The time allotted to the various subjects is indicated in the following sample program: 124 VACATION SCHOOLS DAILY PROGRAM, PRIMARY SCHOOL Cleveland 8:30 to 9:00 Songs, stories told and read by teacher and children. . .30 minutes 9:00 to 9:30 Marches, drills, skipping games, in Assembly Hall . .30 minutes 9:30 to 10:30 Manual training, sewing, bas- ket making 60 minutes 10:30 to 10:50 Recess 20 minutes 10:50 to ii :oo Song, short story, poem 10 minutes 1 1 :oo to ii :30 Occupation work, clay, pa- per-cutting, dolls, nature work, painting 30 minutes 1 1 30 Dismissal The summer manual training schools are at- tended by boys from the four grammar grades and the first year in the high school. The course is planned on practical lines and consists in making simple pieces at first and then gradually working up to such articles as ironing boards, plate and towel racks, book shelves, picture frames, tab- ourets, tables, chairs and shirt-waist boxes. All the instruction is given by thoroughly trained men and the schools are completely equipped with tools and benches. White wood and chestnut and oak lumber are provided, and the pupils are required to pay part of the cost of the articles they make and take home. In both Cleveland and Pittsburgh, the public libraries co-operate with the vacation school '25 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT authorities by sending trained story tellers who interest the children in good literature and some- times distribute books among them. A feature of the Cincinnati work is a mothers' meeting held one afternoon a week at each of the vaca- tion schools. A program of music and recitations is given by the children with the help of talented persons from the neighborhood, and is followed by a social time at which flowers are frequently distributed. In several of the cities the outing is one of the most enjoyable of the summer school activities. In Chicago excursions are made to the large open areas of the outer parks or to the suburban wood- lands. Sometimes the managers of resorts grant concessions ajid the children are taken to them. In St. Louis and Cleveland the children are given a free outing every other week to one of the parks, where they play games, pick flowers and study nature. Sometimes the Cleveland children are taken to the Zoo and served with ice cream and cake. The expenses of the outings in Cincinnati are met by private subscription. One Friday morning the teachers and children attended a concert given by well-known musicians in the Music Hall and at another time they saw the "Hiawatha" play at the Zoo. In Haverhill, Massachusetts, the children in company with their teachers visit the rooms of the historical society, the birthplace of Whittier, the beach, or the park at a nearby lake. 126 VACATION SCHOOLS In the New York vacation schools talks on city history are made more impressive by excursions under the care of the teachers to various historical places. The children are prepared in the class room for the trips, by being told what they are to see, and why it is significant. Some seasons over two hundred excursions are made to important points of historical interest in and about New York. Some cities include academic work with the hand work. In Rochester, reading, language work and drawing in color are taught in addition to the usual subjects. New Orleans also provides in- struction in arithmetic, geography and history. Boston gives the opportunity to study whatever book subjects the pupils demand, and in some New York schools the foreign-born children are specially instructed in English. Previous to the recent Hudson-Fulton celebration in New York one of the East Side principals arranged historical exhibits for each room in the school. They portrayed the life on Manhattan from the time of the first settlers up to the Revolutionary War and included Indian sketches, portraits of the early Dutch colonists and pictures showing costumes and customs. In Pittsburgh, according to Miss Beulah Ken- nard, president of the Playground Associa- tion, the endeavor has been " to base each de- partment on a normal play instinct and to keep them spontaneous, childlike and joyous, 127 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT without strain and without self-consciousness. In the 'carpenter shops' boys are given play models and allowed to use the saw and plane like men. In the art classes Indian or war stories are illustrated on large sheets of paper, while the girls paint flowers and birds and stencil dainty patterns which they have themselves designed. They use live models whenever possible, and parrots, puppies, cats, geese and chickens are carried from school to school, to the great delight of the children. "Dancing and rhythmic gymnastic exercises receive much attention, as the children do not know how to use either hands or feet well. They can neither stand nor walk nor throw a ball straight. Classes in cooking and nursing have been fitted in wherever space can be found, the boys being as anxious to cook as the girls. But to the over-industrious teachers and children one inflexible rule has been given 'The play period must not be encroached upon.' Every teacher has her game book and must learn to play if she has forgotten how." With such a guiding principle it is not strange that the children should co-operate in the main- tenance of order. In one of the schools a basketry class of small boys composed and wrote on the blackboard the following rules: You must not sass ihe teacher. You must not cbew gum. 128 VACATION SCHOOLS You must not talk loud. You must not break the rules. The length of the vacation school session in most cities is six weeks. In a few the session lasts only five weeks. In one city it continues only four, while in Cleveland the period is eight weeks. The date of opening the schools varies from a week after the end of the day-school term to the middle of July. The usual hours are from 9 to 12 a. m. or 8.30 to 1 1.30 a. m. Usually there are no sessions on Saturday. In Cincin- nati there is no class-work on Friday, that day being devoted to the weekly excursions. THEIR ADMINISTRATION Each instructor in the New York City vacation schools is a specialist chosen from an appropriate eligible list in the order of standing. Details of instruction are looked after by a supervisor for each subject and district superintendents have general charge over the work of their respective districts. In St. Louis the conduct and management of the vacation schools is in the hands of a supervisor who, under the direction of the superintendent of instruction, plans the course of study and program for each school and supervises the work of the principal. Each school has as many teachers as the work demands, provided that the quota of pupils for each paid teacher is not less than twenty- 9 129 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT five; and the supervisor may with the consent of the superintendent of instruction employ a limited additional number of qualified volunteer teachers, such as Teachers' College students or members of the senior class in the high school. In Cincinnati, Cleveland and Newark the vaca- tion school work is in charge of a supervisor who reports to the superintendent of schools. These three cities employ mainly day-school teachers. Applications are usually so numerous that a selection can be made of those best fitted for special lines of work. Many cities, like New York, Cleveland and Cincinnati, organize their teaching on the depart- mental plan, but Newark, whose board of educa- tion was the pioneer in municipal vacation school work, has recently abandoned this scheme. There an effort is made to secure a teacher who can do all of the work required in each grade; it has been found that teachers of special subjects fail to become as intimately acquainted with their pupils as the grade teachers who are with their classes throughout the session. In Chicago, St. Louis, Cincinnati and several other cities there are many volunteer workers on the teaching staff. School work relieved of the trials connected with disci- pline has lost its most forbidding element, while the joyousness and satisfaction which pervade the vacation class room constitute a strong appeal to all who like to help children. In Boston and St. Louis it has been found that this work serves 130 VACATION SCHOOLS as an admirable training for young people study- ing to become teachers. Special training classes for teachers desiring summer school work are held in Newark under the director of manual training and thus properly qualified candidates are available for all the positions. In Pittsburgh a teachers' institute is held three days prior to the opening of the schools and weekly teachers' meetings are conducted throughout the term. The superintendent has also arranged with the University of Pittsburgh to give Saturday courses in psychology, sociology and education for the benefit of the vacation school and playground teachers. In Cincinnati and several other cities vacation school teachers are organized and hold meetings throughout the year. The salaries of the St. Louis teachers for the term of six weeks are as follows: Supervisor, $250; principal, $80; teacher, $60; assistant teacher, $30. In Chicago the regular teachers receive $75 for the six weeks' term, and the assistant teachers, $50 and $30. Cincinnati teachers receive a uniform rate of $2.00 per day. The salaries in New York are as follows: SALARIES OF VACATION SCHOOL TEACHERS Supervisors $6.00 per day Principals 4.50 ' Teachers 3.00 Kindergartners 3.00 Kindergarten helpers i .50 Substitutes 1.50 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT COST OF VACATION SCHOOLS City Buffalo Season Numbe of School* Q r Cost of Mainte- > nance $5 724 87 Average Atten- dance 2,333 Capita Cost $2 45 Cambridge. . . Chicago 1008 I 16 TT J > I ***-\ I 1 ,791 lo 23 217 5Q 907 6 OO3 T^'TV 1-97 o/; Cincinnati . . . Cincinnati* . . Newark jr*^ 1908 1908 4 U' / 7;/ 2,9OO.OO 1 ,200.00 3 1 ,34^.00 v -'>'-"-'9 1,480 357 9,OIO 1.96 3.36 348 New York . . . Pittsburgh.. . St. Louis . . . 1908 1908 27 10 2 8^256.99 2,869.08 2^544 577 ,?*T' v - / 4 .8 3 3.24 4-97 * Summer academic school which is run separately. These figures have in most instances been compiled from school reports. There is no as- surance that uniform methods were employed in arriving at the cost of maintenance, so they have no value for the purpose of inter-city com- parisons. They are to be regarded simply as examples of vacation school expenditure. The cost of the Haverhill vacation schools in 1907 averaged 78 cents per pupil. The same sea- son St. Louis conducted summer school work the cost of which, computed on the average daily at- tendance, was $5.58 per capita. The Des Moines schools during the season of 1909 cost about $3.00 per pupil, which is a fair average for the country. The expensiveness of these schools varies with the size of classes, salaries of teachers, kinds and amount of material used, and equipment in- stalled. With volunteer workers, contributed 132 VACATION SCHOOLS material, borrowed tools and the use of idle school rooms, a large number of children can be provided with many hours of useful happiness at little or no expense. The per capita cost in New York for the 1906 vacation schools was $4.84; in 1907 it jumped to $5.03 and in 1908 it sank to the 1906 figures. In St. Louis the second year of its vaca- tion work showed a reduction of 61 cents in the cost per pupil. Cambridge vacation schools in 1908 decreased $0.41 per pupil below the cost in 1907. This was due in part to an increase in the average attendance and in part to the omission of drawing, since more teachers were required when drawing was given in connection with the sloyd work. The Newark summer school work increased in cost from $1.77 (based on average attendance) in 1901 to $3.68 in 1907. The reasons given for this increase are, mainly, rise in the salaries of teachers, reduction in size of classes, introduction of new kinds of work requiring additional teachers, greater expense for supplies and equipment, and the enlargement of the supervising corps. In the Cleveland schools the children pay one- half the cost of the material used in making the articles which they take home. In Haverhill a considerable sum was realized from the sale of baskets at the end of the term. In most schools, however, after the usual closing exhibition of the vacation school work, the children are given the articles they have made. WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT HOW THEY START The first vacation school in this country of which there is any record was held in 1866 under the auspices of the First Church of Boston, but it was in no way connected with the public schools of that city. The report of the Providence super- intendent of schools for June, 1870, states: "For two years past schools have been opened in the summer vacation for such children as wished to attend. These have been a great blessing to the city. All lessons are made as attractive as pos- sible by apt illustration and familiar conversation. Sewing, drawing and object teaching occupy a prominent place." These schools were under a volunteer committee. In 1876 they were dis- continued, but in 1894 they were revived and carried on for six years, when they were finally turned over to the school committee. The first municipal board of education to incorporate vacation schools as a part of its system was that of Newark, where they were established in 1885. In 1894 the Association for Improving the Condition of the Poor in New York City ob- tained the use of four public schools and main- tained classes in manual training and allied subjects during the vacation season. In 1897 vacation schools were adopted as a part of its public school system by the New York Board of Education. In 1896 at a conference of the Associated VACATION SCHOOLS Charities in Chicago a committee was appointed to take up the matter of establishing vacation schools in that city, and through the efforts of this committee the Civic Federation was induced to conduct one vacation school. In the summer of 1897 a school supported by private contributions was also maintained in the Seward School, under the auspices of the Chicago University Settlement. The Chicago women's clubs became interested in 1898, and assisted by several charitable associa- tions, formed an organization for the purpose of carrying on summer schools until they should become an organic part of the municipal system. In 1908 this body was known as the "Permanent Vacation School Committee of Women's Clubs/' It expended $23,217.59 upon sixteen vacation schools, of which amount f 1 5,000 was contributed by the Chicago Board of Education. The sessions were held in public school buildings, but were di- rected by a superintendent in the employ of the Vacation School Committee. The introduction of vacation schools and play- grounds in Pittsburgh was due to the activity of the Civic Club. As early as 1896, while looking about for some needed thing to undertake, it was impressed by the number of forlorn homes and crowded streets in the city and resolved to secure the use of the school yards for the children who had no place to play. After the grounds had been secured the astonishing discovery was made that most of the children did not know how to WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT play. Chiefly the children of immigrants, they came from mill neighborhoods and foreign settle- ments and had never had an opportunity to learn the games and sports which have always been the birthright of American boys and girls. The boys seemed to be animated solely by a feverish de- sire for work and the girls would not come unless bribed with sewing classes. The parents also con- tinually asked that their young children be given some kind of manual work. In response to these demands more and more hand work was included in the playground programs, and thus after several years' experimentation the activities of the vaca- tion school came to be combined with those of the playground. For the younger children kin- dergarten methods were still employed, but for those over eight years of age the daily program was revised to include some form of industrial work, music, nature study and clay modeling or drawing and coloring. In 1900, feeling that more popular support was needed, the Civic Club asked the women's clubs to help them. A meeting was held and the joint committee then formed from the delegates of the various clubs conducted the work for the next six years. The women became enthusiastic over the undertaking and the playground and vacation school work added a new interest to their club life. There were many volunteer workers among their members and liberal contributions were made out of their treasuries. The Central Board 136 VACATION SCHOOLS of Education of Pittsburgh gradually increased its financial assistance until in 1908 its annual appropriation had reached the sum of $9,500. The schools, however, are still (1910) under the direc- tion of the women's clubs, though the organization composed of their delegates is known as the Pitts- burgh Playground Association. On the north side of Pittsburgh, formerly the city of Allegheny, vacation schools, started in 1905 by a joint committee of the women's clubs of Alle- gheny, are conducted by the Playground and Vaca- tion School Association of Allegheny, Incorporated. The Association at the present time is made up of delegates from over twenty women's clubs, church societies and neighborhood committees. The schools are supported by appropriations from the city and from private contributions, and ara. administered by officers selected by the Associa- tion and by a large number of voluntary workers. Vacation schools in Cleveland were established in 1895 under the auspices of the Ladies' Aid Society of the Old Stone Church. These schools were carried on by the Day Nursery and Free Kindergarten Association from 1901 to 1903, when the Board of Education assumed their control. In Milwaukee, some public spirited and philanthropic women began by obtaining the use of one of the public school buildings. They employed teachers and held classes for six weeks. In 1904 the board of school directors, impressed by the value of this instruction, established and WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT carried on one vacation school, while the women's organization continued their work in a new locality. In the following year the school board assumed the responsibility for both schools and the women withdrew from the field. In Rochester, the Women's Educational and Industrial Union and the Playground League played a prominent part in the inception of the vacation schools. In Johnstown, Pennsylvania, they were first started by the local civic club at the suggestion of a teacher who had taught in the summer classes of another city. Funds were raised by subscription. In Medford, Massachu- setts, vacation schools are supported by a va- cation school association composed mainly of women who act in co-operation with the munic- ipality. The business men of Minneapolis sup- ported the vacation schools of that cjty during the summer of 1906. Those of St. Paul ob- tained their start through the co-operation of the superintendent of schools and the St. Paul Institute of Arts and Sciences. Soon after the incorporation of the Institute its assistance in starting vacation sessions in the public schools was asked by the superintendent of schools. The executive committee of the Institute promptly put $500 of its slender resources at the disposal of the school board. To this sum the Board of Education added $650, and several organizations contributed additional amounts, materials, tools and services. With this help the school board in 138 VACATION SCHOOLS 1908 opened four buildings, the average attend- ance at which was 846 pupils. The experiment was so successful that the board introduced va- cation schools into its regular system and in 1909 appropriated $2,000 for their maintenance. The I nstitute being relieved from contributions for their support, then devoted itself to securing a system of school gardens to be conducted in connection with the summer classes. Through co-operation with several other societies and a newspaper, some $800 were raised for this purpose. In Indianapolis, vacation schools are carried on by the Public Recreation Committee of the Children's Aid Association. In Worcester, their success is due largely to the co-operation of the merchants of the city, who make generous dona- tions of materials and supplies. Cincinnati owes its vacation schools to the early efforts of a woman's club of that city; and the Women's Club of Brockton, Massachusetts, co-operated with the school department in maintaining during the summer months a kindergarten in one school and a sewing class in another. RESULTS The president of the Pittsburgh Playground Association reports that as a result of its vacation school work, industrial and domestic science de- partments have been placed in a number of the day schools. In other schools play has been given a place on the regular daily program and a large 139 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT number of teachers have learned how to play with their children. I n districts where vacation schools have been maintained it is reported that the chil- dren have returned to school in a less demoralized condition than is usual after the long holiday. Especially in the densely populated portions of the city the living conditions of families have been improved. The instruction received in the summer classes has helped "to make the home cleaner and the clothes less dependent on 'the strained devotion of a pin/ Little girls have taught their mothers how to cook wholesome, plain food and their care of the spoiled tenement baby has been more intelligent. At one school the girls were asked if their baby brothers and sisters ever drank coffee. Everyone answered 'Yes/ When the babies are put on a milk diet instead of one including coifee, doughnuts and bananas, they will lie in a basket or hammock, and the little sisters that tend them can themselves rest or play with other children. . . . And the gang has been tamed. The West End gang whose ideals had been confined to baseball and pugilism became enthusiastic carpenters. Their devotion to the fine, clean young fellow who was their in- structor was pathetic. They followed him around. In order to cure the sneak thieving he would leave all the material out on the ball field and go away without making any boy responsible for it. The next morning every bat and ball and glove would be returned/' 140 t-Jr > M -<*> First Aid Methods Clay Modeling PITTSBURGH SUMMER SCHOOLS VACATION SCHOOLS In the Buffalo vacation schools the boys showed great enthusiasm over manual training. Mem- bers of the chair-caning classes not only caned all the broken chairs in their own homes, but at one school eighteen chairs were caned for one of the local churches, for which the boys were paid at the rate of fifty cents each. At the close of the summer session many went immediately into the chair-caning business. One of the chief benefits afforded by these summer schools is the opportunity for manual training given to boys and girls who do not have it in their regular day-school course. In the St. Louis vacation schools five boys who had become wards of the juvenile court were en- rolled. The offenses for which they had been arrested were not grave enough to warrant their being sent to the Industrial School, but they needed a term of several weeks under the eye of some responsible authority other than their parents. They were allowed to attend the summer classes and weekly reports of their conduct and progress were made to the court. The boys continued in attendance up to the last day and gave no trouble worthy of comment. In Cleveland one vacation school was composed solely of 135 boys who had been assigned to the detention home by the judge of the juvenile court. They ranged in age from three and one-half to seventeen years, and in school rank from the first grade to the first year in the high school. They were given 141 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT gardening, drawing, weaving, paper-cutting, clay modeling and decorating, and raffia work. During the summer they made three excursions to nearby parks. One of the most important benefits of the vaca- tion school lies in the opportunity it affords back- ward pupils to make up work left unfinished at the close of the school year. The attendance at the Cleveland summer high school for the past seven years has averaged 252 pupils, and during that time the instruction has enabled over 1200 boys and girls to advance regularly with their classes in the fall, and has undoubtedly been influential in holding this large number of pupils until they secured the advantages of a complete high school education. During the summer of 1909 over 700 grammar school boys and girls obtained promotion as the result of attendance at vacation classes. Eighty per cent of those in attendance at the summer academic school in Cincinnati during 1908 were promoted in the fall. The zeal and perseverance of these pupils surprised even the teachers. Some of the children said it was the first work they had ever done with all their might, and those who were promoted, so far as reported, have sustained themselves creditably in their new classes. Another way in which the vacation schools may serve the community is illustrated by the course of lectures given during the summer of 1909 in the Chicago vacation schools under the 142 VACATION SCHOOLS auspices of the Visiting Nurses' Association. These lectures were upon the proper care and feeding of infants, the necessity of cleanliness and suitable clothing, the preparation and preservation of milk, and the use of barley water and the various substitutes for milk which are employed during the period when intestinal disease is prevalent among infants. They were given by medical men, nurses and other specially trained persons. To the lectures were admitted the summer school students of the upper grammar and high school grades. A campaign of education was thus carried on for the purpose of controlling and ameliorating the diarrheal diseases in children. The success of the vacation school work is undoubtedly responsible in a measure for the tendency, now noticeable in various parts of the country, to extend the regular school instruction beyond its traditional time limits. In Oakland, California, the schools have been opened on Satur- day forenoons so that those outside of the school system may be instructed in sewing, cooking and manual training. The school year which obtains in the new $650,000 Technical High School in Cleveland is divided into four quarters of twelve weeks each with a week of vacation after each quarter. As a result, one of the regular term sessions takes place during the summer months. During the summer of 1909 there were 450 pupils whose daily attendance averaged 97 per cent of the total enrollment in this school. '43 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT Any proposal to extend the regular term of school throughout the summer immediately arouses the apprehension of the public as to the effect upon the health of the children. Even though the course during the hot months were largely of a manual character, many persons would still fear the con- sequences of a compulsory attendance during the summer. It has been pointed out that the success and beneficial results of the vacation schools are largely due to the voluntary nature of the at- tendance. On the other hand, evidence favoring an extension of the school term is to be found in the work of the Hebrew Technical School for Girls in New York City, which has a continuous session of eighteen months. The pupils attend for eight hours each day, but throughout the course they are given medical supervision, plenty of fresh air, and exercise in the gymnasium and swimming pool. At 10 a. m. daily each girl receives a cup of milk or cocoa and at noon she has the opportunity to buy a bowl of soup for one cent, and thus supplement the luncheon brought from home. This long school day and the con- tinuous session were forced upon the managers by necessity, but up to the present time no bad effects upon the health of the girls have been noticed, while in many cases there has been a decided improvement. The gradual assumption of vacation school work by boards of education and the tendency to increase the sessions of academic instruction show 144 VACATION SCHOOLS that municipalities are more and more recognizing that their responsibility for the education and welfare of children is not limited to the forty weeks of the school year. REFERENCES AMERICAN, SADIE: The Movement for Vacation Schools. American Journal of Sociology, Nov., 1898, pages 309-25. CURTIS, HENRY S.: Vacation Schools, Playgrounds, and Settlements. Report of the U. S. Commissioner of Education for 1903, Vol. I, pages 1-38. DE MONTMORENCY, J. E. G.: School Excursions and Vacation Schools. Vol. xxi of Special Reports on Education Subjects, Board of Education, London, 1907. DUTTON, SAMUEL T., AND SNEDDEN, DAVID: Administration of Pub- lic Education in the United States. Pages 579-581. Refer- ences to recent articles. The Macmillan Company, New York, 1908. Price 11.75. HOUSTON, MARION: Bibliography of Playgrounds and Vacation Schools. Charities, April 2, 1904, pages 358^60. LEE, JOSEPH: Constructive and Preventive Philanthropy. Pages 109-122. The Macmillan Company, New York. 1906. Price 1 1. oo. MILLIKEN, O. J.: Chicago Vacation Schools. Amer. Journal of Sociology, Nov., 1898, pages 289-308. WHITNEY, EVANGELINE E.: Annual Reports as District Superin- tendent in charge of Vacation Schools, Playgrounds and Recrea- tion Centers, contained in reports of City Superintendent of Schools to New York Board of Education from 1902 to 1909. See also Summer Schools and Playgrounds, by Morton L. Dartt, Board of Education, Cleveland, 1908; Report of the Chicago Permanent Vacation School Committee of Women's Clubs, 1908; the annual reports of the Pittsburgh Playground Association; Vacation Schools in Philadelphia, The Playground, July, 1908; and the annual reports of the superintendents of schools of the cities named in the text. 10 '45 VI SCHOOL PLAYGROUNDS CHAPTER VI SCHOOL PLAYGROUNDS IT is 1 130 in the afternoon and a July sun is blazing down upon a company of boys and girls lined up in military fashion on the grounds of a public school in the city of Newark. They face a huge brick building, while at their rear are to be seen climbing ropes, swings, a sand-pile, a horizontal bar and the other equip- ment found in an outdoor gymnasium. Outside the closed gate a group of belated youngsters peer wistfully between the pickets. A drum rolls and immediately a flag flutters from the flag-staff. The ranks stiffen into the posture of attention; caps are clapped to shoulder and girls' hands are raised towards the flag. "We salute thee," the treble voices chant; "we the children of many lands who find rest under thy folds, do pledge our lives, our hearts, and our sacred honor to love and protect thee, our country and the liberty of the American people forever." Then the bareheaded man with rolled-up sleeves and belted trousers, who led in the reciting, tells a story of Uncle Remus. As the applause dies 149 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT away the drums sound again and the company begins to march. After several maneuvers and mass formations, the girls, officered by women, pass over to the other side of the school house and are lost to view. The boys, in obedience to a couple of sharp commands, spread out over the square like chess- men on a board. All eyes turn to the bare- headed man standing before them. He raises his finger-tips to his shoulders. Then, imitating him, the boys shoot out their arms sideways, bend them back, out, back, and so on, eight times. Arms are raised forward, upward and sideward; bodies are bent forward and sideways; feet spring sideways as the arms swing overhead. All the while the leader counts, spitting out "one/' "two," "three," and so on, like a rapid-fire gun. The boys flap their arms in the manner of an excited railroad signal and every pair of lungs works like a blacksmith's bellows. Cheeks redden and sweat begins to ooze. Ten strenuous minutes pass and then, as a wind-up, the leader gradually quickens the count. The boys see the twinkle in his eye and "hit up" the pace with a will; but soon the point is reached where muscles can move no faster and all break down in laughter. The ranks close up and the children outside the gate are allowed to come in and line up with the others. The whole company is divided into squads under the leadership of teachers and of some of the bigger boys. One of the latter brings 150 SCHOOL PLAYGROUNDS out spades, shovels and rakes, and a group starts to dig a jumping pit over in a corner of the yard. Another lot of youngsters goes into a class room and is set to weaving baskets. Two squads go to the shops where they cane chairs, whittle out boats or make kites. Other groups are sent to the various pieces of apparatus, where they swing through the air on the flying rings, "skin the cat" on the horizontal bar, vault over leather-covered bucks, or make "giant strides" through the air with the help of ropes attached to a pivot-like post. The smallest fellows flock to the sand-pile under an awning, and bury their legs and bodies in clean white sand, or they run on farther to the high wooden platform which stands nearby. Here they go up steps on one side and on the other slide pell-mell, entirely careless of skin or clothes, down a broad, smooth wooden chute. The climbing ropes are sought out by one of the squads. Several of these thick ropes hang down from a high cross-bar, each having a bell so placed that it can be rung only by the boy who is successful in pulling himself clear to the top. Other youngsters gather around the soft dirt which by this time has been spaded up, leveled off and cleared of its stones and lumps, and are presently engaged in a broad-jumping contest. The two squads whose turn it is to play basket ball have the liveliest time. One of the teachers acts as referee and every time a player trips or holds an opponent, or runs with the ball, his side 151 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT is penalized, and a shaping touch is given to that plastic something in each boy's make-up which in manhood will show itself as " obedience to law/ though it will still be, what it always has been, merely "playing by the rules of the game/' As soon as a team is through with one game or exercise it moves on to another place where a new kind of fun awaits it. The boys who today are working in the shops, will tomorrow have the right of way on the basket ball field, while those who have been using the apparatus will be set to jumping or sprinting. The opening calisthenic exercises are also varied by periods of dumb-bell, Indian club or single-stick drill. Thus all the children enjoy in turn the whole list of play op- portunities; and through skilled oversight each group is given exercise adapted to its strength. Over on the girls' side also a lively program is being carried out. Scattered all over the yard are little groups playing club tag, prisoners' base, volley ball, throwing the corn bag for height, or passing the basket-ball in a circle. In the kindergarten room successive classes listen to the ever delightful recital of the "Adventures of Alice in Wonderland" or take a trip through the "Jungle" under the guidance of Kipling. Inter- spersed with the stories are such games as " How do you do, my partner?" and "Would you know how does the farmer?"; interesting times over peg-boards, sewing cards and chalk drawings, and enjoyment of such rhythmical exercises as 152 Practicing Housekeeping: Laundry Work A Lesson in Sweeping IN A NEWARK, N. J., PLAY SCHOOL SCHOOL PLAYGROUNDS "Merry Little Fishes," "The Bird's Nest/' and "The Song of the Loaf of Bread." In another room a busy group of older girls practice at housekeeping. They sweep, dust, wash clothes, build fires and set dinner tables. The teacher joins them and the work is not work at all. The place, however, where the fun is gayest is the spacious class room from which all the benches and seats have been removed. A piano stands in the corner, and the floor shines from many waxen polishings. The girls form in a double circle, partners facing each other; the music strikes up and their young limbs and bodies begin to move through the steps of the Danish Shoemaker's Dance. To wind the thread they revolve their fists; to pull it tight they jerk their elbows back and forth; and then they polka lightly around the circle on their toes. The teacher dances with them, and her eyes sparkle and her cheeks become flushed like those of her pupils as together they trip through the "Ace of Diamonds," "Tarantella," "Highland Fling," " Bleking," and other dances imported from the merry-makings of Europe. Sometimes the girls dress in bloomers, or in bright-colored caps and costumes of different nations which they have learned to make in the sewing classes; and to the appeal of music and rhythmic motion there is added the appeal of color and uniformity in dress. Admission to the folk dancing classes is obtained only through faithfulness in the performance of '53 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT some of the less attractive exercises set down in the playground program. There is rotation among the groups and all the girls get a chance to enjoy the benefits of the various games and occupations. The teachers act simply as play-fellows and leaders. They exercise supervision in order to secure wholesome expres- sion and do not try to repress the budding natures under their charge. At five o'clock the games stop; materials and equipment are put away; the grounds and rooms are cleared of all litter, and teacher and pupil go home tired but happy. OTHER PLAYGROUND ACTIVITIES A large proportion of the children enjoying the school playgrounds of New York are of about the same age and are taken care of in the kindergartens which are held usually on the ground floor of the building. They join in simple songs, Yankee, Russian Jew, Armenian and Italian boys and girls all singing in the same tongue. In the sand bins some build remarkable subways and tunnels, while others at the tables busy themselves in making paper toys. Sometimes the tales of Red Riding Hood and the Lion and the Mouse are dramatized and the children applaud the small actors with great eclat. Checkers and other quiet games are played by the boys and girls alternately in the same room in which the library is situated, and so great is the absorption of the players in their games that 154 SCHOOL PLAYGROUNDS the readers are not disturbed. Of the various occupations afforded, basketry and caning are the most popular among the older pupils. Some- times the girls bring their sewing from home, and in one of the yards a great deal of enjoyment was obtained from making scrap books which were sent to the hospitals. The shower baths connected with the school houses are thrown open during the summer from 9 a.m. to 10 p.m. and children frequently stand in line a long time waiting their turn to take a bath in preference to playing the games on the playground. These baths in many instances have been installed at slight cost. A perforated shower or a spray head has simply been placed on the end of a hose pipe, and the water allowed to drain away without doing any damage. The eagerness with which the children have availed themselves of these privileges shows that cleanliness is just as contagious as the measles when one is in a position to catch it. New York playgrounds like those of many other cities, have White Wings brigades made up of the boys who enjoy the privileges of the ground. They go around with push carts gathering up and carrying off all the rubbish and litter which accumulate during the session. Regular periods in the outdoor program are devoted to learning and practicing selected Eu- ropean peasant dances. These are offered to the boys as well as to the girls but are most popular '55 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT with the latter. Music especially adapted to the various folk dances is provided and frequently there are spontaneous outbursts of song from the dancers. In choosing the games and dances to be taught, emphasis is placed upon those of Scandinavian and Slavic origin, which are so characteristic of simple peasant life. Some of them have a gay, quick movement, while others move in stately fashion and display dignity and grace. No occupation on the playground is more charm- ing or more conducive to refinement than these delightful folk dances, and while accomplishing the same amount of muscular development as gymnastic drills, they are much better suited to hot weather. About one in five of the New York school play- grounds is set apart for the enjoyment of mothers and babies. No children over six years of age are admitted unless they have charge of little foster tots; but there are many of these youthful mothers. They bear their burdens cheerfully. One of the kindergartners attempted to sympa- thize with a little girl who was struggling under the weight of an unusually stodgy youngster "Oh, no, he isn't heavy! I love to carry a baby/' was the prompt reply. Important members of the playground staff are the nurses who co-operate with the Board of Health physicians and give much-needed instruc- tion on the proper feeding, bathing and clothing of infants. Remedies for simple ailments are prescribed and those needing more thorough 156 SCHOOL PLAYGROUNDS medical aid are sent to clinics or floating hospitals. The ignorance of many of the mothers is appalling. One of them seriously objected to sending a sick child to the hospital because she was afraid the nurse would give him a bath! Sometimes small tubs, with the usual accessories, are supplied and mothers learn the uses of soap and water through a practical demonstration then and there of what a sweet and clean baby may be. Meetings are frequently held in which talks are given upon such topics as Cleanliness, Food and Clothing, and the mothers are often addressed by a physician. Most of the women are able to understand English, but sometimes it is necessary to have an interpreter. At one school a Yiddish woman translated the speaker's remarks for the benefit of her friends. More and more attention to the needs of babies is being given in the school grounds. In the most congested district of Cleveland a school yard has been provided with a small tent which is used as a day nursery by the mothers of the vicinity. A trained nurse is in charge and the babies which are brought there sleep through the long summer days in tiny, cool cots and under expert supervi- sion. In the New York playgrounds special at- tention is also given to other children needing individual care. Those who show symptoms of spinal curvature, wry-neck, round shoulders or any of the other deformities common to their age are drilled in exercises adapted to their bodily needs and in many cases remarkable improvement 57 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT has resulted. A milk depot was established by the Woman's Health Protective League at one of the schools, where a glass of sterilized milk and three sweet crackers were sold for two cents, in order to provide a light lunch. In certain New York yards the boys and girls are lined up in marching form at the close of the afternoon and recitations are then given or stories told. One principal narrated in one term more than forty stories from Dickens, Thacke- ray, Dumas, Shakespeare, and the Arabian Nights. The usual program is as follows: NEW YORK DAILY PROGRAM Marching :oo-i 130 Assembly ( Singing Jr Salute to the Flag (Talk by the Principal Organized Games 2 30-3 :oo 3 :oo-4 :oo Organized rree rla Drills y f Gymnastic ( Military Folk Dancing Apparatus Work (Raffia Occupation Work j Clay Modeling (Scrap Books 4:00-4:45 Organized Games | Kindergarten ( Gymnastic Basket Ball 4:45-5:15 Athletics Good Citizens' Club 5:15-5:30 Dismissal f Marching I Singing 158 The Nursery " In Tiny, Cool Cots" SCHOOL YARD NURSERY IN CLEVELAND SCHOOL PLAYGROUNDS In Boston the children of the school playgrounds sometimes give a play like " Cinderella" and such tableaux as "The Sleeping Beauty" and "The Ringing of the Liberty Bell." They dance "Dainty Steps," a German dance, the "Ace of Diamonds" and the "Grandmother" dance. On one occasion a group of boys gave a dramatic portrayal of "The Signing of the Declaration of Independence." There is a tendency in Boston to lay more emphasis upon athletics for the girls. Relay races, potato races and three-legged races already form a regular part of their program, and certain of the playgrounds are now being fitted up for the exclusive use of girls. It is pro- posed to give them regular athletics and gymnas- tics like those provided for boys. The girls are to receive a medical examination and exercises will be prescribed in accordance with each child's needs. Kite making forms a prominent feature in the Cleveland program. A kite club formed in one of the yards made 125 kites of fifteen different varieties. A flying contest was held and prizes were awarded for the best constructed, most unique and best flying kites. At Buffalo, be- sides the usual games and sports, swimming classes are conducted by the director although the boys have to walk about two miles to the nearest swim- ming place. They meet three times a week and start out in a company of seventy-five to one hundred, carrying their swimming suits, water '59 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT wings, and other paraphernalia. Several of the grounds in this city are equipped with cinder tracks and the boys get a great deal of practice in the sprints and distance running. The tendency to insert hand work in the play- ground program is very well illustrated at Cam- bridge. While the games are going on in one part of the yard, in other parts there are busy groups sewing cards in gay colors, or knitting and crocheting. Many scrap books are made, and even the boys eagerly learn to construct waste- paper baskets, flower-pot covers from wall paper, and to weave mats on little frames. Dressing dolls and making dolls' furniture are popular occu- pations among the little girls. Recently the Gil- bert American school dances were added to the list of activities taught, greatly to the delight of the girls who were permitted to enjoy them. Cambridge, like many other cities, equips its school playgrounds with traveling libraries. The books are carefully selected from the public library and after being used in one yard are taken to another. Children with clean hands and faces are permitted to take them home and keep them for a couple of nights. The books are usually returned in very good condition and few are lost during the season. At Providence, Rhode Island, the little plays "Princess May" and "Snow White" were given during the summer and attracted large crowds both at the daily rehearsals and the final perform- 160 SCHOOL PLAYGROUNDS ance. The children were so delighted with the costumes which they were required to wear, of the various princesses and queens, that the work of drilling them was both enjoyable and successful. In this city and Newark the playground boys have been organized as cadets and under the instruc- tion of expert drill masters have given very credit- able military exhibitions. In Los Angeles brass bands are organized among the boys and girls, the first instruments having been purchased out of a gift of $400 made by a firm of architects. The beginners use these in- struments until they can secure their own. The cost of the instruction is met by the young people. In Pittsburgh, Cleveland and several other cities the morning and afternoon programs contain both play features and the indoor occupations which belong to the vacation school. In Pitts- burgh several small playgrounds, provided with apparatus, shelter rooms and sand-piles in the charge of trained kindergartners are devoted par- ticularly to little children. In certain cities, where the playground work has reached a high development, organized ath- letics play a prominent part, and baseball matches are arranged with neighboring schools while the track and field athletes from all the yards come together in a final public meet. Because of their increasing importance an entire chapter is devoted to the discussion of organized athletics, games, and folk dancing. 11 161 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT School playgrounds are usually open from 1 130 to 5:30 p.m., though the hours vary in the differ- ent cities. The term lasts usually from six to eight weeks, and begins about the middle of July. Most of the cities throw open their school yards only five days a week, keeping them shut on Saturdays, although in Seattle there are some grounds that are open every week-day from seven in the morning until nine at night. In Rochester some of the playgrounds are open all the year round, and one of them on Sundays as well as week-days. In Buffalo the organized work goes on from May to November, while in two grounds which adjoin school houses opportunity for using their play facilities is afforded half the time throughout the winter. In New York City the roofs of eleven public school buildings are thrown open from 7:30 to 10 o'clock every night except Sundays for eight weeks during the summer. For the boys active games and gymnastics are provided under careful supervision, while on the girls' side an excellent band plays for the dances arranged by the competent instructors always on hand to organize and promote fun. An average of nearly two thousand persons, including many adults as well as young people, nightly attend each of these roof playgrounds. It has become the custom to close the summer season with a public exhibition held usually in one of the large parks. In Newark there are thousands of mothers, fathers and young people 162 SCHOOL PLAYGROUNDS who have come to look forward to the August afternoon upon which the school children will en- tertain them with Indian club drills, gymnastic feats, marching and folk dancing in gay costumes on the velvety sward of the beautiful Branch Brook Park. The close of the term in New York City is marked with public entertainments in each district, some given in armories and others in large parks. The program consists of singing, athletic sports, calisthenics, drills and folk dances. APPARATUS The experience of the playground workers in New York City shows that it is not essential to have expensive or elaborate apparatus. Lrvejy games are what appeal to children and these can be carried on by clever play leaders on groundsv which have a very slight equipment. Cincinnati ^ has provided twenty-five of its school yards with such simple apparatus as jumping standards, horizontal bars, and sand-piles placed in cement beds. ^In Cleveland the equipment of each of the school playgrounds consists of: Six rope swings, six teeters, sand pit, frame swing for little folks, basket ball outfit, tether ball equipment, volley ball outfit, standard for high jumping, spring board, playground balls, and materials for sewing, basket making and raffia work. A satisfactory set of apparatus was put up in a certain school yard in Los Angeles, at a to- tal cost of about 1450. It consists of swings, 163 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT ladders, bars, rings, teeter boards, and May pole, volley ball outfit and a croquet set. In many playgrounds the superintendent or head workers are able to plan and make a large part of the apparatus themselves, thus effecting a great economy in the cost of equipment. Following this plan East Orange was able to fit up five of its school yards with an outlay of about $800. Each yard was provided with three baby ham- mock swings, four larger swings, four teeter boards, a self propelling merry-go-round, a chil- dren's bamboo slide, and a sand box. The apparatus enumerated below was entirely home-made and was used with satisfactory re- sults in Scranton, Pennsylvania. i shoot the chutes 4 box swings for small children under shelter 4 sand bins for small children under shelter 4 large swings i horizontal bar 3 teeters i jump pit 1 basket ball ground and equipment 2 quoit grounds Bean bags, skipping ropes, etc. The expense of equipment was: Bracket for lamps, wires, etc $ 2 7-55 Hauling 3.88 Keys for strong box .30 Carpenter and laborer 7-73 Lumber 96-77 Incidentals 1.86 Rope, pails, dippers, etc I2 -57 Total $213.66 164 TRAINED IN NEWARK PLAY SCHOOLS NEWARK BOYS EXHIBITING FOR THE FAMILY SCHOOL PLAYGROUNDS There are many parts of an equipment which can be easily secured through donations. The Pittsburgh woman's clubs gave 1600 bean bags to the local playground association. Bathing facilities might almost be classed with gymnasium apparatus, as those who exercise actively require a bath afterwards for the sake of mere physical comfort. Many school buildings are already equipped with baths in the basement and these are generally used in connection with the play- ground work. If none exist, inexpensive and satisfactory showers, as has been said, can be rigged up by attaching a nozzle, like that of a sprinkler, to an overhead water pipe. One out of every sixteen of the children who frequent the Buffalo play centers use the baths. ADMINISTRATION As an experiment the Newark Board of Educa- tion left open to the public during the summer all its school yards which were without apparatus or supervised play activities. Hardly any chil- dren visited these yards, many not having a sin- gle child in them all day long. A successful play- ground cannot be run without skilled play lead- ers, and it is just as true in the yard as it is in the class room that wherever you have a weak teacher you will have a dull and diminishing group of children. The New York Board of Education holds special examinations every winter to license candidates ,65 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT for the various positions to be filled during the summer. In the selection of play instructors preference is given to those who have had previous experience, but novices are taken as assistants. Throughout the country there is usually no dis- crimination on account of sex, both men and women being needed on the staff. In Buffalo, where the playgrounds were at one time under the health department, there was at the outset of the work only one woman on the force. She divided her time and attention among the different play- grounds but the large attendance of girls ulti- mately necessitated more women supervisors. In most cities it is customary for the directors or supervisors to hold weekly meetings to discuss future plans. Sometimes they are held in the mornings and vacation school classes are conducted in the yard for the purpose of teaching new games and discussing new methods of discipline and ways of controlling large crowds of children. The Pittsburgh Playground Association organizes a two-days' institute prior to the opening of the playgrounds and also holds weekly teachers' meetings throughout the summer. In Baltimore, applicants for positions in the summer playgrounds are required to enter the winter training classes which hold meetings one evening each week from January to May. Instruction is given in marching, team and gymnastic games, rhythmic dances, story telling, songs, and occupation work. Fre- quent addresses are also made by prominent 1 66 SCHOOL PLAYGROUNDS playground workers. In 1908 the course in- cluded a series of folk and rhythmic dances given by a representative from the Teachers' College of New York. One season in New York there were two play- grounds which were so finely organized and con- ducted that they were held up as models, and principals who wished to improve their work gained many ideas by visiting them. Another year so many new teachers were appointed that the supervisor was obliged to hold a daily morn- ing conference which he conducted like a play- ground, using the new men as pupils. The children who enter the Montclair, New Jersey, playground are required before receiving the badge of membership to sign an agreement not to fight, swear, or smoke on the grounds, and to assist and obey the directors in every way. Discipline was helped out in a school in Rochester by the following mottoes which were painted on the fence surrounding the playground: Self-control is help. The fellow who needs watching is a slave. Noise is no measure of brain. Every fellow here has a right to a help. The good name of Number 9 depends on you. Better lose than cheat. Try 'anyway. A common method of enrolling children in some places is by taking their names and dis- tributing playground buttons; newcomers are 167 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT then readily distinguished, and a child found without a button is asked to give his name. The other children also assist by telling of new- comers. On the Passaic, New Jersey, playgrounds a novel method was employed to command atten- tion and to insure general control. Two shots from a pistol brought all of the children on a dead run to the club house, where they lined up. The director then gave his orders and a single shot sent them flying away to obey them. FORMS OF ORGANIZATION In Auburn, New York, the various parent- teachers' associations connected with the public schools combined for the purpose of carrying on playground work. They appointed a committee which collected money from fraternities, labor organizations, mothers' clubs and individuals. It engaged a director and assistants, secured the use of public school yards (and several other spaces as well), equipped them with apparatus and main- tained a successful work. This is a typical instance of school playground administration in its elemental form. The essential features are the initiation and support by a voluntary or- ganization with the loan of the school grounds as the only element of official co-operation. Work of this type is common throughout the country. The body that organizes the movement may be a civic club, a patriotic or an improvement 1 68 SCHOOL PLAYGROUNDS society; whatever it is, it is generally composed of women. In Madison, New Jersey, the Civic Association and the Thursday Morning Club formed a com- mittee which employed a paid supervisor, got voluntary assistants, and conducted playgrounds in the school yards (as well as in a local athletic field). In this instance the work was partly supported by an appropriation from the common council. In Montclair, a similar undertaking was started and carried on by a chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution, the board of education bearing half of the expense. The Children's Playground Association of Balti- more, enters into a definite contract with the city to maintain a certain number of playgrounds for so many weeks and receives in compensation a fixed sum of money. It also receives contributions from private individuals, churches, schools, clubs, social settlements, and business firms. The school board gives the use of school yards, one room in each building for storage during the summer, and allows the association's training class to meet in two high schools and use their gymnasiums. The association pays for the janitor service. The Pittsburgh Playground Association re- ceives large appropriations from the Central Board of Education as well as the use of buildings and grounds. In Los Angeles, the playground work is conducted by a municipal commission which makes use of school yards in addition to 169 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT parks for its work. The apparatus is left upon the grounds throughout the school year and dur- ing that period the school department employs one of its teachers at each ground to be in charge after school hours and on Saturday afternoons. The shower baths and kindergarten rooms at some of the schools are also used. The city bears the burden of the expense for the play centers, though private contributions are also made. In Syracuse, New York, the park commission has provided a site adjacent to one of the school yards, equipped it with apparatus, and furnished a man to organize ball games among the men and older boys. With the purpose of convincing the municipal officials of the value of more complete supervision, the Solvay Guild, a voluntary organ- ization, has employed a woman supervisor and two women assistants to direct the play of the girls and younger boys, a plan which is now in the way of realization. The Providence playground work carried on (in parks as well as school yards) by a committee of the Common Council of which the mayor is chairman is supported entirely by the city. In Indianapolis it is in the hands of a commis- sion consisting of two members appointed by the school commissioners, two by the park com- missioners, and a fifth appointed by the mayor. The playgrounds of Boston are in charge of the head of the school department of hygiene, 170 SCHOOL PLAYGROUNDS part of the expense being borne by an appropria- tion from the park commission. In New York the board of education playground organization is under the direction of a district superintendent, who is also assigned to vacation schools and evening recreation centers. The Newark school playgrounds are supervised by the director of physical training, while in Cleveland one of the regular day school principals is ap- pointed as supervisor of the summer schools and playgrounds for the vacation season. SCHOOL PLAYGROUND EXPENDITURES During the season of 1909 it cost Pensacola, Florida, $306 to maintain four school play- grounds. Newark spent $14,657 to maintain seventeen, and in 1908 ninety-four play centers in New York City required the expenditure of $74,475.23. These figures illustrate the financial range of the school playground work of the country. It costs the taxpayers of New York City three cents to give a child one afternoon of play in its school yards. The expensiveness of playground work in gen- eral is dependent upon the amount and kinds of apparatus and the number of employes and the amount of their salaries. In many cities, especially where the movement is new, volunteer workers can be obtained, the employment of whom makes the work less expensive but generally also less efficient. 171 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT The salaries paid in Providence, and by the New York Board of Education, are as follows: PROVIDENCE PLAYGROUND SALARIES Supervisor, services prior to, dur- ing and after the playground season $400.00 Directors, third year 2.50 per day second year 2.25 new year 2.00 ' Assistants i .80 ' Matron at America Street School in charge of baths 1.50 ' Librarians and other assistants i .00 ' Janitors i.oo ' NEW YORK BOARD OF EDUCATION PLAYGROUND SALARIES Supervisors $6.00 per day Principals 4.00 per session Teachers 2.50 Assistant teachers 1.75 Teachers of swimming 2.00 Librarians 1.75 Pianists 1.75 " AUSPICES UNDER WHICH THEY START In 1901 a committee of the Detroit Council of Women went to the aldermen for permission to conduct a playground on the site of an abandoned reservoir. The request was made by the com- mittee in person, whereupon one of the aldermen exclaimed, "Vot you vimmins know 'bout boys' play no." The other aldermen were of the same opinion and permission was refused. The 172 I Pu SCHOOL PLAYGROUNDS committee, however, who did know something about boys' play, obtained the use of a school yard and maintained a free supervised playground in it during that summer. The next year the school board was persuaded to put $1200 in its budget for playground work, but added to the item " By request of Women." Women are nobody's constituents and the item did not pass the board of estimate. Again the next year the same com- mittee maintained the school playground out of funds supplied by friends. The following winter they obtained a petition with 14,000 signatures of men as well as women and presented it to the school board with the request for an appropria- tion. The board granted the appropriation and put it in their budget. Through a failure of a bank, however, they were obliged to retrench and the playground item was among the first to go, although it was restored after another entreaty on the part of the playground committee. A campaign of education was then waged in which the clergy, the women's clubs, the societies and the city press got together and aroused a public sentiment so strong that the board of estimate finally passed the item. The Detroit playgrounds were not the first in this country, but they afford a typical example of the manner in which most centers have been started. To the women's organizations throughout the country more than to any other one agency the children owe the extensive use of school yards '73 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT for play purposes. In Pittsburgh, Harrisburg and many other Pennsylvania cities the women's civic clubs initiated the agitation for these centers. In Montclair it was a chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution, in Buffalo a social settlement, in Lexington the Civic League of the Women's Club which began the playground work. In Somerville, Massachusetts, the work was begun with the help of a leading corporation which supplied the director and some inexpensive appa- ratus. I n Rochester the money which the pupils of one of the public schools had accumulated from annual fairs was used to maintain a playground in one of the school yards. The children, teachers and Child Study Circle of a Los Angeles public school by means of an entertainment raised the sum of 1 1 oo which was given to the playground department towards the equipment of a school yard. The agitation for larger play opportunities for the children of the crowded districts of Phila- delphia was begun at a meeting held during the winter of 1894 in the house of Mrs. J. P. Lundy, a prominent member of both the Civic Club and the City Parks Association. The following summer the latter organization opened one playground. The Civic Club became interested and by means of public meetings, petitions, and the securing of the endorsements of other associations, was able to prod the Board of Education to action. During July and August of 1895 four public school yards, SCHOOL PLAYGROUNDS equipped with material and apparatus and in charge of trained kindergartners, were thrown open to the children. The undertaking was so successful that each year the number of these yards has been increased and the appropriations for the summer of 1910 provided for the main- tenance of sixty-five playgrounds on school premises under the director of physical education. Thus the movement which was started in a private house and fostered by voluntary associa- tions has become city-wide in its extent. The Philadelphia Playground Association at its first annual field day, June 20, 1908, had 5,600 boys and girls on one field at one time, playing games, drilling, running and jumping. In July, 1910, the Common Council ordained the formation of a permanent "Public Playgrounds Committee, to have charge of and manage" the various play- grounds and recreation centers of the city. EFFECTS "To provide a probation district with adequate play facilities is coincident with a reduction in delinquency of from twenty-eight to seventy per cent, or forty-four per cent as an average." This is the conclusion of Mr. Allan T. Burns after a systematic study of juvenile court records and the geographical distribution of delinquents with reference to the parks and playgrounds of Chicago. That the establishment of play centers causes a marked decrease in lawlessness among children '75 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT is the testimony of juvenile court officials through- out the country. A Kansas City judge reported that five months after the provision of a play- ground in his district the number of juvenile cases brought before him fell off seventy-five per cent. Judge Caldwell of Cincinnati says, "It has been our universal experience that in those districts where parks and playgrounds have been established there has been a decided, a remarkable decrease in the demands for the supervision of the juvenile court over the child-life of that partic- ular neighborhood/ 7 Judge DeLacy of Washing- ton also declares that he has observed less viola- tion of law in the neighborhood of playgrounds, although he very properly credits the improve- ment to those that are "efficiently supervised." Another obvious though incalculable effect of the provision of play opportunities, particularly in large cities, is a lessening of the loss of chil- dren's lives due to accident in the street or to their frequenting railroad tracks and dangerous swimming places. After the establishment of playgrounds and supervised swimming pools in Rochester the coroner noticed a decided falling off in the accidental deaths of children. His record for 1905 showed that only three were drowned in the canals and other waters about the city, while the average in other years had been fifteen or twenty. The Americanizing influence of the playground has been very noticeable in cities which have a 176 SCHOOL PLAYGROUNDS large immigrant population. Nearly every Sat- urday afternoon, a few years ago, the West Side district of Chicago was the scene of rough and tumble fights between Italian and Slavic boys. Race rivalries and prejudices were commonly the cause of the trouble. A playground and recreation center was established. Now on any Saturday afternoon long lines of Italians and Slavs, as well as Hungarians, Scandinavians, Irish and Germans, may be seen at the door of the swimming pool, awaiting their turn in peace and amity. On one basket ball team a German, a Jew, a Pole and an Irishman are playing side by side for the success of their team. In Buffalo, Italian and German basket ball teams are playing on Polish grounds where hitherto no such assemblage was possible without a fight. "The spirit of my playground/' said a New York principal, "was largely one of entertainment. I was the hostess, and the children the guests. Because of this, many were the courtesies of which I was the recipient. Newcomers were always presented, and permission for privileges was asked, not taken/' The improvement in the demeanor of the young women who visit the eve- ning roof playgrounds of this city has been very marked. They show less boisterousness and more regard for the rights of others. The folk dances bring into their lives an atmosphere of refinement which they do not find in their work in store or shop. 12 177 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT Such a premium is put on babies at the play- grounds that the older children show an unwonted desire to care for them. When the school yards of Cambridge were first opened in the summer- time the attendance was so great that some of the large boys were turned away, the privileges being reserved for the very little ones and such older children as had charge of younger ones. In about an hour a third of the boys who had been denied entrance returned, each carrying a little chap on his arm, and plead to be allowed "to mind baby in the sand." The relief from the care of the toddlers and from the worry over the conduct of mischievous children through the provision of safe and attractive play centers af- fords the women of the laboring classes more time and energy for household tasks. Thus, by the improvement of meals and the appearance of the home, the enheartening of the wage-earner and his consequent increase of efficiency, are set in motion an endless succession of social benefits. The playground movement has greatly in- fluenced school methods by demonstrating that play is educational. Superintendent Brumbaugh of Philadelphia voices an opinion growing more general among school men now-a-days when he says: "In those schools that take the largest intelligent interest in play the discipline is im- proved and the progress of the pupils in their intellectual pursuits is increased." The practical 178 SCHOOL PLAYGROUNDS direction which this influence has taken in re- spect to the conduct of the day school is seen in the promotion of greater athletic and recreative activities during the recess period. In Buffalo, with the full co-operation of the school authorities, members of the regular playground force come to the school yards at recess time and organize ring games and other sports which heighten greatly the value of this period to both pupil and teacher. Several years ago in Pensacola some of the teachers observed that the recess period was not yielding their pupils the proper results. The boys were quarrelsome and the girls constantly caviling. Both sexes were divided into cliques between which there were endless fracases. The yard restrictions were the source of continual friction and it required the whole corps of sixteen men and women stationed about the grounds to keep peace. Finally, two teachers determined to bring about a change. They started in by trying to induce the children to enter into games instead of continuing to stand around in groups gossiping. It took several years, however, and finally the assistance of a sympathetic Y. M. C. A. man, before the children could be persuaded to enter heartily into active sports and joyous play during the daily respites from class-room work. Now the whole school has been converted to the play idea and its recess games are undoubtedly the best in the country. Under their stimulating '79 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT influence a noticeable spirit of comradery has developed between the teachers and pupils. Another way in which the playground agita- tion has influenced the school authorities is that it encourages a larger use of class rooms and yards during the unoccupied margin of the day and week of the regular term. The Newark schools offer opportunities to the girls to practice folk dancing after school hours two evenings a week through- out the year. An increasing number of the cities now have their school yards open all the year round after school and on Saturdays. In Washington the school playgrounds during the term are kept open from 3 :oo p.m. until dark on school days and all day on Saturday. In Los Angeles six are kept open evenings and Sat- urdays throughout the year. In Rochester there is one school yard equipped with playground apparatus which with the approval of the local clergy is open all day Sunday; and the Board of Education is willing to open others as rapidly as the neighborhoods desire. While all the beneficial effects of a park or vacant lot playground may also be claimed for the one in a school yard, in addition there are several considerations which make the latter playground especially needed, particularly dur- ing the vacation season. "When the schools close, the business of my court begins to pick up/' said a western judge. During the Chicago investigation, referred to above, it was discovered 180 SCHOOL PLAYGROUNDS that so far as the prevention of juvenile delin- quency was concerned, the efficiency of a play- ground did not extend much beyond the radius of one-quarter mile. Corroboration of this state- ment is made by a Boston statistician, who com- putes that the usage of municipal playgrounds and baths is practically limited to the radius of a six- minute walk. In view of these facts it is not strange that many cities are finding, as Buffalo has found, that the best results follow the loca- tion of a playground in the yard of or adjacent to a public school. Teachers point out that the children who have had the advantages of the yards during the vacation return to their studies in the fall much more alert and ready for work. Whereas it formerly took several months to get them to keep order, they now take up the school routine without friction or loss of time. These results are especially noticeable in the case of those boys and girls who have attended supervised playgrounds. Here the necessity of waiting one's turn, of having a referee settle disputes, of playing games ac- cording to a program, is so obviously related to everyone's enjoyment that discipline becomes popular and is supported most ardently some- times by those who, in the class room, have been its most constant foes. Besides the circumstance that the school is the natural and familiar center of the activities of a large number of children, the school yard has the added advantage, as a playground site, of shelter 181 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT and toilet rooms, shower baths, kindergarten facil- ities, and of places for the storage of supplies, as well as an office for the director afforded by the building. The school system also has at hand, as the foregoing accounts have demonstrated, the or- ganization necessary for successfully carrying on playground activities. The popular demand for playgrounds has be- come so insistent that many boards of education are now having to buy additional lots near the school houses at greatly increased expense. The authorities are beginning to exercise the foresight of not erecting buildings on sites which do not furnish sufficient space for ample play facilities. It is much cheaper to buy all the land that is needed when the school is first built than to do so after the real estate values in the neigh- borhood have been greatly increased by improve- ments. In the state of Washington a bill was recently introduced requiring that all new sites for school buildings provide, as a minimum, one hundred square feet of play space per child. Although it failed to pass, it is significant that such a bill was presented and that it had the support of the superintendent of public instruc- tion. The Virginia State Board of Education has brought about such a strong sentiment in this respect that superintendents rarely approve any sites which do not afford suitable playgrounds. The complete equipment and utilization of all school yards as playgrounds will not satisfy, ac- 182 SCHOOL PLAYGROUNDS cording to the most enlightened civic policy, the average city's obligations in the way of providing play facilities for its children. Nevertheless, their many advantages make them excellent openings for inserting the wedge of the play- ground movement, and no matter how thickly the municipality may afterwards strew its field houses and recreation centers, there will always be educational and hygienic reasons for having grounds for organized play close to the class room. REFERENCES BANCROFT, JESSIE H.r Games for the Playground, Home, School and Gymnasium. The Macmillan Company, New York, 1909. 456pp. Price 1 1.50. JOHNSON, GEORGE ELLSWORTH: Education by Plays and Games. Ginn and Company, New York, 1907. 234 pp. Price $ .90. LELAND, ARTHUR AND LORNA H.: Playground Technique and Play- craft. The F. A. Bassette Company, Springfield, Mass., 1909. 284 pp. Price $2.50. MERO, EVERETT B.: American Playgrounds, Their Construction, Equipment, Maintenance and utility. American Gymnasia Company, Boston, Mass. 270 pp. Price f 1.50. Each of the three books last named contains an extensive bibli- ography where further references may be found. See also the annual reports of the playground associations and school superintendents of the cities named in the text. VII PUBLIC LECTURES AND ENTERTAIN- MENTS CHAPTER VII PUBLIC LECTURES AND ENTER- TAINMENTS A GLOOMY edifice with deep black spaces for windows, walled in by a high fence and an impregnable gate, is the appear- ance too commonly presented by public schools after nightfall. But with a certain Cleveland building it was different. A broad walk led from the wide-open gate to an illuminated entrance, while from the large front windows came shafts of hospitable light. Curious to know what was going on inside I fell in behind a knot of plainly clad people who were entering at the front door. In the lobby nobody sold or demanded tickets, but a work- ingman in front of me held a card on which was printed, "To Parents. You are invited . . ." His manner was hesitant and uneasy, but, as he entered the attractive assembly room and the luxury of its niched statues and tropical plants reached his senses, I saw him straighten up and his honest face assumed the look of a strange new proprietorship. This noble building and its contents were his own. He was not an outsider here. His credentials were in his hand. He quickly jammed them into his pocket, how- 187 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT ever, when a boy stepped forward with "Come this way, father. I'll show you a seat." Then his face beamed. The people who sat near me nodded constantly to friends in the vicinity. A few very small children were evidently with their parents. Now and then one of the class of white-gowned girls who occupied seats together near the platform, would come down the aisle and whisper to a matronly woman, who would perhaps covertly hand her a handkerchief or shake her head for a decisive "No!" Presently one of the ladies on the platform rose and stood by the speaker's desk. A hush came over the audience. " She's the president of our club," a woman whispered. The presiding officer expressed her pleasure at the large number who had come and hoped that they would tell their friends of the succeeding entertainments. One week from that night they were to hear a lecture on the "Spirit of Our National Holidays," illustrated by stereopticon views, by Mrs. Elroy M. Avery, who would appear before them under the auspices of the Western Reserve Chapter of the Daughters of the American Revo- lution. Before listening to the speaker of the evening, they were to have music by pupils of the eighth grade. The white-gowned class then filed upon the platform and sang a lullaby with such success that they were obliged to respond to an encore. 1 88 PUBLIC LECTURES AND ENTERTAINMENTS Then a boy's chorus contributed an enjoyable song, and the musical part of the program was completed. The presiding officer announced that it was the extraordinary good fortune of the audi- ence to have with them that evening a clergyman who .... Immediately I spotted him on the platform. What, a Protestant! There was no mistaking his cloth. I looked around the audience, which was denominationally mixed in a way only possible in a city with a large immigrant population. Did such use of public buildings "go" in Cleveland? The title of his address was "Give the Boy Another Chance." My fears began to recede and before he had finished his plea the audience gave a demonstration of the fact that such things did "go" with them. The audience took a long time to disperse. The little groups into which it first broke had a great deal to talk and laugh about. Then they dis- solved and formed other combinations which likewise laughed and talked. Here and there were teachers, to whom a succession of pupils were bringing their fathers and mothers. Up in front the clergyman who had spoken was receiv- ing the patronesses and their husbands. Reluc- tantly the people gave way to the janitor waiting to close up. These lectures and entertainments in public school buildings have become a regular part of Cleveland's evening amusement program for the winter. The Daughters of the American Revolution 189 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT provide a score or so of programs in as many dif- ferent schools, supplemented by patriotic music by seventh and eighth grade pupils. The Fortnightly Musical Club gives a dozen concerts, and the Rubinstein semi-chorus appears in recitals. The normal school and high school glee clubs con- tribute music, and public spirited citizens who have traveled deliver illustrated lectures on what they have seen in their journeys. The Anti- Tuberculosis League furnishes illustrated talks. An interesting part of the Cleveland program is made up of plain talks to the parents by distin- guished citizens. The school principals tell how the parent and teacher can co-operate; the business man speaks upon "The Boy in Business and Some Things He Must Know"; clergymen tell "How Boys Become Men," or discuss the question "Does a Child Need Discipline or Sympathy?"; representatives of the Good Government clubs speak on "The Child and the Citizen." The librarian explains how the library can benefit the child; a local judge shows how habit makes the boy; a prominent banker speaks on the practice of saving, and a well-known physician addresses the parents upon the need of wholesome pleasures for children. The Western Reserve University pro- fessors give extension lectures upon such topics as "The Great English Novelists," "The Indus- trial Corporation" or "Trade Unionism and the Labor Problem." In short, the annual program draws upon all the intellectual, artistic and civic 190 PUBLIC LECTURES AND ENTERTAINMENTS resources of the city. During a recent winter, one hundred of these free lectures and entertain- ments were given to Cleveland audiences, aggre- gating over 30,000 persons, without one cent of cost beyond the expense of heating and lighting the school auditoriums, printing, running stere- opticons, and some minor expenses of service. This work is carried on by the Committee on Lectures and Social Center Development of the Board of Education, of which committee Mrs. Sarah E. Hyre is the chairman. Before her marriage Mrs. Hyre was a teacher, and since then she has had two sons in the Cleveland schools. Her interest in educational matters, developed through pro- fessional experience and stimulated by parental responsibility, led to her election as a member of the Board of Education. She was also a member of the Daughters of the American Revolution, and it occurred to her that the education in patriotism that her society wished to advance could be promoted by means of entertain- ments furnished by the society and held in school buildings. At that time the Cleveland Board of Education had not enacted any rules covering the observance of holidays in the schools or defined the uses which could be made of the school buildings. Therefore in March, 1905, a committee of the board, of which Mrs. Hyre was chairman, prepared a set of regulations covering these two points, which were adopted by 191 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT the board. They contained the following para- graph: USE OF BUILDINGS. The use of school build- ings for all educational purposes, other than the usual school routine, shall be at the discretion of the Superintendent of Instruction and the Director of Schools, providing that no more than two paid entertainments be given in any one school district during the year, and provided further that there should be no house to house solicitation for the sale of tickets for such entertainments. In all other cases the Board of Education shall give special per- mission for the use of the school building. Mrs. Hyre begins in April to make her plans for the following season. On the opening of school in September, each principal is asked to reserve certain dates for the winter lectures. As these dates draw near, the principals arrange for the musical numbers, if children are to sing, send out cards of invitation to parents, and choose the presiding officers. The chairman of each enter- tainment is a patron of the district, and in some wards the members of the mothers' club connected with the school act as hostesses. In certain dis- tricts the work has met with such hearty support that the local organizations are not only providing a director to attend to the arrangements, but contribute the program as well. The painstaking oversight exercised by Mrs. Hyre is exemplified by her custom, as the date for a lecture approaches, of telephoning both the speaker and the principal, and of thus making sure that the engagement has not been forgotten 192 PUBLIC LECTURES AND ENTERTAINMENTS or the janitor left unadvised about the heat and light. Having no funds with which to hire speakers with well-attested drawing power, she has skilfully selected topics of such interest as "What is a Man Worth?" "The Habit of Being on Time/' and "Crossing the Bridge with our Children/' She did not hit casually upon this policy, but it is the outcome of her valuable experience. In the early stages of the work a couple of dry lectures on "Iron Ore" and "How to Tell Time from the Sun" had temporarily almost disastrous effects upon the popularity of the lectures in the locality where they were given. After that Mrs. Hyre placed her dependence mainly upon subjects taken from everyday life, matters that touch the family, the school or the purse. Such topics interest people, even if they are not presented by orators of conspicuous ability. The Cleveland public lectures committee has steadily refused the use of school buildings to those desiring to discuss socialistic or other partisan policies. This strict regard for deeply- settled opinions has been a strong element in the permanence of the support given to the work by the community. After one of the illustrated talks on " How We May Aid the Fight Against Tuberculosis," the committee received forty letters from the pupils of one school telling of the sanitary benefits in their homes which had followed as a result of the lecture. This is an illustration of the enlighten- 3 193 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT ment upon matters related to the physical and civic health of the city resulting from this work. It is now attracting so much attention that Mrs. Hyre is receiving many requests for information, and invitations to tell about it upon the lecture platform. Recently the methods of the work were investigated by a committee from the Chicago Board of Education, and their report ended with a strong recommendation that Chicago introduce a similar system of lectures. The Cleveland system has been described not because it is typical of the public lecture work of the country, since it is a unique system, but because it well illustrates the various ways in which this method of employing idle school buildings benefits the public; at the same time it serves as an example of educational enterprise that might easily be copied by any American community. FORMS OF THE LECTURE AND ENTERTAINMENT ORGAN- IZATIONS WHICH USE SCHOOL BUILDINGS "On Monday, February 8, at 7.30 p.m., at the High School, Dr. of the Normal School, will begin a series of Lecture Classes on 'The Work of the School in Society.' . . . This course is intended especially for the teachers/' This announcement appeared not long ago on the school bulletin boards of a certain middle- west city. It discloses the school lecture move- ment in its embryonic form. To improve the 194 PUBLIC LECTURES AND ENTERTAINMENTS work of the teaching force was the motive which gave rise to it, and the first school superintendents who called in pedagogical experts and college professors after school to instruct and inspire the teachers are responsible for its beginning. While the lectures announced above represent an early type, the school work of the city where they are given is not to be regarded as primitive in character. This is only one of the many courses and entertainments annually offered in the school buildings of that city. These pedagogical lectures still survive in school systems because they serve a useful purpose. The lecturer is usually paid a fee and the expense is borne by the school board. The public is not denied admission, but the technical character of the addresses ordinarily keeps it away. More modern in origin, but not less loosely or- ganized, is that scheme of miscellaneous lectures and entertainments which are given occasionally in school buildings under various auspices. A pupils' chorus sings "The Creation" and devotes the proceeds to the purchase of pictures and casts to adorn school walls. The French class of the high school presents " Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme," and bestows its door-receipts on the school paper. Some traveling quartettes, a company of glee singers, a cartoonist, a humorist and several professional lecturers are engaged to appear in a winter entertainment course in the high school, and the expenses are met by selling tickets. A WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT group of public spirited citizens joins with the school superintendent to promote a series of first-class musical concerts for which an admission fee of ten cents is charged. Sometimes the school board allows clubs to give lectures in the as- sembly hall on the understanding that they ad- mit the public generally. To meet expenses they are allowed to take up a "silver offering/' This same scheme includes free lectures. There is the noon address in the central high school by the famous juvenile court judge who has been persuaded by the women's civic club to stop on his way through the city. An authority on play- ground work lectures before the local playground association and such of the citizens as have the leisure at four o'clock to journey to the high school, on "The Playground as a Social Factor in the Community." At the conclusion of the lecture, questions are asked as to the ways in which people can be actively interested and the city council be induced to make appropriations. The Federation of Women's Clubs supports entertainments on Sunday afternoons in school buildings for the purpose of attracting people from the cheap theatres and nickelodeons. In Lawrence, Massachusetts, there is a teachers' association under the auspices of which a course of lectures is given every winter in one of the school auditoriums. Their programs include not only such professional topics as "Some Ideals for the Teacher," but those of more general interest, 196 PUBLIC LECTURES AND ENTERTAINMENTS as an "Interpretative Recital of 'Othello/" To these lectures the public is invited as well as the teachers, and in that way the association ac- complishes its purpose "to develop a more general acquaintanceship . . . between the teachers and members of the community." Most of the organizations of this sort employ lecturers of reputation, and the expense is met by assessments made upon the members. In other cities, as in Lawrence, the superintendent of schools is generally the president of the as- sociation, which fact frequently gives the or- ganization a semi-official character. The lectures provided for under these auspices are on a more permanent basis than those that depend upon the initiative of the school superintendent alone, and upon the contingency, perhaps, of surplus school funds; and when chosen by an association their range of subjects usually extends beyond the bounds of pedagogy. This establishes them upon a broader foundation of human needs and in- terests. Coming now to a slightly more substantial form of lecture administration, an instance is presented in the work of the Grand Rapids Library Commission. Certain of its branch li- braries are located in school buildings where courses of free evening lectures are given during the winter under the direction of the library officials. The topics are selected with a view to the civic needs, and the attendance frequently '97 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT exceeds the seating capacity of the halls. " How the City Spends Your Money" was the title of a series of unusually instructive lectures given by municipal officials. The Philadelphia Home and School League arranges courses by prominent scientists and professional people upon subjects pertaining to community welfare, held in connection with the public meetings of the teacher-parent socie- ties in the various school houses. The Bos- ton Home and School Association has estab- lished a bureau which assists its branch associa- tions in arranging free lecture courses. Both of these are voluntary organizations, and they receive no aid from the school authorities be- yond the use of the school buildings, heat and light. The lecturers usually give their ser- vices and the addresses are frequently supple- mented by music furnished by the pupils. For certain of its lecture courses the St. Paul Insti- tute of Arts and Sciences uses one of the high school halls. The use of the building is given by the school board, and the expenses of the lectures are met by membership fees and the sale of tickets to non-members. With organiza- tions of this class, the lecture work is on a more permanent basis, but it is still either an incidental activity or one of a group of activities receiving approximately equal attention and support. Of the public lecture systems maintained by boards of education, the form administered by PUBLIC LECTURES AND ENTERTAINMENTS a committee of the board has already been pre- sented in the description of the Cleveland work. Other forms may be touched upon. In Rochester lectures and entertainments constitute part of the social center work (see Chapter IX), the super- vision of which together with tha of playgrounds and vacation schools falls to one man. The school lectures of Cincinnati were one year under the charge of the supervisor of physical training. In Newark they are directed by the Supervisor of Evening Schools and Lectures. In 1901, when the Boston School Board established its lecture system on a firm footing, it asked one of its prominent school supervisors to assume charge. He was assisted by a local director at each center who saw to the advertising in his section of the city, arranged for the preservation of order, and otherwise looked after the comfort of the audience. Each of these directors had had a successful experience in school administration and was well known in the neighborhood he served. The New York school lectures are administered by a department which is co-ordinate with that of the city superintendent and reports directly to the Board of Education. Its head has a perma- nent staff of assistants and a corps of superin- tendents and stereopticon operators as thoroughly trained and organized as the employes of a modern business corporation. 199 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT THE NEW YORK LECTURES A visitor to one of the evening lecture centers sees first two flaring gas lamps illuminating a bulletin board and a pair of quick-yielding doors; then he passes into a lobby, or perhaps up a flight or two of clean stairs, animate with a pro- cession of babbling people, and enters a sloping, amphitheatre-like auditorium or else a level, desk- filled assembly room where a man is busy with rubber tubes, copper tanks, and a machine on a tripod which contains two eyes, one over the other, that look straight at a square, white expanse stretched wall-like on the platform in front. Or perhaps, instead of this bleached surface, he sees some tables laden with test-tubes, retorts, and wicked yellow bottles, and nearby a young man crushing gritty stuff in a mortar; or maybe a background of charts shining with muscle, nerves and viscera, setting off an amiable skele- ton swinging idly from a nail, and a boy with bandaged leg and head lying supine on a table amongst "red cross" lint and aseptic cotton. Or in the place of this hospital and laboratory paraphernalia he may confront an open piano with sheet-music anticipatively placed. But al- ways he finds a hushed audience, devoid of children, awaiting the terse introduction of the speaker of the evening by the official-like person- age in charge. These are some of the things witnessed between 7:30 and 8:15 on a winter's 200 COMMUNITY KEEPING UP WITH SCIENCE, NEW YORK INSTRUCTION EVERYBODY NEEDS PUBLIC LECTURES AND ENTERTAINMENTS evening at the school lecture centers in New York. A moment after the latter hour, the doors will be locked and the door-tender beyond the reach of entreaties. Only 1 19 out of the 610 buildings controlled by the Board of Education are used as lecture centers, but in some fifty other buildings, chiefly club halls and churches, addresses are given under their auspices. A staff of over 600 lecturers, from every walk in life, are employed in this work. Besides a large company of professors and instructors representing fourteen colleges and universities, there are experts in city-planning, housing, and playgrounds, authorities on explosives, street- cleaning, and municipal water supply, art stu- dents who have traveled in Italy and Greece, educators loaded with fresh spoils from the British Museum, distinguished scientists, eminent jurists, influential politicians, public spirited phy- sicians and prominent citizens of all classes. As for the things they talk about, here is a list of titles chosen from the program of 1908-9: "Municipal Cleaning and Its Relation to Public Health," " Housing in Europe," "Goethe: Man the Mirror of the World," "Walt Whitman and the Hope of Democracy," " Mohammedanism and the Crusades," " Uncle Sam's Own Story of the Declaration of Independence," "The City Beau- tiful, or the Planning and Embellishment of Cities," "How Shall a Girl Earn a Living?" "The Man That Is Down and Out," "The Songs 201 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT and Basketry of the North American Indians," "Applications of Electric Signals," "The Life Story of the Honey Bee," "The Treatment of Shock, Bleeding, Burns, Exposure to Cold and Frostbite," "Life in a Coal Breaker," "Real Cowboy Life in the Far West," "Street Life in Paris," and "A Trip to Central Africa." Alto- gether there were 1 575 different topics, covering the whole field of human interests, upon which the audiences were instructed and entertained. In one particular center, weekly lectures on science were given for seven years, thus affording a relatively complete equivalent of a college educa- tion in that department of knowledge. A recent annual program contained one hundred courses, running from twenty-eight to three lectures each, many presented by the same person, and all of them related in subject and systematically de- veloped. Professor Shotwell gave twenty-eight lectures on "Epochs of History," and twenty- seven of the persons who attended throughout the course passed an examination and received certi- ficates of credit approved by Columbia Univer- sity and the supervisor of lectures. Certificates for attendance and proficiency in examination were also awarded at the close of twenty-eight lectures on "Economics" given by Professor Clark of Columbia University and Dr. Guthrie of The College of the City of New York. Audiences aggregating 27,460 persons attended the five- lecture courses on "First Aid to the Injured," 202 PUBLIC LECTURES AND ENTERTAINMENTS which were held in thirty-eight different centers and required the services of twelve physi- cian lecturers. The final examinations were passed by 986 persons. The remaining ninety- seven courses were not followed by closing tests, but in many cases printed syllabi were distributed among the audience, and it was the practice of the lecturers to answer questions and suggest sources of information at the close of each meeting. Thus it is seen that the New York lectures are not a mere miscellany of serious addresses and frivolous entertainments, but constitute a definitely planned system of adult education. That instruction for the voter is not forgotten is shown by the important share of the program which is given to the discussion of civic problems. Thirteen addresses on municipal topics such as "Docks and Ferries/' "The Public Service Com- mission," "The New York Tax Department," and "Our New Water Supply," were given a year ago at different centers by prominent city officials. Another popular course of six lectures dealt with the various phases of Congestion of Population. The expert social workers and officials who gave this course, treated not only such sinister subjects as the "Factories, Tene- ments and the Sweating System" but also the constructive, remedial forces existing, in "City Planning" and "Parks and Playgrounds." Dr. Henry M. Leipziger, the head of the New York public lectifres for "working men and working 203 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT women/' as they were first entitled, believes that "the great questions confronting our citizens are in the last analysis educational/' and through the provision of such courses as these he demon- strates his faith " that politics treated as education will become freed from partisanship." The home study of the subjects discussed was stimulated by displaying along with the lecture bulletins the location of the most convenient branch of the public library, where books were especially set apart for supplementary reading. A librarian wrote: "At one course on 'The Far East' books recommended for reading were placed conspicuously with the result that twenty-eight books were each consulted thirty-three times/' All of the science lectures were accompanied by demonstrations with apparatus, and most of the travel lectures and those on special subjects were illustrated with stereopticon views, and in a few instances with motion pictures. At some, cos- tumes and exhibits were shown. If the Board of Education lectures given dur- ing one year in the five metropolitan boroughs were all offered on one evening, it would re- quire approximately the total adult population of a city the size of Chicago to provide the customary audiences. To be more precise, the aggregate attendance at these lectures during the 1908-09 season amounted to 1,213,116 per- sons. And what a cosmopolitan multitude they were! Croatian, Greek, Russian, Hebrew, Sicilian, 204 SHAKESPEARE FOR THE PEOPLE IN BROOKLYN YIDDISH AUDIENCE IN A NEW YORK SCHOOL PUBLIC LECTURES AND ENTERTAINMENTS Lithuanian, Yankee, Magyar, Pole (pupils from twenty-three different racial groups attend one of the East Side schools) all participated in the educational benefits derived from these lectures. The Yiddish, Italians, and Germans come in such large numbers that special lecturers, speaking their own ^ongues, are provided. The people from Italy hear Dr. Luigi Roversi speak upon the "Rights and Duties of an American Citizen/' Mr. Joseph E. Eron tells his Hebrew neighbors about the "Great American Literary Men" and Mrs. Franziska Hopf lectures to her German compatriots upon musical subjects. For the more recent immigrants, the lectures are so fully illustrated with pictures and demon- strations that they are to a large degree intelli- gible without a full knowledge of English; some- times their attractiveness is further increased by the introduction of a short musical program previous to the lecture proper. Frequently when views of Southern Europe are thrown on the screen one can hear some Greek, I talian or Spaniard utter- ing irrepressible ejaculations of joyful recognition. The various centers usually draw their audiences from their own locality, which gives them a certain individuality. On the other hand the lectures are so well advertised, several of the dailies print the weekly and evening programs as matters of news, that a popular speaker or a topic of unusual interest will draw persons from all sections of the city. Such an announcement 205 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT as the "Folk Songs of Scandinavia/' will bring together a large number of Norwegians and Swedes. "To spur the thoughtful, to stimulate the student, to awaken a desire for reading," has been the fundamental motive in this system of free adult instruction which Dr. Leipziger during the past twenty years has built up under the Board of Education. The skill and success with which this didactic purpose has been worked out, is shown both by the fifty-fold increase in the attendance during the two decades of their ex- istence and by the large number of appreciative letters annually received from the participants in the lecture benefits. Here are a few excerpts: "Dr. Osier's theory doesn't worry me. I work hard all day at manual work, but in the evening I feel like a child attending school with regard to these grand, instructive lectures." "My husband and I take it turn about staying with the children, so the other can attend the lectures. It is our only diversion." "I have found these lectures (on metallurgy) ex- tremely interesting as well as of particular service to me on account of my being in the iron business." " 1 am an old bachelor and live in a furnished room; I have no place to spend my evenings except in the saloons, and I suppose I have saved $100 by attending these lectures, for which I am very thankful to the Board of Education." 206 PUBLIC LECTURES AND ENTERTAINMENTS COST OF LECTURES ijrf At the present time the average cost of each of the board of education lectures to the New York taxpayers is only $26.05. This amount includes not only the lecturer's fee but the expense con- nected with the use of stereopticons, the scien- tific material used, printing and administration. When the cost is computed on the basis of at- tendance, it amounts to only twelve cents per lecture for each person, ^uniform fee of ten dollars is paid for each lecture, and in spite of the nominal character of this fee some of the most distinguished speakers in the country have ap- peared upon its platforms. Newark, New Jersey, also has a paid lecture system in which, during the year ending June 30, 1909, 273 lectures were given at a cost of $23.65 per lecture. In Jersey City during the winter of 1908-09, ninety-eight lectures were given at a cost of $19.69 each. Milwaukee conducted a winter course of seventy-four lectures in its school buildings at a cost of $33.76 each. The inexpensiveness of the Cleveland lectures has been indicated in an earlier part of this chapter. CHILDREN AND THE LECTURES School children are not admitted to the public lectures in the school buildings of New York, Milwaukee and several other cities. They are kept out on account of their tendency to giggle, whisper and manifest a general restlessness that 207 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT interferes with the enjoyment of the auditors and the efforts of the speaker. On the other hand, the older children attend the Cleveland entertain- ments, and no disorder of consequence has re- sulted. Newark also admits the advanced pupils of the grammar schools. It is pointed out that many subjects are interesting to children of this age and that a regard for the future of the lecture system requires the training of young people in the "lecture habit/' With this in view many superintendents advocate special school lectures which will interest the older boys and girls. It is suggested that a children's course of illustrated talks, correlated possibly with some of the class- room work, could very profitably be given in various school centers after school hours, to which only the pupils of certain grades would be admitted. Such a course might involve the pay- ment of a fee to the lecturer, but being so directly related to school work there should be no difficulty in getting the board of education to bear this expense. An excellent series of talks for school children has been prepared under the auspices of the Moral Education Board of Baltimore (903 Calvert Building). They are on such topics as "The Ethics of Sport," "Who is the Gentleman," "The True Sportsman," "What I'm Going to do When I'm Grown Up," and "What Men Think About Boys' Fights." They are all illustrated by lantern slides made from photographs of 208 PUBLIC LECTURES AND ENTERTAINMENTS real scenes in American and English games and sports. Extreme care has been used in the selection of situations that have moral significance and tend to produce positive effects in the minds of children, and while the pictures are being thrown upon the screen carefully worded remarks upon what is fine and right in conduct are made by the speaker. These picture talks have been prepared in such a form that they can be delivered by any intelligent person. The Board sends its expert to give a demonstration lecture and after that the addresses are easily managed by a prin- cipal or teacher. The rental of the furnished talks and slides involves a nominal expense, but their power to interest is so great that they have already been successfully used in New York, Newark and many other cities, while the Board has received written endorsements from over one hundred eminent educators and publicists, all heartily approving its "illustrated lessons in morals." SOURCES OF SPEAKERS AND TOPICS There are a large number of organizations devoted to public welfare which either have as- sociated with them, or know of, persons who may be secured to give addresses upon the subjects with which they are dealing. In this way they find an opportunity to publish the results of their in- vestigations, awaken public sentiment and propa- gate the ideas for which they stand. Through 4 209 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT correspondence with these organizations speakers of national reputation can frequently be obtained at the cost of their traveling expenses only. The National Child Labor Committee cheerfully co-operates with school public lecture courses in presenting various phases of its work. It has a staff of lecturers who regularly respond to in- vitations, without charge to affiliated organiza- tions and for a reasonable honorarium in the case of outside societies. The School of Philanthropy of New York has an extension service, and arranges with members of its staff for single lectures or courses of lectures upon social, philanthropic and charitable topics. One im- portant course it gives is upon "The Care of Children/' The usual charge for this service is $20 and traveling expenses for each lecture. The new co-operative agency for civic advance known as "Boston-i9i5" (6 Beacon Street, Boston), has established a speakers' bureau and is enlisting business and professional men to serve the move- ment by explaining its details to audiences in- terested in such work. While this bureau is chiefly concerned with requests from Boston and its metropolitan district, any call for a speaker to go to a greater distance will be welcomed, and if possible, some one will be sent. The United States Department of Agriculture also furnishes speakers on certain occasions. Con- cerning this work the Secretary of Agriculture has written: "The Department maintains in its Office 210 PUBLIC LECTURES AND ENTERTAINMENTS of Experiment Stations an Agricultural Education Service in which the time of several specialists is devoted to the study of educational problems, particularly those concerned with the introduction of instruction in nature study, school gardening, and elementary agriculture into the public schools, and this service, as well as some of the other Bureaus of the Department, frequently furnishes speakers at large educational gatherings where leading educators are assembled and there is likely to be opportunity to exert a wide influence on educational policy." In most states there are certain institutions and organizations from which speakers may be secured. Such are the experimental ^stations attached to the agricultural colleges, the state de- partment of public instruction, the home econom- ics department of the state university and the similar departments of agricultural colleges, and the various state conferences of charity. The success of an application for a lecturer de- pends largely upon the importance of the occasion and the opportunity it offers for promoting the interests of his organization. To invest the oc- casion with the proper "importance" the enter- prising director will enlist the assistance of the local organization that is identified with the same cause as the speaker. If he is baiting his hook for a celebrated champion of the playground move- ment, he will get the local playground associa- tion to extend the invitation and afterwards in- 211 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT duce the members to act as patrons of the meeting. The association will then help with the audience. The people will hear a distinguished speaker, the playground movement will be advanced, and the school lecture work will score a success. In applying to outside organizations for speakers it is important to give full information in regard to the size and character of the audience expected, hours and dates preferred, general topics and type of lecture (technical, popular, or illustrated) de- sired and the maximum expense which may be incurred. When the lecturers are not paid a fee the chief reliance will have to be placed usually upon those people who have interesting subjects to talk about even though they are not finished speakers. In every community there is a large class of such persons from whom addresses, at once profitable and enjoyable, can be obtained with- out charge. The local historical society often has some member who can talk entertainingly on the early history of the community. Almost every town has a natural history society among the members of which there is some geologist who can describe, and frequently illustrate with lantern slides, the formations of the earth's crust in that locality. Social settlement workers may be found who will give addresses upon pertinent local social problems. Often the public librarian will be glad to avail himself of the school-house platform to tell the community about the resources of his library. Many medical associations contain pub- 212 PUBLIC LECTURES AND ENTERTAINMENTS lie spirited members upon whom the community can draw for instructive addresses on such topics as the way in which the city's health can be con- served. The following is a partial list of organizations, or classes of persons from whom lectures can be frequently obtained without cost, together with suggestions as to topics and titles: CITY SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS How the Board of Education Spends Your Money The Cash Value of a High School Training DENTAL SOCIETY How to Care for the Teeth MANUFACTURER OF PROMINENCE The Habit of Being on Time Why We Have a Time Register in Our Office Morals and the Factory MEDICAL ASSOCIATION The Fight Against Tuberculosis The Prevention of Communicable Diseases A more complete list will be found in Appen- dix A. Whether the lecturers are employed or give their services, whether they come from a distance or are selected from the community, a school lecture system will fail of its highest usefulness unless it satisfies real needs and is conducted in such a way as to secure the people's earnest co-operation. On this subject Dr. Leipziger says: 213 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT "Participation by the people in the work of the public lectures is desired, for thought and reading must be encouraged. It is not only our duty to provide instruction in art, literature and science alone, but it is in a larger sense our pro- vince to train the people in the knowledge of the very problems which they as voters are called upon to decide. It is our test that eventually, through the medium of the public lectures, each school house and lecture hall shall become a gen- uine people's forum." REFERENCES ADAMS, HERBERT B.: Educational Extension in the United States. Report of the U. S. Commissioner of Education, 1899-1900 Vol. i, pages 330-334- CLARK, E. P.: The Free Lecture Movement. Nation, 74:363. 1902. ILES, G.: How a Great Free Lecture System Works. World's Work, 5 13327. 1903. LEIPZIGER, HENRY M.: Free Lectures. Critic, 28:329. 1896. (History of the lecture movement.) Free Lectures to the People. Annual reports by the Supervisor of Lectures to the New York Board of Education. From 1889 to 1909. See also Free Public Lectures, Report of the Committee on Evening Schools, School Document No. 13, 1903, Boston; Lecture Bureau, Boston Home and School Association, 405 Marlborough Street, Boston, Mass., 1909. Annual Report of the Philadelphia Home and School League, 112 South i3th Street; and the annual reports of the superintendents of schools of the cities named in the text. 214 VIII EVENING RECREATION CENTERS CHAPTER VIII EVENING RECREATION CENTERS ACROSS the deserted spaces of Tompkins Square Park a January storm was sweeping. The benches were empty; the iron play ap- paratus stood stark and useless within its enclosure while, farther on, the chutes, swings and sand- heaps furnished sport only to the chilling night winds. A few persons, tight-buttoned and shiver- ing, were moving rapidly along the asphalt walks. One passer-by, however, struck by the sharp con- trast between this scene and the one which had greeted his eyes during a former visit to New York in the month of July, stopped and looked about. Then the benches had been filled with tired men smoking their evening pipes and women watching their babies in nearby go-carts, while in the less illuminated spots young couples were engaged in conversation. On the playgrounds noisy, happy children were climbing and swinging, or digging in the sand. The grass-plots were occupied by groups of tiny toddlers attended by older sisters and, here and there, an exhausted laborer lay stretched out on a newspaper fast asleep. It had seemed on that warm night as if the bursting 217 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT tenements which hemmed in the park had over- flowed, depositing their cramped and perspiring inmates upon its hospitable sward. As now the traveler started down East Ninth Street he wondered how that surplus humanity was stowing itself when the summer annex to its living abode was no longer habitable. The tene- ments were no larger and their occupants no fewer than they had been in July. Where could the boys and girls of these homes find space for recrea- tion on a winter's evening? This question, made all the more insistent by the sight of narrow build- ings, small windows, ugly fire-escapes and gar- bage receptacles placed in front because there was no driveway to the wretched court in the rear was still pressing for an answer when his attention was attracted by a five-storied edifice of brick and stone whose dignified architecture con- trasted strangely with the surrounding squalor. The two end wings of the building came out to the sidewalk and were connected by a high brick wall that was surmounted by an ornamental stone cop- ing. I n the middle of this wall was a wide gateway approached by several steps leading up from the sidewalk, through which could be seen a small courtyard and the central part of the building. The ground floor and the one above it were brilliantly lighted. Some boys came running up the steps and passed on towards the main entrance. The building was plainly a school house, but these lads did not have the appearance of evening pupils 218 EVENING RECREATION CENTERS and so, driven by curiosity, the passing stranger followed them inside. The entrance room, pleasantly warmed by steam radiators, appeared to be as wide as the building, but though entirely devoid of furniture the effect of its natural spaciousness was lessened by heavy pillars which supported the upper stories and broke up the vast concrete floor into more or less distinct sections every one of which was now occupied by an animated group of boys. Immediately in front a number of youths standing in a circle were passing a ball as large as a pump- kin, back and forth, while a lad in the center attempted to intercept it. Just beyond, a pre- occupied group were engaged in a game of shuffle- board. Over on the right a dozen boys took turns at tossing rings of rope, each aiming to pitch his quoit over the point of a stake which hung in a frame at the middle so that it oscillated back and forth. Nearby was a quartette of youngsters with toy racquets playing ping-pong around a long table. A room on the right was equipped as a gymna- sium. At one end two lines of eager little fellows stood waiting their turns to participate in the lively potato race then in progress. To give the event novelty the clean, well set-up young man in jersey and "gym" trousers who was conducting it, had each pair of starters lie face up on a mat at the head of the lane through which they were to run. When he cried "Go!" they sprang to their 219 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT feet and darted for the potatoes with the greatest agility. The contestant who first finished gather- ing his vegetables into the waste-basket set at the starting-place made a score for his side which was chalked on the floor amidst the lusty cheers of his co-players. Across the room was a line of older boys following their leader in a series of "stunts" on the horizontal bar while at the farther end others amused themselves vaulting over a buck or swing- ing on the flying rings. "At seven-thirty, when the boys first come in," explained the teacher, "they are allowed a few minutes of free play. Then we put them through a stiff setting-up drill. All-round development is our aim." The visitor was next conducted through the main hall to a more brilliantly lighted room in the rear which was comfortably filled with groups of boys sitting round small stands and tables. Some were playing checkers while others were deep in the intricacies of chess; parchesi, authors, geo- graphical and historical card games were also in use, and so intent were most of the players that few noticed the presence of spectators. This was called the "quiet-games room." In the farther end was a long table at which sat a number of youths poring over magazines and newspapers. Nearby a businesslike young man was recording and giving out books to some eager lads standing in a line which was being constantly replenished by those who had made their selections from the shelves. One carried off "Robinson Crusoe" 220 >' : : :"' :,: s * ' ,"> i ** * COMPETING AGAINST STREET LOAFING IN A NEW YORK CENTER QUIET CORNER IN A GIRLS' CENTER EVENING RECREATION CENTERS while the next received "The Boys of '76." "Treasure Island" was obtained by a third, and a youth of more serious mien asked for a book that would help him prepare for the Civil Service ex- aminations. The books formed one of the travel- ing libraries which belong to the New York Public Library and were changed at regular intervals. The left wing of the building contained an im- mense room similar in appearance to its counter- part but entirely without apparatus or mats. Except for ten active fellows in jerseys, short pants and rubber-soled shoes, and a man with a whistle, its floor was clear of persons up to the fringe of spectators, one or two rows deep, that lined its edges. High up on the end walls were the familiar iron hoops and twine nets which con- stitute the narrow goals of basket ball. At that moment the rush of the players was halted by the shrill whistle of the referee and a curly-headed youth was given the ball to make a "try "for the goal because of a "foul" committed by the other team. The ball struck the hoop, circled around it and finally dropped through the trailing net. Thereupon the crowd in the opposite corner emit- ted a deafening outburst of cries, cat-calls and applause. "Those are the Wingate rooters," re- marked the principal. "That point ties the score." "And who might the Wingates be?" asked the visitor. "One of our clubs. Their team is defending this goal while those representing the Saranac 221 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT Athletic Club have the other. You see all the fellows who come here are asked to join a club. We have now twenty-two of them. After these fellows get through, the Young America and the Roosevelt clubs will have a chance to play and meanwhile the Cosmos and the Levity clubs are having their turn in the gymnasium. By organizing the boys into societies we are able to arrange a schedule whereby everybody has an opportunity to enjoy systematically all of the privileges. My staff consists of two gymnasts, one game-room teacher, and one club director. There are 475 boys and young men in the build- ing this evening and the benefits they receive cost the taxpayers about four cents apiece." After ascending a flight of stairs visitor and guide passed down a long corridor and presently found themselves in an ordinary class room. The teacher's place was occupied by a young man with a gavel, while at his side sat the secretary writing in a blank book. Scattered about the room be- hind desks were a score of alert youths listening to the report of the arrangement committee con- cerning an "open meeting" of the society soon to be held. A card in the hands of one of the boys was labeled "Membership Card" and bore the owner's name, the number of the "evening recrea- tion center," a column for each of the nine months from October to June in which to note attendance, and these words: "Dreadnaught Literary and Athletic Society." On the back, above the names 222 EVENING RECREATION CENTERS of the principal and the club director, appeared the following legend: "Remember that the suc- cess of your club depends upon your regular and prompt attendance. That membership entitles you to the Basket Ball and Athletic Privileges." Several other class rooms held similar clubs. Some were composed largely of one race, others included Italians, Hebrews, Hungarians and Poles as well as Irish and Yankees, all working har- moniously together. Their occupations were as varied as their features. Errand boys, factory hands, store clerks, stenographers and high school students mingled with "toughs," just plain boys, and Sunday school scholars. The members of the Whittier Society were hearing one of their number recite Lincoln's Gettysburg address, while the director of the Lowell Club was giving a lecture on the plays of Shakespeare. Across the hall the Princeton Pleasure Club, an athletic organization, was consistently realizing its nominal purpose in a vociferous and exciting election of officers. In the Hamilton Forum a debate upon the resolution "that immigration be further restricted" was in progress. The affirmative was being upheld by Messrs. Perkpvitz and Gruenbaum, and their speeches showed a delightful unconsciousness of the possible effect upon their own fortunes which would have resulted from an earlier enactment of the proposals they were now urging with such noisy "patriotism." Each club met in this way once a week from 223 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT 7.30 to 9.45, and on the other evenings (except Sundays) the members were at liberty to come for games and gymnastic exercises. While the greater number of the clubs had been formed at the outset for athletic purposes, nearly all had grad- ually developed into literary and debating societies and a few were so energetic that they had obtained the use of class rooms for a meeting place during the summer evenings when the other privileges of the center were not available. One of the functions of the club director was to organize new societies and for this purpose the game rooms downstairs served as recruiting grounds. A part of the building somewhat removed from the group of class rooms used by the clubs con- tained the study room. The boys in the other departments had all been fourteen or over, no pupils of the elementary schools being allowed to become members of the clubs or enter the game rooms if it could be helped. This room, however, was used exclusively for day-school children and was nearly filled with boys, all sitting at desks, with books open before them, sometimes two in the same seat. Some were writing, some were talking in low tones with their neighbors, and others were quietly studying. A woman teacher with an intelligent face and kindly manner moved quietly about the room, now and then saying a few words in response to an appeal from a pupil, and giving the kind of counsel that stimulated rather than replaced effort. The children came 224 TRAINING FOR Civic LIFE IN AN EVENING CENTER EVENING STUDY IN "QuiET SURROUNDINGS" EVENING RECREATION CENTERS simply to study in quiet surroundings the lessons assigned to them in the day schools. It was en- tirely voluntary on their part, and the privilege was given only to those who had attained the fourth grade, at which time home-work begins to be required. Before admission each one was obliged to present a card signed by his principal, containing his name, age, address, school, grade and the subjects needing study. To be admitted, children had also to bring their books. The room was not open Friday, Saturday or Sunday eve- nings. "We have an average of about sixty-five boys every evening and some of them have told me that since coming here they have received 'A's' on their reports for the first time in their lives/' the principal explained. After expressing his appreciation of the things he had seen the visitor registered his name and passed out into the night. The wind had died down, but it was still bitterly cold. The street was dark and empty. At the gateway he looked back at the light streaming from the school house windows, and then went on his way. THE NEW YORK CENTERS During the season 1909-10, thirty-one evening recreation centers were maintained by the Board of Education in the boroughs of Manhattan, the Bronx and Brooklyn. With the exception of five they were open six nights a week from October to April. The use of these five was continued two *5 225 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT evenings a week until the beginning of June. The aggregate attendance for the season reached 2,165,457, making a nightly average of 12,985 for all thirty-one centers. Study rooms were avail- able at twenty-seven of the centers, bathing facilities at twenty-four, and the staff of principals, teachers, gymnasts and other employes numbered nearly 200. One-third of the school buildings de- voted to this enterprise were for the entertain- ment of women and girls only, and they enjoyed the same opportunities as their brothers except that the gymnasium was more often used for folk dancing than for athletics, though games of basket ball and wand drills were occasionally held. For most of the men and boys the gymnasium is the principal attraction, with its exercises on the mat and on parallel and horizontal bars; though in large centers, like that at Public School No. 188 on East Third Street, basket ball, indoor baseball and track sports are also very popular. Policemen and firemen are frequently found wrestling at the High School of Commerce, while in another center there is a special "gym" class for deaf mutes. For several years athletic tournaments have been held, the final contests taking place in one of the large armories. One winter a local newspaper offered medals for boys and pins for girls as prizes in a series of basket ball games and athletic sports. Immediately the best players were organized into midget, middle and heavy-weight teams and the inter-center contests began. During the pre- 226 EVENING RECREATION CENTERS liminaries fifty athletic meets and 250 games of basket ball were played, each successive event heightening the general enthusiasm. The finals took place in the Twelfth Regiment Armory before a large audience which cheered to the echo the winners as they received their prizes at the hands of a representative of the newspaper that donated them, and of the wife of the president of the Board of Education. During the annual meet of 1909 there were from one to three entries from each boys' center in every contest and it was reported that "no more enthusiastic audience ever filled the vast building." That year the total number of active clubs was 575, and while their names indicate a predominant, initial interest in some one field such as literature, debate, athletics, civics, the drama, or glee and orchestral music, the regulations under which they are organized induce uniformity and these dis- tinctions are tending to disappear. Except for a few adult clubs devoted to civics or purely social diversions they are all scheduled for periods of gymnastic training, athletic sports and quiet games. Each club is also required to hold a weekly business meeting under the supervision of the club director, and to possess some knowledge of hygiene, civics and American history. The variety of instruction given in these clubs is well shown in the following extract from the 1906 report of Miss Evangeline E. Whitney, who had charge of the recreation centers during the 227 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT period of their remarkable growth, namely from 1902 till her death in January, 1910. "The range of books read in the clubs extends from fairy tales and historic stories to Ruskin and Ibsen. We have scores of young men and women who critically study economics and Shakespeare; and many that make but slow mental advancement. In the latter class the teachers prepare illustrated talks on nature, the dress of different countries, their implements of industry and of war; tell thrilling stories of adventure; introduce topics of public interest and thus lead them into debates which send them to the library for information. One teacher who had several clubs of bright office boys could not get them to undertake any literary work until he stimulated their ambition by re- citing selections learned in his own youth. The effect of his fine elocution brought the desired results, and essays, orations and debates were soon forthcoming. One night he recited ' King Robert of Sicily/ After he had finished there was a moment of tense silence, then a boy got to his feet and thus addressed the club: 'Fellows, I don't care what some people say, we've got to believe that there's a God in Heaven. Yes, fellows, there's a God in Heaven all right, and He's watching us and keeping tab on everything we do, and you can't bluff Him, or get away from Him; so, fellows, it's up to us to make good, that's all.' . . . Instruction has been given, by means of improvised dialogues, on how to make 228 EVENING RECREATION CENTERS proper applications for positions in various offices or business houses, how to perform successfully the duties of a toastmaster, and to formulate terse after-dinner speeches. Rules of etiquette, correct phraseology, and many subjects of kindred nature have emphasized the importance of ob- serving the gracious forms of social life." One of the more ambitious clubs composed of ex-high school boys took for its weekly discussions such subjects as "a comparative study of the drama of the Greeks, Romans, early and modern English, German and French." The Alcott Club of a girls' center in the heart of the East Side, dur- ing the past winter gave a dramatization of two scenes from "Little Women" for which a staged was formed by curtaining off one end of the capa- cious game room, and use was made of "proper- ties" brought from the members' homes. In one or two other centers, playlets and comediettas have also been given. The practice of public speaking is encouraged by declamation contests and debates. One year, teams from various cen- ters met in twenty-five discussions of live topics, and upon the conclusion of the final debates ebony and gold-mounted gavels were presented by a newspaper to the winning clubs, one to the young men and the other to the young women. The same paper also gave handsome medals to the two who received highest honors in a declamation contest held that season. An attractive little paper containing prize 229 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT stories and gossipy notes from neighboring clubs is published by the Gavel Club of Public School 172, and the Irving Literary Society of No. 188 has started a publication of similar character called the Observer. Among the other activities common among the clubs may be mentioned con- certs and literary entertainments to which the members invite guests, banquets given in honor of their instructors, and occasional balls given by those groups which have some social strength. One of the East Side girls' clubs acts as an auxiliary to the Ambulance Service Society connected with a nearby hospital, and it is a common thing for clubs to apply the money raised at social functions to the needs of ill or unfortunate comrades. At Evening Recreation Center No. 188 the Lassie and Travelers' clubs were allowed to ask their young men friends one Wednesday evening to attend a dance. The behavior of the couples was so satisfactory and the occasion so enjoyable that a series of weekly dances was planned. The principals of two neighboring centers recommended a number of gentlemanly boys who with the girls' clubs mentioned formed a dancing class. An executive committee of five boys and an equal number of girls was appointed to pass upon the names of proposed members, who had to be well endorsed before they could be presented. The dues were five cents a week payable by the mem- bers of both sexes and the funds thus raised not only met the expense of providing a violinist and 230 COMMERCIALIZED DANCING DANCING IN A SCHOOL BUILDING EVENING RECREATION CENTERS of waxing the floor, but left a surplus large enough to afford the members additional enjoyment through entertainments and outings. At these weekly reunions members of the center staff gave instruction not only in the regular waltz, two-step and lanciers but also in folk dancing. Strict supervision was exercised and young people seen dancing in an objectionable manner were cau- tioned and shown a more decorous way. During the season of 1909-10 there were six centers where mixed dancing classes were held, several of them becoming so popular that waiting- lists were made up of applicants who could not be accommodated on account of the restricted space. Dr. Edward W. Stitt, who has succeeded Miss Whitney in the charge of the centers, relates that on the evening of St. Patrick's Day he visited an East Side dancing class and found 1 50 young people enjoying themselves in a wholesome man- ner, while in a notorious dance hall across the way, both larger and easier of access, there were only thirty on the floor. So remarkable an innovation as social dances maintained in public school buildings and or- ganized by employes of the Board of Education was not made without some preliminary experi- menting. For several years there had been social occasions when the girls assumed the role of hostess and entertained boys of known character and proved gentlemanliness. Musical entertainments, amateur theatricals, athletic exhibitions by the 231 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT boys, checker contests and other table games were the chief amusements at these assemblies. Danc- ing was enjoyed occasionally, but it was the folk dances and others that contained the game spirit rather than the waltz or two-step which were indulged in. As these social affairs progressed their effects became noticeable. One principal wrote: "We have watched many of our girls change from the silly attitude toward the boys to that of practical indifference, or open, frank com- radeship, and have seen the boys, who at first came in untidy of dress and unclean of person, appearing with clean linen and hands, tidy clothes and freshly shaven faces/' The beneficial results of the club activities show themselves in unexpected directions. A civic organization composed of forty young men and women resolved to work all summer for cleaner streets in the neighborhood of school and home. Several years ago a club of boys was formed with the purpose of working "for the betterment of the Italian race in America." With a roll of over 200, meeting weekly in hired rooms for mutual improvement, and with many charter members returning monthly to their former director for counsel, this club has grown to be a civic force of incalculable influence. One of its early regulations made attendance at evening school obligatory upon the members, and so close is the connection between education and the work of the recreation center that the latter has come to be regarded, to a 232 EVENING RECREATION CENTERS certain extent, as a recruiting ground for the public night schools. Concerning the aid afforded by these play centers to the social assimilation of the large masses of foreigners in our population, Mrs. Humphry Ward has contributed some interesting testimony. At a banquet given her by the Playground Associa- tion of America, she thus describes a visit to one of the centers: "We found a thousand girls, divided in the same way between active physical exercise and club meetings (by the way, while one of the boys' clubs was debating Mr. Bryce's American Commonwealth, the girls were discuss- ing Silas Marner) ; and, in the third, perhaps most remarkable of all, five hundred girls were gathered debating whether you should retain the Philippine Islands, with a vigor, a fluency, a command of pat- riotic language and feeling which struck me with amazement. Here were girls, some of whom could only have arrived in your country a year or two ago, and all of them the children of aliens, ap- pealing to your Anglo-Saxon forefathers, and talking of your Revolutionary War and the Monroe Doctrine, of liberty and self-government, with an intensity of personal appropriation such as no mere school teaching could have pro- duced. It was as though I was in the presence of those children whom you will remember in the story of the Pied Piper the children whom the Pied Piper led to the mountain, which opened and closed upon them again, entomb- 233 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT ing a whole generation. Browning had heard vaguely that somehow and somewhere they re- emerged. And here they are! The parents have been entombed and imprisoned for generations. But their children are now free they are in sun- shine. Hence, this energy, this astonishing sense of power and life." Miss Whitney's annual reports to the city superintendent record many instances of striking changes in the character of the young men who have patronized the centers. " Last fall, a noted 'tough' of nineteen years strolled into a center for the declared purpose of 'clearing the place out/ He discovered that a few determined athletes had something to say about that, and subsided into a quiet observer of the evening's sports. The principal noticed that he became a regular at- tendant, and invited him to join a club. He did so, and was told about the study room the longed-for oasis in his desert life. Earnestly he applied himself to take a civil service examination, and when the term closed in May, he was ac- ceptably filling the position of a junior clerk in one of our city departments."* The following inci- dent selected out of " scores of incidents " that came to her notice demonstrates clearly Miss Whitney's belief that no matter how bad a young man may be, the acquisition of "the athlete's code of honor is a triumph over lawlessness, the beginning of a citizen's conception of duty." "One club of * Report of the City Supt. of Schools. New York, 1906, page 364. 234 EVENING RECREATION CENTERS street loafers organized last winter," she wrote, ""seemed as unpromising as any we ever attempted to reform. The leader, a swaggering, unclean fellow, fortunately had 'the vulnerable heel/ He began to observe expert performances, then to obey instructions, until pride and skill were so developed that by the end of the season he out- ranked all the athletes in his center and made his club equal with the best." * That the benefits to character are not confined to the male sex alone is shown by the following statement in her report of 1908: "One of the marked instances of the year was the rescue of what the police designated 'one of the worst gangs of girls on the East Side/ In the club of twenty young women, now tamed and decent, one would not recognize the hoydens of a few months ago." Considering the important part played by ath- letics it is not surprising that gymnasts should be favored when selecting workers for these centers. The ability to secure immediate respect from street boys gives a leverage not possessed by women, though many of the latter have been highly suc- cessful. 1 1 has been found that altruism is a prime qualification for the principalship and herein lies the usual secret of the woman worker's power. The degree to which the work has been organized is illustrated by the fact that weekly and monthly reports are regularly sent to the superintendent's office covering the attendance, contests, debates, * Report of the City Supt. of Schools, 1909, page 551. 235 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT books read and activities in general. In the study rooms the teachers use a card-system, reference to which tells them just the kind of assistance each pupil needs. The centers as a whole are administered by a corps having the usual grades of superintendent, inspector, supervisor, principal and teacher, but in spite of the uniformity to be expected from so much system and so large an organization, each center has individuality, due to the character of the building, the personnel of the staff, and the kinds of people who frequent it. Inspectors begin with a salary of $i 500 which in six years is automatically raised to f 1 750, the other employes being paid as follows: RECREATION CENTER SALARIES Supervisors . . . . $6.00 per day Principals .... 4.00 per session Teachers 2.50 Assistant Teachers . .1.75 Teachers of swimming . . 2.00 Librarians . . . .2.50 Pianists 2.00 In 1909 the expense of the thirty-one centers in New York was $79,565.74, which with a daily average of 12,084 persons cost the taxpayers $6.58 for each participant in the season of fun and healthful enjoyment. BEGINNINGS IN OTHER CITIES For several years the Newark, New Jersey, Board of Education has maintained a recreation 236 EVENING RECREATION CENTERS center in one of its buildings that is open four evenings a week from 7.30 to 9.30, to both school children and older people. The privileges afforded are those of a gymnasium, reading and quiet- games room, and four people are employed to supervise and give instruction. In addition the gymnasiums of two other schools have been used during the evenings, while in several buildings classes in folk dancing have been open to the girl pupils immediately after the close of the afternoon session. The expense of this work during 1908-09 amounted to $1553.49. In Chicago during the 1909-10 season two evening recreation centers were established under the charge of day-school principals, which, without the advantage of as- sembly rooms or gymnasiums, were nevertheless very successful. The wide corridors gave the boys space for basket ball and the girls gymnastic opportunities. There were study rooms for those who wished them, a double room for reading and single ones for choral singing, illustrated lectures on travel, and folk dancing. Volunteer workers assisted the principals in the conduct of these activities, which were carried on only two evenings a week. In other schools permission has been given to use the gymnasiums for basket ball and indoor baseball games upon the application of responsible persons and societies. In Philadelphia, Milwaukee and several other cities enterprises having similar features have been carried on, but since they are locally known as 237 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT "social centers" their description has been re- served for the following chapter. The gymnasium classes under trained teachers held in several of the Cincinnati buildings have already been men- tioned in the discussion of evening schools, but in addition voluntary organizations are allowed the use of four other buildings in which to conduct debating clubs and wholesome recreations for boys. In St. Louis, through the co-operation of the Public Library and the Board of Education, a reading room for young people is opened three nights a week in one of the public schools. The Playground and Social Service League of Newton, Massachusetts, maintained during the summer evenings of 1909 a quiet-games and reading room in the Bowen School, and in Port- land, Maine, a similar work is conducted by the Fraternity House social workers. In many cities undertakings of this sort go by the name of "boys' clubs" which are usually organized and supported by voluntary organizations or philanthropic in- dividuals. In Cleveland, the Daughters of the American Revolution have the use of one school building in which they conduct three juvenile clubs; Syracuse has two clubs which are sup- ported by public-spirited persons and directed by a former Y. M. C. A. man with a medical training. An illustration of the origin of such a club is found in Pittsburgh where the principal of the Oakland District School threw open several class rooms for evening study. While the attendance 238 EVENING RECREATION CENTERS was fairly good it did not come up to expectations, but meeting in that way developed a social co- hesiveness among the boys that finally took the form of an organized club with pronounced ath- letic tendencies. Indeed "athletic" is the touch- stone of success in work with boys, and the skilful director not only lays emphasis upon physical training and organized sports but, like the Buffalo worker in charge of the Evening Club of School 29 which gave a "horseback fight " and bar-bell drill at the spring playground demonstration in Con- vention Hall, he sees to it that his boys are stimu- lated by frequent public exhibitions. LONDON EVENING PLAY CENTERS In thirteen of the London County Council schools, play centers open to boys and girls be- tween the ages of five and fourteen are maintained five evenings a week, from 5.30 to 7.30, and for an hour and a half on Saturday mornings. The occupations afforded comprise various kinds of handwork such as cobbling, woodwork, basket- work, painting, plasticine modeling, needlework and knitting. But work is not all, or even the main thing, at these places. In a quiet room draughts, halma, picture-lotto, puzzles, deck quoits, brick-building, fish ponds, and many other games are provided ; toy-rooms contain dolls and tea sets, bricks, engines, block puzzles and picture books for the little ones, while the toddlers amuse themselves in the "babies' room" which is 239 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT furnished with small chairs and light, low tables instead of with desks and seats. A library stands ready to supply story and picture-books. In the large, bright halls the older girls make merry singing "The Keys of Canterbury/' "Mowing the Barley/' or playing some of Mrs. Gomme's games, like "London Bridge" or "Here we come up the Green Grass/' The exercises of the " Drill Classes" are interspersed with dances, and when the measures of Sir Roger, an Irish jig, or a Danish dance begin to sound through the room the hap- piness of rhythmic motion seizes little bodies which usually feel only fatigue and the shame of raggedness. For the boys there are calis- thenic drills and exercises upon the apparatus of the school gymnasium. Cricket during the sum- mer and football during the autumn and win- ter months are encouraged by play leaders, and many matches in these sports are held Saturday mornings on the school playgrounds. The use of the buildings, lighted and heated, is furnished by the London County Council, but the work is carried on by an Evening Play Centres Committee composed of twenty-two members, including representatives of the nobility, official- dom, the Church, and society. The organizer of the movement, Mrs. Humphry Ward, is the chair- man, honorary secretary, and treasurer of the committee, and it is from her report for 1909 that the following account of the organization of the work is taken : " Each centre is under the direction 240 EVENING RECREATION CENTERS of a paid superintendent, who is responsible to the Play Centres Committee, and is assisted by both paid and voluntary workers. . . . The chil- dren attached to each centre are chosen, in the first instance, by the teachers of the four or five schools, as the case may be, within easy reach of the centre, who are asked to make the need of the children their basis of choice. Each child attends a centre normally twice a week, but a third attendance is allowed for the library or quiet games, or for a lan- tern lecture, while in the case of children coming from neglected homes, or whose parents are obliged to be out at work until late in the evening, arrange- ments can be made for their attending the centre every evening. The evening is generally divided into two sessions of one hour each, attended by dif- ferent sets of children. At three centres, however, we work on a one-session time-table, only one set of children being admitted during the evening, but remaining for an hour and forty minutes. Each child, on joining a play centre, is registered and given a colored badge, which admits him to one of the two sessions on two nights in the week. Thus, a blue badge admits to the first session on Mondays and Thursdays, a yellow badge to the second ses- sion on Tuesdays and Fridays. Many of the Wednesday children attend as a rule on Saturday mornings; but Wednesday is a one-session eve- ning that is to say, only one set of children is admitted, but they remain for an hour and a half, changing occupations at half-time. The centres 16 241 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT are open during forty weeks in the year, from September to July." The benefits of the centers now reach between 9,000 and 10,000 children; their maintenance depends upon the annual con- tribution of over $15,000, making the cost per child approximately $1.50 a year. Readers of "Robert Elsmere" will be interested to learn that this undertaking is an offshoot of that scheme of pioneer philanthropy in which the brave clergyman found the solution of his pain- ful problems, and which is foreshadowed in the following passage: "And sitting down again on a sand-hill overgrown with wild grasses and mats of sea-thistle, the poor pale refooner began to draw out the details of his scheme on its material side. Three floors of rooms brightly furnished, well lit and warmed; a large hall for the Sunday lectures, concerts, entertainments, and story telling; rooms for the boys' club; two rooms for women and girls, reached by a separate entrance; a library and reading room open to both sexes, well stored with books, and made beautiful by pictures; three or four smaller rooms to serve as committee rooms and for the purposes of the Naturalist Club which had been started in May on the Murewell plan; and, if possible, a gymnasium/' This institution, then a vision in the mind of the author, received embodiment afterwards through her own efforts in a now well-known social settle- ment and became a starting-point for many new activities, of which that undertaken by the Evening 242 EVENING RECREATION CENTERS Play Centres Committee is but a single example. The origin of this enterprise can best be described in the words of its prime mover : " I n 1 897 the Pass- more Edwards Settlement, in Tavistock Place, started some evening classes and games, as a counter-attraction to the life and loafing of the streets, for the children of the neighboring ele- mentary schools. These classes have now de- veloped into a large Children's Recreation School, or Play Centre, open five evenings in the week for an hour and a quarter, and from 10 to 12.30 on Saturday mornings. . . . The suc- cess of this work led, in the winter of 1904, to the raising of a Fund and to the formation of a Com- mittee for the establishment of Evening Play Cen- tres in Council School buildings, in some of the poorest and most crowded parts of London." The aim of the Committee is to secure the per- manence of its work through its adoption by the public authorities, and to this end Mrs. Ward is working most ardently, expending her energies not only in personal championship, but also in documentary appeals, distinguished by literary charm and convincing facts. These are addressed to the London County Council and to the English public through the medium of The Times. The government school inspectors have already filed encouraging reports about the handicraft work in these classes, and although the party of economy in the Council still (January, 1910) stands in the way of full support, the hopes of the Committee 243 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT have been raised by a small government grant recently made for light woodwork. THE MOVEMENT ELSEWHERE IN ENGLAND Upon this topic the 1909 report of the Evening Play Centres Committee contains the following: " But, in addition to the growth of our own centres, we have to report the spread of the movement out- side our Committee. Lord Iveagh has opened a centre in Dublin; the large play centre attached to the Jewish Free School in Whitechapel has been opened, and is working admirably; another centre has been organized by the governors of the Peo- ple's Palace, Stepney. For these centres we have been able to supply superintendents trained for a longer or shorter time under our Committee. Fresh proposals also are constantly being made to us." In support of the latter statement the re- port then tells of applications for assistance which had been received from Paddington, Bermondsey and Deptford. The Recreative Evening Classes Committee of Manchester, which is organized under the presi- dency of the Bishop of Manchester and includes the mayor and several titled personages among its vice-presidents, has a sub-division known as the Children's Happy Evening Section. This body has surrounded itself with a band of voluntary helpers who carry on weekly entertainments in school buildings and other suitable quarters for the benefit of the neighborhood children. The 244 EVENING RECREATION CENTERS season's program includes concerts, gramophone entertainments, competitions in singing and recit- ing, contests in draughts and skipping rope as well as battledore and shuttlecock, and other games. Football and cricket are played in the basements while in the quiet room the children amuse themselves with bead-laying, crayon drawing, and similar occupations. Three municipal schools were used during the season of 1908-09 at which the weekly attendance ran between 200 and 250. The Bradford Cinderella Club which has for its object " the feeding, clothing and entertainment of poor children," describes in its 1908-09 report a similar enterprise: "One of the most interesting departments of our work is the provision of 'Treats/ consisting of tea and entertainment, to parties of poor children almost every Saturday during the winter months. During last winter we organized twenty-five of these treats to parties of 300 children in all the poorer quarters of the city, in schools which were kindly lent us for the purpose/' They find that a "treat" for 300 children costs between $18 and $19. As has been suggested already there are, in both America and England, undertakings not men- tioned in the present chapter which nevertheless provide recreation during the evening in school buildings. Their activities are predominantly social in character and they thus belong more properly under that title. The line of demarcation between the recreation and the social center is 245 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT difficult to draw, but the obvious necessity of some sort of classification, if they were to be dis- cussed separately, made an attempt at definition obligatory. For the purposes of this study, there- fore, a recreation center has been regarded as an institution providing chiefly those pleasurable activities wherein the enjoyment is always de- pendent upon the use of some article or apparatus, or involves physical exercise in accordance with certain rules or standards, and is little affected by personal distinctions. In the social center, on the other hand, the enjoyment is more contingent upon the mutual companionability of the indi- viduals participating, demands little or no ap- paratus and involves intellectual rather than physical performances. No existing institution, of course, provides activities wholly confined to either one of these classes, but usually one type has been sufficiently emphasized in excess of the other to furnish the basis of a working classification. REFERENCES WARD, MRS. HUMPHRY: The Play-Time of the Poor. Reprinted from The Times. Smith, Elder and Co., 15 Waterloo Place, London. Pages 28. Price twopence. 1906. Evening Play Centres. Reprinted from The Times. Spottiswoode and Co., Ltd., New-Street Square, London. Pages 17. Annual Reports of the Evening Play Centres Committee, 25 Grosvenor Place, S. W., London. WHITNEY, EVANGELINE E.: Annual Reports as District Superin- tendent in charge of Vacation Schools, Playgrounds and Eve- ning Recreation Centres, contained in the annual reports of the City Superintendent of Schools, New York City, from 1904-1909. Vacation Schools, Playgrounds, and Recreation Centres. Pro- ceedings of the National Education Association, 1904. See also the annual reports of the voluntary organizations men- tioned in the text. 246 IX SOCIAL CENTERS CHAPTER IX SOCIAL CENTERS SATURDAY night, in most places, is the only night of the week when the forces of education and righteousness frankly pro- claim a truce with the working world and allow it untrammeled opportunity to spend, relax and revel. An evening so generally given over to the store, the theatre and the saloon is not the time when you would naturally turn to the school house for diversion. And yet to a person with a fondness for fellowship it is precisely the week- end night during the period from November to April when a visit to the Rochester School known as "Number Nine" will be most^ worth while. Even though a stranger in the city you cannot miss the place, because at the left of the Joseph Street entrance there is an illuminated sign saying: SOCIAL CENTER Clubs, Library, Gymnasium, Baths Open Wed. & Fri. 7:30 to 10:00 For Men and Boys Sunday 2:30 to 6:00 For Women and Girls Saturday 8:00 to 10:30 Lecture or Entertainment 249 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT In spaces below, a program is given: WEDNESDAY: Address by a Business Man, "Do It For Rochester" FRIDAY: Debate on Free Text-Books SATURDAY: Recitations and Impersonations SUNDAY: "Social" for the Women's Clubs On Saturday nights the side entrance is used and you will find a string of people ascending its stone steps at almost any time from 8:00 to 8:30 o'clock. Scarcely has the threshold been reached before your ears will be greeted with the sound of singing probably words like these set to the tune of "Mr. Dooley": Now there are some distinctions that are seen upon the street For some folks ride in auto cars and some ride on their feet, And worry about the price of clothes comes in and spoils the fun, But there's a place where hats are off and rich and poor are one. Strong and clear come the phrases but they do not so nearly drown the orchestral accompaniment as does the chorus that follows : I t's at the Center The Social Center The place where everybody feels at home; Forgets th' external And gets fraternal; And knows the time for friendliness has come. Near the doorway stands a pleasant looking young fellow who turns away school children and welcomes strangers, who are then taken in hand 250 SOCIAL CENTERS by the ushers. The hall is an immense room whose only illumination at the moment comes from a screen over the platform upon which the words of another song are now projected by a lantern: There once was a school house, a great mental tool house, Was shut every night in the year, Till the people who hovered around it discovered That this was a folly too dear. Said they, " If 'tis ours, then we have the powers To use it whenever we will." So 'twas opened at night, and today with delight You can hear them a-shouting their fill. Then in the chorus the whole, vast audience gives itself up to one prodigious yell of merriment: E Yip I Addy, I Ay, I Ay, Oh, Number Nine is O. K.! For all Social Centers we'll yell and we'll shout, But old Number Nine, sir, will beat them all out. E Yip I Addy, I Ay, I Ay After another stanza and a double round of the rollicking chorus the lights are turned on and the details of the room become visible. Overhead are naked iron trusses which support the roof and to which are attached at regular intervals clusters of electric bulbs protected by wire cages. The horizontal bar, traveling rings and rope ladder which have been drawn up among the roof beams and also the parallel bars, pulley weights and other apparatus along the unornamented brick side walls, show that the room is used as a gymnasium as well as a place for assembling. All the chairs are now filled; there are no children; every woman's 251 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT hat is in her lap and the audience seems one solid, level mass of humanity. In a small space before the platform is stowed an orchestra of a dozen members of which the pianist and two violinists are women. After a half hour of general singing a young man rises near the piano and gives "The Two Grenadiers" in a vibrant baritone voice. The applause is persistent but is finally quieted by the appearance upon the platform of a man in a busi- ness suit who walks briskly to the front and stands waiting for attention. "The president of the men's club/' whispers a young woman to her neighbor; "the men are in charge to-night." When the room is still the chairman calls upon the secretary of the Women's Civic Club to make any announcements she has to offer. Thereupon a middle-aged Jewish woman with glasses comes down in front and cordially invites all of the women in the audience to attend a social meeting on the following afternoon. "There's just one place," says she, "where we all know that we are one in heart and that's at the Social Center. As one of our members expressed it the other day, ' I never realized before that people who are so different are so much the same.' The object of our club is to enable us to become better informed upon public questions and better acquainted with our neighbors. There are no dues or initiation fees and every woman in the neighborhood is en- titled to membership. One week from Sunday 252 SOCIAL CENTERS afternoon our health officer, Dr. Goler, will give the club* An Illustrated Health Talk/ All women are cordially invited to be present." The chairman then calls upon the secretary of the Young Woman's Civic Club who announces that " to-morrow afternoon the club will be favored with a talk on camp life by Miss Anna Jones/' An officer of the Coming Civic Club informs the audience that on the following Friday evening it will hold a debate upon the resolution that "the Philippines should be granted full self-govern- ment" and all young men between seventeen and twenty-one are invited to attend and become members. He adds that at the close of the meet- ing on Friday a free gymnasium class will be formed. Then comes an announcement from the chairman in his capacity as president of the Men's Civic Club. Last week they heard an address upon "A Man's Right to Work"; on the coming Wednesday evening at eight o'clock the club will meet to discuss the same subject. "Each person present will be allowed to speak five minutes upon the topic of the evening or ask relevant questions. The large audience last week and the keen interest manifested by those who at- tended make the prospects excellent for a lively discussion the coming Wednesday. All men of the neighborhood, who are of age, are invited to attend and join the club. Membership is free. Meetings are held in a class room on the Baden Street side." 253 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT Then down the platform comes a figure which causes a perceptible hush in the room. Wearing a gray flannel shirt, flowing black tie and leggings that smack of the motor cycle, the man has the build of a wrestler and the face of a scholar. It is not what he says but something in his manner that makes you feel you are listening to one of your own home folks. The speaker tells about a playground which the Men's Civic Club at Number Fourteen has succeeded in getting, an improvement in the Carter street sewer brought about by the men at Number Thirty-six, the recipe exchange which the women at another center have instituted and the public art exhibi- tion which in a short time will be held at the East High School. Already Collier's has promised its collection of original drawings, while the canvas- sers among the local owners of paintings have so far not met with a single refusal. A week from that night the meeting in that room will be in charge of the women's club and the special feature will be an address upon " Public Health as a Political Issue" by a well-known New York physician and writer. Following the meeting there will be a basket ball game and a general good time. For the benefit of strangers the speaker tells about the objects of the civic clubs in which the members talk "about the things that ought to be talked about" and find that they can "disagree agreeably," and of the social centers where it is being discovered that "beneath all 254 SOCIAL CENTERS seas the earth is one" and that "there is good even in the best people." The dramatic readings and impersonations that follow these announcements are interspersed with outbursts of applause, during which the people in the audience make appreciative remarks to each other and the ice of formality is thawed in the warmth of a common emotion. After the last round of applause there is a sound of violins being tuned, followed by a couple of bars of music. At this signal each person picks up his chair and moves towards the wall. Those near the exits take theirs into adjoining halls and rooms while the others stack their seats along the sides of the room so that in the space of a few moments half the floor area is entirely cleared and several young men are walking about sprinkling powdered wax over its smooth surface. The orchestra strikes up a two-step. Immedi- \ ately couples all over the room glide out onto the floor, in zigzag accompaniment to the pulsating music. The members of the reception committee seek out the strangers, introduce them to partners and then during lulls in the merriment show them around the building. They see the spacious kin- dergarten room where the club meetings are held, the class room next to it where magazines are spread out on a long table, books stand invitingly on open shelves, and checkers, chess and dominoes are available, and finally the shower baths with their marble compartments, modern plumbing 255 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT and adjacent dressing room. On Wednesday and Friday evenings, it is explained, these are open for public use and everything is free. ROCHESTER SOCIAL CENTER ACTIVITIES The "general evening" which has just been de- scribed is the most comprehensive among these activities in that it, more than any other, brings men and women, young and old, together at an occasion which provides more or less abundantly for all their varied interests. In 1909, 366 was the average attendance at the 69 programs given in the three most prominent centers. The char- acter of the speakers and their topics may be seen from the following selections: Rev. C. A. Barbour, D.D., Our National Wonderland (illustrated) Frank C. Dawley, Bird Neighbors (illustrated) Mrs. Bertha Pendexter Eldredge, Readings Rev. Edwin A. Rumball, The Personality of Ferrer Dr. Samuel M. Crothers, The Progress of Invention Professor Earl Barnes, Meaning of Education Bolton Hall, The Use of Land President Rush Rhees, Liberty and Government Mrs. Florence Kelley, The Work of Girls Misses Tuthill and Garzak, Musical Evening Professor Frazier, Servant in the House Instead of a dance or basket ball game follow- ing the address or entertainment, the hour was sometimes given up to general sociability or to a ^gymnastic and athletic exhibition. The part ap- parently most enjoyed by the members, however, was the singing in which not only lantern pic- \ 256 SOCIAL CENTERS tures were used but a book containing a number of songs like those quoted. As has been said, the general exercises at Public School Number Nine were held on Saturday evenings; at Number Fourteen they were held on Fridays, while at the West High School they usually occurred on Thurs- day evenings. These three buildings situated, roughly speak- ing, among laboring, middle and well-to-do classes, are those which the Board of Education has equipped most completely for social activities. But the board has adopted such a liberal and encouraging policy in respect to all its buildings* that young people and grown-ups all over the city, incited by the "good times" reported from the first centers, have organized themselves into civic clubs and have begun to find their evening enjoy- ment also in class rooms and halls. The move- ment has grown until eighteen, quite half of the total number of school buildings in the city, are used by various communities for social purposes; and besides the three centers named there are some half dozen others where "general meetings/' having the chief characteristics of the one de- scribed, are also held. MEN'S Civic CLUBS Whereas, the welfare of society demands that those whose duty it is to exercise the franchise be well in- formed upon the economic, industrial and political * See Appendix B for full text of regulations. '7 257 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT questions of today; .... therefore, we .... do form a society to hold, in the public school building, meetings whose object shall be the gaining of informa- tion upon public questions by listening to public speak- ers and by public readings and discussions. Thus does the constitution of the civic club first organized that at Number Fourteen Social Center express its object; and the rapidity with which it got down to business is shown by the fact that its second meeting, at which its twelve members grew to fifty, was addressed by one of the city fathers upon "The Duties of an Alder- man." In 'responding to the vote of thanks the speaker said: " If you have been benefited by my coming here, I have benefited more. If every member of the Common Council and every other public servant had, frequently, such opportunities as this to discuss public matters with those to whom he owes his appointment, it would mean that we would have much better, more intelligent representation of the people's interests and a cleaner government/' The first president of the club was a successful physician who motored to the meetings in his own car; the vice-president was a labor agitator, the secretary a journeyman printer, and the treasurer a bank director, while the membership was equally representative of the various classes. The meetings of the club are held on Thursday evenings during the late fall, winter and early spring, and the usual procedure is to have a shortx SOCIAL CENTERS business session, an address by some speaker of local prominence, and then an open discussion in which the members are limited in time and to the topic for the evening. At the close the speaker replies to questions and sums up the discussion. The range of subjects is indicated by the following list picked from an annual program: Public school extension The policies of the different Rochester's milk national political parties The panic Non-partisan political Rochester's water supply ideals The Italian question Direct primaries Credit abuses Industrial training The social value of the theatre These matters were presented by city officials, college professors, labor leaders, politicians, law- yers, clergymen, business men and prominent immigrants, and none of the speakers or any of the expenses of the meetings were paid out of public funds. On the anniversary of its organiza- tion the club usually holds a banquet at which the men provide the eatables and the members of the Women's Civic Club of the same center serve them; representatives from the other clubs are invited and addresses are made by persons promi- nent in civic affairs. The use of school buildings for political discussions was the topic considered at the first of these occasions (for the conclusions reached see remarks of President Forbes quoted on page 274) and^also at the second when Profes- sor Charles Zueblin spoke to a company of men and women numbering over two hundred, who 259 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT enlivened the intellectual repast with Social Center songs. While all these activities are carried on by the Men's Civic Club at Number Fourteen, the pioneer and also one of the strongest of the clubs, they illustrate the general character of the work done by the sixteen others which, by the fall of 1909, had been organized to meet in school build- ings. During this year they held a total of 232 meetings at which there was an average attendance of fifty men. The smallest number of meetings held by any men's club during the year was four, the largest forty-one, and the average for the seventeen clubs was thirteen. Two of the socie- ties were composed entirely of Italians banded together for the double purpose of protecting newly arrived compatriots and of acquiring an understanding of American citizenship. As has been indicated, the men's clubs have not been con- tented with merely listening and talking; they have also been doing things. At several of the schools they were instrumental in securing play- grounds; their agitation has brought about im- provements in the streets and street car service, and the establishment of public comfort stations; and they have set the example of organized com- munity action to prevent unsatisfactory divisions of land by real estate companies. 260 SOCIAL CENTERS OTHER Civic CLUBS "^ The three women's civic clubs hold meetings after the same fashion as the men and talk about matters of equal importance, though as would be expected municipal affairs do not receive as much attention as the subjects of child labor, woman's suffrage, social purity, free text-books < and good taste in home art. Naturally, too, their activities are much more social in character. Fre- quently they entertain the men's club of the same center, decorating the rooms, providing the enter- tainment and serving the refreshments, while the men pay the bills. On one occasion the women at Number Four- teen, who were almost all American born, were "at home" to the Italian Men's Club, the majority of whom spoke English only imperfectly. At the height of the festivities the hostesses presented their guests with a silk Italian flag for their club while the men reciprocated by giving the women a large picture of George Washington. So pleasant was the evening that one of the women remarked, " I never realized before how interesting humanity is." Another night the same club held a " Recipe Exchange." Each member brought her favorite dish and wrote its recipe upon the blackboard so that the others could copy it. At the close samples of the various dishes were served to the members. At these meetings ostentation in dress is avoided; 261 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT hats are left in the cloak room and formality is dispensed with. During the summer months after the close of the social center season some of the women's clubs still hold meetings, and also organize picnics and club outings. But, as with the men, talking and having "good times" do not consume all of their energies. Each club has a social service commit- tee which learns the wants of poor families in the neighborhood and serves as a clearing-house where superfluous goods are "connected up" with the needy. At the West High School the women held a bazaar and gave a play thereby raising nearly $200 for the support of free dental clinics. The degree to which denominational and race barriers are broken down in these societies is indicated by the fact that at one time the officers of the women's club of Number Fourteen included two Jewesses, two Catholics, a Methodist, a member of no sect, and a colored Baptist. Among the young people also civic clubs have V been organized, but these differ from the clubs ' for adults in that each has a director who is furnished by the Board of Education. Expenses incurred for the printing of programs, serving of refreshments or any other provision for their meetings are met from club dues. The boys from fourteen to seventeen belong to "Future Civic Clubs" while those from seventeen to twenty-one take the name of. "Coming Civic Clubs." Both the boys' and girls' clubs, for the serious side of 262 SOCIAL CENTERS their work, hold business meetings and debates and have addresses delivered by outsiders, while for recreation they engage in basket ball, "gym" classes, and social affairs. Once a year it is customary for each of the boys' clubs to enter- tain one of the girls' organizations this event sometimes takes the form of a sleighride and supper; later the girls return the hospitality. On two successive years one of the boys' clubs gave a successful minstrel show, but the chief interest of these young citizens seems to center in forensics, and the annual triangular debates be- tween teams from the three centers for the cham- pionship trophy, a bust of Lincoln, arouses the keenest rivalry. While some of the girls' clubs started out with the lofty ideal of studying Shake- speare and then later found themselves devoting an increasing amount of time to basket ball, on the whole a pretty even balance is maintained. During the year each club usually presents a complete play, conducts several debates, and holds business meetings, besides participating in games and athletics. The effect of the work of the civic clubs upon street boys is illustrated by the following incident contained in the printed report: "A month after the opening, a merchant, whose place of business is near the center, stopped the director on the street to say, 'The Social Center has accomplished what I had regarded as im- possible. I have been here nine years and during that time there has always been a gang of toughs 263 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT around these corners which has been a continued nuisance. This winter the gang has disappeared/ 'They aren't a gang any more/ answered the director, 'they are a debating dub." The first civic club was organized December, 1 907, with twelve charter members. I n February, 1909, there were sixteen clubs with 1 500 members, and, feeling the advantages to be gained from further combination, sixty delegates, representing the adult clubs, met in the Municipal Building and organized "The League of Civic Clubs/' The objects, as stated in its constitution, are: To increase the effectiveness of the Civic Clubs and to further their purpose, especially in such matters as the securing and entertaining of distinguished visitors to the city; in giving unity to the expression, through the various Civic Clubs, of the people's will in the matter of desired legislation, and in guiding the further extension of the Civic Club movement with a view to the welfare of the city as a whole. . . . In accordance with these aims and its motto " For the City as a Whole" the League has worked for the establishment of public comfort stations and other municipal improvements. One of its most conspicuous early achievements was to per- suade Governor Hughes to come and dine with them. An earlier invitation had been extended by the supervisor of the social centers, but al- though endorsed by the mayor, and presidents of the Board of Education and Chamber of Com- merce, it had been unsuccessful. After the for- mation of the League an elaborate printed invi- 264 SOCIAL CENTERS tation was gotten up, signed by 1270 members, bound in a book and carried by a committee to Albany. The governor arrived on the appointed afternoon, inspected some "gym" work at one center, held an informal reception at another, and was banqueted at the third, the members of the Women's Club acting as hostesses and serving with their own hands. In the evening a large meeting was held in Convention Hall at which the mayor and many prominent citizens were present, a social center orchestra furnished music and the governor gave an address upon " Direct Primaries." At the conclusion of the reception which fol- lowed he said: "I am more interested in what you are doing and what it stands for, than in anything else in the world. . . . You are buttressing the foundations of democracy; you are making it more sure that our children will enjoy, even more richly, that which we have cherished in our lives." Besides the civic clubs other organizations of a special character have been formed at several of the centers, such as the "Spontaneous Art Club," composed of a group of young men and women; and orchestras and singing clubs. For the conduct of the latter bodies the board engaged the director of the Symphony Orchestra who went about from school to school. Through co-operation between the Rochester Art Club, the Arts and Crafts Club and the social center officials, an art exhibition was held during two weeks in February in the 265 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT assembly hall of one of the high schools. Paint- ings, drawings and photographic reproductions to the number of 172 appear in the printed catalogue, and at the three public meetings held in connection with the exhibit there were addresses by promi- nent art critics, artists and educators, and music by an orchestra and glee club. The local street car company carried, without charge, announce- ment placards, and more than ten thousand people visited the exhibit. At each of the three principal centers the libra- rian of the reading room ran a bureau of informa- tion through which many persons needing work secured positions. In the gymnasiums there have been, besides the usual drills with dumb bells, Indian clubs and wands, and apparatus work, classes in fencing, boxing and wrestling, and inter- center basket ball tournaments. Certain evenings are set aside for girls and women many of them elderly at which time they are drilled in floor work, and games and folk dances with musical accompaniment. 'Physical examinations by a doc- tor and gymnasium director constitute part of the regular supervision. Of the young people only those are admitted to the physical training classes who are members of civic clubs. The fact that the adults are mainly interested in the club ac- tivities anyway has made such a rule unnecessary in their case. The library and reading rooms are open three days a week to the frequenters of the centers. Here, besides the magazines subscribed 266 C&i How ROCHESTER WOMEN KEEP ATTRACTIVE SCHOOL LIBRARY IN GOOD USE SATURDAY NIGHT SOCIAL CENTERS for out of the social center appropriation, and the daily papers, generally donated by their publishers, is to be found a traveling library of 500 volumes which is changed every three months. EQUIPMENT AND ADMINISTRATION The first building equipped as a social center, Number Fourteen School, is so typical of the grammar school edifice found all over the country that the manner of adapting it to meet the social needs of the community is quoted in full from one of the supervisor's early reports: The parts of the building which it was decided should be used for the Social Center were the assembly hall on the third floor which was to serve five nights each week as a gymnasium and one night for an audi- torium; the kindergarten room on the ground floor, which was to be used as a reading and auiet game room, and the art and physics rooms of the Normal School, which were to serve for club meetings. The first step in the equipping of the building was the in- stallation of iron gates shutting off the parts of the building which were not to be used for the Social Center. The next was the equipping of the gymnas- ium. One side of the assembly hall was to be used for a basket ball court; on the other side a horizontal bar, parallel bars, horse, ladder, flying and traveling rings, climbing ropes and poles, and mats for tumbling and wrestling were installed. In addition to this equip- ment, dumb bells, Indian clubs, wands and boxing gloves were procured. It would have been most desirable to have installed shower baths in connection with the gymnasium and on the same floor. As it was impossible to do this, they were installed in a room on the ground floor in connection with the cloak room of the kindergarten, which was to be used as a dressing 267 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT room. This completed the equipment for physical exercise. For the recreational activities, outside of the gymnasium, sixty chairs, a dozen tables and a dozen table games, such as chess and checkers, were procured. For the intellectual activities of the Center a stereopticon lantern was secured to be used in con- nection with lectures, a library of 500 volumes was borrowed from Albany, and subscriptions were taken for a dozen periodicals. For the social activities a set of cheap dishes was procured which could be used by the various clubs in the Social Center in serving the refreshments which these clubs might provide. The second year, the assembly hall on the top floor was used only for gymnastic work while the lectures and entertainments were transferred to the large kindergarten room on the ground floor. The change necessitated only the purchase of a few more chairs and the removal of the library and magazines to a small room adjoining. Num- ber Nine and the West High School, which were fitted up as social centers the second year, having large assembly halls upon the ground floor, were more easily equipped. The staff placed in charge of the Number Four- teen Center, and it was practically the same next year at the two others, together with their monthly salaries and number of evenings on duty, are shown in the following table: STAFF AT NUMBER FOURTEEN SOCIAL CENTER Position Evenings per week Salary Director 6* $45 Director of women's and girls' clubs 3 25 Director of boys' clubs 3 25 268 SOCIAL CENTERS Librarian and in charge of games room . . 5* $30 Director of men's "gym" work 3 25 Director of women's "gym" work 2 25 Pianist for women's "gym" work 2 15 Door and hall-keeper 6* 20 Night janitor 6* 50 * Sunday afternoon also. For reasons of economy and because of the difficulty of securing the right man, the super- visor acted as director at Number Fourteen and also at West High, while the directorship at Number Nine was filled by a member of the faculty of the University of Rochester who had had suc- cessful experience in connection with a " Boys' Evening Home" and with other social work. The directors of the boys' and girls' clubs which were organized in schools other than the three which were equipped as complete social centers were paid at the rate of $10 per month for giving one night a week. At the beginning the speakers at the "general evenings" were selected by the supervisor, acting so far as possible in accord with the wishes of the community, but later the making of the programs was assumed by the civic clubs at each center. The fee usually paid these speakers is $10 and traveling expenses, although, during 1909, more than half of them gave their services. The cost of equipping and maintaining the Number Fourteen Social Center during its first session of six months was $3,368.23. The total 269 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT attendance during the period, in the library, gymnasium, baths and club rooms, was 25,022 so that the cost per person per "good time" was a trifle over 1 3 cents. The second season the expense of equipping two new centers and the provision of directors for young people's clubs outside of the three centers brought the total expenditure up to $8,794.95, but the increased attendance left the per capita cost about the same, while the third year, during which no equipment was pur- chased, it sank to about nine cents. ORIGIN OF THE MOVEMENT For a number of years various Rochester or- ganizations, inspired by the usefulness of parent- teachers' associations, had talked about the de- sirability of a common meeting place for the dis- cussion of public questions. In February, 1907, delegates from eleven of these bodies the Central Trades and Labor Council, the Children's Play- ground League, the College Women's Club, the Daughters of the American Revolution, the Hu- mane Society, the Labor Lyceum, the Local Coun- cil of Women, the Officers' Association of Mothers' Clubs, the Political Equality Club, the Social Settlement Association and the Women's Educa- tional and Industrial Union met and formed a "School Extension Committee." After securing the consent of the Board of Education to admin- ister any funds which might be appropriated for their purposes the members of the committee 270 SOCIAL CENTERS visited the mayor, the comptroller, the city en- gineer and other municipal officials and succeeded in getting inserted in the budget an item of $5,000 for an experiment in school extension. After deliberation it was decided to devote the fund to the support of two playgrounds, a vaca- tion school, outdoor school athletics and the utili- zation of school buildings for social ends. The first step taken by the Board of Education in the execution of its trust was the selection of Edward J. Ward as organizer and supervisor of the new work. A wrestler, football man and track athlete at college, and an experienced playground worker, Mr. Ward's qualifications for the physical side of the position were unusual but, exceptional as they were, they were surpassed by his equip- ment for its social tasks. His college vacations had been spent by preference either in driving an ice wagon or moving van or handling freight on the docks in New York City, and his post-graduate course had been a trip through the principal in- dustrial centers of the country. With his human sympathies thus broadened and energized he entered the ministry of the Presbyterian church. Being at that time a bachelor and fond of com- pany he used to invite the boys and young men to his house. His genius for fellowship and ath- letic abilities, reinforced by a wrestling mat and other pieces of gymnasium apparatus, soon made the manse so crowded evenings that he conceived the idea of turning his church edifice into a social 271 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT center and allowing his flock to go to the other clergyman of the town for their preaching. The other man declined to enter into this novel scheme, but the experience was fruitful because it had shown Mr. Ward that he could pull people into useful lives through social methods more effectively than he could drive them into good works from the pulpit. After his appointment to the Rochester position Mr. Ward made a careful study of the Chicago park system and also spent some time at Hull House, where Miss Addams assisted the crystal- lization of his plans by suggesting that "acquain- tance" should be the keynote of the new work. Then followed a visit to New York and an ex- amination of its public lecture system and the evening recreation centers, after which he set about the work which has been described. In June, 1910, Mr. Ward was called to the University of Wisconsin to undertake the or- ganization of social centers in the cities and towns of that state. His duties in Rochester have been handed over to the assistant superintendent of schools who will be assisted by the principals of the schools where the centers are located. THE CENTRAL IDEA This can be best told in Mr. Ward's own words: "The Social Center was not to take the place of any existing institution; it was not to be a chari- table medium for the service particularly of the 272 SOCIAL CENTERS poor; it was not to be a new kind of evening school ; it was not to take the place of any church or other institution of moral uplift; it was not to serve simply as an 'Improvement Association* by which the people in one community should seek only the welfare of their district; it was not to be a 'Civic Reform' organization, pledged to some change in city or state or national administration; it was just to be the restoration to its true place in social life of that most American of all institutions, the Public School Center, in order that through this extended use of the school building might be de- veloped, in the midst of our complex life, the com- munity interest, the neighborly spirit, the de- mocracy that we knew before we came to the city." ' The clear vision of this ideal at the outset and the skill and tenacity of purpose with which Mr. Ward set about giving it life are illustrated in the way the first schtfol was selected. The Board of Education had definitely decided to begin the experiment in a poor neigh- borhood but the new supervisor picked out a location which "more than any other was inter- mediate ground, half way between the wealthiest residential district and the tenement district." He would not allow the first center to run the risk of being tagged in the public mind as either "a rough-neck or a low-neck institution" and rather than forsake this attitude he was ready to resign his position. .8 273 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT Another phase of the policy which has been pursued in the conduct of the centers appears in an early report which quotes Professor George M. Forbes, the president of the Board of Education, as follows: "He said that there was one con- sideration which must always be kept in mind; that the prime purpose of the school buildings was for educational uses and that nothing must be done which should interfere with their original object. At the same time, he reminded his lis- teners, the district schools of the country were open for such purposes as political discussion and this usedid not interfere with, but rather increased, the use of the school house as an educational in- stitution for the children. 'This movement/ said he, 'is in line with the larger educational idea. It would be a logical addition to the schools as a means of training in citizenship/ Having said this, he drew the line sharply on the matter of ex- clusive partisan uses of the school building, saying that the Board of Education had refused the use of a school building for exclusive purposes in the case of a church in the neighborhood which had desired to use the assembly hall for an entertain- ment. ' If the people wish to use the school buildings, the Board of Education stands ready to carry out the wish of the people/ said he." On a later occasion President Forbes stated his views even more pointedly when he said, "No one has a right to try to regulate what citizens shall talk about in their own building/' Free speech 274 SOCIAL CENTERS was safeguarded, however, by the rule that in the case of political, religious or other delicate ques- tions both sides should have equal opportunity of presentation. Thus the prohibitionist who spoke against the saloon was followed by the vice- president of the Turn Verein who gave the other side. The prominent manufacturer who justified the conviction of Gompers, Mitchell and Morrison was answered at the next meeting by a recognized labor leader. School children were excluded from these meetings and the policy of fair opportunity was scrupulously adhered to, but in the course of time the free discussions caused friction. The op- position which had gradually developed was in- tensified by an eulogistic address upon Professor Francesco Ferrer by a local clergyman who had personally known him. A prominent exponent of the other side of the Ferrer controversy was in- vited to occupy the platform at the next meeting in the same center but he declined to speak. The vari- ous hostile interests then focussed their energies upon the appropriation for the coming year. Dele- gations for and against the centers besieged the city officials for several weeks with the result that the item of $8,900 which the Board of Education had put into the budget for their support was cut to f 5,000. At the same time even greater reductions, relatively, were made in the case of the playground and vacation school items. The curtailment of the social center funds would have had the effect of closing them before the end of the season but 275 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT every member of their staffs volunteered to work the remainder of the time without pay. Though the situation was exceedingly complicated and feeling ran high, it was after all the natural re- action that might be expected to follow an innova- tion so fundamental and searching in its effects. While the hurricane was blowing there was a straining and twisting, as it were, throughout the members of the new plant, but after the storm it was found that the principal result had been to make its roots sink deeper into the affections of the people. SOCIAL CENTERS ELSEWHERE IN THE UNITED STATES AND GREAT BRITAIN In Philadelphia, seven of the public school buildings are used for social purposes under the co-operation of the Home and School League, several civic clubs and the Board of Education. The latter body grants the use of its buildings and work-benches and furnishes heat, light and janitor service, while the voluntary organizations collect funds, appoint and pay workers, and buy supplies. The manner of utilizing the buildings and some of the activities carried on may be shown best by taking a typical case. The principal of one of the larger schools, assisted by some of his teachers and volunteers from the neighborhood, kept "open house" once a week during one winter for 300 or 400 people of the vicinity. One 276 SOCIAL CENTERS end of the school basement was given to the boys for basket ball different teams in turn and shuffle board, while at the other end a physical training teacher led the girls in free gymnastics, games and folk dances to the accompaniment of a twelve-dollar piano. On the first floor the desks were covered with boards which made ex- cellent tables for raffia, drawing, sloyd whittling, checkers, parchesi and krokinole, the lads break- ing forth now and then into popular songs while they worked and played. In the halls of the second floor an extra teacher conducted dancing and drill-work for the girls who could not be ac- commodated in the basement. A class room on this floor was occupied by a group of foreigners who studied English, sang American songs, and imbibed American ideas taught by a man of the neighborhood who was proficient in three lan- guages. A couple of sewing machines, loaned by an enterprising dealer with an eye to advertise- ment, enabled a number of women and girls under the tutoring of a sewing teacher and some volun- tary assistants to become skilled in the use of pat- terns and the fashioning of their own skirts and shirt waists. In the south end of the third floor a chorus of adults assembled and from 8:30 until 10 o'clock made the rafters ring with plantation melodies, old love songs, and the latest favorites of the theatre. At the same time a group of men gathered in the northern end to debate, chat over current topics, or listen to a lantern talk from a 277 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT High School instructor or college professor upon such topics as "The Chemistry of Daily Life" and "The Making of Pennsylvania." At these meetings the principal of the school or the presi- dent of the local Home and School Association presides, makes announcements and introduces the speaker. After the address the occasion is closed with the singing of the school song. Besides the activities mentioned, the following are also carried on at the various centers: kinder- gartens, reading rooms, story telling, stamp banks, choral classes for boys and girls, brass work, wood carving, chair caning, crocheting, embroid- ery, doll dressing and domestic science, the latter being taught by means of a miniature house and set of furnishings. A boys' dramatic club has given Julius Caesar, and is planning to present the banquet scene from Macbeth and "The Bowery Night School." While the Italian women's classes learn to sew, their daughters sing for them such songs as " Roses, " " Santa Lucia," and " Addio Mia Bella Napoli." In one of the centers the women stitched together a rag carpet which was sold and the money put into games and toys. The educational work includes classes in elocution, and instruction for those about to be natur- alized, and moving pictures and stereopticon lectures upon a wide range of topics; "Philadel- phia," "Playgrounds," "Milk," and "Japan," were on the program of a recent season. At several of the centers the "Baby Alliance" 278 SOCIAL CENTERS holds meetings for immigrant mothers at which physicians and nurses talk upon the "Care of Infants." Besides basket ball the games include ring-toss and hand ball for the boys, and the " May Pole" and other folk dances for the girls. In the majority of the activities the sexes are separated, although at several of the schools social dancing is now being cautiously introduced. The direction of the centers is in the hands of three grammar school principals, the wife of a clergyman the members of whose Sunday School class act as her assistants, a trained nurse with army experience, and two settlement workers, one of whom knows individually each of the 600 people who frequent her attractive class rooms and halls. The paid workers at one of the centers include the superintendent, two sloyd teachers, the singing master, the dancing instructor and her accompanist. Besides these the staff embraces the principal of the school and several other volunteer workers. The paid assistants usually receive $2.00 an evening and before employment they have to be approved by the League's Com- mittee on Further Use of School Buildings and the city superintendent of schools. At one of the centers the gymnastic work is in charge of a university man and his wife, the latter taking care of the girls and the former successfully play- ing "big brother" to the boys. A truant officer leads the singing at another, while most of the centers enjoy the ponderous presence of a friendly 279 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT policeman. Altogether the volunteers form a large proportion of the workers and they are drawn chiefly from the home and school associations, the women's clubs, settlements and other organiza- tions affiliated with the League, whose member- ship embraces representatives from many of Philadelphia's most prominent families. Two of the centers are open two evenings a week, the other five on one evening only usually Friday and their two-hour session ends at 9:00 or 9:30 o'clock. The one first established is located in the "tenderloin" region while the others are situated in Italian, Polish, Hungarian and mill districts. One of the latter sections had come to be regarded as a breeding place for criminals, but a subtle change has come over it since the school house doors have begun to swing open after sundown and words like these have floated out through its lighted windows: There is a pleasant meeting place for all the neighbor- hood, Where every one is friendly and society is good ; Where everything is cheery and we always like to come, For in the Social Center at the School we feel at Home. But the co-operative spirit of the centers is even better expressed in the chorus of this song for which "Mr. Dooley" has provided the air and the editor of the Home and School News the words : We work together We work together For Home and School belong to me and you. We work together We work together, For Home and School and Social Center too. 280 SOCIAL CENTERS In Milwaukee the Board of School Directors has opened three of its buildings five evenings a week for basket ball, quoits, tennis, ring games, dancing, shoe mending, basket making, Venetian iron work, sewing and dressmaking. There are also gymnasium classes for both boys and girls, young men and young women, as well as reading and study rooms, and a number of clubs with parliamentary, civic, literary, dramatic and social activities. Inspired by their successful employ- ment in club work, a philanthropist has given several combination billiard and pool tables which are very popular with the older boys only those over fifteen may use them and young men. In Pittsburgh, the Playground Association, as- sisted by a contribution of $500 from a local school board, last winter started social work in two build- ings. One of the school houses, opened six nights a week from 7:30 to 9:30 o'clock, afforded facilities for physical and manual training, instruction in cooking and sewing, and a series of "socials," lectures, concerts and club meetings. Only per- sons over fourteen years of age not attend- ing day schools were admitted, the girls and women coming two nights, the boys and men three, and both sexes assembling on the remaining evening. The other building was used on Wed- nesday evenings only, when its auditorium was the scene of illustrated lectures and musical and literary entertainments which were free to the public. This work is regarded as simply a be- 281 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT ginning, it being Pittsburgh's ambition ultimately to make every school a "ward clubhouse." Columbus, Ohio, affords another interesting instance of co-operation between voluntary or- ganizations. Under the lead of the School Ex- tension Society, which by means of boys' club work had already made evening recreation centers out of two schools, a combination was effected with the Federation of Women's Clubs, Young Ladies' Playground Association, United Commercial Trav- elers Women's Clubs and the College Women's Club. Representatives from these associations formed a "Committee on Co-operation" which canvassed the city for funds, secured the endorse- ment of the Chamber of Commerce to its appeal for assistance from the Board of Education, and, its efforts being successful, finally engaged an ex- perienced director of playgrounds and indoor recreation work. In February, 1910, three school houses were thrown open on three (in one build- ing four) nights a week, from 6:30 to 9:30, the girls and women being admitted Monday even- ings, the men on Wednesdays and the boys on Fridays. The rules also sent the small girls home at 7:30 and the older ones, who were not admitted until this hour, at 8:30 o'clock. For boys there were manual training classes, quoits, volley ball, basket ball, indoor baseball, relay races, circle games, military drills, wrestling and some boxing, while the girls were occupied with sewing, story telling, organized games and folk dances. Checkers 282 SOCIAL CENTERS and dominoes were also provided and a reading room to which both the state and city libraries loaned books. For the adults there were a current topics class and a series of lectures upon local civic problems given by the mayor and by college pro- fessors. Both the children and the grown peo- ple were organized into clubs. While most of the workers were volunteers some received from $1.00 to $2.50 per night. The janitors were paid |i.oo an evening, though in the case of one center in a school where evening classes were held and the janitor consequently was paid by the school board, this expense was avoided. The successful work that was done strengthened public confidence in the committee and in July, 1910, it saw the culmination of its efforts in the creation of a Department of Public Recreation in the muni- cipal government. Beginnings like that at Holyoke, Massachusetts, where the boys and their fathers are being at- tracted to the school house evenings by indoor sports and entertaining talks, and that at Pueblo, Colorado, where weekly lectures are given in the gymnasium and the Italians and Jews hold meetings and dances, are being made in many parts of the United States. The Cleveland public lectures, already described, are called a "social center development" and the same might be said of Cincinnati's choral and gymnasium classes, and of the "home and school" meetings which, as in Boston and many other places, are followed by a 283 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT "social hour." This past spring the Chicago School Board sent a committee to investigate the social work in eastern cities. After its tour it recommended (its report was adopted by the board) that suitable assembly halls, equipped with opera chairs, be constructed on the first floors of all elementary and high schools, either separate from or in connection with a gymnasium, and, further, that parents' associations and all other organizations working for the "physical, social, and moral uplift" of children and adults be encouraged to use school buildings. It also be- spoke an appropriation of $10,000 for the mainten- ance of social centers two evenings a week to be opened in the fall of 1910 upon the application of principals and the endorsement of the superinten- dent of schools. In Boston, whose "educational centers" of some years ago had certain social fea- tures which entitle the city to a place among the pioneers in this field, plans for the gradual develop- ment of social centers have been projected by the Home and School Association, along the lines of vocation bureaus, parent-teacher and civic asso- ciations, public lectures and organized recreation. In the country districts also there are signs of a promising movement for social centers. The agricultural papers are beginning to stir up memo- ries of the "good times" people used to have in the "little Red School House" and here and there starts are being made like that at Greece, New York, where, touched by the contagion of Roch- 284 SOCIAL CENTERS ester, a civic club has been formed and enthus- iastic meetings held by the people in the school house. Such beginnings as these justify the belief that the vision of Professor I. P. Roberts, for thirty years dean of the Cornell College of Agri- culture, will someday be realized: "In my dreams I see this rural center housed in a large, plain, attractive building, fitted with kitchen, and as- sembly hall for public meetings social, recreative, educational and religious; a building which will furnish conveniences for carrying on all those ac- tivities which the country people desire and need; a place in which any one who has anything to say or do which will improve any phase of rural life or which might stimulate to noble endeavor, should find a rostrum and a welcome; a central meeting place, perhaps for two or more districts, where agri- culture will be taught the young and old, and where handicrafts and domestic economy will be taught alongside the three R's." In many parts of England school buildings, as well as other public halls, are used by the Social Institutes Union, a voluntary organization which for the past thirteen years has been "advocating and carrying into effect a policy of constructive temperance reform, by the promotion and en- couragement of Social and Educational Clubs and Institutes." The average rental charged for the use of school houses by the London County Coun- cil and the education authorities of the other cities and towns is ten shillings six pence a week, 285 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT and this includes the cost of lighting, heating and caretaking, though the official organizer writes, "you will be wise to give a small honorarium to the caretaker, plus a small charge of three pence a dozen for moving chairs, and a fee for the use of piano if you are unable to find one of your own." The Scottish Christian Social Union uses school houses almost exclusively and, although its aims are slightly more religious, the activities provided in its institutes are practically the same as those found in the English clubs, a picture of which is given in one of their pamphlets: Let us now take a glance at a Social Institute of the right sort in full swing on a typical night. The billiard table is surrounded by a little cluster, watching the playing-off of some tie in a tournament arranged by the Games Committee, or perhaps it is a friendly match with the members of a neighboring club. At a small table not far off whist lovers are gathered together, two silent groups of fours wholly engrossed in their game. Chessmen are not often seen, but draughts are in fairly constant demand, though not, strange to say, dominoes. Ping-pong is dead and buried, and un- blessed be he that would seek to revive that feeble- fretful shade; ring quoits and Whiteley exercisers find constant devotees at the other end of the hall. Half a dozen men sit at the reading table, perusing to-night's papers (no stale literature, if you please !) and the best illustrated magazines. It is clearly a library night, for at the cupboard door the Committee-Member-in-charge stands at the receipt of custom with a keen eye for fines, giving and receiving books from the small library that has been formed by the exertion of the members them- selves. A member of the Refreshment Committee is in charge of another table loaded with slabs of cake, tins of biscuits, and glass topped cases containing tobacco, 286 SOCIAL CENTERS cigars, and cigarettes of carefully chosen brands the license costs only 55. 3d., and pays for itself many times over in profits within the year; a big kettle sings on the fire, and not a few members come in straight from their work, knowing that a cup of tea or good coffee will always be at hand, a welcome alternative to the dreary surroundings of the cookshop. In a side room, after a meeting of the Institute Loan and Benefit Club, the Pipe Parliament is in session on a question of vital interest to all thinking men, wearers of broadcloth and corduroys alike "The Housing of the Working Classes in our Great Cities." The debate has been opened in a ten minutes' speech by a young University man and his hearers have been airing their views, not untemp- ered by the symposium in last week's "Daily Mail," in speeches strictly limited to two minutes each. At half past nine tne chairman will sum up in a five min- utes' speech, and the meeting will then disperse. The cricket club belonging to the Institute will hold a meet- ing in this room a little later to decide on the making up of a team for next Saturday's important match, a matter of as much moment to them as any possible Housing Problem! On alternate Saturday nights the floor is prepared and the hall decorated for a Family Social Party, a red letter event for many sisters, cousins and aunts, and other friends and relations of both sexes (admittance is by programme only, for which members pay id., their friends 3d.). Songs, games, recitations, and so forth, provide an evening's relaxation of delight and true sociability for many who have no inclination to sit in stiff rows at the more formal concert, and still less desire for the questionable enjoyments of the sec- ond-class suburban "Empire." Concerning the educational features the writer goes on to say: You must recognize of course the fact that many of your members regard the club merely as a resort for games, a little casual reading, and a quiet pipe, and you will not quarrel with them for that. If tney were not 287 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT with you they would be paying "wet rent" to the publi- cans for similar accommodation. But there are always others ready, nay anxious, for mental improvement. The Pipe Parliament supplies the needs of some of these men; for others, more directly educational op- portunities must be devised. If your Institute occu- pies school premises, say under the County or District Council, the authorities will in most cases provide a teacher, or, if you so desire, will adopt a teacher of your own nomination in any subject within their curriculum for a special ''Institute" class of not less than fifteen members. London County Council classes in such subjects as Choral Singing, Physical Exercises, Short- hand and Workshop Arithmetic have thus been formed and have met with genuine and sustained success in clubs founded by the Social Institutes Union. But, as the general secretary writes, "Here in our Clubs we recreate first and educate after- wards and we find our success greater for this very reason." REFERENCES BAKER, RAY STANNARD: "Do It For Rochester." The American Magazine, September, IQIO. DEWEY, JOHN: The School as a Social Center. Proceedings of the National Education Association, 1902, page 373. DUTTON AND SNEDDEN: Administration of Public Education in the United States. Page 590. The Macmillan Company, New York, 1908. HALL, G. STANLEY: Some Social Aspects of Education. Educational Review, Vol. 23, page 433. PAULDING, J. K.: The Public School asaCentre of Community Life. Educational Review, Vol. 15, page 147. SCUDDER, H. E.: The Schoolhouse as a Centre. Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 77, page 103. WARD, EDWARD J.: Rochester Social Centers and Civic Clubs. Story of the First Two Years. Published by the League of Civic Clubs, Rochester, New York, 1909. See also the reports and publications of the Philadelphia Home and School League; the Boston Home and School Association; the Social Institutes' Union, 4 Portugal Street, Kingsway, London, W. C.; and the Scottish Christian Social Union, 102 Bath Street, Glasgow. 288 ORGANIZED ATHLETICS, GAMES AND FOLK DANCING CHAPTER X ORGANIZED ATHLETICS, GAMES AND FOLK DANCING PEDESTRIANS in a certain street of the Bronx district were momentarily halted one afternoon by the sight of three small boys who shot from the gate of a public school and darted across the road as if a policeman were after them. As the boy in front was smaller than the other two, by whom he was being chased, the pursuit was quickly ended, the two bigger boys seizing the little fellow before he had gone far. Each took an arm and, wheeling him about, they marched him back with a decisiveness that showed confidence in their authority and ability to act upon it. The prisoner to the sur- prise of the bystanders showed little resentment and actually smiled in a shame-faced way as he was being dragged through the gateway, now crowded with shouting boys who surrounded the trio like a body-guard as it marched down the yard. The yard was not large; it had a concrete floor and was surrounded by buildings and a high brick wall. Here and there were distinct groups of a dozen or so boys lined up around gymnasium 291 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT mats, and it was to the central one of these knots that the runaway was now brought by his captors. The circle opened. Coat and hat were stripped from the victim; he was placed on a chalk-line drawn across the mat and told to jump. The place where he landed was marked with a crayon and he was made to try again, and then once more, each time jumping a little farther. After three trials he was told to take a place in the line and watch the others practice. One boy of ath- letic build and forceful manner acted as leader, instructing each one as he stepped on the chalk- line when to spring, how to swing the arms and pull up the knees, how to take care in landing not to touch the mat at any place back of the imprint made by the heels. The surprising thing was that while a good jump always aroused enthusiasm there was a constant interest in the efforts of the puny, undersized fellows who received, indeed, the lion's share of attention from the more expert ones and who were kept more rigorously at practice. One of the teachers came out to help coach the jumpers. He handed his coat to one pupil, his hat and eye glasses to another, and demonstrated with his own lanky body the best method of projecting it through space. Finally a smallish lad with wizened features jumped and when his mates saw his mark they groaned. "My boy, do you smoke cigarettes?" the teacher asked, laying his hand on the jumper's shoulder. The boy hung his head. 292 ATHLETICS, GAMES AND FOLK DANCING These boys were getting ready for a competition in which it was the jump of the whole class that counted. At the final tests the distances reached by all the members of that class would be added together and the sum divided by the number of jumpers. The quotient would constitute the mark of the class. The group was composed of sixth grade pupils while the three other knots of jumpers scattered about the yard belonged to the fifth, seventh and eighth grades. Each class competed only with the other classes of the same grade in the borough, and after the records were all in, a trophy was awarded to the class which had made the highest average distance. Last year this school had won the trophies which had been offered in all four grades. In the winter time a similar competition was held in "chinning/' and in a large ground-floor room which served as a gymnasium a long ladder was inclined against the wall in a way that made it possible for boys of all sizes and several at a time to practice the "pull-up." A principal in another school had put up horizontal bars in the doorway of his class room where the boys "chinned them- selves" during the period assigned to physical' training as well as at recess time and after school. Trophies were awarded the classes showing the best averages for their respective grades in this competition and likewise in the class running con- 7- tests which are held in the spring. In all three events every boy in the class has to participate, 293 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT so the poorer athletes receive constant coaching from the morje experjjboys . The principal's office in this Bronx school con- tained many trophies. They were beautiful shields with bronze plates upon which were en- graved the names of the classes that had won them from time to time. The records of the classes in the standing broad jump were also given. The average jump of the fifth grade boys was a trifle over six and one-half feet; the sixth year lads had reached full seven feet, the next grade two inches farther and the eighth graders seven feet seven and six-tenths inches. These were the best records yet made in the five boroughs of Greater New York. On the wall neatly framed were several certificates announcing the award in former years of trophies which had now passed on to other schools, while a bronze bas-relief and a couple of silver cups on a cabinet in a conspicuous corner testified to other victories on track and field. THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS ATHLETIC LEAGUE OF NEW YORK CITY In 1903, Mr. James E. Sullivan, Dr. Luther Halsey Gulick, then Director of Physical Training in the New York public schools, and Superinten- dent William H. Maxwell, got together and de- vised a plan for providing school boys with ath- letics. After presenting the scheme to a number of prominent business men, who immediately gave it 294 ATHLETICS, GAMES AND FOLK DANCING their support, it was outlined at a meeting of the principals. To demonstrate its entire feasibility and give impetus to the movement a track and field meet at which 1 500 boys ran races, jumped, put the shot and performed other feats of strength and agility was held in Madison Square Garden. Indoor sports upon such a vast scale had never been seen. The newspapers gave the event wide publicity, while the occasion itself not only generated enthusiasm among pupils, parents and school officials, but won the sympathies of in- fluential men and women and gained support for the cause. In December of the same year the Public Schools Athletic League was incorporated, application for the charter being made by seven- teen citizens whose number included the City Superintendent of Schools and persons prom- inent in military, ecclesiastical, financial, athletic and educational circles. Mr. Roosevelt, then President, not only praised the new venture in an open letter, but became the honorary vice- president. Under such circumstances was the League launched. Its specific objects, as set forth in the by-laws, are "to promote useful athletics and gymnastics among the attendants in the elementary, high and collegiate departments of public educational institutions of the City of New York, and in con- nection therewith to co-operate with and support athletic associations, provide athletic grounds and teachers, organize games, offer prizes and conduct 295 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT competitions." The funds it disburses for tro- phies, medals, clerk hire, printing, advertising and the expenses of running games are derived mainly from voluntary contributions and membership dues which are |io per year for annual members; $50 paid in one sum secures life membership, while a person paying $100 becomes a patron. At present (1910) the membership is large enough to make possible an annual expenditure of over $10,000. In the accomplishment of its purposes the League carries on the following activities, one of which, class athletics, has been partially de- scribed in the introduction to this chapter. ATHLETIC BADGE COMPETITION With a view to encouraging an all-round phy- sical development on the part of the greatest possible number of boys, distinctive badges were offered to all who should perform the following feats: Class A Bronze Badge 60 yards dash 8| seconds Pull up (chinning on bar) 4 times Standing broad jump 5 feet 9 inches Class B Bronze Silver Badge 60 yards dash, indoors 8 seconds or, 100 yards dash, outdoors. ... 14 seconds Pull up (chinning) 6 times Standing broad jump 6 feet 6 inches High School Boys Silver Badge 200 yard run 28 seconds Pull up (chinning on bar) 9 times Running high jump 4 feet 4 inches 296 ATHLETICS, GAMES AND FOLK DANCING According to the rules "no boy shall be admitted to any contest who has not received a mark of at least 'B' for the month previous in effort, profi- ciency and deportment, the principal of the school to be sole judge in this matter/' and a further re- striction requires that all competitors must show signs of making an effort " to secure good posture/' The badge, which is a button shaped like an oblong shield with a winged classical figure and a mono- gram of P. S. A. L. in bas-relief, can be won only by qualifying in all three tests. In 1904-05 when the trials were first held 1 162 boys, about 2 per cent of those who entered, won badges. Each succeeding year the number of successful competitors increased until in 1908-09, 7049 badges were awarded. These trials were held in 1 15 elementary schools containing a total of 47,540 boys in their grammar grades, in which the competition is general. In thirteen high schools 1 130 youths competed and 308 quali- fied for the solid silver buttons. The Winthrop trophy, a bas-relief representing "The Soldier of Marathon/' which was donated by the president of the Board of Education to be awarded annually to the school having the largest proportion of its eligible pupils (boys from fifth grade up) among the winners of the badge, was won by a school in which 59 per cent of the enrolled boys were suc- cessful. In several other schools from 40 to 50 per cent won the coveted buttons. In five years 16,428 lads have won the athletic 297 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT badge, but they form only a small fraction of the number who have been benefited through com- peting for it. Standing both for all-round ath- letic ability and scholarship these neat bronze buttons are highly prized by their owners, who frequently wear them in their lapels for years after leaving school. CLASS ATHLETICS This activity involves an even wider participa- tion in physical exercise by school boys, since in order to have a record stand at least 80 per cent of those enrolled in the class must take part in the competitions, and no group of less than eight members is counted. Insistence upon participa- tion by the entire class would have been preferable, but it was found impracticable on account of absences due to sickness and other unavoidable causes, and 80 per cent was the largest proportion considered feasible to require. The events in which classes are allowed to make records and the seasons when they are tested are as follows : Standing broad jump Fall Pull up or chinning Winter Running Spring The various distances run by the four grades allowed to enter these contests are: Fifth Grade 40 yards Sixth Grade 50 yards 298 ATHLETICS, GAMES AND FOLK DANCING Seventh Grade 60 yards Eighth Grade 80 yards In each event the record for the class, as has been stated above, is the average of those made by its members. The distances to be covered and the duration of the tests, to avoid the risk of any overstrain, are carefully adjusted to the physical strength of the different groups. In timing the running contests the method adopted to lessen the possibility of error is thus described in the League rules: "The boys are lined up behind the starting- mark in the order in which they are to run; the timer, who also acts as starter, stands at the finish line and gives the signal for each boy to start. As the first runner crosses the finish line the second runner is given the signal to start. As the last boy crosses the finish line the watch is stopped. The record is found by dividing the time elapsed by the number of boys competing. If an ordinary watch is used the first boy should be started when the second hand is over the '60' mark." The broad jump and the pulling-up tests are usually held in school yards and gymnasiums, while for the dashes^armories, athletic fields and sometimes streets are used. After the president of the League explained its work to the chief of police an order was issued to patrolmen not to interfere with boys who were practicing running in the streets under the oversight of their own teachers. 299 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT When chinning as a test was first introduced there were some schools where only a small part of the boys could pull themselves up even once, but during the winter of 1909 the average for the fifth grade, which made the poorest record among the five borough winners, was 7.6 times, while the city champions of the same grade averaged 1 1 .2 times. A total of 31,711 boys competed in the standing broad jump, 14,488 in the chinning, and 7057 in the running, the latter number being small on account of the unpropitious weather which prevailed during the spring. The trophies awarded in each borough to the winning classes in the several grades are contested for each year but the holders are also given an engraved certificate which is their permanent property. These two activities are the peculiar achieve- ments of the League. The early competitive sports are pyramidal in effect, rising to an apex of a few experts who are brought into view through hewing-down contests, but the badge test and the class athletics spread as they progress. Competing against a standard instead of an indi- vidual gives everybody an opportunity to try and a boy is not obliged to defeat another boy in order to win. Thus they develop the spirit of co-operation and lay the foundations of a greater social cohesiveness later on. 300 ATHLETICS, GAMES AND FOLK DANCING CHAMPIONSHIP MEETINGS The League believes, however, that despite their disadvantages the older types of games have their uses. Experts are needed to stimulate the masses, while champions create and focus school spirit. Intensive activities naturally complement those that are extensive and in accordance with this policy the following games and sports are annually organized and promoted by the League officials: IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS (1) Baseball (5) Indoor championship games (2) Basket ball (6) Outdoor championship games (3) Soccer football (7) Outdoor novice games (4) Swimming (o) Sunday World championship games Except the Sunday World games, all of the above sports are found also in the high schools and, in addition, they have the cross country run, marksmanship competitions, relay races, and tennis. At these meets the regular events in track and field sports are held, although hammer throwing has been omitted on account of the danger it involves. For the purpose of bringing together in competition only those who are of the same general physical ability the boys are classified by weight and allowed to enter only such events as are fixed for their respective weights. The various weight classes for elementary pupils recognized 301 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT by the League and the corresponding events in one of the games series are shown in the following table: ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS INDOOR CHAMPIONSHIP EVENTS So-pound Class 50-yard dash Running high jump Standing broad jump 360 yards relay race 95-pound Class 6o-yard dash Running high jump Standing broad jump 440 yards relay race 1 1 ^-pound Class 7O-yard dash 8-pound shot put Standing broad jump 440 yards relay race Unlimited IV eight Class loo-yard dash 12-pound shot put Running high jump 880 yards relay race To guard against any unfairness the competitors in the track and field meets are weighed in their athletic costumes on the grounds at the time the sports are held. The scales are set up in a narrow lane through which the runners have to pass to enter the track. When an 8o-pound race is called the beam is set at that weight and the contestants step in turn upon the platform. If the beam does not come up the boy goes on to the track; if it does, he is diverted back into the crowd. To 302 ATHLETICS, GAMES AND FOLK DANCING save time the jumpers are not weighed until after the contests and then only those who ob- tained the first five places in the event are asked to step upon the scales. If a boy proves to be overweight he is disqualified and the place among the winners is given to the boy of proper weight who has made the next best mark. As a further illustration of the carefulness as to details with which the games are organized it may be mentioned that just as soon as an event is concluded and the winners are determined they are given certifi- cates which, presented at a booth on the field, enable them to receive their medals at once and return to their friends in the grandstand with the insignia shining upon their proud little chests. In the elementary games each school is limited to a certain number of entries, and a boy is al- lowed to enter only one event, thus preventing over-exertion and making it possible for a greater number of individuals to take part. In these games also competitors must have received in their school work a mark of at least " B " in effort, proficiency and deportment. No high school pupil is allowed to compete in the mile run unless he has reached the age of sixteen years and six months, nor represent his school in any branch of athletics after reaching twenty-one. Strict rules regarding betting, amateur standing, participa- tion in outside meets, length of attendance at school represented and previous matriculation in higher institutions of learning are laid down in 303 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT the League's by-laws under "Eligibility," and these are rigidly enforced. Through the generosity of friends of the League eleven high schools have each been provided with two Krag-Jorgensen rifles and a sub-target gun machine. By means of the latter boys can prac- tice shooting at a target without any expense, noise or risk to life, and acquire the same skill as if they were using a regular army rifle. At the present time over 1000 boys are practicing at these ranges and nearly a dozen team matches are held each year. Although the competitions in marks- manship have been carried on but a few years, ac- cording to the League's 1909 Year Book, "were the country to requisition the services of the high school boys we could provide more than a regi- ment trained in the use of the rifle, with three companies prepared for service as marksmen, and a company of sharpshooters." The skill being acquired at the school ranges is well described by General Wingate in a recent report: "In the tournament which took place under the auspices of the National Rifle Associa- tion at the Sportsmen's Show in February and March, 1909, at which a number of prizes were offered by different arms companies and others interested in the subject, over 1000 boys parti- cipated more, in fact, than the eight target ranges and the sub-target gun machines that were provided would permit. The shooting was done at 60 feet, bull's eye, one inch, counting five; 304 A CLOSE FINISH IN SCHOOL SPORTS TOUCHING OFF IN THE RELAY ATHLETICS, GAMES AND FOLK DANCING center, 3^ inches, counting four; inner, 5J inches, counting three. The shooting was fully equal to anything which has ever been seen in any of the National Guard competitions. In fact, the scores made by many of the competitors have never be- fore been equalled. Thus, J. Ehrlich of the Morris High School, firing 120 shots with a possible score of 600 points, half shot standing and half prone, made 598, only missing the bull's eye twice; and the team of the Morris High School, firing 10 shots each, standing and prone, made 557 out of a possible 600." But shooting is not the only sport in which the school boys have developed expertness. In a deciding game of the baseball tournament of 1909 a Brooklyn nine played another from Manhattan in which only two runs and one error were made, while in the other events new records are made every year. While it is true that these games constitute a process of elimination, that they have in view finally a few individuals or a team instead of a school or a class, nevertheless their sweep at the beginning of the tournament or the champion- ship series is wide enough to justify a consideration of their extensive character. Here are a few figures taken from General George W. Wingate's presidential address for 1909: 10 305 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT NUMBER OF PARTICIPANTS IN SEVERAL ELEMENTARY SCHOOL GAMES Indoor championship, 878 boys from 73 schools. Basket ball tournament, 105 teams (5 boys in each) from 65 schools. Swimming contests, 336 boys from 36 schools. Outdoor novice, nearly 1000 boys. Outdoor championship, 750 boys from 57 schools. Baseball, 106 teams representing 346 schools. Sunday World series, 33,460 boys of 147 schools. For the purpose of enforcing gentlemanly be- havior while going to and from the games, pre- venting injury while traveling on the cars or boats, and keeping order at the meets a system of school police has been adopted. The boys of each of the four upper grades elect six policemen to serve for the term and these then choose lieutenants and captains who are supplied with suitable badges by the Board of Education. The enjoyment of the meets has recently been increased by the presence of school bands. One of the directors of the League gave enough instruments for two bands and paid the services of an instructor. Membership in these organiza- tions became so attractive they soon had long v/aiting lists. The following, taken from the official handbook of the League, shows very concisely its aims in the promotion of 306 ATHLETICS, GAMES AND FOLK DANCING ATHLETIC COURTESY The League endeavors to foster clean sport between gentlemen. The following statements express the spirit to be sought and maintained in such sport. It is the privilege and duty of every committee and person connected with the League to embody these principles in his own actions and to earnestly advocate them before others: (1) The rules of games are to be regarded as mutual agreements, the spirit or letter of which one should no sooner try to evade or break than one would any other agreement between gentlemen. The stealing of ad- vantage in sport is to be regarded in the same way as stealing of any other kind. (2) Visiting teams are to be honored guests of the home team, and all their mutual relationships are to be governed by the spirit which is understood to guide in such relationships. (3) No action is to be taken nor course of conduct pursued which would seem ungentlemanly or dis- honorable if known to one's opponent or the public. (4) No advantages are to oe sought over others except those in which the game is understood to show superiority. (5) Officers and opponents are to be regarded and treated as honest in intention. When opponents are evidently not gentlemen, and officers manifestly dis- honest or incompetent, future relationships with them may be avoided. (6) Decisions of officials are to be abided by, even when they seem unfair. (7) Ungentlemanly or unfair means are not to be used even when they are used by opponents. (8) Good points in others should be appreciated and suitable recognition given. With ideals of conduct such as these being constantly demonstrated in school gymnasium, 307 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT yard and athletic field it is not strange that out- croppings of ethically splendid acts should appear on the surface of the League's annual work. Here are a couple of instances taken from the 1909 report of the secretary, Dr. C. Ward Crampton: " P. S. 6, Manhattan, was declared the champion of the City of New York on a Saturday night, winning it by a single point from P. S. 77, Man- hattan. On Monday morning the coach of P. S. 6, Manhattan, discovered that his one valued point had been obtained through the dishonesty of one of his boys who had run unfairly on the relay team. He quickly made his way to the Board of Education and laid his laurels at the feet of the Public Schools Athletic League, regretfully, but he could not hold his magnificent prize unfairly." Concerning the effect upon scholarship, this incident may also be quoted: "Many a big, vigorous boy out of sympathy with his school work is driven to his lessons by his mates so that he can become eligible to represent his school. The school paper of P. S. 30, Manhattan, Mr. Paul, principal, recently reached my hands. It contained the records of the broad jump. The champion jumper of the school was ineligible to compete, even though his jump nearly equalled the record of the city, and the boy editor stated, 'It is a pity he can't jump as well with his lessons/ I wrote the principal expressing the hope that such a good athlete might do better in his studies, and re- ceived the reply in a week or so stating that his 308 ATHLETICS, GAMES AND FOLK DANCING classmates had attended to the matter, and the boy had won his way to a high scholastic standing." ADMINISTRATION For the purpose of distributing the infinite number of tasks incidental to the conduct of games upon such a vast scale, a district athletic league is organized for each group of institutions under a district superintendent of schools. The specific functions of these sub-leagues according to constitutions prescribed for them by the parent league are as follows: (1) Take charge of the competitions for and distributions among the schools in its district of the buttons awarded by the Public Schools Athletic League. (2) Select the competitors who are to compete from such schools in athletic meetings of such League. (3) Supervise and promote athletic contests in and among the schools in such districts. (4) Assist in providing grounds, building, ap- paratus and other things required for the promo- tion of athletics and physical training among the children attending such schools. Besides discharging these duties the board of directors also annually appoints a delegate who acts with the appointees from the other local leagues on the " Elementary Schools Game Com- mittee." This body meets once a month and has charge of the inter-school sports. A similar 309 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT committee whose members are teachers appointed for the purpose by the principals of the high schools manages all of the athletic doings between the secondary schools. Each of these committees nominates a director of the Public Schools Athletic League. Any misunderstandings or questions connected with the conduct of games between elementary or high schools are treated by their respective games committees, but matters of amateur standing, athletic policy and other questions involving general standards come before a "Games Com- mittee" consisting of three directors of the Public Schools Athletic League. The present chairman of this committee, Mr. James E. Sullivan, is a well-known ex-athlete and an organizer of the Amateur Athletic Union of the United States; he has been an official in nearly all the prominent athletic meets of the past thirty years. The members of these committees perform valuable and time-consuming services, but they receive no compensation beyond the satisfaction of parti- cipating in an important and successful work. CO-OPERATION OF SCHOOL OFFICIALS The membership of the district athletic leagues, just referred to, is regularly made up of the resident district superintendent of schools, the director of physical training, two members elected from the local school board, and two teachers selected by the superintendent. These persons, 310 ATHLETICS, GAMES AND FOLK DANCING and such others as they may elect to assist them, carry on, either directly or through their officers and committees, the athletic affairs of the district. The referees, judges, scorers and other officials of the various track and field meets held for the elementary pupils are selected from among the high school instructors, while the games among the secondary students are officered by elementary teachers, thus facilitating unbiased rulings and decisions. Concerning the assistance of the teachers Dr. Gulick, who acted as secretary of the parent league during his connection with the Board of Education, once wrote: "One of the prominent features, without which the League could not have succeeded at all, has been the earnest, con- tinuous and enthusiastic support of the principals and teachers. During the past year four hundred and eleven men have contributed their services toward helping their boys in athletics, during one or more hours per week after school hours. In the large proportion of cases this has resulted in that close alliance of teacher and pupil which is difficult to secure when the only relationship is that main- tained during school hours. The teachers have accompanied their boys to the meets, have en- couraged them, have cheered them when victor- ious, and consoled them when defeated. While it is true that without the financial support of the business men of the city the League could not have been carried on at all during its early days, it 3" WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT is equally true that the support of the teachers was even rnore important. If these men who have volunteered their services had been paid for their time at the same rate at which they are paid for their other services, it would have amounted to a contribution several times over that which was contributed in actual money by our generous- minded citizens." While the League is not officially affiliated with the Board of Education its work nevertheless has received a very real support from the Board- Trie co-operation of the superintendents, prin- cipals and teachers mentioned above is recog- nized and approved by the Board. After the formation of the League it created three new posi- tions and filled them with an inspector and two assistant inspectors of athletics to attend to the general organization of the sports, while the bronze buttons awarded in the athletic badge test, at first purchased with funds solicited by the League, are now provided by the Board. Re- cently it passed a by-law authorizing the payment of teachers who referee at the baseball, basket ball and soccer foot ball tournaments. The jumping, chinning and running events which con- stitute the athletic badge test and class competi- tions have been incorporated by the Board of Superintendents in the syllabus of physical train- ing for the four grammar grades. Through the efforts of the president of the League the Board of Aldermen appropriated 312 ATHLETICS, GAMES AND FOLK DANCING $500,000 for four athletic fields well distributed throughout the city which are now in use and under the control of the Board of Education. The officers of the National Guard have also given valuable assistance by granting the use of armories for tournaments and indoor sports. FOLK DANCING One afternoon in the late spring an exhibition of after-school play was given in Public School No. 22, situated in the lower part of New York. The street outside was a seething mass of wagons, pushcarts, men, women and children. Over the shop doors were Polish, Magyar, Slovenian, Italian and Yiddish signs. In front of the school was a park playground with the familiar swings, chutes, ladders and horizontal bar, but the sun was beat- ing down so fiercely that although classes had just been dismissed few children were playing in the grounds. The school contains a long room on the ground floor furnished only with a square piano and a couple of chairs placed at its farther end. The concrete floor and few windows with their iron gratings made the place seem cool and pleas- antly dim in contrast with the heat and dazzling light of the street. Everybody had gone home except two teachers and forty girls from the third, fourth and fifth grades who now came marching down-stairs into the room. Faces which but a few minutes before had been set and stern with the necessity of keep- 3'3 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT ing order now broke into smiles, while the childish spirits so long repressed began to bubble up in brightened eyes and overflow in laughter and quickened movements. One teacher went to the piano and the other marshalled the children into an alcove at the farther end of the room. Not a sound was heard in the whole vast building above. The roar of wagons and jangle of trolley cars, softened and filtered as it were by walls and shutters, seemed to come from a far-away city. There were no lessons to get, no errands to run, no babies to mind. Tomorrow was a myth; the past never had been; only this blood-bounding moment existed. A chord was struck and then forty little forms, light as fairies and sprightly as imps, came running down the long room. Quickly they took posi- tions in parallel ranks of five with hands on hips, their faces all turned in the same direction. The player struck up an old Swedish tune called " Reap the Flax" and the dance was on. All reach down to the left, as if to seize the grain, and then bring the hands up to the waist in the motion of reaping. This movement is repeated several times, always in time with the music, and then the figure changes. During the succeeding measures the flax is stacked, hackled, corded and twisted into a single thread, the latter being represented by a long line of girls in single file, each with hands on the shoulders of the one ahead, swaying from one side to the other as they circle around the room. In the conclud- ATHLETICS, GAMES AND FOLK DANCING ing figure four of the dancers form a square while a fifth, with running steps, winds in and out of the group illustrating the movement of the shuttle in weaving the linen. Thus these children of the crowded city taste the joys of an old-world folk who had loved their simple pursuits enough to perpetuate them in melodious symbols and festive ceremonies. But the Scandinavians were not the only people which contributed to the program. The younger girls, known as the Junior Club, next gave the Russian Dance, the dominant figure of which graphically showed the peasant reaching into a bag of seed at the left side and sowing it broad- cast with an outward sweep of the right hand. The Tarantella, danced by the Senior Club with the added accompaniment of castanets and tam- bourines, gave a vivid impression of the vivacity and grace displayed by the Italians on their native sward, while the rapid whirlings, rocking move- ments and brisk heel and toe exercises of the athletic Hungarian Solo, stepped off by the same girls, suggested scenes familiar to the country- side of central Europe. Likewise the May-pole Dance, in which both clubs wound bright streamers around practicable standards to a merry tune, reflected some of the color and rhythmic beauty of time-honored English outdoor festivals. The children threw themselves into the dances with abandon and unflagging energy. In the glow of such activity, wholesome to the body and stimu- WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT lating to the imagination, plain features, pallid skins and ungainly shapes were all transformed, and for the time the sordid and the ugly in the lives of these young people gave way to something beautiful and good. Interspersed with the dances were a number of games which provided spirited but friendly com- petitions between the two clubs, each of which had twenty members. In the first contest the Seniors were divided into two teams of ten girls each, which were lined up in single files, facing each other, but separated by the whole length of the room. Parallel with them were the two files of Juniors, Number One of each line being paired with a leader of the opposing club and facing in the same direction. "On your mark!" shouted one of the teachers. The two leaders in the western end brought their toes up to the starting- line. "Get ready!" They bent forward ready to spring. "Go!" came the signal, and two forms darted down the room towards the other halves of their respective teams where the leaders stood awaiting them. Swiftly the runners slapped the outstretched hands and then went to one side out of the way. The girls who had been touched took up the race, their part being to run and "touch- off" the Number Two's of the lines at the other end of the room. And so it went, back and forth, each runner trying to cover the distance as quickly as possible in the hope of increasing the lead of her side, or cutting down that of her opponents. 316 " Reaping the Flax" I "Reaping the Flax" II IN A NEW YORK SCHOOL YARD ATHLETICS, GAMES AND FOLK DANCING Surprising as it may seem, the Juniors, averaging a year less in age than the Seniors, gradually gained and amidst the gleeful shouts of the mid- gets, the last girl on their side ran the length of the room to the finish line several yards ahead of her rival. Thus ended the Shuttle Relay Race. In the next contest, all the members of the two clubs lined up in single files behind the starting- line. At the other end of the room, opposite each line of girls, were two white circles drawn side by side upon the hard floor. In one of the circles stood three Indian clubs while the other was empty. At the signal, Number One of each line ran to the set of clubs in front of her and with one hand placed them one by one inside of the other circle. That done she ran back and touched-off Number Two, who then dashed down the room and in like manner placed the clubs back in the other circle. A Senior girl was a little hasty and one of the clubs falling down she had to go back and set it up again. This gave the Juniors the advantage and their last girl changed the posi- tions of the clubs and crossed the starting-line just as the last of the Seniors reached the clubs, thus winning the race for her side. In the contest which followed, likewise a relay race, each line of girls had to pass overhead a large basket ball and each member carry it in turn the length of the room and back again. The Seniors were success- ful this time and also in the Potato Relay, which involved taking three potatoes, one at a time, out 3'7 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT of a waste-basket, and placing them on spots two yards apart. Number One did this, and then they were picked up again by Number Two, and so on until each girl had participated. All of the games played demanded equal physical effort and steadi- ness under exciting circumstances from each girl, and tended to produce a wholesome sense of mutual dependence. They required no more space than is afforded by the average school basement or yard. Toward the middle of the hour and a half con- sumed by the dances and games a ripple of height- ened interest expressed by turned heads showed that some one had attracted the attention of the dancers. It was Miss Elizabeth Burchenal, the young woman who as Inspector of Athletics had taught the teachers these folk dances. With her sister she had traveled through Europe visiting the festivals of the country-folk, and while she had learned their dances her companion had jotted down the music. And now these children of the transplanted peasants were being taught the steps through which their parents had shaken off the stiffness of their limbs and found forgetfulness of life's hardships. At the close of the program Miss Burchenal inquired if there were any Hungarian girls present who knew the Czardash. The hands of two went up. In a twinkling she had seized the bigger girl by the waist and was whirling her around the room. Immediately the children scrambled 318 ATHLETICS, GAMES AND FOLK DANCING for partners and with eyes on the Inspector they began to imitate her steps. Falteringly at first, then more surely and finally with complete confi- dence, couple after couple made the movement their own until nearly the whole roomful was suc- cessfully tripping the intricate steps of the Hun- garian national dance. GIRLS' BRANCH OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS ATHLETIC LEAGUE The kind of work done by this organization has been illustrated in the preceding account of the after-hours dances and games in an East Side pub- lic school. The manner in which it accomplishes its purposes is indicated in the following announce- ment taken from its handbook for 1909-10: In order to provide instruction in the events sanc- tioned for inter-class competitions, the Girls' Branch offers a course in dancing and athletics, free of expense, to public school teachers who will in return give one lesson per week after school to athletic clubs organized in their own schools. It will be necessary to have at least two teachers from each of the schools represented one who can play the piano and one who can demon- strate and not more than four. During the past season (1909-10) 1 100 teachers, representing 178 schools, attended the eleven classes in folk dancing and athletics conducted by Miss Burchenal and her six assistants in the gym- nasiums of several high schools. The number of school girls instructed in turn by these teachers was over 13,000. 3'9 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT The competitions referred to take place be- tween clubs of the same school only and not be- tween individuals. To be eligible for an inter- class competition every girl must have attended school for one month and have received a mark of at least " B " for the previous month in proficiency, and "A" in effort and deportment. The events include dancing, the games described above, throwing the basket ball for distance, and such other tests as may be sanctioned by the Public Schools Athletic League. In the high school competitions team games including basket ball are also used. In judging the dancing a score is made based upon (i) memory, (2) form and grace, and (3) spirit, each counting ten points. Every meet must include both dancing and games. The trophies awarded in these annual or semi- annual competitions consist of silver cups and bronze plaques the latter being the more numer- ous which have been donated by members and friends of the League. They usually bear plates upon which the names of the winning classes are engraved. There is also an official League pin, shaped much like the athletic badge given to the boys, which is bestowed upon the individual mem- bers of the winning teams or classes in these com- petitions. During the spring meets of 1909, 2365 of these pins were awarded. The Girls' Branch favors dancing as an exercise because it has been found that more girls can dance in the same space than can engage in either 320 ATHLETICS, GAMES AND FOLK DANCING class athletics or team games, that one teacher can instruct more pupils in dancing than in any other form of athletics, and that it affords girls more pleasure and wholesome exercise than the games or sports. At the same time the organiza- tion is very much alive to the evils which might arise from the wholesale instruction of girls in an art that is so much employed upon the stage. It therefore has forbidden -individual dancing or any exhibitions at which an admission fee is asked, but folk dancing at parents' meetings and other oc- casions when friends of the girls are invited is al- lowed. To prevent the rise of social distinctions a ban has been put upon the purchase of fancy costumes, the needful appearance of homogeneity being accomplished by the use of a colored hair- ribbon, a sash, or a scarf, which may be made of cheese-cloth or some other inexpensive material. Girls are encouraged to provide themselves when possible, however, with bloomers and suitable shoes which permit more freedom in exercising. To guard against the notoriety and unwholesome ex- citement which inter-school competitions inevi- tably produce they have been forbidden. At the same time the legitimate enthusiasm attendant upon large occasions, especially those out of doors, is annually allowed free play in huge May Day festivals. The girls' clubs in the schools of Manhattan and the Bronx gather on one Saturday morning in the year in Van Cortlandt Park, while those of 21 321 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT Brooklyn meet in Prospect Park. A multitude of 4000 bright-eyed children, dancing the Carrousel or winding bright streamers around fifty May-poles upon the green lawn is a sight that lingers long in the memories of the parents and friends who crowd the edges of the vast field reserved for the sports. Besides these big meets individual schools have little outings of their own. Thus during the past summer the girls of the Washington Irving High School trooped out to one of the parks and celebrated "Midsummer Day" with a varied program of games and sports. There were torch, hyirdle and chariot races, the competitors in the last event being teams of four girls, driven by a fifth, running abreast and carrying a wooden bar with reins of ribbons attached to its ends. I n one of the relay races the contestants had to carry large blocks which at the finish were built into a minia- ture house. Besides the fixed events there were opportunities open to all to swing in rings, climb ladders and use other pieces of playground apparatus. In the course of the afternoon an address was delivered by the president of the Pub- lic Schools Athletic League. Even more sig- nificant of the effective work being performed by the Girls' Branch are the private May parties, occurring annually, when children by the thou- sand throng the parks and carry out complete folk dances, with and without music, to the de- light of the accompanying elders and friends. 322 ATHLETICS, GAMES AND FOLK DANCING The Girls' Branch was organized under regula- tions prescribed by the League and is supported by membership fees and private contributions from about one hundred public-spirited women. There are no district sub-leagues, but otherwise its affairs are administered in much the same man- ner as those of the parent organization. It like- wise has no official connection with the Depart- ment of Education, though the latter has very effectively co-operated by inserting in its course of study many of the folk dances, by permitting its inspectors of athletics to assist the organization in its work, and by taking into consideration the character of the work done by the grade teachers who conduct the girls' clubs, when promotions are made. Not the least of the important services rendered by the Girls' Branch has been its promotion of class-room games. At an early meeting of the League one of its prominent members donated fifty dollars as a prize to be awarded for the best original game that should be capable of use in a room with fixed seats and desks, engaging fifty pupils at one time, interesting girls as advanced as those of the sixth grade, and requiring a large amount of activity from all of the participants. About fifty games were submitted and sixteen of the best of these, including the prize game " Bal- loon Goal/' have been compiled by Miss Jessie H. Bancroft, the assistant director of physical train- ing, and incorporated in the official handbook of the 323 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT Girls' Branch which is published by the American Sports Publishing Company.* ATHLETICS OUTSIDE OF NEW YORK CITY Largely influenced by the work of the organiza- tion which has just been described, school sports have been organized and placed upon a permanent footing in nearly a score of American cities. Through a resolution of the Cleveland school board "athletic events and games are constituted a regular division of the course of physical training, and shall be provided for under the supervision of the Department of Physical Training in such man- ner, approved by the Superintendent of Schools, as shall subserve the purpose of physical training as herein stated, and be so arranged that every public school pupil desiring to do so, may be able to participate in activities of this nature ap- propriate to his age and development." Regula- tions governing the various athletic events are also given in detail. A few instances will serve to show some of the principal variations in the affairs and methods of the different leagues. In New Orleans, Troy and Newark (New Jersey) the girls are allowed to have inter-school competitions. In the last named city these take the form of physical training exhibitions and athletic meets, the chief events in the latter being oat bag relay, chariot, Indian club and flag relay and potato races, and a thirty-yard dash. *2i Warren Street, New York. 324 'HE "CARROUSEL" WHERE THERE'S ROOM THE "TARANTELLA" IN No DANGER FROM TRAFFIC ATHLETICS, GAMES AND FOLK DANCING In the place of a classification by weight, such as is used in New York track and field sports, Newark has adopted one based upon age and height, as follows: Juniors 9 to 13 years, height less than 4 feet 10 inches. Intermediate Under 15 years, height less than 5 feet 3^ inches. Seniors Under 18 years, any height. For each of these grades there is a button test involving jumping, chinning the bar and running. A boy who comes up to one of these standards is awarded a button costing twenty-five cents; on making the second he wins a forty-five-cent button and another worth seventy-five cents if, in a subsequent year, he comes up to the third standard. In Cincinnati the athletic badge test includes throwing a basket ball with two hands from over the head, besides the three other usual events. The Troy League does not believe in giving prizes to the individual competitors, but awards trophies to the schools represented by the winners. The annual presentation of these, how- ever, takes place at a meeting in a large hall, which is attended by parents, friends and promi- nent citizens. The mayor, councilmen and school officials make addresses, and the boys who have won events during the year march up to the plat- form to the sound of orchestral music and are decorated with ribbon badges by the president of the League. 325 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT As in New York, the organization of leagues in Cincinnati and one or two other cities has been initiated by the director of physical training. In Seattle, where the school board co-operates by employing a man who gives his whole time to the work of the League, its inception was due to the director of the local Y. M. C. A., who had been in- spired by a talk on the P. S. A. L. delivered by Dr. Gulick at the St. Louis Exposition in 1903. The Y. M. C. A. also started and still takes an active part in the school athletics of Troy. In Buffalo the superintendent of education asked a committee of school principals to take up the matter of organizing an association and it was a similar body of officials that instituted the Pitts- burgh Public School Boys' Athletic League. In Schenectady also the school athletics are managed by the principals, whose enthusiasm is so great that they are able to hold successful meets without the aid of constitution or by-laws, or even cir- culars and blanks. The business is transacted at the regular weekly meetings presided over by the superintendent. In the new Pittsburgh League pupils from the fourth to the eighth grades in- clusive, who are regular in attendance and stand well in deportment and scholarship (they must average at least 65 per cent in their studies), are admitted to membership upon the payment of twenty-five cents. This fee entitles them to ad- mission to all concerts, exhibitions and meets held by the League. The Buffalo organization, in ad- 326 ATHLETICS, GAMES AND FOLK DANCING dition to the membership fees and private con- tributions, receives annually $3.00 from each school belonging, while the Cincinnati association besides similar sources of support receives an an- nual appropriation from the school board. In Baltimore the school sports are managed by an outside body called the Public Athletic League in which the school commissioners and superin- tendent of schools have a voting membership. The League holds an annual athletic meet for school boys and furnishes them with instructors in physical training and sports. The Newark Board of Education has provided a twelve-acre, fully equipped athletic field worth $75,000, while in Tacoma, Washington, a magnificent stadium has been constructed for the public school boys at a cost of approximately $80,000, a large part of which was donated by business men. Besides the athletic undertakings which have been mentioned there are throughout the country many smaller enterprises ranging in importance from the activities of a voluntary association like that at Schenectady down to the three or four ball games played each spring by the village high school boys with nines from neighboring schools. While including generally no events like those of the badge test or class athletics, they afford in dif- fering degrees the benefits of outdoor competitions, and in many instances promise to grow into per- manent and more comprehensive schemes. In no place do the socializing, character-building effects 327 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT of promoted sports show more clearly than in the rural districts, where they have already demon- strated the capacity for meeting an increasingly recognized need. In 1906, Myron T. Scudder, then principal of the New Paltz (New York) Normal School, organized the Country School Athletic League of Ulster County, which at its second annual field day and play picnic had more than 1 400 children from the neighboring districts, besides 200 high and normal school students and from 1 200 to 1 500 adults. The expenses were met by contributions from the Granges, the county teachers' association, private individuals and the proceeds of an entertainment given by the Normal School pupils. The badge test and class athletic events of the New York P. S. A. L. were both used as a part of the League's activities but, strange as it may seem, few of the country boys could satisfy the standards of the former and it was consequently not popular, while the group athletics were generally appreciated. Baseball tournaments, track and field sports, and folk dancing are now carried on in connection with the vacation playground work of Newark and many other cities, and these features are un- doubtedly destined to have greater and greater prominence in all branches of summer work for young people. Organized school athletics have also contributed largely to a wholesome celebra- tion of Independence Day. One of the most en- joyable parts of the "monster" Fourth of July 328 ATHLETICS, GAMES AND FOLK DANCING program carried out this year (1910) by the city of New York was that of the free games held in eighteen parks well distributed throughout the five boroughs of the municipality. At each of these centers there were track events for the members of eleven different athletic bodies, in- cluding those from the public schools, the P. S. A. L. (elementary and high school) and evening re- creation centers and playgrounds. No entry fees were charged the competitors, and gold, silver and bronze medals were awarded to the first, second and third winners in each event. The existence of these organizations all in working order greatly facilitated the efforts of the public-spirited men who strove to give the young people of the city an attractive substitute for the usual internecine diversions with gunpowder. Folk dancing takes place in the after-school recreation classes for girls which Newark and one or two other cities, like New York, are now holding in class rooms and upon the roofs of school build- ings. It also forms one of the recess activities at Pensacola, to which reference has already been made.* In this city, at first, the hallways were used for the games and dances, but later a plat- form was built under some fine trees out in the yard and a rented piano installed at which the high school students cheerfully take their turns. Here the girls lose all thought of books in the Looby Loo, Krakiavik, Ladita and the May-pole *See Chapter VI, page 179. 329 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT or Barn dances, while out on the lawn others, under the leadership of teachers, are engaged in volley ball or some time-hallowed game that was played by their forefathers upon village greens in the old country. Meanwhile the boys, too, on their side, have good times jumping, chinning, and shot-putting, in short run contests and other out- door events which are suited to class competitions. The enthusiasm of the teachers and the improve- ment in the school life which has grown out of these recess games have already been dwelt upon in the previous pages. The effects of systematic sports upon the school and precisely here the conscientious teacher rightly demands that they must justify themselves are well summed up in the words of Mr. Lee F. Hanmer who, through his service as inspector of athletics in the New York schools and his later travels for the Playground Extension Committee, has had exceptional opportunities for observation: "In cities where this work has been organized and given a fair test school authorities are prac- tically unanimous in saying that: First Class work is better. Second The health of the school children is improved. Third A wholesome school spirit is developed. Fourth There is less trouble about discipline owing to the closer relation and better under- standing between the pupils and teachers." 330 ATHLETICS, GAMES AND FOLK DANCING REFERENCES BANCROFT, JESSIE H.: Games for the Playground, Home, School and Gymnasium. Pages 456. The Macmillan Company, New York, 1909. Price 1 1. 50. BISHOP, E. C: How Should the Athletics of the Y. M. C. A. Supple- ment Those of the Public Schools? Hygiene and Physical Education, Vol. 1, No. 10, page 880. F. A. Bassett Company, Springfield, Mass. Price 20 cents. BURCHENAL, ELIZABETH: Folk Dances and Singing Games. Pages 88. G. Schirmer, New York. Price 1 1.50. CLINE, EARL: The Advisability of Inter-High School Contests in Athletics. Physical Education Review, Vol. 15, No. i. Pages 22. American Physical Education Association, Springfield, Mass. Price 50 cents. CRAMPTON, C. WARD: The Folk Dance Book. 4to cloth. Pages 82. The A. S. Barnes Company, New York, 1910. Price $1.50. GULICK, LUTHER HALSEY: Folk and National Dances. Proceedings of the Second Annual Playground Congress, 1908, pages 429-439. Playground Association of America, i Madison Avenue, New ^^~ York. Price 5 cents; $2.50 per hundred copies. HANMER, LEE F.: Athletics in the Public Schools. Pamphlet pub- lished by Department of Child Hygiene of the Russell Sage V*^ Foundation, i Madison Avenue, New York. 1910. Pages 36. Price 5 cents; 12.50 per hundred copies. JOHNSON, GEORGE E.: Education by Plays and Games. Pages 234. Ginn and Company, Boston, 1907. Price 90 cents. LARNED, CHARLES W.: Athletics from Historical and Educational Standpoint. Physical Education Review, Vol. 14, No. i, page i. American Physical Education Association, Springfield, Mass. Price 50 cents. MEANWELL. W. E.: The Team Game Tournament. Hygiene and Physical Education, Vol. I, No. 9, page 796. F. A. Bassett Com- pany, Springfield, Mass. Price 20 cents. NICHOLS.E. H.: Competitive Athletics. Physical Education Review, Vol. 14, No. 9, page 589. American Physical Education Asso- ciation, Springfield, Mass. Price 50 cents. SCUDDER, MYRON T.: Organized Play in the Country. Charities and The Commons for August 3, 1907. New York. See also the reports of the Committees on Athletics for Boys and Athletics for Girls, of the Playground Association of America, i Madi- son Avenue, New York City, and the handbooks of the Public Schools Athletic Leagues of Baltimore, Md., Buffalo, N. Y., New- ark, N. J., New Orleans, La., New York, N. Y.. Seattle, Wash. These will be sent free on application to the Secretaries of the leagues in the cities mentioned. XI MEETINGS IN SCHOOL HOUSES CHAPTER XI MEETINGS IN SCHOOL HOUSES THE following description of a school house gathering occurs in the attractive little volume, Home and School,* written by Mrs. Mary Van Meter Grice: We meet the principal of the school at the head of the stairs, where he stands receiving those who enter. If he does not know the parents, he learns, on question- ing them, what child or children they represent, and directs them at once to the class rooms of those children, where the teacher receives them and, for the half-hour before the exercises of the evening begin, talks with them of the young people in whom they all have a common interest. On the walls and on the desks are displayed the work of these children, so there is no danger that conversation will lag for lack of subject matter. We stand beside the teacher, watching with interest the mothers and fathers who enter. Among the group a man and woman especially attract us. They are so eager, so interested. The man holds a folded slip of paper in his hand, as, indeed, all do who enter; he comes forward, followed by his shy little wife, and in presenting the paper to the teacher with the question, "Is this Miss Jones?" reveals at once his nationality; he is evidently one of a group of English workingmen who have settled recently in a colony near the school, and who are occupied all day in the * Grice, Mary Van Meter: Home and School. Christopher Sower Co., Philadelphia. 335 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT mills and factories hard by. Miss Jones opens the note and reads what she herself had dictated to her class the day before: My dear Miss Jones: This note will introduce to you my father and mother, who would like to see some of my work. (Signed) JOHN ARNOLD. Looking up with a bright smile, she exclaims, in a tone of welcome : " Oh, are you John Arnold's father ?" The man gives assent, and in the same breath says: " How is John getting on with his arithmetic?" "John ?" smiles the teacher; "well, John is the worst boy in arithmetic I ever had." With this declaration .she leads the way to a piano, upon which are piles of lesson papers, and invites the father to examine those belonging to his son. The man is interested, you can see from the animated conversation he holds with the teacher, from whom he continually turns to emphasize to his wife opinions evidently expressed many times before in the home. "There, Annie, didn't I tell you so?" he exclaims over and over again. " I've^wrestled all winter with John and his 'sums/ and could do nothing with him." All the while John's mother stands silently by. She has not spoken, but her face betrays her interest. Her eye takes in the room and its setting, and, when at last the teacher turns to speak to her, the question that falls from her lips reveals the attitude of her mind. No question of mental development this, no suggestion of attainment, yet we think we have never heard a more motherly inquiry: "Where does John sit?" . . And as Mrs. Arnold nestles down in John's seat, and assures her husband that " it is comfortable," she looks for a few moments on John's world, her boy's battle- ground where he is fighting out his daily conflicts. . . At eight-fifteen the sound of a bell announces the meeting which is to be held in the communicating class rooms on the third floor. This school is not fortunate enough to have an assembly hall, so fathers and mothers, 336 MEETINGS IN SCHOOL HOUSES stout men and stouter women, are compelled to squeeze into desk seats that barely accommodate the half- grown boy or girl. The rooms are crowded we judge there must be some three or four hundred persons. . "What are they going to do?" one anxious mother whispers to another. i do not know," is the reply; "but it's something to make things better for the children." There is music to begin with; some one from the neighborhood, or one of the teachers, has volunteered. The applause has barely ceased when the principal steps to the front and welcomes his guests in a few well- chosen words. He speaks to them of the problem which they hold in common; of the great help it would be to him and to all the teachers to know them better, and to feel assured of their sympathetic, intelligent co- operation. How could they co-operate? He tells them of some two or three ways in which they could help the school, ways that are related to that especial neighborhood, and then he repeats how glad he is to have them there and how earnestly he wishes this may be but the beginning of many such gatherings, and that the homes of the community and the school may be- come bound by indissoluble ties. . . . We have been made to feel the importance of our calling, and we have been made welcome, which means much. Had there been lurking doubt about the matter, it would have vanished under the genial talk of the superintendent. He represents the city, and he tells us of the splendid results that have grown out of the awakened interest of parents in other parts of our own city and in other cities. He is full of enthusiasm for the movement, and long before he ceases speaking we are fired with the wish that our school might have some such organization connected with it, too. Still we are wondering just how it will come about, when suddenly we are conscious of a woman's voice breaking the silence that has followed the last address. "Mr. Chairman," she is saying, and we turn around to see one of our neighbors, who is always in the fore- 22 337 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT front of every good movement, standing, with flushed face and eager manner "Mr. Chairman, why could not we have a Home and School Association, such as we have heard of tonight, formed in this school?" That is just the question the chairman has been wanting asked, and we are rather inclined to suspect our good neighbor was instructed to ask it. He comes forward and says with alacrity: "There is no reason at all. How many persons in this room would like to see such an Association formed?" One sees a sprinkling of raised hands, but they are enough to secure a beginning. Then follows the usual " business" of presenting a constitution and by-laws and the election of officers. Our suspicions are confirmed by the time all this has been done; we feel assured of the wisdom of the chairman; we know plans must have been made before the meeting, for it certainly is not by accident that people so fitting to each office should have been proposed on the spur of the moment; we recall with chagrin the last Ladies' Aid meeting over which we presided, and for which we had failed to plan; how the most scriptural thing about it was the common con- sent with which ''all began to make excuse" as soon as suggested for any position. The chairman announces that the names of those desiring to become members will be taken by persons in the different rooms. The annual dues of twenty-five cents can be paid tonight or sent later. A pleasant confusion ensues, during which we turn and talk to our nearby neighbors or listen to the men about us dis- cussing topics of current interest. Suddenly in our midst some twenty girls of the upper grade appear with coffee and cake. With absolute literalism the last vestige of "ice" melts before the fumes of that hot coffee, and in the "breaking of bread" we get very near to many of those whom we have known by sight only. The author writes out of her long experience at the head of the Philadelphia Home and School 338 MEETINGS IN SCHOOL HOUSES League, and the account not only gives an ex- cellent example of the occasions under considera- tion, but shows the manner of starting the kind of organization which more than any other in the United States holds these assemblies. Further details of the organization, its character and functions, may best be shown by resorting again to a typical case. In the Dunlap Home and School Association of Philadelphia women fill all the offices except that of vice-president, and the president is the principal of the school with which it is connected. At its public meetings, held monthly during the school year, such topics as these are discussed : " Cigarette Smoking/' " Bene- fits Accruing from Small Classes," "School Habits from Parents' Standpoint/' " How to Bring the Home and School into Closer Relation/' As the Board of Education furnishes the heat, light and janitor service the meetings involve prac- tically no expense, and the twenty-five cent dues received from the 350 members are expended for athletic supplies, playground apparatus and other things used by pupils. Practical interest in children was further shown one year by secur- ing the establishment of a kindergarten and by joining with the other associations of the city in the production of a carnival in the armory. The next year the society planned to secure an athletic field for its section of the city and to ex- tend the school's influence by means of gatherings of a social character. Some associations hold 339 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT only three or four meetings during the year while others vary their annual programs with receptions, illustrated lectures, musicales, or bi-monthly en- tertainments in which story telling, athletic con- tests, games, dancing, and refreshments form the means of enjoyment. Their other activities are equally varied. Dancing and child study classes, demonstration lessons in sight singing and physical exercises, oiling the school house floor or renovating the building, and planting trees in the yard, organizing purity leagues among the boys and flower clubs among the girls, supplying the sick poor with medicinal aid, these are but a few of the services they perform for the community. The League already mentioned was formed through the federation of these associations, now sixty in number, which exist in and around Phila- delphia. Its purposes, as stated in the constitu- tion, are (i) to further all movements toward the perpetuation of the correct ideal of the American home, and (2) to insure intelligent co-operation between the home and the school. Each con- stituent association elects one of its members to serve upon the League's board of managers and pays annual dues of one dollar or more. In re- turn the local body enjoys the privilege of the bureaus of speakers and entertainments which the League maintains. It acts also as a clearing- house of information and inspiration, accomplish- ing this service mainly by circulating printed matter and holding an annual conference in the 340 MEETINGS IN SCHOOL HOUSES fall and a joint entertainment in the spring. In addition, the League bears the initial expense of forming new associations and pays many of the supervisors and helpers who are employed in the social centers already described in Chapter IX. Among its standing committees may be mentioned those on literature, library distribution, story telling, school lunches, and the further use of school buildings. These indicate the lines along which it collects information, gives counsel and, in the caseof story telling, is active. Affiliated with the League are fifteen other organizations which include civic clubs, alumni societies, a chapter of the D. A. R., two mothers' clubs, a couple of women's clubs and the Public Education Association. A similar federation is the Boston Home and School Association which, organized in December, 1908, with nine component "parents' associations," has now over a score of branches meeting in the school houses of as many districts. Their gatherings for the most part occur monthly dur- ing the school year and the topics discussed by the physicians, trained nurses, educators, social workers and other prominent persons who co- operate have included: "The Father of the Boy," "Two Points towards the Making of an Ideal Mother," "The Relation of Breathing to Health," " Home-made Toys," " How to Make Housework Easy," "Where to Find Free Amusement," and "What our Children Ought to Know." As in Philadelphia, the pupils of the school or their WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT friends frequently entertain the audiences with piano, violin and chorus music, and readings, after which the evening is rounded out with refreshments and a social hour. One association gave an "apron and necktie party" at which social dancing was enjoyed. How easily the problems of hospitality are solved is shown in the following report from the Fran- cis Parkman district: "We have had coffee at most of the meetings, sold us at a reduction by a store-keeper; cream supplied at a reduction by another member; sometimes paper napkins are given us, with the name of the firm printed on. We make the coffee ourselves on a gas stove at the school, and we wash the dishes ourselves. Re- freshments at an average cost $1.50 a meeting. We have bought one hundred cups and saucers, $10; 144 spoons (at wholesale), $4.00; plates, 40 cents; pitchers, 70 cents; and before the next meeting shall have a coffee boiler. We have had fruit punch once." The Chapman School Parents' League held a neighborhood improvement con- test in which four prizes of $5.00 each were offered those residents who during the summer should show (i) the best kept home premises, (2) the best flower garden, (3) the best vegetable garden, and (4) the best window boxes. In another as- sociation the practical work took the form of se- curing electric lighting for the school and of purchasing books on moral training to be loaned to^mothers. 342 MEETINGS IN SCHOOL HOUSES The major association disseminates information among the branches through a monthly news letter, conducts a lecture bureau, distributes seeds for home and school gardens in co-operation with the Boston Social Union, combines with the Woman's Municipal League in arranging art ex- hibitions in the public schools, with the school- masters in instituting a vocation bureau and with other civic and educational organizations in pushing the " Boston-i9i5" movement. Its theatre committee investigated the manner in which some 3300 school children spent their eve- nings and published the results of their study. The committee on hygiene, out of consideration for pupils' eyesight, has exerted its influence to have the school windows kept clean, and is now engaged in a study of the nutrition of anemic children. Lists of books and pamphlets suitable for parents, boys and girls have been published by two other committees, while the seven mem- bers assigned to the promotion of a "further use of school buildings/' acting in an advisory capacity to the Boston School Committee, have proposed an elaborate plan to secure such use, which the municipal educational body has accepted. In Auburn, New York, the Parent-Teachers Clubs which are connected with eight public schools have formed an association which annually raises funds, hires directors and conducts play- grounds at five different centers. During the past year it asked the secretary of the State Probation 343 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT Commission to visit them, explain the details of its work and propose methods for introducing the probation system in Auburn. The association then appointed a committee which secured the co- operation of the Men's Federation, the labor unions, and many other clubs. The campaign for creating public sentiment culminated in a large public meeting at which addresses upon the need and value of probation work were made by promi- nent persons. The resolutions prepared at this meeting were adopted by all of the co-operating organizations and their presentation to the Com- mon Council and Board of Estimate and Control resulted in the appropriation of a probation officer's salary and the appointment of a capable man to fill the position. The seventeen mothers' clubs connected with the Houston, Texas, schools during the first two years of their existence raised by means of enter- tainments, contributions, and dues, over $21,000. This amount was expended in providing hot, nutritious lunches for pupils, purchasing or rent- ing pianos, framing pictures, maintaining kinder- gartens, equipping school kitchens and securing many other educational benefits for their children which could not be obtained from school moneys. At Public School Number 40 in New York City a home and school association has been organized which holds two public meetings a year, at which the parents, pupils and graduates gather, enjoy a program of music, readings and folk dancing and 344 MEETINGS IN SCHOOL HOUSES get acquainted. The winter entertainment is ar- ranged by the pupils; that in the spring by the parents and friends of the school. The annual membership dues are |i.oo, which with the con- tributions received are used in publishing a school magazine, purchasing pictures and casts for school walls, uniforms for the athletic teams, and bunting for the indoor meets. The association also dis- tributes second-hand clothing among needy pupils. By collecting and repairing worn-out shoes thirty- five boys were shod at a cost of only $6.00. Such societies as these, filling in the gaps between the home and the city care of children, are common in the schools of New York and in many other cities throughout the land. Nor is the movement confined to urban com- munities. Up in Newaygo and Oceana counties, Michigan, there are teacher-patrons' associations under the auspices of which the farmers, their chil- dren and instructors get together in the school houses, discuss their mutual problems, and relieve the monotony of rural life with social meetings. These meetings became so popular and their effects so far-reaching that the name "Hesperia movement" was given to them, after one of the towns in which there was an especially strong association. In the country districts of other states also the school house is used for Sunday services, while in the villages of the southwest where homes are small and halls few, it is the place not only of religious gatherings but also of dancing 345 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT parties and of various other kinds of assemblies. Concerning the value of parent-teacher associa- tions for enriching the life of the rural districts, County Superintendent O. J. Kern writes in a re- cent article: "The country people have it in their own power to make country life so attractive that more, not all, of the farm's best crop the boys and girls will not go to the cities with the high bred corn and fat cattle." As to the regard in which activities of this sort are held by city schoolmen, the opinion is so unanimous that a single expression of it will suffice. In a recent report Superintendent William H. Elson of Cleveland writes: "No phase of school work is more important or far-reaching. To en- list the active interest of the home in the work of the children and in the welfare of the school is to foster mutual good-will between the teacher on the one hand and the parents and pupils on the other. Parents' meetings and mothers' clubs contribute valuable aid, the helpful and supporting influence of which was distinctly felt in the conduct of the school." The organization which more than any other has promoted the formation of mothers' clubs and parent-teacher associations is the National Con- gress of Mothers.* Its branches now exist in thirty-two states and the number of clubs and associations which make up these state bodies *The permanent address of the National Congress of Mothers is 806 Loan and Trust Building, Washington, D. C. 346 MEETINGS IN SCHOOL HOUSES ranges from 20 to 1 70. Booklets and other printed matter giving lists of speakers and information about the activities of the Congress, and telling how to organize home and school societies, are furnished upon application. So strong is the desire to secure the co-operation of the home that there is a growing tendency among schoolmen to create occasions when the presence of the parents at the schools may be officially requested. Thus in Los Angeles the fathers and mothers of the pupils examined by the school phy- sicians were invited to a conference by the director of the school department of health and develop- ment. Twice during the year the Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, parents receive personal invitations to visit the schools and inspect the work of their children. After dismissal informal receptions are held when teachers and visitors get acquainted. The parents of children in a New York school and members of the G. A. R. were invited to attend the dedication of some statuary representing his- torical characters which had been purchased by the principal and teachers to decorate the halls and rooms. During a recent celebration of Lin- coln's Birthday in the same city, meetings ad- dressed by judges, clergymen and many other prominent persons were held in each school dis- trict for the people of the neighborhood. Another class of gatherings is made up of the meetings of miscellaneous societies which find the class room or assembly hall inexpensive and con- 347 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT venient quarters for their activities. The Win- chester, Massachusetts, Orchestral Society holds its rehearsals in the high school where also the local Handicraft Society has a room, the slight ex- pense of opening the rooms at night being borne by the organizations. In Cambridge the Historical Society and the Anti-Cigarette League hold their sessions in class rooms, as does also the School Master's Club of Quincy. The WyckofT Heights Taxpayers' Association of Brooklyn re- cently announced "a grand educational meet- ing" to be held in a public school at which "Child Conservation/' "Recreation for City Youth," "Public Drinking Cup Dangers," and similar topics would be discussed by competent speakers. In their efforts to create and maintain public in- terest in better school facilities, roads and side- walks, and more beautiful parks, the Federated Improvement Associations of Syracuse also make use of school assembly rooms. The vitalization of the recess periods in the Pensacola schools, al- ready referred to in previous chapters, is reported by a School Improvement Association which meets the "second Friday of each month at School No. i." Through the agency of special commit- tees on school grounds, decoration, gardening, in- spection, attendance, manual training, domestic science and free kindergartens a progressive group of parents, teachers and business men accomplish their purpose of "doing whatever may promote the highest efficiency of the public schools of Pensa- 348 MEETINGS IN SCHOOL HOUSES cola." About one hundred and fifty similar as- sociations have been formed in Florida and they exist also in other states. Class rooms and halls are used by school officials for their teachers' extension courses, music classes, conferences and other professional meetings, as well as by such voluntary organizations as the Federation of Public School Teachers and Society of Pedagogy; but such occasions being well-known, and related more particularly to the day school activities, need not be discussed here. In a similar category are the multitudinous pupil socie- ties which are found especially in high schools, whose meetings occasion more or less use of class rooms after school hours. Glee, orchestra, whist- ling, mandolin, reading, French, history, clubs with these names abound on high school bulletin boards, and to the list may be added many other societies, such as the Treble Clef Chorus, Congress, Senate, and Associated Student Body. As to the value of these organizations there is a division of opinion among school officials. The principal of the Central High School in Washington in his report for 1907 says: "The school has studiously refrained from giving anything like an official sanction to any of these clubs and has developed a sentiment which prevents any meetings except on Friday or Satur- day nights. Much more remains to be done in awakening parents to a realization of the danger to the pupil from all this scattering of his energies and in making them understand that because a 349 WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT club has a school name it is not necessarily a vital or necessary part of the school life." The Chicago Board of Education in 1908 adopted stringent measures against secret societies in high schools, but at the same time it " Resolved, That so far as possible a room shall be set aside in every high school for the social uses of the pupils, and that every opportunity be granted them for an or- ganized social life, which shall be open to member- ship to every pupil in the school." A still more hospitable attitude is that of Prin- cipal William R. Lasher of Brooklyn, who wrote in a recent article: "It has been the policy of Erasmus Hall to welcome every organization that arises among its pupils, provided that the purpose for which such organization exists is a good one. One group of pupils formed an excursion club for the purpose of visiting manufacturing and power plants of scientific interest; another group formed the 'Monday Club' for the encouragement of original work in literature; other groups formed fraternities and sororities for purposes largely social; and so on through a long and exceedingly varied list of associations. Toward all of these the principal has assumed a uniform attitude of approval and encouragement, the main restriction imposed being that each organization must secure some member of the faculty to be responsible in a general way for seeing that the affairs of the or- ganization are conducted in a proper manner. The result of this policy has been that the school 350 MEETINGS IN SCHOOL HOUSES has become the center of a great deal of student activity, some of it purely social, some of it scho- lastic, and connected more or less intimately with the work of the class rooms. The field covered by the many organizations engaged in this work is so wide that few pupils are likely to remain in the school for the full course without having some part in it. These societies interest the pupils in the school. They are a strong influence in retaining pupils to complete the course, and are thus an efficient aid in reducing the much-talked -of 'high school mortality/ They create a fine school spirit and inspire among the pupils an intense loyalty which is retained by the graduates." An example of the common attitude of school authorities towards the meetings of outside bodies is found in the rule of the Philadelphia board: "School buildings and grounds shall be used for educational purposes only/' This regulation does not, as has been shown, exclude parents' associa- tions, which is the usual construction placed upon it in the many other cities where it obtains. In New York, "applications from organizations having no relation with the schools or the Board of Education are always disapproved/' but the instance of the Brooklyn taxpayers' association shows that a manifest interest in the welfare of children is a sufficient kind of relationship. In Detroit, where the board rule specifically permits the use of school buildings for " teachers' meetings for educational purposes, semi-annual graduating WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT exercises, semi-annual alumni meetings, meetings of students of the schools for musical or literary exercises/' these limits have been passed to the extent of allowing public meetings under the Federation of Women's Clubs and occasional gatherings of a semi-political character. The same tendency toward greater liberality appears in recent actions of the Newark board. While drawing the line strictly at occasions with political or sectarian objects, it has in one or two instances given way before the pressure to admit neighbor- hood and citizens' associations to its buildings. The arrival at a definite and progressive position is seen in Syracuse, whose admission of improve- ment associations has already been alluded to, and in Milwaukee where the following rule has been adopted : " Public school buildings may be used for other than public school purposes as herein pro- vided. Whenever three or more reputable and re- sponsible citizens of the City of Milwaukee shall make a written request to the secretary of the board for the privilege of using one or more rooms in a public school building for public meetings of civic and other associations, at which meetings questions of a public, civic and educational nature may be discussed and lectures thereon given, the same to be divested of partisan and religious bias, and said meetings to be open to all the public and free, the secretary may, in his discretion, issue a permit to make use of such room or rooms without expense, conditioned, however, upon the payment 352 MEETINGS IN SCHOOL HOUSES of any damage which may result therefrom." The advanced position taken by the Rochester board has already been indicated in the chapter on social centers.* In both Columbus and Chicago the school board proceedings disclose instances where religious organizations have been granted the use of school auditoriums. The London County Council schools are let in accordance with a regular scale of fees for Sunday schools, political meetings, for use as polling sta- tions and many other purposes of an educational character, and this is the general custom through- out England. That this practice has financial ad- vantages which are not lightly to be rejected is shown in the case of Nottingham, whose lettings in a recent year amounted to 555 15$. 9 135; Board of Educa- tion, 135, 194, 284, 350; Civic Federation, 135; Eve- ning recreation centers, 237; Cost of evening schools, 43, 44, 45, 47; High school secret societies, 350; Hull House, 272; Park system, 272; Permanent Vacation School Committee of Wo- men's Clubs, 135, 145; Play- ground effects, 175, 177, 180, 181; Seward School, 135; Social centers, 284; Uni- versity Settlement, 135; Use of school houses by religious organizations, 353; Vaca- tion schools, administration, 130; Vacation schools, bene- fits, 142, 143; Vacation schools, cost of, 132; Vaca- tion schools, excursions, 126; Vacation schools, history of, X 34> I 35> Vacation schools, teachers' salaries, 121; Visit- ing Nurses' Association, 143; Women's clubs, 135 CHILD LABOR, 210 CHILDREN, CARE OF, 210 CHILDREN AT LECTURES, 207, 208 CHINNING, 293, 296, 300 CINCINNATI, OHIO: Athletics, 325-327; Evening high school, 27; Evening recrea- tion centers, 238; Lectures, 199; Music, 34; Music in evening schools, 87; Physi- cal training, 34; Physical training in evening schools, 87; Playground apparatus, 163; Playground effects, 176; Social center development, 283; Vacation schools, 124, 126, 129, 139; Vacation schools, administration, 130; Vacation schools, benefits, 142; Vacation schools, cost of, 132; Vacation schools, teachers and their salaries CITIES, GROWTH OF, 372, 373 CITY GOVERNMENT, 367 Civic CLUBS: Activities, 259, 260; Effect on street boys, 263; Membership, 259, 260; Objects, 254, 257, 258; Rochester, N. Y., 252-254, 257-265; Topics, 259; Value, 369; Young people's, 262, 263. See also Social Centers Civic LEAGUE FOR IMMIGRANTS: Boston, 14 Civic PROBLEMS, 203 Civics: "Boston-i9i5," 210; In Munich trade schools, 67, 70; Teaching foreigners, 31, 32,33 CLARK, E. P., 214 CLARK, JOHN B., 202 CLASS ATHLETICS, 291-294, 296, 298-300 CLEVELAND, OHIO: Anti-tuber- culosis League, 190; Athlet- ics, 324; Board of Educa- tion, 137, 191, 192; Daugh- ters of the American Revolu- tion, 188, 189, 191, 238; Day Nursery and Free Kinder- garten Association, 137; Ele- mentary evening schools, 30; Evening recreation centers, 238 ; Evening school adminis- tration, 39; Evening schools, admission to, 43; Evening schools, attendance, 85, no; Evening schools, cost of, 45,47; Fortnightly Musical 400 INDEX Club, 190; Lecture and en- tertainment system, 187- 194,207,208; Lectures, topics of, 190, 193; Old Stone Church, 137; Play- ground apparatus, 163; Play- ground organization, 171; Playground program, 161; Politics, 193; Rubinstein semi-chorus, 100; School yard day nursery, 157; Social center development, 283; Talks to parents by citizens, 190; Teachers in evening schools, 42; Tech- nical High School, 26, 42, 143; Trade organization and evening school attendance, 93, 94; Vacation schools, 124-126, 129; Vacation schools, administration, 130; Vacation schools, establish- ment of, 137; Vacation schools, results, 141, 142; Western Reserve University, 190 CLINE, EARL, 331 CLUBS: Evening recreation, 227; In high schools, 349-351 COLLEGE: Free, 51; College com- mons, 365 Collier's, 254 COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, 202 COLUMBUS, Omo: Board of Education, 282; Chamber of Commerce, 282; College Women's Club, 282; Com- mittee on Co-operation, 282; Department of Public Rec- reation, 283; Federation of Women's Clubs, 282; School Extension Society, 282; So- cial centers, 282, 283 ; United Commercial Travelers' Wo- men's Clubs, 282; Use of school houses by religious organizations, 353; Young Ladies' Playground Associa- tion, 282 COMMUNITY LIFE, 273, 372. See also Social Centers COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE AT EVENING SCHOOLS, 100-107; England, 103, 104; Ger- many, 103-107; 'jMassachu- setts law, 101, 102; New York law, 100, 101; Dr. Poland quoted, 103; Prof. Sadler quoted, 103, 104 CONGESTION OF POPULATION, 373, 374, 381 CONGRESS (SCHOOL SOCIETY), 349 CONNECTICUT: Urban attendance at evening schools, 102 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS, 49; Authorities, 78; Notting- ham, Eng., 57-59 CONTINUATION SCHOOL SYSTEM IN GERMANY: Administra- tion, 73; Agricultural, 71; Attendance, 72; Authori- ties; 78; Commercial, 70, 71; Course, 71, 72; General, 71; Industrial, 70; Magde- burg, 70; Munich, 66-70, 104-107; Leipzig, 72; Teach- ers, 72; Zittau, 72, 78 CONVICTS, PRISON, 359 COOLEY, E. G., 49 COSMOS CLUB, 222 COST : Of evening schools, 43-48 ; Of lectures, 207; Of recrea- tion centers in New York City, 236; Of social center maintenance, Rochester, N. Y., 268-270; Of vacation schools, 132, 133 COUNTRY LIFE, 284, 285; value, 376 401 INDEX COUNTRY SCHOOL ATHLETIC LEAGUE OF ULSTER COUNTY, N. Y., 328 CRAMPTON, C. WARD, M.D., 308, 33i CREASEY, CLARENCE H., 51 CROOK, JAMES WALTER, 10 CROTHERS, REV. SAMUEL M., 256 CURTIS, HENRY S., 145 CZARDASH, 318, 319 DANCES, 160. See also Folk- dances DANCING, 13, 14, 128, 153, 230, 231, 232, 240, 320, 321; In Philadelphia, Pa., 279; In Rochester School Number Nine, 255 DANISH SHOEMAKER'S DANCE, i53 DARTT, MORTON L., 145 DAUGHTERS OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION: Cleveland, Ohio, 188, 189, 191, 238; Montclair, N. J., 169, 174; Philadelphia, Pa., 341; Rochester, N. Y., 270 DAWLEY, FRANK C., 256 DAY NURSERIES, 374 DAY SCHOOL PUPILS: Following up, for evening schools, 86, 87 DEBATING CLUBS, 263, 264 DE LACY, JUDGE: Opinion as to benefit of playgrounds, 176 DEMOCRACY, 265, 273, 369 DE MONTMORENCY, J. E. G., 145 DENOMINATIONAL BARRIERS, 262 DEPTFORD, LONDON, ENG., 244 DES MOINES, IA. : Cost of vaca- tion schools, 132 DETROIT, MICH.: Council of women, 172, 173; Federa- tion of Women's Clubs, 352; Playground beginnings, 172, 173; School board, 351, 352 DEWEY, JOHN, 16, 288 DIRECT PRIMARY PLAN, 368 DISCIPLINE, 130; On play- grounds, 165-168; Play- ground effects, 181 DISEASE, 373, 381 "Do IT FOR ROCHESTER," 250, 288 DRAMATICS, 159 DRAPER, ANDREW S., 49 DRAWING, AS TAUGHT IN THE. STUYVESANT HIGH SCHOOL (EVENING), 23, 24 DREADNAUGHT LITERARY AND ATHLETIC SOCIETY, 222 DRESS, 261 DUBLIN, IRELAND: Evening play center, 244 DUNLAP HOME AND SCHOOL AS- SOCIATION, 339 DUSSELDORF, GERMANY, 78 DUTTON, SAMUEL TRAIN, 51, 145 DUTTON AND SNEDDEN, l6, 288 DYER, F. B., 49 EAST NINTH STREET, N. Y. CITY, 218 EAST ORANGE, N. J. : Playground apparatus, 164 EHRLICH, J., 305 402 INDEX ELDREDGE, BERTHA P., 256 ELECTRICITY AS TAUGHT IN THE STUYVESANT HIGH SCHOOL (EVENING), 21-23 ELEMENTARY EVENING SCHOOLS, 5. 2 9-34 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL INSTRUC- TION REQUIREMENTS, 372 ELGAS, MATTHEW J., 50 ELIOT, CHARLES W., 16; Quoted on school house use, 379, 380 EL SON, WM. H.: Quoted on parent-teacher associations, 346 EMERSON, HENRY P.: Quoted on teachers, in EMPLOYERS : Co-operation in eve- ning school attendance, 89- 93 EMPLOYMENT BUREAUS, 266, 365 ENGLAND: Evening schools in, 55-66; Political use of school j houses, 353; School house j rental, 285; Social centers, ! 285-288; Social Institutes Union, 285-288 ENGLISH BOARD OF EDUCATION, 65,78 ENGLISH LANGUAGE IN EVENING SCHOOLS, 31, 32 ENTERTAINMENTS. See Lectures and Entertainments ERASMUS HALL, 350 ERON, JOSEPH E., 205 EVENING INSTRUCTION: Civic value, 370, 371; Direct in- dustrial value, 363, 364; Educational value, 370 EVENING PLAY CENTRES COM- MITTEE, LONDON, ENG., 240, 243, 244 EVENING RECREATION CENTERS ii, 12; Athletics, 239; Au- thorities, 246; Boys' clubs, 238; Bradford, England, 245; Buffalo, N. Y., 239; Chicago, 111., 237; Cin- cinnati, O., 238; Cleveland, O., 238; Dancing, 237; Defi- nition, 246; Gymnasiums, 237; London, England, 230- 244; Manchester, England, 244, 245; Milwaukee, 237; Newark, N. J., 236, 237; Newton, Mass., 238; New York City, 217-236, Phila- delphia, Pa., 237; Pitts- burgh, Pa, 238; Portland, Me., 238; St. Louis, Mo., 238; Social centers, 238, 245, 246; Syracuse, N. Y., 238. See also Evening Rec- reation Centers in London; in New York; also Social Centers EVENING RECREATION CENTERS IN LONDON: Aim, 243; Babies, 239, 240; Bermond- sey, 244; Choice of children, 241; County Council, 239, 240, 243; County Council Schools, 239; Cost, 242; Dances, 240; Deptford, 244; Drill classes, 240; Games, 239, 240; Occupations, 239; Organizations, 241; Origin, 243; Paddington, 244; Pass- more Edwards Settlement, 243; Play Centres Commit- tee, 240, 243, 244; "Robert Elsmere," 242; Sessions, 241 ; Stepney, 244; Mrs. Hum- phry Ward, 240; White- chapel, 244; Work, 239 EVENING RECREATION CENTERS IN NEW YORK CITY: Ac- tivities, description of, 217- 225; Administration, 236; Alcott Club, 229; Athletics, 2 34, 235; Basket ball, 221; 403 INDEX 223, 226; Benefits, 234, 235; Clubs, 227, 232; Cost, 236; East Ninth Street, N. Y., 217-225; East Third Street, N. Y., 226; Gavel Club, 230; Girls, 235; Gymnasium, 219, 220, 226; Gymnasts, 235; High School of Com- merce, 226; Irving Literary Social, 230; Lassie Club, 230; Organization, 235, 236; Public School Number 188, 226, 230; Salaries, 236; "Toughs," 234, 235; Trav- elers' Club, 230; Twelfth Regiment Armory, 227; Wo- men, 235 EVENING SCHOOLS IN ENG- LAND: Code, 88; Govern- ment grants, 65,66; Halifax, 64; Leeds, 64; London, 64, 65; Manchester, 64, 65; Na- tional Board of Education, 65; Nottingham, 55-64. See also special titles EVENING SCHOOLS IN FRANCE: Association for popular edu- cation, 76, 77; Authorities, 78; Paris, 73-76. See also France; Paris EVENING SCHOOLS IN GERMANY: Administration, 72; Attend- ance, 72; Authorities, 78; Continuation schools, 70, 71; Leipzig, 72; Magdeburg, 70; Munich, 66-70; Teach- ers, 72; Zittau, 72, 78. See also Munich EVENING SCHOOLS IN THE UNITED STATES: Additional subjects, 35-37; Adminis- tration, 38-48; Admission, 43; Adults, 30; American cities, 4; Attendance, see Evening School Attendance; Auburn, N. Y., 43; Authori- ties, 51,52; Beneficial effects, 37, 38; Boston, Mass., 29, 34, 39; Brockton, Mass., 34, 35; Buffalo, N. Y., 26, 29, 30, 33, 4i; Cambridge, Mass., 27, 30, 39, 43, 48; Chemistry, 20, 21; Chicago, 111., 43, 44, 45, 47; Cincin- nati, Ohio, 27, 34; Civics, 3i , 3 2 , 335 Cleveland, Ohio, 26, 30, 39, 42, 43, 45, 47; Cost of maintenance, 43-48; Drawing, 23, 24; Electricity, 21, 23; Elemen- tary, 5, 29-34; English language, 31,32; Foreigners in, 5, 21, 31; Free college, 51; German continuation school system, 49; Grading, 30; Grading foreigners, 39, 40; High schools, 5, 6, 27- 29; Indianapolis, Ind., 39, 43; Instruction, 20-2 2; Law- rence, Mass., 28, 39, 40; Los Angeles, Cal., 47, 48; Lowell, Mass., 27; [Maintenance, 38, 43-48; Massachusetts College, 51; Massachusetts local boards, 40, 41 ; Massa- chusetts state co-operation, 38; Milwaukee, Wis., 48; Music, 34; Newark, N. J., 26, 27, 28, 33, 34, 35, 36, 39, 41,43,44,46,48; New York City, 5, 6, 30-32, 35, 38, 39, 41, 43, 44, 45, 46, 481, 50; Pennsylvania law as to ad- mission of pupils, 43 ; Phila- delphia, Pa., 31, 42, 43; Physical training, 34; Physics, 21 ; Pittsburgh, Pa., 28, 35; Providence, R. I., 28, 43, 44, 45J Pupils, ad- mission of, 43; St. Louis, Mo., 43, 47, 48, 50; Sales- manship, 34; Seriousness of pupils, 20; Springfield, Mass., 25, 26, 42, 43, 44, 46; State co-operation, 50; Study classes, 35; Stuyve- sant High School, N. Y. City, 19-25; Subjects 404 INDEX taught, 5; Teachers, ap- pointment of , 41 , 42; Teach- ers' nationality, 31, 32; Teachers' salaries, 48; Teaching English to for- eigners, 5; Tendencies, 48; Trade, 5, 6; Trade school, features of N. Y., 10-25; Worcester, Mass., 27, 28, 29 EVENING SCHOOL ATTENDANCE: Advertising, 8 1, 82, 83; At- tractions, 87, 88; Auburn, N. .,85,86, no; Bavaria, 105; Bootle, Eng., 89, 90; Boston, Mass., 89, 98, 99; Brockton, Mass., 98; Buf- falo, N. Y., 85, 87, 89, 98, 101; Cincinnati, O., 87; Cleveland, O., 85, 93, 94, no; Compulsion, 100-107; Connecticut urban attend- ance, 102; Co-operation of employers, 80-93; Co-opera- tion of trade organizations, 93-98; Courses of study, 113; Deposits, no; England, 88, 02, 95, 99, 113, 114; Eng- lish trade associations, 94; Following up day pupils, 86, 87; France, 95; Germany, 103-107, 114; Halifax, Eng., 109; Illinois urban attendance, 102; Industrial companies in England, 92; Instruction, 98-100, 113; Jamestown, N. Y., 86, no; Jersey City, N. Y., 85; Labor unions, 95-98; Law- rence, Mass., 87; Leeds, Eng., 89,99, 107, 112; Lon- don, Eng., 85, 86, 87, 88, 99; Los Angeles, Cal., no; Lowell, Mass., 101, 102, 108, 109; Manchester, Eng., 86, 109; Massachusetts, 101, 114; Massachusetts urban attendance, 102; Dr. Max- well quoted, in; Milwau- kee, Wis., 108; Munich, Germany, 104, 105; Munich trade guilds, 94, 95; New Jersey urban attendance, 102; Newspapers, 84, 85; New York Central Railway, 93; New York City, 85, 108, 109, 112; New York State law, 100, 101; New York State law of 1908, 97; New York urban attendance, 102; Northwich, Eng., 91; Nottingham, Eng., 86, 87, 88; Organization, 113, 114; Philadelphia, Pa., in, 112; Pittsburgh, Pa., 1 10 ; Pitts- burgh Evening High School, 8 1, 82, 83, 98; Dr. Poland's views, 103; Publicity, 81- 86; Railway companies in England, 92; Railways in the United States, 93; Re- wards, 107, 108; (Prof.) Sadler's views, 103, 104; Servants in Bavaria, 105; Springfield, Mass., 93; Swit- zerland, 94; Table of urban attendance, 102; Teachers, ii i, ii 2; Trenton, N.Y., 85; Wales, 114; Widnes, Eng., EXHIBITIONS AT CLOSE OF PLAY- GROUND SEASON, 162, 163 EXTENSION OF SCHOOL WORK, i43, US EYESIGHT, 343 FAWCETT DRAWING SCHOOL, NEWARK, N. J., 26, 27 FEDERATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOL TEACHERS, 349 FERRER, FRANCESCO, 275 FIRST CHURCH OF BOSTON, 134 FLORIDA, SCHOOL IMPROVEMENT ASSOCIATIONS, 349 405 INDEX FOLK-DANCING, 13, 14, 153, 155, 156, 161, 167, 177, 180, 231, 232, 371; Ace of Diamonds, 153; Barn dance, 330; Blek- ing, 153; Burchenal, Miss, 318, 319; Carrousel, 322; Czardash, 318, 319; Danish shoemaker's dance, 153; Highland Fling, 153; Hun- garian national dance, 318, 319; Hungarian Solo, 315; Krakiavik , 329; Ladita , 329; Looby Loo, 329; May Day festivals, 321, 322; May-pole dance, 315; May- pole, 329; Newark, N. J., 329; Pensacola, Fla., 329, 330; Public School Number Twenty-two, Manhattan, 313; "Reap the Flax," 314; Russian dance, 315; Scandi- navian dance, 314; Taran- tella, 153, 315 FOLLOWING UP ABSENTEES FROM EVENING SCHOOLS, 108, 109 FORBES, GEORGE M., 259, 274 FOREIGNERS: Americanization of, 50; In Boston, 14; In Chicago, 31; Eagerness to learn, 33, 34; In evening schools, 5, 21 ; Instruc- tors, 31, 32; In New York City, 31, 204, 205; In Philadelphia, 31; Play- ground effects, 176, 177; Schools for, 50 FortUldungsschulen, 49 FOURTH OF JULY, 328, 329 FRANCE: Apprenticeship classes, 95; Association Philotech- nique, 77; Association Poly- technique, 77; Associations for popular education, 76, 77; Evening schools, 73-78; S o c i 6 1 e d'Enseignement Moderne, 77; Soci6t6 Na- 406 tionale pour la Propagation des Langues Etrangeres, 77; Union Franjaise de la Jeunesse, 77 FRAZIER, EDGAR G., 256 FREE COLLEGE, 51 FREEDOM OF SPEECH, 274-276 FREE PUBLIC LECTURES. See Lectures, etc. GAMES AND SPORTS: In elemen- tary and high schools, 301; Lectures on, 208, 209; For girls in class rooms, 323; In vacation kindergartens, 123 "GANG," THE, 263, 264 GARDENING, SCHOOL, 15, 1 6 GARZAK, Miss, ROCHESTER, N. Y, 256 GAVEL CLUB, N. Y. CITY, 230 GERMAN CONTINUATION SCHOOL SYSTEM, 49. See also Con- tinuation School System and Munich GERMANY: Evening schools in, 66-73 GILBERT AMERICAN SCHOOL DANCES, 160 GIRLS: Athletics for, 159; Clubs in Rochester, N. Y., 262- 264; Dances and games for, 313-319; Hoydenish, 235; Prize games, 323 GIRLS' BRANCH OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS ATHLETIC LEAGUE: Administration, 323; Basket ball, 320; Class-room games, 323; Competitions, 320, 321; Dancing, 320, 321; Dress, 321; Events, 320; Hand- book, 323; May Day, 321, 322; Organization, 322, 323; Pins, 320; Trophies, 320; Work, 319 GOLER, GEORGE W., M.D., 253 GOMME, MRS. GEORGE L., 240 GORDY, WILBUR F., 49; Quoted on the use of school build- ings, 354 GOVERNMENT: Complexity of modern local, 367 GRAFT GOVERNMENT, 368, 372, 381 G. A. R., NEW YORK CITY, 347 GRIND RAPIDS, MICH.: Library ^Commission lectures, 197, INDEX HAMILTON FORUM, 223 HAMMER-THROWING, 301 HANMER, LEE F., 331; Quoted :, N. Y., 284, 285 GREENE, M. LOUISE, 16 GRICE, MARY VAN METER, 335, 338, 355 GRUENBAUM, MR., 223 GULICK, LUTHER H., M.D., 294, 326, 331; Quoted on the co-operation of school offic- ials in athletics, 311, 312 GUTHRIE, WM. B., 202 GYMNASIUMS, 219, 220, 226, 284, 373; School playgrounds as, 8 GYMNASTICS: Rochester, N. Y., 266, 267 GYMNASTS, 235 HALIFAX, ENG., 78; Following up absentees, 109 HALL, BOLTON, 256 HALL, G. STANLEY, 288 HALLS IN SCHOOL BUILDINGS, 251, 267, 268, 284, 353 on effect of sports on school, 330 HARRISBURG, PA. ; Parent- teachers meetings, 347; Playground beginnings, 1 74 HARRISON, E., 355 HATS, WOMEN'S, 252, 262 HAVERHILL, MASS.: Cost of va- cation schools, 132, 133; Vacation school excursions, 126, 127 HEALTH LECTURES, 213 HEBREW TECHNICAL SCHOOL FOR GIRLS, N. Y. CITY, 144 HENROTIN, MRS. E. M., 355 HESPERIA MOVEMENT, 345, 355 HIGHLAND FLING, 153 HIGH SCHOOL CLUBS, 349-351 " HIGH SCHOOL MORTALITY," 35i HIGH SCHOOLS, EVENING, 5, 6, 27-29 HISTORICAL EXCURSIONS AND EXHIBITS, 127 HISTORICAL LECTURES, 212 HOLYOKE, MASS. : Social centers, 283 HOME, 340, 346, 347 "HOME AND SCHOOL": Extract 335-338 HOME AND SCHOOL ASSOCIA- TIONS: Auburn, N. Y., 343, 344; Boston, Mass., 15, 341- 343; Formation of, 338; Houston, Texas, 344; Michi- gan, 345; New York City, 407 INDEX 344, 345; Philadelphia, Pa., 14, 338-34i; Rural, 345, 346 Home and School News, 280 HOME TRAINING IN COUNTRY AND CITY, 376 HOPF, MRS. FRANZISKA, 205 HOUSEKEEPING COURSE: In Newark Playgrounds, 153; In St. Louis Vacation Schools, 124 HOUSTON, MARION, 145 HOUSTON, TEXAS: Mothers' clubs, 344 HUGHES, Gov. CHARLES E., 264, 265, 368, 369 HULL HOUSE, 272 HUNGARIAN SOLO DANCE, 315 HYGIENE: City, 374 HYRE, MRS. SARAH E., 191-194 ILES, G., 214 ILLINOIS: Urban attendance at evening schools, 102 ILLITERATE MINORS IN MASSA- CHUSETTS, 101, 102 IMMIGRANTS: Assimilation of, 370; Evening schools for, in Massachusetts, 101, 102; In Boston, Mass., 14; In New York City, 5, 205; In Pittsburgh, Pa., 136; Schools for, 50 IMMIGRATION, 223; Effect on society, 365, 366, 381 IMPROVEMENT ASSOCIATION, 348, 349 INDEPENDENCE DAY, 328, 329 INDIAN CLUB RELAY RACE, 317 INDIAN SKETCHES, 127, 128 INDIANAPOLIS, IND.: Admission of pupils to evening schools, 43; Children's Aid Associa- tion, 139; Evening school administration, 39; Play- ground organization, 170; Public Recreation Commit- tee of the Children's Aid Association, 139; Vacation schools, 139 INDUSTRIAL COMMISSIONS: Mas- sachusetts, 359; New Jer- sey, 359 INDUSTRIAL COMPANIES IN ENG- LAND: Co-operation of, in evening school attendance, 92,93 INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS: Mod- ern, 359-362 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION, 362 INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS: Evening, 19-27. See also Trade schools; Evening schools INDUSTRIAL TRAINING: Money value, 36, 37, 363 INDUSTRY: Specialization of, 359, 360 INFANTS: Care and feeding of, 143; In playgrounds, 156, 157, 178 INTERNATIONAL TYPOGRAPHICAL UNION, 96 IRVING LITERARY SOCIETY, OF N. Y. CITY, 230 ITALIAN DANCE, 153, 315 ITALIANS: In social centers, 371; Philadelphia, Pa., 278; Rochester, N. Y., 260, 261 IVEAGH, LORD, 244 JAMESTOWN, N. Y.: Attendance at evening schools, 86, no 408 INDEX JERSEY CITY, N. J.: Lectures, 207; Methods of promoting attendance at evening schools, 8s JOHNSON, GEORGE ELLSWORTH, 183, 33i JOHNSTOWN, PA.: Vacation schools, establishment of, 138 JONES, ANNA, Rochester, N. Y., 253 JONES, ARTHUR J., 51, 55, 78, 100 JUMPING, 229-294, 296, 303, 308 JUVENILE COURT TESTIMONY AS TO BENEFITS OF PLAY- GROUNDS, 175, 176, 180 KANSAS CITY, Mo.: Playground effects, 176; Rentals of high school halls, 353 KELLEY, FLORENCE, 256 KENNARD, BEULAH, 127, 128 KERN, O. J. : Quoted on parent- teacher associations, 348 KERSCHENSTEINER, G E o R G: Quoted on compulsory at- tendance at Munich con- tinuation schools, 104-107 KINDERGARTENS IN ST. Louis, VACATION, 122, 123 KING, GEN. HORATIO C., 10 KITCHEN IN SCHOOLS, 365, 376 KITE MAKING, 159 KRAG-JORGENSEN RIFLES, 304 KRAKIAVTK DANCE, 329 LABOR CONDITIONS: Modern, 359-362 LABOR UNIONS AND EVENING SCHOOLS, 95-98 LADITA DANCE, 329 LANGUAGE IN EVENING SCHOOLS, 31,32 LAKNED, CHARLES W., 331 LASHER, WM. R.: Quoted on school clubs, 350, 351 LASSIE CLUB., N. Y. CITY, 230 LAVERGNE, F., 78 LAWRENCE, MASS. : Evening high schools, 28; Evening school administration, 39, 40; Eve- ning school attractions, 87; Teachers' association, 196, 197 LEAGUE OF HOME AND SCHOOL ASSOCIATIONS. See Phila- delphia LECTURES: Character, 201; Free, 212; Methods of obtaining, 211, 212; Sources, 209, 213; Topics, 201-203 LECTURES AND ENTERTAINMENTS : Audiences, 204, 205; Author- ities, 214; Benefits, 206, 369; Boards of education, 198, 199; Boston, Mass., 198, 199; Children, 207, 208, 209; Cincinnati, O., 199; Cleveland, O., 187-194, 207, 208; Cost, 207; Grand Rapids, Mich., 197, 198; Home and School Associa- tions, 198; Mrs. Hyre, 191- 194; Jersey City, N. J., 207; Kinds, 194-199; Lawrence, Mass., 196, 197; Lectures, sources of, 209-213; Leip- ziger, Henry M., 203, 204, 206; Library and, 204; Milwaukee, Wis., 207; Mis- cellaneous, 195; Moral talks, 208, 209; Newark, N. J., 199, 207, 208; New York 409 INDEX City, 9-1 1, 200-206; Peda- gogues, 194, 195, 196, 197; People's co-operation, 213, 214; Philadelphia, Pa., 198; Playground, 186; Politics, 193; Reading, 204; Roches- ter, N. Y., 199; St. Paul, Minn., 198; Speakers, meth- ods of obtaining, 211, 212; Speakers, variety of, 201; Sunday afternoons, 196; For teachers, 194, 195, 196, 197; Topics, 190, 193, 201, 203; Tuberculosis, 193 LEE, JOSEPH, 145 LEEDS, ENG., 78; Attendance re- wards, 107; Employers' co- operation in evening school attendance, 89; Evening schools, 99; Teachers in evening schools, 112 LEIPZIG, GERMANY, TRADE SCHOOLS, 72 LEIPZIGER, HENRY M., u, 203, 204, 206, 213, 214 LELAND, ARTHUR, 183 LELAND, LORNA H., 183 LEVITY CLUB, 222 LEXINGTON, MASS.: Playground beginning, 174 LIBRARIES: Lectures on, 212; In school playground, 160; Traveling, 220, 221; Roch- ester, N. Y., 267 LIBRARY, PUBLIC: Aid in public lectures, 204; Co-operation in the vacation schools, 126 LINCOLN, ABRAHAM, 81, 263 LINCOLN'S BIRTHDAY, 347 LINDSAY, SAMUEL McCuNE, 16 LITERARY CLUBS, 227 LITTLE RED SCHOOL HOUSE, 284 LONDON: Bermondsey, 244; County council classes, 78, 288; County council schools, 239, 240, 243, 353; County council school house rental, 285; Deptford, 244; Evening recreation centers, 239-244; Evening schools, 99; Eve- ning school attractions, 88; Methods of promoting at- tendance at evening schools, 85, 86, 87; Paddington, 244; Passmore Edwards Settle- ment, 243; Tavistock Place, 243; The Times, 243, 246; Whitechapel, 244. See also London Evening Recreation Centers LOOBY Loo DANCE, 331 Los ANGELES, CAL.: Evening school attendance, no; Cost of evening schools, 47, 48; Parents' conference on health, 347; Playground ap- paratus, 163, 164; Play- ground beginnings, 174; Playground brass bands, 161; Playground effects, 1 80; Playground organiza- tion, 169, 170 LOUISE, PRINCESS, OF ENGLAND, 88 LOWELL, MASS.: Evening high school, 27; Evening high school attendance, 101, 102; Following up absentees, 108, 109 LOWELL CLUB, 223 LUNCH ROOMS IN SCHOOLS, 365 LUNDY, MRS. J. P., 174 MACHINE OPERATORS, 261 MACHINERY: Social effects, 365, 366; Use in industry, 360 410 INDEX MADISON, N. J.: Civic Associa- tion, 169; Playground or- ganization, 169; Thursday Morning Club, 169 MAGDEBURG, GERMANY, 78; Com- mercial continuation schools, 70, 71 MANCHESTER, ENG., 78; Attend- ance at evening schools, 86, 109; Children's Happy Evening Section, 244, 245; Recreative Evening Classes, 247 MANHATTAN HISTORICAL EX- HIBITS, 127 MANNERS, 177 MANUAL LABOR: In Munich trade schools, 67 MANUAL TRAINING, 362 MARATHON, SOLDIER or, 297 MARKSMANSHIP, 304 MASSACHUSETTS: Commission on Industrial and Technical Education, State, 38, 359, 363; Evening school attend- ance, 114; Illiterate minors law, 101, 102, 114; Local school boards and evening schools, 40, 41; State sup- port of local industrial schools, 38; Urban attend- ance at evening schools, 102 MASSACHUSETTS COLLEGE, THE, Si MAXWELL, WM. H., 50, 294; Quoted on deposits from pupils, in; Quoted on school house use, 379 MAY DAY FESTIVALS, 321, 322 MAY-POLE DANCE, 315, 329 MEAN WELL, W. .,331 MEDFORD, MASS.: Vacation schools, establishment of, 138 MEETINGS IN SCHOOL HOUSES, 14-15; Activities, 339, 340; Auburn, N. Y., 343, 344; Authorities, 355; Boston, Mass., 341-343; Brooklyn, N. Y., 350, 351; Chicago, 350; Description of a gather- ing from "Home and School," 335-338; Detroit, M ich . , 3 5 1 , 3 $ 2 ; Educational purposes, 35 1, 35 2; England, 353; Expenses, 339; Harris- burg, Pa., 347; Hesperia movement, 345, 355; High school clubs, 349; Home and School Association, 338; Houston, Texas, 344; Im- provement association, 348, 349; London County Coun- cil Schools, 353; Los Angeles, Cal., 347; Michi- gan, 345; Milwaukee, Wis., 352; Miscellaneous socie- ties, 347, 348; Newark, N. J., 352; New York City, 344,345, 347; Parental co- operation with teachers, 337; Philadelphia, Pa., 339~34i; Programs, 340, 341; Pupil societies, 349; Religious, 353; Rochester, N. Y., 353; Rural, 345, 346; Secret so- cieties, 350; Syracuse, N. Y., 352; Teachers' societies, 349; Topics discussed, 339, 341; Washington, D. C., 349, 350 MEN'S Civic CLUBS. See Civic Clubs MERO, EVERETT B., 183 MICHIGAN: Teacher-patrons' as- sociations, 345 MIDSUMMER DAY, 322 MILITARY DRILL, 161 411 INDEX MlLLIKEN, O. J., 145 MILWAUKEE, Wis.: Board of School Directors, 281; Eve- ning school hours, 108; Eve- ning schools, cost of, 48; Lectures, 207; Social centers, 281; Use of public school buildings, 253; Vacation schools, establishment of, 137, 138 MINISTRY, 271, 272 MINNEAPOLIS, MINN.: Vacation schools, establishment of, 138 MONDAY CLUB, ERASMUS HALL, BROOKLYN, N. Y., 350 MONTCLAIR, N. J. : Daughters of the American Revolution, 169, 174; Playgrounds, 167; Playground beginnings, 174; Playground organization, 169 MONTROSE, ENGLAND, 100 MORAL EDUCATION BOARD, BAL- TIMORE, MD., 208, 209 MORRIS HIGH SCHOOL, 305 MOTHERS, NATIONAL CONGRESS OF, 346, 355 MOTHERS AND INFANTS, 156, 157 MOTHERS' CLUBS, 346 MOTTOES FOR PLAYGROUNDS, 167 MUNICH, GERMANY, TRADE CON- TINUATION SCHOOLS: Ap- prentices, 66-68; Attend- ance, 67, 68, 104, 107; Citi- zenship, 67, 69; Employers, 67; Fees, 69; Hours, 67, 69; Instruction, 66, 67, 69; Jour- neymen and masters, 68; Manual labor, 67; Prizes, 68; Religion, 66, 70; Report, 78; Scholarship, 69; Sundays, 67, 69, 70; Trade guild co- operation in continuation school attendance, 94, 95; Tuition, 69, 70 MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT, 367, 381 MUNICIPAL INFORMATION, 369 NATIONAL CHILD LABOR COM- MITTEE, 210 NATIONAL CONGRESS OF MOTHERS, 346, 355 NATIONAL GUARD, 305, 313 NATIONAL RIFLE ASSOCIATION, 304 NATURAL HISTORY LECTURES, 212 NEIGHBORLINESS, 273 NEWARK, N. J.: Athletics, 324, 325, 327, 328; Auditoriums in schools, 353, 354; Board of Education, 327, 352, 370; Branch Brook Park, 163; Evening recreation centers, 236, 237; Evening school ad- ministration, 39; Evening schools, admission of pupils to, 43 ; Evening schools, ap- pointment of teachers in, 41 ; Evening schools, civics in, 33; Evening schools, cost of, 43, 44, 46, 48; Evening schools, study classes in, 35; Evening Technical School, 363, 364; Evening Technical School, earnings of gradu- ates, 36, 37; Fawcett Draw- ing School, 26, 27; Lectures, 199, 207, 208, 209; Play- ground activities, 149-154; Playground effects, 180; Playground expense, 171; Playground organization, 171; Playgrounds, military drill in, 161; Playgrounds, school, 8, 9, 162, 163; Play 412 INDEX supervision, 165; Public Schools Athletic League, 331 ; Vacation school admin- istration, 130, 131; Vacation schools, cost of, 132, 133; Vacation schools, establish- ment of, 134 NEWAYGO COUNTY, MICH., 345 NEW ENGLAND: School boards and evening schools, 40, 41 NEW JERSEY: Urban attendance at evening schools, 102 NEW JERSEY COMMISSION ON INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION, 36, 97, 98, 357, 358 NEW ORLEANS, LA.: Athletics, 324; Public Schools Athletic League, 331; Vacation schools, 127 NEW PALTZ, N. Y.: Normal School, 328 NEWSPAPERS: Gratuitous publi- city obtained through, 84, 85 NEWTON, MASS.: Bowen School, 238; Evening recreation center, 238; Playground and Social Service League, 238 NEW YORK CENTRAL RAILWAY: Instruction of apprentices, etc., 93 NEW YORK CITY: Association for Improving the Condi- tion of the Poor, 134; Baths. school, 155; Board of Alder- men, 312; Board of Edu- cation, xx, 134, 165, 172, 190-206, 225, 297, 308, 311, 312, 323, 351; Chil- dren' to, at school grounds, 157, 158; Docks, 271; East Ninth Street School, 218; East Third Street School, 226; Elementary evejyjeg schools, 30-32; Elementary Schools Games Committee, 309; Evening high schools, 28, 29; Evening recreation centers, n, 12, 217, 225^ Evening schools, 516; Eve- ning schools administration, 38, 39; Evening schools, ad- mission of pupils, 43; Eve- ning schools, attendance, 85, 109, 112; Evening schools, appointment of teachers, 41 ; Evening schools, cost of, 43-46, 48; Evening schools, hours, 108; Evening schools, study classes in, 35; Fourth of July free games, 329; Games Committee, 310; He- brew Technical School for Girls, 144; Jumping records, 294; Lectures on morals, 209; Madison Square Gar- den, 295; Milk depots in school grounds, 156; Morris High School, 305 ; National Guard, 313; Normal classes in penmanship, 50; Play in- structors, 165, 1 66; Play- grounds, 165, 1 66; Play- ground .activities, 154, 155; Playground effects, 177; Playground expense, 171, 172; Playground , model , 167; Playground organiza- tion, 171; Playground pro- gram, 158; Playgrounds, roof, 162; Public lecture work, 9-11, 200-206; Pub- lic library, 221; Public School No. 6, 308; Public School No. 22, dances and games for girls, 315-321; Public School No. 30, 308; Public School No. 40, 344; Public School No. 77, 308; Public School No. 172, 230; Public School No. 188, 226, 4'3 INDEX 230; Public School Athletic League, 294-313; School of Philanthropy, 210; Sec- ondary Schools Games Committee, 310; Stuyve- sant High School, 19; Teachers College, 167; Twelfth Regiment Armory, 227; Vacation school ad- ministration, 129; Vacation schools, 6, 7, 127; Vacation' schools, cost of, 132, 133; Vacation schools, East Side, 117-121; Vacation schools, establishment of, 134; Vaca- tion schools, excursions, 127; Vacation teachers, salaries of, 131; Washington Irving High School, 322. See also Evening Recreation Centers; Public Schools Athletic League NEW YORK (STATE): Commis- sion on immigration, 50; Law on compulsory attend- ance in evening schools, 100, 101 ; Law of 1908 for indus- trial and trade schools, 97; Probation commission, 343; Urban attendance at eve- ning schools, 102 NICHOLS, E. H., 331 NIGHT SCHOOLS. See Evening Schools NORTH AMERICAN Civic LEAGUE FOR IMMIGRANTS, 14 NORTHERN COUNTIES WEAVERS' ASSOCIATION, ENG., 94 NORTHWICH, ENG.: Employers' co-operation in evening school attendance, 91 NOTTINGHAM, ENGLAND: Bath Street School, 55-57; Choral Union, 64; Continuation school, 57-59; Evening school administration, 63 ; Evening school attend- ance, 86, 107; Evening school attractions, 87, 88; Municipal School of Art, 59 60; Music, 64; People's Col- lege, 59-61; Prizes, 62, 63; Rental of school houses, 353 ; Reports of Education Com- mittee, 78; Scholarship, 62; Swimming, 63 ; Teachers, 63 ; University College, 59, 60 NURSES, 156, 157 OAKLAND, CAL.: Extension of school instruction, 143 OCEANA COUNTY, MICH., 345 OPEN-AIR CLASSES, 373 ORANGE, N. J. See East Orange OUTINGS IN VACATION SCHOOLS 126, 127 PADDINGTON, LONDON, ENG., 244 PAGE, CURTIS HIDDEN, 10 PARENTS: Co-operation with teachers, 337; In the school house, 14, 15 PARENT-TEACHERS' ASSOCIA- TIONS, 270; Value, 346, 347 PARIS, FRANCE, EVENING SCHOOLS, 73-78; Associa- tions for promoting popular education, 77, 78; Classes in, 73; Courses, 75; For ap- prentices, 76; Hours, 75; Instructors, 75; Subjects, 73-7 5 ; Sunday instruction , 76; Technical instruction, 76; Tuition, 75 PASSAIC, N. J. : Playground dis- cipline, 1 68 PASSMORE EDWARDS SETTLE- MENT, 243 PATON, REV. J. B., 88 414 INDEX PAUL, FRANCIS H. J., 308 PAUL, HARRY G., 10 PAULDING, J. K., 288 PEASANT DANCES. See Folk- dances PEDAGOGICAL LECTURES, 195, 196, 197 PEDAGOGY, SOCIETY OF, 349 PENNSYLVANIA: State law on admission of pupils to eve- ning schools, 43 PENSACOLA, FLA.: Folk-dancing, 329; Playground expense, 171; Recess period, 179; School Improvement Asso- ciation, 348; School No. i, 348 PEOPLE'S COLLEGE, NOTTING- HAM, ENG., 59-61 PERXOVITZ, MR., 223 PHILADELPHIA, PA.: Board of Education, 276, 339, 351; City Parks Association, 174; Civic Club, 174; D. A. R., 341; Dunlap Home and School Association, 339; Elementary evening schools, 31; Evening schools, admis- sion of pupils, 43; Evening schools, teachers in, 42, xn, 112; League of Home and School Associations, 14, 276, 277, 279, 280, 288, 338, 339, 340, 341, 3ss ; Home and School League's Committee on Further Use of School Buildings, 279; Lectures ar- ranged by League of Home and School Associations, 198; Playground Associa- tion, 175; Playground be- ginnings, 174; Public Edu- cation Association, 341 ; So- cial centers, 276 PHILANTHROPY, NEW YORK SCHOOL OF, 210 PHYSICAL TRAINING: Cleveland, Ohio, 34, 87; Rochester, N. Y., 266. See Athletics, etc. PHYSICS IN THE STUYVESANT HIGH SCHOOL (EVENING), 21 PITTSBURGH, PA.: Athletics, 326; Central Board of Educa- tion, 137, 169; Civic Club, 135; Evening high schools, 28,81,82,98,110; Evening recreation centers, 238, 239; Oakland District School, 238, 239; Playground Asso- ciation, 137, 139, 140, 145, 166, 169, 281; Playground bean bags, 165; Playground beginnings, I35~i37, *74; Playground program, 161; Public School Boys' Athletic ! League, 328; University and vacation teachers, 131; Vacation schools, 126, 127, 128; Vacation schools, cost of, 132; Vacation schools, introduction of, 135-137; Vacation school teachers, 131; Women's clubs, 136 PLAY, 128, 135, 136, 139, 140, 165; Educational effect, 178; Lack of room for, in cities, 374. 375- See also Evening Recreation Centers; Play- grounds PLAY CENTERS IN LONDON, 239- 244. See Evening Recrea- tion Centers in London PLAYGROUND ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA, 233, 331 PLAYGROUND ASSOCIATION, PITTSBURGH, PA., 128 PLAYGROUND EXTENSION COM- MITTEE, 330 INDEX PLAYGROUNDS, SCHOOL: Admin- istration, 165-168; Ameri- canizing influence, 176, 177; Apparatus, 163-165; Ath- letics for girls, 159; Auburn, N. Y., 1 68; Auspices, 172- 174; Authorities, 183; Ba- bies, 156, 157, 178; Balti- more, Md., 1 66, 169; Baths, 165; Beginnings, 172-174; Benefits, 175-183; Boston, Mass., 159, 170, 171; Buf- falo, N. Y., 159, 162, 165, 166, 179, 181; Buttons, 167, 168; Cambridge, Mass., 160, 178; Chicago, 111., 175, 177, 180, 181; Cincinnati, 0., 163, 176; Cleveland, O., 157, 159, 161, 163, 171; Cost, 171, 172; Detroit, 172; Discipline, 167, 181; Dramatics, 159; East Orange, N. J., 164; Effects, 175-183; Exhibi- tions, 162, 163; Foreigners, 176, 177; Harrisburg, Pa., 174; Hours, 162; Indian- apolis, Ind., 170; Juvenile courts, 175, 176, 180; Kan- sas City, Mo., 176; Lexing- ton, Mass., 174; Libraries, traveling, 1 60; Location, 181 ; Los Angeles, Cal., 161, 163, 164, 169, 170, 174, 180; Madison, N. J., 169; Mont- clair, N. J., 167, 169, 174; Mothers and babies, 156, 157; Newark, N. J., 8, 9, 149-154, 161, 162-163, 165, 171, 180; New York City, 154-158, 162, 163, 165, 166, 167, 171, 172, 177; Organization, 168-171; Pas- saic, N. J., 1 68; Pensa- cola, Fla., 171, 179; Phila- delphia, Pa., 174, 175; Pittsburgh, Pa., 161, 165, 166, 169, 173; Popular demand, 182; Providence, R. I., 160, 161, 170, 172; Rochester, N. Y., 162, 167, 174, 176, 180; Scranton, Pa., 164; Seattle, Wash., 162; Somerville, Mass., 174; Spirit, 177; Story-telling, 158; Success, 165; Supervi- sion of play, 165; Syracuse, N. Y., 170; Teachers, 165- 167; Term, 162; Usefulness, radius of, 181, 374; Wash- ington, D. C., 176, 180; White Wings, 155; Women's help, 165, 169, 172-174 POLAND, ADDISON B., 46, 48; Quoted on compulsory at- tendance at evening schools, 103; On school assembly halls, 353; On the school house for lectures, 369, 370 POLICE, SCHOOL, 306 POLITICAL MEETING-PLACES, 368 POLITICAL USE OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS, 274; In England, 353 POLITICS, 193 PORTLAND, ME. : Evening recrea- tion centers, 238; Frater- nity House, 238 POSEN, GERMANY, 78 POTATO RELAY RACE, 317, 318 PRACTICAL INSTRUCTION, 98-100 PRACTICAL LIFE, SCHOOL TRAIN- ING FOR, 376, 377 PREACHING, 272 PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH, 271 PRIMARIES, DIRECT, 368 PRINCETON PLEASURE CLUB, 223 PRIZE GAMES FOR GIRLS, 323 PRIZES, 226, 227; For attendance, 107, 108 416 INDEX PROBATION COMMISSION, N. Y., 343, 344 PROBATION WORK, 344 PROCTOR, MARY, 10 PROSPECT PARK, BROOKLYN, 322 PROVIDENCE, R. I.: Evening high schools, 28; Evening schools, cost of, 43-45; Playground organization, 170; Playground program, 1 60, 161; Playground sala- ries, 172; Vacation schools, 134 PUBLIC LECTURES AND ENTER- TAINMENTS IN NEW YORK CITY, o-n, 200-206. See Lectures, etc. PUBLIC SCHOOLS ATHLETIC LEAGUE, N. Y. CITY: Ad- ministration, 308, 309; Badges, 296-298, 312; Board of Aldermen, 313; Board of Education, 312, 313; Cham- pionship meetings, 301-306; Class athletics, 291-294, 296, 298-300; Co-operation of school officials, 310; Court- esy, 307*, Ethical acts, 308; Games and events, 301, 302; Games committees, 309, 310; Gentlemanly behavior, 306, 307; Handbook, 306, 307; Ideals, 307, 308; Mem- berships, 296; Objects, 295; Origin, 294, 295; School boards, 306; School police, 306; Schooling, 304, 305; Spread of the idea, 326,328, 2 9,33i; Sub-leagues, 309; ear book, 304. See also Girls' Branch Public Schools Athletic League PUBLIC SCHOOL TEACHERS, FED- ERATION OF, 349 PUBLICITY FOR EVENING SCHOOLS, 81-85 3 2 Y PUEBLO, COL.: Social centers, 283 PULLING-UP EXERCISES. See Chinning PUPIL SOCIETIES, 349-351 QUINCY, MASS.: School Master's Club, 348 RACE AMALGAMATION, 370, 371 RACE BARRIERS, 262 RACE ELEMENTS IN NEW YORK CITY, 204, 205 RACE PREJUDICE, 177 RAILWAY COMPANIES IN ENG- LAND: Instruction for em- ployes, 92 RAILWAY COMPANIES IN THE UNITED STATES: Co-opera- tion in evening school at- tendance, 93 "REAP THE FLAX" DANCE, 314 RECESS PERIOD, 179 RECIPE EXCHANGE, 261 RECREATION CENTERS. See Evening Recreation Centers RECREATION, EVENING SCHOOL, 87,88 RECREATIVE EVENING SCHOOLS ASSOCIATION, ENGLAND, 88 RED SCHOOL HOUSE, 284 REFERENCE BOOKS. See Au- thorities under titles and at close of each chapter RELAY RACES FOR GIRLS, 316 RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION IN MUNICH TRADE SCHOOLS, 66. 70 * 4'7 INDEX RELIGIOUS USE OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS, 274, 353 RENTING PUBLIC SCHOOLS, 353 RHEES, PRES. RUSH, 256 RIFLES, 304 "ROBERT ELSMERE," 242 ROBERTS, I. P., 285 ROCHESTER, N. Y.: Aldermen, 258; Art Club, 265; Art exhibition, 265, 266; Arts and Crafts Club, 265; Baden St., 253; Board of Educa- tion, 12, 257, 262, 270, 271, 273, 274, 275, 353; Central Trades and Labor Council, 270; Chamber of Commerce, 264; Children's Playground League, 270; Civic Club of School No. 14, 258-260; Civic Clubs, 257-265; Col- lege Women's Club, 270; Coming Civic Club of School No. 9, 253; Coming Civic Clubs, 262; Common Coun- cil, 258; Convention Hall, 265; Daughters of the American Revolution, 270; " Do It For Rochester," 250, 288; East High School, 254; Free speech in school build- ings, 274-276; Future Civic Clubs, 262; General eve- nings, 256, 257, 269; Gym- nastics, 266; Humane So- ciety, 270; Italians, 260, 261; Joseph St., 249; Labor Lyceum, 270; League of Civic Clubs, 264, 288; Lec- tures and entertainments, 199; Libraries, 266, 267; Local Council of Women, 270; Men's Civic Club of School No. 9, 253; Men's Civic Club of School No. 14, 254; Municipal Build- ing, 264; Officers' Associa- tion of Mothers' Clubs, 270; Playground beginnings, 174; Playground discipline, 167; Playground effects, 176, 180; Playground League, 138; Playgrounds, 162; Politi- cal Equality Club, 270; Recipe exchange, 261; School Extension Commit- tee, 270, 271; School No. 9, 249-256, 257, 268, 269; School No. 14, 254, 257, 258, 267, 268, 269; School No. 36, 254; Social center at- tendance, 256; Social Cen- ter No. 9, 371, 372; Social center movement, origin of, 270-272; Social centers, 12, 13, 249-276; Social center topics and speakers, 256; So- cial centers, supervisor of, 271-273; Social Settlement Association, 270; Spontane- ous Art Club, 265; Street car company, co-operation of, 266; Supervisor of social centers, 264, 267; Sym- phony orchestra, 265; Uni- versity, 269; Use of school buildings, policy in, 274- 276; Vacation schools, 127; Vacation schools, establish- ment of, 138; West High School, 257, 262, 268, 269; Women's Civic Club of School No. 9, 252, 254; Women's Civic Club of School No. 14, 259, 261, 262; Women's Club, 265; Women's Educational and Industrial Union, 138, 270; Young Woman's Civic Club of School No. 9, 25, 31 ROOSEVELT CLUB, 222 ROOSEVELT, THEODORE, 297 ROVERSI, LUIGI, 205 ROYAL LIFE-SAVING SOCIETY, 63 RUMBALL, REV. EDWIN A., 256 418 INDEX RUNNING CLASS, 299 RURAL ATHLETICS, 327, 328 RURAL LIFE, 284, 285 RUSKIN COLLEGE, OXFORD, ENG., 95 RUSSELL SAGE FOUNDATION, 16, 33i RUSSIAN DANCE, 317 RYNEARSON, EDWARD, 82, 83 SADLER, M. E M 55, 78, 90, 92, 94; Quoted, 86; Quoted on compulsory attendance at continuation schools in England, 103, 104 ST. HELENS, ENG., 78 ST. Louis, Mo.: Board of Edu- cation, 238; Evening recre- ation centers, 238; Evening school, admission to, 43; Evening schools, cost of, 43, 47, 48; Evening school term, 50; Public Library, 238; Vacation schools, 122- 124, 126; Vacation school administration, 129, 130; Vacation schools, cost of, X 3 2 > I 33> Vacation schools, results, 141; Vacation school teachers' salaries, 131 ST. PAUL, MINN.: Board of Education, 138, 139; Insti- tute of Arts and Sciences, 138; Lectures of the Insti- tute of Arts and Sciences, 198; Vacation schools, es- tablishment of, 138, 139 SALARIES OF TEACHERS IN EVE- NING SCHOOLS, 48; At recre- ation centers in N. Y. City, 236; Of social center staff, Rochester, N. Y., 268, 269; Of vacation school teachers, SANITATION, 273 SARANAC ATHLETIC CLUB, 222 SATURDAY NIGHT USE OF SCHOOLS, 249, 250, 287 SCANDINAVIAN DANCES, 156, 314 SCHENECTADY, N. Y.: Athletics, 326,327 SCHOOL BANDS, 306 SCHOOL GARDENS, 15, 1 6 SCHOOL HOUSE, WIDER USE OF. See School Plant SCHOOL IMPROVEMENT ASSOCIA- TIONS, 348, 349 SCHOOL OF PHILANTHROPY, 210 SCHOOL PLANT, WIDER USE OF: Athletics, 13; Authorities, 16; Change in the last 20 years, 3, 4; Dancing, 14; Development of, 378; In the eighties, 3; Evening recreation centers, n, 12; Evening schools, 4-6; Folk- dancing, 13, 14; Games, 13, 14; Meetings, 14; Parents, 14; Playgrounds, 7-9; Polit- ical use, 274, 368; Pub- lic lectures and entertain- ments, 9-11; Purpose, 274; Religious use, 274; Rental, 353; Social betterment, 3S9-38o; Social centers, 12, 13; Use, actual and pos- sible, 378; Vacation schools, 6, 7. See also Evening Recreation Centers; Evening Schools; Meetings; Play- grounds; Lectures and Enter- tainments; Social Centers; Vacation Schools SCHOOL PLAYGROUNDS. See Playgrounds SCHOOL POLICE IN ATHLETIC GAMES, 306 419 INDEX SCIENCE, FREE LECTURES ON, 202 SCOTTISH CHRISTIAN SOCIAL UNION, 286, 289 SCRANTON, PA. : Playground ap- paratus, 164 SCUDDER, H. E., 288 SCUDDER, MYRON T., 328, 331 SEATTLE, WASH. : Athletics, 326; Hours for playgrounds, 162; Public Schools Athletic League, 331; Y. M. C. A., 326 SENATE (SCHOOL SOCIETY), 349 SEWING IN SCHOOLS, 376, 377 SHOOTING, 304, 305 SHOTWELL, PROF., 202 SHUTTLE RELAY RACE, 316, 317 SITES FOR SCHOOL HOUSES, 182 SLAVIC DANCES, 156 SNEDDEN, DAVID, 51, 145 SOCIAL BETTERMENT THROUGH WIDER USE OF SCHOOL PROPERTY, 359-380; Chart, 381 SOCIAL CENTERS: Administra- tion, 268, 269; Art clubs, 265, 266; Assembly halls, 267, 268; Authorities, 288; Benefit, 252, 254; Boston, Mass., 283, 284; Bureau of information, 266; Central idea, 272-276; Chicago, 111., 284; Cincinnati, O., 283; Civic clubs, 257-265; Cleve- land, Ohio, 253; Colum- bus, Ohio, 282, 283; Cost of maintenance, 268-270; Country districts, 284, 285; Definition, 246; England, 285-288; Equipment, 267, 268; Gymnastics, 266, 267; Holyoke, Mass., 283; Libra- ries, 266, 267; Milwaukee, Wis., 281; Origin of the movement in Rochester, N. Y., 270-272; Philadel- Chia, Pa., 276-280; Pitts- urgh, Pa., 281, 282; Policy, 274, 275; Pueblo, Col., 283; Rochester, N. Y., 249-276; Salaries, 268, 269; School children, 275; Scotland, 286; Songs, 250, 251, 280; Speakers, 256; Topics, 256, 259 SOCIAL INSTITUTES UNION, ENG- LAND, 285-288 SOCIAL PROBLEM LECTURES, 212 SOCIETE D'ENSEIGNEMENT Mo- DERNE, 77 SOCIET^ NATIONALS POUR LA PROPAGATION DES LANGUES ETRANGERES, 77 SOCIETY: Changes in the last two centuries, 360-362; Strati- fication of, 365; Vertical cleavage of, 366, 381 SOCIETY OF PEDAGOGY, 349 SOLDIER OF MARATHON, 297 SOMERVILLE, MASS. : Playground beginnings, 174 SONGS, SOCIAL CENTER, 250, 251, 280 SPEAKERS: Cost, 269 SPECIALIZATION OF INDUSTRY, 359, 360, 381 SPORTSMEN'S SHOW IN 1909, 304 SPRINGFIELD, MASS.: Evening School of Trades, 25, 26, 42, 46, 93, 363, 364; Eve- ning schools, cost of, 43,44, 46; Master Plumbers' As- sociation, 93; Mechanic Arts High School, 25; 420 INDEX Playground Association, 354; Teachers in evening schools, 42; Value of school buildings and use, 354 STATE INSTRUCTION FOR IMMI- GRANTS, 50 STEPNEY, LONDON, ENG., 244 STITT, EDWARD W., 231 STREET BOYS, 263, 264 STUDY CLASSES IN EVENING SCHOOLS, 35 STUYVESANT HIGH SCHOOL, N.Y., 19 SULLIVAN, JAMES E., 294, 310 SUMMER SCHOOLS. See Vaca- tion Schools SUNDAY INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE, 75, 76 SUNDAY SERVICES IN SCHOOL HOUSES, 345 SUNDAY TEACHING IN GERMANY, 69, 70, 72 Sunday World GAMES, 301 SWIMMING, 159 SWITZERLAND: Trade unions and government co-operation in instruction of journeymen, 94 SYRACUSE, N. Y.: Evening rec- reation centers, 238; Feder- ated Improvement Associa- tions, 348; Improvement associations, 352; Play- ground organization, 170; Solvay Guild, 170 TACOMA, WASH.: Athletics, 327 TALKS FOR SCHOOL CHILDREN, 208, 209 TARANTELLA, 153, 315 TEACHER-PATRONS' ASSOCIA- TIONS, 345 TEACHERS: Co-operation in ath- letics, 311, 312; In evening schools, 41, 42, in, 112; Lectures for, 194, 195, 196, 197; Salaries in evening schools, 48; Salaries in va- cation schools, 131 TECHNICAL HIGH SCHOOLS, 362 The Times, LONDON, 243, 246 TOMPKINS SQUARE PARK, N. Y., 217 TOPICS OF LECTURES, 190, 193 "TOUGHS," 263, 264; Reform- ing, 234, 235 TOWN MEETING, 367 TRADE CONTINUATION SCHOOLS IN MUNICH, 66-70 TRADE ORGANIZATIONS: Co- operation in evening school attendance, 93-98 TRADE SCHOOLS, EVENING, 5, 6, 363, 364; New York, 19-25 TRADES, MEN AND BOYS WITH- OUT, 359 TRAVELERS' CLUB, N. Y. CITY, 230 TRAVELING LIBRARIES, 220, 221; Rochester, N. Y., 267 TREBLE CLEF CHORUS, 349 TRENTON, N. J.: Methods of promoting attendance at evening schools, 85 TROPHIES, ATHLETIC, 294, 296- 298, 300 TROY, N. Y.: Athletics, 324, . 325; Y. M. C. A., 326 TUBERCULOSIS, 193, 373 TUTHILL, Miss, ROCHESTER, N. Y., 256 421 INDEX ULSTER COUNTY, N. .,328 UNEMPLOYED, PROBLEM OF, 359- 362, 381 UNION FRANCAISE DE LA JEU- NESSE, 77 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT or AGRICULTURE, 210, 211 URBANIZATION OF POPULATION, VACATION SCHOOLS: Activities, 121, 122; Administration, 129-132; Authorities, 145; Boston, Mass., 127, 130, 131, 134; Brockton, Mass., 139; Buffalo, N. Y., 124, 132, 141; Cambridge, Mass., 122, 132, 133; Chicago, 111., 126, 134, 130, 131, 132, 135, 142, 143; Cincinnati, Ohio, 124, 126, 129, 130, 131, 132, 139, 142; Cleveland, Ohio, 124-126, 129, 130, 133, _i37, 141 ; Cost, 1 23 ; Des Moines, la., 132; Earliest in this country, 134; Extension of regular school work, 143- 145; First Church of Bos- ton, 134; Games, 123; Hav- erhill, Mass., 126, 127, 132, 133; Historical excursions, 127; Historical exhibits, 127; Hours, 129; House- keeping course, 123, 124; Hygienic value, 374; Indi- anapolis, Ind., 139; Johns- town, Pa., 138; Kinder- gartens, 122, 123; Medford, Mass., 138; Milwaukee, Wis., 137, 138; Minneapolis, Minn., 138; Newark, N. J., 130-134; New Orleans, La., 127; New York City, 6, 7, 117-121, 127, 129-134; Or- der, 128, 129; Outings, 126; Pittsburgh, Pa., 126-128, 131, 132, 135-137; Play, 128; Providence, R. I., 134; Public library co-operation, 126; Results, 139-145; Rochester, N. Y., 127, 138; St. Louis, Mo., 122-124, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 141; St. Paul, Minn., 138; Ses- sion, 129; Starting, 134-139; Success, 143; Teachers, 129, 130, 131; Teachers' salaries, 131; Worcester, Mass., 13911 VAN CORTLANDT PARK, 321 VAN LAER, ALEXANDER J., 10 VERDIN TECHNICAL SCHOOL, ENG., 91 VIRGINIA STATE BOARD OF EDU- CATION, 182 VOLLEY BALL, 330 VOTERS' NEED OF KNOWLEDGE, 367, 368 WARD, EDWARD J., 271, 273, 288 WARD, MRS. HUMPHRY, 240, 242, 243, 246; Quoted on play centers, 233, 234 WASHINGTON, GEORGE, 261 WASHINGTON (STATE) SCHOOL HOUSE LOTS, 182 WASHINGTON, D. C.: Central High School, 349; Play- ground effects, 176, 180 WASHINGTON IRVING HIGH SCHOOL, 322 WEIGHING ATHLETES, 302, 303 WESTERN RESERVE CHAPTER, D. A. R., 188 WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY, 190 WHITECHAPEL, LONDON, ENG., 244 WHITE WINGS BRIGADES, 155 422 INDEX WHITNEY, EVANGELINE E., 145, 227, 228, 234, 246 WHITTIER, JOHN G., 127 \VUITTIER SOCIETY, 223 WIDER USE, SOCIAL BETTER- MENT THROUGH, 359-380; Chart, 381 WIDNES, ENG., 78; Employers' co-operation in evening school attendance, 90, 91 WINCHESTER, MASS.: Handi- craft Society, 348; High School, 348; Orchestral So- ciety, 348 WINGATE, GEN. GEORGE W., 34 305 WlNGATES, THE, 221 WINNINGTON PARK SCHOOLS, ENG., 91 WINTHROP TROPHY, 297 WISCONSIN: Social centers, 272; University of, 272 WOMEN AND WOMEN'S CLUBS: Aid in wider use, 169, 188, 189, 190, 191-194, 196; Brockton, Mass., 140; Buf- falo, N. Y., 174; Chicago, 111., 135; Cincinnati, O., 139; Cleveland, O., 137; Detroit, Mich, 172, 173; Harrisburg, Pa., 174; Lex- ington, Mass., 174; Med- ford, Mass., 138; Milwaukee, Wis., 137, 138; Montclair, N. J., 174; Philadelphia, Pa., 174; Pittsburgh, Pa., 135- 137, 165, 173 WOMEN'S Civic CLUBS, 261 WORCESTER, MASS. : Evening drawing school, 27; Vaca- tion schools, 139 WORKERS' EDUCATIONAL ASSO- CIATION, ENG., 95 WYCKOFF HEIGHTS TAXPAYERS' ASSOCIATION, 348, 351 YOUNG AMERICA CLUB, 222 ZUEBLIN, CHARLES, 259 ZITTAU,GERMANY : Trade schools, 72 423 THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY WILL INCREASE TO SO CENTS ON THE FOURTH DAY AND TO $1.OO ON THE SEVENTH DAY OVERDUE. APR 30 1934 AUG 1 _^H- LD 21-100m-7,'33 YB 05449 i. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY