THE NEW By RICHARD LYDEKKER, B.A., KG.S., RZ.S. and R. BOWDLER SHARPE, H. A. MACPHERSON, F. O. PICKARD-CAM- BR1DGE, W. R. OG1LVIE GRANT, C. J. GAHAN, F. A. BATHER, EDGAR A. SMITH, R. I. POCOCK, M. BERNARD, H. BERNARD AND R. KIRKPATRICK. With Introductions, by ERNEST SETON-THOMPSON NATURALIST AND ARTIST, AUTHOR OF " WILD ANIMALS I HAVE KNOWN," ETC. JOEL A. ALLEN CURATOR OF AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Illustrated with SEVENTY-TWO COLORED PLATES AND TWENTY-ONE HUNDRED ENGRAVINGS VOLUME NEW YORK MERRILL & BAKER PUBLISHERS BIOLOGY R^ G COPYRIGHT, 1901, BY THE SAALFIELD PUBLISHING COMPANY CONTENTS MAMMALS CHAPTER XVI. CARNIVORES, continued. PAGE BEARS (Ursidce). General Characteristics Distribution The Typical Bears (Ursus) Polar Bear Brown Bear Crowther's Bear Grizzly Bear American Black Bear Himalayan Black Bear Spectacled Bear Malayan Bear Extinct Cave- Bear The Sloth-Bear (Melursus) The Parti-Colored Bear (^luropus) Ex- tinct Bear-like Genera, ............ 591 CHAPTER XVII. CARNIVORES, continued. THE RACCOON TRIBE (Procyonidce). Distinctive Features of Raccoons Their Peculiar Distribution The Panda (^fZlurus) Raccoons (Procyon) Habits Crab- Eating Raccoon Cacomixles (Bassaris) Coatis (Nasua) The Kinkajou ( Cerco- Icptcs}, ............... 623 CHAPTER XVIII. CARNIVORES, continued. THE WEASEL TRIBE (Mustelidfe) Characteristics and Distribution Tayra and Grison (Galictis) Martens, Polecats, and Weasels (Mustela) Pine-Marten Beech- Marten Sable American Marten Fisher Marten Indian Marten Polecat Sarmatian Polecat Black-Footed Polecat Ferret Weasel" Stoat or Ermine Other Species Extinct Forms Mink Its Fur in Commerce Siberian Mink South- African Weasel (Pacilogale) Glutton or Wolverene (Gulo) The Skunks ( Mephitis andConcpatus) Common Skunk Long-Tailed Skunk Lesser Skunk White-Backed Skunk Fossil Skunks The Cape Polecat (Ictonyx) Ferret- Badgers (Helictis) Ratels ( Mcllivora) Fossil Species The American Badger (Taxidea) Common Badger (Meles) The Malayan Badger (Mydans) The Sand- Badger (A rctonyx) Otters (Lutrd) European Otter Habits Tame Otters Otter Hunting North-American Otter Brazilian Otter Feline Otter Smooth Indian Otter Hairy-Nosed Otter Clawless Otter African Otter Spotted- Necked Otter Extinct Otters The Sea-Otter (Latax), . . 635 CHAPTER XIX. CARNIVORES, concluded EARED SEALS, WALRUSKS, AND SEALS (Otariidce, Tricheckidce and Phocidce). Distinctive Characteristics of the Group The Eared Seals (OtariidtE} Habits Hair-Seals and Fur-Seals Southern Sea-Lion Distribution and Habits Northern Sea-Lion Distribution Californian Sea-Lion Hooker's Sea-Lion Australian Hair-Seal The Northern Sea-Bear Seal Rockeries Southern Fur-Seals South- American Fur-Seal Cape Fur-SealNew Zealand Fur-Seal The Walrus (Tricftcclius) The True, or Earless Seals (Pfiocidte) Their Distinctive Features, Distribution, and Habits The Gray Seal (Halichccrus) Common and Greenland Seals (Phoca) (v) sift- 248633 vi CONTENTS PAGE Allied Species The Monk-Seal (Monachus) West-Indian Seal The Leopard- Seal (Ogmorhinus) Crab-Eating Seal (Lobodon) Weddell's Seal (Leptonychotes) Ross's Seal (Ommatophoca) Crested Seal (Cystophora) Elephant-Seal (Mac- rorJiinus) Seal Hunting The Primitive Carnivores, ...... 692 CHAPTER XX. THE UNGULATES, OR HOOFED MAMMALS, Order Ungulata. THE HOLLOW-HORNED RUMINANTS (Bovida) Characteristics of Ungulates Their Feet Odd-Toed and Even-Toed Groups Structure of Teeth Characteristics Size Horns Distribution Hollow-Horned Ruminants Even-Toed Ungulates Oxen (Bos) Characteristics, Distribution, Habits, and Specialization Aurochs and Domestic Oxen Domestication Park Cattle Chillingham Cattle Cadzow Cattle Chartley Cattle Other Herds Shetland Cattle Highland Breed Welsh Breed Kerry Breed Polled Angus Galloways Polled Suffolk Alder- neys and Jerseys Ayrshire Devons Herefords Longhorns Shorthorns Continental Breeds Indian Cattle American and Australian Cattle Humped Cattle Galla Cattle Extinct Species The Gaur The Gayal The Banteng The Yak European Bison The American Bison Extinct Bison The Cape Buffalo Short-Horned Buffalo Extinct Forms The Indian Buffalo Fossil Indian Species The Tamarao The Anoa The Musk Ox (Ovzbos) Its Distri- bution and Habits Sheep (Ovis) Their Characteristics and Distribution Ameri- can and Kamchatkan Wild. Sheep The Mongolian and Tibetan Argalis The Pamir Wild Sheep The Urial or Sha Armenian and Cyprian Sheep The Mouflon Domestic Sheep Flat-Tailed Sheep Shetland Breed Scotch Breeds Welsh Sheep Irish Breeds Heath Breed Cheviots Norfolk Breed Moor Breeds Southdowns Dorsets Merino and Long-Woolled Breeds The Bharal Barbary Sheep The Goats (Capra) Their Characteristics and Distribution Caucasian Wild Goats, or Tur Pallas's Tur Caucasian Tur Severtzow's Tur Spanish Wild Goat Persian Wild Goat Domestic Goats Angora Breed Kashmir Goat Syrian Goat Egyptian Goat Sudan Goat Feral Goats Ibex Alpine Ibex Himalayan Ibex- Arabian Ibex Abyssinian Ibex The Mark- hoor TheTahrand Nilgiri Wild Goat (Hemitragus} The Gorals (Cemas) The Serows (Nemorluedus) The Takin (Budorcas) Rocky- Mountain Goat (Haplo- ceros) The Chamois (Rupicapra) Eland (Or/as) Characteristics and Distribu tion of Antelopes Size, Distribution, and Habits of Eland Derbian Eland Kudu (Strepsiceros) Common and Lesser Kudu Harnessed Antelopes ( Trag- e.laphus) Bongo Nyala West-African Harnessed Antelope Nakong Guib The Nylghau (BoselapJtus) The Addax (Addax) Oryx (Oryx) Gemsbok Beisa East- African Oryx Beatrix Antelope Sabre-Horned Antelope Extinct Forms Sable Antelope and Roan Antelope (Hippotragus) Blaubok Baker's Antelope Extinct Species, ........ .... 741 CHAPTER XXI. UNGULATES, continued. THE HOLLOW-HORNED RUMINANTS, continued. The Gazelles (Gazella] Springbok Dorcas Gazelle Indian Gazelle Persian Gazelle Grant's Gazelle Thomson's Gazelle Other Species Clarke's Antelope (Ammodorcas) Gerenuk (Litho- cranius) Chiru, or Tibetan Antelope (Pantholops} The Saiga (Saiga) Palas (^Epyceros) Lesser Pala Angola Pala Black Buck (Antilope) Rietbok (Cervicapra) Water Buck, Lichi, etc. (Cobus) Sing-Sing Puku Rheeboc(Pe- lea) Klipspringer (Oreotragus) Steinbocks (Nanotragus) Oribi Grysbok Salt's Antelope (Neotragus) Duikerbok ( Ccphalopfius) Red Buck Blue Buck Zebra- Antelope Wood-Antelope Four-Horned Antelope ( Tetraceros) Wilde- CONTENTS vii PAGE beests (Connochaetes) Hartbeests, Blesbok, and Bontebok (Bubalis) Titel Hartbeest Cooke's Hartbeest Konze Herota Korrigum Sassaby * Blesbok Extinct Species, ... ......... 877 CHAPTER XXII. UNGULATES, continued. THE PRONGBUCK (Antilocapridcz), AND THE GIRAFFE (Giraffidce}. The Prongbuck (Antilocapra) Shedding and Renewal of Horns Habits Hunting Extinct Forms The Giraffe (Giraffa) Distribution Habits Hunting Extinct Mam- mals allied to the Giraffe Samothere Sivathere, . . .... 913 CHAPTER XXIII. UNGULATES, continued. THE DEER TRIBE (Cervida). Nature and Growth of Antlers Other Characteristics The Red- Deer Group (Cervus elaphus, etc.) Characteristics and Habits of Red Deer Allied Species Hangul Shou Maral Wapiti The Japanese-Deer Group ( C. sika, etc.) Manchurian Deer Dybowski's Deer Formosan Deer Caspian Deer Indian Spotted Deer, or Chital (C. axis) The Sambur Group (C. un icolor, etc.) Allied Species Hog-Deer The Swamp-Deer Group (C. duvauceli, etc.) Schomburgk's Deer Eld's Deer David's Deer(C. davidianus) Fallow- Deer Group ( C. dama, etc.) Persian Fallow Deer Extinct Irish Deer The Muntjacs (Cervulus) The Tufted Deer (Elaphodus) The Reindeer (Rangifer) Caribou The Elk or Moose (Alces) Distribution Habits Hunting The Roe- deer (Capreolus) Tartarian Roe Chinese Water Deer (Hydropotes) The American Deer (Cariacus) Characteristics of Their Antlers Brockets Costa Rica Deer Guemals Pampas Deer Marsh Deer Virginian Deer Naked- Eared Deer Mule-Deer Black-Tailed Deer The Pudu Deer (Pudua) The Musk Deer (Moschus), ............ 926 CHAPTER XXIV. UNGULATES, continued. CHEVROTAINS AND CAMELS (Tragulida and Camelidcz). The Chevrotains True Chevrotains (Tragulus} Water Chevrotain (Dorcatherium}^ Camels and Llamas Their Distinctive Characteristics The Camels (Camelus) Arabian Camel Its Various Breeds Bactrian Camel The Llamas (Lama) Vicuna Guanaco Llama Alpaca Extinct Camel-like Ungulates, ...... 986 CHAPTER XXV. UNGULATES, continued. THE PIG-LIKE UNGULATES, PIGS, PECCARIES, AND HIPPOPOTAMI. The Pigs (Suidtz) The True Pigs (Sus) European and Indian Wild Boars Andaman Pig Pygmy Hog Malayan Pigs Domestic Swine European Breeds Masked Swine Bush Pigs Extinct Pigs The Babiroussa (Babiroiissa) Its Remarkable Tusks The Wart Hogs (Phacochcerus) The Peccaries (Dicofylidce) Extinct Types Hippopotami (Hippopofamidte) Common Hippopotamus Its Distribution and Habits Hunting The Pygmy Hippopotamus Extinct Species, . . . 1007 CHAPTER XXVI. UNGULATES, continued. TAPIRS, RHINOCEROSES, AND HORSES. Characteristics of Odd-Toed Ungulates The Tapirs (Tapiridce) Characteristics and Distribution Malayan Tapir American Tapirs Habits Hunting The Rhinoceroses (Rhinocerotida;) Characteristics Teeth Horns Habits The Asiatic Rhinoceroses Indian Rhinoceros Javan Rhinoceros Allied Extinct Species Sumatran Species African Rhinoc- viii CONTENTS PAGE eroses Common African Species Size of Horns Habits Hunting Burchell's Rhinoceros Holmwood's Rhinoceros Extinct Rhinoceroses The Horse Tribe (Equidce) Characteristics Specialization (Equus) Nomenclature of Limbs Indications of Age The Horse Its Distribution Tarpan Prejevalski's Horse Domestication In America In Australia Barbs and Arabs Arab Levant and Persian Horses English Race Horse Hunters, etc. Leaping Powers American Trotter Shetland, and other Ponies Cart Horses Shire Horse Clydesdale Suffolk Punch Foreign Breeds The Zebras True Zebra Burchell's Zebra Grdvy's Zebra Quagga The Asses Asiatic Wild Ass Varieties, Distribution, and Habits African Wild Ass Domestic Ass Mule Fossil Horses Other Extinct Odd-Toed Ungulates Ancestry of the Horse Palae- otheres and Lophiodons Titanotheres and Chalicotheres Palseosyops, . . 1041 CHAPTER XXVII. UNGULATES, concluded. KYRACES, ELEPHANTS, ETC. Characteristics of Foot in the Elephants and Their Allies The Hyraces (Hyracoidea) Characteristics of the Procaviidce Distribution Abyssinian Hyraces CapeHyrax Syrian Hyrax Tree Hyraces Elephants(/V0- boscidea) Characteristics of the Elephantidce The Skull and Teeth Habits Indian Elephant Distribution Habits Breeding Elephant Shooting Modes of Capture Value and Uses of Elephants The Mammoth The African Elephant Distribution Habits Hunting Mode of Capture Extinct Elephants Sut- ledje Elephant Narbada Elephant Straight-Tusked Elephant Pygmy Species Southern Elephant Stegodont Elephants The Mastodons The Dinothere Short-Footed Ungulates (Amblypoda) The Macrauchenia and Its Allies (Litopterna\ The Astrapotheres and Their Kin (Asirapotheria) The Toxodonts ( Toxodontia) , 1106 CHAPTER XXVIIL MANATEES AND DUGONGS, Order SIRENIA. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GROUP. Mode of Life Distribution Classification Manatees (Manatus) Distribution and Number of Species Habits The Dugong (Halicore) Distribution Habits Northern Sea-Cow (Rhytina} Distribution and Habits Extermination Tertiary Sirenians, ...... "55 1165 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS COLORED PLATES THE EUROPEAN BISON, WHITE-NOSED COATI, . EUROPEAN OTTER, HOOKER'S SEA-LION, LEOPARD-SEAL, . BHARAL, . DORCAS GAZELLE, SOUTH-AFRICAN GIRAFFES, FALLOW DEER, . INDIAN RHINOCEROS, . ZEBRA, AFRICAN ELEPHANT, . FACING PAGE Frontispiece 632 683 697 734 821 877 920 95i 1051 1093 "33 FULL PAGE PLATES POLAR BEARS AND THEIR PREY, THE GRIZZLY BEAR, .... SLOTH-BEARS IN A FOREST GLADE, . A FAMILY PARTY OF SOUTHERN SEA-LIONS, WILD CATTLE OF C&.DZOW PARK, DOMESTIC YAK, .... ALPINE IBEX, ..... CHAMOIS AT BAY, .... MALE AND FEMALE KUDU, GROUP OF AFRICAN ANTELOPES, A FAMILY OF RED DEER, ARABIAN CAMEL, .... A FAMILY OF EUROPEAN WILD SWINE, INDIAN ELEPHANT, .... THE HAUNT OF THE AFRICAN ELEPHANT, SKELETON OF TOXODON, PAGE 597 605 616 694 755 773 835 852 861 906 93i 993 1010 1119 "35 1152 TEXT ENGRAVINGS Brown Bears on the March, Skeleton of Bear, . Polar Bear Climbing a Floe, The Brown Bear, . Head of Brown Bear, The American Black Bear, 59 2 595 599 600 607 The Himalayan Black Bear, The Malayan Bear, Skull of Cave-Bear, The Parti-Colored Bear, . Jaw of Arctothere, Molar Teeth of Hysenarctus, PAGE 609 612 614 620 621 622 (ix) LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE Palate of the Cacomixle, . . 623 The Panda, . . . .625 Skeleton of Raccoon, . . . 627 The Common Raccoon, . . . 628 The Cacomixle, .... 630 The Kinkajou, .... 633 Skeleton of Weasel, . . . 635 The Tayra, . . . . .637 The Pine-Marten, .... 640 The Beech-Marten, . . . 642 The Sable, . . . . -644 Skeleton of Polecat, . . .648 The Polecat, . . . -649 The Ferret, .... 650 The Weasel, . . . .652 The Stoat, or Ermine, in Winter Dress, 654 European Mink, .... 657 The Glutton, or Wolverene, . . 661 White-Backed Skunk, . . .666 The Cape Polecat, . . .669 The Cape Ratel, . . . .671 Palate of Fossil Indian Ratel, . . 672 Skeleton of Badger, . . . 674 The Common Badger, . . . 675 The Malayan Badger, . . . 678 Palate of C lawless Otter, . . .681 Skeleton of Otter, . . .682 Tooth of Extinct Otter, . . .687 The Sea-Otter, . . . .688 Northern Sea-Lion, . . . 700 Head of Californian Sea-Lion, . . 702 Northern Sea- Bear, . . . 705 Skeleton of Walrus, . . . 713 Head of Walrus, .... 714 Walruses on the Ice, . . . 715 Flippers of Ringed Seal, . . . 721 Skeleton of Seal, .... 725 Common Seal, .... 726 Greenland Seal, .... 727 Seals Swimming, .... 729 Skull of Leopard-Seal, . . . 732 Crested Seal, .... 734 Teeth of Elephant-Seal, . . . 735 Bones of Wrist and Foot of Coryphodon, 742 Bones of the Left Wrist and Foot of Titanothere, .... 742 Bones of Left Fore-Foot of Three-Toed and Four-Toed Horse-like Animals, . 743 Bones of Foot of Horse and Deer, . 744 Teeth of Nylghau and Merycopotamus, 745 Teeth of Four-Horned Antelope, . 748 Skeleton of European Bison, . . 748 Skull of Swayne's Hartbeest, . . 749 Skull of Aurochs, .... 752 Durham Shorthorn, . . . 756 PAGE Friburg Bull, .... 759 Dutch Cow, .... 761 Skull of Galla Ox, . . . .762 Indian Humped Bull, . . . 763 Galla Bull, ..... 764 Bull Gaur, . . . . 766 Cow Gayal, .... 770 The Banteng, .... 771 Skull of Domestic Yak, . . . 775 American Bison, .... 780 Head of Bull Bison, . . -783 Cape Buffalo, .... 788 Short-Horned Buffalo, . . . 790 Congo Variety of Buffalo, . . 792 Indian Buffalo, .... 793 The Anoa, ..... 796 The Musk Ox, . . . 798 Head of Bull Musk Ox, . . -799 Musk Oxen at Bay, . . . 800 Skeleton of Mouflon, . . . 801 Bones of Foot of Sheep, . . . 802 Skull of Kamchatkan Wild Sheep, . 803 American Wild Sheep, or Bighorn, . 804 Head of Kamchatkan Wild Sheep, . 805 Skull and Horns of Tibetan Argali, . 807 Pamir Wild Sheep, . . . 810 Skull and Horns of Pamir Sheep, . 811 Head of Cyprian Sheep, . . . 814 The Mouflon, . . . .815 Black-Headed Sheep, . . . 817 Head of Merino Ram, . . . 819 Barbary Sheep, .... 822 Skeleton of Ibex, .... 824 Horns of Pallas's Tur, . . . 825 Spanish Wild Goat, . . .827 Persian Wild Goat, . . . 829 Angora Goat, .... 832 Head of Himalayan Ibex, . . 837 Arabian Ibex, .... 838 The Markhoor, Cabul Variety, . . 840 Head of Pir-Panjal Markhoor, . . 842 The Himalayan Tahr, . . . , 844 The Goral, . . . . .846 Horns of Himalayan Serow, . . 848 Skull and Horns of Takin, . . 849 The Chamois, .... 851 The Leap of the Chamois, . . 854 Head of Bull Eland, . . -855 Skeleton of the Addax, . . .856 The Eland, . . . . .857 Head of Kudu, . . . .860 Head of West-African Harnessed Ante- lope, ..... 863 Male and Female Guib, . . . 864 The Nylghau, . . . .866 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XI PAGE The Addax, . . . .868 Head of Gemsbok, . . .869 The Beisa, . . . . . 870 Sabre-Horned Antelope, . . 871 Sable Antelope and Roan Antelope, . 873 Head of Fringe-Eared Oryx, etc., . 874 Head of Sable Antelope, . . . 876 A " Trek " of Springbok, . . 877 Head of Grant's Gazelle, . .878 The Springbok, .... 879 Dorcas Gazelle, .... 880 Skull of Indian Gazelle, . . .881 Horns of Thomson's Gazelle, . . 882 Head of Clarke's Antelope, . . 883 Head and Neck of the Gerenuk, . . 884 Head of Chiru, . . . .885 The Saiga, . . . .886 Head of Pala, . . . .887 Male and Female Black Buck, . . 888 Skull of Black Buck, . . .889 Head of Water Buck, . . . 892 The Puku, ... . 893 Male and Female Klipspringer, . . 895 TheOribi, . . . . .896 The Duikerbok, . . . .898 Male and Female Four-Horned Antelopes, 899 Skull of Four-Horned Antelope, . . 900 White-Tailed Wildebeest, . . 902 Blue Wildebeest, .... 903 Wildebeests curveting roun'd a Wagon, . 904 Hartbeests, . * . . . . 905 Skull and Horns of Cooke's Hartbeest, . 908 Head of Swayne's Hartbeest, . . 909 Head of Hunter's Hartbeest, . . 910 Head of Korrigum or Senegal Antelope, 911 Group of Prongbuck, . . . 914 Head of Prongbuck, with newly-growing Horns, ..... 916 Giraffes at a Pool, .... 919 Skeleton of Giraffe, . . . 920 South-African Giraffe, . . . 922 Skull of Samothere, . . . 925 Skull of Sivathere, . . . 925 Skeleton of Male Red Deer, . . 926 Head of Red Deer with New Antlers in the " Velvet," . . .927 Left Antlers of Asiatic Deer, . 928 Antler of Red Deer, . . . 930 Red Deer at a Pool, . . . 933 Wapiti Chased by Wolves, . . 936 Antlers of Spotted Deer, Swamp Deer, and Sambur, . . . . 941 Indian Spotted Deer, . . . 942 The Sambur, .... 944 Head of Schomburgk's Deer, . . 948 Antlers of Irish Deer, , , . . 952 The Indian Muntjac, . . 953 Head of Hairy-Fronted Muntjac, . 955 Michie's Deer, .... 956 Bones of Foot of Roebuck, . . 957 Foot of Reindeer, .... 958 Reindeer, ..... 959 Foot of Elk, . . . -963 A Family of Elk, . . . -965 A Moose Yard, .... 967 Male and Female Roedeer, . . 970 Skull of Chinese Water Deer, . . 971 Antlers of Marsh, Virginian, and Mule- Deer, . . 973 The Red Brocket, . . . -974 Pampas Deer, .... 976 Virginian Deer, .... 978 Virginian Deer Swimming, . . 980 Head of Mule-Deer, . . . 981 Head and Shoulders of Pudu Deer, . 983 Male and Female Musk Deer, . . 984 Bones and Foot of Chevrotains, . . 987 The Smaller Malayan Chevrotain, . 988 Skeleton of Arabian Camel, . . 990 Bones of Camel's Foot, . . 991 Water Cells in Camel's Stomach, . 991 The Bactrian Camel, . . . 997 A Drove of Vicunas, . . . 1000 The Llama, .... 1003 The Alpaca, ' . . . . 1005 Skeleton of Wild Boar, , . . 1007 Molar Teeth of Extinct Pig-like Animals, 1008 Bones of Foot of -Pig, . . . 1009 Skull of Bearded Pig, . . . 1009 Molar Tooth of Pig, . . . ion A "Sounder" of Wild Swine, . . 1013 Berkshire Pig, .... 1014 Harrison Pig, .... 1016 Dwarf Chinese Pig, . . . 1018 Masked Japanese Pig, . . 1020 The Red Bush Pig, . . .1021 The Babiroussa, . . 1023 Skull of Babiroussa, . 1024 ^Elian's Wart Hog, . . 1025 Head of Pallas's Wart Hog, . 1026 The Collared Peccary and Young, . 1029 Skeleton of Hippopotamus, . 1031 A Family Party of Hippopotami, . 1033 Hippopotami at Home, . . 1037 Skeleton of Malayan Tapir, . 1041 Bones of Foot of Rhinoceros, . . 1042 Teeth of the Anchithere, . . 1042 Malayan Tapir, . 1045 American Tapir, . . . 1047 Teeth of Rhinoceroses, . . .1051 Xll LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Indian Rhinoceros in Zoological Gar- dens, ... . 1053 The Indian Rhinoceros, . . . 1055 The Sumatran Rhinoceros, . . 1058 The Common African Rhinoceros, . 1060 Head of Common African Rhinoceros, . 1061 Burchell's Rhinoceros, . . . 1067 Head of Burchell's Rhinoceros, . . 1069 Skull of Extinct Rhinoceros, . . 1071 Teeth of Anchithere, Horse, and Hip- parion, ..... 1075 Skull of Three-Toed Horse, . . 1076 Shire Stallion, .... 1077 Teeth of the Horse at Various Ages, . 1078 English Race Horse (" Doncaster "), . 1080 The Tarpan, .... 1082 English Race Horse ("Bend-Or"), . 1084 German Half-Bred Horse, . . 1086 Percheron Cart Horse, . . . 1089 Clydesdale Mare, .... 1090 Burchell's Zebra, .... 1092 Grevy's Zebra, .... 1094 The Quagga, . . . 1095 Tibetan Wild Ass, or Kiang, . . 1096 A Troop of Persian Wild Asses, . . 1098 The African Wild Asses, . . . 1099 Domestic Ass, .... noi Cheek-Teeth of Palaeothere, . . 1104 PAGE Molar Teeth of Palaeosyops, . . 1104 Foot Bones of Elephant, . . . 006 Skeleton of Cape Hyrax, . . . 1 107 Foot Bones of Hyrax, . . . 1108 Syrian Hyrax, .... 1109 Tree Hyrax, . . . . mo Skeleton of Indian Elephant, . . 1112 Molar Teeth of Mammoth, . .1114 Molar Tooth of Cliffs Elephant, . . 1115 Molar Tooth of Elephant, . .1117 Indian Elephant Drinking, . . 1121 Indian Elephants Enjoying Themselves, 1123 Indian Elephant Kneeling, . . 1128 Elephant Carrying Timber, . . 1130 Molar Tooth of African Elephant, . 1133 Last Molar Teeth of Mastodons, . . 1144 Molars of Mastodons, . . . 1145 Skull of Dinothere, . . . 1147 Cheek-Teeth of Uintathere, . . 1147 Palate of Homalodontothere, . . 1149 Lower Jaw of Astrapothere, . . 1150 Skull of Nesodon, .... 1153 Skeleton of Manatee, . . . 1156 The American Manatee, . . . 1158 The Dugong, .... 1161 Skeleton of Northern Sea-Cow, . . 1162 Head of the African Elephant, . . 1164 LIBRARY OF NATURAL HISTORY VOL. II ^Sgr*t -i Tttomof A^tehMK. tuA^t^^a^f. MAMMALS CHAPTER XVI CARNIVORES continued BEARS Family THE bears are so different in appearance from the other Carnivores that no one could fail to recognize their representatives at a glance, or would hesitate to admit that, so far at least as living forms are concerned, they are entitled to constitute a group by themselves. The number of species included in the family is comparatively small ; and the whole of them are arranged under three genera, two of which are represented by but a single species each. . Bears differ from the Carnivores hitherto noticed in an important feature con- nected with the hinder part of the under surface of the skull. Thus, whereas in all the preceding families the so-called tympanic bulla at the base of the internal por- tion of the ear forms an inflated bladder-like capsule, which is generally divided (590 592 THE CARNIVORES internally by a larger or smaller bony partition, in the bears (as well as in the fol- lowing families of the raccoons and weasels), this bulla is depressed and flattened, and has no trace of an internal partition ; and its mouth, leading to the external ear, is produced much further outward. There are also other characteristics connected with the skull which help to distinguish the bears and the members of the next two families from the Carnivores hitherto described, but the bulla alone is sufficient to determine at a glance to which of the two groups any given skull may belong, and the reader will accordingly perceive how important is this apparently insignificant feature. The degree of inflation of the bulla of the skull is doubtless associated with the acuteness of hearing ; the Carnivores with the longest ears, like the African fen- nee, having larger bullae than their nearest relatives. Bears are notoriously defi- cient in the sense of hearing ; and it is probable that raccoons and weasels are also SKELETON OE BEAR. less acute in this respect than cats, civets, and dogs. Although many of the Carni- vores with inflated bullae have, like the cats, comparatively small ears, it is note- worthy that no bear, raccoon or weasel has these organs of very large dimensions, while in some instances they are almost absent. The members of the bear family are characterized by their heavy and massive build, their thick limbs, extremely short tails, and the presence of five toes, armed with powerful claws, on both the fore and hind-feet. Moreover, when walking, the whole sole of the foot is applied to the ground, in the old-fashioned plantigrade man- ner, so that the impression of a bear's foot presents a considerable superficial resem- blance to that of a man. The claws of the feet are incapable of being retracted, and are well adapted for digging, although no members of the family are in the habit of constructing burrows for themselves after the manner of foxes. In most bears the BEARS 593 under surface of the sole of the foot is completely devoid of hair ; and the ordinary gait is peculiarly slow and measured. All the bears are of considerable bodily size, while some of them are among the largest of the Carnivores. The living species of bears, with which alone we are at present dealing, are likewise readily distinguished from other Carnivores by the characteristics of their teeth. They agree with the true dogs in having two pairs of molars in the upper jaw, and three pairs in the lower jaw, but the shape of these teeth is different ; the crowns being nearly flat, very broad, and mainly adapted for grinding, while those of the upper jaw are either oblong or square, and, therefore, quite unlike the triangular upper molars of the dogs. Then, again, the flesh-tooth in both jaws is very unlike that of ordinary Carnivores; the upper one being small, and having no inner root, and its crown looking much like that of a molar. Similarly, the lower flesh-tooth (which we may once more remind our readers is the first of the molar series, while the upper one is a premolar) is very like the two molars by which it is followed. A third distinctive feature is that the first three premolar teeth in both jaws are exceedingly minute, and are very generally shed when their owner attains maturity. The peculiar characteristics of the cheek-teeth clearly indicate that the food of the bears is very different from that of other Carnivores ; and, as a matter of fact, the majority of these animals subsist on a vegetable diet, or on insects, to a much greater extent than on flesh. From their evident descent (as we shall fully indicate later on) from dog-like animals, it is clear that the peculiar features of the dentition of the bears have been acquired ; and we may hence regard these animals, so far as their teeth are "concerned, as highly specialized. The loss of the tail is likewise a specialized feature. On the other hand, in their retention of the old-fashioned planti- grade mode of walking, bears are much more generalized animals than dogs, and in this respect retain a feature which was present in the ancestral types from which the two groups have sprung. The whole of the members of the family have a marked resemblance to one another, so that the characteristics by which the different species are distinguished are apparently somewhat trivial. Their fur is coarse, and generally long, thick, and shaggy, although it may be short and thinner in some of the tropical species. Ex- cept for the not unfrequent presence of a white collar round the throat, the fur is nearly always of one color, and generally some shade of either brown or black. It is true, indeed, that the Polar bear is a marked exception to this rule, but in this case the color of the fur has evidently been specially modified to suit the natural surroundings. The great prevalence of black among the bears is a feature un- known in any other group of Carnivores, and is, indeed, rare among Mammals in general. Bears have a wide geographical distribution, occuring throughout Europe, Asia, and North America, while one species inhabits the South-American Andes, and^mother the African Atlas. South, however, of the Atlas not a single member of the family is to be found throughout the length and breadth of Africa. Geolog- ically speaking, true bears, that is to say, those which can be referred to the genera now living, are of comparatively recent origin, none being yet known before the 38 594 THE CARNIVORES Pliocene, while it is not till the succeeding period that they became abundant. This late appearance of the bears is in harmony with what we have already stated as to their specialization. With the exception of the Indian sloth-bear and a peculiar species from Tibet, all the bears are now generally included in the genus Ursus. This genus is charac- terized by having a total of forty-two teeth (when all the small premolars are pres- ent), of which f are incisors, \ canines, \ premolars, and f molars on each side. In the adults, as already mentioned, several or all of the three anterior premolars may disappear from both jaws, although the one immediately behind the tusk may remain longer than the others. The molar teeth are characterized by their crowns- being longer than they are broad ; the last upper molar being a much elongated tooth, while in the lower jaw the last molar is shorter than the tooth which pre- cedes it. As a rule, the soles of the feet are naked ; and the claws are of moderate length and curvature. As in the other genera of the family, the ears are small, erect, and thickly haired ; and the pupil of the eye is round. The geographical distribution of the genus is coextensive with that of the family. THE POLAR BEAR (Urszis maritimus) Not only does the Polar bear differ from all other bears by its pure white coat, but it is also distinguished from the greater number of white Mammals in that this color is retained at all seasons of the year, instead of being exchanged in summer for a darker tint. In addition to this distinctive white coloration, the Polar bear is further characterized by the relatively-small size and extremely-elongated form of its head, as well as by the molar teeth being relatively smaller and narrower than in the other members of the genus. Moreover, the soles of the feet have a certain amount of hair growing upon them, doubtless for the purpose of enabling the ani- mal to have a better hold upon the ice. The neck is also longer than in other bears, while the ears are unusually small. It is one of the largest members of the group, not unfrequently attaining a length of close upon nine feet, although exact measurements from recently-killed wild examples are but few. The Polar bear is found throughout the Arctic regions of both Hemispheres. It is now rare on the southwestern coasts of Spitzbergen and Nova Zembla,. where the ice almost completely disappears in summer. According to Baron Nor- denskjold, it is more common on the northern parts of those islands, where there i& perpetual ice. On the north coasts of America and Asia it is found everywhere, and becomes more and more numerous as we travel northward. In Labrador, where it is now very rare, there is evidence that it was once comparatively common, and Dr. A. S. Packard is of opinion that its range originally extended even down into the State of Maine. The white bears seen by John Cabot in the year 1497 are THE POLAR BEAR 595 believed by Dr. Packard to have been observed in Newfoundland ; while further evidence of their former existence is afforded by the observations of Corte Real in 1500 and Cartier in 1534. The bones found in the shell mounds of Goose island, Casco bay, Maine, are considered to belong to the present species, and thereby in- dicate the probability of its range having extended thus far south. In Southern Labrador the Polar bear seems to be totally extinct, the last specimen that was seen on the shores of the strait of Belle Isle (dividing Labrador from Newfoundland) having been killed in the year 1849. In Labrador the range of the white bear overlaps that of the American black bear. Baron Nordenskjold states that the Polar bear generally lives on such coasts and islands as are surrounded by ice, while it is often found on the ice fields far out at sea, which form its best hunting grounds. In re- Habits POI^AR BEAR CUMBING A FI.OE. gard to the numbers of these animals, he states that the Norwegian ' ' vessels from Tromsoe brought home in 1868 twenty, in 1869 fifty-three, in 1870 ninety-eight, in 1871 seventy-four, and in 1873 thirty-three bears. It may be inferred from this that the Norwegian walrus hunters kill yearly on an average at least a hundred bears. It is remarkable that in this large number a pregnant female or one with newly-born young is never found. The female bear appears to keep herself well concealed during the time she is pregnant, perhaps in some ice-hole in the interior of the country." In Nordenskj old's opinion it is not certain that the Polar bear hibernates, although there are several circumstances indicating that it probably does so. In the most northerly wintering-stations of ships, the bears almost completely disappear 596 THE CARNIVORES during the long Arctic winter, while there are cases where some of them have been found concealed in holes. It will, however, be obvious that this disappearance from the more northern regions in winter may well be due to migration, while the individ- uals found in concealment may all have been females, which are known to bring forth their young beneath the snow. Other writers, as we shall see below, definitely state that in many districts males and young cubs are to be found in active life throughout the winter ; but it is quite possible that in the most northern portions of its range both sexes may habitually hibernate. According to Eskimo accounts, the female bears are very fat at the time they retire beneath the snow. During their ex- tended excursions after prey, the male and the female, the latter generally attended by one or two good-sized young ones, keep each other company. More are seldom seen together, unless at places where many carcasses of walruses, seals, or white whales are lying. Formerly the sight of a bear created dismay in Arctic travelers, but now the walrus hunters do not hesitate a moment to attack, lance in hand, con- siderable numbers of bears. The bear's principal food consists of the seal and wal- rus. There is not the least doubt, continues Nordenskjold, " that, along with flesh, the bear also eats such vegetable substances, as seaweed, grass, and lichens. The flesh of the bear, if he is not too old or has not recently eaten putrid seal flesh, is very eatable, being intermediate in taste between pork and beef. The flesh of the young bear is white, and resembles veal." In addition to seals and walruses, the Polar bear also subsists on the flesh of certain Cetaceans, and our illustration represents a female carrying a porpoise in her mouth. In some districts the Polar bear con- sumes a large quantity of fish, more especially salmon. It is in summer that it resorts to a vegetable diet. From the personal experience of Dr. Robert Brown it appears that the accounts given by the older voyagers of the ferocity of the Polar bear were considerably ex- aggerated, although at close quarters it is a formidable foe. ' ' Unlike its congeners, ' ' writes Dr. Brown, " it does not hug but bites ; and it will not eat its prey till it is dead, playing with it like a cat with a mouse. I have known several men who, while sitting watching or skinning seals, have had its rough hands laid on their shoulders. Their only chance then has been to feign being dead, and manage to shoot it while the bear was sitting at a distance watching its intended victim. Though Eskimos are often seen who have been scared by it, yet, unless attacked or rendered fierce by hunger, it rarely attacks man. During our last trip to Green- land none of our party saw one ; indeed, they are only killed in the vicinity of Disco bay during the winter or spring, when they have either come or drifted south on ice floes." Much the same account is given by Mr. G. S. M'Tavish, of the Hudson's Bay Company, who states that in his district it is only occasionally that a Polar bear will attack first. This observer writes that ' ' although the Polar bear is synonymously termed the white bear, they are not all white. Those that are most likely to run away from the hunter are pure white. From the smallest to the largest size these \vhite bears are timid, and I have noticed, on their being killed, they are the fattest. The most dangerous and aggressive kinds, other than females with cubs, is the large-sized male bear of a yellowish, dirty color. . . . Another sort is the POLAR BEARS AND THEIR PREY. (597) 598 THE CARNIVORES small-sized bear, of both sexes, neither white nor yellow, but rather dirty looking ; and these are likewise the best runners. Mr. M'Tavish proceeds to observe that the pace of a Polar bear is considerable, and that he has known instances where they have overtaken and killed Indians in a fair chase. Their fleetness depends, however, largely upon their condition at the time, the thinner they are the greater being their speed. The weight of a large and fat Polar bear is estimated at from 600 to 700 pounds. In the Hudson's Bay district, the female bears proceed to their winter hiber- nation for the purpose of producing their young at the end of September or begin- ning of October, and return in March, April or May. The hibernation always takes place some distance inland, and the males accompany their consorts to their resting places, after which they come back to the coast, where they hunt throughout the winter. Generally two cubs are produced at a birth, but the number may be some- times diminished to one, and occasionally increased to three. Mr. M'Tavish gives the following account of the manner in which these bears capture their prey: "The bear having discovered a seal asleep on an icefloe, immediately slips into the water if he himself be on another ice floe. Diving, he swims under the water for a distance, then reappears and takes observa- tions. Alternately diving and swimming, he approaches close to his victim. Before his final disappearance he seems to measure the intervening distance, and when he next appears it is alongside of the seal. Then, either getting on the ice, or pouncing upon the seal as it tries to escape, he secures it. Both seals and por- poises are not unfrequently met with, bearing the marks of a bear's claws upon their backs." THE BROWN BEAR (Ursus arctos] With the brown bear we come to the typical and best-known representative of the entire group. It is distinguished from the Polar bear, not only by its color, but also by its larger and wider head, in which the muzzle is shorter, the profile more curved, and the ears larger. The neck is also shorter and thicker, the teeth are relatively larger, and the soles of the feet are entirely naked. Owing to variations in color several so-called species, such as the Syrian bear and the snow or isabelline bear of the Himalayas, have been established on what are now known to be merely local races of the brown bear. Including all these varieties, the brown bear may be described as one of the largest species of the genus, furnished in winter with long, thick, shaggy, and soft fur, beneath which is a thick and woolly under-fur ; the ears being of moderate size, and covered with long hair. The color is generally some shade of brown, although subject to great individual and local variation. In general it varies from very pale to very dark brown, some of the lighter varieties being almost cream colored in certain parts ; while, in a variety from Eastern Tibet, the fur on the back and limbs is blackish, with tawny tips to the hairs. In other varieties, again, the fur has a silvery tinge, owing to the hairs being tipped with white ; while some Specimens have a decidedly reddish tinge. In the light Himalayan variety the color THE BROWN BEAR 599 deepens with age, this darkening being generally most developed in old males, which are frequently indistinguishable in color from the ordinary European form. Young animals have a white collar on the throat, traces of which may frequently be observed in the newly-grown fur of the adult. The summer coat is much shorter and thinner than the winter dress, and is likewise darker in color. The claws are of moderate length, and their color varies from brown to nearly white. THE BROWN BEAR. (One-sixteenth natural size.) Mr. Blanford suggests that the generally lighter color of the Himalayan brown Dear may be due to the circumstance that it inhabits more open ground than the European variety. To this I would add that the silver-barked birch, among which these bears are so often found, suggests another reason why their color should so generally be comparatively light, as among such surroundings a dark animal would be conspicuous. Moreover, it may be that the snow lies longer on the ground in 6oo THE CARNIVORES the regions frequented by the Himalayan bear than is the case in the habitats of the European bear. It should also be mentioned that Himalayan bears are decidedly lighter when they issue from their winter sleeping places than they are later on in the season ; and as it is then that they are generally shot, on account of the fur being in its best condition, the prevalent idea as to their extremely light color has been intensified. Although, as in the other species of the genus, the males are considerably larger than the females, there is nearly as much variation in point of size in the brown bear as there is in respect of color. As a rule, the Himalayan race is smaller than the European. Exact measurements of large European examples are not easy to obtain, but it is probable that some specimens reach at least eight feet from the tip of the snout to the root of the tail. In the Himalayas the same dimensions are not generally more than five or five and one-half feet, but large specimens reach about seven feet, and one has been recorded of seven and one-half feet in length and three feet five inches in height. The tail does not measure more than two or three inches. The brown bear may be regarded as an inhabitant of almost the whole of Eu- rope, and of Asia northward of the Himalayas ; its former range extending from the British Islands and Spain in the west to Kamchatka in the east. Bears are still found in the Pyrenees, and are comparatively common in many parts of Scandinavia, Germany, Hungary, and Russia. At what date they finally disappeared from the British Islands cannot be determined. Mr. Harting, however, adduces evidence to show that bears were still in existence in the eighth century; and, in the time of Edward the Confessor, the town of Norwich had to furnish annually one bear to the king. There is no decisive historical evidence as to the exist- ence of bears in Ireland, but remains have been found there in various parts, which in all proba- bility belonged to the pres- ent species, although they have been referred by some to the American grizzly bear. In the Himalayas the brown bear is found from Afghanistan in the west to Nipal in the east. It does not occur in the more or less Tibetan districts of Zanskar and Ladakh, but extends up the valley of the Indus as far as Gilgit. In the mountains around the valley of Kashmir brown bears were once very numerous, but HEAD OK BROWN BEAR. (From Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1867.) THE BROWN BEAR 601 they have, I believe, become much rarer now. When I first knewoKashmir, in 1874, it was no uncommon event in the Tilel district to see several at once, when standing on a mountain ridge ; but eight years later I saw but very few the whole time I was there, and it would be interesting to hear the reports of sportsmen who have recently visited Tilel and the neighboring valleys. In Kamchatka, Dr. Guillemard, in the Cruise of the "Marchesa," speaks of brown bears being extremely plentiful and attaining large dimensions. The country near the rivers is there covered by an almost impenetrable jungle, but the bears manage to force themselves through it without much apparent difficulty. "Just inside the forest," writes Dr. Guillemard, " at a distance of six or eight feet from the river bank, is a firmly-trodden path some two feet in width, made entirely by these ani- mals ; and, as these paths are to be found without a break on either side of the river in its whole course through the forest country a distance of about five hundred miles it will be understood why bears' skins do not command a very high price in the peninsula." The brown bear is a comparatively unsociable animal, though not unfrequently a male and a female may be seen together, while the females are, of course, accom- panied by their cubs. Their favorite haunts are wooded, hilly districts. In the Himalayas the brown bear is to be found at considerable elevations, in the spring haunting the higher birch and deodar forests, while in the late summer it ascends to the open grass lands above, where it may not unfrequently be seen grazing close to herds of ponits and flocks of sheep or goats. Both, in these regions, and the colder districts of Europe and Northern Asia, these bears regularly hibernate ; and while they are extremely fat at the commencement of their winter sleep, they are reduced to little more than skin and bone at its conclusion. In the Himalayas the winter's sleep generally lasts till April or May, but varies somewhat in different dis- tricts according to the date at which the snow melts. The cubs are generally born during the latter part of the hibernation, and accompany the mother when she issues forth. They are almost invariably two in number, and are born blind and naked, in which condition they remain for about four weeks. In Europe the brown bear not unfrequently kills and eats other animals, its depredations extending, it is said, even to cattle and ponies ; but in the Himalayas, except when carcasses come in its way, the animal is almost exclusively an insect and vegetable feeder. There it is fond of the numerous species of bulbous plants growing on the mountains around Kashmir ; but it will also descend into the orchards of the upland villages to plunder the crops of mulberries, apricots, walnuts, etc. On such occasions it ascends the trees readily enough, although it is by no means such a good climber as its cousin the Himalayan black bear. It seeks for insects by overturning stones. In Kamchatka the brown bear is stated to subsist for a certain portion of the year upon salmon ; Dr. Guillemard observing that in some places he met with nu- merous half-eaten fish left by the bears, and adding that he found in almost every in- stance that " though the head had been crunched up, it had, together with the tail and intestines, invariably been rejected. We were never fortunate enough to wit- ness these animals fishing, but we were told that they walk slowly into the water, where it is about eighteen inches in depth, and, facing down stream, motionless 602 THE CARNIVORES await their prey. The incautious fish, swimming heedlessly up the river, doubtless mistakes the bear's broad legs for a rock or tree stump, and those who have once witnessed the almost lightning-like rapidity of a stroke from Bruin's fore-paws will have no difficulty whatever in completing the drama for themselves. The fish is apparently always taken to the bank to be devoured for even the small ones do not appear to be eaten whole. ' ' As we have already had occasion to mention, the brown bear, in common with its relatives, is dull of hearing, and it is also by no means well gifted as regards sight. What it lacks in these respects it makes up for, however, in the great development of the sense of smell. Owing to this deficiency of hearing, a bear can be approached from the leeward to within a very short distance, and the writer has shot many in the Himalayas with a smooth-bore gun. Care should, however, always be taken to approach a bear from above, as a wounded one rolling down hill on to the hunter is a very dangerous object. If two bears are feeding together and one is hit by a bullet, it will not unfrequently turn fiercely on its companion, apparently under the impression that the latter was its aggressor. In the Himalayas, at least, the brown bear never voluntarily attacks human beings if unmolested, and it rarely turns on them when wounded, unless brought to close quarters. There is but little doubt that the current stories of the fierceness of the European bear are exaggerated. In regard to the proverbial " hug," Mr. Blanford observes that the story is appar- ently devoid of foundation. "A bear, from its anatomical structure, strikes round with its paws, as if grasping, and the blow of its powerful arm drives its claws into the body of its victim, causing -terrible wounds, but the idea of its ' hugging ' appears not confirmed by recent observers." At the best, a brown bear is uncouth and grotesque in its movements, and in no case is this more marked than when one of these animals suddenly catches a whiff of human scent, and starts off with a loud "whuff" at a shambling gallop. In spite, however, of their uncouthness, bears can travel pretty quickly when so minded, although their usual gait is deliberate in the extreme. The brown bear is easily tamed, and both in Europe and India is the companion of itinerant showmen, by whom it is taught to dance, and go through various other performances. Formerly native English bears, and subsequently foreign ones im- ported for the purpose, were kept in England for the purpose of " bear-baiting," and the office of Master of the Bears was a Crown post, while every nobleman kept his "bearward." Bear-baiting was continued up to the reign of Queen Anne. The well-known bear garden at Berne in Switzerland is doubtless a survival of the mediaeval establishments kept up for this so-called sport. As showing the age to which the brown bear may live, it is worthy of mention that one kept in the gar- den at Berne survived for upward of forty-seven years while it is on record that a female gave birth to young at the age of thirty-one years. From the beauty of their color, and the length of their fur, the skins of the Himalayan brown bear, if procured early in the spring, are held in high estimation. We have already mentioned that fossil remains, referred to the brown bear, have been found in the superficial deposits of Ireland; and it may be added that bones and teeth undoubtedly belonging to this species occur in the fens, brick earths, THE GRIZZLY BEAR 603 .and caverns of England, as well as the corresponding deposits^-of the continent. Whether the remains from the same formations that have been assigned to the grizzly bear do not likewise belong to the European species, may, we think, be a subject of doubt. Crowther's bear (U. crowtheri) is a closely-allied if not identical form from the Atlas mountains, and it is probable that a bear exists in Morocco and Algeria which may be either the common brown bear or Crowther's bear, if the latter be distinct. THE GRIZZLY BEAR ( Ursus horribilis ) The gigantic grizzly bear of Western North America, whose range extends from Alaska through the Rocky mountains to Mexico, is genenally regarded as a species distinct from the brown bear, although there can be no question but that the two are very closely related. There are, however, some slight differences in the characteristics of the skull and cheek-teeth in the two forms, while the grizzly bear is generally larger in size, grayer in color, and has shorter and less valuable fur than its European cousin. Some of the brown bears from Northern Asia are probably nearly or quite as large as an average-sized grizzly ; while the difference in this respect between brown bears from different districts indicates that mere size cannot be a matter of much im- portance. All the American hunters recognize several varieties of grayish bears, respectively known as the "silver-tip," "roach-back," and the "barren-ground" bear, in addition to the typical grizzly; and Dr. Hart Merriam is disposed to regard the last as a distinct species, under the name of U. richardsoni. We prefer, how- ever, to adopt the view that there are but two distinct species of North- American bears. Occasionally, as in the case of the black bear, there may be cinnamon-colored varieties of the grizzly ; and it was at one time considered that such yellow-haired bears constituted a distinct species the so-called cinnamon bear ( U. cinnamomus), but it is now known that such coloration is merely a phase common to each species. Dr. W. S. Rainsford states, indeed, that he has seen a female grizzly with three cubs, of which one was almost yellow, a second nearly black, and the third gray. The so- called barren-ground bear of Arctic America is stated to come very close to the European brown bear, and may prove to be the connecting link between it and the typical grizzly. Whether, then, the grizzly bear be rightly regarded as a distinct species, or whether it be merely a well-marked race of the brown bear, we take it to include all the gray and brownish bears of North America. In addition to this wide range in color, there are considerable differences in form. Thus, some have a well- marked hump at the back of the head, extending to the shoulders, which is totally wanting in others ; while the width of the sole of the hind-foot is subject to great individual variation. Dimensions ^ e accounts of the size and weight of the grizzly are very discrepant, and have probably been much exaggerated; most of the measurements having been taken from pegged-out skins, while the weights are mere estimates. It is said that the finest grizzlies hail from Alaska, but it is probable that those formerly inhabiting the Pacific flanks of the high Sierra Nevada were really 604 THE CARNIVORES the largest. These, however, have been nearly or completely exterminated by the shepherds, who poisoned them on account of the ravages they committed on their flocks. These Sierra grizzlies are reported to have been of the enormous weight of i, 800 pounds ; and there seems no doubt that instances of i ,400 and 1,200 have been reached. Dr. Rainsford states, however, that he estimates the weight of the largest grizzly with which he was acquainted at 1,000 pounds; and gives 900 pounds as that of an unusually large male. The skin of this animal measured nine feet three inches from the nose to the hind-foot, when pegged out without undue stretching ; another skin measured in the same manner reached ten feet, while a third was still larger. Unfortunately the length from the nose to the root of the tail is not given, but it is probable that in large specimens this must be close on nine feet. We have already seen that the grizzly is found from Alaska to Mex- ico ; and it may be added that from east to west it reaches from the Coast Range across the Sierra Nevada to the Big Horn mountains in Wyoming, and some distance on to the plains at its foot. Its distribution is, however, becoming gradually more and more restricted. In 1868 bears were to be found on the plains for several hundred miles eastward of the Big Horn, but they are now rare even in that range itself. Similarly, they have greatly diminished in numbers in Southern California and the parallel valleys of the Coast hills further to the northward. That the grizzly bear will eat flesh whenever it has the chance is ad- mitted by all, but there is some decrepancy of opinion as to whether it ever kills large Mammals for the sake of their flesh. Thus, while Sir Samuel Baker denies that they ever do so, Dr. Rainsford relates a case where his hunter saw a grizzly attack one of three bisons. Wherever wapiti are abundant there will grizzly bears be found. Failing meat, the} 7 , according to Dr. Rainsford, thrive on nuts, acorns, etc. ; "and," he says " the fattest grizzles I ever killed were those that had been feeding for weeks on the pine-nuts that the mountain squirrels stow away in such great plenty in the little colonies on the upper hillsides. Where the nut pine is plen- tiful, you may also expect to find bears." The grizzly is a bad climber, and seldom resorts to trees at all. Its strength is, however, prodigious. One has been seen to break the neck of a tall bison with a single blow of its paw; another has bodily car- ried off, over very rough ground, a male wapiti, weighing nearly 1,000 pounds. Sir Samuel Baker states that a frequent practice in bear shooting is to kill sev- eral deer, and leave them untouched on the ground as baits. "At daybreak on the following morning the hunter visits his baits, and he will probably find that the bears have been extremely busy during the night in scratching a hole somewhat like a shallow grave or trench, in which they have rolled the carcass ; they have then cov- ered it with earth and grass, and in many cases the bears may be discovered either in the act of working, or, having completed their labor, they may be found lying down asleep, half gorged with flesh." In the northern part of its range the grizzly bear hibernates, but it is probable that in the south it remains active throughout the winter. When it first comes out in the spring, it has a habit of standing upright against a pine or other tree and scoring its bark with its claws. Very incorrect conclusions have been drawn from these marks as to the size of the bears by which they were made, it having been THE GRIZZLY BEAR. (605) 606 THE CARNIVORES forgotten that the animals were generally standing on from three to five feet of snow when they thus scored the trees. The grizzly has been accredited with extreme ferocity toward man ; but, grant- ing that its great strength and extreme tenacity of life make it a most formidable foe when brought to close quarters, Dr. Rainsford is inclined to think that there has been considerable exaggeration on this point, and many of the stories of these ani- mals charging is due to their rolling downhill upon the hunter who has incautiously fired at them from below instead of from above. The same writer also considers that at the present day Winchester repeaters and other rifles have established in the grizzly a wholesome dread of man, and that it is now altogether a more cautious and timid animal than formerly. THE AMERICAN BLACK BEAR (Ursus americanus) The American black bear is a well-marked species, differing from the brown bear much more decidedly than does the grizzly. It is a smaller animal than the brown bear, from which it differs by the proportionately smaller head, the sharper muzzle, and more regularly convex profile of the face, as well as by the much shorter hind-foot. In length this bear seldom exceeds five feet. The fur is less shaggy, and altogether smoother and more glossy than that of either the brown or grizzly bear; being typically of a uniformly black color, except on the muzzle, where it be- comes tawny yellow. Occasionally, however, specimens are found with white mar- gins to the lips and white streaks on the chest. The smaller size of the hind-feet of this species renders its trail distinguishable at a glance from that of the grizzly bear. As already mentioned, the so-called cinnamon bear may be a pale-colored variety, either of the black bear or of the grizzly. The black bear formerly had a wider distribution than the grizzly, extending from Labrador and Canada to the Gulf of Mexico, and from the east to the west coasts of the continent. Colonel D. G. Alexander states that it frequented "all the mountains, the thickets of the vast plains, and every creek, river, and bay or bot- tom. At the present day its habitat is, however, confined to some portions of the various ranges of mountains south of the St. Lawrence river, the Great Lakes, and, east of the Mississippi river, to parts of those portions of the Mississippi river and its tributaries which are yet unsettled, and where it has been able to escape destruc- tion from hunters. Some few are yet found in the dense thickets of the Colorado, Trinity, and Brazor rivers." As with other bears, the male of this epecies is much larger than the female ; when full grown the former, according to Colonel Alexander, will stand about three feet in height, and will often turn the scale at from 600 to 700- pounds. According to Dr. Merriam, the food of the American black bear "consists not only of mice and other small Mammals, turtles, frogs and fish, but also, and largely of ants and their eggs, bees and their honey, cherries, blackberries, rasp- berries, blueberries, and various other fruits, vegetables, and roots. He sometimes makes devastating raids upon the barnyard, slaying and devouring sheep, calves, THE AMERICAN BLACK BEAR 607 pigs, and poultry." Another writer, Mr. C. C.Ward, states, as thefresult of his own experience, that the black bear "is growing more carnivorous and discontented with a diet of herbs. Assuredly, he is growing bolder. He is also developing a propen- sity to destroy more than he can eat, and it is not improbable that his posterity may cease to be frugi-carnivorous. It is fortunate that an animal of the strength and ferocity which he displays when aroused seldom attacks man. The formation of his powerful jaws and terrible canine teeth are well adapted to seize and hold his prey, and his molars are strong enough to crush the bones of an ox. His great strength, however, lies in his fore-arms and paws. His mode of attacking his prey is not to seize it with his teeth, but to strike terrific blows with his fore-paws. His weakness is AMERICAN BI,ACK: BEAR. (One-sixteenth natural size.) for pork, and to obtain it he will run any risk. When the farmers, after suffering severe losses at his hands, become unusually alert, he retires to the depths of the forest and solaces himself with a young moose, caribou, or deer. He seldom or never attacks a full-grown moose, but traces of desperate encounters, in which the cow-moose has battled for her offspring, are frequently met with in the woods." Dr. Merriam states that the black bears visit the Adirondacks from the wooded dis- tricts about twenty miles to the westward in Lewis county during the autumn, crossing a fertile and well-cultivated valley. They are good climbers, but, from their weight are unable to ascend to the tree tops or climb far out on the branches, although they will ascend straight stems for a considerable height after honey. They are also excellent swimmers, many being killed while swimming in the lakes. 608 THE CARNIVORES We likewise learn that, as a rule, the black bear hibernates, although its torpor is not deep, and the time of entering upon the winter repose depends upon the severity of the season and the amount of food supply. And it appears that the males will re- main active in any weather, so long as they can find abundance of food. The female is, however, compelled to seek shelter sooner on account of her prospective family. The winter den of a black bear is generally a partial excavation under the upturned roots of a fallen tree, or beneath a pile of logs, with perhaps a few bushes and leaves scraped together by way of a bed, while to the first snowstorm is left the task of completing the roof and filling the remaining chinks. Not unfrequently the den is a great hole or cave dug into the side of a knoll, and generally under some standing tree, whose roots serve as side posts to the entrance. The amount of labor bestowed upon it depends upon the length of time the bear expects to hiber- nate. If the prospects point toward a severe winter, and there is a scarcity of food, they "den" early, and take pains to make a comfortable nest; but when they stay out late, and then "den " in a hurry, they do not take the trouble to fix up their nests at all. At such times they simply crawl into any convenient shelter without gathering so much as a branch of moss to soften their bed. Snow com- pletes the covering, and as their breath condenses and freezes into it an icy Wall begins to form, and increases in thickness and extent day by day till they are soon unable to escape, even if they would, and are obliged to remain in this icy cell till liberated by the sun in April or May. The young are born about January or February, and are usually two or three in number, although four have been found in a litter. It is believed that the female does not give birth to young oftener than every alternate year. The black bear was pursued by the early colonists of North America by ' ' still- hunting ' ' ; and it appears that this requires much more care than is the case with other bears, since the American black bear is very acute of hearing. A favorite expedient was to watch a herd of pigs in the cultivated districts, upon which the bears would make a raid, and could then be shot with ease. Mr. C. C. Ward w r rites that ' ' sometimes the black bear is hunted with dogs trained for the purpose. The dogs are not taught to seize the bear, but to nip his heels, yelp around him, and retard his progress, until the hunters come up and dispatch him with their rifles. Common yelping curs possessed of the requisite pluck are best adapted for the pur- pose. Large dogs with sufficient courage to seize a bear would have but a small chance with him, for he could disable them with one blow of his powerful paw. Another way of hunting is to track Bruin to his winter den, and either smoke or dig him out, when he may be dispatched by a blow on the head with the pole of an axe as he struggles out. Various kinds of traps, set-guns, and dead-falls are also employed against him. ' ' THE HIMALAYAN BLACK BEAR {Ursus torquatus) With the black bear of the Himalayas we come to a very different animal, readily recognized by the white chevron or inverted cresent on the chest, from which it takes its scientific title, and which stands out in marked contrast to the THE HIMALAYAN BLACK BEAR 609 jetty black of the remainder of the fur. This species does not attaia by any means such large dimensions as the brown or grizzly bear ; the length from the tip of the snout to the root of the tail usually averaging in Nipalese examples from about four and three-fourths to five and one-half feet, although one specimen has been recorded THE HIMALAYAN BLACK BEAR. (One-sixteenth natural size.) measuring six feet five inches. We think, however, that bears of this species from Kashmir would average somewhat larger. The fur is very different to that of either of the three preceding species, being short and smooth, without any under-fur, and becoming very thin in summer. In 39 610 THE CARNIVORES winter the hair on the shoulders becomes considerably elongated, so as to produce the appearance of a kind of hump. The ears are relatively large, and covered with rather long hair. In addition to the white mark on the chest, the chin is also white ; while the upper lip may be whitish, and the nose reddish brown. The claws are comparatively short, and black in color. Mr. Blanford gives the weight of full-grown males as varying from two hun- dred to two hundred and fifty pounds ; but these weights are probably exceeded in autumn, when the Himalayan black bear becomes enormously fat, the thickness of the fat on the haunches reaching several inches. At such seasons the skin never very valuable becomes utterly useless, from being saturated with oil. The skull of this bear has a relatively-shorter muzzle and a longer portion behind the eye than that of the brown bear ; from which it may also be distinguished by the slight de- velopment of the bony ridge along the middle of the brain case. The Himalayan black bear is an exclusively forest-dwelling animal, except in Baluchistan, where it inhabits open country. Its range extends from about the eastern portion of Persia through Baluchistan into Afghanistan and Sind ; and thence through the forest-clad portions of the Himalayas to Assam, and so on into Burma. The species is also found in the south of China and the islands of Hainan and Formosa, but in L,adakh and Tibet it is quite unknown. The black bear may be found in the Himalayas, from near the foot to elevations of some ten thousand to twelve thousand feet in summer. It is, perhaps, most abundant in the dense chestnut and oak woods surrounding the valley of Kashmir, whence it issues forth at night to make extensive depredations on the crops and orchards of the natives. Although, according to General Kinloch, the black bear will at times take to killing sheep, cattle, and ponies, it is, as a rule, a vegetable feeder. In the forest the chief food of these bears consists of chestnuts,, acorns, roots, berries, ants, and honey. Whenever they raid the cultivated grounds, they consume maize, rice, buckwheat, and a number of fruits, such as mulberries, apples, pears, apricots, and walnuts the latter being especial favorites. The gourds and melons which are cultivated in many of the gardens in Kashmir are also sometimes eaten by these bears. So numerous are they that it is by no means unfrequent to see two, three, or even more, up a single fruit tree in some of the less frequented districts of Kashmir. They are, indeed, excellent climbers ; and their short claws are much better adapted for this purpose than for digging. When in the forests they may be stalked during the day with comparative ease, and will generally be found feeding on roots or wild fruits. This sport, as the writer can state from personal experience, is by no means very exciting, as they are easy of approach. Another method of hunting is by beating small patches of jungle on the hills from below upward when the bears will be driven out. They very frequently go in family parties, comprising the two parents, the two youngest cubs, and one or perhaps two cubs of the preceding litter. When driven from the forest, the whole party emerges in single file, headed by the male, who is followed by the female, after which come the cubs according to seniority. They always break cover with the usual deliberate and sober pace characteristic of all bears, and when the party comprises five or six individuals the sight is ludicrous in the extreme. THE HIMALAYAN BLACK BEAR 611 The black bear, which is known in Kashmir as the Siyah Haput (in contradis- tinction to the Kunea Haput, or bro\vn bear), does not thoroughly hibernate, but, according to General Kinloch, " appears to pass a great deal of his time during the cold months in a state of semitorpor; occasionally wandering out in search of food, when an unusually mild day thaws his blood and awakens him to the sense of hunger. ' ' Like its similarly-colored relative in North America, the black Himalayan bear is sharper in hearing than the brown bear, and it may be that the black color- ation has some connection with the greater development of this sense. In disposition the black bear is decidedly more savage and prone to attack man than the brown bear ; and in the fruit season a large number of natives are annually badly mauled in Kashmir by its talons. It must be confessed, however, that these wounds are largely due to the foolhardiness of the natives themselves, who will not hesitate to drive off the bears from their crops and orchards when armed solely with a stick. In addition to its skill as a climber this bear is a good swimmer. The young, which are nearly always two in number, are born in the spring. The small variety from Baluchistan, locally known as the Mam, and originally described as a distinct species, under the name of U. gedrosi- anus, is chiefly interesting as inhabiting a country of such a totally different nature from the typical habitat of the present species. The Japanese black bear (/. faponicus) is so nearly allied to the Himalayan species that it is regarded by some writers merely as a local variety, mainly characterized by the white mark on the throat being less distinct. It appears to be very common in Northern Japan, where it is of great importance to the Ainos, who use its skin for clothing, its flesh for food, and the stones in its gall bladder for medicine. Aino houses are commonly decorated with the skulls of these bears ; and, according to Miss Bird, "the Ainos may be distinguished as bear worshipers, and their great religious festival, or saturnalia, as the Festival of the Bear. ... In all Aino houses, specially near the chief's house, there are several tall poles with the fleshless skull of a bear on the top of each ; and in most there is also a large cage, made gridiron fashion of stout timbers, and raised two or three feet from the ground. At the present time such cages contain young but well-grown bears, captured when quite small in the early spring. After the capture the bear cub is introduced into a dwelling house, generally that of the chief or subchief, when it is suckled by a woman, and played with by the children, till it grows too big and rough for domestic life, and is placed in a strong cage, in which it is fed and cared for, as I understand, till the autumn of the following year, when, being strong and w r ell grown, the Festival of the Bear is celebrated. The customs of this festival vary considerably, and the manner of the bear's death differs among the mountain and coast Ainos ; but everywhere there is a general gathering of the people, and it is the occasion of a great feast, accompanied by much sake, and a curious dance, in which men alone take part. Yells and shouts are used to excite the bear, and when he becomes much agitated a chief shoots him with an arrow, inflicting a slight wound which maddens him, on which the bars of the cage are raised, and he springs forth, very furious. At this stage the Ainos run upon it with various weapons, each one striving to inflict a wound, as it brings good luck to draw his blood. As soon as he falls down exhausted, his head 6l2 THE CARNIVORES is cut off, and the weapons with which he has been wounded are offered to it, and he is asked to avenge himself upon them. Afterward the carcass, amidst a frenzied uproar, is distributed among the people, and amidst feasting and riot the head, placed upon a pole, is worshiped, z. e., it receives libations of sakg, and the festival THE MALAYAN BEAR. (One-twelfth natural size. ) closes with general intoxication." In another part of the country the neck of the bear is broken by means of a pole placed across it, upon which a number of men bring their weight together. Somewhat similar customs used to take place in Nor- way when a brown bear was killed. THE EXTINCT CAVE- BEAR 613 The spectacled bear of the Peruvian Andes ( Ursus pinatus) , which i ? B is the sole representative of the family inhabiting South America, is a small-sized black species, which derives its name from the tawny rings or semicircles round the eyes, whereby a most grotesque appearance is communi- cated to the whole physiognomy. The jaws, cheeks, throat, and chest are white ; and the whole length of the animal is only about three and one-half feet. It has been generally considered that this bear is nearly related to the next species ; but, although specimens have been exhibited in the London Zoological Society's Gar- dens, little or no information exists as to its habits in the native state. The small black Malayan bear ( Ursus malayanus} is a very well- _ marked species, distinguished by its small and rounded ears, covered with short hair, its much elongated and almost prehensile tongue, its very short and wide molar teeth, and the shortness and breadth of the skull, in which the nose is but slightly produced. The claws are considerably curved, and pale in color. The fur of this species is very short and coarse, and is mostly black, although tending to brown in some parts ; the whole of the muzzle is paler, or whitish, and the light band on the chest varies from white to orange, and is subject to considerable diversity of form, sometimes extending as a streak on to the under part of the body. The general length of the head and body is only about four feet, and, according to Mr. Blauford, never exceeds four and one-half feet. A female mentioned by the same writer, although fully adult, had a length of only three and one-half feet, and did not weigh more than sixty pounds. This species is found in the Malay Peninsula, and the islands of Sumatra, Java, and Borneo, and also extends through Burma into the Garo hills in Northeastern India. Of its habits, Mr. Blanford states that little is known except in captivity. It is a purely forest animal, and an admirable climber. It is essentially frugivorous, but like other bears occasionally kills and eats Mammals and birds. It is said to be very fond of honey, and it probably devours insects and larvae. When caught young, it is generally easily tamed, and is usually gentle and amusing when in captivity. Its general pace is much quicker than that of other bears, and a specimen kept some years ago in the Zoological Gardens at Calcutta, used to pace up and down its cage with great rapidity, turning very suddenly ever} 7 time it came to the end of its track. A fragment of the jaw of an extinct bear, obtained from the gravels of the Nar- bada valley, in India, appears to indicate a more or less closely-allied species. THE EXTINCT CAVE-BEAR ( Ursus spelceus') No account of the typical bears would be complete without some reference to the great extinct cave-bear, of which the remains are found in such profusion in the caverns of Europe, and less commonly in the brick-earths and other superficial deposits. This gigantic species, of which the skull is represented in the annexed figure, was a contemporary of the mammoth and early human inhabitants of Europe. The skull is readily distinguished from that of all other species by the great prominence immediately above the eyes ; while the molar teeth are characterized 614 THE CARNIVORES SIDE-VIEW OF SKUU, OF CAVE-BEAR. by the extremely fine tuberculation of their crowns, in which, when unworn, the enamel has a kind of wavy pattern. The cave-bear, although it had a wide range in Europe, is unknown both in the extreme north and the extreme south of that continent; it is found in the British Isles as far north as Yorkshire, but it is not definitely known to occur in Ireland. The number of in- dividuals inhabiting Brixham cave, near Torquay, and the celebrated cavern of Gailen- reuth in Franconia, must have been prodigious, although it will be obvious that all of these did not exisit at one time. From its size, which exceeded that of the largest grizzly, as well as from its numbers, it must have been a formidable foe to the early hunters of Europe, armed only with flint hatchets and spears. In the earlier Pliocene deposits of Europe there occur the remains of the Etruscan bear ( U. arvemensis] , which was considerably inferior in size to the brown bear. The extinct Theobald's bear (U. theobaldi) from the Siwalik hills of Northern India, appears to have been a species closely connecting the typical bears with the one next on our list. THE SLOTH-BEAR Genus Melursus The well-known Indian sloth-bear (Melursus .ur sinus) , commonly known in its native country by the name of Bhalu, but by the Mahrattas termed the Aswal, differs so remarkably from all the other members of the family that it is generally regarded as forming a genus by itself. It differs from all the typical bears by having but two pairs of incisor or front teeth in the upper jaw, so that the total number of teeth is forty instead of forty-two. Moreover, all the cheek-teeth are much smaller in proportion to the size of the skull than in other bears, while the palate of the skull is deeply concave, instead of being nearly flat. The claws are also unusually large and powerful, and the snout and lower lip are much elongated and very mobile. The sloth-bear is, at best, but an ugly-looking animal, and is generally of smaller size and less bulk than the Himalayan black bear. It is covered with very long and coarse fur, which attains its greatest length on the shoulders. With the exception of the end of the muzzle being dirty gray, and of the white chevron on the chest, the color of the fur is black, but the long claws are white. As regards size, this species measures from about four and one-half feet to five feet eight inches in the length of the head and body, the tail generally measuring from four to five inches, exclusive of the hair ; the height at the shoulder varying from two feet two inches to about two feet nine inches. Large males may weigh as much THE SLOTH-BEAR 615 as 280 pounds, while there is one instance recorded of a specimen weighing as much as 320 pounds. The sloth-bear may be regarded as one of the most characteristic, and at the same time one of the commonest of the Mammals of India. It is found in Ceylon, and in the peninsula of India from Cape Comorin nearly to the foot of the Hima- layas. Mr. Blanford states that it ranges as far west as the province of Katiawar, and is also occasionally found in Cutch, while to the northward its range is prob- ably limited by the great Indian desert. It occurs in Northeastern Bengal, but how far its range extends in this direction is not fully ascertained, there being some doubt whether the large black bear found in the plains of Assam is this species or the Himalayan black bear. Within the last thirty or forty years it has been com- pletely exterminated from some parts of Bengal and the Deccan. Perhaps the best account of the habits of this bear is one drawn up by Mr. Blanford, partly from the results of his own observations and partly from those of others. It is there stated that these bears " are generally found solitary or in pairs, or three together ; in the latter case a female with two cubs, of- ten nearly or quite full grown. Occasionally four or five are met with in company. They inhabit bush and forest, jungle and hills, and are particularly fond of caves in the hot season and monsoon, and also when they have young. Throughout several parts of the peninsula of India there are numerous hills of a granitoid gneiss that weathers into huge loose rounded masses. These blocks remain piled on each other, and the great cavities beneath them are favorite resorts of bears, as in such places the heat of the sun, and some of the insects that are most troublesome in the mon- soon can be avoided. In the cold season, and at other times when no caves are avail- able, this animal passes the day in grass or bushes, or in holes in the banks of ra- vines. It roams in search of food at night, and near human habitations is hardly seen in the daytime ; but in wild tracts uninhabited by man, it may be found wan- dering about as late as eight or nine o'clock in the morning, and again an hour or even more before sunset in the afternoon. In wet or cloudy weather, as in the mon- soon, it will sometimes keep on the move all day. But the sloth-bear, although like most other Indian animals, shuns the midday sun, appears by no means so sensi- tive to heat as might be expected from its black fur, and appears far less reluctant to expose itself at noonday than is the tiger. I have seen a family of bears asleep at midday in May on a hillside in the sun. They had lain down in the shade of a small tree, but the shade had shifted without their being disturbed. It is scarcely necessary to observe that this bear does not hibernate. Owing to its long, shaggy, coarse fur, its peculiarly shaped head, its long mobile snout, and its short hind-legs, this is probably the most uncouth in appearance of all the bears, and its antics are as comical as its appearance. Its usual pace is a quick walk, but if alarmed or hurried it breaks into a clumsy gallop, so rough that when the animal is going away it looks almost as if propelled from behind and rolled over and over. It climbs over rocks well, and, like other bears, if alarmed or fired at on a steep hill- side, not unfrequently rolls head over heels down hill. It climbs trees, but slowly and heavily ; the unmistakable scratches left on the bark showing how often its feet have slipped back some inches before a firm hold was obtained." 6i6 THE CARNIVORES SI,OTH-BEARS IN A FOREST GLADE. THE SLOTH-BEAR 617 As might have been predicted from the small size and half-rudimentary condi- tion of its molar teeth, the food of the sloth-bear consists almost exclusively of fruits, flowers, and insects, together with honey. Its favorite fruits appear to be those of the ebony tree, the jujube-plum, several kinds of figs, and the long pods of the cas- sia. Whether grapes, as shown in our illustration, form also part of the diet of these bears, or whether this is merely a fancy on the part of the artist, we are unaware. During the months of February and March, in many parts of India, the beautiful fleshy-scarlet flowers of the mowha tree are nightly shed in great profusion, and form a rich feast for many denizens of the jungle, prominent among which is the sloth- bear, by whom these flowers are greatly relished. In addition to beetles and their larvae, as well as young bees and honey, the sloth-bear is also passionately fond of white ants or termites. On this point Colonel Tickell, as abridged by Dr. Jerdon, observes that ' ' the power of suction in this bear, as well as of propelling wind from its mouth, is very great. It is by this means it is enabled to procure its common food of white ants and larvae with ease. On arriving at an ant-hill, the bear scrapes away with the fore- feet. until he reaches the large combs at the bottom of the gal- leries. He then with violent puffs- dissipates the dust and crumbled particles of the nest, and sucks out the inhabitants of the comb by such forcible inhalations as to be heard at two hundred yards' distance or more. Large larvae are in this way sucked out from great depths under the soil. Where bears abound, their vicinity may be readily known by numbers of these uprooted ants' nests and excavations, in which the marks of their claws are plainly visible. They occasionally rob birds' nests and devour the eggs. . . . The sucking of the paw, accompanied by a drumming noise when at rest, and especially after meals, is common to all bears, and during the heat of the day they may often be heard humming and puffing far down in caverns and fissures of rocks. ' ' Like the fox-bats and the palm-civets, the sloth-bear will often visit the vessels hung on the palm trees for the sake of their juice, and is said to frequently become very drunk in consequence. Sugar cane is likewise a favorite dainty of these bears, which frequently do a large amount of damage to such crops. Although they gen- erally subsist entirely on vegetable substances and insects, it seems that they will occasionally eat flesh ; Sanderson mentioning an instance where one of them devoured the carcass of a recently-killed muntjac deer, the proof that the bear was the devourer beingafforded by the imprints of its feet in the wet soil. The same observer also mentions that he has known bears to gnaw the dry bones of cattle that have died in the jungle. With the exception of the puffing and humming noises already mentioned, the Indian sloth-bear is generally a silent animal. Mr. Blanford states, however, that " occasionally they make the most startling noise, whether connected with pairing or not I cannot say. I have only heard it in the beginning of the cold season, which is not their usual pairing time. They occasionally fight under fruit trees, but I think the noise then made is rather different." Like most other members of the family, the sloth-bear has the sense of hearing but poorly developed, and its eyesight is also far from good ; and hence it has a pe- culiarly comical way of peering about when it suspects intruders, as though it were shortsighted. From these deficiencies of sense it can be approached very closely from the leeward side. Its sense of smell, is, however, wonderfully acute, 6:8 . THE CARNIVORES and by its aid it is enabled to detect concealed supplies of honey, and also to scent out ants' nests when situated far below the ground. The number of cubs produced at a birth is, as by most bears, usually two, but it appears that there may sometimes be three. The young cubs are generally carried on the back of the female when the animals are on the move ; and the author last mentioned observes that it is an amusing sight to watch the cubs dismount at the feed- ing grounds, and scramble back to their seat at the first alarm. We are informed by Mr. Sanderson that the cubs are carried about in this manner till they are several months old and have attained the dimensions of a sheep-dog, and that when there is room for only one cub on the maternal back the other has perforce to walk by the side. In regard to their family life, Mr. Sanderson observes that these ' ' bears are ex- ceedingly affectionate animals among themselves, and are capable of being most thoroughly tamed when taken young. Either wild or tame they are very amusing in their ways, being exceedingly demonstrative and ridiculous. Though hard to kill, they are very soft as to their feelings, and make the most hideous outcries when shot at not only the wounded animal, but also its companions. It has fre- quently been stated by sportsmen that if a bear be wounded he immediately attacks his companions, thinking that they have caused his injuries. But I think this is not quite correct, at least in the majority of cases. I have observed that a wounded bear's companions generally rush to him to ascertain the cause of his grief, joining the while in his cries, when he, not being in the best of humors, lays hold of them, and a fight ensues, really brought about by the affectionate but ill-timed solicitude of his friends. ' ' In commenting upon the latter portion of this passage, Mr. Blanford supports the old view that the attack is made directly by the wounded animal ; and one in- stance is mentioned where he saw a female when wounded immediately commence an unprovoked attack upon her two half-grown cubs, which were severely cuffed. In another case, when two full-grown bears were both hit, they stood up and fought on their hind-legs, till one fell dead from the effects of the bullet. Although generally timid in their nature, sloth-bears will on rare occasions at- tack human beings without provocation, and when they do so, fighting both with teeth and talons, and inflicting terrible wounds, more especially on the head and face. These attacks generally occur when a bear is accidently stumbled upon by a native wandering in the jungle, and are then due more to timidity than to ferocity. Mr. Sanderson is of opinion that a bear, being a slow-witted animal, is more likely to attack in such a case than is a tiger or a leopard, which more rapidly collect their senses, and are thus less embarrassed by the sudden and unexpected encounter. Mr. Blanford states that when thus surprised a sloth-bear will sometimes merely knock a man over with its paws, although thereby inflicting severe wounds ; but on other occasions it seizes and holds in its paws its unfortunate victim, who is not released until bitten and clawed to death. Females with young, and occasionally solitary bears, will at times make unprovoked attacks of great ferocity. The idea that sloth- bears hug their victims is scouted by both writers. Sloth-bears are usually hunted in India either by driving them from cover with a line of beaters, or by the sportsman going to their caves or lairs among the rocks at daybreak, and shooting them as they return home from their nightly wanderings. THE PARTI-COLORED BEAR 619 Mr. Sanderson says that in the forests of Mysore he was in the ^habit of shooting bears by following them with trackers ; and that, as they seldom left off feeding be- fore nine in the morning, it was generally possible by starting at daybreak to come up with them before they had retired to rest for the day. If, however, the party did not succeed in this, the bears would generally be found lying asleep under the shade of a clump of bamboos, or a rock, as there were no caves in the district into which they could disappear. Elephants, it appears, have a great dislike to bears, and on this account, as well as from the rocky nature of the country generally inhabited by these animals, are but rarely employed in bear shooting. Mr. Sanderson was also in the habit of hunting bears with large dogs, and dispatching them when brought to bay with his hunting knife ; and in this exciting sport was very successful. Regarding the sport afforded by the sloth-bear, the same hunter observes that " bear shooting is one of the most entertaining of sports. Some sportsmen have spoken disparagingly of it, and I daresay sitting up half the night watching for a bear's return to his cave, and killing him without adventure, may be poor fun. . . . But bear shooting conducted on proper principles, with two or three bears afoot to- gether, lacks neither excitement nor amusement. It is not very dangerous sport, as the animal can be so easily seen, while he is not so active -as a tiger or a panther. -Still he is very tough, and to anyone who would value him for his demonstrations, he would appear sufficiently formidable. If a bear charges he can generally be killed without more ado by a shot in the head when within two paces. The belief that a bear rises on his hind-legs when near his adversary, and thus offers a shot at the horseshoe mark on his chest, is groundless. I have shot several bears within a few feet, and they were still coming on on all fours. No doubt when a bear reaches liis man he rises to claw and bite him, but not before." Jerdon states that in the extreme south of India, among certain hill tribes know as Polygars, sloth-bears used to be hunted with large dogs, and when brought to bay were attacked by the hunters with long poles smeared at the end with bird- lime. The birdlime caused the shaggy coat of the bears to become fixed to the end of the pole, so that the animals soon become firmly held. A single fragment of a bone of the fore-limb discovered in a cave in Madras proves that the sloth-bear has been an inhabitant of India since a period when several kinds of extinct Mammals flourished there. And the extinct Theobald's bear from the Siwalik hills, men- tioned on p. 26, serves to indicate that the sloth-bear is a specially-modified form derived from bears belonging to the typical genus, since the skull of that extinct species presents characteristics intermediate between those of ordinary bears and that of the sloth-bear. THE PARTI-COLORED BEAR Genus sEluropus A large number of the Mammals from the highlands of Tibet belong to types quite unlike those found in any other part of the world ; and in no case is this dissimilarity more marked than in the animal which may be termed the parti-colored bear {Ailuropus melanolcucus} . 62O THE CARNIVORES This strange animal, which has been known to European science only since the year 1869, is of the approximate dimensions of a small brown bear, and has a gen- eral bear-like aspect, although differing from all the other members of the family in its parti-colored coat. The fur is long and close, with a thick, woolly under-fur. The general color is white, but the eyes are surrounded with black rings, the small ears are also black, while the shoulders are marked by a transverse stripe of the same color gradually increasing in width as it approaches the fore-limbs, which are also entirely black, as are likewise the hind-limbs. This peculiar coloration com- municates a most extraordinary appearance to the creature ; and without knowing THE PARTI-COT.ORED BEAR. more of its natural surroundings it is difficult to imagine the object of such a star- ing contrast. The tail is extremely short, and the soles of the feet are hairy. In addition to these external characteristics, the parti-colored bear also presents some peculiar features in regard to the skull and teeth. Thus the skull is remark- able for the great width of the zygomatic arches and the enormous development of the longitudinal ridge on the upper surface of the brain case, both these features in- dicating greater power of jaw than has at present been found in any other member of the entire carnivorous order. Then, again, the teeth differ both in number and form from those of all the other Ursidae. Instead of the forty-two teeth, character- istic of the typical bears, the parti-colored bear has but forty teeth, all told ; the diminution in number being due to the absence of the first pair of premolar teeth in EXTINCT BEAR-LIKE GENERA 621 the lower jaw. As regards form, the molar teeth are distinguished from those of other bears by their shorter and wider crowns ; this being most marked in the first molar of the upper jaw, which is broader than it is long. The second upper molar tooth agrees, however, with the corresponding tooth of other bears in being longer than the one in front of it. The pattern formed by the tubercles on the crowns of these teeth is exceedingly complex, and approaches to that obtaining in the panda, among the raccoon family, to be noticed in the next chapter. The parti-colored bear is reported to inhabit the most inaccessible districts of Eastern Tibet, and to be of extremely rare occurrence. Unfortunately we are at present quite ignorant of its habits, although it is said to feed chiefly on roots and the young shoots of bamboos, and to be entirely herbivorous. EXTINCT BEAR-LIKE GENERA At the close of the preceding volume it has been mentioned, that, unlike as modern dogs and bears are to each other, yet both families are merely divergent branches from a common stock. In that passage we referred only to those extinct animals most nearly related to the modern dogs, and it was then shown that the so-called amphicyon of the Miocene and upper part of the Eocene period appeared to be a dog with one more pair of upper molar teeth than the true dogs, and ap- proaching the bears in its plantigrade feet. We have now to allude to the extinct genera more nearly allied to the modern bears. The first of these is a bear-like animal from the superficial deposits of South America, known as the arctothere. This animal, of which the left side of the palate is shown on a greatly-reduced scale in the accompanying figure, had the same number of teeth as the true bears. The upper molar teeth (the two on the right side of the figure) are, how- ever, relatively shorter and wider than in the latter, and the second is not greatly larger than the first. Then, again, the upper flesh-tooth (the third from the right in the figure) is much larger than in modern bears, and is thus more like the corresponding teeth of other Carnivores. Further, the upper arm bone, or humerus, has a perforation at its lower end, which is not found in any living dog or bear, although occurring in the extinct amphicyon. Another type is the so-called hyaenarctus, of which large species occur in the Siwalik hills of India and the Pliocene deposits of Europe, while smaller ones are found in the European Miocene strata ; the two upper molar teeth of one of the latter being shown in the woodcut on the next page. In these animals the upper molars (as in our illustration) were sometimes oblong, with the second not longer than the first; while in other cases they were more or less completely triangular THK LEFT HAT.F OF THE UPPER JAW OF THE ARCTO- THERE AN EXTINCT SOUTH-AMERICAN BEAR-LIKE ANIMAL. (Much reduced.) 622 THE CARNIVORES and thus but little different in form from the corresponding teeth of the dogs. The most important difference from the bears occurs, however, in the form of the flesh- tooth in both jaws ; these teeth being very similar to those of the dogs, and of a thoroughly carnivorous type. Whereas, however, the upper flesh-tooth of the dogs has but two lobes to its cutting blade, that of the hysenarctus had three such lobes. That the hysenarctus was a thoroughly carnivorous animal, there can be no reasonable doubt. Another Miocene Carnivore, known as the hernicyon, has still more dog-like teeth ; and the transition from this animal to the planti- grade and dog-like amphicyon is, therefore, scarcely more than a step, so that the passage from the dog-like bears to the bear-like dogs is practically complete. THE LEFT UPPER MOLAR TEETH OF A SMALL SPECIES OF ARCTUS. (After Koken.) CHAPTER XVII CARNIVORES continued THE RACCOON FAMILY Family PROCTONID^^ THE raccoons and their allies constitute a very small family of Carnivores, which, with the exception of one outlying and somewhat aberrant genus, are con- fined to America, and are very characteristic of the central and southern portions of that continent. Their nearest allies are the bears, with which they appear to be connected by the panda, of which the teeth present some resemblance to those of the parti-colored bear. The skull has the same essential characteristics as in the bears, and the accompanying illustration of the right half of the skull in one of the raccoons is intended to show the position of the tympanic bulla, and its general form and relations in the present family and in the two allied families of the bears and the weasles. The raccoons agree with the bears in their plantigrade feet (as is well exhibited in our figure of the panda), but differ in that they have only two, in place of three, molar teeth in the lower jaw. The upper molar teeth are, more- over (as shown in the accompanying figure), usually of the same general type as those of the dogs, having squared or triangular crowns, and being generally elongated in the transverse rather than in the antero-posterior direction ; while the second of these teeth is smaller, instead of larger, than the first. Moreover, the flesh-tooth in each jaw approaches the ordinary carnivorous type, and is thus very different from the corresponding tooth of the modern THE RIGH T HALF OF THE bears ; it has, however, three lobes to the blade, and a very PALATAL ASPECT OF large inner tubercular portion. The members of the raccoon family are all animals of , . The letters am. indicate the comparatively small size ; and they differ markedly in gen- entrance to the tympanic eral appearance from the bears in having well-developed bulla . which is the swelling ., . ,11 between that and the point tails, which may be of great length. Very generally the indicated by car. The other hair of the tail is marked by alternate dark and light rings. letters indicate the various foramina, etc. (After Sir W. The whole of these animals are good climbers, and they H. Flower, Proc. zooi. soc.) (623) THE SKULL OF THE CACOMISTLE. 624 THE CARNIVORES are generally of more or less exclusively nocturnal habits. It is noteworthy that, with the exception of one Old- World genus, no remains of this family have ever been discovered beyond the limits of the New World. THE PANDA Genus sElurus The curious animal represented in the accompanying illustration, and known as the panda {^Elurus fulgens, ) is one in regard to whose serial position there has been much diversity of opinion. It was at one time placed in the Bear family, next to the parti-colored bear ; while it has also been regarded as the representative of a distinct family by itself. Mr. Blanford has, however, come to the conclusion that its true position is in the raccoon family, and it is probable that this view will be pretty generally adopted in the future. The panda, or, as it is often called, the red cat-bear, is restricted to the South- eastern Himalayas, and may be compared in size to a large cat. Externally it is characterized by its broad and rounded head, it which the muzzle is extremely short, the small eyes are directed forward, and the ears are of considerable size. The stout limbs are furnished with large, curved, and sharp claws, which can be partially retracted ; and the soles of the large feet are covered with hair. The tail is long and rather thick, its length being nearly equal to that of the body, or rather more than two-thirds of that of the head and body together. The fur is long and thick, with a woolly under- fur. In color, a large portion of the fur of the panda is a bright, rusty red, of some- what variable shade ; this color prevailing on the back, the upper part of the head, and the darker- rings on t4ie tail. The forehead is of a lighter tint of red; as are also the paler rings on the tail, its tip being black. The under parts and the inner surfaces of the limbs are black, tending to a brownish tint on the abdomen. The face, like the lower lip, is white, except for a vertical stripe of red proceeding from each eye to the angle of the mouth. Occasionally, however, as in the specimen here figured, there is also a red stripe running down the middle of the nose. The inner surface of the ears are also white, as are also the claws. A large male panda measured twenty-four inches from the tip of the snout to the root of the tail ; while the length of the tail was seventeen inches without the hair at the end, and nine- teen and one-half inclusive of the hair. Other specimens measured respectively twenty and twenty-two inches to the root of the tail. It is, however, not only externally that the panda is a remarkable creature. In its skull and teeth it is very unlike other Carnivores. Thus the skull is remarka- bly short, with the profile from the front teeth to the occiput forming a regular curve, which approximates to a semicircle. The lower jaw is also remarkable for its extremely-convex and regularly-curved inferior border, and also for the great length of the portion which ascends on the sides of the skull. The total number of teeth in the panda is thirty-eight, of which, on each sides of the jaws, f are incisors, \ canines, f premolars, and f molars. The canines, or tusks, are of no great size, but THE PANDA 625 are remarkably flattened from side to side. The upper molars have very wide crowns, which are nearly square in outline, and carry four main tubercles and an in- ner ridge ; while the flesh-tooth in each jaw differs from that of all other members of the family in presenting but little approximation to the ordinary carnivorous type ; being, indeed, more like that of the parti-colored bear. There appears to be some doubt as to the origin of the name panda, by which the animal is very generally known in this country, unless, indeed, it be a corrup- tion of the Nipalese niyalya-ponga ; the latter name, according to Mr. Blanford, meaning bamboo eater. It is also known in Nipal as the wah. The panda is un- known in the Himalayas to the westward of Nipal; but it there lives at elevations of THE PANDA. (After Sclater, Proc. Zocl. Soc.) from seven thousand to twelve thousand feet. Its eastward range extends through the mountains to the north of Assam into the Chinese province of Yunnan. An excellent account of the habits of the panda was published many years ago by Mr. Brian Hodgson, of which the following is a summary : As we might have supposed from the structure of its teeth, the animal is mainly herbivorous. It is also an excellent climber, although feeding chiefly on the ground, and having its retreat and breeding place in holes and clefts of the rocks. Its chief food is com- posed of various fruits, acorns, the young shoots of bamboos, roots, etc. It will, however, also eat eggs, but it is doubtful whether, as asserted, it will touch insects or their larvae, while recent observers are in accord as to its habitual rejection of all 4 o 626 THE CARNIVORES kinds of flesh. Hodgson states that it will sometimes steal down to the villages and feast on milk and butter. These animals feed in the morning and evening, and sleep much during the day, although they are by no means exclusively nocturnal in their habits. On the ground, their movements are somewhat awkward and ungainly ; and they are generally sluggish and stupid in disposition, and allow themselves to be captured without much difficulty. They hiss and spit like cats when angered, and occasionally utter a low deep growl, somewhat like that of a young bear. Ac- cording to Mr. Hodgson they drink by lapping with the tongue, but from observa- tions made on specimens in the Zoological Society's Gardens, this is denied by Mr. A. D. Bartlett, who states that they drink by putting their noses to the ground, after the fashion of a bear. They generally sleep curled up sideways, with the head concealed by the thick tail, but will also frequently repose by sitting down on their haunches with the head tucked in between the fore-paws, their habits being very similar to those of some of the raccoons. In addition to the cries already mentioned, it appears from the account of an observer who watched a pair of these animals high up in the trees near Darjiling, that the panda will at certain times probably the breeding season utter loud and somewhat unearthly cries, which may be heard at a considerable distance. They call one another by a kind of chirping cry. The panda is a quite harmless, and apparently an almost defenseless animal, its sharp and partially retractile claws being evidently adapted for the purpose of climbing, rather than as weapons of offense or defense. The young, generally two in number, are born in a nest formed in some hollow tree or cavity among rocks. They are produced in the spring, and are helpless for a long period. It is stated that the cubs of one litter remain with the parent, till shortly before the birth of a second. In captivity these animals are gentle and easily tamed, even when not captured until they have attained maturity. In this country they require great care and attention, for their extreme susceptibility to cold ; but in the more congenial climate of Calcutta they thrive well in cages placed in the open air. It is a remarkable circumstance that an extinct species of panda, about half as large again as the living form, once flourished in England. This is proved by the occurrence of teeth and fragments of jaws in the so-called Red Crag of the Suffolk coast, which belongs to the Pliocene period. It is, therefore, probable that the genus was once widely spread over the Old World; while its occurrence in England proves that the country must have been formerly thickly covered with forest, and have en- joyed a climate of a subtropical nature. The widely-known raccoons, of which there are two or three species, are the typical representatives of the family, and, like all the remaining forms, they are ex- clusively American. These animals have a total of forty teeth, or two more THE RACCOONS 627 than the panda, owing to the presence of the whole of the four typical pairs of pre- molars in the lower jaw. The cheek-teeth differ from those of the latter in being more like the ordinary carnivorous type ; while the skull has not the short and convex form of the panda's. Externally, the raccoons are characterized by their thickly-built and stout bod- ies, their heads broad behind but tapering to a sharp point at the muzzle, and their medium-sized and distinctly-ringed tails. The ears are small and rounded. When walking, the entire sole of the foot is not applied to the ground, as it is when the ani- mal is standing at rest ; while the toes themselves, and more especially those of the fore-feet, can be spread out very widely. The compressed and curved nails differ from those of the panda in being entirely nonretractile. The fur is characterized by its length, softness, and thickness, and is greatly developed on the tail, but is very short on the feet, of which the soles are naked. The best-known species is the common raccoon (Procyon lotor) , of which a group is represented on the next page. The total length of this animal varies from about SKELETON OF RACCOON. thirty-two to thirty-six inches, of which some ten inches are occupied by the tail. The body is covered with thick and rather coarse fur, of a dark-brown color, with the tips of the hairs grayish ; but there is a distinct black patch on either side of the face, including the eyes, and the muzzle is naked. The tail has five black ring, separated by others of a whitish color, and its tip is black. When in its best condi- tion, which is usually in the autumn, a raccoon will weigh from fifteen to twenty- five pounds. There is considerable local variation in the color of this species ; the coloration being most brilliant in the southern portion of its range, where its bodily size is also greater than in the north. The common raccoon is confined to Northern and Central America, extending from Alaska in the north to Costa Rica in the south, and occurring over the whole of the United States, where these animals used to be among the commonest. The best of the recent accounts of this raccoon is given by Dr. Hart Merriam, who tells us that raccoons are exceedingly common about the borders of the Adirondacks, but avoid the dense evergreen forests of the interior. Although, with the exception of bats and flying squirrels, they are the most strictly 628 THE CARNIVORES nocturnal of all North- American Mammals, yet they may occasionally be seen abroad on cloudy days. In diet they are thoroughly carnivorous feeding upon mice, young birds, birds' eggs, fresh-water tortoises and their eggs, frogs, fish, crawfish, mol- lusks, insects, nuts, fruits, and corn ; while they will sometimes kill and eat do- mestic poultry. They delight to sport in the shallow water on the margins of pools THE COMMON RACCOON. (One-eighth natural size.) and streams, where they capture the crawfish lurking beneath the stones, and the fresh-water mussels buried in the mud and sand. They also catch such fish as hap- pen to get stranded or detained in the small pools near the shore, although they are unable to dive in pursuit of their prey. They are, however, good swimmers. Al- though first-rate climbers, and making their nests in a hollow high up in some large tree, raccoons cannot be considered by any means thoroughly arboreal animals. THE RACCOONS 629 Thus they neither hunt their prey among the tree tops, nor gather nuts and fruits from the branches, nor do they feed upon the young shoots and twigs. Trees form, however, their resting and their breeding places, and likewise their refuge when pursued by human or other foes. With the falling shades of night they invariably descend to hunt their prey and search for food. Continuing our account in Dr. Merriam's own words, we find that in the Adirondack region ' ' the raccoon hibernates during the severest part of the winter, retiring to his nest rather early, and appearing again in February or March, accord- ing to the earliness or lateness of the season. Disliking to wade through deep snow he does not come out much till the alternate thawing and freezing of the surface, suggestive of coming spring, makes a hard crust upon which he can run with ease. He does not usually walk many miles during a single night, and con- sequently is soon tracked to the tree, in some hole of which he has retired for the day. It is unusual to find a raccoon alone, for they commonly live and travel in small companies, consisting of the several members of a single family. They do not return to the same nest every morning, but often make little excursions in various directions, being gone several days at a time, and taking refuge, about day- light, in any convenient arboreal shelter. Though preferring a hollow limb high up in some giant elm, ash, or basswood, they will put up with almost any kind of a hollow trunk. I have known them to spend the day in old stubs, in hollow logs, and even in the poor shelter afforded by the angle where a falling tree had lodged in a crutch." Probably in Central America and the more southern districts of North America, this raccoon remains active throughout the winter, as the climate would not necessitate any hibernation. In the Adirondacks the young are produced in the spring generally during the month of April; and there are usually from four to six in a litter. They remain with their parent about a year. The nest which, as already mentioned, is placed high up in a tree, has but little care bestowed upon its construction. It has long been known that this raccoon is in the habit of moistening its food with water before eating it; and it doubtless received its distinctive specific name from this habit, which has been of late years verified by Mr. Bartlett's observations on specimens in the Zoological Society's Gardens. The raccoon is one of the most valuable of the fur-bearing animals of North America, and is consequently much persecuted. Raccoon skins were formerly used as a recognized circulating medium in the States of the Mississippi valley, and were usually valued at twenty-five cents apiece. According to Mr. D. Arrowsmith, the raccoon may be easily caught in steel traps ; but it is essential that these should be set under water near the margins of swamps or streams. The more sporting method is, however, to hunt these animals at night with specially-trained dogs, which are usually a breed of fox-hounds. It has often been stated that the raccoon leaves a very faint foot scent; but this opinion is controverted by Mr. Arrowsmith, who states that he has known a hound hunt a raccoon at midday over snow, on a trail which had been made the previous night. The raccoons, after a short run, invariably take to the tree, where they are shot by the hunter, unless they conceal themselves in a hole. 630 THE CARNIVORES The crab-eating raccoon (P. cancrivorus} is a nearly-allied South- Crab- a ing American species, distinguished by its superior dimensions and its Raccoon much shorter fur, as well as by its proportionately larger teeth. It is found typically from Panama to Columbia and Guiana ; but Professor Mivart is of opinion that the raccoons found further to the south, and extending through Brazil to Paraguay, are entitled to rank as a distinct species, on account of their darker feet. The name of black-footed raccoon has, accordingly been proposed for this southern form. These raccoons are very common in certain districts, and appear to agree closely in habits with their northern cousin. THE CACOMIXLES Genus Bassaris The cacomixles, of which the skull is shown on p. 623, are animals nearly allied to the raccoons, but of more slender build with a sharper muzzle, longer tail, less perfectly plantigrade feet, and teeth of a more typically carnivorous type. THE CACOMIXI.E. (One-fifth natural size.) The common cacomrxle (Bassaris astuta], represented in the accompanying illustration, is an inhabitant of the United States and Mexico. It is covered with long and soft fur ; and has also well-developed and pointed ears, of which the outer surfaces are nearly naked. The feet have naked pads, but are otherwise hairy ; and their short claws are partially retractile. In size this animal may be compared to a cat, the length of the head and body being about seventeen and one-half inches, and that of the tail (including the hair at the end) nearly the same. The general color is brownish yellow mixed with gray on the upper parts, and whitish below ; but the tips of the ears, and two pieces of spots above and below the eyes, are yellowish white. The bushy tail which differs from that of the raccoons in THE CO AXIS 631 being depressed instead of cylindrical, has a black tip and seven ^of eight blackish- brown rings, separated by white intervals. This animal dwells among rocks and trees ; and although, on account of its purely nocturnal habits, but seldom seen, is far from uncommon in certain localities. Like the raccoons it is easily tamed and makes a pretty pet, being sometimes kept for the purpose of killing rats and mice. It is, however, for its size, a bold and ferocious animal, and is reported to be very destructive to poultry. Cacomixles prefer woods well supplied with water, and make their nests in the holes of trees. The natives are in the habit of finding out whether such a hole is tenanted by a cacomixle, by noting if the bark surrounding the aperture has been removed; this removal of the bark being an invariable custom of the animal. From three to four young are produced at a birth. B. astuta is in the habit of carrying its tail bent back over its back. The only other species is Sumichrast's cacomixle (JB. sumich- rasti] from Central America. Another raccoon-like type of animal has been named Bassaricyon, and is at present known to science only by a single skull from Costa Rica, and a skin from Ecuador. These animals, which are probably extremely rare, have the same num- ber of teeth as the raccoons, but approximate so closely in appearance to the under- mentioned kinkajou, that they are probably often mistaken for it by collectors. Mr. O. Thomas considers that the resemblance of the two animals is a case of true mimicry, although he is unable to imagine of what advantage it can be for the bassaricyon to be mistaken for a kinkajou. THK COATIS Genns Nasua The coatis, or, as they are often called, coatimundis, are easily recognized by the great length of their snouts, on which account they are called by the Germans Russelbaren (proboscis-bears). They have the same number of teeth as the rac- coons, but the tusks, or canines, are longer and more flattened ; while, in conform- ity with the length of the snout, the skull is relatively longer and narrower. The snout, which is naked at the tip, is somewhat upturned, and projects far beyond the extremity of the lower jaw ; it is capable of a considerable amount of motion. The body is long, and rather flattened, and the tapering tail is also elongated and of considerable depth. The toes are more closely connected together than in the raccoons, and are provided with longer and stouter claws. There are two species of coatis. One of these, the white-nosed coati {Nasua nasica), inhabits Mexico and Central America. It is characterized by the white nose and upper lip, the dark brown face and cheeks, and the length and softness of its fur. In color the long hairs of the back are tipped with either rufous, fulvous, or whitish ; and the tail is frequently of the same color as the back, though it may have dark and light rings on the under side of the basal half, or, complete rings. The second species is the red coati (IV. rufa), inhabiting South America from Surinam to Paraguay. In this species the fur is generally short and harsh, with 632 THE CARNIVORES the longer hairs on the back tipped with black. The ears are relatively larger and more hairy ; and the tail is invariably marked with from seven to nine broad ful- vous or rufous rings alternating with black ones ; its tip being black. Both species are subject, however, to considerable individual variations of color, and the distinc- tion between them is sometimes difficult to make out. These animals usually go about in small troops, comprising from about eight to twenty individuals ; and are mainly arboreal. Their food includes fruits, young birds, eggs, lizards, and insects. In Costa Rica they are found in the mountains at elevations of from six thousand to seven thousand feet. In Nicaragua Mr. Belt observed them hunting the large lizards known as iguanas. When, however, an iguana was surprised by a coati, it immediately fell from the bough on which it was reposing to the ground, and thence escaped to another. Nothing daunted, the coati would renew the pursuit again and again. Frequently the coatis would divide their troop into two sections, one of which made its way through the branches above, while the other hunted on the ground below, so that any prey which might fall from the trees had but a poor chance of escape. In Guatemala coatis are among the most common of all Mammals, and may be found at all elevations in the mountain forests, from the level of the sea up to nine thou- sand feet. They are very readily tamed, and are often kept by the Spaniards in South America chained to one of the pillars of the corridor surrounding the court- yard of their houses. That coatis are aboriginal inhabitants of South America is proved by the oc- currence of their fossilized remains side by side with those of many extinct Mam- mals in the caverns of Lagoa Santa, in Brazil. They are also represented in deposits of still earlier age in Argentina, where the species have been referred to a distinct genus (Cynonasua). THE KINKAJOU Genus Cercoleptes The last representative of the Raccoon family is the kinkajou, or jupura (C. caudivolvulus) , which is the most arboreal form of all, and is distinguished by its prehensile tail a characteristic possessed by it in common with the Indian bin- turong. The kinkajou is distinguished from the other American members of the family by having but thirty-six teeth, owing to the disappearance of a pair of pre- molars in each jaw. It is a long and rather low-bodied animal, with a rounded and broad head, in which the muzzle is short, and the front of the nose marked by a median vertical groove. The ears are small and rounded. The limbs are short, with naked soles to the feet, and long, powerful, and much -curved claws. The tail, which, as we have said, is prehensile, is cylindrical, of moderate thickness, and of great relative length, being fully as long as the head and body together. The animal is further distinguished by the great length of its tongue, which can be pro- truded a considerable distance in front of the mouth. The fur is soft, short, and of an almost woolly nature, with nearly the same length over the whole body and tail, and is of a pale yellowish-brown color throughout. In size the kinkajou may be I /V ( (J.jmit WHITE-NOSED COATI. THE KINKAJOU compared to a cat. It is found in wooded districts from Central Mexico to the Rio Negro in Brazil. In Guatemala, where it is far from rare, it ranges to elevations of four thousand and five thousand feet above the sea. It conceals itself in the holes of trees, in which it probably also breeds, issuing forth only at night in search of food. A specimen which fell, when wounded, from a tree into a river below swam well. It feeds on small Mammals, birds and their eggs, honey and fruits, and appears to be specially partial to oranges and bananas. The expression of the kinkajou reminded Bates strongly of that of some of the lemurs ; and he was also struck with the extreme brightness of its dark eyes. ' ' I once saw it, ' ' he writes, ' ' in considerable numbers when on an excursion with an THE KINKAJOU. (One-fourth natural size.) Indian companion along the low Ygapo shores of the Teffe, daout twenty miles above Ega [on the upper Amazon] . We slept one night at the house of a native family living in the thick of the forest, where a festival was going on, and there being no room to hang our hammocks under shelter, on account of the number of visitors, we lay down on a mat in the open air, near a shed which stood in the midst of a grove of forest trees and pupunha palms. Past midnight, when all became still after the uproar of the holiday-making, as I was listening to the dull, fanning sound made by the wings of impish hosts of vampire-bats crowding round the cajer trees, a rustle commenced from the side of the woods, and a troop of slender, long-tailed animals were seen against the clear moonlit sky, taking flying leaps from branch to 634 THE CARNIVORES branch through the grove. Many of them stopped at the puptraha trees, and the hustling, twittering, and screaming, with the sounds of falling fruits, showed how they were employed. I thought at first they were NycUpitheci, but they proved to be jupuras, for the owner of the house early next morning caught a young one, and gave it to me. I kept this as a pet animal for several weeks, feeding it on bananas and manioc-meal mixed with treacle. It became tame in a very short time, allow- ing itself to be caressed, but making a distinction in the degree of confidence it showed between myself and strangers. My pet was unfortunately killed by a neigh- bor's dog, which entered the room where it was kept." CHAPTER XVIII CARNIVORES continued THE WEASEL FAMILY Family MUSTELID^ WITH the Weasel family, in which are included not only the weasels and their immediate allies, but likewise the badgers and otters, we come to the last group of terrestrial Carnivores. The family is thus a very extensive one, and also one in which many of the varioms members differ very widely from one another in external appearances, as well as in the structure of their teeth. A large number of the species and among them the typical forms are, however, characterized by their SKELETON OT? WEASEI,. long and slender bodies and short limbs; while the great majority are of medium or small size, and none are very large. In the general characteristics of the base of the skull the members of the Weasel family agree with the bears and raccoons. They are, however, distinguished from these by having but a single pair of molar teeth in the upper jaw, while they agree with the raccoons in generally having but two pairs of these teeth in the lower jaw. The ratels have, however, only a single pair of lower molar teeth. The skull of any member of the family may always be distinguished from that of any other Carnivore by the inner portion of the upper molar tooth being wider in the antero-posterior direction than its outer portion, this characteristic being exhibited in the figure of the palate of an otter given later on, although in this case the whole tooth is rela- tively wider than usual. The skull is further characterized by the great develop- ment of the curved ridges of bone by which the lower jaw is held in place, which grip the condyle of the latter so tightly that it is sometimes difficult or impossible to detach it from the skull proper. As in the two preceding families, the feet are in all cases provided with five toes. From the structure of the skull, as well as from certain features in the anatomy of the soft parts, it has been generally considered that the weasels are most nearly (635) 636 THE CARNIVORES allied to the bears and raccoons ; and, as a matter of convenience, it is found best to- continue to place them in this position, as it somewhat simplifies classification. The evidence furnished by the numerous forms of extinct Carnivores, which have been discovered of late years in the middle and lower Tertiary rocks of Europe and North America, points, however, very strongly to the conclusion that the nearest allies of the weasels are in reality the civets, and that the former group is the direct descen- dant of the latter. If this view be true, and the evidence in its favor is very strong indeed, it follows that the structural resemblance of the weasels to the bears and raccoons is an instance of what is termed parallel development, and indicates no- near genetic connection between the two groups. The family is a very widely distributed one, having representatives on all the great continents, with the exception of Australia. It attains, however, its maximum development in the temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere ; and it may be noted that none of its members inhabit Madagascar. In regard to coloration there is an enormous amount of variation. Several of the northern forms have a dark summer and a light winter dress, and thereby differ from all other Carnivores except the Arctic fox. Then a large number of the martens and weasels and all the otters- are clothed with fur of a nearly uniform dark tint, while one of the martens and some of the badgers are remarkable for their extreme brilliance. Moreover, the American skunks and the Cape polecat {Ictonyx) are remarkable for their contrast- ing bands of black or dark brown and white, and thus form some of the most con- spicuously colored of all Mammals. It is also noteworthy that in the parti-colored examples there is a great tendency for the under parts of the body to be darker than the upper ; whereas, it is scarcely necessary to observe, the reverse is the case in the great majority of Mammals. Again, there is a tendency for the different colors to arrange themselves in longitudinal lines or patches, or so as to make the whole of the upper surface of the body light, and its under surface dark ; and in no case are there either spots or transverse bands of color, while equally noteworthy is the en- tire absence of alternating dark and light rings of color on the tail. Many of the members of this family yield furs of great commercial value. The various members of the family are generally divided into three main groups, distinguished from one another by the characteristic of their teeth and claws. These groups are the weasels, the badgers, and the otters, which we proceed to consider in the order named. THE TAYRA AND ORISON Genus Galictis The first representatives of the weasels are the peculiar South and Tropical American species, which are respectively known as the tayra and grison. The principal distinctive features of the group to which these belong are briefly as follows : In the whole group the toes are short and only partially webbed, with short, sharp, and curved claws, which may be partially retractile. The single upper molar THE TAYRA AND GRISON 637 tooth on each side is characterized by its narrowness from front to back, and its moderate dimensions. With the exception of the wolverene, all the members of the group are distinguished by their long and weasel-like bodies and short legs, while all are terrestrial and arboreal in their habits. Exclusive of the members of the present genus and one South-African species, the group is mainly confined to the northern parts of Europe, Asia, and North America, only a single representative oc- curring in Peninsular India, Burma, and the Malayan region, and one in South America. The tayra and grison are characterized by having a total of 34 teeth, of which f are incisors, | canines, f premolars, and ^ molars. Their skulls may be readily distinguished from those of the martens and weasels by the tubercle on the inner THE TAYRA. (One-sixth natural size.) side of the upper flesh-tooth being placed near the middle of the tooth, instead of close up to its front edge. They walk to a great extent on the soles of their feet, which are completely naked, so that their feet are almost, but not quite, plantigrade. The claws cannot be retracted. The head is characterized by its breadth and flat- ness, and is furnished with very small and rounded ears. The tail varies in length from about one-half to three-fourths the length of the head and body. The tayra (Galidis barbara) is the largest species, and may be com- pared in size to the common otter, its total length being a little over a yard, of which rather less than half is occupied by the tail. The body and limbs are usually of a uniform dark brown color, becoming almost black in some individuals, while in others it is lighter. There is always a lighter spot on the chest. The head and neck are generally gray, but in two immature individuals in the British Museum Tayra 638 THE CARNIVORES they are nearly white, with the exception of the muzzle, which is dark. Occasion- ally, individuals are met with in which the whole of the fur, except that on the muz- zle, ears, and feet, is entirely white ; one such example being shown in the upper figure of our illustration. The nose has a vertical groove at its extremity, the teeth are relatively large and protruding, and the aspect of the animal is ugly and for- bidding. The range of the tayra is generally stated to extend from Mexico in the north to the Rio de la Plata in the south, but it also includes some of the more southerly portions of the Argentine pampas. In British Honduras tayras were observed by Moore hunting in companies of from fifteen to twenty, and although some writers have doubted the correctness of this statement, it is fully confirmed by Mr. Hudson in Argentina. Rengger states that the tayra lives both in open grass-clad country, and likewise in forest. Writing of this and the next species, Mr. Hudson says that, on the pampas of Argentina, "there are two quaint-looking weasels, intensely black in color, and gray on the back and flat crown. One is a large bold animal (G. bar- bara) that hunts in companies ; and when these long-bodied creatures s'lt up erect, glaring with beady eyes, grinning and chattering at the passer-by, they look like little friars in black robes and gray cowls ; but the expression on their round faces is malignant and bloodthirsty beyond anything in nature, and it would, perhaps, be more decent to liken them to devils rather than to humans." Although largely nocturnal in its habits, the tayra will frequently hunt till midday, when it seeks its lair and reposes till evening. This lair is generally either the deserted burrow of an armadillo, or some hole in a tree. The food of the animal consists of such Mammals as it is able to kill, such as agutis and other Rodents, but it also eats birds and their eggs. In inhabited districts the tayra frequently raids on poultry .houses, among the inmates of which it commits much havoc. Honey it also readily eats. The nest, which is sometimes made in the cavities of rocks, instead of in a hollow tree or deserted burrow, is constructed with much care. In one nest, examined by Hensel, two young were found, which were then quite blind, and had much the appearance of young foxes. This (G. mttata) is a smaller animal than the tayra, and may be compared in size to a marten or an Indian mungoose. It is also readily distinguished by its relatively-shorter tail, of which the length does not exceed half that of the head and body, and likewise by its coloration. The latter is of that peculiar type to which we have already referred, in which the under parts are much darker than the upper. The snout, the under surface of the neck, and the under parts of the body are very dark brown, whereas the whole of the upper sur- face, from the forehead nearly to the tip of the tail, is of a uniform bluish-gray tint, the individual hairs being ringed with black and white. From the forehead to the shoulder the gray and brown areas are divided by a lighter band with a yellowish tinge, while the tip of the tail and the ears are distinctly yellow. There is no groove on the nose. The grison is found over the greater part of South America, as well as in Central America and Mexico ; and there is also Allemand's grison (G. allemandi] , which is of larger size, but has the same general coloration, although presenting some approximation to the tayra. THE MARTENS, POLECATS, AND WEASELS 639 The general habits of the grison appear to be very similar to those of the tayra. It is described as being the Carnivore most commonly encountered on the coasts of South America ; but in Brazil it is stated to be less frequent than its cousin. By preference it appears to select the open country, although it may also be found in forests. It frequents plantations, and commits great depredations upon domestic poultry. Hollow trees, clefts in rocks, and deserted burrows are its favorite re- treats; but it is said that, when hunted with dogs, the grison will never attempt to climb, and invariably takes shelter under rocks, or beneath the roots of trees. Fossil remains of various species of this genus have been found in the caverns of Lagoa Santa, in Brazil ; while, what is more noteworthy, others have been obtained from the superficial deposits of the United States, thus indicating that the genus formerly extended far to the northward of its present limits in Mexico. THE MARTENS, POLECATS, AND WEASELS Genus Mustela The martens and their near allies the polecats, stoats, and weasels, constitute the typical group of this subdivision. By many writers the large martens are sepa- rated as a genus from the smaller polecats, stoats, and weasels, the three latter being grouped together under the title of Putorius, but in this we are not disposed to con- cur. It is true that the martens have one more pair of premolar teeth in each jaw than their smaller relatives ; but we cannot in any case attach much importance to such a difference, and its triviality is proved by extinct species, which exhibit a considerable amount of diversity in this respect. Regarding, then, all the animals above mentioned as constituting but a single genus, we have to indicate the features by which the group is distinguished. In the first place, the number of teeth may either be the same as in the tayra, or there may be an additional premolar tooth on each side of both the upper and the lower jaw, thus raising the number of teeth to forty. The upper flesh-tooth, as already mentioned, differs from that of the tayra by having the lobe on its inner side placed close up to its front edge. With regard to external characteristics, the mar- tens and weasels are distinguished from the members of the preceding genus by their habit of walking almost entirely on their toes (digitigrade), and also by their short compressed claws being capable of partial retraction. Their tails are either long or of medium length, and more or less bushy. It may be added that the lower flesh-tooth of the martens and weasels is characterized by the small size or total ab- sence of the cusp on the inner side of the second lobe of the blade ; and as the heel at the hinder end is also rather small and furnished with a cutting edge, the whole tooth consists of three main cusps, of which the two end ones are similar. Such a tooth is, therefore, totally unlike the lower flesh-tooth of a civet. Pine-Mart ^^ e we ^'^ nown European pine-marten, or yellow-breasted marten (M. males'), may be regarded as the typical representative of the martens, all of which possess the following features in common. First of all, they have four pairs of premolar teeth in each jaw ; while the flesh-tooth of the lower '640 THE CARNIVORES jaw has a distinct cusp on the inner side of the second lobe of the blade. More- over, they are of comparatively-large size, and may be compared in this respect to the domestic cat. In all of them the body is much elongated, although to a less degree than is the case with the polecats and weasels. The martens are found only in the Northern Hemisphere, and range far to the northward; one species, however, occurring as far south as India and the Malayan region. The pine-marten has a total length of from twenty-five to thirty inches, of which from sixteen to eighteen inches are occupied by the head and body, and from nine to twelve inches by the tail, inclusive of the hair at its extremity. As in the other members of this group, the muzzle is sharply pointed, with the nose extending a THE PINE-MARTEN. (One-fourth natural size.) little beyond the lips ; and the ears are thickly covered with hairs on both sides. Beneath the glossy outer-fur there is a thick coat of under-fur ; and the soles of the feet have a thick coat of fur between the bare pads. The pine-marten is characterized by the rich brown color of the fur, and the reddish-gray tint and yellow tips of the under-fur; the light-colored fur on the throat and chest varying in tint from yellowish white to a bright orange. The range of this species includes a large portion of Northern Europe and Asia; and in former years the animal was common in the British Isles, where it is now restricted to the wilder districts. From the specific designation of this marten, it would naturally be supposed that it exhibits an especial predilection for pine forests. This, however, THE MARTENS, POLECATS, AND WEASELS 641 does not appear to be the case, and it would seem that the name and can be ejected at the will of the animal; such ejection taking place only when the creature is attacked or irritated. So forci- bly can the fluid (which is of an amber color) be ejected, that it will carry from a distance of thirteen feet to a little over sixteen feet. It appears that there is a marked difference in the intensity of the odor of the secretion in different individuals of the common skunk, which is probably in part due to the age of the animal, and in part to the length of time which has elapsed since the preceding discharge took place. When freshly ejected, the fumes from the secretion are pungent and acrid in the extreme, and are probably capable of producing extensive swelling of the respiratory passages. Dr. Merriam states that ' ' when inhaled without the admix- ture of a large amount of atmospheric air the unhappy victim loses consciousness .and breathes stertoriously, the temperature falls, and the pulse slackens, and if the inhalation were prolonged the results would doubtless prove fatal. ' ' It has been stated that the secretion is not only used as a means of defense but also as a means of attracting these animals toward one another. This, however, is strenuously de- nied by Dr. Merriam. Of the lasting and pernicious effects of even a drop of skunk secretion, no more striking instance exists than one recently published by Mr. W. H. Hudson, who writes of the South-American species. This observer relates, as a not uncommon event on the Argentine pampas, that a settler starts one evening to ride to a dance at a neighbor's house. "It is a dark windy evening, but there is a convenient bridle path through the dense thicket of giant thistles, and striking it he puts his horse into a swinging gallop. Unhappily the path is already occupied by a skunk, invisible in the darkness, that, in obedience to the promptings of its insane instinct, refuses to get out of it, until the flying hoofs hit it and sent it like a well-kicked football into the thistles. But the fore-feet of the horse, up as high as his knees perhaps, have been sprinkled, and the rider, after coming out into the open, dis- mounts and walks away twenty yards from his animal, and literally smells himself all over, and with a feeling of profound relief pronounces himself clean. Not the minutest drop of the diabolical spray has touched his 'dancing shoes. Springing into the saddle he proceeds to his journey's end, and is warmly welcomed by his host. In a little while people begin exchanging whispers and significant glances ; . . ladies cough and put their handkerchiefs to their noses, and presently 668 THE CARNIVORES begin to feel faint and retire from the room. Our hero begins to notice that there is something wrong, and presently discovers its cause ; he, unhappily, has been the last person to remark that familiar but most abominable odor, rising like a deadly exhalation from the floor, conquering all other odors, and every moment becoming more powerful. A drop has touched his shoe after all." Fossil remains of skunks belonging to the same genus as the species still inhabiting the country are met with in the caverns of L,agoa Santa in Brazil, where they are accompanied by those of a number of other animals of totally extinct types. THE CAPE POLECAT Genus Ictonyx As will be apparent from a glance at our illustration, the South- African animal, commonly known as the Cape polecat {Ictonyx zorilla), is so like a small skunk in coloration and general appearance that it might well be taken for a member of the same group. Although the number of the teeth in the present animal is the same as in the skunks, the teeth themselves are relatively smaller than in the latter, with smaller cusps, and are thus more like those of the polecat, between which and the skunks the Cape polecat appears to form a kind of connecting link. A skull of the present animal may be readily distinguished from that of a skunk by the upper molar tooth being smaller, instead of larger, than the flesh-tooth. In size the Cape polecat agrees approximately with the true polecat, and has a somewhat similarly-shaped body, and proportionately-short limbs. The head is broad, and the muzzle long and sharp, while the ears are very small and rounded. The tail is comparatively long and bushy, and about three-quarters the length of the head and body ; and the whole of the fur is relatively long and thick. The ground color of the fur is a glossy black, marked with a variable number of white stripes and spots. Frequently, as in our illustration, there is a white spot between the eyes, and another over each of the latter; but sometimes all the three are united. The hinder part of the head is frequently white, and from this white area there are given off pure white stripes (separated by three narrow black ones), which unite near the tail ; the upper part of the latter being alsq mostly white. In other cases, however, the whole of the hinder parts of the head, the neck, and the anterior portion of the back are white. The Cape polecat ranges from the Cape to Senegal; but in Sennaar and Egypt it is replaced by another nearly-allied species (I.frenatd). It is probably the latter which, according to Brehm, ranges across the Isthmus of Suez into Asia Minor, and the neighborhood of Constantinople. These animals frequent rocky districts, hiding either in the clefts of rocks, or among bushes and trees, and are purely nocturnal. They feed on mice and other small Mammals, birds and their eggs, and lizards and frogs; and in inhabited districts they destroy poultry. In their general habits they are unlike the martens and polecats, being unable to climb, and only taking to the THE FERRET-BADGERS 669 water under compunction, although, when the necessity arises, they can swim well. Their great protection against their foes is their intolerable odor, which is described as being almost, if not quite, as offensive as that of the skunks. In many houses of the Dutch boers of South America tame individuals of the Cape polecat may be found, which are kept for the purpose of catching rats and mice. THE CAPE POLECAT. (One-sixth natural size.) THE FERRET-BADGERS Genus Hclidis The ferret-badgers form a small group of four species from Eastern Asia, which in some respects serve to connect the preceding forms with the true badgers, having 670 THE CARNIVORES relatively-longer bodies, shorter limbs, and longer tails than the latter. They are all of comparatively-small size, and are distinguished from the other members of the badger-like group, by having the under surface of the body lighter colored than the back. One species is further remarkable for the brilliant orange tint of the under parts and portions of the head. All these animals have the same number of teeth as the martens; the upper molar and flesh-tooth being remarkable for their broad and squared crowns. The head is elongated, and terminates in a prolonged and naked muzzle, with obliquely- truncated nostrils; and the ears are small but distinct. The claws are very narrow, and about twice as long in the fore as in the hind-feet; the soles of the feet being naked. The tail, which is more or less bushy, may be either rather more or rather less than half the length of the head and body. Of the four species, the brown ferret-badger (Helictis orientalis], in which the length of the head and body is sixteen inches, and that of the tail, with the hair, nine inches, inhabits the Nipal Himalayas and Java, and is characterized by its brown or yellowish-brown color, and its relatively-long tail. The Burmese ferret- badger (H. per sonata], which differs in the grayish tint of the upper parts, inhabits Ix>wer Burma and Manipur, and probably some neighboring districts. The two remaining species, viz. , H. moschata and H. sabaurantiaca, are from China. The latter is characterized by its relatively-short tail, and the brilliant orange color of the snout and the sides and the under parts of the head and throat; the ears, a stripe down the neck, and the under parts and feet being yellow. The upper part of the head and face is chocolate brown, forming a most marked contrast with the orange; while the back and tail are olive color. The ferret-badgers are purely nocturnal, and differ from the other members of the present group in being able to climb with facility. The Indian species are almost omnivorous in their food, eating both small Mammals and birds as well as fruits and insects. All the species live in forests as a rule. THE RATELS Genus Mellivora The ratels or, as they are frequently called, honey badgers, are distinguished from all the members of the family hitherto noticed by their more badger-like shape, very short tails, and the absence of any external ears. They are aptly compared in gait and appearance by Mr. Blanford to small bears. There are but. two living spe- cies, of which one is confined to India, and the other to Africa. In addition to their short tails and the absence of external ears, the ratels are characterized by their stoutly-built bodies, and short powerful limbs, of which the front pair are provided with enormous claws. They walk with the greater part of the naked soles of the feet applied to the ground. As regards coloration, they show in a most marked degree the peculiarity to which we have already referred as char- acterizing many members of the family; that is to say, the under parts are dark, and the upper parts lighter. In the present instance, the whole _of the muzzle, together THE RATELS 671 with the under parts of the head, body, and tail, and the entire limbs, are black; while the upper portion of the head, body, and fore half of the tail are whitish gray. The skulls of the ratels may be distinguished by the small number of the large and powerful teeth. The total number is only thirty-two, there being but three pairs of premolar teeth in each jaw, and no tubercular molar in the lower jaw behind the flesh-tooth. The upper teeth, as shown in the figure of the palate of a fossil species, are characterized by the molar (m) being very narrow from front to back, and of the characteristic musteline dumb-bell shape; and also by THE CAPE RATEI,. (One-sixth natural size.) the flesh-tooth, or fourth premolar (p.^), being larger than the molar, with the tubercle on the inner side placed near the front edge. Moreover, in the lower jaw, the flesh-tooth has a very minute heel at its hinder end. The ratels may be com- pared in size to a badger, the length of the head and body of the Indian species varying from about twenty-six to thirty-two inches, and that of the tail, inclusive of the hair, from six to six and one-half inches. The Indian ratel (Mellivora indica) is found from the Himalayas to Cape Comorin, but is unknown in Ceylon or to the eastward of the Bay of Bengal. The African species (M. ratel} occurs throughout Africa, but Distribution 6/2 THE CARNIVORES Habits more especially in the southern and western parts of the continent. Mr. Blanford has some doubts as to whether the African and Indian ratels are really entitled to be regarded as distinct species ; but the former, as shown in our illustration on p. 671, is distinguished by the pres- ence of a well-marked white line dividing the dark area of the under parts from the gray of the back. Both species are strictly nocturnal in their habits, and reside during the day in burrows, which are probably excavated by themselves. The Indian 8 species is most commonly met with in hilly regions, or along the high-scarped banks of the great rivers, which fr >cf afford good situations in which to construct its burrows. Ratels generally go about in pairs, and feed on rats, birds, j0, frogs, insects, and honey; while in cultivated districts they commit frequent raids on poultry. The accusation of dig- ging up corpses from graveyards, which has earned for the Indian species the name of " Gravedigger " among Anglo- Indians, is, according to Mr. Blanford, probably unfounded. The African species exhibits a very strongly-marked taste for honey, together with the larvae of bees in the combs ; digging out the latter from hollow trees by the aid of its powerful front claws. The account given by Sparrmann of premoiar or flesh-tooth; c ca- the rate i s mo( j e of operations when about to attack a bees' nine tooth, or tusk (broken ). nest is not, however, to be wholly relied upon, since it is largely drawn from native sources of information. In captivity ratels are easily tamed, and frequently exhibit a peculiar habit of turning complete somersaults each time they walk up and down the cages in which they are confined. From the rocks of the Siwalik hills of Northeastern India, belong- ing to the Pliocene period, and likewise from formations of correspond- ing age in the Punjab, there have been obtained the remains of ratels closely allied to the living species; so that it may be concluded that India was the original home of these animals, and that thence they migrated into Africa. THE RIGHT HALF OF THE PALATE OF THE FOS- SIL INDIAN RATEL. m. molar tooth; p. 4, fourth Fossil Ratels THE AMERICAN BADGER Genus Taxidea The American badger ( Taxidea americana} brings us to the first of four genera which may be collectively called badgers, and the whole of which are confined to the Northern Hemisphere. They all have the same number of teeth as in the martens, that is to say, 38, of which f are incisors, y canines, f premolars, and ^ molars on each side of the jaws. All of them have stoutly-built bodies, and short limbs adapted for digging; while, with one exception, the tail is very short. They are further THE AMERICAN BADGER 673 characterized by the unusually large size of the molar tooth of the upper jaw, and likewise by the elongation of the posterior heel of the flesh-tooth of the lower jaw. In the American badger the skull is very wide posteriorly, the body depressed, and the tail very short. The skull may be at once distinguished from that of the true badgers by the proportionately larger size of the upper flesh-tooth, and the smaller upper molar, which is triangular in form, with the apex directed outward. The fore-claws are enormous, the eyes are very small, and the muzzle is hairy right up to the obliquely truncated nostrils. The low, rounded, and broad ears are re- markable for the large size of their apertures. In length the animal, from the snout to the root of the tail, measures about twenty-four inches, and the tail six inches. The general color of the coarse fur of the body is a blackish grizzle, mingled with either white, gray, or tawny, or the whole of these together, on the upper parts, while below it is uniformly whitish, sometimes shaded with gray or tawny. The head is darker than the body, with a white stripe down the middle, and the limbs are black- ish brown. The ordinary form of the American badger extends from British North America, from at least latitude 58, over the greater portion of the United States. Near the Mexican border, as in Eastern and Central Mexico itself, it is, however, replaced by a variety distinguished by a white stripe, some- times interrupted, running down the back from the nose to the tail. In habits the American badger appears to closely resemble the corn- Habits ^ , . mon European species, being strictly nocturnal, and living in burrows constructed by itself. In the colder portion of its habitat it hibernates. Although but very seldom seen, Dr. Coues states that these animals live in countless numbers in the region of the upper Missouri river and its tributaries; tracts of sandy soil be- ing so full of their burrows as to render traveling on horseback dangerous. These badger holes can be distinguished from those of the prairie marmot by their larger size and the absence of a circular mound of earth at their entrance; though many such holes are merely burrows of the prairie marmot, which have been enlarged by the badger in order to capture the original excavator. This abundance of the Amer- ican badger is doubtless largely due to its immunity from foes and the plentiful sup- ply of food. In addition to the various species of Rodents, which form its principal food, the American badger will also eat smaller animals, even insects and snails, while it is also partial to birds' eggs and to bees' nests with their honey and larvae. In dis- position it is shy and retiring, always seeking to avoid rather than to court danger. If brought to bay, it will fight with all the fierceness and stubbornness characteris- tic of its European cousin, and it also exhibits the same tenacity of life. In some parts of the Western States badger baiting used to be as favorite a sport as it once was in England, but it is now discontinued. But little appears to have been ascertained as to the breeding habits of the Amer- ican badger, but it seems that three or four is the usual number in a litter. In Brit- ish North America the period of hibernation lasts from October till April, and the animals are said to come forth after their long fast in good condition. 43 674 THE CARNIVORES American badger fur is of some value, and is at times largely used for robes, muffs, tippets, and trimmings; while a considerable quantity of the long hairs are employed in the manufacture of shaving and other brushes, al- though in many cases the hairs are too soft for this purpose. In 1873 the prices of American badger skins varied from twenty-five cents to one dollar and seventy-five cents each in London; while three years later the price per skin for the best sam- ples in New York was one dollar. At the present time, according to Mr. Poland, the price in London varies from one dollar and fifty cents to five dollars. THE COMMON BADGER Genus Meles The common badger (Meles taxus] is the best-known member of a group of five closely-allied species distributed over a considerable portion of Europe and Asia, although unknown in the Indian and Malayan regions. All these animals are readily distinguished from the American badger by the characteristics of the skull SKELETON OF THE COMMON BADGER. and teeth. The skull itself is characterized by the great height of the bony ridge running along the middle of the brain case, and affording attachment for the power- ful muscles which render the badger's bite so severe. Then, again, the upper molar tooth, instead of being triangular and of nearly the same size as the flesh- tooth, is oblong in form, and very much larger than the latter, recalling in this re- spect the corresponding tooth of the bears; a further analogy with that group being presented by the small size of the first three premolar teeth. Another feature in which the true badgers differ from the American badger is to be found in the great development of the posterior heel of the lower flesh-tooth, which exceeds in length the whole of the remainder of the tooth, this expanded heel having to bite against the en- larged upper molar tooth. The skull of the badger is also peculiar on account of the close interlocking of the lower jaw with the skull proper, the articulation being so per- fect that it is impracticable to detach the one from the other without fracture. Need- less to say, it is, therefore, impossible for one of these animals to dislocate its lower jaw. In general bodily conformation the Old- World badgers very closely resemble their transatlantic ally; and their hairs are similarly banded with different colors, producing the well-known grizzled hue of the fur so characteristic of all these THE COMMON BADGER 675 animals. The skin of the common badger is remarkably large and" loose, enabling the animal, when seized by almost any part, to turn and bite its aggressor; and the fur is long and loose. With the exception of a black stripe on each side, starting between the nose and the eye and running backward to include the ear (of which the tip is white), the head of the badger is white. The lower jaw, throat, and all the under parts, as well as the limbs are black; while the upper parts are reddish gray, and the flanks and tail light gray. The length of a full-grown badger from THE COMMON BADGER. (One-seventh natural size.) the snout to the root of the tail, will vary from about twenty-five to twenty-nine inches, that of the tail being about seven and one-half inches; and the weight has been estimated at from twenty-five to thirty pounds, Distribution The common ba dger, or, as it used to be called in England, the brock, is distributed over the whole of Europe, with the exception of the north of Scandinavia and the island of Sardinia; and it is also widely spread over Northern Asia, where it ranges in Siberia as far as the river Lena. It is 676 THE CARNIVORES probably also this species which inhabits Syria; but it is at present uncertain where the range of the common badger in Western Asia terminates, and where that of the smaller and paler colored Persian badger (M. canescens) of Eastern Persia com- mences. In China and other parts of continental Asia the group is represented by the white-tailed badger (M. leucurus) and the Chinese badger (M. chinensis} ; while a fifth species (M. anacuma) inhabits Japan. On the continent of Europe, especially in many parts of Germany (where it is known as dachs], the badger is very common, and does much damage to the vineyards. In the British Islands, as we may judge both from the frequency with which its remains are met with in the cavern and other superficial deposits, as well as from the number of places in England, such as Brockenhurst and Brockley, which derive their names from this animal, the badger must once have been very commonly distributed. At the present day, writes Mr. J. E. Harting, " many people seem to be under the impression that the badger, if not actually extinct in the British Islands, is at all events a very scarce animal. This is far from being the case. In many parts of the country the badger is still not at all uncommon, and in certain districts which might be named it is even on the increase, owing to the pro- tection afforded it. The reason for its supposed scarcity arises from two causes, firstly, the nature of its haunts, which are generally in the deep recesses of large woods, fox-covers, and quarries; and, secondly, the nature of its habits, which are shy and retiring, and chiefly nocturnal." The favorite haunts of the badger are the deepest and thickest woods, or coppice- clad cliffs and quarries; and in such situations it digs a large and roomy bur- row. Here it sleeps during the day, issuing forth at evening in search of food, and sometimes joining with its fellows in this quest; Mr. Harting having observed three badgers together in Gloucestershire, while the late Mr. C. St. John on one occasion saw no less than seven in company on the shore of L,och Ness. In the colder por- tions of its habitat the badger hibernates during the winter, the length of the hibernation depending upon the latitude and the degree of severity of the season. In England the hibernation appears to be always interrupted. Mr. Ellis, of L,ough- borough, who has a number of badgers on his estate, recently wrote that he has known one of the burrows covered with snow for a fortnight or more, during which time the animals remain below, and only ventured out \vhen a thaw came. In Sweden it is stated that badgers generally retire about the middle of November, and do not reappear till the middle of the following March, unless there should be a protracted thaw, during which they will sally forth in search of food. In order to afford additional security, the mouth of the burrow is blocked from the inside by its occupant. The burrow is always kept scrupulously clean, and is lined with fern and other vegetable substances; and Mr. Ellis states that "as the winter ap- proaches, the old bedding is replaced by dry fern and grass raked together by the badger's powerful claws. This is often left to wither in little heaps till dry enough for the purpose. Partially concealed, I have watched a badger gathering fern, and using a force in its collection quite surprising. ' ' The peculiar conformation of the upper molar teeth of the badger at once pro- claims that the diet of the animal is by no means exclusively carnivorous; and Pro- THE COMMON BADGER 677 fessor T. Bell states that its food ' ' consists indifferently of various foots, earthnuts, beech mast, fruits, the eggs of birds, some of the smaller Mammals, frogs, and in- sects." It is also ascertained that the badger is in the habit of digging up wasps' nests for the purpose of feeding upon the larvae in the combs; and it has an equal partiality for the contents of the nests of wild bees. It has been very generally asserted that badgers and foxes do not get on well together, and that the former kill the cubs of the latter. Mr. Ellis states, however, that, on his estate at least, " the badgers and the foxes are not unfriendly, and last spring a litter of cubs was brought forth very near the badgers ; but their mother removed them after they had grown familiar, as she probably thought they were showing themselves more than was prudent. ' ' Mr. Harting also mentions more than one instance where these two animals have lived amicably together in the same bur- row ; in one of these cases a fox having annually given birth to cubs in the badg- er's den. Within the deep recesses of its burrow, which often terminates in a fork-like manner, are born the young of the badger ; the number in a litter being usually three or four. The young are produced during the summer ; and are at first blind, not acquiring the power of sight till the tenth day. It is a curious, but apparently well-ascertained circumstance, that the female badger, like the roedeer, has the power of extending the time of gestation considerably beyond the usual period. Quoting once more from Mr. Ellis, that gentleman, writing in the autumn of 1877, states that on his estate "in June the first young badger appeared at the mouth of the earth, and was soon followed by three others, and then by their mother. After this, they continued to show themselves every evening, and soon learned to take the food prepared for them. The young are now almost full grown, and, forgetting their natural timidity, will feed so near that I have placed my hand on the back of one of them. The old ones are more wary, but often feed with their family, although at a more cautious distance. Their hearing and sense of smell are most acute, and it is curious to see them watch, with lifted head and ears erect, then, if all is quiet, search the ground for a raisin or a date. But the least strange sight or sound alarms them, and they rush headlong to earth with amazing speed." When taken young, badgers may be easily and perfectly tamed. The difficulty of ' ' drawing a badger ' ' when in a tub is well known, and tries the pluck of the best bred terriers to the utmost. It appears, however, that in Germany dachshunds usually bolt the badger from its burrow, unless they are foiled by the creature digging deeper down, and burying himself be- neath the upturned soil. Other methods employed in Germany are either digging the animal out by following the course of the burrow, or by boring directly down upon it by means of a kind of gigantic corkscrew. Digging out is also sometimes resorted to in England, but the more common plan is to tie an empty sack, with a running noose round the mouth, in the entrance of the badger's burrow while the occupant is abroad, and then drive him in with dogs. The fur and hairs of the common badger are used for the same pur- poses as those of its American cousin ; but the hairs, being stiffer, are better adapted for brushes. 6;8 THE CARNIVORES It has already been mentioned that fossil remains of the common badger are met with in the cavern and other superficial deposits of England; and it may be added that they also occur in those of the Continent. Beyond these, however, no fossil badgers have hitherto been met with, except in strata of the Pliocene period in Persia. When our comparatively full acquaintance with the extinct Tertiary Mammals of Europe and Northern India is taken into account, this remarkable absence of the remains of badgers is strongly suggestive that Persia or the adjacent regions must have been the original ancestral home of these animals, from whence they migrated westward. THE MALAYAN BADGER. (One-fourth natural size.) THE MALAYAN BADGER Genus Mydaus As being the sole representative of the badgers inhabiting the islands of the Malayan region, the curious looking animal depicted in the accompanying illustra- tion may be appropriately designated the Malayan badger. It is known to the natives of Java as the Teledu, while by the Germans it is termed, on account of its evil odor, Stinkdachs ; its technical name being Mydaus meliceps. The Malayan badger forms a kind of connecting link between the true badgers and the under-mentioned sand-badgers, having a tail shorter than in the former, while its cheek-teeth are much more like those of the latter. It is a comparatively small animal, the length of the head and body being about fifteen inches, and that THE SAND-BADGER 679 of the stumpy tail only some three-fourths of an inch. With the ^exception of the back of the head, the top of the neck, a stripe down the back, and the tip of the tail, which are whitish, the general color of the long and thick fur is dark brown, but lighter below than above. There is a kind of crest of long hair on the back of the head and neck. The muzzle is long and pointed, and almost entirely naked in front of the eyes, with the flesh-colored nostrils obliquely truncated and mobile. The Malayan badger appears to be confined to the mountains of Java, Sumatra, and Borneo, ranging in the former island from an elevation of about five hundred to up- ward of seven thousand feet above the level of the sea. In Borneo it is found at elevations of not more than eighty or one hundred feet, and in Sumatra does not ascend above one thousand feet. It is a nocturnal and burrowing animal, not un- common in some districts. Horsfield, the original describer of this animal, says that when killed carefully and the scent glands immediately removed, the flesh of the Malayan badger is quite free from odor, and far from unpalatable. The secretion of the glands is, however, fetid in the extreme, and has been compared to that of the skunks. As in the latter, it can be ejected by the animal to a considerable distance. We have but little in- formation as to the habits of this animal in a wild state; but it is stated to be gentle and easily tamed when in captivity. THE SAND-BADGER Genus Ardonyx With the sand-badger or, as it is often termed, the hog-badger (Ardonyx collaris} , we come to our last representative of the badgers, and at the same time of the present section of the Weasel family. The ordinary sand-badger is an Indian species, ranging from the Eastern Himalayas through Assam and the neighboring regions to Tenasserim and Lower Burma. There is, however, also a smaller species (A. taxoides), inhabiting Assam and Arakan, and possibly China; while there is probably a third in Eastern Tibet. The sand-badgers are easily distinguished from the other members of the group by their proportionately-longer tails; that of the Indian species being from a quarter to a third the length of the head and body. 'The long and naked snout is very like that of the Malayan badger; the eyes are small and the ears also small and rounded. The body is rather flattened from side to side; and only a portion of the naked soles of the feet are applied to the ground in walking, so that these animals may be de- scribed as digitigrade rather than plantigrade when in motion. The pelage consists of a full soft under-fur, mingled with long stiff hairs. In color the Indian sand- badger is dirty gray both above and below, with a more or less marked blackish tinge on the back, most of the individual hairs being dirty white throughout their length, but the lo"cro r ones on the back and sides having black tips. The head is white, with some variable black bands, while the lower parts and limbs are dusky, the limbs being sometimes black. Here, then, we have another instance of the ten- dency in the present family for the under parts to be lighter than the upper regions. 68o THE CARNIVORES In length the Indian sand-badger measures about thirty inches from the snout to the root of the tail; the length of the latter, inclusive of the hair at the tip being about eleven inches. The most marked peculiarities of these animals are, however, to be found in the structure of their skulls. Thus the skull differs from that of any other Mam- mal, except some of the edentates and dolphins, in having the bony palate prolonged as far back as the level of the cavity for the reception of the condyle of the lower jaw. The teeth are numerically the same as in the true badgers, but the upper molar tooth, instead of forming a regular oblong, has its hindmost, outer angle excavated, so that the inner border of the tooth is much longer than the outer one. The first pretnolar tooth in the upper jaw is very minute, and is often soon shed. Writing of the habits of the Indian sand-badger, from notes sup- plied by Colonel Tickell, Mr. Blanford states that it "frequents un- dulating stony ground or small hills among jungle, and lives in fissures of the rocks or holes dug by itself. It is thoroughly nocturnal. In captivity it is dull and uninteresting, feeding voraciously on meats, fish, reptiles, or fruits, and it is par- ticularly fond of earthworms. One individual used to pass the day sleeping in a hole that it had dug, and was very savage if disturbed. When angry it made a loud grunting noise and bit fiercely. It was dull of sight, and its only acute sense appeared to be that of smell. It was in the habit of raising its snout in the air in order to scent any one who approached, much as a pig does. This animal had no disagreeable odor. ' ' THE OTTERS Genus Lutra The otters, which, with the sole exception of the sea-otter, are included in a single genus, constitute the third and last main group into which the members of the Weasel family are divided. They are characterized generally by their short and rounded feet, although the hind-feet of the sea-otter are an exception in this respect, their webbed toes, and their small, curved, and blunt claws. They all have very broad and flattened heads, furnished with small external ears, and joined to the long flattened body by a thick neck, which passes imperceptibly from the head in front into the trunk behind. The tail is moderately long, while the limbs are extremly short. The fur is soft, thick, and of a uniformly brownish color over the whole body, except on the under parts, where it is generally of a more grayish hue. The teeth of the otters are characterized by the nearly square form of the molar in the upper jaw, which, as shown in the accompanying figure, has its inner portion much expanded. All the species of these animals are thoroughly aquatic in their habits. The typical otters, which include all the species except the sea-otter, are char- acterized by their hind-feet being of normal form, and by the number and structure of their teeth. As a rule, the total number of teeth is 36, of which, on each side of THE OTTERS 68 1 the jaws, f are incisors, T canines, f premolars, and ^ molars. Thjg first premolar PALATE OF THE d,AWI,ESS OTTER. The uppermost tooth on each side is the molar, im- mediately below which is the flesh-tooth. tooth in the upper jaw is, however, always very small, and in some species (as in the case of the palate here figured) may be totally wanting, thus reducing the number of the teeth to 34. The general characteristics of the teeth of the upper jaw will be appar- ent from the figure, and it will be seen that the hinder teeth are furnished with a num- ber of sharp cusps, admirably adapted to as- sist in retaining the slippery prey of these animals. In addition to the peculiar charac- teristics of the teeth, the skull of an otter may always be recognized at a glance by its extreme constriction immediately behind the sockets of the eyes, and the equally marked expansion of the flattened brain case; the portion of the skull forming the face being also very short in proportion to the remain- der. The tail is thick at the base, and somewhat flattened from above downward. In most cases there are short claws on all the feet, but in a few species they may be either rudimentary or absent. In all parts of their organization otters are admirably adapted for their particu- lar mode of life; their elongated forms, with but slight constriction at the neck, be- ing perfectly suited to glide through the water with the greatest ease and speed; their thick, dense fur forming a perfect protection against chill, and their teeth, as we have mentioned, being specially modified in order both to hold such slippery prey as fishes, and at the same time to pierce with facility their hard scales. Probably, in consequence of their precisely similar habits and mode of life, all the otters are so like one another that it is extremely difficult to determine the exact number of species, and scarcely any group has proved more puzzling in this respect to the sys- tematic zoologist. It appears, however, that there are about ten species of true ot- ters, of which one is European and Oriental, three are exclusively Oriental, two are African, and four American. The largest of all is the Brazilian otter, while the two smallest species are the feline otter of South America and the Indian clawless otter. The geographical distribution of the genus is- wider than that of any other single Mammalian genus, with the exception of certain bats; otters having been obtained from all parts of the world except the Antarctic and Arctic regions, Australasia, and Madagascar. We shall allude to the various species of the genus according to their geographical distribution. The European otter (/,. vulgaris), is taken first, as being not only the type of the genus, but likewise the best known; and many of our remarks on its habits will also apply equally well to the others. In size this species occupies a kind of central position in the group, the average length from the snout to the root of the tail being about twenty-six to twenty-eight inches, and that of the tail fifteen to sixteen inches, while the weight is from six- teen to eighteen, up to as much as twenty-four pounds. The fur consists of a soft European Otter 682 THE CARNIVORES under-fur, in which the hairs are whitish gray, with brown tips, and of longer stiff hairs, which are grayish at the base, and rich brown at their tips on the upper parts of the body and the outer surfaces of the limbs; the cheeks, throat, the under parts of the body, and the inner surfaces of the limbs being brownish gray. The upper margin of the naked nose terminates behind in an angle, while, as in the other species, the muzzle is provided with long ' ' whiskers. ' ' In the Indian variety, which was formerly regarded as a distinct species, the fur of the back is generally grizzled, while the size of the animal is slightly less than in the ordinary European form. The claws on all the feet are well developed, and there are four premolar teeth in the upper jaw. The common otter is found all over Europe in suitable localities, and also extends over a large portion of Asia northward of the Himalayas. It is likewise represented by the ordinary form in the Northwestern Himalayas, and by the above-mentioned smaller and grayer variety in India and Ceylon, as well as in some of the districts to the eastward of the Bay of Bengal. Writing of the habits of the common otter, Bell observes that "it swims and dives with great readiness, and with peculiar ease and ele- gance of movements; and although its action on land is far from being awkward and SKELETON OF THE COMMON OTTER. difficult, yet it is certainly in the water that the beautiful adaptation of its structure to its habits is most strikingly exhibited. It swims in nearly a horizontal position, and dives instantaneously after the fish that may glide beneath it, or pursues it un- der water, changing its course as the fish darts in various directions to escape from it, and, when the prey is secured, brings it on shore to its retreat to feed. As the otter lives exclusively on fish, when it can procure them, it frequents lakes, rivers, smaller streams, or ponds, and not unfrequently descends to the sea; and the havoc which it makes among the finny inhabitants is almost incredible. In feeding, it holds the fish between its fore-paws, eating first the head, and then downward to the vent, leaving the tail." The fish actually eaten by the otter form, however, but a small proportion of those captured; this animal being one of those which appears to delight in killing for killing's sake. In India the common otter is occasionally found in the large tanks so common throughout the country, and it is stated by Mr. Blanford to be common in the great backwaters off the Western Coast, and in the Chilka lake of Orissa. Otters are generally found either in pairs or in family parties of five or six indi- viduals, the latter comprising the parents and their partially or full-grown progeny. or LJ h- h- o LJ Q_ O LoJ THE OTTERS 683 Their habitations are usually made in or near the banks of the waters they frequent, the hollows beneath the roots of trees growing on a river's margin being especial favorites, while in hilly districts the clefts between rocks are selected, and where the soil is of an alluvial nature deep burrows, with several entrances, one of which usually opens beneath the water, are excavated in the banks. A large pile of loose stones, forming one of the piers of a timber bridge over the Indus above the town of Leh has long been the favorite resort of a colony of otters. The presence of numer- ous bones and scales of fish, as well as the peculiar web-footed tracks of the animals themselves, will always indicate whether or not an otter's den or "holt" is inhabited. Otters apparently never hibernate, and in consequence must be hard pressed to supply themselves with food during the winter in the colder portions of their habitat. At such times they are asserted in inhabited districts to make occasional raids on the farmyard, where they have been known to kill poultry and, it is said, even young lambs and pigs. Waterfowl are probably also attacked at such periods, while it is stated that eggs are always acceptable to these animals. In addition to fish, otters are in the habit of eating frogs and such fresh-water or marine crusta- ceans as are found in the waters they frequent. Although chiefly nocturnal, more especially in districts where they are much harassed, otters may not unfrequently be seen hunting in the morning and even- ing, Mr. Blanford stating that he has frequently observed them in India at work up to nine or ten o'clock in the morning. When fishing, it appears that all the members of a party of otters are in the habit of combining their efforts to surround or drive a shoal of fish. General M' Master had on one occasion the good fortune to observe a party comprising at least six individuals thus engaged in the Chilka lake of Orissa. " They worked," writes the narrator of the incident, " most sys- tematically in a semicircle, with intervals of about fifty yards between each, having I suppose, a large shoal of fish in the centre, for every now and then an otter would disappear, and generally, when it was again seen, it was well within the semicircle, with a fish in its jaws, caught more for pleasure than for profit, as the fish, so far as I could see, were always left untouched beyond a single bite. ' ' The large size of the aperture in the skull below the socket of the eye for the transmission of the nerves supplying the muzzle, indicates that the "whiskers" of the otter must be extremely sensitive. With regard to their powers of hearing, smell, and sight, Mr. Blanford believes that, while the two former are well developed, otters are somewhat deficient in the latter. Their general intelligence is decidedly high, and they likewise often display much cunning and forethought, more espe- cially in avoiding the traps set for their capture. When excited they utter a kind of yelping bark, and they are stated to give a sort of whistle as an alarm note to their fellows. There is still a dearth of information as to the breeding habits of the otter. It appears, however, that the young may be produced at any season of the year, although the winter is the more usual time. The number of young in a litter generally varies from two to five, the cubs themselves being born blind. Tame Otters ^ e otter * s readily tamed if captured at a sufficiently early age, and then becomes much attached to its owner, whom it will follow about after the manner of a dog. The natural instincts of these animals are taken 684 THE CARNIVORES advantage of by the native fishermen of some Oriental countries to aid them in their avocations. The late Bishop Heber, when voyaging up one of the rivers of Bengal, states that his vessel passed ' ' a row of no less than nine or ten large and very beau- tiful otters tethered with straw collars and long strings to the bambo stakes on the banks. Some were swimming about at the full extent of their strings, or lying half in and half out of the water; others were rolling themselves in the sun on the sandy bank, uttering a shrill whistling noise, as if in play. I was told that most of the fishermen in the neighborhood kept one or more of these animals, who were almost as tame as dogs and of great use in fishing, sometimes driving the shoals into the nets, sometimes bringing out the larger fish with their teeth." According to later authorities it appears, however, that the bishop was misinformed as to the otters be- ing employed to catch fish with their teeth, their sole use in India being to drive the latter into the nets. In China, on the other hand, otters are actually employed in the former operation. H ,. Otter hunting in England has been already alluded to briefly under the head of the otterhound; and from the facts there mentioned it will be gathered that these animals are still fairly numerous in many of the wilder parts of the country. Otter fur, from its close texture, fine gloss, and rich color, is much Pelage esteemed as a trimming, and commands a rather high price in the market. A large number of the otter skins exported to England belong, how- ever, to the North- American species. Skins of the European species vary from one to seven dollars in price. .. Fossil remains of the common otter have been obtained from the r ossil Kemams superficial deposits and caverns of England and the Continent, and likewise from the so-called " forest bed" of the Eastern Coast, which is somewhat older. A fossil otter from the still more ancient Norwich Crag, belonging to the upper portion of the Pliocene period has, moreover, been identified with the present species. This otter (L. canadensis] is distinguished from the preceding by the much larger size of the naked area at the tip of the muzzle, which ex- can Otter tends far above and to the sides of the nostrils, instead of being en- tirely confined to the space between them, as in the latter. According to Dr. Coues, it is very variable in point of size and color. It may, however, attain a total length of four feet or more, while the general color of the fur is liver brown with a purplish gloss, the chin, throat, and under parts being paler. This species occurs over the whole of North America in suitable regions, although apparently nowhere very numerous; its northern range extending along the Mackenzie and other rivers nearly to the Arctic Ocean. There does not appear much that is especially noteworthy or pecu- liar in the habits of this species. Dr. Hart Merriam states that in the Adirondack region the number of fresh-water crawfish consumed by these otters is enormous, this crustacean apparently forming as important a portion of their food as fish. The same writer also bears testimony as to the long journeys undertaken by the North- American otter from river to river across country; these journeys THE OTTERS 685 mostly taking place during the winter. On such occasions they 'ego so fast that a man has great difficulty in overtaking them. On the ice they proceed by a series of what boys call ' a run and a slide,' that is, they make several jumps and then slide ahead flat on their bellies, as far as their impetus and the smoothness of the ice per- mit, and then do the same thing over again, and so on." A curious habit of this otter is its propensity for sliding down smooth and steep banks, either of snow or of mud. Such gambols have been watched by several observers, from whose accounts it appears that in winter the animals select the highest ridge of snow, onto the top of which they scramble, whence, as Dr. J. D. Godman writes, they give themselves an impulse with their hind-legs, and swiftly glide headforemost down the declivity, sometimes for a distance of twenty yards. This sport they continue apparently with the greatest enjoyment until fatigue or hunger induces them to desist. A pair on a mud bank made upward of twenty-two slides before they were disturbed. The number of young in a litter is said to be usually two, although there may oc- casionally be either one or three. They are born about the middle of April, and dur- ing the summer and autumn the female is generally to be seen accompanied by her two young. 'The fur of the otter is more valuable than that of any other North- American animal, and is in good condition from November till the spring, but is at its best period during the latter season. It is stated by Dr. Coues that the number of skins of the American otter exported by the Hudson's Bay Company to London in the year 1873 exceeded 11,000, while in 1891 the same com- pany sold 8,171 skins. The ordinary price varies from seven to twelve dollars per skin. Trapping These otters are usually caught in steel traps, which are set beneath the water where one of the "slides " or tracks of the animals leads to the margin. Sometimes the trap is, however, placed at the top of the slide and covered with snow. In neither case is any bait used; but in all methods the great- est care is necessary that no traces of the trapper's presence should remain, as the otter has very acute smell and sight, and is exceedingly wary and cunning. South America possesses at least three species of otters, of which the most noteworthy are the Brazilian otter and the feline otter. The Brazilian otter (Z,. brasiliensis) is much the largest of all the living species, and is dis- Brazilian Otter . tmguished by the presence of a distinct ridge running along each side of the tail, whence it is often termed the margined-tailed otter. It inhabits the rivers of Brazil and Guiana, where it is known as the Ariranha. The length of the head and body is over forty inches, while that of the tail is about twenty-three inches. The nose is completely covered with hair, and the general color of the pel- age is chocolate brown, becoming lighter on the under parts. The chin, as well as a large irregular patch on the throat, and some spots on the under surface of the body are, however, whitish or yellow. In some of the South-American rivers these otters may be met with Habits . , . . . in large companies, and they differ from most other species m being purely diurnal, commencing their hunting with the dawn of day and continuing till 686 THE CARNIVORES nightfall. When in such companies, the otters utter a kind of whistling sound, which is said to have some resemblance to the mewing of cats. Hensel states that, when traveling on the Brazilian rivers in a canoe, the voyager, when shooting out from beneath the overhanging branches of a tree, may often see a number of black objects in the water, which at his approach tend to collect together. Careful ob- servation will show that these are otters, but by the time the canoe has reached the spot where they were first seen all will have disappeared. Soon, however, the traveler's ears are struck by a peculiar snorting sound, and, as he looks around, he sees the water on all sides dotted with the dark heads of the giant otters, which, with a second snort, disappear again as quick as lightning beneath the surface. The feline otter (L. felina) is, on the other hand, one of the small- Feline Otter , r ,, . .... . , , est members of the group, agreeing approximately in size with the Indian clawless otter. It is characterized by its relatively-short face and its light and delicate teeth, the inner tubercle of the upper flesh-tooth being much smaller than in the other species from the same regions. This species also differs from other otters in being almost exclusively marine in its habits. In regard to its dis- tribution, Mr. O. Thomas states that "in the Southern Hemisphere it extends to the straits of Magellan, where its range meets that of the larger Brazilian otter. Thence northward it is exceedingly common along the coasts of Patagonia and Chili, where the complex labyrinths of gulfs and channels are highly favorable to its manner of life." It has been found in Peru and Ecuador. In regard to the naked-nosed and flat-headed South-American otters, inter- mediate in size between the two last species, there is still much uncertainty, but they are all provisionally included under the name of L. paranensis. In addition to the common European otter, which as we have Smooth Indian in . ,11 A T j- ^1 _ already seen, is represented by a variety in India, there are three In- dian and Malayan representatives of the group. The first of these species is the smooth Indian otter {L. macrodiis), readily distinguished from the common otter by the upper border of the naked portion of the muzzle forming a straight line, while the fur is very smooth and short. Then, again, the skull is less depressed and flattened, and the molar and flesh-tooth in the upper jaw are very large, the latter differing from the corresponding tooth of the common species by the larger proportionate size of the tubercular portion on the inner side of the blade. This otter is found all over India, and also extends to Burma, the Malay Peninsula, and Sumatra. Its habits appear to be very similar to those of the common otter, and, like the latter, it is trained for fishing. The hairy-nosed otter (L. sumatrana) is a very well-marked species Hairy-Nosed . ,. . . , , . ,. , ,, Q,. from the Malayan region, distinguished, as its name implies, by the muzzle being completely covered with hair; the inner tubercle of the upper flesh-tooth being relatively small. A closely-allied extinct species (/,. palceindica) occurs in the Siwalik hills of Northern India. There is also the much smaller Indian clawless otter (/,. cinerea}, er differing from the others not only by its inferior dimensions, but also by the rudimentary condition, or even total absence, of the claws. The upper teeth (shown in the figure on p. 681) are distinguished by the absence of the first THE OTTERS 687 African Otters premolar, and the great length from front to back of the molar tooth. Moreover, the whole skull is much shorter than in the other species. The length of the head and body of this otter varies from twenty-two to twenty-four inches, and that of the tail from ten and one-half to thirteen inches. The clawless otter ranges from India through Burma and the Malay Peninsula and islands to China. In India it occurs in the Himalayas at low elevations, in Lower Bengal and the Nilgiri hills of Madras, and perhaps also in Ceylon. It appears to be the only otter found in Java. Ac- cording to Mr. Blanford, the habits of this otter are similar to those of the other Oriental species. The whole African continent possesses but two members of the group under consideration. The first of these is the African clawless otter (/,. capensis), from South and West Africa, which, while agreeing with the Indian clawless otter in the rudimentary condition of its claws, is distinguished by its greatly superior dimensions; being, next to the Brazilian otter, the largest rep- resentative of the whole group. Writing of this species, which he alludes to under another Latin name, the late Professor Moseley states that "among the animals which live on the Cape Peninsula, the clawless otter is worthy of mention; it is a very large otter, twice or three times as large when full-grown as the European one. It lives about the salt marshes and lakes, and is tolerably common; it hunts, like the South- American marine otter, in companies, but only of three or four. It has no claws on the fore-feet, having lost them by natural selection in some way or other, and on the hind-feet the claws are wanting on the outer toes, and only rudiments of them remain on the middle ones. There are, however, pits marking the places where the claws used to exist. The webbing between the toes is also in this otter rudimentary; the beast altogether is very heavily built, with the head very broad and powerful. It appears to be an otter bent on returning to land habits." The spotted-necked otter (L. maculicollis) is one of the smaller members of the group, with well-developed claws. It has a naked nose, and very long hind- feet; the color of the fur being blackish brown, with yellow spots on the throat, chest and under parts. This otter has been obtained from the Cape and Natal. Reference has already been made to the occurrence of the common otter in the superficial deposits of Europe, and also of an extinct species allied to the hairy-nosed THE I,EFT UPPER otter in the Siwalik hills of India. In addition to these, there are . numerous extinct otters in the Pliocene and Miocene deposits of Europe, some of which appear to connect existing forms with the martens and their allies. Another is remarkable as appearing to indicate affinities between the otters and the civets, and thus serves to confirm the previously-mentioned evidence as to the existence of some relation- ship between the now widely divergent families of the weasels and civets. The otter-like animal is distinguished from all other members of the present family by having two molar teeth on each side of the upper jaw. Spotted- Necked Otter Extinct Otters F LESH-TOOTH OF AN EXTINCT IN- DIAN OTTER The outer rid g e 6 of figure) is 688 THE CARNIVORES Especial interest must also attach to some giant otters from the Siwalik hills of India, which were even larger than the existing Brazilian otter. An upper flesh- tooth of one of these otters is represented in the cut on p. 687, which will give some idea of their dimensions. By comparing this figure with the corresponding tooth of the recent skull represented on p. 68 1, it will be observed that these gigantic Siwalik otters are distinguished by having three distinct cusps, instead of a crescentic cutting edge on the inner tubercular portion of the upper flesh-tooth. THE SEA-OTTER t Genus Latax As we have already seen, the feline otter of South America is in the habit of frequenting the lagoons and bays of its native coasts rather than rivers, and these THE SEA-OTTER. (One-tenth natural size.) (After Wolf.) marine habits are still more characteristic of the animal known as the sea-otter (Latax lutris}, which is regarded as forming a genus by itself. The sea-otter has a total length of about four feet, of which one foot, or rather less, is occupied by the tail. In general appearance it is compared by Dr. Coues to one of the eared seals, a resemblance which is increased by the long and flipper-like hind-feet, quite unlike those of all other members of the family to which it belongs. The body has a bolster-like form, tapering in front to join the rather small and rounded head, without any marked constriction at the neck. Both the limbs and tail are short, the latter being cylindrical, slightly tapering, and somewhat trun- THE SEA-OTTER 689 cated at the end; while the disparity in the size of the fore and hind-feet is quite unknown in any of the Carnivores hitherto described. The skin is remarkably large and loose for the size of the animal, so that when removed from the body it can readily be stretched to a third more than its normal length. The pelage consists mainly of a fine soft woolly under-fur, among which are a small proportion of long, stiff hairs. The general color is dark, liver brown, silvered over with the grayish tips of the long hairs. Remarkable as are the external characteristics of the sea-otter, it is not, how- ever, solely, or even chiefly on them, that the zoologist relies in referring the ani- mal to a genus apart from that containing the true otters. Equally noteworthy pe- culiarities occur in the number and structure of the teeth. In the first place, there are but two pairs of incisor teeth in the lower jaw, a feature in which this species differs not only from other otters but likewise from every other true Carnivore. The total number of teeth is, therefore, thirty -two, as against thirty-six in the common otter; there being, as in the Indian clawless otter, but three pairs of premolar teeth in both the upper and the lower jaws. The cheek-teeth, although of the same gen- eral plan of structure as in the true otters, differ by their extremely blunted and rounded cusps. " If , " remarks Dr. Coues, ' ' the teeth of ordinary carnivorous quadrupeds be likened to fresh -chipped, sharp, and angular bits of rock, those of the sea-otter are comparable to water- worn pebbles ' ' ; and we know of no simile which can better express the difference between the cheek-teeth of the common and the sea-otter. The sea-otter in an inhabitant of both coasts of the North Pacific; its chief haunts on the American side being Alaska, the Aleutian is- lands, the neighborhood of Sitka island on the west coast of Canada, and Vancouver island; its southern limits being the shores of Oregon. On the Asiatic side it occurs in Kamchatka, but apparently more rarely than on the eastern shores of the Pacific. It is stated by Mr. H. W. Elliot that when the Russian traders first opened up the Aleutian islands, they found the natives commonly wearing cloaks made of the fur of the sea-otter, which they were at first willing to sell for a mere trifle, esteem- ing these skins much less than they did those of the fur-seals. Again, when the Pribilof islands, situated in Behring Sea to the eastward of the Aleutians, were first discovered, upward of five thousand skins of this species were taken in the first season, while in six years these animals had completely disappeared from the islands. Nearly the same story is told in all the haunts of the sea-otter, which has now be- come a very rare animal indeed, and stands in sore need of protection if it is to escape total extermination. Mr. Elliot states that " over two-thirds of all the sea- otters taken in Alaska are secured in two small areas of water, little rocky islets and reefs around the islands of Sanak and Chernobours, which proves that these ani- mals, in spite of the incessant hunting all the year round on this ground, seem to have some particular preference for it to the practical exclusion of nearly all the rest of the territory. This may be due to its better adaptation as a breeding ground." A similar preference for a small area in the neighborhood of Gray's harbor over the whole of the remainder of the coast of Washington and Oregon is also exhibited by these animals. 44 690 THE CARNIVORES It is not the mainland of Sanak island which is frequented by the sea-otters,, but the small islets and reefs lying to the southward and westward at a distance of about five miles, and thence stretching seaward, most of which are left bare at low water. Either on these islets and reefs, or, in calm weather, in the open sea around, the sea-otters are to be found. The female sea-otter has only two teats, and produces but a single young one at a birth, so that the increase of the species can be, at the best, but slow. The young may apparently be born at any season of the year, and do not attain maturity till four or five years old. Writing of the general habits of the species, Mr. Elliot observes that the " mother sleeps in the water on her back, with her young clasped between her fore-paws. The pup cannot live without its mother, though frequent attempts have been made by the natives to raise them, as they of- ten capture them alive, but, like some other species of wild animals, it seems to be so deeply imbued with fear of man that it invariably dies from self-imposed star- vation. The remarkable difference in the structure of the cheek-teeth of the sea-otter from those of the true otters, clearly indicates that there must be an equally marked difference in the food of the two; and the rounded prom- inences on the crowns of those of the present species would further suggest that they were adapted for pounding and crushing hard substances. As a matter of fact, Mr. Elliot tells us that the food of the sea-otters " is almost entirely composed of clams, mussels, and sea urchins, of which they are very fond, and which they break by striking the shells together, held in each fore-paw, sucking out the contents as they are fractured by these efforts; they also undoubtedly eat crabs, and the juicy tender fronds of kelp or seaweed, and fish. They are not polygamous, and more than one individual is seldom seen at a time when out at sea. The flesh is very unpalatable, highly charged with a rank smell and flavor. They are playful, it would seem, for I am assured by several old hunters that they have watched the sea-otter for half an hour as it lay upon its back in the water and tossed a piece of seaweed up in the air from paw to paw, apparently taking great delight in catching it before it could fall into the water. It will also play with its young for hours. The quick hearing and acute smell possessed by the sea-otter are not equaled by any other creature in the territory. They will take alarm and leave from the effects of a small fire four or five miles to the windward of them; and the footstep of man must be washed by many tides before its trace ceases to alarm the animal, and drive it from landing." In Alaska the sea-otter is often captured by shooting it in the head with a rifle bullet when the animal is sporting in the surf; the boom- ing of the surf deadening the report of the rifle, and thus allowing successive shots. to be taken till one is successful. An older plan is, however, for a party to go out in canoes when a sea-otter has been observed, and by arranging themselves in a circle around its last point of disappearance, so harass the creature on its subse- quent emergence that eventually it becomes exhausted from sheer inability to breathe. The third method is by knocking the animal on the head with heavy clubs; but this can only be done during the winter at such times when strong gales. are blowing from the northward. Then, writes Mr. Elliot, the boldest of the THE SEA-OTTER 691 natives set out in their canoes from Sanak, " and scud on the tail ea acterized by the straight profile of the head, the overhanging and sharply-pointed muzzle, the relatively-long ears, and the extreme length of the numerous bristles depending from the upper lip. A living example, formerly ex- hibited in the London Zoological Society's Gardens, had a whitish-red fur grizzled with blackish hairs, while the under parts were of a reddish-brown color. This seal appears to be confined to South Africa, inhabiting the small islands around the Cape of Good Hope, as well as others some forty miles distant from Port Elizabeth. It probably also once inhabited Tristan da Cunha. It is still fairly common, but its fur is of comparatively little value, owing to the shortness of the hair, although that of the young animals is longer. Some years ago, from 70,000 to 80,000 skins THE WALRUS 713 were annually imported from the Cape into London, but the number is now much reduced. In Algoa bay as many as from 200 to 300 of these seals have been taken during a single night. There has been much uncertainty with regard to the fur-seals of the New Zealand . .. Fur-Seal Australian seas, but it now appears that there is but one species, namely, the New Zealand fur-seal ( O. forsteri ) , of which the so-called cinereous fur-seal (O. cinerea), according to Mr. H. O. Forbes, is the female. This seal is the only one found on the New Zealand coasts, and it also occurs at Chatham island and the Seal Rocks near Port Stephens. Although formerly abundant, it is now becoming very rare. At the time of Flinders' visit in 1798 it was found in thousands at Passage Point, to the north of Tasmania. The males are usually dark gray above and brown below, while the lighter females are generally yellowish brown above and dark below, some of them having a crest of long whitish hairs. While the fur of the male is valuable and beautifully curled, that of the female seems to have frequently but little under-fur, so that skins have been described as those of hair-seals. THE WALRUS Family TRICHECHID^ The huge and ungainly animals, commonly known by the name of walrus (from the Scandinavian valross, meaning whale-horse), constitute not only a distinct SKELETON OF THE WALRUS. genus of the Pinniped Carnivores, but are likewise the sole representatives of a special family. Walruses are strictly confined at the present day to the Arctic regions of both Hemispheres ; but there is some difference of opinion as to whether those found in the- Pacific are specifically distinct from the typical Atlantic form. The two are, however, so extremely closely allied that we prefer to regard them as belonging to a single species ( Trichechus rosmarus}. In many respects the walrus is nearly allied to the eared seals, this being especially shown in the structure of the hind-limbs. Thus the hind-feet are capable THE CARNIVORES of being turned forward beneath the body, and are employed in locomotion on land; while they have the three middle digits much smaller than the outer pair. Moreover, the toes of the hind- feet are similarly terminated by large lobes projecting far beyond the extremities of the bones; and the fore-limbs are nearly as large as the hinder ones. The walrus differs, however, from the eared seals in the total absence of exter- nal ears, and also in its massive and clumsy build, as well as in the number and structure of its teeth. Thus the front portion of the skull is greatly swollen, and carries a pair of very long and laterally-compressed tusks, or canine teeth, depend- ing from the upper jaw. In the adult animal internally to these tusks there is usually a row of four small teeth, of which in the young state the first is situated in advance of the latter, and is, therefore, an incisor; the other three being premolars. The lower jaw has but four teeth on each side, of which the foremost corresponds to the upper tusk, while the other three represent the premolars. Consequently, an adult walrus has but eighteen teeth altogether. The young animal has, how- ever two pairs of incisor teeth in both jaws, and five upper and four lower cheek- teeth; thus, with the tusks, bringing up the total number of teeth to thirty. We thus see that the young walrus presents resemblances to the eared seals in respect of the number of its teeth, which are totally lost in the adult animal. Our figure of the skeleton of the walrus shows the tusks in their full de- velopment; the illustration of the living animal being taken from examples with poorly-developed tusks. With the exception of these large upper tusks, all the teeth have low, blunted, subcon- ical crowns, admirably adapted for crushing the mollusks on which these animals so largely subsist. In comparison with the size of the body, the head of the wal- rus is rather small, and while squared and abruptly truncated in front is somewhat rounded behind; this rounded appearance being in- creased by the absence of all trace of external ears. The muzzle seems to be divided into two lobes by the vertical groove below the nostrils, and is furnished on either side with a num- ber of stout translucent bristles growing from the upper lips. The eye is very small; and the entire head has a remarkably-rugged and battered appearance; the lower jaw narrowing to a point between the upper tusks. The latter, which ordinarily project to a length of from twelve to fifteen or more inches below the level of the gum, communicate, of course, the most striking and characteristic feature to the head, and indeed to the whole animal. Although relatively longer than in the true HEAD OF WALRUS. THE WALRUS 715 seals, the neck is shorter than in the eared seals, and graduallyrthickens posteriorly, where it imperceptibly merges into the trunk. The body is extremely bulky and ungainly, with a rounded outline, and diminishing gradually in size from the shoul- WALRUSES ON THE ICE. (One-fortieth natural size.) ders to the hind-quarters. The tail is very small; and the limbs are to a great extent inclosed in the skin of the trunk. There are five rudimentary claws on both the fore and the hind-feet, the soles of which are completely devoid of hair. 716 THE CARNIVORES In the young of the walrus the body is thickly covered with short, yellowish- brown fur, which is thinner and shorter on the under parts and limbs than else- where, where it also becomes of a reddish-brown or chestnut tinge. This fur per- sists till middle age, but in old age becomes gradually more and more scanty, frequently disappearing almost completely, or even entirely, from patches of larger or smaller extent; while in some very old males of the Pacific walrus the whole skin may be almost naked. The skin over the entire body is thrown into a number of folds and wrinkles, these folds being heaviest in the region of the shoulders. The frequent fights in which these animals engage add a number of scars to the skin. Of four adult males measured by Mr. J. A. Allen the smallest had a length of nine and one-half and the largest of eleven feet, from the tip of the snout to the root of the tail. Other individuals have, however, been recorded, measuring somewhat more than twelve feet in total length; but the statements of fifteen or even sixteen- feet walruses must be received with hesitation. There is still much uncertainty as to the weight which these animals will attain. Parry gives the weight of an imma- ture female as 1,550 pounds; while other trustworthy writers set down the weight of full-grown males at from 2,250 to 3,000 pounds. Larger weights have, indeed, been suggested, but it is probable that in those cases the estimates were far too high. In regard to the size of the tusks of the Atlantic walrus, a fine pair men- tioned by Mr. Allen had a total length of twenty-four inches, of which probably about eighteen inches would have protruded from the jaw during life; the weight of each of these being four pounds. Others have, however, been obtained with a total length of thirty-one inches, and a weight of upward of eight pounds apiece; but such are, now at least, extremely rare. The tusks of females seldom exceed twenty inches in length. In the Pacific walrus the tusks are said to be longer and thicker, and more convergent; but we have not met with any account of their maxi- mum dimensions. In addition to this difference in the form of the tusks, the Pacific walrus has the muzzle proportionately broader and deeper, while the bristles on the upper lip are shorter and smaller. Important differences also occur in the form of the skull of the two varieties. The geographical range of the walrus has been considerably re- Distribution . j . . . , stncted in modern times owing to the incessant persecution of the animal in all accessible regions, and it is now exterminated in many places where it was formerly abundant. Its numbers have, indeed, been sadly diminished every- where, and unless it receive prompt and efficient protection it is one of those creatures which stand a good chance of becoming extinct; this being more especially the case with the Pacific variety. The Atlantic walrus was known in Europe during the latter part of the ninth century, and appears to have been hunted on the coast of Finmark about a century later, while by the year 1600 walrus hunting was a regular trade. Occasionally these animals wandered as far southward as the coasts of Scotland; and they were abundant on many of the islands near the northern coast of continental Europe, and even on the shores of the continent itself; while eastward their range extended into Asia as far as the river Lena. Northward, the walrus appears to extend as far as vessels have penetrated. In 1600 it was very THE WALRUS 717 abundant on Cheric or Bear island, lying about two hundred an4 eighty miles to the northward of Cape North, in Norway; no less than six or seven hundred having been killed on one occasion in six hours, while on another from nine hundred to a thousand were slaughtered in less than seven hours. The animals were accustomed to collect in large parties on the shore; and the plan adopted was first to shoot those nearest the sea, whose bodies then formed a barrier, cutting off the retreat of the rest. In less than eight years the walruses on Bear island had become scarce and shy, and it was not long before they were completely exterminated. The retreat- ing walruses were then followed to Spitzbergen and Greenland, and even there their numbers have so diminished that walrus hunting cannot be profitably conducted unless carried on in conjunction with whaling. Baron Nordenskjold states that at the present day the walrus is seldom found during summer on the west coast of Nova Zembla to the south of Matotshkin Shar, but that on the east coast of the same island, and in parts of the Kara Sea it is fairly common. It is but rarely seen in Iceland, but is not unfrequent on the coasts of Western Siberia. In America the Atlantic walrus formerly ranged from Nova Scotia to about latitude 80, and was at one time abundant in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the eastern coasts of Newfoundland and Labrador. About 1534, walruses were very abundant on the Magdalen islands in the Gulf of St. Lawrence; and many expedi- tions were soon after fitted out in Europe for the capture of the animals on these and adjacent islands. Till a few years ago, the heaps of walrus bones on the shores of the Magdalen islands attested the slaughter that had taken place. According to Dr. A. S. Packard, the last walrus seen in the Gulf of St. Lawrence was killed in 1840; but a few have been observed subsequently on some of the neighboring coasts and islands. In Greenland it was stated that about the year 1877, the walrus was only sparsely distributed in most places, with the exception of the tract lying between the 66th and 68th parallels, where it was sometimes met with in consider- able numbers, and was regularly hunted by the natives in their canoes. Walruses also occur on the west coast of Baffin's Bay, and some of the islands to the north; but their range appears to be limited by the western shore of Hudson's Bay; and as they are not again met with till we reach Alaska, a large part of the coast of Arctic America is probably uninhabited by them. Although the Pacific walrus has been known in Europe since the middle of the seventeenth century, it was not much molested by hunters till about the year 1860, by which date whaling had become much less profitable than it had been. The range of this variety was always much more restricted than that of its Atlantic cousin, reach- ing from the limit of ice southward on the American coast as far as latitude 55, and on the Asiatic shores to latitude 60. In longitude its range to the north of Behring Strait in the Arctic Sea was limited to the eastward by Point Barrow in Northern Alaska, and to the westward by Cape Chelagskoy, in longitude 170, on the northern coast of Siberia. As on the latter coast the range of the Atlantic walrus did not extend eastward of the Lena, the two varieties were widely separated from one another in this direction, as they also were in the opposite direction. On the Alaskan side of Behring Sea and Behring Strait, the Pacific walrus was formerly found in enormous herds in Bristol bay and Norton and Kotzebue sounds; and in 7i8 THE CARNIVORES summer it also visited the Pribilof islands in large numbers. These animals were likewise common on the Aleutian islands; but in the more southern portions of their range they were always sparsely distributed. Up to the year 1874 they were still found in innumerable herds where the waters of the Arctic Sea join with those of Behring Strait, and also in Behring Sea; but since that date their diminution has been rapid. It is stated that between the years 1870 and 1880 close on 2,000,000 gallons of walrus oil, and 400,000 pounds of ivory were obtained from these regions; thus representing the destruction of not far short of 100,000 animals. When the Russians first opened up the Pribilof islands, walruses were found in numbers on both St. Paul's and St. George's, but they soon retreated to Walrus island, leaving the other two to their less timorous cousins the sea-bears and sea-lions. It is stated that in a single year upward of 28,000 pounds of walrus ivory were obtained from the Pribilofs alone. In prehistoric times the range of the Atlantic walrus was much more extensive than during the historic epoch, on both the eastern and the western sides of the Atlantic. Thus its remains have been dredged up from the Dogger Bank off the eastern coast of England; while a skull was dug up from the peat near Ely, indi- cating that the animal formerly inhabited the valley of the Ouse, which was at that time probably an estuary. On the eastern coast of America walrus bones have been dug up as far south as New Jersey, Virginia, and even California. At a still earlier period walruses, which are considered to belong to an extinct species, inhabited both the eastern coast of England and the shores of Belgium ; numerous remains having been obtained from the so-called crags of the Pliocene period in both countries. There appears to be no well-marked difference between the habits of the Atlantic and Pacific varieties. Walruses are usually found in the neighborhood of shores or masses of floating ice, and are but seldom seen in the open sea. As a rule, they associate in companies or herds, depending in size upon the number of individuals in the particular locality. In addition to this fondness for each other's company, Baron Nordenskjold states that curiosity is a distinguish- ing trait of the walrus, and relates how that when on one occasion he rowed right into the midst of a herd, "part followed the boat long distances quite peaceably, now and then emitting a grunting sound; others swam quite close, and raised them- selves high out of the water, in order to take a view of the strangers. Others again, lay so closely packed on pieces of drift-ice as to sink them down to the water's edge, while their comrades swimming about in the sea endeavored with violence to gain a position on the already overfilled resting places, though a num- ber of unoccupied pieces of ice floated up and down in the neighborhood." When on shore, or on an ice floe, the various members of a party of walruses are described as huddling and pressing together against one another like pigs. From April to June, according to the latitude, is the breeding season; and during this period the walruses are stated to remain on shore for about a fortnight, during which time they neither eat nor drink. Usually there is but a single young produced at a birth ; and there is never more than a pair. The young are stated to- be suckled by the parent for upward of two years; and it is hence believed that THE WALRUS 719 the same female breeds but once in every three years. The females, while suckling their young, are said to assemble in herds apart from the males. Like seals, walruses appear to have circular breathing holes in the ice, to which they can resort from be- low without exposing themselves. The voice of these animals is a loud roar, which in the case of large herds can be heard at the distance of several miles. Unless molested, the walrus is stated to be gentle and inoffensive in disposition; but when attacked, displays great fierceness and vindictiveness, while its huge bulk renders it a formidable antagonist, especially when its aggressors are afloat in a small boat. Not less noteworthy is the affection of the female walrus for its young, and likewise the sympathy of all the members of a herd for a wounded comrade. When one of the herd is wounded, all its fellows are stated to combine together for its defense; and on such occasions the aspect of the animals is described as abso- lutely terrific. Either through confidence in their size and power, or from want of appreciation of danger, walruses when on shore or on the ice can often be ap- proached very closely, and may thus be easily dispatched; they learn, however, greater caution with experience. In other cases they seem to be more vigilant on all occasions, having a certain number of their body acting as sentinels. In hunt- ing them the great object is to cut off their retreat to the water, for if they once gain the open sea they generally escape. The number of walruses formerly found on the ice floes of Spitzbergen was so great, and so thickly were the creatures crowded together, that an eyewitness wrote of them as presenting the appearance of solid islands of animals. The walrus feeds chiefly upon thick-shelled bivalve mollusks, especially those commonly known as gapers. For crushing the shells of these mollusks the stunted and short cheek-teeth of the walrus are admirably adapted; but it appears that, after being broken the shells themselves are rejected, and only the soft portions of the mollusks swallowed. This molluskan diet is also supplemented by fish and various crustaceans; while in addition to these, large quantities of seaweed are also swallowed, although it is quite probable that their introduction into the creature's mouth is not intentional. It appears to be now ascertained beyond doubt that the chief use of the tusks of the walrus is to dig in the mud and ooze for the purpose of raking up the mollusks, on which it feeds so largely. Dr. R. Brown states, however, that he has seen walruses employ their tusks to aid in dragging their unwieldy bodies on to the ice, and also to aid their clumsy progress when on land. These observations are fully confirmed by Dr. Kane, who states that he has known walruses in this manner drag themselves on rocky islands to heights of sixty or a hundred feet above the level of the water. The walrus is killed when on land or ice either by means of long lances, or with rifles; while when at sea it is chased with special boats and harpooned. Allusion has already been made to the enormous numbers of these animals killed in the Magdalen islands, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, in the six- teenth and seventeenth centuries; but one more instance of an enormous destruction of these animals may be referred to in greater detail. This occurred in the summer of 1852 on Thousand island, lying off the southwest coast of Spitzbergen. Here, writes the narrater, Mr. Lamont, ' ' two small sloops, sailing in company, approached 720 THE CARNIVORES the island, and soon discovered a herd of walruses, numbering, as they calculated, from three to four thousand, reposing upon it. Four boats' crews, or sixteen men, proceeded to the attack with spears. One great mass of walruses lay in a small sandy bay, with rocks inclosing it on each side, and on a little mossy flat above the bay, but to which the bay formed the only convenient access for such unwieldy animals. A great many hundreds lay on other parts of the island at a little distance. The boats landed a little way off, so as not to frighten them, and the sixteen men, creeping along shore, got between the sea and the bay, full of walruses, before mentioned, and immediately commenced stabbing the animals next them. The walrus, although so active and fierce in the water, is very unwieldy and helpless on shore, and those in front soon succumbed to the lances of their as- sailants; the passage to the shore soon got so blocked up with the dead and dying that the unfortunate wretches could not pass over, and were in a manner barricaded by a wall of carcasses. ' ' The slaughter went on until the men were drenched with blood and thoroughly exhausted, while their lances became so blunt as to be useless. After returning to the ship to refresh themselves and grind their lances, the work of destruction was, however, resumed, and did not cease until upward of nine hun- dred animals had been slain. Even then, however, so sluggish and lethargic were the walruses, that several hundreds were still lying on adjacent parts of the island. When the narrator visited the spot six years later the carcasses were still lying as they fell, in some instances two or three feet deep, and the stench from them was perceptible for miles out at sea. The worst feature of this great slaughter was, in- deed, the circumstance that the perpetrators, owing to the size of their vessels, were only able to carry away a small portion of their victims. The walrus is hunted for the sake of its oil, hide, and tusks. The yield of oil is proportionately less than in the seals; the amount obtained from the largest speci- mens seldom exceeding five hundred pounds; and the quality also is stated to be in- ferior to seal oil. The hides are chiefly exported to Russia and Sweden, where the leather is used for harness and the soles of boots and shoes, and also is twisted into tiller ropes. The value of the hides in America is stated to be from two to four dollars per half skin. In thickness the skin varies from one to one and one-half inches. More valuable are the tusks, although their ivory is far inferior to that of elephants. The large amount of walrus ivory annually obtained has been already mentioned; and it may be added that, in America, while the price per pound was only forty or forty-five cents, in 1879, it had risen to a dollar or a dollar and a quarter in 1880; while in 1883 the price varied from four to four and a half dollars. Another Scandinavian name for the walrus is morse, while to the Inuits the animal is known as the awuk. THE TRUE, OR EARLESS SEAI.S Family With the true seals we come to the third and last family of the Pinniped Car- nivores. These animals are at once distinguished from the eared seals and the wal- THE TRUE, OR EARLESS SEALS 721 ruses by the characteristics of the hind-limbs, which, as shown in the accompanying figure, are permanently directed backward, and conjointly form a kind of rudder-like organ. Then, again there is no trace of any external ear; and the neck is shorter than in either of the two preceding families. As additional characteristics of the limbs, it may be mentioned that the front pair are always smaller than the hinder, and that the first digit or thumb of the former is always longer than the other digits; while the whole of the digits are furnished with well-developed claws situated at their ex- tremities. The hind-feet, which are incapable of the great expansion characteriz- ing those of the eared seals, usually have all the digits armed with claws, and generally want the long flaps of skin at their extremities, which characterize those of the eared seals. The number of front or incisor teeth is variable in the different groups; but there are constantly five pairs of cheek-teeth in each jaw, of which the first four belong to the premolar series. In all the species the under surfaces of both the fore and hind-feet are covered with hair; while the fur clothing the body is invariably stiff and devoid of any woolly under-fur. The true seals form a much less homogeneous group than the ared seals, and are arranged under several distinct genera; the total number of species being about sixteen or seventeen, al- though there is .still a certain amount of doubt in some cases as to whether some forms should be regarded merely as local races or as distinct species. The greater number of the genera have but a single species each, and in only one of the genera does the number of species exceed two. True seals occur along the shores of the temperate and colder portions of the globe; but the greater number are found in the Northern Hemisphere. Moreover, with the exception of the elephant-seals, the seals of the Northern and Habits Hemisphere belong to genera distinct from those inhabiting the Southern Hemisphere; and the whole of the Arctic species are generally distinct from those of the Antarctic regions. Nearly the whole of the true seals are characterized by their strongly-developed social instincts and their extraordinary affection for their young. In disposition they are, as a rule, gentle and submissive, offering no resistance when attacked by man; although the crested seal of the North Atlantic is an exception in this respect. Many of the species are accustomed to assemble in large flocks during the breeding season, while others are gregarious at all periods of the year. It is, however, only the elephant-seals that resemble the 4 6 HIND- FLIPPERS OF RINGED SEAL OPEN (A) AND CLOSED (B). 722 THE CARNIVORES eared seals in passing a period of several weeks, during the breeding season, en- tirely on land, and without partaking of any kind of food. As a rule there is but a single young one produced at a birth, and there is never more than a pair. All the seals are in the habit of spending a large portion of their time basking in the sun on sandy beaches or ice floes. Their food, of which a large quantity is necessary, consists chiefly of fish, but also comprises crustaceans and mollusks; and most of the species, like the eared seals, are in the habit of swallowing a number of pebbles. As may be at once seen from the total absence of external ears and the struc- ture of the hind-limbs, these seals are more specialized creatures than the eared seals, and are thus more completely adapted for an acquatic life. This is especially shown by the long period these animals can remain under water without coming up to breathe. According to Dr. Robert Brown, the average time of a seal's submer- gence is from five to eight minutes, while the limit is set down by the same observer, at a quarter of an hour. Other authorities state, however, that the time may be extended to as much as twenty or thirty minutes. The sounds uttered by seals are various, in some cases taking the form of a kind of barking note, while in others they assume a more bleating tone, or even resemble the cry of a child; the note of the young being always more plaintive and less hoarse than that of the adult. In no cases, how- ever, do they utter barking roars comparable to those characteristic of the eared seals. The strange circumstance that young seals take to the water reluctantly, and have to be taught the art of swimming by their parents, would alone appear to be a sufficient indication that seals are originally descended from land Carnivores. Among some species the young remain entirely on the land or the ice for the first two or three weeks of their existence, or until they have shed their first coat of woolly hair. Numbers of seals are destroyed by the Polar bear, while others fall victims to the rapacious killer- whale. Others again are frequently destroyed by being jammed be- tween ice floes; and it is stated that thousands are sometimes killed by this means. The reduction in their numbers by all these causes are, however, trivial compared to those inflicted by man, who, according to Mr. J. A. Allen, requires about a million and a half to supply his annual needs. So reckless, indeed, has been the destruction of seals, that some species are already well-nigh exterminated, while others have been so reduced in numbers as to render their pursuit no longer profitable. Several species of seals inhabiting the Northern Hemisphere are in the habit of making long migrations, moving southward to avoid the intense cold of winter, and returning northward in summer; such migrations being most marked in the Green- land and the hooded seal. These movements have been carefully observed by Mr. J. C. Stevenson, on the Atlantic coasts of North America. The southern mi- gration commences soon after the frost sets in; and at this season, he writes, " a fish- erman, posted as sentinel on some headland commanding an extensive sea view, com- municates to the hamlet the first indication of the approaching host, the vanguard of which invariably consists of small detachments of from half a dozen to a score of seals. Such parties continue to pass at intervals, gradually increasing in frequency and numbers during the first two or three days of the exodus, by the end of which time they are seen in companies of one or more hundreds. The main body is now at hand, THE GRAY SEAL 723 and during the greater part of the next two days one continuous uncountable crowd is constantly in sight. The whole procession coasts along at no great distance from the shore, presenting to an eyewitness a most extraordinary scene. In all quarters, as far as the eye can carry, nothing is visible but seals the sea seems paved with their heads." From the conformation of their hind-limbs, the true seals are unable to progress on land in the manner characteristic of the eared seals and the walrus; both the latter being able to bring their hind-limbs under the body by arching the back and carry- ing forward the hind-feet by a kind of jerk. Very generally the true seals move on land merely by a kind of wriggling motion of the body, with the fore-limbs held close to the sides of the trunk and the hind-limbs stretched out straight behind. Dr. Murie has, however, ascertained that in the case of the Greenland and crested seals there is a kind of motion somewhat intermediate between the above and that charac- teristic of the eared seals. Thus the former of these two species ' ' very often uses its fore-limbs, placing these on the ground in a semigrasping manner, and, by an al- ternate use of them, drags its body along. The hind-legs meantime are either trailed behind slightly apart, or with opposed plantar surfaces slightly raised and shot stiffly behind. On uneven ground, or in attempting to climb, a peculiar lateral wrig- gling motion is made; and at such times, beside alternate palmar action, the body and the hind-limbs describe a sinuous spiral track." On the other hand, the com- mon seal appears far less capable of making use of. its fore-limbs in progression on land, these being only occasionally employed to obtain a hold on rocks. On smooth ice, seals are able to progress with considerable rapidity; the average rate being about one mile an hour in cool weather. Such journeys are always un- dertaken during the night; and the seals advance by raising their bodies from the ice by means of the fore-limbs, and then drawing themselves forward. On land, seals will occasionally travel considerable distances; and it is on record that in the winter of 1829 a gray seal in Norway traveled through the snow a distance of fully thirty miles; the time occupied in accomplishing this journey being believed to have been about a week, during which period the creature could not have touched food. The true seals are not a very ancient group, geologically speaking, although their remains are found through the Pleistocene and Pliocene strata, and in a por- tion of those belonging to the Miocene period. Fossil seals are very common in the Pliocene deposits of Belgium; most of them being more or less nearly allied to the species now inhabiting the Northern Hemisphere. It is very noteworthy that while true seals range downward to the Miocene period, no remains which can be defi- nitely assigned to the eared seals have hitherto been discovered in any but the most recent and superficial deposits. If this apparently late origin of the eared seals be confirmed by future researches, it will go far to confirm the suggestion that the lat- ter have taken rise from land Carnivores quite independently of the true seals. THE GRAY SEAL Genus Halichcerus The gray seal (^Halichcerus grypus}, which is the sole representative of its genus, belongs to a group confined to the Northern Hemisphere, and distinguished 724 THE CARNIVORES from all the other members of the family by the presence of three pairs of incisor teeth in the upper jaw, and two pairs in the lower jaw. A further characteristic of the group is to be found in the presence of claws on all the toes of both pairs of limbs; while all those of the hind-feet are of nearly equal length. The gray seal is at once distinguished from the other members of this group by the circumstance that the crowns of the relatively-large cheek-teeth are composed of but a single conical cusp, although there may occasionally be fore-and-aft cusps in the last two teeth of the lower jaw. Another peculiar feature of these teeth is that, with the exception of the last one or two in the upper and the last one in the lower jaw, they are implanted in the jaws by means of only a single root each. The gray seal is a rather large species, full-grown males usually measuring about eight feet in length, although occasionally reaching as much as nine feet; these measurements being taken from the tip of the nose to the end of the hind-feet. The general color of the fur is silvery or yellowish gray, becoming lighter on the under parts, and marked with a number of blackish or dusky ill-defined spots. There is, however, great individual variation in this respect, some specimens being uniformly silvery or yellowish white, with little or no trace of spots, while others are almost black. The young are always white or yellowish white at birth, but, as a rule, soon acquire darker tints. The gray seal, according to Mr. Allen, is one of the least common of the northern members of the family, and has a somewhat restricted distribution, being only found within comparatively narrow limits in the North At- lantic. On the shores of northern Europe it appears to be commoner than on the American side; and it occurs in Iceland, Scandinavia as far north as Finmark, the British Islands, and probably Greenland. It appears, however, to be unknown in Spitzbergen and the islands of the Arctic Sea, and is not met with, at all events as a regular inhabitant, on the shores of the English Channel. On the American coast this species extends as far south as Sable island, off Nova Scotia, while northward it is met with occasionally in the straits of Labrador and Belle Isle, and ranges as far as Disco island. With the possible exception of the bearded seal, the present species is peculiar in breeding in the autumn; the young being produced in the Shetland islands from September to November. There the gray seal is com- monly found associating in pairs, and frequenting the most exposed positions. De- scribing the habits of this seal in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, Mr. Lucas writes that " it is fond of crawling out on the rocks, especially on sunny days, when it will lie basking in the sunshine for hours at a time. The seals do not come on shore at any convenient spot, but at a limited number of chosen localities, and these vary ac- cording to the force and direction of the wind. Except in very light breezes the lee side of the island is selected, not entirely on account of the difficulty of effecting a landing on the windward side, but also because the seal relies very largely upon its acute senses of smell and hearing to warn it of approaching danger from the land. The chosen landing places are where a shelf of rock, raised but little above the level of the sea, descends vertically for several feet beneath, thus enabling the seal to plunge headfirst into the water and disappear at once from sight. Before THE COMMON SEAL AND THE GREENLAND SEAL 725 r'" landing, the animal will swim back and forth several times with head raised, and eye, ear, and nose on the alert to detect any sign of danger, the wary nature of the creature being well shown by the fact that almost immediately after emerging from the water the animal turns completely round so as to lie with the head seaward, and in readiness for an instant dive. The fairer the day and the lighter the breeze the more readily the seals come ashore, while during rough weather they not only do not land so often but are more watchful when they do come out." This species is less docile and intelligent than the common seal, and cannot be tamed in the same manner. A specimen measuring eight feet in length weighed nearly four hundred pounds. THE COMMON SEAL AND THE GREENLAND SEAL Genus Phoca The common seal (Phoca vitulina] and the Greenland seal (P. grcenlandica) may be selected as well-known examples of the genus Phoca, which is the only SKELETON OF THE COMMON SEAL. genus in the family containing more than two species. All the members of this genus differ from the gray seal by their smaller and more-pointed teeth, but more especially by the circumstance that each of the cheek-teeth, with the exception of the first in each jaw, is implanted by two distinct roots, and has its crown composed of three or four compressed cusps arranged in a line. In such a tooth there is one large main cusp in the middle, which corresponds to the single cusp of the teeth of the gray seal ; while in front and behind this are one or two much smaller cusps. The common seal, which is the only species in addition to the gray seal ordinarily met with on the coasts of the British Islands, is one of three nearly-allied forms, which, in the young condition, cannot always be satisfac- torily distinguished from one another by color alone. The three species in question are the common seal, the ringed seal (P. hispida), and the Greenland seal. All these three species are much smaller than the gray seal; the ringed seal being the smallest of all. The latter species can always be distinguished from either of the others by the greater length of the first digit in the fore-foot, which exceeds that of 726 THE CARNIVORES the other toes. When adult, the ringed seal is blackish gray above, with oval, whitish rings, and whitish on the under parts ; its usual length varying from four and one-half to five and one-half feet. The common seal, on the other hand, can be easily distinguished from either of the others by its more massive teeth; the cheek- teeth being very broad and thick, and set obliquely and close together in the jaws, instead of being placed in the same straight line, and separated from one another by distinct intervals. It is, moreover, a relatively stouter-built animal, with a larger head, broader nose, and shorter limbs. The adult of the common seal is very variable in color, but the usual tint of the hair on the upper parts is some shade of yellowish gray, with irregular dark brown or blackish spots; the under parts being yellowish white, generally marked with smaller spots of brown. The length of the male varies from five to six feet. The young when first born are yellowish white, and are peculiar in that they shed their woolly coat either on the day of birth or very shortly afterward. Distribution THE COMMON SEAI,. The common seal has a much wider distribution than the gray seal, occurring not only in the North Atlantic but also in the North Pacific, and extending on the shores of both oceans to the Arctic regions, and thus being doubtless circumpolar. In the Atlantic it is found, though rarely, .as far southward as the Mediterranean, and on the American side as far as New Jersey. In the Pacific its southern limits appear to be marked on the Asiatic side by Kamchatka, and on the American by southern California. It is, moreover, by no means con- fined to the coasts, but ascends some of the larger tidal rivers to a considerable dis- tance from their mouths; and it has been known to pass up the St. Lawrence to the Great Lakes. In the North Atlantic this seal is strictly littoral in its habits, and always avoids the ice of the open seas. It is very common in Spitzbergen and Greenland; the number of individuals belonging to this species and the ringed seal captured annually some years ago in the Danish settlements in Greenland being, according to Dr. Robert Brown, upward of 700,000. In the British Islands, accord- ing to the authors of Bell's British Quadrupeds, this seal "is found all round the THE COMMON SEAL AND THE GREENLAND SEAL 727 coast in suitable places, but is much less abundant than it formerly was, and has been quite banished from many places where it was formerly well known. It is common on many parts of the Irish coast, and is very abundant among the Scotch islands, especially in Shetland and Orkney. In Wales and Cornwall it is well known, but is now very rarely seen on the shores of the southern and eastern counties of England." Not many years ago one of them was observed on the beach at Brighton. The common seal does not make any seasonal migrations, but is found in the same haunts throughout the year. It prefers sheltered sounds and bays, with shallow water and an abundant supply of fish, to more ex- Habits THE GREENLAND SEAT,. (One-sixteenth natural size.) posed positions; and leaves the water at every tide to rest on the rocks or beach, almost invariably selecting such rocks as are separated from the mainland. The young are born in the latter part of May or June, and take to the water at an early period. Like other members of the family, this seal is readily attracted by music, and will follow boats from which such sounds proceed to a considerable distance. Whether, however, this attraction by musical sounds is due merely to the curiosity characterizing all the Pinniped Carnivores, or to an appreciation of the music itself, has not been ascertained. In disposition the common seal is more intelligent and gentle than most of its congeners; these qualities being displayed not only in the care and affection they bestow on their offspring, but likewise by the readiness with which they can be tamed, and their fidelity and affection for their masters. There 728 THE CARNIVORES are, indeed, many instances where these seals have followed their owners about like a dog; and some where they have come back to a house after every effort had been made to drive them away. Although the Greenland or, as it is often called, the harp, or saddle- Greenland Seal backed seal, in its immature condition is not easy to distinguish from the common seal, in the case of adult males of the two species there is no sort of difficulty in this respect, the peculiar coloration of the Greenland species being amply sufficient. In the adult male, as shown in our illustration, the general color is yellowish white or white; the nose and the fore part of the head to behind the eyes are black; and there are very generally some black spots on the throat and chest. The most characteristic mark is, however, the irregular crescentric band of black on each side of the body, extending from the shoulders nearly to the tail; these bands being generally widest where they unite in the middle line over the shoulders. They may be interrupted posteriorly, but more generally join once more in front of the tail, so as to enclose an ellipsoidal area. The length of the male is usually from five to five and one-half feet, but may, it is said be as much as six feet. The female has generally much the same coloration as the male when adult, but the black markings are less distinct and may be wanting. The full coloration is not obtained till the fifth year, and so different is the appearance of the animal at different stages of its growth that the Greenlanders have distinct names for it according to age. The white or yellowish-white woolly fur of the young is not changed for the hairy coat till several weeks after birth. The Greenland seal, which can at most be regarded only as a very occasional visitant to the British Isles, is essentially a northern species, ranging in the Atlantic from Newfoundland and the North Sea to the Arctic regions, and also occurring in the North Pacific. The migratory habits of this species have been already alluded to at sufficient length ; the most noted breeding stations are Newfoundland and the vicinity of Jan-Mayen, at which localities these animals may be seen in enormous herds in the spring; but where they pass the remainder of the season is not ascertained. In Greenland these seals visit the coasts both in the autumn and in the spring; and it may be some of these herds that pass westward to Jan-Mayeu. During their migrations the seals keep close to the coasts, and frequently enter the bays and estuaries; but when settled at their breeding resorts they prefer exposed ice floes in the open sea, never resorting to the shores, and being seldom met with on the firm ice. Everywhere the Greenland seal is in the habit of assembling in immense herds; and it is so abundant that its numbers probably exceed those of all the other species put together. In consequence of this abundance, it is this species which forms the main basis of the sealing trade of the northern seas. Unlike the bearded and ringed seals, the Greenland seal never forms a breathing hole in the ice; and this is doubtless the reason that it frequents the ice floes rather than the continuous stretches of unbroken ice. Off the coast of Newfoundland the young are born in the early part of March, but in the Jan-Mayen district not until the end of that month. When assembled in their countless herds on the ice floes during the breeding season, it is stated that their cry may be heard at a distance of several THE COMMON SEAL AND THE GREENLAND SEAL 729 miles, more especially if the ear be applied to the ice. As ari indication of the enormous numbers in which these seals once existed, it may be mentioned that during the year 1866 a single steamer obtained 22,000 seals in nine days; and it was not uncommon for a ship's crew to kill from 500 to 800 adults and 2,000 young ones in a day. In Greenland the annual catch was estimated at 33,000, while that in Newfoundland used to exceed 500,000, and in the Jan-Mayen seas the total num- ber killed each year was fully 30,000. Of the remaining members of the genus Phoca our notice must be very brief. It has been already mentioned how the ringed seal (/*. kispida) may be distinguished at all ages from the two preceding species, and refer- SEALS SWIMMING. ence has likewise been made to its adult coloration. It may be added that the ringed seal differs from the common seal by its more slender form, longer limbs and tail, narrower head, and more pointed nose. The ringed seal is an inhabitant of the Arctic and North Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, occasionally visiting the British Islands; but it may be regarded as pre-eminently boreal, its true home being the icy Arctic seas. Its favorite resorts are stated to be sheltered bays and fjords, in which it remains so long as they are filled with solid ice; but when this breaks up the seals betake themselves to ice floes, upon which the young are born in the months of March and April. The ringed seal is not a migratory species, and in some localities 730 THE CARNIVORES is found in considerable numbers. It is one of those seals which make a circular "blowhole" in the ice, through which they can ascend or descend at pleasure; such apertures being made while the ice is forming. Nearly allied to the ringed seal are the Baikal seal (P. sibirica) and the Caspian seal (P. caspica), which are respectively confined to the inland seas from which they take their names. Both these seals are rather larger than the ringed seal, and are very similar to one another. Their especial interest is derived from their habitat; the Baikal seal inhabiting a fresh-water lake, while the waters in which the Caspian seal dwells are but slightly salt. The curious part of the matter is that neither lake Baikal nor the Caspian Sea appear to have had any recent connection with the Arctic Ocean; and if, as is most probably the case with the latter, we have to look to a former connection with the ocean to the southward, it becomes difficult to see whence came the stock from which these two allied species were derived. Mr. Allen has suggested, however, that the ringed, the Baikal, and the Caspian seal may all be descended from an allied extinct species whose remains are found in the Pliocene deposits of Belgium. Lastly, we have the bearded seal (P. barbata), which is distinguished from all the other members of the genus by its superior size, its broad muzzle and convex forehead, as well as by its small and weak teeth, some of which generally fall out in the adult. Moreover; the front nipper differs from that of all the other species in having the third or middle digit longer than the rest; whereas in the other species the digits decrease in size from the first or first and second together. The color of the bearded seal is some shade of gray, darker on the middle of the back than elsewhere, but varying considerably in different individuals. In distribution the bearded seal is circumpolar and almost exclusively boreal, its only migration in winter being that due to the extension of the unbroken ice fields, by which it is compelled to move somewhat to the southward. On the American side of the Atlantic this seal extends as far as Labrador, but not apparently down to Newfoundland. It is abundant on the coasts of Green- land, but in Europe does not appear to occur further south than Iceland and the North Sea. The bearded seal is by far the largest of all the northern seals, full-grown males being said to attain a length of about ten feet. An adult female skeleton, measured by Mr. Allen, had a length of seven feet two inches. The species is said to be nowhere abundant, and is more or less solitary in its habits, never congregating in large herds. It is fond of basking upon large pieces of floating ice, and generally keeps well out to sea; and upon such occasions is easily approached and killed by the Eskimos. A distinctive peculiarity of this species is its habit of turning a complete somersault when about to dive, especially when fired at. The skin is thicker than that of any other northern seal, and is consequently valued by the Eskimos, who employ it in making their harpooning lines. Its flesh and blubber are stated to be more delicate in flavor than those of other species. Owing to its comparative rarity, the bearded seal is of no commercial importance; the total annual number caught some years ago in Greenland not exceeding one thousand. THE MONK-SEAL 731 r"' THE MONK-SEAL Genus Monachus The monk-seal {Monachus albiventer} belongs to a group differing from the pre- ceding by having but two pairs of incisor teeth in both the upper and lower jaws; and also by the first and fifth toes of the hind-feet being much longer than the others, and having their claws either rudimentary or absent. With the exception of the first in each jaw, the cheek-teeth are implanted by double roots; and the total number of teeth is thirty-two, against the thirty-four of the last group. The monk- seal is distinguished from the other members of the group by the characteristics of its cheek-teeth; these being large, hollowed on the inner side, and marked with a prominent ring at the base, while the cusps on either side of the main cusp are very small. Moreover, the claws on all the toes are small and rudimentary. The fur is short, and is dark brown mingled with gray on the upper parts, and whitish beneath. Full-grown males attain a length of from seven to eight feet or more. Together with its ally the West-Indian seal (M. tropicalis), the monk-seal is the only species of the family inhabiting the warmer seas; it is found in the Mediterranean and Black Seas, and on the coasts of the neighboring portions of the Atlantic, extending to Medeira and the Canary islands. Although but little is known of its habits in a wild state, the monk-seal is very readily tamed, and is the species which used to be exhibited in England as the "talking-fish." The closely-allied West-Indian seal is of nearly the same color as the monk-seal in the adult state, but the young are of a deep glossy black. This species is interesting from its restricted distribution, and the prospect of its impending extermination. Although discovered as far back as the year 1494 by the flotilla of Columbus, when cruising in the West Indies, this seal, up to the year 1883, was represented 'in scientific collections only by a single skin sent to the British Museum in 1846 by Mr. P. H. Gosse. In the year 1687, when Sir Hans Sloane visited the Bahamas, these seals were extraordinarily abundant, the sealers sometimes killing as many as a hundred in a single night. In less than two centuries they had, however, become exterminated from most of their former liaunts, although some were known to remain on the rocky islands of Pedro Keys, to the southward of Jamaica. In 1886, as Mr. F. A. Lucas tells us, a vessel visited three small islands lying between Yucatan and Florida, known as the Triangles, with the hope of finding a colony of these seals. In this hope the expedition was not disappointed, upward of forty specimens being secured before the vessel was compelled to put back from stress of weather. We are not told how many of these seals were then remaining on the islands. It has been already mentioned that the seals of this group have the first and fifth toes of the hind-feet much longer than the others, and since this is a charac- teristic which they possess in common with the eared seals, it is interesting to learn that the West-Indian seal has the power of bringing the hind-feet forward to a certain extent when on land by curving the body upward. When straightening 732 THE CARNIVORES itself the creature pitches ahead on its breast, advancing about a foot by the operation. THE LEOPARD-SEAL SKUI.I, OF LEOPARD-SEAI,. Genus Ogmorhinus The leopard-seal {Ogmorhinus leptonyx} may be taken as the best-known representative of four genera confined to the Southern and Antarctic seas, and each containing but a single species. These seals differ from the monk - seal by cer- tain characteristics of their skulls, and are likewise dis- tinguished from that species and from one another by the form of their cheek-teeth. The leopard-seal or, as it is often called, the sea-leopard is distinguished by the great length of its skull, and by the cheek-teeth consisting of three large and dis- tinct cusps. The middle and largest of these cusps has its tip slightly inclined back- ward, while the summits of the two smaller cusps are curved toward the middle one. Adult males of this species attain a length of as much as twelve feet. Mose- ley describes these animals as much resembling the common seal in coloration; the short and glossy fur being spotted yellowish white and dark gray on the back, and the under surface of a general yellowish color. The females are usually darker than the males, in which the ground color of the fur is often of a silvery gray. The leopard-seal has a wide distribution in the Southern, Temperate, and Antarctic seas, having been recorded from the coasts of New Zealand, Australia, and the adjacent islands, from the Falkland islands, Kerguelen Land, and the shores of Patagonia, and being also found on the pack ice in the Antarctic Ocean. It does not appear to be migratory, and is sometimes found on the ice or on islands in considerable herds. In Kerguelen Land it was still pretty common at the date of the visit of the Challenger, a herd estimated at four hundred in number being reported on one of the small islands adjacent. The first of the remaining members of this group is the crab-eating seal (Lobodon cartinophaga) of the Antarctic Ocean. It is of a nearly uniform olive color above, with the sides of the face and the under parts yellowish white, and sometimes a few light-colored spots on the flanks. The cheek-teeth are even more complex than those of the leopard-seal, having one cusp in front of the large main cusp, and from one to three distinct cusps behind the lat- ter. The claws are entirely wanting on the hind-feet. Practically nothing is known of the habits of this species. Distribution Crab-Eating Seal THE CRESTED SEAL 733 w dd 11' S 1 Weddell's seal (Leptonychotfs weddelli} is (-another Antarctic species, distinguished by the teeth having simple conical and some- what compressed crowns, without additional fore-and-aft cusps. It was originally obtained from the Southern Orkneys, but has also been obtained from Patagonia and the Antarctic pack ice. The general color is very similar to that of the leopard- seal, being pale grayish above, spotted with yellowish white on the back, and yellowish beneath. The jaw is weaker and the sockets of the eyes are larger than in the leopard-seal. The last of these four southern species is Ross's seal (Ommatophoca Ross's Seal rossi ) , long known by two skulls and a single skin obtained from the Antarctic pack ice during the voyage of the Erebus and Terror in the years 1839-1843, and appropriately named after the commander of that expedition. The fur is rough and coarse, with general greenish-yellow color, .marked with oblique yellow stripes on the sides of the body and paler on the under parts. There are no claws on the hind-feet, and but very small ones in front. The skull is character- ized by the immense capacity of the sockets of the eyes, and also by the small size of the teeth. The cheek-teeth have very small fore-and-aft cusps. One of the two known skulls of this seal is peculiar in that, while on one side the first upper cheek-tooth and both the corresponding lower teeth are imperfectly divided by a vertical groove, on the opposite side of the upper jaw the place of this tooth is taken by two complete simple teeth. Hence, it is obvious that we have here a case where an originally single tooth divides into two distinct but simpler teeth. This may not at first sight seem a fact of much importance; but in reality it serves to show how the numerous simple teeth characteristic of the toothed whales may have been derived by the splitting up of teeth originally composed of three distinct cusps like those of the leopard-seal; each cusp of such a tooth forming, as we shall see, a distinct tooth in the whales. THE CRESTED SEAI, Genus Cystophora The remarkable-looking animal represented in the illustration on the next page, and commonly known as the crested, hooded, or bladder-seal (Cystophora cristata), is at once distinguished from all the other members of the family by the casque-like prominence crowning the fore part of the head. This seal, together with the under-mentioned elephant-seal, differs from all the species yet noticed in having but thirty teeth, owing to the reduction of the incisors to two pairs in the upper, and to one pair in the lower jaw. In both the cheek-teeth are small and simple, with, in general, but a single root each; and in the males of both the nose is furnished with an appendage which can be inflated at will. Moreover, the first and fifth toes of the hind-feet are considerably longer than the three middle ones, and are fur- nished with long lobes projecting in advance of the rudimentary claws, or the posi- tion which these should occupy. 734 THE CARNIVORES In the crested seal the appendage on the nose takes the form of a large sac> which is in communication with the nostrils, and when inflated covers the head as far back as the eye; but the female has no trace of this appendage, which does not make its appearance in the male till a considerable time after birth. The hind-feet of this species are provided with small claws; and the last cheek-tooth generally has two roots. The ground color of the fur is bluish black, becoming lighter on the flanks and under parts, and marked with small irregular whitish spots; the head and limbs being uniformly black. Sometimes, however, the ground color is light gray- SEAI,. (One-twentieth natural size.) ish white, varied with dark brown or blackish spots. The woolly fur of the newly- born young is pure white. In size, full-grown males of this seal vary from seven and one-half to eight feet in total length; females measuring about seven feet. The skull is very short and broad; and the bony partition dividing the nostrils is pro- duced above the level of their margin in order to support the sac. This seal is restricted to the colder regions of the North Atlantic and certain portions of the Arc- tic Sea; its range extending from Greenland eastward to Spitzbergen, and thence along the northern coast of Europe. Southward these seals are but seldom found below Norway on the one side, and Newfoundland on the other. LJ CD I Q cr < Q_ CD THE ELEPHANT-SEAL 735 Habits In habits the crested seal is essentially migratory and pelagic, trav- eling south in winter, and always preferring the drift ice of the open sea to the neighborhood of land; indeed, it very seldom, if ever, resorts to the shores or even to outlying rocks. Compared with the Greenland seal, the present species is a comparatively rare one, and is nowhere met with in large numbers, although apparently more numerous in the Gulf of St. Lawrence than in most of its haunts. Although at times the sexes are said to live apart, they usually associate together in family parties or small herds during the breeding season, previous to which the males engage in fierce contests for the possession of the females. While these fights are going on, the males utter cries which may be heard at a distance of several miles. The young are born on the ice, far away from land, during March; and in defense of their offspring both parents will lose their own lives rather than escape by flight. In disposition, the crested seal is much fiercer and bolder than any of the other members of the family; and it will not unfrequently turn upon its aggressor, so that its pursuit in the frail kayaks, or canoes, of the Eskimo is attended with a consider- able share of danger, the protection afforded to the head by the inflated sac render- ing the males difficult to kill in the ordinary manner by means of clubs. What is the precise use of the appendage in question has not yet been fully determined; but from its presence in the males only it may be inferred to be a sexual feature analo- gous to the antlers of the deer. It was estimated some years ago that the total num- ber of these seals annually killed in Greenland did not exceed 3,000. In addition to fish, the crested seal feeds largely upon cuttles and squids. THE ELEPHANT-SEAL Genus Macrorhinus In the elephant-seal or sea-elephant {Macrorhinus leonmus) the appendage on the nose of the male takes the form of a short proboscis, which, though generally hanging in a limp condi- tion, can be expanded and dilated at the will of its owner. The end of this proboscis is obliquely trun- cated, and penetrated by the nos- trils, and the whole organ communi- cates a most peculiar and almost ridiculous physiognomy to the animal. The female, however, re- sembles an ordinary seal in the form of the head. The teeth (which are shown in the accompanying woodcut) are very small in pro- portion to the size of the head; those of the cheek-series being of simpler struc- ture than in the crested seal, and each inserted only by a single root. In the hind- THE UPPER TEETH OF THE ELEPHANT-SEA!,. The two on the right are the incisors, the next the tusk, and the five small ones to the left the cheek-teeth. After Sir W. H. Flower. 736 THE CARNIVORES feet the claws are wanting, and their first and fifth toes are longer in proportion to the others than is the case with the crested seal. The elephant-seal is the largest of all the pinnipeds, not even excluding the walrus, adult males attaining a length of from fifteen to sixteen feet to the end of the body, or, reckoning from the tip of the trunk to the extremities of the out- stretched flippers, a length of twenty or twenty-two feet. When in good condition the girth of an old male will be as much as fifteen or sixteen feet, while the yield of oil from such an animal will reach 210 gallons. The females are much smaller, not exceeding nine or ten feet in total length. The general color of the coarse and short fur is gray, with a more or less marked blackish or olive tinge, darker on the upper than on the under parts. The typical elephant-seal formerly inhabited many of the islands in the South Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans, as well as those in the Antartic Sea; some of its favorite haunts being Juan Fernandez, the Falkland is- lands, Kergueleu Land, New Georgia, the South Shetlands, and Tristan da Cunha. In such places, during the earlier portions of this century and in the preceding one, these animals were met with in enormous herds, as described in the accounts of the voyages of Cook, Peron, and Anson. Northward the elephant-seal reaches Pata- gonia, and extends some distance up the western coast of South America, but how far does not seem to be clearly ascertained, although it certainly stops short of the tropic of Capricorn. When, however, we have crossed the Equator and reached some distance north of the tropic of Cancer, elephant-seals are, or were, once more met with between latitude 25 and 35 on the coast of California. The difference between the Antartic and California elephant-seals is very slight indeed; and it ap- pears that the chief reason that the American naturalists have for regarding them as distinct species is their isolated habitats. It may be that the area between these two habitats was once occupied by these seals, but the suggestion that the Californian race took origin from a few individuals that succeeded in crossing the tropical zone appears the more probable view, as it seems difficult to believe the same species should inhabit both the Antarctic Ocean and the Equatorial seas. In any case, the Californian elephant-seal, whatever its origin, and whether it be a distinct species or only a local race of its Antarctic cousin, is, from a distributional point of view, of considerable interest, and its extermination, which, if not actually accomplished, must be imminent, cannot fail to be a source of regret. In the southern seas the elephant-seals have long since been practi- cally exterminated from the Falkland islands; and, at the time of the visit of the Challenger, Moseley states that, while elephant-seals had completely dis- appeared from Tristan da Cunha, they were still to be met with in Marian island, were comparatively numerous in Kerguelen Land, and on the neighboring Heard' s island occurred in thousands. After mentioning an encounter with a male on Kerguelen island, when the animal assumed a threatening attitude, and raised its tail nearly to the level of its head, as depicted in Anson' s voyage, Professor Moseley goes on to state that, on the more exposed side of Heard's island, " there is an ex- tensive beach, called Long Beach. This is covered over with thousands of sea- elephants in the breeding season, but it is only accessible by land, and then only by SEAL HUNTING 737 crossing two glaciers. No boat can live to land on this shore, consequently men are stationed on the beach, and live there in huts ; and their duty is constantly to drive the sea-elephants from this beach into the sea, which they do with whips made of the hide of the seals themselves. The beasts thus ousted swim off, and often ' haul up,' as the term is, upon the accessible beaches elsewhere. In very stormy weather, when they are driven into the sea, they are forced to betake themselves to the sheltered side of the island. Two or three old males, termed 'beach masters,' hold a beach to themselves and cover it with cows, but allow no other males to haul up. The males fight furiously, and one man told me that he had seen an old male take up a younger one in his teeth and throw him over, lifting him in the air. The males show fight when whipped, and are with great difficulty driven into the sea. They are sometimes treated with horrible barbarity. The females give birth to their young soon after their arrival. The newly-born young are almost black, unlike the adults, which are of a light slate brown. They are suckled by the female for some time, and then left to themselves lying on the beach, where they seem to grow fat without further feeding. They are always allowed by the sealers thus to lie, in order to make more oil. This account was corroborated by all the sealers I met with. I do not understand it. Probably the cows visit their offspring unobserved from time to time. Peron says that both parent elephant-seals stay with the young with- out feeding at all, until the young are six or seven weeks old, and that then the old ones conduct the young to the water, and keep them carefully in their company. The rapid increase in weight is in accordance with Peron' s account. Goodridge gives a somewhat different account, namely, that after the females leave the young, the old males and young proceed inland, as far as two miles sometimes, and stop without food for more than a month, and during this time lose fat. The male sea- elephants come on shore on the Crozets for the breeding season at about the middle of August, the females a little later." SEAL HUNTING Although incidental mention has been made here and there of the annual catch of various species of the true seals, nothing has yet been said as to the various modes in which these animals are captured. The chief sealing districts, or, as they are technically called, " sealing grounds," in the Arctic and North Atlantic Oceans are West Greenland, the Newfoundland district, the Jan-Mayen seas, Nova Zembla and the Kara Sea, the White Sea, and the Caspian. The most important of these is the Jan-Mayen area, where, as in all the other districts except the Caspian, the Greenland seal is the species mainly hunted. So incessant and unremitting has been seal hunting in the icy Jan-Mayen seas that the numbers of these animals have been very sensibly diminished ; and as far back as 1871 attention was called to the necessity of some stringent regulations being applied to the sealing trade. This was followed in 1876 by an enactment on the part of the British Government estab- lishing a close time for seals, so far as their own subjects were concerned ; and not long after similar action was taken by the other governments interested. 47 ; 3 8 THE CARNIVORES The chief sealing trade in the North Pacific was the capture of the elephant- seals on the Californian coast a trade which has of necessity come to an end by the extermination of the object of pursuit. In the more southern seas the trade was likewise confined to the capture of elephant-seals. From their great numerical abundance and their large size, the pursuit of these animals was an extremely lucrative occupation in the early years of this century. Now, however, as we have seen, these seals are exterminated from most of their former haunts, and only re- main in any numbers on Kerguelen and Heard's islands, where they would also long since have disappeared had it not been for the inaccessible nature of the beaches they frequent. Consequently, the southern sealing trade has now shrunk to an in- appreciable fraction of its former volume, although there is a prospect of its being revived in the neighborhood of the Antarctic pack ice. Of the various methods of capturing seals in the northern seas nota- bly the oldest is that of harpooning from canoes, or kayaks, as now practiced by the Eskimo. The kayak, which is made of skins, although upward of eighteen feet in length, is so light as to be easily carried in the hand. In "seal- ing ' ' the victim is approached within some twenty-five feet, when the harpoon is hurled from a wooden "thrower." The harpoon, in addition to its line, is furnished with a bladder attached by another cord, which marks the course of the seal while below the water, and enables the hunter to follow its track and wound it with his lance time after time as it comes to the surface to breathe, until it is finally dispatched. The lance, it should be observed, is thrown from the hand, and, after striking the seal, always detaches itself and floats on the surface. A large number of seals are also captured in nets, this method being chiefly employed during the spring and autumn visits of the migratory species to the shore. Nets appear to have been in use longest in the Gulf of Both- nia, the Caspian Sea, and Lake Baikal, where they are set either from the shore or beneath the ice. In the Gulf of Bothnia such nets are from sixty to ninety feet in length, and about six feet in depth. Two of them are generally set together in the neighborhood of rocks to which the seals resort, and are always placed to the lee- ward of the mainland or some headland. When they strike against the nets, the seals thrust their heads through some of the meshes, and by twisting themselves about gradually become completely involved. In the Caspain Sea the nets are usually hung from boats at a considerable distance from the shore. In Lake Baikal, on the other hand, the nets are let down through the breathing holes of the seals in the ice, and the animals become entangled on rising. The seal-box used in parts of Scandinavia is a contrivance w r ith a Seal-Box, etc. swinging plank, upon which, when the seal lands, it is precipitated headlong into a deep pit. Another Scandinavian plan is to surround a seal-rock with a line armed with a number of barbed hooks. These hooks allow the seals to land with impunity; but when a number of the animals are on the rock, and through a sudden fright rush headlong into the water, some of them are pretty sure to be caught. A third method employed in the same country is to fix a harpoon in a tube, with a spring-and-trigger arrangement, and to bury the whole contrivance in a THE PRIMITIVE CARNIVORES 739 hole bored in a seal- rock in such a manner that when a seal presses against the trig- ger the weapon will be discharged into its body. A large number of seals are also shot on the shore with rifles; and others fall to the harpoon of the Eskimo, who either steals up to them while asleep, or awaits their rising at a breathing hole. When a large number of seals can be surprised on shore at one of their favorite landing places, clubbing is resorted to as the most effectual and speedy means of dispatch; and it is said that sometimes as many as 15,000 have been killed in this manner in one night. T The above methods apply only to sealing on or near the shore; but turc on ice Floes f r t fle capture of seals on the ice floes at long distances from land, vessels of some kind have to be especially equipped. In the Gulf of Bothnia these expeditions are or were carried out in open boats, each manned by eight sailors; but in the Newfoundland and Jan-Mayeu seas steamers of considerable size are now employed. When the seals are found on the ice, they are killed in the same way as on shore, that is, either by shooting, harpooning, or clubbing, p d The most valuable product of the sealing industry is the oil, which is used both for lighting and for lubricating machinery. Writing in 1880, Mr. J. A. Allen states that the total annual quantity of seal oil then obtained reached close on 90,000 barrels. Next in value to the oil are the skins, which are manufactured into leather of various sorts; a large number being used for lacquered leather. To the northern tribes seals are all important, furnishing not only the greater part of their food, but likewise most of the materials from which their boats and sledges are made, as well as their clothes and their hunting implements. THE PRIMITIVE CARNIVORES No account of the Carnivores would be complete without some reference, how- ever brief, to a number of peculiar species occurring in the Miocene and Eocene formations of Europe and America, which differ so remarkably from all living ter- restrial representatives of the order, as to render it imperative to refer them to a totally distinct group. These extinct primitive, or, as they are technically called, Creodont Carnivores, differ from modern land Carnivores in the absence of a distinct flesh-tooth in either jaw; all the molar teeth of each jaw being constructed on the same plan, and the whole of those in the lower jaw being frequently like the single flesh-tooth of other Carnivores. As a rule, the crowns of the upper molar teeth are triangular in form, and of the type noticed on p. 344 in the first volume. And whereas in all existing Carnivores the two bones in the upper row of the wrist tech- nically known as the scaphoid and lunar, are completely welded together, in nearly all the Creodonts they remain quite distinct. These and other characteristics indi- cate that these primitive Carnivores are a much more generalized group than the modern land Carnivores, of which they may have been the direct ancestors. More- over, the teeth of many of these extinct forms are so like those of the carnivorous Marsupials (although agreeing generally in number with the modern carnivorous type, as exemplified by some of the dogs), that there is considerable probability 740 THE CARNIVORES that in these animals we have a direct connecting link between the Marsupials and the existing land Carnivores. The best-known representatives of this group in Europe have been described under the names of Hyanodon and Pterodon; and while some of the species were no larger than a fox, others attained dimensions nearly or fully equal to those of a brown bear. There is little doubt that from some of these primitive Carnivores and more especially the North- American forms known as Miacis the majority of the existing land Carnivores are descended. It is note- worthy that an American and European genus known as Palceonictis shows a remark- able gradation in the structure of its teeth toward the cats; although it is rather difficult to believe that the cats are directly derived from this primitive form. CHAPTER XX THE UNGULATES, OR HOOFED MAMMALS ORDER UNGULATA THE HOLLOW-HORNED RUMINANTS Family BOVID^ IF WE accept the bats, in which the outermost fingers of the wings are clawless, and some of the seals and their allies, the whole of the Mammals described in the preceding chapters are characterized by having the digits of both the fore and hind- limbs provided either with claws or with thin nails. Moreover, in the greater number of instances, the fore-limbs themselves are endowed to a larger or smaller degree with the power of free movement in several directions; these movements be- ing displayed to the fullest degree among the Primates, where the hand can be ro- tated upon the fore-arm, although they are also well developed in the Cat family. Then, again, the number of digits in the great majority of these animals is five on either one or both pairs of limbs, and in no instance is it less than four. Further, the crowns of their cheek-teeth are never complicated by vertical and lateral infoldings of the enamel, so as to produce when worn down an elaborate pattern. The Ungulate, or Hoofed Mammals, such as cattle, deer, camels, swine, horses, tapirs, rhinoceroses, and elephants, of which we have now to treat, differ in many important respects from the above. Thus, while no existing member of the order has the feet provided with claws, in the great majority of cases the toes are inclosed in solid hoofs, although in a few instances they are furnished with broad and flat nails. Then, again, the movements of the fore-limbs are mainly or entirely re- stricted to a backward and forward motion, and in no case can the fore-foot be rotated on the fore-leg. Many extinct forms had four or five functional and well-developed digits to the limbs, but in all living members of the order, except the elephants, there are never more than four functional digits; and in a large number of instances these functional digits are reduced to two, or more rarely three in number. 'Some species, like the giraffe, have, indeed, but two digits to each foot, while in the horse and its living allies only a single digit remains. It must not, however, be assumed from the last sentence that the Un ulates toes are gradually reduced from three to two, and from two to one; the fact really being that the reduction takes place along two different lines, in one of which the number is diminished from four to two, and in the other from three to one. As it is of primary importance, in order to understand the re- lationship of existing Ungulates to one another, to have a clear idea of the manner in which this reduction of the digits takes place, the subject may be dealt with in some detail. In all the Ungulates the limbs have entirely ceased to be used as or- gans of prehension, and there would seem to be no necessity why there should be (740 742 THE UNGULATES, OR HOOFED MAMMALS any adherence to the primitive five-toed type, as develop- ment advances. The majority of the members of- the order being, however, unable to protect themselves against foes, and being also, in proportion to their height, heavy-bodied animals, the attainment of a high degree of speed was essen- tial to their well-being and development, if not for their actual existence. For such a kind of life it will be obvious that the greater the length and slenderness of limb, the BONES OF THE LEFT greater will at first sight be the speed. Now, in order to WRIST AND FORE-FOOT produce a long and slender, and at the same time a strong OF THE CORYPHODON. limb) from a ^ Q ^ and s h O rt-toed one, greater strength will (One-fourth natural size.) , , '... u r ^t. j clearly be attained by reducing the number or the toes, and The letters indicate the bones of the wrist (cuneiform, lunar lengthening and strengthening those which remain, rather scaphoid, trapezium, trapezoid, . ',, - . , ,, ,,111 magnum, unciform), and the than by lengthening the whole of the five toes, the slender pr-Af'ter o s e born hemetacar " bones of which would be liable to fracture by the concussion of the solid hoofs against the ground. Accordingly, among the Ungulates, the plan has been to gradually lengthen and strengthen the bones of one or more of the original five toes, and at the same time to dispense more or less \ completely with the others. In almost the low- est Tertiary rocks of Europe and North America there occur, for instance, the remains of certain large Ungulates, known as coryphodons, in which both the fore and hind-feet (as represented in the accompanying figure) have five complete toes. It will be observed that both the meta- carpal bones and the toe bones by which they are succeeded are very short; and these animals must accordingly have walked to a certain ex- tent upon the soles of their feet in the old- fashioned plantigrade manner.* It will also be noticed that the third or middle toe (in) is larger than either of the others, and symmet- rical in itself. Another feature of this type of foot is that the component bones forming the two horizontal rows of the wrist are placed almost vertically one above another, the bone lettered / merely touching the adjacent angle of the one marked u. When we ascend to the overlying Miocene Tertiary deposits we meet with other large Ungulates having a foot of the type of that shown in our second figure, where it will be noticed that while all trace of the first toe (i) has disappeared, the metacarpal bones of all the others have become very much more elongated, in con- sequence of which the animal no longer walked upon the soles of its feet, but entirely upon the toes, or was, in other words, digitigrade. It will also be observed that the third toe has become still larger in proportion to the others. Moreover, the upper row of wrist bones appears to have been slided over those of the lower *As a matter of fact, the coryphodon was partially digitigrade in its fore-feet, but entirely plantigrade 114 the hinder ones. BONES OF THE LEFT WRIST AND FOOT OF THE TITANOTHERE. (One-eighth natural size.) (After Osborn.) THE HOLLOW-HORNED RUMINANTS 743 LIKE ANIMAL. row toward the fifth toe, so that the bone marked / largely overlaps the one lettered u; and it will be obvious that this interlocking of the bones of the wrist produces a joint much more capable of resisting strain than is that of the coryphodon. The hind-foot of the titanothere, as the extinct Ungulate we are now considering is called, exhibits a still further advance, having lost the fifth as well as the first toe, and thus being three toed. The living tapirs are in a precisely similar condition, being four toed in front and three toed behind; but the rhinoceroses have advanced one step still further, having but three toes both in front and behind. In the foot of the titanothere, while the bones of the meta- carpus have become longer than in the coryphodon, the toe bones still remain as short as in the latter; and the same is the case with the rhinoceroses. All these are, indeed, bulky animals, fitted for dwelling in swampy localities, and not specially adapted for speed. In another group, however, as shown in our third figure, the toe LEFT FORE -FOOT bones themselves have become elongated, while the metacarpal OF A THR EE- bones are still longer and more slender. In the feet represented in our third and fourth figures the middle or third toe is very much larger than either of the others; but whereas in the one the fifth toe still remains, in the other it is represented only by a rudiment of the upper end of its metacarpal bone. This type of foot leads on to that of the extinct three-toed horse, or hipparion, of the Plio- cene Tertiary, shown in our fifth figure, where the two side toes have become still smaller, and the last trace of the fifth has disap- peared. Finally, at the very top of the geological series, we have the horse, where the only remaining toe is the third, now very large; the metacarpal bones of the second and fourth toes being BONES represented solely by the small splints on either side of the large metacarpal, now known as the canon bone. A complete transition has thus been traced from a five-toed Ungulate, walking partly on the soles of its feet, to one provided with but a single toe to each foot, and walking entirely upon the very tip of that one toe, by which means the full extent of the limb comes into play as an aid to speed. Throughout this series it is the third or middle toe which has undergone development at the expense of the others; and since this toe is always symmetrical in itself, the term Odd-Toed Ungulates is applied to the members of the group thus characterized. The resources of nature are, however, manifold, 06 J" 1 an d instead of this being the only line of evolution Even-Toed of the Ungulates, nearly similar results have been reached by a totally different series of modifications. Starting once more from a foot somewhat similar to the one repre- resented in the first figure of this chapter, it will be found that instead of the third toe remaining symmetrical in itself and gradually increasing in size at the expense OF THE LEFT FORE-FOOT OF A FOUR-TOED HORSE- LIKE AN- IMAL. LEFT FORE -FOOT (")T? TTTP HTP* PARION. 744 THE UNGULATES, OR HOOFED MAMMALS FOOT HORSE. of the others, the third and fourth toes become symmetrical to a vertical line drawn between them. When this takes place the first toe disappears, and the second and fifth become diminished in size; an instance of this stage of development being presented by the pig, where the two large and medially-symmetrical toes represent the third and fourth of the typical series, while the two small lateral ones are the second and fifth. In the pigs* all the met- acarpal bones remain distinct and relatively short; but in the water- chevrotain * of Africa the third and fourth metacarpals become much elongated and closely applied to one another, while the second and fifth are reduced to mere splints, and their toes so diminished as to become practically functionless. Finally, in the deer, oxen, and their allies, the third and fourth metacarpals in the fore-limb, and the corresponding metatarsal bones in the hind-limb, have become com- BONESOFFORE- pletely fused into a single rod-like bone, corresponding in function OF with the canon bone of the horse, and generally known by the same name. The dual origin of this canon bone is, however, proclaimed by the formation of its lower extremity, which carries two pulley-like surfaces, with which the bones of the two functional toes (the third and fourth) articulate. Since all the Ungulates displaying this second modi- fication of foot structure agree in having the third and fourth toes arranged symmetrically to a line drawn be- tween them, they are collectively termed the Kven-Toed Ungulates. It is accordingly evident that although a few living Ungulates, like the elephant and the hyrax, retain a gen- eralized type of foot, the greater number of the living representatives of the order are characterized by their more or less markedly specialized feet. As regards their teeth, the Ungulates are characterized by those of the cheek series having broad crowns, surmounted either by columns or transverse ridges, and adapted for grinding and masti- cating vegetable substances. In the more specialized forms, like cattle and horses, these cheek-teeth have their columns or ridges of great height and closely approxi- mated to one another, in consequence of which the bases of the hollows, or valleys by which these columns or ridges are separated from one another, cannot be seen when the tooth is unworn; while the pattern produced on the crown by the wearing down of these columns or HIND-FEET OF AN EX- ridges is complex. On the other hand, in the more prim- itive tyP es > sucn as pig s and tapirs, the crowns of the Teeth BONES OF THE FORE AND * Figures of the bones of the feet of these animals are given under their respective headings. THE HOLLOW-HORNED RUMINANTS A LEFT UPPER MOLAR TOOTH OF THE NYLGHAU, SEEN FROM THE INNER AND OUTER SIDES. cheek-teeth have low columns, or ridges, so that the bases of the-intervening valleys can be distinctly seen at all stages of wear. This will be apparent from a comparison of the accompanying figures, the first of which shows a tall-crowned tooth viewed from the inner and outer sides, while the second shows a short-crowned tooth seen directly from above. In the former the valleys between the four crescent-shaped columns form deep pits, penetrating the whole extent of the crown of the tooth, while in the latter they are mere shallow channels. It will be found that while all the earlier Ungulates have short-crowned cheek-teeth, the greater number of living species have high-crowned ones; and it will also be observed later on that the develop- ment of high-crowned teeth has taken place independently in each of the four great groups into which existing Ungulates are di- vided. It should also be mentioned that whereas in Carnivores the upper molar teeth are generally of the primitive triangular type, in all existing Ungulates they have assumed the quadrangular form. The food of the Ungulates consisting in most cases entirely of vegetable substances requiring much mastication, is the inducing cause for the complex structure of the cheek-teeth in the more specialized kinds; and to the same cause may be attributed the circumstance that Ungulates always retain the full num- ber of molar teeth, and, except in the camels, at least three out of the typical four premolars. In this respect they are in marked contrast to the Carnivores, in which, as we have seen, there is a great tendency to a reduction in the number of the molar teeth, only one living member of the or- der (the long-eared fox) having the typical three molar teeth in the upper jaw. On the other hand, among the more specialized representatives of the order, there is a decided tendency to the reduction, either in size or number, of the front teeth; the tusks being frequently small or absent, while the whole of the incisor teeth, and sometimes the canines also, in the upper jaw, and more rarely both incisors and canines in the upper and lower jaws, maybe wanting. All the earlier Ungulates, as well as the modern pigs, have, however, well-developed tusks, as well as the full number of front teeth; and it is thus apparent that in this respect also, the result of specialization has been the reverse of that in the Carni- vores, where the tusks have obtained extreme development, and the full typical number of incisor teeth is very generally retained. In both cases these distinctions are due to the difference in the nature of the food and habits of the two groups of animals. In addition to these characteristics of their feet and teeth, the Ungulates of the present day are characterized by the total absence of collar A RIGHT UPPER MO- LAR TOOTH OF THE EXTINCT MERYCO- POTAMUS, VIEWED FROM ABOVE. 746 THE UNGULATES, OR HOOFED MAMMALS bones or clavicles in the adult condition, although traces of these may occur in the fetal state. Having said thus much, it may be well to endeavor to briefly sum- .. . marize the chief characteristics by which the existing members of the Ungulate order may be distinguished collectively from those of the other groups of Mammals. In the first place, all Ungulates are adapted for a life on land; while, with the exception of some species of hyrax, none of them are arboreal. Then, whereas some of the more generalized forms are omnivorous, all the more specialized kinds are strictly vegetable feeders. In all cases the cheek-teeth have broad crowns, furnished with columns or ridges of greater or less complexity; and there are never less than three pairs of molar teeth in each jaw. Collar bones are invariably absent; and the limbs are, as a rule, restricted entirely to a backward and forward motion, there be- ing in no case any power of rotating the fore-foot or the fore-leg. The upper end of the radius, or smaller bone of the fore-limb, instead of being rounded, is accord- ingly elongated transversely in the typical Ungulates. The terminal joints of the toes are generally invested in solid horny hoofs, although in some cases furnished with broad and blunt nails, but never with claws. Moreover, the number of toes is but very rarely five, and may be reduced to three, two, or one; while in a large number of instances, where four toes are present, only a single pair are of any functional importance. When, however, we have to take fossil species into consideration, many of these characteristic features will not hold good; certain extinct Mammals, which it is very difficult to separate satisfactorily from the Ungulates, having either collar bones, or claws, or perhaps both together. In others, again, the upper molar teeth, instead of having square crowns, show the triangular shape found in many Carnivores. Indeed, strange though it may seem, the connection between the early Carnivores and the early Ungulates is so close that it is frequently a matter of some difficulty to determine to which group an extinct form should be referred; and it is highly probable that the Ungulates are really a side branch, descended from the same stock which gave rise to the Carnivores. This difficulty, or rather impossibility, of defin- ing groups of animals, when we have to take into consideration their extinct rela- tives, is merely what must of necessity be the case if the doctrine of evolution be the true explanation of their mutual relationship. As a rule, existing Ungulates are characterized by their relatively- large size; and among the order are included the most bulky of all land Mammals. There is, however, a great variation in point of size among the order; the smallest forms being the pigmy hog, the royal antelope, the chevrotains, and the hyrax; while the largest are the elephants, the hippopotamus, the rhinoceroses, and the giraffe. A frequent, although by no means general, peculiarity of the Ungu- lates is the tendency to the development of horns of some kind or other on the head; the nature of these horns, as we shall show later on, varying greatly in the different groups. The order is well represented on all the continents of the globe, with the exception of Australia, but at the present day it has a far larger number of species in the Old World than in the New ; many of those from the THE HOLLOW HORNED RUMINANTS 747 former area belonging to groups quite unknown in the latter. Although repre- sented in the Arctic regions only by the reindeer and the musk ox, Ungulates are found alike in the coldest and the hottest regions of the globe. The maximum number of peculiar forms, as well as those of greatest corporeal bulk, are, however, inhabitants of the tropical and subtropical regions ; and it is also in the warmer regions that the greatest number of species occur. As regards the number of indi- viduals of particular species, many Ungulates far exceed any other of the larger Mammals; this being especially the case with the bisons, that but a few years ago roamed in countless thousands over the prairies of North America, and with the myriad hosts of springboks in the South- African veldt. Through the advance of civilization and the incessant persecution of both the sportsman and the trader, these wonderful instances of the profusion of animal life have, however, been swept away forever. Not only are the Ungulates widely distributed in longitude and latitude, but they are also found at all elevations suitable for the existence of animal life ; some of the wild sheep of the Himalayas ranging to elevations of fully twenty thousand feet above the level of the sea. In time the order is an ancient one, being repre- sented in the earliest stages of the Eocene division of the Tertiary period, although the species were mostly small, and in all cases widely different from any now living. THE HOLLOW- HORNED RUMINANTS Family Unfortunately we have no concise English term to designate collectively the ani- mals commonly known as oxen, sheep, goats, and antelopes, and we are hence com- pelled to allude to them by the periphrasis of the hollow-horned Ruminants, unless we prefer to call them by their scientific title, Bovida. This is the more to be re- gretted, since the term hollow-horned Ruminants will likewise include the Ameri- can prongbuck, which is the representative of a family by itself. Taking, then, the term hollow-horned Ruminants, for want of a better, to des- ignate the animals mentioned above, we have in this family our first representative of the Ungulate order. But before entering into the consideration of the especial characteristics of this family, it is necessary to point out those distinctive of the great group of even-toed Ungulates, under which title are included not only the hollow-horned Ruminants, but likewise deer, camels, swine, and many other living and extinct types. It has been already mentioned that the even-toed Ungulates (or . Artiodactyles, as they are technically termed), are distinguished by the third and fourth toes being almost equally developed, and arranged symmetrically on either side of a vertical line drawn between them ; this line being continued upward to the wrist or ankle, and the metacarpal and metatarsal bones similarly arranged in respect to it. As a consequence of this it results that in the typical members of the group the hoofs are of the so-called "cloven" type. This characteristic is alone sufficient to distinguish all the members of the group; but 748 THE UNGULATES, OR HOOFED MAMMALS there are a few others which it is advisable to mention. One of these characteristics is afforded by the cheek-teeth, in which the molars are almost always more complex than the premolars. This is shown in the accompanying figure, where the first of the three upper molar teeth is shown on the left side, and is seen to consist of two- lobes, while the adjacent premolar has but a single lobe. Another feature connected with the teeth is exhibited by the last molar in the lower jaw, which almost invariably consists of three lobes; whereas in the living representative of the odd-toed Ungulates it has only two lobes. In their THE FIRST MOLAR AND THE smgle-lobed upper premolar teeth the even-toed ' ?HE R^HT^ToK THE^PPER Ungulates show a retention of the primitive triangular JAW OF THE FOUR-HORNED AN- type of tooth, which has been lost in the molar teeth. TELOPE. Then again the thigh bone, or femur, in all the mem- bers of the present group is characterized by the absence of any projecting process on the hinder surface of the shaft. SKELETON OF THE EUROPEAN BISON. There are other less obvious distinctive features of the even-toed Ungulates, but the above are sufficient for our present purpose. It must be added, however, that both in this group and in the odd-toed Ungulates there are never more than four toes to each foot; and that all the members of both groups walk on their toes alone. We. are now in a position to consider somewhat more closely the characteristics of the hollow-horned Ruminants, but we have still to notice that these, together with the giraffe, the prongbuck, and the deer, form a group distinguished from all the other even-toed Ungulates by certain important Ruminants THE HOLLOW-HORNED RUMINANTS 749 characteristics. In all the members of this assemblage of four families there are no front (or incisor) teeth in the upper jaw; and the upper tusks or canines are generally small or absent. In the lower jaw, on the other hand, all the incisor teeth are pres- ent, while the canine tooth on each side is in immediate contact with the outermost incisor; and since all the three pairs of incisors and the single pair of canines have nearly similar spatulate crowns, they appear to form a single series of four pairs of teeth. This may be easily verified by examining the lower jaw of a sheep or an ox. The six cheek-teeth on either side of both jaws are placed close together; those of the lower jaw being separated by a long space from the four pairs of spatulate teeth. In the fore-feet the third and fourth metacarpal bones, and in the hind-feet the metatar- sal bones, are respec- tively fused into single ' ' canon bones, ' ' as shown in the two fig- ures given on p. 744; while the two lateral pairs of toes are always small and rudi- mentary, and may be completely absent; the toes themselves being incased in complete hoofs. Another pe- culiarity of this group is that the stomach is divided into four com- plete cavities, into the first of which the food is temporarily re- ceived, until it is re- gurgitated into the mouth, when it is completely masticated and afterward con- veyed to the true digesting stomach. This process is known as the function of "chewing the cud," or ruminating; and the Ungulates in which it occurs are consequently termed Ruminants. The ruminating function is, how- ever, developed in the camels and chevrotains, as well as in the assemblage of four families constituting the present group; but as the camels and chevrotains differ in several important respects, it is convenient to designate the group under consideration as the true Ruminants, or technically, the Pecora. It has yet to be mentioned that all the ruminating even-toed Ungulates are characterized by the peculiar structure of their cheek-teeth. It will be observed SKULI, OF SWAYNE'S HARTEBEEST, TO SHOW HORNS. (From Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1892.) 750 THE UNGULATES, OR HOOFED MAMMALS from the figure of the upper molar tooth of the nylghau given on p. 745, and also from that or the four- horned antelope on p. 748, that these teeth consist of four distinct columns, of which the innermost pair are crescent shaped, with the horns of the crescents turned outwardly. In the lower jaw the molars are narrower, and with a reverse structure; that is to say, the crescents are on the outer side of the tooth, with their horns turned inwardly. Accordingly the name of crescent- toothed (selenodont} Ungulates is applied to all the ruminating members of the group. It is important to observe that the true Ruminants are alone characterized by the whole of the four under-mentioned features, viz., no front teeth in the upper jaw, a four-chambered stomach, complete canon bones, and the feet incased in hoofs. Moreover, it is only, in the members of this group that horns are ever met with; these appendages being always arranged as a symmetrical pair (occasion- ally two pairs) on either side of the middle line of the skull. The hollow-horned Ruminants, or Bovida, are distinguished from Hollow-Horned,, n . , , r , . . their allies by the presence of true horns; that is to say, of hollow and unbranched sheaths of horn growing upon bony protuberances, or cores, arising from the frontal bones of the skull, as shown in the figure on p. 749; neither the horny sheaths nor the bony cores being shed at any period of existence. In all existing wild species these horns are present at least in the male sex; but in many domesticated races of cattle, sheep, and goats, they are absent in both sexes; and the same holds good for certain extinct members of the family. Usually the molar teeth of the hollow-horned Ruminants are characterized by the great relative height of their crowns, as shown in the figures of the molar teeth of the nylghau given on p. 745 ; and in all cases there is no tusk or canine tooth in the upper jaw. In some few instances the small lateral toes may be completely absent, but they are generally represented merely by the small spurious hooflets alone, which may be supported internally by minute and irregularly-shaped nodules of bone. The hollow-horned Ruminants are chiefly Old-World forms, although they are represented in North America by the musk ox, the American bison, the Rocky mountain goat, and the bighorn sheep. They are quite unknown in the southern half of the New World. THE OXEN Genus Bos The oxen include the largest and most massively-formed members of the hollow-horned Ruminants, and comprise not only the animals thus commonly desig- nated, but likewise the bisons, yak, and buffaloes. As a rule, they are large and heavily-built animals, with very short and thick necks, and the massive and rela- tively-short head carried nearly in the line of the back; the males generally being provided with a large dewlap, running along the throat from the chin to between the fore-legs. The tail is always long, and is generally thinly haired throughout the THE OXEN 75 r greater part of its length and tufted at the extremity, but in the yak it is thickly haired throughout. The muzzle is broad, naked, and moist; and there are never any ' ' tearpits ' ' or glands below the eye, which are so frequently present in the antelopes; and in consequence of the absence of these tearpits there are no depres- sions in the skull immediately below the eyes for their reception. The horns, which are present in both sexes and of nearly equal dimensions in both, may be either cylindrical or more or less markedly angulated; and are usually situated in the im- mediate neighborhood of, or actually upon, the summit of the skull, whence they generally sweep in a more or less outward direction, and then curve upward, and sometimes inward, at their extremities. They are never spirally twisted, or orna- mented with prominent transverse knots or wrinkles. If the horn cores be cut through, they will be found to be completely honeycombed by a number of irregulai cavities of large size. The upper molar teeth are very tall and broad, and are pro vided with an additional column on the inner side, as shown in the figure of the tooth of the nylghau on p. 745. With the exception of the American bison, the whole of the exist- ing species of oxen are confined to the Old World, where by far the greater number of species are continental. There is, however, one species, of smaller size than any of the rest, confined to the island of Celebes; and another which may, however, have been introduced, in the Philippines. Domesticated races are spread over nearly all the globe. The wild species inhabit either open, grassy plains or dense forests, while one of them is confined to the higher regions of the Himalayas and Tibet. All of them live in herds of larger or smaller size, which are protected by the bulls; the number of individuals in these herds being in some cases reckoned by thousands, only the old bulls becoming solitary in their habits. All cattle can swim readily, and some species will cross rivers of considerable breadth without the slightest hesitation. They are re- markable for their strength and endurance; and as beasts of draught oxen are supe- rior to horses for dragging heavy vehicles through soft and yielding ground. The usual pace of these animals is a walk, but when excited they break into a heavy and awkward gallop. Their senses of smell and hearing are acute, but their sight does not appear to be particularly keen. Their food may consist either of leaves and the tender shoots of trees, grass, mosses, or various kinds of marsh and water plants; and all the species display a marked partiality for salt. Usually but one calf is produced at a birth, but there may be occasionally two. As is the case with other Ruminants, the calf is born in a highly-developed state, and is soon able to run by the side of its parent. ., ..... In most of their structural peculiarities the oxen appear to be among Specialization the most highly specialized of all the hollow-horned Ruminants; and this is confirmed by the lateness of their appearance in the geological series, the group being quite unknown before the Pliocene period and attaining its maximum development in the Pleistocene and present epochs. Probably the origin of the group may be traced to Ruminants more or less closely allied to the antelopes; and it is noteworthy that in some of the extinct species horns were present only in the male sex. 752 THE UNGULATES. OR HOOFED MAMMALS THE AUROCHS AND DOMESTIC OXEN (Bos taurus] The aurochs, or ancient wild ox of Europe, although now quite extinct as a wild species, is doubtless still represented by the half -wild cattle of some of the British parks; although the confined areas in which they live have caused them to de- generate sadly in size from their wild ancestors. Moreover, although there may have been a certain amount of crossing with other species, the origin of our domestic cattle is certainly to be traced back to the same wild ancestor. + The aurochs and the half-wild and domesticated cattle of Europe are character- ized by their horns being circular in section and placed at the very summit of the skull immediately over the occiput, as shown in the accompanying woodcut. Where they first arise from the skull the horns have their upper border convex ; and the forehead of the skull is flat or slightly concave, and much longer than broad, so that the sockets of the eyes are separated by a long interval from the bases of the horns. The tail is of great length. The spines of the verte- brae of the withers are not greatly elongated, and thus do not form a distinct ridge in this region of the body. That the wild aurochs was an animal of huge bulk is proved by the skulls and bones found in the turbaries, fens, and brick earths of England and the continent. In the skull figured in the woodcut the bony cores of the horn have a span of upward of forty-two inches from tip to tip, and when these were covered with their horny sheaths the whole could not have fallen short of fifty inches. This specimen was obtained from a turbary *- that is a peat bog- near Athol; but some of the skulls found in the brick earths at Ilford in Essex, are of considerably larger dimensions, although from the more forward direction of their horns the span between their tips is somewhat less. Distributi nand ^ e aurochs was pursued and killed by the prehistoric hunters Extinction f Europe, as we know from the circumstance that skulls have been found with the forehead pierced by flint hatchets. The date from which it disappeared from Britain is, however, uncertain, although it probably lin- gered longer in a wild state in Scotland than in the southern districts of England. On the continent there is evidence that in Julius Caesar's time the aurochs, or urus, was abundant in the Hercynian, or Black, Forest of Germany. Old chronicles also prove that in the middle of the sixth century these animals were found, although rarely, in the province of Maine; while there is evidence that some of them at least SKUI,!, OF THE AUROCHS. (About one-tenth natural size.) ( After Owen. ) THE AUROCHS AND DOMESTIC OXEN 753 were white in color. In the ninth century Charlemagne hunted the aurochs in the forests near Aix-la-Chapelle; while at the close of the following century we find the flesh of these animals alluded to in the rolls of an abbey in Switzerland. The aurochs was met with during the route taken through Germany by the first crusade, in the eleventh century; and that it still lingered in the neighborhood of Worms during the twelfth century is indicated by the mention of the slaughter of four in- dividuals in the Nibelungen- Ivied. The accounts of conflicts with gigantic wild oxen, so rife in classic literature, doubtless refer to the aurochs; and thus indicate that the range of the animal extended as far southward as Greece. Bones of the aurochs have been obtained from England and Scotland, but are unknown in Ireland. On the continent they occur in France, Switzerland, Italy, Scandinavia, Germany, and Austria; while it may be taken as certain that the species roamed over Russia, although its exact eastern and northern limits are not ascertained. Southward the aurochs ranged as far as Algeria. The mention of a white aurochs, which may, however, have been a tamed in- dividual, in one of the chronicles referred to above, coupled with the coloration of the Chillingham cattle, renders it probable that the color of the aurochs was white, more or less mingled with dun and red; this inference being confirmed by the prevalence of these colors in so many of our domestic breeds of cattle. It is probable that the aurochs was the direct ancestor of our largest n breeds of domestic cattle. At a very early period (although later than the epoch of the brick earths; when the aurochs first existed) the inhabitants of Europe had succeeded in domesticating a small variety of ox, known as the long- fronted ox (Bos longifrons), from which it is considered probable that the small Welsh and Highland breeds of cattle are descended. If, however, we are right in our view that the whole of the cattle of Europe belong to one species, it is evident that the long-fronted ox itself must likewise have been originally derived from the aurochs. Having said thus much as to the extinct wild cattle of Europe, we proceed to notice the half -wild races preserved in certain English and Scottish parks, after which we shall pass on to the consideration of the chief domes- tic breeds. It may be premised that while several of the former are probably much closer to the aurochs than are any of the latter, there seems but little doubt that in all cases these half-wild cattle are descended from more or less completely domesti- cated early breeds, and are not directly derived from the wild aurochs. The British park cattle, when pure bred, are white in color, with the exception of the ears and muzzle, and sometimes the front of the legs, which may be either red or black; the horns being white with black tips. In size these cattle are small; but their propor- tions are well-nigh perfect, their heads being small, their backs straight, and their legs short. According to Mr. J. E. Harting, herds of these cattle were for- merly kept at all of the following parks, viz., Auchencruive (in Ayrshire), Barnard Castle (Durham), Bishop Auckland (Durham), Blair Athol (Perth- shire), Burton Constable (Yorkshire), Cadzow Castle (Lanarkshire), Chartley Park (Staffordshire), Chillingham Castle (Northumberland), Ewelme Park (Oxfordshire), Gisburne Park (Yorkshire), Hoghton Tower (Lancashire), Hold- 754 THE UNGULATES, OR HOOFED MAMMALS enby Park (Northamptonshire), Kilmory House (Argyleshire), Leigh Court (Somersetshire), Lyme Park (Cheshire), Middleton Park (Lancashire), Naworth Castle (Cumberland), Somerford Park (Cheshire), Whalley Abbey (Lancashire), and Wollaton Park (Nottinghamshire). Of these numerous herds the only ones now remaining are those at Cadzow, Chartley, Chillingham, Kilmory, Lyme, and Somerford. The best known of all is the famous Chillingham herd. There is- C^fl S sonte doubt as to the date of the inclosure of Chillingham Park, which, however, very probably took place early in the thirteenth cen- tury ; and there is undoubted evidence of the existence of the herd rather more than two hundred years ago. The Chillingham cattle are small, with moderately-rough and curly hair, and short upwardly-directed horns. At the present day the insides of the ears and the muzzles are red; but it appears that in 1692, black ears were more numerous than red, and that the present coloration has been produced by selection. Mr. J. Hindmarsh, writing in the year 1838, states that the Chillingham cattle ' ' have pre-eminently all the characteristics of wild animals, with some pe- culiarities which are very curious and amusing. They hide their young, feed in the night, basking or sleeping during the day; they are fierce when pressed, but generally speaking very timorous, moving off on the appearance of anyone, even at, a great distance." The following statement of the numbers of the Chillingham herd at different periods is compiled by Mr. Harting from numerous accounts which have from time to time appeared. "In 1869, according to the steward's account, the herd consisted of only fourteen breeding animals, bulls, and cows, and calves of both sexes, and twelve steers; in all twenty-eight. In 1838, according to Mr. Hindmarsh, there were about eighty, comprising twenty-five bulls, forty cows, and fifteen steers of various ages. In May 1861, Mr. Darwin was informed by the agent that they numbered about fifty. This was about the number we saw when visiting the park in May 1863. In August 1873, the herd consisted of sixty-four head, seventeen bulls of all ages from calves upward, nineteen steers, and twenty- eight cows, heifers, and female calves. In October 1874, according to Lord Tan- kerville (the owner), the herd numbered seventy -one. In March 1875, the number had again decreased, amounting to sixty-two only, viz., fourteen bulls and bull calves, thirty -one cows, and cow calves, and seventeen steers. In July 1877, there were still fewer fifty -one only consisting of eight bulls, twenty-seven cows and heifers, and sixteen steers. Lord Tankerville says they increase slowly, several dy- ing each year by accidents or by overrunning their calves when disturbed; and the cows breed slowly, owing to having frequently the calves still sucking in the second year. ' ' The Cadzow cattle, belonging to the Duke of Hamilton, of which a. group is represented in our illustration, differ from the Chillingham breed in having the ears and muzzles black, while there is also a greater or smaller amount of black on the front of the fore-legs. Their heads are also more rounded, and their limbs stouter; and very generally the cows are devoid of horns. This herd is a very ancient one, and in 1874 numbered forty-five head, which in 1877 had increased to fifty-six. 756 THE UNGULATES, OR HOOFED MAMMALS Very different in appearance to either of the above are the Chartley cattle, the property of Earl Ferrers. It is known that these cattle are the direct descendants of the wild cattle which roamed at large in the forest of Needwood at the date of the inclosure of Chartley Park in 1248. In this breed the ears are black, and the horns are longer and directed much more outwardly than in the Chillingham breed, resembling in these respects much more closely those of our domestic " longhorns." In 1877, this herd comprised only twenty individuals. The Kilmory breed is derived from the one which formerly existed at Blair Athol. The Lyme Park breed is interesting as being of larger size than any of the others. The hair is remarkable for its length and curli- DURHAM SHORTHORN. (One-thirtieth natural size.) ness, more especially on the shoulders; the ears are generally red, although oc- casionally black or bluish black; and Mr. Harting describes the horns as intermedi- ate between those of the Chillingham and Chartley breeds. In 1875 this herd was reduced to four individuals, but had increased in 1877 to six, although one of the four cows was parti-colored. Of the breed at Somerford Park, situated in the heart of what was formerly Maxwell Forest, Mr. Harting writes that ' ' an ancient herd of white cattle, resem- bling those at Chartley, but polled, still exists here; and these animals are consid- ered to be the best surviving representatives of the hornless and tame variety of the 757 original wild white breed. The color is pure white; the ears, rirris of the eyes, muz- zle, and hoofs being quite black. Like all other herds of the forest breed they have a strong tendency to produce small black spots on the neck, sides, and legs." It may be added that all these various herds of white cattle are doubtless de- rived from the half-wild cattle which, as we learn from the writings of Fitz-Stephen, dating from about the year 1174, were common in the forests around London, and probably therefore in other parts of England. When the various parks were in-! closed a certain number of these cattle were driven in, and the herds thus obtained have been preserved with more or less care by their subsequent owners. Our notice of the domestic breeds of European cattle will be brief, and chiefly confined to those met with in the British Islands. First of all we have the small Shetland cattle, inhabiting the islands c . from which they take their name, but also extending to the Orkneys and Iceland. These cattle, although of small size, are esteemed on ac- count of their milk-yielding qualities, and the readiness with which they fatten. They have short horns, and are generally parti-colored, with lighter shades of color than the Highland breeds. The well-known Highland cattle, of which there are several strains, are characterized by their small size, the presence of horns, directed more or less upwardly, in both sexes, their short and sturdy limbs, and their rough and generally uniformly-colored coats, which are greatly developed in the region of the neck. Generally, the muzzle is black; but the color of the hair may be either black or brown, or a mixture of these two, and sometimes of mouse dun. These cattle are remarkable for their hardy habits, and vary in size according to the nature of the pasture of their native districts. Although far from good milk- ers, when brought down to the rich pastures of England they fatten readily. The West Highland breed is the finest, that of the Central Highlands the smallest, and that of the eastern coasts near the Lowlands the largest. The Welsh cattle are best known by the Pembroke breed, and are generally of rather larger size than the Highland races, with yellow or orange-colored unctuous skins; the hair being generally black. They are quite as hardy as the Highland cattle, and will thrive on very scanty nutriment, while they have the advantage of being much better milkers. The Kerry breed is a well-known strain of hardy mountain cattle, agreeing in the color of their skins with the Pembroke breed. The hair is generally black with a white streak down the back, and sometimes an- other along the belly; but it may be pure black or brown, black and white, or black and brown. The horns are long, tapering, and directed upward. These cattle are valued for the good milking qualities of the cows, even when nourished upon infe- rior pasture. The polled Angus breed, produced on the Devonian rocks of Forfar ngus and Kincardine, are larger than the Highland cattle, from which they are readily distinguished by the absence of horns in both sexes. They are mostly black with white markings, but may be brindled black and brown; the skin being dark colored. This breed has in all probability been derived from the Highland 758 THE UNGULATES, OR HOOFED MAMMALS cattle, and has attained its superior size and excellent milk-yielding qualities from hav- ing been reared on the richer pastures of the Lowlands. The polled Aberdeenshire breed is another strain of hornless cattle of mixed origin, bred in the lower districts of the county from which it derives its name. The Galloway breed is also a hornless one, and is of great antiquity, having been in existence at least since the sixteenth century. They inhabit a district underlaid by Silurian and Cambrian rocks in the southwest of Scot- laud; and are essentially a mountain breed, being inferior in size to the polled An- gus, although superior to the Highland breed. The skin is dark colored, and the hair generally black; while the great depth of the body will always suffice to distin- guish this breed from all other polled strains. Mr. D. Low states that " these cattle are hardy, exceedingly docile, sufficiently good feeders, when carried to suitable pas- tures, and weigh well in proportion to their bulk." The polled Suffolk is a less important hornless breed from the east- Polled Suffolk , ^ . , ,. , ...... ern counties of England, which was originally of a mouse dun, or some nearly similar shade of color, and is of small size, and somewhat defective form. There is also a polled Irish breed, which includes animals of large size, but fre- quently more or less crossed with other races. The three nearly-allied strains from the Channel islands, respec- Terse s tively termed Al'derney, Jersey, and Guernsey, are now so well known in England, and are so easily distinguished from all others, that they require but scant notice. They are characterized by the bulls being considerably larger than the cows, by their small size, their short, thin, and often crumpled in- turning horns, and their delicate and (from the butcher's point of view) somewhat "ragged" build. The head is delicately formed, with very prominent eyes, and a narrow muzzle, but may be either very short or somewhat elongated; the bones of the pelvis are very prominent; and the limbs are slender and deer like. The color of the short and glossy hair is generally some shade of rufous or fawn, mingled with white; but it may be black, mixed with white or dun, and is more rarely cream; the skin being thin and orange colored. Although of delicate constitution, the Channel island breeds are esteemed for their elegant appearance, and the rich- ness and yellow color of their cream and butter. The Ayrshire breed, whose proper home is the county of Ayr, although it is now widely spread over Scotland and some parts of Ireland, is another race bred exclusively for the purposes of the dairy. They are of medium size, with short horns curving inward in the Alderney manner; and the fore-quarters are light, the loins broad and deep, the neck and head small, and the limbs slender. The color of the skin is yellowish orange, and the prevailing tint of the hair reddish brown, more or less mixed with white. The rich red soil of Devonshire is tenanted by a breed of cattle readily distinguished by the deep-red color of their hair. They have orange-yellow skins and fine tapering horns. Mr. Low describes them as "of a light and graceful form, agile, and suited for active labor. They fatten with suffi- cient facility in good pastures, and in a temperate climate; but they are inferior in hardiness and the power of subsisting , on scanty herbage to the mountain cattle of THE AUROCHS AND DOMESTIC OXEN 759 Scotland and Wales." The cows are relatively small, and their yield of milk not great, although excellent in quality and rich in cream. Heref rd Omitting mention of the Sussex and Glamorganshire breeds, as being of minor importance, we pass on to the well-known Herefords, easily recognized by their large size, white faces, and dark red or reddish-brown color, marked more or less with white on the back and under parts. Mr. Low con- siders this breed remotely related to the Devon; and it exhibits the same inferiority in the size of the cows, and a similar deficiency in the yield of milk. The breed is, however, an excellent one for fattening, and is hence in much favor in the West of England. THE FREIBURG BTTU,. . (One-twenty-fifth natural size.) The longhorned breed, which is likewise from the West of England and is also largely reared in Ireland, is one which has of late years steadily declined in favor in this country. The original breed of longhorns was sub- ject to considerable variation in size; but the prevailing color of the hair was either black or brown, with a white stripe down the middle of the back, and more or less white on the body. The hair was abundant and the skin thick and dark. The long horns generally curved downward at the tips; but in southern and eastern England they often turned up. Ultimately great improvements were effected in the breed, and the knowledge thus acquired paved the way for the gradual development of the shorthorns, by which the longhorns have been so largely supplanted. 760 THE UNGULATES, OR HOOFED MAMMALS The shorthorn breed was originally an East Anglian race of cattle, but was modified into its present perfection in Durham, whence it is often known by the name of Durham shorthorn. The illustration on p. 756 repre- sents an ox of the best strain of this breed. In these animals the height of the body is comparatively low, but there is great depth, and the chest, back, and loins are remarkable for their width. The skin is light colored, and the hair either reddish brown or white, or a mixture of the two, or the well-known strawberry color. The muzzle should be flesh colored; and the horns are short, curving inward, light in color, and frequently somewhat compressed. The skin is soft and yielding, and the general form of the body square and massive, with upright shoul- ders and roomy hind-quarters. The great advantages of the shorthorns are that they are hardy and good-tempered animals, of large size and eminently distin- guished by the rapidity with which they reach maturity of flesh and muscle. Al- though inferior in their yield of milk to the Suffolk and Ayrshire breeds, shorthorns are now more widely spread over England, both as dairy and fatting cattle, than any other kind. On the Continent there are likewise numerous breeds of cattle, but only a few of these can be even mentioned. One of the most esteemed creeds is the Freiburg breed of which a bull is represented in the illustration on p. 759. This breed seems to be allied to the English shorthorns, but has a longer body and neck. The horns are short but sharp, and the color is a mixture of black or reddish brown with white. These cattle are largely bred in Switzerland, and are considered to be the parent stock from which several other breeds have originated. The Dutch breed, as represented by the cow figured in the accompany- ing woodcut, was originally a native of the Lowlands of Holland, but has now spread over a large part of Germany. Fitzinger regards the Dutch cattle as the direct descendants of the aurochs, and they seem to approximate to the Ayrshire breed. They are of large size, with long necks and pointed muzzles, and moderately-sized horns, directed forward and inward. The usual color is black upon a white or grayish-white ground, but the dark markings may be brown or reddish. Very different from all others are the large Hungarian cattle, characterized by their uniform pale fawn color, their enormous, slender, outspreading horns, and their free, light step. The horns may measure as much as five feet from tip to tip, and are black at the extremities, but grayish throughout the rest of their length. This breed ranges through Hungary into Turkey and Western Asia. The Podolian cat- tle constitute another well-marked breed characterized by the great relative height of the fore-quarters. In Northern India many of the breeds of domestic cattle appear to be a cross between the ordinary European cattle and the humped In- dian cattle, showing the general shape of the former but the white rings on the fet- locks characteristic of the latter. In Africa there are several kinds of humpless cat- tle, among which the Namaqualand breed most nearly resembles ordinary European cattle, on the other hand, the Damara breed is distinguished by the large size of the bones, the small feet, slender legs, the long tuft of bushy hair at the end of the tail, and the extraordinary length of the horns. The horns are, however, even still larger THE AUROCHS AND DOMESTIC OXEN 761 in the cattle of Bechuanaland, Mr. Darwin mentioning a skull iiT which the span of the horns is eight feet eight inches in a straight line, while the measurement from tip to tip along the curve is upward of thirteen feet five inches. In certain parts of America, the Falkland islands, Australia, New Zealand, and other countries, the cattle introduced from Europe have run wild, and form vast herds. Those found in Texas and on the Argentine pampas have become of a nearly uniform- dark brownish-red color; while in the L,adrone or Mariana islands in the Pacific Ocean, all the wild cattle are white with black ears. When Lord Anson visited the Ladrones in the year 1742, the number of these cattle was estimated at upward of ten thousand. In the Falkland America and Australia DUTCH COW. (One-twenty-fifth natural size.) islands it is stated by Admiral Sullivan that those in the southern districts are white, with the feet, ears, or the entire head black; but in other parts they were either brown or mouse colored. The wild cattle of New Zealand, according to Herr von Lendenfeld, are white spotted with brown. In Australia the herds are of great extent, and are difficult to approach within shooting distance, on account of the wari- ness of the animals. In Argentina the cattle are very wild, but take little notice of a mounted man. If, however, as is seldom the case in a country where everybody rides, they are approached by a person on foot, they gallop around him in circles, with threatening gestures, looking every moment as if about to make a charge, although it does not appear that they ever do so. In company with two ladies, the 762 THE UNGULATES, OR HOOFED MAMMALS writer has often wandered among such herds, without any harm, except some alarm on the part of one of his companions. In Columbia wild cattle are found not only on the plains, but likewise high up in the Cordilleras, and herds of considerable size have been met with in the Highlands of Central Asia. Here may be mentioned the curious monstrous cattle found in Argentina and known as niatas or natas. This breed, which has existed for more than a century, bears the same relation to other races as is presented by pug-dogs to ordinary dogs. According to Mr. Darwin, "the forehead is very short and broad, with the nasal end of the skull, together with the whole plane of the upper molar teeth, curved upward. The lower jaw projects be- yond the upper, and has a corresponding upward curvature. The upper lip is much drawn back, the nostrils are seated high and are widely open, the eyes project out- ward, and the horns are large. The neck is short, and in walking the head is carried low. The hind-legs appear to be longer, compared with the front-legs, than is HIND VIEW OF SKULL OF GAU,A OX, WITH THE HORN SHEATHS REMOVED. (One-sixth natural size.) (After Rtitimeyer.) usual. The exposed incisor teeth, the short head and upturned nostrils, give these cattle the most ludicrous, self-confident air of defiance." Niatas appear to be very rare; but the writer had the good fortune to see a pair of them kept in the grounds of the museum at La Plata in 1893. These were black and white in color; and the characteristic features of the breed were much more strongly displayed in the bull than in the cow. HUMPED CATTLE (Bos indicus} The common domesticated cattle of India are distinguished from those of Eu- rope, not only by the presence of the hump on the withers, but likewise by other structural features, as well as by their general coloration, their voice, and their hab- its. Hence, although they are only known in the domestic state, there can be no HUMPED CATTLE 763 "hesitation in regarding these* humped cattle as constituting a' perfectly distinct species. In Europe these animals are generally called zebu, but it does not appear that any such name is known in India. In addition to the enormous hump on the withers, the Indian humped cattle are characterized by a certain degree of convexity of the forehead, by the upper border of the short horns being uniformly concave (as shown in the figure of the skull of the African variety), by their large drooping ears, and also by the enormous dew- lap which hangs in folds along the whole length of the neck. In size and color these cattle are subject to a considerable amount of variation, but they are very gen- INDIAN HUMPED BULL (One-twenty-fourth natural size.) erally characterized by a distinct white ring round the fetlocks. While the largest individuals stand as high as a buffalo, the smallest are but little taller than a calf of a month old. The most common color is a light ashy gray, which may shade off into cream color, or even milk white; but various tints of red or brown are often met with, and occasionally black individuals are seen. In disposition these cattle are always gentle, and the larger varieties are employed in India for drawing native carriages. The voice of the humped cattle is more of a grunt than a low ; and these animals differ from European cattle in habits, insomuch as they but seldom seek the shade, and never stand knee-deep in water. It need hardly be mentioned that a THE UNGULATES, OR HOOFED MAMMALS certain number of privileged bulls are specially protected by the Hindoos, and are al- lowed to perambulate the bazaars of the Indian towns at will. In certain parts of India humped cattle have run wild; those found on the seacoast near Nellore, in the Carnatic, have been in' this state for a long period, and Jerdon describes them as be- ing extremely shy and wild, their size being large and their horns long. Galla Cattle GAU.A BULI,. (One-twenty-second natural size.) Humped cattle are also found in China, Africa, and Madagascar; and Blyth was of opinion that the group might have had an African origin. In Central Africa the humped cattle are represented by the Galla ox or sunga, characterized by the enormous size and thickness of the horns, as shown in the figure of the back of the skull on p. 762. In this breed the forehead of the skull lacks the convexity characteristic-of the Indian humped cattle; and as the curvature of the horns is somewhat similar, Professor Rutimeyer believes that the Galla ox is most nearly related to the Asiatic banteng mentioned later on. THE GAUR 765 In concluding our notice of the typical oxen it anay be mentioned that several species occur fossil in India. Among these is the magnif- Species icent Narbada ox (B. namadicus) , of the gravels of the valley of the Narbada, which was fully equal in size to the aurochs, and in the typical form had horns with a cylindrical section. It is, however, noteworthy that in one race of this species the horns were somewhat flattened, and thus approximate to those of the liv- ing wild cattle of India. In the somewhat older deposits of the Siwalik hills there occurs the gigantic sharp-fronted ox (B. acutifrons), distinguished by the sharp ridge running down the middle of the forehead, and the enormous length of the horns, which swept upward and outward in a bold curve, and were probably but lit- tle short of ten feet in span. THE GAUR (Bos gaurus) With the magnificent animal known as the gaur, but generally misnamed by Indian sportsmen the bison, we come to the first of three species from Southeastern Asia, nearly allied to one another, and broadly distinguished from those already noticed. These animals, which include the handsomest existing representatives of the genus, are collectively characterized by the following features. The horns are flattened to a greater or less degree from front to back, more especially at their bases, where they present an eliptical cross-section; this characteristic being more strongly marked in the bulls than in the cows. The tail is shorter than in the typical oxen, and reaches but little if at all below the hocks. A third feature is presented by the distinct ridge running from the shoulders to the middle of the back, where it ends in an abrupt drop, which may be as much as five inches in lieight. This ridge is caused by the great height of the spines of the vertebrae of the fore part of the trunk as compared with those of the loins; but it is a character- istic much less developed in the banteng than in either of the other two species. The three species have also a characteristic coloration, the adult males being dark brown or nearly black, the females and young males being either paler or reddish brown, while in both sexes the legs from above the knees and hocks to the hoofs are white or whitish. The hair is short, fine, and glossy, and the hoofs are nar- row and pointed. The gaur is a strong and massively-built species, easily recognized by the high convex ridge on the forehead between the horns, which bends forward, and thus causes a deep hollow in the profile of the upper part of the head. The ridge on the back is very strongly marked, and there is no distinct dewlap on the throat and chest. The flattening of the horns at the base is very decided, and the horns are regularly curved throughout their length, and are bent inward and slightly back- ward at their tips. The ears are very large, the tail only just reaches the hocks, and in old bulls the hair becomes very thin on the back. In color the adult male gaur is dark brown, approaching black in very old in- dividuals; the upper part of the head, from above the eyes to the nape of the neck, is, however, ashy gray, or occasionally dirty white; the muzzle is pale colored, and the lower part of the legs pure white. The cows and young bulls are paler, and in ;66 THE UNGULATES, OR HOOFED MAMMALS some instances have a rufous tinge, which, according to Mr. Blanford, is most marked in individuals inhabiting dry and open districts. The color of the horns is some shade of pale green or yellow throughout the greater part of their length, but the tips are black. The gaur appears to be the tallest of all the oxen, old bulls sometimes reaching as much as six feet (eighteen hands) at the shoulder, or even, it is said, exceeding these dimensions by an inch or more. The more usual height is, however, from five feet eight inches to five feet ten inches; while the cows do not exceed five feet. Mr. BULL GAUR. (One-twenty-first natural size.) Blanford gives the average size of the horns of bull gaur as from twenty to twenty- four inches along the outer curve; but specimens have been recorded with a length of thirty-nine inches and a basal girth of nineteen inches. The girth has, however, been exceeded by horns of which the length was less, a pair from the Malay Peninsula having a circumference of twenty-two inches, with a length of thirty-two inches. The horns of the cows are smaller, measuring in large examples, from twenty-three to twenty-four inches above the curve, with a girth of about thirteen inches. THE GAUR 767 Distribution ^ e geographical range of the gaur is extensive, Comprising all the larger forest regions of India from Cape Comorin to the foot of the Northeastern Himalayas, but excluding Ceylon. To the northwest its limits in India are marked, according to Mr. Blanford, by the valley of the Narbada river; while in the grass jungles of the Ganges valley the gaur is met with only along the skirts of the Himalayas. Eastward the range of the gaur extends from Nipal through the hilly districts on the south of Assam into Burma, and thence as far south as the Malay Peninsula, where it is known to the natives as the sladong. It has been stated that the gaur occurs in Siam, but this requires confirmation. The gaur prefers hilly districts to the plains, and in India is more generally found at elevations of from two thousand to five thousand feet than in the low country. While aged bulls are generally or invariably solitary in their habits, guar, as a rule, collect together in small herds of about a dozen in- dividuals, although the number may be increased to twenty or thirty, and one instance is recorded where the number in a herd was estimated at not less than one hundred head. Such an unusual gathering was, however, probably but temporary, and due to the scarcity of pasture. Each herd is governed by an old bull; the other members of that sex present being always younger animals. The best account of the habits of the gaur is by G. P. Sanderson, from whose work the following ex- tracts are taken, with the substitution of the word gaur for bison. The gaur living in herds ' ' are shy and retiring in their habits, and retreat at once if intruded upon by man. They avoid the vicinity of his dwellings, and never visit patches of cultivation in the jungle. The gaur is thus an animal which would soon become extinct before the advance of civilization were the latter rapid, or were the jungles in which he roams limited in extent; but his exemption from serious diminution, except in isolated positions, is secured by the existence of the continu- ous jungles of the Western Ghats and other forest ranges. Gaur, though found in the low-country jungles, are very partial to high and well-wooded tracts and their activity in hilly ground is astonishing. A herd scrambles up a steep hillside almost with the facility of a troop of deer, or thunders down a slope into the thicker cover of a valley when alarmed, at a rapid trot or free gallop." The food of the gaur, according to the same writer, consists mainly of grass, but also comprises the leaves and young shoots of bamboo, as well as the bark of cer- tain trees. Gaur ' ' feed till about nine in the morning, or later in cloudy and rainy weather; they then rest, lying down in bamboo cover or light forest till the after- noon, when they rise to graze and drink; they also invariably lie down for some hours during the night. Although certainly quick in detecting an intruder, gaur can scarcely be considered naturally wary animals, as they seldom encounter alarms in their native haunts. Unsophisticated herds will frequently allow several shots to be fired at them before making off, and even then probably will not go far. But if subjected to frequent disturbance they quickly become as shy as deer, and if alarmed by the approach of man they retreat without loss of time." Except when wounded and in such a position as to be unable to escape, Sanderson states that he has never known gaur belonging to a herd to attack human beings. Gaur are very similar in their general habits to elephants, and herds of both may at times be found feeding in 768 THE UNGULATES, OR HOOFED MAMMALS proximity. ' ' Both seek the deep and ever-verdant valleys, watered by perennial streams, during the hot months, or from January to May, where they are safe from the jungle fires which sweep the drier localities. With the early rains of April and May a plentiful crop of succulent young grass springs from beneath the black ashes, and the gaur and elephants then roam forth to feed and enjoy their emancipation from the thraldom of the season of scarcity. About September the grass in the hill ranges has become so coarse, and the annoyance from insects during continued rain so great, that the herds move into more open country, and especially into forest tracts at the foot of hill ranges where suitable cover exists. ' ' In such localities the grass is not more than a yard high at the most, and insects are comparatively few. In contradistinction to elephants, gaur never forsake the forest districts for the open plains; but when in the lowland districts are in the habit of visiting the numerous salt licks. It must be remembered that the foregoing description applies solely to the gaur of Southern India, and that in the more northern portions of their range, where the seasons are different, there is a corresponding alteration in their habits. When in the lowlands, gaur are apt to catch various diseases prevalent among domestic cattle, and sometimes the herds are decimated from this cause. In Peninsular India the calves are generally born during August and September, although a few are pro- duced from April to June. The cries of the gaur are three in number. The first is a loud reverberating bellow, used as a call; the second a low mooing cry, uttered when in alarm, or when the curiosity of the animals is excited; while the third is a kind of whistling snort, heard when the frightened creatures dash off into thicker cover. In India proper the gaur has never been domesticated; and it is but recently that a living example a young one has been exhibited alive in England. The hill tribes of the northeastern portion of India have, however, succeeded in taming these animals. Solitary gaur are always very old bulls, which have been driven from the herds by their younger rivals after deadly combats, the marks of which are to be seen on their scored and seamed flanks, as well as in their slit and frayed ears and their bat- tered horns. Mr. Sanderson says that these solitary bulls always have the finest heads and horns, and offer the most noble object of pursuit to the sportsman. The morose and savage disposition commonly attributed to these outcasts is regarded by the same writer as not altogether authenticated. It is true, indeed, that men are sometimes killed by a sudden rush from one of these solitary bulls, but that this is generally owing to the circumstance that the animal has been suddenly surprised, and thereupon starts up and rushes forward without considering what may be in its path. Gaur shooting, from the nature of the ground, is invariably under- taken on foot, and, next to elephant shooting, is considered to be the finest sport with the rifle in India. Good trackers are essential to its success; but these are fortunately to be found among the non-Aryan hill tribes of Southern India, who are unsurpassed in the keenness and accuracy with which they follow a trail. The emergence of an old solitary bull gaur on an open glade, among the tall bamboo forests of the hills of Southern India, is described as being one of the finest sights THE GAYAL 769 with which the toils of the sportsman can be rewarded. When killed, the gaur affords excellent meat, the great delicacy being the marrow bones roasted on the camp fire. THE GAYAL (Bos frontalis} Well known for many years as existing in a semi-domesticated condition in the hilly districts of Northeastern India, it is but recently that the gayal has been deter- &W$t*V^ ^r^S^cr' wttMittf. vr^ATx^S^ COW GAYAL. (One-twenty-second natural size.) mined to be a truly wild species, although we have yet no definite information of its habits or the limits of its range in this condition. The gayal, or as it is frequently termed the mithan, is nearly allied to the gaur, from which, however, it differs in several important particulars. In the first place, it is a somewhat smaller animal, with proportionately-shorter limbs, a minor devel- 49 770 THE UNGULATES, OR HOOFED MAMMALS opment of the ridge on the back, and a larger dewlap on the throat of the bulls. The head is also shorter and broader, with a perfectly flat forehead and a straight line between the bases of the horns. The horns, which are very thick and massive, are less flattened and much less curved than in the gaur, extending almost directly outward from the sides of the head, and curving somewhat upward at the tips, but without any inward inclination. Their extremities are thus much farther apart than in the gaur. The color is very nearly the same as in the latter, the head and body being blackish brown in both sexes, and the lower portion of the limbs white or yellowish. The horns are of uniform blackish tint from base to tip. Some domesticated gayal are parti-colored, while others are completely white. The gayal stands much lower at the withers than the gaur. In the skull of an old wild bull measured by Mr. Blanford the horns reached fourteen inches both in length and basal girth; but these dimensions are exceeded by those of many domesticated specimens. The cow gayal, as shown in our illustration, is a much smaller animal than the bull, and has scarcely any dewlap on the throat. It has been ascertained by Mr. Blanford that the gayal occurs in a wild condition in Tenasserim; but in a more or less domesticated con- dition large herds of these animals are kept by the Kuki tribes on the hill districts of Tipperah. It is, moreover, certain that some of the domesticated cattle kept by the hill tribes on both sides of the Assam valley in the districts of Manipur, Cachar, Chittagong, and the Lushai hills, are gayal, although others are gaur. From indi- cations afforded by certain skulls it is not improbable that these tame gayal and gaur occasionally interbreed. Mr. Blanford observes that the tame herds of gayal "are kept for food, and, according to some authorities, for their milk, though this is doubtful, as most of the Indo-Chinese tribes who keep mithans never drink milk. The animals appear to be never employed in agricultural labor, nor as beasts of burden. They roam and feed unattended through the forest during the day, and return to their owner's village at night." the gaur, the gayal is essentially an inhabitant of hill forests, and the facility with which it will traverse rocky country is little short of marvelous for an animal of such bulky proportions. Gayal have been exhibited in England alive, but none of them were fully- grown bulls, and consequently failed to give an adequate idea of the magnificent proportions attained by that sex. Adult bulls have, however, been shown from time to time in the Zoological Gardens at Calcutta, and were most splendid animals, with glossy coats of the deepest shade of brown. Gayal will breed with the humped cattle of India, and the product of such a union born in the London Zoological Gardens was again crossed with a bull American bison. A pure-bred gayal calf produced in the same menagerie was of a light brownish-red color, with the throat, chest, and the inner sides of the legs white. THE BANTENG (Bos sondaicus} The banteng, or Javan ox, differs very considerably from both the preceding species, and serves to connect them with the typical oxen. The most distinctive THE BANTENG 771 feature of this ox is the large white patch on the hind-quarters, which extends up- ward to the root of the tail, although not surrounding it. Another peculiarity of the banteng is that the cow has the head, body, and upper portions of the limbs of the same reddish brown, almost chestnut color as the calves. The general build of the animal is slighter than that of the gaur, the ridge on the back is much less de- veloped, and the legs are proportionately longer. The head is also more elongated \ THE BANTENG. (One-twentieth natural size. ) and pointed; while the horns, which are cylindrical in the young, are relatively smaller. In the adult bull they are flattened at the base, and are much curved, the direction being at first outward and upward, while toward the tips they incline inward and somewhat backward. The tail descends below the hocks; and the dew- lap is of moderate size. The old bulls are black, with the exception of the white patch on the buttocks and the legs, from the knees and hocks downward. The 772 THE UNGULATES, OR HOOFED MAMMALS young calves, like those of the gayal, have the whole length of the outer surface of the limbs chestnut; and they are also distinguished by a dark streak down the back. A full-grown bull banteng from Java measured five feet nine and one- half inches at the withers; but Mr. Blanford states that the largest example re- corded from Burma was only five feet four inches in height. The banteng is exclusively confined to the regions lying to the east- ward of the Bay of Bengal, occurring throughout Burma, and prob- ably extending as far north as the hills to the eastward of Chittagong, while it also inhabits the Malay Peninsula, and the islands of Java, Bali, Borneo, and probably Sumatra. That it also occurs in Siam is almost certain, but its exact range in the Indo-Chinese countries has still to be determined. Large herds of domesticated banteng are kept by the Malays in Java, and also in the small island of Bali, lying to the southeast. The herds in Bali are replenished by importation from Java. The Malays speak of a wild ox under the name of the sapio, which may prove to be a variety of the banteng with ferruginous red instead of white on the legs. It has already been noticed that the original color of the wild ox or aurochs of Europe was probably white mixed with reddish brown; and the fact that the calves of all the three species of the present group are reddish brown points to the conclusion that this was the ancestral coloration. Now the fact that the female banteng permanently retains this ancestral coloration which is tran- sient in the gaur and gayal, indicates that the present species is a less specialized form than either of the other two; the dark color being acquired only in the male sex. This is confirmed by the structure of the banteng, which departs less widely from that of the typical oxen than is the case with the other two species of this group. Although the accounts of the habits of the banteng are not very full, yet it appears that in these respects this animal is very similar to the gaur. Mr. Blanford suggests, however, that from its relatively-longer legs the banteng is less addicted to climbing among rocky hills than are either of the other members of the group, and that it is accordingly more restricted to the plains of tall grass. The domesticated race breeds freely with the Indian humped cattle. It is stated by Blyth that in old bulls the skin between the bases of the horns becomes enormously thickened, and assumes a horny and rugged condition. This development beginning to take place before the coat has commenced to change from the light to the dark color. The extinct Etruscan ox (B. etruscus) from the Pliocene of the European con- tinent, appears to have been allied to the banteng, but with the horns placed low down on the skull near the eyes. THE YAK (Bos grunniens) The yak is one of the numerous Mammals peculiar to the elevated plateau of Tibet, and differs markedly from all the other members of the ox tribe, although to a certain extent it forms a connecting link between the preceding group and the bi- sons. The most distinctive peculiarity of the yak, so far as external features are concerned, is the mass of long hair with which the flanks, limbs, and tail are 774 THE UNGULATES, OR HOOFED MAMMALS clothed, and which makes the general appearance of the animal so very different from that of other oxen. On the head and upper parts of the body the hair is short and nearly smooth, and the long hair only commences on the lower part of the sides where it forms a fringe of great depth, extending forward across the shoulders and backward on to the thighs. On the tail the long hair is developed on the lower half, where it expands into an enormous tuft which does not generally reach below the hocks. There is also a tuft of long hair on the breast. The color of the hair is a uniform dark blackish brown, sometimes tending to a rusty tint on the flanks and back, and with a gray grizzle on the upper part of the head and neck in very old in- dividuals. Around the muzzle there is a little white. We frequently find the yak represented as a brown and white, or even a pure white animal, but all such speci- mens are domesticated, and mostly hybrid individuals. In build the yak is massively formed, with short and stout legs. The shoulders are high, but there is not the distinct ridge on the back characteristic of the gaur, and the whole back is nearly straight throughout, without any falling away at the hips. Both the ears and the muzzle are small; and the dewlap is totally wanting. The head is long and narrow, with a nearly flat forehead, and the eyes are approxi- mated to the horns. The horns, which are very large in the bull, are smooth, and nearly or quite cylindrical, with the first curvature of their upper border concave, as in the gaur and banteng. They curve at first upward and outward, then sweep boldly forward, after which they incline upward and inward, and in some cases slightly backward. The hoofs are relatively large and rounded. In height, it is stated that old bulls occasionally stand nearly six feet at the shoulder; but five feet six inches may be taken as the average. The weight of bulls is said to be about i , 200 pounds. Average-sized horns vary in length from twenty-five to thirty inches, measured along the curve; but a pair has been recorded measuring forty inches in length, with a basal girth of nearly nineteen inches. The horns of the cows are al- ways smaller and thinner than those of bulls. Such are the leading external characteristics of the yak; but there are also cer- tain features connected with the skeleton which are worthy of notice. In the first place, there are fourteen pairs of ribs, whereas, in all the other oxen hitherto no- ticed, the number is but thirteen; and in this respect a yak resembles the bisons. In the skull, the region between the eyes and the occiput is relatively shorter and wider than in the typical oxen, and the horns are set on somewhat below the plane of the extreme summit. In consequence of this, the front view of a yak's skull exhibits a small prominence between the horns formed by a boss of bone at the top of the occiput; the crest or summit of the occiput itself being invisible from the front, and the shape of the whole occiput forming an inverted V. The difference in the shape of the occiput from that obtaining in the true oxen may be seen by com- paring the accompaning figure with that of the skull of the Galla ox given on p. 762. In regard to the position of the horns and some other features of the skull, the yak approximates to the bison. Yak, as we have said, inhabit the plateau of Tibet, probably extend- ing northward as far as the Kuen-L,uen range, while eastward they range into the Chinese province of Kansu, and westward enter the eastern portions THE YAK 775 of Ladakh, especially the regions in the neighborhood of the Chang-Chenmo valley and the great Pangong lake. The greater portion of the country comprised within this extensive area is desolate and dreary in the extreme, but yak confine themselves to the wildest and most inaccessible portions of these regions, and are found only at great elevations, ranging in summer from about fourteen thousand to upward of twenty thousand feet, and perhaps even more, above the level of the sea. They are at all times extremely impatient of heat, and delight in cold. Writing of the yak, General Kinloch observes that, "although so large a beast, it thrives upon the coarsest pasturage, and its usual food consists of a rough wiry grass, which grows in all the higher valleys of Tibet, up to an elevation of nearly twenty thousand feet. On the banks of the streams in many places a more luxuriant grass is met with, and it is particularly plentiful in the val- Habits FRONT AND BACK VIEWS OF THE SKUI.lv OF DOMESTICATED YAK. (After Rutimeyer.; leys of Chang-Chenmo and Kyobrung, forming the attraction which entices the yak from the still wilder and more barren country further north. Yak seem to wander about a good deal. In summer the cows are generally to be found in herds varying in numbers from ten to one hundred; while the old bulls are for the most part soli- tary or in small parties of three or four. They feed at night and early in the morn- ing, and usually betake themselves to some steep and barren hillside during the day, lying sometimes for hours in the same spot. Old bulls in particular seem to rejoice in choosing a commanding situation for their resting place, and their tracks may be found on the tops of the steepest hills, far above the highest traces of vege- tation. The yak is not apparently a very sharp-sighted beast, but its sense of smell is extremely keen, and this is the chief danger to guard against in stalking it. In the high valleys of Tibet, where so many glens intersect one another, and where 7/6 THE UNGULATES, OR HOOFED MAMMALS the temperature is continually changing, the wind is equally variable. It will sometimes shift to every point of the compass in the course of a few minutes, and the best-planned stalk may be utterly spoiled." The yak found in the Chang-Chenmo valley are chiefly or entirely stragglers from Chinese territory, and, owing to incessant pursuit, very few are to be met with at the present day in these regions. Native travelers report, however, that on the upper Indus, to the eastward of Ladakh, yak are to be found in vast numbers, and that there they do not exhibit the extreme wariness characterizing those which wander into Ladakh. In Northern Tibet yak have been also met with in great num- bers by the Russian explorer, Prejewalski. Here the old bulls were found alone, and the cows and younger males generally in small herds; although, where the pasture was good, the herds were sometimes very large. These herds wandered more or less regularly over wide tracts of country, and, according to native reports, were found in summer in grassy plains, where they were quite unknown in winter. As in Southern Tibet, they were especially partial to the tracts bordering the streams, where grass was more abundant than elsewhere. On the other hand, the solitary bulls were reported to inhabit the same districts throughout the year. Where the herds were largest, their numbers are said to be reckoned by hundreds, and even thousands. When alarmed or expecting danger, the cows and older bulls place themselves in the van and on the flanks of the herds, with the calves in the centre; but on the near approach of a hunter, the whole herd will take to flight at a gallop, with their heads down and their tails in the air. A wounded yak, whether cow or bull, will, according to General Kinloch, not unfrequently charge. A peculiarity of the yak is its grunting voice, from which it derives its Latin title. Domestic yak are kept by the inhabitants of the higher regions of Tibet as beasts of burden, and for the sake of their flesh; and are absolutely essential for crossing many parts of that desolate region. Some of the pure-bred animals kept by the Tartar tribes living on the Rupsu plateau, to the south of the Indus in Ladakh, are magnificent beasts of large size and uniformly-dark color. When they have not been used for a considerable period the}' are very wild, and apt to break loose and throw their loads; but after a few days' march they sober down. In other parts the yak are smaller, and vary greatly in color, being some- times entirely white, while the tail is very generally of that hue. There are also many crosses between the yak and ordinary cattle, some of the breeds being without horns. These half breeds have the advantage of being able to withstand much higher temperatures than the pure yak: and they may be met with carrying bur- dens in the hot valley of the Indus, between the towns of Ley and Kashmir. Although yak are admirable beasts of burden on account of their endurance and strength, and the facility with which they will traverse glaciers and swim icy torrents, they have the great disadvantage that they will not eat corn. This fre- quently necessitates the pushing on of the party by forced marches to prevent their beasts from perishing of hunger. The following description of a march with yak, for the truthfulness of which the present writer can vouch from his own personal experience, is from the pen of General Macintyre. "For more than six weary hours," writes the general, "did we toil up against the almost blinding snow and THE EUROPEAN BISON 777 piercing wind that chilled us to the very marrow, although the distance to the summit was only six or seven miles. It was truly wonderful to see the way in which the yak struggled through the deep snow, and scrambled over places which were often difficult and sometimes dangerous to traverse. Nothing could have exceeded the powers of endurance evinced by these animals, which were game to the backbone, and as sure footed as goats. One of them, notwithstanding, lost its footing on a steep slope of w/z>/, and went rolling and sliding down until it was fortunately stopped by a friendly rock; otherwise it must have disappeared forever under the glazier. On regaining its feet the creature merely shook itself, and on being disen- tangled from its load soon clambered up again. All who have visited a Tibetan monastery, or lamasery, must have been struck with the number of yak tails suspended as streamers from tall poles fixed in the ground before the entrance. The more general use of these appendages throughout the East is, however, in the form of chowris, or fly whisks. For this purpose pure white tails are preferred; and they are frequently mounted with the twisted horn of a black buck as a handle. In China yak tails dyed red are affixed to the roofs of the summer residences as pendants. THE EUROPEAN BISON (Bos bonassus) The European bison, wisent, or zubr is one of two species representing a dis- tinct and peculiar group of the genus Bos. These animals resemble the yak in their cylindrical horns and the relative shortness of the forehead of the skull, and also in the large number of their ribs, of which there may be fourteen or fifteen pairs. They differ,' however, in having the horns placed more below the plane of the occipital region of the skull, so that in a front view the crest of the occiput itself is seen at the summit of the skull. A further distinctive feature is to be found in the extreme convexity of the forehead of the skull; while the sockets of the eyes are very prominent, and assume a tubular form. Moreover, the premaxillary bones, forming the extremity of the skull, are separated from the very short nasal bones by a much longer interval than in the yak and the gaur; and are thus very widely different from those of the typical oxen, which are prolonged upward to join the elongated nasals. Bison are further characterized by the great excess in the height of the withers over the hind-quarters, owing to the great length of the spines of the vertebrae in the fore-part of the trunk, as displayed in the figure of the skeleton on p. 748. This produces a distinct hump on the shoulders, which passes, however, gradually into the line of the back without the sudden descent characterizing the gaur. The great development of the fore-quarters appears to be intensified by the mass of dark-brown hair with which the back of the head, neck, shoulders, and chest are covered, and which extends far down on the fore-limbs. The long hair is likewise continued as a kind of crest along the middle of the back nearly to the root of the tail; the tail it- self being tufted at the end, and reaching some distance below the hocks. The re- mainder of the body is covered with short curly hair of a somewhat lighter tint than that clothing the fore-quarters. In summer the long hair over all the body is shed 778 THE UNGULATES, OR HOOFED MAMMALS in large patches, thus showing the nearly bare skin clothed with short mouse-colored hair. Both the European and the American bison are very closely allied, and we shall reserve our notice of their distinctive differences till we come to the second of the two species. Owing to a confusion of terms, the name aurochs, which properly belongs to the extinct wild ox of Europe, has been very generally applied to the European or true bison, but it may be hoped that this misapplication will soon be a thing of the past. The European bison is a forest-dwelling animal, having been always absent from the open plains of Southern Russia, which in many re- spects resembles the habitat of its North- American cousin. Formerly this species, as attested both by historical documents and by its semifossilized remains, was abundant over a large area of Europe, but it is now restricted to the forests of Bial- owitza in Lithuania, to the Caucasus, and, it is said, to portions of Moldavia and Wallachia: Fossil remains of the bison are met with in the caverns and superficial deposits of England, France, Switzerland, Germany, and Italy; the earliest deposits in which they occur being the brick earths of the Thames valley, where they are as- sociated with those of the mammoth, and in the still older " forest bed " of the Nor- folk coast. The fossil race was, indeed, of larger dimensions, and had longer and rather straighter horns than its existing representative; but these differences cannot well be regarded as of specific importance. From Britain the bison disappeared at a much earlier date than the aurochs, none of its remains occurring in the fens and turbaries, where those of the latter are so common. Northward the range of the bi- son formerly extended into Siberia; while its remains have also been obtained from the frozen soil of Eschscholtz bay in Alaska. The bison now living in Lithuania are specially -protected by the Rus- sian Government and are under the charge of a staff of keepers, but those of the Caucasus are thoroughly wild. Although living at a greater altitude, and thus exposed to a more intense cold, the bison of the Caucasus are less thickly haired than are those of Lithuania. Bison were abundant in the Black Forest in the time of Julius Caesar, and as late as the ninth and tenth centuries were sufficiently numerous in parts of Switzerland and Germany to be used as food. In a recent sum- mary of the history of the species, Mr. F. A. Lucas states that "up to 1500 the European bison seems to have been common in Poland, where it was looked upon as royal game, and hunted in right royal manner by the king and nobility, as many as two thousand or three thousand beaters being employed to drive the game. In 1534 the animal was still so numerous in the vicinity of Girgau, Transylvania, that peas- ants passing through the woods were occasionally trampled to death by startled bi- son, and hunts were undertaken by the nobles in order to reduce the number of the animals. In spite of this local abundance, it is probable that about this time the bison was in a great measure restricted to Lithuania; and although so late as 1555 one was killed in Prussia, it is almost certain that this was merely a straggler from the main herd. In 1752 a grand hunt was organized by the Polish king, Augustus III., and in one day 60 bison were killed. . . . For some time after the above event little seems to have been recorded concerning the zubr, so that Desmarest, writing in 1822, says that if any remain in Lithuania they must be very few in number. THE EUROPEAN BISON 779 There were, however, over 500 bison in Lithuania at that time,' for in 1820 there were that number, this being a considerable increase since 1815, when there were estimated to be only 300. About this time active measures must have been taken for the protection of the Lithuanian herd, for in 1830 it comprised over 700 individ- uals. In 1831 a local revolt occurred, the game laws were set at naught, and the number of bison reduced to 637. Order having been restored, the bison began to recuperate, and according to the official enumeration at the end of each decade, there were in 1840, 780; 1850, 1,390; and in 1860, 1,700. Political troubles were, however, the bane of the bison; and just as the prosperity of the Lithuanian herd seemed as- sured, the Polish uprising of 1863 took place. Many bands of insurgents sought refuge in the forests; the bison were left to take care of themselves, and were so rap- idly killed off that the next official count showed only 847. For a short time after peace was restored the herd increased to a slight extent, but later on it began to de- crease, the enumeration of 1880 showing but 600, a number that has since been les- sened, the herd being still on the wane." The herd is divided into about a dozen distinct bands, inhabiting different regions of the forest. In the Caucasus the bison is protected by the rugged nature of the country, as well as by special laws. Re- cently an English sportsman Mr. Littledale has been bison shooting in the Cau- casus, and a male and female which fell to his rifle are now exhibited in the British Museum. The European bison, so far as can now be ascertained, appears to have always associated in small bands. In Lithuania these bands comprise from fifteen to twenty individuals during the summer, but in winter two or more of them unite to form a herd of from thirty to forty head. The very old bulls are solitary. In spring and summer the bison seek the thickest and deepest portions of the forest, but during winter frequent drier and more elevated cover. Whereas the nutriment of the American species consists wholly of grass, the European bison feeds largely upon the leaves, twigs, and bark of trees. Although active during both day and night, bison feed chiefly during the morning and evening. Large trees are stripped of their foliage and bark as high up as the animals can reach, while smaller ones are broken down or uprooted. In spite of their size and bulk, bison are active animals, and can both trot and gallop with considerable speed. In galloping the head is carried close to the ground, and the tail high in the air. Generally they are shy and retiring in dispo- sition, more especially when young; but in the Lithuanian forest an old bull has been known to take possession of a road and challenge all comers. During the breed- ing season, which takes place in August or the early part of September, the bison are in the best condition. At such seasons the bulls engage in terrific conflicts, which occasionally end fatally, for the leadership of the herd. These combats are at first entered upon somewhat playfully, but soon take place in earnest. The old solitary bulls then return to the herds, and after having either driven away or killed their younger rivals, once more resume the leadership. Not only are the younger bulls sometimes killed in these conflicts, but the same fate occasionally overtakes the cows. At the conclusion of the breeding season the old bulls revert to their solitary life. The calves are born in May or the early part of June, and are ;8o THE UNGULATES, OR HOOFED MAMMALS dropped in the most secluded parts of the forest. The cows apparently do not calve more frequently than once in three years, so that the rate of increase is necessarily slow. In defending their offspring against the attacks of bears and wolves, the females display great courage, and seldom allow them to be carried off except at the sacrifice of their own lives. Occasionally when full-grown bulls get half buried in deep snow they are pulled down by wolves. THE AMERICAN BISON {Bos americanus) As the gaur in India has usurped the name of bison, while the European bison has been frequently called the aurochs, so the American bison is almost invariably named the buffalo. The American bison, which is now, unfortunately, practically exterminated, differs from its European cousin not only in certain structural features, but likewise in habits, being essentially an inhabitant of the open plains, where it formerly con- gregated in vast herds, comprising thousands of individuals, and living entirely on grass. According to Mr. Hornaday, to whom we are indebted for a full account of the species, the American bison differs from the European kind in the following features. Firstly, the mass of hair on the head, neck, and fore-quarters is much longer and more luxuriant, and thus gives the animal the appearance of possessing greater size than is really the case. As a matter of fact, the American species is lower, and has a smaller pelvis and less powerful hind-quarters than its European cousin, although its body is, on the whole, more massively built. Moreover, the horns are shorter and more curved, while the front of the head is more convex, and the sockets of the eye less tubular. The tail is shorter and less bushy. An unusually fine bull American bison measured five feet eight inches at the withers, but the average is considerably below this. Mr. Hornaday regards this species as the finest and most striking in appearance of all the oxen, and remarks that "the magnificent dark-brown frontlet and beard, the shaggy coat of hair upon the neck, hump, and shoulders, terminating at the knees in a thick mass of luxuriant black locks, to say nothing of the dense coat of finer fur on the body and hind-quarters, give to our species not only an apparent height equal to that of the gaur, but a grandeur and nobility of presence which are beyond all comparison among Ruminants. ' ' Good horns measure from sixteen to seventeen inches, but a pair with a length of twenty and seven-eighths inches and a girth of fifteen inches have been recorded. The range of the American bison originally extended over about one-third of North America. ' ' Starting almost at tide water on the Atlantic coast," writes Mr. Hornaday, "it extended westward through a vast tract of dense forest, across the Alleghany mountain system to the prairies along the Mississippi, and southward to the delta of that great system. Although the great plain country of the West was the natural home of the species, where it flourished most abundantly, it also wandered south across Texas to the burning plains of northeastern Mexico, westward across the Rocky mountains into New Mexico THE AMERICAN BISON 781 Utah, and Idaho, and northward across a vast treeless waste to