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KOFOID AND MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID x__^- ELEMENTS OF NATURAL HISTORY, IN THE ANIMAL KINGDOM: CHIEFLY INTENDED FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND YOUNG PERSONS. BY WILLIAM MAYOR, LL.D. Natural History is a study particularly suited to Children : it cultivates their talents for observation, applies to objects within their reach, and to objects which are every day interesting to them. EDGEWORTH'S Practical Education. A NEW EDITION, REVISED AND IMPROVED. LONDON: PRINTED FOR LONGMAN, REES, ORME, BROWN, GREEN, & LONGMAN, PATERNOSTER-ROW AND TO BE HAD OP ALL BOOKSELLERS IN TOWN AND COUNTRY. 1833. (Price Seven Shillings and Sixpence, Bound.) Printed by A. & R. Spottiswoode, New- Street-Square. DEDICATION. .. ! r3 b:V " To WILLIAM JAMES MAYOR, Of the Charter-House School MY DEAREST BOY, As almost all my literary undertakings have been, directly or indirectly, intended to pro- mote either the interest or the improvement of yourself and brothers, it cannot be improper to prefix your name to the present. This Dedication I wish to remain as a lasting testimony of my regard ; and, while it answers this purpose, so near and so dear to my heart, it will also serve as a pledge to affectionate parents who may wish to put the work into the hands of their children, that the author does not think it ill-adapted for the instruction of his own. Peculiar, but unfortunate circumstances, give you a legitimate claim to this public ad- dress. The volume was written, as you know, during those intervals which your lingering and lamented illness left me disengaged from more pressing and sacred duties, a constant attention to whatever could contribute to your A 2 IV DEDICATION. comfort or recovery: and I most fervently pray, that the GOD whose works 1 have en- deavoured to display, in such a manner as may excite the adoration of his rational creatures, will vouchsafe to bless my anxious endeavours with success, and restore you to a parent, who loves you, for your amiable disposition and your promising talents, far beyond the bounds that mere natural affection would prescribe. This is the fifteenth anniversary of your birth-day. * Oh, may the next find you in the enjoyment of perfect health ! and every future one arrive more propitious to the wishes and the views of Your most affectionate father, WILLIAM MAYOR. September 15. 1799. * He departed this life on the 14th of November following ; but let his memory live in this dedication, as it ever will in my heart. The lapse of twenty years has not weakened the impression ; and in revising and improving the present work, 1 feel that I have only been perform- ing the melancholy duty> of repairing, strengthening, and perpetuating a monument to a beloved son ! W. M. RECTORY, WOODSTOCK, September 15. 1819. PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. IT has been generally supposed that fame or emolu- ment is the only stimulus to authorship ; yet had not motives of a more mixed character actuated the pre- sent writer, the following pages would never have ap- peared to solicit the indulgence, or deprecate the severity of criticism. After devoting a considerable number of those years which are most valuable in the life of man to practical education ; after ascertaining, by experience, the value of every scheme of improvement, the propriety of which had recommended itself in theory to his under- standing; after combining the knowledge of the school with the suggestions of his own mind in the study ; after verifying different plans of instruction with all the attention in his power ; lie hopes that it will not be deemed presumption in him to hint, that he is sen- sible of some existing defects in the general modes of education in this country ; nor can it be misbecoming his character or situation to assist in removing them. With all the enthusiasm for the learned languages which a classical education cannot fail to inspire, he must declare that too much time is spent by the gener- ality of youth in acquiring a knowledge of words only, while the reasoning powers are suffered to lie dormant A 3 VI PREFACE. till awakened by fortuitous circumstances ; and that facts and principles, which alone are valuable in the ordinary concerns of life, are left to be picked up at random, or are adopted according to the exigency of the passing moment. He is far, however, from blaming this mode where the education is intended to be com- plete, and where the university is employed to supply what the grammar-school necessarily left unfinished. He alludes only to the situation of youth destined to the occupations of common life, the number of whom must be infinitely the greatest in every country : and who, as the years allotted to study are few, ought not to spend the whole in gaining a mere smattering of languages, but, at the same time, should lay in such a stock of useful knowledge as may be beneficial in their future pursuits, and may qualify them to support a respectable rank in their sphere of action, and rescue them from the disgrace of absolute ignorance, though they may not aim at profound attainments in learning, To accomplish this desirable purpose, he is strong!} of opinion that in all seminaries of education, parti- cular regard should be paid to the private studies of the pupils ; and, since many hours must be left to their own disposal, that such elementary books should be recommended to their notice as will instruct under the mask of amusement, communicate a knowledge of real life and manners, or lead to the vestibule of science, and point out the means of penetrating to the inner recesses of her temple. Many able writers, whose steps it is his boast to follow, have furnished works on detached parts of knowledge, morals, and science; but the catalogue is still incomplete; and, since no person better qualified has adopted his views, he means, occasionally, to avail himself of that favour which his PREFACE. Vll previous labours have gained from an indulgent public, at once to display his gratitude for the past, and his zeal to distinguish himself still farther in a very useful, though unassuming, department of literature. When he recalls to memory the numerous instances in which he has already been a candidate for public patronage, he almost shrinks back from future appeals to its indulgence ; but the reflection that, if he has not been able to increase the fund of knowledge by any large accessions of his own, it has, at least, been his good fortune to render the services of others more popular, and present them to British youth divested of every forbidding incumbrance and every dangerous admixture, encourages him to persevere; and the re- ception of his labours persuades him that they have not been wholly in vain. He earnestly trusts that this apology will be accepted in the spirit by which it was dictated ; and now takes the liberty of adverting to the object of his immediate performance. Natural history, during the present auspicious reign, has been cultivated with such success in all its branches, that the superficial observer might suppose it to be exhausted. Those, however, who have made the greatest advances in this delightful study will own themselves still comparatively ignorant of the laws of nature, and the links which unite her multifarious pro- ductions. The lover of system arranges only, and describes external appearances ; while the philosophic inquirer throws off the trammels of scientific formality? and, looking at qualities alone, envelopes his disco- veries in an unformed mass of heterogeneous matter from which common industry cannot extricate them. All ranks, however, and all ages, show some predi- Vlll PREFACE. lection for the history of nature ; and for that part, in particular, \vhich has been denominated ANIMAL, in contradistinction to VEGETABLE. Nor can this partiality excite the least astonishment. From some animals we receive the most essential services, and from others we apprehend the greatest danger. They supply our wants, and act in subserviency to our views; they people the most retired recesses; they awaken our admiration, or excite our antipathy, according to their beneficial or noxious qualities, or the estimate which we have formed of them. All is life and activity ; and we are certain that every thing was made for the general benefit of the whole, though, in our limited view, we cannot always distinguish qualities, or over- come the prejudices of education. Linnaeus and Buffon, and our illustrious country- man Pennant, through their various labours on natu- ral history, aided by the numerous publications of others in different countries of Europe, have furnished every assistance to the student of maturer years ; but it, perhaps, will not be deemed uncandid to affirm, that, exclusively of other important considerations *, there is no work on this subject which is not either too jejune or too extensive, too scientific or too miscella- neous, for the purposes of schools. We still want a popular explanation of the system devised by the great father of this science, Linnaeus ; and, though Buffon has been partially divested of his splendid chimeras and * " It is to be regretted that Buffon, with all his excellences, i* absolutely inadmissible into the library of a young lady, both on account of his immodesty and his impiety. Goldsmith's History of animated Nature has many references to a divine Author. It is to be wished that some judicious person would publish a new edition of this work, purified from the indelicate and offensive parts." Miss More's Strictures on Female Education. PREFACE. IX endless digressions, the want of some systematic ar- rangement has rendered the abridgement of his works neither useful to the learner nor satisfactory to the proficient. The author thinks it more generous to say nothing on the very few attempts that have hitherto been made to supply youth with a proper manual on animated nature, than to speak with a censorious disapprobation. When the intention is good, the severity of criticism is misapplied. It is but justice to his predecessors in this walk to allow, that the stores from which they se- lected were far less complete than at this period ; and if he fails, with such an accumulation of knowledge in his reach, he is less entitled to excuse and to pardon. It is necessary, however, to remark, that the present work aims only to rouse curiosity, by a display of a few striking objects, not to gratify the fulness of its wishes. It does not Center within its plan to give an uninteresting catalogue of animals ; but, after exhibit- ing a general view of their various classes, such an assemblage is subjoined to each as may serve to sti- mulate farther investigation. To generalize, rather than to enumerate, is the object here proposed. The history of the family or species is often that of the in- dividuals of which it is composed. The orders and genera of Linnaeus are indeed tacitly observed, but not brought forward with useless parade and ostenta- tion. Aware that verbal description alone of figure, is at best but dry and uninviting, some of the priri- cipal varieties are exhibited on copper-plates; and habits and qualities are more enlarged on than tech- nical and mechanical distinctions. It has been remarked, by one of our ablest writers, that no combination of words can convey an exact X PREFACE. idea of one of the animals even which are most fami- liar to us : how idle would it then appear to weary those for whom this volume is intended with dry de- scriptions of form, when a plate will more effectually accomplish the intention than the most elaborate attempts of language ! To show the economy of ani- mated nature, and, from a display of its beauty or utility, to enforce that benevolence which is due to every thing that has life ; to lead from the contempla- tion of His works to the Almighty Parent of them ALL, is the principal purpose of the present writer : and, if this grand end be effected in any degree cor- respondent to his hopes and wishes, these outlines of Natural History will be reviewed by him with a satis- faction which praise indeed may heighten, but which no censure can essentially dimmish. W. M. 1799. SYSTEMATIC CONTENTS. EXPLANATION of some Order II. BRUTA Page 39 terms used in Natural His- Elephant ib. tory, which should be com- Duck-billed platypus 43 mitted to memory by the Sea-cow, or manatus. Morse 44 young student. Page XV Sloth 45 Ant-eater, or ant-bear 46 Of animals in general, com- Great ant-eater 47 pared with vegetables and Manis. Short-tailed manis 48 minerals 1 Armadillo 49 Classification of animated Order III. FERJE 50 nature 6 Seal, or sea-calf ib. The principal varieties in the Ursine seal 52 Human race 11 Leonine seal 53 ;i Class I. MAMMALIA * 21 JJog kind Shepherd's clog. Hound. ID. Order I. PRIMATES 27 Spaniel. Greyhound 55 Large ape. Ourang outang, Irish wolf-dog. Danish dog. or wild man of the woods ib. Mastiff. Bull-dog 56 Pigmy ape 29 Terrier. Newfoundland dog 57 Long-armed ape. Barbary New-Zealand dog. Kamts- ape 30 chadale dog 58 JBaboons. 31 Wolf 59 Large baboon, or papio ib. Hyaena 61 Pigtail baboon 32 Jackall 62 Monkeys 33 Fox 63 Hare-lipped monkey. Green Arctic fox, or isatis 64 monkey ib. Cat kind 65 Negro monkey. Chinese mon- Common cat ib. key. Full-bottomed monkey 34 Mountain-cat 66 Preacher monkey. Fair mon- Lion 67 key 35 Tiger 69 Maucaucnes ib. Jaguar 71 Ring- tail maucauco. Tail- Panther. Leopard 72 less maucauco. Black (or Ounce. Lynx 73 ruffed) maucauco 36 Ichneumon. Coati mondi 74 fiats 37 American pole-cat, or stinkard 75 Common bat ib. Civet, or civet-cat 76 Great bat of Madagascar. Genet. Common otter 77 Vampire, or spectre bat 58 Sea-otter. Glutton 78 Xll CONTENTS. Marten. Pole cat Page 80 Ferret 81 Sable 82 Ermine, or stoat. Weasel 83 Bears 84 Black bear of America ib. Brown bear of the Alps. White (or Greenland) bear Opossum 85 Kangaroo 87 Mole 88 Shrew 89 Hedgehog 90 Order IV. CURES 91 Porcupine ib. Hare 93 Rabbit 94 Beaver 95 Musk beaver 96 Guinea-pig 97 Agouti. Lemming 98 Marmot. Dormouse )00 Common mouse 701 Rat 102 Squirrel. Flying squirre* 103 Order V. PECORA 104 Camel ib. Lama 105 Musk 106 Camelopard. Mouse-deer, or elk 107 Rein deer 108 Stag, or red-deer 109 Fallow-deer 110 Roebuck 111 Antelope (or Gazelf) kind ib. Common antelope. White- footed antelope, or Nylghau 112 Royal antelope. Common goat 1 13 Ibex 114 Goat of Angola. Moufflon. Sheep 115 Ox (or Cow] kind 1 1 7 Bison. Buffalo 119 Order VI. BELLUJR 120 Peccary, or tajacu. Cabiai, or capibara Page 128 Babyrouessa, or Indian hog. Rhinoceros 129 Order VII. CETJE 131 Narwal, or sea-unicorn ib. Whale J32 Cachalot, or physeter 153 Grampus, porpoise, and dol- phin 134 Class II. BIRDS 135 Order I. ACCIPITRES 142 Condor ib. King of the vultures 1 43 Eagle kind 144 Common eagle ib. Golden eagle. Sea eagle 145 Falcon kind ib. Gyr falcon. Peregrine falcon 146 Gentle falcon. Buzzard. Kite 147 Gos-hawk. Sparrow-hawk 148 Owl kind Eagle-owl Horned owl. White owl. Ivy- owl Butcher-bird Order II. PICJE Parrot Toucan Rhinoceros-bird. Raven Crow Royston (or hooded) crow. Rook Jackdaw Jay. Magpie Chough. Oriole Bird of paradise King of the birds of paradise 149 ib. 150 151 152 ib. 155 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 Horse ib. Ass 123 Zebra 124 Hippopotamus, or river-horse 125 Hog kind 126 Wild boar ib. Domestic hog 127 Cuckoo Wryneck Woodpecker Nut-hatch. King -fisher Bee- eater Hoopoe. Creeper. Hum- ming-bird 170 Order III. ANSERES 172 Swan ib. Goose 173 Duck 174 Goosander. Auk, or razor- bill 176 Petrel 177 CONTENTS. XU1 Albatrosi Page 178 Pelican 179 Cormorant 180 Gannet, or Soland goose 181 Magellanic penguin 182 Diver 183 Gull 184 Order IV. GRALL^B ib. Flamingo. Spoonbill, or sho- veler 186 Common crane 186 Numidian crane. Gigantic crane 187 Stork 188 Heron 189 Bittern 190 Curlew. Woodcock. Snipe 191 Ruff 192 Lapwing, or peewit. Sand- piper 193 Golden plover. Lesser plo- ver, or dottrel. Avosette 194 Coot. Water-rail 195 Land-rail. Bustard 196 Ostrich 197 Cassowary 1 99 Order V. GALLINJB * 200 Dodo ib. Peacock 201 Turkey 202 Curasso-bird. Common phea- sant 203 Cock 204 Guinea-hen 205 Cock of the wood 206 Black cock. Moor-fowl,, or red-game 207 White game, or ptarmigan. Partridge 208 Quail 209 Order VI. PASSERES ib. Pigeon 210 Stock-dove 211 Ring-dove. ' Turtle-dove. Lark 212 Thrush 213 Fieldfare. Redwing 214 Blackbird. Crossbill. Haw- finch 215 Bullfinch. Cardinal gross- beak 216 Snow-bird. Ortolan. Rice- bunting 217 Goldfinch . Chaffinch Page 2 1 9 Common sparrow. Linnet. Canary-bird 21 Fly-catcher. Nightingale 220 Golden-crested wren 221 Black-cap. Red-breast 222 Wheatear 223 Swallow kind ib. Common (or house) swallow. Martin 224 Sand-martin. Swift. Goat- sucker, or churn-owl 225 Class III. AMPHIBIOUS ANIMALS. Order I. REPTILES. Tortoise 229 Common frog 250 Edible frog 231 Bull-frog. Common toad 232 Pipal, or toad of Surinam 233 Crocodile 234 Iguana. Salamander 235 Camel eon. Scaly lizard 256 Order II. SERPENTES 237 Rattle-snake ib. Boa, or ox-serpent 238 Viper 239 Snake. Slow (or blind) worm, Amphisbaena 241 Order III. MEANTES 242 Siren ib. Order IV. NANTES ib. Lamprey. Torpedo, or elec- tric ray 243 Fire-flaire, or sting-ray 245 Shark 246 Fishing-frog, or sea-devil. Sturgeon 247 Isinglass-fish. Balistes 248 Sun-fish 249 Lump-fish 250 Pipe-fish. Horse-caterpillar, or Hippocampus 251 Class IV. FISHES. 252 Order I. APODIS 257 Common eel ib. Conger eel 258 Electric eel 259 Sea wolf. Launce, or sand- eel 260 Sword-fish 261 XIV CONTENTS. Order II. JUGULARES Page 262 Dragonet. Common Weever, or sea- dragon ib. Uranoscope, or star-gazer. Common cod 263 Haddock ,265 Coal-fish. Pollack 266 Whiting. Hake 267 Ling. Burbot 268 Blenny. Gattorugine blenny. Viviparous blenny 269 Order III. THORACICI 270 Remora, or sucking-fish. Parrot -fish ib. Bull-head, or miller's thumb. Father-lasher 271 Doree. Holibut 272 Plaise. Flounder 275 Dab. Sole 274 Turbot. Chaetodon, or shoot- ing-fish. Gilt-head 275 Wrasse, or old wife 276 Common perch 277 Ruff. Basse. Sea-perch 278 Common stickleback. Pilot- fish 279 Common mackerel 280 Tunny. Mullet 281 Surmullet. Common (or grey) gurnard 282 Piper 283 Order IV. ABDOMINALES ib. Loach, or groundling ib. Skeat. Salmon Page 284 Salmon trout. Common trout 286 Samlet. Char. Smelt 287 Guiniad. Pike 288 Sea-needle, or gar-pike 289 Flying-fish. Herring 290 Sprat 291 Pilchard. Anchovy. Shad 292 Carp. Barbel. Tench 293 Gudgeon. Bream. Roach 294 Dace. Chub. Bleak. Gold- fish 295 Class V. INSECTS 296 Order I. COLEOPTERA 306 Order II. HEMIPTERA 308 Order III. LEPIDOPTERA 309 Order IV. NEUROPTERA 310 Order V. HYMENOPTERA 311 Order VI. DIPTERA 312 Order VII. APTERA 313 Class VI. WORMS 314 Order I. INTESTINA 315 Order II. MOLLUSCS 316 Order III. TESTACEA 318 Order IV. ZOOPHITA 321 Order V. INFUSORIA 322 The principal end of Natural History 324 XV Explanation of some Terms used in Natural History, 'which should be committed to Memory by the young Student. ACULEA TED. Sharpened. Amphibious. Capable of living by land or water. Animalcule^ Small animals, generally invisible without the as- sistance of the microscope. Annulated. Marked with rings. Antlers. Horns overhanging the brows. Aquatic. Living or growing in the water. ifid. Divided into two parts, or cleft. Bimaculated. With two spots, or two series of spots. Bivalve. With two shells or openings. Callosity. A hard lump, an excrescence. Canine. Belonging to the dog kind. Carinated. In the shape of a keel. Carnivorous. Feeding on flesh. Cartilaginous. Furnished with cartilages. Cere. A skin over the bill of birds ; sometimes moveable, as in parrots. Cetaceous. Of the whale kind. Cinereous. Of the colour of ashes. Columbine. Belonging to the dove kind. Cordiform. Heart-shaped. Crustaceous. Covered with a crust ; as lobsters, &c. Digitated. Having the feet divided into parts, like toes or fingers, as in dogs. Dorsal. Belonging to the back. Exsanguineous. Without blood, as worms. Entomology. A description of insects. Feline. Belonging to the cat kind. ferruginous. Of an iron or rust colour. Frugivorous. Feeding on seeds. Furcated. Forked. Gallinaceous, Belonging to the hen kind. - Gestation. The time of going with young. Granivorous. Feeding on grain. Gregarious. Associating together. Herbivorous. Feeding on grass. Ichthyology. A description of fishes. Imbricated. Tiled or plated over each other. Incubation. The act of a bird sitting on her eggs. Insectivorous. Feeding on insects. Lateral. Belonging to the side, placed sideways. Migratory. Coming and going at certain seasons. Multivalve. With many shells or openings. Nascent. Very young, growing. Nictitating. Winking : applied to a membrane with which birds cover their eyes at pleasure. Obfuscated. Of a darkish colour. XVI EXPLANATIONS OF TERMS. Olfactory. Relating to smell. Ornithology A description of birds. Oviparous. Laying eggs. Parturition. The act of bringing forth young. Passerine. Belonging to the sparrow kind. Patulous. Open, wide. Pectoral. Belonging to the breast. Pendulous. Hanging. Piscivorous. Feeding on fishes. Predaceuus. Formed to pursue prey. Quadrifid. Divided into four parts. Ruminating. Chewing the cud. Scabrous. Rough Scapulars. Shoulders. Semttunar. In the form of a half-moon. Setaceous. Hairy. Subulated. Formed like an awl. Testaceous. Covered with a shell ; as oysters, &c. Trifurcated. Three-forked. Truncated. Appearing as if cut off. Umbrageous. Spreading. Univalve. With one shell or opening. Ventral. Belonging to the belly. Viviparous. Bringing forth the young alive. Webbed. Connected with a membrane, as the claws of aquatic birds. Zoologists. Writers on animated nature. Zoology. The history of! animated nature. Zo ophite. An animal plant, or sensitive vegetable. *** When the young Student is perfect in the foregoing Terms, he will derive considerable advantage in his study of Natural History, by making himself master of the de- finitions at the head of each class. These definitions of the Classes and of their Orders ought to be indelibly fixed in the memory. ELEMENTS OF NATURAL HISTORY. OF ANIMALS IN GENERAL, COMPARED WITH VEGETABLES AND MINERALS. LINNJBUS, with his usual conciseness, though not per- haps with his usual happy precision, characterises and di- vides the three kingdoms of nature* in the following man- ner: " Stones grow; vegetables grow and live; animals grow, live, and feel." This definition is, indeed, well adapted to exhibit the intended idea'in a popular way ; but it may be questioned whether it be philosophically just. To grow, live, and feel, are only the passive pro- perties of animals ; they possess, in general, active powers of motion, instinct, and a kind of intellectual energy, which exalt them many degrees above vegetables, and in- finitely above minerals ; while the different proportions of docility or sagacity with which they are endowed, emi- nently distinguish their different tribes from each other, as well as from inanimate matter. Animals, therefore, of all the objects which the terra* queous globe presents to our notice, are most worthy of our regard. Compared with vegetables, which are fixed to one spot, and incapable of seeking nutriment ; if torn from their parent soil, they must be allowed to rank high in the scale of created matter. The greater part of them are not only endowed with organs of sensation, and the faculty of spontaneous locomotion, but are also capable of correcting any disadvantages of situation into which they may be thrown, of seeking their food, and of defending themselves from danger; even those humble classes which * The animal, the rege table, and the mineral. B Z ANIMALS, COMPARED are confined to a single spot, such as many species of shell- fish and the gall insects, are furnished with a covering which protects them from external injury, and with the ready means of receiving aliment agreeable to their taste. In short, all animals, from the highest to the lowest rank, are enabled by some natural means to escape or repel danger, to find security, and investigate their proper food ; but vegetables are totally unfurnished with the means of active defence, and must submit to every attack and every accident. An animal may be therefore defined an or- ganised being, possessed of a certain portion of intellect for its own preservation, combined with the vital principle and power of motion : while a vegetable is fixed to one place, and exposed to injuries without the means of eva- ding or repelling them. Notwithstanding these distinctive characters, which may be sufficient to discriminate the boundaries between an animal and a plant, they both possess so many correspond- ing qualities, that it appears difficult in some cases to pronounce where animal life commences, and vegetable terminates. The sensitive plant (mimosa pudica), which shrinks from the slightest touch, seems to have as much of perception and of the locomotive faculty, as the poly- pus and sea-nettle. The moving plant (hedysarum gymns) furnishes a still more extraordinary example of vegetable motion : but both these, to manifest their innate powers, require to be acted upon by some external objects ; while every thing animated acts from a principle within itself. The resemblances, however, between animals and vege- tables, are nevertheless very great ; and in many respects their economy is the same. They have both their periods of nascency and maturity, of improvement and decay. They reproduce their kind ; seem to participate in sensa- tion, or at least in irritability, to a certain degree ; and to have their respective antipathies and propensities. The ferocious animals create a desert round them ; and some noxious plants resemble them in this respect. The strong prey on the weak in both kingdoms of nature ; the lion WITH VEGETABLES AND MINERALS. 3 and the manchineel-tree cannot endure a near approach ; the serpent and the poisonous weed occupy a larger space than the harmless useful animal and the salutary plant. Thus in this point we trace a similitude between the two classes ; and if we consider them with regard to the places of their growth, we shall find the affinity still stronger. The vegetables produced in a dry and sunny soil are strong and vigorous, though not prolific and luxuriant ; so also are the animals which range in a similar climate. Warmth and moisture, on the contrary, render vegetables luxuriant and tender ; and the animals assimilating to the nature of such food are bulky and flaccid. Hence we find in the warm regions of America and Africa, where the sun commonly scorches all the upper grounds, and inunda- tions cover all the lower, that even the irtsect and reptile tribes acquire an extraordinary size. The earth-worm of the tropical climates in America is often a yard long, and as thick as a walking-stick ; the boiguacu, or ox-serpent, reaches to the length of forty feet ; the bats are much larger than our domestic fowls ; and the spiders may vie in size with the frogs and toads of temperate regions. On the contrary, within the arctic circle, where vegetation is impeded by the rigour of the climate, animal life, through all its various classes, sensibly partakes in the diminution. If again we contemplate the vegetables and animals pecu- liar to the water, we shall not fail to find new correspond- ences, and to recognise how well the nature of the one is adapted to the necessities of the other. Thus it is evident, that animals and vegetables, in al- most every instance, have a tendency to approximate towards each other ; and, in some cases, the links that unite them are distinctly marked: in general, however, it may be observed, that the more perfect races of animals recede the farthest from vegetable nature ; and that, in proportion to the inferiority of the animal, the affinity of the two classes is perceptibly nearer. Thousands of the more humble and minute insect tribes are confined to a single plant, or even to a single leaf, and their whole term B 2 4 OF ANIMALS, COMPARED of life is coeval with its duration ; they are even incapa- ble of being bred in other regions. The more perfect animals, however, lead a life of less dependence, and are disseminated over various parts of the world. Man, the noblest of them, appears to be least affected by the di- versity of climate, or influenced by the aliments on which he subsists. He is essentially the same, amidst the luxu- riance of the tropical climates, and the sterility of the frozen. From the polar regions to the burning sands of the equator, he procures with more or less ease the means of subsistence : he is neither circumscribed by zones, nor confined to regions ; but exists in every clime, with little material alteration in his nature or his form. Thus Man, the lord of this lower creation, himself un- affected in any considerable degree, compels the lower orders of animals to follow his wanderings, and in many cases to obey his will. He in a manner changes their natures by his power, and their instincts by the arts of do- mestication. He reclaims the useful for his pleasure or service ; and drives the savage and the noxious to the most sequestered retreats. His dominion is undisputed wherever he wishes to extend it ; whether over the other animals of the earth, or the vegetables ; not to mention the monsters of the deep, and the whole class of minerals. Thus it appears that the two kingdoms of nature which are most nearly allied, are more immediately subject to the control of a being, not always possessed indeed of superior strength, but of superior intellectual endow- ment. To mark the precise boundary between vegetables and minerals is, in a manner, unnecessary. The transition from the animal to the plant, as already observed, is fected by shades so imperceptible, as sometimes to escape observation ; but between the plant and the mineral there is a vast chasm. In the latter, not a vestige of organisa- tion can ever be discovered. The fibrous structure of the asbestos has been considered, indeed, by some hasty sys- tem-builders, as an approach to organised matter, and ae WITH VEGETABLES AND MINERALS. 5 the connecting link between the mineral and vegetable kingdoms : but a distinction should be here observed ; - that in the mineral kingdom, though nature continues to arrange, she ceases to organise. The most regular con- figuration of salts, crystals, and precious stones, is carried on by a chemical, not an organic process. They for ever remain in the same state ; unless when separated by force, or augmented by fresh agglomerations of matter. They are incapable of multiplying their species, or of repro- ducing such parts as are forcibly abstracted from them ; and hence we must conclude, that between the most regular fossils, and the most imperfect vegetables, the lines of distinction are deeply marked, and the distance is immense. * Of all the departments, however, in the kingdoms of nature, the philosophical history of Animals is most in- teresting to man, and ought to be a principal object of his researches : not only as he belongs to this division himself; but as it is from the inferior orders of them that he is supplied with food, raiment, and occasional assist- ance. Yet, though upwards of twenty-five thousand animals have been indicated and described by naturalists, it would be difficult to enumerate even one hundred that materially contribute to our use or accommodation, Why, it may be asked, has nature been so prolific to so little purpose? To this the answer is ready : Every thing in creation was certainly formed for some beneficial de- sign or other, though varying in its importance ; and one part of nature is unquestionably designed and fitted to support another. Were all animals to subsist on vege- tables, thousands of beings would soon become extinct, from a deficiency of provisions: but, as infinite Wisdom has ordained it, one living creature supports another ; and thus the countless variety of animated beings which people the earth, the air, and the water, are all supplied according to their respective wants. The industry of man has been successfully employed to diminish the number of noxious animals, and to render B3 6 CLASSIFICATION OF the others subservient to his use or pleasure. Still, how- ever, a vast variety of creatures present themselves every where to our view ; so that it becomes difficult to de- termine where we shall commence their history. Not only the three elements * propitious to life are replete with animals ; but almost every vegetable, every leaf, is peopled with myriads of minute inhabitants, each of which fills up the circle of its allotted duties, and partakes of Such enjoyments as its nature craves. In contemplating this wonderful exuberance of ani- mated nature, ignorance might be tempted to rest in desponding uncertainty, and to pronounce that to be ab- solutely inscrutable, which cannot be developed without much pains and attention. The active and inquisitive mind of man, however, not intimidated at the contempla- tion of the immense variety of subjects in this department of natural history, has invented a mode of numbering, grouping, and classing the different animals which fall within its notice ; and thus arbitrary system has become an useful auxiliary to science. Passing over the arrangement of animals adopted by the ancient Greek and Latin naturalists, and that of the less distinguished moderns, which have only been the fashion of a day, and confined to few admirers, I shall content myself at present with giving a brief analysis of the schemes of Ray, Klein, Brisson, Buffon, Pennant, and Linnaeus. Though in the present work I shall follow the arrangement of the last of these authors, as being that which is almost universally received, it may afford some amusement and instruction to the young student in nature, to trace the outline of the systems of the others, as some of them obtained great and deserved celebrity in their time, and probably will never be quite forgotten. RAY, in imitation of Aristotle, divides the animal king- dom into two great classes, such as have blood and such as have not ; placing all the insect tribes in the latter * Fartb, air, and water. ANIMATED NATURE. 7 class. The first great order he subdivides into such as respire through the lungs, and such as respire through the gills ; which last evidently comprehend the fishes. In those which breathe through the lungs, some have the heart composed of two ventricles, and others of only one : the former include the cetaceous fishes, viviparous quad- rupeds, and birds ; the latter, the oviparous quadrupeds, and serpents. Animals with two lungs, or ventricles, are either viviparous or oviparous : the viviparous are subdi- vided into aquatic, as the cetaceous fishes ; and ter- restrial, as the quadrupeds covered with hair : the oviparous animals with two lungs, comprise the whole class of birds. % The animals without blood he divides into the larger, which are either soft as the cuttle-fish, crustaceous as the lobster, or testaceous as the cockle ; and are likewise univalve, bivalve, &c. ; and the lesser, which comprise all insects properly so called. My limits will not allow me to follow him in his subdivisions into orders and families ; it is but justice, however, to the memory of that eminent naturalist to observe, not only that his arrangement is clear, methodical, and simple, but that his descriptions are comprehensive and accurate. He possessed an ele- gance of taste, and a philosophic genius, which manifestly pervade his labours, and stamp a great additional value on them. KLEIN, whose system appeared in 174-0, makes the power of changing situation the general characteristic of animals, and deduces his several distinctions from the manner in which this faculty is exerted. Some have this faculty by means of feet, or similar appendages ; others are furnished with both wings and feet ; some move by fins, and others by an undulatory motion; some can change their situations at pleasure in their shells, and others only periodically. Such as are destitute of all locomotive power are not comprehended within his divisions ; his system must therefore, of necessity, be inaccurate and incomplete. B 4 8 CLASSIFICATION OF BRISSON divides animated nature into nine classes; quadrupeds, cetaceous animals, birds, reptiles, cartilagi- nous fishes, spinous fishes, testaceous animals, insects, and worms. He then distributes quadrupeds into eighteen orders, and takes his distinctions from the number arid conformation of their teeth. His arrangement was an attempt to improve on that of Linnaeus ; but, though not destitute of ingenuity, it never was generally adopted. To give any adequate idea of BUFFON'S system, if in- deed that can be called a system which affects to soar above and to ridicule all methodical arrangement, would be impossible. This philosophical painter of nature, con- scious of his brilliant mental energies, gives to individual descriptions a luminous appearance which must ever de- light and instruct ; but by disregarding method, his labours as a whole exhibit rather a beautiful chaos than a well-executed structure. His general distribution of quadrupeds into domestic, wild, and foreign, is so vague and inadequate, that we cannot properly rank him among systematic writers ; though, in the requisites of elegant composition and elaborate inquiry, he is superior, per- haps, to all other naturalists. The following is the apology which he makes for spurning at what he considers as the trammels of system : " Nature,*' he says, " pro- ceeds from one species to another by such imperceptible degrees, that we are often tempted to link many of them together as belonging to the same family. We ought not, however, to forget, that these families or genera are created by ourselves, in order to assist the understanding: and that, if we cannot comprehend the real connections of natural objects, it is our own fault, and no defect in nature ; which knows nothing of those pretended families, and which, in fact, has only made individuals. An indi- vidual is a detached being, which has nothing in common with other beings, except it resembles or rather diifers from them, All the similar individuals which exist upon this earth, are considered as composing the species of these individuals. It is not, however, the collective ANIMATED NATURE. 9 number of individuals, but their constant succession and renovation, that constitutes their species." These are the ingenious paradoxes of a man who com- bined all the sportiveness of an exuberant fancy with a profound and comprehensive understanding ; and from whose invaluable works on natural history, a more inti- mate knowledge of the economy, habits, and propensities, of different animals may be acquired, than from all the systematic writers taken together. Happy would it have been, however, had Buffon been more delicate in his effu- sions, and grafted his beautiful descriptions and delinea- tions on the correct and regular system of Linn^us. The study of animated nature would, by such an union, have acquired many additional attractions and advantages. From the long-continued labours of PENNANT in the ample field of natural history, the student, whether British or foreign, will derive much useful information and in- struction. Whatever he touched he improved, though his manner is peculiar: and, as he investigated all the^ classes of animals, and made us acquainted >vith the zoology of our own country in particular, it would be un- pardonable not to present my readers with a synopsis of his scheme. As the present work is designed for the use of English youth alone, I shall retain his trivial names, though not his mode of classification. This able and diligent naturalist, who has furnished the world with one of the most accurate and satisfactory systems of quadrupeds, perhaps, that ever appeared, divides them into hoofed, digitated, pinnated, and winged. The hoofed quadrupeds he subdivides into whole and cloven-hoofed ; the digitated into frugivorous, carnivor- ous, and insectivorous, (those who feed on grain, flesh, or insects,) regarding at the same time the number of the canine teeth ; the pinnated he distinguishes by being piscivorous or herbivorous (feeding on fishes or herbs) ; and the winged, including the bat tribe, by being insectivorous. The numerous class of birds he comprehends under two 5 10 CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMATED NATURE. great natural orders, land and water fowls. The first he subdivides into six families ; rapacious birds, pies, gallina- ceous, columbine, passerine, struthious : the last into three families ; cloven-footed, birds with pinnated feet, and web- footed. He defines reptiles in the following terms : " body covered either with a shell or strong hide, divided by sutures, four fin-like feet, and a short tail." Under this class he comprehends the tortoise, the frog, the lizard, the viper, and the snake kinds. Mr. Pennant makes three orders of fishes ; those which are cetaceous, cartilaginous, or bony; In the subdivisions of the last order, he follows the arrangement of Linnaeus; and, for the sake of science, it might have been wished that his deviations from such a guide had been less fre- quent. There is often more real glory, and certainly more utility, in beautifying and improving an established system, when generally conformable to nature and to reason, than in inventing a new one. Crustaceous ani- mals form a separate class ; comprehending the numerous tribes of crabs, lobsters, &c. Worms, in his sixth and last class, he divides into tne intestine, the soft, and the testaceous. The last include all the numerous variety of shells, in the arrangement of which he follows the generally-received distinctions. LINNJEUS, the first in celebrity, though the last in this catalogue, (his system alone being universally appealed to by other naturalists as a permanent standard,) appeared as a systematic writer on natural history in 1735; and, having gradually improved and enriched his scheme by indefatigable perseverance and attention, presented the twelfth edition of his work to the public in 1766-7 About 21 years after his death, however, another edition, aug- mented by all the recent discoveries of inquisitive naturalists and travellers, came out under the care of professor Gmelin ; which, without materially altering the original plan and arrangement, has highly contributed to the perfection and utility of the system. Other naturalists VARIETIES IN THE HUMAN RACE. 1 I have successively followed up and matured his work, which Dr. Turton has rendered more accessible to the mere English scholar, by a faithful translation. Linnaeus distributes the animal kingdom into six classes I. MAMMALIA, or animals which suckle their young; including Man. the quadrupeds, and the whale kind. II. BIRDS. III. AMPHIBIOUS ANIMALS. IV. FISHES. V. INSECTS. VI. WORMS.* In adopting the general arrangement of this illustrious inquirer into nature, yet so as not to fatigue the juvenile reader with his technical subdivisions and minute discri- minations of form, I shall present a general description of each class in succession, and then particularise some of the most striking objects in every different order. As our natural pride, however, will not permit us to rank in the same class with apes, monkeys, maucaucoes, and bats, it may be proper to give a brief account of the varieties in the human race, before I enter on the consideration of quadrupeds, and other mammalious animals. THE PRINCIPAL VARIETIES IN THE HUMAN RACE. THOUGH there cannot be a doubt that all mankind, how- ever disseminated over the globe, sprung from one parent stock ; yet the influence of climate, civilisation, govern- ment, and even of modes of life, have created great di- versities in colour, shape, and stature. The boundary of a river, the intervention of a hill, custom, accident, or fashion, may sometimes occasion shades of distinction which the most incurious observer will recognise ; and on the other hand, long-continued intercourse will assimilate * The names of these six classes should be committed to memory. B 6 12 PRINCIPAL VARIETIES. two nations by degrees, till at last the difference between them will be imperceptible. There are, however, some broad lines of distinction in the same species, which it is the business of the naturalist to remark, and of the phi- losopher to explain. Linnaeus characterises mankind, with his usual brevity, in masses ; each of which includes a quarter of the globe. The American is described as of a reddish colour, choleric, and erect ; the European as fair, ruddy, and muscular ; the Asiatic as tawny, grave, and rigid ; the African as black, phlegmatic, and relaxed. This description, however, ap- pears much too general, and is too indefinite for applica- tion to all cases. Another ingenious author *, with a more discriminating observation, though perhaps too particular to be accurate, has made use of the following remarks, with regard to the variation in colour : " Encircle," says he, " the earth in every zone ; and, after making a few allowances, you will see every zone marked by its distinct and characteristic colour. The black prevails under the equator; under the tropics, the dark copper ; and, on this side of the tropic of Cancer, to the seventieth degree of north latitude, you successively discern the olive, the brown, the fair, and the sanguine complexion. Of each of these, there are several tints, or shades. Under the arctic circle, you come again to the dark hue. This general uniformity in the effect, indicates an influence in the climate, that, under the same circumstances, will always operate in the same manner. The apparent deviations from the law of climate, that exist in different regions of the globe, will be found to confirm the general truth." It cannot be denied that this is in general philosophically just, as far as colour only is concerned ; but complexion, though the most marked, is the least essential trait in the varieties of the human species. The lineaments of the face, the general conformation, the stature, and the phy- sical and moral character, are the most interesting features, * Smith. IN THE HUMAN RACE. 13 and constitute the chief discriminations of our kind, Buffon, and after him, Goldsmith, have taken a more luminous survey of mankind ; and have thrown them into families strongly marked, and accurately defined. I shall therefore follow them as the most satisfactory guides in this respect, and present a miniature of their ampler de- lineation. In taking an extensive view of our species, there do not appear to be above six varieties sufficiently distinct to constitute families : and even in them the distinctions are more trivial than are frequently seen in the lower classes of animals. In all climates, Man preserves the erect de- portment, and the natural superiority of his form. There is nothing in the shape or faculties that designates a dif- ferent original ; and other causes, connected with the cli- mate, soil, customs, and laws, sufficiently account for the change which has been produced. The polar regions exhibit the FIRST distinct race of men. The Laplanders, the Esquimaux Indians, the Sa- moide Tartars, the inhabitants of Nova Zembla, the Bo- randians, the Greenlanders, and the Kamtschadales, may be considered as forming a race of people, all nearly resembling each other in stature, complexion, habits, and acquirements. Born under a rigorous climate, confined to particular aliments, and subjected to numerous hardships, it seems as if their bodies and their minds have not had scope to expand. The extreme cold has produced nearly the same effect on their complexion, as intense heat has on the natives of tropical regions ; they are generally of a deep brown, inclining to actual black. Diminutive and ill-shaped, their aspect is as forbidding as their manners are gross. Their visage is large and broad ; the nose flat and short; the eyes brown, suffused with yellow ; the eye- lids drawn towards the temples ; the cheek-bones high ; the lips thick ; the voice effeminate ; the head large ; and the hair black and straight. The tallest do not exceed the height of five feet, and many are not more than four. Among these nations, female beauty is almost unknown; i PRINCIPAL VARIETIES and but little difference is to be discerned in the external appearance of the sexes. But it is not only in deformity, dwarfishness, colour, and contour of features, that the inhabitants of these regions resemble each other. There is also a marked conformity in their manners, propensities, and habitual ignorance. They certainly display a degree of activity and resolution in pursuit of their game; but they seem incapable of vigorous exertions either of body or of mind, unless when their ingenuity is stimulated by necessity ; or inevitable difficulties prompt the temporary exertion of courage to evade or surmount them. With regard to their morals, they possess all the virtues of simplicity, and all the vices of ignorance. They seem to entertain few religious ideas, and these are rather su- perstitious than rational. Providence, however, in denying them so many physical blessings which the nations of more temperate climes enjoy, has given contentment as a coun- terbalance for these deprivations. They have a very high opinion of themselves ; and, according to Krantz, relieve the tedium of their social meetings by ridiculing European manners and pursuits. War is the object of their detest- ation, because they have nothing worth contending for ;' and, though attempts have been made to discipline them as soldiers, and to draw them into the field, every measure of this kind has hitherto proved unsuccessful. In proportion as we approach the north pole, mankind seem to dwindle in energy and importance of character ; till we reach those high latitudes that forbid rational, if not all animal life. The gradations, however, vary almost im- perceptibly : but on the southern borders we find people of a large stature and more noble form ; who, compared with those of the more northern, exhibit a striking con- trast, and prove the amazing influence of climate on what- ever breathes and lives. The SECOND great existing variety in the human species, seems to be the Tartar race ; from whom it is probable that the natives of the hyperborean regions original!) IN THE HUMAN RACE. }> sprung. The Tartar country, in its common acceptation, comprehends a very considerable part of Asia, and con- sequently is peopled by natives of very different forms and complexions; yet there are leading traits of distinction be- tween the whole race and the people of any other country. They all have the upper part of the visage very broad and early wrinkled ; the lower part narrow, and approaching to a point at the chin : their eyes are small, and wide apart ; their noses short and flat; their cheek-bones high ; the eye- brows thick ; the hair black ; and the complexion olive. In general they are of the middle stature, strong, robust, and healthy. Some of the tribes may be comparatively handsome : but according to our ideas of beauty, all of them fall very short of that appellation ; and the Calmucs, in particular, are not only ugly, but frightful. The Tartars, however widely disseminated, are all ac- customed to a wandering life, and all dwell in tents. They subsist chiefly on horse-flesh and dried fish ; and their usual beverage is mares' milk, fermented with ground mil- let. They have few religious ideas, and no determinate notions of morality or decency of manners. Their chief wealth consists in horses, in the management and care of which they spend much of their time ; and they count it no dishonesty to follow robbing as a vocation, provided it be exercised on a different tribe from their own. The men have little hair on their chin ; and they all shave the head, except a lock of hair on the top, which they suffer to grow to a great length, and form into tresses. The women, though scarcely ever handsome, are yet studious to braid their hair, and decorate it with pieces of copper and similar ornaments. Different as the Chinese and Japanese are in their man- ners and customs, they are evidently of Tartar origin. The general contour of features is the same ; and the va- riations in complexion, stature, and customs, may be satisfactorily explained from the principles of climate, food, and political institutions. " I have observed," says Chardin, " that in all the people from the east and t!le 16 PRINCIPAL VARIETIES north of the Caspian sea, to the peninsula of Malacca, the lines of the face and the formation of the countenance are the same." To the class of original Tartars may be re- ferred the Cochin-Chinese, the Siamese, the Tonquinese, and the natives of Aracan, Laos, and Pegu ; who all evince a common origin. The southern Asiatics constitute the THIRD variety in the human species. The native inhabitants of the penin- sula of India (whose descendants, according to the most accurate and intelligent modern travellers, appear to have possessed themselves at unknown periods, and by acci- dental means, of the numerous islands that lie scattered in the Indian ocean) are easily distinguished from their more northern neighbours. In stature and features they bear a strong resemblance to Europeans ; they are slender and elegantly formed, have long straight black hair, and not unfrequently aquiline noses. Their colour, however, according to the diversity of climate, varies from pale olive to black ; yet mogul, in the Oriental acceptation, signifies a white man. The women are very delicate, but have nearly the same complexion as the men : they early arrive at maturity ; and their beauty suffers from the encroach- ments of age, so early as their thirtieth year. Effeminacy, and the want of military qualities, have long characterised the natives of the East ; and in con- sequence, they have become slaves to every armed despot who has had the resolution to invade them. Their man- ners partake of the enervating heat of their climate ; they are generally indolent, submissive, sensual, and averse to reflection. Many of the tribes eat nothing that ever possessed life, and show a reluctance to injure even the meanest insect. This arises from their belief in the metempsychosis, or transmigration of souls ; which was the favourite doctrine of Pythagoras, and has for many ages been prevalent among the Eastern nations. The usual food of the Gen- toos is rice ; their drink the unadulterated stream. They are clothed in silks and cottons, and affect a grave deport- IN THE HUMAN RACE. 17 ment ; but this is rather the effect of a deficiency of ani- mation, than any mark of superior wisdom. The Persians and Arabians may be referred to this class ; which, in- cluding the inhabitants of the widely-dispersed islands in the Oriental ocean, constitute a very large portion of mankind. The negroes of Africa form a well-defined and striking variety of our species, which may be called the FOURTH. This sable race is extended over all the southern parts of that quarter of the world : and though there are various shades of distinction in point of colour and features, all may be grouped with propriety in the same picture. As among Europeans, we find among them also some hand- somer than others ; all, however, have the black colour, the velvet smooth skin, and the soft frizzled hair. Their eyes are generally of a deep hazel, their noses flat and short, their lips thick and prominent, and their teeth of the whiteness of ivory. Weakened by the climate, their flesh is flabby, and their whole frame relaxed ; while their mental powers, in general, participate the imbecility of their bodies. Stupid, indolent, and often mischievous, they possess few qualities that can attract regard : yet religion, reason, and humanity, all conspire to induce us to treat them, when in our power, with mildness and justice ; or rather to leave them unmolested in their native enjoyments, however imperfect ; unless by introducing the arts of civilisation and the principles of Christian duty, we could multiply the number of their blessings, and alleviate their ills. When will the slave trade be anni- hilated in reality as well as in name ! Among these people are sometimes found individuals of a white milky complexion, called Albinoes. These, however, no more constitute a distinct race, than persons affected by the small-pox, or bearing the marks of it, among ourselves. We shall find the FIFTH variety of the human species among the aboriginal Americans : who are as distinct in colour, as in their place of residence, from the remain- 18 PRINCIPAL VARIETIES der of the world. These people, except towards the north among the Esquimaux, where they resemble the Laplanders, are of a red or copper colour ; with less variation, however, than might be expected in such a diversity of climates. They have all black straight hair, and thin beards (which latter, however, they take care to extirpate, wholly or in part), flat noses, high cheek-bones, and small eyes. Various deformities are created by art among different tribes, under the idea of beauty ; and for this purpose they paint the body and face in a manner truly hideous, if judged according to the standard of European taste and manners. Though frequently of an equal stature with us, they are less muscular and strong ; which may possibly be an effect of the climate, or of their food. Certain it is, that a stranger no sooner lands on the continent of America, than he is struck with the flaccid, whitish, wan appear- ance, even of the descendants of Europeans, among the natives of the New World : and if the productions of the soil, and the temperature of the air, have had such a perceptible influence on the inhabitants, in perhaps but a few years, what may not be expected from the operation of these causes in a series of ages ? The American Indians are not only more feeble than many of the European nations, but also more pusillani- mous, or at least more backward in facing danger : but no sooner do they find it inevitable, than their courage (which seems, however, of a passive kind) is excited to the highest possible degree ; and they are ready to bear, as well as inflict, the cruellest torture that savage inge- nuity can invent. Patient in adversity, and familiar with fatigues and hardships, they manifest a Stoical apathy in circumstances and accidents which would appear very distressing to an European ; but all that is rather, per- haps, the effect of custom and education, than of genuine magnanimity. They appear uncommonly grave and serious, though devoid of mental application ; and, in proportion as they are barbarous to their conquered ene- IN THE HUMAN RACE. 19 mies, they are benevolent and just to those of their own family or tribe. In all their actions they seem to have adopted this maxim : A generous friendship no cold medium knows ; Burns with one love, with one resentment glows. In short, the characteristics of savage nations, in a moral point of view, are every where much the same. A wild, independent, and unsocial mode of living, produces a peculiar assemblage of virtues and vices ; whence patience and hospitality, indolence and rapacity, content and sincerity, the warmest attachment to friends, and the bitterest animosity against foes, are as distinguishable among the American savages, as among any other bar- barous and uncivilised hordes on earth. The SIXTH and last grand division of the human race, and the most elevated in the scale of being, com- prehends the Europeans, and those of European origin ; among which latter may be classed the Georgians, Cir- cassians, and Mingrelians, the natives of Asia Minor and the northern parts of Africa, as well as of a part of those countries that lie north-west of the Caspian Sea. The inhabitants of regions so extensive and so widely separated, must be expected to vary greatly from each other ; but, in general, there is a striking uniformity in the fairness of their complexions, the beauty and propor- tion of their limbs, and the extent of their capacity. Arts which are but partially practised or little known in other countries, are among this class brought to the highest perfection ; and it will scarcely be denied, except by the visionary advocates for savage life, that in them alone the highest endowments of the understanding, the best vir- tues of the heart, and in short whatever can improve or adorn human nature, are to be found in a super-eminent degree. To some one of the divisions already enumerated, the people of every country may be referred ; and in propor- tion as nations have been less visited by strangers, or have 20 VARIETIES IN THE HUMAN RACE. maintained less intercourse with the rest of mankind, we find their persons and their manners more strongly im- pressed with some of the characteristics already mentioned, On the contrary, in those places where trade has long flourished, or which have been exposed to frequent hostile invasions, the races usually appear blended ; and probably fall under no one particular variety, but partake, in some respects, of all. It is easy to perceive, that of the various colours by which mankind are diversified, white is not only the most beautiful, but also the most expressive. The fair com- plexion becomes like a transparent veil to the soul ; through which every shade of passion, every change of health, may be seen, without the necessity of oral utter- ance: whereas in the African black, and the Asiatic olive complexion, the countenance is found a much less distinct index of the mind, or of the bodily feelings. Besides, this colour, which is most permanent and universal, is certainly the most natural to man ; and it is a well-known fact, that children every where are born comparatively white. It is likewise no uncommon cir- cumstance to see white children born of black parents ; but a black offspring has never been known to be the production of two whites. Whiteness, therefore, appears to be the original colour of man : for, as in some flowers the parent stock is distinguishable among all the artificial varieties blended into it ; so in our nature, that colour must necessarily be original, which never alters, and to which all the rest have a tendency to approximate. With regard to stature, this wholly depends on climate, food, and other local causes. In wild regions, where nourishment is abundant, the human form is developed in its utmost perfection. Under the equator, and towards die poles, it shrinks beneath the due standard, through either the intensity of the heat, or the rigour of the cold. Climate and soil, therefore, have the most powerful effect in expanding or diminishing the size. Even in the same FIRST CLASS ; MAMMALIA. 21 country, the inhabitants of the valleys are taller than those of the hills. As to the form of the face, it probably does not depend altogether upon merely physical causes. Our ideas of beauty and deformity are very different ; and, by degrees, mankind are moulded to that shape, or to those features, which according to our habits of reflec- tion, appear handsome and becoming. In this manner casual deformities may in time become natural ; and be perpetuated, or even increased, through successive ge- nerations. From this cursory survey of mankind, it may be inferred, that all the variations in the human figure, as far as they differ from our own, are produced by the climate, the manner of living, or the institutions of the country. The European figure and complexion may therefore be con- sidered as the standards to which all the other varieties must be referred, or with which they may be compared, In proportion as other nations approach nearer to Euro- pean beauty, the less they may be said to have degene- rated ; and, in proportion as they recede, to have further deviated from the original form impressed on them by their Creator. CLASS I. MAMMALIA. LJNNJEUS divides mammalious animals, or those tvhtch suckle their young, into seven orders ; and these are chiefly regulated by the number and situation of the teeth, I. PRIMATES, or animals having two canine and four cutting teeth, and furnished with two pectoral teats. To this class he refers Man, the ape, the maucauco, and the bat. II. BRUTA, or animals which have no cutting teeth in either jaw ; as the elephant, the sloth, the ant-eater, &c. 22 FIRST CLASS ; III. FER;E, or animals whose cutting teeth vary from ten to two. This order includes most of the formidable rapacious quadrupeds ; as the lion, the tiger, the bear, &c. IV. GLIRES, or animals which have only two cutting, and no canine teeth; as the hare kind, the mouse, the squirrel, &c. V. PECORA, or animals which are hoofed, and hare no cutting teeth in the upper jaw : including the camel, the deer, the sheep, the ox-kind, &c. VI. BELLU^E, or quadrupeds with cutting teeth in each jaw, as the horse, the boar, &c. VII. CET^E, or animals whose teeth greatly vary in dif- ferent genera. This order comprehends all the whale tribes ; which, from certain similarities of structure, have been arranged under the class of quadrupeds. All the mammalia are viviparous, and have two ventricles to the heart, with hot red blood. * It is evident, that in this as well as in the remaining classes, many dissimilar animals are thrown together on account of some coincidences which constitute the syste- matic uniformity. Indeed, all arrangements in Natural History, however ingenious, are chiefly useful as helps to the memory : and that classification of animals which is the simplest, and can be most easily remembered and compared, is probably the best ; a due regard, however, being paid to accuracy of description. In ethics, meta- physics, and mathematics, every definition must be pre- cise, because these sciences are founded on definitions only ; but it is otherwise in those where the exhibition of the object itself is capable of correcting the error. Still, however, a minute attention to system is of use with such as are advanced in years, but facts and descriptions are most acceptable and serviceable to youth : for this reason I shall omit all generic distinctions in my selec- * These definitions of the seven orders should be committed to memory by the young student MAMMALIA. 2.'S tion of subjects ; in order to attract, as far as I am able, and not repel the inquisitive mind of the youthful student. Before I enter, however, on individual descriptions, it may be requisite to give a general view of quadrupeds : which will show the economy of nature in regard to this interesting class of animals ; and the marked superiority which, as Men, we possess over them all. A comparative view of the various classes In animated nature, will sufficiently evince that quadrupeds rank next to ourselves. The similitude between their structure and our own, particularly in the ape race ; their instincts, which in some kinds seem to approach to the reasoning faculty ; their ability to render us essential service, and their power to injure us ; all conspire to render them pro-" tuinent objects of our curiosity and regard. At first, they were probably rivals to the dominion of Man ; but the generality of them have long become his helpers, or receded from his presence. Yet it must have required great and repeated efforts to break their inde- pendent spirit, when taken from their original state of wildness, and to render them domestic and tame. The conformation of the internal parts of quadrupeds, bears a striking analogy to that of the human race. Like us, they rank above the class of birds, by being vivipa- rous ; like us, they rank above the class of fishes, by respiring through lungs ; like us, they rank above the class of insects, by having red blood ; and, like us, they are different from all the other tribes of animated nature, by being either partially or wholly covered with hair. These circumstances of affinity ought to teach us mild- ness and humanity to such as are subservient to our in- terest or our pleasure, and at least to abstain from wanton cruelty to those that are either useless, or even noxious to us. But though quadrupeds in general are thus strongly marked, yet some admitted into the Linnaean system are of an equivocal character, and appear to be sunk very low in the scale of existence. In every class there seems 24- FIRST CLASS ; to be a regular gradation from the most perfect to the most degraded, which latter approach the highest of the next inferior class. The whale, the seal, and the morse, connect quadrupeds with fishes ; the bat tribe, with birds ; and the armadillo with shells. The further they recede from the human figure, the lower they rank in that class to which they are referred. However, though in quadrupeds there are upwards of two hundred and twenty species, and of course in such a variety there must be very different degrees of symmetry end adaptation, all are admirably calculated for the stations which they are doomed to fill. Even the sloth and the mole are not without their share of what makes life desirable ; and it is very likely that they enjoy as much happiness as their natures require. Being formed in general for gathering up their food from the ground, the heads of quadrupeds are perfectly suited to their way of living, while their teeth are accu- rately framed for the nature of their aliment. This is perceptible in the granivorous and carnivorous kinds ; in the one, the teeth serve as the instruments to comminute their food ; in the other, as instruments of defence or annoyance. But not one or two members only of qua- drupeds are thus happily adjusted to their pursuits or wants ; the further we carry our attention to the pecu- liarities of their structure, the more sensible we shall be of the wisdom that has formed their parts for the respective necessities and enjoyments incident to their nature. Which ever way we turn our view, we sha/I find new subjects for our admiration and thankfulness. The larger quadrupeds are formed in general for an inoffensive life, or are subservient to the rule of man ; the smaller, if mischievous, are happily limited in their powers of an- noyance, by their want of courage or of strength. Were the elephant and the rhinoceros as noxious as the tiger or the rat, how much would mankind have to apprehend from their magnitude and power ! But, happily for u*> MAMMALIA. 25 and for the inoffensive order of animals, the most savage are few in number; and the rest are either timid or irre- solute, unless when impelled by hunger, trusting in gene- ral rather to cunning than to force. The arts of those that pursue, however, are not more various than the subtle devices of their prey to escape destruction. Indeed, were it otherwise, the feeble race of animals would soon cease to exist ; and the more ferocious would be compelled to prey upon each other, till they were utterly exterminated also. The lion, the tiger, and other predaceous animals, sel- dom come abroad during the day, but trust to the night for a supply of food. Thus man, who uses the interval of darkness as a season of repose, is not subjected to their attacks ; and those creatures which are the object of their pursuit, either find safety by flight, or shelter and protection by sagacity. Some place a sentinel to warn them of approaching danger, and relieve each other in that situation by turns ; others form a phalanx for their mutual security, and in the union of numbers find a means to counterbalance the assaults of individual strength. Wild animals generally seek the most sequestered re- treats, and shun the presence of man, who thus reigns undisputed lord of this nether world ; the weaker fly to him for protection, and he knows how to tame the most ferocious. He destroys or saves, as suits his convenience or his will : his superior power creates a desert, or peoples a wilderness with passive or obedient slaves. Animals in a savage state are subject to few alterations ; but continue for ages the same in size, shape, and colour. Yet no sooner are they subdued and taken under the care of man, than their figure, and even their very nature., is gradually changed. A domestic animal, in particular, is humble, patient, and resigned ; it cheerfully fills up the duties of its station ; it is not averse to labour, and is satis- fied with subsistence. In the horse, the dog, and the cow, we perceive a num- c 23 FIRST CLASS. her of varieties which have all been ingrafted on one parent stock by cultivation. Even the very appetites and habitudes of quadrupeds undergo a change, by the effects of human ingenuity. They may be taught to live on food which in a state of nature they would reject ; and to perform labours that not only evince docility but sagacity, and a desire to please. On the other hand, some animals altogether lose even their natural instincts in the society of man. In those solitudes, where they are seldom disturbed, beavers pos- sess abundant ingenuity, and live in a state of social order; but let man intrude, and their ingenuity dies away, or is not exerted ; and their union is partially dissolved. Next to human control, the climate seems to have the the most powerful influence on quadrupeds, in augment- ing or diminishing their size, and in varying their colours or their coverings. Providence, in its wisdom, has fur- nished the animals of cold countries with long warm hair ; remove them to warm latitudes, and it becomes short and thin : again, transplant the natives of the tropics to the hyperborean regions, and they speedily assume a dress adapted to the rigours of their situation. The influence of climates is likewise very perceptible on the disposition and character. Under the line and near the pole,, quadrupeds are fierce and untractable ; in tem- perate latitudes they are generally docile and mild. Has not the climate a most potent effect on man also ? Are not the perfection of the human form, the beauty of the human face, the sublimities of genius, and perhaps the best virtues of the heart, more or less affected by situa- tion? External impressions seem to be sensibly felt throughout all the regions of nature; and both rational and irrational beings must submit to their influence. I shall conclude this cursory review of quadrupeds by a general remark, that animals are more prolific in pro- portion to their smaller size. Providence has wisely ba- lanced the strength of the great against the fecundity of the little, that no species may be entirely extinguished ; Plate 2. Fig. 1 . Ourany Outaty . lw. 2.2.ona ^b //ti/vfc Av/ /y/. '>'. .Vast fit'. t'fy.'2.lfonntl. //V/. / /'/////**/. THE SLOTH. 45 tacked, fight with great animosity, and frequently overset the boats that are in pursuit of them. These animals never venture ashore till the coast is clear from ice. The hunters, who watch their landing, destroy numbers of them for the sake of their oil arid teeth. They feed on marine herbs and fish ; and appear to be a match for any enemies that dare contend with them, except man and white bears, THE SLOTH. This is one of the most disgusting animals in nature : its hideous and awkward conformation, the slowness of its motion, and the pain with which all its efforts are attended, are calculated to excite aversion rather than pity. There are two varieties ; one distinguished by having two claws to each foot, the other three : they resemble each other, however, so nearly, that one description will suffice for both. The sloth is about the size of a badger. Its fur is coarse and irregularly set ; its tail a mere stump ; and its mouth extends from ear to ear. The nose is blunt, the eyes are black and heavy, and the ears small ; the legs are thick, and awkwardly placed ; so that it can move only one of them at a time, and it requires an hour to advance three yards. It inhabits the eastern coasts of South America, and is likewise found in Ceylon and India. It subsists wholly on vegetable food, particularly the leaves and bark of trees. Having by the most laborious exertions ascended a tree, it remains there, till it has stripped it of every thing that can be eaten : it then rolls itself into a ball ; and, to save the trouble of a gradual descent, falls on the ground with a horrid scream. Here it lies for an hour, apparently in a state of insensibility. On recovering, it prepares to climb some other tree ; at every motion uttering a plaintive and melancholy cry, which seems to be ordained by Pro- vidence as a principal means of its protection, beasts of prey always flying from the sound of its voice. fi ANT-EATER. Were we to iudge of the happiness of this animal from our own sensations, we should be tempted to pronounce h most unfortunate ; but it has probably enjoyments pecu^ liar to itself. Its indolence may be bliss, and its deformity is certainly a source of security. A single tree will fur- nish it with subsistence for a fortnight ; and therefore it has plenty without much labour in searching for it. At the same time that it is very little delicate in the choice of food, it is capable of supporting great abstinence; and has been known to subsist forty days successively without any nourishment whatever. As it would be impossible for a creature of such imperfect conformation to find water, nature has indulgently taken care that it shall experience no inconvenience from the want of it. Thus, balancing its advantages and disadvantages, though one of the most unsightly of animals, it is perhaps not wholly miserable. ANT-EATER, OR ANT-BEAR. There are several species of this animal ; all of which agree in having a small mouth, and a long cylindrical tongue calculated to supply the want of teeth. They prey on ants with destructive ingenuity ; and among the many enemies with which this laborious race has to con- tend, none are so formidable or so insidious. In reviewing this genus of animals, to which Buffon gives the name of tamandua, it is observable that the snout measures nearly a fourth part of the length of the body, and is very little thicker at the extremity than between the eyes. The tongue is generally doubled in the mouth, and is the only instrument by which these creatures can procure their subsistence. Unable to defend themselves by strength or artifice against animals of superior force and agility, they retire for security to the darkest forests, or the most deserted mountains. They are principally found in the New Continent ; where some of the most helpless, the most deformed and monstrous productions of nature, have been discovered. They conceal them- GREAT ANT-EATER. 47 selves under withered leaves, and seldom venture from their retreat till impelled by the calls of hunger. The industry of an hour will suffice to procure them a sup- ply of food for several days ; as ants are not only large, but immensely numerous in those climates where the animal now under consideration is a native. When they discover an ant-hill, they approach it slowly and silently ; and having taken a favourable position, stretch out their long viscid tongue across the path of the ants. As soon as a sufficient number have overspread the tongue, they draw it into their mouth ; repeating the pro cess till their hunger is satiated, when they again retire to their lurking-places. Though the ant-eater avoids all its enemies with dili- gent care, and never provokes a combat with other qua- drupeds, yet, when closely attacked, it will defend itself against the dog, and even the jaguar, by means of its claws, with the most resolute animosity. In short, where- ever it fixes, it never relinquishes its hold while it has life. GREAT ANT-EATER. A particular description of this species may serve to give a competent idea of all the rest. In the Leverian Museum was a specimen upwards of seven feet long, and about two feet high. The tongue is thirty inches long ; the nose, or snout, is long and slender ; and the eyes are small and black. On each of the fore feet are four toes, and five on the hind feet : the two middle claws are verv strong, large, and hooked. The hair on the upper pan of the body is black, mixed with grey ; and generally about six inches long. A black line, bounded with white, extends from the neck across the shoulders to the sides ; and the tail is covered with long, coarse, black hair. This animal is a native of Brazil and Guiana. The fe- male brings forth but a single young one at a time, and on these occasions proves extremely fierce when provoked. The flesh of the ant-eater, though rank and unpalatable to Europeans, is highly prized by the Indians. 48 THE SHORT-TAILED MANIS. THE MANIS. There are two species of this genus, one with five and the other with four toes on the feet. The latter has likewise a long tail: in other essential characters there is no difference. THE SHORT-TAILED MANIS. This is the pangolin of Buifon. It is a native of the hottest climates of the Old Continent ; and appears to be better protected by nature from external injury than any other animal whatever. The body, which is about three feet long, is defended by a scaly covering in every part diat is exposed: the scales lie over each other like the leaves of an artichoke ; and are of a horny substance, and externally convex. In the interstices, hairs are per- ceptible ; yellowish towards the roots, and bristly at the extremities. Like the lizard, it has a small head, with- out any teeth ; a long nose, short legs, and a tail of nearly equal length with the body. It is said that the scales of a full-grown manis are able to resist a musket bullet. On the approach of danger, it rolls itself up like the hedge-hog ; twisting its tail round it, and presenting the acute edges of its scales to the as- sailant. In vain do the tiger, the leopard, and the hyena, ^tempt to force it ; in vain they tread it under foot, and roll it about with their paws : the manis remains perfectly inviolable under its coat of mail ; while its assailants suf- fer, more or less, for their temerity. The negroes, how- ever, who esteem its flesh a great delicacy, beat it to death with large clubs : against the power of Man, to whom all nature submits, its arms are unavailing ! Though thus formidable in appearance, the manis h? naturally a very inoffensive animal ; subsisting chiefly on Insects, which it catches on its long slimy tongue, like the ant-eater. It chiefly inhabits the inaccessible parts of the forest ; and forms for itself a retreat in the cleft of some rock, where it brings forth its young. It is a soli- THE ARMADILLO. 49 tary animal, and the species seems to be very limited. It has no particular cry, but sometimes utters a sort of norting noise. THE ARMADILLO. Nature presents us with several species of this singular genus : distinguished, however, by the number of bands of which its covering is composed, rather than by any peculiarity in form and manners ; for which reason I shall confine myself to the general description of the kind. The armadillo is an inhabitant of South America : and is perfectly harmless and inoffensive ; presenting only its covering by way of repelling external injuries, and never seeking to molest other animals. Like the tortoise, it is covered with a shell, or rather a number of shells, which at first view prevents its true proportions from being accurately discerned. It appears i round mis-shapen mass, with a long head and a very large tail : the size varies from one to three feet in length ; but the body is universally covered with a shell, divided into several pieces folding over each other, not unlike the tail of a lobster. This shell is of a bony substance ; and leaves no vulnerable part except the throat, the breast, and the belly : even these two are projected by a white skin more or less ossified. The bands of this coat of mail, sliding over each other by means of a connecting . . /flfCtUl /u/.;> J. \fn.r . . . . ////. -J. Tlr/l',-. f.S.ftintfar. WOLF 59 and that lie had once received an express from that place in twenty-three hours, though the distance is not less thin a hundred and thirty-five English miles." Towards the end of May, these animals are all turned loose to provide for themselves during the summer ; but they return to their masters when the cold weather sets in. Their food in winter consists entirely of the head, entrails, and bones of salmon, which are saved for that purpose : and with even this poor diet they are but sparingly fed. In a word, they are the most patient and useful animals to be found in this peninsula ; and seem destined by Pro- vidence as a compensation for the numerous privations which its inhabitants experience. THE WOLF. This animal is nearly allied to the canine family ; and indeed, in a few instances, has been known to intermix with it, and thus produce a spurious breed. The wolf has a long head, a pointed nose, sharp erect ears, a long bushy tail, long legs, and rather long hair. It has large formidable teeth, and is taller than any greyhound. Its colour is generally a pale brown, tinged with yellow ; though it is sometimes found white, and in Canada black. The eyes slant upwards, and are of a fiery green ; and the whole visage is ferocious, forming a just indication of its disposition. The wolf is, in reality, one of those animals whose car- nivorous appetite is the most vehement, and whose means of satisfying it are the most various. Nature has fur- nished it with strength, cunning, agility, and all the other requisites for pursuit or conquest ; yet, even with these advantages, it frequently dies of hunger. Proscribed by man, it is compelled to seek the most sequestered retreats ; and only when impelled by the most pressing hunger ventures to make incursions near the villages and towns. Its depredations, however, are terrible, whenever its rag- ing appetites get the better of its fear : on these occasions D 6 0V WOLF. it tears and destroys with wanton barbarity ; and neither men nor animals are secure from its attacks. By wintry famine rous'd, from all the tract Of horrid mountains, which the shining Alps, And wavy Apennine, and Pyrenees, Branch out stupendous into distant lands ; Cruel as death, and hungry as the grave j Burning for blood ; bony, and gaunt, and grim ; Assembling WOLVES in raging troops descend, And, pouring o'er the country, bear along, Keen as the north- wind sweeps the glossy snow. All is their prize. They fasten on the steed, Press him to earth, and pierce his mighty heart. Nor can the bull his awful front defend, Or shake the murdering savages away. Kapacious, at the mother's throat they fly, And tear the screaming infant from her breast. The godlike face of man avails him nought. Even beauty (force divine ! at whose bright glance The gen'rous lion stands in soften'd gaze) Here bleeds, a hapless undistinguish'd prey. But if, appriz'd of the severe attack, The country be shut up lur'd by the scent, On church -yards drear (inhuman to relate !) The disappointed prowlers fall, and dig The shrouded body from the grave ; o'er which, Mix'd with foul shades, and frighted ghosts, they howl. THOMSON. Wolves have sometimes been seen following armies ; and repairing in numbers to the field of battle when quit- 1 ted by the combatants, where they devour all the bodies which they find exposed or negligently buried. When once accustomed to human flesh, they ever afterwards ahow a particular predilection for it ; and thus they have been known to prefer the shepherd to his flock. Hunting the wolf is a favourite diversion among the great in some countries ; and it is a species of the chace at which reason need not blush, nor humanity drop a tear. To rid the world of a common pest is meritorious, HYENA. 61 whether by force or stratagem ; and indeed both are prac- tised to effect the purpose in this case. It is sometimes caught in traps, trepanned by poisoned meat, or lured into pitfalls. Gesner mentions a friar, a woman, and a wolf, being caught in one of these last on the same night; when the event was, that the woman lost her senses by the fright, the monk his reputation, and the wolf his life. All these disasters, however, and all the arts of annoy- ance practised by men, do not prevent the wolf from multiplying. The female goes about fourteen or fifteen weeks with young, and produces from five to seven or eight cubs at a litter. France, Spain, and Italy, are much infested by these animals, which indeed are diffused over many parts of the world ; but Great Britain and Ireland are happily delivered from their presence. The Anglo-Saxon king Edgar was the first who endea- voured, with effect, to extirpate these animals. He com- muted the punishment of certain crimes for the payment of a specified number of wolves' tongues ; and converted the customary tax of the Welsh into an annual tribute of three hundred wolves' heads. Edward the First took particular pains to accomplish their destruction in the counties adjoining to Wales, and in his reign they gradu- ally began to disappear in England. The last wolf was killed in Scotland in 1680, by Sir Evan Cameron; and in Ireland one is mentioned to have been destroyed so lately as 1710. The wolf breathes a most fetid vapour from his jaws, and is in every respect offensive and disgusting : a savage aspect, a frightful howl, an insupportable odour, fierce habits, and a malignant disposition, are the leading quali- ties in its nature ; which render it dangerous and detested while living, and useless when dead. THE HYENA. " The keen hyena, fellest of the fell," as it is charac- terized by the author of the Seasons, is about the size of the wolf, and bears a general resemblance to the con- 62 JACKALL. formation of that animal. The body, however, is covered with a long, coarse, ash-coloured hair, marked with black stripes from the neck downwards; and the neck is fur- nished with an upright mane. This animal is the most untractable of any among the savage race ; it seems insensible to kindness, and is early incapable of being in any degree reclaimed. It growls almost incessantly, and sometimes howls in a note resem- bling the voice of a human creature in distress ; hence the ancients invented the fable of its counterfeiting those accents, to lure the unwary traveller into its power. Various other legends are preserved concerning this crea- ture, all founded on the terrors which its aspect and man- ners inspire. In proportion to its magnitude, the hyena is certainly the fiercest of quadrupeds ; nor does its courage fall short of its ferocity. It will defend itself against the lion, is a match for the panther, and frequently vanquishes the ounce. It preys on every thing that has life, and fre- quently violates the repositories of the dead : when it can no longer find means to satisfy its carnivorous appe- tites, it makes a meal on the roots of plants, or the tender shoots of the palm-trees. This species is not very widely diffused : it is found in Asiatic Turkey, Syria, Persia, and Barbary; and is every where a solitary animal, frequenting caverns and clefts of rocks, from which it occasionally issues to seek for prey, and retires thither again. A spotted variety is common about the Cape of Good Hope, which, accord- ing to Sparrman, nightly enters Cape-town, and preys on offals, without doing any kind of injury. It has been known, however, even in the day-time, to snatch up an infant in the street, and hasten with its prey to its retreat in the mountains. THE JACKALL. This animal has obtained the appellation of the lion's provider, merely because when it pursues its game, the FOX. 63 lion avails himself of the scent, and joins in the chace. It is about the size of the fox, and seems an intermediate line of separation between the dog and the wolf kinds. Its colour is a bright yellow, whence Linnaeus has called it canis aureus (or the golden dog). The jackall is common in Asia ; and in Barbary, and other countries of Africa, as far south as the Cape of Good Hope. Packs of forty or fifty will proceed to the chace, uttering a loud noise ; and thus united they are a match for the boldest inhabitants of the forest : they will face the strongest, and yet satisfy their appetite on the meanest animals. They seem to have no great apprehensions even of man himself, and will pursue their game to his very dwellings. These animals, being gregarious, always assist each other on their predacious excursions, whether of the chace or of disinterment ; for the dead and the living are equally liable to their attacks. By day they lurk in separate holes ; but at the approach of night they collect in num- bers, and thus rush out to kill and to destroy. Between the jackall and the dog there is an irreconcile- able animosity, and they never meet without a combat. The natives of the countries where they abound, hunt them as the Europeans hunt foxes. Dallon tells us that this animal is capable of being tamed ; and there is little doubt that it would breed with the dog kind in a domes- tic state. THE FOX. This animal is so well known, that to describe its figure might appear superfluous ; I shall therefore confine myself to some of its most striking habits and manners. It is a crafty, lively, and salacious creature ; and will breed with the dog, which it exactly resembles in its internal conform- ation. It differs, however, in emitting a strong peculiar smell, and in many of its leading propensities. The artifices of the fox have in all ages been proverbial. An immoderate regard to self-preservation seems to be its 64- ARCTIC FOX. actuating principle ; and it seeks for subsistence rather by fraud and address, than by intrepidity and force. It digs itself an asylum in the earth : and sallies out at the most favourable opportunities, whether to plunder a hen-house, or to seize unawares any unprotected bird or quadruped that falls in its way ; nothing, in short, comes amiss to it. When at a loss for other food, it will attack a nest of wasps, or wild bees ; and, in spite of their stings, usually succeeds in carrying off the combs. As the fox is inimical to all other animals, so the various tribes of nature seem leagued against him. The dog hunts him with peculiar acrimony ; and even birds seem to take a pleasure in betraying his steps, in exposing him to the hostility of the pack, or announcing his approach to the object of his pursuit. Among the various tribes of wild quadrupeds, none is more subject to the influence of climate than the fox ; and the varieties are almost as numerous as in any of the do- mestic animals. Zoologists have enumerated several dis- tinct species, as well as varieties ; there seems, however, to be a general conformity between them all ; equally fond of petty robbery, and equally useless, their chace affords pastime to the hunters, who only obtain carrion at last. The skin, however, is valuable, and in some species produces considerable sums. THE ARCTIC FOX, OR ISATIS. The fur of this species is softer than that of the common fox, and the tail is shorter and more bushy. Some ol these animals are blue, and others vary their colour ac- cording to the season. The hair is uniformly longer in winter than in summer, as is common with respect to all animals that inhabit cold climates. The arctic fox abounds in Norway, Siberia, Lapland, Greenland, and Spitzbergen ; and has mostly the habi- tudes of the common kind. It preys on eggs, aquatic fowls, and even fish ; but, when it gets scent of the lem- ings making one of their migrations, then it deserts it/ THE CAT KIND. 65 usual haunts, and, pursuing the course of those singular little animals, preys on them to the last. THE CAT KIND. In this genus are included some of the most formidable animals in our lower creation. The lion, the tiger, the leopard, the ounce, and the lynx, belong to this fierce and rapacious family. They are all remarkable for the sharpness and strength of their claws, which they can contract or protrude at pleasure. They are likewise dis- tinguished for the roundness of their heads, the shortness of their snouts, and the whiskers which grow on their upper lips. They lead a ravenous and solitary life : and are neither susceptible of friendship with each other, nor of attachment to man. Even the common cat has very little sense of obligation ; and unlike the dog, is neither patient under injuries nor mindful of favours. THE COMMON CAT. This animal is too well known to require any elaborate description. It is the only one of its genus that has been taken under the protection of man, or made him the least return for his trouble by its services. The female goes with young fifty-six days, and brings forth five or six kittens at a time. They live till about the age of ten years : though I am acquainted with an instance of a cas- trated male having reached the thirty-second year of his age ; and which, indeed, till within the last twelve months, was active and industrious in pursuit of its prey. The kitten is the most sportive of all animals, but as it grows up it loses every amiable feature of character, and all the innate treachery of its kind becomes visible. Though taught by education to disguise its propensities, it only waits for a favourable moment to throw off the mask, and to indulge its native rapacity. The cat has only the semblance of attachment ; and the assiduity which it shows is rather to gain favour than a desire to afford pleasure. It hunts for birds, and many of the smaller 66 MOUNTAIN-CAT. kinds of animals; but is chiefly useful for clearing our houses of mice and rats. The mouse, indeed, seems to be its favourite meal; and its patient perseverance till the victim comes within its reach, is the object of just ad- miration. It seizes its prey with a bound ; and, as it can see better in the night than in the day, it is seldom in danger of perishing by famine, where its activity is equal to its powers. The effect of cold water, and of particular smells, is strikingly seen in cats. They love to bask in the sun, to sit near the fire, and to rub against odorous substances. Valerian, marum, and cat-mint, seem to intoxicate them as it were with delight. This animal was the object of extraordinary veneration among the ancient Egytians. " When the cat dies a na tural death," says Herodotus, " all the people of the house shave their eye-brows, in testimony of sorrow ; the animal is also embalmed, and nobly interred." Among the Mahometans, cats are particular favourites, on account of their cleanliness ; while dogs are the objects of their marked aversion. The cat is a native both of the Old and the New World, for Columbus, in one of his voyages to America, was pre- sented by a hunter with one caught in the woods. There are several species ; such as the cat of Angora, the Persian cat, and the tiger-cat. The wild cat is very seldom found in England, but is not uncommon in other countries of Europe. It seems likely, however, that this last animal is only the domestic cat run wild again, and neglected. Its colour is a yellowish white, mixed with a deep grey ; and its fur is very soft and fine. THE MOUNTAIN-CAT. This animal is upwards of three feet long from the tip of the nose to the extremity of the tail, and about eighteen inches high. In shape and appearance it has a strong resemblance to the common cat, except that the tail is shorter in proportion to the length of the body. LION. 67 The fur is of a reddish colour on the back and sides, and whitish on the throat and belly. The whole skin, however, is diversified with black spots of different figures, and on the ears are several transverse black stripes. This crea- ture exhibits all the characteristic propensities of its kind. THE HON. This noble animal justly stands at the head of the feline race ; being at once the most dignified, the strongest, and the most generous, of the kind. The lion has a large head, short round ears, a shaggy mane, strong limbs, and a long tail tufted at the extremity. Its general colour is tawny, which on the belly inclines to white. From the nose to the insertion of the tail, a full-grown lion will measure eight feet. The lioness is somewhat smaller, and destitute of a mane. Like other animals, the lion is affected by the influence of climate in a very sensible degree. Under the scorching sun of Africa, where its courage is in a manner sublimed by the heat, it is the most terrible and undaunted of all quadrupeds. On the other hand, the lions of mount Atlas, whose top is covered with perpetual snows, have neither the strength nor the courage of those in Bildulgerid and Zaara. Fortunately the species is not very numerous : and it must certainly have been much diminished since the times of the ancient Romans ; when, according to Dr. Shaw, fifty times more lions were drawn from Lybia for their public spectacles than are now to be found in that whole country. The same remark will apply to Turkey, Persia, and the East Indies, where lions daily grow less frequent. As countries become better peopled, and particularly wherever the use of fire-arms had been introduced, it is reasonable to suppose, that the propagation of savage animals has been proportionally checked, bv their inroads being circumscribed. It is in the deserts of Zaara, and the internal parts of Africa, that the lions are most numerous ; for here they range without control. In these wide-extended regions, bb LION. little habituated to the power, and unconscious of the superiority of man, they attack him without hesitation, and set him at defiance. A single lion of the desert will often rush upon a whole caravan ; and face his enemies, insensible of fear, to the last gasp. On the contrary, such as have acquired some knowledge of the superior powers of human beings are frightened away by a shout, and confine their depredations to the defenceless flocks and herds. The lion is capable of receiving some impressions, and possesses a docility which allows him to be tamed, in a certain degree. History informs us, that they have been yoked in triumphal cars, and conducted to the battle or the chace ; and that, faithful to their master, they have exerted their strength only in his service or defence. The lion appears to possess no small degree of attachment to his keeper ; and, though his passions are strong and his appetites vehement, he has been found noble in his resent- ment, magnanimous in his courage, and grateful in his disposition. He disdains to revenge himself on petty enemies; and sometimes protects those that have been wantonly exposed to his power. When pressed with hunger, however, the lion attacks every animal that comes in his way ; but as his presence is universally dreaded by other quadrupeds, he is frequently obliged to have recourse to artifice, in order to secure his victim. For this purpose, he takes his station near some track or trodden path, crouches on his belly, and makes a spring (sometimes of twenty feet) on the object which he means to seize. His roaring is so loud, that it pierces the ear like distant thunder ; and such terror does it inspire, that animals in a state of security have been known to tremble and to sweat with fear, as soon as it was heard. The lion is terrible at all times ; but particularly when incited by desire, or when the female has brought forth young. The period of gestation is supposed to be about six months. The duration of its life reaches perhaps to nearly a hundred years; for the one named Pompey, TIGER. 69 which died in the Tower in 1760, had been a prisoner there for upwards -of seventy years ; and another that died there since, was known to have lived in confinement about sixty-three. The Arabians entertain a notion that the lion spares the tender sex ; but Dr. Shaw discountenances this opinion. It is certain, however, that he has sometimes shown mercy to human beings who have been wholly in his power ; and that he has even parted with a share of his food to pre- serve that life which his generosity had spared. THE TIGER. As the lion approximates to some amiable qualities of the dog, so the tiger possesses all the noxious propensities of the cat ; to which it bears a strong resemblance in external figure, notwithstanding the disproportion in point of size. Though the most terrible, the tiger is certainly one of the most beautiful of quadrupeds. The glossy smooth- ness of its hair, and the distinctness of the black streaks with which it is marked on a ground of a bright yellow, strike the beholder with a kind of pleasing admiration, when it can be surveyed under the idea of security. Pro- vidence, however, in bestowing such elegance of form on the most noxious of quadrupeds, seems as if it designed to teach us, that beauty without intrinsic worth is of little estimation. This animal is peculiar to Asia, and is most common in the East Indies. Neither force nor caresses have the least influence on its stubborn nature ; with equal malignity it will snap at the hand by which it is either fed, or chastised. Though of a countenance indicating neither ferocity nor anger, it is savage beyond measure ; and is one of the most terrible scourges experienced by the human race in the countries where it is found. It lurks among the bushes on the sides of rivers ; and bounds from its ambuscade on whatever animal comes within its reach, with an agility not to be conceived, and at a dis- tance almost incredible. If it misses its object, it in- 70 TIGER. stantly retires abashed ; but, when successful, carries off the largest animal, with almost as much apparent facility as a cat would carry off a mouse. A species of cruelty has been remarked in the character of the tiger unknown to the generous lion ; as well as a kind of cowardice, when under the impulse of surprise, or when frustrated in its aim. It is related, on good autho- rity, that, about the beginning of the last century, a party of ladies and gentlemen, on the banks of a river in Bengal, observed, under the shade of some trees, a tiger, in the act of preparing for its fatal spring. In this very critical dilemma, one of the ladies, with astonishing pre- sence of mind, seized an umbrella, and unfurled it full in the animal's face ; upon which he instantly retreated, and thus gave the company an opportunity of withdrawing from the presence of such a dreadful and unexpected neighbour. I am sorry to have a melancholy catastrophe to record relating to some of our too-venturous countrymen, in which the tiger unhappily proved successful in his aim. On the 22d of December, 1792, Mr. Munro (only son of Sir Hector Munro, K. B.) and three other gentlemen, went on shore on Saugur-island, in the East Indies, to shoot deer. They saw several tracks of tigers, but never- theless incautiously continued their sport for several hours ; after which they sat down on the edge of a jungle to refresh themselves; first taking the usual precaution to light a large fire round them, and to discharge several pieces in the air, to disturb any savage beast that might be lurking near. They had but just commenced their repast, when some of their attendants brought word that a fine deer had approached within six yards of them. The gentlemen in- stantly seized their guns ; when a roar was heard like thunder, and an immense royal tiger sprang on the unfor- tunate Munro, and bore him through bushes and every obstacle, without any apparent effort, every thing yield- ing to its prodigious strength. In this horrid situation, his companions fired at the savage, and (as it appeared) not JAGUAR. 73 without effect; for in a few minutes Mr. Munro joined them, all over blood; and, after staggering some paces, feli. They immediately procured medical assistance ; but the unhappy victim had his skull so fractured by the teeth of the monster, and his neck and shoulders were so torn by its claws, that he survived only a short time. The human mind can scarcely picture to itself a more frightful scene. This tiger was about four feet and a half high, and nine feet long ; his head appeared as large as that of an ox ; his eyes darted fire ; and his roar, when he made the fatal spring, was tremendous beyond de- scription. Fierce and powerful as this animal is, hunting him is a favourite diversion with some of the eastern princes. His skin is reckoned of great value ; and all over the East, and particularly in China, it is usual for the seats of justice to be covered with it. The cougar, or red tiger of America, is a diminutive animal when compared with the tiger of the East. THE JAGUAR. Many different authors, who have written on the subject of the New World, make mention of this animal in their descriptions ; by some it is called a tiger, by others a leopard, while in South America it is commonly known by the appellation of the puma. It is certainly the most formidable animal that has yet been found in the western hemisphere, and lives solely on prey ; but, when compared with the tiger for strength and resolution, its powers ap- pear very much inferior. The jaguar is of a bright tawny colour. The top ot the back is marked with long black stripes; and the sides are impressed with irregular oblong spots, open in the middle, which is of the ground colour of the hair. The thighs and legs are marked with full black spots, and the belly and breast are whitish. 72 PANTHER. LEOPARD. THE PANTHER. From the near resemblance which the panther, the leo- pard, the ounce, and the jaguar, bear to each other, zoolo- gists have been at a loss to discriminate these animals with precision. The distinctions have sometimes been taken from their size, and sometimes from their colour and spots. I am inclined to lay the greatest stress on the latter, as the former appears to be rather an uncertain criterion. The panther, properly so called, approaches to the tiger in size, beauty, and ferocity. It is covered with short smooth hair, of a bright tawny colour : the back, sides, and flanks, are elegantly marked with black spots, disposed in circles of four or five in each ; the chest and belly are white ; the former being marked with transverse dusky stripes, and the belly and tail with large irregular black spots. This animal inhabits Africa, in the countries stretching from Barbary to the remote parts of Guinea. Like the tiger, it seizes its prey by surprise ; but prefers the flesh of other animals to that of men, whom it seldom devours, unless when pressed by the extremity of hunger. THE LEOPARD. The principal differences between the leopard and the panther, which have frequently been confounded by na- turalists, are the following : The large panther is some- times six feet long ; the leopard seldom more than four. The former is marked in different places with five or six spots, forming a kind of circle with a large one in the centre ; the latter has a more beautiful coat ; and the spots are smaller, and disposed in clusters on a brilliant yellow ground. The leopard, in the chase of its prey, spares neither man nor beast. When it cannot obtain a sufficient supply in its native solitudes, it descends from the internal parts of Africa, and makes terrible devastation among the numerous herds that cover the rich meadows of Lower Guinea. It is also a native of several parts of India, China, and Arabia where it is hunted for its flesh, as well as its skin. OUNCE. LYNX. 73 THE OUNCE. Though the ounce is frequently confounded with the panther, it seldom exceeds three feet and a half in length ; but its hair is longer, and its tail still more so in propor- tion In colour it inclines to a cream, but is rather whiter on the belly than towards the back. Its spots, however, are disposed in a manner not unlike those of the panther, except that they seem to run in stripes on the haunches. This animal is a native of Barbary, Persia, and China ; where it is sometimes trained to hunting, but it has by no means so acute a scent as the dog. According to Taver- nier, some of them are brought to such a degree of gentle- ness as to suffer themselves to be handled and caressed. The ounce seems to be much more generally diffused than the panther. THE LYNX. This is the last animal of the feline race that I purpose to notice here. The common lynx (for there are several species) has a short tail black at the end, and long full hair under the chin. The fur on the body is long and soft, of a cinereous colour, tinged with red, and marked with dusky spots, more or less distinct in different individuals. The belly is whitish ; and the ears are erect, and tufted with long black hairs : this last character is common to all the varieties. The length of the body is upwards of four feet ; the tail measures only six inches. This animal is found in Germany, in all the northern regions of both continents, and in several of the warm cli- mates. It appears, however, to prefer cold to temperate countries, and generally varies in each. The ancients invented a variety of fables respecting the lynx : particularly that its sight could penetrate the most opaque bodies, and that its urine would petrify into a pre- cious stone. The eye indeed of the lynx is very brilliant ; its aspect is agreeable, and its air sprightly. It hunts for 74 ICHNEUMON. COATI MONDI. its prey, which it sometimes pursues to the tops of the highest trees. The blood and brains of its victim are alone valued by this savage epicure ; when it has imbibed these, it proceeds in quest of fresh game. THE ICHNEUMON. This animal, which has obtained the appellation of the rat of Pharaoh, is among the boldest and most beneficial of the weasel kind. In Egypt, where it is chiefly bred, it answers every purpose of the European cat. It is usually about the size of a marten, and resembles that creature in most respects, except that its hair is rougher, and not so downy ; the tail is also less bushy, and every single hair possesses three or four different colours, according to the disposition of its body. To all the strength of the cat, the ichneumon unites a superior share of instinct and agility, a. more universal appetite for carnivorous food, and a greater variety of powers for its acquisition. Rats, mice, serpents, lizards, and even the young of the crocodile, are alike the objects of its pursuit. Divine honours were paid it by the ancient Egyptians, for its services in destroying the eggs of the crocodile, together with the nascent animal ; and therefore it was considered, with other beneficial animals, as an emanation of the Deity. In a state of nature, the ichneumon generally haunts the banks of rivers, where its prey is most abundant; in Egypt it has been long domesticated, but in the colder climates of Europe it is bred and supported with extreme difficulty. The species is found in all the southern regions of Asia, and most parts of Africa. THE COATI MONDI. This is a Brazilian animal, of a reddish colour, having its tail annulated with white. It is distinguished from all other quadrupeds by its snout ; which is moveable in every division, and reverts at the extremity. It sometimes eats its own tail, which is longer than the body. In all respects flate 10. ntinirnt>n f late I Fvp. I. Opojfitm . t. 2. Kangaroo. 3. Porcupine. AMERICAN POLE-CAT, OR STINKARD. 75 it is an animal of prey; destroying small quadrupeds and poultry, the nests of birds, and even the birds themselves, THE AMERICAN POLE-CAT, OR STINKARD. There are several varieties of this creature ; chiefly distinguished by size and colour, but all agreeing in the general characteristics of the kind. The hair is long and beautiful, and five white stripes, on a black ground, run longitudinally from the head to the tail. It is about the size of the European pole-cat, but incomparably more fetid and loathsome. Near the tail are some glands, from which exudes a matter intolerably offensive. These animals prey on poultry and other small game. If pursued by dogs or men, they need only to emit their peculiar stench, and the chace must be immediately given up. The dogs instantly run back, and no human being can possibly support the nauseous effluvia. " In the year 1749, " says Kalm, " one of these animals came near the farm where I lived ; it was in winter time, during the night ; and the dogs that were upon the watch pursued it for some time, till it discharged against them. Although I was in my bed a good way off, I thought I should have been suffocated ; and the cows and oxen showed by their lowings, how much they were affected by the stench. About the end of the same year, another of them crept into our cellar ; but did not exhale the smallest scent, because it was not disturbed. A foolish woman, however, who perceived it at night by the shining of its eyes, killed it ; and at that moment its stench began to spread. The whole cellar was filled with it to such a de- gree, that the woman kept her bed for several days after ; and all the bread, meat, and other provisions, that were stored there, became so infected, that they were obliged to be thrown out of doors." It appears, however, that this creature is sometimes domesticated : but then it must be deprived of the offensive glands. K 2 76 CIVET-CAT. THE CIVET, OR CIVET-CAT. There are two varieties of this odoriferous animal, which Buffon considers as a distinct species, under the names of the civet and zibet. The latter differs principally from the former, in having a longer and more slender body, in being destitute of the mane or long hair running down the back, and in having the tail longer and more annulated. These variations, however, are not sufficient to constitute a spe- cific difference ; and therefore I shall consider them as the effect of food or climate. The civet is a light active creature : and, like the rest of the weasel kind, preys on birds and other small animals ; or, in case of a deficiency of more agreeable food, on fruits and roots. In a state of nature it is very fierce and wild; and though sometimes reclaimed, it never becomes perfectly familiar. The colour of this creature varies considerably : how- ever, it is commonly cinereous, spotted with black ; but the female is whiter, and her spots are larger. On account of the odorous matter which it exudes from its posterior glands, it is frequently taken under the care of man, when the perfume is collected twice or thrice a week with the most diligent attention. This substance accu- mulates in a kind of open pouch, situated under the tail; and is scraped out with a wooden spoon, and put into a close vessel. When the civet is irritated, the scent becomes much more violent than at other times ; but it is always so strong, that a person unaccustomed to it, could not endure to be shut up with one of these creatures, even for a few minutes. Yet disgusting as all animal perfumes must be, there has been a time when the produce of the civet was in the highest estimation with the ladies and with effeminate men. It is, no doubt, more grateful than musk ; but the very idea of borrowing from such a source is not a little offen- sive to a delicate mind. The traffic in this perfume, how- ever, is still very considerable, and was long monopolized by the Dutch ; but, to the credit and taste of elegance, it is now greatly on the decline GENET. COMMON OTTER. 77 The civet, though a native of warm latitudes, thrives very well in the temperate ; and is frequently bred in Holland. THE GENET. This animal is about the size of the marten. It is long, slender, and covered with a soft, beautiful fur, spotted with black, on a ground mixed with red and gray. Its spots are distinct and separate on the sides ; but unite to- wards the back, and there form longitudinal stripes. Along the back runs a kind of mane, and the tail is annulated with black and white. Like the rest of its genus, it is furnished with odori- ferous glands, which exude a weak kind of civet; but its perfume speedily evaporates. It is easily domesticated ; and, according to Bellonius, is capable of performing all the offices of the common cat. This species does not appear to be much diffused. It is not found in any part of Europe, except Turkey and Spain ; and though it requires a warm climate for its sub- sistence and propagation, it has never been discovered in the warm regions of India or of Africa. THE COMMON OTTER. This is an amphibious quadruped ; and is furnished with membranes or webs between the toes, to assist it in swim- ming. Indeed it makes its way faster in water than on land ; and can overtake the fish on which it preys, in their own element. It has long whiskers, small eyes, erect ears, short legs, a long body, and long hair of a brown colour, inclining to silvery. Its usual length is about two feet, and its tail half as much. The otter inhabits the banks of lakes and rivers ; and is extremely destructive to the fishes, killing more than it can eat. In summer it enjoys a life of ease and plenty; but, when the rivers are frozen, it is frequently driven to the necessity of feeding on such terrestrial animals or vege- tables as it can procure* Nature, however, has furnished 3 78 SEA-OTTER. GLUTTON. it with the power of continuing a considerable time with- out food, in a kind of half-torpid state. Otters are frequently hunted with dogs for amusement ; and various other arts are used to destroy them on account of their skins, and of the depredations which they commit on the aquatic tribes. They are also sometimes tamed, and taught to catch fish for their masters; an art in which nature has made them very expert. They are found in all parts of Europe, and also in the cold latitudes of Asia and America. There is a species about one-third as large as the com- mon otter, a native of Poland, and other northern coun- tries of Europe ; the fur of which is highly esteemed, only yielding in beauty to the sable. THE SEA-OTTER. This species is very numerous on the coasts of Kamt- schatka, on the opposite shores of America, and among the intervening islands. Its fur is so highly valued, that it has become a most lucrative branch of commerce, since the period of Captain Cook's last voyage. The flesh of the young is reckoned very delicate food; and equal, if not superior, to lamb. The sea-otter is about four feet long from the nose to the insertion of the tail, which last is only about two inches in length. The hind-feet resemble those of a seal ; and the teeth are broad, and adapted to breaking crus- taceous animals and shell-fish. The hair is thick, long, black, and glossy : under it is a soft down. THE GLUTTON. Linnaeus ranks this animal among the weasels, from the length of its body, the shortness of its legs, the soft- ness of its fur, and its insatiable appetite ; from which last quality it has received its name. The legs are extremely short in proportion to its size. The fur, which is held in the highest estimation, on account of its softness and beau- tiful gloss, is black along the back, and of a reddish brown GLUTTON. 79 on the sides. Its conformation enables it to climb trees with greater facility than to proceed along the ground, and consequently it catches its prey rather by surprise than pursuit. In North America, this voracious creature is frequently seen lurking among the thick branches of trees, on pur- pose to seize deer and other animals. Endued with per- severance equal to its rapacity, it will watch in silent expectation for several days successively ; but no sooner does its prey come within its reach, than it drops with unerring aim upon it, fastens its claws between the shoul- ders, and obstinately retains its hold till it has eaten through the neck, and opened the large blood-vessels. It is asto- nishing to consider how much flesh one of these animals is capable of devouring at a time. Klein mentions one which, though in captivity, and labouring under ill health, daily devoured thirteen pounds, and yet remained unsatis- fied. Indeed, the glutton will eat such immoderate quantities, that its belly becomes distended, and its whole form in a great measure altered ; but, like all epicures, it is seized with lassitude after its meal, and will sometimes lie in a state of torpidity close to the animal which it has killed, for two or three days together. When thus reduced to a state both loathsome and helpless, it derives its chief security from the horrid stench which it exhales, and which few animals can bear to approach. The glutton, like all the rest of its kind, is a solitary animal, and is never seen in company, except with the female, which produces two or three young at a time. They burrow in holes, and are very resolute in defence of their offspring ; fighting against dogs with the greatest obstinacy, and biting with the most tenacious grasp. The hunters, however, pursue them with much eagerness for the sake of their furs, which possess the most beautiful lustre imaginable, and are preferred for some uses to all others, except those of the Siberian fox and the sable. Ej. ft 80 MARTEN. POLE-CAT. THE MARTEN. There are two varieties of this animal ; the one called the beech or common marten ; and the other the pine or yellow-breasted marten ; but the distinctions between them are not so considerable as to require illustration. The marten is about eighteen inches long from the nose to the tail. Its colours are much more elegant than those of the pole-cat, to which it is nearly allied ; and its scent is rather agreeable than offensive. In short, the marten is the most beautiful of the British beasts of prey ; it dis- plays grace and agility in all its motions, and its courage enhances its other attractions. The hare, the sheep, and even the wild cat, are none of them a match for this animal ; but it preys chiefly on poultry, rabbits, and other defence- less creatures, which it can master without a contest. Whenever the marten finds itself pursued by dogs, it makes towards its retreat ; which is generally the hollow trunk of a tree, the original tenement perhaps of a squirrel There it remains in security, and brings forth its young gradually habituating them to that carnage in which itself delights. These animals are much more numerous in the northern parts of Europe and America than in Britain or France. In every country they are hunted for their skins, many thousands of which are annually imported into England, from Canada and Hudson's-Bay. Gesner mentions a marten which he domesticated, and which became extremely playful and tractable. Buffon likewise kept one for some time, confined by a chain ; but it never could be divested of its ferocity, and continued in- sensible to attachment ; till, watching its opportunity, it made its final escape when about eighteen months old. POLE-CAT. This animal is nearly afoot and a half long; exclusive of the tail, which is about six inches. The colour is a deep chocolate, with a space of white round the mouth, and the ears are likewise tipped with white. It is long, slender, and active ; and is very destructive to poultry, FERRET. 81 pigeons, and rabbits. A single pole-cat is sufficient to ravage a whole warren ; for it has such an insatiable thirst for blood, that it kills as well from wantonness as from ne- cessity. The female brings forth five or six young at* a time ; but the species is not very numerous, and seems con- fined to latitudes equally remote from heat and cold When alive, the smell of the pole-cat is rank and dis- agreeable even to a proverb ; however, its skin is dressed with the hair on, and used for various purposes, although its offensive smell can never be altogether removed or suppressed. THE FERRET. The ferret has been naturalized in Europe, but it origin- ally came from Africa ; and was first imported into Spain, in order to free that country from the multitude of rabbits with which it was overrun ; and thence the breed has spread over other parts of the continent. It is about a foot long ; with red fiery eyes, and round ears. The usual colour is a pale yellow ; but it is frequently varied with black, white, and brown. It is a lively active animal ; and seems to have a predilection for rabbits, but is satis- fied with sucking their blood. The ferret is generally domesticated, and trained up to the purposes of catching rabbits and rats. From the slen- derness of its body, it is able to enter the holes of the latter, and seldom suffers them to escape. The female is less than the male, and breeds twice a year. They require to be kept warm in our climate, and are generally fed with bread and milk. This is a useful animal, but offensive from its disagree- able scent. It is voracious in its nature ; and, though tame, is without attachment. Such is its appetite for blood, that it has been known to attack and kill children in the cradle. It is very irritable ; and, when provoked, emits a most nauseous smell. The wound of its bite is not cured with- out great difficulty. E 5 82 SABLE. THE SABLE. This animal resembles the marten in shape and size, and the weasel in the number of its teeth. It has long whiskers, rounded ears, large feet, white claws, and a long bushy tail The fur is held in the highest estimation ; it is of a brownish-black hue ; and some of the darkest, which are reckoned most valuable, are worth from ten to fifteen pounds. A few varieties of the sable, however, are parti- coloured ; and some have Jbeen found of a snowy white- ness. The sable resembles the rest of the weasel kind in vi- vacity and agility ; in sleeping by day, and hunting its prey by night ; and in emitting a peculiarly offensive smell. It inhabits Siberia and Kamtschatka, and generally burrows in the earth. The female brings forth from three to five at a time, and suckles them for about a month. During the winter, these animals are hunted with an assiduity proportionate to the value that is set on their skins. The Russian exiles in Siberia are sometimes con- demned to furnish a certain number of furs annually, or to suffer a punishment for the deficiency ; and it is thus that the luxuries and ornaments of the opulent are fre- quently obtained through the miseries of the wretched. Sables, however, are now more frequently killed by Russian soldiers sent into Siberia for that purpose, who are taxed to provide a certain number ; and, by way of encourage- ment, are allowed to participate in the surplus. The sable hunters form themselves into troops of from five to forty each, which subdivide into lesser parties, and each chooses a leader : one person, however, directs the whole party. A small covered boat is prepared for each division, laden with provisions, a dog, and a net for every two men, and suitable vessels to bake their provisions. Being arrived on the hunting-ground, before they begin the chace, they offer their prayers to Heaven for success ; and the first animal which they catch, is called " God's sable," and is dedicated to the church. The hunting-season being ended, the parties re-assem- ble, report to their leaders what success they have had, ERMINE, OR STOAT. WEASEL, 83 prefer complaints, or award punishments, against delin- quents, and share the booty according to their agreements. Sables vary much in value, according to their fineness, and the beauty of their colours. THE ERMINE, OR STOAT. This beautiful little animal is about nine inches long. During the summer, it is of a brown colour; but no sooner does the winter set in than its coat becomes thick, soft, and white, adapted to the season ; and at that period it is sought after with the utmost avidity. The winter furs of the ermine constitute a valuable ar- ticle of commerce in those countries where it is found. In Siberia, these animals are commonly taken in traps baited with flesh. In Norway they are either shot with blunt arrows, or caught in snares. The ermine has been sometimes found white in Great Britain, and then it receives the appellation of the white weasel. The fur, however, in this country is compara- tively of little value ; being neither so thick, close, nor shining, as in the more northern regions. THE WEAS-EL. This is the smallest of the tribe to which it gives name ; the body seldom exceeding six or seven inches in length ; while the legs are not more than an inch and a half. The head, tail, legs, feet, and the upper parts of the body, are of a pale tawny-brown colour ; but the lower parts are white. Though diminutive in size, the weasel is nevertheless a formidable enemy to many animals greatly its superior in that respect. It is very destructive to rabbits, poultry, and young birds ; but, as some counterbalance for the de- predations which it commits on useful animals, it also destroys many that are noxious. No arts can tame this creature. Though sometimes confined in a cage for amusement or inspection, it reso- lutely abstains from food while any person is in sight, anJ E 6 84 BEARS.- BLACK BEAR OF AMERICA. seeks concealment from every eye. It passes the greatest part of the day in sleep, and seems in its proper element only during the darkness of the night. In a state of nature, it steals from its hole about the evening, and prowls about farm-yards, &c. in quest of prey. It makes an accurate discrimination between what it can manage, and what would be too powerful for its efforts ; and seldom fails in its enterprises. In winter it wars chiefly against rats and mice, in barns and out-houses ; but during the summer it ventures on more extensive excursions. The weasel, like all the rest of its family, has a strong fetid smell, which is always greater in summer than in winter, and is constantly increased by irritation. It utters no voice nor cry ; except when hurt, when its squeak is grating and offensive to the ear. BEARS. There are several species of these animals, forming a dis- tinct genus ; such as the black bear, the brown bear, the white, and the Kamtschatka bear : but they all, though different in size and form, evince the same original stock, varied by climate and by food. THE BLACK BEAR OF AMERICA This is a strong powerful animal, covered with black, smooth, glossy hair ; and is very common in North Ame- rica. It is said to subsist wholly on vegetable food ; but some of them, which have been imported into England, have shown a predilection for flesh. They strike with their fore-feet like a cat, and seldom use their tusks ; but hug their assailant in their paws so closely to their breasts, that they almost squeeze it to death. The females seek the most impenetrable retreats, in which they bring forth their young ; and though numbers of bears are annually killed during winter, they are generally found to be males. After becoming fat in autumn, these animals retire to their dens, and continue six or seven weeks in total inactivity /f/. /. /Ovum faiir . /A/. 'S.itTiffr B J J /aic 13 ... ?. ?. Ran, J)eer. Ite/.'i.Ifoe Hd(f, BROWN BEAR AND WHITE BEAR. OPOSSUM. 85 and abstinence from food. Vulgar error has propagated the idea, that they suck their paws for nourishment, during this period of seclusion ; but they are undoubtedly sus- tained by means of the former exuberance of their fat. THE BROWN BEAR OF THE ALPS. This differs little from the former, except in size and - colour. It is not only solitary, but savage ; and though we sometimes see it led about by a keeper, and practising some arts, which it has been taught by a kind of barbarous ingenuity, it is naturally capricious, revengeful, and treach- erous, and therefore should not be trusted without great caution. THE WHITE, OR GREENLAND BEAR. This species has a peculiarly long head and neck, and its limbs are of prodigious size and strength. Its body frequently measures thirteen feet in length ; and it is the only animal that arrives at a superior magnitude in the arctic regions, where it seems to reign without a rival. The white bear lives on fish, seals, and the dead bodies of whales ; or even on the corpses of men, which it digs out of the ground. Sometimes it will attack a party of armed men, and even board small vessels. The mutual affection that subsists between the female and her young, has been frequently exemplified in the most affecting trials : they will rather die than desert each other. The flesh of this animal is white, and tastes like mutton. Its fat is melted for train oil, and that extracted from the feet is used in medicine. A kind of bath was made for one formerly in the Tower of London, so situated below its den, that the creature could plunge into it at pleasure : indeed the white bear can scarcely exist in our temperate climate, without being frequently cooled by water. THE OPOSSUM. There are several species of this genus, to which Lin- naeus gives tiie name of didelphis ; all distinguished from 86 OPOSSUM. other animals, by having a sort of pouch into which the young can retire, and where they continue to lodge and suckle in security. Ulloa asserts, that he has found five of these little crea- tures hid in the pouch of the dam, three days after she was dead, still alive, and adhering to the teat with great avidity. It is probable, therefore, that on their first enter- ing this receptacle, they seldom stir out ; but afterwards, acquiring more strength, only take refuge there in cases of necessity or danger. The opossum is about the size of a cat, but its head and general figure resemble rather the fox. The fore-legs are shorter than the hind ; and the feet are furnished with five toes or fingers, armed with crooked nails. When on the ground, the opossum is a slow and help- less animal. The formation of its legs is alone sufficient to prove its incapacity for swiftness ; but to counterbalance this inconvenience, it climbs trees with great facility and expedition. It destroys poultry and birds suck'ng their blood without devouring their flesh : it also hunts after the nests of birds, and will feed on herbs and roots when in want of better fare. This creature possesses the facility of suspending itself by the tail, in which situation it will continue for hours, watching an opportunity to seize its prey : when it throws itself down with unerring aim, and speedily devours or kills the surprised victim. It is easily domesticated : but proves an unpleasant inmate ; not only from its stupidity, but from its disagreeable scent. The flesh of the old opossum resembles that of a suck- ing pig. The Indian women dye its hair, and weave it into garters and girdles. Though this genus of animals is chiefly found in America, it is by no means solely con- fined to that continent, as Buffon asserts ; for there are in- contestable evidences, that it inhabits the island of Java, the Moluccas, and New Holland. KANGAROO. 87 THE KANGAROO. This animal can scarcely be said to have a place in the Linnaean arrangement. Some zoologists refer it to the jerboa kind ; and others, among whom is Pennant, consider it as a species of opossum : perhaps it ought to form a distinct genus of itself. It was first discovered by our British colonists, on the eastern territory of New Holland ; and is yet unknown in any other part of the world. It has a small oblong head, resembling that of a fawn, and tapering from the eyes to the nose. The upper lip is divided ; the nostrils are large and patulous ; the upper jaw is the longest, and both are furnished with whiskers. The ears are erect, obscurely ovated, and covered with short hairs. There are four broad cutting-teeth in the upper jaw, two long lanceolated teeth in the lower, and four grinders in each. The body gradually increases in thickness to the rump, or near it : the belly is convex and large ; the fore-legs are very short, but the hinder almost the length of the whole body. The fore-feet are furnished with five strong claws, the hind with only three. The tail is very long and tapering ; and possessed of such strength, that a stroke of it has been known to break the leg of a dog. The hair is soft, and of an ash-colour ; but somewhat brighter on the belly than on the back. The length of this animal generally exceeds three feet, and the tail measures about thirty inches. The kangaroo, since the settlement at Botany-Bay (or rather Sidney-Cove), is better known, and has been more accurately described, than many foreign animals which have for ages fallen under the notice of travellers and zoologists. It lurks among the long grass that covers the almost desolate country which it inhabits. It feeds entirely on vegetables ; and walks wholly on its hind-legs, using its fore-legs only for the purposes of digging, and of carrying its food to its mouth. It is naturally very timid ; and bounds away from intruders on its haunts, with an aston- 88 MOLE. ishing length of spring. When in motion, it carries its tail at right angles with its body ; nor is the swiftest dog able to arrest its flight. The flesh is wholesome and palatable. Animals of this kind are now not uncommon in exhibitions. THE MOLE. This solitary mischievous animal, which is disseminated over the greatest part of Europe, and of which varieties of species are found in America, Africa, and Asia, is adapted to a life of darkness ; as if nature intended that the earth should be tenanted both above and below. Judging from our own sensations, we should be led to conclude, that a quadruped, doomed to hunt for its prey under ground, and usually denied the cheering light of the sun, must be wretched to an extreme degree ; yet no animal appears fatter, nor has a more sleek and glossy skin. Indeed, so perfectly is it suited to its way of life, that it probably enjoys no inconsiderable share of felicity, and is exempt from many evils to which other creatures are liable. The mole is in size between the mouse and the rat; but resembles no other quadruped, and therefore forms a genus by iteelf. It is covered with fine, short, glossy, black hair ; and has a long pointed nose, and holes instead of external ears. The neck is extremely short ; the body is thick and round, terminating in a very short tail ; and the legs are so short that the animal seems to rest on its belly. It w r as formerly the common opinion that the mole is wholly blind ; but, by the assistance of the microscope, it has been found, that, though its eyes are small, and almost concealed, they possess every part requisite for distinct vision. The legs of this little animal, though very short, are armed with five claws, which qualify it for digging and entrenching itself; and so dexterous is it in burrowing, that it generally eludes the grasp of its most vigilant SHREW. 89 enemies. It preys on worms and insects, of which it finds abundance in its subterraneous galleries ; nor does it often come into the open air, a situation which may be considered as unnatural to it. However, when the worms are in motion, and approaching the surface of the earth, particularly after rain, it pursues them with much ani- mation ; and then it throws up the hillocks which prove so detrimental to the farmer. The fecundity of the mole is so great, and its exemption from the tyranny of other animals so complete, that, were it not for inundations, which destroy them in prodigious numbers, and the arts practised by man to catch them, they would be an intolerable hinderance to the labours of agriculture. However, they are not without an instinctive sense of the danger arising from low and moist situations, as they commonly prefer some elevated and dry spot for bringing forth their young. The skin of these animals is extremely soft and beauti- ful ; and it appears strange that it has not been generally ti led to some advantageous purposes. It is probable that the facility with which they might be procured dimi- nishes their value. The ermine and the sable are sought after in remote and inhospitable regions, with extreme avidity ; but a fur which daily solicits our regard, and is constantly within our reach, is only used in a very limited degree, in the manufacture of hats. THE SHREW. The common shrew is of a mixed brov/n and reddish tawny colour, with a white belly, and a short tail. The body is about two inches and a half long ; the nose is slender and pointed ; the ears short and rounded ; and the teeth, in shape and situation, differ from those of all other animals in the world, partaking both of the mouse and the snake kind. This animal is widely diffused : it frequents old walls, dry grounds, and holes in the earth ; subsisting on corn, insects, and any kind of garbage. Cats frequently 90 HEDGEHOG. but abstain from eating it. Indeed, it has such a fetid and offensive scent, and its form is so disagreeable, that it is generally shunned ; and, from some of its known disgusting qualities, it has obtained an ill fame for others, which it does not really possess. A small species of the shrew is found in Siberia, which weighs only about a dram, and is considered by Linnaeus as the least of quadrupeds ; however, Pallas mentions another species, which does not weigh half so much. , THE HEDGEHOG. Few animals are more innocent than the hedgehog, yet few are exposed to such various injuries and insults. Children frequently learn the rudiments of cruelty in tor- turing it ; and it seldom finds a protector among those who are more advanced in years. Humanity, however, is due to the meanest reptile ; and whoever is capable of exer- cising unnecessary barbarity, even towards noxious creatures, must possess defective feelings at least, and probably a vicious heart. Though the hedgehog has a formidable appearance, from the sharp spines with which its upper parts are co- vered, it is one of the most harmless creatures in the uni- verse. Incapable or unwilling to injure, all its precautions are directed only to its own security ; and its armour is adapted, not to invade, but to repel an enemy. While other animals trust to their force, their cunning, or their swiftness, the hedgehog, destitute of all these, has but one expedient for its protection : as soon as it perceives itself attacked, it draws back and concentrates all its vul- nerable parts, rolls itself into a kind of ball, and presents nothing but its prickles to the foe ; and thus, while it refrains from attempting to injure any other quadruped, it renders itself proof against the annoyance of most creatures, except man. The enraged dog may bark, and roll it along with its paws ; it still patiently submits to every provocation, in order to remain secure. Like most other wild animals, the hedgehog spends the PORCUPINE. 91 greater part of the day in sleep ; and forages for worms, insects, and other petty prey, principally in the night. It prefers small thickets, hedges, or bushy ditches, for its retreat ; where it makes a hole about six or eight inches deep ; which it lines with moss, grass, or leaves. It sleeps during winter ; and, at all seasons, is satisfied with a small quantity of food. The flesh is by some esteemed very delicate eating ; but epicures only of a peculiar taste make the experiment. In order to justify the ill-usage which this creature ge- nerally receives, it has been accused of sucking the teats of cows and mares, and injuring their udders, as they lie at rest. From this charge it cannot be wholly exculpated. The author of this work has seen the effects produced by it on a mare, which, however, did not give milk but its mouth is not large enough to admit the dug of a cow ; and therefore it may be doubted whether it is milk that tempts it to invade this part of animals. The common species is widely diffused over Europe ; and other varieties of the same animal are found in every quarter of the globe. ORDER IV. GLIRES. THE characteristics of this order (which include the porcupine, the hare, the squirrel, the beaver, the mouse, and the rat,) are, two fore-teeth in each jaw, no canine teeth, three toes on each foot, and an adaptation of form to the action of leaping. THE PORCUPINE. The common porcupine is about two feet long, and fifteen inches broad. It has a long crest on the back of its head, composed of stiff bristles reclining backwards. The body is covered with quills from ten to fourteen 92 PORCUPINE. inches long, sharp-pointed, and thickest in the middle, and these are varied with black and white ; between them a few hairs are interspersed. The head, belly, and legs, are covered with strong bristles, terminated with dusky- coloured hair ; the whiskers are long ; the ears resemble the human, as the nose does that of the hare. There are four toes before, and five behind ; and the tail, which is short, is covered with bristles. The quills of the porcupine, which appear to have been given it rather for defence than annoyance, naturally re- cline backwards ; but, when irritated, it erects them, and thus opposes an almost unapproachable circle of lances against every assailant. It has been said that it can hurl or project them like darts against a foe ; but this is no more probable, than that an enraged turkey-cock should have the power to dart its feathers. This animal, according to some, lives on roots, fruit, and vegetables ; while others affirm, that it hunts for ser- pents and other reptiles as its subsistence. There is some reason to believe this last statement; or perhaps both are true in a certain degree. The porcupine has sometimes been domesticated in Europe, and has been known to live to the age of twelve or fifteen years. Only a single young one is produced at a time. The Indians hunt it for the flesh and the quills ; which latter they dye of various colours, and work them up into baskets, belts, and other ornaments, with pecu- liar elegance. The porcupine is a native of many parts of Asia, and of Africa in general ; and it is even found wild in Italy, though not indigenous in Europe. It is a dull and torpid creature ; voracious, though capable of great abstinence ; and has received the epithet of * fretful *, from its bristling " I could make Thy knotty and combined locks to part; And each particular hair to stand on end, Like quills upon the fretful porcupine." Tragedy of Hamlet, HARE. 93 up its quills on the slightest appearance of danger. There are three other species known ; one a native of Brazil, the second of Canada, and the third of the Indian Archi- pelago : in every essential feature, however, they agree with the animal which has just been described. THE HARE. The form of the hare is generally known ; but its habits, which are well deserving our attentive notice, are often overlooked. Timid and persecuted ; the prey of men and animals for its flesh, and the object of savage sport to the idle or the wanton ; did it not owe much to a principle of fear, which is ever alert for its preservation, and to its amazing fecundity, the breed would long since have be- come extinct. In order to enable this innocent and delicate creature to perceive the most distant approaches of danger, nature has provided it with very long ears, which, like tubes, convey remote sounds ; and with prominent eyes, which receive the rays of light on every side. It is also endowed with extraordinary swiftness ; and from its hind-legs being longer than the fore, has the peculiar advantage of an ability to run up ascents with more facility than any of its pursuers. Every species of dog hunts it by instinct* while the cat and the weasel tribe exercise all their little arts to ensnare it : but its most inveterate and destructive enemy is man, who leagues with dogs, or employs the snare or the gun to thin its numbers, often more for need- less pastime than for the value of the spoil. The hare breeds when very young, continues pregnant thirty days, and generally produces three or four, several times every season. In about twenty days the young are able to provide for themselves. The food of these animals is wholly vegetable ; and no kind, even the bark of trees, is unacceptable to them. They seldom live more than se- ven or eight years, even should they escape the multiplied dangers to which they are so exposed. They pass a life of solitude and silence, except during coupling-time. 94- RABBIT. They are capable, however, in some degree, of domesti- cation ; in which state they become fond and caressing ; but their attachment to any particular person is extremely weak, and they are sure to seize the first opportunity of regaining their native liberty and independence. The influence of climate is very perceptible on them. In more northern latitudes they assume a white colour in winter, and assemble in large troops. The hares found in warmer regions are smaller than those of our own country, and have a thinner fur. They are generally diffused over every climate ; from the arctic to the equator, and from thence towards the south pole. The fur of hares is an article of considerable importance in the hat-manufactory. Their flesh is reckoned very delicate eating among some nations, though from super- stitious, or different motives, it is detested among others. The ancient Britons, the Jews, the Mahometans, have considered it as unclean ; so difficult is it to establish the criterion even of sensual taste! What mankind, at one time, call beautiful, fragrant, or savoury, at another pe- riod, or in another country, is regarded as deformed, dis- gusting, and nauseous. There are several species of the hare; such as the Varying, the Alpine, the Cape, the Brazilian, and the Calling. All these agree, however, in their general quali- ties ; and only vary in minute circumstances, an enumer- ation of which would be entertaining only to the professed naturalist. THE RABBIT. Though the hare and the rabbit strongly resemble each other in form and habits, they are nevertheless distinct species, and have never been known to intermix, The rabbit is one of the most prolific and harmless animals in nature, and at the same time one of the most beneficial to mankind. This creature has been known to breed seven times in one year, and to bring forth eight each time ; from which, BEAVER. 95 admitting this to happen regularly for four years, it fol- lows, that a single pair might multiply in that period to one million two hundred and seventy-four thousand eight hundred and forty ! Such an instance of possible fecundity is truly astonishing ; and were not their numbers thinned by the ravages of almost every beast of prey, they would nearly be sufficient alone to supply mankind with animal food. Indeed, in some countries, they have multiplied to such a degree, that the inhabitants consider them as a nuisance. Though capable of enduring a severe climate, they seem to delight in a temperate one ; so that in Swe- den they are obliged to be sheltered in houses, and in more northern regions they are wholly unknown. Tame rabbits, as if conscious of protection, never dig holes for their retreats ; and they assume a variety of colours. Wild rabbits, on the contrary, burrow in the earth, and are uniformly brown. The flesh of the latter Is most esteemed, as well as their fur. Like the hare, there are different species of rabbits, not only in the Old Continent, but in the New That of Brazil has scarcely any tail. THE BEAVER. This animal is far less remarkable for the singularity of its conformation than for its astonishing instincts, which some have exalted into a species of intellect. It has a flat broad tail, covered with scales, which it uses as a rudder ; and its toes are webbed, a property which enables it to swim with greater facility than to walk. The length of the beaver is about three feet, and of its tail eleven inches ; it has strong cutting teeth, short ears, and a blunt nose. It is found in the northern parts of Europe, Asia, and America; but it is chiefly in the less-frequented regions of the latter, that its habitudes and genuine instincts are most strongly marked, and therefore form the properest subject for observation. In every country where civilised man prevails, many of the inferior animals are repressed end degraded in their character ; but where he seldom 96 MUSK BEAVER. intrudes, all their native propensities are exercised, and appear in full vigour. In the northern regions of America, the beavers begin to assemble in the spring ; and form societies of more than two hundred, which generally subsist during the greater part of the year. Their place of rendezvous is always near the brink of some river or lake, where they erect habitations with admirable foresight and regularity. They construct them of the branches of trees, which it might be thought impossible for such diminutive animals to move.- These they intermix in such a manner as to form a mound against the violence of the stream : and they plaster their separate tenements with such skill, and appear such pro- ficients in all the arts of architecture, that the ignorant aboriginal natives must, in these respects, be pronounced much their inferiors. Here they bring forth their young, and live in families : during all which time a social com- pact subsists between them, and influences every member of their association. The skins of beavers form a very lucrative article of commerce ; and the Indian hunters, lured by European commodities, many of which, however, are rather noxious than useful to them, exert all their diligence in procuring a supply of furs to barter for spirits, or for what is often the refuse of English and American markets. But it is not only the skin of this animal that exposes it to danger from the pursuits of man ; its flesh is esteemed by some to be very good for eating, when properly cured ; and from its inguinal gland is extracted that valuable drug called castor, so much esteemed in nervous disorders, par- ticularly in hysteric fits, and other female complaints. THE MUSK BEAVER. This animal is about one-third of the size of the common beaver, but resembles it in miniature. It is extremely pro- lific, forms societies, and erects buildings ; but appears much less provident than the other species. Its fur, how- ever, is not less valued: and its flesh has an exquisite GUINEA-PIG. 97 musky smell, particularly in the summer season, from which circumstance it receives its name. THE GUINEA-PIG. In the Linnaean system of zoology, the genus mus com- prehends not only the whole of the mouse and rat kinds, but also several animals, which, in their external form, bear little resemblance to these. Among the latter is the gui- nea-pig, or common cavy; which is a native of Brazil, though its vulgar appellation among us imports a different original. Few are unacquainted with the figure of this elegant little creature, which is often reared with fond at- tention as a domestic favourite. It is considerably smaller than the rabbit, its legs and neck are very short, and it has not even the vestige of a tail. It has the lip of the hare, but differs from that animal in the number of its toes. Like other creatures, when taken under the protection of man, its colours vary. Of all quadrupeds, the guinea-pig is perhaps the most pusillanimous. It has scarcely courage enough to defend itself from a mouse ; and the only animosity which it is ever seen to display, is against its own kind. Indeed, the combats of these little animals are ridiculous enough to a spectator. Their jealousies are quickly excited by the most trivial causes ; on which occasion they fight in a manner terrible, no doubt, to each other, however whim- sical and ludicrous it may appear to us. They scratch, bite, and kick ; and sometimes inflict dangerous wounds. A falling leaf, however, will disturb them, the rustling of wind alarm, and the most ignoble foe overcome them. The guinea-pig, though long domesticated in Europe, requires warmth ; and if neglected in extremely cold wea- ther, is sure to perish. It is particularly cleanly: the male and female take a pleasure in licking and decking each other; and they also watch by turns, while the other sleeps. They are very prolific ; and are commonly fed with bran and succulent vegetables, but seldom drink. 98 AGOUTI. LEMMING. Their note is peculiar ; and when expressive of pain, is very piercing. THE AGOUTI. This animal seems to be a middle species between the hare and the marmot. It is very numerous in South America ; and has been denominated the rabbit of that continent, which animal it resembles in size; its ears, however, are shorter, its back arched, and its hair bristly. Its tail also is shorter, and entirely destitute of hair ; and the number of its toes is different from that of the hare- kind. In disposition, no similitude can be traced ; it is voracious in all its appetites, and not nice in its selection of food. It burrows in the cavities of trees ; and is sharp- sighted, agile, and capable of being reclaimed ; after which it seldom reverts to its original wildness. The female breeds twice or thrice a year : she suckles her young for a short time, and then leaves them to pro- vide for themselves, of which they are soon capable. Vast numbers of these animals are killed for their flesh, which is said to be very good when dressed, like that of a sucking-pig. They are frequently hunted by dogs ; but are more usually driven from their retreats in hollow trees by the smoke of burning substances, applied to the aper* ture. While this is performing, the poor animal expresses its terror by the most plaintive cries : but seldom quits its hole till the last extremity. When half-.suffocated, it de- scends, and seeks security by flight ; and, when not in a situation to make good its escape, it turns on the hunters, and defends itself by means of its teeth and claws, with an obstinacy scarcely to be expected from such a feeble creature. THE LEMMING. This extraordinary animal, one of the greatest pests of some of the northern countries of Europe, has the figure of a mouse ; but the tail is shorter, and the body is about five LEMMING. W inches long. The hair is fine, and variously spotted in different animals ; the eyes are small and black, and the ears recline backwards. The lemming, called also the Lapland marmot, pours down periodically from the Scandinavian mountains ; and, like a conflagration, consumes every production of the earth that falls in its way. In these migrations, which generally take place after long-continued rains, they ge- nerally move in regular bodies, several millions in a troop ; advancing by night, and halting by day. Such astonish- ing numbers are collected, that they frequently cover a mile square ; and the simple Laplanders are impressed with the belief that they are really rained from the sky. In vain do the wretched inhabitants resist them, or attempt to check their progress : like an overflowing torrent, they carry all before them. Wherever their motions are directed, nothing can impede them: they swim across rivers and lakes, and climb over houses, rather than deviate from the regular line of the march ; and, in their progress, devour every species of vegetable with which they meet, leaving a wilderness and desolation behind them. Enemies so numerous and destructive would soon depo- pulate the country that produced them, did not the same voracity which prompts them to destroy the labours of industry at last impel them to prey upon each other. After committing incredible devastations, they sometimes divide into two armies, and fight with deadly fury. What be- comes of the victors or the vanquished is unknown : it is probable, that, having devoured every thing else, they subsist on each other ; and being, on their whole migra- tion towards the sea, attended by larger animals of prey, their ranks thus grow thinner and thinner, till they all either are destroyed or expire naturally. Sometimes such numbers have been found dead, that their putrid carcasses have infected the surrounding air, and occasioned malig- nant distempers. These animals are prolific beyond conception; and, F 2 100 MARMOT. DORMOUSE. though millions thus leave the country where they are produced, and millions more are devoured in their native mountains, as well by animals of prey as by the Laplan- ders, (who eat their flesh,) there appears no deficiency in their numbers. Happily for mankind, however, their emigrations happen not oftener than once or twice within twenty years. THE MARMOT. This animal is nearly the size of a hare, ,which it resem- bles in the shape of its head ; but its ears are much shorter, and the tail more tufted. The body is clothed with long hair; under which is a fine short fur, of different colours, generally cinereous mixed with tawny. The marmot is a native of the Alps ; but is likewise found in Poland, part of Tartary, and (with some specific differences) in Africa and America, When taken young, it is easily tamed, and taught to dance, to obey the call of its master, and to perform several tricks for his amuse- ment. It is in general a very harmless and inoffensive animal ; and, except in its antipathy to dogs, which appears invincible, it lives in friendship with every creature that abstains from giving it provocation. Marmots feed indiscriminately on flesh, bread, fruit, or vegetables ; but are particularly fond of milk and butter. When irritated or frightened, they utter a piercing cry. Though cleanly in their habits, they have a disagreeable cent, particularly in warm weather ; as the cold sets in, however, they begin to prepare their winter residence, and lie in a state of torpidity, like the bat and the dormouse, till the return of spring. The marmot produces but once a year, and usually brings forth four or five at a time. It speedily arrives at maturity ; consequently its life is short, seldom exceeding nine or ten years. THE DORMOUSE. There are several varieties of this pretty little animal probably produced by climate, or other accidental causes COMMON MOUSE. 101 but all agree in their propensities and habitudes. The common dormouse has full black eyes, round naked ears, a tail two inches and a half long, with a body about the size of the common mouse, though rather more plump. It is covered with a red tawny fur, except on the throat, which is white. This variety inhabits every part of Europe. It generally builds its nest near the bottom of a thick hedge, either with moss or leaves; and subsists oi~ nuts, which it eats in an erect posture, like a squirrel. Towards the approach of winter, these animals form magazines of nuts, beans or acorns; and, as soon as the cold is sensibly felt, they prepare to mitigate its effects by rolling themselves up into a round ball, and thus exposing the smallest surface to the weather. It frequently happens, however, that either the heat of the sun or the transition from cold to warmth thaws their nearly stagnant fluids, and awakens them from their torpor. On such occasions, as their provisions are at hand, they enjoy their stores till their natural lethargy returns ; in which they usually con- tinue about five months out of the twelve. The female breeds but once in the year, and seldom brings forth more than four or five at a time. COMMON MOUSE. Though there are field-mice, garden-mice, and wood- mice, which are only slightly discriminated from each other, the timid, cautious, active, little animal now under consideration, is wholly domestic. Fearful by nature, but familiar through necessity, it is a parasitical attendant upon the human race. To seek food is the only incitement which it has to quit its hole, and then it seldom ventures farther than its wants compel it. When fed in a cage, it retains all its natural apprehensions ; and, though it may be tamed to a certain degree, it never discovers the smallest signs of attachment to its benefactor. No animal has more enemies to avoid than the mouse ; yet its extreme fecundity keeps up the race without any apparent diminution. Aristotle informs us, that, having ? 3 102 RAT. put a pregnant mouse into a vessel of corn, he Boon found a hundred and twenty mice, all sprung from the same original. THE RAT. This is one of the most pernicious of the smaller qua- drupeds ; nor can all the arts of man extirpate the race. Not only our food, our drink, our clothes, and our furni- ture, are a prey to it, but it makes dreadful havoc among young poultry, rabbits, and game. It can gradually pene- trate the hardest wood, and the most solid mortar ; and no care or ingenuity can wholly exempt us from its depreda- tions. The cat, the weasel, and the dog, combine with the human race in thinning its numbers ; yet it finds means to elude their united efforts, and still remains formidable. Till about the commencement of the last century, Bri- tain was indeed annoyed with rats, but by a species com- paratively harmless. Our small black rat, which has now given way to the Norway breed, was much less injurious than the latter ; but the species is almost extinct. Such is the superior ferocity of the large Norway rat, that it has almost annihilated the indigenous animal, and has entailed upon our country a still greater plague. The rat is said to produce from fifteen to thirty at a time, and that frequently : hence we cannot wonder at its astonishing numbers, and that all the means employed to reduce them are only partial and temporary alleviations of the evil. Its bite is not only severe but dangerous ; and its resolution, reinforced by its disgusting appearance, renders it the object even of terror to many. The harmless mouse pleases more than it alarms by its intrusions ; but there are few who do not feel a sort of antipathy at a rat, and even shun it as they would a viper. The Europeans first introduced these animals into Ame- rica, about the year 1544; and they are already become the pest of that whole continent, America has lent us its ills ; but, by bestowing on it the rat, from which no vigi- lance can give protection, we have, in some measure, balanced the account of injuries. The water-rat, which SQUIRREL, AND FLYING SQUIRREL. 103 is a different species from the domestic, chiefly subsists on frogs, small fish, roots, and insects ; and itself becomes sometimes the prey of the pike. THE SQUIRREL. Several species of squirrels are enumerated by zoolo- gists ; such as the common, the Ceylon, the Abyssinian, the Bombay, the ruddy, the grey, the black, the Hudson's-bay, the varied, the fair, the Brazilian, the Mexican, the palm, the white-nosed, the sailing, and the flying. These families are all distinct from each other ; but a general idea may be obtained of the whole race, from a description of the first and the last. The common squirrel is a well-known, lively, and elegant little animal. Its ears are terminated by long tufts of hair, its tail is long and bushy, the legs are short and muscular, and the nails sharp and strong. The head, body, tail, and legs, are of a bright reddish colour ; the belly and breast are white* This beautiful animal merits the benevolent protection of man, on account of its docility and its innocence. It usually feeds on fruits, nuts, and acorns ; and, with pro- vident care, lays up in summer and autumn a sufficient stock of provisions for its winter subsistence. It lodges in the hollows of trees ; and, by its sportive bounds from one tree to another, enlivens the sylvan scene, and seems to tempt pursuit, though it generally knows how to frus- trate the aims of its pursuer. The squirrel, of all quadrupeds, is the most completely formed for climbing; and its agility is extreme. It is easily tamed, and becomes very familiar. Fond of warmth, it will creep into our pocket, our sleeve, or our bosom. When provoked, it will bite with some severity ; but is far from being naturally ferocious. THE FLYING SQUIRREL. This little animal, which is frequently imported into our country, is less than the common species. Its skin, F 4 104- ORDER V. PECORA. CAMEL. which is very soft, is elegantly adorned with a dark fur in some parts of the body, and a light grey in others. It has a lateral membrane, extending from the fore to the hind legs ; and its tail is covered with long hair, horizontally disposed. By means of the appendage connecting its legs, it is capable of darting itself twenty yards, from one tree to another, at a single bound. This animal is a native of North America and New Spain ; a variety of it is also found in Lapland, Poland, and Russia. It is easily tamed ; but embraces the first opportunity of making its escape ; and, though playful, discovers little attachment. ORDER V PECORA. THE characteristics of this order (which includes the camel, the musk, the stag, the goat, the sheep, and the ox kinds) are, that the animals have cutting teeth in their under, but none in their upper jaw ; and but five molar teeth in both. THE CAMEL. There are two varieties of this very useful animal, both of which may be considered as essentially serviceable to the natives in the parched deserts of Africa, Arabia, and other tropical countries. One, which is called more pe- culiarly the camel, has two protuberances on its back ; the other, which obtains the name of the dromedary, has only one, and is neither so large nor so strong as the former. Both races, however, intermix ; and their united offspring is reckoned more valuable than the pure breed of either. The dromedary, indeed, is by far the more nume- rous, and extends over very spacious regions ; while the camel is scarce, excepting in Turkey and the Levant. Neither of them can subsist or breed in the variable climates of the north ; and they seem intended by Provi- LAMA. 105 dcnoe for the service of man in those countries where no other animals are qualified to excel in this respect. The camel has a small head, short ears, and a long bend- ing neck. Its height, to the top of the dorsal protube- rances, is about six feet and a half. The colour of the hair on the protuberances is dusky, and that on the other parts is reddish ash. It has a long tail, small hoofs, and flat feet, divided above, but not separated. On the legs are six callosities ; and, besides the four stomachs which all ruminating quadrupeds possess, it has a fifth, which serves as a reservoir for carrying a supply of water in the sandy parched deserts that it is obliged to traverse. Every part of this animal is applied to some beneficial purpose. Its milk, its flesh, its hair, its urine, and even its dung, are all turned to advantage by man. Its chief utility, however, consists in its being a beast of burden in countries where no other quadruped could live and perform that office. By means of this useful creature, the trade of Turkey, Persia, Arabia, Barbary, and Egypt, is principally carried on. It is not only qualified to carry heavy burdens, but to support extreme abstinence ; and, at the same time, it travels with great expedition. In a word, it is the most tractable and most valuable animal to be found in all the warm regions of the old continent. THE LAMA Tliis animal has obtained the appellation of the camel in the New World ; it is found, however, only on those mountains which extend from New Spain to the straits of Magellan. Peru seems to be the country where it thrives best, and where its services are most used. It is, indeed, the only native beast of burden which America originally produced. It is far inferior to the camel in strength, speed, and magnitude. Its utility, however, when reclaimed (for numbers run wild) is very great, and entitles it to much consideration, both from the aboriginal natives and the intruding Spaniards ; among whom, in many cases, it con- stitutes a principal article of wealth. In fact, without the F 5 106 MUSK. lama, it would be impossible to transport goods, and costly metals, from one place to another: it climbs the most craggy rocks, or descends the steepest precipices, with a load of about a hundred weight, and where its conductor is hardly capable of accompanying its steps. This animal is about three feet high. The neck is long, the head small, and the colour white, black, or brown. The female produces only one at a time ; and the period of its life appears limited to twelve years. THE MUSK. Though the drug which is called by the name of this animal was imported into Europe ages since, and has long obtained celebrity in medicine, it is only of late years that we have had any accurate knowledge of the creature that produces it. The musk is destitute of horns, and of fore-teeth in the upper jaw ; but has on each side a slender tusk, nearly two inches long, projecting in view. The length of the body is about three feet and a half, and of the tail scarcely an inch. The hair is remarkable for its length and fine texture ; it is parti-coloured from the root upwards, but tipped with ferruginous ; the belly and tail are whitish. The musk inhabits the kingdoms of Tibet, Tonquin, and Boutan. It delights in mountains covered with pines, and shuns the abodes of men. It is extremely timid ; and, if pursued, ascends the most inaccessible cliffs. However, great numbers are killed on account of the drug which they possess ; and which is found in a bag under the belly of the male, about the size of a hen's egg. This appendage the hunters cut off, and secure for sale. Tavernier informs us, that he purchased seven thousand six hundred and seventy- three musk-bags in one journey ; a proof how amazingly numerous these animals must be. The flesh, though asto-* nishingly infected with the scent, is nevertheless eaten by the Tartars and Russians. The Brazilian, the Indian, and the Guinea musks are all different species of this genus. The latter is only ten Plate 14. fit}. I. Dromedary, ftp. ?. Comet . ', it.f . .;, 108 REIN-DEER. found, that animals transported from temperate latitudes to the more northern are less affected than such as are brought from the latter to the southern. This is an awkwardly formed animal, with a very in- elegant gait. The fore-legs are long ; the neck short ; and the horns very large and spreading, plain on the inside, and furnished with several sharp points on the exterior. There are no brow-antlers. Under the throat appears an excrescence. The moose-deer stands very high before, and is alto- gether a bulky animal; but its dimensions have been very much exaggerated by some travellers. It is very inoffen- sive, except when wounded, or .in the rutting-season. In Canada, it is hunted during winter ; and its flesh is esteemed very light and nutritive. The nose and tongue, however, are the greatest delicacies, in the estimation of epicures. The skin makes excellent buff-leather, and is said to be capable of resisting a musket-ball. The hoof was formerly reputed very efficacious in curing epilepsies ; but, in this view, it has now justly fallen into neglect. THE REIN-DEER. Of all the animals in the arctic regions, the rein-deer is the most useful, and the most worthy of our attention. It is found as near the pole as man can penetrate ; and, as if intended for the service of the natives in the hyper- borean climates alone, is incapable of existing under a milder sky. From the rein-deer singly, the Greenlanders, the Lap- landers, and other inhabitants of the north frigid zone, derive a supply for their most pressing wants. It answers the purpose of the horse in conveying them from one place to another, that of the cow in affording them milk, and that of the sheep in furnishing them with clothing : while the flesh serves for food, as the tendons do for bow-strings ; and which last, when split, supply the want of thread. STAG, J 09 The horns of the rein-deer are very large, but slender, projecting forwards, and palmated towards the top. The height of a full-grown animal of this kind is about four feet and a half; it is very strongly built, has thick hair, and invariably a black space round the eyes. Its pace, which is rather a trot than a bounding motion, it will continue for a long time without apparent fatigue, particularly when yoked to a sledge on the snow. A Laplander regards the rein-deer as his principal source of wealth, and some individuals possess a thousand of them in a single herd. The season of parturition is about the middle of May, and the females continue to give milk till about the middle of October. Every morn- ing and evening, during that interval, the herdsmen drive them to the cottages to be milked, and afterwards back to pasture. In winter, however, they are left to shift for themselves ; and chiefly subsist on a species of moss, or lichen, which they instinctively discover and paw out from beneath the snow. The rein-deer is of two kinds, the wild and the tame ; the former being stronger and more mischievous than the latter The mixed breed between them is generally preferred. THE STAG, OR RED-DEER. This species of deer has long upright horns, much branched, and slender, sharp, brow-antlers. The colour is generally of a reddish-brown, with some black about the face, and a black list down the hind part of the neck and between the shoulders. The stag is common to the* northern parts of every quarter of the globe, and is pretty generally diffused over Europe. It is one of those mild, tranquil, and innocent animals, which seem created to adorn and animate the solitude of the forest: and to occupy, remote from the visits of man, the peaceful re- treats of nature. Like the rest of the deer-kind, the stag annually sheds its horns, from which that useful volatile spirit called hartshorn is obtained. The lii-id, or female, goes with young somewhat more than eight months. In 110 FALLOW-DEER. the rutting-season, it is dangerous to approach the male. As the flesh is not much esteemed, they are seldom taken under the immediate protection of man, like the fallow- deer, but are left to range in forests and chases, where they furnish diversion to hunters. The stag is supposed to live about forty years. It has good eyes, an exquisite smell, and a quick sense of hearing. It appears fond of music ; and shows no particular dread of man, unless when attended by dogs, or furnished with arms : against dogs it will sometimes make head with peculiar resolution. Indeed, its intrepidity on emergencies is very great ; and William, duke of Cumberland, having caused a tiger and a stag to be inclosed in one area, the latter made such a bold defence that the savage beast was obliged to fly. THE FALLOW-DEER. Though the fallow-deer and the stag are as nearly allied as any two animals can possibly be, they show a rooted aversion to each other ; and will neither associate nor breed together. The fallow-deer, the male of which is called a buck and the female a doe, is a well-known animal, and is kept in parks to serve the purposes of pleasure and luxury. Hav- ing undergone a species of domestication, it varies very much in colour; and climate and food have a very sensi- ble effect on its size, and the flavour of its flesh. The English venison is reckoned superior to that of any other country; and no where do the inhabitants seem more capable of appreciating its good or bad qualities. Good eating is, indeed, here reduced to a science ; but the proficiency acquired in it is generally in an inverse ratio to the improvement of the understanding. The doe goes eight months with young, and commonly brings forth one at a time. From July to October, the flesh of the buck is most in season ; and from November to February the doe is preferred : the haunch of the latter, however, is small and insipid, compared with the former. ROE-BUCK. ANTELOPE. ]]1 THE ROE-BUCK. This beautiful little animal, the smallest of the deer kind, though formerly a native of Wales and of the northern parts of England, at present exists in no part of Great Britain, except the Highlands of Scotland. The species, however, is diffused over the northern parts of Europe, Tartary, and China ; and, according to some, is found in North America, it is about three feet long and two high, and the horns measure about eight or nine inches. The figure of this animal is extremely elegant, and its fleetness is equal to its beauty. Its hair is always smooth, clean, and glossy ; and, as it delights in the purest air, it fre- quents only dry situations. It bounds with grace and agility ; and, with extraordinary cunning, finds means to avoid the hunters. Instead of herding together, these animals form separate families ; the sire, the dam, and the young, associating with each other, and excluding all strangers from their community. Every other species of deer is inconstant in affection ; but the roe-buck never forsakes its mate, and the progeny live together till they are old enough to com- mence an independent society of their own. The female's period of gestation is only five months and an half, in which respect the roe-buck seems to approxi- mate to the goat kind. When she is ready to bring forth, she retires to the thickest part of the wood, and generally produces two at a time. THE ANTELOPE, OR GAZELL KIND. Linnaeus makes antelopes a species of the goat genus ; but other zoologists consider them as a distinct race, and enumerate a considerable number of species. The dis- tinguishing characters are these : their horns are an- nulated, or ringed round, at the same time that there are longitudinal depressions running from the bases to the apex; they have bunches of hair on their fore-legs, a party-coloured streak running along the inferior parts of. J12 COMMON ANTELOPE. NYLGHAU. their sides, and three lines of whitish hairs on the internal sides of their ears. They resemble the goat in never shedding their horns ; on the other hand, they have a conformity to the roe-buck in the elegance of their form, and the graceful agility of their motions. Most of these animals are natives of the torrid zone ; and are always confined to it, or its vicinity. There is none, however, in the New World ; but in Asia and Africa they are surprisingly numerous. All the species, of which we can only enumerate a few, may be charac- terized as active and elegant, restless and timid, vigilant and vivacious, and remarkably swift and nimble. The eyes are so extremely brilliant, and at the same time of such a mild aspect, that they furnish a never-failing simile to oriental lovers, when they wish to compliment the beauty of their mistresses. One species produces the bezoar, which was once held in high reputation for its fancied medicinal virtues. THE COMMON ANTELOPE. This animal, which is a native of Barbary, is somewhat inferior in size to the fallow-deer, but resembles it in all the proportions of its body. Its horns are upright, spirally twisted, and encircled almost to the top with prominent rings. The colour of the body is brown mixed with red and dusky ; the belly and the insides of the thighs are white. The female is destitute of horns. THE WHITE-FOOTED ANTELOPE, OR NYLGHAU. This peculiarly elegant and beautiful animal measures upwards of four feet to the top of the shoulders ; and nearly the same in length, from the bottom of the neck to the insertion of the tail. Its horns are short, and pro- ject a little forward. It has a short black mane, extend- ing half-way down the back ; and a tuft of long hair on the fore-part of the neck, above which is a large white spot, another on the chest, a third on each fore-foot, and two Plate 16\ : 3.J.' ">'hfa> . Plate 17. fig. 3. Cacttabt. ffy. 4. Dolphin. rrtn,m,r,r, 7T,,T.~f #*>, /}~n,* t~ Hn,*,r> Cooper sculp. ROYAL ANTELOPE. -- COMMON GOA1\ Il3 on each hind foot. The colour of the male is a dark grey ; that of the female a pale brown* This species inhabits the interior parts of Indostan ; and, during the reign of Aurengzebe, was highly prized for the diversion which it afforded in hunting ; the flesh is no less valued for eating at this period, being reckoned a present fit for a prince. White-footed antelopes have occasionally been intro- duced into England ; and, notwithstanding the surprising difference of climate, they have been known to breed ; an instance of this kind was witnessed in Blenheim-park, where a pair were kept in a separate paddock for some time ; but, occasionally showing symptoms of ferocity, they were destroyed, for fear of accidents to the heed- less or venturesome spectators. THE ROYAL ANTELOPE. This species, called also the chevrotin, is perhaps the smallest and most beautiful of all cloven-footed qua- drupeds. Its legs are not much larger than a goose-quill ; the height about nine inches, and the length fourteen. The shape is delicate beyond description, and it appears like a stag in miniature. The, royal antelope is a native of Senegal, and the hottest climates of Africa. Its agility is extreme : for, notwithstanding its diminutive size, it will bound over a wall twelve feet high. When domesticated, it becomes entertaining and familiar ; but is too delicate to exist in a much colder climate than that in which it is produced. THE COMMON GOAT. The goat is one of those domestic animals whose value is overlooked, merely because it is far exceeded by the sheep. Thus the ass is lightly esteemed, because we have a more useful servant in the horse. The common goat inhabits most parts of the world, either as a denizen or naturalized. It endures all kinds of weather, and seems to thrive in every climate ; but it 114 IBEX. was not originally found in America. The colour and size vary extremely, as is usual with most animals so widely diffused and so long reclaimed ; but in every re- gion it exercises its native propensity of climbing, and appears fond of situations inaccessible to other animals. The goat, indeed, prefers the neglected wild and the abrupt precipice to the cultivated fields of art. It is playful, capricious, and extremely salacious. In warm climates, the female, which goes five months with young, produces three or four at a time, twice a year. In several parts of Ireland, Scotland, and Wales, goats constitute the principal property of the poor. The milk is sweet, nutritive, and medicinal, and peculiarly grateful, as well as serviceable, to invalids. The kid is considered, even by the epicure, as a dainty ; and the flesh of the old, when properly prepared, is agreeable food. The skin, the hair, the horns, are all applied to beneficial purposes ; and, in short, every part of this animal has found its appropriate use. The goat was held in great veneration by the ancient Egyptians ; and was never offered in pagan sacrifice, because Pan was represented with the legs and feet of that animal. We must except the Greeks, however, by whom it was immolated on account of its mischief to the vines. There are various species of this well- known animal. THE IBEX. This creature, which is a native of the Carpathian and Pyrenean mountains, the country of the Orisons, the Rhetian Alps, and various districts of Asia, has large knotted horns reclining backwards, and sometimes three feet in length, a small head, full eyes, and rough hair. The colour is a deep brown mixed with some hoary, and the male has a dusky beard. During the rutting-season, the males make a horrible noise ; and the females separate at the time of parturition, and retire to the side of some stream, in order to bring" * & GOAT OF ANGOLA. MOUFFLON. SHEEP. 115 forth. Being strong and intrepid, the chase of these animals is difficult, and sometimes dangerous : they will, when pressed, endeavour to precipitate the incautious hunters from the rocks ; while, in the last extremity, they will fling themselves down the highest precipices, and, falling on their horns, escape unhurt. THE GOAT OF ANGOLA. This animal seems to be confined to a district of two or three days' journey in extent, about Angola, Beibazar, and Cougua, in Asiatic Turkey. It is covered with fine brown, black, or white hair, of a silky texture, which forms the chief materials of our best camlets. The goat-herds are extremely careful of their flocks, frequently combing and washing them ; and this gives a beauty to their hair, which is unrivalled in any other part of the world. THE MOUFFLON. This animal, the capra ammon of Linnaeus, has obtained various appellations : by some it is considered as the sheep in its native state, and indeed it bears a more striking resemblance to the ram than to any other animal. It has been known to intermix with the domestic sheep ; and, though by nature extremely wild, retains all the marks of the primitive race, except that it is covered with hair rather than wool. There is a strong similitude between the male and the female of this species, but the latter is considerably smaller. The horns of the ram, in all their convolutions, have been sometimes known to measure two ells in length, and with these it maintains obstinate conflicts with others of its kind. The moufflon is extremely fleet : it inhabits the most uncultivated parts of Greece, Sardinia, and Corsica, and is found likewise in the deserts of Tartary. THE SHEEP, The distinguishing characters of this genus are, the horns hollow, bent backwards, wreathed, crooked, and 1 16 SHEEP. scabrous externally, eight cuttings-teeth in the lower jaw, but none in the upper. Linnaeus enumerates three distinct species ; the ram or common sheep, the Guinea sheep, and the Cretan sheep, besides several varieties ; such as the broad-tailed sheep, the many-horned sheep, the fat-rumped tail-less sheep, and the African sheep : but all may be fairly derived from the common breed, for which reason we shall con- fine our description to it alone. The sheep in its present domestic state is at once the most useful, and the most defenceless of animals. Desti- tute of every quality necessary for self-preservation, they endeavour to fly without swiftness, and to oppose without courage or strength. These feeble efforts only serve to provoke the insults of their enemies ; the dog pursues the flock with increased delight on seeing them fly, and attacks them with less fear, not suspecting any attempts at resist- ance. In short, the sheep derives its own safety from man ; and must now rely on that art of protection, to which it originally owed its degradation. In its servile state, the sheep is not only void of all means of defence, but it appears the most innocent and stupid of all animals. Its physiognomy indicates no traits of cunning or courage, of attachment or reserve. The better it is fed, the more dull and sluggish it becomes ; and, in fact, all the changes that have been effected on this animal, and all the pains that are taken with it, tend as much or more to the benefit of man than to its own. In many parts of the Alps, however, and in some pro- vinces of France, where the sheep are penned every night to secure them from the wolf, they evince a degree of docility and obedience to their keeper. When the sun declines, he sounds his pipe, and they follow him, appa- rently pleased with his pastoral music : thus realising in some measure the high-wrought accounts of Arcadian scenes, on which the mind of sensibility cannot dwell without some degree of enthusiastic pleasure. It does not appear that the culture of sheep was much OX, OR COW KIND. 117 attended to among our ancestors, the Britons : but, by perse- vering efforts, during a long succession of ages, the breed is now brought to the highest perfection in this island ; and, except in the fineness of their fleeces, in which we are ex- celled by the Spanish sheep, in consequence of their milder climate and more suitable pasturage, no country is more famous for this valuable race of animals than our * own. We have, indeed, several varieties, one distinguished by its size, another by the fineness of its wool, and a third for the delicacy of its flesh. Not only the grand divisions of this island but almost every country, has a peculiar variety ; the judicious intermixture of which is at once beneficial to the breeder and the public. THE OX, OR COW KIND. The characteristics of this genus are, eight cutting teeth in the lower jaw, and nine in the upper ; the skin along the lower side of the neck pendulous, and the horns bending out laterally. Of the various domestic animals, the cow may be said to be most universally conducive to the comforts of man- kind. The horse generally falls to the lot of the rich ; sheep are kept in flocks, and require attendance : but the cow is more peculiarly the poor man's blessing, and fur- nishes the principal means of his support. The most for- tunate among our peasantry have no other possession than an individual of this useful race ; although, even of it, not a few are little more than nominal owners. They may, in- deed, come in for the refuse of the milk ; but the butter and cheese are prepared for other tables, and to the flesh they claim no pretensions. In countries, however, where simplicity of manners pre- vails, and where luxury and avarice have not blunted the nicer feelings, the cow is of more general advantage ; * The merino or Spanish breed is now pretty well naturalised in this country ; and while its flesh is improved, its fleece does not appear to be materially deteriorated. 118 OX, OR COW KIND. but, in England, the prevailing monopoly of land debars thousands, among the common people, from keeping this excellent animal, whose very milk they cannot purchase from the opulent farmers, even for money. The climate and pasture of this island are admirably suited to the nature of the cow : it loves to graze in high and rich pastures ; and here its taste is highly and amply gratified. In consequence, it grows to a very large size, and yields an abundant supply of milk. The cow seems more subject to changes from climate and food than any other quadruped. Within the narrow bounds of the British islands, we can easily trace the different varieties produced among these animals by the richness or poverty of the soil. Indeed, in every part of the world, the cow is found either large or small, in pro- portion to the luxuriant or scanty nature of its aliment. Thus, Africa is remarkable at once for the largest and smallest cattle of this kind. The same effects may be traced to the same cause, in India, Poland, and many other countries. Among the Eluth Tartars, where the pastures are remarkably rich and flourishing, the cow grows to such an enormous size, that a tall man can scarcely reach the top of its shoulder ; in France, on the contrary, where this animal is stinted in its food, it greatly degenerates, and is neither valuable for its milk nor its flesh. The variations, however, in the size of this qua- druped are less remarkable than those of its form, its hair, and its horns ; in many, indeed, these variations are so extraordinary, that they have been considered as consti- tuting different species. However, the wild cow and the tame, the animal peculiar to Europe, and that to Asia, Africa, and America ; the bonasus, the urus, the bison, and the zebu, all possess the certain criterion of a common origin, namely, that of breeding and propagating together. In -the course of a few generations, the discriminations between them become extinct ; yet the bison appears so essentially different from the common cow, that it merits a particular description, which we shall give in a separate section. BISON. BUFFALO. 119 Among cows, the period of gestation is nine months, and very seldom more than one is produced at a birth. Every part of the animal has its particular use in domes- tic economy, commerce, or manufactures. The ox, too, in many instances, is preferable to the horse in the labours of agriculture. He may be maintained much cheaper; he is less liable to disease ; and after his services are over, his flesh, when well fed, is not the worse, but rather the better, for his previous employment, while the horse at last is only food for dogs. THE BISON. This is unquestionably a variety of the cow kind, dis- tinguished from the rest by a lump between its shoulders. Like the domestic cow, this animal varies very consider- ably in size, and other particulars. In general, however, it has a long shaggy mane, a beard under the chin, a small head, fiery eyes, a look furious and commanding, and horns placed far asunder. The bison is found in all the southern parts of the world, both Old and New. It is capable of being tamed, and in that state acquires a degree of docility and attach- ment superior to the common cow. When in its native pastures, however, it is fierce and dangerous ; and even when reclaimed, may be trained to warfare, as is some- times the practice among the Hottentots. The American bison differs in various particulars from that of the ancient continent. Its horns are shorter ; and the hair springing from between them falls over its eyes, and gives it a frightful appearance. The bunch is covered with long reddish hair, and the rest of the body with a sort of black wool, which is highly valued. THE BUFFALO. Between this animal and the common ox there is a very striking similitude, both in figure and disposition ; and yet there are no two quadrupeds more distinct, or which have a greater aversion to each other. They are unquestionably 120 ORDER VI. BELLU^i. HORSE, different species; though the resemblance between them is infinitely greater than that between the bison and the cow, which are known to unite by copulation. Buffaloes are as much diversified in size and form as the ox kind : in general, however, they are considerably larger, and in a wild state much more formidable, very frequently attacking travellers, whom they gore to death and after- wards trample on, at the same time mangling their bodies in a most shocking manner. They are hunted for their flesh and hides, but the former by no means equals that of the ox. Though these animals are chiefly found in the torrid zone, they are nevertheless bred in Europe, particularly in Italy ; into which country they appear to have been intro- duced about the year 600. In Apulia they are yet said to run wild, and to grow to twice the size of our largest oxen. Compared with the cow, the figure of the buffalo is more clumsy and awkward: its air is more savage, and it carries its head nearer to the ground ; its limbs are less fleshy, nor is its tail so well covered with hair. The body is shorter and thicker, the legs higher, the head smaller, the horns more compressed, the skin more destitute of hair. The flesh also is less palatable, and the milk less nutritive, though yielded in sufficient abundance. In short, the hide, which is justly celebrated for its softness, thickness, and impenetrability, is the most valuable production of this animal. ORDER VI. . BELLILE. THE distinguishing characteristics of this order are, that the fore-teeth are obtusely truncated, the feet hoofed, and the food vegetable. The genus of the horse, hippo- potamus, hog, and rhinoceros, belong to the Belluae. THE HORSE. The horse is the most beautiful of all quadrupeds ; and, HORSE. 121 next to the dog and the elephant, the most docile and affec- tionate. His noble form, his graceful ease, his strength, and above all, his activity and usefulness to man, render him a principal object of our attachment, curiosity, and care ; and teach us to regard him as an animal whose wel- fare is in some measure connected with our own. Yet, though he is often pampered with food, and flattered by attendance, he is much more commonly ill-treated, even while in youth and vigour ; and when his services are over, he is criminally neglected. After carrying an unfeeling or unthinking master, on the road or in the chace, till his strength is decayed, he is sometimes doomed to pass the remainder of his days in a drudgery to which his powers are now unequal, and is left to sink under the load of years and oppression. Yet surely humanity to such a faithful servant is rather a duty than an act of favour ; and whoever is wanting in this essential quality to the animal that has long ministered to his plea- sure or convenience, will probably be found to pay little regard to the closer ties that connect him to kindred and country. To form an adequate idea of this noble animal, we must not contemplate him in a domestic state, beautiful as he appears ; but in those wild and extensive plains where he ranges without control, and riots in all the luxury of un- cultivated nature. In some parts of Africa, where the perennial verdure of the fields supplies his wants, and the genial warmth of the sky invigorates his native spirit, he appears in all his grandeur. There his enemies are few, and most of these no match for him in the combat : he seeks his safety, however, in society, and the troop unites for self-defence, not for annoyance. Though the horse is found in almost all countries, and is now perfectly naturalised in America, to which he was not indigenous, it is evident that the colder climates do not suit his constitution ; for in them he becomes not only ill-shaped, but diminutive. It is chiefly in warmer or temperate latitudes that all the beauties of his form, and HORSE. the energies of his character, are displayed. The wild horses of Arabia have been long celebrated throughout the world as the most elegant, the most generous, swift, and persevering of the kind ; and the natives employ every stratagem to secure them. They are rather smaller than those which are bred up tame ; their colour is brown, their manes and tails are very short, and the hair black and tufted. A stranger can form no adequate idea of their fleetness ; and the value set upon them, not only by the natives but the princes and grandees of Europe, has gradually thinned the numbers of those in a state of liberty and independence, and probably will in time extinguish the race. After the Arab, the Barb, which is sprung from the same stock, is most esteemed, and the Spanish genette ranks next in order. Every country of Europe has been at abundant pains to cultivate the breed of horses, but England has succeeded most in those destined for the chace, for labour, for war, or the race. The latter, con- sidered abstractedly, is, perhaps, the most useless of the kind, and least deserving the encouragement of a people, who consider morals as far superior to tasteless and ex- pensive amusement. In this country, indeed, horses are multiplied to such a degree, that they are become almost a nuisance, rather than a blessing. The numbers of those kept for pleasure or parade consume such a portion of the produce of the land, as to be a serious national injury. Their use is not confined, as formerly, to the man of fortune, the farmer, the inn-keeper, the coach-master, and the carrier ; but every petty tradesman is now fired with the ambition of keeping one or more, at an expense hurtful alike to him- self and to the community. History relates, however, that in the reign of queen Elizabeth, the whole kingdom of England could not supply two thousand horses for raising a body of cavalry. How much is the case altered now ? and what consequences have arisen to the poor from the change? Even the tax laid on horses, the most politic ASS, 123 and economical that ever was imposed, has not materially diminished the numbers, kept or bred. Vanity, co-oper- ating with luxury, overlooks .expense in its gratification, and regards no personal sacrifices that can be made. These reflections are not meant against the most useful and generous of animals, but against those who retain him for no purposes of utility ; and consequently lessen the quantity, or enhance the price, of those supplies which are more properly due to the human race. The horse, as being a martial animal, was dedicated to the god of war. The Persians, Armenians, and other nations of antiquity, sacrificed horses to the sun. The Suevi, according to Tacitus, maintained white horses in the sacred woods, at the public charge, and from them drew omens. The sight of a horse, according to Virgil, was generally considered as ominous of war. THE ASS. From the first view of this animal, we should be led to imagine it of the same species with the horse, but only somewhat degenerated. The two creatures are, how- ever, perfectly distinct; for, though they will breed together, the mixture between them is barren: a wise regulation of Nature to preserve the unities of form, and the discriminations of species. Indeed, whatever external similarity there may be between them, they are widely different in their natures, tempers, and habits. They have in general a marked aversion to each other ; at least, the generous and high-spirited horse seldom fails to evince a shyness at the approach of the humble but patient ass. In Africa and some other countries, however, the onagra, or wild ass, is little inferior in beauty to the zebra ; and, when united in troops, neither fears nor attends to the presence of man ; but, in a state of domes- tication, we see the ass sunk to a passive slave, abused by every petty tyrant, and generally left to chance for the scanty fare which its nature requires. It is indeed commonly the servant of the poor, and so participates G 2 124- ZEBRA. in all the hardships of their situation. This, indeed, might be excusable, because it is not to be remedied; but the wretched creature frequently falls into the hands of the untaught or unprincipled, and is treated by those unfeeling monsters with a severity in the highest degree disgraceful to human nature. Its faithful services are repaid with insult, its best exertions with blows ; and Dr. Percival relates, that, after its hard labour, he has seen its abandoned owner toss up with a companion whether he should lay out a trifle in buying it a feed, or in a glass of gin for himself. The -ass seems to be originally a native of Arabia and the East. By degrees it has spread over colder regions. It appears that there were scarcely any in England during the reign of queen Elizabeth : yet they were certainly known here at least four hundred years before. At this time Scotland contains very few, nor do we find that they have yet reached Norway. The Spanish breed is by far the most esteemed ; and the mules produced by this mixture possess several good qualities, which do not exclusively belong either to the horse or the ass. The hide of this animal is manufactured into several useful articles. The milk of the female is highly and justly valued as a restorative of health. THE ZEBRA. Whether we consider symmetry of shape or beauty of colours, this is perhaps the most elegant of all quadrupeds : it unites the graceful figure of the horse with the fleetness of the stag. The zebra is rather smaller than the horse, and in its general shape approximates to the ass ; but no two crea- tures keep at a greater distance from each other, and all attempts to unite them have proved abortive. The colours of the zebra are singularly beautiful : the male is striped all over, in regular lines, with white and brown ; the female with white and black. In a word, it is impossible to look at this creature without admiration, or to con- /ict> '~. /i(tf}rils>. Xfy.a. Zebrn,. ft.i>litftfd tfai . fXJ Ztinoman.J&tnrt, JCenf. Orme J? 1 P/irtc /<). 2 /'/'/. i Av//>- >.- ' .-/:/ Ijilttuvf. fSf.&ga&i . -,,.. RIVER-HORSE. 125 template the difficulty of procuring and taming it without regret. It has been said, indeed, that a set were once yoked to the coach of the king of Portugal; but that they could never be divested of their native ferocity and inde- pendence of spirit. So that, with all the arts of man, it seems as if the zebra can never be perfectly reclaimed and numbered with our beasts of draught or of burden. The zebra is chiefly a native of the southern regions of Africa, and whole herds of them are sometimes observed feeding in those extensive plains that lie north from the Cape of Good Hope. Their vigilance, however, is so extreme, that they will suffer nothing to approach them ; and such is their fleetness, that they soon leave every pur- suer behind. THE HIPPOPOTAMUS, OR RIVER-HORSE. This is a large and formidable animal, in magnitude only inferior to the elephant. A full-grown male will measure seventeen feet in length, from the extremity of the snout to the insertion of the tail, seven feet in height, and fifteen in circumference. The head is enormously large, and the jaws extend upwards of two feet. The body is of a lightish colour, thinly covered with hair, which at first sight is scarcely perceptible. Though amphibious, the hoofs, which are quadrifid, are unconnected by membranes; and the whole figure exhibits something like a mixture between an ox and a hog. Indeed, its voice too bears some mingled resemblance to the bellowing of the one, and the grunting of the other. This quadruped, which is thought to be the Behemoth mentioned in the book of Job, resides chiefly at the bot- toms of the great rivers and lakes of Africa, from the Niger to the Cape of Good Hope. It is found also in Upper Egypt, and in the lakes and fens of Ethiopia. Being fond of ease, it seldom exerts its might, excepting when prompted by the calls of hunger, or in its own defence. Its usual food is fish ; but, when this fails, it leaves its watery retreats, and lives on the spontaneous G 3 126 HOG-KIND. WILD BOAR. fruits of the earth, or the labours of agriculture, which it devours in an instant. In vain do the natives attempt to repel its inroads : its skin is so thick and strong as to be impenetrable to the stroke of a sabre, though it yields to a musket-ball ; and, if it feels itself only slightly wound- ed, its fury against the assailants is terrible. It generally, however, takes to the water on the first appearance of real danger ; and here, in its native element, it manifests all its strength and resolution. " I have seen," says a traveller, " one of these animals open its jaws, and, seiz- ing a boat between its teeth, at once bite and sink it to the bottom. I have seen it, on another occasion, place itself under one of our boats, and, rising, overset the ves- sel, with six men in it." The female always produces its young on land, and seldom more than one at a time. They live in families ; every male having several under its protection. The flesh of the young is said to be~excellent ; and the negroes, who, indeed, are not very delicate in their taste, never reject that of the old. According to Belon, the hippo- potamus is capable of being tamed ; and he mentions one which was so gentle as to be let loose out of a stable, and fed by its keeper without attempting any mischief. THE HOG-KIND. Animals of this genus seem to unite in themselves all those distinctions by which others are separated. They resemble the horse in the number of their teeth, the length of their head, and in having but a single stomach ; they resemble the cow in their cloven hoofs, and the position of their intestines : and they resemble the claw -footed tribe in their appetite for flesh, and their numerous progeny. THE WILD BOAR. This animal, which may be considered as the parent- Stock of our domestic swine, is by no means the filthy, de- DOMESTIC HOG. 127 graded creature that constantly falls under oar view. It is much smaller than the tame hog, but at the same time stronger and more undaunted. In its own defence it will turn on men or dogs ; and scarcely shuns any creature of the forests, in the haunts where it ranges. Its colour is always an iron-grey, inclining to black ; its snout is longer than that of the common breed, and its ears are compara- tively short. Its tusks are very formidable, and all its habits are fierce and savage. Hunting the wild boar is a favourite diversion in Ger- many, Poland, and other European countries, and its flesh is much esteemed when properly cured. It is a native of most* parts of the world; but the breed has long been extinct in England, though under William the Conqueror the killing of one was punished with loss of the offender's eyes. THE DOMESTIC HOG. It would be superfluous to give a long description of an animal so well known. In a domestic state, the hog is apparently the most impure and filthy of all quadrupeds ; yet it is not without its taste, and in some respects makes a selection of its food with much nicety. It devours, in- deed, the most nauseous offals ; but this is only when it cannot find aliment more congenial to its palate. The hog is one of the most prolific animals in the world, and is most universally disseminated. Varieties of it are found in every climate, excepting within the frigid zone ; and different as their appearance may be (from the nature of their food, and other local causes), all the breeds inter- mix, and will thrive in any temperate latitude. In civilised countries, it is one of the greatest comforts to the poor ; and, among the savage islanders of the South Sea whom our navigators have discovered or visited, it is almost the only animal on which they feed. Its flesh, says Linnaeus, is wholesome for persons of athletic constitutions, and for such as habituate themselves to much exercise ; but it is G 4? 128 PECCARY. CABIAI. improper for the sedentary and studious, and particularly when cured. THE PECCARY, OR TAJACU. This animal, which, of all others the most resembles the hog in its external appearance, is yet extremely different from it : the body is less bulky, the legs are shorter, the bristles stronger, and the tail scarcely covers the poste- riors. It differs still more essentially from that quadruped in having a hump on its back, not unlike the navel in other animals, and which secretes a liquor of a very fetid smell. The colour of this singular animal is gristly, the bristles being variegated with black and white : the belly is almost bare ; but, towards the ridge of the back, the bristles increase in length, and measure nearly five inches. The peccary is a native of South America, where it is found in large herds of several hundreds. It is extremely prolific ; and, in a state of nature, courageous in defence of its young. Though it is capable of being tamed, it never shows any signs of docility, but to the last continues in a state of stupid submission, neither manifesting at- tachment nor offering injury. It refuses to unite with the common hog, and appears incapable of enduring our variable and more severe climate. THE CABIAI, OR CAPIBARA. This animal, called also the water-hog, is a native of the same country as the peccary. It has the general appear- ance of a hog of two years old ; but its snout is divided like that of the hare-kind, and is furnished with thick, strong whiskers. It has no tail, and is in a manner web- footed, a peculiarity well adapted for swimming, in which it takes great delight. It preys on fish, flesh, and vegeta- bles, indiscriminately; and, when alarmed, its cry resem- bles the braying of an ass rather than the grunting of a hog. When pursued, it plunges to the bottom of the stream, where it remains so long that it frequently ex- INDIAN HOG. RHINOCEROS. 129 hausts the patience of the hunter before it rises. The flesh is fat and tender, but has a fishy, disagreeable taste to most palates. It is easily tamed, and then discovers some signs of attachment to its feeder. THE BABYROUESSA, OR INDIAN HOG. Though this animal is placed in the hog genus, it has neither the hair, bristles, head, stature, nor tail of that quadruped. Its general figure bears a resemblance to that of a stag; and its hair, which is of a greyish colour, has rather the appearance of wool than of bristles. It has also four enormous tusks growing out of the jaws : the two uppermost of which rise like horns, and, bending backwards, point towards the animal's eyes. These vast tusks are of pure ivory, and give the animal a very formidable appearance; yet it is less ferocious than die wild boar. It is gregarious ; emits a strong scent ; and when pursued growls dreadfully, often turning on the dogs, and wounding them with the tusks in the lower jaw. It has an excellent scent, and is extremely swift of foot : when in danger, it will plunge into the sea or rivers, and swim and dive alternately till it reaches a place of se- curity. The babyrouessa reposes in a very singular manner ; by hooking one of its upper tusks on the branch of a tree, and then suffering its whole body to swing down at ease. Thus suspended by a single tooth, it will remain the whole night out of the reach of annoyance. It appears to subsist chiefly on the leaves of trees and vegetables, shuns the haunts of men, and is harmless, un- less when excited to exertion in its own defence. This animal is very common in the island of Borneo, to which it was formerly supposed to be peculiar; but it is now known to inhabit many other parts of both Asia and Africa. THE RHINOCEROS. Of this animal there are two varieties; one with a single G 5 130 RHINOCEROS. horn, the other with two, on its snout. Next to the ele- phant, it is the most powerful of quadrupeds; and the most bulky, except the hippopotamus. Its length is com- monly twelve feet, its height six or seven, and its circum- ference nearly equal to its length. Except in strength, however, Nature has not endowed the rhinoceros with any qualities that exalt it above the ordinary rank of quadrupeds. Its principal resources consist in its moveable lip and the offensive weapon on its nose, which latter is peculiar to the kind. This is indeed a very formidable instrument of annoyance or defence : it is solid throughout ; and situated so advantageously, that it protects the whole visage, and enables the animal to assail its foes with irresistible effect. It frequently rips open the oelly of its antagonist, and is dreaded by the tiger more than the elephant itself. The body and limbs are covered with a blackish skin, so impenetrable as to resist the claws of the most ferocious animals, as well as the spear and the shot of hunters. Being incapable of either extension or contraction, it is rolled up in large folds at the neck, the shoulders, and the rump, in order to facilitate the motion of the head and limbs ; which last are massy, and furnished with large feet armed with three toes. The horn of the rhinoceros sometimes measures nearly four feet in length, by six or seven inches diameter at the base. It is commonly of a brown or olive colour, and is more esteemed by the Indians than the ivory of the ele- phant ; not on account of real advantage derived from it, but for certain medicinal qualities which it possesses, or rather is fancied to possess. Without being either ferocious or carnivorous, the rhi- noceros is perfectly untractable. It is merely among large animals what the common hog is among small ; temerarious and brutal, without intelligence, sentiment, or docility. It seems even to be subject to paroxysms of fury which no- thing can mitigate ; for one that Emanuel, king of Portu- gal, sent to the Pope in 1513, destroyed the vessel which ORDER VII. CETJE. NARWAL. 131 was transporting it ; and a rhinoceros exhibited some years ago in Paris was drowned in a similar manner, while on a voyage to Italy. This huge beast is fond of wallowing in the mire like a hog ; and testifies a marked predilection for moist, marshy grounds, never quitting the banks of rivers. The species is not very numerous, but it is found in both Asia and Africa. The female produces but one at a time, and that at considerable intervals. During the first month the young rhinoceros is much about the size of a mastiff. Destitute of every beneficial quality, the rhinoceros consumes an immense quantity of provisions while alive, and its flesh is of no value when dead. Its skin, indeed, forms the hardest and best leather in the world ; and, among the ignorant natives of the countries where it is found, almost every part of its body is reckoned an antidote against poison, or beneficial in some diseases. Having no appetite for flesh, but subsisting on vegeta- bles alone, it neither disturbs the small, nor dreads the largest animals. It is rather solitary than savage, and never attacks mankind unless in its own defence. The two-horned rhinoceros is a scarce animal. It is found only in Africa; and was a long time supposed to be merely a fabulous creature, till observed by Dr. Sparrman at the Cape of Good Hope, and described in his travels. ORDER VII. CET^E. THIS order includes the whale-kind, the cachalot, and the dolphin. Though inhabitants of the deep, they are viviparous, respire through lungs like quadrupeds, and suckle their young. THE NARWAL, OR SEA-UNICORN. lii size this animal is inferior to the whale ; seldom ex- ceeding sixty feet in length, and the body is more slender, G 6 132 WHALE. and less adipose. Its most distinguishing character, how- ever, is its horn, which projects forward from the upper jaw about twelve feet in length. Of all the variety of weapons with which nature has furnished her animal offspring, none is more formidable than this. It is perfectly straight, about three or four inches in diameter, tapering to a point, and wreathed in the most curious manner. It is whiter, harder, and hea- vier, than ivory ; and is capable of piercing the hardest substances ; but, when the animal ventures to strike this instrument, which it has received for its defence, against other tenants of the deep, into the side of a ship, it gene- rally loses its life for its temerity. Nevertheless, the narwal is naturally inoffensive : it lives chiefly on marine insects, associates in large herds in the northern seas of Europe and America, and is frequently killed by the Greenland whalers. THE WHALE. There are several species of this genus ; the common, the pike-headed, the round-lipped, and the beaked; but I shall confine my description to the former. The common, or Greenland whale is the largest animal of which there is any authentic information; being fre- quently ninety feet long in the northern seas, where it is annually molested in its haunts; and upwards of a hundred and fifty, in places where it is suffered to acquire its full natural size. The whale is an unwieldy, ill-shaped animal, the head constituting one-third of its length. There are two ori- fices in the middle of the head, from which it spouts water to a prodigious distance, and with great noise, especially when disturbed. The eyes, which are not larger than those of an ox, are placed far back in the head, which enables it to see objects both before and behind. The tail is broad and semilunar. The colour of the whale is not uniform, but admits a great variety of shades, which may be occasioned by age Iflltf -.'(>. . . //ft. V. J?I'Q. 3. P>,h&kni ifti;: bu L^nqman .Hurst .Jter* ("in* r ttttrii I', Parro-quet . /w. ?. f.c/if/ 7iiilt*f Parro *///// . BEE-EATER. 16i> seriously adopted by St. Ambrose ; who tells us, with superstitious simplicity, that Providence, to manifest his kindness, grants a perfect exemption from storms during the period which this bird requires to hatch her young. " The seamen," adds he, " are not ignorant of this bless- ing ; they call this interval of fair weather their halcyon days ; and. are particularly anxious to seize the opportu- nity, as they have then no interruption to dread." The king-fisher is, indeed, a beautiful and an extra- ordinary bird, but it little deserves the praise which die romantic writers of antiquity have heaped upon it. It unites in itself, however, something appertaining to almost every tribe. It possesses appetites for prey like the rapacious kinds, and an attachment to water like the aquatic fowls ; it has also the beautiful plumage of the peacock, the delicate shadings of the humming-bird, the short legs of the swallow, and the bill of the crow. This bird frequents the banks of rivers; and feeds on fishes, which it catches in surprising numbers, considering its clumsy form and diminutive size. It is almost con- stantly in action ; and on a clear day its plumage exhibits an astonishing diversity of brilliant colours, while the bird itself remains in the air. During the season of incubation, the fidelity and at- tachment of the male are exemplary ; he brings the female such large supplies of fish, that she is generally fatter at that season than any other; The young are hatched at the end of twenty days ; but do not acquire the beauty of their plumage in perfection, till after the first moulting- season. The species of this genus are pretty numerous, and widely diffused. THE BEE-EATER. This bird is about the size of a blackbird, and is shaped like the king-fisher. The bill is like that of the latter tribe, except that it is a little more incurvated ; the tongue la long, slender, and fringed at the tip ; and the feet are 170 HOOPOE. CREEPER. HUMMING-BIRD. exactly like those of the king-fisher. Indeed it resembles that bird in the general brilliancy of its colours, but its appetites are totally different ; it feeds on bees, insects, and sometimes on seeds. It is common in Italy, and par- ticularly so in the island of Candia, or Crete ; but is never seen in England, Other species of this beautiful little bird are found in the oriental regions, but especially in Bengal. THE HOOPOE. This bird occasionally visits the British islands, and is found in various parts of Europe and Africa. The Turks call it by a name signifying the messenger-bird, and the Swedes consider its appearance as ominous of war. In our own country, likewise, it was formerly deemed the harbinger of some calamity, The hoopoe is a small bird, and feeds on various in- sects, berries, and vegetables. It breeds in hollow trees, and receives its name from its note. The head is adorned with a most beautiful crest (a singularity which may well distinguish it from all other birds) that rises about an inch and a half high, and is composed of two series of feathers, which the bird can elevate or depress at pleasure, THE CREEPER. This is a small bird, about the size of a wren ; and is generally seen adhering to the trunks and boughs of trees, and creeping along them like the woodpecker. Besides the common creeper, there are various species found in dif- ferent parts of the world ; one is called the wall-creeper, which is sometimes seen in England. It receives its name from creeping up walls, but builds its nest in the holes of trees. THE HUMMING-BIRD. Linnaeus enumerates more than twenty species of this very beautiful genus of birds, which is wholly confined to HUMMINC-BIRD. 171 the western hemisphere. The distinguishing characters of the family are, that the beak is tubulated, and ter- minating in a fine tube, or pipe ; the tongue is filiform, and rendered tubular by the junction of two threads ; and the feet are formed for walking. These birds are found to vary in size from that of a small wren to that of a humble bee, and consequently are the smallest of the feathered race. A European can scarcely conceive, how much these numerous minute tribes add to- the beauty of a rich trans-atlantic landscape. No sooner is the sun above the horizon, than humming-birds, of different kinds, are seen fluttering incessantly about the flowers, without resting on them. Their wings are in'such rapid motion, that it is impossible to discern their colours but by their effulgence. They are incessantly flitting from flower to flower, and extracting the mellifluous juices ; for which purpose they are furnished with forked tongues, adapted to enter the cups of the flowers, and to rifle their nectareouSv stores, which seem to be the sole subsistence of these innocent birds. The quick movement of their ' wings produces a kind of humming noise, from which they derive their name. These birds suspend their nests from the extremities of the small branches of different trees with surprising skill, and line them in the most elegant manner. The eggs are about the size of a small pea, and the male and female re- lieve each other in the office of incubation. At the end of twelve days the young burst their shell, and at that time are not much larger than a common blue-bottle. The plumage of the humming-bird was formerly in high estimation among the Indians, as an ornament for their belts and head-dresses. These birds are caught on rings, smeared with a viscous substance. The feathers are dried in stoves, which is found to be the best means of preserv- ing their beauty. i 2 J72 SWAN. ORDER III ANSERES. BIRDS of the duck kind have smooth bills, covered with skin, and nervous at the points, serving as strainers to their food. Their legs are short, their feet formed for swim- ming, and their toes connected by membranes. They pass the greater part of their time in the water ; but usually breed on land. THE SWAN. Of this elegant bird there are two varieties, the wild and the tame. The former is a native of the hyperborean regions, and only migrates into our temperate latitudes when compelled by the severity of the cold. It frequents the lakes and forests of Lapland, in common with other aquatic fowls, during the summer months ; and there also it rears its young. The wild swan is much less than the tame. It is of an ash colour along the back and on the tips of the wings ; the eyes are bare and yellow, and the legs are dusky. Its cry is very loud, and may be heard at a great distance. In the new settlements of Cumberland county, in New Holland, black swans are seen as common as the white are with us. The tame swan is too well known to require a minute description. It is the largest of British birds, and the most majestic and picturesque, when exercising its natural propensities in the water. It lays seven or eight eggs, which it is nearly two months in hatching. It subsists chiefly on aquatic plants and roots, but sometimes devours insects. The swan was considered as very delicate meat among the ancients, by whom the goose, however, was reprobated as wholly indigestible. Thus even tastes, are not ex- J empted from the vicissitudes of revolution : as the goose is become a high favourite with modern epicures ; while (BOOSE. J73 the swan is seldom served up, except for the -purpose of magnificence or ostentation. The ancients speak highly also of the vocal powers of this bird, though experience shows us that it is the most silent or dissonant in its note of all aquatic fowls. The nar- ratives which have descended to us in this respect, can only be accounted for by supposing that some mythologi* cal meaning was concealed in them ; for it would be ridi- culous to imagine that its voice can have undergone a change by the lapse of time. . The swan is supposed to live about a hundred years, and is considered as among the first ornaments of rivers or artificial pieces of water. THE GOOSE. ' The bill is the principal characteristic which distin* guishes the goose kind from all the feathered tribes. In -other birds, round and wedge-like, or crooked at the ex- .tremity in the goose it is flat and broad, formed for the .purpose of skimming from ponds and lakes the weeds -which grow upon their surface. Though this tribe do not reject animal food, they wilr Singly subsist on vegetable, and seldom seek any other. The body is large ; notwithstanding which, the appetite .is not very craving. Their fecundity is in proportion to the facility with which their food is procured; and their various good qualities have operated on man to take them from a state of nature, and render them domestic. How long they have been reclaimed from their original inde- pendence is not easy to be ascertained. The time must have been very remote, if we may judge from the many changes produced in their colour, their figure, and even their internal structure, by human cultivation. The different species of these fowls, in a wild state, are simple in their colouring. When an exact description of the plumage of one wild goose or wild duck is given, it will to a feather correspond with that of any other ; but in the tame kinds, no two of any species are seen alike. i 3 1 74 DUCK. The flesh of the tame goose is reckoned very delicate eating ; and the bird is no less valued in some places, par- ticularly in the Lincolnshire fens, for its feathers. In that county a single proprietor will sometimes possess a thou- sand old geese, which, in one season, will increase seven- fold, and are generally plucked five times in a year. This is certainly a very cruel operation ; but, as quills form a valuable article of commerce, the inhumanity of the action is in this, as in many other cases, overlooked in the neces- sity that produces, and the profit that attends it. The tame female is very assiduous in hatching her eggs, but has her place sometimes supplied by the gander. When the young are excluded, the pride of the gander is raised to an inconceivable height. Considering himself as a champion to defend his progeny, he resolutely pursues dogs, and even men, when they approach too near. He hisses and stretches out his neck, as if he were furnished with weapons of annoyance ; and, when the object of his animosity has retired, he returns to the female in triumph, screaming and clapping his wings, as if elate with victory. To describe all the wild species would swell this article to an immoderate length. The principal are the grey-leg, the bernacle-goose, the white-fronted goose, the Canada- goose, the blue-winged goose, the Muscovy-goose, the spur-winged goose, the antarctic or white-winged goose, the mountain-goose of Spitzbergen, and the mountain- goose at the Cape of Good Hope. The domestic geese are generally allowed to be produced from the grey-leg,, the largest species found in Britain. THE DUCK. There are numerous species of this genus; as the tame duck, the wild, the eider, the velvet, the scoter, the tufted, the scaup, the golden-eye, the burrough, the pin-tail, the long-tailed, the pochard, the ferruginous, the gadwall or grey, the gargenny, the broad-beaked, the morillon, the grey-headed, the little brown-and-white, the whistling-, the white-bellied, the Barbary or Guinea duck, the great /(/..'). Cfniin-t or Softi/t'l f.'ofW. DUCK. 1?5 black, the black-crested, the Muscovy, and various others, besides teal and widgeon. The characters of the family are, that the beak is shorter in proportion than that of the goose, strong, flat or depressed, and commonly furnished with a nail at the extremity. The feet are proportionably longer than those of the goose kind; the legs are shorter, die beak flatter, and the body more compressed. Tame ducks are reared with great facility, and as fre- quently by hens as by their own kind. Yet this does not alter any of their habits: for no sooner are they able to walk than they desert their foster-dam, and direct their course if possible to their favourite element; while she in vain tries to recall them from the apparent danger, and with marks of terror clucks round the brink of the water in which they are swimming for their pleasure. The common species of tame ducks derive their origin from the mallard, and may be traced to that bird by unerr- ing characters. Though the drakes vary in colour, they all retain the curled feathers of the tail, and both sexes the shape of the bill peculiar to the wild kind. Nature indeed seems to sport with the colours of all domestic animals, that mankind may with more facility distinguish and claim their respective property. Tame ducks are extremely beneficial to mankind; and, as- they subsist on lost corn, worms, snails, and other insects, they are not expensive in keeping. They lay a great number of eggs annually, and may be fatted with ease and expedition. The principal difference between wild and tame ducks arises from their size, and the nature of those places from which they derive their existence. The several varieties of wild ducks associate together in flocks during the winter; fly in pairs during the summer; and rear their young by the water-side, or at least in moist situations. The nests are generally composed of long grass, mixed with heath, and lined with feathers ; but, in proportion as the climate becomes colder, they are more artificially constructed and provided with still warmer linings. I 4 176 GOOSANDER. AUK, -OR RAZOR-BILL. Those which visit this country at the approach of winter, and therefore may be called birds of passage, are neither so fat nor well-flavoured as those which continue with us the whole year. As soon as they arrive, they fly about in search of a proper residence : in the choice of which they have two objects in view ; plenty of food, and security from molestation. For this purpose they prefer lakes in the vicinity of marshes and thickets, where insects are most abundant, and where they can have a speedy retreat in case of annoyance. But, notwithstanding all their care, the fowlers make terrible havoc among them ; and decoy-ducks are tamed to inveigle them into nets. The decoys in Lincolnshire are hired for considerable sums annually; and from them the London market is chiefly supplied with this delicate fowl. Upwards of thirty thousand ducks, widgeon, and teal, are said to have been sent up in the course of one season, from ten decoys in the vicinity of Wainfleet. THE GOOSANDER. This bird belongs to the goose genus, with which fowl it agrees in most particulars. It frequents pur rivers and lakes, especially in severe winters ; but during the summer retires far northward, for the purpose of breeding, and is never seen even in the more southern parts of this island* It feeds entirely on fish ; which communicates such a rankness to its flesh, that it is scarcely eatable. THE AUK, OR RAZOR-BILL. This bird, which is a native of the northern parts of Europe, is about eighteen inches long, and the expansion of its wings twenty-seven. The bill is pretty long, black, gtrong, and sharp at the edges : the upper mandible being marked with four transverse grooves, and the lower with three. The head, throat, and entire upper side of the body, are black ; but the tips of the smaller quill-feathers on the wings are white, as is the whole under-side of the body. PETREL. 177 These birds fix their abodes on the extreme margins of lofty rocks which overhang the sea, where they make a very grotesque appearance, from the singular order of the rows in which they sit one above another. The eggs are a favourite food with the natives of those coasts where they are found ; to secure which, they will frequently risk their lives, in places of the most imminent danger. The auk, indeed, lays but one egg ; but this is very large in pro- portion to the bird ; and, if taken or destroyed, it produces another, to supply its place, a second or a third time. It builds no nest, but deposits its eggs with such nice equili- brium on the edge of a rock as to prevent them from falling off; though, if once displaced, it is extremely dif- ficult, and sometimes impossible, for human art to give them exactly the same position again. A very large species of auk breeds in the isle of St. Kilda about the beginning of May, and retires about the middle of June. THE PETREL. Of this marine bird there are several species ; the dis- tinguishing characters of which are, that the bill is straight, and hooked at the extremity ; that the nostrils are cylin- drical and tubular ; that the legs are naked above the knees ; and that a sharp spur, pointing downwards, supplies the place of the hind-toe. The common petrel, called also the fulmar, is frequent on the isle of St. Kilda, where it breeds, and continues the greater part of the year. It lays one large egg, and the young are hatched about the middle of June. This bard feeds on the blubber, or fat, of whales, and similar substances, which, being soon convertible into oil, supply them at once with the means of defence, and with pro- vision for their young. The whole genus of petrels possess the peculiar faculty of spouting from their bill, to a considerable distance, a large quantity of pure oil, and this they never fail to do on the approach of an enemy ; so that the natives, who esteem this substance peculiarly i 5 17$ ALBATROSS. beneficial in medicine, generally take care to seize them by surprise. -One species of these birds, known by the name of the stormy petrel, from their appearance being deemed a presage of bad weather, are almost continually at sea* They are dispersed over the vast Atlantic Ocean, at the greatest distance from land, often following vessels, in expectation of picking up any thing that uay chance to fall overboard. THE ALBATROSS. This bird is one of the largest and most formidable of all the tribes of aquatic fowl. It abounds in the Southern Ocean, particularly about the Cape of Good Hope and Cape Horn. The body is large ; and the wings, when ex- tended, measure ten feet from tip to tip. The bill, which is six inches long, is yellowish, and terminates in a crooked point. The top of the head is of a bright brown, the back is darker, and the belly is white. Such are the leading features in the figure of the alba- tross ; but these alone would give us a very inadequate idea of its history. It preys when on the wing, and devours not only a large quantity of fish, but also such water-fowl as it is able to take by surprise. In our northern seas> indeed, a dreary expanse, alone ruffled by winds, and seemingly abandoned by every class of animated nature, presents itself; but in the tropical seas, and in the southern latitudes, the scene is enlivened by fishes and birds, alternately pursuing and pursued. Every different species of the gull kind is there seen hovering on the wing, at an immense distance from the shore. The flying-fish is con>- tinually rising to elude its enemies of the deep ; but, in escaping one danger, it frequently falls into another. Just as it rises, the dolphin is seen to dart after it, though generally in vain ; but the gull is often successful ; while the albatross, pursuing the gull, compels it to relinquish or disgorge its prey. Thus the whole horizon presents ////// 32. .Av/. / . .)/vvv //////. /////. toa.3 .ider Duck PELICAN 179 one general scene of rapacity and cunning, of stratagem and evasion. Perhaps no bird is capable of supporting itself so long on the bosom of the air as the albatross. It seldom ap- proaches the land, except during the season of incuba- tion ; but continues hovering night and day on the wing, apparently insensible of fatigue, but always appearing us if emaciated with hunger. Though this bird may be justly deemed one of the greatest tyrants of the deep, it is not destitute of some social qualities. Between it and the penguin there seems to be a reciprocal affection : they always choose the same breeding-places, usually some unfrequented island : here their nests are contiguous, and their harmony is un- disturbed. THE PELICAN. The common pelican (for there are several species) is considerably larger than the swan, and nearly of the same shape and colour. Its neck is long, and the toes are all connected by webs. But the chief peculiarity of the pelican consists in its enormous bill, and the extraordinary pouch underneath. The former is fifteen inches long, from the point to the opening of the mouth, which is placed at some distance, behind the eyes. From the lower edges of the under-chap is suspended a large bag, reaching its whole length ; and said to be capable of con- taining fifteen quarts of water. This appendage the bird is capable of contracting or distending at pleasure. When empty, it is scarcely perceptible ; but when the pelican has been successful in fishing, it becomes dilated to an incredible extent ; for the first occupation of the bird on such occasions is to replenish its bag, after which h retires and feeds at leisure. This bag is said to be capable of concealing as many fish as would satisfy six hungry men. Wonderful as the conformation of the pelican is, it falls rery short of the fables that have been invented con- I 6 1 80 CORMO-RAST. cevning it. Stories have been told of its feeding its young with its own blood, and of tilling its pouch with water to supply them in the deserts. Struck with its extraordinary figure, mankind seem to have been willing to supply it with no less extraordinary qualities and appetites ; and, having found that it possessed a large reservoir, they were inclined to convert it to the most tender and parental uses. But the fact is, pelicans are very heavy, sluggish, and voracious birds ; and possess no instincts but what are necessary for the preservation of their kind, and the supplying themselves with a sufficient quantity of food* However, they feed their young with macerated fish for a time, and tend them with affectionate assiduity, till they are able to provide for themselves. With all the apparent dulness of the pelican, it is not wholly incapable of receiving instruction in a tame state. A naturalist affirms, that he had seen one that would go off in the morning at the word of command, and return before night to its master with its pouch full of plunder ; part of which it would unload for the proprietor's use, and part it retained for its own sustenance. Another also speaks of a tame pelican, the property of the emperor Maximilian, that lived upwards of eighty years, and always attended his army on the march. THE CORMORANT. The cormorant is upwards of three feet long, and four feet in the expansion of the wings. The coverts of these, the scapulars, and the back, are of a deep green, edged with black, and glossed with blue ; the quill -feathers and the tail are dusky, and the breast and belly are black. Its figure is clumsy, and seems to indicate sluggishness ; yet few birds are so powerfully predaceous. It devours fishes in astonishing numbers ; and its digestion is so rapid, that its appetites seem always craving, yet never satisfied. This bird, even in its most healthful state, emits a very GAKNET, OR SOLAND GOOSE. 18] rank and nauseous smell, much more fetid than that of putrid flesh. Its form is disagreeable, its voice is hoarse and croaking, and all its qualities are disgusting. It is not, therefore, to be wondered at, that Milton should make Satan personate this bird, when he goes to survey with anxiety the beauties of Paradise, and to sit devising destruction on the tree of life. The indefatigable industry and great dexterity of the cormorant in catching fish have induced some nations to keep it in a tame state. In China it is still used for this purpose ; but while employed, a ring is constantly fastened round its throat, to prevent it from devouring for its own use what is intended for its master's. THE GANNET, OR SOLAND GOOSE. This bird is of the size of the tame goose, but its wings are much longer. The bill is six inches long, inclining do\vn at the point ; and the sides are irregularly jagged, in order to give a firmer hold of its prey. From the corner of the mouth proceeds a narrow slip of black bare skin, extending to the hind part of the head ; and be-, neath this is a dilatable pouch like that of the pelican, capable of containing five or six entire herrings, which, in the breeding-season, it carries at once to its mate or its young. The colour is chiefly white. These birds are extremely numerous in some of the Hebrides, the Skelig islands in Ireland, and the Ferro between Scotland and Norway. But it is in the Bass island, in the Frith of Forth, that they are seen in the greatest numbers. They lay only one egg at a time ; and never more than three in a season, should they be robbed of their first and second. The young are reckoned very delicate food, and therefore are sold at a high rate. The soland goose is a bird of passage. In winter, it seeks the more southern coasts of Cornwall ; in doing which, it is determined by the migrations of the shoals of herrings, which come pouring down the British Channel? 182 MAGELLANIC PENGUIN. and supply it with an exhaustless banquet of food the most congenial to its palate. THE MAGELLANIC PENGUIN. Birds of the penguin kind are ill adapted for flight, as their wings serve rather for paddles to assist their pro- gressive motion than to raise them in the regions of the air ; and their legs are so singularly constructed, that they are scarcely formed for walking. Yet no animate can be more admirably fitted for an aquatic life ; for they swim and dive with equal celerity and ease. As they never visit land except for the purpose of breeding, their plumage derives a tinge from their situation ; that part of them which has been continually bathed in the neater being white, while their backs and wings are of uifferent colours, according to their species. Their plumage also is more close and warm than that of most other birds, so that the sea seems to be their natural element. * The Magellanic penguin, the largest and the most re- markable of the kind, is of nearly the size of the common goose. Its wings are very short, and covered with stiff hard feathers, of no use in flight. The plumage of the upper part of the head and back, and of the rump, ia likewise stiff, and of a black colour ; while the belly and breast, as is common in this kind, are of a snowy white- ness, except a line of black which crosses the crop. These birds walk with their heads erect, the fin-like wings appearing as arms ; and, when viewed at a distance, they may not unaptly be compared to so many children with white aprons. They uniformly feed on fish, which abound in the latitudes where they frequent ; and indeed their fatness is a proof of the plenty in which they live. They dive with great rapidity, and are voracious to a great degree. Their flesh, however, is rank and filthy ; yet seamen, for want of better fare, are sometimes glad to make a meal of it. These fowls are social and gregarious, especially when DIVER. 183 they come on shore ; where they are seen drawn up in ranks with the albatross, as if in deep consultation. They begin laying about the month of November. Their preparations for this business are soon adjusted ; a small depression of the earth, without any nest, answers their purpose ; nevertheless, the warmth of their feathers, and the heat of their bodies, are such, that the incubation is rapidly carried on. The female lays but one egg, which is larger than that of the goose ; and sometimes several lay their eggs in the same hole, and sit on them by turns. THE DIVER. Birds of this genus have a sharp, straight, narrow bill, linear nostrils, a pointed tongue serrated near the base, short wings, and legs placed far backwards, with broad feet. The northern diver, one of the most remarkable of the family, measures about three feet and a half in length, and four feet and a half in breadth. The head and neck are of a deep black, the hind part of the latter being streaked with a large white band shaped like a crescent ; and exactly under the throat there is a cor- responding band. The lower part of the neck is a deep black tinged with a rich purple gloss, and the under side of the body is wholly white ; but the back, the coverts of the wings, and the scapulars, are black, marked with white spots. The tail is very short, and hid by the sca- pulars, which are dusky, and spotted with white ; and the legs and toes are black. These birds, which frequent the northern seas, feed wholly on fish. The dab-chick belongs* to the family ; and, like the rest, moves with more facility under the water than on its surface. It raises itself from that element with difficulty ; but, when once it has gained the higher regions, h is capable of continuing its flight for a considerable time. It forms its nest on the banks of lakes or rivers. 1 84 GULL. ORDER IV. GRALLJE. THE GULL. This is a pretty large genus, the distinguishing characters of which are, that the bill is long, straight, and incurvated at the extremity ; the tongue is slightly cloven ; the body is light, and covered with thick plumage ; the wings are large, and the legs short. These birds, which are almost incessantly upon the wing, feed upon fish, and are ex- tremely clamorous along the shores which they frequent. The British islands, particularly the northern parts of them, furnish several species. The common gull, the most numerous of the kind, breeds on the ledges of cliffs that hang over the sea ; and, during the winter season, fre- quents almost every part of our shores where the boldness of the cliffs presents a favourable situation. Like other rapacious birds, it lays but few eggs ; which circumstance, added to the numbers continually destroyed for subsist- ence, has considerably thinned the breed in many places. . ORDER IV GRALUE, OR THE CRANE KIND. : THE bills of birds among the crane kind are formed for the purposes of searching and examining the bottom of .pools ; their legs are long, and adapted for wading ; the thighs are half naked; their bodies are slender, and covered with thin skins; their tails are short, and the flesh is in -general savoury. They live on animal food, and commonly build their nests on the ground. The cranes form a numerous family, which, including the stork and the heron, may all be known either by the .length of their legs, or their scaly coverings, and their adaptation to wading. They lead a life of precarious liberty in fens and marshes, on the margins of s^as or lakes; and subsist on fish, reptiles, and insects. FLAMINGO. SPOONBILL. 185 THE FLAMINGO. This is a tall, bulky, and most beautiful bird. The body, which is of a vivid scarlet, is about the size of a swan ; but the legs and neck are of such extraordinary length, that, when it stands erect, it is upwards of six feet high. This extraordinary bird was once known on all the coasts of Europe, but is now chiefly found in America, and some parts of Africa. Its magnitude, its beauty, and the pecu- liar delicacy of its flesh when young, have afforded so many incitements for its destruction, that it has long aban- doned the shores frequented by man, and taken refuge where he seldom intrudes. In some of the wild and soli^ tary tracts of America, it lives in a state of society, and under a polity which excites our admiration. , .The flamingoes chiefly delight in the vicinity. of salt- water lakes and swampy islands. In the day-time they come down to the mouths of rivers; but towards night retire more inland, to secure themselves from annoyance! When they suffer themselves to be seen by mariners, they always appear drawn up in a close line of two or three hundred together, and exhibit, at the distance of half a mile, the exact representation of a long brick wall. AVhen they seek for food, their ranks are broken ; yet not before they have stationed one of their number to give the signal of any approaching danger. As soon as this faithful sen- tinel perceives the remotest signs of annoyance, he screams with a voice as loud as a trumpet, and instantly the whole flock are on the wing. THE SPOONBILL, OR SHOVELER. The most remarkable peculiarity of this bird is its biD, from the shape of which it derives its appellation. This part is of a bright shining black colour, and has its upper surface waved with dotted protuberances ; the whole sub- stance being thin, light, and elastic, like whalebone. The plumage of the whole body, wings, and tail, is white ; and the head is adorned with a beautiful crest of white feathers, 186 COMMON CRANE. bending backwards. The legs are black, as are the thighs, v* hich are naked half their length. In short, this bird has all the natural instincts, and the awkward form of the crane kind, living in the water, and subsisting on frogs and other aquatic animals. The American spoonbill differs from that of Europe, in being of a beautiful rose or crimson colour. Beauty of plumage, indeed, belongs to all the birds of that conti- nent ; and, in the present instance, is bestowed on one whose general conformation is very far from a standard of elegance. Tin's bird lays from three to five eggs ; and commonly builds its nest in high trees, in company with the heron. THE COMMON CRANE. This is a long, tall, slender bird, of little elegance or beauty in its external appearance. The head is covered with black bristles ; and the back part of it, which is bald and red, is a sufficient distinction between it and the stork, to which in other respects it is nearly allied. The plu- mage is ash-coloured ; and two large tufts of feathers spring from the pinion of each wing, bearing some resem- blance to hair, which the bird can erect or depress at pleasure. In former times its feathers were often set in gold, and worn in the caps of persons of distinction, by way of ornament. Many fables have been invented by the ancients, and repeated by the moderns, concerning the cranes. The manner in which they keep up their social intercourse, their filial and parental affection, and their connubial at- tachment, have all furnished just matter for speculation ; and almost seem to have sanctioned the stories that have been related in their favour. The usual abodes of these birds are the arctic regions : they descend, indeed, into the more southern parts of Europe ; but it is rather as visitants than inhabitants, and they have long ceased to frequent the British islands at any season. However, they were formerly known here, NUMIDIAN AND GIGANTIC CRANES 187 and were held in much estimation for the delicacy of their flesh. Their favourite food is corn, but scarcely any thing comes amiss to their appetite. The common people of every country still pay a kind of affectionate regard to cranes, the ancient prejudices in their favour even now continuing to operate. There are various species ; as the Balearic or crowned African crane, the hooping crane, the Numidian crane, and the gigantic crane. The two last of these shall be here described, on account of their singular habits. THE NUMIDIAN CRANE. This species obtains the different appellations of the buffoon-bird, and the demoiselle, or lady; for, no sooner does it perceive itself noticed, than it begins to dance or curvet, and to exhibit a variety of gesticulations; but whether these antic tricks proceed from vanity or fear is yet undecided. The Numidian crane is adorned with a crest of white feathers ; but the rest of the plumage has a leaden grey colour, except some large feathers in the wings, which are darker, as are a few about the head and neck. Besides the crest, the fore part of the neck is covered with some black feathers, composed of very fine soft filaments, which hang down on the stomach, and give a degree of elegance to its whole figure. THE GIGANTIC CRANE. The expansion of the wings of this species is nearly fifteen feet, and the height, when the head is erect, is about seven. It is found in Africa; but is most commonly "known and noticed in Bengal, where it arrives before the rainy season, and retires as soon as the dry weather com- mences. Its aspect is disgusting ; yet the centinel bird, as it is called in Calcutta, is one of the most useful, by clearing the country of snakes, reptiles, and insects, and the streets of garbage of any kind. 188 3TORK. The Gentoos believe them to be animated by the souls of the Brahmins, and that they are invulnerable. They soon become familiar, from being treated with indulgence, and feeling themselves secure from annoyance. THE STORK. The stork is a larger bird than the common heron, but its neck is shorter and thicker. The head, neck, breast, belly, and tail, are white ; and the rump, with the exterior feathers of the wings, black. The eye-lids are naked ; the beak is long and reddish, and the legs are of the same colour. The stork so nearly resembles the crane, that, on a first view, they might be confounded; but the former has a peculiar manner, by which it may easily be discriminated. The stork is silent, whereas the crane has a loud piercing voice ; the former preys on frogs, fishes, birds, and ser- pents, while the latter shows a partiality for vegetables and grain ; the crane avoids the abodes of men, but the stork seems to delight in human society. Storks are migratory, and generally make their appear- ance in Europe about the middle of March, when they build their nests on the tops of chimneys and high trees. They are sometimes seen on the coasts of England, but have never been known to breed here. As these birds destroy a great number of noxious rep- tiles, it is no wonder that different nations have evinced a predilection, and even a sort of veneration, for them. The ancient Egyptians paid divine honours to the ibis ,( which is generally supposed to be a species of stork) on .account of its beneficial qualities. The Dutch to this day .are very solicitous for the preservation of the stork, which .seems to have made itself a denizen of their towns, build- ing on the tops of houses without molestation, and even Cresting familiarly in the streets ; being protected by the laws as well as by the prejudices of the people. Indeed there ?are few towns on the continent, the situation of which is low and marshy, that have not the stork as an inmate; Hate 34. !';,/,-. J-'fi. :'. 'I: i;l It- 7J. //;/. /. .t'ru'/f Hi,;! . 'HY/^. PEACOCK. 20] In a word, the dodo seems to be pressed down by its own weight; and appears among birds what the sloth is among- quadrupeds, an unresisting creature, equally incapable of defence or flight. This bird is a native of the Isle of France. Its flesh is said to be good and wholesome ; and it appears harmless in all its habits. THE PEACOCK. No expressions could do justice to the beauty of this bird, were it necessary to enter into a detail of its superb tints ; but fortunately it is too well known to require a long description. When it appears with its tail expanded, none of the feathered creation can vie with it in elegance and magnificence ; but the harsh scream of its voice diminishes the pleasure received from its brilliance ; while its insatiable gluttony and its spirit of depredation, tend still more to alienate our attachment from the only merit which it can claim, its incomparable beauty. Peacocks were first introduced into Europe from the Asiatic Indies, and in several parts of those extensive regions they are still found wild in prodigious flocks. So fine a bird, the flesh of which, too, was always esteemed a delicacy at the tables of the luxurious, was not long suffered to continue in its original retreats. Even in the days of Solomon it is mentioned among the articles im- ported by his fleets. The Greeks also showed a strong predilection for this bird ; and it appears that the first exhibition of one was sufficient to induce many persons to travel from Lacedemon to Athens for a sight of it. Like other birds of the poultry kind, the peacock feeds on corn ; but its favourite food is barley. However, it does not reject insects and tender plants ; and so capri- cious are its appetites, that it is not easily restrained from the most unaccountable depredations on the dwelling, the farm, or the garden. The pea-hen is far less beautiful than the cock : she lays five or six eggs ; and studies to hide her nest from K 5 202 TURKEY. her mate, lest he should interrupt her in the business of sitting, or break her eggs. THE TURKEY. This fowl, which is now perfectly naturalised among us, was unknown before the discovery of America, to which quarter of the world it was indigenous. It was first imported into France in the reign of Francis the First, and into England under Henry the Eighth. .ZElian, indeed, mentions a bird found in India, which is imagined to have been the turkey ; but some writers are of opinion that it was either the peacock, or some bird of that genus. The young of the turkey in this country are among the tenderest of birds, yet, in their wild state, they are capable of enduring a Canadian winter of nine months. In their natural forests they are much larger, as well as more beautiful, than in their state of domestic captivity ; their plumage being grey, bordered at the edges with a bright gold colour. The hunting of this bird constitutes a principal diversion of the American Indian, and its flesh greatly contributes to the support of his family. When he has discovered the retreat of a flock, he takes with him a dog that he has trained to the sport, and which he sends into the midst of them. The turKeys make a precipitate retreat, running with prodigious swiftness ; but, being at last tired out, they take shelter in a tree ; where they sit till the hunter arrives, who, with a long pole, knocks them down successively. Turkeys are furious among themselves, but extremely weak and timid among animals of a different species. Even the common cock generally makes the turkey keep his distance ; yet the latter is insolent and vain, and, even when baffled, returns to his females strutting in all the pride of victory. The female lays about eighteen or twenty eggs, and is assiduous in providing her young witli insects, which they prefer to all other food. CURASSO-BIRD AND COMMON PHEASANT. 203 THE CURASSO-BIRD. This bird is nearly as large as a hen-turkey. The bill is black at the point, and covered at the base with a yellow skin. Between the nostrils is a round hard knob resembling wax ; and on the head there is a crest of long black feathers, which project forward at the points. The whole body is of a deep shining black, reflecting blue and purple shades ; except the lower part of the belly, and the coverts under the tail. The curasso-bird is frequent in Guinea, and constitutes a considerable portion of the food of the planters. The flesh resembles that of a turkey. It is easily domes- ticated ; and is frequently found in the Dutch settlements of Berbice, Essequibo, and Demerara. TiIE COMMON PHEASANT. Next to the peacock, the pheasant is the most beautiful of the winged tribes ; both for the vivid colour of its plumes, and their delightful mixture and variety. No efforts of the pencil can produce any thing so glossy and brilliant, or so delicately blended. It is reported that Croesus, king of Lydia, when seated on his throne in all the pomp of eastern splendour, asked Solon if he had ever seen any thing so magnificent. The philosopher, unawed by majesty, and priding himself on his native freedom and simplicity, replied, that, after having seen the plumage of the pheasant, he could be dazzled by no other finery. The pheasant, however, is not only beautiful to the eye, but is also a peculiar delicacy for the table ; but, as if shunning the protection of men, it loves to inhabit the thickest woods, and most unfrequented parts of the forest. Though removed from its native warm and genial climates, it still preserves its innate predilection for freedom ; and now lives wild and untamed among us, ornamenting our parks and forests ; where it feeds on acorns, berries, and grain. K 6 2(H COCK. Tn a wild state, the hen-pheasant lays from eighteen to twenty eggs in a season, but in captivity she seldom produces more than ten. In a state of nature she hatches and rears her young with resolution, vigilance, and patience ; but when kept tame, she becomes remiss in these duties, and a common hen is generally made her substitute. There are many varieties of the pheasant ; some white, some spotted, and others crested. Of pheasants, which are not naturalised in this king dom, but only kept in aviaries, there are the black and white Chinese, the painted Chinese, the horned Indian, the Brazilian, and the peacock-pheasant ; all eminently distinguished by their beauty and general elegance of form. The most common are known by the names of the, gold and the silver pheasants. THE COCK. Of all birds the cock seems to have been first reclaimed, and earliest taken under the protection of man. Having been long subject to human cultivation, it exhibits a prodigious number of varieties, and has lost almost every trace of its original instincts and inde- pendence. At what period this valuable domestic fowl was first domesticated is wholly unknown : but it is generally sup- posed to have been introduced into the western part of the world from Persia : whence Aristophanes calls it the Persian bird ; and says, metaphorically perhaps, that this fowl enjoyed that empire, before some of its earliest monarchs. Under the druidical government, the cock as forbidden as food among the ancient Britons. The universality of the domestic state of this bird seems almost to have banished the idea of the wild one ; and were it not found occasionally in the woods of India and some of the Oriental Islands, doubts might be entertained as to the form in which it first appeared in a state of na- ture. However, it is sufficiently known to naturalists, GUINEA-HEN. 205 that, in its original haunts, the cock has black and yellow plumage, and a purple and yellow comb and wattles. When opposed to its own species, the cock is among the most courageous of animals ; and, wherever the refine- ments of humanity and the polish of good manners have not superseded ferocity and barbarism, cock-fighting seems to have constituted a principal diversion. In India, China, the Philippine Islands, and all over the East, this brutal pastime is, and ever has been, the amusement of kings and princes. Fortunately for our national reputa- tion, this savage sport is approaching to decay in Eng- land ; and will, it is to be hoped, soon be regarded with abhorrence, even by the lowest classes. The breed of this country is commonly thought to be more bold and hardy than that of any other ; but in reality the cocks of China are equal, if not superior, to those of Britain ; and, as there are persons who venture large sums on the prowess of a single fowl, it seems extraordinary that no pains have been taken to improve the breed by a foreign mixture. But as cock-fighting is a dastardly, wanton, and ignoble amusement, it should not be attempted to pro- mote barbarity by any new incentives; since he who ad- vises or recommends an art founded in cruelty, can scarcely be considered in any other light than as an accessary to the criminals. A hen seldom clutches a brood more than once a year ; she will lay annually upwards of two hundred eggs, when well supplied with food and water ; and this shows her value in domestic economy. By the ancients the cock was consecrated to Minerva, as the symbol of vigilance ; to intimate that genuine wisdom is ever on its guard. THE GUINEA-HEN. This singular fowl, in some measure, unites the charac- teristics of the pheasant and the turkey ; having the fine delicate shape of the one, and the bare head of the other. It is about the size of the common hen ; but its neck and COCK OF THE WOOD legs are much longer, and the body is shaped like that of the partridge. The colour is usually of a dark grey, beautifully spotted with small specks of white ; and a black ring encircles the neck. The head is reddish, and crowned with a brown horny protuberance ; the space under the eyes is blue ; and a red fleshy appendage pro- ceeds from the upper chap, somewhat resembling the wattles of a cock. These birds are partially known in a domestic state all over Europe, but are most common on the coasts of the Mediterranean. Africa appears to be their native country ; and they were probably introduced into England from Guinea. They are naturally gregarious, active, sprightly, and of a restless disposition ; and never can be so entirely domesticated as the common gallinaceous kind. They run very swiftly, in the manner of the partridge ; but their wings, being short, are ill-adapted for flight. The note is sharp and disagreeable ; and a propensity to quarrel seems natural to the kind. The Guinea-hen, or (as it is frequently called) the pin- tada, is so common in America, that many have supposed it to be a native of the New World ; but this is certainly a mistake. There is little doubt that it was imported into that country in 1508, from Guinea, together with some cargoes of negroes. The Spaniards never attempted to render it domestic ; and it is now multiplied so prodi- giously as to stock the savannahs, or wild meadows, and otherwise to appear like an indigenous animal. THE COCK OF THE WOOD. This bird is common to Scandinavia, Germany, France, the Alps, and the Highlands of Scotland : in these last, however, it is rare. The male sometimes weighs fourteen pounds : the female is much less, and the sexes differ likewise much in colour. During winter the cock of the wood resides in the darkest and most retired parts of the forest ; but in summer ventures down from its retreats, to BLACK COCK AND MOOR-FOWL. 207 make short depredations on the growing corn. The deli- cacy of its flesh makes it an object of some importance to epicures : and, as if sensible of its danger, it appears constantly on its guard. When in the forest, it draws part of its subsistence from the cones of the fir, the thick boughs of which tree commonly serve it for shelter. It feeds also on ant-eggs, and various kinds of berries ; and will complete its meal with gravel. The female lays her eggs in a dry mossy ground ; and, when she leaves them in quest of food, carefully covers them. As soon as the young are hatched, they run after their mother with great agility ; and, soon learn to eat ant- eggs, mountain berries, and other tender food. The brood keep together till the ensuing spring ; when they begin to look upon each other as rivals, contests ensue, and, in conclusion, the victor carries off as many females as he pleases. THE BLACK COCK. Birds of this species, like the former, are fond of woody and mountainous situations, and prefer the same kind of food. They never pair ; but in spring the male ascends some eminence, where he crows and claps his wings, and on this signal the females resort to him. The hen seldom lays more than six or seven eggs ; and, like the female of the preceding species, covers them up, when she leaves her nest in search of food. A full-grown black cock, or black grous, (so called from its colour,) will weigh nearly four pounds. The flesh of this bird is highly esteemed. THE MOOR-FOWL, OR RED-GAME. The red-game is peculiar to the British islands. The male weighs about nineteen ounces, and the female fifteen. They pair early in the spring, and the latter lays from six to ten eggs. The young brood follow the dam in summer ; and in winter they are seen in flocks of forty or fifty, on 208 PTARMIGAN AND PARTRIDGE. the most sequestered hills. Their food consists of the mountain-berries and the tops of heath. THE WHITE GAME, OR PTARMIGAN. This species is of nearly the same size as the red-game, and is equally valued for its flesh. In these kingdoms it is found only on the summits of the highest hills in the Highlands of Scotland, in the Hebrides, and the Orkneys, the mountains of Wales, and near Keswick, in Cumber- land. THE PARTRIDGE. Though the partridge is incapable of domestication, it lives no less under the protection of man (at least in this country) than if it were private property. It may change its master indeed ; but is always supposed to belong to persons of a certain rank. If any one not qualified (that is, a poor man) should kill it, he becomes liable to certain penalties, and even imprisonment ; yet the farmer is obliged to maintain it, though he often has not the smallest interest in its preservation ! The partridge is found in every country and climate ; as well in the hyperborean regions as under the tropical circles. Wherever it resides, it seems to adapt itself to the nature of the climate. In Greenland it is brown in summer ; but in winter it becomes white, and is clothed with a warm down beneath. The manners and habits of these birds, in many respects, resemble those of the domestic poultry, but their cunning and instincts are much superior. Accustomed to hostile aggression, they practise several little arts of evasion for safety, and frequently with success. Partridges make no nests, properly speaking, but lay their eggs on any spot of ground adapted to that purpose. A covey generally consists of from ten to fifteen ; and it is supposed that a partridge will live about fifteen years, though it is seldom permitted to reach that period. Corn- fields are the principal delight of this much-valued bird, QUAIL. ORDER VI. PASSERES. 209 especially while the grain is standing. Here they not only find shelter, but food ; and, even after the corn is cut down, they prefer stubble-fields to any other. There are several varieties of the partridge ; as the red-legged, the Hudson's Bay, the mountain partridge of Jamaica, the Brazilian, and the white partridge of the Alps. THE QUAIL This is the smallest bird of the gallinaceous kind, being little more than half the size of the partridge. In most of its habits it resembles the other tribes ; but it is a bird of passage, however ill adapted it may appear for ex- tensive migration. The fact, however, is certain, that it seeks a warmer climate when winter sets in, or at least shifts its quarters from one province to another ; probably as much allured by the promise of food in greater quantity as of a more temperate sky. The quail builds its nest on the ground ; and is much less prolific than the partridge, seldom producing more than six or seven young. It is easily caught by a call, which is formed to imitate the voice of the female. Quail-fighting was a favourite diversion among the Athenians, but they abstained from eating the flesh. Modern manners have reversed the sentiments of mankind in regard to this bird ; and its flesh is now deemed a peculiar delicacy, while its courage is disregarded. There are different species or varieties. ORDER VI. PASSERES. ALL the beautiful and vocal tribes of birds which adorn and enliven our fields and groves are comprehended under the sparrow kind Their bills resemble a forceps ; their legs are formed for hopping along and their 210 PIGEON. bodies, which are tender, are pure in such as feed on grain, but impure in those feeding on insects. Many of them show much skill in the structure of their nests, are remarkable for their fidelity to their mates, and chiefly rest on trees. THE PIGEON. This bird, in all its beautiful varieties, derives its origin from the stock-dove ; but the discriminations are become so numerous, from cultivation, that it is impossible to enumerate or describe them. The domestic pigeon, which is itself the creature of art, has given rise to many elegant varieties, all distinguishable by names expressive of their several properties ; as tumblers, carriers, jacobins, crop- pers, pouters, vents, turbits, owls, nuns, c.: and bird- fanciers can multiply the families almost infinitely, by coupling a male and a female of different sorts. The domestic pigeon is wonderfully prolific ; it lays two eggs, and usually breeds every month : and, except during severe weather, is in general capable of supplying itself with food. The period of incubation is fifteen days, during which, the male and the female relieve each other. Their turns are generally regulated with great exactitude : the female usually sitting from about four in the evening till nine next morning ; at which time she is superseded by the male, who diligently supplies her place till nearly the return of the same hour, while she is busy in search- ing for food. If the female should prove negligent of her duty, the male will pursue and drive her to the nest ; while, on the other hand, should the male not return at the expected time, his mate will treat him with equal severity. When the young are hatched, they require no food for the first three days, but only to be kept warm. After this the parents feed them for eight days, by discharging into their mouths whatever they have themselves been able to treasure up in their crops. This mode of feeding the young is -peculiar to the family of pigeons ; and their crop STOCK-DOVE. 211 is a pretty large receptacle for taking in an ample store of provisions. The males commonly supply the young females, and the females perform the same office for the young males. At first the young are furnished with food considerably macerated; but as they grow older the parents gradually diminish the trouble of the preparation, and at length send them forth to shift for themselves. However, when provisions are plentiful, they do not wait for the total dismission of their young; for it is not un- common to see a brood almost fit for flight, mixed with a set of young ones in the same nest. Among domestic pigeons, connubial constancy is seldom long maintained; the males sometimes contend for the same mate, and sometimes a kind of amicable exchange takes place between them. The fecundity of this bird is so prodigious, that from a single pair nearly Jijleen thousand may be produced in the space of four years. Hence they will repay the charge of providing them with appropriate dwellings, and occasional distributions of food. Pigeons are extremely perspicacious, and their powers of hearing are very clear. They are also reckoned swift in flight, and gregarious by nature: they join their bills in their courtship, and utter a mournful or plaintive note. THE STOCK-DOVE. This species, as already observed, is the parent of a very numerous and beautiful family: but is too well known to require a particular description. It breeds either in the holes of rocks, or in hollow trees in the forest. All other birds of the pigeon kind build their nests in the highest branches, but this species generally resides in artificial cavities ; and, from the united allurements of ready sus- tenance and agreeable society, easily submits to the pro- tection of man. Still, however, it preserves its native hue for several generations; and becomes more variegated only in proportion as it deviates from the original simplicity of its sylvan tints. 212 RING-DOVE, TURTLE-DOVE, AND LARK. THE RING-DOVE. This bird receives its appellation from a very regular and beautiful white circle round its neck : the parts above and below this are delightfully variegated with changeable colours, according to the position in which they are viewed by the spectator. The ring-dove is the largest bird of its kind which is a native of Britain. It seldom flies single, but in large flocks ; and subsists on ivy berries, and other vegetable substances. It builds its nest on the branches of trees, and all attempts to tame it have hitherto proved ineffec- tual. At the commencement of winter, this species desist from cooing ; but they pair again about the beginning of March. THE TURTLE-DOVE* This beautiful little bird is found in several parts of England, but particularly in the western countries. It feeds on a variety of vegetable substances; and, being remarkably shy, breeds only in the most retired situations* Its faithful attachment to its mate has been proverbial in every age ; and, according to vulgar tradition, when either of them dies, the survivor remains for ever after in a state of disconsolate solitude, and gradually pines away. THE LARK. With this sweet songster, which is universally considered as harbinger of the spring and herald of the morn, so many delightful ideas are connected, that few birds are more universal favourites of mankind. There are various spe- cies ; as the common sky-lark, the wood-lark, the tit-lark, and the field-lark : but all the family is musical. The sky- lark is too well known to require a particular description of its form. This species and the wood-lark are the on^y birds that sing, as they poise themselves in the air. The former begins its song before the dawn of day; nor can any thing be more agreeable to the lover of nature than THRUSH. 213 to behold it warbling on the wing, and to hear it raising its notes as it soars, till it is lost to his view in the immense heights above him. And to see it afterwards descending with a swell of its note, and sinking gradually as it ap- proaches its nest, the spot where all its delights are cen- tered, fills the heart of sensibility and intellectual refine- ment with inexpressible delight. The lark builds its nest on the ground, lays four or five eggs, and commonly produces its young about the begin- ning of May. While the female is performing the office of incubation, the male usually entertains her with his song ; and, though he rises to a viewless height, never loses his beloved partner. This harmony continues for several months. In winter, however, larks, in common with most other birds, become mute ; they then assemble in large flocks, and are caught in great numbers for the sake of their flesh, which is fat and delicate. Though the music of any bird in captivity must neces- sarily impress somewhat of a disagreeable sensation on the breast of humanity, both the sky-lark and the wood-lark are frequently kept in cages for the sake of their song. The notes of the latter are by some preferred to those of the nightingale, and it is occasionally mistaken for that supreme mistress of vocal harmony. It is only in a state of nature, however, that they possess all their charming modulations. Imprisonment and slavery, as they lessen the joys , so they detract from the powers of pleasing, in every thing that has life. THE THRUSH. Of this genus our island affords several species ; as the missel-bird, the song-thrush or throstle, the field-fare, the red-wing, and the blackbird. The missel-bird and song-thrush differ principally in size ; the former is the largest of the genus, and sings long before the other ; the latter, besides its inferiority in size, is moreover distinguished by having the inner coverts of the wings yellow. 214 FIELDFARE AND REDWING. The song-thrush, or throstle, though not one of the most elegant, is certainly one of the sweetest songsters of the grove ; and is equally remarkable for the variety and the long continuance of its notes. Like the missel-bird, it pours its melody from the top of some high tree ; but, when about to form its nest, it descends to some low bush or thicket. These birds are migratory in France. They feed on insects, and berries of the holly and misletoe ; and during severe snowy weather, when there is a failure of their usual diet, are observed to scratch up the roots of arum, or cuckoo-pint, from the hedges; a plant remarkably warm and pungent, and a salutary viand well adapted for the season. THE FIELDFARE. This is a bird of passage ; spending its summers in the north of Europe, and visiting us about Michaelmas. It is larger than the common thrush, and its flesh is esteemed a peculiar delicacy. Fieldfares fly in flocks, and afford much diversion to the classes of minor sportsmen during the winter. They leave this country about the beginning of March. THE REDWING. This species is somewhat smaller than the common thrush ; which it nearly resembles in the colours of its back, neck, and head ; but the sides and under parts of the wings are orange or dusky-red, while the breast and belly are whitish. Redwings are migratory; generally appearing in this island, and taking their departure with the fieldfare. Their flesh is less esteemed than that of their kindred species* In this country they have a disagreeable piping note; but in Sweden, where they breed, they sing very agreeably, perched on the top of some tree among the forests of maples. BLACKBIRD. CROSSBILL HAWFINCH. 215 THE BLACKBIRD. The plumage of the male blackbird is of a coal-black colour : that of the female is a brown, or dark russet. Though of a retired and solitary disposition, it is a very well-known bird, and the deepest-toned warbler of the woods. The note indeed of the blackbird, when heard at a proper distance, is perhaps the most cheering of any among the musicians of the grove ; but, when confined in a cage, it is loud and deafening. It may be taught, however, to whistle any tune, and even to imitate the human voice. In some very cold countries, and particularly on the Alps, a variety of this bird is sometimes found of a pure white colour. THE CROSSBILL. This bird is about the size of the lark : and is easily distinguished by the singularity of its bill ; both mandi- bles of which curve opposite ways, and cross each other. The prevailing colour of the male is a dull red, inclining to rose mixed with brown ; the female is green, shaded with brown. The crossbill is a native of Germany, and the northern parts of Europe ; but sometimes migrates into England. It is also found in North America and Greenland ; where it builds its nest on the loftiest pines, fastening it to the branches by means of the resinous matter which exudes from the tree. THE HAWFINCH. This bird is generally reckoned among those which belong to Britain ; though it only visits us occasionally, and for the most part in winter. It is common, however, in Italy, Germany, Sweden, and the southern parts of Russia, where it feeds on berries, kernels, and other sylvan fruits. From the great strength of its bill, it is enabled to crack the stones of haws and cherries with the greatest facility. 216 BULLFINCH AND CARDINAL GROSSBEAK. The hawfinch is about seven inches long, and thirteen broad. The bill is funnel-shaped, strong, and thick. The .whole under-side is of a dirty flesh colour ; the back and coverts of the wings are of a deep brown, and those of the tail of a yellowish bay. It builds its nest between the partings of the branches, about twelve feet from the ground ; forming it with great care and ingenuity. THE BULLFINCH. This bird is so generally known as almost to supersede the necessity of description. The head, wings, and tailj are black ; and the breast and belly red : in the female? however, the under parts are brownish. The bullfinch is common in most parts of the continent of Europe, and is by no means rare in England. It builds its nest in bushes, and brings forth its young about the end of May. In winter it frequents orchards and gardens, for the sake of the insects that lodge in the tender buds ; and on this account may be considered as a benefactor to mankind, though usually destroyed as an enemy. In a wild state its note is not remarkably pleasing ; but when tamed it becomes docile in a great degree, and may be taught to whistle notes in the justest manner. It is also occasionally trained to speak ; and, from its great tracta- bility, is frequently confined in cages, the only reward which its agreeable qualities procure it. THE CARDINAL GROSSBEAK. There are various species of the grossbeak, (so called from the thickness of its bill,) but this has the best claim to attention. The head is adorned with a fine crest, and the rest of the body is of a beautiful red. The female, however, is of a reddish brown. This species is a native of several parts of North Ame- rica ; and, from the superiority of its song, has obtained the appellation of the nightingale of that continent. During spring and summer, it perches on the top of the loftiest trees ; singing early in the morning, and piercing SNOW-BIRD. ORTOLAN. RICE-BUNTING. 21? the air with its loud pipe. It is sometimes kept in cages, and then it continues its music through the greater part of the year. THE SNOW-BIRD. This bird has obtained various names. By some it is called the pied-mountain-finch ; and in Scotland it receives the name of the snow-flake, from its white wings, and its appearance in hard weather and deep snows. About that season it arrives at the Highlands in prodi- gious flocks, and some few breed there on the summits of the highest hills ; but by far the greater part migrate from countries more northerly. Its appearance in temperate latitudes is a certain indication of severe weather in its native haunts. In the flights of these birds they keep very close together, intermingle most confusedly, and roll themselves collectively into the form of a ball, which enables the fowler to bring down numbers of them at a single shot. THE ORTOLAN. This bird, the flesh of which is reckoned such a delicate morsel by epicures, feeds principally on panic-grass. It is found in most parts of Europe, except Great Britain. The wings are black, the first three feathers of the tail are white on their edges, and the head is greenish. In its migrations from one country to another, numbers are caught, and artificially fattened for the table. The song of the ortolan is not unpleasant, and it is sometimes preserved in cages on that account. THE RICE-BUNTING. The head and whole under-side of this bird are black : the held part of the neck a whitish yellow; and the coverts of the wings and the primaries are black ; as is also the back, with some tints of white and yellow. These birds inhabit the island of Cuba in prodigious numbers, where they commit vast depredations on the L 218 GOLDFINCH. CHAFFINCH. early crops of rice. They then migrate to Carolina, and shift their quarters according to the maturity of the crops on which they feed. Their flesh is reckoned very deli- cate ; nor is the song of the male contemptible. The bunting, the yellow-hammer, and many others, belong to the same genus : but, in proportion as we ap- proach the more diminutive tribes of animated nature, the greater is the difficulty of enumerating all the species, and the less interesting would it prove to the juvenile class of readers, for whom this elementary treatise is intended. THE GOLDFINCH. This beautiful little songster is too well known in this country to require any description of its form or colours. Its note, even in captivity, is uncommonly sweet ; nor is the bird that utters it less estimable for its docility and the cheerfulness or patience with which it submits to confine- ment. Towards winter, goldfinches assemble in large flocks, and feed on different kinds of seeds, particularly those of thistles. They are fond of orchards ; in which they fre- quently build their nests, and sometimes produce two broods in the year. They live to a considerable age ; and are natives of most parts of the Old Continent, but are most numerous in Europe. THE CHAFFINCH. This bird has received its name from its partiality for chaff as a food. It regales us very agreeably with its song early in the year, but, towards the end of summer, emits a chirping note. The chaffinch is stationary in England ; but, in Sweden, the females migrate into Holland about September, leaving their mates behind them ; and the late ingenious Mr. White of Shelbourne, observed large flocks in Hampshire, with few or no males among them. This is a very singular fact in the eco- SPARROW. LINNET CANARY-BIRD. 219 nomy of nature, for which it is totally impossible to account. THE COMMON SPARROW. This bird, from its frequenting only the abodes of men, and places adjacent, may be said to be fed chiefly from human industry ; for, in spite of every precaution, it will share the food of the domestic pigeons and poultry, and consumes a considerable quantity of grain. On this account it has been long proscribed, and a reward set on its destruction ; but still the species continues undimi- nished. In autumn, sparrows assemble in flocks, and roost on trees near houses ; and at this time they may be shot by dozens. The flesh is not very well flavoured, and the note is still less alluring. Nevertheless the sparrow, by its vivacity and frequent appearance, affords some amusement to the lover of nature. It is a familiar but crafty bird ; and, though it seerns to evince little fear, it exercises a necessary caution for its own security. THE LINNET. The breast of this little bird is of a fine blood-red, which heightens as the season advances. It is much and deservedly esteemed for its song, which frequently sub- jects it to captivity. It feeds on all kinds of seed, but seems to prefer that of flax. THE CANARY-BIRD. This beautiful little creature was originally a native of the Canary islands, from which it receives its name ; but has been domesticated in Europe for at least two cen- turies, and is a frequent ornament of the parlour or the hall. Though it will breed in captivity, and even intermix with other birds of the same genus, it is too delicate to endure our climate in a state of nature. It will live in a cage from ten to fifteen years. L -2 220 FLY-CATCHER. NIGHTINGALE. THE FLY-CATCHER. This is a very numerous genus ; but it will be sufficient here to describe only one species, the spotted fly-catcher, which will convey a tolerable idea of the whole family. This bird is little more than five inches long ; the head is large, and of a brownish hue, obscurely spotted with black ; the back is of a mouse-colour ; the wings and tail are dusky, and the breast and belly white. It is a bird of passage, appearing in Britain (where it breeds) in the spring, and departing from our shores in September. It builds its nest against any part of a tree that will support it, and is found to return almost invariably to the same place in successive years. ,The fly-catcher 4 feeds on inserts, which it collects on |ie wing. When the young can fly, the old ones with- aw with them into thick woods, where they frolic among the top branches ; dropping almost perpendicularly on the flies that sport beneath, and rising again in the same direction. THE NIGHTINGALE. The nightingale has been so long celebrated for the de- lightful melody with which it charms the ear, that its very name seems to embellish poetical description, and to con- vey to the mind a sort of pleasure which words cannot easily depict. Almost every modern versifier mentions it with rapture ; and the ancient bards, who so closely painted from nature, have exerted themselves to fix its reputation. But sweet as is the music of Philomel (its poetical name^ she has little external beauty to attract the eye, and charms most when unseen. The head and back are of a pale tawny colour, dashed with olive ; the throat, breast, and the upper part of the belly, are of a light glossy ash colour ; and the lower part of the belly is almost white. The exterior webs of the quill-feathers are of a reddisfc GOLDEN-CRESTED WREN. 221 ^ brown ; the tail is of a deep tawny red ; and the eyes are remarkably large and animated. This bird (the most celebrated of the feathered tribe for the variety, length, and sweetness of its notes) visits Eng- land about the beginning of April, and leaves it in August. It is found only in some of the southern and midland counties, and is said to be unknown in Scotland, Ireland, and North Wales. It commences its song in the evening, when other birds are generally at roost, as if it disdained to waste its music in the throng ; and continues it by in- tervals during the whole night. If undisturbed, it will sit for weeks together almost on the same tree. It builds its nest near the bottom of some hedge, in such artful concealment, that it generally eludes the inquisitive eye of the school-boy ; and surely to rob it or other birds of their eggs and young, especially without any intention to rear them, is a pitiful gratification, when the pain thus inflicted is considered. A poet of nature thus paints the feelings, and pleads the cause, of this injured songster : But let not chief the NIGHTINGALE lament Her ruin'd care, too delicately form'd To brook the harsh confinement of the cage. Oft, when returning with her loaded bill, The astonish'd mother finds a vacant nest, By the hard hand of unrelenting clowns Robb'd ; to the ground the vain provision falls : Her pinions muffle ; and, low-drooping, scarce Can bear the mourner to the poplar shade, Where, all abandon'd to despair, she sings Her sorrows through the night ; and, on the bough Sole sitting, still at every dying fall Takes up again her lamentable strain Of winding woe ; till, wide around, the woods Sigh to her song, and with her wail resound. THOMSON'S SPENCE. THE GOLDEN-CRESTED WREN. This is the smallest of all British birds, weighing no more than twenty-six grains. It is easily distinguished L % 222 BLACK-CAP. RED-BREAST. from other birds of its kind ; net only by its size, but also by the beautiful scarlet mark on its head, bounded on each side by a fine yellow line. This elegant little creature frequents woods and coverts, and is usually seen perched on the oak. Its note does not differ materially from that of the common wren. It continues with us the whole year, and seems capable of enduring the rigour of our severest winters. THE BLACK-CAP. The crown of the head of this small bird is black, and thence it derives its name. The hind part of the neck is of a light ash-colour, the back and coverts of the wings are of a greyish green, and the breast and upper part of the belly are of a pale ash-colour. The black-cap is a bird of passage, and quits the British islands before the commencement of winter ; however, during its stay, it gratifies us with its song, which is so sweet, that in Norfolk it has obtained the name of the mock-nightingale. In fact, its notes are full, sweet, deep, and loud ; and inferior only to those of the bird with which it has been thus compared. THE RED-BREAST. Of all birds this is the most familiar, and therefore it is in a manner consecrated to the domestic affections. The j beauty of its form, the vivacity of its motions, and the ! confidence it seems to repose in man, all unite to secure , it from annoyance. Added to this, several popular pre-| judices operate in its favour, and seem to prevail in every j country where it is known. It feeds on insects ; eats crumbs of bread when its usual food fails ; and, while other birds are ready to perish with cold and hunger, seeks | the shelter of a house or cottage, in which it is generally \ a welcome guest. The song of the red-breast is remarkably soft and sweet; and the more to be valued, as we enjoy it during the greater part of the winter, when the other feathered WHEATEAR. SWALLOW KIND. 223 choristers are silent. In summer, indeed, it is equally musical, but at that time its modest notes are undis tinguished in the general warble of the choir. Thomson marks, by a just and elegant description, the domestic habits of this bird during winter ; but it is, per- haps, as much indebted to the ballad of the Babes in the Wood for its universal favour and esteem with us, as to any combination of other causes whatsoever. Indeed, not only our poets, but our painters, have exerted their talents, in recommending this innocent songster to our attention : and, surely, where genius labours to improve our sensibilities, and to awaken our most generous passions, it demands our love and respect. THE WHEATEAR. This bird is seen in most countries of Europe, either as naturalised or as a visitor. The top of its head, the hind part of the neck, and the back, are of a bluish grey ; the under part of the body, yellowish white ; the breast is tinged with red, and the legs are black. The wheatear visits England annually in March, and leaves us in September. In some of the eastern counties, particularly Sussex, it is astonishingly numerous ; being caught almost by thousands, and sent up to the London poulterers. Its flesh, when potted, is as much esteemed in England as that of the ortolan on the continent. THE SWALLOW KIND. Of this genus, which is pretty numerous, four species are natives of England ; the house-swallow, the martin, the sand-martin, and the swift ; and of each a cursory description shall be here given, after premising the general history of the family, which is somewhat extra- ordinary. The swallow tribe are remarkable for the wideness of their mouths, which are always open when flying; the L 4- 224- HOUSE SWALLOW. MARTIN. shortness and slenderness of their feet ; and the immode- rate length of their wings. These qualities are indeed essential to the kind of life which they lead, and enable them to provide the means of ready subsistence. Insects are their principal food; and no sooner does spring awaken that class of animated nature from their state of torpidity than the swallow makes its appearance. At first it flies heavily and feebly, as if wearied with its journey; but, as the weather grows warmer, and the number of insects in- creases, it acquires additional strength and activity. The changes of the weather may be generally predicted from the swallow's flying high or low in pursuit of its prey ; but it is rather the insect, which is the object of its chase, than the bird itself, that appears to have this quality of foresight. A defect of its usual food on the approach of winter naturally warns the swallow to meditate its departure; but whither the tribe retire, and how they dispose of them- selves, during that season, is a question which still con- tinues to puzzle the scientific, and to amuse the specu- lative. * THE COMMON OK HOUSE SWALLOW. This species is distinguished by the extreme forkedness of its tail, and a red spot on the forehead and under its chin. It builds its nest on the top of chimneys with great industry and art, and sometimes breeds twice a year. The common swallow arrives in Great Britain about twenty days before the other species of the same genus which visit us, and leaves us about the end of September. Its note is not disagreeable. THE MARTIN. This bird is inferior to the common swallow in size, and its tail is forked. The head and the upper part of the body, except the rump, are black glossed with blue ; the * See note p. 141. SAND-MARTIN. SWIFT. CHURN-OWL. 225 breast, belly, and rump, are white; and the feet are co- vered with a short white down. It constructs its nest under the eaves of houses in a very curious manner, leaving only a small hole for its admission. During the period when the young continue in the nest, the old one feeds them, adhering by her claws to the outside ; but as soon as they quit it, she feeds them while on the wing, with a very rapid and almost imperceptible motion. THE SAND-MARTIN. This species receives its name from building its nests in the chinks of sand-pits, and the banks of rivers. It is the last of the swallow tribe that frequents this island. The head and the whole upper part of the body are mouse- coloured; the throat is white, encircled with a mouse- colo&red ring; the belly is white, and the feet are smooth and black. THE SWIFT. The swift measures about eight inches in length, and in the expansion of the wings eighteen, though it does not weigh above an ounce. It is entirely of a glossy dark sooty colour, except the chin, which is marked with a white spot. Its feet are small, and it rises from the ground with difficulty ; but, when on the wing, its flight is rapid and long-continued. It breeds under the eaves of houses, and in steeples and other lofty buildings ; arrives after the house-swallow, and invariably disappears some weeks be- fore its kindred species. THE GOAT-SUCKER, OR CHURN-OWL. This bird, which some naturalists place in the family of swallows, is about ten inches long, and twenty-two broad Its colours are plain, but they have a beautiful effect from the elegance "of their arrangement ; consisting of black, brown, grey, white, and ferruginous, disposed in streaks, spots, and bars. The male is distinguished from the female L 5 226 CLASS III. AMPHIBIA. by an oval spot near the end of each of the first three quill-feathers, and another on the two exterior feathers of the tail. The goat-sucker flies chiefly by night, and continues but a short time in this island ; appearing about the end of May, and retiring from every part of Britain by the end of September. Its notes resemble the noise of a large spin- ning-wheel, and the sound is very shrill and loud. It re- ceives its name from its fancied property of sucking the teats of goats; a vulgar error, as ancient as the days of Aristotle, and to which some writers among the moderns seem to give countenance. CLASS III AMPHIBIA, OR AMPHIBIOUS ANIMALS. THIS class, though certainly the least valuable and ex- tensive of any, contains animals very dissimilar in their habits and conformations ; and some of the most formi- dable enemies of man, the objects of his constant dread, and frequently the cause of his destruction. Against their efforts caution cannot always protect them, and both strength and dexterity are frequently unavailing. The essential characters of the animals which are thrown together under amphibia are, that they have either a naked or scaly body; that they are destitute of grinders, and have all their teeth sharp or pointed; that they have no radiated fins ; or that the heart has only one ventricle, and that they respire through the lungs. In the Linnaean arrangement they constitute four orders : I. REPTILES, including the tortoise, lizard, and frog kinds. II. SERPENTS, or animals that proceed by an undulatory motion ; many of which are poisonous. CLASS III AMPHIBIA. 227 III. MEANTES, or gliders; of which there is only the siren. IV, NANTES, or swimming amphibia; which are pin- nated, and respire by lateral branchiae, or gills, including the ray, lamprey, and others. Of animals so very different in their nature and habi- tudes, it is impossible to give any general uniform account. In the order of reptiles are placed the harmless frog, so tenacious of life, the valuable tortoise, and the formidable alligator, or crocodile; which last is the largest of the lizard genus, and abounds in the Nile, the Niger, the La Plata, the Ganges, and other spacious rivers within the torrid zone. The general food of these monsters is fish, which they devour in astonishing quantities; but, when their supplies in the water are too scanty to satisfy their voracious appetites, they conceal themselves in the sedge, or reeds, by the side of their native streams, till an op- portunity presents itself of attacking some other animal, man himself not excepted. In our happy quarter of the globe, we have few among the order of serpents that are noxious ; and the bite of all operates" in a similar manner, by exciting a burning pain ; for which we have various antidotes, but none more effica- cious and safe than olive oil. Within the torrid zone, however, where the fields are at once fertile and uncultivated, and the climate warm and humid, this terrible race reigns in all its malignity ; and some species are equally tremendous by their magnitude, and fatal from their bite. In the early ages of the world, when mankind were few, and these animals continued the undisputed tyrants of a country through a succession of years, it is very probable that they grew to a size of which we have no modern examples. History, indeed, records several in- stances of this kind; and, when we contemplate the liboya, which is well known to be capable of killing an ox by its mere strength, and has been found thirty or forty feet long, we must not incredulously reject, as fabulous, every L 6 228 CLASS III. AMPHIBIA. thing that has not been confirmed by the testimony of our senses, at later periods. It is recorded, that, while Regulus led his army along the banks of the Bagrada, in Africa, an enormous serpent disputed his passage. Pliny, who saw its skin, affirms that it measured a hundred and twenty feet in length, and that it killed a number of men before it was destroyed. At last, however, the battering engines were directed against it, which soon dispatched this singular enemy. Its spoils were carried to Rome, and the General was decreed an ovation (or inferior kind of triumph) on account of his success. In Java, on the continent of India, in Africa, and in Surinam, and other parts of America, serpents are still found of enormous magnitude; but these are chiefly for- midable for their strength, Providence having mercifully denied them any venomous qualities. Lo ! the green serpent, from his dark abode, Which ev'n imagination fears to tread, At noon forth issuing, gathers up his train In orhs immense : then darting out anew, Seeks the refreshing font ; by which, diffus'd, He throws his folds ; and, while with threat'ning tongue And deathful jaws erect, the monster curls His flaming crest, all other thirst, appall'd, Or shivering flies, or check 'd at distance stands, Nor dares approach. THOMSON. The smaller serpents are the most fatal and the most dangerous, because they cannot always be seen and avoided. Various are the ways in which their poison operates : and, though it is probable that an antidote exists for each, death is almost inevitable, if this is either un- known or too tardily applied. But, as if mankind were not sufficiently exposed to the natural malignity of the serpent race, many barbarous tribes, both in the Old and the New Continent, dip their arrows in the poison, or with it prepare their vengeful potions. Tfctr ftjtj . J . Lrrruf / .Fuj . ? . fiq.3. i Plate / v I. AM //\v. AV/. 1'. Common 'lr><;,i . TORTOISE. 229 Though there is a general similarity in the external conformation of this noxious and disgusting tribe, the venomous class are distinguished by two large teeth, or fangs, issuing from the upper jaw, and projecting beyond the lower. The innoxious kind is generally thought to be destitute of these instruments of destruction, and this deprivation constitutes the difference between them. A bag under the fang is the reservoir of the poison, and the fang itself is furnished with an aperture for injecting it into the wound. But, though serpents are almost universally disgusting from their appearance, or tremendous from their bite, su- perstition has converted some of them into divinities ; and a few, besides, are taken under human protection for their inoffensive qualities, or their service in destroying vermin. It is difficult, however, for most persons not to feel a sen- sation of horror at the sight of even such as are known to be harmless ; and this antipathy was probably planted in our nature as a guard and preservative against the dan- gerous powers of the tribe. THE TORTOISE. The characters of the tortoise genus are, that the body is defended by a thick shell, and furnished with a tail ; that the mouth has naked mandibles, without teeth ; and that there are four feet. Such as subsist principally in the water are usually called turtles, while those that frequent the land bear ex- clusively the appellation of tortoises ; but in their external conformation there is little difference. The land-tortoise is found from one to five feet in length, from the end of the snout to the extremity of the tail ; and from five to eighteen inches across the back. The head is small, somewhat like that of the serpent kind ; and may be either protruded or concealed under the shell at plea- sure : the eye has no upper lid ; the tail is long and scaly, like that of the lizard ; and the exterior covering is com- posed of several pieces of shell, united in the firmest and most compact manner. 230 COMMON FROG. Though this animal is of the most pacific disposition, it is admirably formed for defence, and seems to be almost endowed with immortality. Scarcely any violence can deprive it of life : it will retain the vital principle after it is deprived of the brain, and even of the head. It is re- markable for its longevity ; and, though it is difficult to ascertain its precise duration, there is an instance recorded of one kept in the garden of Lambeth-Palace which was known to have lived above a hundred and twenty years. During winter, the tortoise lies torpid in some cavern three or four feet under ground ; and from this state it does not awake till the genial heat of spring returns. Its strength is so considerable, that a child has been known to get on the back of one, without retarding its pace. The turtle, or sea-tortoise, is of various species, most of which are highly celebrated in the annals of epicurism. The green turtle, in particular, forms an important article of commerce, and our West-India ships are generally supplied with conveniences for importing it alive; yet whoever wishes to eat the flesh in its highest perfection should make a voyage to its native shores. A common- sized green turtle will weigh two hundred weight, and some have been caught that exceeded eight hundred. The turtle seldom quits the sea, except to deposit its eggs in the sand ; which are hatched, in about twenty-five days, by the heat of the sun. The young, as soon as they burst from the sand, guided by instinct, run towards the sea. The Mediterranean furnishes a species of turtle of considerable magnitude ; but, though it is extremely fat, the flesh is coarse and unwholesome. Animals of this kind are sometimes caught on the British shores. THE COMMON FROG. To describe an animal so well and generally known is needless ; but some of its habits and properties are too interesting to the naturalist to be left wholly unnoticed. Its spring, or power of leaping, compared with its bulk, is EDIBLE FROG. 231 remarkably great ; and it is by far the most expert swim- mer of all quadrupeds. While in a tadpole state, it is wholly an inhabitant of the water, and it is also produced in that element : but, as soon as the young animal is trans- formed into its mature state, it immediately takes to the land ; and if after hot weather, refreshing showers fall, the whole ground is sometimes seen covered with these little creatures, a circumstance which has probably given rise to the vulgar notion of frogs being rained from the clouds. A single female is capable of producing a thousand eggs at a time, and therefore the immensity of their numbers will not excite admiration. They subsist on insects, and are themselves devoured by a variety of other animals. The frog is remarkably tenacious of life, and will leap about, even after its head has been cut off. Many cruel experiments indeed have been made on this inoffending race : and Galvani, the Italian naturalist, from his observ- ations on them, has given rise to that branch of electric science which goes by his name ; which, though it certainly teems with curious speculations, does not appear hitherto to have produced any useful results. The croaking of frogs is a certain indication of ap- proaching rain ; and is sometimes so loud in marshy coun- tries, such as Holland, as to be stunning and unpleasant to the hearer. In very dry weather, however, they become mute from a deficiency of moisture, and consequently of the food in which they delight. THE EDIBLE FROG. This creature differs from the common frog, in having a high protuberance on the middle of its back, which forms a very sharp angle. Its colours also are more vivid, and its mark more distinct. Both this and the common spe- cies are eaten in some countries. a In the markets of Paris," says Pennant, " we have seen whole hampers full ; which the venders were preparing for the table by skinning and cutting off the fore-parts, the loins and legs only beiag 232 BULL-FROG. COMMON TOAD. THE BULL-FROG. These animals are very large, and are capable of springing three yards at a single leap, by which means they can keep pace with a horse going full speed. The noise they make resembles the roaring of a bull, but it is somewhat more hoarse ; and, when numbers unite in the horrid concert, few persons can listen to it without dis- agreeable sensations. Bull-frogs will kill and eat the young of the poultry kind, and, if hurt, utter a plaintive note much like the crying of children. As soon as the air begins to cool in autumn, they plunge into the mud of stagnant waters, and lie torpid during winter ; but on the approach of spring, they issue forth, and again exercise their native activity. They are supposed, by the people of Virginia, in which country they abound, to be purifiers of water ; and, for that reason, are respected as the genii of foun- tains. THE COMMON TOAD. The toad bears a general resemblance to the frog ; but is much more unsightly in its appearance, and seldom can be viewed without disgust. Yet it is said by those who have resolution to examine it with attention, to have very fine eyes ; to which Shakspeare alludes when he makes Juliet remark, Some say the lark and loathed toad change eyes. Its natural deformity, and the abhorrence with which mankind generally regard it, have given rise to many fic- titious qualities that confirm the prejudices conceived against it. Its very look has been supposed fatal ; of its entrails, fancied poisonous potions have been composed ; and it has been deemed a principal ingredient in admi- nistering the incantations of nocturnal hags. On the other hand, some old writers have believed that its head Mite 4L PIPAL, OR TOAD OP SURINAM. 233 contained a stone possessing many medical as well as magical virtues ; but all these fables have been long ex- ploded ; and, if it cannot be allowed to be agreeable, it has at least been proved to be innoxious. Indeed, instead of possessing venomous, it has of late been thought to have beneficial qualities ; and, according to some authors has been successfully applied to cure by its suction that most dreadful of human maladies, the cancer. Like the frog it is amphibious, and lives on worms and insects, which it seizes by darting out its tongue. It crawls about chiefly towards the close of day, in moist weather ; and the young undergo the same changes as the tadpole of the frog. During the severity of winter, like all the frog kind, it becomes torpid. It is also endowed with great longevity, and is extremely tenacious of life. Wonderful stories are told of its having been occasionally found inclosed in solid blocks of marble and stone, where it must have lain for centuries, and yet when disengaged showing every sign of life. To dispute every recorded circumstance of this kind, would evince excessive incredulity; yet, if true, it must be allowed that the common laws of nature are palpably violated in such instances. There are several varieties of the toad, both the land and the water ; it will be sufficient, however, to particu- larise the following very curious species. THE PIPAL, OR TOAD OF SURINAM. This creature is more hideous in its shape than the common toad. The head is flat and broad, the eyes are small, the jaws extended, and the back is covered with a number of little prominences resembling eyes ; which, in fact, are the eggs, from which the young are pro- duced by a very singular process. These eggs are in different states of maturity ; and the pipal is seen moving about with her progeny on her back ; some peeping forth from their cells, others just assuming their form, and without life. 234 CROCODILE. The male pipal is considerably larger than the female. Hideous as these creatures are, they are, probably, entirely harmless ; though we are told of very malignant effects resulting from their powder, when calcined. THE CROCODILE. This is the largest and most formidable animal of the lizard genus ; frequently exceeding twenty feet in length, and five feet in circumference. The fore-legs have the same parts and conformation as the arms of a man, but are somewhat shorter than those behind ; the head is long, and the eyes are small. The general colour is a dark brown on the upper part, and a whitish citron below ; with large spots of both colours on the sides. The skin is defended by a suit of armour, almost impenetrable to a musket-ball. The female deposits her eggs in the sand, and leaves them to be hatched by the heat of the sun. The crocodile is a very dangerous and terrible animal. It abounds in the Nile, the Niger, the Ganges, and other great rivers of Asia, Africa, and America. In Upper Egypt it is extremely destructive ; lying in wait near the brink of the Nile for animals that come to drink ; and sparing neither man nor the fiercest quadrupeds that come within its reach. It seizes the victim with a spring ; and draws it into the water, where it devours it at leisure. < Sometimes the wounded captive makes its escape, when the crocodile pursues with much greater celerity than '/ might be expected from its unweildy form. It is capable I of mastering even the tiger, which often struggles in vain against such a potent adversary. The natives of some countries, however, pursue the crocodile for the sake of its flesh, of which they are ex- tremely fond ; nor are its eggs reckoned a less delicious treat by some palates. This helps to diminish its num- bers ; but all the arts of annoyance which man is master of would be ineffectual, did not every beast and bird of prey, particularly the ichneumon and the ibis, conspire to devour the eggs and young with unremitting assiduity. IGUANA. SALAMANDER. 235 Even the parent herself is said to co-operate in the de- liverance of the human race from such a pest, by destroying her offspring ; in which she is assisted by the male- as soon as they take to the water. Of this family there are several varieties ; as the open- bellied crocodile ; the alligator, or American crocodile ; and the cayman, or Antilles crocodile. They all agree, however, in strength, size, and ferocity ; and are justly the object of terror in every country where they are found. THE IGUANA. This is one of the largest of land-lizards ; and certainly the most valuable, as its flesh is esteemed delicious food, not only in Africa but America. The sportsmen of those countries hunt the iguana as eagerly as the Europeans do the pheasant or the hare ; and, notwithstanding its disgusting and formidable appearance, it is rather a mild than a ferocious animal, though it will bite severely when attacked. This species is about five feet long, and as thick as a man's thigh ; the skin is covered with small scales, and the back is furnished with a row of erect spines, or prickles. The male has a loose skin depending from the breast, which it puffs up when provoked. The female is considerably less, and of an ash-colour, while the former is green. They generally live among trees that border the streams in tropical climates, and lead an inoffensive kind of life. THE SALAMANDER. Many fictions have been invented concerning this ani- mal, all of which vanish, when brought to the test of accurate investigation and experience. It was long be- lieved to be capable of living in fire, and its bite was said to be highly poisonous : both these attributes, however, are unreal. All the lizard family, from a cer- tain similarity which they bear to serpents, are the 236 CAMELEONT. SCALY LIZARD. objects of terror, disgust, or suspicion ; but it does not appear that any of them are really noxious farther than their mere bite, which may be easily cured like any other wound. That species of the salamander which is best known in Europe, is from eight to eleven inches thick, usually black, spotted with yellow ; and when taken in the hand feels cold to a high degree. When thrown into the fire, in which it has been supposed capable of existing, it bursts and ejects its fluids, which may serve indeed to quench the flames partially, but the animal loses its life at the very instant. Salamanders are all amphibious, are capable of enduring great abstinence, and bring forth their young alive. THE CAMELEON. This animal has a crooked cylindrical tail ; and in- cluding this appendage, measures about a foot in length. Its thickness varies at different seasons, as it possesses the faculty of contracting or expanding itself at pleasure. The skin is very unequal, but soft. When the creature is at rest, the eminences on its surface appear of a bluish grey, and the spaces between them of a pale red and yellow : but viewed in different lights, it assumes every tint of colouring, and no two individuals can agree as to the exact shades it presents to the eye ; hence it has been in all ages alluded to as the emblem of a fickle un- settled mind, which varies with every turn of opinion., and is constant in nothing but perpetual change. THE SCALY LIZARD. So numerous is the family of lizards, and at the same time so uninteresting, that this species will be a sufficient specimen of the rest. Its length, including the tail, is about seven inches. A black list runs along the back, and a brown one on each side : the belly is yellow ; and the scales, which are large and even, are varied with fiv. J.JHindWbrm, Ftp. 4. Scab/ Zizard. ORDER II SERPENTES. RATTLE-SNAKE. 237 black and brown. The legs and feet are dusky ; and on each foot are five toes furnished with claws. This animal is extremely nimble, and in hot weather may be seen basking on the sides of dry banks or old trees ; but, on finding itself observed, it quickly retreats to its hole. It feeds, as indeed do all the species found in England, on insects : and in its turn becomes the prey of birds. All the British lizards are perfectly in- noxious ; it is their figure alone that excites our aversion, and has occasioned their representation in an unpleasing point of view. Indeed, few can divest themselves of a certain horror at the sight of even the smallest of them : for with us they possess neither beauty of colouring nor elegance of form to attract the eye ; but in the former quality there are some species, natives of warmer cli- mates, which might justly challenge our attention and admiration. ORDER II. SERPENTES. THE distinguished characteristics of serpents are, that they breathe through the mouth, by means of lungs only ; and are destitute of feet, ears, and fins. There are six genera in the Linnaean arrangement, which shall be here treated of in order. THE RATTLE-SNAKE. This dreadfully-poisonous reptile is a native of the American continent. It is sometimes found as thick as a man's leg, and six feet long. In most particulars it resembles the viper. Like that animal, it has a large head, and a small neck, and its colours are nearly the same ; but it differs in having a large pendulous scale over each eye, and a nictitating membrane ; besides that 238 BOA, OR OX-SERPENT. singular mark of distinction, the rattle in the tail. With this instrument it makes a very loud noise ; and it appears to have been assigned by Providence for the purpose of warning other animals of its approach, and thereby en- abling them to avoid the danger. This rattle is composed of several thin, hard, hollow bones, linked together, and which sound on the least motion of the animal. It has been supposed, and perhaps not without reason, that the rattle-snake acquires an additional bone every year, from which circumstance its age may be indicated ; at least, it is certain, that the young are totally destitute of this appendage. No sooner is this harsh and alarming rattle heard, than the other classes of animals testify their fear by speedy flight. The almost inevitable death that ensues from the bite of this terrible reptile creates a kind of solitude around its haunts. It is, however, very inactive and in- dolent, unless when provoked ; and, conscious of its superior powers of annoyance, is seldom the aggressor, except when impelled by hunger to attack its natural prey. Various antidotes have been recommended for the bite ; but such is the malignity of the venom, that it has been doubted whether the recoveries which have been recorded have not been more owing to the slightness of the wound and the strength of constitution, than to any medicaments that have been prescribed. The pain soon grows insupportable, and some have expired under it in five or six hours, while others have survived the agony a little longer ; but only to yield at last to a mortifica- tion, which gradually, yet rapidly, overspreads the whole frame. THE BOA, OR OX-SERPENT. There are several species of this enormous reptile, dis- tinguished by the number of their abdominal and caudal scuta. They are all terrible for their magnitude and bite, but destitute of venom. The boa constrictor, to which VIPER. 239 the following observations shall be confined, has two hun- dred and forty scuta on the belly, and sixty on the tail. Its length often exceeds thirty feet, and its thickness is in proportion. The colour is a dusky white, sprinkled with spots of various colours. The scales are small, roundish, and smooth ; and the Oriental Indians, Malays, Ceylonese, &c. who adore this monstrous production of nature, use the skin for clothes. They do not even reject the flesh, which by some writers is said to be not unwholesome. The boa frequents caves and thick forests : where it con- ceals itself, sometimes rolled round the body of a tree, till its prey comes within its reach. When it seizes animals, especially of the larger kind, it perfectly twists itself round them, so as effectually to involve their body and impede their motions ; while by the vast force of its cir- cular muscles it breaks and bruises all their bones. After having destroyed life, it licks the skin all over to facilitate deglutition : this process reduces its victim to a shapeless shining mass ; when, beginning at the lower extremity, it gradually sucks in the body. The boa has been observed for a long time with the horns of a stag sticking out of its mouth ; these being too large and complicated for it to h wallow, as well as too hard to digest. For some days after it has swallowed a stag or a tiger, it is fixed to the spot, being disabled to move by repletion; and then the natives easily kill it. When exasperated, it makes a loud hissing noise. THE VIPER. The genus coluber, to which the viper belongs, contains, at least, ninety-seven species; distinguished by the number of the scuta, or hard crusts, upon the belly, and scutellae, or small crusts, on the tail. Many of them are poisonous : but others may be even placed in the bosom without danger; and sometimes are so, from their beauty and in- noxious habits. It has not been ascertained, with pre- cision, that more than one venomous serpent, the viper, is found in the British islands; to be able to distinguish 24-9 VIPER. which from the harmless snake, is a matter of essential concern. The viper is found in many parts of this island, but abounds most in the Hebrides ; and in general, prefers dry, stony, and chalky soils. Its usual length is about two feet : the ground colour of the male is a dirty yellow ; that of the female is deeper. The back is marked along the whole length with a series of rhomboidal black spots, touching each other at the points ; the sides with triangular spots ; and the belly is entirely black. It is chiefly dis- tinguished from the common black snake by the colour, which in the latter is more beautifully mottled, as well as by the head, which is thicker than the body ; and still more distinctly by the tail, which does not run tapering to so great a length as that of the other. This reptile is slower in its motions than the snake, and brings forth its young alive. " We have often been as- sured," says Pennant, " that the young of a viper, when terrified, will run down the throat of the parent for shelter : and hence some have imagined that she is so un- natural as to devour her own young. But this deserves no credit, as these animals live on frogs, toads, lizards, and young birds, which they swallow entire ; though the morsel is often three times as thick as their own body." The viper is capable of supporting abstinence for a con- siderable length of time. One of them has been known to be confined in a box for six months without any visible food, and yet lose nothing of its wonted vivacity. The bite is attended with sudden inflammation and swelling, but its ill effects may be obviated by free use of salad-o?'! applied to the wound, as well as taken inwardly. There are various other specifics, which seldom fail when speedily administered. The flesh of the viper was for- merly reckoned a sovereign restorative, but has now lost much of its reputation ; a circumstance which, for the sake of humanity, may be reasonably regretted, as viper- catchers considerably lessened the number of these dan- gerous reptiles, when stimulated by the allurement of gain. SNAKE. BLIND WORM. . AMPHISB^NA. 241 THE SNAKE. This is the largest of British serpents, sometimes ex- ceeding four feet in length. The neck is slender; the body swells in the middle ; the back and sides are covered with small scales, and the belly with oblong, narrow, transverse plates. The colour of the back and sides is dusky or brown ; along the middle of the back run two rows of small black spots, reaching from the head to the tail, and from them proceed numerous lines or spots cross- ing the sides. The plates on the belly are dusky ; those on the sides of a bluish white. On each side of the neck is a spot of pale yellow, at the base of which is a trian- gular black spot. This creature is perfectly harmless. It feeds on frogs, insects, worms, and mice ; and lodges among bushes in moist situations. It deposits its eggs in dunghills ; the heat of which, aided by that of the sun, promotes the exclu- sion of the young. During winter, the snake, like the rest of its kind, continues torpid in the banks of hedges, and under old trees. THE SLOW, OR BLIND WORM. This is the smallest of all the serpent kind, indigenous in Britain. Its tail extends a considerable length, yet is blunted and pretty thick at the extremity. The back is cinereous, marked with small lines, composed of minute black specks. The sides are reddish ; and the belly is dusky, but marked like the back. The tongue is broad and forky, the teeth are numerous but minute, and the scales are small. These creatures are slow in their motions, and perfectly harmless. They lie torpid during the winter; and numbers of them have been sometimes found at that season twisted together. THE AMPHISBJENA. This reptile is remarkable for moving backwards or for- * wards with equal facility ; and hence it has been thought M 24?2 ORDER III. MEANTES ORDER IV. NANTES. to have two heads. The thickness of its tail probably gave rise to this error; but on a minute inspection, it is found not to deviate from the usual course of nature in this respect. Some have affirmed that its bite is dangerous ; but this is evidently a mistake; as it is destitute of fangs, and consequently wants the means of preparing venom. Lin- naeus notices two species of amphisbaena, by the names of the fuliginous and the white, both of which are natives of America, ORDER III MEANTES. THE distinguishing character of this singular order is, that the animals have both gills and lungs. There is only pne species known. THE SIREN. This animal was discovered by Dr. Garden in Carolina ; and Linnaeus considered it so extraordinary that he esta- blished a new order for its reception. The body is biped, naked, and furnished with a tail ; and the feet are brarv- chiated with claws. It is found in swampy and muddy situations, under the trunks of old trees ; and measures from thirty to forty inches in length. ORDER IV, NANTES. THESE creatures breathe indifferently through their hings and gills, and their fins are composed of car- tilaginous rays. LAMPREY. TORPEDO. THE LAMPREY. This animal bears a strong resemblance to the eel ; but is of a lighter colour, and a clumsier shape. The mouth likewise is round, and placed rather obliquely below the end of the nose. It has an aperture at the top of the head, through which it spouts water like the cetaceous fishes. On each side are seven apertures for respiration ; and the fins are rather formed by a prolongation of the skin than by any peculiar bones or spines. The lamprey possesses the singular property of adhering, by suction, to any substance to which it is applied. It sticks to stones so closely, that it is with difficulty re- moved. This wonderful power of suction is supposed to arise from the animal's exhausting the air within its body, while the mouth is so entirely attached to the object as to exclude any from entering. This animal usually quits the sea about the beginning of spring, for the purpose of spawning ; and, after an absence of a few months, returns to its original abode. It deposits its spawn in the gravelly bottom of some river, and waits till the young have acquired sufficient strength to proceed towards the salt water. Its flesh is variously esteemed, according to the season in which it is caught. In April or May, it is thought to be in the greatest perfection. The lampreys of the Severn are preferable to any caught in other English rivers. Among the ancients they were still more highly es- teemed than with us ; but it is uncertain whether the fish called muraena was actually that which is now under consideration. There are several species, as the lesser and the Pride. The latter is very common in the Isis, near Oxford; but is by no means peculiar to that river. THE TORPEDO, OR ELECTRIC RAY. The narcotic, or benumbing qualities of this animal have been celebrated in all ages. The body is almost cir- M 2 214 TORPEDO. eular, and thicker than any of the ray kind ; the skin is soft, smooth, and yellowish, marked with large annular spots; the tail tapers to a point ; and the whole weight is some- times eighty pounds. The shock given by the torpedo greatly resembles that produced by the stroke of electricity. Even if any one steps on it, or touches it with a stick, the effects are sudden and irresistible. The shock produces likewise a universal tremor, a sickness of stomach, a general con- vulsion, and a temporary suspension of the mental facul- ties. The negroes, however, are said to handle it without feeling any inconvenience ; but the means by which they effect this is merely by holding their breath during the time. This quality of the torpedo, however, by no means affects its flesh, which is frequently eaten by the French and other nations. It is a native of the Mediterranean and many other seas, and it is not unfrequently found on the British coasts. The following experiment was made by Mr. Walsh, in the presence of the Rochelle academicians, for tracing and ascertaining the circuit of the electric matter issuing from this fish. A living torpedo being laid on a table in a wet napkin, five persons stood insulated round another table ; and two brass wires, each thirteen feet long, were suspended from the ceiling by silk strings. One of the wires rested by one end on the wet napkin, and the other was immersed in a basin full of water, placed on the second table, on which stood also four other basins of water. The first person put a finger of one hand into the water in which the wire was immersed, and a finger of the other hanl into the second, and so on success 'vely, till all the five persons communicated with each other by the water in the basins.. One end of the second wire was dipped in the last basin, and with the other end Mr. Walsh touched the back of the torpedo ; on which the five persons felt an instant shock, differing in no respect from that of the Leyden FIRE-FLAIRE. 24*5 phial, except in its being weaker. This was several times repeated, even with eight persons, and the effects were the same. There seems to be a double end answered by this strange faculty, with which the torpedo is endowed. It is exerted as a means of defence against voracious fishes, which are instantly deprived of the means of annoyance by a single touch ; and by concealing itself in the mud, and benumbing such marine animals as are carelessly swimming round, it makes them readily its prey. THE FIRE-FLAIRE, OR STING-RAY. This is a very singular species of ray ; it is armed with a barbed weapon about five inches long, concerning the formidable powers of which many fables have descended to us, from the time of the ancients. Some of the old naturalists ascribed to it a kind of venom affecting even the inanimate creation ; and affirm, that trees touched by it instantly lose their verdure, and rocks themselves are unable to resist this very malignant poison. The enchant- ress Circe is said to have armed her son with a spear, headed with the spine of this fish, as the most irre- sistible weapon which she could supply ; and, indeed, this bone was not only used by the ancients, but the modern American Indians still use it instead of iron to barb their arrows. But, though the fire-flaire is capable of inflicting a very terrible wound, attended with dangerous symptoms, there is no reason to believe it possessed of all the deleterious qualities ascribed to it. It certainly contains no poison, as it is destitute of glands necessary to concoct the noxious fluid. In short, the sting, which is so terrible to the apprehension of the boldest and most experienced fishermen, seems bestowed on it merely for its own pre- servation. Though the torpedo and the fire-flaire are the two most remarkable species of ray, there are several others ^which are caught and used for food. They have all M 3 246 SHARK. broad, flat, thin bodies; five apertures on each side, placed beneath ; a mouth situated quite below ; and a tail small in proportion to their size. The external figure of them all has a great resemblance ; and hence it is difficult to distinguish the species. In fact, a stranger to natural history, when he imagines he is only handling a skate, may be instantly benumbed by a torpedo ; and may be stung by the fire-flaire while he thinks he has caught a thornback. THE SHARK. The characters of the shark kind consist in a slender body, decreasing towards the tail, two dorsal fins, a rough skin, five apertures on the side of the neck, and a mouth generally placed at some distance beneath the ex- tremity of the nose. Sharks are the fiercest and most voracious of all the inhabitants of the deep. Even the smallest species of them are dreaded by much their superiors in size, and with just reason. Indeed, no fish is half so ferocious in its disposition, or can swim with a velocity comparable to that of the shark. It outstrips the swiftest ships, plays round them, darts out before them, returns, and seems to gaze at the mariners, without manifesting the least symptoms of dismay. Such amazing powers, joined with such ravenous appetites, would speedily depopulate the ocean, did not the upper jaw of the shark project far beyond the lower, so that it is obliged to turn on one side before it can seize its prey. As this act requires some time, the animal pursued profits by the delay, and frequently makes its escape. Still, however, the depre- dations which it commits are frequent and formidable : it is the terror of sailors in climates where it abounds ; and bathing in the sea, so delicious and salutary in hot countries, is on this account attended with extreme danger. Many melancholy instances are recorded of persons who have lost their lives by these monsters ; from acci- FISHING-FROG. StUftGEOK. 24? dentally falling overboard, or imprudently exposing them- selves to their attacks. The shark seems to prefer human flesh to any other, but nothing comes amiss to it ; and it frequently becomes the victim of its own rapacity, from swallowing hooks baited with flesh, which have been let down to entrap it. The flesh of the shark is scarcely digestible but by the strongest stomachs : nevertheless it is eaten by the ne- groes ; and that of one species, the dog-fish, is used by the poor on some of our own coasts. The principal species are the angel, the long-tailed, the spotted, the smooth, the Beaumaris, the basking, the white, the blue, and the picked-dog or hound-fish. The basking-shark has been known to measure upwards of twelve yards in length. THE FISHING-FROG, OR SEA-DEVIL. The head of this disgusting animal is equal in size to all the rest of the body. It is sometimes seen four or five feet long ; and Mr. Pennant mentions one taken near Scarborough, the mouth of which was a yard wide. To increase its deformity, the under jaw is much longer than the upper ; and immediately above the nose are two long tough filaments, and on the back three others, which seem like lines hung out to attract fishes. The body grows slender towards the tail. The colour of the upper part of the body is dusky, the lower part is white, and the skin smooth. The fishermen entertain a sort of veneration for this ugly fish ; conceiving it to be hostile to the dog-fish, from the body of that fierce and voracious creature being fre- quently found in its stomach : on this account, when they catch the fishing-frog, they generally restore it alive to its native element. THE STURGEON. This fish sometimes grows to the prodigious length of eighteen feet, and the weight of five hundred pounds. M 4 248 ISINGLASS-FISH. BALISTES* Its body is long, pentagonal, and covered with five rows of long bony tubercles. The upper part of the body is of a dirty olive colour, the lower is silvery, and the middle of the tubercles is white. Sturgeons visit every country of Europe, at different seasons. They annually ascend the large rivers, in order to spawn. The inhabitants of the banks of the Po, the Danube, and the Wolga, derive considerable profit from the incursions of these fishes up their respective streams, and place nets ready for their reception. The flesh is, in its season, daily exposed for sale in the markets of Rome and Venice. It was formerly much esteemed in Eng- land ; but is now fallen into disrepute here, though it is sometimes seen on the sideboards of the wealthy. The roes, however, form a very lucrative branch of trade, under the name of caviar. THE ISINGLASS-FISH. This fish is distinguished from others of the sturgeon kind, by being destitute of tubercles. It is caught in great numbers in the river Danube, and weighs from fifty to upwards of four hundred pounds. The flesh is soft, glutinous, and flabby ; but, when salted, is reckoned tolerably good eating. However, this fish is principally caught for the sake of that valuable commodity, isinglass, which is prepared in the following manner : The skin, the entrails, the fins, .and tail, are cut into small pieces, and, after being macerated for some time in a sufficient quantity of warm water, are boiled over a slow fire, till they are dissolved and reduced to a jelly. This jelly is spread on plates made on purpose, like parchment ; and when dry is rolled up into that form in which it appears in the shops, THE BALISTES. This genus of the amphibia nantes, consisting of eight species, has a flat head, a flat body, scales joined together by the skin, and the belly carinated, or keeled. Imme* SUN-FISH 249: diately above the pectoral fins is an aperture which sup- plies the place of gills. They are all natives of the Indian and American seas. The most remarkable fish of this family is the unicorn. The entrails of this kind are full of small shells and coralline substances ; which, by the strength and hard- ness of its jaws, it is able to grind very small. The flesh is accounted poisonous. It is very common in the seas round the Bahama islands. THE SUN-FISH. This is the most remarkable species in the genus tetro- don. The body is broad and short ; and its hinder extre- mity is terminated by a circular fin, which supplies the place of a tail. The whole animal appears like the head of a large fish separated from its body. It is destitute of scales, but covered with a hard rough skin. The back is black, the belly white, and the sides are of an inter- mediate colour. The mouth is very small in proportion to the size ; and the head has no projection from the rest of the body. The weight sometimes amounts to two hundred pounds. The flesh of this animal is very soft, and all its bones are gristly and tender. It is caught in the Mediterranean, and sometimes in the British seas. Pennant has described the sun-fish of Mount-bay in Cornwall, under the appellation of the oblong diodon. In form, he says, it resembles the bream, or some deep fish, cut off in the middle ; the mouth is very minute ; the eyes are small, having before each a semilunar aperture ; the pectoral fins are also very small, and placed behind them ; the dorsal and anal fins are situated at the extre- mity of the body ; and the tail, which is narrow, occu- pies all that abrupt space which lies between those two fins. The colour of the back is dusky and dappled, and the belly is silvery. The skin is destitute of scales, and the flesh is uncommonly rank. M 5 250 LUMP-FISH. Much confusion prevails respecting the history of the sun-fish, the name having been applied to two animals of a different genus. One of these fishes, which weighed five hundred pounds, was taken about the beginning of the present century near Plymouth ; and, on boiling a piece of it, to try how it would taste, it was found in a few minutes to be wholly converted into a jelly ; which had very little of a fishy flavour, and proved extremely glutinous when applied to leather or paper. It is probable that the ancients made their glue from this fish. THE LUMP-FISH. This singular animal, which belongs to the family of sucking-fish, sometimes measures nineteen inches in length, and weighs about seven pounds. The body is very thick and deep, the back sharp and elevated, and the belly flat and broad. Along the ridge of the back is a row of large bony tubercles ; from above the eye almost to the rise of the tail is another row, and below it a third ; and on each side of the belly is another, consisting of five tubercles like the rest. The whole skin is rough, and beset with small tubercles. The belly is of a vivid crimson. The pectoral fins, which almost unite at their bases, are large and broad ; and beneath these is situated a member, by which the fish adheres to the rocks, a faculty which it possesses in an extraordinary degree. This member consists of an oval aperture, surrounded by a fleshy, muscular, and obtuse, spongeous substance ; fimbriated with small filiform appendages, which concur like so many clasps to fix it to any object. Indeed, such is the tenacity of this fish, that one of them has been known to be thrown into a pail of water, and to unite itself so closely to the bottom, that it was not forced away, even when lifted by the tail with the pail and its contents. The lump-fish is caught in many parts of the British seas, and is sometimes eaten ; but the flesh is flabby and insipid. During spring, it is very common on the northern 1>IPE-FISH. HORSE-CATERPILLAR. 251 coasts of Scotland, where it affords subsistence to seals and other predaceous inhabitants of the deep* In the Greenland seas it resorts to the shores in vast numbers for spawning, about April and May ; at which time its roe is very large, and furnishes a delicious dish to the people of that country. THE PIPE-FISH* Of this kind there are several species ; the characters of which are, that the nose is long and tubular, that there is no orifice to the gills, that the breathing-aperture is on the hind-part of the head, and that the body is covered with a strong crust. The long pipe-fish, the largest of the genus, is sometimes found measuring two feet from head to tail. The nose is compressed laterally, and reverted at the extremity of the lower mandible. The body at the thickest part does not exceed the size of a swan's quill ; and is hexangular from the extremity of the dorsal fin, and thence to the tail quadrangular. The belly is slightly carinated ; and under the tail is a groove covered by two longitudinal valves, which at the proper season conceal a multitude of small fish. The general colour is an olive brown ; but the sides are marked with a number of bluish lines, pointing from the back to the belly. When the fish is dried, it appears as if covered with a number of angular crusts, finely radiated from their centre. THE HORSE-CATERPILLAR, OR HIPPOCAMPUS. This singular fish, which is found in the Mediterranean, is usually about three inches long, and as thick as the fore-finger. The snout is long and tubular ; and the body has seven sides down to the vent, but afterwards only three or four. Under the belly are two apertures ; one of which serves for an excretory duct, and by the other the female deposits her eggs* Some varieties of this fish have a mane, but in general they are destitute of that M G ,252 CLASS IV. r PISCES. appendage. However, they are all hairy in many parts of the body, and particularly about the head. CLASS IV PISCES, OR FISHES. IN proportion as animals are minute, or concealed from human observation, they must consequently be less known. The ocean being the great receptacle of fishes, from which only a few of them migrate up the rivers to deposit their spawn, it is probable that thousands of living creatures reside there whose manners and very form are, and ever have been, among the secrets of nature. The curiosity of man has indeed drawn many from their depths, and his wants more: with the figures at least of these he is acquainted ; but their pursuits, habits, and various other interesting qualities, are wholly enveloped in the deep and turbulent element that surrounds them. The number of fishes with whose names and figures naturalists are in some degree acquainted does not amount to five hundred ; but in regard to the particular history even of these they must confess their ignorance. Most fishes present the same external form ; sharp at the extre- mities, and swelling in the middle : which figure, as before observed in speaking of birds, enables them with more facility and celerity to cleave the element, which they are destined to inhabit. That peculiar shape which is im- pressed on fishes by the hand of nature, human art has endeavoured to imitate in ships ; but the progress of such machines must be rated as very inferior in comparison with the swiftness of the finny tribes. Most of the larger fishes can outstrip the best-rigged vessel ; and, as if to show their superiority, will play round it, and dart again before it at pleasure. Indeed, every part of a fish is adapted to accelerate its motion : the fins, the tail, the undulation of the spine, all tend to assist progression ; CLASS IV. PISCES. 2515 and the flexibility of their members gives them a velocity superior to that of any product of human ingenuity. Fins are the principal auxiliaries of motion ; and a fish completely equipped is furnished with two pair, and three single fins, two above and one below. Thus provided, it moves with the utmost rapidity, and can undertake the longest voyages ; but those fishes which have the greatest number of fins are not always the swiftest ; as is evident in the shark, which is. destitute of ventral fins. Not only is progression forwarded by these appendages, but they likewise assist in the action of rising and sinking, turning, or even leaping out of the water ; and it is curi- ous to observe how every pair of fins, and even every single fin, contributes to some appropriate end. The pec- toral fins serve to balance the head of the animal, the dorsal to keep it in equilibrium, and the anal to preserve the upright or vertical situation. The size of these mem- bers is also wonderfully adapted to the conformation of the body, and to facilitate all its actions. Terraqueous animals, as has been shown before, are ge- nerally furnished with coverings to keep off the injuries of the weather ; and for the tenants of the deep there is a no less advantageous provision. They are covered in the first place with a slimy glutinous fluid ; which defends their bodies from immediate contact with the surrounding water, and lubricates their passage. Beneath this, in many kinds, is found a strong covering of scales; and under that an oily substance is lodged, which supplies the requisite warmth and vigour. Thus, in comparing their respective situations, we find the fish as well furnished with the means of happiness as the quadruped ; but if we regard their faculties, the for- mer is certainly much inferior. The sense of feeling, so exquisite in men and quadrupeds, can be but imperfect in the fish. The sense of smell they enjoy in a very li- mited degree ; in that of taste they appear very defective ; and their hearing is still more imperfect, if it exists at all. Indeed this last sense would be useless to creatures that CLASS IV. PISCES. have no voice by which they can communicate with their kind. Mr. Cowan, who kept some gold fishes in a vase, says, that no noise he could make was capable of disturb- ing them. It may therefore be presumed, that, when they show signs of alarm at any noise, it is only from the vibrations of sound affecting the water. Fishes, however, possess the sense of sight in tolerable perfection, because this is essentially necessary to their preservation. Yet on comparing their eyes with those of terrestrial animals, we shall find that, even in this respect, they are very inferior. Hence it may be concluded, from a survey of their re- spective powers, that fishes are far behind quadrupeds, and even birds, in their sensations, and consequently in their enjoyments. Nature, generous to all her chil- dren, has fitted them all indeed with wonderful propriety to their particular spheres of action ; but, to fishes she has given passive rather than active joys. To preserve their own existence, and to transmit it to posterity, fill up the whole circle of their pursuits and their pleasures ; and to these they appear as much impelled by necessity as by choice. Their appetites are, in a manner, incapable of making distinctions ; and they range in pursuit of what- ever they can swallow, conquer, or enjoy. A craving desire for food seems to be the ruling prin- ciple of all their actions or motions. No indulgence can gratify their rapacity, and, in catering for a fresh meal, they frequently risk their lives. Even when expiring, they will greedily swallow the bait that lured them to de- struction. Their digestive faculties seem in some mea- sure to increase with the quantity of food which they con- sume ; though it has long puzzled the ablest physiologists to account for such rapid powers of concoction in the cold maws of fishes. Insatiable, however, as the appetites of fishes are, no other animals, except serpents, can endure the want of food for such a length of time. Gold and silver fishes have been kept in vases for months successively, without CLASS IV. PISCES. 255 any apparent sustenance; and even the pike, the most voracious, will exist in a pond wholly by itself. Fishes that have small mouths feed on worms, and the spawn of their own tribes ; but those which have large mouths pursue any thing which they are capable of over- powering, and frequently meet each other in fierce oppo- sition. Indeed the life of fishes, from the smallest to the greatest, is but one continual scene of hostility, violence, and evasion. Some make annual migrations from one part of the ocean to another, in pursuit of food, or to find a situation more congenial to their nature. In general they seem averse to very cold water ; and either seek a warmer atmosphere or the shallows on their native coasts, which are susceptible of the influence of the sun. Though all the various tribes live in water, yet they all require the assistance of air. When a fish is in the water, it is easy to observe the motion of its lips and gills, which is unquestionably analagous to our breathing. They have also a receptacle called the air-bladder, or swim ; which, though it assists the animal in rising or sinking, is also the storehouse of air, from which it draws supplies according to its exigencies. " Most of the disorders," says Bacon, " to which man- kind are subject, arise from the changes and alterations of the atmosphere ;" and if fishes are limited in their other en- joyments, they reside in an element little liable to varia- tion, and therefore are exempted from numerous maladies. They indeed pass a uniform existence ; their movements are without effort, and their lives without labour. If they escape the dangers of their situation, it is impossible feo say what bounds are placed to their size or age. Various methods have been imagined to ascertain their duration, but none that can be altogether relied upon. It is highly probable that they reach extraordinary longevity; but still their fecundity is more astonishing. Some produce their young alive, and others only eggs ; the former are the least prolific, yet the viviparous blenny will bring forth two or three hundred at a time. Such as exclude their progeny in eggs are obliged to leave them to chance at 256 CLASS IV. PISCES. the bottom of shallow water, or on the surface ; and con- sequently few of them, comparatively speaking, are ever brought into life. Were it otherwise, the seas and rivers would be overstocked. A single cod is said to produce as many eggs in one season as there are inhabitants in England, and other species are not less prolific. As an article of food, the value of fishes is well known ; though all of them are not proper to be eaten. This kind of aliment, however, it has been contended, is less nutri- tive than flesh, as it has fewer volatile particles ; while some think it more salutary, and not less substantial. Fishes are divided into four orders, namely : I. APODES, or such as are destitute of ventral fins; as the eel, conger, &c. II. JUGULARES, having the ventral fins placed before the pectoral ; as the cod, &c. III. THORACICI, or fishes which respire by the gills only, with the ventral fins under the pectoral; as the perch, &c. IV. ABDOMINALES, with the ventral fins placed behind the pectoral in the abdomen ; as salmon, pike, &c. These comprehend forty-seven genera, and upwards of four hundred species ; but recent discoveries in the Oriental regions and the South Seas, have considerably increased the catalogue, and an extensive field is still open to future investigators. It is extremely probable, that, in the deep bobom of the ocean, many species of fish (particularly of the larger kinds) reside, which have never yet visited the shores, or shallow water ; and, if so, will probably remain for ever hidden from human observation. As the system of Artedi has attracted much notice, and the terms which he employs are frequently used, it may not be improper to subjoin the outlines of his arrange- ment. He distributes fishes into five orders: the mala- copterygii, or soft-finned ; the acanthopterygii, or prickly- finned ; the brancheostegii, or fishes without bones in the membranes over the gills ; the chondropterygii, or fishes with cartilaginous rays in the fins ; and the plagiuri, or fishes with horizontal tails. ORDER I. APODES. COMMON EEL. 25? ORDER I. APODES. THE principal distinctive character of this order is, that the fishes belonging to it have no ventral fins. It com- prises eight genera, some of which are neither very re- markable nor interesting. THE COMMON EEL. This may be considered as among the most universal cf all fishes. It frequents fresh waters, ponds, ditches, and rivers ; where it sometimes reaches a very considerable size. The head is smooth, the eyes are covered with a common skin, there are ten rays in the membranes of the gills, and the body is cylindrical and slimy. Many particulars in the natural history of the eel are very singular, and in some respects it approaches the rep- tile tribe. During the night it frequently quits the water to wander in meadow grounds, in quest of snails or frogs ; and in winter it buries itself deep in the mud, where it lies in a state of torpidity, like the snake. There is scarcely any creature which has so much puzzled naturalists to account for its generation. The prevailing idea now, and perhaps the most just is, that they propagate in the natural way ; though it is not clearly ascertained whether they are oviparous or viviparous. The latter seems most probable. The eel is extremely voracious, as well as destructive to the young fry of fishes. No other fish is capable of living so long out of the water, nor is any so tenacious of life. Its parts will move a considerable time, after it is skinned and cut to pieces. Eels vary much in their colour ; from a sooty hue to a light-olive green. There are also some denominated silver eels, with a clear white belly. A variety called grigs is found in the Isis, near Oxford; which have a larger head, a blunter nose, a thicker skin, and are less fat, than the common sort. The flesh of such as inhabit clear running 258 CONGER-EEL water is reckoned the most delicious ; but they are in ge- neral a favourite viand. The ancient Romans, it seems, held eels in very little estimation, perhaps on account of their resemblance to snakes ; while, on the contrary, the luxurious Sybarites were so fond of them, that the per- sons who sold them were, by law, exempted from paying tribute. THE CONGER-EEL. This species differs from the common in the deepness of its colours, in living in the ocean, and in its superior mag- nitude. Some of them have been caught near Scarbo- rough, which measured ten feet and a half in length, and near eighteen inches in circumference towards the middle. Though the conger is a fish of the ocean, it is thought to generate like the fresh-water species. Innumerable quantities of their supposed fry annually ascend the Severn about the month of April, when they are called elvers. They precede the shad, which is supposed to follow their course, for the sake of preying on them. During this sea- son they swarm in such abundance, that they are taken in a kind of sieve made of hair-cloth, fixed to a long pole, and let down into the water. The flesh of the elvers is esteemed very delicate. Congers are prodigiously voracious ; preying on all kinds offish without exception, and not rejecting carcasses which accidentally fall in their way. In this latter respect they resemble the common eel. In Cornwall they form a lu- crative branch of commerce ; great numbers being caught on that coast, and exported to Spain and Portugal when cured. They are caught by various means ; but the large ones sometimes prove dangerous to the fisherman when taken, from being apt to entwine themselves round his limbs ; on which account they are despatched as quickly as possible. They are very common among the Hebrides ; and, according to Mr. Pennant, the establishment of a conger-fishery would be of singular advantage to the na- .tives of those islands: but in many parts of Scotland ELECTRIC EEL. 259 there appears to be a whimsical repugnance to the eel kind, from the similitude which they bear to serpents. THE ELECTRIC EEL. Except the torpedo, no animal in nature possesses such remarkable qualities as this. Naturalists are indebted for the most important particulars in its history to the accurate account of Dr. Garden, of South Carolina, communicated to the Royal Society. This gentleman had an opportunity of inspecting no less than five at once, which had been brought from Surinam by an English mariner. The largest measured about three feet eight inches in length ; and from ten to fourteen inches in circumference, in the thickest part of the body. The head was large, broad, and flat; and the mouth compressed here and there with holes, as if perforated with a blunt needle. There were two nostrils on each side ; the first large, tubular, and elevated above the surface ; the other small, and level with the skin. The eyes were small, and of a bluish colour; and the whole body, from about four inches below the head, was clearly distinguished into four longitudinal parts or divisions. Across the body were a number of small bands, annular divisions, or rather wrinkles of the skin; by means of which the fish had the power of lengthening or shortening itself like a worm, and could swim backwards as well as forwards. There were two pectoral fins situ- ated just behind the head, scarcely an inch long: these the fish seemed to use principally as a means of raising his head out of the water, which it frequently did for the sake of breathing. The electric eel gives a shock to any person or any number of persons who join hands, touching it, to a very violent degree ; and hence it has been found difficult to examine it when alive. Mr. John Hunter, who dissected one of them, found that the nerves of this fish appropriated to the exercise of its electric powers, and which arise par- ticularly from the spinal marrow, are considerably larger than those which are bestowed on any other part for the 260 SEA-WOLF. LAUNCE. purposes of action and sensation. Its shock is attended with all the phenomena and effects of the electric fluid of our atmosphere when collected ; as far, at least, as has been discovered from the experiments hitherto made. THE SEA-WOLF. This fish seems to be chiefly confined to the northern parts of the globe. It is found in the seas of Greenland, Iceland, and Norway, as well as on the coasts of Scot- land, Yorkshire, Germany, and Holland ; but has seldom or never been caught farther southward. The sea-wolf grows to a very large size, measuring from four to seven feet. The head is small, the body long, and a little compressed sideways ; and the skin smooth and slippery. It is a very ravenous and fierce fish, and when taken will fasten on any thing within its reach. The fisher- men, dreading its bite, endeavour, as speedily as pos- sible, to strike out its fore-teeth, which are so strong, that they are capable of leaving an impression on an anchor. Indeed its teeth, which are sometimes found in a fossil state, under the name of buffonites, or toad-stones, are excellently adapted to its way of life. It feeds almost entirely on crustaceous and testaceous animals, which it grinds to pieces with astonishing facility. On account, probably, of the disagreeable and horrid appearance of this fish, its flesh is not much esteemed; but the fisher- men, after cutting off the head, and skinning it, some- times make a meal of it. THE LAUNCE, OR SAND-EEL. The launce resembles the common eel in shape ; being long and round, and generally measuring nine or ten inches in length. The back is blue, varying with green ; and the sides are of a silvery white colour. A long narrow fin ex- tends almost the whole length of the back; and there are also a pair of fins at the gills, but none under the belly. The body is destitute of scales. These fishes abound on the sandy shores of Great Bri- Fifl. 1 Jsvnw. fit i. .? . Zi91 body of which moves westward, and pours along the coasts of America as far as Carolina ; while the other directs its course to Europe, and first appears off the Shetland islands in the month of April. From these islands this great army again divides ; one squadron taking the western coasts of Britain towards Ireland, and another the eastern towards the Land's End. During their progress, they are pursued by millions of enemies of all descriptions, and among others, by man ; their approach being carefully watched by the fishermen, who catch them in numbers beyond calculation. Considered as an aliment, fresh herrings are not un- wholesome; but, when cured, (as myriads are annually,) they indeed supply the poor with cheap food, but are not considered as particularly nutritive, or easy of digestion. The Dutch are most expert in pickling these fishes ; but the British fisheries have of late years been much improved, and meet with considerable national encouragement; which indeed they well deserve, both in an economical and poli- tical point of view. THE SPRAT. The sprat has been generally, though erroneously, sup- posed to be a herring not arrived at its full growth, its usual length being only four or five inches. The body, however, is much deeper than that of a young herring of equal mag- nitude ; and the dorsal fin is placed more remote from the nose. There is also another and more distinctive cha- racter ; the herring having fifty-six vertebrae, but this fish only forty-eight. Sprats visit our coasts, and continue with us, when the herrings have generally disappeared. They usually arrive in the river Thames about the beginning of November, and quit it in March. They are rather a fat and oily food ; but, when fried, furnish a cheap and not unpleasant meal to the poor, at the most inclement season of the year. They are sometimes prepared as a substitute for anchovy; but their bones dissolve less easily than those of that fish, o 2 292 PILCHARD. ANCHOVY. SHAD. THE PILCHARD. This fish has a general resemblance to the herring ; but its body is less compressed, thicker, and rounder ; the nose and under jaw are also shorter, the back more elevated, and the belly less sharp. The scales of the pilchard like- wise adhere very closely, whereas those of the herring easily drop off; and the former is the smaller fish, though fatter and fuller of oil. Pilchards arrive in vast shoals off the coast of Cornwall towards the middle of July, and retire about the com- mencement of winter. Their motives for migration are the same as those of the herring, but they are partial to a warmer summer situation ; for, excepting on the coast of Cornwall, where they are caught in prodigious quantities, they are not numerous on any of the British shores. The pilchard-fishery, in Cornwall, is uncertain, but some- times immensely lucrative. The numbers taken at one shooting of the nets has indeed been astonishingly great, On the fifth of October, 1767, there were at one time in- closed and caught in St. Ives' bay, seven thousand hogs- heads, each containing thirty-five thousand fishes. THE ANCHOVY. This well-known fish, so generally used in sauces, is about a finger's length, with a pointed snout and a wide mouth. It is caught in prodigious quantities in the Me- diterranean, particularly at Gorgona; and is brought over to our country, pickled. THE SHAD. The shad has a forked snout, and black spots on the sides. It is very common in the Mediterranean; particularly in the river Nile, up which it annually migrates. The best shads in the British islands are found in the Severn; in which river this fish appears in April or May, and continues about two months. In the Thames it is seldom seen before the beginning of June, and its flesh is less delicate in that river than in the Severn. CARP. BARBEL. TENCH. 293 THE CARP. Hiis fish, though now so well known, was not intro- d ced into this island till about the year 1514. It is the most suitable for stocking ponds, on account of its quick growth and prodigious increase. The body is thick ; the scales are very large, the jaws of equal length; and on each side of the mouth is a single beard, and above these are two shorter. The average weight is about five pounds, but some have reached twenty. Carps are long-lived, and one has been known to attain a hundred years. They are capable of existing a considerable time out of their native element, and have even been regularly fed, by a particular process, after being taken from the pond. They are ex- cessively cunning, and shy of taking a bait; though during spawning-time they will suffer themselves to be tickled, handled, and caught with facility. THE BARBEL. This is a very coarse fish, and seldom eaten but by the poor, who sometimes boil a little bacon with it, in order to heighten its relish. The roe is very unwholesome. Barbels frequent the still and deep parts of rivers ; and live in society, rooting, like swine, with their noses in the soft banks. They are very tame, and easily caught by the hand. They are commonly about three feet long, and will weigh twenty-five pounds. The belly is white, and the dorsal fin is armed with a remarkably strong spine, sharply serrated, with which the fish inflicts a severe and dangerous wound. THE TENCH. Though this fish was anciently in as little repute as the barbel, its flesh is now in much estimation. In this coun- try, at least, it is reckoned a wholesome and delicious food. Its usual weight is about four pounds; but some have been known to weigh ten, or even more. It loves still waters ; and is simple and easily caught. o .'i 291 GUDGEON. BREAM. RO ACH. The tench is thick, and short in proportion to its breadth. The colour of the back is dusky; but the head, sides, and belly are of a greenish cast, charmingly blended with a golden hue, particularly when the fish is in its highest perfection. THE GUDGEON. The gudgeon is generally found in gentle streams ; and seldom reaches half a pound in weight, or measures more than six inches in length. The body is round, the scales are small, the back is brown or olive-coloured, and the belly is whitish. Its flesh is highly esteemed; and, as it bites very eagerly, (from which circumstance its name has long been used as a term expressive of stupidity,) it may be caught with a variety of baits. It is usual to rake the bed of a river to raise the mud, by which means the gud- geons may be drawn to any particular spot. THE BREAM. This fish is found in lakes, and the deepest parts of still rivers. The body is deep, and thin in proportion to its length ; the back is much elevated ; and during spring, the animal is scmetimes covered with abundance of minute whitish tubercles. The back and fins are of a dusky hue, the sides yellowish, and the tail represents a crescent. Its flesh is little valued. THE ROACH. In some parts of the world the roach is found only in stagnant waters ; but in Britain it thrives equally in ponds, and still deep rivers. It is a gregarious fish ; and is re- markably prolific, as well ah vivacious and active; and hence the proverb, " As sound as a roach." This fish is deep, but thin ; the back is much elevated, and sharply ridged; the scales are large and deciduous; and the lateral line is considerably incurvated. It seldom reaches any considerable size, though some have been found weighing two pounds. DACE. CHUB. BLEAK. COLD-FISH. 295 THE DACE. This fish, like the roach, is gregarious, haunts the same places, is a great breeder, very lively, and during summer, is fond of frolicking on the surface of the water. It seldom exceeds a pound in weight, and the flesh is not much es- teemed ; however, it affords great diversion to the expert angler, as it will bite at any fly. The back is dusky with a yellowish cast of green, and the sides and belly are silvery. THE CHUB. The chub is a very coarse fish, and extremely full of bones. The body is oblong and rather round, and the head is short and thick. The upper part is of a dusky-green colour, the sides are silvery, and the belly is white. This fish frequents the deep holes of rivers ; and during summer, commonly lies on the surface of the water, be- neath the shade of some tree or bush. It is very timid, darting to the bottom on the least alarm ; but soon resumes its former situation. The flesh is in little esteem, and the weight seldom exceeds five pounds. THE BLEAK. These fishes are very common in many of our rivers, and keep together in large shoals. They seldom exceed five or six inches in length, and from their scales, artificial pearls are made, as well as from the perch. THE GOLD-FISH. Though natives of China, these beautiful fishes are quite naturalized in this kingdom, where they breed as freely in the open air as carp. They were little known here before the year 1728, when a number of individuals were im- ported, and circulated round the vicinity of London ; whence they have been gradually distributed to the remotest parts of the island. The gold-fish bears a great resemblance to the carp, o 4 296 CLASS V. INSECTS. and grows to the length of about eight inches. Its colours are liable to great variations ; some are marked with a fine blue brown, or bright silver; but the predominant colour is that of gold, of , most brilliant appearance. In China they are every where kept in the families of the opulent, for amusement, in porcelain vessels. The extreme beauty of their colours and their lively motions afford great entertainment; and on this account we fre- quently see them here confined in glass vases, where they will live for many months without any visible nutriment, provided the water be occasionally changed. CLASS V INSECTA, OR INSECTS. THE farther we extend our views into nature, the more wonders will attract our notice, and the greater difficulties we shall experience in the research. The larger animals and plants are sufficiently distinguished, and are capable of easy enumeration; but, when we descend to the inferior classes of nature, in either the animal or vegetable king- dom, we find beings multiplying so fast upon us, that the most industrious and inquisitive must be contented to ar- range in masses, rather than attempt to describe in detail. The distinguishing characters of insects are, that their bodies are without blood, bones, or cartilages ; that they are covered with a sort of bony substance instead of skin ; that they generally breathe through lateral lungs; and that their heads are commonly furnished with antennae, or horns, Though insects are the smallest in the scale of existence, they are certainly not the least interesting. Their minute- ness indeed may at first view sanction an idea of their un- importance; and the ignorant and untutored may thence be led to regard them as the result of chance, and the dregs of nature ; but whoever considers them with due attention, CLASS V. INSECTS. 297 and reflects on the art and mechanism of their structure, where such a number of vessels, fluids, and movements, are collected into a point frequently invisible to the naked eye, must acknowledge that they display the same wisdom and power as fabricated the stately elephant and the enor- mous whale. The insects, however, which by their visible size or beauty attract our notice* are but the smallest part of the class to which they belong: the whole earth teems with animated matter ; every plant, every leaf, every grain, supports creatures, which even the assistance of the mi- croscope can scarcely render apparent to our eyes. In the higher ranks of existence, two animals nearly resembling each other in form will be found to have a similar history ; but insects, however much alike, will often be found perfectly dissimilar; as well in their manner of bringing forth and subsisting, as in the changes which they undergo in their very limited lives. Thus, as this class is wonderfully prolific, so its varieties are multiplied beyond the power of enumeration. Almost every species has its own peculiar habits, manners, appetites, and modes of propagation; and the inquiries of ages directed to this single point would barely be sufficient to furnish an outline of entomology. An exact plan, therefore, of nature's operations in these minute tribes is not to be expected ; yet such a general picture may be given as is sufficient to evince the care which Providence has manifested in the production of its meanest creatures ; and to display that admirable economy of nature, by which one kind of beings find subsistence from the destruction of another, and life is perpetuated without a pause, through every department of creation. Comparatively insignificant as insects must be deemed when estimated on the scale of utility to man, nature has been liberal in her embellishment of some of the orders. Butterflies, cantharides, and all the shining flies, are at- tractive by their beauty ; and the same wisdom that has rendered some insects the objects of admiration for the o 5 298 CLASS V. INSECTS. brilliancy of colouring, has also given to others a certain share of strength and armour for their necessary defence, or for the means of procuring their food. The wasp and the bee have formidable stings ; the beetle kind have gene- rally a strong shelly covering ; and ants, particularly the termites, have powerful teeth. The most delicate insects, such as caterpillars, are furnished with hairs which serve to break the force of shocks which they are liable to re- ceive, as well as to weaken the effects of external annoy- ance. The generality of insects are likewise quick in flight to avoid impending danger : some by the assistance of their wings ; others by means of threads which they can throw out, and by which they suspend themselves till the danger is past ; and others still, as the grasshopper, are able to leap a considerable distance. Thus every species, however minute, is furnished with certain appro- priate means for self-preservation. But, if we examine the various organs with which insects are supplied, and the instruments which they use, our admiration will be still more excited. The silkworm (the most valuable of all the class) is so completely formed for spinning, by its two distaffs and fingers for drawing out the thread, that the utmost efforts of art to accomplish the same end are only an imitation of nature. The spider fabricates nets and webs, and is, therfore, provided with implements for that purpose ; the wasp, by means of two small saws which spring from the angles of the mouth, procures what materials are necessary for the construction of its cell ; while bees are furnished with a variety of tools or instruments, indispensably necessary to the form- ation of their combs, and the collection of their honey. Nothing, indeed, can be more wonderfully constructed than the trunk of the bee ; by means of which the animal is fitted for extracting the honied balsam, even from herbs of the most deleterious quality. In a variety of respects, the structure of the eye in in- sects is different from that of other creatures ; its own rigidity protects it against external injuries ; and its CLASS V. INSECTS. 299 cornea is all over divided into lenticular facets, which, through the microscope, appear like a beautiful piece of lattice-work, each section presenting objects inverted. This mechanism sufficiently supplies the place of the crystalline humour, which is never found in insects. Spiders have generally eight eyes ; and flies may be said to have as many organs of sight as there are perforations in the cornea, or external covering of the eye. To con- template objects, animals in general are obliged to turn their eyes different ways ; but those of flies are so con- trived as to embrace every neighbouring object at one view. The mechanism of the feet of insects is no less worthy of attention. The hind legs of amphibious insects, such as water-beetles, which are sometimes obliged to live on land as well as water, are formed with commodious flat joints ; while gristles, which are placed at the extremity of the limb on each side, supply the place of oars. In those insects which are formed for leaping, such as the grasshopper and the cricket, the legs are strong and brawny ; those, on the contrary, which use their claws for perforating the earth, have these members peculiarly fitted for that purpose. There are even some tribes of insects which transport themselves from one place to another, in a manner not yet understood ; for those gene- rated in stagnant waters are often found in new pits or ponds ; and spiders frequently soar with their webs to the summits of the most lofty towers. Winged insects are provided with tendons to expand and strengthen the instruments of flight. Those that are fur- nished with four wings, as the ephemeron, or day-fly, use the outermost pair rather as cases to defend the interior, than as auxiliaries in flight. When the insect is at rest, the inner wings are generally closed up ; nor is it without some effort that the little animal is capable of unfolding them. Such insects, on the contrary, as have only two wings, are supplied with little balls, or poisers, united to the body under the hinder part of each wing, which serve o 6 SOO CLASS V. INSECTS. to keep them steady, and, in some measure, counteract the changes of the air, which otherwise might waft them along in its current. If one of those balances is cut off, the insect loses its equipoise, and falls to the ground ; if both are removed, it will still continue to fly, though subject to the direction of every breeze. Insects, as far as is yet known, are generated, like the larger animals, from eggs ; and these are at first inclosed in a single or double covering, which opens when the nascent animal has arrived at a proper stage of maturity. When the young break their shell at once, as the millipedes, the parents are said to be viviparous ; but, when the em- bryo is wrapped up in a covering, in which it is destined to remain for some time, as the silk-worm, they are called oviparous. The instinct displayed by the oviparous kinds, in depo- siting their eggs in a suitable situation, where they may meet with the requisite heat, or the young animal, when first produced, may find the most appropriate nourish- ment, is not the least extraordinary circumstance attending them. No insects abandon their eggs to chance ; nor do they ever err in respect to the situation to be chosen for the purpose of bringing them to life. Caterpillars, which eat oleraceous plants, are never found on willows ; nor such as eat willows, on cabbages. Moths delight to lodge among woollen stuffs or papers, but none take up their residence on plants or in mud. Thus, instinct in insects is as powerful as reason in man, as far as self-preservation, and the care for posterity, are concerned. When the eggs of some kinds are hatched, the young appear in their perfect and permanent shape; but the greater number of insects pass through different stages of existence, and successively assume the figure of two or three animals, which bear no resemblance to each other. From the eggs of the gnat proceed animalcules which first live in the water, then become amphibious, and are at last inhabitants of the air. Summer which developes, in the most powerful manner, CCASS V. INSECTS. 301 the energies of every thing that lives or grows, is the season of pleasure and activity to insects. Few of them live beyond a single season ; and some of them only a day, or even a few hours. Such, however, as are long-lived, take the necessary precautions to provide for their safety and subsistence during the winter ; fixing on the most convenient situation for spending that dreary interval, and laying up a sufficient stock of food. But the greater number become torpid during the cold weather ; and, therefore, are exempted from the necessity of accumulating provi- sions. Some caterpillars, for instance, having fed during the summer, retire to places of security at the approach of winter ; when, spinning threads like cobwebs, they suspend themselves, covered with a factitious vesture, which at once keeps them warm, and protects them from external injuries. In this dormant state, they continue, till the returning sun calls them to new life ; when they become invigorated by his influence, expand their wings, and im- mediately exercise all the functions of life. Of the animals which lay up stores for winter, the hive- bee and the ant of warmer climates are remarkable in- stances. The wasp, the hornet, and the wild-bee, are no less assiduous in providing commodious apartments, and furnishing them with provisions ; but this is done wholly for the sake of their young ; for, in this climate, after taking care of their progeny, they desert their nests in winter, and seek other situations, where they probably repose in total insensibility. But, after all the admirable habits and instincts which may be observed in this class of animated nature, it must be confessed, that they are much inferior to many of the preceding. As, in mechanics, the most complicated ma- chines are required to perform the nicest operations ; so, in anatomy, the noblest animals are most variously and wonderfully made. Of all living creatures, man exhibits the most astonishing variety, and adaptation of parts in his internal structure ; quadrupeds next succeed ; and other animals follow, in proportion to their powers and 302 CLASS V. INSECTS. excellences. Insects seem to be the most imperfectly organized : many of them will live a considerable time after they are deprived of the parts which, in the higher ranks of nature, are essential to life ; and the caterpillar will exist, when stripped even of its heart and lungs. It is not, however, in their conformation only, but also in their instincts, that insects are inferior to other animals. It is true, the ant and the bee present us with very striking instances of assiduity and foresight ; but they fall very short of those proofs of sagacity displayed by the hound or the horse. A bee, when detached from the swarm, is totally inactive, and incapable of giving the smallest variation to its instincts ; it has but a single mode of operation ; and> if it be prevented from the exercise of that, it can have recourse to no other. In the pursuits of the dog, there appears something like choice, and a promptitude for ex- pedients; but in the labours of the bee, all has the sem-* blance of compulsion, or inevitable necessity. Another observation, tending to show the imperfection and inferiority of insects, may be suggested from their amazing numbers. It is a rule which universally prevails, that the nobler animals are slowly produced ; and that, in regard to them, nature acts with a kind of dignified eco- nomy ; while the meaner births are lavished in a sort of sportive profusion, and thousands are produced, merely to supply the necessities of the more favoured classes. The higher subjects of animation are all capable of some degree of education, and evince different portions of do- cility ; their instincts may be suppressed or altered : the dog may be taught to fetch and carry, the bird to whistle the notes of a tune, and the serpent to dance ; but the insect cannot be taught ; no arts can enlarge its narrow instincts, nor any attention conciliate its regard. If insects are considered as bearing a relation to man, and as promoting his pleasures or relieving his necessities, they will even in this respect sink below the level of the animals before described. The bee, the silk-worm, the cochineal-fly, and the cantharides, are indeed of essential CLASS V. INSECTS. 303 service in trade and domestic economy ; but how many of this class are noxious, or at best useless ! Even in popu- lous and cultivated countries, where injurious animals have been repressed, or reduced within moderate bounds, insects still maintain their ground without diminution, and are often unwelcome intruders on the fruits of human industry. But in wilder and less peopled regions, their annoyances and devastations are inconceivable. What a miserable idea must we form respecting the life of a Lap- lander, as well as of the natives of several parts of America and Africa, where a candle is no sooner lighted than the insect tribes instantly extinguish it ; where meat is no sooner produced than it is immediately covered with them ; where the inhabitants, to defend their persons, are obliged to use the most disgusting unguents ; and where, though millions are destroyed, millions constantly succeed, and increase the vexations of those unpropitious climates. While it must be confessed that insects are generally of little value or use, in regard to the wants or conveniences of man, yet, as partakers of the life in which he shares, and as part among the works of the beneficent FATHER of ALL, they are surely entitled to consideration and humanity. To destroy a large animal wantonly is a species of cruelty, at which the feeling, well-instructed mind would revolt ; but we see insects, not really noxious, destroyed without the least check of compunction. This practice seems to arise from the gross error of supposing that every thing is really in itself contemptible, which happens to have a body infinitely disproportionate to our own ; not considering that great and little are merely relative terms, and that the poor beetle that we tread upon, In corporal sufferance feels a pang as great As when a giant dies. Indeed there is every reason to believe, that the sensa- tions of many insects are as exquisite as those in animals 304? CLASS V. INSECTS. of far greater dimensions ; perhaps more so. Why then should the life of the most ignoble being be sported with, when there is neither provocation nor justifiable tempt- ation ? Montaigne remarks, that there is a certain claim of kindness and benevolence which every species of ani- mals has a right to expect from man. This principle should be pressed upon tender minds in its fullest extent. Children ought to be early warned against the most distant approaches to cruelty ; a disposition to torture insects may take its rise from an over-active temperament, or be attributed to want of reflection ; but if indulged, it may settle into a habit, and render its possessor callous to every kind of suffering, except his own. The supreme court of judicature at Athens, punished a boy for putting out the eyes of a poor bird that unfortunately fell into his hands ; and parents and masters should never overlook an instance of cruelty to any thing that has life, however minute and contemptible the object may be. In the microscopic in- sect, as well as in the enormous whale, we find evident marks of the same wisdom and the same paternal good- ness ; every creature is furnished with all that is necessary both for its preservation and its happiness, in that sphere to which Providence has consigned it ; and we certainly violate the laws of nature and of nature's God when we wantonly inflict pain, and lessen or prevent enjoy- ment. To obtain even a moderate acquaintance with the his- tory of insects, would require years of sedulous atten- tion ; and at last the knowledge would be curious perhaps, rather than useful. It cannot, therefore, be wished that life should be spent in such inferior pursuits ; yet every lover of nature will derive gratification and improve- ment in a general acquaintance with this class of beings, by studying the outlines of systematic arrangement, and acquiring the terms of art used in the science of en- tomology. The first thing to which the young student should attend is, to be able to distinguish insects accurately from CLASS V. INSECTS. 305 worms or amphibia ; with both which, before the time of Linnaeus, they were frequently blended and confused, though they differ as essentially as mammalious animals from birds. Every insect is furnished with a head, an- tennae or horns, and feet ; of all which the vermes (or worms) are destitute. All insects likewise have six or more feet ; they respire through pores on the sides, called spiracles ; and their skin is extremely hard, and serves them instead of bones, of which latter they have inter- nally none. The antennae, however, placed on the fore- part of the head, constitute the principal distinctions of insects from worms and amphibia. These organs are jointed and moveable in every part, in which they differ from the horns of other animals ; and they are supposed to convey some kind of sense : but we have as little correct knowledge of what nature this sense is, as a man, blind from his birth, can be supposed to have of the action of light on the eye, or of the impression which is made from this cause on the mind. But that they are the organs of a particular sense, is apparent from their perpetual motion ; yet the hard crust with which they are invested, and their shortness, in flies and other insects, would induce us to believe them not to be the organs of touch ; and accordingly a naturalist, who has written a learned treatise on the science, supposes them to consti- tute or contain the organs of hearing. Besides the antennae, the head also, the trunk, the proboscis, the feelers, the breast, the belly, the limbs, the tail, and the wings, are particularly to be regarded by the entomologist. Various terms of art are likewise to be learnt which are used to express the differences and positions of the wings ; but, as they are all borrowed from the Latin, they would afford little information to common readers ; and the learned will readily find them in the works of Linnaeus. Indeed, in our language, or at least in our dictionaries, are very few English names for insects themselves. The figures of many of them are familiar to us ; but we have only a few distinctive names, 306 ORDER I. COLEOPTERA. such as beetles, moths, flies, bees, and wasps, by which they are known to us. To enumerate the immense variety, therefore, of genera and species, would be in a great measure useless to the juvenile reader. It will be suffi- cient, on this account, to exhibit a summary view of the different orders ; and notice some of the most remark- able insects under each, with their respective haunts or habitations. The class of insects is divided into seven orders, viz. 1. COLEOPTERA, or insects having four wings ; the two superior ones being crustaceous, and furnished with a straight suture. 2. HEMIPTERA ; insects smaller than the preceding, with four wings ; the two superior semi-crustaceous, and incumbent, (that is, the interior edges lying one upon the other.) 3. LEPIDOPTERA ; insects with four wings, all of them imbricated with scales. 4. NEUROPTERA ; insects having four wings, interwoven with veins like a piece of network, and no sting. 5. HYMENOPTERA ; insects agreeing in their character- istics with the preceding, excepting that these are armed with a sting. 6. DIPTERA ; insects having two wings, and two clavated halteres (or balances) behind each. 7. APTERA ; insects destitute of wings. * ORDER I. COLEOPTERA. THE distinguishing character of coleopterous insects is, that they have four wings ; the two superior ones being crustaceous, and furnished with a straight suture. Many of these (as the chaffer, the leather-eater, and the * These definitions should be committed to memory. ORDER I. COLEOPTERA. 307 rove-beetle) are found in the dung of quadrupeds; espe- cially of cows, sheep, and horses. Some, as the stag-beetle, and the Capricorn beetle, lodge in rotten wood, and under the decayed bark of trees. Others, as the carrion-beetle, are seen in putrid carcasses, on bones that have been gnawed by dogs, on flowers of a fetid smell, and on fungous stinking substances. The weevil, the seed-beetle, and others, in the early part of the day frequent the bottoms of perpendicular rocks and sand-banks, the flowers of trees, and herbaceous plants. Many kinds, as the whirl- beetle and the water-beetle, may be caught in rivers, lakes, and standing pools, by means of a small thread-net fixed to a long pole. About noon, when the sun shines in his full splendour, some kinds, as the lady-fly, the burn- cow, the golden honey-beetle, the soft-winged beetle, the spring-beetle, and the clipt-winged beetle, may be seen on plants and flowers, blighted trees and shrubs. Others, as the glow-worm, whose pale light adorns the tranquil summer evening, frequent moist meadows, or hedge-banks, and are best discovered by the lustre which they emit. A great number sit close on the leaves of plants ; particularly of burdock, coltsfoot ; and the like : in such situations the tortoise-beetle is found, while the blister-beetle and others feed on different kinds of tender herbs. The stinking beetle may be found in houses, cellars, pits, and subter- ranean passages ; and numbers on the trunks as well as on the leaves of trees, in timber-yards, and in the holes of decayed wood. Some, us the wood-beetle and the glossy beetle, inhabit wild commons, the margins of pools, marshes, and rivulets ; and are likewise seen creeping on flags, reeds, and other aquatic plants. Multitudes, as the ground-beetle, live under stones, moss, and rubbish, and the fragments of wrecks, near the shores of lakes and rivers; they are also found in bogs, marshes, and moist places, in pits, and in holes of the earth ; and in the even- ing they frequent pathways, after a refreshing shower. Some, as the ear-wig, may be discovered in the hollow stems of decayed umbelliferous plants, and on many sorts 308 ORDER II. HEMIPTERA. of fruits and flowers. In this whole order, perhaps not a single species is of any known utility in medicine or the arts, (though numbers are extremely beautiful and curious,) excepting the flies called cantharides; on the contrary, many of them are injurious to vegetation, or consume the fruits of human industry. . The cantharides, so valuable in medicine, from forming the principal ingredient of the common blistering plaster, differ considerably from each other in size ; the largest are about an inch long, and as much in circumference. Some are of a pure azure colour, others of a pure gold, and some a mixture of both ; however, they are all very brilliant, and extremely beautiful. They are chiefly natives of Spain, Italy, and Portugal ; but in the summer are to be found near Paris, on the leaves of the ash, the poplar, and the rose ; as well as among wheat, and in meadows. The country people, it is said, expect them every seven years ; when they appear in such swarms in the air, that the atmosphere to some distance is impregnated with their offensive smell, which is a guide to those whose business it is to catch them. When dried, fifty of them will scarcely weigh a single dram. ORDER II HEMIPTERA. THIS order is much smaller than the preceding : its dis- tinguishing character is, that the insects which compose it have four wings, the two superior of which are semi-crus- taceous and incumbent, that is, the interior edges lie one above the other. Some of these insects, as the cock-roach, are found about bakehouses ; others, as the camel-cricket and the locust, feed on grass, and every species of vegetable; while the boat-fly, the water-scorpion, and many others, frequent lakes, rivers, and standing pools. //>'. ). 1 . J)eif>7iof>tts . Z. f.frrtje fi-qtr Jfolh . J7ote 7.0. Fi'fj .1 .Itivet JfvTh . tiff. -/. fcJinfift . 2. Spfu/n.r. AV/. .5 Dmtjon ////. H'n.7.Scn'aae. ORDER III. LEPIDOPTERA. 309 The hemiptera comprise some of the most noxious as well as the most valuable kinds of insects. The devasta- tions occasioned by locusts, are too well known to be enlarged on here. The most luxuriant face of nature they turn into a desolate wilderness. When these insects take the field, they appear to be under the conduct of a leader ; whose flight they observe, and direct their motions accordingly. At a distance they resemble a black cloud ; which, as it approaches, gathers on the horizon, and threatens to obscure the light of the sun. It often happens that the husbandman perceives this impending storm pass away ; and the whole swarm proceed on their course to de- vour the labours of some devoted country. Unfortunate indeed is that district where these multitudes alight ! In a few minutes they desolate the promise of the year, and often bring on all the horrors of famine. The inhabitants of some countries, however, convert this plague into a real benefit : for, in many kingdoms of the East, and in some parts of Africa, locusts are pursued as an article of wholesome and not disagreeable food, when properly dressed. The coccus genus also furnishes some estimable drugs, and auxiliaries to the arts. The cochineal, the kermes, and the gum-lac, are all produced from its different species. ORDER III LEPIDOPTERA. INSECTS of this order have four wings, all of them im- bricated with scales. It comprises the beautiful tribes of moths and butterflies: the former distinguished by having filiform feelers, and flying chiefly by night ; the latter by the clavated feelers, and by pursuing the business of their lives in the day time. These insects, so attractive by the elegance of their forms, and the vivid lustre and variety of ORDER IV. NEUROPTERA. their colouring, enliven the face of nature, and augment the fascinations of the finest season in the year : various large and costly volumes have been devoted to this subject alone, to which the curious must be referred for enumera- tion; for a particular description would be almost an end- Jess task. It should be remarked, however, that the silk- worm is a species of moth which, by its intrinsic value, abundantly compensates the sterile beauty of the rest of the family. ORDER IV NEUROPTERA. THE neuroptera have four wings, interwoven with veins like a piece of net-work, and have no sting. The order includes seven genera; some of which, as the pearl-fly and the camel-fly, are found in woods, hedges, meadows, and sand-banks, as well as on walls, fruits, and umbelli- ferous flowers. Others, as the beautiful dragon-fly, the spring-fly, and the ephemeron or May-fly, frequent lakes and rivers. The last of these, though so minute, is one of the most interesting objects in natural history. In its latest or winged state, the ephemeron very much resembles the but- terfly kind, excepting that its wings are not imbricated. As there are but few species of this genus natives of England, the entomologist can only be gratified by a con- templation of their appearance and transient existence, on the banks of the Seine, the Rhine, and other conti- nental rivers, in temperate latitudes. For about three days towards evening, in the middle of summer, their numbers and rapid motions in such situations are perfectly astonishing. Millions of aureliae, ascending to the top of the water, instantly become inhabitants of the air, and fill all the vicinity with their flutterings. But their sport is speedily terminated ; for the whole swarm, in about five fiQ.J.. C'>r.'iitrrsi/,. luj. 4 . JHopmrn* JFato-r. Xtp.&. Month or foc&uay / ^' ORDER V. HYMENOPTERA. 3H hours at most, yield up their existence, and strew the ground on each side of their parent stream. Yet, limited as their duration is, they perform every office of nature, propagate their kind, enjoy their pastime and their food, and seem to live in as much felicity as the contracted period of a few hours will admit. ORDER V HYMENOPTERA. NEUROPTEROUS and hymenopterous insects agree in their characteristics, excepting that the latter are armed with a sting. This distinctive mark, however, is confined to the females and neuters ; for the males want it. This order includes bees, wasps, ants, and similar insects, whose history is highly interesting, in whatever view it can be placed. On the subject of bees alone, as many volumes have been written, from ancient times to the present, as would fill a library ; yet, after all, we are but imperfectly acquainted with some parts of their economy, Reaumur, indeed, who spent a great part of his life in the study of these wonderful animals, is sufficiently minute; but, seduced by an unbounded enthusiasm for the subject of his researches, he has ascribed the most extravagant qualities and habitudes to this really curious race. It is certain, however, that every hive is composed of three sorts of bees ; the labouring, which are most nume- rous, and neither male nor female ; the drones, which are larger, and idle, merely serving as males to propagate the species ; and the queen-bees, which are supposed to lay all the eggs from which the whole swarm is hatched. The last are much larger than either of the former, and are very few in number, though it does not appear (as was once supposed) that each hive contains only one. The manner in which bees extract honey from flowers, the instruments with which nature has furnished them for 312 ORDER VI. PIPTERA. this purpose, the construction of their combs, their social habits, and the laws under which they live and act, all claim our curiosity and admiration ; and the naturalist will find his labour abundantly compensated in studying this branch of entomology with diligence and attention. It is a serious misfortune, and a loss to individuals and the public, that bees are not more generally reared in this country ; and it is afflicting for humanity to reflect, that no generally practicable expedient has been hitherto con- trived, by which we may participate in the sweets of this industrious tribe, without making them victims to our cupidity. ORDER VI DIPTERA. THE diptera have two wings ; and two clavated halteres, or balances, behind each. The order contains an infinite variety of such winged insects as most frequently present themselves to our view, and either annoy by their punctures, or molest by their intrusions. Some of them, as the gad- fly, the house-fly, and the whame, flutter about horses, cows, sheep, the tops of trees, eminences, around ditches, dung-hills, and every offensive object ; others, as the wasp- fly, are mostly found on flowers of different sorts, parti- cularly those of a fetid smell. The troublesome gnat, included in this order, is well known in this country ; but the inconveniences arising from it are trivial, when compared with those of the mosquito- fly, one of this kind. In the less populous and unculti- vated regions of America, where the climate is warm and the waters occasionally stagnate, mosquitoes are an inces- sant annoyance to every thing that breathes. There the whole atmosphere appears loaded with them on the decline of the sun, and neither force nor evasion can shield the wretched sufferers from their attacks. Some of the species ORDER VII. - APTERA. 313 measure several inches in length, while others are imper- ceptible by the naked eye. All, however, possess the art of inflicting pungent pain; and, where they swarm, it is almost impossible to enjoy quiet by day or rest by night. ORDER VII APTERA. THE characteristic of animals in this order is, that they are destitute of wings. It comprehends fifteen genera ; in which are included the spider, the acarus, the flea, the louse, the termes or white ant, the scorpion, the crab, and the lobster. No general description can embrace subjects so various, and creatures in reality so dissimilar in their nature, though accidentally agreeing in the single circumstance of having no wings. This article shall therefore be dismissed with a few explanatory remarks on that curious subject, the metamorphosis and generation of insects. Except the aptera order, all insects are constantly and successively undergoing some transformation. From the egg they become a caterpillar or maggot, then a chrysalis, and lastly a perfect fly. During each of these changes, their appearance differs as much, as if they were distinct productions of nature. Before the insect undergoes the third and last change, it has arrived at its full growth ; when it waits only for the expansion of its wings. Such is the disposition to change in this class of animals, that even the crustaceous insects, such as crabs and lobsters, belonging, and bearing a distant analogy, to the order of aptera, annually cast their shells, as their growth would otherwise be impeded. Among insects in general, the same difference of sex exists as in large animals ; and some of them, when they become perfect, seem to be produced for no other purpose than to propagate their kind. Thus the silk- worm, when p 814 CLASS VI. VERMES. it has arrived at its moth state, ceases to feed, and can scarcely fly : it endeavours only to perpetuate its race ; after which the male immediately dies, and is followed by the female as soon as she has deposited her eggs. In some kinds of insects, however, as bees, a third sex exists, called neuters. These, of course, are unprolific, and seem destined to be drudges to that part of the family, whose .business it is to attend to the propagation of the species. CLASS VI VERMES, or WORMS. WE have now arrived at the lowest class of animated nature, and perceive the last link in the GRAND CHAIN. To determine precisely where animal life terminates and vegetable commences, as was observed at the outset of this work, is confessedly difficult ; perhaps it is not neces- sary for the advancement of science. It is enough, if the various productions of nature are distinctly noticed, and described with tolerable exactness. It may indeed amuse the speculative to enquire in what respect a zoophite re- sembles an animal, and what relation it bears to a plant ; but, with regard to the enlargement of the mind, or the valuable purposes of life (the great ends to which all our studies should be directed), this investigation appears to be of little importance. Worms are distinguished by having only one ventricle to the heart, no auricle, and a cold colourless sanies, instead of blood. They are particularly discriminated from insects by having tentacles, whereas the latter have antennae. They are likewise still more imperfect than that class : they are mostly destitute of heads, of eyes, and other organs of sense ; if cut, they are capable of re- production ; and the locomotive power in a great number of them is very limited indeed. ORDER I. INTESTINA. 315 Worms include five orders, viz. ^ INTESTINA ; or animals perfectly naked, and without any kind of limbs. 2. MOLLUSCS ; simple and naked animals ; but bra- chiated, or furnished with a species of limbs. 3. TESTACEA ; animals having soft simple bodies, but covered with a coat of a calcareous nature. 4. LYTHOPHITA and ZOOPHITA; animals furnished with a kind of flowers, and having a vegetating root and stem. 5. INFUSORIA ; very small simple microscopic animals. * This class, like the preceding, must be here confined to a brief survey. It is the professed object of this work to conduct the student only to the threshold of the spacious temple of animated nature : rather to stimulate research by a short comprehensive view of well-known facts, than to explore minutely the vast field of animation. ORDER I. INTESTINA. THE characteristics of this order are, that the animals are perfectly naked, and without any kind of limbs. There are twenty-one genera ; in which the most remarkable species are the various intestinal worms of men and other ani- mals, the earth-worm, and the leech. A description of the common earth-worm may suffice to give a general idea of the whole. This creature has a spiral muscle running round the whole body, from the head to the tail, by means of which it performs its progressive motion : alternately contracting and dilating itself; and easily keeping the ground which it has gained, by means of the slime appertaining to the fore-part of its body. Being formed for a life of obscurity, the worm is wisely * These definitions should be committed to memory. T> Q 316 ORDER II. MOLLUSCS. adapted to its situation. It is armed with sharp spines, or prickles, which it occasionally erects or depresses; and under the skin is a slimy juice, which it ejects through certain perforations between the rings of the muscles, as occasion requires. It has also breath^apertures along the back, and is furnished with a mouth and an alimentary canal. The latter is always found full of a very fine earth. Worms unite both sexes in themselves, at once impreg- nating and being impregnated in their turn. Their eggs are laid in the earth, and become hatched, in twelve or fourteen days, by the genial warmth of their situation. During the winter, these animals bury themselves deeper in the earth, and appear in some measure to partake the tor- pidity of the insect tribe ; but in spring they revive, and pursue the universal purpose of propagating their kind. As a proof of the simple organization of worms, and their degradation in the scale of being, they are also capable of being multiplied by cuttings. Each section gradually acquires what was wanting to complete its form ; and, in a few months, the minute parts of the original creature attain their natural size and proportion. Thus one of the most seemingly abject of lives is the most difficult to destroy ; and, in proportion to the dangers to which the tribe is exposed, Providence seems to have,, allotted it qualities requisite for its preservation, ORDER II. MOLLUSCS. ANIMALS of this order are simple and naked; but they are brachiated, or furnished with a species of limbs. There are thirty-one genera, and a great number of species ; some of which, as the medusa, the echinus, and the limax, are objects of particular curiosity to the proficient in natural science. By far the greater part of molluscae are natives of the sea or its shores. In this treatise only a few can be particularised. ORDER II MOLLUSCJE* 31? To begin with the medusa. The body of this animal is of an orbiculated convex figure, of a gelatinous substance, and destitute of hair ; and the mouth is below and central* The medusae are sometimes seen swimming in clusters on the surface of the sea, and are said to constitute the prin- cipal nourishment of the whale. Of the various species of this genus, the most remarkable is that which was first no- ticed by Sir Joseph Banks, in his passage from Madeira to Brazil : when drawn up by means of the casting-net, it had the appearance of metal violently heated, and emitted a white light. With these animals were taken three small crabs of different species, entirely new ; each of which yielded as much light as the glow-worm, though the creature was not above one-tenth of the size. These luminous animals give that appearance to the sea which has been observed by many navigators, and for which different reasons have been assigned by different writers. The flashes of light from them exactly resemble those of lightning ; and are so frequent, that several are visible in the same instant. The echinus, or sea-urchin, has its body covered with a sutured crust, often furnished with moveable spines which assist its motion ; and its mouth, which is placed beneath, has five valves. The covering, which resembles a scooped apple, is filled with a soft muscular substance, through which the intestines wind from bottom to top. Some spe- cies of the echinus are reckoned equal to lobsters, in point of delicate and wholesome eating, and their eggs, which are of a deep red colour, are highly valued by epicures. The shell, or rather crust, is frequently preserved as an object of curiosity. These animals are generally found in a fossil state. The asterias, or sea-star, forms a numerous tribe of ma- rine creatures that are found to vary in their appearance at different periods : the same animal which at one time appears round like a ball, very often, in a short time, be- comes as flat and thin as a plate. The body of the aste- rias is composed of a semi-transparent gelatinous substance, covered with a thin membrane. To an inattentive ob- SI 8 ORDER III. TESTACEA. server, it appears like a lump of inanimate jelly, floating at random on the surface of the sea, as if casually thrown ashore at the departure of the tide : but on a more minute inspection, the creature is seen shooting out its arms in every direction, in order to seize worms, small shells, or the spawn of fish, which it devours with great avidity. In summer, when the water of the sea is warmed by Jie heat of the sun, the asteriae float on the surface, and in the night emit a kind of luminous effluvia resembling phosphorus. These animals have obtained from some naturalists the appellation of sea-nettles, because they irritate the hands of those who touch them. They are often found affixed to rocks and to the largest sea-shells, as if they derived their nourishment from that source. If injected into spirits of wine, they will continue entire for many years ; but, on being exposed to the air, they melt down, in a few hours, into a limpid offensive liquid. There are a variety of species, of different colours. Many of them are natives of our own coasts. ORDER III TESTACEA. ANIMALS of this order have soft simple bodies, but are covered with a coat of a calcareous nature. It includes the whole tribe of shells, or testaceous animals properly so called *, consisting of thirty-six genera, and nearly a thousand species. The names of the genera of this beautiful family are, CHITON, LEPAS,PHOLAS, MYA, SOLEN, TELLINA, CARDIUM, MACTRA, DONAX, VENUS, SPONDYLUS, CHAMA, ARCA, OSTREA, ANOMIA, MYTILUS, PINNA, ARGONAUTA, NAUTILUS, CONUS, CYPR.ZEA, BULLA, VOLUTA, BUCCINUM, * Crustaceous animals, as crabs and lobsters, belong to the class of insects, and order of aptera, as mentioned in page 313. ORDER III. TESTACEA, 319 STROMBUS, MUREX, TROCHUS, TURBO, HELIX, NERITA, HAHOTIS, PATELLA, DENTALIUM, SERPULA, TEREDO, and SABELLA. In order to assist the young reader to acquire some in- sight into the formation of shells, a few observations shall be here added on the garden-snail ; with whose figure every one is acquainted, and whose history has been very minutely investigated. As nature acts in an uniform man- ner, with regard to this animal and all other testacea, whether they belong to the sea, to the land, or to rivers, the history of one will, of course, be the history of all the rest. At the instant when the young snail quits the egg, its shell is seen on its back : at first this is not much larger than the head of a pin, with two circumvolutions ; but it enlarges very rapidly. In proportion as the animal grows, the spiral turns increase, till they reach the number of five, at which they remain fixed. From the mouth the snail augments its shell, accordingly as it finds itself strained for room beneath ; and, when about to extend its covering, it may be seen biting and clearing away the scaly skin that adheres to the edges with its little teeth, after which it adds another rim to its abode. The art of manufacturing shells is natural to the snail, ' as well as to other testaceous animals. For this purpose its whole body is furnished with glands, from the orifices of which exudes a kind of slimy fluid, which unites in one common crust or surface, and, in time, acquires a stony hardness. That glistening substance, in fact, which the snail so frequently leaves behind it, is, in reality, the matter with which the animal either augments its shell, or repairs its defects. Thus every shell may be considered as a composition of layers of slime, originally proceeding from the creature's body, and moulded conformably to its shape and various exigencies. But, though the actual formation of shells may be thus accounted for, they, probably, receive their beautiful tints F 4 320 ORDER III. TESTACEA. from some extraneous causes. It is well known that all the internal parts of shells are of an uniform white colour ; and that the outermost layer alone is so beautifully varied, and so richly tinctured with vivid colours. Hence it ap- pears that there must be an accretion of earthy or saline matter arising from food or situation, exclusive of the slimy fluid derived from the animal's own body, in order to produce those pleasing tints which we witness in cabinets of shells collected by the curious. In those repositories, which are sometimes formed at an astonishing expense, are found shells possessing every shade of colouring but blue ; the reason of which exception is, the sea-water immediately annihilates that colour, while it suffers others to exist. Put a piece of blue silk, or a feather of this colour, into an infusion of salt, urine, or nitre, and its tint will soon be extinguished. This may throw some light on the operations of nature in regard to shells. Neither the animal-slime alone, nor the external earthy, nor saline particles individually, could produce colours, but both united may yield an effect which neither singly possessed. Hence it may be inferred, that the animal alone does not tincture its shell, but that external causes co-operate in adding to its beauty. But, though the shell with its beautiful tints is not pro- duced by the sole agency of the animal, the fact is other- wise with regard to its convolutions, its prominences, and its general forms. These entirely depend on the art of the animal ; or rather on the instincts, which in the same species are ever invariable. The shell, indeed, always bears some rude resemblance to the body on which it has been moulded : wherever there is an excrescence on the body, there is a prominence on the shell ; and a depression is always accompanied with a correspondent hollow. li the body is channelled, the shell that covers it will be channelled likewise ; if annulated, the shell will wind about it in the same spiral manner. Thus shells are as various in their figures as the animals which they inclose. Indeed, the diversity of shells i? so ORDER IV. ZOOPHITA. 321 great, and the figures and colours appear so very curious, that some virtuosi have made the arrangement of them the study and the business of their lives. Nor should this singular task be too severely blamed. The mind that can find innocent entertainment in those humble contempla- tions is at least not ill employed. " What can be more gratifying," says Pliny, " than to view nature in all her irregularities, and sporting in all her varieties of shells ? Such a difference of colour do they exhibit, such a dis- tinction of figure ; flat, concave, long, lunated, circular, or the orbit divided ; some prominent on the backs, some wrinkled, toothed, streaked, the point variously intorted, the mouth pointed like a dagger, folded back, or bent inwards ! All these variations, and many more which might be enumerated, at once administer to novelty, to elegance, and to contemplation." Whatever subdivisions, and generic as well as specific characters, have been adopted by different conchologists, all appear to admit the three grand distinctions of shells ; the UNIVALVE, the BIVALVE, and the MULTIVALVE. This arrangement, which is at once obvious and simple, must be made the basis of every system. It is almost unnecessary to mention, that most of the shells discovered of late years have been also found in a fossil state ; and some moreover in the latter form, whose existing animal has not yet been recognized. ORDER IV ZOOPHITA. THIS order consists of compound animals, furnished with a kind of flowers, and having a vegetating root and stem. Under this head fifteen genera are arranged, namely, TUBIPORA, MADREPOHA, MILLEPORA, CELLEPORA, ISIS, ANTIPATHES, GORGONIA, ALCYONIUM, SPONGIA, FLUSTRA, p 5 322 ORDER V. INFUSORIA. TUBULARIA, CORALLINA, SERTULARIA, PENNATULA, and HYDRA. Zoophytes are so contracted in their powers, and so de- fective in their formation, that some naturalists have con- fessed themselves at a loss whether to consider them as a superior rank of vegetables, or as the humblest order of animated nature. Indeed, in some of them, the marks of the animal are so few, that it is difficult to fix with preci- sion their place in nature ; or to tell whether it be an ani. mal or a plant that is the object of our consideration. However, zoophytes enjoy one faculty of which vegetables are wholly deficient ; which is, either the actual ability or the awkward attempt of self-preservation, by receding from external contact. Though some plants may seem to possess this important quality, it seems at best in them but a mechanical impulse ; they are neither capable of search- ing for food in the manner of animals, nor of warding off the slightest danger which menaces them. The hydra, or fresh-water polypus, may serve to furnish an example of zoophytes. At first it was conceived to be a mere plant ; but was soon discovered to be a sensitive ambulant, and yet to be capable of propagation by slips and cuttings. There are various species of this genus ; found in different situations, in ditches of stagnant water, and among duck-weed : but they all possess the property of re-production, in whatever form they are divided. If cut into three parts, the middle puts out a head from one end and a tail from the other ; and it becomes three dis- tinct animals, all living like their original, and performing the various offices of their species. ORDER V. INFUSORIA. INFUSORIA, or animalcules, consist of very small simple animals, forming the subsequent fifteen genera; BRACHIO- NUS, VORTICELLA, TRIC1IODA, CERCARIA, LEUCOPERA, ORDER V. INFUSORIA. 323 GONIUM, COLPODA, PARAMECIUM, CYCLIDIUM, BURSARIA, VIBRIO, ENCHELIS, BACILLARIA, VOLVOX, and MONAS. Most of these are microscopic, and consequently our know- ledge of their habits is but very imperfect. There can, however, be no doubt that there are gradations of exist- ence below the smallest animalcules which the best micro- scopes have brought to light ; and, though we have already been able to discover myriads of different crea- tures in the least drop of water, yet it seems a rational presumption, and not unworthy of the CREATOR OF ALL, to infer that HE who has filled the immensity of space with habitable matter, with suns, and worlds, has also peopled every particle of that matter with some appro- priate inhabitant, though too minute to be perceived by any apparatus that has yet been invented by man. Full Nature swarms with life ; one wond'rous mass Of animals, or atoms organized, Waiting the vital breath, when parent Heaven Shall bid his spirit blow. The hoary fen In putrid steams emits the living cloud Of pestilence. Through subterranean cells, Where searching sun-beams scarce can find a way, Earth animated heaves. The flowery leaf Wants not its soft inhabitants. Secure Within its winding citadel, the stone Holds multitudes. But chief the forest boughs^ That dance unnumber'd to the playful breeze, The downy orchard, and the melting pulp Of mellow fruit, the nameless nations feed Of evanescent insects. Where the pool Stands mantled o'er with green, invisible Amid the floating verdure, millions stray. Each liquid too, whether it pierces, soothes, Inflames, refreshes, or exalts the taste, With various forms abounds. Nor is the stream Of purest crystal, nor the lucid air (Though one transparent vacancy it seems,) Void of their unseen people. These, conceai'd By the kind art of forming Heaven, escape The grosser eye of man. P 6 324- CONCLUSION. Let no presuming impious railer tax Creative Wisdom ; as if aught were form'd In vain, or not for admirable ends. Shall little haughty Ignorance pronounce His works unwise, of which the smallest part Exceeds the narrow vision of her mind? As if, upon a full-proportion'd dome, On swelling columns heav'd, the pride of art! A critic fly, whose feeble ray scarce spreads An inch around, with blind presumption bold, Should dare to tax the structure of the whole. And lives the man whose universal eye Has swept at once th' unbounded scheme of things ; Mark'd their dependence so, and firm accord, As with unfaltering accent to conclude That this availeth nought? Has any seen The mighty chain of beings, lessening down From infinite perfection to the brink Of dreary nothing ; desolate abyss, From which astonish 'd thought recoiling turns? Till then alone let zealous praise ascend, And hymns of holy wonder, to that Power Whose wisdom shines as lovely on our minds, As on our smiling eyes His servant -sun. THOMSON. CONCLUSION THE PRINCIPAL END OF NATURAL HISTORY. WHILE the inferior orders of Animals are solely intent on the gratification of the senses, or are conducted to the performance of certain duties by blind instinct, unconscious of the wonders that surround them, it is the glory and prerogative of Man to be gifted with ability to extend his views beyond his own insulated existence, to examine the relations and dependencies of things, and to contemplate the vast universe of being. But noble and expansive as his powers become with adequate cultivation, he too fre quently neglects the improvement of their energies, casts Plate 5O. if . Innnl Puh//H . //// 3.}}>h-o.r J.nrutJn . //// vfn S,x>J ti.-tft. ////. V. ~-l particle f>r rfic tiustuffi tit/. .5. Thf Triaik ot'aJkf . th- frt' ( y /Ul. /.T/trJ-rr/ f!uin,l ii- tiff. :>. /:'>< //////;// //>>. /. '/'//c Smlc ot 'f It'u.'i f\(l. :'>. The /if/, l! . 'Hi,- . *>'< v -it 1 1 frctnmle . CONCLUSION. 325 the vacant eye of ignorant admiration on what he was born to investigate and understand ; or at best satisfies himself with acquiring a very limited store of knowledge, in proportion to his capacity. Placed in an amphitheatre of boundless space, he suffers himself to be confounded and lost, in the magnificence and multiplicity of the objects that solicit his attention. His eager mind aspires to comprehend the whole at once ; and, when it finds that attempt impracticable, it sinks iAto apathy and indifference ; and thus intercepts the source of the most sublime enjoyments, the patient investigation of truth in the retreats of nature. How can we otherwise account for the slight acquaintance that mankind in general contract with the works of creation ? It is not that the study is deficient either in pleasure or in profit ; nor that this science is, in itself, unattainable by ordinary capacities : but the origin of this neglect resides in indolence, which shrinks from mental exertion ; in an impatience, resulting from an inability to grasp in a short period of time what would afford subjects of the most rational entertainment to an active and inquiring mind, through the longest duration of our existence. To point out errors and defects, however, without pro- posing the means of their rectification and redress, is a useless, invidious, and perhaps ungenerous occupation. As the highest powers of man are limited, it is prudent to moderate our attempts. The most stately palace is raised by the progressive accumulation of single stones ; the noblest monuments of art are but the gradual effect of reiterated touches. A young student in Natural His- tory, therefore, should begin with parts, and progressively increase his stores of knowledge. Animated existence is that branch of it which possesses charms the most numerous and the most diversified, and is fraught with the most im- portant consequences to man ; but even this division of nature cannot be comprised by a glance. It is advisable, for this reason, to begin with examining the nature and qualities of such QUADRUPEDS as are most familiar to our 326 CONCLUSION. observation. Even in the dog and horse, how many pro- perties reside which are hourly experienced, but seldom considered with attention ! From such objects as are most obvious and inviting, we should gradually ascend, by firm and patient steps, to the knowledge of others. The larger animals, and such as contribute to our pleasure and utility, will doubtless first engage our attention. After duly examining their nature and instincts, their growth, their maturation, their increase, the care of their young, their selection of food, and the various means with which Providence has endowed them for their preservation, the student should descend to such quadrupeds as are more minute or retired from his notice : and, when he is toler- ably well acquainted with those of his own country, should extend his views to the natives of foreign regions. The same mode of proceeding is proper, through every class of animated and also unanimated nature. The sagacious docility of the elephant, the persevering fortitude of the camel, the generous magnanimity of the lion, and the savage fierceness of the tyger and the hyena, will supply abundant materials for reflection, and incen- tives to farther and closer investigation. We shall dis- cover how the useful quadrupeds are wisely apportioned to their respective climates, and to the exigencies of men ; and how the noxious classes are generally restrained to haunts little frequented by mankind, and how their num- bers are limited by a most admired and benevolent economy of nature. After this acquaintance with the history of quadrupeds, the student should proceed to BIRDS, the most beautiful and most innocent tribes of the creation. To contemplate the lustre of their plumage, and listen to their notes of love ; to study their propensities and their pursuits, will prove an exhaustless fund of rational entertainment. The various means by which they are enabled to subsist, either on land or water; the invariable structure of their nests, according to their respective kinds ; and the fond affection displayed for their young, will teach lessons of prudent f CONCLUSION. 327 foresight in our affairs, of attachment to our domestic duties, and of humanity to our kind; will make us consider them, not as intruders on our labours, but as agreeable associates in our enjoyments. To produce contentment with our lot, and to instruct us not to set too high a value on our exterior accomplishments and graces, it may be useful to reflect, that those birds whose beauty of tints excites our admiration are generally destitute of harmo- nious voices ; thus the parrot, the peacock, and the phea- sant, disgust by their screams ; while the homely lark, the nightingale, and the blackbird, delight by the sweetness of their melody, and captivate unseen. REPTILES, the next class in animated nature, are far less numerous and less inviting ; yet even among them we shall discover much gratification of curiosity. In the for- midable alligator, in the poisonous serpent whose fang is death, in the harmless tortoise, and the vivacious frog, very contradictory qualities, some disgusting and some terrifying, will be discovered ; but a perfect adaption to their respective situations in the scale of creation will be clearly discernible in all. Should it be asked, why so many animals in this class are noxious to man, without any sensible benefit; and why so many are found in other classes apparently useless ; it will be a sufficient answer to say, that whatever is made is the work of INFINITE WISDOM, and therefore must be des- tined to some good end. The stupendous economy of the Deity is uniform throughout the globe ; and, if Providence does not always calculate according to our narrow appre- hensions, it is our duty to acquiesce in its decrees. The Supreme Intellect embraces whole systems at one view ; but we can only see parts, and even those imperfectly. The next class to which the attention of the student should be directed is that of FISHES: a race of animals formed to people another element, and consequently more removed from our sight ; yet ichthyology is by no means an unentertaining study. The conformation of fishes, their wonderful adaption to the nature of the place which they 328 CONCLUSION, inhabit, their value as an article of our food, their amazing fecundity, their powers and faculties, though inferior to those of beasts and birds, challenge our admiration, and are calculated to animate our researches. The gregarious and migratory kinds, such as the herring, the pilchard, and many others, furnish a wonderful proof of instinct, implanted and directed by Infinite Wisdom : while the more stationary tribes show how well the climate which they prefer is suited to their wants and modes of life. The science of entomology, or that which relates to IN- SECTS, is so extensive as almost to baffle the most inquisitive investigator. Every plant, every leaf, is the receptacle or the food of one or more species, some of which are imperceptible to the naked eye. The study, however, is replete with rational entertainment. All insects are pro- pagated from eggs, which by a wonderful law of nature undergo several changes, before the animal arrives at its perfect state. The caterpillar, the aurelia, and the butter- fly, so distinguishable from each other, are but the same animal in different characters of existence. Even the mi- nutest insect is formed with as much skill as the most stately quadruped ; and is equally qualified to enjoy life, and to transmit that life to its posterity, A general know- ledge, however, of this class may be sufficient for the na- turalist : and, when we arrive at the last of the species, or that of WORMS, our difficulties undoubtedly increase ; and some limits should be set to our inquiries, unless we have leisure to devote ourselves wholly to the enchanting study of the works of NATURE. But even the most incurious can- not overlook the tribe of shells, whose beauty and me- chanism baffle all description. In them life seems to be scarcely active, and to many the locomotive power is de- nied : but still we shall discover wonders in the economy of the most humble existence ; and even the zoophite, which connects the animal with the vegetable kingdom, even the animalcule that floats in the liquor which we drink, or lodges in our food, has, beyond all controversy, its sphere of duties to fill, and its sb$ v e of blessings to enjoy. CONCLUSION. 329 We have now arrived at the last stage of animation : and the student who designs to pursue the knowledge of nature to its whole extent will next have to direct his attention to VEGETABLES, from vegetables to MINERALS, and from the face or the produce of the earth to CELESTIAL ORBS that roll in the abyss of space ; the planets in their regular courses, the comets in their eccentric orbits, and the myriads of stars that adorn the vaults of heaven with their bright embroidery. How amazing is the contemplation of the Universe ! Wonders crowd on wonders ; and the mind is bewildered in the observation, till it recurs to the Supreme Cause, and reposes from its excursions on the bosom of Omnipotence. The object indeed of all our physical studies ought to be our moral, as well as intellectual improvement; by exalting our admiration, and inflaming our love, for the Architect of die Universe, and the Creator of all Beings. To this end alone should our inquiries into nature be made con- ducive, and to this purpose chiefly and essentially applied. The proud philosopher, who notices effects without a re- ference to the FIRST CAUSE, will soon be perplexed and lost in a labyrinth of his own construction ; but the devout mind, in tracing the visible energies of the Deity, learns to ascend by successive steps to the fountain of illumination, of order, and of truth ; and, by catching an emanation of the Divinity, sees and determines with clearer vision. 331 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. Page Page Page ABDOMINALRS 283 BIRDS 135 Chough 162 ACCIPITRES H2 Bird of Paradise 163 Chub 295 Agouti 98 , king of 164 Civet 76 Albatross 178 Bison 119 Coal-fish 266 Alligator 235 Bittern 190 Coati-mondi 74 Amphisbaena 241 Blackbird 215 Cock 204 Anchovy 292 Blackcap 222 of the wood 206 ANSERES 172 Bleak 295 , black 207 Ant-eater or Bear 47 Blenny 269 Cockatoo 152 , great ib. , gattorugine ib. Cod 263 Antelope, common 1 1 2 , viviparous ib. COLEOPTERA 306 , white-footed ib. Blindworm 241 Condor 142 , royal ib. Boa 238 Coot 195 Ape, large 27 Boar, wild 126 Cormorant 1 80 , pigmy 29 Bream 294 Cow kind 117 , long .armed 30 BRUTA 39 , sea 44 , Barbary ib. Buffalo 119 Crane, common 186 APODES 257 Bull 117 , Numidian 187 APTERA 313 Bullfinch 216 , gigantic ib. Armadillo 49 Bullhead 271 Creeper 17O Ass 123 Burbot 268 Crocodile 234 Auk 176 Bustard 196 Cross-bill 215 Avosette 194 Butcher-bird 151 Crow 158 Buzzard 147 , hooded, or Baboon, large 31 Royston 159 , pigtail 32 Cabiaior Capibaral28 Cuckoo 165 Babyrouessa 129 Cachalot 133 Curasso-bird 203 Badger 84 Camel 104 Curlew 191 Balistes 248 Cameleon 23b Barbel 293 Camelopard 107 Dab 274 Basse 278 Canary-bird 219 Dace 295 Bat, common 37 Carp 293 Deer, moose 107 , Madagascar 38 Cassowary 199 , rein 108 , Vampire, or Castor 96 , stag, or red 109 Spectre ib. Cat kind 65 , roebuck 111 Bear, American 84 , common ib. DIPTERA 312 , brown, of the , mountain 66 Diver 183 Alps 85 , pole -cat, Ame- Dodo 200 , white, Green- rican 75 Dog kind 53 land ib. , common 80 , shepherd's 55 Beaver 95 CETMS 131 , hound ib. mu^lc 96 Chatodon 275 Bee-eater 169 Chaffinch 218 greyhound ib. BELLU* 120 Char 287 , Irish wolf 56 332 ALPHABETICAL INDEX, Page Page Page Dog, Danish 56 Gazelle 112 INSECTS 296 , mastiff ib. Genet 77 INTESTINA 315 , bull ib. Gilthead 275 I satis 64 , terrier 57 GLIRES 91 Isinglass-fish 248 - -, Newfoundland ib. Glutton 78 , New Zealand 58 Goat, common 113 Jackall 62 , Kamtschadale ib. of Angola 115 Jack-daw 160 Dolphin 134 Goatsucker, or Jaguar 71 Doree 272 Churn-owl 225 Jay 161 Dormouse 100 Goldfinch 218 JUGULARES 262 Dotterel 194 Gold-fish 295 Dove, stock 211 Goosander 176 Kangaroo 87 , ring 212 Goose 173 King- fisher 168 , turtle ib. Goshawk 148 Kite 147 Dragonet 262 GRALLE 184 Dromedary 104 Grampus 134 Lama 105 Duck 174 Grossbeak, Car. Lamprey 243 dinal 216 Launce 260 Eagle, common 144 Grous 207 Land-rail 196 , golden 145 Gudgeon 294 Lapwing, or Pee -, sea ib. Guinea-pig 97 wit 193 Eel, common 257 Guiniad 288 Lark 212 , conger 258 Gull 184 Lemming 98 , electric ib. Leopard 72 , sand 260 Haddock 265 LEPJDOPTERA 509 Elephant 39 Hake 267 Ling 268 Elk 107 Hare 93 Linnet 219 Ermine 83 Hawfinch 215 Lion 67 Hawk, gos 148 Lizard 236 Falcon, gyr 146 , sparrow ib. Loach, or Ground- , peregrine ib. Hedgehog 90 ling 283 , gentle 147 HEMIPTERA 308 Lump-fish 250 Fallow-deer 110 Heron 189 Lynx 73 Father-lasher 27 1 Herring 290 FER^E 50 Hippocampus 251 Maccaw 152 , Ferret 81 Hippopotamus 125 Mackerel 280 Fieldfare 214 Hog kind 126 Magpie 161 Fire-flaire 245 , domestic 127 MAMMALIA 21 FISHES 252 , Indian 129 MAN 11 Flamingo 185 Holibut 272 Manatus 44 Flounder 273 Hoopoe 170 Manis 48 Fly-catcher 220 Horse 120 , short -tailed ib. Flying-fish 2SO Mtof 125 1VT nt 100 Fox 50 ' .,, 251 Marten (cat) 80 , Arctic, or Tsatis 54 Hound 55 Martin (swallow) 224 Frog, common 230 Humming-bird 170 Maucauco, ring-tail 36 , edible 231 Hyaena 61 , tail-less ib. , bull ib. HYMENOPTERA 311 , black, or Fulmar 177 ruffed ib. Ibex 214 MEANTES 242 GALLIC 200 Ichneumon 74 Miller's Thumb 271 Gannet 181 Iguana 235 Mole 88 Gar- pike 289 INFUSORIA 322 MOLLUSCS 316 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 333 Page Page Page Monkey, hare- Penguin, Magel- Ruff 192 lipped 35 lanic ISQ Ruffe 278 , green ib. Perch 277 , negro 3$ , sea 278 Sable 82 , Chinese ib. Petrel 177 Salamander 235 , full-bottomed ib. Pheasant 203 Salmon 284 , preacher 35 Physeter 133 Samlet 287 , fair ib. PlCJE. 152 Sand-martin 225 Morse 44 Pig, Guinea 97 piper 195 Mouflon 115 Pigeon 210 Sea-cow 44 Mouse, common 101 Pike 288 devil 247 , dor 100 Pilchard 292 dragon 262 deer 107 Pilot-fish 279 needle 289 Mullet 281 Pipal 253 unicorn 139 Musk 106 Pipe-fish 251 wolf 26O Piper 283 Seal 50 NANTES 242 Plaise 275 , ursine 52 Narwal, or Sea Platypus, duck- , leonine 55 Unicorn 131 billed 43 SFRPENTES 237 NEUROPTERA 310 Plover, golden 194 Shad 292 Nightingale 220 ib. Shark 246 Nuthatch 168 Polecat 80 Sheep 115 Nylghau 112 n75 Shooting-fish 275 Pollack 266 Shrew 89 Opossum 85 Pongo 27 Siren 242 Oriole 1 62 Porcupine 91 Skeat 284 Ortolan 217 Porpoise 251 Sloth 45 Osprey, or Sea- PRIMATES 27 Slow, or Blind- Eagle 145 Ptarmigan 208 worm 241 Ostrich 197 Smelt 287 Otter, common 77 " Quail 209 Snake 241 , sea 78 Snipe 191 Ounce 73 Rabbit 94 Snow-bird 217 Ourang-outang 27 Rail 196 Soland Goose 181 Owl, eagle 149 Rat 102 Sole 274 , horned 150 Rattle-snake 237 Sparrow 219 , white ib. Raven 157 Sparrow-hawk 148 , ivy ib. Ray, electric 243 Spoonbill, or , churn 225 , sting 245 Shoveller 185 Ox, or Cow kind 117 Razor-bill 176 Sprat 291 serpent, or Boa 238 Redbreast, or Squirrel 103 Robin 222 Panther 72 Redwing 214 Stag, or Red Deer 109 Papio 31 Rein-deer 108 Stargazer 263 Paradise, bird of 163 Remora 270 Stickleback 279 Parrot 152 REPTILES 237 Stinkard 85 fish 270 Rhinoceros 129 Stoat 83 Partridge 208 hir/1 157 Stork 188 PASSERES 209 Rice-bunting 217 Sturgeon 247 Peacock 201 Ring-dove 212 Sucking-fish 270 Peccary 1 28 Roach 294 Sun-fish 249 PECO R A 104 Roebuck 111 Surmullet 283 Pelican 179 Rook 159 Swallow kind 223 334 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. Page Page Page Swallow, common 224 Toucan J52 Weever 262 , martin ib. Trout, com. 286 Whale 132 , , sand 225 ' ' '', salmon ib. Wheatear 223 swift ib. Tunny 281 Whiting 267 Swan 172 Turbot 275 Wolf 59 Swift 225 Turkey 202 , sea 260 Sword-fish 261 Turtle 229 Woodcock 191 Turtle-dove 212 Woodpecker 167 Tajacu 128 WORMS 314 Tench 293 Uranoscopc 263 Wrasse, or Old TESTACEA 318 Wife 276 THORACICI 270 Vampire 38 Wren, golden Thrush 213 Viper 239 crested 221 Tiger 69 Vultures, king of 143 Wryneck 166 Toad 232 of Surinam 233 Walrus 44 Zebra 124 Torpedo 243 Water-rail 195 ZOOPHYTA 321 Tortoise 229 Weasel 83 335 Directions for placing the Plates. Plate 1. The Varieties of the Human Species to face the Title 2. The Ourang-outang, &c Page 27 3. The Large Baboon, &c. 31 4. The Elephant, &c 39 5. The Morse 44 6. The Sloth, &c 45 7. The Shepherd's Dog, &c 55 8. The Wolf, &c 59 9. The Lion, &c 67 10. The Ichneumon, &c 74 11. The Opossum, &c 85 12. The Brown Bear, &c ib. 13. The Dromedary, &c 1O4 14. The Musk, &c 106 15. The Nylghau, &c 312 16. The Goat of Angola, &c 115 17. The Bison, &c 119 18. The Hippopotamus, &c 125 19. The Rhinoceros, &c 129 20. The Common Whale, &c 132 21. The Vulture, &c 143 22. The Horned Owl, &c 150 23. The White Owl, &c ib. 24. The Blue and Red Maccaw, &c 152 25. The Great Cockatoo, &c ib. 26. The Indian Parroquet 153 27. The Bird of Paradise 163 28. The Woodpecker, &c 167 29. The Kingfisher 168 30. The Canada Goose, &c 174 31. The Manks Petrel 177 32. The Albatross, &c 178 33. The Spoonbill, &c 185 34. The Heron, &c 189 35. The Woodcock, &c 191 36. The Cassowary, &c 199 37. The Wild Peacock, &c 201 38. The Land Tortoise, &c 229 39. The Bull- Frog, c 232 40. The Alligator 234 41. The Crocodile ib. 42. The Rattle-snake, &c 237 43. The Boa Constrictor 238 44. The Launce, &c 260 45. The Bull-head, &c 271 46. The Stag-Beetle, &c 307 47. The Locust, &c 309 48. The Deiphobus Butterfly ib. 49. The Pivet Moth 310 50. Microscopic Objects 323 51. Ditto , ib. LONDON : Printed by A. & R. Spottiswoode, New. Street- Square. OCTOBER, 1835. 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