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 THE 
 
 LONDON ENCYCLOPiEDIA, 
 
 OR 
 
 UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY 
 
 OF 
 
 SCIENCE, ART, LITERATURE, AND PRACTICAL MECHANICS, 
 
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 1829.
 
 LONDON ENCYCLOPAEDIA. ^ ^ 
 
 THE 
 
 ARSENIC. 
 
 m 
 
 ARSENIC, apfffviKov, ARSENICUM, in min- 
 eralogy and chemistry, called by Aristotle 
 aavSpaxt), by Theophrastus appfvucov, by the 
 Romans orpimentum and arsenicum ; is a red- 
 dish-colored ponderous mineral, caustic, cor- 
 rosive, and highly poisonous; which was used 
 by the ancients in medicine and painting. Aristot. 
 de Hist. Anim. 1. 8, c. 24 ; Theophrast.; Dioscor. 
 1. 5, c. 121; Plin. 1. 34, c. 18; Cels. de Re 
 Med. 1. 5, c. 5; Gal. de Comp. Med. sec. Loc. 
 1. 4. In the Linnaean system, it is a genus of 
 metals having these generic characters : Bluish 
 white, some becoming black, and falling to pow- 
 der in the air; soft and extremely brittle ; specific 
 gravity 8-310 : subliming without melting in a 
 moderate heat in a white powder, and emitting 
 a strong garlic smell. Its sublimed oxid gives 
 an acrid taste to water, and turns vegetable 
 blues red. When dissolved in muriatic acid, 
 and a watery solution of sulphurated hydrogen 
 poured into it, it precipitates a fine yellow pow- 
 der. 
 
 The principal species are, 1. A. nativum, na- 
 tive asenic, of the three varieties : a. Uncombined, 
 having a metallic lustre and separating into 
 spherical incrustations. /3. With micaceous 
 particles, y. Friable and porous. Found in the 
 British Isles, Norway, Germany, Saxony, &c. in 
 spar, baryte, or feldspar, massive, rarely disse- 
 minated, often composed of hemispheric layers, 
 corroded, branched, perforated, botryoidal, or 
 stalactitic ; color lead-gray, but its surface 
 soon tarnishing and becoming black by ex- 
 posure to the air; streak bluish-gray, powder 
 dull and blackish ; sometimes a little sonorous 
 when struck against a hard body, and so soft 
 as to be easily cut with a knife. Before the 
 blow-pipe it emits a white smoke, diffusing 
 its peculiar and highly poisonous vapors to a 
 great distance ; burning with a blue flame and 
 gradually vanishing, depositing a white oxid in 
 the form of a powder: specific gravity 5"670 
 to 5*729 ; always alloyed with some iron, and 
 often contains some cobalt, bismuth, silver, and 
 sometimes a little gold. 
 
 2. A. calciforme ; white arsenic ; white 
 oxid of arsenic ; white, soluble in eip:!ity 
 times its weight of water. It is found in a 
 loose dust or mealy powder ; in a state of crys- 
 tallisation ; or in an indurated state combined 
 with earth; in various parts of Great Britain, 
 Germany, Hungary, Saxony, Bohemia, &c. 
 Color white or gray, with often a tinge of 
 red, yellow, green, or black : before the blow- 
 pipe it sublimes, but does not inflame, and 
 tinges borax green : specific gravity 3,700. 
 
 Vol. III.— P.uiT I. 
 
 3. A. auripigmentum ; orpiment ; yellow 
 arsenic. Ponderous, yellow, curved, or un- 
 dulately foliated, of a waxy internal lustre, 
 evaporating almost entirely before the blow-pipe. 
 Found in Great Britain, Hungary, Georgia, 
 Turkey, &c. ; massive, disseminated, or in small 
 imperfect crystals ; color, various shades of 
 yellow, with a considerable waxy lustre, and 
 some transparency ; streak orange-yellow, not 
 metallic ; texture foliated, with the plates mostly 
 curved or undulated, rarely striate, a little flexi- 
 ble, but not elastic ; effervesces with hot nitric 
 acid, burns with a bluish flame, and before the 
 blow-pipe evaporates, leaving behind a small 
 portion of earth : specific gravity 3'0 18 to 
 3-521. 
 
 4. A. sandaraca ; red arsenic ; ruby arse- 
 nic; realgar. Somewhat ponderous, red, with 
 an orange-yellow streak, in straight foliations, 
 melting easily before the blow-pipe ; burning 
 with a blue flame and white arsenical vapors. 
 Found in Sicily, Naples, Hungary, Bohemia, 
 China, Japan, &c.; massive, disseminated, su- 
 perficial, or crystallised in small acute-angled, 
 quadrangular, or acicular prisms; color auro- 
 ra-red, ruby, scarlet, crimson or blood-red, often 
 variegated with yellow traces : texture lamellar, 
 with the foliations a little flexible, and so soft 
 as to be cut with a knife, and frequently exhibit- 
 ing a brilliant lustre ; streak yellowish-red ; pow- 
 der scarlet ; in nitric acid it loses its color ; 
 specific gravity 3-338. 
 
 5. A. sulphuratum ; marcasite ; white 
 mundic ; white pyrite ; pyritical arsenical 
 ore. Hard, bluish-gray with metallic lustre, 
 before the blow-pipe emitting white arsenical 
 vapors and blue sulphureous flames. Found 
 in various parts of Great Britain, Germany, 
 Sweden, Bohemia, Saxony, &c. in irregular 
 masses, disseminated, investing or crystallised 
 in cubes or four-sided prisms ; specific gravity 
 6-522. 
 
 6. A. albicans ; misspickel ; marcasite. Of 
 a steel-white color and lustre, hard, emitting 
 white arsenical vapors before the blow-pipe, 
 but no sulphureous flame or vapor. Found 
 in Cornwall, near Dublin, in Bohemia, Silesia, 
 Saxony, &c. generally dispersed among tin ores 
 in granulations, or crystallised in four-sided 
 double pyramids, or four-sided quadrangular 
 prisms : color sometimes silvery, gray, or yel- 
 lowish, or iridescently variegated when tar- 
 nished : texture compact, sometimes a little 
 splintery, with the surface marked with de- 
 cussate grooves or black ramifications ; efter- 
 vesces with nitric acid without heat, and yields 
 
 B ■ 
 

 
 ARSENIC. 
 
 jin arsenical smell when rubbed. It consists of 
 arsenic alloyed with a considerable quantity of 
 iron, but little or no sulphur; specific gravity 
 from 5-753 to 6-522. 
 
 7. A. argentiferum ; argentiferous arsenic. 
 Of a silvery lustre and very tine granular tex- 
 ture, emitting arsenical vapors before the blow- 
 pipe, and when fused with lead leaving a silver 
 bead. Found in the mines of Sa.xony, Bohemia, 
 Germany, and Spain; massive, disseminated, 
 or acicular; color nearly that of the last, but 
 brighter and more permanent ; burns with a 
 white flame, and leaves a reddish residuum : by 
 solution in nitro-muriatic acid the silver will be 
 precipitated. It consists of arsenic, sulphur, 
 iron, and from 1 to 10 or 12 per cent, of silver : 
 specific gravity 4-087. 
 
 The following is the method of the celebrated 
 Mr. Chevenix for the assay and analysis of 
 arsenical ores. Reduce the ore to a very fine 
 powder, and digest it in nitric acid sufficient to 
 acidify and take up the whole of the arsenic ; 
 pour off the clear liquor, and boil on the residue 
 some distilled water : filter, and add the w^ater 
 to the nitrous solution : then neutralise the excess 
 of acid by potash, taking care, however, not to 
 have an excess of alkali, and add nitrate of lead 
 as long as any precipitate takes place : wash the 
 precipitate in cold water, dry, and weigh it. 
 As the arsenical ores often contain sulphur, it is 
 possible that the arseniat of lead thus procured 
 may be mixed with a little sulphat of lead : to 
 decide this, digest the powder in some warm 
 dilute muriatic acid, and the arseniat of lead 
 will be dissolved, leaving the sulphat behind. 
 
 The arsenic of commerce is prepared in 
 Saxony by roasting the cobalt ores in the manu- 
 facture of zaffre. Tliese ores consist principally 
 of arsenic, cobalt, iron, and a little sulphur ; 
 ihe first and last ingredients are easily separated 
 by roasting, which is performed not in the open 
 air, but in an oven, the flue of which runs hori- 
 zontally to a considerable distance before it 
 bends upwards. The arsenic and sulphur, 
 when liberated, are deposited for the most part 
 in the horizontal flue. In this state it is called 
 
 Crude arsenic, or flowers of arsenic, and the 
 form it assumes is that of a grayish meal 
 streaked with yellow, which is occasioned by 
 the sulphur uniting with parts of the arsenic, 
 and composing orpiment. From the crude 
 arsenic the 
 
 White arsenic of commerce is prepared by 
 mixing the crude with potash or lime, and re- 
 subliming. The sulphur and othei impurities 
 are thus combined with the alkali, and the white 
 oxide is driven over into a heated receiver, where 
 it melts into a heavy, colorless, transparent 
 glass : by exposure to the air for a short time 
 this glass becomes opaque, and resembles in its 
 fracture the finest white china; it is in this state 
 that the white arsenic of commerce is sold in 
 the shops, and kept in our laboratories ; and 
 as it is then an oxide of the metal approaching 
 very nearly to a state of purity, it is not 
 difficult, by separating its oxygen, to reduce it 
 into 
 
 Pure metallic arsenic. For this purpose the 
 white arsenic is mixed witli any of the vegetable 
 
 or animal expressed oils, till it becomes of the 
 consistence of very soft glazier's putty, and round 
 or oblong pieces of the paste are dropped into 
 a Florence flask, or earthen retort, so as not to 
 adhere to the sides. It is then put into a sand- 
 bath, or over a gentle charcoal fire, and heated 
 very gradually until it ceases to emit thick va- 
 pors, when the heat may be increased by 
 degrees to obscure redness. Shortly after the 
 vessel may be removed, and when cold, broken ; 
 the neck and upper part will contain a cn,-stal- 
 lised oxide of arsenic ; below, a thick crust of 
 metallic arsenic ; and at the bottom some impu- 
 rities, which must be laid aside. The oiher 
 products are to be pulverised with half their 
 weight of charcoal, and sublimed again as be- 
 fore ; by which means the arsenic is rendered 
 pure, and will be found to line the vessel in the 
 form of a shining crust and crystals. 
 
 The principal properties of pure -arsenic, be- 
 side those mentioned in the beginning of this 
 article, are the following : — That it is not per- 
 ceptibly soluble in water, and is easily tarnished 
 by exposure to tlie air; the best method of pre- 
 serving it unaltered is to immerse it in water or 
 alcohol. With carbon or hydrogen it does not 
 combine ; but the latter substance, in the state of 
 gas, dissolves it. Oxygen unites with it by 
 combustion, forming arsenical acid. With sulphur 
 it may be readily united, forming either realgar 
 or orpiment, according to the proportions of the 
 ingredients, or the methods of uniting them : 
 these substances are really sulphurets of arsenic, 
 and their properties, with their mode of prepa- 
 ration, when not found native, may be found 
 under their names. Arsenic combines also 
 readily with phosphorus, forming phosphuret of 
 arsenic, which is black and brilliant ; but with 
 azotic gas it has not been united. INIuriatic acid 
 attacks arsenic only if aided by heat ; but, by 
 distilling equal parts of orpiment and corrosive 
 muriate of mercury (corrosive sublimate) in a 
 gentle heat, a blackish corrosive liquor is ob- 
 tained, which is the sublimated muriat of arsenic, 
 or butter of arsenic. Arsenic combines with 
 most metals, forming with them alloys, and ren- 
 dering them more fusible and brittle ; though 
 such of them as were before very fusible become 
 refractory : it possesses also the singular pro- 
 perty of destroying the magnetic virtue of iron, 
 and of all other metals susceptible of it. 
 
 The most useful alloys of arsenic are : — 1. 
 With platinum, which is formed by fusing that 
 metal and the white oxide of arsenic togeltier. 
 By this means platinum, itself so untractable, 
 may be wrought into the utensils required. The 
 mixture, after fusion, is hammered at a red heat 
 into bars, and the arsenic is gradually driven off. 
 2. With copper, which is formed by fusing the 
 two metals together in a close crucible, their sur- 
 face being covered with common salt, to prevent 
 the arsenic from being oxidised by the air. This 
 alloy is white and brittle, and when mixed with 
 a little tin or bismuth is used for a variety of 
 purooses in the arts, when it is known by the 
 names of white copper or' white tombac. 3. 
 With iron, which is likewise done by fusion. 
 Tills alloy, however, is often found native, and 
 is then called misspickel. The other metals with .
 
 ARS 
 
 ARS 
 
 which arsenic has been united, are gold, silver, 
 tin, lead, nickle, zinc, antimony, and bismuth : 
 it also forms an amalgam with mercury, by keep- 
 ing them some hours over the fire, constantly 
 agitating the mixture. Arsenic is capable of 
 combining with two different proportions of 
 dxygen ; by the first is formed the white oxide 
 already described, or arsenious acid, as it is 
 denominated by Fourcroy, on account of the 
 many acid properties which it exhibits ; by the 
 second is produced arsenic or arsenical acid, 
 which was discovered in 1775 by Scheele, who 
 also made himself acquainted with its most re- 
 markable properties. 
 
 In pharmacy, the white oxide of arsenic is 
 directed by the London Pharmacopceia to be 
 sublimed ; after which it is to be boiled with an 
 equal weight of carbonate of potash, in order to 
 form the liquor arsenicalis, sometimes called 
 Fowler's solution, or the tasteless ague drop. 
 This contains one grain of arsenic in two drams, 
 is given in doses of a few drops in intermittent 
 fevers, and in several eruptive diseases. Caution 
 is necessary in the exhibition of so dangerous a 
 remedy. Arsenic has been used externally in 
 cancer, lupus, &c. in form of an ointment. For 
 an account of arsenic, as a poison, its symptoms, 
 effects, and remedies, see Poison. 
 
 Arsenical Magnet, Magnes Arsenicalis, 
 is a preparation of antimony, with sulphur and 
 white arsenic. 
 
 ARSENIUS, a deacon of the Roman church of 
 great learning and piety, who was selected by the 
 pope as tutor to Arcadius, son of the emperor Theo- 
 dosius. Arsenius arrived at Constantinople A. D. 
 383. The emperor happening one day to go into 
 the room where Arsenius was instructing his pu- 
 pil, found Arcadius seated and his preceptor 
 standing ; at this he was exceedingly displeased, 
 took from his son the imperial ornaments, made 
 Arsenius sit in his place, and ordered Arcadius 
 for the fixture to receive his lessons standing un- 
 covered. Arcadius, however, profited but little 
 by his tutor's instructions, for some time after he 
 formed a design of despatching him. Arsenius, 
 liowever, hearing of the design, retired to the de- 
 serts of Scete, where he passed many years in 
 devotion, and died aged ninety-five. 
 
 Arsenius, bishop of Constantinople, in the 
 thirteenth century, excommunicated Michael Pa- 
 leologus, for taking the imperial crown from 
 John Lascaris the son of Theodore. Though 
 Michael solicited absolution, the bishop refused, 
 unless he would restore the crown ; in conse- 
 quence of which Arsenius was banished to a 
 small island, where he died. 
 
 ARSENOTHELYS, among ancient natura- 
 lists, the same with hermaphrodite. The Greeks 
 use the word both in speaking of men and 
 beasts, it is formed from apay^v and SijXwc, male 
 and female. 
 
 ARSEN VAL, in geography, a town of France, 
 in the department of the Aube, and chief place of 
 a canton in the district of Bar-sur-Aube, twenty- 
 three miles east of Troyes. 
 
 ARSES, or Arsames, king of Persia, succeed- 
 ed Artaxerxes Ochus about A.M. 3612, and af- 
 ter a short reign of less than four years was slain 
 
 by Bagoas, who had murdered his predecessor, 
 and succeeded by Darius Coddoinannus. 
 
 ARSIllN, in commerce, the most common 
 Russian measure of length =i IG vershok rz 315^5, 
 Paris lines. It is also a Chinese measure, but 
 one Chinese arshin :=: 302 Paris lines. Three 
 arshins zz 1 fathom, and 500 fathoms ir 1 
 verst. 
 
 ARSIA, in ancient geography, a small river 
 which had a northern course, and served as a 
 boundary between Ilistria and Illyria, to the 
 north of the Flanatic gulf. It there terminated 
 Italy on the north-east of the Polatic promon- 
 tory. 
 
 ARSINOE, in ancient geography, the name of 
 various towns mentioned by Strabo, Ptolemy, 
 Stephanus, &c. viz. of five towns in Cilicia, one 
 of which had a station for ships j of three in or near 
 Cyprus; viz. one inland, formerly called Marium, 
 another north of it between Acamas and Soli, and 
 the third in the south, with a port, between Ci- 
 trum and Salarais. A sea-port in Cyrene, for- 
 merly called Teuchira. A town in Egypt near 
 the west extremity of the Arabian Gulf, and south 
 of Hierapolis, called also Cleopatris. Another 
 in the Nomos Arsinoites, mentioned on some 
 coins of Adrian, and formerly called Crocodilo- 
 rum Urbs, from its abounding with crocodiles ; 
 Ptolemy calls this town an inland metropolis, 
 with a port called Ptolemais. A sea-port of Ly- 
 cia formerly named Patara, but called Arsinoe 
 by Ptolemy Philadelphus after his queen. And 
 three towns of Troglodytce, the chief of which 
 was situated near the mouth of the Arabian gulf, 
 which towards Ethiopia is terminated by a pro- 
 montory called Dire. This Arsinoe is called 
 Berenice, with the distinction Epidires ; because 
 situated on a neck of land running out a great 
 way into the sea. Also the name of several 
 princesses of Egypt; particularly, 1. the daughter 
 of Ptolemy Lagus, and wife of Lysimachus king 
 of Thrace : 2. the wife of Ptolemy Philapelphus, 
 who named several towns after her. 
 
 Arsinoe, in entomology, a species of papi- 
 lio, found in the island of Amboyna, the wings 
 of which are tailed, indented, fulvous, spotted 
 with black ; and the posterior ones marked both 
 above and beneath with two ocellated spots. It 
 is figured by Seba and Cramer. 
 
 ARSINOITES, NoMos, an ancient district of 
 Egypt, west of the Ileracleotes, on the western 
 banks of the Nile. 
 
 ARSIS, and Thesis, in prosody, are names 
 given to two proportional parts into which every 
 foot or rhythm is divided. By arsis and thesis 
 are usually meant no more than a proportional 
 division of the metrical feet, made by the hand 
 or foot of him that beats the time. And in 
 measuring the quantities of words the hand is 
 elevated, as well as let fall ; that part of the 
 time which is taken up in measuring the foot, 
 by lifting the hand up, is termed arsis or ele- 
 vatio ; and the part where the hand is let fall, 
 thesis or positio. Vid. Augustin de Musica, lib. 
 ii. cap. 10. In plaudendo enim quia elevatur 
 et ponitur manus, partem pedis, sibi elevatio 
 vendicat, partem positio. 
 
 Arsis and thesis are used as musical terms 
 
 B2
 
 ART. 
 
 '.vhen the subject of a fugue or point is. inverted 
 or reversed; i. e. when one part rises and the 
 otlier falls. These two words are Greek : arsis 
 comes from aipa», tollo, I raise or elevate ; Otmg 
 depositio, remissio, a depression or lowering. 
 These terms were applied by the ancients to the 
 motion of the hand in beating time.: 
 
 ARSON, in English law, is the malicious and 
 wilful burning of the house or out-house of ano- 
 ther man,, which is felony. This is an offence of 
 great malignity, and more pernicious to the pub- 
 lic than simple theft ; because, first, it is an 
 olVence against that right of habitation which is 
 acquired by tlie law of nature as well as by the 
 laws of society ; next, because of the terror and 
 confusion that necessarily attends it; and, lastly, 
 because in simple theft the tiling stolen only 
 changes its master, but still remains in esse for 
 the benefit of the public ; whereas by burning, 
 the very substance is absolutely destroyed. — It is 
 also frequently more destructive than murder it- 
 self, of which too it is often the cause ; since 
 murder, atrocious as it is, seldom extends be- 
 yond the felonious act designed; whereas fire 
 too frequently involves in the common calamity 
 persons unknown to the incendiary, and not in- 
 tended to be hurt by him, and friends as well as 
 enemies. If the house be a man's own, the act 
 is not felony and punishable with death, but only 
 a great misdemeanor, and punishable by fine, 
 imprisonment or pillory. 
 
 ARSUR, AsoR, AusAF, or Arsid, a hamlet on 
 the coast of Syria, which has sometimes received 
 the name of a city, because Solomon is supposed 
 to have built the city Asor upon the site. It 
 contains a fortress and mosque, in the last of 
 which are a few jNIahommedan monks. 
 
 ARSUR A, in ancient customs, a term used 
 for the melting of gold or silver, either to refine 
 them or to examine their value. The method of 
 doing this is explained at large in the Black Book 
 of the Exchequer, ascribed to Gervaise in the 
 chapter De (ifficio Militis Argentarii, being in 
 those days of great use, on account of the vari- 
 ous places and different manners in which the 
 king's money wa.s paid. Arsura is also used for 
 the loss or diminution of the metal in the trial. 
 In this sense a pound was said, tot ardere dena- 
 rios, to lose many penny-weights. 
 
 Arsura, in medicine, is used by some writers 
 for the erysipelas- 
 
 Arsl'ra, in metallurgy, is used for the dust 
 and sweepings of silversmiths, and others who 
 work in silver, melted down, and which they call 
 tlieir sweep. 
 
 ART, ") Lat. ars, from a()£r)j, 
 
 Ar'tful, manly energy, strength, or 
 
 Ar'tfully, skill. The power of doing 
 
 Ar'tfulness, any thing arising from a 
 Ar'tisax, clear and perspicuous know- 
 
 Ar'tist, (^ ledge of what the practice 
 
 Ar'tless, fof it requires. Artful sig- 
 
 Ar'tlessly, nifies evil intention. One 
 
 Ar'tifice, who exercises a mechanical 
 
 Ar'tificer, art is an artisan, he who ex- 
 
 Ar'tificiai., eels in the fine arts is an 
 
 Arti'ficially. J artist. Any skilful work- 
 man is an artificer ; artifice in its present use 
 implies deception. 
 
 Hel. Wc, Hermia, like two artificial gods. 
 Created with our needles both one flower. 
 Both on one sampler, sitting on one cushion ; 
 Both warbling of one song, both in one key ; 
 As if our hand, our sides, voices, and minds. 
 Had been incorporate. Shahspcarc. 
 
 Whv, I can smile, and murder while I smile ; 
 And cry, content, to that which grieves my heart ; 
 And wet ray cheeks, with artijicial tears. Id, 
 
 Weaker than a woman's tear. 
 Tamer than sleep, fonder than ignorance. 
 And artless as unpraclis'd infancy. 
 
 Dryden. Troilus and Crcssida. 
 Rich with the spoils of many a conquer'd land, 
 All arts and artists Theseus could command. 
 Who sold for hire, or wrought for better fame 
 The master painters and the carvers came. Dryden. 
 The rest in rank : Honoria, chief in place 
 Was art f idly contriv'd to set her face. 
 To front the thicket, and behold the chace, Id. 
 
 Vice is the natural growth of our corruption. How 
 irresistibly must it prevail, when the seeds of it are 
 artfully sown, and industriously cultivated. Rogers. 
 What are the most judicious artisaits, but the 
 mimics of nature ? Wntton,'s Architecture. 
 
 Best and happiest artisan. 
 Best of painters, if you can. 
 With your many-color'd art. 
 Draw the mistress of my heart. 
 
 Guardian. 
 Thus artists melt the sullen ore of lead. 
 With heaping coals of fire upon its head ; 
 In the kind warmth, the metal learns to glow. 
 And loose from dross the silver runs below. 
 
 Parnell. 
 Sweet artless songster ! thou my mind dost raise 
 To airs of spheres, yea, and 'o angels's lays. 
 
 Drummond. 
 In oratory, the greatest art is to hide art. Swift. 
 If we compare two nations in an equal state of civi- 
 lisation, we may remark that where the greater free- 
 dom obtains, there the greater variety of artificial 
 wants will obtain also. Cumberland. 
 
 The merchant, tradesman, and artisan will have 
 their protit upon all the multiplied wants, comforts, 
 and indulgences of civilised life. Id. 
 
 In every quarter of this blessed isle. 
 Himself [the mind] both present is and president. 
 Nor once retires, a happy realm the while. 
 That by no officers lewd ravishment. 
 With greedie lust and wrong consum'd art. 
 He all in all, and all in every part. 
 Does share to each his due and equal dole compart. 
 
 Fletcher's Purple Island. 
 Among the several artifices which are put in prac- 
 tice by the poets, to fill the minds of an audience with 
 terror, the first place is due to thunder and lightning. 
 
 Addison. 
 Poets, like painters, thus unskill'd to trace 
 The naked nature and the living grace. 
 With gold and jewels cover cv'ry part. 
 And hide with ornaments their want of art, 
 
 Po})e's Essay on Criticism. 
 O still the same, Ulysses, she rejoin 'd ; 
 In useful craft, successfully refin'd ; 
 Artful in speech, in action, and in mind. Pope. 
 Embosom'd in the deep where Holland lies, 
 Methinks her patient sons before me stand. 
 Where the broad ocean leans against the land. 
 And sedulous to stop the coming tide. 
 Lift the tall rampire's artificial pride. Goldsmith. 
 
 A man will no more caiTy the artifice of the bar 
 into the common intercourse of society, than a man 
 who is paid for tumbling on his hands will continue to 
 tumble when he should walk on his feet. Johnson.
 
 ARTS. 
 
 FTft feels no ennobling principle in bis own heart, 
 vvho wishes to level all the artificial institutions which 
 have been adopted for giving a body to opinion, and 
 permanence to fugitive esteem. Burke. 
 
 Art has been more particularly defined to be 
 a habit of the mind prescribing rules for the due 
 production of certain effects ; or the iutroducins^ 
 tlie changes of bodies from some fore-knowledge 
 and design in a person endued with the prin- 
 ciple or faculty of actinor. The word has been 
 sometimes derived from apoQ, utility, profit; and 
 is found in that sense in /Eschylus. 
 
 According to lord Bacon it is a proper dispo- 
 sition of the things of nature by human thought 
 and experience, so as to make them answer the 
 designs and uses of mankind. Nature, accord- 
 ing to that philosopher, is sometimes free, and at 
 her own disposal ; and then she manifests herself 
 in a regular order; as we see in the heavens, 
 plants, animals, &c. — Sometimes she is irregular 
 and disorderly either through some uncommon ac- 
 cident or depravation in matter, when the resistance 
 ofsomc impediment perverts herfromher course ; 
 as in the production of monsters. At other 
 times she is subdued and fashioned by human 
 industry, and made to serve the several purposes 
 of mankind. This last is what we call art. 
 In which sense, art stands opposed to nature. 
 Hence the knowledge of nature may be divided 
 into the history of generation, of pretergeneration, 
 and of arts. The first considers nature at liber- 
 ty ; the second her errors ; and the third her 
 restraints. 
 
 Art has been distinguished from science ; by 
 the latter being regarded as furnishing the prin- 
 ciples of all art. Or science, scientia, all human 
 knowledge, is said to be divisible into those purer 
 sciences which relate to the ideas or laws of the 
 mind, and the relation they bear to each other ; 
 and the mixed or applied sciences — that relation 
 which the same ideas bear to the external world. 
 In this view the mixed and applied sciences are 
 but other terms for all the fine and useful arts. 
 Chambers has observed long ago, in the ex- 
 cellent preface to his original Cyclopaedia. 
 An Art and a Science, only seem to difi'er as 
 less and more pure : a science is a system of 
 deductions made by reason alone, undetermined 
 by any thing foreign or extrinsic to itself: an 
 art, on the contrary, requires a number of data, 
 and postulata, to be furnished from without; 
 and never goes any length, without at every turn 
 needing new ones. It is, in one sense, the 
 knowledge and perception of these data that con- 
 stitutes the art ; the rest, that is, the doctrinal 
 part, is of the nature of science; which attentive 
 reason alone will descry. An art, in this light, 
 appears to be a portion of science, or general 
 knowledge, considered, not in itself as science, 
 l)ut with relation to its circumstances or appen- 
 dages. In a science the mind looks directly 
 backwards and forwards to the premises and 
 conclusions : in an art we also look laterally to 
 tiie concomitant circumstances. A science, in 
 effect, is that to an art, which a stream running 
 in a direct channel, without regard to any thing 
 but its own progress, is to the same stream 
 turned out of its proper course, and disposed 
 into cascades, jets, cisterns, ponds, &c. In 
 
 which case the progress of the stream is not con- 
 sidered with regard to itself, but only as it con- 
 cerns the works ; every one of which modifies 
 the course of the stream, and leads it out of its 
 way. It is easy to trace the progress of tlie for- 
 mer, from its issue, as it flows consequentially ; 
 but a man ever so well acquainted with this will 
 not be able to discover that of the latter, because 
 it depends on the genius, humor, and caprice 
 of the engineer who laid the design.' 
 
 The learned author of Hermes says. If it bp 
 asked. What art is ; we have to answer, ' It is 
 an habitual power in man, of becoming the cause 
 of some eff'ect, according to a system of various 
 and well-approved precepts.' If it be asked, 
 On what subject art operates ; we can answer, 
 ' On a contingent, which is within the reach of 
 the human powers to influence.' If it be asked, 
 For what reason, for the sake of what, art ope- 
 rates ; we may reply, ' For the sake of some 
 absent good, relative to human life, and attain- 
 able by man, but superior to his natural and 
 uninstructed faculties.' Lastly, if it be asked, 
 ' Where it is the operations of art end V We may 
 say, ' Either in some energy, or in some work.' 
 — Harris's Three Treatises, dialogue i. 
 
 Arts are properly divided into liberal and me- 
 chanical : — 
 
 Arts, Liberal, or Polite, are those that are 
 noble or ingenious, and worthy of being culti- 
 'Vated for their own sake, without any immediate 
 regard to any pecuniary emolument. Such as 
 depend more on the imagination, or on the la- 
 bor of the mind, than on that of the hand ; or 
 that consist more in speculation than operation, 
 and have a greater regard to amusement and 
 curiosity than necessity. Such are poetry, 
 music, painting, grammar, rhetoric, the military 
 art, architecture, and navigation. They were 
 formerly to be summed up in the following Latin 
 verse : 
 
 Lingua, Tropus, Ratio, Numerus, Tonus, Angulus, 
 Astra. 
 
 In the eighth century the whole circle of sciences 
 was composed of the seven liberal arts, as they 
 were called ; viz. grammar, rhetoric, logic, 
 arithmetic, music, geometry, and astronomy ; the 
 three former of which were distinguished by the 
 title of trivium, and the four latter by that of 
 quadrivium. 
 
 Arts, Mechanical, are those wherein the 
 hand and body are more concerned than the 
 mind ; and which are chiefly cultivated for the 
 sake of the profit attending them. Of which 
 kind are most of those which furnish us with the 
 necessaries of life, and are popularly known by 
 the name of trades and manufactures. Such are 
 weaving, turnery, brewing, masonry, clock- 
 making, carpentry, joinery, foundry, printing, 
 &c. These arts, which indeed are innumerable, 
 were formerly comprised in this verse: 
 Rus, Nemus, Arma, Faber, Vulnera, Lana, Rates. 
 
 They take their denomination from fiifxavr], 
 machine, as being all practised by means ot 
 some machine or instrument. With the liberal 
 arts it is otherwise ; there being several of them 
 which may be learnt and practised without any
 
 ARTS. 
 
 instrument at all ; as logic, eloquence, medicine, 
 properly so called, &c. 
 
 Lord Bacon has observed that the arts which 
 relate to the sight and hearing are reputed liberal, 
 beyond those which regard the other senses, and 
 are chiefly employed in matters of luxury ; these 
 are usually called the fine arts; such are poetry, 
 painting, sculpture, music, gardening, and archi- 
 tecture. 
 
 As all arts have this common property ac- 
 cording to Mr. Harris, that they respect human 
 life, it is evident that some contribute to its ne- 
 cessities, as medicine and agriculture ; and others 
 to its elegance, as music, painting, and poetry. 
 The former seem to have been prior in time to 
 the latter. Men must naturally have consulted 
 how to live and to support themselves, before 
 they began to deliberate how to render life 
 agreeable. Indeed this is confirmed by fact ; as 
 no nation has been known so barbarous and ig- 
 norant as not in some degree to have cultivated 
 the rudiments of these necessary arts ; and hence 
 possibly they may appear to be more excellent 
 and worthy, as having claim to a preference de- 
 rived from their seniority. The arts, however, 
 of elegance are not destitute of pretensions, if it 
 be true that nature formed us for something 
 more than mere existence. Nay farther, if well- 
 being be clearly preferable to mere being, and 
 this, without the other, be contemptible, they 
 may have reason perhaps to aspire even to a 
 superiority. Harris, ubi supra, p. 54. 
 
 The history of the origin and progress of par- 
 ticular arts is recited under their respective de- 
 nominations in the course of this work. It may 
 be here observed however, in general, that most 
 of the arts that are necessary to the subsistence, 
 or conducive to the convenience and comfort of 
 mankind, have had a very early origin. 
 
 Some useful arts must be nearly coeval with 
 the human race ; for food, clothing, and habita- 
 tion, even in their original simplicity, require 
 some art. Many others are of such antiquity as 
 to place the inventors beyond the reach of tra- 
 dition. Several have gradually crept into exist- 
 ence without any recorded inventor or history. 
 The busy mind, however, accustomed to a be- 
 ginning in all things, cannot rest till it finds or 
 imagines a beginning to every art. 
 
 It has been generally admitted that the arts 
 had their rise in the East, and that they were 
 conveyed from thence to the Greeks, and from 
 them to the Romans. The Romans, indeed, 
 seem to have been chiefly indebted to the Greeks, 
 by whom they were excelled in point of inven- 
 tion. The Roman: acknowledged this superi- 
 ority, for they sent their youth to Greece in order 
 to finish their education ; and from this circum- 
 stance we may infer, that they considered that 
 country as the seat of the arts and sciences, and 
 as a school where genius would be excited by the 
 most finished models^ and the taste corrected and 
 formed. I'liny and other writers have, neverthe- 
 less, given hints which lead us to believe that the 
 Romans possessed a more extensive knowledge 
 of the arts than modern writers are sometimes 
 willing to allow ; and that several inventions re- 
 garded as recent are only old ones revived and 
 again applied to practice. The dark iigcs at once 
 
 extinguished the knowledge of the past, and re- 
 tarded the revival of art ; yet it cannot be denied, 
 that several important discoveries altogether un- 
 known to the ancients were made in those ages. 
 Of tliis kind were the inventions of paper, paint- 
 ing in oil, the mariner's compass, gunpowder, 
 printing, and engraving on copper : see the 
 several articles. After the invention of the com- 
 pass and printing, two grand sources were opened 
 for the improvement of science. As navigation 
 was extended, new objects were discovered to 
 awaken the curiosity and excite the attention of 
 the learned ; and the ready means of diffusing 
 knowledge aff"orded by the press, enabled the in- 
 genious to make them publicly known. Igno- 
 rance and superstition, the formidable enemies of 
 philosophy in every age, began to lose some of 
 that power which they had usurped, and different 
 states, forgetting their former blind policy, adopted 
 improvements which their prejudices had before 
 condemned. 
 
 In countries, however, where civil and eccle- 
 siastical tyranny prevailed, the progress of the 
 useful and elegant arts was slow, and struggled 
 with many difficulties. Particular events, in- 
 deed, have occurred in all ages and nations which 
 have roused the exertions of genius, and furnished 
 occasion for making important and useful dis- 
 coveries. The history of Greece and Rome, and 
 even of modern Europe, will afford many obvious 
 facts that confirm and illustrate tliis observation. 
 We can add but a few other miscellaneous ones. 
 
 In diff'erent countries the progress of the same 
 arts has been extremely different. Though the 
 compass was used in China for navigation long 
 before it was known in Europe, yet to this day, 
 instead of suspending it in order to make it act 
 freely, it is placed upon a bed of sand, by which 
 every motion of the ship disturbs its operation. 
 Water-mills for grinding corn are described by 
 Vitruvius, and wind-mills were known in Greece 
 and in Arabia as early as the seventh century ; yet 
 no mention is made of them in Italy till the 
 fourteenth ; and that they were not known in 
 England in the reign of Henry '\TII. appears 
 from a household book of the Northumberland 
 family, stating an allowance for tliree mill-horses, 
 'two to draw in the mill, and one to carry stuff' 
 to the mill and fro.' Water-mills for corn must 
 in England have been of a late date. The an- 
 cients had mirror-glasses, and employed glass to 
 imitate crystal vases and goblets; yet they never 
 thought of using it in windows. In the thirteenth 
 century, the Venetians were the only people who 
 had the art of making crystal glass for mirrors. 
 A clock that strikes the hours was unknown in 
 Europe till the end of the twelfth century. And 
 hence the custom of employing men to proclaim 
 the hours during night; which to tiiis day con- 
 tinues in Germany, Flanders, and England. 
 Galileo was the first who conceived an idea that 
 a pendulum might be useful for measuring time; 
 and Huygens was the first who put the idea in 
 execution, by making a ])cndulum clock. Hook, 
 in IGOO, invented a spiral spring for a watch, 
 though a watch was far from being a new inven- 
 tion. Paper was made no earlier than the four- 
 teenth century ; and the invention of printing 
 was a century later. Silk manufactures were
 
 ARTS. 
 
 long established in Greece before silk-worms 
 v.-ere introduced there. The manufacturers were 
 provided with raw silk from Persia : but tb.at 
 commerce being frequently interrupted by war, 
 two monks, in the reign of Justinian, brought 
 eggs of the silk-worm from Ilindostan, and 
 taught their countrymen the method of managing 
 them. — The art of reading made a very slow pro- 
 gress. To encourage that art in England, the 
 capital punishment for murder was remitted, if 
 the criminal could but read, which in law lan- 
 guage is termed benefit of clergy. One would 
 imagine that the art must have made a very rapid 
 progress when so greatly favored : but there is a 
 signal proof of the contrary ; for so small an 
 edition of the Bible as GOO copies, translated into 
 English in the reign of Henry Vlll. was not 
 wholly sold off in three years. And the people 
 of England must have been profoundly ignorant 
 in Queen Elizabeth's time, when a forged clause 
 added ro the twentieth article of the established 
 creed passed unnoticed till about a centuiy ago. 
 
 The circumstances which arouse the national 
 spirit upon any particular art, promotes activity 
 to prosecute other arts. When the Romans 
 came to excel in the art of war, they rapidly im- 
 proved in other arts. Nevus composed in verse 
 seven books of the Punic war; besides comedies, 
 replete with bitter raillery against the nobility. 
 Ennius wrote annals, and an epic poem ; and 
 Lucius Andronicus became the father of dramatic 
 poetry in Rome. And the Roman genius for 
 the fine arts was much inflamed by Greek learn- 
 ing when free intercourse between the two na- 
 tions was opened. 
 
 The progress of art seldom fails to be rapid, 
 when a people happen to be roused out of a tor- 
 pid state by some fortunate change of circum- 
 stances : public liberty now gives to the mind a 
 spring which is vigorously exerted in every new 
 pursuit. The Athenians made but a mean figure 
 under the tyranny of Pisistratus ; but, upon re- 
 gaining their freedom and independence, arts 
 flourished with arms, and Athens became the 
 chief theatre for science as well as for the fine 
 arts. The reign of Augustus Csesar, which put 
 an end to the rancor of civil war, and restored 
 peace to Rome with the comforts of society, 
 proved an auspicious era for literature; and 
 produced a cluster of Latin historians, poets, and 
 philosophers, to whom the moderns are indebted 
 for their taste. A similar revolution happened 
 m Tuscany about 350 years ago. That country 
 having been divided into a number of small re- 
 publics, the people excited by mutual petty 
 quarrels, became ferocious and bloody, flaming 
 with revenge for the slightest offence. But being 
 united under the Great Duke of Tuscany, these 
 republics enjoyed the sweets of peace and a mild 
 government ; when the retrospect of recent ca- 
 lamities roused the national spirit, and produced 
 ardent appli«cation to arts and literature. The 
 restoration in England in 1660, which put an 
 end to an envenomed civil war, promoted im- 
 provements of every kind, and arts and industry 
 made a rapid progress. Had the nation, upon 
 that favorable turn of fortune, been blessed with 
 a succession of able and virtuous princes, arts 
 and sciences might much earlier have flourished 
 
 in their modern perfection. Some important 
 action even of doubtful event, a strugo-le for 
 liberty, the resisting a potent invader, or the 
 like, have also had beneficial influences on the 
 progress of art. Greece, divided into small 
 states frequently at war with each other, advanced 
 in literature and the fine arts to unrivalled per- 
 fection. The Corsicans, while engaged in a pe- 
 rilous war in defence of their liberties, exerted a 
 vigorous national spirit ; they founded a univer- 
 sity for arts and sciences, a public library, and a 
 public bank. After a long stupor during the 
 dark ages of ecclesiastical tyranny, arts and lite- 
 rature revived among the turbulent states of 
 Italy. The Royal Society in London, and the 
 Academy of Sciences in Paris were both instituted 
 after prolonged civil wars that had animated the 
 people and roused their activity. On the other 
 hand, as the progress of arts and sciences towards 
 perfection is greatly promoted by enmlation, no- 
 thing is sometimes more fatal than to remove this 
 spur; as when some extraordinary genius appears 
 to soar above rivalship. Thus mathematics 
 long seemed to be declining in Britain : the 
 great Newton, having surpassed all the ancients, 
 left the moderns without any hope of equalling 
 him; for what man will enter the lists who de- 
 spairs of victory ? 
 
 The useful have in all ages paved the way for 
 the fine arts. Men upon whom the former had 
 bestowed every convenience turned their dioughts 
 to the latter. Beauty was studied in objects ot 
 sight ; and men of taste attached themselves to 
 the fine arts, which multiplied their enjoyments 
 and improved their benevolence. Sculpture and 
 painting made an early figure in Greece; which 
 afforded plenty of beautiful originals to be copied 
 in these imitative arts. Statuary, a more simple 
 imitation than painting, was sooner brought to 
 perfection: the statue of Jupiter by Phidias, and 
 of Juno by Polycletes, though the admiration of 
 all the world, were executed long before the art 
 of light and shade was known. Another cause 
 concurred to advance statuary before painting in 
 Greece, viz. a great demand for statues of their 
 gods. Architecture, as a fine art, made a slower 
 progress. Proportions upon which its elegance 
 chiefly depends, cannot be accurately ascertained, 
 but by an infinity of trials in great buildings ; a 
 model cannot be relied on : for a large and smal ■ 
 building, even of the same form, require dififer- 
 ent proportions. Literature as a branch of the 
 fine arts deserves a separate consideration. See 
 Literature. 
 
 The cause of the decline of the fine arts may 
 be illustrated by various instances. The perfec- 
 tion of vocal music is to accompany passion, and 
 to enforce sentiment. In ancient Greece, the 
 province of music was well understood; and 
 being confined within its proper sphere, it had 
 an enchanting influence. Harmony at that time 
 was very little cultivated, because it was of very 
 little use; melody reaches the heart, and it is by 
 it chiefly t.hat a sentiment is enforced, or a pas- 
 sion soothed: harmony, on the contrary, reaches 
 the ear only ; and it is a matter of undoubted 
 experience, that the melodious airs admit but 
 of very simple harmony. Artists, in later times, 
 ignorant why harmony was so little regarded by
 
 ART 8 
 
 the ancients, applied themselves seriously to its 
 cultivation, and have been wonderfully success- 
 ful. But successful at the expense of melody ; 
 which, in modem compositions, generally speak- 
 ing, is lost amid the blaze of harmony. In the 
 Italian opera, the mistress is degraded to be 
 handmaid; and harmony triumphs, with very 
 little regard to sentiment. Among the Greeks 
 also, as a conquered people, the fine arts de- 
 cayed ; but not so rapidly as at Rome under 
 her various despotic emperors; the Greeks 
 farther removed from the seat of government, 
 being less within the reach of the Roman ty- 
 rants. During their depression they were guilty 
 of the most puerile conceits ; witness verses com- 
 posed in the form of an axe, an egg, wings, and 
 such like. The style of Greek authors, in the 
 reign of Adrian, is unequal, obscure, stiff, and 
 affected. Lucian is the only exception. We 
 need scarce any other cause but despotism, to 
 account for the decline of statuary and painting 
 in Greece. These arts had arrived at their ut- 
 most perfection about the time of Alexander the 
 Great; and from that time they declined gra- 
 dually with the vigor of a free people ; for 
 Greece was now enslaved by the Macedonian 
 power. It may in general be observed, that 
 when a nation becomes stationary in that degree 
 of power which it acquires from its constitution 
 and situation, the national spirit subsides, and 
 men of talents become rare. It is still worse 
 with a nation that is sunk below its former 
 power and pre-eminence ; and worst of all, when 
 it is reduced to slavery. Other causes concurred 
 to accelerate the downfall of the arts mentioned. 
 Greece, in the days of Alexander, was filled with 
 statues of excellent workmanship ; and there 
 being little demand for more, the later statuaries 
 were reduced to make heads and busts. At last 
 the Romans put a total end, both to statuary 
 and painting in Greece, by plundering it of its 
 finest pieces; and the Greeks, exposed to the 
 avarice of the conquerors, bestowed no longer 
 any money on the fine arts. The decline of the 
 fine arts in Rome is, by Petronius Arbiter, a 
 writer of taste and elegance, ascribed to a cause 
 different from any above mentioned, i. e. opu- 
 lence, with its faithful attendants avarice and 
 luxury. In England the fine arts are far from 
 such perfection as to suffer by opulence. They 
 are in a progress, indeed, towards maturity ; but 
 proceed at a very slow pace. Another cause 
 that never fails to undermine a fine art in a 
 country v/here it is brought to perfection, ab- 
 stracting from every one of the causes above 
 mentioned, has been already pointed out. No- 
 thing is more fatid to an art or science, than per- 
 formances so much superior to all of the kind 
 as to extinguish emulation. This cause would 
 have been fatal to the arts of statuary and paint- 
 ing among the Greeks, even though they had 
 continued a free people. Tlie decay of painting 
 in modern Italy is probably owing to this cause : 
 Michael Angelo, Raphael, Titian, &c. are lofty 
 oaks, that bear down young plants in their 
 neighbourhood, and intercept tiiem from the 
 sunshine of emulation. Had the art of ])ainting 
 made a slower progress in Italy, it might have 
 there continued in vigor to tiiis day. Archi- 
 
 ART 
 
 tecture continued longer in vigor tiiaii painting, 
 because the principles of comparison in the 
 former art were less precise tlian in the latter. 
 The artist who could not rival his predecessors 
 in an established mode, sought out a new mode 
 for himself, which, tiiougii perhaps less elegant 
 or perfect, was for a time supported by novelty. 
 Useful arts will never be neaiected in a country 
 where there is any police ; for every man finds 
 his account in them. Tine arts are more pre- 
 carious. They are not relished but by persons 
 of taste, who are rare; and such as can spare 
 great sums for supporting them, who are still 
 more rare. For that reason they will never 
 flourish in any country, unless patronised by the 
 sovereign, or by men of power and opulence. 
 And richly do they merit such patronage, as one 
 of the springs of government; multiplying 
 amusements, and humanising manners. 
 
 Art, the second person singular of the verb 
 TO BE, of which the English language affords no 
 variation, except by adopting the plural, by say- 
 ing You are, instead of Thou art. Thou beest in- 
 deed was anciently used, but it is quite obsolete. 
 
 Art and Part in Scots law. See Accessary. 
 
 ARTA, or Larta, a gulf, river, and town of 
 European Turkey, in Albania, or Epirus, be- 
 longing to the government of Romania. The 
 town is seated on the river of the same name, 
 nine miles north of the spot where it falls into 
 the gulf of Arta, above twenty miles north-east 
 of Prevesa, and about 360 W. N. W. of Con- 
 stantinople. The number of inhabitants, Christians 
 as well as Turks, amounts to six thousand, who 
 trade in cattle, wine, tobacco, cotton, flax, pulse, 
 fur, leather, and other commodities. They also 
 manufacture coarse woollen and other cloths. 
 It is the seat of a Greek metropolitan and several 
 European consuls. The gulf, otherwise called 
 the gulf of Prevesa, extends a considerable way 
 inland in an eastern direction, and from its 
 rocks and sand banks, is very dangerous. Long. 
 21° 8' E., lat. 39°30'N. 
 
 ARTABA, an ancient measure of capacity 
 used by the Persians, JNIedes, and Egyptians. — 
 The Persian artaba is represenied by Herodotus 
 as bigger than the Attic medimnus by three Attic 
 choenixes ; from which it appears that it was 
 equal to 6J Roman modii ; consequently that 
 it contained 166| pounds of wine or water, or 
 126| pounds of wheat. The Egyptian artaba 
 contained five Roman modii, and fell short of the 
 Attic medimnus by one raodius ; consequently 
 held 133J pounds of water or wine, lOOlb. of 
 wheat, or sixty of flour. 
 
 ARTABANUS, the name of several kings of 
 Parthia. See Parthia. 
 
 Artabanus, the brother of Darius I. and the 
 uncle and murderer of Xerxes. See Artax- 
 
 ERXES. 
 
 ARTABAZUS, the son of Pharnaces, com- 
 manded the Parthians and Chorasmians in the 
 famous expedition of Xerxes. After the battle 
 of Salamis, he escorted the king his master to 
 the Hellespont with 60,000 chosen men ; and 
 after the battle of Plataa, in which Mardonius 
 engaged contrary to his advice, he made a noble 
 retreat, and returned to Asia with 40,000 men. 
 
 a\RTAKI, a town of Asiatic Turkey, in Na-
 
 ART i 
 
 tolia, on the south coast of the sea of Marmora, 
 ;orty-five miles east of Gallipoli and ninety south- 
 west of Constantinople. Long. 27" 39' E., lat. 
 40° 18' N. 
 
 Artakui, a town of European Turkey, in 
 Romania, forty -eight miles north-west of Galli- 
 poli. 
 
 ARTALIS (Joseph), a native of Mazara, A. D. 
 1628, who showed an early inclination both for 
 poetry and arms. He finished his studies at fif- 
 teen years of age, when he fought a duel and 
 killed his adversary. He took shelter in a church 
 and afterwards studied philosophy. Candia be- 
 ing besieged by the Turks, he went to its relief, 
 and displayed so much valor that he was created 
 a knight of St. George. Being afterwards en- 
 gaged in several rencounters and always victori- 
 ous, he got the title of Chevalier de Sang, or the 
 knight of blood. His literary talents obtained 
 him the honor of being elected a member of se- 
 veral academies in Italy, and his military abilites 
 procured him the favor of several princes, parti- 
 cularly of the Emperor Leopold I. and Ernest 
 duke of Brunswick. 
 
 ARTAXATA, an ancient city, the metropolis 
 of Annenia Major, and the residence of the Ar- 
 niinian kings : it was built according to a plan 
 of Hannibal, for king Artaxias ; and was situated 
 on a branch of the river Araxes, which formed a 
 kind of peninsula, and surrounded the town like 
 a wall, except on the side of the isthmus, but this 
 side was secured by a rampart and ditch. The 
 town was deemed so strong that Lucullus, after 
 having defeated Tigrai-es, durst not lay siege to it ; 
 but Poropey compelled him to deliver it without 
 striking a blow. It was then levelled with the 
 ground; but the Armenians have a tradition, 
 that the ruins of it are still to be seen at a place 
 called Ardachat. Sir John Chardin says, that it 
 has the name of Ardachat, from Artaxias, whom 
 in the east they call Ardechier. Here are the re- 
 mains of a stately palace, which the Armenians 
 take to be that of Tiridates, who reigned in the 
 time of Constantine. One front of this building 
 is half ruined, and there are many other fine an- 
 tiquities. 
 
 Artax^ta, or Atropatia, another city built 
 also on the Araxes, in the northern part of 
 Media. 
 
 ARTAXERXES I. king of Persia, surnaraed 
 Longimanus, from the uncommon length of his 
 arms, was the youngest son of Xerxes, and was 
 raised to the throne A. M. 3487, by Artabanus, 
 the captain of the guar-ds, who had privately 
 murdered his father ; but persuaded the young 
 prince that his elder brother Darius had done it ; 
 whereupon, assisted by the guards, he killed Da- 
 rius in his bed-chamber. But the murder and 
 treason being afterwards discovered, Artabanus 
 sufl'ered the punishment he merited. Some 
 reckon this king the Ahasuerus who married 
 Esther; but, be that as it may, it is certain that 
 he greatly favored the Jews, by not only autho- 
 rising them to return to Judea, and rebuild Jeru- 
 salem, but also to collect money for the use of 
 their temple ; as well as by remitting their tri- 
 bute, by encouraging their worship, and by 
 making them a number of valuable presents, &.c. 
 See his letter to Ezra, chapter vii, 10 — 26. For 
 
 I ART 
 
 an account of the other transactions of his reign, 
 see Persia. He reigned about forty years, and 
 died A. A. C. 447. 
 
 Artaxerxes II. surnamed Mnemon, from his 
 great memory, succeeded his father Darius II. 
 A. M. 3546, but had to contend for his kingdom 
 with his younger brother Cyrus, who was assisted 
 by the Greeks, but was at last overcome and 
 slain. It was after this battle that Xenophon dis- 
 played his generalship by his memorable retreat 
 with his army. Artaxerxes reigned forty-three 
 years, and died A. M. 3589. See Persia. 
 
 Artaxerxes is also the name given in Scrip- 
 ture to, and probably assumed by, the impostor 
 Oropastes ; who, pretending to be Smerdis the 
 son of Cyrus, reigned five months in Persia, after 
 the death of Cambyses. During his short reign, 
 the enemies of the Jews applied for, and ob- 
 tained, an interdict of the rebuilding of the city 
 and temple. See Ezra iv. 7. 
 
 ARTAXIAS, the founder of the kingdom of 
 Armenia Major. See Armenia and Artaxata. 
 
 ARTEDI (Peter), a famous Swedish natura- 
 list, bom in 1705. He was educated at the uni- 
 versity of Upsal, where he studied medicine ; 
 but his time was chiefly dedicated to ichthyology, 
 in which he made many valuable discoveries. — ■ 
 Such was the friendship between him and Lin- 
 naeus, that the longest liver was to be heir of all 
 their MSS. He was drowned at Leyden in 1735. 
 His Bibliotheca Ichthyologica and Philosophia 
 Ichthyologica, were published by Linnaeus in 
 1738. 
 
 ARTEDIA, in botany, a genus of the digynia 
 order, and pentandria class of plants ; ranking 
 in the natural method, under the forty-fifth order, 
 urabellatae. The involucra are pinnatifid ; the 
 floscules of the disc are masculine ; and the fruit 
 is hispid with scales. The principal species is, 
 viz. A. squamata, with squamose seeds, a native 
 of the east. Rauwolf found it growing on 
 mount Libanus. It is an annual plant, v/hose 
 stalks rise about two feet high, sending out a few 
 side branches, garnished with narrow compound 
 leaves resembling those of dill. 
 
 ARTEMIDORUS, a Grecian teacher in 
 Rome, who being intimate with Brutus, and 
 learning from him of the intended assassination 
 of Casar, delivered a note to him to inform him 
 of it, as he went to the senate-house, and desired 
 him to read it immediately, v/hicli Ccesar neglect- 
 ing, fell a sacrifice to the plot. 
 
 Artemidorus, an ancient author, under An- 
 toninus Pius, famous for his Treatise on Dreams, 
 which was first printed in Greek at Venice in 
 1518. Rigaltius published an edition at Paris in 
 Greek and Latin in 1603, and added some notes. 
 Artemidorus wrote also treatises upon Auguries 
 and Chiromancy; which are not extant. 
 
 ARTEMISIA I. queen of Caria, and the 
 daughter of Ligdamis, marched in person in the 
 expedition of Xerxes against the Greeks, and 
 performed wonders in the sea-fight nearSalamis, 
 A. A. C. 480. Being pursued by an Athenian 
 vessel, she attacked one of the Persian ships, 
 commanded by the king of Calyndus, and sunk 
 it; on which the Athenians, thinking that her 
 ship was on the side of the Greeks, ceased their 
 pursuit; but Xerxes was the piincipal person
 
 ART 
 
 10 
 
 ART 
 
 imposed upon in this affair ; for believing that 
 she had sunk an Athenian vessel, he declared 
 that ' the men had beliaved like women, and 
 the women like men.' Xerxes entrusted her 
 with tlie care of the young princes of Persia, his 
 sons, wlien, agreeably to her advice, he aban- 
 doned Greece in order to return to Persia. These 
 great qualities did not secure her from the weak- 
 ness of love : she was passionately fond of a man of 
 Abydos, whose name was Dardanus, and was so 
 enraged at his neglect of her, that she put out his 
 eyes while he was asleep. Having consulted the 
 I)elphian (hacle how to extinguish this passion, 
 and being advised to go to Leucas, which was 
 the usage of desperate lovers, she took the leap 
 from thence, and was drowned, and interred at 
 that place. INIany writers confound this prin- 
 cess with the wife of Mausolus. 
 
 Artemisia II., queen of Caria, the widow of 
 king JNIausolus, has immortalised herself by the 
 honors wliich she paid to the memory of her 
 husband. She built for him, in Halicarnassus, 
 a very magnificent tomb, called the Mausoleum, 
 which was one of the seven wonders of the world, 
 and from which the title of mausoleum was after- 
 wards given to all tombs remarkable for their 
 grandeur, but died of grief before the mausoleum 
 was finished. She is said to have drank his 
 ashes ; and to have offered a prize of great value 
 to the person who should compose the best eu- 
 logium on his memory. He died about the end 
 of the 106th Olympiad, A. A. C. 351. 
 
 Artemisia, mugwort, southernwood, and 
 wormwood ; a genus of the polygamia superflua 
 order, and syngenesia class of plants, ranking 
 in the natural method under the forty-ninth 
 order, composite nucamentaceae. The receptacle 
 is either naked or a little downy; it has no 
 pappus ; the calyx is imbricated with roundish 
 scales; and the corolla has no radii. There are 
 twenty-three species, of which the following are 
 the most remarkable : viz. 
 
 1. A. abrotanum, or southernwood, which is 
 kept in gardens for the sake of its agreeable 
 scent, a low shrub, seldom rising more than three 
 or four feet high. 2. A. absinthium, or common 
 wormwood, grows naturally in lanes and uncul- 
 tivated places, and is too well known to require 
 any description. 3. A. arborescens, or tree-worm- 
 wood, grows naturally in Italy and the Levant, 
 near the sea. It rises with a woody stalk, six or 
 seven feet high, sending out many ligneous 
 branches, garnished with leaves somewhat like 
 those of the common wormwood, but more 
 finely divided and much whiter. 4. A. dracun- 
 culus, or Tarragon, is frequently used in sallads, 
 especially by the French, and is a very hardy 
 plant, spreading greatly by its creeping roots. 
 5. A. maritima, or sea-wormwood, grows natu- 
 rally on the sea-coast in most parts of Britain, 
 where there are several varieties to be found. 
 (3. A. Pontica, or Pontic wormwood, commonly 
 called Roman wormwood, is a low herba- 
 ceous plant whose stalks die in autumn, and 
 new ones rise up in tlie spring. The flowers 
 appear in August, but are rarely succeeded 
 by seeds in Britain. 7. A. santonicum, produces 
 the semen santonicum, which is much used 
 for worms in children. It grows naturally in 
 
 Persia, from whence the seeds are brought to 
 Europe. 9. A. vulgaris, or common mugwort, 
 grows naturally on banks and by the sides of 
 foot-paths in many parts of Britain : in gardens 
 it proves a troublesome weed. The seeds of the 
 santonicum are small, light, chaffy, composed as 
 it were of a number of thin membranous coats 
 of a yellowish color, an unpleasant smell, and a 
 very bitter taste. They are celebrated for an- 
 thelmintic virtues, which they have in common 
 with other bitters, and are sometimes taken with 
 this intention, either along with molasses or 
 candied with sugar. They are not often met 
 with genuine in the shops. The leaves of the 
 sea, common, and Roman wormwoods are used 
 as stomachics, but are all very disagreeable; the 
 Roman is the least so and therefore is to be pre- 
 ferred ; but the other two kinds are generally 
 substituted in its place. The distilled oil of 
 wormwood is sometimes made use of externally 
 as a cure for worms. The leaves of the vulgaris 
 or common mugwort were commonly celebrated 
 as uterine and antihysteric : an infusion of them 
 is sometimes taken, either alone or in conjunc- 
 tion with other substances, in suppression of the 
 menstrual evacuations. In some parts of this 
 kingdom mugwort is of common use as a pot- 
 herb. It is now, however, very little employed 
 in medicine; and it is probably widi propriety 
 that the London college have rejected it from 
 the Pharmacopffiia. 
 
 The moxa, so famous in the eastern coun- 
 tries for curing the gout, by burning it on the 
 part affected, is the lanugo or down growing on 
 the under side of the leaves of a species of mug- 
 wort, supposed to be the same with our com- 
 mon sort. Fiom some dried samples of this 
 plant which were brought over to this country, 
 Mr. Miller reckons ihem to be the same, differ- 
 ing only in size. He supposes that the lanugo 
 of our mugwort would be equally efficacious. 
 The abbe Crosier says the ancient Chinese made 
 great use of it in medicine. 
 
 Artemisia, yearly festivals anciently observed 
 in divers cities in Greece, particularly Delphi, in 
 honor of Diana Artemis. In the artemisia a 
 mullet was sacrificed to this goddess, as being 
 thought to bear some resemblance to her, be- 
 cause it is said to hunt and kill the sea-hare. 
 
 ARTEMISIUM, a promontory on the north- 
 east of Euboea, (called Leon and Cale Acte 
 by Ptolemy,) memorable for the first sea en- 
 gagements between the Greeks and Xerxes, of 
 which the following account is given by Gillies : 
 ' The Grecian fleet was stationed in the harbour, 
 while that of the Persians, too numerous for any 
 harbour to contain, had anchored between the 
 city of Castanxa and the promontory of Sepias, 
 on the coast of Thessaly. The first line of their 
 fleet was sheltered by the coast of Thessaly ; but 
 the other lines, to the number of seven, rode at 
 anchor, at small intervals, with the prows of the 
 vessels turned to the sea. When they adopted 
 this arrangement the waters were smooth, the 
 sky clear, the weather calm and serene; but on 
 the morning of the second day after their arrival 
 on the coast, the sky began to lower, the appear- 
 ance of the heavens grew threatening and terrible ; 
 a dreadful storm succeeded ; raged for three days
 
 ART 11 
 
 with utiabating fury, and destroyed 400 galleys, 
 besides a vast number of store-ships and trans- 
 ports. However, 800 ships of war, besides innu- 
 merable vessels of burden, sailed into the Pega- 
 seaii bay and anchored in the road of Aphete, 
 directly opposite to the harbour of Artemisium. 
 The Grecians bad posted sentinels on the heights 
 of Eubcea, to observe the consequences of the 
 storm, and to watch the motions of the enemy. 
 When informed of the disaster which had befallen 
 them they poured out a joyful libation, and sa- 
 crificed, with pious gratitude, to ' Neptune the 
 Deliverer.' The Persians, however, having reco- 
 vered from the terrors of the storm, prepared for 
 battle ; and, as they entertained not the smallest 
 doubt of conquering, they detached 200 of their 
 best sailing vessels round the isle of Eubcea, to inter- 
 cept the expected flight of the enemy through the 
 narrow Euripus. About sunset the Grecian fleet 
 approached in a line, and the Persians met them 
 with the confidence of victory, as their ships were 
 still sufficiently numerous to surround those of 
 their opponents. At their first signal the Greeks 
 formed into a circle, at the second they began the 
 fight. Though crowded into a narrow com- 
 pass, and having the enemy on every side, they 
 soon took thirty of their ships, and sunk many 
 more. Night came on, accompanied with an 
 impetuous storm of rain and thunder ; the 
 Greeks retired into the harbour of Artemisium ; 
 the enemy were driven to the coast of Thessaly. 
 By good fortune however, rather than by de- 
 sign, the greatest part of the Persian fleet es- 
 caped immediate destruction, and gained the 
 Pegasean bay ; but the ships ordered to sail 
 round Eubcea met with a more dreadful disaster. 
 They were overtaken by the storm, after they 
 had ventured farther from the shore than was 
 usual with the wary mariners of antiquity. 
 Clouds soon intercepted the stars, by which alone 
 they directed their course ; and after continuing 
 during the greatest part pf the night the sport of 
 the elements, they all perished miserably amidst 
 the shoals and rocks of an unknown coast. The 
 morning arose with different prospects and hopes 
 to the Persians and Greeks. To the former it 
 discovered the extent of their misfortunes ; to 
 the latter it brought a reinforcement of fifty- 
 three Athenian ships. Encouraged by this favor- 
 able circumstance, they determined again to at- 
 tack the enemy at the same hour as on the pre- 
 ceding day, because their knowledge of the 
 coast, and their skill in fighting their ships, ren- 
 dered the dusk peculiarly propitious to their 
 designs. At the appointed time they sailed to- 
 wards the road of Aphete; and having cut off" 
 the Cilician squadron from the rest, totally de- 
 stroyed it, and returned at night to Artemisium. 
 The Persian commanders being deeply aff"ected 
 with their repeated disasters, but still more 
 alarmed at the much dreaded resentment of 
 their king, determined to make one vigorous ef- 
 fort for restoring the glory of their arms. By 
 art and stratagem, and under favor of the night, 
 the Greeks had hitherto gained many important 
 advantages. It now belonged to the Persians to 
 choose the time for action. On the third day, at 
 noon, they sailed forth in the form of a crescent, 
 still sufiiciently extensive to infold the Grecian 
 
 ART 
 
 line. The Greeks, animated by former success, 
 were averse to decline any offer of battle ; yet it 
 is probable that their admirals, and particularly 
 Themistocles, would much rather have delayed 
 it to a more favorable opportunity. Rage and 
 resentment supplied the defect of the barbarians 
 in skill and courage. The battle was longer, 
 and more doubtful, than on any former occasion; 
 many Grecian vessels were destroyed, five were 
 taken by the Egyptians, who particularly sig- 
 nalised themselves on the side of the barbarians, 
 as the Athenians did on that of the Greeks. The 
 persevering valor of the latter at length pre- 
 vailed, the enemy retiring, and acknowledging 
 their superiority, by leaving them in possession 
 of the dead and the wreck. But the victory 
 cost them dear ; since their vessels, particularly 
 those of the Athenians, were reduced to a very 
 shattered condition ; and their great inferiority 
 in the number and size of their ships made them 
 feel more sensibly every diminution of strength.' 
 
 Artemisium, a town of QEnotria, now called 
 St. Agatha, in Calabria, on the river Pisaurus, or 
 la Foglia, eight miles distant from the Tuscan sea. 
 
 Artemisium, an ancient town of Spain, on 
 the sea-coast of Valencia, called also Dianium, 
 and now Denia, possessed by the Contestani. 
 
 ARTEMON, a Syrian who resembled Anti- 
 ochus, king of Syria, so exactly, that by the con- 
 trivance of his queen Laodice, he personated 
 him after his death, and thus obtained the kingdom. 
 
 Artemon, the founder of the sect of Artemo- 
 nites, a sect of Unitarians who flourished about 
 the year 210. 
 
 ARTEMUS, a promontory of Valencia, called 
 also Cabo St. Martin, and Punta del' Emperador. 
 
 ARTENNA, in ornithology, the name of a 
 water-bird, of the size of a hen, of a brownish 
 color on the back, and white on the belly ; hav- 
 ing a crooked bill, and its three fore toes con- 
 nected by a membrane, but the hinder one loose. 
 It is found on the island Tremiti, in the Adriatic 
 sea, and is supposed to be the avis Diomedis of 
 the ancients. 
 
 ARTERIA AsPERA, Arteria Bronchia- 
 Lis, &c. See Anatomy, Index. 
 
 Arteria Venosa, a name given by the 
 ancients to the pulmonary vein, on the erroneous 
 supposition of its being an air-vessel, and that it 
 served for the conveyance of the vital aura from 
 the lungs to the heart. 
 
 ARTERIACA, Arteriacs. Medicines for 
 disorders of the trachea, and the voice. Arte- 
 riacs are reduced by Galen into three kinds : 1. 
 Such as are void of acrimony, serving to mollify 
 the asperities of the part; such as gum traga- 
 canth, aster samias, starch, milk. Sec. 2. Those 
 of an acrimonious quality, whereby they stimu- 
 late even the sound parts; such as honey, tur- 
 pentine, bitter almonds, iris root, &c. 3. Those 
 of an intermediate kind, soft and mild, yet deter- 
 gent; such as butter, and preparations of al- 
 monds, honey, &c. 
 
 ARTERIOSA Vena, or Arterial Vein, a 
 denomination given to the pulmonary artery. 
 
 ARTERIOSUS Canalis, a tube in the heart 
 of the foetus, which, with the foramen ovale, 
 serves to maintain the circulation of the blood, 
 and to divert it from the lungs.
 
 ART 
 
 12 
 
 ART 
 
 ARTERY, ) Aprr/pia, spirit us sewita, accord- 
 Aute'rial. S ing to Pliny and Cicero. The 
 moderns have a more accurate knowledge of the 
 human body than this bare and inadequate defi- 
 nition of tlie ancients affords. See Anatomy for 
 a complete view of the arteries. 
 
 Universal plodding, poisons up 
 The nimble spirits in the arteries. 
 
 Shakspeare. Love's Labour Lost. 
 Had not the Maker wrought the springy frame ; 
 The blood, defrauded of its nitrous food. 
 Had cool'd and languished in the afterial road. 
 
 Blackmore. 
 As this mixture of blood and chyle passeth tUrough 
 the arterial tube, it is pressed by two contrary forces ; 
 that of the heart driving it forward against the sides 
 of the tube ; and the clastic force of the air, pressing 
 it on the opposite sides of those air-bladders, along 
 the surface of which this arterial tube creeps. 
 
 Arbuthnot. 
 
 ARTHEL, in law, something cast into a court, 
 
 in Wales, or its marches, whereby the court is 
 
 letted or discontiimed for the time. The casting 
 
 of arthel is prohibited, 26 Hen. VIII. cap. 6. 
 
 ARTHINGTON (Henry), a fanatical gentle- 
 man of Yorkshire, who, towards the end of queen 
 Elizabeth's reign, engaged in treasonable prac- 
 tices against the government, with Edward Cop- 
 pinger a servant of the queen's, and one Hacket, 
 whom, in their fanaticism they styled ' king of 
 Europe 1' Supposing themselves to be inspired, 
 Coppinger styled himself the ' prophet of mercy,' 
 and Arthington the ' prophet of judgment !' 
 Arthington accordingly wrote and published his 
 prophecies, wherein were intermingled some se- 
 vere reflections against the lords of the privy 
 council, the judges, &c. They were at last all 
 three apprehended in July, 1591 ; when Cop- 
 pinger became quite deranged, and never re- 
 covered his senses. Hacket was tried, con- 
 demned, and executed ; and Arthington hearing 
 of this, wrote a submissive letter to the lords of 
 council, which, after some time, procured him 
 the queen's pardon. He died with the character 
 of an honest but weak man. 
 
 ARTHRITIC A, in botany, a name given by 
 some to the primrose, and by others to the ground 
 pine. 
 
 ARTHRinCAL, ^ Ap0ptric, pain or disease 
 ARTitraT'icK. S which attacks the joints, 
 
 from apOpov, a joint. 
 
 Frequent changes produce all the arthritick diseases. 
 
 ArbutkTiot. 
 
 Serpents, worms, and Irachos, though some want 
 
 bones, and all extend articulation, yet have they 
 
 arthritical analogies; and, by the motion of fibrous and 
 
 musculous parts, arc able to make progression. 
 
 Brown's Vulgar Errors. 
 Unhappy! whom to beds of pain. 
 
 Arthritic tyranny consigns •, 
 Whom smiling nature courts in vain, 
 Tbough rapture sings and beauty shines. 
 
 Jiihnsori's Ode on Spring. 
 ARTHRITIS ; from apOpov, a joint ; any 
 distemper that affects the joints, but the gout 
 particularly. 
 
 AuTUKiris Pi.ANr.TiCA, AiniiuiTis Vaca, the 
 wandering gout, that gives pain sometimes in one 
 hmo, and sometimes in another. 
 
 ARTHRODIA, in anatomy, a species of ar- 
 ticulation, wherein the flat head of one bone is 
 
 received into a shallow socket in the other. The 
 humertis and scapula are joined by this species 
 of articulation. See Anatomy, Index. 
 
 AuTiiRoniA, in natural history, a genus of 
 imperfect crystals, found always in complex 
 masses, and forming long single pyramids, with 
 very short and slender columns. 
 
 Artiirodia, in zoology, a class of animalcula;, 
 containing those with visible limbs. 
 
 ARTHRON ; apOpov, Greek ; a joint, or 
 connection of bones proper for motion. 
 
 ARTHROSIS, in anatomy, a juncture of two 
 bones designed for motion ; called also articu- 
 lation. See Arthrodia. 
 
 ARTHUR, the celebrated hero of the Britons, 
 is said to have been the son of Uter, named Pen- 
 dragon, king of Britain, and to have been born 
 in 501. Ilis life is a continued scene of won- 
 ders. He killed 470 Saxons with his own hand 
 in one day; and after having subdued many mighty 
 nations, and instituted the order of the knights 
 of the Round Table, died A.D. 542, of wounds 
 which he received in battle. The most par- 
 ticular detail of his story and his exploits is that 
 given by Geoffrey of Monmouth ; but his history 
 is so blended with the marvellous and the extra- 
 vagant, that not only the truth of the whole, but 
 even the reality of Arthur's existence, has been 
 called in question. The ingenious Mr. Whitaker 
 however believes in his institution of the cele- 
 brated order of the round table, as also that it 
 was the origin of others of the like kind on the 
 continent. 
 
 Arthur's Seat, a high hill in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Edinburgh, said to have been so 
 denominated from a tradition that king Arthur 
 surveyed the country from its summit, and had 
 also defeated the Saxons in its neighbourhood. 
 This hill rises by a steep and rugged ascent, till it 
 terminates in a rocky point near 700 feet from 
 the base, being more than double the height of the 
 cross on the top of St. Paul's, London, which is 
 340 feet. On the south it is in many parts a perpen- 
 dicular rock, composed of basaltic pillars, regu- 
 larly pentagonal or hexagonal, about three feet in 
 diameter, and from forty to fifty feet in height. 
 Contiguous upon the west, and partly connected 
 with it at the base, are Salisbury crags, of infe- 
 rior height but exhibiting an appearance equally 
 singular and grand. They present to the city an 
 awful front of broken rocks and precipices, form- 
 ing a sort of natural amphitheatre of solid rock ; 
 and backward from the craggy verge above, the 
 hill forms an extensive irregular slope, the surface 
 affording pasture to numerous flocks of sheep. 
 The crags, beside ores, spars, rock-plants, and 
 here and there it is said some precious stones, af- 
 ford an inexhaustible supply of granite for paving 
 the streets, &c. In quarrying a part of the crags 
 has been worn down into a spacious shelf, having 
 the appearance of a lofty terrace, and stretching 
 a considerable length. From hence is a near and 
 distinct prospect of the city with its environs and 
 the adjacent country. But from the pinnacle 
 called Arthur's Seat the view is more noble and 
 extensive. The traveller may here sit and survey 
 at his ease the centre of the kingdom, besides hav- 
 ing a complete view of Edinburgh and its castle, 
 on which he looks down as if seated among tlH-
 
 ARTICLE. 
 
 13 
 
 clouds. In a word, the German ocean, the whole 
 course of the Forth, the distant Grampians, and 
 a large portion of the most populous and best cul- 
 tivated part of Scotland, form a landscape sub- 
 lime, various and beautifiil. The denomination 
 of this hill, derived as above, has been adduced 
 as an argument against those wlio dispute the 
 existence of the British Artiiur. That derivation, 
 however, though probable, is not without uncer- 
 tainty. Tor Arthur's Seat is said to be derived, 
 or rather corrupted, from A'rd Seir, * a place or 
 field of arrows,' where people shot at a mark : 
 and this not improbably ; for among these clifls 
 is a dell or recluse valley, where the wind can 
 scarcely reach, nov/ called the Hunter's bog, the 
 bottom of it being a morass. The adjacent craggs 
 are supposed to iiave taken their name from the 
 earl of SaUsbury, who, in the reign of Edward 
 ill. accompanied that prince in an expedition 
 against the Scots; though, according to oliiGrs, 
 the genuine derivation, like that of Arthur s seat, 
 is from a Celtic word also corrupted. 
 ARTICHOKE, in botany. See Cinaea. 
 ARTICLE, V. & 71. -N Lat. articulus, a di- 
 Arti'culate, v. & adj. (^minutive of arlus, a 
 Arti'culately, ^ joint. To enter into, 
 
 Articula'tion. J draw up or state par- 
 
 ticulars, to make terms. To articulate is to pro- 
 nounce each portion of a sentence distinctly. 
 
 Pkospero. Hast thou, spirit, 
 Performed to point the tempest that I bad thee. 
 Ariel. To every article. Shakspecire. Tempest. 
 
 Henry's insti-uctions were extreme curious and arti- 
 culate, and in them more articles touching inquisition, 
 than negotiation ; requiring an answer in distinct 
 articles to his questions. Bacon. 
 
 In speaking under water, when the voice is reduced 
 to an extreme exility, yet the articulate sounds, the 
 words, are not confounded. Id. 
 
 The first, at least, of these I thought deny'd 
 To beasts ; whom God, on their creation day. 
 Created mute to all articulate sound. Milton. 
 
 Antiquity expressed numbers by the fingers on 
 cither hand. On the left they accounted their digits 
 and articulate numbers unto an hundred ; on the right 
 Land, hundreds and thousands. 
 
 Brown's Vvlgar Errors. 
 If it be said, God chose the successor, that is mani- 
 festly not so in the story of Jephtha, where he articled 
 •with the people, and they made him judge over them. 
 
 Locke. 
 By articulation I mean a peculiar motion and figure 
 of some parts belonging to the mouth, between the 
 throat and lips. Holder. 
 
 All the precepts, promises, and threatenings of the 
 gospel, will rise up in judgment against us ; and the 
 articles of our faith will be so many articles of accusa- 
 tion ; and the great weight of our charge will be this. 
 That we did not obey the gospel, which we professed 
 to believe ; that we made confession of the Christian 
 faith, but lived like Heathens. Tillotson. 
 
 You have small reason to repine upon that article 
 of life. Sivift. 
 
 The dogmatist knows not by what art he directs his 
 tongue, in articulating sounds into voices. Glanville. 
 In the mean time they have ordered the preliminary 
 treaty to be published, with observations on each 
 article, in order to quiet the minds of his people. 
 
 Steele. 
 
 Article, in grammar, is a particle used in 
 
 most languages for the declining of nouns, and 
 
 denoting taur several cases and genders. l"he 
 
 use of them chiefly arises in languages that have 
 no different terminations to express the different 
 circumstances of nouns. Tlie Latins have no 
 articles ; but the Greeks, and most of the modern 
 languages, have had recourse to tliem for fixing 
 and ascertaining tire vague signification of com- 
 mon and appellative names. Many have been 
 the controversies among grammarians upon the 
 use and meaning of these words. i\Ir. Harris, 
 whose knowledge was derived from the Greek 
 language and Greek grammarians, and whose 
 principles are contradicted by the slightest ac- 
 quaintance with the Teutonic and Arabic, leads us 
 through many a maze; and we might have wan- 
 dered tdl this moment, if Mr. Tooke, in his obser- 
 vations on the word that, in his Epea Pteroenta, 
 had not pointed out to us the open and straight 
 road-upon this sulyect. In the English language we 
 call the words u and the articles ; the Germans have 
 ein and der ; the French un and k ; the Greeks 
 6 ; the Hebrews H : but the unfortunate Latins 
 are said to be without these joints and pegs in 
 speech. But if one language is without tliem, 
 they are, it is evident, not essential to language ; 
 and it will be found difficult to make such a defi- 
 nition as shall exclude a variety of words, such 
 as hie, this, that, &c. from making a part of this 
 division. In the languages above-mentioned the 
 precise meaning of the words the, der, le, 6, and 
 n, cannot at first sight be ascertained. The 
 English word a points obscurely to its meaning, 
 but the German ein and the French un clear the 
 road for investigation. They are to' be found 
 continually applied to substantives, and mean 
 one. If a thing is generally reported, we say in 
 English, ' they say,' meaning a great number say 
 so : and so in French it is on dit, or 2(hiis dicit, 
 ' one person says so,' meaning more than one 
 person by an ellipsis very common in that lan- 
 guage : in German it is wan sagt, by man, mean- 
 ing man in general. Vv'e have thus found, that 
 in two languages one of the articles is merely a 
 word of number. Probably it may be so in 
 English; arnay mean one, or it is an abbreviation 
 oi any. By trying the two senses it is evident 
 that any cannot be applied in the room of o, but 
 that one always can : and hence we might con- 
 clude that a and an are only other words for one, 
 and answer to the German ein. 
 
 Tlie article the, as it is called, may not dis- 
 cover itself so easily. Yet let us try the same 
 analogy, for the etymology of it is not ascer- 
 tained. The answers to der of the Germans, 
 and le of the French : but what is le ? itie ille 
 of the Latins ; and hence we may reasonably 
 presume that our word the is no more an article 
 than ille, and in fact that it comes from some 
 adjective of the same signification. Let us try 
 by etymology. In German we have der, die, das; 
 which was anciently ther, thia (tliio thiu) thaz, 
 and in the plural thie (thier). This looks very 
 much like our the. In the Anglo-Saxon we find 
 sa, seo, that : in Islandic, sa, sit, that : in Gothic, 
 sa, so, thata : in Hebrew, niT; 1?. HT : etymolo- 
 logists perhaps will not be displeased at our 
 making the words ri7 and the proceed from the 
 same original ; and we shall not be afraid of ex- 
 posing ourselves to the laughter of critics, if we 
 refer the Doric r>;voc to the same stock. If we
 
 ART 
 
 14 
 
 ART 
 
 are x\"ht in our conjectures, the word the is as 
 much°a pronoun as the ilk of the Latins ; but, if 
 persons choose to have a distinct class of words 
 under the name of articles, we may say that the 
 English has two, a and the, which 'serve to de- 
 fine and ascertain any particular object, so as to 
 distinguish It from the other object of the general 
 class to which it belongs.' ,.,,-, r 
 
 Father Buffier distinguishes a third kind ot 
 articles in French, which he calls intermediate 
 or partitive, serving to denote part of the thing 
 expressed by the substantives they are added to ; 
 as des scavants ont cru/ some learned men have 
 supposed;' 1 want de la lumierc, ' some light. 
 The use and distinction of the definite and inde- 
 finite articles Ic or la, and de or du, make one of 
 the greatest difficulties in the French language ; 
 as being entirely arbitrary, and only to be ac- 
 quired by practice. 
 
 The most philosophical and probable account 
 is that which has been so ably illustrated by the 
 learned bishop Middleton ; viz. that it is neither 
 more nor less than the demonstrative or relative 
 pronoun, for both were originally the same. The 
 article, together with its adjunct, forms in fact a 
 proposition, in which the participle of existence 
 is either expressed or understood, and which in- 
 volves a relation . to something before said by 
 the speaker, or which is suppposed to pass in the 
 mind of the speaker. Thus, yspwv signifies gene- 
 rally ' old man ;' but 6 yspwv is equivalent to o, 
 yfpaiv u)v, where the pronoun o, * this,' implies 
 that the old man now spoken of has been men- 
 tioned before, or that he is in some way or other 
 known to the hearer or the speaker. 
 
 Article, Articulus, in anatomy, a joint, or 
 juncture, of two or more bones of the body. 
 
 Article, in aritlimetic, sometimes signifies the 
 number 10, or any number justly divisible into 
 ten parts, as 20, 30, 40, &c. 
 
 Article of Faith is by some defined a 
 point of Christian doctrine, which we are obliged 
 to believe as having been revealed by God him- 
 self, and allowed and established as such by the 
 church. The thirty-nine articles were founded, 
 for the most part, upon a body of articles com- 
 piled and published in the reign of Edward VI. 
 They were first passed in the convocation, and 
 confirmed by royal authority in 1562. They 
 were afterwards ratified anew in the year 1571, 
 and again by Charles I. The law requires a 
 subscription to these articles of all persons or- 
 dained to be deacons or priests, 13 El. cap. 12 ; 
 of all clergymen inducted to any ecclesiastical 
 living, by the same statute ; and of licensed lec- 
 turers and curates, 13 El. cap. 12 and 13, and 
 14 Ch. II. cap. 4 ; of the heads of colleges, of 
 chancellors, officials and commissaries, and of 
 schoolmasters. By 1 William III. cap. 10. dis- 
 senting teachers are to subscribe to all except 
 the thirty-fourth, thirty-fiftli, and thirty-sixth, and 
 part of the twentieth, and in the case of Ana- 
 baptists, except also part of the twenty-seventh ; 
 othewise they are exempted from the benefits of 
 the act of toleration. See Church of England. 
 Articlks of the Clergy, Articuli cleri, 
 are certain statutes touching persons and causes 
 ecclesiastical, made under Edw. II. and III. 
 
 Abtjcles of Lamiseth were nine articles on 
 the subject of predestination, and the limitation 
 
 of saving grace, which were drawn up by arch- 
 bishop Whitgift, and recommended to the atten- 
 tion of the students of Cambridge, inconsequence 
 of some disputes which were raised in the uni- 
 versity at that time on the above-mentioned points. 
 They were, however, merely declaratory of the 
 doctrines of the church of England, and were not 
 imposed as of public authority. 
 
 Articularis Nervus. See Anatomy, Index. 
 
 Articulate Sounds are such as express the 
 letters, syllables, or words, of an alphabet or 
 language : such are formed by the human voice, 
 and by some few birds, as parrots, &c. 
 
 Articulated Libel, libellus articulatus, in 
 law, that wherein the parts of a fact are set forth 
 to the judge in short, distinct articles. 
 
 Articulation, in anatomy. See Anatomy, 
 Index. 
 
 Articulation, in botany, is the connexion of 
 parts that consist of joints or knees, such as the 
 pods of French honey-suckles, which, when ripe, 
 divide into so many parts as there are knees or 
 joints ; also those parts of plants which swell into 
 nodes or joints, and which usually send forth 
 branches. 
 
 Articulation, in grammar, a distinct pro- 
 nunciation of words and syllables. 
 
 ARTIFICERS, among the Romans, had their 
 peculiar temples, where they assembled and 
 chose their own patron, or advocate, to defend 
 their causes ; they were exempted from all per- 
 sonal services. Taruntenus Paternus reckons 
 thirty-two species of artificers, and Constantine 
 thirty-five, who enjoyed this privilege. Artificers 
 wereheldadegreebelow merchants, and argentarii 
 or money-changers, and their employment more 
 sordid. Some deny, that in the earliest ages of 
 the Roman state, artificers were ranked in the 
 number of citizens : others, who assert their cit- 
 izenship, allow that they were held in contempt, 
 as being unfit for war, and so poor that they 
 could scarcely pay any taxes. For which reason 
 they were not entered among the citizens in the 
 censor's books ; the design of the census being 
 only to see what number of persons were yearly 
 fit to bear arms, and to pay taxes towards the 
 support of the state. In almost all ages, till 
 the present, and under most forms of govern- 
 ment, artificers have been too little respected. 
 By means of the arts, the minds of men are 
 engaged in inventions beneficial to the whole 
 community ; and thus prove the grand preser- 
 vative against that barbarism and brutality, which 
 even attend indolence and induce stupidity. Ra- 
 mazini has a treatise on the diseases of artificers. 
 
 ARTIFICIAL Day, the time between the 
 sun's rising and setting in any position of the 
 hemisphere. 
 
 Artificial Lines, on a sector or scale, are 
 lines so contrived as to represent the logarilhmick 
 lines and tangents ; which, by the help of the 
 line of numbers, solve, with tolerable exact- 
 ness, questions in trigonometry, navigation, &c. 
 Chambers 
 
 Artificial Music, that which is according 
 to the rules of art ; or executed by instruments 
 invented by art. It is also used, in another 
 sense, for some artful contrivance in music; as 
 when a piece ir. sung in two parts ; one of which 
 is by B moUe, or flat, and the other by B sharp.
 
 arttli.ery: 
 . Ill (■ I (' II I . 
 
 I.,<i„l,ui. riil'li.th,;! In- rii,;ii„.< 7^,,,/.i I f /„-,i,:u,l.-. .lime I.J.f.'ll.
 
 
 ARTILLERY. 
 
 ARTIL'LERY. Fr. artilleric. Of doubtful 
 
 origin. 
 
 Have I not heard great ordnance in the field ? 
 And heav'n's artillery thunder in the skies ? 
 
 Sfiakspeare- 
 I'll to the tower with all the haste I can. 
 To view th' urt'dlery and ammunition. Id. 
 
 And Jonathan gave his artillery unto his lad, and 
 s-iid unto him ; Go, carry them unto the city. 
 
 I Samuel. 
 9 when two black clouds 
 With heaven's artillery fraught, come rattling on 
 Over the Caspian, then stand front to front 
 Hov'ring a space, till winds the signal blow 
 To join their dark encounter in mid air. 
 
 Milton's Paradise Lost, b. ii. 
 Upon one wing the artillery was drawn, being six- 
 teen pieces ; every piece having pioneers, to plain 
 the ways. Hayward. 
 
 He that views a fort to take it. 
 Plants his artillery against the weakest place. 
 
 Denham. 
 Artillery, in its general sense, denotes, 
 
 1 . The offensive apparatus of war, particularly 
 of the missile kind. Among the French the 
 term was anciently appropriated to archery. 
 In its modern signification it denotes certain fire- 
 arms mounted on carriages and ready for action, 
 with their balls, bombs, grenades, rockets, &c. 
 
 2. In a more extensive meaning, it includes the 
 means which facilitate their motion and trans- 
 port, the vehicles over which they traverse rivers, 
 every thing, in short, necessary to them, or that 
 belongs to a train of artillery. 3. In a sense 
 still more extensive, the word comprehends 
 the men and officers destined for the service 
 of the artillery. 4. By the term artillery is 
 likewise understood the science which the 
 officers of artillery ought to possess. 
 
 Sect. I. — Of Ancient jNIissiles and Mili- 
 tary Engines. 
 The missiles of the ancients were of three 
 kinds, viz. on the principle of the cross-bow, the 
 sling, and the recoil of twisted ropes. The first 
 sent forward darts and sometimes combustible 
 arrows ; the second was the balista kind, here- 
 after described ; the third acted like the boy's 
 bone bow, which by means of a wooden lever 
 and a twisted string ejects a plum-stone. Dr. 
 Meyrick has had the good fortune to meet in an 
 ancient manuscript with actual delineations of the 
 leading kinds of these engines used in the middle 
 ages. The balista seems only to have been a 
 large beam, rather crooked, resting at about two- 
 thirds of its length on a forked support; if of 
 three legs, then called trepied. Plate, Ancient 
 Artillery, fig. 1. At the long end was a great 
 pear-shaped bag, tied to the beam by a stout 
 rope. At the short end was a large box full of 
 stones. The long end being suddenly released, 
 slung upon the enemy the contents of the bag, 
 through being jerked up by the great weight of 
 the stone box. The onager, fig. 2, threw a like 
 bag of stones, but there was no stone-box, the 
 beam ^being impelled by its position between 
 
 twisted ropes inclined to recoil. Besides stones, 
 were also used balls of earth, probably baked 
 pelotes, corrupted into pellets and bullets. It 
 will be sufficient therefore to enumerate shortly 
 the machines, though it is to be recollected, that 
 ancient authors are perpetually confounding the 
 appellations. The arbalist is described in 1342 
 as a large cross-bow, furnished with a hundred 
 gogions, or balls, and grapple to draw it up. 
 
 The halista is said to be a Phoenician invention 
 for throwing huge stones, confounded sometimes 
 with the catapult, which threw darts, a Syrian 
 contrivance, conveyed to the Syracusans, whence 
 it was brought into Greece by Philip of Macedon. 
 Accounts of the construction vary, but the cross- 
 bow principle of action seems the most proba- 
 ble. The Scorpio was a smaller kind of cata- 
 pult. In the middle ages, besides the balista, 
 catapult, onager, and scorpion, Grose mentions 
 the mangona, and its diminutive mangonel, 
 similar to the balista. The trebuchet or trip- 
 getis, for throwing stones, which seems to have 
 been the same as the trepied, before mentioned, 
 though Dr. ^Nleyrick says the term trebuchet, 
 appears to imply a military engine, which ejected 
 its ammunition from a trap-door, trebocchetto. 
 The petiary, matafunda, bugles or bibles, cou- 
 illart, and war-wolf (in one sense) also machines 
 for ejecting stones. The bricoUe, carreaux or 
 quarrels, and the espringal, calculated for throw- 
 ing large darts, called muchettte ; and sometimes 
 viretons, i. e. arrows with the feathers put dia- 
 gonally so as to occasion them to turn in the air, 
 but it was not limited to darts ; for according to 
 Dr. Meyrick, v. ii. p. 53, in 1342 the gates 
 and towers of Norwich were furnished with 
 thirty espringolds for casting great stones, and 
 to every espringold a hundred gogions or balls 
 fastened up in a box, with ropes and other accou- 
 trements belonging to them ; which illustrates 
 the construction before given. The robinet and 
 mate-griffian (i. e. destroyer of the Greeks) threw 
 both darts and stones. 
 
 The munit-halhta, or cross bow, supposed to 
 be of Sicilian and Cretan origin, was perhaps the 
 most important machine of this kind, and intro- 
 duced into Europe by the Crusades. It was 
 known in England, at least for use in the chase, 
 as early as the time of the Conquest. Its appli- 
 cation to warlike uses (not its introduction) by 
 Richard I. is well supported; it was used in 
 Italy in 1139. A legionary soldier appears on 
 an ancient seal endeavouring to bend the arcu- 
 balist with his foot. Five years earlier, mention 
 is made of tumi balisterii, or the arbaleste-a-tour, 
 that drawn up by a turn; and in 1320, of the 
 balista grossa de molinellis, or one wound by a 
 moulinet or windlass, see fig. 6, and the balista 
 grossa de arganellis, i. e. one furnished with 
 tubes for ejecting the Greek fire. The cross- 
 bows used in the reign of Henry VII. were of 
 two kinds ; the latch, with its wide and thick 
 bender, for quarrels, and the prodd for bullets. 
 The stock of the former was short and straight.
 
 16 
 
 ARTILLERY. 
 
 not much exceeding two feet, and the bow was 
 bent by the windlass or moulinet. 
 
 Of the important battering ram Pliny and 
 others have made Epeus the inventor, during the 
 siege of Troy ; but as it is not mentioned by 
 Homer, nor any Greek writer, Vitruvius and 
 TertuUian more probably assign the invention to 
 Pephasmenon, a Tyrian, in the army of Car- 
 thage, during the siege of Cadiz. There were 
 three kinds of rams; one suspended, fig. 5; 
 tlie second running upon rollers, fig. 3 ; the 
 third carried by the men who worked it, fig. 5. 
 At Ilaguenau and Morviedro, the ancient Sa- 
 guntum, are the remains of two : one is topped 
 with a strong head of iron, square and of one 
 piece ; the odier consists of three pieces, has a 
 ram's head, and is similar to one on the arch of 
 Severus. The ram was used in the middle ages; 
 and Sir Christopher Wren, in throwing down 
 old walls, found no machine equal to it, parti- 
 cularly in disjointing the stones. The momentum 
 of one, twenty-eight inches diameter, 180 feet 
 long, with a head of a ton and a half weighed 
 41,112 lbs. and worked by a thousand men, was 
 about equal to a point-blank shot from a thirty- 
 six pounder. 
 
 Hardly, perhaps, to be called artillery, but 
 materially assisting their operations were the 
 ancient musculus or testudo a covered machine, 
 probably the subsequent sow, a very low shed, 
 long and very sharp roofed ; used to advance to 
 the wall, and overturn it by sap. The pluteus, 
 a machine covered with ozier work and hides, 
 running upon three wheels, one in the middle, 
 and two at the extremities. The cat, also a 
 covered shed, occasionally fixed on wheels, and 
 used for protecting soldiers employed in filling 
 up the ditch, preparing the way for the movable 
 tower, mining the wall &c. Some of these cats 
 had crenelles and chinks, from whence the 
 archers could discharge their arrows. These 
 were called castellated cats ; and sometimes 
 under cover of this machine, the beseigers work- 
 ed a small kind of ram ; fig. 4. Dr. Meyrick, 
 from an ancient illumination, has engraved one 
 of these, called the chaschateil or cat castle. It 
 resembles in form a modern four-post bedstead 
 upon wheels. A miner is working under it 
 with a pick-axe. And to the same purpose the 
 vinea, another shed, was applied. 
 
 The beljrai^ium or helfroi, was a tower with 
 stories, moved up to the walls. A cat, made of 
 osier twigs and leather, and covered with planks, 
 was used to protect those who filled up the 
 ditches preparatory to wheeling upon them the 
 belfries; from this use of the cat, was derived 
 the French word eschaufaux, an elevated floor, 
 and subsequently the English word scaffold. 
 Elsewhere Dr. Meyrick says, the catti versatiles, 
 were chats faulx furnished with drawbridges. 
 The chief belfries were called brestachiae or 
 brestaches. William de Breton says, he caused 
 to be made double brestaches in seven diff'erent 
 places. These were wooden castles, very highly 
 fortified, surrounded with double quadrangular 
 fosses, at a j^roportionate distance from each 
 otlier, with drawbridges thrown across tliem, 
 and he had not only these filled with armed 
 men, but the interior surface of each foss, and 
 
 thus he surrounded the bcseiged by his works" 
 Such wooden castles were also called bastiles* 
 An interesting print of a movable belfroi is 
 given by Grose. It consists of a ground-floor 
 occupied by a ram, and four upper stories by 
 archers and cross-bowmen ; the highest story 
 rose above the walls, and from that directly be- 
 low, a drawbridge was let down, and rested 
 upon the wall ; see our fig. 3. Some of these 
 towers used by the early ancients were of amazing 
 magnitude, being with pyramids twenty, fifteen, 
 or ten stages or floors. 
 
 The prickly cat, or felis echinata, was a beam, 
 bristled with oaken teeth, which, being hung at 
 an embrazure, could be let down upon an 
 enemy. For the same purpose was used the fis- 
 tuca bellica or war-hammer, fitted with curved 
 nails and hooks, and suspended by a chain, to 
 draw up the enemy from below. 
 
 Missive wheels were formed of mill-stones 
 joined by an oaken axis, and let down upon 
 besiegers ; missive chariots were rolled down an 
 inclined plane, and retained by chains to discharge 
 hot or cold stones. In the middle age the ma- 
 chines were commonly made upon the spot. 
 Hogsheads full of stones were used in the reign 
 of Edward I. as a protecting rampart to defend 
 the workmen in sieges. 
 
 Sect. II. — Of Modern Artillery. 
 
 According to Du Cange the word artillery 
 (ars telaria, meaning hows, arrows, and all im- 
 plements of war,) first occurs in Rymer. Grose 
 is confirmed by Dr. Meyrick in assigning the 
 introduction of it to the fourteenth century. 
 
 Cannon called dolia ignivoraa, or fire-flashing 
 vessels, in Spain, were known in Italy as early 
 as the year 1351, and were used by our Edward 
 III. They were termed by the French, gunna?, 
 and appear at first to have been of two kinds — 
 a large one for discharging stones, called a bom- 
 bard, and a smaller sort for discharging dart?- or 
 quarrels. In 1377, 1 Richard II. Thomas Nor- 
 bury was directed to provide from Thorrias Rest- 
 wold of London, two great and two less engines, 
 called cannons, 600 stone shot for the same, and 
 salt-petre, charcoal, and other ammunition, for 
 stores, to be sent to the castle of Bristol. At the 
 first invention of cannon, darts and bolts were 
 shot from them ; but, before these, stones were 
 used instead, for, in 1388, a stone bullet, which 
 weighed 195 lbs., was discharged from a bombard 
 called the trevisan. 
 
 The bombard was so called from the Greek 
 ^o^(ioQ, which expressed the noise it made in 
 the filing. It was a Greek invention, and there 
 is some reason to conceive that gunpowder owed 
 its origin to the same people. At first used only 
 in fire-works amusively, its discovery is in- 
 volved in obscurity. From a tract on Pyrotechny 
 by Marcus Grsecus, Friar Bacon, in 1270, learned 
 that its composition was two pounds of charcoal, 
 one of sulphur, and six of salt-petre, well pul- 
 verised and mixed. It was first made in Eng- 
 land in the time of Elizabeth. At first it was 
 not corned, but remained in its mealed state. It 
 was then called serpentine powder, Meyrick, v. 
 iii. p. 71. The first bombards were made of bars 
 of iron, strengthened with welded hoops of the
 
 ARTILLERY. 
 
 17 
 
 same metal. They were short with large bores, 
 and were made with chambers, iii imitation of 
 tlie tubes which ejected the Greek fire. These 
 chambers consisted of the lower half of the cy- 
 linder, the upper being open for the admission 
 of the can, or canister, which held the charge, 
 from whence probably arose the term cannon. 
 One of these may be seen in the tower of Lon- 
 don, and there is another at Rhodes of the six- 
 teenth century, on its original carriage, and a 
 stone ball to fire from it. It is nineteen feet in 
 lengtii, two feet eight inches in diameter, its 
 calibre two feet, and its thickness four inches. 
 About half the length is of a less diameter, and 
 in this, as in a chamber, was placed the powder, 
 while the ball was in the larger part. The car- 
 riage was made of timber, placed lengthways, 
 and cramped together. These bombards were 
 the only kind of cannon employed in the four- 
 teenth century, and were Grose's howitzer kind, 
 in use before mortars. After this invention of 
 bombs, that of carcases of different kinds soon 
 followed. The former, according to Strada, took 
 place in 1588. Grenades are said to have been 
 first used in 1594 in which year the howitzer 
 was invented by the Germans. The bomb being 
 intended to beat down buildings in its fall, or to 
 break and destroy every thing around it, by the 
 pieces of broken iron scattered in all directions 
 by its explosions, the end proposed by the car- 
 case and grenade was to burn the town by means 
 of fire-balls. The petard for forcing gates was 
 invented in France, a short time before the year 
 1579, and soon after introduced into England. 
 
 The term bombard generally designates bat- 
 tering guns and mortars ; but the word is also 
 applied to lighter cannon. Accordingly Dr. 
 Meyrick calls a cannon engraved by Strutt, a 
 bombard on a carriage, light in proportion to 
 the bulk of the piece. Its trail consists of a pro- 
 longation of the cascabale, which rests on the 
 gro\md, a block of wood serving as a quoin for 
 tlie purpose of depression. Admitting that can- 
 non were not used in the field till the fifteenth 
 century, this gun, for it is veiy small, is the kind 
 to which Froissart alludes, when he mentions two 
 hundred carts loaded with cannon and artillery ; 
 cannonades with bars of iron and quarrels 
 headed with brass, and cannon mounted on walls 
 and battlements. The balls were of stone adapted 
 to the calibre. In 1434 it is said that the En- 
 glish had many kinds of projectiles, * cannons, 
 culverines, and other vuglaires,' more properly 
 vulgaires, the ordinary kind. The scorpion was 
 another sort. In an illuminated copy of the 
 Roman de la Rose, done at the commencement 
 of the reign of Edward IV. 1461, is the de- 
 lineation of an iron caimon. The piece is placed 
 in a kind of trough, or bed of wood, which is 
 continued to the earth, not unlike a modern 
 horse-artillery trail. Grose very properly says, 
 that most of the earliest cannons were mere cylin- 
 ders, fixed on sledges and being often composed 
 of iron bars, iron plates rolled, or even jacked 
 leather hooped, could be fired, because they 
 were loaded by chambers fixed in at the breech. 
 At this time tliey were generally purchased from 
 abroad ; and though Henry MI. and VIII. had 
 Flemish gunners to teach the art, yet they did not 
 Vol. III. 
 
 understand it upon mathematical principles ; and 
 in the sixteenth century the ordnance rarely 
 made more than one discharge, the cavalry 
 being able to charge them before they could load 
 again. Aliens were employed in 1543 in cast- 
 ing great brass ordnance, though one John Owen 
 was said to have so done in 1521. In 1626, 
 2 Charles I. one Arnold Rotespen had a patent 
 for making guns in a manner before unknown 
 in this kingdom. 
 
 Culverines were an early denomination of a 
 species of large catnion ; and when the distinc- 
 tion between battering-pieces (all above twelve 
 pounders) and field-pieces commenced, accord- 
 ing to Dr. Meyrick, temp. Henry VIII. the ap- 
 pellations were numerous These names were 
 derived from the tubes which had been used to 
 eject the Greek fire, being fashioned so as to 
 represent the mouths of monsters. The basilisk, 
 the largest, shot stones of 200 pounds weight. 
 It was so denominated from a basilisk sculptured 
 upon it. The shot in this reign consisted of 
 iron, lead, and stone balls ; and ladles and 
 sponges were used. Different proportions were 
 given by various nations to pieces of the same 
 denomination ; but the following table of Ord- 
 nance in the reign of Elizabeth, applies m the 
 main to the times immediately preceding : 
 
 Denomination. 
 
 Cannon Royal . 
 Cannon . . 
 Cannon Serpentine 
 Bastard Cannon 
 Demi-cannon 
 
 Cannon Petro' . 
 
 Culverin . . . 
 Basilisk . . 
 Demi-culverin . 
 Bastard Culverin 
 
 Sacar .... 
 ]\Iinion . . . 
 Faulcon . . . 
 Falconet . . . 
 Serpentine 
 Rabinet . . 
 
 66 
 
 60 
 
 531 
 
 41 
 
 33 
 
 24 
 
 17^ 
 15 
 
 n 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 2 
 H 
 
 7 
 7 
 6| 
 
 5i 
 5 
 4 
 4 
 
 Oj 
 
 3^ 
 
 2i 
 2 
 
 n 
 
 The change introduced in the military art by 
 the modern artillery, Dr. Smith observes, has 
 enhanced greatly both the expense of exercising 
 and disciplining any particular number of sol- 
 diers in time of peace, and that of employing 
 them in time of war. Both their arms and am- 
 munition are become more expensive. A musket 
 is a more expensive machine than a javelin or a 
 bow and arrows ; a cannon or a mortar than a 
 balista or a catapulta. The powder wliich is 
 spent in a modern review, is lost irrecoverably, 
 and occasions a very considerable expense. The 
 javelins and arrows which were thrown or shot in 
 an ancient one, could easily be picked up again, 
 and were besides of very little value. The can-
 
 18 
 
 ARTILLERY. 
 
 non and the :nortar are not only much dearer, 
 but much heavier machines than the balista or 
 catapulta, and require a greater expense not only 
 to prepare tiiem for the field but to carry tliem to 
 it. As the superiority of the modern artillery 
 too over that of tlie ancients is very great, it has 
 become much more difficult, and consequently 
 much more expensive, to fortify a town so as to 
 resist, even for a few weeks, the attack of that 
 superior artillery. In modern war, the great ex- 
 pense of fire-arms gives an evident advantage to 
 the nation which can best afford that expense ; 
 and consequently to an opulent and civilised, 
 over a poor and barbarous nation. In ancient 
 times, the opulent and civilised found it difficult 
 to defend themselves against the poor and bar- 
 barous, nations. In modern times, the poor and 
 barbarous find it difficult to defend themselves 
 against the opulent and civilised. The invention 
 of fire-arms, therefore, an invention, which at 
 first sight appears to be so pernicious, is cer- 
 tainly favorable, both to the permanency and 
 to the extension of civilisation. And, on the 
 whole, the invention of gun-powder and modem 
 artillery may be said to have saved the effusion 
 of human blood. Equestrian engagements (the 
 principles on which cavalry act being nearly the 
 same in every age,) are still similar in circum- 
 stances to those which appear so extraordinary 
 in the battles of antiquity. 
 
 The present artillery of Great Britain is ad- 
 mitted to be the most perfect force of that 
 description in Europe. It was until recently 
 divided into the artillery of the park, the horse 
 artillery, and the battalion guns, viz. all the light 
 pieces of ordnance attached to regiments of the 
 line. This latter description, however, has bet-n 
 discontinued of late, and brigades of foot and horse 
 now comprehend the whole of our regular artillery. 
 A brigade of foot artillery has either five me- 
 dium 12-poundersand aheavy 5^-inch hovifitzer; 
 five 9-pounders and ditto ; five long 6-po'inders 
 and ditto ; five light 6-pounders and a light 5^- 
 inch howitzer ; or six 3-pounders when acting in 
 a mountainous district. In the late war the 
 9-pounders were more generally used, as best 
 opposed to the 8-pounders of the French army. 
 The guns and howitzers are accompanied by 
 a.mouriiiion cars, upon a new principle. To 
 every brigade is a forge cart, a cimp equipage 
 waggon, and sparegun carriage, with ^^p^/re 
 wheels, and tools for a wheeler, collar-maker, 
 and carriage-smith. The proportioning of field 
 and battering ordnance, for foreign service, is a 
 business of great importance, from the know- 
 ledge which is requisite to fix upon all the nu- 
 merotis articies to accompany the service, aud 
 the metiiod to be pursued in equalising, arrang- 
 ing, and disposing of the guns, ammunition, and 
 stores. No certain criterion can ever be esta- 
 blished as to the proportion of artillery to be 
 sent upon any expedition, as it must depend 
 entirely upon the nature of the service ; and great 
 changes are generally made to suit the ideas of 
 the officer who is to command the army, and 
 also those of the officer of artillery, who may be 
 selected to accompany it. But two brigades of 
 field artillery to a division of an army consisting 
 of GOOO men, may be considered a good propor- 
 tion, independent of the reserve park. 
 
 A troop of British horse artillery has generally 
 <Tve G-pounders and one light 5J-inch howitzer. 
 The French have generally 8-pounders and a 
 6-inch howitzer. Each troop consisting of one 
 captain, one second captain, three subalterns, 
 two staff Serjeants, twelve non-commissioned of- 
 ficers, seventy-five gunners, forty-six drivers, six 
 artificers, and one trumpeter, with eighty-six 
 draught horses, and fifty-six riding horses, and 
 six pieces of ordnance, with carriages for the 
 conveyance of ammunition, camp equipage, and 
 stores. Horse artillery was brought into the 
 service of this country by the duke of Richmond 
 in the year 1792. There is a colonel-command- 
 ant, two colonels en second, four lieutenant- 
 colonels, and one major, attached to it. Tl^e 
 movements of horse artillery are made with great 
 celerity, and it has been found, that they are 
 perfectly adapted to act with cavalry in the field, 
 in their most rapid movements, and are consi- 
 dered as forming an essential addition to the 
 artillery service. 
 
 The royal artillery drivers are a corps first 
 formed about twelve years ago, by the duke of 
 Richmond. Previous to the corps being esta- 
 blished, the horses and drivers were provided by 
 contract ; but, as no reliance could be placed on 
 the service of either men or horses so procured, 
 it was found absolutely necessary to abolish so 
 unmilitary and destructive a plan ; and to em- 
 ploy able men well trained to the service. The 
 artillery horses are now kept in the highest con- 
 dition, the drivers being thoroughly drilled to 
 the mancfiuvres of artillery, and capable of se- 
 curing, by rapid movements, advantageous posi- 
 tions in the field. This change arises from the 
 high state of excellence in which the brigades 
 are equipped, and from the artillery men being, 
 in particular cases, mounted upon the cars at- 
 tending the brigades. 
 
 A park of artillery is a sort of movable super- 
 numerary detachment, containing not only light 
 guns, to replace such as may be lost or taken, 
 but 12-pounders, or 1 8-pounders, with 8 inch 
 howitzers, for the purpose of defending impor- 
 tant positions, entrenched posts, &,c. breaking 
 down bridges, and conducting sieges. Attached 
 to it also are the reserve officers and men of this 
 service. In expedition service, where disem- 
 barkations of artillery take place, the depot of 
 reserve carriages, ammunition and stores, is 
 usually fcrmed .near to the spot where the articles 
 are landed from the ship?, and a communication 
 is kept up between the advanced park and tlid 
 depot, from whence the articles are forwarded 
 as demanded for the immediate exigencies of the 
 park. 
 
 Regiments of artillery are always encamped, 
 half on the right and half on the left of the park 
 The company of bombardiers (when they are 
 formed into companies, which is the case in al- 
 most every nation except England) always takes 
 the right of the whole, aid the lieutenant colo- 
 nel's company the left ; next to the bombardiers, 
 the colonels, the majors, &c. so that the two 
 youngest are next but one to the centre or park ; 
 the two companies next to the park are lh« 
 miners on the right, and the artificers on the left. 
 In the rear of, and thirty-six feet from, the park, 
 are encamped the civil list, all in one line.
 
 ARTILLERY. 
 
 19 
 
 The following Tables exhibit the latest official regulations for the proportion and disposition of 
 the ammunition attached to the field-pieces of our army. 
 
 TABLE I. 
 Heavy 5A Inch Howitzer. 
 
 Description 
 of carriage. 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 m 
 
 -c 
 a 
 
 3 
 O 
 
 Case Shot. 
 
 o 
 
 tn 
 
 2 
 o 
 
 Cartridges. 
 
 Where carried. 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 
 13 
 
 <u 
 
 
 i 
 
 o 
 
 N 
 O 
 
 ■■£> 
 
 s 
 
 c 
 
 Pi 
 
 
 Howitzer limber \ ^f^f ^^x .'.'.'. 
 
 c ?■ r T • 1 i Off Box . . . . 
 II C Limber J j^ear Box . . . . 
 
 p S J TD J S Fore Box .... 
 IcjC ^°dy- UiindBox . . . 
 
 Total .... 
 
 8 
 8 
 
 11 
 11 
 10 
 10 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 4 
 4 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 10 
 10 
 11 
 11 
 18 
 18 
 
 10 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 18 
 18 
 
 8 
 8 
 11 
 11 
 10 
 10 
 
 4 
 4 
 
 58 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 78- 
 
 78 
 
 58 
 
 8 
 
 Light 5^ Inch Howitzer. 
 
 Patent limber. 
 
 1 
 
 .- 
 
 ^Howitzer limber ^ gfar^B^x ! .' '. '. 
 - ^ r T ■ 1, C Off Box ... . 
 II I Limber J ^ear Box . . . . 
 
 3 S i T^ J $ Fore Box .... 
 <6t ^^^y- ^ Hind Box . . . 
 
 Total .... 
 
 8 
 8 
 11 
 11 
 12 
 12 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 3 
 3 
 
 
 
 4 
 4 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 10 
 10 
 11 
 11 
 21 
 21 
 
 10* 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 21 
 
 21 
 
 8 
 8 
 11 
 11 
 12 
 12 
 
 4 
 4 
 
 62 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 84 
 
 84 
 
 62 
 
 8 
 
 These are only 1-lb cartridges. 
 
 TABLE II. 
 Heavy Six-Pounder. 
 
 d <u 
 Q « 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 § 
 
 Case Shot. ; 
 
 o 
 1 
 
 Cartridges. 
 
 Where carried. 
 
 
 "til 
 
 3 
 
 03 
 
 2 
 
 c'l 
 
 o 
 
 i 
 
 S3 
 
 s 
 
 c 
 m 
 
 " 
 
 -Gunltaber. . | gf^f » ^ ■ ; ; ; 
 
 iB "-k- l5Je?B„/ : : : 
 
 S S ) Body 5 ^^''^ ^^'^ • • • 
 ^O (. ^^'^y- ? Hind Box . . . 
 
 Total .... 
 
 20 
 20 
 20 
 20 
 25 
 35 
 
 5 
 5 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 5 
 
 10 
 10 
 
 25 
 25 
 25 
 25 
 45 
 45 
 
 25 
 25 
 25 
 25 
 35 
 35 
 
 10 
 10 
 
 10 
 10 
 
 140 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 190 
 
 170 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 
 Total for five guns 
 
 700 
 
 75 
 
 75 
 
 100 
 
 950 
 
 850 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 Light Six-Poijnder. 
 
 c CBox 
 
 Limber 
 
 Body. 
 
 i Off Box . 
 f Near Box . 
 5 Off Box . 
 I Near Box , 
 c Fore Box , 
 i Hind Box , 
 
 Total . 
 
 Total for five guns . 
 
 8 
 16 
 16 
 16 
 16 
 25 
 35 
 
 132 
 
 660 
 
 14 
 
 70 
 
 14 
 
 70 
 
 10 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 100 
 
 180 
 
 900 
 
 21 
 
 25 
 
 21 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 45 
 
 35 
 
 45 
 
 35 
 
 160 
 
 800 
 
 10 10 
 10 10 
 
 20 20 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 * These are only l,}-lb. cartridges. 
 
 C 2
 
 20 
 
 ARTILLERY. 
 
 TABLE IIL 
 
 Nine-pounder. 
 
 Description, 
 of carriage. 
 
 Where carried 
 
 o 
 
 ji 
 
 01 
 
 d 
 o 
 
 Pi 
 
 Case Shot. 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 H 
 
 Cartridges, 
 
 > 
 
 (S 
 
 a 
 
 .2 
 
 u 
 
 a, 
 
 n 
 
 N 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 -IM 
 
 1 
 
 s 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 "a! • 
 
 ^ bD 
 
 § « 
 
 r^ T • u < Off Box .... 
 Gun Limber . . > ^.^^ jjox . . . . 
 
 c <^'\t -u ^ Off Box .... 
 §^) Limber. . J ^ear Box . . • . 
 
 S S in ^ C Fore Box .... 
 < |^)Body . . JnindBox. . . . 
 
 Total 
 
 Total for five guns . . . 
 
 13 
 13 
 13 
 13 
 
 12 
 24 
 
 3 
 3 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 16 
 16 
 16 
 16 
 28 
 24 
 
 16 
 16 
 16 
 16 
 16 
 24 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 88 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 116 
 
 104 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 440 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 60 
 
 580 
 
 520 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 /■Gun limber, two boxes 
 
 \Amunition Carriage 
 
 1 Total 
 
 Total for five guns .... 
 
 26 
 52 
 
 3 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 32 
 72 
 
 32 
 62 
 
 10 
 
 lO 
 
 78 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 104 
 
 94 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 390 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 50 
 
 520 
 
 470 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 TABLE IV. 
 
 Medium Twelve-Pounder. 
 
 o >- 
 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 o 
 
 Case shot. 
 
 o 
 
 Cartridges. 
 
 g ^ 
 
 3 S 
 
 S5^ 
 
 Where carried. 
 
 
 4 
 
 a. 
 
 ■4 
 
 ^ 
 
 o 
 
 c 
 'S 
 
 ii 
 
 g ^ 
 O o 
 
 II 
 
 s 
 
 O 
 
 fr^ T X. i Off Box 
 
 Gun Limber . . . { ^ear Box 
 
 • aJ /- T • , < Off Box 
 
 §|>CLimber. . { n,,, ^ox 
 
 1 S ) „ , < Fore Box 
 
 < |-(Body . . . JnindBox 
 
 Total 
 
 Total for five guns 
 
 5 
 5 
 12 
 12 
 12 
 16 
 
 62 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 2 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 7 
 
 8 
 8 
 
 6 
 6 
 16 
 16 
 20 
 20 
 
 84 
 
 6 
 6 
 16 
 16 
 12 
 20 
 
 76 
 
 8 
 8 
 
 8 
 8 
 
 310 
 
 35 
 
 35 
 
 40 
 
 420 
 
 380 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 r^ ^ . , c Off Box 
 
 5 
 5 
 
 22 
 13 
 13 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 32 
 17 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 26 
 17 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 Gun Limber . . . { ^ear Box 
 
 ^ bo I Limber Box 
 
 £•=<„, ^ Fore Box 
 
 '15 I ■ ■ ' niindBox 
 
 Total 
 
 Total for five guns 
 
 58 
 290 
 
 7 
 35 
 
 7 
 35 
 
 6 
 30 
 
 78 
 390 
 
 72 
 360 
 
 6 
 30 
 
 6 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 30 '
 
 ARTOCARPU S. 
 
 21 
 
 ARTISCUS; fromaproc, bread; in medicine, 
 denotes a troche, more particularly that pre- 
 pared with vipers flesh mixed up with bread, to 
 be used in the composition of Venice treacle. 
 
 ARTIST. See Art. 
 
 An Artist has more correctly been defined 
 one who practises any of the liberal arts as a 
 profession, in distinction fro^^ the artisan who 
 mixes them with trade and commerce. The 
 builder, it is said, should not be called an archi- 
 tect, nor should the sign-painter, the figure- 
 caster, or plasterer, the chair-sculptor, com- 
 monly called cabinet-maker, the paper-hanger, 
 or wall-decorator, be called artists, because their 
 employments do not consist in the exercise of 
 the higher faculties of the mind, but in prac- 
 tising lower departments of art, or in executing 
 the thoughts and designs of others. We are told 
 of a privilege granted at Vicenza to artists, some- 
 thing like the benefit of clergy in England, in 
 virtue whereof a criminal adjudged to death 
 saves his life if he can prove himself the most 
 consummate workman in any useful art. This 
 plea is allowed them, in favorem artis, for the 
 first offence ; except in some particular crimes, 
 of which coining is one ; for here the greater the 
 artist the more dangerous the person. 
 
 ARTIZOOS ; from apn short, and ?«;;;, life ; 
 is used by some ancient physicians for an infant 
 short-lived by reason of a difficult birth. 
 
 ARTOBRIGA, an ancient town of Vindelicia, 
 now called Altzburg, in Bavaria, on the Danube, 
 below Ingolstadt, according to Aventinus ; but 
 Cluverius supposes it to be Labenau on the 
 Saltzbach, below Laussen, in the archbishopric 
 of Saltsburg. 
 
 ARTOCARPUS; from aprog, bread, and 
 KapiroQ, fruit ; the bread-fruit tree ; a genus of 
 the monandria order and monoecia class ; natural 
 order, urticas. It has a cylindric amentum, 
 thickens gradually, and is covered with flowers : 
 the male and female in a different amentum. In 
 the male, gal. none ; cor. bivalved. In the fe- 
 male no calyx nor corolla ; stylus, one, and the 
 drupa is many celled. The species are, artocar- 
 pus incisa, sitodium incisum, radermachia incisa, 
 soccus lanosus, seu granosus, in French le rima, 
 ou fruit a pain, bread-fruit tree, native of the 
 Molucca Islands. Artocarpus integrifolia, sito- 
 dium macrocarpon, seu cauliflorum, raderma- 
 chia integra, soccus arboreus, seu tojacca-marum 
 Indica, Indian jaca tree, a shrub, native of the 
 East Indies. Artocarpus Philippensis, a shrub, 
 native of the Phillippine Islands. Artocarpus 
 pubescens, ansjeli, seu castania raalabarica, a 
 shrub, native of Malabar. Though this tree has 
 been mentioned by many voyagers, particularly 
 by Dampier, Rumphius, and Lord Anson, yet 
 very little notice seems to have been taken of it 
 till the return of Captain Wallis from the South 
 Seas. Dampier states that in Guam, one of the 
 Ladrone islands, ' there is a certain fruit called 
 the bread-fruit, growing on a tree as big as our 
 large apple-trees, with dark leaves. It is round, 
 and grows on the boughs like apples, of the big- 
 ness of a good penny loaf: when ripe it turns 
 yellow, soft, and sweet, but the natives take it 
 green, and bake it in an oven till the rind is 
 black ; this they scrape off and eat the inside, 
 
 which is soft and white, like the inside of new- 
 baked bread, having neither seed nor stone ; but 
 if kept above twenty-four hours it is harsh. As 
 this fruit is in season eight months in the year, 
 the natives feed upon no other sort of bread 
 during that time.' Rumphius says, * the fruit is 
 shaped like a heart, and increases to the size of a 
 child's head. Its surface or rind is thick, green, 
 and covered everywhere with warts of a qua- 
 dragonal or hexagonal figure, like cut diamonds, 
 but without points. The more flat and smooth 
 these warts are the fewer seeds are contained in 
 the fruit, and the greater is the quantity of pith, 
 and that of a more glutinous nature. The inter- 
 nal part of the rind, or peel, consists of a fleshy 
 substance, full of twisted fibres, which have the 
 appearance of fine wool ; these adhere to and in 
 some measure form it. The fleshy part becomes 
 softer towards the middle, where there is a small 
 cavity formed without any nuts or seeds, except 
 in one species which has but a small number, 
 and this sort is not good unless it is baked or 
 prepared some other way ; but if the outward 
 rind be taken off, and the fibrous flesh dried and 
 afterwards boiled with meat as we do cabbage, it 
 has then the taste of artichoke bottoms. The in- 
 habitants of Amboyna dress it in the liquor of 
 cocoa-nuts, but they prefer it roasted on coals 
 till the outward part or peel is burnt. They 
 afterwards cut it into pieces and eat it with the 
 milk of the cocoa-nut. Some people make frit- 
 ters of it, or fry it in oil; and others, as the Su- 
 matrans, dry the internal soft part, and keep it to 
 use, instead of bread, with other food. It affords 
 a great deal of nourishment, and is very satisfy- 
 ing, therefore proper for hard-working people ; 
 and being of a gentle astringent quality is good 
 for persons of a laxative habit of body. It is 
 more nourishing boiled in our manner with fat 
 meat, than roasted on coals. The milky juice 
 which distils from the trunk, boiled with the 
 cocoa-nut oil, makes a very strong bird-lime. 
 This tree is to be found on the eastern parts 
 of Sumatra, and in the Malay language is called 
 soccus and soccum capas., It grows likewise 
 about the town of Bantam in Java, and in 
 Balega and Madura.' 
 
 In 1791 a vessel was fitted out for the pur- 
 pose of conveying a quantity of these inestima- 
 ble trees to various parts of his majesty s' co- 
 lonies, under the command of Captain Bligh, 
 who set sail on the 2d of August, and arrived 
 at Otaheite April 8, 1792. The number of plants 
 taken on board at Otaheite was 2634, in 1281 
 pots, tubs, and cases; and of these 1151 were 
 bread-fruit trees. When they arrived at Coupang 
 200 plants were dead; but the rest were in good 
 order. They arrived at St. Helena with 830 
 fine bread-fruit trees, besides other plants. Here 
 they left some of them, and from hence the 
 East Indies may be supplied with them. On 
 their arrival at St. Vincent's they had 678 bread- 
 fruit trees. Nearly half this cargo was deposited 
 here for the use of the Windward Islands ; and 
 the remainder, intended for the Leeward Islands, 
 was conveyed to Jamaica, and distributed as the 
 governor and council of Jamaica pleased to direct. 
 The exact number of bread-fruit trees brought to 
 Jamaica was 352, out of which five only were
 
 ARV 
 
 22 
 
 ARU 
 
 reserved for the botanic garden at Kew. There 
 is a distinction between that which bears fruit 
 with stones or seeds, and that in which the fruit 
 lias none. The parts of fructification of that 
 tree which bears the fruit without stones are de- 
 fective. The amentum, or catkin, which con- 
 tains the male parts, never expands. The styli, 
 or female parts of the fruit, are likewise defi- 
 cient : from which it follows that there can be 
 no stones or seeds, and therefore this tree can 
 only be propagated by suckers or layers; although 
 it is abundantly evident that it must originally 
 have proceeded from the seed-bearing bread- 
 fruit tree. Instances of this kind we sometimes 
 find in European fruit, such as the barberry and 
 the Corinthian grape from Zant, commonly 
 called currants, which can therefore be increased 
 only by layers and cuttings. Dr. Solander was 
 assured by the oldest inhabitants of Otaheite, 
 and the adjoining islands, that they well remem- 
 bered there was formerly plenty of the seed-bear- 
 ing bread-fruit; but they had been neglected on 
 account of the preference given to the bread-fruit 
 without seed, which they propagate by suckers. 
 
 ARTOIS, a ci-devant province of France, ex- 
 tremely fertile, and formerly one of the seven- 
 teen provinces of the Netherlands. The name 
 was derived from the Atrebates, the ancient in- 
 habitants. Its greatest length from north to 
 south was about twenty-four leagues, and its 
 breadth about twelve, being bounded on the 
 south and west by Picardy ; on the east by 
 Hainault ; and on the north by Flanders. It is 
 now included in the department of the Straits 
 of Calais. Artois was always accounted a very 
 productive province. It is rich in corn and hops, 
 but is deficient in wood, and yields little wine or 
 fruit. The chief articles of export are grain, flax, 
 hops, wool, oil, cabbage, and rape-seed. 
 
 ARTOMELI; from aproc, bread, and fieXi, 
 honey; in ancient pharmacy, a kind of cata- 
 plasm, prepared of bread and honey. 
 
 ARTOTYRITES ; from aproQ and rvpof^, 
 cheese ; a branch of the ancient Montanists, who 
 first appeared in the second century in Galatia. 
 They used bread and cheese in the Eucharist, or 
 perliaps bread baked with cheese. Their reason 
 was, that the first men offered to God not only 
 the fruits of the earth, but of their flocks too. 
 The artotyrites admitted women to the priest- 
 hood, and even to be bishops ; and Epiphanius 
 informs us, that it was a common thing to see 
 seven girls at once enter into their church robed 
 in white, and holding torches in their hands; 
 where they wept and bewailed the wretchedness 
 of human nature, and the miseries of this life. 
 
 ARTZEN, a market-town and bailiwic of 
 Calenberg, in the principality of Hanover, be- 
 tween the Humme and VVeser. To the bailiwic 
 belong twenty-two villages and the castle of 
 Furstenberg, formerly the property of the count 
 of ()l)erstein. This town is the seat of an eccle- 
 siastical superintendant. 
 
 ARX'AD, or Aradus, an ancient city of Pha>- 
 nicia, built on a small island, south of Tyre, 
 about three miles from the continent. It was 
 formerly famous for commerce and riches, and 
 shared the fate of Tyre. It is now called Ru- 
 wadde, and belongs to the Turks. It is quite 
 ruinous, having only an old fort and a few can- 
 
 non to defend it; but the height of the island 
 gives it a fine appearance from a distance. 
 
 ARVAL, a town ofHindostan, in the district and 
 province of Baliar, forty miles south-west of Patna. 
 
 AR VALES Fratres, in Roman anti([uity, a 
 college of twelve priests, instituted by Romulus, 
 and chosen out of the most noble families, him- 
 self being one of the body : they assisted in the 
 sacrifices of the ambervalia, annually off'ered to 
 Ceres and Bacchus for the prosperity of the 
 fruits of the earth, when they wore on their 
 heads crowns made of ears of corn. The origin 
 of this institution was as follows : Acca Lauren- 
 tia, Romulus' nurse, was accustomed once a 
 year to make a solemn sacrifice for a blessing on 
 the fields, her twelve sons always assisting her 
 in the solemnity ; but at last losing one of them, 
 Romulus ofliered himself to supply his place, 
 and gave this small society the name of Arvales 
 fratres. This order was in great repute at Rome.; 
 they held the dignity for life, and never lost it 
 on account of imprisonment or banishment. 
 
 ARUANUS, in conchology, a species of mu- 
 rex, found on the coast of New Guinea. The 
 tail is patulous ; the spire crowned with spines. 
 This is the buccinum aruanum of Rumpfius. 
 
 ARVENSIS, in entomology, a species of cur- 
 culio ; gray, with three lines on the thorax ; the 
 wing-cases rufous, and tessalated. Also a spe- 
 cies of cicada, a native of Denmark : yellow ; 
 abdomen and sides black. A species of pha- 
 laena; the phalaena noctua of Linnaeus. The 
 wings are brown, with a transverse yellow spot 
 in the middle ; margin brown. This is the noctua 
 brunnea of Schmetterl. Also a species of Vespa, 
 found in Europe, with four yellow bands on the 
 abdomen. 
 
 ARVERNI, a brave and ancient people ; one 
 of the most powerful nations of Gaul They 
 claimed afiinity with the Romans, as descend- 
 ants from Antenor ; and after their subjugation 
 by the latter, their ancient liberty was preserved 
 to them on account of their bravery. 
 
 ARVICOLA, in entomology, a species of 
 scarabaeus, found in Russia: the shield of the 
 head reflected ; the body black. 
 
 ARVIRAGUS, the son of Cunobelin, a British 
 king, in the time of Claudius and Domitian. 
 
 ARUM, or Wake-robin, in botany, a genus 
 of plants of the class monoecia; order, poly- 
 andria. There are several species, of which the 
 following are the most remarkable. The generic 
 characters are c al. spathe,one-leaved : cor. none : 
 STAM. filaments, none; anthers, sessile: pist. 
 germ, obvate ; style, none ; stigma, bearded : 
 per. berry, globular ; seeds, several. A. arbor- 
 escens, or dumb cane, is a native of the sugar 
 islands and warm parts of America, where it 
 grows chiefly on low grounds. A. arisarium as 
 well as the A. proboscidium and A. tenuifolium 
 have usually been separated from this genus, 
 and distinguished by the general name of arila- 
 rum, or friar's cowl : the flower bears in April. 
 A. colocasia, as well as the A. divaricatum, es- 
 culentum, peregrinum, and sagitlifolium, have 
 all mild roots, which are eaten by the inhabi- 
 tants of hot countries, where they grow naturally. 
 A. dracunculus, or the common dragon's cane, 
 grows naturally^in most of the southern parts of 
 Europe. A. Italicum, a native of Italy, Spain,
 
 ARUNDEL. 
 
 23 
 
 anil Portugal : they appear in the end of April 
 or beginning of May. A. maculatum, or com- 
 inon wake-robin, grows naturally in woods and 
 on shady banks in most parts of Britain : the 
 flowers appear in April, and their structure 
 lias given rise to many disputes among the 
 botanists. The recep*acle is long, in the shape of 
 a club, with tlie seed-buds surrounding its base. 
 The chives are fixed to the receptacle amongst 
 the seed-buds fixed to the fruit-stalk, and placed 
 between two rows of tendrils, the use of which is 
 not known. A. trilobatum, or arum of Ceylon, 
 is a native of that island and some other parts of 
 India. All the species of this plant are hardy, 
 except the trilobatum and the arborescens. The 
 former must be kept constantly in a stove, 
 and the latter in a moderate hot-bed. The 
 arborescens is propagated by cutting off the 
 stalks into lengths of three or four joints, which 
 must be left to dry six weeks or two months ; 
 for if the wounded part is not perfectly healed 
 over before the cuttings are planted, they will 
 rot and decay. They are then to be planted in 
 small pots filled with light sandy earth, and 
 plunged in a moderate hot-bed of tan, observing 
 to let them have little water till they have taken 
 good root. The roots of the maculatum and 
 dracunculus are used in medicine, and differ in 
 nothing but that the latter is somewhat stronger 
 tb.an the former. All the parts of the arum, 
 particularly the root, have an extremely pungent 
 acrimonious taste ; but if dried and kept some 
 time, it loses much of its acrimony, and becomes 
 at length an almost insipid, farinaceous substance. 
 This root is a powerful stimulant and attenuant. 
 It is reckoned a medicine of great efficacy in 
 some cachectic and chiorotic cases, in weakness 
 of the stomach occasioned by a load of viscid 
 pldegm. Great benefit has been obtained from it 
 in rheumatic pains, in which it may be given 
 from ten grains to a scruple of the fresh root 
 twice or thrice a-day, made into a bolus or emul- 
 sion with unctuous and mucilaginous substances, 
 which cover its pungency, and prevent its making 
 any painful impression on the tongue. It gene- 
 rally excites a slight tingling sensation through 
 the whole habit, and when the patient is kept 
 warm in bed, produces a copious sweat. The 
 arum was formerly an ingredient in an officinal 
 preparation, the compound powder; but in that 
 form its virtues are very precarious. Some re- 
 commend a tincture of it drawn with wine; but 
 neither wine, water nor spirits, extract its virtues. 
 
 ARUNCI, in entomology, a species of Ci- 
 cada of a ferruginous color and brown eyes. 
 
 AllUNCO, in zoology, a species of rana, or 
 toad, larger than the common frog, but of the 
 same color. It is found in Chili. All the feet 
 are paimated. 
 
 ARUNCUS, Greater Meadow-sweet, in 
 botany, a genus of plants, called by Tournefort 
 and others barra caprs, and by Linnseus spirrea. 
 This plant has been supposed to be of the same 
 genus with the filipendula, but, by the examina- 
 tion of the flowers, they appear tobe extremely 
 diff'erent. 
 
 ARUJMDA, a town of Ilispania Batica, on llie 
 Annas, or Guadiana, now said to be Ronda in 
 (iranada, on the confines of Andalusia. Long. 
 5°40'W., lat. 36°26'N. 
 
 ARUNDEL, an ancient borough and market 
 town of Sussex, seated on the north-west side of 
 the Arun, over which there is a bridge. It 
 had a harbour in which a ship of 100 tons bur- 
 den might ride ; but the sea had ruined it so 
 far, that in 1733 an act passed for repairing it, 
 and for erecting new piers, locks, Sec. The river 
 is now navigable for vessels of 200 tons and up- 
 wards, and the navigation is carried on to the 
 Thames by means of a canal. It abounds in 
 mullet of a very fine quality. A considerable 
 trade in bark is carried on here. Arundel is a 
 borough by prescription, and has sent two mem- 
 bers to parliament from the time of Edward I. 
 It is mentioned in the will of Alfred, who left the 
 castle to his brother's son. It was formerly a 
 place of great strength, and was besieged by 
 Henry I. in person, by whom it was taken after a 
 gallant resistance from Bellesone de Montgomery 
 earl of Arundel. The castle, which belonged to 
 the family of Howard, was until lately in a 
 mouldering condition ; but completely repaired 
 by the late Duke of Norfolk, at a great expense. 
 A weekly market is held here on Thursday. Po- 
 pulation 2700. Arundel is the premier earldom 
 in England, belonging to the illustrious family 
 of Norfolk ; and is the only title in England 
 that goes along with the lands. It is fifty-seven 
 miles south-west by south of London, and ten 
 east of Chichester. 
 
 Arundel Oil, in the materia medica. At 
 Bombay, Gambroon, and Surat in the East In- 
 dies, there grows a tree which bears a nut en- 
 closed in a rough husk, resembling the horse 
 chestnut ; and the kernel of the nut yields an oil 
 by expression, which is of a purgative nature. 
 A tea-spoonful of it is reckoned a dose. The 
 tree is called, the Arundel tree at Bombay and its 
 oil the Arundel oil. Dr. Monro thinks it pro- 
 bable that this is the oil of the purging nuts 
 mentioned in Dale's pharmacologia, and the 
 palma Christi Indica of Tournefort. 
 
 Arundel (Thomas), archbishop of Canter- 
 bury in the reigns of Richard II. Henry IV. and 
 Henry V., the second son of Robert, and brother 
 of Richard earl of Arundel, who was beheaded. 
 In 1375, at twenty-two years of age, from being 
 archdeacon of Taunton he was raised to the 
 bishopric of Ely. He was a great benefactor to 
 the church and palace of this see. In 1386 he 
 was appointed lord chancellor of England, and 
 in 1388 translated to the archiepiscopal see of 
 York; and in* 1396 to that of Canterbury, 
 when he resigned the chancellorship. This was 
 the first instance of the translation of an arch- 
 bisho]) of York to the see of Canterbury. 
 Scarcely was lie fixed in this see, when he had a 
 contest with the university of Oxford about the 
 right of visitation. The affair was referred to 
 king Richard, who determined it in favor of the 
 pj'chMshop. At his visitation in London he re- 
 vived an old constitution, by which the inhabi- 
 tants of the respective parishes were obliged to 
 pay to their rector one half-penny in the jiound 
 out of the rent of their houses. In 1398 the 
 liouse of commons impeached him, together with 
 his brother the Earl of Arundel, and the Duke of 
 Gloucester, of high treason. The archbishop was 
 sentenced to be banished, and within forty days 
 to depart the kingdom on pain of deatli. He
 
 ARl^ 
 
 24 
 
 ARU 
 
 retired first to France ; and then to the court of 
 Uome, where Pope Boniface IX. gave him a 
 kind reception. About tliis time the duke of 
 Lancaster, afterwards Henry IX. was in France, 
 having also been banished by king Richard. 
 The nobiUty and others, tired with the oppres- 
 sions of Richard, solicited the duke to take the 
 crown ; sending over their request in a letter to 
 archbishop Arundel, desiring him to be their ad- 
 vocate on this occasion with the duke. The 
 archbishop accordingly accompanied the mes- 
 sengers to the duke at Paris, and of course the 
 inviting offer, after some objections easily ob- 
 viated, tlie duke accepted. Arundel returned 
 with him to England, and was restored to his see. 
 In the first year of this prince's reign, the arch- 
 bishop summoned a synod which sat at St. Paul's. 
 The next year we find him again in dispute 
 with the commons, who moved that the revenues 
 of the church might be applied to the service of 
 tlie public : but Arundel opposed the motion 
 with such vigor that it was negatived. In 
 1408 Arundel began to exert himself against the 
 Lollards, or Wicliffites, particularly against the 
 celebrated Sir John Oldcastle, Lord Cobham. 
 He also procured a synodical constitution, which 
 forbade the translation of the Scriptures into the 
 vulgar tongue. He died at Canterbury in 1413, 
 of an inflammation in his throat, with which he 
 was first seized, it is said, whilst pronouncing 
 sentence upon Lord Cobham. The Lollards 
 asserted this to be a judgment from God ; and 
 Bishop Goodwin speaks in the same manner. 
 ' He who had withheld,' says he, ' from the peo- 
 ple die word of God, the food of tlie soul, by 
 the just judgment of God had his throat so 
 closed, that he could not speak a single word, nor 
 swallow meat or drink, and was so starved to 
 death.' He was buried in the cathedral church 
 of Canterbury, under a monument erected by 
 himself. To this church he was a considerable 
 benefactor : he built the lantern, tower, and a 
 great part of the nave ; gave a ring of five bells, 
 called from him Arundel's ring, several rich 
 vestments, a mitre enchased with jewels, a silver 
 gilt crosier, and two gold chalices. 
 
 Aruxdel (Lady Blanch), daughter of the earl 
 of Worcester, and wife of Lord Arundel, cele- 
 brated for her brave defence of Wardour castle 
 against the parliamentary army, which consisted 
 of 1300 men; and although the little garrison 
 mustered only forty-five, yet she maintained the 
 place for six days, and then capitulated. She 
 died in 1649, aged sixty-six. 
 
 The ARUNDELIAN Marbles, are ancient 
 stones or marbles, first named after Thomas earl 
 of Arundel, who procured them from the east, or 
 from Henry his grandson, who presented them 
 to ihe university of Oxford. They arrived in 
 I'ngland in 1627, and then consisted of thirty- 
 seven statues, 128 busts, and 250 inscriptions, 
 to^^etherwith a large number of altars, sarcophagi, 
 fragments of sculpture, and an invaluable assem- 
 blage of gems ; the inscriptions being principally 
 sepulchral, and of a private nature. But one, 
 called the Parian chronicle, from its being written 
 at Paros, is said to have contained a clironolo- 
 liical detail of the principal events of Greece, 
 Uiuing a period of 1318 years, beginning with 
 
 Cecrops, before Christ 1582 years, and ending 
 with the archonship of Diognetus, before Christ 
 264. It is this portion of these marbles which 
 more particularly attracted the attention of the 
 learned. The chronicle of the last ninety years 
 is lost ; so that the part now remaining ends at 
 the archonship of Diotimus, 354 years before 
 the birth of Christ ; and in tliis fragment the in- 
 scription is at present much corroded and eft'aced. 
 
 The whole of these relics of antiquity, real or 
 pretended, were purchased in Asia Minor, or in 
 the islands of the Archipelago, by I\Ir. William 
 Petty, who in the year 1624 was sent by the earl 
 of Arundel for the purpose of making such col- 
 lections for him in the east ; and when brought 
 to England were placed in the gardens belong- 
 to Arundel house. Soon after their arrival they 
 excited general curiosity, and were inspected by 
 Sir Robert Cotton, and other eminent men, who 
 prevailed upon the learned Selden to employ 
 himself in explaining the inscriptions. The fol- 
 lowing year Selden accordingly published a 
 small volume in quarto, including about thirty- 
 nine of them. I3ut in the turbulent reign of 
 Charles I. and the subsequent usurpation, 
 Arundel-house was often deserted by the illus- 
 trious owners ; and in their absence, many of 
 these marbles were defaced and mutilated, and 
 others either stolen or used for the ordinary pur- 
 poses of architecture. The Parian chronicle in 
 particular, was unfortunately broken. The upper 
 part containing thirty-one epochas, is said to have 
 been worked up in repairing a chimney in Arun- 
 del-house. Selden's work becoming very scarce, 
 bishop !Fell engaged Mr. Prideaux to publish a 
 new edition of the inscriptions, which was printed 
 at Oxford in 1676. In 1732, INIr. Maittaire 
 obliged the public with a more comprehensive 
 view of the marbles than either of his predeces- 
 sors. Lastly, Dr. Chandler published a new and 
 splendid description of them in 1763, in which 
 he corrected many mistakes of the former editors ; 
 and in some of the inscriptions, particularly that 
 of the Parian chronicle, supplied the lucunse by 
 many ingenious conjectures. We cannot here 
 enter into the dispute respecting the authenticity 
 of these curious stones. Sir Isaac Newton and 
 other able chronologists and historians have paid 
 little regard to their claims; and in 1788, a Mr. 
 Robertson, in an essay, entitled the Parian 
 Chronicle, boldly, and with much plausibility, 
 asserts them to be a fabrication of comparatively 
 modern date. This treatise was reviewed by the 
 late professor Porson, in the Monthly Review, 
 June 1789 ; that distinguished Greek scholar 
 fully and very ably vindicating the authenticity 
 of the Parian marbles. See also his Tracts, edited 
 by Mr. Kidd. p. 57. The reader will thus be 
 sutriciently ccquainted with both sides of this 
 subject 
 
 ARUNDiNACEA, in conchology, a species 
 of sabella found in some rivers of Europe. It is 
 subconic, and composed of fragments of the bark 
 of reeds placed on each odier. 
 
 ARUNDINACEUS, in ornithology, a species 
 of turdus or thrush, that inhabits the reedy 
 marshes of Europe, and is tlie la rousserolle of 
 Bufion and Brisson; the junco of Ray and Wil- 
 loughby ; and the reed thrush of Dr. Latham. It
 
 ARU 
 
 25 
 
 ARY 
 
 is rather larger than the common lark ; of a fer- 
 ruginous brown color ; quill-feathers brown, 
 reddish at the end. It is found in Russia and 
 Poland. 
 
 ARUNDINETI, in entomology, a species of 
 tipula ; color whitish, with villose antennae, 
 and black eyes. It is found in Europe, in reedy 
 marshes. 
 
 ARUNDINIS, a species of phaleena, living on 
 reeds ; wings cinereous widi black dots, marked 
 beneath witli a central brown spot. Also a spe- 
 cies of aphis that lives on the leaves of the wood- 
 reed. The body is green ; thorax and head 
 brown. 
 
 ARUNDO, in botany, the reed : a genus of 
 the digynia order, triandria class of plants ; 
 ranking in the natural method under the fourth 
 order, gramina. The calyx consists of two valves, 
 and the floscules are thick and downy. The fol- 
 lowing are the principal species, viz. 1. A. ar- 
 borea, has a tree-like stalk, with narrow leaves, 
 and in all other respects resembles the barabos. 
 2. A. bambos, or the bamboo, is a native of the 
 East Indies and some parts of America; where 
 it frequently attains the height of sixty feet. See 
 Bamboo. 3. A. debax^ or manured reed, a na- 
 tive of warm countries, but will bear tlie cold of 
 our moderate winters in the open air. It dies 
 to the surface in autumn, but appears again in 
 the spring ten or twelve feet high in one summer. 
 The stalks of this species are brough* from Spain 
 and Portugal ; and used by weavers, as also for 
 making fishing-rods. 4. A. orientalis is what the 
 Turks use for writing pens : it grows in a valley 
 near mount Athos, as also on the banks of the 
 river Jordan. None of these plants are found in 
 Britam. 5. A. phragmitis, or the common marsh- 
 reed, grows by the sides of our rivers, and in 
 standing waters. 6. A. versicolor, the Indian 
 variegated reed, supposed to be a variety of the 
 debax, differing from it only in having variegated 
 leaves. 
 
 ARUNS Tarquixius, the son of Tarquin II. 
 the last king of Rome, who meeting Brutus in 
 the first battle, after the banishment of the royal 
 family, they mutually killed each other. 
 
 ARURA, in the middle-age writers, a field 
 ploughed and sowed. Some writers also use the 
 word to signify the work of a day at plough. 
 
 ARUSINI Campi, or Arusian Fields, plains 
 in Lucania, famous for the last battle between 
 the Romans and Pyrrhus. That prince being at 
 Tarentum,and hearing that the two new consuls 
 Curius Dentatus and Cornelius Lentulus had 
 divided their forces, the one including Lucania 
 and the other Samnium ; he divided a chosen de- 
 tachment of his army into two bodies, marching 
 with his Epirots against Dentatus, in hopes of 
 surprising him in his camp near Beneventum. 
 But the consul having notice of his approach, 
 marched out of his entrenchments with a strong 
 detachment of legionaries to meet him, repulsed 
 his van guard, put many of the Epirots to the 
 sword, and took some of dieir elephants. Curius, 
 encouraged by this success, marched into the 
 Arusian fields, and drew up his army in a plain, 
 which was wide enough for his troops, but too 
 narrow for the Epirot phalanx to act. But the 
 king's eagerness to try his strength and skill with 
 
 so renowned a commander, stimulated him to 
 engage at that great disadvantage. Upon the 
 first signal the action began ; and one of the 
 king's wings givins way, victory seemed inclined 
 to the Romans. But tiiat wing where the king 
 fought in person repulsed the enemy, and drove 
 them to their entrenchments. This advantage 
 was in great part owing to the elephants ; a cir- 
 cumstance which Curius perceiving, commanded 
 a body of reserve, which he had posted near the 
 camp, to advance and attack those animals widi 
 burning torches ; which frightened and annoyed 
 them to such a degree, that they wheeled about, 
 broke into the phalanx, and put that body into 
 the utmost disorder. The Romans taking ad- 
 vantage of this confusion, charged with suclx fury 
 that the enemy were entirely broken and defeated. 
 Pyrrhus retired to Tarentum, attended only by 
 a small body of horse, leaving the Romans m full 
 possession of his camp; which they so much ad- 
 mired, that they ever after imitated it as a model. 
 
 ARUS'PEX,"^ Lat. aruspex, or harusp&x, 
 
 ARfs'picE, > from ara, an altar, and spkere, 
 
 Arus'picy. j to see, to regard. 
 
 Adom'd ■with bridal pomp, she sits in state ; 
 The public notaries and aruspex wait. 
 
 Dry den's Juvenal's Satires, 10. 
 
 They [the Romans] had colleges for augurs and 
 aruspices, who used to make their predictions, some- 
 times by fire, sometimes by flying of fowls, &c. 
 
 Howell's Letters, iii. p. 23. 
 A flam more senseless than the roguerj'. 
 Of old aruspicy and augury. 
 
 Butler's Hudibras, ii. 3. 
 
 ARUSPICES, or Haruspices, in Roman an- 
 tiquity, an order of priests who pretended to 
 foretel future events by inspecting the entrails of 
 victims killed in sacrifice ; diey were also con- 
 sulted on occasion of portents and prodigies. 
 The aruspices were always chosen from the 
 best families ; and as their employment was of 
 tlie same nature as that of the augurs, they were 
 as much honored. Their college, as well as 
 those of the other religious orders, had its parti- 
 cular registers and records. Cato, who was an 
 augur, used to say, he wondered how one arus- 
 pex could look at another without laughing in 
 his face. The aruspici libri, were a kind of sa- 
 cred writings wherein the laws and discipline of 
 the aruspices were described. 
 
 AR\'U3I, in ancient agriculture, properly de- 
 noted ground ploughed but not sowed. The 
 word is sometimes extended to all arable, or corn 
 land, in contradistinction from pasture. 
 
 ARX, in the ancient military art, a town, fort, 
 or castle, for defence of a place. The arx, iu 
 ancient Rome, was a distinct edifice from the 
 capitoi, though some have confounded the two. 
 The arx, properly speaking, being a place on the 
 highest part of die Capitoline Alount, fortified 
 with towers and pinnated walls, in which was 
 also tlie temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. This 
 was also the name of a consecrated place on the 
 Palatine Mount, where the augurs publicly per- 
 formed their office. Of this arx die feciales, or 
 heralds, gathered the grass used in the ceremony 
 of leagues and treaties. 
 
 ARYT^ENOIDES, in anatomy, two cartila- 
 ges which, withoUiers, constitute the head of the
 
 AS 
 
 26 
 
 ASA 
 
 larynx. It is also applied to some musc/es ot the 
 1 arynx. 
 
 ARYT^NOIDEUS, in anatomy, one of the 
 muscles serving to close the larynx. 
 
 AKYTHMUS, in medicine, the want of a just 
 modulation in the pulse. It is opposed to eu- 
 rvthmus, a pulse modulated agreeably to nature. 
 ' AllZBEllG, a market town in the circle of 
 the Maine, district of Wunsiedel, Bavaria. The 
 neighbouring hills yield iron, lime, and alum. 
 The lime burned here is transported as manure 
 to the Upper Palatinate and Bohemia. Seven 
 miles east of Wunsiedel. 
 
 ARZILLA, an ancient maritime town of 
 Africa, in the kingdom of Fez, S. S. W. of Tan- 
 giers. It was formerly a Roman colony ; after- 
 wards fell under the government of the Goths, 
 and was next taken by the Mahommedans. Al- 
 phonso of Portugal, surnamed the African, took 
 it by assault in 1472, and brought away the pre- 
 sumptive heir of the crown. After that prince 
 came to the throne, he besieged it, in 1508, with 
 100,000 men. The Portuguese at length forsook 
 it of their own accord. LoJig. 5^ 40' VV., lat. 35° 
 40' N. 
 
 AS. Usually called a conjunction, but accord- 
 ing to some the Saxon article, the, this or that, 
 wliich they say may always be substituted 
 for it. 
 
 Besides that law which concerneth men 'at men ; 
 and that v.hich belongs unto men as they are men, 
 linked with others in some society : there is a third, 
 which touches all several bodies politick, so far forth, 
 as one of them hath publick concerns with another. 
 
 Hoofier's Eccles. Polity. 
 
 Prince Hen. Dar'st thou be as good as thy wora 
 now ? 
 
 Falst. AVhy, Ilal, thou knowest, as thou art but a 
 man, I dare ; but as thou art a prince, I fear thee, as 
 I fear the roaring of the lion's whelp. 
 
 Shakspeare. Henry IV, 
 
 When thou dosth.iar I am as I have been ; 
 Approach me, and thou shall be as thou wast. Id. 
 
 The cunningest mariners were so conquered by the 
 storm, as they thought it best, with stricken sails, to 
 yield to be governed by it. Sidney, 
 
 He had such a dexterous proclivity, as his teachers 
 were fain to restrain his forwardness. Wotton. 
 
 The relations are so uncertain, as they require a 
 great deal of examination. Bacon. 
 
 God shall by grace prevent sin so soon, as to keep 
 the soul in the virginity of its first innocence. South. 
 Madam, were I as you, I'd take her counsel ; 
 I'd speak my own distress. 
 
 A . Philip's Distrest Mother. 
 
 The objections that are raised against it a* a tra- 
 gedy, are as follow. 
 
 Guy's Preface to What d'ye Call it. 
 
 A simple idea is one uniform idea •, as sweet, bitter. 
 
 Watts. 
 
 As,_ among the ancient Romans, a weight, 
 consisting of twelve ounces; being the same with 
 libra, or the Roman pound. The word is de- 
 rived from the Greek aif, which in the Doric 
 dialect is used for nq, one, q. d. an entire thing ; 
 thougli others will have it named as, quasi ass, 
 because made of brass. 
 
 As, was also the name of a Roman coin, of dif- 
 ferent weight and different matter in different 
 ages of the commonwealth. Under Numa Pom- 
 pilius, according to Eusebius, the Roman money 
 
 was eitner of wood, leather, or shells. In the 
 time of Tullus Hostilius, it was of brass ; and 
 called as, libra, libella, or pondo, because actu- 
 ally weighing a pound or twelve ounces. About 
 420 years after, the first Punic war having ex- 
 hausted the treasury, they reduced the as to two 
 ounces. In the second Punic war, Hannibal 
 pressing very hard upon them, tliey reduced the 
 as to half its weight, viz. to one ounce. And 
 lastly, by the Papirian law, they took away half 
 an ounce more, and consequently reduced the 
 as to the diminutive weight of half an ounce; 
 and it is generally thought that it conti- 
 nued the same during the commonwealth, and 
 even till the reign of Vespasian. The as, 
 therefore, was of four different weights in the 
 commonwealth. Its original stamp was that of 
 a sheep, ox, or sow ; but from the time of the 
 emperors, it had on one side a Janus with two 
 faces, and on the reverse the rostrum or prow of 
 a ship. 
 
 As, being used to denote any mteger or whole, 
 signified in old English law the whole inheri- 
 tance ; whence haeres ex asse, the heir to the 
 whole estate: 
 
 ASA ; NDN, Heb. i. e. a healer of sickness J 
 king of Judah, succeeded his father Abijam? 
 A. M. 2988. He abolished idolatry, restored 
 the worship of the true God, and, with the 
 assistance of Benhadad king of Syria, took seve- 
 ral towns from the king of Israel. He died 
 A. A. C. 917, and was succeeded by Jehosha- 
 phat. 
 
 Asa, among naturalists, a word taken by 
 modern authors from the lasar of the ancients, is 
 applied to a gum very different from that an- 
 ciently known by the name. The asa of the 
 ancients was an odoriferous and fragrant gum ; 
 that of after ages had so little title to this epithet, 
 that they distinguished it by an additional one, 
 expressing its being of an offensive smell, as 
 AsAFCETiDA, which see. The Arabian writers 
 describe two kinds of asa, the one of an offensive, 
 the other of an aromatic smell. 
 
 Asa, or Assa, in the materia medica, a name 
 given to two very different substances, called 
 asa dulcis and asa foetida. 
 
 ASAFCETIDA, in chemistry, the common 
 name of the Feuula asafoetida of Linnaeus, 
 which see. 
 
 ASAHEL; h\^:^VVi, Ileb. i.e. God has 
 wrought ; one of the sons of Zeniiah, David's 
 sister, and the younger brother of .Toab. He 
 was one of David's thirty heroes, and remarka- 
 ble for his swiftness. At tlie battle of Gibeon he 
 pursued Abner with so much obstinacy, that he 
 was obliged to kill him in self-defence, though 
 it would appear with reluctance ; 2 Sam. ii. 
 19—23. 
 
 ASAPH; 3DN, Heb. i. e. gathering ; the son 
 of Berachiah, a Gershomite, and a famous 
 musician and psalmist under David, king of 
 Israel. Twelve of the Psalms bear his name ; 
 but it is doubted whether he was the author of 
 them all, as some relate to later times. 
 
 AsAPii, St. a city of Flintshire, in North 
 Wales, situated in a pleasant valley at the con- 
 fluence of the Elway and Clyd, twenty miles 
 west of Chester, and 205 nortli-west of London.
 
 ASA 
 
 ASB 
 
 As a bishopric, St. Asaph is of great antiquity, 
 being founded about A. D. 560, by Kentigern, 
 bishop of Glasgow. He began the church on 
 the banks of the river Elwy, whence it is called 
 by the Welsh, Land Elwy, and in Latin, Elwen- 
 sis. Kentigern returning into Scotland left 
 St. Asaph his successor. The country was fre- 
 quently in after times the seat of war between 
 the English and the Welsh ; and the records of 
 the see are therefore very defective. This dio- 
 cese does not contain any one whole county, 
 but consists of part of Denbigh, Flint, Mont- 
 gomery, and ^Merioneth shires, and a small part 
 of Shropshire; wherein are 121 parishes, and 131 
 churches and chapels, most of which are in the 
 immediate patronage of the bishop. It has but 
 one archdeaconry, viz. that of St. Asaph, which 
 is united to the bishopric, for the better mainte- 
 nance thereof. The town, although situated in a 
 rich valley, is a poor ill-built place; and the ca- 
 thedral a plain building, 170 feet long, 108 
 broad, and 90 high ; near it are the vestiges of a 
 large Roman camp. Here is a bridge over the 
 two rivers. Market on Saturday. The deanery 
 of St. Asaph is valued at £45 lis. 5d. and is 
 united to the vicarage of Henllan in the deanery 
 of Ross. 
 
 Asaph, St. a native of North »Vales, was de- 
 scended of an ancient family, and flourished un- 
 der Carentius king of the Britons, about A. D. 
 590. Being a monk in the convent of Llan 
 Elwy, and the successor of its founder Kenti- 
 gern, that establishment received his name ever 
 after. He wrote the Ordinances of his church, 
 and the Life of St. Kentigern. Bayle says he 
 was the first who received unction from the 
 pope. 
 
 ASAPHEIS, a<Ta<f)tiQ; from a negative, and 
 ffa<pr)Q, clear ; persons who do not utter their 
 words in a clear manner. The defect is occa- 
 sioned, says Galen, * either by some hurt which 
 the organs of speech have contracted from a 
 disorder of the nerves, or else by delirium.' 
 
 ASAPPES, or Azapes, an order of soldiers 
 in the Turkish army, whom they expose to the 
 first shock of the enemy. The word is derived 
 from the Turkish saph, which signifies rank, 
 from whence they have formed asphaph, to range 
 in battle. They travel on foot, and have no pay 
 but the plunder they can get from the enemy. 
 
 ASAR, a gold coin current at Ormus in the 
 Persian Gulf, worth 6s. 8d. 
 
 ASAROTA, aaapwra; from a and (xaipu), I 
 sweep ; a kind of painted pavement in use be- 
 fore the invention of Mosaic work. The most 
 celebrated was that at Pergamos, painted by 
 Sesus, and exhibiting the appearance of crumbs, 
 as if the floor had not been swept after dinner; 
 whence, according to Pliny, the denomination. 
 Perrault supposes it to have been a black kind 
 of pavement of a spongy matter. 
 
 ASARUM, AsARABACCA, in botany, a genus 
 of the monogynia order, and dodecandria class 
 of plants. The calyx is trifid or quadrifid, and 
 rests on the germen ; there is no corolla ; the 
 capsule is leathery and crowned. There are 
 three species, viz. 1. A. Canadense, a native of 
 Canada. 2. A. Europaeum, growing naturally 
 in some parts of England ; and 3. A. Virgini- 
 
 cum, a native of America. 1 ne dried roots of 
 this plant have been generally brought from the 
 Levant ; those of our own growth being sup- 
 posed weaker. Both tlie roots and leaves have 
 a nauseous, bitter, acrimonious, hot taste ; their 
 smell is strong, and not very disagreeable. The 
 principal use of this plant among us is as a ster- 
 nutatory ; and the root of asarum is perhaps the 
 strongest of all the vegetable errhines, white 
 hellebore itself not excepted. The leaves are the 
 principal ingredient in the pulvis sternutatorius, 
 or pulvis asari compositus, of the shops. 
 
 ASASI, in botany, a name given by the peo- 
 ple of Guinea to a tree, the leaves of which 
 being boiled in water, and held to the rnouth, 
 cure the tooth-ache. In its form and manner of 
 growing it resembles the laurel ; the leaves are 
 very hard and stiff", and grow alternately on the 
 stalks; they have sliort pedicles, and the 
 branches are blackish and rugged, but varie- 
 gated with small reddish spangles, or scaly pro- 
 tuberances. 
 
 ASBAMEA, in ancient geography, a fountain 
 of Cappadocia, near Tayna, sacred to Jupiter 
 and to an oath. Though this fountain bubbled 
 up as in a state of boiling, yet its water was 
 cold ; and never ran over, but fell back again. 
 
 ASBECK, a town of the bishopric of Mun- 
 ster, Westphalia, annexed to the possessions 
 of the house of Salm in 1803. Here is a con- 
 vent for noblemen's daughters. It is four miles 
 south-east of Ahaus. 
 
 ASBEN, a considerable kingdom in the in- 
 terior of Africa, between Fezzan and Cashna. 
 The sultan is said by Hornemann to rank next 
 to that of Bornou among the sovereigns of in- 
 terior Africa. Zanfara and Guberare tributaries 
 to him ; he resides at Agades, and himself, with 
 the greater part of his subjects, are Tuaricks of 
 the tribe KoUuvi. 
 
 ASBESTOS, or Asbestus, in chemistry, from 
 a privative, and afisvvvfii, I extinguish ; a mine- 
 ral consisting principally of silex and magnesia, 
 with a small proportion of alumma, lime, and 
 iron. It is a greenish brittle substance, unctu- 
 ous to the touch, and somewhat elastic. Its 
 fibres exposed to the violent heat of the blow- 
 pipe, exhibit slight indications of fusion ; thoueh 
 the parts, instead of running together, moulder 
 away, and part fall down, while the rest seem to 
 disappear before the current of the air. Igni- 
 tion impairs the flexibility of asbestos in a slight 
 degree. According to Herodotus, the Egyptians 
 made a cloth of this substance, which they used 
 for the purpose of wrapping up the bodies of 
 the dead. Pliny says, he had seen napkins 
 made of it, which, being taken foul from the 
 table after a feast, were thrown into the fire, and 
 by that means were better scoured than if they 
 had been washed in water, &c. But he men- 
 tions its principal use being for the making of 
 shrouds for royal funerals, so that the ashes 
 might be preserved distinct from those of the 
 wood, &c. whereof the funeral pile was com- 
 posed, lie calls the asbestos, inventu rarum, 
 textu difhcillimum. Bapt. Porta assures us, that 
 in his time the spinning of asbestos was a thing 
 known to every bodj at Venice ; and Sig. Castag- 
 natta, a superintendant of mines in Italy, is s^d
 
 ASB 
 
 28 
 
 ASC 
 
 to have carried the manufacture to sucii per- 
 fection, that his asbestos was soft and tractable, 
 much resembling lamb-skin dressed white : he 
 could thicken and thin it at pleasure, and thus 
 either make it into a very white skin or into paper. 
 His method of preparing it is thus described : 
 the stone is laid to soak in warm water ; then 
 opened and divided by the hands, that the earthy 
 matter may be washed out. The ablution being 
 several times repeated, the flax-like filaments 
 are collected and dried; being most conveniently 
 spun with an addition of flax. Two or three 
 filaments of the asbestos are easily twisted along 
 with the flaxen thread, if the operator's fingers 
 are kept oiled. The cloth also, when woven, is 
 best preserved by oil from breaking or wasting. 
 On exposure to the fire the flax and the oil burn 
 out, and the cloth remains pure and white. The 
 shorter filaments which separate in washing the 
 stone, may be made into paper in the common 
 manner. Five varieties are described : 1 . Com- 
 mon asbestos, which occurs in masses of fibres 
 of a dull greenish color, and of a pearly lustre. 
 It is scarcely flexible, and greatly denser than 
 amianthus. Specific gravity, 2-7. Fuses with 
 difficulty into a grayish-black scoria. It is com- 
 posed of 63'9 silica, 16 magnesia, 12'8 lime, 6 
 oxide of iron, and 1"1 alumina, and is more 
 abundant than amianthus, being usually found in 
 serpentine, at Portsoy, the Isle of Anglesea, the 
 Lizard in Cornwall, &c. It was found in the 
 limestone of Glentilt, by Dr. M'CuUoch in a 
 pasty state, but it soon hardened by exposure to 
 the air. 2. Amianthus, which occurs in very long, 
 fine, flexible, elastic fibres, is of a white, greenish, 
 or reddish color. It has a silky or pearly lustre, 
 and is slightly translucent; sectile; tough ; speci- 
 fic gravity, from 1 to 2'3; it melts with difliculty 
 before the blow-pipe into a white enamel, and 
 consists of 59 silex, 25 magnesia, 9'5 lime, 3 
 alumina, and 2' 25 oxide of iron. It is usually 
 found in serpentine, in Savoy ; in long and beau- 
 tiful fibres, in Corsica ; near Bareges in the 
 Pyrenees ; in Dauphiny and St. Gothard ; at St. 
 Keverne, Cornwall ; and at Portsoy, Scotland ; in 
 mica slate at Glenelg, Invernessshire, and near 
 Durham. 3. Mountain leather, consisting not 
 of parallel fibres, but interwoven and interlaced 
 so as to become tough. When in very thin 
 pieces it is called mountain paper. Its color 
 is yellowish-white, and its touch meagre. It is 
 found at Wanlockhead, in Lanarkshire. Its specific 
 gravity uncertain. 4. Mountain cork, or elas- 
 tic asbestos, is, like the preceding, of an inter- 
 laced fibrous texture ; is opaque, has a meagre 
 feel and appearance, not unlike common cork, 
 and like it too, is somewhat elastic. It swims 
 on water. Its colors are white, gray, and yel- 
 lowish-brown, lleceives an impression from the 
 nail ; very tough ; cracks when handled, and 
 melts with difliculty before the blow-pipe. Spe- 
 cific gravity, from 0-68 to 0-99. It is composed 
 of silica 62, carbonate of lime 12, carbonate of 
 magnesia 23, alumina 2-8, oxide of iron 3. 
 5. Mountain wood, or ligniform asbestos, is 
 usually massive, of a brown color, and having 
 the aspect of wood. Internal lustre, glimmer- 
 ing. Soft, sectile, and tough ; opaque ; feels 
 meagre ; fusible into a black slag. Specific 
 
 gravity 2-0. It is found in the Tyrol ; Dau- 
 phiny ; and in Scotland, at Glentilt, Portsoy, and 
 Kildrumie. 
 
 ASCALON, an ancient city, one of the five 
 satrapies or principalities of the Pliilistines ; situ- 
 ated on the Mediterranean, forty-tliree miles 
 south-west of Jerusalem, between Azotus on the 
 north, and Gaza on the south. It was the birth- 
 place of Herod the Great, thence surnamed As- 
 calonites, and was famous for its escallions, which 
 take their name from this town. It is now called 
 Scalona. 
 
 ASCANII, in entomology, a species of curcu- 
 lio, of shape cylindrical, color black, and bluish 
 on the sides. 
 
 ASCANIUS, the son of iEneas and Creusa, 
 succeeded his father in the kingdom of the Latins, 
 and defeated Mezentius king of the Tuscans, who 
 had refused to conclude a peace with him. He 
 founded Alba Longa; and died about A. A. C. 
 1139, after reigning thirty-eight years. 
 
 AscANius, in entomology, a species of papilio. 
 Color black, above and beneath, with a white 
 band ; posterior wings reddish ; it is a native of 
 sil. 
 
 ASCARIS, acr/capic ; from aoKiw, to move 
 about ; in zoology, an intestinal worm so called 
 from its troublesome motion. In the Linnsean 
 system it is a genus of the class vermes, order 
 intestina ; thus generically characterised. Body 
 round, elastic, and tapering towards each extre- 
 mity ; head with three vesicles ; tail obtuse or 
 subulate ; intestines spiral, milk-white, and pel- 
 lucid. Upwards of eighty species have been 
 enumerated, generally deriving their name from 
 the animal they chiefly infest : for the intestinal 
 canal of most animals is aff"ected by some spe- 
 cies. 
 
 The species of Ascaris described by Gmelin 
 are arranged in the following order : 
 
 Infesting man, and the mammalia. — Vermi- 
 cularis, lumbricoides ; — vespertihonis, in the long- 
 eared bat : — Phocse, bifida, canis, visceralis, lupi, 
 vulpis, leonis, tigridis, felis, cati, martis, bron- 
 chialis, renalis, mephitidis. gulonis, talpse, muris, 
 hirci, vituli, equi, suis, apri. 
 
 Infesting birds. — Aquilse, albicillse, buteonis, 
 milvi, subbuteonis, hermaphrodita, cornicis, co- 
 racice, cygni, anatis, fuligulre, lari, ciconia tar- 
 da', papillosa, gallopavonis, galli, gallinse, pha- 
 siani, tetraonis, columbse, alaudfe, sturni, turdi. 
 
 Infesting reptiles. — Testudinis, lacertae, bu- 
 fonis, pulmonalis, rubetrse, trachealis, ranae, in- 
 testinalis, dyspnoos, insbns. 
 
 Infesting fishes. — Anguillse, marina, blennii, 
 rhombi, perca;, globicola, lacustris, siluri, fari- 
 onis, truttae, maraenie, acus, halecis, argentinae, 
 gobionis, rajas, squali, lophii. 
 Infesting worms. — Lumbrici. 
 We can only describe the two principally in- 
 festing man. 
 
 1 . A. lumbricoides, is about the same length 
 with the lumbricus terrestris, or common earth- 
 worm ; but it wants the protuberant ring towards 
 the middle of the body, the only mark by which 
 they can be properly distinguished. The body 
 is cylindrical, and subulated at each extremity ; 
 but the tail is somewhat triangular. The lum- 
 bricoides is the worm which is most commonly
 
 ASC 29 
 
 fourid in the numan intestines. It is viviparoiis, 
 and produces vast numbers. 2. A. vermicularis, 
 witli faint annular rugffi and the mouth trans- 
 verse, is about a quarter of an inch long, and 
 thicker at one end than the other. It is found 
 in boggy places, in the roots of putrid plants, 
 and very frequently in the rectum of children 
 and horses. It emaciates children greatly, and 
 is sometimes vomited up. See Medicine and 
 Worms. 
 
 ASCAROIDES, a species of cucullanus found 
 
 in the stomach of the silurus glanus : the head is 
 
 orbicular ; tail round, short, and pointed with 
 
 two spicules. 
 
 ASCEN'D, Ascendo, from ad, 
 
 Ascem'dant, n. & (tdj/l and scendo, to climb. 
 
 ASC 
 
 Ascen'sion, 
 
 Ascen'sive, 
 Ascen't. 
 
 
 I to mount, to rise, to 
 1 acquire an elevation, 
 
 a superiority. 
 
 Eneas and vnsilly Dido baith tuay. 
 To forest grathis in hunting forth he wend 
 To marrow als fast as Titan dois ascend, 
 And ouer the warld gan his hemes spred. 
 
 Douglas Eneados, bk. iv. p. 104. 
 Northumberland, thou ladder wherewithal 
 The mounting Bolingbroke ascends the throne. 
 
 Shahspeare. Richard II. act v. sc. 2. 
 Over head up grew 
 Insuperable height of loftiest shade. 
 Cedar and pine and fir and branching palm, 
 A sylvan scene ; and as the ranks ascend. 
 Shade above shade, a woody theatre 
 Of stateliest view. 
 
 Milton's Paradise Lost, book iv, line 131. 
 Then, rising from his grave, 
 Spoil'd principalities and pow'rs ; triumph'd^ 
 In open shew ; and, with ascension bright. 
 Captivity led captive through the air. Id. 
 
 Thus look'd Elisha, when to mount on high. 
 His master took the chariot of the sky ; 
 The fiery pomp, ascending, left the view ; 
 The prophet gazed, and wished to follow too. 
 
 Parnell. 
 In his blest life 
 I see the path, and in his death the price. 
 And in his great ascent, the proof supreme 
 Of immortality. Young. 
 
 Themistocles now entered. At his look. 
 Which carried strange ascendancy, a spell 
 Controlling nature, w^as the youth abash'd. 
 
 Glover's Athenaid, book xiv. 
 
 Thus, having passed the rocks in safety, we found 
 
 the rest of the coast rise from the sea with a smooth 
 
 and easy ascent ; and, floating at ease upon a gentle 
 
 tide, we soon reached the sands with our feet. 
 
 Hawkesworth's Telemachus. 
 ■ Their tribes adjusted, clean 'd their vig'rous wings. 
 And many a circle, many a short essay, 
 Wheel'd round and round : in congregation full. 
 The figur'd flight ascends. Thomsm. 
 
 Fire fill'd his eyes ; 
 Turning, he bade the multitude without 
 Ascend the rampart ; they his voice obey'd. 
 Part climb'd the wall, part pour'd into the gate. 
 
 Coxvper's Iliad, book xii. 
 Ascendant, in astrology, denotes the horo- 
 scope, or the degree of the ecliptic which rises 
 upon the horizon at the time of the birth of any 
 one. This is supposed to have an influence on 
 
 the person's life and fortune, by giving him a bent 
 and propensity to one thing more than another. 
 In the jargon of Astrologers, it is also called thje 
 first house, the angle of the east, or oriental an- 
 gle, and the significator of life. — Such a planet 
 ruled in his ascendant; Jupiter was in his as- 
 cendant, &c. Hence the word is also used in a 
 moral sense, for a certain superiority which one 
 man has over another from some unknown cause. 
 Ascendants, in law, are opposed to descend- 
 ants in succession ; i. e. when a father succeeds 
 his son, or an uncle his nephew, &c. heritage is 
 said to ascend, or go to ascendants. 
 
 ASCENDING, in astronomy, is said of such 
 stars as are rising above the horizon in any pa- 
 rallel of the equator. And thus likewise. 
 
 Ascending Latitude, is the latitude of a 
 planet, when going towards the north pole. 
 
 Ascending Node, is that point of a planet's 
 orbit, wherein it passes the ecliptic, to proceed 
 northward. This is otherwise called the northern 
 node, and represented by this character ^^. 
 
 Ascending Signs, among astrologers, are 
 those which are upon their ascent, or rise, from 
 the nadir, or lowest part of the heavens, to the 
 zenith, or highest. 
 
 Ascending Vessels, in anatomy, those which 
 carry the blood upwards ; as the aorta ascendens. 
 See Anatomy. 
 
 A.SCENSI0N, an island of the Atlantic, in S.lat. 
 8° 8', and W. long. 14° 28', lately taken posses- 
 sion of by Great Britain, with a view to the better 
 defence of St. Helena. Prior to this it was wholly 
 uninhabited. The island, which has an excellent 
 harbour, is ten miles in length from north-west 
 to south-east, and from five to six in breadth. A 
 flag officer resides here, on the single spot which 
 presents a vegetable mould, in the south-east 
 corner of the island : and homeward bound ves- 
 sels from the Cape of Good Hope and the East 
 Indies call here, under certain regulations. 
 Plenty of fish and sea-fowl are found on the 
 shores, and some fine turtle. Ascensoin is evi- 
 dently a volcanic production ; at a distance it has 
 the appearance of an immense sugar-loaf arising 
 out of the sea, but on approaching it the top is 
 broken into various barren peaks. 
 
 Ascension, in astronomy, is either right or 
 oblique. Right ascension of the sun, or a star, is 
 that degree of the equinoctial, counted from 
 Aries, which rises with the sun or star in a right 
 sphere. Oblique ascension is an arch of the equa- 
 tor intercepted between the first point of Aries 
 and that point of the equator which rises together 
 with a star in an oblique sphere. 
 
 To find the right ascension of the sun, stars, 
 &c. by trigonometry, say, as the radius is to the 
 cosine of the sun's greatest declination, or obli- 
 quity of the ecliptic ; so is the tangent of the 
 sun's or star's longitude to the tangent of the 
 right ascension. To find the ascensional differ- 
 ence, you must have the latitude of the place, 
 and the sun's declination given : then say, as the 
 radius is to the tangent of the latitude ; so is the 
 tangent of the sun's declination to the sine of the 
 ascensional difference sought. This, converted 
 into time, shows how much he rises before, 
 or sets after, six o'clock; by subtracting 
 which from the right ascension, when the sun is
 
 ASC 
 
 30 
 
 ASC 
 
 in tlie nonliern signs, and adding it when he 
 is in the southern ones, you will find the oblique 
 ascension. 
 
 Ascension Day; the day on which the ascen- 
 sion of our Saviour is commemorated, commonly 
 called Holy Thursday; the Thursday but one 
 before Whitsuntide. 
 
 AscExsiONAi. DiFFF.RExcF, is the difference 
 between the right and oblique ascension of the 
 same point to the surface of the sphere. The as- 
 censional difference of the sun, converted into 
 time, is just so much as he rises before or after 
 six o'clock. 
 
 ASCENSIONIS, in ichtnyology, a species of 
 perca, found about Ascension Island ; color 
 reddish above, whitish beneath, the tail bifurcated. 
 AscEXT, in logic, denotes a kind of aru;u- 
 ment, wherein we rise from particulars to univer- 
 sals : as, when we say, this man is an animal, 
 and that man is an animal, and the other man, 
 &c. therefore every man is an animal. 
 
 Ascent, in physics, implies the motion of a 
 body upwards, or the continual recess of a body 
 from the earth. The Peripatetics attributed the 
 spontaneous ascent of bodies to a principle of 
 levity inherent in them. The moderns deny spon- 
 taneous levity ; and show, that whatever ascends, 
 does it in virtue of some external impulse or ex- 
 trusion. Thus smoke and other rare bodies ascend 
 in the atmosphere'; and oil, liglit woods, &:c. in 
 water ; not by any internal principle of levity, but 
 by the superior gravity or tendency downwards 
 of the parts of the medium where they are. The 
 ascent of light bodies in heavy mediums is pro- 
 duced after the same manner as the ascent of the 
 lighter scale of a balance. It is not that such scale 
 has an internal principle whereby it immediately 
 tends upwards ; but it is impelled upwards by the 
 preponderancy of the other scale ; the excess of 
 the weight of the one having the same effect, by 
 augmenting its impetus downwards, as so much 
 real levity in the other ; because the tendencies 
 mutually oppose each other, and that action and 
 re-action are always equal. 
 
 ASCERTAIN', } Old Fr. acertener, from 
 
 Ascertain'mext. S cd and certum, cerno, cre- 
 
 iuni, to distinguish, to separate. To be sure or 
 
 certain, to discover the truth, to bring inquiries 
 
 to a satisfactory result. 
 
 The divine law both ascertaineth the truth, and sup- 
 plieth unto us the want of other laws. Hooker. 
 
 Money differs from uncoined silver in this, that the 
 quantity of silver in each piece is ascertained by the 
 stamp. Locke. 
 
 Right judgment of my.«elf may give me 'he other 
 certainty ; that is, ascertain me, that I am in the 
 number of God's children. 
 
 Hammond's Practical Catechism. 
 This makes us act with a repose of mind, and won- 
 derful tranquillity ; because it ascertains us of the 
 goodness of our work. Dryden's Diifresrwy. 
 
 He tells us that the positive ascertainment of its 
 limits, and its security from invasion, were among 
 the causes for which civil society itself has been 
 instituted. 
 
 Burke on the Revolution in France. 
 The characters of great men, which arc always 
 mysterious while they live, are ascertained by the 
 faithful liistorian, and sooner or later receive their 
 wages of fame or infamy, according to their tr\ie de- 
 serts. Cowper's Letters. 
 
 ASCESIS, from the verb acKuv, used by the 
 ancients in speaking of the sports and combats of 
 the athletae, properly denotes exercise of the 
 body. It is also used by philosophers, to denote 
 an exercise conducive to virtue, or to the acquir- 
 ing a greater degree of virtue. This is particu- 
 larly denominated the philosophical ascesis, 
 because practised chiefly by philosophers, who 
 make a more peculiar profession of improving 
 themselves in virtue; on the model of which the 
 ancient Christians introduced a religious ascesis. 
 
 ASCETERIUM, in ecclesiastical writers, a 
 monastery, or place set apart for the exercises of 
 religion. The word is formed from ascesis, ex- 
 ercise ; or ascetra, one who performs exercise. 
 Originally it signified a place where the athletas 
 or gladiators performed their exercise. 
 
 ASCET'ICK, n. & adj. \ AaKtriKoq, aaKoo, 
 
 Ascet'icism. 5 to exercise. Applied 
 
 primarily to those who exercised themselves in 
 religious contemplations and for this purpose 
 separated themselves from the world. 
 
 None lived such long lives as monks and hermits ; 
 sequestered from plenty, to a constant ascetick course 
 of the severest abstinence and devotion. South. 
 
 I am far from commending those asceticks, that out 
 of a pretence of keeping themselves unspotted froia 
 the world, take up their quarters in deserts. Norris. 
 
 He that preaches to man, should understand what 
 is in man ; and that skill can scarce be attained by an 
 ascetick in his solitudes. Atterhury. 
 
 The truth is we have seen, and yet do see, religious 
 societies whose religious doctrines are so little ser- 
 viceable to civil government that they can prosper 
 only on the ruin and destruction of it. Such are those 
 which teach the sanctity of celibacy and asceticism. 
 
 Warburton's Alliance, book ii. 
 
 Ascetics, persons in the primitive times 
 who devoted themselves to the exercises of piety, 
 in a retired life, and particularly to prayer, absti- 
 nence, and mortification. Afterwards this title 
 was bestowed upon the monks, especially such of 
 them as lived in solitude. This is also a title of 
 several books of spiritual exercises, as the Asce- 
 tics, or devout exercises of St. Basil, archbishop 
 of Caesarea in Cappadocia, &c. 
 
 ASCHAFFENBURG, a town and district of 
 Germany, on the Maine, formerly belonging to 
 the elector of Mentz, who had a palace there^ 
 but no%v included in the kingdom of Bavaria. 
 It is memorable for being the place where king 
 George II. took up his quarters the night before 
 the battle of Dettingen. It stands on an emi- 
 nence, in a delightful country, and is of a quad- 
 rancqilar form. The number of inhabitants in 
 the town is about 6400 ; they received a consider- 
 able augmentation by the emigrations from 
 Mentz, on the occupancy of that city by the 
 French in 1798. It has four churches, and a 
 foundation called Insignis Collegiata, the capu- 
 chin monastery ; the ancient Jesuits' college is 
 now a lyceum or public school. Aschaffenburg 
 was taken by the French in July 1796, and again 
 in 1800. The rivulet of this name here dis- 
 charges itself into the JNIaine. This town is 
 eighteen miles south-east of Frankfort, and forty 
 east of Mentz. 
 
 ASC HAM (Roger), was born at Kirby-Wiske, 
 near North Allerton, in Yorkshire, in the year
 
 ASC 31 
 
 1516. Ilis father was steward to the noble fa- 
 mily of Scroop. Roger was educated in the 
 family of Sir Anthony Wingfield, wiio, about the 
 year 1530, sent him to St. John's College, Cam- 
 bridge, where he was soon distinguished for his 
 application and abilities. He took his degree of 
 A. 13. at the age of eighteen ; was soon after 
 elected fellow of his college; and in 1536 pro- 
 ceeded A. INI. In 1544 he was chosen university 
 orator; and, in 1548, was sent for to court to in- 
 struct the lady Elizabeth (afterwards queen) in 
 the learned languages. In 1550 he attended Sir 
 llichard Morysine, as secretary, on his embassy 
 to the emperor Charles V., at whose court he 
 continued three years, and in the mean time was 
 appointed Latin secretary to Edward VI. But 
 upon the death of that prince, he lost his pre- 
 ferment and all his hopes, being professedly of 
 the reformed religion ; yet, contrary to his expec- 
 tations, he was soon after, by the interest of his 
 friend lord Paget, made Latin secretary to the 
 king and queen. In June 1554 he married 
 Mrs. Margaret How, with whom he had a con- 
 siderable fortune. It is very remarkable, that, 
 though ilr. Ascham was known to be a protes- 
 tant, he continued in favor, not only with the 
 ministry of tiiose times, but with queen Mary 
 herself. Upon the accession of Elizabeth, he 
 was confirmed in his post of Latin secretary, 
 and resumed his employment as preceptor 
 to her majesty in the learned languages. He 
 died in 1568, not rich, but much regretted, 
 especially by the queen. He wrote, 1. Toxophi- 
 lus. The schole or partitions of shooting, con- 
 tayned in two bookes, written by Roger Ascham, 
 1544, and now newly perused. Pleasaunt for 
 all gentlemen and yeomen of England, &c. 
 Lond. 1571. This treatise was dedicated to 
 Henry VIII. who settled a pension of £lO per 
 annum upon the author. It is said to have been 
 written principally to promote the improvement 
 of English prose. 2. A Report of the affairs and 
 state of Germany, and the emperor Charles his 
 court, &c. 4to. 3. The Schoolmaster: first 
 printed in 1573, 4to. Mr. Upton pubUshed an 
 edition with notes, in 1711. It has uncommon 
 merit. 4. Latin epistles ; first published by Mr. 
 Grant in 1576 : the best edition is that of Ox- 
 ford in 1703. These are much admired on ac- 
 count of the style, and esteemed almost the only 
 classical work of the kind written by an English- 
 man. 5. Apologia contra Missam, 1577, Bvo. 
 His works were collected and published by 
 Beunet, in one volume, 4to. 1769, with a life, by 
 Dr. Johnson. 
 
 ASCHERSLEBEN, the chief town of a dis- 
 trict in the principality of Halberstadt, Prussia, 
 is seated between the Eine and Wipper, sixteen 
 miles south-east of Halberstadt. It was formerly 
 a Hanse town, and the capital of the principality 
 of Ascania, but was annexed to Halberstadt in 
 the year 1320. Here are manufactures of frieze 
 and flannel ; and the suburbs, one of which is 
 called the New Town, are well built. Inhabi- 
 tants about 8000 ; and here are a Lutheran and 
 Calvinist school; four churches, one of which, 
 called the Market church, is possessed by the 
 two sects in common. The castle is in ruins. 
 ASCIIILLIUS, king of the Daciaus, one of 
 
 ASC 
 
 those monarchs, who is said to have assisted king 
 Arthur in his wars. 
 
 ASCIA, in antiquity, an instrument supposed 
 to be of the axe kind, used in the fabric of the' 
 Roman tombs, and frequently represented on 
 them. 
 
 AsciA, in surgery, is a kind of oanaage, some- 
 what oblique or crooked ; whose form and use 
 are described by Sculteus, in his Armam. Chirug. 
 ASCIBURGIU3I, in ancient geography, sup- 
 posed to be one of the fifty citadels built on tlie 
 Rhine, is mentioned by Tacitus, who adds, that 
 some imagine it was built by Ulysses. Here was 
 a Roman camp and a garrison. To its situation 
 on the banks of the Rhine answers a small ham- 
 let, now called Asburg. 
 
 ASCIDIA, a genus of animals belonging to 
 the order of vermes molhisca. The body is cy- 
 lindrical, and fixed to a shell, rock, &c. It has 
 two apertures, one on the summit, the other 
 lower, forming a sheath. These creatures 
 have the power of contracting or dilating them- 
 selves ; most of them are sessile. Graelin enu- 
 merates the following species ; papillosa, gelatin- 
 osa, intestinalis, quadridentata, rustica, echinata, 
 mentula, venosa, prunum, conchilega, parallel- 
 ogramnia, virginea, canina, patula, aspersa, 
 scabia, orbicularis, corrugata, lepadiformis, com- 
 planata, tuberculum, villosa, clavata,pedunculata, 
 mammillaris, globularis, phusca, gelatina, cry- 
 stallina, octodentata, patelliformis, pyura, auran- 
 tium, globularis. 
 
 ASCINDOE, in botany, a name given by the 
 people of Guinea to a shrub, which they use in 
 medicine, boiling it in water, and giving the de- 
 coction in gomorrhoeas, and the like complaints. 
 Petiver has named it the prickly Guinea shrub. 
 The thorns on the large branches are very 
 strong. 
 
 ASCITjE, ; from a(TKog, a bag or bottle ; in 
 antiquity, a sect of Montanists, who appeared in 
 the second century ; so named, because they in- 
 troduced a kind of Bacchanals into their assem- 
 blies, who danced round a bag or skin blowed 
 up ; saying, they were those new bottles filled 
 with new wine, whereof our Saviour makes men- 
 tion, Matth. ix. 17. — They are sometimes also 
 called Ascodrogitae. 
 
 ASCITES ; from aaKoc, a water bottle ; in 
 medicine, dropsy of the belly; so called from 
 the protuberance of the belly in that disease re- 
 sembling a bottle. It is divided into two spe- 
 cies, ascites abdominalis, in which there is a re- 
 gular and equal intumescence of the abdomen ; 
 and ascites saccatus, when the ovaries, &c. are 
 the seat of the disease, and the swelling, at least 
 in the beginning, is partial. The cure is diffi- 
 cult, since the disease is often only the symptom 
 of a decaying constitution ; evacuations are the 
 chief palliatives, and paracentesis {TrapaictvTiuj, 
 to perforate), or tapping, relieves for a time, and, 
 in some cases, permanently. See INlEniciNE. 
 
 ASCLEPIA, a festival of ^Esculapius the god 
 of physic, observed particularly at Epidaurus, 
 where it was attended with a contest between the 
 poets and musicians, whence it was likewise 
 called lepoQ ayio)v, the sacred contention. 
 
 ASCLEPIAI), in ancient poetry, a verse com- 
 posed of four feet, the first of which is a spondee.
 
 ASC 32 
 
 the second and third choriambuses, and the last 
 a pyrrhichius : or of four feet and a CKSura, the 
 first a spondee, the second a dactyl, after which 
 comes the caesura, then the two dactyls ; as 
 
 MtBcelnas atiivls | edite | regibiis. 
 
 O et I prEsidijum ( dulce de|cus m^iim. 
 
 ASCLEPIADES, a celebrated physician 
 among the ancients, was a native of Prusa, in Bi- 
 thynia, and practised physic at Rome, about 
 A. C. 96. He was the head of a new sect; 
 and, by prescribing wine and cold water in the 
 cure of the sick, acquired a very great reputa- 
 tion. He wrote several books, frequently men- 
 tioned by Galen, Celsus, and Pliny; but they 
 are now lost. 
 
 AscLEPiADES, a tamous physician under 
 Adrian, of the same city with the former. He 
 wrote on the composition of medicines, both in- 
 ternal and external. 
 
 ASCLEPIAS, SwALLOw-WoRT, in botany, a 
 genus of the digynia order, and pentandria class 
 of plants ; ranking in the natural method under 
 the thirtieth order, contortce. The generic cha- 
 racter is taken from live oval, concave, hornlike 
 nectaria, which are found in the flower. There 
 are nineteen species, of which the following are 
 the most remarkable, viz. 1. A. alba, or com- 
 mon swallow-wort. 2. A. curassavica, or bas- 
 tard ipecacuanha, a native of the warm parts of 
 America. 3. A. Syriaca, or greater Syrian dogs- 
 bane. The root of the first species is used in 
 medicine. Though reckoned by botanists a spe- 
 cies of dogsbane, it may be distinguished from 
 all the poisonous sorts, by its yielding a limpid 
 juice. Tlie root has a strong smell, especially 
 when fresh, approaching to that of valerian, or 
 nard ; the taste is at first sweetish and aromatic, 
 but soon becomes bitterish, subacrid and nause- 
 ous. It is esteemed sudorific, diuretic, and em- 
 menagogue. It is also frequently employed by 
 the French and German physicians as an alexi- 
 pharmic, and sometimes as a succedaneum to 
 con tray erva, whence it has received the name of 
 contrayerva Germanorum. 
 
 ASCLEPIODORUS, a British prince who 
 flourished in the third century. He killed Alec- 
 tus the Roman general, who had slain the 
 celebrated Carausius; and was elected king of 
 the Britons, A. D. 232. He besieged and took 
 London from the Romans, and threw Livius Gal- 
 lus the Roman general into a brook, which thence 
 received the name of Gallbrook, since changed 
 into Wallbrook. He was at last slain by Coilas 
 II. king of the Britons, A.I). 260. 
 
 ASCOBOLUS, in botany; from aoKoc, a skin, 
 and /SoXof, a cast ; so called because the seeds 
 are thrown out with elasticity ; class, cryptoga- 
 mia fungi. Its essential characters are, recej)ta- 
 cle, fleshy, hemispherical ; seed-cases oblong, 
 discharged elastically ; seeds moist, about eight. 
 1. A, furfuraceous, powdery ascobolus. Common 
 on cow-dung late in autumn. 2. A. carneus, 
 flesh-colored ascobolus ; found on dung in 
 woods, rare. 3. A. glaber, smooth brown asco- 
 bolus, on cow-dung in autumn. 4. A. immersus, 
 sunk ascobolus ; in the same situations, almost 
 entirely sunk in the dung, so that the seed-cases 
 only are prominent. 
 
 ASC 
 
 ASCODUT^, in church history, a sect of 
 Christians, in the second century, who rejected 
 all use of symbols and sacraments, on this prin- 
 ciple, that incorporeal things cannot be commu- 
 nicated by things corporeal, nor divine mysteries 
 by any thing visible. 
 
 ASCOGEPHYRUS, in writers of the middle 
 age, a bridge supported on bags made of leather, 
 or bullocks' hides. Such bridges appear to have 
 been in use among the ancients, and to have given 
 the denomination to a tribe of Arabs, hence called 
 Ascitffi. 
 
 ASCOLI, anciently called Asculum Picenum, 
 a pretty large and populous town of Italy, in the 
 marquisate of Ancona, and territory of the church. 
 It is a bishop's see, and seated on a mountain 
 between the rivers Fronto and Castellano, forty- 
 eight miles south of Ancona. 
 
 AscoLi Di Satriano, formerly called Ascu- 
 lum Apulum, and Asculum Picenum, a city of 
 Naples, in the Capitanata, with a bishop's see 
 under the archbishop of Benevento, seventy 
 miles east of Naples, and thirty west of Manfre- 
 donia. 
 
 ASCOLIA, in Grecian antiquity, a festival 
 celebrated by the Athenian husbandmen in honor 
 of Bacchus, to whom they sacrificed a he-goat, 
 and made a foot-ball of his skin, because that 
 animal destroys the vines. See Virgil, Georg. 
 ii. 380. 
 
 ASCONIUS Pedianus, an ancient gramma- 
 rian of Padua; and, according to Servius, an 
 acquaintance of Virgil's. He wrote commenta- 
 ries on Cicero's Orations, fragments of which 
 are published in Cicero's works. 
 
 ASCOPHORAjinbotany; from affsoc, bladder, 
 and (pepu), to bear ; class cryptogamia fungi. Its 
 essential characters are, thread-shaped, terminating 
 in a slightly inflated head. There is but one 
 species, viz. A. perennis, perennial bladder- 
 mould. 
 
 ASCORCA, a town and valley of Majorca, 
 six leagues from Palma, principally known by 
 its famous sanctuary, Nuestra Senora de Lluch. 
 This is a large and beautiful edifice, containing 
 an image of the virgin, said to have been mira- 
 culously discovered on the spot in 1238. The 
 number of persons connected with this establish- 
 ment is 400. The canons are proprietors of the 
 valley, which abounds in wine and olives. 
 
 ASCOUGH (William), L. L. D. appointed 
 bishop of Salisbury in 1438, and soon after con- 
 fessor to king Henry \'I. He was seized by the 
 famous rebel Jack Cade on the 28lh June, 1450, 
 who, after plundering his carriage, fell upon him 
 the next day, while he was officiating at the 
 altar, in Edington, Lincolnshire, and dragging 
 him to a neighbouring hill dashed out his 
 brains. 
 
 ASCRA, a village of ancient Greece near 
 Mount Helicon, the birth place of the poet 
 Ilesiod. 
 
 ASCRI'BE, ^ Lat. ad scribo, to write to. 
 
 Ascri'bable, (^ Primarily to practice the art 
 
 Ascrip'tion. i of writing on any substance 
 
 Ascripti'tious. J and with any instrument. 
 Subsequently to charge, attribute, or place to the 
 account of any one, whether in writing or other- 
 wise.
 
 ASC 
 
 33 
 
 ASG 
 
 Oh ! ye traitours and maintainers of madness. 
 Unto your foly I ascribe all my paine ; 
 Ye haue me depriued of icy and gladnesse. 
 So dealing with my lord and soueraine. 
 
 Chaucer. Lamentation of Marie Magdalene, 
 fol. 319. ch. iv. 
 
 True -wisdom teaches to distinguish God's actions, 
 and to ascribe them to the right causes. 
 
 Hall's ContemplatioTu. 
 
 Ascribe thou nation, every favour'd tribe. 
 Excelling greatness to the Lord escribe ; 
 The Lord, the rock on whom we safely trust. 
 Whose work is perfect, and whose ways are just. 
 
 Parnell. The Gift of PoJry. 
 
 The cause of his banishment is unknown ; because 
 he was unwilling to provoke the emperor, by ascribing 
 it to any other reason than what was pretended. 
 
 Dryden. 
 
 To this we may Justly ascribe those jealousies and 
 encroachments which render mankind uneasy to one 
 another. Rogers. 
 
 These perfections must be somewhere ; and there- 
 fore may much better be ascribed to God, in whom 
 we suppose all other perfections to meet, than to any 
 thing else. Tillotson. 
 
 The greater part have been forward to reject it 
 upon a mistaken persuasion ; that those phenomena 
 are the effects of nature's abhorrency of a vacuum, 
 which seem to be more fitly ascribable to the weight 
 and spring of the air. Boyle, 
 
 Sometimes we ascribe to ourselves the merit of good 
 qualities, which if justly considered should cover us 
 with shame. Craig. 
 
 Holiness is ascribed to the pope ; majesty to kings ; 
 serenity or mildness to princes ; excellence or perfec- 
 tion to ambassadors j grace to archbishops ; honor to 
 peers. Addison. 
 
 The innocent gambols of a few otters, have been 
 known to occasion those yells which the vulgar of this 
 country mistake for laughing or crjing, and ascribe to 
 a certain goblin, who is supposed to dwell in the 
 waters, and to take delight in drowning the bewildered 
 traveller. Beattie. 
 
 ASCRIPTI, or Adsrcipti, in antiquity, those 
 who entered their names in the colonies, and be- 
 came coloni. 
 
 ASCRIPTITII, or Adscriptitii, in ancient 
 barbarous customs, a kind of villains, who, com- 
 ing from abroad, settled in the lands of some 
 new lord, and became so annexed to the lands 
 that they might be transferred and sold with 
 them. Ascriptitii is sometimes also used in 
 speaking of aliens or foreigners newly admitted 
 to the freedom of a city or country. 
 
 Ascriptitii was used in the military laws for 
 the recruits to supply the legions, called also 
 Accexsi, which see. 
 
 ASCRIVIUM, in ancient geography, a town 
 of Dalmatia, on the Sinus Rhizicus, now called 
 Cattaro, in Venetian Dalmatia. 
 
 ASCULUM Apulum, and Picenum. See 
 
 ASCOLI. 
 
 ASCUS, in natural history, the pouch or bag 
 of the opossum, for receiving its young. It is 
 a skinny bag, separate from the rest of the body, 
 but adhering by a membrane to the bottom of 
 the belly. 
 
 ASCYRUM, Peter's Wort, in botany, a ge- 
 nus of the polyandria order, and the polyadelphia 
 class of plants, ranking in the natural method 
 under the twentieth order, rotaceae : cal. four 
 J eaves : cor. four petals; the filaments are nu- 
 
 VoL. UL 
 
 merous, and divided into four bundles. There 
 are three species: 1. A. crux andrese; 2. A 
 liypericoides ; 3. A. villosum; all natives of the 
 West-Indies, or America. 
 
 ASDRUBAL, the name of several Carthaginian 
 generals. See Carthage. 
 
 ASEKAI, AsEKi, the name which the Turki.sh 
 emperors give to their favorite sultanas, generally 
 those who have brought forth sons. These are 
 greatly distinguished above others in their apart- 
 ments, attendants, pensions, and honors. They 
 have sometimes shared the government. The 
 sultana who first presents the emperor with a 
 male child is reckoned the chief favorite, and 
 is called buyuk aseki. 
 
 ASELE-LAPPMARK, a division of Swedish 
 Lapland, contains the large parish of Asele, sixty 
 English miles in length. In the town of this 
 name there is a church, erected in 1648. Here 
 is also a school, established in 1730, where six 
 children of Laplanders are educated at the ex- 
 pense of the government. This place is moreover 
 the seat of a court of justice, and has a yearly 
 fair. The inhabitants trade in rein-deer 
 skins, flesh, butter, cheese, fowls, fish, and furs. 
 Eighty-five miles west of Umea. Long. 17° 4 
 E., lat. 64°12'N. 
 
 ASELLA, in entomology, a species of pha- 
 Icena, of the bombyx family, found in Germany, 
 wings brownish without spots. 
 
 ASELLI, in astronomy, two fixed stars of the 
 fourth magnitude, in the constellation Cancer. 
 
 AsELLi or Asellius (Caspar), an Italian 
 anatomist of the seventeenth century, who dis- 
 tinguished himself by discovering the lacteal 
 vessels. He was born at Cremona, and studied 
 medicine, and became professor of anatomy in 
 the university of Pavia. Aselli first observed 
 the lacteals in dissecting a living dog. His 
 investigations were published after his death at 
 Milan in 1627. 
 
 ASELLINA, in zoology, a species of Lerncea, 
 having the body lunated, and the thorax heart- 
 shaped. Found fixed on the gills of some fishes. 
 
 ASELLUS, in entomology, a species of the 
 oniscus genus ; of an oval shape, with an obtuse 
 tail, furnished with two styles. It delights in 
 moist places, under stones, in damp and rotten 
 wood, &c. The young are contained in a four- 
 valved receptacle, under the abdomen of tlie 
 female. This is commonly known by the name 
 of the wood louse. 
 
 AsELLus, in conchology, a species of chiton, 
 most frequently found adhering to the mytilus 
 modielus. The shell consists of eight valves, very 
 black, with a yellow spot on each valve, convex 
 above ; also a species of cypreea, common about 
 the Madeira islands. It is white, with three 
 brown bands bordered with yellow or red. 
 
 ASEN ATH, the daughter of Potipherah, priest 
 or prince of On, and wife of Joseph, prime mi- 
 nister to Pharaoh king of Egypt. See Genesis 
 xli. 45. 
 
 ASEPTA ; in medicine, fi-om a negative, ana 
 (TTjTTw, to putrefy ; signifies any thing unputrefied, 
 or unconcocted. 
 
 ASGILL (John), a humorous writer, bred to 
 the law, which he practised in Ireland with great 
 success. He was there elected a member of the 
 
 P
 
 34 
 
 ASHANTEE. 
 
 house of commons, but was expelled for writing 
 
 a Treatise on the Possibility of avoiding Death. 
 
 Being afterwards chosen member for Bramber in 
 
 Sussex, he was on the same account expelled the 
 
 parliament of England. After this, he continued 
 
 thirty years a prisoner in the Mint, Fleet, and 
 
 King's Bench ; during which time he published 
 
 a multitude of political pamphlets. He died in 
 
 the King's Bench in 1738, aged above eighty. 
 
 ASir, n .& v.'-\ Ang.-Sax. Asia, asce ; dust, 
 
 Asii'y, (^ ashes. The remains of any 
 
 Ash'tub, i substance which has been 
 
 Ash'ypale. J burnt. 
 
 Yc Troyan ashes, and last flames of mine, 
 I cal in witnesse, that at your last fall, 
 I fled no stroke of any Grekish sword. Surrey. 
 
 Poor key-cold figure of a holy king ! 
 Pale ashes of the house of Lancaster ! 
 Thou bloodless remnant of that royal blood I 
 
 Sluikspeare. 
 So that lone bird in fruitful Arabic, 
 When now her strength and waning life decays. 
 Upon some aerie rock or mountain high. 
 In spiced bed, fired by near Phoebus rayes. 
 Herself and all her crooked age consumes. 
 Straight from the ashes, and those rich perfumes, 
 A new-born phoenix flies, and widow'd place resumes. 
 Fletcher's Purple Island. 
 Porneius next him plac'd a meagre wight. 
 
 Whose leaden eyes sunk deep in swimming head. 
 And joyless look, like some pale ashy sprite, 
 
 Seem'd as he were dying, or now dead. Id. 
 
 His ashy coat that bore a gloss so fair. 
 So often kiss'd of the enamour'd air. 
 Worn all to rags, and fretted so with rust. 
 That with his feet he trod it into dust. 
 
 Drayton's Poems. The Owl. 
 Ah ! leave me not for Grecian dogs to tear ; 
 The common rites of sepulture bestow. 
 To soothe a father's and a mother's woe ; 
 Let their large gifts procure an urn at least. 
 And Hector's ashes in his country rest. Pope. 
 
 To great Laertes I bequeath 
 A task of grief, his ornaments of death ; 
 Lest, when the fates his royal ashes claim. 
 The Grecian mati-ons taint my spotless name. Id. 
 Ash, } Of doubtful etymology. Todd's 
 Ash'en. ^ Johnson gives ajj-e, a tree. 
 There sawe I eke the fresh hauthorne. 
 In white motley that so swote doth smell. 
 
 Asshe, firre, and oke with many a young acorn. 
 And many a tree mo tlian I can tell. 
 
 Chaucer. The Complaint of the Black Knight, 
 f. 271. c. 1. 
 For whan we may not don, than wol we speken. 
 Yet in our ashen cold is fire yre ken. 
 
 Id. The Reve's Prologue, v. i. p. 153. 
 As from some far seen mountain's airy crown, 
 Subdu'd by steel a tall ash tumbles down. 
 And soils its verdant trosses on the ground ; 
 So falls the youth j his arms the fall resound. 
 
 Pope. Iliad. 
 Then exercise thy sturdy steers to plough 
 Betwixt thy vines, and teach thy feeble row 
 To mount on reeds, and wands, and upward led 
 On ashy poles, to raise their forky head. 
 
 Drayton's Virgil, Gcorg. ii. 
 Asii (John), L.L.D. a baptist minister, born 
 in 1724; was at one period coadjutor with Dr. 
 Caleb Evens in the management of the Bristol 
 academy, and subsequently pastor of a congrega- 
 tion at Pershore, where he died in 1779. Besides 
 several religious publications, he was the author 
 of a Dictionary of the English language ; and 
 an Introduction to Lowth's Grammar, which has 
 passed through a great number of editions. 
 ASHA'ME, ^ Found in all the Northern 
 Asha'med. S languages. It has perhaps a 
 literal affinity to aiTxwu), to blush, to redden ; 
 although, according to our usagp it ni^ans the 
 feeling that occasions the blush ; to feei shame. 
 See Shame. 
 
 And v/hanne he seide these thingis alle his aduer- 
 saries weren ashamed : and al the puple joyede in alle 
 thingis : that weren gloriously don of him. 
 
 Wiclif. Luk. c. 13. 
 Some men seem to be ashamed of those things 
 which would be their glory, whilst others glory in 
 their shame. Mason on Self-knowledge. 
 
 Ye only can engage the servile brood 
 Of levity and lust, who all their days 
 Ashamed of truth and liberty have woo'd. 
 And hug'd the chain that glittering on their gaze. 
 Seems to outshine the pomp of heaven's empyreal 
 blaze. Beattie's Minstrel. 
 
 The modest speaker is asham'd and griev'd 
 T'engross a moment's notice, and yet begs. 
 Begs a propitious ear for his poor thoughts, 
 However trivial all that he conceives. 
 
 Cowper's Task. 
 
 ASHANTEE. 
 
 ASHANTEE, a native kingdom of the Gold 
 Coast of Africa, and an important power in the 
 neighbourhood of our settlements on the western 
 coast. It appears to be far superior in civilisa- 
 tion, commerce, and general resources, to any 
 known African state. The predominance of 
 this power indeed has, within the last ten years, 
 entirely altered the political aspect of the coast. 
 It is well known that our late excellent and in- 
 trepid commander on this coast, and at Sierra 
 Leone (Sir Charles Macarthy), lost his life in a 
 fruitless attempt to drive back a considerable 
 force of the Ashantees from the Gold Coast. A 
 late war between the Fantees and the king of 
 Ashantee first brought the latter country to the 
 knowledge of Europeans. The Fantees had long 
 plundered the Ashantee merchants, and treated 
 
 with contempt the remonstrances of that king- 
 dom, till at last the Ashantees over-ran the 
 country, entirely reduced the Fantees, and be- 
 sieged the British settlement. A mission was 
 now therefore sent to the king of Ashantee, to 
 conciliate his good-will toward tliis country, to 
 obtain, if possible, an extension of commerce, 
 and to gain a knowledge of that kingdom, and 
 the adjacent countries. 
 
 Ashantee, according to the elaborate account 
 of Mr. Bowdich, employed on tiiis mission, is 
 situated at a distance from the coast, on the west 
 of Dahomy, and nearly in the longitude of the 
 central parts of England. Its extent is supposed 
 to be great, though still imperfectly known to 
 Europeans, and must, indeed, be so in a great 
 measure to the inhabitants themselves. Where
 
 A S H A N T E E. 35 
 
 no records are kept, and the communications are erected at each wicker-gate where a slave and 
 only received from those who levy the tribute, no his family generally reside. They grow two 
 great accuracy can be expected, either as it re- crops of corn a year; plant their j-ams about 
 lates to extent of country or number of inhabi- Christmas, and dig them up in September. They 
 tants. It spreads principally over a wide space also cultivate rice, sugar-canes, a mucilaginous 
 westward and towards the "^interior. Ashantee vegetable, called encruma, resembling asparagus, 
 Proper does not border on the coast which is pepper, vegetable butter, oranges, papaws, pine- 
 occupied by the tributary countries. The surface apples, and bananas. Fine cotton also grows 
 of this country is variegated, but the cultivation spontaneously in Ashantee. The cattle seen by 
 is partial, and much of it is over-run with forests the embassy were as large as those in England, 
 of brush-wood, and the luxuriance of a tropical The horses are small, and the Ashantees bad 
 vegetation. A river called the Volta is formed horsemen. The Moors sometimes ride oxen 
 of two streams which intersect the Ashantee with rings through their noses. The sheep are 
 territory. South-east of Cooraassie, the capital, covered with hair. Among the wild animals are 
 a small lake is laid down in Mr. Bowdich's map. lions, panthers, elephants, hysenas, goats, deer, 
 No means of ascertaining the population pre- and antelopes ; besides abundance of the monkey 
 sented itself to the members of the mission, but species : of these, the simia diana, is much 
 by that of the military force. Of this they give admired for the beauty of its skin. The alligator, 
 the following, as the most moderate estimate re- rhinoceros, and hippopotamus, are also met 
 ceived: with; among the birds vultures are numerous, 
 ^ ■ J- . ■ . ^ J- X iu .1 as well as pigeons, crows, and parrots. Various 
 Coomassie district, extendmg to the north- ^.^^.^^ ^-J-J ^^;^ likewise seen. Ashantee 
 
 ern trontier ou,uuu ^^^5^ ig ^o^ ^ mineral country, or the inhabitants 
 
 Dwabm ditto 35 mo ^^^^^^ ^^^^ themselves of its treasures, as the 
 
 Morpon ditto 15,000 goij and other metals are imported. Iron-stone, 
 
 feoota ditto i5,uw iio^ever, is found in several places, and parti- 
 
 Kakoofoo ditto 15,000 ^ .'^ ^,^^ neighbourhood of Coomassie, the 
 
 Beequa ditto . . . . . . . . . 12,000 j^gt^^ j- ^^^^^ j^ b^iH u on the side of a 
 
 Adiabin ditto (between Coomassie and , ^ , un 1 • ■ L.^j u , „k 
 
 the bke^ 12 000 ^^""S^ '^^^^y '^''^^' ^"^ *^ insulated by a marsh 
 
 * 1 ■ 'j-.l •l^>'«r^/^ northward. This marsh contracts into a narrow 
 
 Aphwagwiasee ditto . . • -10,000 stream on the southern and eastern sides, and 
 
 Daniasee ditto (southward of Coomassie) 8,000 ^Hes the town with water. Around the town 
 
 Koontarasie ditto (on the lake) . . . 8,000 j^ '/beautiful forest. Coomassie is an oblong of 
 
 Gomasie ditto 8,000 ^^^^j^ ^^^^ ^^^^ -^ ^.^^^.^^ ^^^ induding t'^ 
 
 Amatas ditto • "'""" suburbs of Assafoo, or Bantama (the bkck town), 
 
 20fi 000 '^^'^ ^ ™^^^ distant, and formerly connected with 
 
 ' the streets. Four of the principal of these 
 streets are half a mile long, and from fifty to a 
 
 The Ashantees being a nation of warriors, this hundred yards wide. INIr. Bowdich observed 
 
 statement may amount to nearly one-fifth of the them building one, and a line was stretched on 
 
 whole population, which will, therefore, be about each side to make it regular. The streets are all 
 
 one million. The area of Ashantee Proper is named, and a superior captain has charge of 
 
 estimated by the same writer at 14,000 square each. That where the mission resided was called 
 
 miles, which is consequently about seventy-one Aperremsoo, great-gun, or cannon-street, be- 
 
 persons to each; a population rather greater cause the guns taken when Dankara was con- 
 
 than that of Scotland. The climate of Ashantee quered, were placed on a mound at the top of 
 
 is colder than that of Cape Coast. During May it. The Ashantees asserted that the entire po- 
 
 and June, the first two months that the mission pulation of Coomassie exceeded 100,000; and 
 
 was at Coomassie, it rained about one-third of Mr. B. says, that on festivals, when the people 
 
 the time ; in July and August, it rained nearly were collected, he compared the crowds to those 
 
 half, and violent tornadoes, ushered in by strong he had seen in the secondary cities of England, 
 
 winds from the south-west, were frequent after The higher classes support their numerous fol- 
 
 sun-set. The heaviest rains fell from the latter lowers, and the lower their large families, in 
 
 end of September to the beginning of November, plantations within two or three miles of the 
 
 when they descended in more impetuous tor- capital. Mr. B. thinks the average resident po- 
 
 rents than are usual on the coast. On the second pulation of Coomassie, exclusive of those of the 
 
 of May Fahrenheit's thermometer rose to 91°, surrounding crooms, does not exceed 15,000. 
 
 and the following day, at twelve o'clock, it was There are two markets held daily, from about 
 
 89°. From the 7th to the 14th of June, it va- eight o'clock in the morning till sunset, where 
 
 ried at Coomassie from 80° to 85°. It appears the articles exhibited for sale, are beef and 
 
 that the general temperature of Coomassie, dur- mutton, hogs, deer, and monkey's flesh ; fowls, 
 
 ing the hottest part of the day, is between 70° with the vegetable products of the country ; salt 
 
 and 84°. and dried fish from the coast, large snails smoke- 
 
 .^ The agriculture and products are similar to dried, and stuck in rows on small sticks in the 
 
 those of other parts of south-west Africa. The form of herring-bone ; eggs for fetish, palm-wine, 
 
 soil is chiefly a light loam, and the only agricul- rum, pipes, beads, looking-glasses, sandals, silk 
 
 tural instrument is the hoe. Their plantations and cotton cloth, gunpowder, small pillows, 
 
 have much the appearance of hop-grounds, are white and blue cotton thread, calabashes, &c. 
 
 well formed and regularly planted; a hut being Provincial capitals, and other large towns of the 
 
 D 2
 
 36 
 
 A S H A N T E E. 
 
 interior, were spoken of to tlie gentlemen of the 
 mission, but were little known, it appeared, at 
 the capital. 
 
 The king's love of justice is esteemed by his 
 courtiers as his chief virtue. They have no ideas 
 of extending their influence by civil policy. The 
 eefoceers, or military captains, accordingly form 
 the lowest grade of the constitution, over whom 
 are placed the heads of but four families, which 
 form a sort of aristocracy, and, with the king, 
 complete the three estates of this kingdom. In 
 exercising his judicial authority, or in laying the 
 basis of a new law or measure, the king always 
 retires in private to consult these four chief dig- 
 nitaries; but every law is announced publicly to 
 them as well as to the assembly of captains, as 
 the arbitrary pleasure of the king. On state 
 emergencies only, are the latter assembled dis- 
 tinctly, or to give publicity to some new law. 
 The Ashantees are fully capable of vindicating 
 this constitution by argument, according to the 
 testimony of our officers who visited the court 
 of Coomassie; indeed, no system of government 
 would seem better suited to their habits and 
 propensities. The captains are made respon- 
 sible, in a great degree, for the issue of their 
 own advice with respect to war or peace; we 
 only wish we could add, that in their mode of 
 conducting hostilities, they were as humane as 
 they are energetic and skilful. 
 
 In this respect, they are still barbarous in the 
 highest degree. They rarely give quarter in a 
 general action, and a distinct body of recruits 
 follows the army to despatch with knives those 
 who are wounded with a musket, and return 
 with the personal spoil of the enemy. They 
 even make a practice of cutting out the hearts 
 of some of the slain, which they mix up with 
 consecrated herbs, and after much ceremony and 
 incantation, compel those who have never before 
 killed an enemy, to eat part of the horrible por- 
 tion. Of the heart of a celebrated enemy, the 
 king and his dignitaries are said to partake ; and 
 their most warlike generals are distinguished by 
 names descriptive of their peculiar modes of 
 despatching or torturing their enemies. Thus, 
 Apokon, the king, is called Abo&^wessa, be- 
 cause he has been in the habit of cutting off 
 their arms; Appia, Sheiiboo, because he beats 
 their heads in pieces with r. stone ; and Amanqua, 
 Abiniowa, because he cuts off their legs. Sir 
 Charles M'Carthy, it is feared, was despatched 
 by these barbarians in this cruel manner. 
 
 The last power subdued, or the revolters re- 
 cently quelled, are always compelled by the 
 Ashantees to form the van of their army ; the 
 youngest captain marches first, and all the au- 
 thorities in gradation of rank and seniority up 
 to the king. The superior discipline and cou- 
 rage of their soldiery were in a moment percep- 
 tible, when they appeared in conflict with the 
 people of the coast before Annamaboe ; but the 
 following are said to be the only maxims to 
 which this is to be attributed : They never 
 pursue an enemy at or near sunset ; the general 
 is always in the rear, the secondary captains 
 lead the soldiers on, while the chiefs of divisions, 
 surrounded by a few select followers, urge them 
 forward with heavy swords, and cut down every 
 
 man who retreats, until the conflict is desperate. 
 In close fight, the principal effort of the Asliantee 
 is to fire, and then spring upon the throat of 
 his enemy. The most popular song of the ca- 
 pital, has a sort of chorus to this eff'ect : * If I 
 fight I die, if I run away I die, better I go on 
 and die.' 
 
 At the Yam Custom, an annual festival, and at 
 the death of their great men, hundreds of human 
 victims are said to be regularly sacrificed, and 
 the sculls and other bones of their enemies are 
 exhibited in their armoury, and as the ornaments 
 of their state apartments. At all their great fes- 
 tivals and funerals, indeed, the slaughter of hu- 
 man beings is horribly frequent. Some of the 
 former occur once in three weeks, when 100 are 
 sometimes immolated. It should be observed, 
 however, that these are often convicts. The king 
 celebrated the death of his mother by the sacri- 
 fice of 3000 victims ; and the funeral rites of a 
 great caboceer were repeated at intervals for three 
 months, during which 2400 persons were 
 butchered. 
 
 According to the religious belief of the Ash- 
 antees, there are two distinct orders of gods ; 
 one of which, the higher order, takes care of the 
 whites, the other of the blacks ; they are believers 
 in the immortality of the soul, and both their 
 princes and nobility are supposed to enjoy the 
 presence of the higher order of their deities after 
 death. Here they regale themselves in epicurean 
 indulgence, and have cooks and butlers after the 
 fashion of their country. Persons of this descrip- 
 tion are, therefore, buried with their great men, 
 whose reception in another world is supposed 
 to be greatly regulated by the number of at- 
 tendants with which they appear. The Ashan- 
 tees have also two sets of priests ; one class being 
 devoted to the services of their temples and to 
 preserving a communication with their deities, 
 and the other class a sort of conjurors, and de- 
 tectors of small theft. Every housekeeper also 
 has his domestic gods and charms, bought of 
 these cunning men. Polygamy is universally 
 allowed, and the king claims the royal number 
 of 3333 wives, which is regularly kept up ; the 
 ladies living in round enclosures, ' like pheasants 
 in a park.' 
 
 A peculiar feature in the law of succession 
 obtains in this country, and is binding from the 
 royal family downwards. The brothers' chil- 
 dren are always set aside in favor of sisters' 
 children, on the ground that if the sons' wives 
 are faithless, the blood of a family is lost in the 
 off'spring ; but should the daughters deceive their 
 husbands the father's blood is still preserved ; 
 thus, the sisters of the king are allowed to in- 
 trigue or marry widi any jiersonable man. The 
 king is heir to all tlie gold of any subject, and 
 contributes to the funeral rites to assert his claim ; 
 the successor paying the debtsof the deceased. 
 Slaves, if ill treated, may transfer themselves 
 from one master to another. They are a great 
 article of traffic here, and the domestic drudges, 
 of course, of the country. No topic appeared 
 so inexplicable to the king as that of the British 
 motives for abolishing the slave-trade. The 
 slaves of an ally or tributary are scrupulously 
 restored; those of an indifferent or enemy's
 
 A S H A N T E E. 
 
 37 
 
 country may become free subjects of the state. 
 An appeal lies for the subjects of any tributary 
 power to the laws, and ultimately to the king of 
 Ashantee. 
 
 Cowardice, treason, the murder of an equal, 
 and some cases of adultery, are punishable with 
 death, as are false accusations of treason. A 
 great man killing his equal, is generally after- 
 wards allowed to kill himself as a punishment; 
 but the death of an inferior is compensated by 
 a fine, paid to the family, of the value of seven 
 slaves. Serious thefts are punished with a com- 
 pensation inflicted on the family of the accused, 
 who alone are suffered to punish him ; but this 
 they may do even capitally, if he be incorrigible. 
 Trifling thefts are visited on the offender by ex- 
 posing him at various parts of the town, and 
 proclaiming his crime before him. But all 
 vexatious suits and accusations are discouraged 
 and punished. Polygamy is allowed to all ranks, 
 but the wife's property is distinct from that of her 
 husband, and the king is the heir of it. None but 
 a captain can put his wife to death for infidelity, 
 and even then he is expected to accept a liberal 
 offer of gold for her redemption. To intrigue 
 with the king's wives is death. If the family of 
 a woman, on her complaint of ill-treatment, 
 choose to tender to a man his marriage-fee, he 
 must accept it ; and the wife returns to her fa- 
 ther's house, but can no more marry. * The 
 most entertaining delassement of our conversa- 
 tion,' says Mr. Bowdich, * with the chiefs, was 
 to introduce the liberty of English females ; whom 
 we represented, not only to possess the advan- 
 tage of engaging the sole affection of a husband, 
 but the more enviable privilege of choosing that 
 husband for herself. The effect was truly comic ; 
 the women sidled up to wipe the dust from our 
 shoes with their clothes, at the end of every sen- 
 tence brushed off an insect, or picked a burr 
 from our trowsers ; the husbands expressing 
 their dislike by a laugh, would put their hands 
 before our mouths, declaring that they did not 
 want to hear that palaver any more, abruptly 
 changed the subject to war, and ordered the 
 women to the harem.' 
 
 The foreign trade of Ashantee is regulated by 
 the government, so far as to interdict commerce 
 with any unfriendly power. It is in every other 
 respect left free, though not much encouraged. 
 The slaves of the capital are generally a part of 
 the annual tribute of the neighbouring powers ; 
 but many are kidnapped throughout the country. 
 They fetch but a trifle; but it is the most lucra- 
 tive branch of their commerce with the coast ; 
 and the continuance of it under other flags, par- 
 ticularly the Spanish, while the British are pro- 
 hibited from engaging in it, is represented by the 
 intelligent writer, to whom we have been already 
 so much indebted, as the most stubborn impe- 
 
 diments to the negociations which he had to 
 conduct at Ashantee. ' It not only injures the 
 British commerce here,' says Mr. B. ' almost to 
 annihilation; but, slavery being the natural 
 trade of the natives, because it is the most indo- 
 lent and the most lucrative, the opposition, 
 which is insinuated and believed to proceed 
 from the English alone, conveys a disagreeable 
 impression of us to the interior, as inauspicious 
 to our intercourse and progress, as the even par- 
 tial continuance of such a trade is to legitimate 
 commerce and civilisation. One thousand 
 slaves left Ashantee, for two Spanish schooners, 
 or Americans under that flag, to our knowledge, 
 during our residence there; doubtless the whole 
 number was much greater. Since our return it 
 must have been very considerable, for the slave 
 trade was never more brisk than it is at this mo- 
 meat, under the cloak of the Spanish flag ; and 
 great risk has been incurred, in consequence, of 
 offending our new friend and formidable neigh- 
 bour, the king of Ashantee, from the firm resist- 
 ance of his strong entreaties to the governor-iii- 
 chief to allow the return of a powerful mulatto 
 slave-trader to Cape Coast Town, whence he had 
 been expelled under the present governor, as the 
 most daring promoter of that commerce.' Hov/ 
 urgently does this press upon government, by all 
 legitimate means, to urge the universal abolition 
 of this accursed traffic! It is but 'crippled,' as 
 this writer well remarks, at present, * at the ex- 
 pense of our own interests and views in the in- 
 terior; and, which is worse, of the happiness 
 and improvement of the natives.' 
 
 Gold was seen everywhere in great abundance 
 by the British emissaries ; and the court of Coo- 
 massie, in silks, stuflTs, cloths, and cottons, of 
 every hue, was most imposing. Some of the 
 captains wore ornaments of solid gold on their 
 wrists, so large as to tire the hand, which rested 
 on the head of a young slave. The tops of im- 
 mense umbrellas were decorated with golden 
 heads of pelicans, panthers, baboons, &c. as 
 large as life. 
 
 Guns and gunpowder are never allowed to be 
 exported from Ashantee; and the people in ge- 
 neral have no idea of buying any thing but for 
 the purpose of consumption, except a small 
 number of articles of which they can make a 
 profitable barter for tobacco, cloth, and silk, in 
 the Inta and Dagwumba markets. Their situa- 
 tion bids fair, however, for their becoming the 
 complete brokers between the interior and the 
 European nations. 
 
 We subjoin a table of the most material arti- 
 cles of commerce between our settlement at Cape 
 Coast Castle and the Coomassie market, and the 
 profit they will yield, according to Mr. Bow- 
 dich,, at the latter :
 
 38 
 
 A S H A N T E E. 
 
 CAPE COAST. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 e coti 
 
 1 Cushions 
 
 2 Dagwumba wlii 
 
 3 Flints . . 
 
 4 Glasgow Dane 
 
 5 Guinea stuff 
 
 6 Gunpowder 
 
 7 Iron . . . 
 
 8 Lead . . . 
 
 9 Locks (Marrowa) 
 
 10 llomal . . 
 
 11 Hum . . . 
 
 12 Sandals . . 
 
 13 Sarstracunda 
 
 14 Silesia . . 
 
 15 Silk, India . 
 
 16 Fezzan 
 
 17 Spanish dollars 
 
 18 Tobacco, Portuguese 
 19 Inta . . 
 
 £. 
 
 s. 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 ~ 
 
 ~ 
 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 100 
 per piece. 
 
 do. 
 i barrel. 
 
 bar. 
 
 per piece, 
 gallon. 
 
 piece, 
 do. 
 do. 
 
 Roll. 
 
 COOMASSIE. 
 
 £. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 each. 
 
 square yard. 
 
 each. 
 
 per handkerchief. 
 
 per charge, 
 bar. 
 
 J inch. 
 
 each. 
 
 piece. 
 
 dram. 
 
 pair, 
 per span.* 
 
 piece. 
 
 per span. 
 
 per fathom. 
 
 roll, 
 lb. 
 
 Profit per 
 cent 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 600 
 
 75 
 
 50 
 
 400 
 
 75 
 
 75 
 
 100 
 
 20 
 
 400 
 
 100 
 
 400 
 
 50 
 
 175 
 
 100 
 
 75 
 150 
 
 The span is about nine inches long ; the fathom eight spans. 
 
 Gold dust is the currency of Ashantee, worth 
 about £4 English an ounce. That of the neigh- 
 bouring kingdoms of Inta, Dagwumba, Garaan, 
 and Kong, is reckoned in cowries, of which five 
 strings, or 200, make a tokoo ; eight tokoos an 
 ackie ; and sixteen ackies an ounce. 
 
 Mr. Bowdich recommends that a British set- 
 tlement should be attempted up the Volta, which 
 is navigable within four days' journey of Sallagha, 
 the capital of Inta, east of which, and on the 
 banks of Laka river, connected with the Volta, is 
 the kingdom of Dagwumba. These tributary 
 nations to Ashantee are far more commercial in 
 their policy than that state ; and, as far. as they 
 have become known to us, more civilised. They 
 give exorbitant prices to the Ashantees for rum, 
 iron, &c. Silks, Manchester cloths, and cot- 
 tons, would find a market in the same direction. 
 
 In their architecture the Ashantees have claims 
 to surprising neatness, and even elegance. Al- 
 though the walls are of mud, every house in 
 Coomassie has its regular gable ends, from which 
 three poles are projected, i.e. from end to end, 
 forming the point and bottom of the roof on each 
 side ; in which a frame of bamboo work supports 
 an interwoven thatch of palm leaves, tied with 
 the runners of trees. Within, the bamboo work 
 is pamted black and polished, so as to form a 
 sort of chequered and tasty ceiling. The pillars 
 that assist to support the roof, and form the open 
 front of the superior houses, are squared pieces 
 of timber, covered with plastering, and often or- 
 
 namented with fluting, quarter-foil, and the 
 lozenge and gable ornaments of the Normans. 
 The steps and raised floors of these houses are 
 clay and stone, covered with a layer of red earth 
 which has the appearance of ochre. Arcades 
 and piazzas abound everywhere in the capital. 
 The doors are generally an entire piece of the 
 cotton wood ; the windows open wood work, 
 carved in fantastic shapes, and painted red ; the 
 frames being frequently cased in gold as thick 
 as cartridge paper. Mr. Bowdich was agreeably 
 surprised to find every house have its cloaca in 
 some retired and arched corner, besides the com- 
 mon ones about the town for the lower orders. 
 The .holes, he says, are dug to a surprising depth, 
 and boiling water is poured down them every 
 day. The rubbish and offal of the houses is 
 burnt every morning in the back of the street. 
 In their persons, and in all their domestic eco- 
 nomy, the Ashantees are also patterns of cleanli- 
 ness. 
 
 They manufacture cloths of exquisite fineness 
 and brilliancy of color, sometimes unravelling 
 the finest silks, to weave them into them. They 
 paint on white cloths ; and dye with considera- 
 ble skill, particularly leather ; in pottery, black- 
 smith's work, tanning and dressing leather, they 
 also excel. They will buy British cottons for the 
 sake of a favorite stripe (generally the red), and 
 cutting away the other parts, weave it up into 
 their own cloths, which alone are worn as arti- 
 cles of dress. 
 
 ASIIBORN, or Ashbourne, a town in Derby- It has a stone bridge over the Dove ; an ancient 
 
 shire, on the borders of Staffordshire, between church with a fine spire; and a free school, 
 
 the rivers Dove and Compton, thirteen miles founded by citizens of London, natives of the 
 
 from Derby, and 139 N.N. W. from London, place. Its trade in malt and cheese is consider-
 
 ASH 
 
 39 
 
 ASH 
 
 able. A weekly market is held here, and several 
 animal fairs. Population 2112. 
 
 ASriBURNIIAM, a post town of the United 
 States, in Worcester county, Massachusetts, on 
 the west side of the river Sowhegan, forty-five 
 miles north-west of Boston. 
 
 excellent manure for cold and wet grounds. See 
 Husbandry. 
 
 Ashes were anciently used in several religious 
 ceremonies. St. Jerome relates that the Jews in 
 his time rolled themselves in ashes, as a sign of 
 mourning. To repent in sackloth and ashes is 
 
 ASHBURTON, a town in Devonshire, seated a frequent expression in Scripture for mourning 
 
 on the river Dart, ten miles from Totness, nine^ 
 teen south-west of Exeter, and 192 west by south 
 of London. It carries on a considerable trade, 
 in wool, yarn, and serges ; has markets on Tues- 
 day and Saturday, and fairs on the first Thursday 
 of March and June, and on the 10th August and 
 11th November. It sends two members to par- 
 liament, and is one of the four stannary towns. 
 It is seated among the hills, which abound in tin 
 and copper ; and has a very handsome church, 
 with a chapel, which is used as a school. Po- 
 pulation about 3000. 
 
 ASHBY DE LA ZoucH, a market town of Lei- 
 cestershire, so called from the Zouches, its an- 
 cient lords, 13 miles south of Derby, 15 from 
 Leicester, and 115 from London. It has seven 
 annual fairs. It long had a castle, which was in 
 the possession of the family de la Zouch. It 
 afterwards fell into the hands of Edward IV. 
 who granted it to Sir Edward Hastings, with the 
 title of a baron, and license to make a castle of 
 the manor-house, to which he adjoined a very 
 high tower. James I. and his whole court were 
 
 and being afflicted for our sins. There was a 
 sort of lye and lustral water made with the ashes 
 of an heifer sacrificed upon the great day of ex- 
 piation; the ashes whereof were distributed to 
 the people, and this water was used in purifica- 
 tions as often as any touched a dead body, or 
 was present at funerals. Num. xix. 17. 
 
 Ash-fire, among chemists, a fire wherein the 
 vessel to be heated is covered with ashes or sand. 
 
 ASHI, a prince of Norway, said to have been 
 slain by Fingal, the father of Ossian, at a place 
 of Invernesshire, ever since named Drumashi, 
 or Ashi's Hill. 
 
 ASHIMA, an idol of the Samaritans, 2 Kings 
 xvii. 30, said to have been formed like a lion or 
 a goat, and to have represented the sun. 
 
 ASHING-Key, a low island on the Spanish 
 main, on the Mosq.uito shore. 
 
 ASHIPOO, a river of North America, in 
 South Carolina, which runs into the Atlantic. 
 Long. 80° 30' W., lat. 32^ 25' N . Also a town of 
 the same name situated on the banks of this river. 
 
 ASHLAR, in masonry, free-stones as they 
 
 once entertained here by the Earl of Hunting- come out of the quarry, of different lengths, ge- 
 
 don. It was demolished in 1648. Malting, and 
 the manufacture of hats and cotton, flourish here. 
 Population upwards of 3000. In the neigh- 
 bourhood is a mineral water called Griffydam. 
 
 ASHDOWN, a town of Essex, anciently 
 called Assandum, or the hill of asses, famous 
 for the defeat of Edmund Ironside, by Canute 
 the Dane. 
 
 nerally applied to slabs of stone, from six to 
 nine inches in thickness, used for facing brick 
 buildings, worked in imitation of regular courses 
 of solid masonry. 
 
 ASHLER, or Ashlering, quartering of tim- 
 ber about three feet high, placed perpendicularly 
 from the floor of the attic story, to the roof to 
 obviate the useless angle formed by the junction 
 
 ASHER ; IttTK, Heb. i. e. blessedness ; one of of the roof and the floor 
 
 Jacob's sons by Zilpah, and the progenitor of the ASHLEY, a river of South Carolina, rismg 
 
 tribe so called. in Cypress swamp, and emptying itself into the 
 
 ASHEREF, or Ashraff, a town of Persia, Cooper just below Charleston. Its breadth 
 
 in the Mazanderan province, half a mile from a opposite Charleston is about 2100 yards, and its 
 
 large bay, the best harbour on the south side of stream narrows but little for several miles 
 
 On 
 the western bank of this river the first efficient 
 settlement of the state was made at a place now 
 called Old Town, or Old Charleston, in 1671. 
 Also a river of West Florida, which runs into the 
 Gulf of Mexico. 
 
 ASIIMOLE (Elias), a celebrated antiquary 
 and herald, founder of the Ashmolean Museum 
 at Oxford, was born at Litchfield, in Stafford- 
 shire, 1617. He first practised in the law: in 
 the civil war he had a captain's commission, and 
 was also comptroller of the ordnance under 
 Charles I. In 1649 he settled at London; 
 where his house was frequented by most of the 
 learned men of the age, and a depository of 
 many literary treasures. In 1650 he published 
 a treatise written by Dr. Arthur Dee, relating to 
 the philosopher's stone ; with another tract on 
 the same subject by an unknown author. About 
 bodies, they contain a considerable quantity of the same time he was busied in preparing for the 
 fixed salt, blended with the terrene particles : press a complete collection of the works of such 
 and from these the fixed alkaline salts called pot- English chemists, or alchemists rather, as had 
 ash, pearl-ash, &c. are extracted. See Potash, till then remained in manuscript. This under- 
 &c. The ashes of all vegetables are vitrifiable, taking cost him great labor and expense; but at 
 and found to contain iron. They are also an length the work appeared tov/ards the close of 
 
 the Caspian. Shah Abbas built a superb palace 
 here, surrounded by fine gardens, remarkable for 
 the number of their orange trees. This palace is 
 now falling to ruins. Distant fifteen miles from 
 Fehrabad, and sixteen from Sari. 
 
 Ashes, among the ancient Persians, were used 
 as an instrument of punishment for some great 
 criminals. The criminal was thrown head-long 
 from a tower fifty cubits high, which was filled 
 with ashes to a particular height, 2 Mac. xiii. 
 5, 6. The motion which the criminal used to 
 disengage himself from this place, plunged him 
 still deeper into it, and this agitation was farther 
 increased by a wheel which stirred the ashes 
 continually about him, till at last he was stifled. 
 Ashes, in chemistry, are the earthy particles 
 of combustible substances after they have been 
 burnt. If the ashes are produced from vegetable
 
 ASH 
 
 40 
 
 ASH 
 
 the year 1653, under the title of Theatricum 
 Chymicura Britannicum. Ho proposed at first 
 to have carried it on to several volumes ; but 
 afterwards dropped this design, and applied 
 himself to the study of antiquity and records. 
 He was at great pains to trace the Roman road, 
 which in Antoninus's Itinerary is called Benne- 
 vanna, from Weedon to Litchfield. In 1658 he 
 began to collect materials for his celebrated his- 
 tory of the Order of the Garter. In September 
 following he made ajourney to Oxford, where he 
 commenced his full and particular description of 
 the coins presented to the public library by arch- 
 bishop Laud. Upon the restoration, Mr. Ash- 
 mole was introduced to king Charles II. who 
 bestowed on him the place of Windsor Herald. 
 Soon after he appointed him to give a descrip- 
 tion of his medals, which were accordingly de- 
 livered into his possession, and king Henry 
 Vlllth's closet was assigned for his use. Mr. 
 Ashmole was afterwards admitted a fellow of 
 the Royal Society; and the king appointed him 
 secretary of Surinam, in the West Indies. On 
 the 19tli July 1669, the University of Oxford, in 
 consideration of the many favors they had re- 
 ceived from Mr. Ashmole, created him M. D. by 
 diploma. In May 1672 he presented his Insti- 
 tution, Laws, and Ceremonies of the Order of 
 the Garter, to the king, who, as a mark of his 
 approbation granted him £400 out of the custom 
 of paper. On the 26th January, 1679, a fire 
 broke out in the Middle Temple, in the next 
 chamber to Mr. Ashmole's, by which he lost a 
 noble library, with a collection of 9000 coins, 
 ancient and modern, and a vast repository of 
 seals, charters, and other antiquities and curio- 
 sities ; but his manuscripts, and his most valua- 
 ble gold medals, were luckily at his house at 
 Lambeth. In 1683, the University of Oxford 
 having finished a magnificent repository near the 
 theatre, Mr. Ashmole sent thither his collection 
 of rarities ; which benefaction was augmented by 
 the addition of his manuscripts and library at his 
 death, which happened at Lambeth, May 18, 
 1692, in the 76th year of his age. Besides the 
 works above mentioned, Mr. Ashmole left seve- 
 ral which were published since his death, and 
 some which still remain in manuscript. 
 
 ASHINIOT, the principal part of the Isle 
 Madame, dependent on the island of Cape 
 Breton. 
 
 ASHO'RE. On shore. Ang.-Sax. sciran, to 
 shear, cut, divide, separate. See Shore. 
 
 Sweare then how thou escap'dst. 
 Swum ashore man like a ducke ! Shakspeare. 
 For now the flowing tide. 
 
 Had brought the body nearer to the side ; 
 The more she looks, the more her fears increase. 
 At nearer sight ; and she's herself the less : 
 Now driv'n ashore, and at her feet it lies. 
 She knows too much in knowing whom she sees. 
 Her husband's corpse. Dryden's Fables- 
 
 [He] Then with his dire associates through the deep. 
 For spoil and slaughter guides the savage prow. 
 Him dogs will rend ashore. 
 
 Glover's Lemiidas, book xii. p. 77. 
 Thus while their cordage strctch'd ashore may guide. 
 Our brave companions thro' the swelling tide ; 
 This floating lumber shall sustain them o'er 
 The rocky shelves, in safety to the shore. 
 
 Falconer's Shipwreck. 
 
 Storms rise t' o'erwhelm him : or if Btormy winds 
 Rise not, the waters of the deep shall rise 
 And needing no assistance of the storm. 
 Shall roll themselves ashore and reach him there. 
 
 Cowper's Poems, 
 ASHTAROTH, Ashtoreth ; nnncrx, Ileb- 
 i. e. flocks, or riches; or Astarte, the chief god- 
 dess of the Sidonians and PhcEnicians, called 
 also the Queen of Heaven, and reckoned the same 
 with the Juno of the Greeks and Romans. 
 Cicero, however, calls her the Venus of Syria, 
 wherein he is certainly justified by her mode of 
 worship ; which, like that of the Grecian Venus, 
 abounded in all manner of debauchery. The 
 Israelites in all their relapses to idolatry showed 
 a great fondness for her worship. Solomon him- 
 self in his dotage sacrificed to her. She was re- 
 presented in various habits, encircled with rays,. 
 &c. We find a place named after her in the 
 days of Abraham ; Gen. xiv. 5. 
 
 ASHTON (Charles), an antiquariati and one 
 of the most learned critics of his age, was 
 elected master of Jesus College, Cambridge, 
 July 5th 1701, and installed prebend of Ely, on 
 the 14th. His skill in ecclesiastical antiquities 
 was equalled by few. 
 
 AsHTON (Dr. Thomas), a native of Eton, 
 studied at Cambridge, in 1733, was successively 
 rector of Aldingham, Starminster, and St. Bo- 
 tolph, Bishopsgate. In 1759 he took his degree 
 of D. D. ; and in May 1762 was elected preacher 
 at Lincoln's Inn, which he resigned in 1764. 
 He died in 1775, aged fifty-nine. He published, 
 
 I. A volume of Sermons. 2. A Dissertation on 
 
 II. Peter, i. 19. 3. A letter to the Rev. Mr. 
 Jones. 4 & 5. Two Letters to Dr. Morell, on 
 Electing Aliens into places in Eton College; 
 and 6. An Extract from the case of the Obliga- 
 tion of Electors, &c. 
 
 AsHTON-UNDER-LiNE, a town and parish of 
 England, on the river Tame, in the county of 
 Lancaster, in which considerable manufactures 
 are carried on. Several villages are contained 
 in this parish, the whole population of which 
 amounts to 19,052. It is distant eighty-five 
 miles from London. 
 
 ASHUR, IIB'K, Heb. i. e. blessed, the son of 
 Shem, and progenitor of the Assyrians. 
 
 ASH-WEDNESDAY, the first day of Lent, 
 so called from the ancient custom of sprinkling 
 ashes on the head. 
 
 ASHWELL (George), rector of Ilanwell, son 
 of Robert Ashwell of Harrow, was born at 
 London in 1612, and admitted in Wadhara 
 College, Oxford, in 1627, where he took his de- 
 grees of A.M. and B. D. and was elected a 
 fellow and tutor. During the rebellion he 
 preaclied several times before the king and 
 parliament. He died at Han well, in 1693, with 
 the character of a religious, learned, and 
 peaceable divine. He wrote, 1. A discourse, 
 asserting the received authors, and authority of 
 the Apostle's Creed. Oxon. 1653. 2. A double 
 Appendix, touching the Athanasian and Nicene 
 Creeds. 3. On the Gesture at receiving the Sa- 
 crament, 1663. 4. A Treatise concerning So- 
 cinus, and the Socinian Heresy. 5. A Disserta- 
 tion on the Church of Rome. Ox. 1618. And 
 an answer to Plato llcdivivus; besides transla- 
 lations.
 
 41 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 ASIA, in geography, one of the great divi- 
 sions of the earth, lies to the east and south-east 
 of Europe. North and south it stretches from 
 about 2° to 77° of north latitude. East and 
 west it extends from about 26° east, to 170° 
 west longitude. Its northern capes penetrate 
 the ice of the polar regions, while its southern 
 promontories approach nearly to the centre of 
 the torrid zone. Its greatest length in this di- 
 rection is taken at something more than 5200 
 English miles from east to west. The extent of 
 this continent from the western shores of Natolia, 
 to East Cape in Siberia, has been calculated in 
 a late popular work at 7580 miles 
 
 Boundaries. — It is bounded on the north 
 and south by the Arctic and Indian Oceans ; on 
 the east by the Pacific Ocean and the Chinese 
 Sea ; and on the west by the Arabian gulf, the 
 Isthmus of Suez, the Mediterranean, the Archipe- 
 lago, the straits of Gallipoli, the sea of Mar- 
 mora, the Bosphorus, and the Black Sea, whence 
 to the Arctic Ocean the boundary which sepa- 
 rates Asia from the east of Europe is not dis- 
 tinctly ascertained. It is, however, supposed to 
 be constituted by the rivers Don and the Karposca, 
 one of its tributary streams rising near Sarepta, 
 the course of which is to be continued by an 
 imaginary line between the 40°th and 50°th of 
 east longitude. 
 
 Islands. — The islands belonging to Asia are 
 the Prince's Islands near Constantinople, Mity- 
 lene, Scio, Samos, Cos, Rhodes, Cyprus, &c. in 
 the Archipelago. Bahrein on the Arabian side 
 of the Persian gulf noted for its pearl fishery. 
 The Laccadive, Maldive islands, and Ceylon in 
 the Indian Ocean, contiguous to the peninsula 
 of Ilindostan. East of the Bay of Bengal lies 
 the Indian Archipelago, consisting of numerous 
 different groups of islands including the Anda- 
 man and Nicobar islands, the Sunda isles, Su- 
 matra, Java, and Borneo ; the Moluccas or Spice 
 islands, Papua or New Guinea, Solomon's isles. 
 Queen Charlotte's isles, and the New Hebrides ; 
 which bending in a circular direction to the 
 south-east lead us to the two islands of New 
 Zealand. New Holland, to the south of New 
 Guinea, is the largest island in the world, and 
 contains an area larger than all Europe. East 
 of the New Hebrides lie the South Sea islands. 
 North of New Guinea are the New Carolinas 
 and the Marianne or Ladrone islands. West of 
 them are the Manillas or Philippine islands, and 
 the Mindanas or Magindanas north of the Mo- 
 luccas. Immediately above Luzon we have the 
 Formosa. East of Formosa in the Chinese sea 
 lie the Sieu-Kieii, or Liitchu islands. Still far- 
 ther northward we have Nison and other islands 
 which together form the kingdom of Japan ; 
 from which proceed the Kuriles, consisting of 
 numerous groups of little islands, extending in 
 a chain from the isles of Japan to Cape Lo- 
 patka, the southern extremity of Kamtschatka. 
 West of these on the coast of Tartary lie Sagha- 
 lier and other islands. A little distant from 
 Kamtschatka are the Aleutian or Fox islands. 
 
 proceeding in a curved line to the opj)osite ex- 
 tremity of America. Nova Zembla is also by 
 some geographers considered as an Asiatic island, 
 and lies to the north-west of Siberia. The 
 islands of Ramisseram and Manar are curiously 
 connected by a singular ridge of rocks called 
 Adam's Bridge. It is nevertheless proper to ob- 
 serve that the best of later geographers, con- 
 curring in the opinion of the learned president 
 des Brosses, have separated a vast number of 
 the islands, formerly considered as Asiatic islands, 
 from that continent, and arranged them with a 
 number of other countries and islands to the 
 south of Asia, and in the Pacific Ocean, under 
 the two divisions of Australasia and Polynesia. 
 The grounds of the new arrangement are ex- 
 plained with sufficient clearness by Mr. Pinker- 
 ton in his introductory observations on the 
 Asiatic islands. 
 
 Seas and Waters. — Besides the great oceans 
 which wash three sides of this celebrated quarter 
 of the globe, there are numerous gulfs, bays, and 
 inland seas which have greatly contributed to its 
 fertility and civilisation. The Red sea or Arabian 
 gulf, called the Weedy sea by the Hebrews, forms 
 the grand natural division between Asia and 
 Africa. Its length calculated from the straits of 
 Babelmandel to the isthmus of Suez, is about 1470 
 English miles, and its medial breadth 140 miles. 
 It terminates at the upper extremity, in two great 
 branches, of which the western, by several miles 
 the longer, is celebrated for the passage of the 
 Israelites in the month Nisan, B. C. 1497, sup- 
 posed to have taken place in about 29° 40' north 
 latitude. The eastern branch extends a little 
 above the parallel of Mount Sinai. The Arabian 
 sea is an appellation applied to the vast bay, in- 
 cluded between Arabia and Ilindostan, termina- 
 ting in the Persian gulf, to which it is united by 
 a strait twenty-four miles wide. This gulf 
 stretches to the north-west between Arabia and 
 Persia, containing several islands, and terminates 
 under the same meridian as the Caspian. The 
 deep and extensive Bay of Bengal, spreading 
 from the eastern coast of Ilindostan to the op- 
 posite shores of the Burman Empire, is separated 
 from the last mentioned sea by the great pro 
 montory of the Deccan. This bay forms a mag- 
 nificent inlet to the central part of southern 
 Asia. At its entrance, which is in the eighth de- 
 gree of latitude, it exceeds 1300 miles in width, 
 and is 1000 miles from that parallel to its nor- 
 thern extremity, beyond the mouth of the 
 Ganges. The gulf of Siam, on the opposite side 
 of the peninsula of Malacca, separates the terri- 
 torial projection from the broad rectangular 
 peninsula included in the southern part of the 
 Burman empire. The gulf of Tonquin lies on 
 the south of China; the Yellow sea between 
 China Proper and the gulf of Corea. The 
 straits of Corea eastward lead to the sea of 
 Japan ; which stretches through about fifteen de- 
 grees of latitude, and divides the Japanese islands 
 from the shores of the continent. This sea de- 
 Creasing to the north termniates in a channel
 
 42 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 leading to the sea of Okotsk which forms a spa- 
 cious inlet to the soutli-eastern shores of Siberia, 
 dividing Chinese Tartary froni the peninsula of 
 Kamtschatka. From the top of this sea pro- 
 jects a large forked gulf through nearly three de- 
 grees of latitude between two chains of magnifi- 
 cent mountains ; one on the peninsula and the 
 other on the continent. This gulf, and a bay on 
 the opposite shore, render the conformation of the 
 north-eastern part of Asia, peninsular. The sea 
 of Anadir a few degrees south of Beering's 
 strait forms another inlet to the north-eastern 
 extremity of this continent. A few deep inlets 
 are found on the shores of the Arctic Ocean. 
 Passing from the White sea through the strait of 
 Waygat, between Nova Zembla and the con- 
 tinent, we enter the gulf of Cara, which is di- 
 vided from the deep gulf of Oby, by a long 
 peninsula. This forms a large opening reaching 
 nearly to the sixty-fifth parallel. The river 
 Yenisei eastward forms itself into a wide estuary 
 before it falls into the sea. The Bay of Tai- 
 nourskaia, which from its situation is sometimes 
 called the North Gulf, is placed about the 
 seventy-fifth degree of latitude near the northern 
 extremity of the Old World. Numerous other 
 inlets are found along the coast from this point 
 to Beering's strait. The Levant and the Archi- 
 pelago lie on the western side of Asia, north of 
 the Isthmus of Suez. The Euxine, or Black 
 sea, forms the northern boundary of Anatolia, 
 and is considered for the most part as a detached 
 sea, being united to the Mediterranean only by 
 a small strait, the Bosphorus of the ancients, so 
 narrow as to be called the Canal of Constanti- 
 nople. 
 
 The sea of Marmora, or Propentis, is consider- 
 ed by some an inland sea, and is connected with 
 the jEgean Sea, or Mediterranean Archipelago, 
 by a similar strait called the Dardanelles, or an- 
 cient Hellespont. This sea, as well as the Black 
 Sea and Mediterranean, is supposed to have been 
 anciently detached. Ihe Caspian, celebrated 
 for its fisheries, forms the separating boundary, 
 which divides Russia from Persia and indepen- 
 dent Tartary. It is of elliptical figure ; the major 
 axis extending nearly 700 miles from north to 
 south, and occupying a breadth of nearly 200 
 geographical miles. It appears to have extended 
 much farther north than it does at present; espe- 
 cially as the deserts in that direction are saline, 
 and sandy, presentmg the same kind of shells 
 and marine productions as are found in the 
 waters of the Caspian. Pliny and Strabo sup- 
 posed this sea to be a gulf of the northern ocean; 
 but it must always have been restricted by the 
 western branch of the Uralian mountains, which 
 passes to the north of Orenburg, reaching to the 
 Volga. Its former union with the Lake Arat is 
 highly probable from the marine deposits found 
 in the intervening steppes, and from the Salt 
 Lake still remaining between them; the midway 
 eminence having been occasioned perhaps by the 
 alluvion from the great rivers which flow into the 
 latter. The Caspian is remarkable for its having no 
 visible outlet for the discharge of its waters, not- 
 withstanding the large rivers that flow into it, and 
 also from the evidences of a former superior 
 elevation being visible in the flanks of the moun- 
 
 tains forming its western coasts. M. Pallas 
 imagined he recognised its ancient shores on the 
 steppe, considerably higher than its present 
 level ; and has given some particulars on the 
 subject. M M. Engelhardt and Parrot, natural- 
 ists from Prussia, who visited this sea in 1815, 
 place the former shores of the Caspian about 350 
 feet higher than its present surface ; where they 
 found gulfs and bays clearly defined. Its islands 
 are mostly uninhabited ; its bed is uneven, 
 abounding with shoals, between some of which 
 a line of 450 fathoms has been unsuccessfully 
 employed to reach the bottom. Its waters are 
 less salt than those of the ocean; but have a pe- 
 culiar bitter taste. It has no tides ; but is subject 
 to violent storms- The striking peculiarity of 
 this sea is the difference between its level and 
 that of the Baltic and the Black Sea. From baro- 
 metical observations made at Astracan, and at 
 St. Petersburgh, during a period of nine years, 
 the Caspian appeared to be 306 feet below that 
 of the Baltic : and from other barometical obser- 
 vations, made between the mouth of the Kuban 
 and that of the Terek, the surface of the Black 
 Sea was found to be 105 metres, or 344.5 feet 
 above the Caspian. 
 
 Lake Aral is about 200 miles in length, and 
 seventy in breadth, and about an hundred miles 
 distant from the eastern shores of the Caspian ; 
 which, in some respects, it may be said to resem- 
 ble : it extends in the same direction, and receives 
 the waters of several rivers, but discharges none. 
 The principal rivers that run into it are the Gi- 
 hon, or Jihon ; the Oxus, of antiquity, which 
 enters the southern extremity ; the ancient Jax- 
 artes, which reaches it from the east ; as also the 
 Aujany, or Kizil Daria. The southern extremity 
 of this lake is sprinkled with numerous islands ; 
 and its supplies of water flowing from the south 
 and the east, while those of the Caspian flow 
 from the north and west, evince that they occupy 
 part of the same natural basin. Baikal, another 
 of the great lakes, or inland seas, of Asia, is situ- 
 ated near the southern borders of Siberia, on the 
 northern side of the great chain of mountains 
 which divides that country from Mongolia. 
 This lake, like the former, stretches in the same 
 direction as the Caspian : is 350 miles in length, 
 and nearly forty in breadth. Its waters are fresh 
 and pellucid, presenting however the general 
 appearance of a slight green tinge, and are usu- 
 ally frozen from the beginning of December to 
 the end of April. The depth of this lake varies 
 from twenty to ninety fathoms ; but so clear are 
 the waters, that the bottom becomes distinctly 
 visible to the depth of fifty feet. It is subject to 
 violent storms, and is often agitated without any 
 visible cause ; whence it has received from the 
 Russians the superstitious name of Svetoie Mare, 
 Holy Sea. This lake, although it receives the 
 waters of several copious rivers, has no visible 
 outlet except the lower Angora, the discharge 
 from which is considerably inferior to the ac- 
 cessions which it receives. It is almost sur- 
 rounded by mountains, in which the existence 
 of subterraneous fire is evident, from frequent 
 shocks of earthquakes ; and the surrounding 
 shores are distinguished by some remarkable 
 phenomena.
 
 ASIA. 
 
 43 
 
 It has been imagined by many geographers 
 that the northern regions of Asia communicate 
 with the continent of America. This however is 
 a topic on which we have not sufficient data to 
 ground an opinion. Captain Cook certainly 
 traced the separation of these continents, par- 
 tially : The best information yet obtained on this 
 particular is, that Beering's Strait divides them 
 to about forty miles in breadth, having East Cape 
 on the Asiatic side, and Prince of Wales Cape on 
 the American. The depth of water is about 
 thirty fathoms. Pursuing this strait northward, 
 the Asiatic shore tends rapidly to the west, while 
 the American proceeds nearly due north ; till, at 
 the distance of four or five degrees, the two con- 
 tinents are joined by one solid and impenetrable 
 mass of ice. 
 
 MouNTAixs. — The mountains of Asia have 
 always been thought remarkable ; and, arrayed in 
 all the horrors of perpetual winter, seem to frown 
 in awful silence over the profusion of the vale. 
 
 A celebrated writer (M. Walckenaer, in his 
 Cosmologie, p. 105,) observes, ' that the chain of 
 mountains in which the culminating points of 
 the highest level are found, always follows the 
 direction of the greatest dimensions of the conti- 
 nent ; and the inferior chains or heights, where 
 we find the culminating points of the second or 
 third-rate levels, also follow the direction of the 
 greatest dilatations of the land, terminating that 
 continent.' In Asia we have an illustration of 
 these observations. The greatest dimensions of the 
 continent are from east to west : and the country 
 from the seventieth to the 100th degree of east 
 longitude, and from the thirtieth to the fiftieth 
 of south latitude, presents nearly a level area, 
 from the different sides of which all the largest 
 rivers flow into the sea. The culminating points 
 of this extensive level, there is reason to believe, 
 are the most elevated spots on the surface of the 
 earth. The included area has been termed the 
 table-land of Asia; although, since the revival 
 of science, it has been inaccessible to European 
 travellers, and therefore little known. The west- 
 em part of it is, however, mountainous ; and the 
 eastern is a vast desert ; the Shamo of the Chi- 
 nese, and the Kobi of the Tartars, exhibiting an 
 extent of several thousand miles not watered by 
 a single stream. 
 
 The Altaian mountains are the northern boun- 
 daries of this area ; the Himalaya, on the south, 
 separates it from Japan. On the east is that lofty 
 range in which originates the great rivers of 
 Ohina ; and the west is bordered by the moun- 
 tains which contain the sources of the Indus and 
 Jaxartes. The inferior chains, diverging as radii 
 from this centre, are Muz-dagh or Sluz-zart, 
 * snowy mountains,' on the north. The Tibetian 
 mountains on the east, the Vind'hya hills and 
 GTiats on the south, and the Alburg or Alborg 
 on the west. The different ranges that traverse 
 the territories of Persia, and unite its north-west 
 provinces to Caucasus on the north, to Taurus 
 and Libanus on the west and south, are connected 
 with the Alburgian chain. Libanus is also con- 
 nected by the hilly country on the west of Jordan 
 with the mountains of Arabia. The greater 
 number of these inferior chains run from east to 
 west, in the same direction as the central range. 
 
 The extensive Altai', or Khattai chain, stretches 
 across the continent, under different names, for 
 more than 5000 miles, terminating, to the east, in 
 Tchutskoi Ness and cape Lopatka. Of the highest 
 points of this celebrated chain south of Russia, we 
 have no accurate information; but the inferior 
 ranges reach far above the point of perpetual con- 
 gelation, and are supposed to be equal to the 
 Alps. The Himalaya chain of mountains south of 
 the great central level, rears its loftiest summits 
 26,000 feet above the level of the sea ; and, ac- 
 cording to some of our best geographers, upwards 
 of 6000 feet above the celebrated Chimborazo of 
 America, which towers over the entire Cordillera 
 of the Andes. This southern chain is supposed 
 to be of superior elevation to the northern. 
 Mount Kailas, the Olympus of the Hindus, is 
 supposed to exceed even the D'hola-giri in Ni- 
 pal, which has been proved by admeasurement 
 to reach 26,400 feet above the level of the sea. 
 Mount Caucasus, the next in point of altitude, 
 is a vast range extending between the Euxine 
 and Caspian seas. Mount Ararat rises south- 
 west of the Caucasus; Libanus, Amanus, and 
 Taurus, are all connected with this great chain ; 
 and the latter mount diverging with various 
 branches, occupies almost the whole area from 
 the Euphrates to the sea of ilarmora. The 
 Uralian mountains, running from south to north, 
 nearly as far as Nova Zembla, and called by the 
 Tartars the girdle of the earth, are much colder, 
 in consequence of a higher latitude ; but are in- 
 ferior to the above in point of elevation. 
 
 Many volcanoes are in a constant state of ac- 
 tivity throughout Asia ; and many which were 
 volcanic in former times, are now extinct, al- 
 though smoke still issues, and hot streams are 
 frequently discharged from crevices in their sides. 
 The insular regions of Asia are likewise moun- 
 tainous, and Adam's Peak, in Ceylon, has been 
 a remarkable subject of tradition and fable. 
 Volcanoes are also found in most of the Asiatic 
 islands ; Gunong-api is one of the most active 
 now known ; of that near Brambanan, in Java, 
 a violent eruption is recorded in 1586. Ter- 
 nate, the chief of the Moluccas, is nodiing more 
 than a volcanic cone, occasionally emitting flames 
 from its summit ; and on its sides are large pits 
 of melting sulphur. The isles of France and 
 Bourbon are entirely of volcanic origin ; and the 
 crater of the latter, while in a state of eruption, 
 was visited by M. Borg de St. Vincens, who de- 
 scribes, with great interest, tlie phenomena ob- 
 served on that occasion. 
 
 Rivers. — From the mountains of Asia nu- 
 m.erous rivers descend, which serve greatly to re- 
 fresh the surrounding country. The river Lena rises 
 east of Siberia, near the lake Baikel, and flowing 
 first north-east, then north, enters the Frozen 
 Ocean, opposite the Borkhaya isles, after a course 
 of 1900 miles. The river Euisei, rising in the 
 Altaian mountains, flows into the same sea after 
 a course of at least 1400 miles. The Oby, per- 
 haps the widest river in the Russian empire, rises 
 about 51° north latitude, and 87° east longitude 
 from the Alturnor of the Kalmaks, and Ozero 
 Teletzkoi of the Russians ; and after a course of 
 not less than 2000 miles, falls into the Obskaya 
 Juba, or sea of Oby, within the arctic circle. The
 
 44 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 river Irtish takes its rise in 46° north latitude, 
 and 92° east longitude, in the northern barrier of 
 the central plateau ; and after rolling its rapid 
 stream as far as the 62d degree of latitude, and 
 gatiiering numerous tributary waters in its course, 
 falls into the river Obe, north of Samarou. The 
 Amour, or Saghalia, which rises in the Kalcas 
 country, is formed by the junction of the two 
 rivers, Kherton and Argun; and after traversing 
 Chinese Tartary, and receiving several large rivers 
 in its course, disembogues itself in the sea of Ok- 
 hotsk, near the northern extremity of the channel 
 of Tartary, completing a course of 1800 miles. 
 The rivers of China chiefly rise in the eastern de- 
 clivity of the Table Land. The JVlekang, or 
 Kambuja, and the Irawadi, or Ava River, after 
 descending from the plateau into the lower coun- 
 try by long and winding courses, flows in a di- 
 rect line to the Indian Ocean. The three most 
 celebrated rivers that spring from this region are 
 the Indus, Ganges, and Burrampooter. The 
 Ganges river is held sacred by the inhabitants, 
 and is the only one of the three of whose source 
 we have any satisfactory information ; although 
 Moorcroft tells us he found that of the Indus in 
 31° 3' north latitude, and 80° 35' east longitude. 
 The two others rise in Thibet ; the Burrampooter 
 waters the eastern parts of Bengal ; and' the 
 course of the Indus, to the south, has been known 
 ever since the time of Alexander. TheOxusand 
 tiie Jaxartes are two large streams, well known 
 to the ancients, which rise from the western de- 
 clivity of the central range ; the former emanating 
 from the glaciers of Pushti-khur, is supposed an- 
 ciently to have taken a north-westerly course ; at 
 present it proceeds almost due north, and falls into 
 the lake Aral. The latter rises in the Belurdagh 
 or Icy mountains, west of Afghaunistaun, and en- 
 ters the eastern side of the same lake. The Tigris 
 and Euphrates flow to the south, and the Araxes to 
 the east, watering a considerable extent of coun- 
 try. The Jordan and Orontes fertilize and beau- 
 tify the vales of Syria and Palestine. Anatolia, 
 though it has neither broad nor rapid rivers, 
 is refreshed by the division of innumerable 
 smaller streams, which throw an enchanting ap- 
 pearance over the surface of the landscape. 
 The Halys, or Kizil Irma, arising from mount 
 Taurus, after a course of 350 miles, falls into 
 the Black Sea. But the Howang-h6, or Yellow 
 Iliver, which waters the nortliern provinces of 
 China, is perhaps the deepest and most rapid 
 river of Asia. This river rises on the eastern de- 
 clivity of the plateau, and rolls its vast stream 
 with unabated rapidity, to nearly 2000 miles. 
 The Yang-tse-kiang, or son of the sea, is another 
 noble stream of China. 
 
 Climate. — The climate of Asia is exceedingly 
 various, owing to the different degrees of eleva- 
 tion. In the south-east the heat is excessive, and 
 in the northern parts the cold is almost insup- 
 portable. In Anatolia the central parts are 
 colder than the provinces of France, although the 
 latter are ten degrees farther north. The cause 
 of this is explained by Mr. Brown, who calcu- 
 lates that the city of Erz-rum is 7000 feet above 
 the level of the sea. This extraordinary altitude 
 of level, together with the great body of snow on 
 the neighbouring mountains, accounts for tiie 
 
 extremes of cold in Persia and Tartary ; Arabia 
 is considerably tempered, though within the 
 tropics. China being mountainous has an agree- 
 able climate; while in India and the Burman 
 empire, are sensibly experienced the full effects 
 of a torrid zone. 
 
 Vegetables. — The stupendous mountains, im- 
 mense plains, immeasurable forests, noble rivers, 
 and wide spreading marshes of this quarter of the 
 earth, together with the variety of the soils, and an 
 extreme difference of climate, from the intense 
 cold of Siberia, where mercury freezes, to the 
 almost insupportable heat of the sandy deserts : 
 from the eternal frost that reigns around the pole, 
 to the sterility of the arid waste, including di- 
 versified intermediate regions, always adorned 
 with the blossoms of spring, enriched with the 
 fullness of summer, or laden with the produc- 
 tions of autumn, produce an unparalleled variety 
 of vegetation, from the almost imperceptible 
 moss that creeps along the Arctic shores to the 
 hundred-stemmed banian that spreads its beauti- 
 ful luxuriance beneath a tropical clime. Some 
 parts of Asia are very sterile, and the inhabitants 
 look for support to the surrounding sea, in 
 which fishes and mollusca abound. V^egetable 
 productions however, generally speaking, are nu- 
 merous, and differ according to the climate under 
 equal circumstances of soil and irrigation. The 
 central and western parts produce all sorts of 
 grain which are common in Europe, and culi- 
 nary vegetables in the highest perfection. The 
 tropical and southern regions afford gums, spices, 
 medicinal roots, and extracts unknown in colder 
 climates. Several genera of plants are peculiar 
 to New Holland and the adjacent islands. The 
 tea-tree is found chiefly in the central regions ; 
 and the bread fruit and bamboo, which are natives 
 of Asia, are useful in every part of domestic 
 economy. 
 
 Minerals. — This division of the globe con- 
 tains the precious metals in great abundance : 
 gold is washed down the rivers of Asia Minor. 
 Arabia still supplies it in its utmost purity ; and 
 in Assam, Celebes, and Borneo, the gold is said 
 to be native. Mount Sipylus has been celebrated 
 for the production of silver, and the mines of 
 Tokat supply both silver and copper. Great 
 quantities of tin are found in the island of Ban- 
 ca; lead and iron in various parts of the 
 continent ; precious stones are found in great 
 variety throughout the whole of Asia; fine 
 diamonds in Golconda; rubies in Ceylon, 
 topazes in Siberia; and the most beautiful 
 pearls in the straits of Manaar and the Bah- 
 rein islands; the corundeum and other va- 
 luable stones are peculiar to these countries. 
 Singular remains of antiquity are also dug out 
 of the earth ; huge tusks of a species of animal 
 now unknown, and even the entire animal 
 itself, is found in the islands of the Frozen 
 Ocean. 
 
 Animals. — Asia contains a great variety of 
 land and marine animals, from the minute insect 
 that flutters in the solar beam, to the stupend- 
 ous elephant, the ferocious tiger and the majestic 
 lion. The most valuable are indigenous to this 
 quarter of the globe. The horse is found on the 
 northern confines of Persia in his native state,
 
 ASIA. 
 
 45 
 
 but exhibits none of the symmetry, powers, or pro- 
 portions, to which he arrives through a course of 
 domestic training. The camel is found here in 
 his most perfect growth, and performs journeys 
 which to the horse would be fatal. The ele- 
 phant is trained to all sorts of service. The sea- 
 otter, so valuable for his fur, and the whale are 
 common, and supply a considerable source of 
 wealth to the inhabitants. 
 
 'The population of Asia,' it has been observed, 
 'by no means equals those expectations which 
 its history would naturally inspire,' owing to the 
 ravages of war, and the influence of despotic 
 governments, which always impose an effectual 
 check upon the increase of population. Never- 
 theless, where the governments are mild and 
 beneficial, as in British India, the reverse is the 
 fact. China in particular, owing to a long free- 
 dom from foreign and domestic war, is said to 
 exhibit the amazing population of five hun- 
 dred millions ; and even this, according to some 
 geographers, is below the real amount. 
 
 Asia, however, being the scene of human 
 origination, is still peopled by numerous indige- 
 nous tribes, and presents an ample field for 
 the study of man, in all the stages of his progress 
 from barbarism to civilisation. The variety ob- 
 served in the appearance of the natives is proba- 
 bly the effect of difference of climate, aliment, and 
 religion. The Samoied tribes, New Hollanders, 
 and inhabitants of Andaman, are of diminutive 
 size. The people of Jesso and the Kurile 
 islands, have uncommonly large beards, and an 
 unnatural profusion of hair all over their bodies. 
 The Tartars and Chinese are known by the pe- 
 culiar figure of their faces ; the latter particu- 
 larly by their oblique contracted eyes. There is, 
 however, reason to believe they were anciently 
 derived from one common origin, and bore a 
 great resemblance to each other. 
 
 History. — Noah is said to have settled in 
 Asia, immediately after the deluge, near the bor- 
 ders of the Euphrates, and to have peopled the 
 whole continent. The posterity of Shem occu- 
 pying the central regions ; Japhet the northern ; 
 and Ham the southern. Javan and his descen- 
 dants, Ashkenaz, Dodanim, Tarshish, Elisha, 
 Togermah, and Riphath, are supposed to have 
 been the ancient inliabitants of Asia Minor. The 
 Canaanites and Amalekites were the people of 
 Syria and Arabia Petraea. Modern writers have 
 referred the present natives of Asia to those dif- 
 ferent stocks the Hebrews, Indians, and Tartars, 
 the propriety of which will appear from their 
 make, features, and languages. There are, how- 
 ever, some large tribes, as the Malays and abori- 
 ginal negroes, which cannot be referred to either of 
 these classes, as also the mountaineers of Cauca- 
 sus, and the inhabitants of northern Siberia. Mr. 
 Pinkerton observes, that the population of Asia 
 is allowed by all authors to be wholly primitive 
 and original ; with the exception of the Tshukt- 
 shis, whom the Russian historians suppose to 
 have passed from the opposite coast of America, 
 tiie colonics that have migrated from Russia to 
 the northern parts as far as the sea of Kamtschatka, 
 the well-known European settlements, and a few 
 others. Asia certainly presents an amazing origi- 
 nal population. We add the following table of 
 
 the nations and languages in Asia, as calculated 
 to give the reader a tolerably accurate idea of 
 this interesting subject of enquiry. 
 
 Table of the Nations and Languages in Asia. 
 
 1. Assyrians. — Assyrians, Arabians, Egyp- 
 tians. — Chaldee, Hebrew, 8cc. 
 
 2. Scythians. — Persians, Scythians intra et 
 extra Imaum, &c. Armenians. — (The Parsi and 
 Zend are cognate with the Gothic, Greek, Latin, 
 according to Sir William Jones. Indian Dissert, 
 vol. i. p. 206. The Pehlavi is Assyrian or Chal- 
 daic. Id. 187, 188. 206.) 
 
 3. Sarmats. — Medes and Parthians. — Geor- 
 gians and Circassians. 
 
 4. Seres and Indi. — Hindoos, northern et 
 southern, &c. 
 
 5. Sinse. — Chinese and Japanese. — These have 
 a Tartaric form and face ; they are probably 
 highly-civilised Tartars, Mongoles, or jNIand- 
 shurs. 
 
 Barbaric Nations from north to south, and ac- 
 cording to the degrees ofbar'barism. 
 
 6. Samoyedes, Ostiaks, Yurals, &c. 
 
 7. Yakutes. — Yukagirs. (Expelled Tartars, 
 according to Tooke and Lesseps.) 
 
 8. Koriaks. — Tshuktshis. (From the opposite 
 coast of America. Tooke's Russia. The Yuka- 
 girs are a tribe of the Yakutes, around Yakutsk, 
 and both are expelled Tartars. Tooke's View, 
 ii. 80. Lesseps, ii. 312.) 
 
 9. Kamtskatdales. — Kurillans. — (These resem- 
 ble the Japanese.) 
 
 10. Mandshures or Tunguses. — Lamutes.— 
 (Ruling people in China.) 
 
 11. Mongoles. — Talmuks. — Soongares, Tun- 
 gutes, Bursets, &c. 
 
 12. Tartars or Huns. — Turks, Khasares, Uzes, 
 and Siberians. — Nogays, Bashkirs, Kirghisikai- 
 zaki or Kirghise Kaizaks, Teleutes. 
 
 After the destruction of Attila's swarms, and 
 the effects of unfortunate inroads, the Huns be- 
 came subject to the Mongoles, who under Zingis, 
 or Chingis khan, Tiraur, &c. consituted the su- 
 preme nation in Asia. 
 
 The great share of population which Europe 
 has received from Asia will appear from the fol- 
 lowing brief statement. 
 
 Primitive Inhabitants. 
 
 1. Celts. — Irish, Welsh, Armorican. — Erse, 
 Manks, Cornish. 
 
 2. Fins (chief god Yummala). — Finlanders, 
 Esthonians, Laplanders, Hungarians, Permians 
 or Biarmians, Livonians, Votiaks and Chere- 
 misses, Vogules and Ostiaks. 
 
 Colonies from Asia. 
 
 3. Scythians or Goths (Odin). — Icelanders, 
 Norwegians, Swedes, Danes, Germans, Englisli. 
 — Swiss, Frisic, Flemish, Dutch. 
 
 4. Sarmats or Slavons (Perune). — Poles, Rus- 
 sians, Kaizaks. — Heruli, Vendi, Lettes. 
 
 The inhabitants of France, Italy, and Spain, 
 are also of Asiatic origin ; and speak corrupted 
 Roman, which, like the Greek, is a polished 
 dialect of the Gothic, according to Sir William 
 Jones, and other able antiquaries. The Heruli,
 
 46 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 Vendes, and Lettes, used mixed and imperfect 
 dialects of the Sclavonic. 
 
 Besides these numerous original nations, the 
 Malays and Asiatic islanders constitute another 
 large and distinct class of mankind, with a pe- 
 culiar speech, in the south of the extensive con- 
 tinent of Asia. 
 
 Governments. — The people of Asia in their 
 civil state consist of families occupyinfj the same 
 territory, but acknowledging no chief or governor; 
 of independent tribes associated under one com- 
 mon potentate as the Arabs and Tartars, and 
 therefore called equestrian nations; or of king- 
 doms ranged under established monarchies, of 
 which the chief are Independent Tartary, China, 
 Thibet, with its subsidiary prcvinces, the Japa- 
 nese empire, &c. The Asiatic governments are 
 mostly despotic, and those established by Euro- 
 peans are nearly of the same description. In 
 some of the political institutions of Asia there is, 
 however, the rude image of a popular administra- 
 tion ; in others the influence of women is ad- 
 mitted ; whilst in some few the prince is guided 
 in all public measures by the advice of his 
 nobles. Were the principal governments in 
 Asia to be arranged according to their natural 
 and political importance, they would probably 
 succeed each other in the following order : China 
 in the first place, and after this successively 
 Persia, Turkey, and Russia ; the precedency of 
 the numerous other states can hardly be ascer- 
 tained. 
 
 Religion. — The most common religion of 
 Asia is idolatry. The doctrines of Mahomet 
 prevail to a great extent ; but their influence is 
 upon the decline, owing in a great measure to the 
 popularity of the Wahabees. Christianity is now 
 generally rejected in Asia, and in many countries 
 even where it was formerly tolerated, as in China 
 and Japan, The sacrifice of animals, and even 
 of human victims, is very frequent; and a spirit 
 of the most degrading superstition seems to reign 
 throughout the vast regions of this division of the 
 globe. Penance is carried beyond even the 
 bounds of probability. Imposing upon himself 
 perpetual silence, gating on the sun till his eyes 
 become fixed in their sockets, lacerating his body 
 with sharp weapons, and other practices still more 
 shocking to humanity are, through vast regions, 
 considered among the most acceptable services 
 which a man can offer to the deity. Polygamy is 
 generally practised, and sometimes even a plurality 
 of husbands are allowed to a single woman : fe- 
 males of rank also, betrothed at an early age, 
 cohabit not with their husbands but with other 
 men without reproach. Infanticide is common ; 
 and burning the living wife with the body of her 
 dead husband, though now rendered a voluntary 
 act on the part of the woman, has by no means sub- 
 sided. Many of the tribes are complete canni- 
 bals, and others are little better. 
 
 Character of Inhabitants. — ^The inhabi- 
 tants of Asia, violent in their dispositions, are 
 generally ferocious, vindictive, and cruel. The 
 tender ties of nature are little felt. Children are 
 openly sold by their parents without even the 
 apology of necessity. Wives are sacrificed by 
 their husbands even on the bare suspicion of in- 
 fidelity ; and in the most civilised state after an 
 
 unfortunate contest for the crown, the unsuccess- 
 ful prince, if not executed, invariably has his 
 eyes put out, though the rival should be his own 
 brother. 
 
 The ancient geography of Asia cannot be con- 
 templated without feelings of excitement, which 
 the deep gloom of her present degraded and 
 idolatrous condition are unable to suppress; 
 feelings unknown in the contemplation of any 
 other portion of the globe. Asia was the parent 
 of nations, the cradle of civilisation and science — • 
 here occurred most of those remarkable transac- 
 tions recorded in the scripture history — ^here arose 
 successively the Babylonian, Assyrian, and Per- 
 sian empires — and here the Christian religion 
 was first planted for the salvation of man. Much 
 of the celebrity of this quarter of the globe is un- 
 doubtedly owing to its climate, and the numer- 
 ous gulfs, bays, and navigable rivers with which 
 it abounds opening early facilities for commerce, 
 &c.; but still more perhaps is to be attributed to 
 the native genius and sanguine temperament of 
 its inhabitants. 
 
 The origin of the name of Asia has given rise 
 to some curious speculations and disquisitions. 
 The Greeks deduced it from Asia, the fabulous 
 daughter of Oceanus and Thetis. Others have 
 derived it from Asius, king of Lydia. Bochart 
 traces it to the Hebrew or Phoenician word Asi, 
 signifying middle, which is, however, unsupported 
 by historical evidence. According to Homer, 
 Herodotus and Euripides, it early designated a 
 country of Lydia, where ancient geography men- 
 tions a tribe of Asiones and a city of Asia. The 
 name, however, was gradually extended by the 
 Greeks from a single province to the whole of 
 Asia Minor, and afterwards to other regions as 
 they were discovered successively ; in the same 
 manner as Allemagne is applied by the French 
 to the whole of Germany ; and as Italia, an 
 ancient canton in Calabria, is now denominated 
 the peninsula of Italy. Since, however, much 
 perplexity has arisen among authors by the di- 
 verse acceptations of the term Asia, so as to ren- 
 der it extremely difficult for their readers to know 
 what region was distinctly understood by that 
 appellation ; and since it is not easy to reconcile 
 the apparent inconsistency between sacred and 
 profane history, as to the provinces which it 
 comprised, we present the following observations 
 for the satisfaction of the reader : — The ancient 
 geographers divided the vast continent that was 
 known to the Greeks and Romans under the 
 word i^ia, first into Greater and Lesser Asia. 
 The latter, also called Asia Minor, was thought 
 to be a peninsula terminated by a liiie drawn 
 from Sinope to the line of separation between 
 highland and lowland Cilicia (Aspera and Cam- 
 pestris). It comprehended a great number of 
 provinces ; but that which included Phrygia, 
 Mysia, Caria, and Lydia, was denommated Asia 
 Proper, or Asia properly so called. Cicero, 
 enumerating the regions contained in Asia Pro- 
 per, makes no mention of TEolis or lolia, though 
 undoubtedly a district of it, as being compre- 
 hended partly in Lydia and partly in Mysia. 
 Lydia, beside the inland country commonly 
 known by that name, contained also Ionia, lying 
 on the sea-side, between the rivers Hermus and
 
 ASIA. 
 
 47 
 
 Maeander; and j^^olis, extending from Ilermus 
 to the river Caicus, or to the promontory Lec- 
 tum, the ancient boundary between Troas and 
 the sea-coast of the Greater Mysia. Accordingly, 
 Asia Proper comprehended Phrygia, Mysia, Ly- 
 dia, Caria, iEolia, and Ionia. This tract was 
 bounded, according to Ptolemy, on the north by 
 Bithynia and Pontus, extending from Galatia to 
 Propontis; on the east by Galatia, Pamphylia, 
 and Lycia ; on the south by part of Lycia and 
 the Rhodian sea ; on the west by the Hellespont, 
 by the ^gean, Scarian, and Myrtoan seas, occu- 
 pying the space between the thirty-fifth and 
 forty-first degree of north latitude, and extending 
 from 55° to 62° of longitude. 
 
 As Asia Proper is but a part of Asia Minor, 
 so the Lydian Asia is only a part of Asia Proper. 
 Asia, in this acceptation, comprehends Lydia, 
 TEolia, and Ionia ; and is that Asia whereof men- 
 tion is made in tlie Acts and the Apocalypse. 
 Aristotle tells us that Smyrna was at first pos- 
 sessed by the Lydians ; and Scylax Coryandensis 
 reckons it among the cities of Lydia, as also 
 Ephesus, Sardis, Philadelphia, and Thyatira, are 
 reckoned by Ptolemy among the cities of Lydia, 
 as is Laodicea by Stephanus. Steph. de Urbid. 
 That in ancient times Lydia was called Maeonia, 
 and the Lydians, Mieonians, is manifest from 
 Herodotus, Diodorus Siculus, Dionysius Afer, 
 Strabo, Pliny, Stephanus, and others ; and that 
 Ma;onia was called Asia is no less plain from 
 Callinicus, who flourished before Archilochus, 
 from Demetrius Scepsius, contemporary with 
 Crates, and Aristarchus the grammarian, from 
 Euripides, Suidas the great etymologist, &c. ; 
 besides which it is expressly affirmed by the 
 ancient scholiast of ApoUonius Rhodius, that 
 Lydia was formerly called Asia, and hence Lydia 
 has been said to have a better claim to the name 
 of Asia than any other part of that continent. 
 Ulterior (or Greater) Asia comprehended the 
 remaining part of that continent. Its great di- 
 visions were Iberia, Colchis, and Albania, be- 
 tween the Euxine and Caspian seas ; Mingrelia, 
 Georgia, and Daghistan Axmenia, which retains 
 its ancient name. Media and Persia included 
 in modern Persia. Bactriana and Margiana ; the 
 Merri, Balkh, and Bokhara of the Turks and 
 Tartars ; Syria, Mesopotamia and Assyria, the 
 Biladu'sh isham, Diyar bekr, and Abjonirah of 
 the moderns. Hyrcania, Persia, and Susiana, 
 the Trak and Pars of the present day. Judea, 
 Babylonia, and Chaldea; the southern part of 
 Syria and Pachalic of Bagdad. India the 
 country between the Indus and Ganges; and 
 Syria the remoter regions to the north-east. 
 
 Ancient Geography. — The earliest accounts 
 of this vast portion of the globe are those con- 
 tained in the Scripture, which are, however, ex- 
 tremely imperfect. Moses has enumerated the 
 difi'erent parts of the earth with which the He- 
 brews were familiar ; but, in consequence of the 
 names by which he designates the places differ- 
 ing from other authors, great obscurity hangs 
 over the whole of his geography, except that 
 which relates to the land of Canaan itself, and 
 the states immediately contiguous. He appears 
 to have been well acquainted with Asia Minor, 
 Armenia, Media, Persia, and Arabia. The Gog 
 
 and Magog of Scripture seem to have been the 
 inhabitants of Caucasus. Riphath seems to re- 
 fer to the Ripha;an mountains ; and Rosh refers 
 to the ancient Rossi, from whom were descended 
 the Russians of the present day. The more 
 northerly parts of Asia were evidently unknown 
 to the Greeks. Herodotus considered the Pha- 
 sis in Colchis as the line of separation between 
 Europe and Asia, whilst others believed the 
 Don, or Tanais, as the proper limit. The 
 mountains north of India were the utmost boun- 
 dary of their knowledge with respect to that part 
 of Asia. The Ganges and the Indian Ocean 
 they considered the eastern and southern limits ; 
 and the Red Sea, with the isthmus between it 
 and the Mediterranean, brought them back to 
 the western or nearest side. Many geographers 
 included Egypt in Asia, making the Catabathnus, 
 or western side of the valley of the Nile, the 
 separation between Asia and Africa ; whilst others 
 considered the Nile itself as the line of separa- 
 tion. Strabo and Pliny supposed the northern 
 end of the Caspian sea communicated with the 
 ocean. 
 
 Progressive Geography. — At the time when 
 Asia was first mentioned in history it probably 
 contained more powerful empires than it does 
 at present, the Chinese excepted. Alexander 
 the Great carried his arms beyond the Indus. 
 The Sinae, or eastern Indians, were known 
 to Ptolemy in the second century, and also 
 Taprobane or Ceylon, with Jabadia, the Javia 
 dwipa of the Indians, and the Java of our 
 maps. Alfred, king of England, deputed a mis- 
 sion to the shrine of St. Thomas on the coast of 
 Babelmandel ; and the crusades of Syria and 
 Palestine, in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, 
 led to an intimate acquaintance with that part of 
 Asia. Shortly after the passion for crusades had 
 subsided, a spirit of commercial enterprise was 
 excited, and merchants, from several parts of 
 Europe, penetrated into the interior. The monks, 
 animated with a desire to convert the heretics, 
 departed in great numbers for Asia; amission 
 deputed from the pope to the court of the Moguls, 
 and another from Louis of France to the same 
 princes contributed on their return, by the pub- 
 lication of their travels, to enlarge the ideas of 
 Europeans with respect to that part of the world. 
 Marco Polo, a Venetian merchant, with his com- 
 panions, spent twenty-six years in travelling 
 either as merchants, or as agents of the Great 
 Khave of the Tartars, during which period they 
 for the first time disclosed the great desert of 
 Cobi, and made great additions to our knowledge 
 of oriental geography, particularly in the north 
 of Asia. Such indeed was the ignorance of the 
 age in which he lived, that his descriptions of 
 the magnificence and wealth of the Asiatics were 
 regarded by his contemporaries as the effusions of 
 romance. Subsequent information has neverthe- 
 less raised him to distinguished credit, and his 
 work is now considered one of the most curious 
 monuments we possess of the state of Europe 
 and Asia in the middle ages. In the fifteenth 
 century improvements in navigation, and the 
 spirit of commercial enterprise, facilitated the 
 progress of discovery. A passage was discovered 
 to India round tlie Cape of Good Hope, and the
 
 48 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 English, Dutch, Spanish, and Portuguese settled 
 several establishments on the Asiatic coast, from 
 which they undertook still more distant expeditions 
 into the interior, and opened an intercourse with 
 China, Japan, and Hindostan. The British go- 
 vernment sent out repeated expeditions under 
 the conduct of Cook, Byron, and others, to make 
 discoveries in the Soutliern Ocean ; and the em- 
 press Catharine about the same time directed 
 scientific travellers to explore some of the central 
 parts of her Asiatic dominions. Geography by 
 these means received many splendid additions, 
 and our knowledge of different and distant parts 
 of the globe illustrated many important and in- 
 teresting points in the physical and natural his- 
 tory of southern Asia. Van Diemen's Land 
 and New Holland were explored by captain 
 Flinders. The same voyager also observed that 
 there is no river deeply penetrating into the 
 latter island ; and that the gulf of Carpentaria 
 is a basin of vast extent studded with islands. 
 The expulsion of the Dutch from their insular 
 settlements has also led to an intimate acquaint- 
 ance with those territories, all knowledge of 
 which they endeavoured to conceal. Travellers 
 from British India have greatly increased our in- 
 formation with respect to the neighbouring re- 
 gions. A mission to the court of Persia has 
 thrown a light on the geography and policy of 
 that distinguished empire, and shown how de- 
 fective our information was with regard to Ori- 
 ental nations. A field of discovery, however, 
 yet remains to complete the geography of this 
 part of the world. The origin, course, and pro- 
 gressive increase of some of its greatest rivers are 
 unknown ; scarce any of its internal seas, except 
 the Caspian, have been the subjects of actual 
 survey ; and its mountains, perhaps the most 
 stupendous masses on the globe, present a wholly 
 unexplored field of enquiry. Siberia is but little 
 known ; and even of the coasts no perfect sur- 
 vey has ever been taken. The whole extent of 
 country from the Caspian to the sea of Okhosts, 
 including a superficial area of many thousands of 
 miles, is occupied by nations and people whose 
 names are scarcely known. Little more than the 
 borders of Arabia is known to Europeans. The 
 interior regions of Tartary and the northern part 
 of China require much illustration. The same 
 remark may be applied to India and the interior 
 of Asia generally. With regard to the probable 
 population of this continent so defective is our 
 knowledge that differences of between one and 
 two hundred millions exist in regard to that of 
 China alone. Our knowledge of the islands is 
 almost equally imperfect. Not a tenth part 
 of New Holland has been attempted, and that 
 only in a single line, although every journey un- 
 folds novelties and wonders in nature which 
 seem to distinguish this extensive island from 
 every other region in the world. Borneo, Su- 
 matra, Celebes, and Papua greatly demand the 
 attention of travellers. The north-eastern angle 
 .of territorial Asia has been repeatedly visited by 
 navigators and travellers since the civilization of 
 Ilussia by the genius of Peter the Great; but 
 the geography and natural history of that region 
 have been hitherto described in a manner which 
 is exceedingly imperfect. On the whole we are 
 
 looking for superior lights. The morning whica 
 dawned so many centuries ago has hitherto ad- 
 vanced but slowly ; and we hail the approach of 
 a brighter period, which is not very remote, 
 when the sun of discovery shall burst the clouds 
 in which he has been enveloped, and irradiate 
 the geography of this interesting section of the 
 globe. 
 
 The propagation of Mahommedanism, and the 
 exterminating wars by which it was attended, 
 effected a complete revolution in the states of this 
 continent. The Greek empire sunk in the arms 
 of the victorious Moslems. The caliphs for a 
 time prevailed to a considerable degree over 
 their Constantinopolitan predecessors, and were 
 in their turn humbled by the Tatarian Jengerfe 
 and Temiir. The latter were finally absorbed 
 in the overwhelming power of the Turks who 
 now, having no formidable enemy to oppose, 
 overran the west of Asia, and in the middle of 
 the fifteenth century extinguished the Eastern 
 Empire, and laid the foundations of those great 
 divisions of this continent which "subsist at the 
 present day. 
 
 With respect to the modern divisions of Asia, 
 we observe that the Russian empire extends 
 from the Uralian mountains to the sea of Kam- 
 schatka, and from the Arctic Ocean to the pa- 
 rallel of fifty degrees north latitude. It is inha- 
 habited by Tartars, Mongols, Mautchirs, &c., 
 under the general name of Siberia. The Asiatic 
 part of the Ottoman Empire, consisting of Ana- 
 tolia, Syria, and Diyar-Bekr, the ancient Meso- 
 potamia, lies between the Black Sea and the 
 Mediterranean ; the canal of Constantinople and 
 the Tigris ; Arabia lies to the south of the latter 
 country; and Persia lies east of the Tigris, as 
 far as the Indus, between the Caspian Sea and 
 the Persian Gulf. East of the Caspian, as far as 
 east longitude 100 degrees, between Russia and 
 Persia, are the independent Tartars. From the 
 above meridian, to the Sea of Japan, lies eastern 
 or Chinese Tartary, inhabited by the Mautchirs 
 who subdued China in the middle of the seven- 
 teenth century, and whose original country forms 
 at present the northern part of that empire. Thibet 
 is on the north side of the Himalaya mountains, 
 the Alps of Hindostan. South and east of China 
 lies the peninsula of India, beyond the Ganges. 
 West of the Burman empire is India on this 
 side the Ganges, comprehending Kashmir, Hin- 
 dostan, and the Deccan. The islands are under 
 various governments, and have been made the 
 seat of various commercial establishments by 
 the different powers of Europe, of which an 
 account will be given under their names sepa- 
 rately. 
 
 Asia Minor is the western portion of Asia, 
 having the Black Sea on the north, the Eu- 
 phrates on the east, and the seas Mediterranean 
 and Marmora, with the Hellespont and Bos- 
 phorus, on the west. It is of an irregularly ob- 
 long figure, 1000 miles from east to west, and 
 400 or 500 from north to south, variously in- 
 dented by bays and inlets, and having a few 
 peninsulas and promontories. Its streams and 
 rivers are numerous but not large; the interior 
 abounding with saline lakes, crystal fountains, 
 and hot-springs, whose waters have been cele-
 
 ASI 
 
 49 
 
 ASK 
 
 brated for their medicinal qualities. The cli- 
 mate is line, and its valleys warm, washed in 
 some places by mountain torrents, shaded by the 
 mountainr., and tempered by cool and refreshing 
 breezes from the sea. Long ranges of hills, 
 from which branches diverge in all directions, 
 isolated rocks and mountains crowned with 
 trees and verdure, delightfully change the pros- 
 pect ; while the luxuriance of the soil and abun- 
 dance of grain, fruits, and every species of 
 vegetation, render subsistence comfortable and 
 happy. Earthquakes are, however, frequent, 
 overwhelming entire cities and their inhabitants ; 
 and the plague sweeps away its thousands. 
 The whole country is subject to the Turkish 
 government, and inhabited chiefly by INIahom- 
 medans and Christians. It is divided into se- 
 veral large provinces, of which Natolia and 
 Caramania are the most important. It contains 
 
 the cities of Angora, Bursa, Smyrna, and Tocat, 
 besides the ruins of many others which have 
 been highly celebrated in history. The southern 
 shore of Caramania is overspread with remain^ 
 of Grecian antiquities; and Natolia abounds 
 with ancient curiosities and columns, having 
 been the theatre of important events from the 
 earliest historj'. The several islands in the 
 Archipelago, belonging to this country, are also 
 highly classical and important. 
 
 This part of Asia is the most interesting re- 
 gion of the earth, the parent of education, arts, 
 and arms — the cradle of mythology, poetry, and 
 eloquence — the favorite abode of the muses — the 
 soil in which lay the ancient roots of genius, 
 which have since struck round the world, beau- 
 tified the moral wastes, and still luxuriantly ex- 
 pand their blossoms in almost every clime of the 
 civilised globe. 
 
 ASIAGO, one of tlie seven Venetian com- 
 munes in Upper Italy, in the midst of mountains, 
 in the north of the circle of ^■ icenza, and now be- 
 longing toAustria. The inhabitants are descend- 
 ants of the ancient Germans, and lead a purely 
 pastoral life. They enjoyed great privileges 
 under the Venetian government, and have more 
 than once defended the passes of their country 
 against the inroads of a foreign foe. The large 
 town of Asiago is the seat of the court of jus- 
 tice for all the communes; has a castle, and 
 11,000 inhabitants. It is twenty miles north of 
 Vicenza. 
 ASFDE. On side. See Side. 
 And he took him asidis fro the people and puttedc 
 hise fingris into hise eeris and he spette and touchide 
 his tonge. Wyclif. Mark ch. vii. 
 
 Fkan. Sir, he may live. 
 I saw him beat the surges under him. 
 And ride upon their backs ; he trod the water. 
 Whose enmity he flung aside, and breasted 
 The surge most swoln that met him ; his bold head 
 Bore the contentious waves, he kept and oar'd 
 Himself with his good arms in lusty strokes 
 To the shore ; that o'er his wave-worn basis bowed. 
 He came alive to land. Shakspeare's Tempest. 
 
 Thus (she pursu'd) I discipline a son. 
 Whose uncheck'd fury to revenge would run ; 
 He champs the bit, impatient of his loss. 
 And starts aside, and flounders at the cross. 
 
 Dryden's Hind and Panther. 
 It is the custom of the Mahometans, if they see 
 any printed or written paper upon the ground, to take 
 it up and lay it aside carefully, as not knowing but 
 it may contain some piece of the Alcoran. Addison. 
 ASILUS, in entomology, the hornet-fly, a 
 genus of insects belonging to the order of in- 
 secta diptera. It has two wings; and a horny, 
 strait, two-valved, beak. There are seventeen 
 species of this insect. Many of them wotmd 
 in a very painful manner, and are particulariy 
 troublesome to cattle in low meadows; others of 
 them are quite harmless. 
 
 AsiLus, in ornithology, the name used by 
 many for the luteola, or" regulus non cristatus, 
 an extremely small bird, common among wil- 
 lows. 
 
 ASINARII, an appellation given, by way of 
 Vol. III. 
 
 reproach, to the ancient Christians, as well as 
 Jews, from a mistaken opinion, among heathens, 
 that they worshipped an ass. 
 
 ASINESIA, in medicine, an immovableness 
 of the body, or in any part of it, as in apoplexy, 
 palsy, &c. 
 
 ASINIUS Lapis, a name given by some 
 writers of the middle ages, to a stone, said to be 
 found in those places frequented by the wild ass. 
 See Bezoar. 
 
 ASINUS Piscis, in ichthyology, a name given 
 by some to the eglefinus, or common haddock, 
 called also onos. 
 
 ASIO, in ornithology, a name given by Al- 
 drovandus and others, to the otus, or lesser horn 
 owl. 
 
 ASISIA, or AssisiA, a town of Liburnia, 
 now in ruins, but exhibiting many monuments 
 of antiquity. It is the Asseria or Assesia of 
 Pliny, and is now called Podgraje. See Asse- 
 ria. 
 
 ASISIO, or AsiTio, a city of the Pope's ter- 
 ritories in Italy, situated about sixteen miles 
 east of Perugia, and eighty north of Rome. It is 
 seated on a mountain, and is said to have been 
 the birth-place of St. Francis. 
 
 ASK, ) Ang.-Sax. secan, ascecan, to seek, 
 
 Ask'er. S to ask ; ascean, to seek, to ask. To 
 seek, enquire, demand, require, petition, beg. 
 
 As it is a great point of art, when our matter re- 
 quires it, to enlarge and veer out all sail ; so to take 
 it in and contract it, is no less praise, when the argu- 
 met doth ask it. Ben Jnnson. 
 
 A lump of ore, in the bottom of a mine, will be 
 stirred by two men's strength ; which, if you bring it 
 to the top of the earth, will ask six men to stir it. 
 
 Bacort. 
 
 When thou dost ask me blessing, I'll kneel down. 
 And ask of thee forgiveness. Shaktpeare. 
 
 We have nothing else to ask ; but that. 
 Which you deny already : yet will ask; 
 That, if we fail in our request, the blame 
 May hang upon your hardness. Id. 
 
 In long journeys, ask your master leave to give ale 
 to the horses Stcift. 
 
 Let him pursue the promis'd Latian shore, 
 A short delay is all I ask him now ; 
 A pause of grief, an interval of woe. Drydcn. 
 
 E
 
 ASK 50 
 
 ASL 
 
 Ask of the loarn'il the way ; the Icarn'd arc blind ; 
 This bids to servo, and that to shun mankind ; 
 Some place the bliss in action, some in case. 
 Those call it pleasure, and contentment these. 
 
 Pope. Eisay on Man. 
 Upon my asking her who it was, she told me it 
 was a very grave elderly gentleman, but that she did 
 not know his name. Addison. 
 
 ASKAII, a town of Hindostan, in the nor- 
 thern circar, Cicacole, thirty-six miles north by 
 west of Ganjam.. It stands in N. lat. 19° 44', 
 E. long. 84° 55'. 
 ASKANCE', "J Supposed to be from as- 
 Askaunce', (^chined, participle of the Dutch 
 Askaunt', i verb schuinen, to cut away. 
 Asquint'. J From whence probably are 
 squint and asquint ; sideways, oblique. 
 And wrote alway the names, as he stood. 
 Of alle folk that gave hem any good, 
 Askaunce that he wolde for hem preye. 
 
 Chaucer. The Sempnour's Tale. 
 Some say, he bid his angels turn askance 
 The poles of earth, twice ten degrees and more. 
 From the sun's axle : they with labour push'd 
 Oblique the centric globe. Milton. 
 
 Zelmane, keeping a countenance askance, as she 
 understood him not, told him, it became her evil. 
 
 Sidney. 
 His wannish eyes upon them bent askance; 
 And when he saw their labours well succeed. 
 He wept for rage, and threaten'd dire mischance. 
 
 Fairfax. 
 While thus their worke went on with lucky speed. 
 And reared rammes their horned fronts aduance. 
 The ancient foe to man, and mortall seed. 
 His wannish eyes vpon them bent askance. 
 
 Fairfax's Tasso, book iv. 
 At this Achilles roU'd his furious eyes, 
 Fix'd on the king askaunt ; and thus replies, 
 
 O, impudent Dryden. 
 
 Since the space, that lies on either side 
 The solar orb, is without limits wide ; 
 Grant, that the sun had happened to prefer 
 A seat askaunt, but one diameter : 
 Lost to the light by that unhappy place. 
 This globe had lain a frozen loansome mass. 
 
 Blackmorc. 
 Through his bright disk the stormy weapon flew, 
 Transpicrc'd his twisted mail, and from his side 
 Drove all the skin, but to his nobler parts. 
 Found entrance none by Pallas turn'd askance. 
 
 Cowper's Iliad, hook xi. p. 195. 
 
 Panic-fixed he stood. 
 
 His seven-fold shield behind his shoulder cast. 
 And hemm'd by numbers with his eyes askant, 
 Watchful retreated. Id. book xi. 
 
 ASKERON, a place five miles from Don- 
 caster, noted for a medicinal spring. It is a strong 
 sulphureous water, slightly impregnated with a 
 purging salt. It is recommended internally and 
 externally in strumous and other ulcers, scabs, 
 leprosy, and similar complaints. It is good in 
 chronic obstructions, in cases of worms, &c. 
 
 ASKEW. Dan. skiavt, crooked; from skitr- 
 ver, to twist. 
 
 For, when ye mildly look with lovely hue. 
 Then is my soul with life and love inspir'd : 
 But, when ye lowre, or look on me afketv. 
 Then do I die. Spenser. 
 
 Tiien take it. Sir, as it was writ; 
 Nor look askew, at what it saith : 
 There's no petition in it. Prior. 
 
 This said, her spear she push'd against the ground. 
 And, mounting from it with an active bound. 
 Flew ofT to heaven : the hag with eyes askew 
 Look'd up, and mutter'd curses as she flew, 
 
 Addison. Ovid's Met. book ii. 
 
 Askew (Anne), an English lady, the 
 daughter of Sir William Askew, of Kelsay, in 
 Lincolnshire. She was born at her father's 
 seat about 1520; and received a liberal educa- 
 tion. Early in life she was married to a Rlr. 
 Kyme, contrary to her own inclination ; and, 
 being harshly treated by her husband, she went 
 to the court of Henry VIII. to sue for a sepa- 
 ration. Hero she attracted the particular notice 
 of such ladies as were attached to the reforma- 
 tion : on this account she was arrested ; and, 
 acknowledging her religious principles, was sent 
 prisoner to Newgate. After having been put to 
 the rack with savage cruelty in the Tower, she 
 was burnt in Smithfield, along with her tutor, 
 and two other persons of the same faith, in 1546. 
 Her letters in Fox and Stripe show her to have 
 been an accomplished and pious woman. 
 
 ASKEYTON, a market town of Limerick, 
 seated on the river Deel, 110 miles from Dub- 
 lin; noted for its castle, built by the earl of 
 Desmond, and for its beautiful abbey. 
 
 ASLA'KE. Ang.-Sax. asla-cian, to abate ; 
 to resolve, to unbend, to reduce to its compo- 
 nent parts, to slake, or slacken. 
 
 But this continual, cruel, civil war 
 No skill can stint, nor reason can aslahe. 
 
 Spenser. 
 Whilst, seeking to aslake thy raging fire. 
 
 Thou in me kindlest much more great desire. Id, 
 
 But suche as of ther golde ther only idoll make, 
 Noe treasure may the rauyn of their hungry hands 
 aslake. Surrey. 
 
 ASLAN, or Aslani, in commerce, a name 
 given to the Dutch dollar in most parts of the 
 Levant. The word is also written corruptly, 
 asselani. It is originally Turkish, and signifies 
 a lion, which is the figure stamped on it. The 
 Arabs, taking the figure of a lion for a dog, 
 called it abusketh. It is silver, but much al- 
 loyed, and is current for 115 or 120 aspers. See 
 
 ASPER. 
 
 ASLAN'T. On slant. See Slant. 
 
 There is a willow grows aslant a brook. 
 That shews his hoar leaves in the glassy stream. 
 
 Shakspeare. Hamlet, 
 He fell ; the shaft 
 Drove thro* his neck, aslant : he spurns the ground ; 
 And the soul issues, through the weapon's wound. 
 
 Dryden, 
 Lo ! now apparent all 
 Aslant the dew-bright earth and coloured air. 
 He looks in boundless majesty abroad. 
 And sheds the shining day that burnished plays 
 On rocks, and liills, and towers, and wandering 
 
 streams. 
 High gleaming from afar. Thomson. 
 
 ASLEE'P. On sleep. See Sleep. 
 
 This false knight vpou delaie 
 Hath taricd till thei were asleepe. 
 As he that woll time kepe 
 His deadly workcs to fulfille. 
 
 Gower. Con. Am. book ii. 
 How many thousand of my poorest subjects 
 Arc at this hour asleep! O gentle sleep. 
 Nature's soft nurse, lu>w have I frighted thee ! 
 
 Shaksjiearo
 
 ASO 
 
 The diligence of trade, and noiseful gaii», 
 And luxury, more late aslecjj were laid : 
 All was the night's ; and, in her silent reign. 
 No sound the rest of nature did invade. Dryden. 
 For gorg'd with flesh, and drunk with human wine. 
 While fast asleep the giant lay supine 
 Snoring aloud, and belching from his maw 
 His indigested foam and morsels raw : 
 We pray, we cast the lots, and then surround 
 The monstrous body, strctch'd along the ground. 
 
 Id. Virgil, yEncid iii. 
 There is no difTcrcncc, between a person asleep, 
 and in an apoplexy; but that the one can be awaked, 
 and the other cannot. Arbutlmot on Diet, 
 
 ASLOPE'. On slope, or slip. See Sloi>e. 
 For many times I have it seen. 
 That many have bcgylcd been. 
 For trust that they have set in hope. 
 Which fell hem afterward aslope. 
 Chaueer. Romaunt of the Rose, fol. 137. c. 1. 
 Set them not upright, but aslope, a reasonable 
 depth under the ground. Bacon. 
 
 The curse aslope. 
 Glanc'd on the ground ; with labour I must earn 
 My bread ! what harm? Idleness had been worse ; 
 My labour will sustain me. Miltont 
 
 The knight did stoop. 
 And sate on further side aslope. Hudibras. 
 Where porters' hogsheads roll from carts aslope. 
 Or brewers down steep cellars stretch the rope ; 
 Where counted billets are by carmen tost. 
 Stay thy rash step, and walk without the post. 
 
 Ga>/. Trivia, book ii. 
 ASjNIODAI, the name given by the Jews 
 to the prince of dxmons ; and according to K. 
 Elias, the same with Sammael. 
 
 ASMONEUS, or Assamoneus, the father of 
 Simon, and chief of the Asmoneans, a family that 
 reigned over the Jews 126 years. 
 
 ASNA, or EsNA, a town in Upper Egypt, 
 seated upon the Nile, believed by some authors 
 to be the ancient Syena, though others say the 
 ruins of it are still to be seen near Assuan. It 
 is so near the cataracts of tlie Nile, that they 
 may be heard from thence, and it contains se- 
 veral monuments of antiqiuly ; among the rest an 
 ancient Egyptian temple, painted throughout. 
 The columns are full of hieroglyphic figures. A 
 little way from hence are the ruins of an ancient 
 nunnery, said to be built by St. Helena, and 
 surrounded with tombs. Asna is the principal 
 town in these parts, and tlie inhabitants are rich 
 in corn and cattle. 
 
 ASNAPPER, an Assyrian prince, mentioned 
 in Ezra iv. 10, who settled the original Samari- 
 tans in the country of the ten tribes. It is un- 
 certain, whether ho was Salmaneser or Esar- 
 haddon, or one of their generals. 
 
 ASOLA, a town of Upper Italy, in the terri- 
 tory of Brescia, on the Chiese, with a popula- 
 tion of 4000. It is twenty miles S.S.P^. of Brescia. 
 ASOLO, a Venetian prefecture, in the Mark of 
 Treviso, Italy ; belonging to Austria. It con- 
 sists of the town of Asolo, and thirty-six vil- 
 lages, with 25,000 inhabitants. They cultivate 
 grapes, corn, fruit, silk, oil, and garden ve- 
 getables, trade in cattle, and manufacture silk and 
 woollen stuffs. The town of Asolo is seated on 
 8ome agreeable rising grounds, skirled on the 
 north and west by the Musone. 
 ASOPH, or A/.oiMi. Sec Azopii. 
 ASOPUS, a town of Eaconia, on the Sinus 
 
 51 
 
 ASP 
 
 Laconius, with a port in a peninsula, between 
 Boa; to the east, and the moutli of the Eurofas to 
 the west. The citadel only remains standing. 
 
 Asopus, in ancient geography, the name of 
 several rivers, viz. 1. In BcEotia, which, running 
 from mount Cithseron, and watering the territory 
 of Thebes, separates it from the territory of Pla- 
 tx'a, and falls with an east course into tl)e Euri- 
 pus, at Tanagra. On this river, Adrastus, king 
 of Sicyon, built a temple to Nemesis, and from it 
 Thebes came to be surnamed Asopides. It is 
 now called Asopo. 2. In Peloponnesus, which 
 runs by Sicyon, and with a north-west course 
 falls into the Sinus Corinthiacus, west of Corinth. 
 3. In Phrygia JNIajor, which with the Lycus 
 washes Laodicea. 4. On the borders of Thes- 
 saly, rising in Mount (Eta, and falling into the 
 Sinus IMaliacus. 
 
 ASOIi, or AsoRus, in ancient geography,!. 
 A town in the south-west of Judali, near Asca- 
 lon, called also Ilazor, and Hasor-Hadala, trans- 
 lated by the seventy Atrojo?; Taivrj. 2. A town of 
 Galilee ; called the capital of all the kingdoms 
 north of Palestine. It was taken by Joshua; the 
 inhabitants were put to the sword, and tlieir 
 houses burnt. It was afterwards rebuilt, but 
 remained still in die hands of the Canaanites, 
 though in the tribe of Naphtliali. It lay north 
 oftheLacus Samachonites, called in Scripture 
 the waters of INIerom. 
 
 AsoTus, in ichthyology, a species of the silurus. 
 
 ASP, ^ Gr. a(T7rai()w, to tremble, to quiver. 
 
 As'PEN. ^ Shaking, trembling; because the 
 
 leaves of the aspen tree tremble with each breath 
 
 of air. 
 
 Tliis Sompnour in his stirops high he stood 
 Upon this frere his herte was so wood 
 That like an aspen leef he quokc fore ire. 
 Chaucer. The Sompnottr's Prologue, vi. p. 292. 
 He to him raught a dagger sharp and keene. 
 And gave it him in hand : his hand did quake 
 And tremble like a leafe of aspin greene. 
 
 Spenser's Faerie Queene, book i. c. ix. s. 81. 
 
 The aspen or asp tree hath leaves much the same 
 
 with the poplar, only much smaller, and not so 
 
 white. Mortimer. 
 
 Asp, } Gr. amrig, a serpent, said to be 
 
 Asp'icK. S peculiar to Egypt and Lybia, whose 
 
 bite is mortal and its effect immediate. IModern 
 
 naturalists have not yet discovered this reptile. 
 
 High-minded Cleopatra, that with stroke 
 
 Of asp's sting herself did kill. Faerie Queene. 
 
 Scoqiion, and asp, and amphisbiena dire. 
 And dipsas. Milton. 
 
 Asp, Aspick, thus denominated from the 
 Greek, arririQ, shield; on account of its lying 
 convolved in a circle, in the centre of w'hich is 
 the liead, which it exerts, or raises, like the umbo 
 or umbileus of a buckler. This species of ser- 
 pent is very frequently mentioned by authors ; 
 but so carelessly described, that it is not easy to 
 determine which, if any, of the si)ecies known at 
 present, may probably be called by this name. 
 It is said to be common in Africa, and about the 
 banks of the Nile ; and Bellonius mentions a 
 small serpent which he had met with in Italy, 
 and which had a sort of callous excrescence on 
 tlie forehead, which he takes to have been the 
 aspis of the ancients. It is with the asp that 
 Cleopatra is said to have despatched herself, and 
 
 E2
 
 )2 
 
 ASPARAGUS. 
 
 prevented the designs of Augustus, who intended 
 to have carried her captive to adorn his trium- 
 phal entry into Rome. But the fact is contested. 
 Brown places it among the vulgar errors. The 
 indications of that queen's having used the 
 ministry of the asp, were only two almost insen- 
 sible pricks found in her arm; and Plutarch says 
 it is unknown of what she died. At the sanie 
 time it must be observed, that the slightness of 
 the pricks found in her arm furnishes no presump- 
 tion against the fact ; for no more than the prick 
 of a needle-point dipt in the poison was necessary 
 for the purpose. See the article Serpent. Lord 
 Bacon says, the asp is the least painful of all the 
 instruments of death. He supposes it to have 
 an affinity to opium, but to be less disagreeable 
 in its operation; and his opinion seems to cor- 
 respond with the accounts of most writers, as well 
 as with the effects described to have been pro- 
 duced upon Cleopatra. The ancients had a 
 plaister called ^i AtTTri^wv, made of this terrible 
 animal, of great efficacy as a discutient of struma 
 and other indurations, and used likewise against 
 pains of the gout. The flesh and skin, or exu- 
 vije of the creature, had also their share in the 
 ancient materia medica. 
 
 AS PA, a town of Parthia, now called Ispa- 
 han. 
 
 ASPALATHUS, African Broom, a genus of 
 the decandria order, diadelphia class of plants ; 
 ranking in the natural method under the thirty- 
 second order, papilionacese. The calyx consists 
 of five divisions ; the pod is oval, and contains 
 two seeds. Of this genus there are nineteen 
 species; all of which are natives of warm cli- 
 mates, and must be preserved in stoves by those 
 who would cultivate them here. The rosewood, 
 whence the oleum Rhodii is obtained, is one of 
 the species, but of which we have no particular 
 description. 
 
 AsPALATHUs, in pharmacy, is also called lig- 
 num Rhodium, or rose wood ; and by some Cy- 
 prus wood : the former on account of its sweet 
 smell, or growth in the island of Rhodes; the 
 latter from its being also found in the island of 
 Cyprus. It was anciently in much repute, as an 
 astringent and strengthener, but is now little used 
 internally. In virtue, taste, smell, and weight, it 
 •esembles the lignum aloes ; and in physic they 
 ire frequently substituted for each other. Aspa- 
 lathus is chiefly used in scenting pomatums, and 
 liniments. 
 
 ASPARAGIN, the name given to white trans- 
 parent crystals, of a peculiar vegetable principle, 
 which form in asparagus juice after it has been 
 evaporated to the consistence of syrup. They 
 are in the form of rhomboidal prisms, with a 
 slight nauseous taste. They do not change ve- 
 getable blues ; nor are they affected by hydro-sul- 
 phuret of potash, oxalate of ammonia, or acetate 
 of lead ; but lime extracts from them ammonia. 
 Along with the asparagin crystals, others in 
 needles of little consistency appear, analogous 
 to mannite, from which ^the first can be easily 
 picked out. 
 
 ASPARAGUS,Sparagus, Spebage, orSPAR- 
 row-Grass, a genus of the monogynia order, and 
 the hexandria class of plants ; ranking in the na- 
 tural method under the eleventh order, sarmen- 
 
 tacese : cal. quinquepartite, and erect; tlie 
 three inferior petals bent outwards ; the berry 
 has three cells, and contains two seeds. There 
 are ten species ; but the only one cultivated in 
 the gardens is the common asparagus, with an 
 upright herbaceous stalk, bristly leaves, and equal 
 stipula. The other species are kept only in the 
 gardens of the curious, for the sake of variety. 
 The garden asparagus is cultivated with great 
 care for the use of the table. The propagation 
 of this useful plant is from seed ; and, as much 
 of the success depends upon the goodness of 
 the seed, it is much better to save it than to buy. 
 The manner of saving it is this : Mark with a 
 stick some of the fairest buds ; and when they 
 are run to berry, and the stalks begin to dry and 
 wither, cut them up ; rub off the berries into a 
 tub, and, pouring water upon them, rub them 
 about with your hands ; the husks will break and 
 let out the seed, and will swim away with the 
 water in pouring it off; so that in repeating this 
 two or three times, the seeds will be clean wash- 
 ed, and found at the bottom of the tub. These 
 must be spread on a mat to dry, and in the be- 
 ginning of February, must be sown on a bed of 
 rich earth. Tiiey must not be sown too thick, 
 and must be trod into the ground, and the earth 
 raked over them smooth : the bed is to be kept 
 clear of weeds all the summer ; and in October, 
 when the stalks are withered and dry, a little rot- 
 ten dung must be spread half an inch thick over 
 the whole surface of the bed. Next spring, the 
 plants will be fit to plant out ; the ground must 
 therefore be prepared for them by trenching it 
 well, and burying a large quantity of rotten dung 
 in the trenches, so that it may lie at least six in- 
 ches below the surface of the ground : when 
 this is done, level the whole plot exactly, taking 
 out all the loose stones. This is to be done just 
 at the time when the asparagus is to be planted 
 out ; which must be in the beginning of March, 
 if the soil is dry, and the season forward ; but 
 in a wet soil, it is better to wait till the beginning 
 of April, which is about the season that the 
 plants are beginning to shoot. The season being 
 now come, the roots must be carefully taken up 
 with a narrow-pronged dung-fork, shaking them 
 out of the earth, separating them from each 
 other, and observing to lay all their heads even, 
 for the more conveniently planting them ; which 
 must be done in this manner : — Lines must be 
 drawn, at a foot distance each, straight across the 
 bed ; these must be dug into small trenches of 
 six inches deep, into which the roots must be 
 laid, placing them against the sides of the trench, 
 with their buds in a right position upwards, and 
 so that, when the earth is raked over them, they 
 may be two inches under the surface of the 
 ground. Between every four rows, a space of 
 two feet and a half should be left for walking in 
 to cut the asparagus. When the asparagus is 
 thus planted, a crop of onions may be sown on 
 the ground, which will not at all hurt it. A 
 month after this, the asparagus will come up, 
 when the crop of onions must be thinned, and 
 the weeds carefully cleared away. About August 
 the onions will be fit to pull up. In October 
 following, cut off the shoots of the asparagus, 
 within two inches of the ground, clear well all
 
 ASP 
 
 53 
 
 ASP 
 
 weeds away, and throw up the earth upon the 
 beds, so as to leave them five inches above the 
 level of the alleys. A row of colewt)rts may be 
 planted in the middle of the alleys, but nothing 
 must now be sown on the beds. In the spring 
 the weeds must' be hoed up, and all the sum- 
 mer the beds kept clear of weeds. In October 
 they must be turned up and earthed again, as 
 the preceding season. The second spring after 
 planting, some of the young asparagus may be 
 cut for the table. The larger shoots should only 
 be taken, and these should be cut at two inches 
 under ground, and the beds every year managed 
 as in the second year. But as some people are 
 very fond of early asparagus, the following direc- 
 tions are given, by which it may be obtained any 
 time in winter: — Plant some good roots at one 
 year old in a moist rich soil, about eight inches 
 apart ; the second and third year after planting, 
 they will be ready to take up for the hot-beds ; 
 these should be made pretty strong, about three 
 feet thick, with new stable dung that has ferment- 
 ed a week or more ; the beds must be covered 
 with earth six inches thick ; then, against a ridge 
 made at one end, begin to lay in your plants, 
 without trimming or cutting the fibres ; and be- 
 tween every row lay a little ridge of fine earth, 
 and proceed thus till the bed is planted ; then 
 cover the bed two inches thick with earth, and 
 encompass it with a straw band ; and in a week, 
 or as the bed is in the temper, put on the frames 
 and glasses, and lay on three inches thick of 
 fresh earth over the beds, and give them air and 
 add fresh heat to them as it requires. These beds 
 may be made from November till March, which 
 will last till the natural grass comes on. 
 
 The roots have a bitterish mucilaginous taste, 
 inclining to sweetness ; the fruit has much the 
 same kind of taste ; the young shoots are more 
 agreeable than eitlier. Asparagus promotes ap- 
 petite, but affords little nourishment. It gives 
 a strong ill smell to the urine in a little time af- 
 ter eating it, and for this reason chiefly is sup- 
 posed to be diuretic ; it is likewise esteemed 
 aperient and deobstruent ; the root is one of the 
 five called opening roots. Some suppose the 
 shoots to be most efficacious ; others, the root ; 
 and others, the bark of the root. Stahl is of opi- 
 nion, that none of them have any great share of 
 the virtues usually ascribed to them. Asparagus 
 appears from experience to contribute very little 
 either to the exciting of urine when suppressed, 
 or increasing its discharge : and in cases where 
 aperient medicines generally do service, this has 
 little or no effect. 
 
 ASPASIA, among ancient physicians, a con- 
 strictive medicine for the pudenda muliebra. It 
 consisted of wool, moistened with an infusion of 
 unripe galls. 
 
 Asp ASIA, of Miletus, a courtezan, who settled 
 at Athens under the administration of Pericles, 
 and one of the most noted ladies of antiquity. 
 She was of admirable beauty ; yet her wit and 
 eloquence, still more than her beauty, gained her 
 extraordinary reputation among all ranks in the 
 republic. In eloquence she surpassed all her 
 contemporaries ; and her conversation was so 
 entertaining, and instructive, that notwithstand- 
 ing the dishonorable commerce she carried on, 
 
 persons of the first distinction, male and female, 
 resorted to her house as to an academy ; she 
 even numbered Socrates among her hearers and 
 admirers. She captivated Pericles in such a 
 manner, that he dismissed his own wife, to es- 
 pouse her ; and, by her universal knowledge, 
 irresistible elocution, and intriguing genius, she 
 in a great measure influenced the administration 
 of Athens. She was accused of having excited, 
 from motives of personal resentment, the war of 
 Peloponnesus ; yet, calamitous as that long and 
 obstinate conflict proved to Greece, and particu- 
 larly to Athens, Aspasia occasioned still more 
 incurable evils to both. Her example and in- 
 structions, formed a school at Athens, by which 
 her dangerous profession was reduced into a sys- 
 tem. The companions of Aspasia served as 
 models for painting and statuary, and themes for 
 poetry and panegyric. Nor were they merely 
 the objects but the authors of many literary 
 works, in which they established rules for the 
 behaviour of their lovers, particularly at table; 
 and explained the art of gaining the heart and 
 captivating the affections. The dress, behaviour, 
 and artifices (jf this class of women, became con- 
 tinually more seductive and dangerous; and 
 Athens thenceforth remained the chief school of 
 vice and pleasure, as well as of literature and 
 philosophy. 
 
 ASPASTICUM, or Aspatictjm, i. e. a greet- 
 ing-house ; from a(nzaZ,ofiai, I salute ; in ecclesias- 
 tical writers, an apartment adjoining to the an- 
 cient churches, wherein the bishops and presby- 
 ters sat to receive the salutations of those who 
 came to visit them, desire their blessing, or con- 
 sult them. 
 
 AS'PECT, V. & n.'\ Lat. aspicio, aspectum, 
 
 Aspec'taule, ((from the obsolete word 
 
 Aspec'ted, i spicere), to look towards. 
 
 Aspec'tion. J llie appearance any thing 
 
 presents when looked at ; the point of view ; the 
 
 relation or influence which one thing has or 
 
 bears with respect to another. 
 
 We see likewise the Scripture calleth Envy, an 
 evil eye, and the astrologers call the evil inl3uences 
 of the stars, evil aspects ; so that there still seemeth 
 to be acknowledged in the act of envy, an ejacula- 
 tion or irradiation of the eye. Lord Bacon's Essays. 
 The islands prince, of frame more than celestial. 
 Is rightly called the all-seeing Intellectual, 
 All glorious bright such nothing is heir 
 Whose sun-like face, and most divine aspect. 
 No human sight may ever hope descrie ; 
 For when himself on's self reflects his eye. 
 Dull and amazed he stands, at such bright majesty, 
 Fletcher's Purple Island, 
 If nature's concord broke 
 Among the constellations war were sprung. 
 Two planets, rushing from aspect malign 
 Of fiercest opposition, in mid sky 
 Should combat, and their jarring spheres confound. 
 Milton's Paradise Lost, book vi. 
 Happy in their mistake, those people, whom 
 The northern pole aspects ; whom fear of death 
 (The greatest of all human fears) ne'er moves. 
 
 Temple. 
 To this use, of informing us what is in this aspect- 
 able world, we shall find the eye well fitted. 
 
 Ray on the Creation. 
 Her motions were steady and composed, and her 
 aspect serious but cheerful ; her name was Patience. 
 
 Addison,
 
 ASP 
 
 54 
 
 ASP 
 
 Why docs not every single star shed a separate 
 influence, and have aspects with other stars of their 
 own constellation ? Bentley's Sermons. 
 
 With aspect mild, and elevated eye. 
 Behold him seated on a mount serene. 
 Above the fogs of sense and passion's storm : 
 Wrong he sustains with temper, looks on heaven, 
 Nor stoops to think his injurer his foe ; 
 Nought but what wounds his virtue wounds his peace. 
 
 Young. 
 Aspect, in astronomy and astrology, denotes 
 the situation of the planets and stars with re- 
 spect to each other. There are five different 
 aspects. 1. Sextile aspect is when the planets 
 or stars are 60° distant, and marked thus ;fc . 2. 
 The quartile, or quadrate, when they are 90° 
 distant, marked Q. 3. Trine, when 120° dis- 
 tant, marked A- 4. Opposition, when 180° dis- 
 tant, marked °. And, 5. Conjunction, both in 
 the same degree, marked (5 . Kepler, who added 
 eight new ones, defines aspect to be the angle 
 formed by the rays of the two stars meeting on 
 the earth, whereby their good or bad influence is 
 measured ; for it is to be observed that these 
 aspects, being first introduced by astrologers, 
 were distinguished into benign, malignant, and 
 indifferent ; the quartile and malignant being ac- 
 counted malign ; the trine and sextile, benign or 
 fiiendly ; and the conjunction indifferent. 
 
 Aspect, in gardening, signifies exposure. 
 
 Aspect, Double, is used in painting, where a 
 single figure is so contrived, as to represent two 
 or more different objects, either by changing the 
 eye, or by means of angular glasses. See Ana- 
 morphosis, Catoptrics, Sec. 
 
 Aspect, in architecture. The aspect of the 
 principal rooms of a ho-use, demands the greatest 
 attention from the architect, especially in an ex- 
 posed situation. The south-east is the best for 
 liritain ; and the south and due east the next. 
 The south-west is the worst, because from that 
 quarter it rains oftener than from any other. A 
 north aspect is gloomy, because deprived of sun- 
 i^hitie ; but woods look best when viewed from 
 rooms with a north aspect, because all plants 
 and trees are most luxuriant on the side next the 
 sun. An aspect due east is nearly as bad as the 
 north, because there the sun shines only early in 
 tlie morning ; and the aspect due west is intole- 
 rable, from the sun dazzling the eye through the 
 greatest part of the day. Hence we may conclude, 
 a square house placed with its front, opposite to 
 the four cardinal points, will have one good and 
 three bad aspects. 
 
 ASPEN, or Asp. See Poplar, of which it is 
 a species. The leaves of this tree always tremble. 
 The aspen or asp tree has leaves much the same 
 with the poplar. 
 
 ASPER, in commerce, or aspre, a little 
 Turkish silver coin, wherein most of the Grand 
 Seignior's revenues are paid. The asper is worth 
 something more than an English halfpenny. The 
 only impression it bears, is that of the prince's 
 name under whom it was struck. The pay of the 
 Janissaries is from two to twelve aspers perdiem. 
 
 Asper, in grammar, an accent peculiar to the 
 Creek language, marked thus (') ; and importing, 
 that the letter over which it is placed ought to 
 be strongly aspirated, or pronounced as if an A 
 were prefixed. 
 
 Asper, in ichthyology, a small fish caught in 
 the Rhone, so called from the roughness of its 
 scales. Its head is large, in proportion to its 
 body, and of a pointed shape. It has no teeth, 
 but its jaws are sharp to the touch. It Is of a 
 dark red color, with large black spots. It is 
 good to eat, and is esteemed aperitive. 
 
 ASPERA Arteria, in anatomy, the windpipe 
 or trachea. See Anatomy. 
 
 ASPERJELLOUS,in botany, the name given 
 by Michaeli to that genus of mosses, called by 
 Dillenius and others, byssus. 
 
 ASPERGILE, or AsPERGiLiuM, in antiquity, 
 a long brush made of horse-hair, fixed to a han- 
 dle, wherewith the lustral water was sprinkled 
 on the people in lustrations and purifications. 
 The ancients, instead of a brush, made use of 
 brandies of laurel and olive. It is also still ap- 
 plied to the instrument in Romish church-es with 
 which holy water is sprinkled 
 
 ASPERIFOLIiE Plants:, rough-leaved 
 plants. The name of a class in Hermannus, 
 Boerhaave, and Ray's methods, consisting of 
 plants which have naked seeds, and whose leaves 
 are rough to the touch. In Tournefort's system, 
 these plants constitute the third section or order 
 of the second class ; and in Linnaeus's sexual 
 method, they make a part of the pentandria mo- 
 nogynia. 
 
 ASPERIFOLIATE, or Asperifolious, a- 
 mong botanists, such plants as are rough-leaved, 
 having their leaves placed alternately on their 
 stalks, and a monopetalous flower divided into 
 five parts. They constitute the forty-ninth or- 
 der of plants in the Fragmenta Methodi Naturalis 
 of Linnasus, in which are these genera: tourne- 
 ortia, cerinthe, Symphytum, pulmonaria, an- 
 chusa, lithospermum, myosotis, heliotropium, 
 cynoglossum, asperugo, lycopsis, echium, bar- 
 rago : magis minusve, oleraceae, mucilaginosje, 
 et glutinosae sunt. 
 
 Asperity, the inequality of the surface of any 
 body, which hinders the hand from passing over 
 it freely. From the testimony of some blind 
 persons, it has been supposed that every color 
 hath its particular degree of asperity ; though 
 this has been denied by others. See the article 
 Blind. 
 
 ASPERN, a market town, castle, and lordship 
 of Lower Austria, in the circle below the Mann- 
 hartsberg, belonging to the count of Brenner, 
 ten miles south east of Laab. 
 
 AsPERN, a market town of Austria, situated 
 on a small arm of the Danube, on the north side 
 of the river, at some distance below Vienna, the 
 scpne of a battle fought on the twenty-first 
 and twenty-second of May, 1809, between Buo- 
 naparte and the Austrians. It was completely 
 destroyed at the time, but has since been rebuilt. 
 
 ASPER'SE, ) Lat. ad, and spargo, to scat- 
 
 Asper'sion. S ter. To sprinkle or scatter ; 
 metaphorically to censure, to calumniate. 
 
 In the business Xii Ireland, besides the opportunity 
 to asperse the king, they were safe enough. 
 
 Clarendon, 
 
 Curb that impetuous tongue ; nor rashly vain. 
 And singly mad, asperse the sov'reign reign. Pope. 
 Unjustly poets we asperse ; 
 Truth shines the brig) er clad in verse. Swift,
 
 ASPHALT ITES, 
 
 55 
 
 He set nis voice 
 At highest pitch, and thus aspers'd the king. 
 
 Cotvper's Iliad, book vi. 
 
 Legions of impure spirits were believed to take 
 
 often possession of the bodies of men, from whence 
 
 iiolhini; could drive thi'm but aspersions of holy water. 
 
 fSoliiujhru/ie's Essay on Human Knotvledge. 
 
 ASPERUGO, small wild bugloss, in bo- 
 tany, a genus of the pentandria monogynia class; 
 ranking in the natural method under the asperi- 
 folia;. The calyx of the fruit is compressed, 
 with folds flatly parallel, and sinuous. There 
 are two species, viz. 1. A. iEgyptiaca, a native 
 of Egypt. 2. A. procumbens, or wild bugloss, a 
 native of Britain ; which is eaten by[horses, goats, 
 sheef), and swine ; but cows are not fond of it. 
 
 ASPERULA, VVooDRooF, in botany, a genus 
 of the monogynia order, and the hexandria class 
 of plants; ranking in the natural method under 
 the forty-seventh order, stellatffi. The corolla is 
 infiuulibuliform ; and the capsule contains two 
 globular seeds. There are two species ; which 
 both grow wild in Britain, and therefore are sel- 
 dom admitted into gardens, viz. 1. A. cynan- 
 chica, found on chalky hills. The roots are used 
 for dyeing red in Sweden. 2. A. odorata, a low 
 umbelliferous plant, growing wild in woods and 
 copses, and flowering in May. It has an ex- 
 ceeding pleasant smell, which is improved by 
 moderate exsiccation ; the taste is subsaline, 
 and somewhat austere. It imparts its flavour to 
 vinous liquors. . Asperula is supposed medici- 
 nally to attenuate viscid humors, and strengthen 
 the tone of the bowels ; modern practice has ne- 
 vertheless rejected it. 
 
 ASPEYTIA, a town of Spain, in Biscay, 
 seated on the V'iola, in a fine valley, near the 
 districts of Loyola and Onis. 
 
 .'VSPIIALITES, in anatomy, the fifth vertebra 
 of the loins. 
 
 ASPHALTITES, a lake of Judea, so called 
 from the great quantity of bitumen it produces " 
 called also the Dead Sea ; and from its situation 
 the East, the Salt Sea, the Sea of Sodom, the Sea 
 of the Desart, and the Sea of the Plain, in the 
 sacred writings. It is enclosed on the east and 
 west with high mountains ; on the north it has 
 the ])lain of Jericho ; or, if we take in both sides 
 of the Jordan, it has the Great Plain, properly so 
 called, on the south, which is open, and extends 
 beyond tiie reach of the eye. Josephus makes 
 this lake 580 furlongs in length, from the mouth 
 of the Jordan to the opposite end, that is about 
 twenty-two leagues ; and about 150 furlongs, or 
 five leagues, in its greatest breadth ; but our 
 modern accounts commonly give it twenty leagues 
 in length, and six or seven in breadth. On the 
 west side of it is a kind of promontory, where 
 the remains of Lot's metamorphosed wife were 
 for a long time said to be visible. Josephus says 
 this pillar was standing in his time ; and Mr. 
 Maundrell was shown a block or stump of it. 
 
 In what has been said and written of the Lake 
 Asphaltites, fable is much blended with truth. 
 We are told that it arose from the submersion of 
 the vale of Siddim, where once stood, as is com- 
 monly reported, the three cities which pc!rished 
 in die miraculous conflagration, with Sodom and 
 Gomorrah ; and this lake has been regarded as a 
 lasting monument of the just judgment of God, 
 
 on the abominations for which they perished. It 
 has been stated that its waters are so impreg- 
 nated with salt, sulphur, and other bituminous 
 matter, that nothing will sink or live in them ; 
 and that it emits such a horrid smoke that the very 
 birds die in attempting to cross over it. The 
 description likewise of the apples that grew 
 about it, fair without, and only ashes and bitter- 
 ness within, were looked upon as a further de- 
 monstration of God's anger. Travellers have 
 also described the country round about as sul- 
 phureous, bituminous, and suff'ocating ; and it 
 has even been affirmed that the ruins of the five 
 cities are still to be seen through the waters in 
 clear weather. 
 
 It appears to be true, that the quantity of salt, 
 alum, and sulphur, with which they are impreg- 
 nated, render its waters so much specifically 
 heavier (Dr. Pococke says one fifth) than fresh 
 water, that bodies will not easily sink in them : 
 yet that author and others assure us they have 
 swam and dived in it. Dr. Pococke also, though 
 he neither saw fish nor shells, tells us, on the 
 authority of a monk, that fish had been caught 
 in it ; and M. Volney affirms that it is very com- 
 mon to see swallows skimming its surface, and 
 dipping for the wares necessary to build their 
 nests. The soil around it, he adds, impregnated 
 with salt, produces no plants ; and the air itself, 
 which becomes loaded with it from evaporation, 
 and which receives also the sulphureous and bi- 
 tuminous vapours, cannot be favorable to ve- 
 getation : hence the deadly aspect which reigns 
 around this lake. In other respects the ground 
 about it, however, is not marshy, and its waters 
 are limpid and incorruptible, as must be the case 
 with a dissolution of salt. On the soudi-west 
 shore are mines of fossil salt, of which I have 
 brought away several specimens. They are situ- 
 ated on the side of the mountains which extend 
 along that border ; and for time immemorial 
 have supplied the neighbouring Arabs, and even 
 the city of Jerusalem. We find also on this 
 shore fragments of sulphur and bitumen, which 
 the Arabs convert into a trifling article of com- 
 merce : as also hot fountains and deep crevices, 
 which are discovered at a distance by little pyra- 
 mids built on the brink of them. Likewise a 
 sort of stone, which on rubbing emits ?. noxious 
 smell, burns like bitumen, receives a polish like 
 white alabaster, and is used for the paving of 
 court-yards. At intervals we also meet with 
 unshapen blocks, which prejudiced eyes mistake 
 for mutilated statues, and which pass with ig- 
 norant and superstitious pilgrims for monuments 
 of the adventure of Lot's wife ; though it is no 
 where said she was metamorphosed into stone 
 like Niobe, but into salt, which must hare melted 
 the ensuing winter.' 
 
 This lake is at present called by the Arabs 
 Almotanah and Babret Lout, and Ula Deguis 
 by the Turks. It is remarkable that but one 
 European has hitherto succeeded in making 
 the circuit of it; and Nau, who in his travels 
 had recorded this expedition of Daniel, abbot of 
 St. Saba, states on his authority, that ' the Dead 
 Sea, at its extremity, is separated as it were into 
 two parts, and that there is a way by which you 
 may walk across it, being only mid-leg deep, at
 
 56 
 
 ASPHALTITES. 
 
 least in summer; that there the land rises, and 
 bounds another small lake of a circular or rather 
 oval figure, surrounded with plains and moun- 
 tains of sand, and that the neighbouring country 
 is peopled by innumerable Arabs. Seetzen in 
 the year 1803-6 passed round the southern ex- 
 tremity, but a short account only of his route, 
 in a correspondence with M. de Zach, printed by 
 the Palestine Association in 1810, has yet ap- 
 peared. Mr. Burckhardt was unable to reach 
 its borders. Pie was informed in the neighbour- 
 hood that there were spots in a ford about three 
 hours north of Szaffye (the extreme southern 
 point of the lake), in which the water is quite 
 hot, and the bottom of red earth. This ford may 
 be crossed in three hours and a half: the water 
 here is generally not more than two feet deep, 
 and it is probable there are hot springs in the 
 bottom. It is so strongly impregnated with salt 
 that the skin peels oft' the legs of those who wade 
 across it. 
 
 M. de Chateaubriand, who visited this coun- 
 try in 1807, has given the first decided testimony 
 that the Lake Asphaltites abounds with fish. He 
 reached it when it was dark, and passed the 
 night among some Arab tents. ' About mid- 
 night,' says he, ' I heard a noise upon the lake, 
 and was told by the Bethlehemites, who accom- 
 panied me, that it proceeded from legions of 
 small fish, which come out and leap about the 
 shore.' He speaks in the following terms of 
 its saline properties ; ' The first thing I did on 
 alighting was to walk into the lake up to my 
 knees, and to taste the water. I found it im- 
 possible to keep it in my mouth. It far exceeds 
 that of the sea in saltness, and produces upon 
 the lips the effect of a strong solution of alum. 
 Before my boots v ere completely dry they were 
 covered with salt : our clothes, our hats, our 
 hands, were in less than three hours impregnated 
 with this mineral.' 
 
 A modern Scottish traveller, Mr. Gordon of 
 Clunie, who bathed in it, brought home a phial 
 of its water, and Dr. Marcet found its specific 
 gravity to be 1'211 ; a degree of density, says he, 
 * not to be met with in any other natural water.' 
 The whole process with its results is detailed 
 in the Philosophical Transactions for 1807. It 
 was found that 100 grains of the water contain 
 the following substances in the undermentioned 
 proportions : 
 
 grains. 
 Muriat of lime . . 3,920 
 Muriat of magnesia 10,246 
 Muriat of soda . . 10,360 
 Sulphat of lime . 0,054 
 
 24,580 
 
 Another celebrated chemist, M. Klaproth, who 
 procured a specimen brought from the East by 
 the abbe Martin, found the specific gravity to be 
 1-245 instead of 1-211 ; agreeing in this respect 
 more nearly with IVIacquer and Lavoisier, who 
 stated it at 1-240. But the specific gravity of 
 Dr. Marcet's specimen may have been less from 
 its having been taken from the lake not far from 
 the influx of the Jordan, where it might be 
 somewhat diluted. 
 
 Dr. Clarke says that the inhabitants of the 
 country still regard the Dead Sea with feelings 
 of terror ; owing probably to the tradition that 
 its waters cover the engulphed cities of Sodom 
 and Gomorrah, or to the ideas entertained of the 
 peculiar insalubrity of its exhalations. But it is 
 greatly to be regretted that this traveller was 
 prevented by the Arabs from exploring the lake, 
 which he only saw at a distance. 
 
 Hasselquist asserts the apples of Sodom to be the 
 production of the solanum melongena of Linnaeus. 
 This is found, he says, in great abundance round 
 Jericho and in the neighbourhood of the Dead Sea . 
 The dust with which it is sometimes filled is the 
 work of an insect (tenthredo) which pulverises 
 the whole of the inside, leaving the rind entire 
 and unchanged in color. M. Seetzen saw at 
 Kerek a species of cotton which he was told was 
 produced from a fruit resembling a pomegranate, 
 growing on the borders of the Dead Sea, and he 
 thinks it is this pulpless fruit which is the ma- 
 lum sodomenm. \'iscount Chateaubriand saw 
 a third fruit, which he conjectures to be the 
 famous apples in question, growing on a thorny 
 shrub ; and which, before it is ripe is filled with 
 a corrosive and saline juice ; when dried it yields 
 a blackish seed, which may be compared to 
 ashes, and which in taste resembles bitter pepper. 
 
 AsPHALTUM, Bitumen Judaicum, or Jew's 
 Pitch, is a light solid bitumen of a dusky color 
 on the outside, and a deep shining black within ; 
 of very little taste, and having scarcely any 
 smell, unless heated, when it emits a strong 
 pitchy one. It is found in a soft or liquid state 
 on the surface of the Dead Sea, and by age 
 grows dry and ^hard. The same kind of bitu- 
 men is met with likewise in tlie earth in China, 
 America, and in some places of Europe, as the 
 Carpathian Hills, France, &c. The most abun- 
 dant deposits of this substance, in modern times, 
 are said to be in the islands of Barbadoes and 
 Trinidad; in the former it is found as an highly 
 bituminous earth, but, being in a state of great 
 impurity, is only used as a coal for fuel. In the 
 latter island is a complete lake of this substance. 
 A specimen from Albania of the specific gravity 
 of 1-205, examined by M. Klaproth, was found 
 to be soluble only in oils and in sether. Five 
 parts of rectified oil of petroleum dissolved one 
 of the asphaltum without heat in twenty-four 
 hours ; 100 grains of asphaltum afforded 32 of 
 bituminous oil, 6 of water faintly ammoniacal, 
 30 of charcoal, 7^ of silex, 7^ of alumina, f of 
 lime, 1 i oxide of iron, ^ oxide of manganese, 
 and 36 cubic inches of hydrogen gas. The true 
 asphaltum was formerly used in embalming the 
 bodies of the dead. At present the thick and 
 solid asphalta are employed in Egypt, Arabia, 
 and Persia, as pitch for ships ; the fluid ones for 
 burning in lamps and for varnishes. Some 
 writers relate that the walls of Babylon and the 
 temple of Jerusalem were cemented with bitu- 
 men instead of mortar. This much is certain, 
 that a true natural bitumen, that for instance 
 which is found in the district of Neufchatel, 
 proves an excellent cement for walls, pave- 
 ments, and other purposes ; uncommonly firm, 
 very durable in the air, and not penetrable by 
 water. The watch and clock-makers use a com-
 
 ASP 57 
 
 position of asphaltum, fine lamp black, and oil 
 of spike or turpentine, for drawing the black 
 figures on dial-plates ; this composition is pre- 
 pared chiefly at Augsburg and Nuremburg. 
 
 ASPHODEL, AsPHODELUs, or King's Spear, 
 in botany, a genus of the monogynia order, and 
 hexandria class of plants. The calyx is divided 
 into six parts ; and the nectarium consists of six 
 valves covering the nectarium. There are five 
 species, viz. 1. A. albus, the white asphodel, 
 with keel-shaped leaves, has roots composed of 
 small fibres and knobs at bottom ; the leaves are 
 long, almost triangular, and hollow like the keel 
 of a boat ; the stalks seldom rise above two feet 
 high, and divide into several spreading branches ; 
 these are terminated by loose spikes of white 
 flowers. 2. A. luteus, or common yellow aspho- 
 del, has roots composed of many thick fleshy 
 fibres, which are yellow, and joined to a head at 
 the top ; from whence arise strong round single 
 stalks nearly three feet high, garnished on the 
 upper part with yellow star-shaped flowers, 
 which appear in June, and the seeds ripen in 
 autumn. 3. A. nonramosus, or the unbranched 
 asphodel, roots like the ramosus (which see), but 
 the leaves are longer and narrower ; the stalks 
 are single ; the flowers appear at the same time 
 with the former, are of a purer white, and grow 
 in longer spikes. 4. A. ramosus, or branching 
 asphodel, has roots composed of fleshy fibres, to 
 each of which is fastened an oblong bulb as 
 large as a small potatoe ; the leaves are long and 
 flexible, having sharp edges ; between these 
 come out the flower-stilks, which arise more 
 than three feet high, sending forth many lateral 
 branches. They come out in the beginning of 
 June, and the seeds ripen in autumn. 5. A. stu- 
 losus, or annual branching spiderwort, hath 
 roots composed of many yellow fleshy fibres ; 
 the leaves are spread out from the crown of the 
 root, close to the ground, in a large cluster; 
 these are convex on their underside, but plain 
 above. The flower-stalks rise immediately from 
 the root, and grow about two feet high, dividing 
 into three or four branches upward, which are 
 adorned with white starry flowers, with purple 
 lines on the outside. These flower in July and 
 August, and their seeds ripen in October. 
 
 The way to increase these plants is by parting 
 their roots in August, before they shoot up their 
 fresh green leaves. They may also be raised 
 from seeds sown in August; and the AugTist 
 following the plants produced from these may 
 be transplanted into beds, and will produce 
 flowers the second year. They must not be 
 planted in small borders among tender flowers, 
 for they will draw away all the nourishment 
 and starve every thing else. The Lancashire 
 asphodel is thought to be very noxious to sheep, 
 whenever through poverty of pasture they are 
 necessitated to eat it ; although they are said to 
 improve much in their flesh at first, they after- 
 wards die with sjinptoms of a diseased liver. 
 This is the plant of which such wonderful tales 
 have been told by Pauli Bartholine, and others, 
 of its softening the bones of such animals as 
 swallow it; and which they thence called gramen 
 ossifragum. Horned cattle eat it without any ill 
 effect. 
 
 ASP 
 
 ASPHURELATA, in natural history, are 
 semi-metallic fossils, fusible by fire, and not 
 malleable in their purest state, being in their 
 native state intimately mixea with sulphur and 
 other adventitious matter, and reduced to what 
 are called ores. Of this series of fossils there 
 are five bodies, each of which makes a dis- 
 tinct genus ; viz, antimony, bismuth, cobalt, 
 zinc, and quicksilver. 
 
 ASPHYXL\; from a privative, and fffpvKic, a 
 pulse ; in medicine, the state during life in which 
 the pulsation of the heart and arteries cannot be 
 perceived. Medical writers usually divide tliis 
 suspended animation into lipothymia, apoplexia, 
 syncope, submersio, suspensio, and congelatio. 
 I\Ir. Sage has published a treatise recommend- 
 ing the volatile alkali fluor as the most effectual 
 remedy in asphyxies. Asphyxia is also used by 
 some for a privation of pulse in a part of the 
 body, e. g. in the arm, &c. 
 
 The following extraordinary case of asphyxia 
 is related by Dr. Cheyne, in his English Malady, 
 p. 307. ' Case of the Hon. Colonel Toivmhend. — 
 Col. Townshend, a gentleman of excellent natural 
 parts, and of great honor and integrity, had for 
 many years been afflicted with a nephritic com- 
 plaint, attended with constant vomitings, which 
 had made his life painful and miserable. During 
 the whole time of his illness he had observed the 
 strictest regimen, living on the softest vegetables, 
 and lightest animal foods, drinking asses milk 
 daily, even in the camp ; and for common drink, 
 Bristol water, which the summer before his death 
 he had drank on the spot. But his illness in- 
 creasing, and his strength decaying, he came from 
 Bristol to Bath in a litter, in autumn, and lay at 
 the Bell-inn. Dr. Baynard (who is since dead) 
 and I were called to him, and attended him 
 twice a day for about the space of a week, but 
 his vomitings continuing still incessant and ob- 
 stinate against all remedies, we despaired of his 
 recovery. While he was in this condition he 
 sent for us early one morning : we waited on 
 him with Mr. Skrine, his apothecary, (since dead 
 also) ; we found his senses clear and his mmd 
 calm, his nurse and several servants were about 
 him. He had made his will and settled his af- 
 fairs. He told us he had sent for us to give him 
 some account of an odd sensation he had for 
 some time observed and felt in himself; which 
 was that, composing himself, he could die or 
 expire when he pleased, and yet, by an effort or 
 some how, he could come to life again ; which it 
 seems he had sometimes tried before he had sent 
 for us. 
 
 ' We heard this with surprise ; but as it was 
 not to be accounted for from now common prin- 
 ciples, we could hardly believe the fact as he re- 
 lated it, much less give any account of it, unless 
 he should please to make the experiment before 
 us, which we were unwilling he should do, lest 
 in his weak condition he might carry it too far. 
 He continued to talk very distinctly and sensibly 
 above a quarter of an hour about this (to him) 
 surprising sensation, and insisted so much on our 
 seeing the trial made, that we were at last forced 
 to comply. We all three felt his pulse first ; it 
 was distinct, though small and thready ; and his 
 heart had its usual beating. He composed him-
 
 ASP 
 
 58 
 
 ASP 
 
 self on his back, and lay in a still position some 
 time ; while I held his right hand, Dr. Baynard 
 laid his hand on his heart, and INlr. Skrine held 
 a clear looking-glass to his mouth. I found his 
 pulse sink gradually, till at last I could not feel 
 any by the most exact and nice touch. Dr. 
 Baynard could not feel the least motion in his 
 heart, nor JNIr. Skrine the least soil of breatli on 
 the blight mirror he held to his mouth; then 
 each of us by turns examined his arm, heart, 
 and breast; but could not, by the nicest scrutiny, 
 discover the least symptom of life in him. We 
 reasoned a long time about this odd appearance 
 as well as we could, and all of us judging it 
 inexplicable and unaccountable, and finding he 
 still continued in that condition, we began to 
 conclude that he had indeed carried the experi- 
 ment too far, and at last were satisfied he was 
 actually dead, and were just ready to leave him. 
 This continued about half an hour, by nine o'clock 
 in the morning, in autumn. As we were going 
 away we observed some motion about the body, 
 and, upon examination, found his pulse and the 
 motion of his heart gradually returning; he began 
 to breathe gently, and speak softly ; we were all 
 astonished to the last degree at this unexpected 
 change, and after some further conversation 
 with him, and among ourselves, went away luUy 
 satisfied as to all the particulars of this fact, but 
 confounded and puzzled, and not able to form 
 any rational scheme that might account for it. 
 lie afterwards called for his attorney, added a 
 codicil to his will, settled legacies on his ser- 
 vants, received the sacrament, and calmly and 
 composedly expired about six o'clock that evening. 
 Next day he was opened (as he had ordered) ; 
 his body was the soundest and best made I had 
 ever seen ; his lungs were fair, large, and sound, 
 his heart big and strong, and his intestines sweet 
 and clean ; his stomach was of a due proportion, 
 the coats sound and thick, and the villous mem- 
 brane quite entire ; but when we came to examine 
 the kidneys, though the left was perfectly sound 
 and of a just size, the right was about four times 
 as big, distended like a blown bladder, and 
 yielding as if full of pap ; he having often passed 
 a wheyish liquor, after his urine, during his ill- 
 ness. Upon opening this kidney we found it 
 quite full of a white chalky matter, like plaster 
 of Paris, and all the fleshy substance dissolved 
 and worn away by what I called a nephritic 
 cancer. This had been the source of all his 
 misery ; and the symptomatic vomitings, from the 
 irritation on the consentient nerves, had quite 
 starved and worn him down. I have narrated 
 the facts as I saw and observed them, deliberately 
 and distinctly, and shall leave the philosophic 
 reader to make what inferences he thinks fit. 
 The truth of the material circumstances I will 
 warrant.' 
 
 Aspic, in botany, a plant which grows in 
 plenty in Languedoc, in I'rovence, and especially 
 on the mountain of St. Baume in France. It is 
 a kind of lavender, nearly like what grows in 
 our gardens, both witii regard to the figure and 
 color of its leaves and flowers. The botanists 
 call it lavendula mas, or spica nardi, pseudo 
 uardus, &c. 
 
 ASPILATES, or Aspllmtes, in the writings 
 
 of the ancients, the name of a stone, famous for 
 its virtues against the spleen, and many other 
 disorders ; it was to be applied externally, and 
 fastened to the part with camel's hair. 
 
 ASPINY, or Angliary-thop.n, a drug used 
 in medicine, on which particular duties are im- 
 posed by the tariff of the custom-house at Lyons. 
 
 ASPIRE', ~) Aspiro ; from ad, 
 
 Aspir'ant, I and s|»iro, to Vjreathe ; 
 
 Aspir'ate, u. n. Star/;. I to search after dili- 
 
 Aspira'tion, 
 
 Aspire'ment, 
 
 Aspir'er, 
 
 Aspir'ing. 
 
 )=-gently, and in'con- 
 
 I sequence of the ar- 
 duous exertion to 
 j breathe frequently. 
 
 and with apparent difficulty ; to pant after ; to 
 pursue with eagerness an object deemed worthy 
 of our ambition ; to desire with eagerness. To 
 aspirate is to breathe strongly upon a letter in 
 sounding it. 
 
 'Tis he ; I ken the manner of his gait : 
 He rises on his toe ; that spirit of his 
 In aspiration lifts him from the earth. 
 
 Shahspeare. 
 Horace did ne'er aspire to epic bays ; 
 Nor lofty Maro stoop to lyrick lays. 
 
 Roscommon. 
 
 Till then a helpless, hopeless, homely swain ; 
 
 I sought not freedom, nor aspired to gain. Dryden. 
 
 Aspiring to be gods, if angels fell, 
 
 Aspirinj to be angels, men rebel. Pope. 
 
 H is only a guttural aspiration, i. e. a more forcible 
 
 impulse of the breath from the lungs. Holder. 
 
 A soul inspired with the warmest aspirations after 
 
 celestial beatitude, keeps its powers attentive. Watts. 
 
 Know thine own worth, and reverence the lyre. 
 Wilt thou debase the heart which God refined? 
 No ! let thy heaven-taught soul to heaven aspire. 
 To fancy, freedom, harmony, resign'd ; 
 Ambition's groveling crew for ever left behind. 
 
 Beattie's Minstrel. 
 Some more ospiriTig catch the neighbouring shrub. 
 With clasping tendrils, and invest her branch. 
 
 Cowper. 
 Ye stars ! which are the poetry of heaven ! 
 If in your-bright leaves we would read the fate 
 Of men and empires, — 'tis to be forgiv'n. 
 That in our aspirations to be great. 
 Our destinies o'erleap their mortal state. 
 
 And claim a kindred with you ; 
 
 Lord Byron's Childe Harold, 
 
 ASPIUS, in ichthyology, a species of the 
 cyprinus, belonging to the abdominal order. It 
 is met with in the lakes of Sweden. 
 
 ASPORTATION. Lat. ad, and porto, to 
 carry ; a carrying to. 
 
 A bare removal from the place in which he found 
 the goods, though the thief does not quite make off 
 with them, is a sufficient asportation or carrying 
 away. Blackstone. 
 
 ASPOTAGOEN Mount, a sea-mark on the 
 coast of Nova Scotia, from which ships bound 
 from Europe to Halifax generally look out. It 
 rises on the promontory, between Mahone and 
 Margaret's bay, to about 500 feet above the level 
 of the sea. 
 
 AS'PRE, 
 
 As'PRELY, 
 
 As'PRENESS, 
 
 As'PERATE, 
 
 Aspe'rity, 
 
 As'PEROUS. 
 
 Lat. aiper, rough in its na- 
 ture : applied to that which is 
 "harsh, rugged, grating, bitter 
 morose.
 
 ss, ^ 
 
 S'lHINE, > 
 
 ss'like. J 
 
 Lat. asinus, a well known animal. 
 
 ASS 59 
 
 Black Jind white are the most cuperotu and unequal 
 of colours ; so like, that it is hard to distinguish 
 them : black is the most rough. Buyle. 
 
 I hope it is no very cynical asperity, not to confess 
 obligations where no benefit has been received, or to 
 be unwilling that the public should consider me as 
 owing to a patron, that which Providence has en- 
 abled me to do for myself. Dr. S. Johnson. 
 
 The patience of Job is proverbial. After some of 
 the con^^llsive struggles of our irritable nature, he 
 submitted himself, and repented in dust and ashes. 
 But even so, I do not find him blamed for reprehend- 
 ing, and with a considerable degree of asperity, those 
 ill-natured neighbours of his who visited his dunghill 
 to read moral, political, and ceconomical lectures on 
 his misery. Burke. 
 
 ASP'Y,r. &n. See Espy. 
 
 In due season, as she alway aspied 
 Euery thing to execute conueniently. 
 The one louer first frendly she eied. 
 The second she offred the cuppe curtesly. 
 
 Chaucer. The Rein of Loue. 
 For Ion seide to Eroude, it is not leveful to thee to 
 have the wyf of thi brother, and Erodias Icide aspies 
 to him and wolde sle him and myghte not. 
 
 Wiclif. Mark, ch. vi. 
 ASRAEL, the angel, according to the Ma- 
 hommedan system, who is appropriated to take 
 care of the souls of those who die. 
 ASS, 
 As' 
 Ass' 
 
 You have among you many a purchas'd slave ; 
 Which, like your asses and j'our dogs and mules. 
 You use in abject and in slavish part. 
 Because you bought them. Shakspeare, 
 
 You shall have more ado, to drive our dullest 
 youth, our stocks and stubs, from such nurture ; than 
 we have now, to hale our choicest and hopefuUest 
 wits, to that asinine feast of sow-thistles and brambles. 
 
 Milton. 
 
 Ass, in zoology. See Eouus. 
 
 Ass, Coronation of the, in antiquity, was a 
 part of the ceremony of the feast of Vesta, wherein 
 the bakers put crowns on the heads of these 
 quadrupeds; Ecce coronatis panis dependet 
 •Tsellis ! Hence, in an ancient calendar, the 
 ides of June are thus denoted : Festura est 
 X'estac. Asinus coronatur ! This honor it seems 
 was done the beast, because, according to the 
 mythology, by its braying it had saved Vesta 
 from being ravished by the Lampsacan god. 
 Hence the formula, Vestae delicium est asinus. 
 
 ASSAC, or AssAX, in the materia medica of 
 the ancients, the name given by the Arabians to 
 the gum ammoniac of the Greeks ; but by many 
 of the qualities attributed to this drug it does not 
 appear to be the same that is now called so. 
 
 ASSACH, or Assath, a kind of purgation, 
 anciently used in Wales, by the oaths of 300 men. 
 
 ASSAl, in music, signifies quick ; or, accord- 
 ing to others, that the motion of the piece be kept 
 in a middle degree of quickness or slov.ness : as, 
 assai allegro, assai presto. See Allegro and 
 Presto. 
 
 ASSAIL', -X Fr. asscdllir, Lat. 
 
 Assail'able, # adsilire, to leap upon. 
 
 AssAiL^ANT, r. & ad;. \ To assault; to make a 
 
 Assail'er, i sudden and vehement 
 
 Assail'ment, j 
 
 of annoyance. 
 
 ASS 
 
 attack by various means 
 
 So, when he saw his flatt'ring arts to fail • 
 
 With greedy force he 'gan the fort t' assail. 
 
 Faerie Queene 
 111 put myself in poor and mean attire. 
 
 And with a kind of umber smirch my face ; 
 
 The like do you : so shall we pass along. 
 
 And never stir assailants. Shakspeare. 
 
 My gracious lord, here in the parliament 
 
 Let us assail the family of York. Id. 
 
 She will not stay the siege of loving terms. 
 
 Nor bide th' encounter of assailing eyes. Id. 
 
 How have I fear'd your fate ! but fear'd it most. 
 When love assail'd you on the Libyan coast. 
 
 Bryde.i. 
 Prompt to assail and careless of defence. 
 
 Invulnerable in his impudence ; 
 
 He dares the world ; and eager of a name. 
 
 He thrusts about, and jostles into fame. 
 
 Id. Hind and Panther. 
 All books he reads, and all he reads assails. 
 
 From Dryden's Fables down to D — y's Tales. 
 
 Pope. 
 
 Sensible of their own force, and allured by the 
 
 prospect of so rich a prize, the northern barbarians, 
 
 in the reign of Arcadius and Honorius, assailed at 
 
 once all the frontiers of the Roman empire. Hume. 
 
 When winds the mountain oak assail, 
 
 And lay its glories wEiste, 
 
 Content may slumber in the vale. 
 Unconscious of the blast. Beattle, 
 
 ASSAM, or Asham, a country between Bengal 
 and Thibet, 700 miles in lengtli, by about 70 in 
 breadth. It is intersected by the Brahmapootra 
 and several rivers. On the north it is bounded 
 by the mountains of Bootan and Thibet, on tlie 
 south by the Garrow mountains, on the west by 
 Bengal and Bisnee, and on the east by the tribu- 
 taries of Ava and China. Assam is very fertile, 
 and produces a considerable quantity of gold, 
 found in the beds of the rivers ; it also yields 
 ivory, lac, pepper, silk, and cotton, and exports 
 a considerable quantity of borax and musk, said 
 to be procured from Bootan and Thibet. Its im- 
 ports from Bengal are principally salt, various 
 European commodities, and a few fine muslins. 
 Tlie inhabitants are genuine Hindoos, and are 
 very shy of permitting foreigners to come among 
 them. During the period that the Afghans and 
 iMoguls had possession of Bengal they frequently 
 invaded this country, and even took possession 
 of Ghergong the capital, but the unhcalthiness 
 of the climate compelled them always to retire 
 with great loss. In the year 1793 a detachment 
 of the East India Company's troops, under the 
 command of Colonel Welsh, entered Assam for 
 the purpose of reinstating the rajah Surjee Deo; 
 and, in consequence of the services then rendered 
 him, the rajah established a reciprocal liberty of 
 commerce between himself and the British ; and 
 it was finally agreed that no European merchant 
 or adventurer, of any description, should be al- 
 lowed to fix his residence in Assam, without 
 having previously obtained the permission of the 
 British government, and of ]Maha Rajah Surjee 
 Deo, of Assam. 
 
 ASSANCALA, or Assancale, a strong town 
 in Armenia, near the river Arras, in the road 
 between Erzerum and Erivan, noted for its hot 
 baths. It stands on a high hill, twenty-two 
 miles east of Erzerum ; the walls are built in a 
 spiral line all round the rock, and strengthened
 
 ASS 
 
 60 
 
 ASS 
 
 with square towers. The ditches are about two 
 fathoms over, cut out of hard rock. 
 
 ASSAPOOllY, in natural history, a name 
 given by the people of the East Indies to a pe- 
 culiar species of slate, which they use in medi- 
 cine, reducing it to powder, and strewing it on 
 burning coals that the sick person may receive 
 the fumes of it. It is principally used for children 
 when they are disordered by taking cold. The 
 smell of it, while burning, is very offensive. 
 
 ASSARIUM, a small copper coin, being a 
 part of the as. The word is used by Suidas in- 
 diflerently with o/3oXoc, and vofiicrfia, to denote a 
 small piece of money ; in which he is followed 
 by Cujacius, who defines aacapiov, by minimus 
 a;ris nummus. We find mention of the assarion 
 in Matthew, chap. x. ver. 29., translated a 
 farthing. 
 
 ASSARON, an ancient Jewish measure of 
 capacity, equal to the tenth part of an ephah. 
 The assaron is the same with the omer. Jo- 
 sephus calls it ttsaapov; in the Hebrew it is 
 written assarith. It was the measure of manna 
 appointed for each person. 
 
 ASSAS'SIN, V. & n. ^ The etymology of 
 
 AssAs'siNACY, f this word has given 
 
 AssAs'siNATE, i;. & n. ^rise to much learned 
 
 Assassina'tion. J discussion, and the 
 
 question is still undecided. Applied to one who 
 attacks and kills those unprepared for defence, 
 by treachery, or sudden violence. 
 
 It were done quickly ; if th' assassination 
 
 Could trammel up the consequence. Shakspeare. 
 Such usage, as your honourable lords 
 
 Afford me, assassinated and betray'd ; 
 
 Who durst not, witli your whole united pow'rs. 
 
 In fight withstand one single and unarm'd. 
 
 Milton. 
 The Syrian king ; who, to surprise .^ 
 One man, assassin like, had levy'd war. 
 War unproclaim'd. Id. 
 
 The duke finished his course by a wicked assas- 
 sination. Clarendon. 
 
 In the very moment, as the knight withdrew from 
 the duke, this assassinate gave him, with a back blow, 
 a deep wound into his left side. Wotton. 
 
 The old king is just murdered ; and the person 
 
 that did it is unknown — Let the soldiers seize him, 
 
 for one of the assassinates ; and let me alone, to accuse 
 
 him afterwards. Dryden. 
 
 Here hired assassins for their gain invade ; 
 
 And treach'rous pois'ners urge their fatal trade. 
 
 Creech. 
 
 When she hears of a murder, she enlarges more 
 on the guilt of the suffering person, than of the as- 
 sassin. Addison. 
 Orestes brandish'd the revenging sword ; 
 
 Slew the dire pair ; and gave to fun'ral flame 
 
 The vile assassin, and adult'rous dame, Pope. 
 
 Useful, we grant ; it serves what life requires ; 
 But, dreadful too, the dark assassin hires. Id. 
 
 Assassins, a tribe or clan in Syria, called 
 also Ismaelians and Batanists, or Batenians. 
 These people probably owed their origin to the 
 Karmatians, a famous heretical sect among the 
 Mahommedans, who settled in Persia about the 
 year 1090; whence, in process of time, they 
 sent a colony into Syria, where they became 
 possessed of a considerable tract of land among 
 the mountains of Lebanon, extending itself 
 from the neighbourhood of Antioch to Damas- 
 
 cus. The first chief and legislator of this extra- 
 ordinary tribe was Hassan Sabah, a subtle 
 impostor ; who, by his artifices, made fanatical 
 and implicit slaves of his subjects. Their reli- 
 gion was compounded of that of the Magi, the 
 Jews, the Christians, and the Mahommedans : 
 but the capital article of their creed was to be- 
 lieve that the Holy Spirit resided in their chief; 
 that his orders proceeded from God himself, and 
 were real declarations of the divine pleasure. 
 To this monarch the orientals gave the name of 
 Scheik : but he is better known in Europe by 
 the name of the Old Man of the Mountain. 
 This chief, from his residence on mount Lebanon, 
 sent, like «. vindictive deity, inevitable death to 
 all quarters of the world ; and many sovereigns 
 paid secretly a pension to the Scheik, for the 
 safety of their persons. The Knights Templars 
 alone dared to defy his secret machinations and 
 open force. Indeed, they were a permanent 
 dispersed body, not to be cut off by massacres 
 or assassinations. In 1090, !Malek Shah, third 
 sultan of the Seljukians, of Iran, sent a mes- 
 senger to Hassan, the Old Man of that period, 
 calling on him for obedience, and accompanying 
 the demand with threats in the case of his re- 
 fusal. Hassan desired the ambassador might be 
 admitted ; and having assembled around him his 
 troops, commanded one of them to draw his 
 dagger, and plunge it into his own breast; the 
 man, without the slighest hesitation, stabbed 
 himself to the heart, and fell dead at his sove- 
 reign's feet. He then commanded a second to 
 precipitate himself from the nearest tower; and 
 was instantaneously obeyed. ' Go,' said Hassan, 
 * to the sultan, your master, and inform him, that 
 I have no other reply to make him, excepting 
 that I have seventy thousand troops equally 
 obedient with those you have this day witnessed,' 
 The sidtan took the hint ; and having, as Ebn 
 Amed states, other matters in his hands, thought 
 it not advisable to prosecute a war against this 
 prince. 
 
 In 1192, the assassins penetrated the palace 
 of Conrade, marquis of Montserrat, who had 
 displeased them, and put him to death. In 
 1213, they assassinated Lewis of Bavaria. Hu- 
 lakn, a khan of the ^Nlogul Tartars, in the year 
 G55 of the Hegira, or 1254 of the Christian era, 
 entered their country, and dispossessed them of 
 several places. In 1257, the "Tartars conquered 
 them and killed their prince; but it was not till 
 1272, that they were totally extirpated; an 
 achievement owing principally to the conduct and 
 intrepidity of the Egyptian forces sent against 
 them by the sultan Bibaris. 
 
 ASSAULT', V. & n. 
 
 Assault'ixg, n. (^ Assilio, assultum. See 
 
 Assault'. 
 
 Assault': 
 
 Themselves at discord fell. 
 And cruel combat joined in middle space. 
 With horrible assault and fury fell. 
 
 Faerie Qucerte. 
 
 It hath been ever a dangerous policy of Satan to 
 assault the best •, he knows that the multitude, as we 
 say of bees, will follow their master. 
 
 Hall's Contemplations. 
 
 After some unhappy assaults upon the prerogative 
 
 LT', V. & n."\ 
 r'lXG, n. f Assilio, i 
 t'able, t^ Assail. 
 
 t'er. J
 
 ASSAYING. 
 
 61 
 
 by the parliament, whicli produced its dissolution, 
 there followed a composure. Clarendmi. 
 
 Theories built upon narrow foundations, are very 
 Lard to bo supported against the assaults of opposition. 
 
 Locke. 
 
 The king granted the Jews, to gather themselves 
 together, and to stand for their life, to destroy all 
 the power, that would assault them. Esther, viii. 11. 
 
 Before the gates, the cries of babes new-bom. 
 Whom fate had from theii tender mothers torn. 
 Assault his ears. Dryden. 
 
 New cursed steel, and more accursed gold. 
 Gave mischief birth, and made that mischief bold ; 
 And double death did wretched man invade. 
 By steel assaulted, and by gold betray'd. Id. 
 
 Neither liking their eloquence, nor fearing their 
 might, we esteemed few swords, in a just defence, 
 able to resist many unjust assaulters. Sidney. 
 
 This just rebuke inflamed the Lycian crew. 
 
 They join, they thicken, and th' assault renew; 
 
 Unmov'd th'embodied Greeks their fury dare. 
 
 And fix'd, support the weight of all the war. 
 
 Pope. Homer's Iliad, xii. 505. 
 
 Assault, in law, is an attempt to beat another, 
 and may be committed without touching him : as 
 if one lifts up his cane or fist in a threatening 
 manner at another; or strikes at him, but misses 
 him; this is an assault, insultus, which Finch 
 describes to be 'an unlawful setting upon one's 
 person.' This also is an inchoate violence, 
 amounting considerably highei than bare threats ; 
 and, therefore, though no actual suffering is 
 proved, yet the party injured may have redress 
 by action of trespass vi et arniis, wherein he 
 shall recover damages as a compensation for the 
 injury. 
 
 Assault, in the military art, a furious effort 
 made to carry a fortified post, camp, or fortress, 
 wherein the assailants do not screen themselves 
 by any works : while the assault continues, the 
 batteries cease, for fear of killing their own men. 
 ASSAY', V. & 11. Fr. essayer, Ital. asaagiai-e, 
 to try, examine, prove ; to submit to experi- 
 ment ; to test. 
 
 One, that to bounty never cast his mind ; 
 No thought of honour never did assay 
 His baser breast. Spenser. 
 
 She heard with patience all, unto the end ; 
 And strove, to master sorrowful assay. 
 
 Faerie Queetie. 
 Gray and Bryan obtained leave of the general, a 
 iittle to assay them ; and so, with some horsemen, 
 charged ihem home. Hayward. 
 
 What unweighed behaviour hath this drunkard 
 picked out of my conversation, that he dares in this 
 manner assay me ? Sliakspeare, 
 
 Be sure to find. 
 What I foretell thee ; many a hard assay 
 Of dangers, and adversities, and pains. 
 Ere thou of Israel's sceptre get fast hold. Milton. 
 
 The men he prest but late 
 To hard assays unfit, unsure y need ; 
 Yet arm'd to point, in well attempted plate. 
 
 Fairfax. 
 She thrice agsay'd to speak ; her accents hung. 
 And fall'ring dy'd unfinish'd on her tongue. 
 Or vanish'd into sighs : with long delay 
 Her voice return'd ; and found the wonted way. 
 
 Dry den's Fables. 
 
 Assaying, or Essaying, in metallurgy, is 
 
 a method of ascertaining the actual quantity of 
 
 pure gold or silver in a given metallic mass. 
 
 The term might, with equal propriety, be ap- 
 plied to ascertaining the presence and quantity of 
 any metal, perfect or imperfect, in a mass of 
 ore : but it has, from the universal value of the 
 pure or precious metals, been gradually appro- 
 priated to the best modes of separating them 
 from all admixture, the baser metals being con- 
 sidered by the assayer as of no value or consi- 
 deration. We thus, therefore, apj^ly the terra in 
 this paper; referring to the article Metallurgy, 
 and the names of other metallic ores, in their al- 
 phabetical places, for more general observarions. 
 
 Assaying is a species of chemical analysis, 
 owing its origin probably, like the rest of the 
 modern terms of chemistry, to the alchemy of 
 darker ages. In this country the Liber Niger 
 Scacarii, cited by Du Cange, attributes the first 
 assay of money to the bishop of Salisbury, a 
 royal treasurer, in the reign of Henry I. It 
 states, that if the examined money was found ^o 
 be deficient above sixpence in the pound, it was 
 not deemed lawful money of the king, Du Cange, 
 Gloss, i. p. 343. And thus is explained the first 
 application of the terms arsas and arsuram, to 
 money, in the Exchequer-book. But, it is 
 clear, that some species of assay was prac- 
 tised by our ancestors as early as the Norman 
 conquest. Doomsday-book expressly stating, 
 vol. i. f. 15, 16, that £65 of coined money was 
 only worth £50 in pure silver, ' according to the 
 assay of the Mint.' This is the passage : ' Totum 
 manerium T. R. E. et post valuit xl. libras. 
 Modo similiter xl. lib. Tamen reddit 2 lib. ad 
 arsuram et pensum quse valent Ixv. lib.' It 
 also appears, by the same authority, that the 
 king had this right of assay in several places 
 beside the capital. It is remarkable, as Mr. 
 Turner has observed, that we have no Anglo- 
 Saxon gold coins, though numerous silver coins 
 of that period have come down to us. That 
 learned historian thinks, that both gold and 
 silver uncoined, were, however, in circulation at 
 this date. According to Dr. Henry's account of 
 the conduct of Henry VIII. in respect to the 
 coinage, it became indeed, most important that 
 some system should be adopted for regulating 
 the standard value of our coins. 
 
 ' That monarch,' he remarks, ' after he had 
 squandered all his father's treasures, the grants 
 he had received from parliament, and the 
 great sums he had derived from the dissolution 
 of the religious houses, began to diminish his 
 coins both in weight and fineness. This dimi- 
 nution at lirst was small, in hopes, perhaps, that 
 it would not be perceived ; but, after he had got 
 into this fatal career, he proceeded by rapid 
 steps to the most pernicious lengths. In the 
 thirty-sixth year of his reign, silver money of all 
 the different kinds was coined, which had only 
 one-half silver and the other half alloy. He did 
 not even stop here; in the last year of his reign, 
 he coined money that had only four ounces of silver 
 and eight ounces of alloy in the pound weight; 
 and the nominal pound of this base money was 
 worth only 9.5. 3^d. of our present money. He 
 began to debase his gold coins at the same time, 
 and proceeded by the same degrees. But it 
 would be tedious to follow him in every step. 
 In this degra,ded and debased condition Henry
 
 62 
 
 ASSAYING. 
 
 the EigtitVi left the money of his kingdom to "his 
 son and successor Edward the Sixth. This 
 shameful debasement of the money of his king- 
 dom, was one of the most imprudent, dishonor- 
 able, and pernicious measures of his reign : it 
 •was productive of innumerable inconveniences 
 and great perplexity in business of all kinds ; 
 and the restoration of it to its standard purity 
 ■was found to be a work of great difficulty,' 
 Henry's History of Great Britain, vol. xii. p. 
 336, 337. It is worthy of observation, that since 
 that period, we have had no such capricious and 
 nefarious attempts ; and the regulations of the 
 royal British Mint may now be quoted as at 
 once most scientific and effective. 
 
 The art, to which this paper is devoted, con- 
 sists of two distinct branches or operations, the 
 separation of alloy, or base metals, from the 
 precious ores, accomplished by what is tech- 
 nically called cupellation ; and the separation 
 of the precious metals, gold, platina, and silver 
 from each other, called quartation and parting. 
 
 The separation of gold, silver, and platina, 
 from baser metals, is conducted by exposing the 
 whole metallic mass, in which they are sup- 
 posed to be contained, mixed with a certain por- 
 tion of lead, to a strong heat, in a shallow cru- 
 cible, made of burned bones, called a cupel ; 
 which is placed in a muffle or small earthen 
 oven, fixed in the midst of a furnace. The lead 
 now vitrifies, or becomes converted into a glassy 
 calx, which dissolves the imperfect metals : and 
 this calx, with those metals which it absorbs, 
 soaks into the cupel, and leaves the precious 
 metals in a state of purity. * In proportion to 
 the violence of the heat,' says Dr. Aikin, ' is the 
 density of the fume, the violence with which it 
 is given off, the convexity of the surface of the 
 globule of melted matter, and the rapidity with 
 which the vitrified oxide circulates (as it is 
 termed), or falls down the sides of the metal. 
 As the cupellation advances, the melted button 
 becomes rounder, its surface becomes streaky 
 with large bright points of the fused oxide, 
 which moves with increased rapidity, till at last 
 the globule, being now freed from all the lead 
 and other alloy, suddenly lightens ; the last por- 
 tions of litharge on the surface disappear with 
 great rapidity ; showing the melted metal bright 
 with irridescent colors, which directly after be- 
 comes opaque, and suddenly appears brilliant, 
 clean, and white, as if a curtain had been with- 
 drawn from it. The operation being now 
 finished, and the silver left pure, the cupel is al- 
 lowed to cool gradually, till the globule of silver 
 is fixed, after which it is taken out of the cupel 
 while still hot, and when cold weighed with 
 as much accuracy as at first. The difTerence 
 between the globule and the silver at first put in, 
 shows the quantity of alloy, the globule being 
 now perfectly pure silver, if the operation has 
 been well performed. The reason of cooling 
 the globule or button gradually is, that pure 
 
 silver, when congealing, assumes a crystalline 
 texture, and if the outer surface is too suddenly 
 fixed, it forcibly contracts on the still fluid part 
 in the centre, causing it to spurt out in arbor- 
 escent shoots, by which some minute portions 
 are often thrown out of the cupel, and the assay 
 spoiled.' 
 
 The assay of gold and silver is alike, it will be 
 observed, throughout the process of cupellation. 
 As lead is the medium required for the absorp- 
 tion of other metals, both the quality and quan- 
 tity ef that metal employed become important to 
 ascertain. If it contains much silver, it will be 
 easy to perceive a source of material error in the 
 operations of the assayer. Lead revived from 
 litharge contains only about half a grain in the 
 pound weight, and is therefore preferred to lead 
 immediately revived from the ore, which usually 
 contains a larger quantity. 
 
 As to the proper quantity of lead, it is desir- 
 able at first to ascertain the comparative state of 
 purity of the ingot to be assayed. In this coun- 
 try, such a judgment is generally formed from 
 inspection of the color, hardness, tenacity, &c. 
 of the metal, but formerly touch-needles were 
 employed for this purpose. Tliese, which are 
 not entirely in disuse, consist of small bars of 
 differently proportioned alloys, of known com- 
 position, if a streak is made with the ingot 
 npon the surface of black flint, or basalt, a spe- 
 cies of indurated slate, called by the ancients 
 (iacravoc, and still known by the name of basa- 
 nite, or even upon a fragment of black pottery, 
 by comparing the streaks with those made on 
 the same stone from needles of known compo- 
 sition, the relative purity of the ingot may be in- 
 ferred. ' Copper' says Dr. Aikin, ' the usual alloy 
 of the fine metals, when taken singly, is found to 
 require from ten to fourteen times its weight of 
 lead for complete scorification on the cupel. 
 Now, all admixtures of fine metal tend to pro- 
 tect the copper from the action of the litharge, 
 and the more obstinately, the greater the propor- 
 tion of fine metal. So that copper, with three 
 times its weight of silver (or 9 oz. fine), requires 
 forty times as much lead as copper ; with eleven 
 parts of silver it requires seventy-two parts of 
 lead, and the like in an increasing ratio. The fol- 
 lowing is the table of the proportions of lead re- 
 quired to different alloys of copper; of which a 
 few points are founded on the above-mentioned 
 experiments, and the rest filled up according to 
 the estimated ratio of increase, being multiples 
 of the assay integer 24 in arithmetical progres- 
 sion. In the three first columns is shown the 
 absolute increase of the quantity of lead in alloys 
 of decreasing fineness ; in the three last columns 
 will be seen the gradual diminution of the pro- 
 tecting power of fine metal against scorification, 
 in proportion to the increase of alloy, shown by 
 the decreasing quantity of lead required for the 
 same weight of copper, under different mixtures.'
 
 ASSAYING. 
 
 TABLE. 
 
 63 
 
 Silver 
 
 
 Cop- 
 per 
 
 Lead 
 
 Ratio of 
 increase 
 
 jCop- 
 j per 
 
 
 Silver 
 
 
 Lead 
 
 
 23 
 
 22 
 
 20 
 
 18 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 with 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 16 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 22 
 
 requires 
 
 96 
 144 
 192 
 240 
 288 
 33G 
 384 
 432 
 480 
 528 
 576 
 624 
 
 = 4 X 24 
 = 6 X 24 
 = 8 X 24 
 — 10 X 24 
 = 12 X 24 
 =: 14 X 24 
 =: 16 X 24 
 = 18 X 24 
 = 20 X 24 
 = 22 X 24 
 zr 24 X 24 
 = 26 X 24 
 
 and hence 
 
 \ 
 
 with 
 
 23 
 11 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 If 
 1 
 
 \ 
 
 1 
 5 
 
 requires 
 
 96 
 72 
 48 
 40 
 36 
 33 
 32 
 30 
 30 
 29 
 28 
 28 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 + 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 It should be remarked, however, that many 
 assayers of good authority use proportions of 
 lead considerably different from the above table ; 
 and the whole of the numbers here given may be 
 considered as rather high, in regard to the quan- 
 tity of lead. The assaying of gold, if that noble 
 metal contained copper as an alloy, would be as 
 simple and expeditious as that of silver ; but all 
 gold contains a portion of silver, which cannot 
 be destroyed by cupellation : it may also con- 
 tain platina; but this is not commonly found. 
 
 After it has passed the cupel, quartation 
 and parting become necessary. The former 
 consists in adding (generally) three parts of silver 
 to the mass of supposed gold, and fusing them 
 together. It is an object of importance to pre- 
 vent the cornets from being broken, the result 
 being less likely to be accurate when the gold is 
 in fragments ; and to prevent this, the quantity 
 of silver used is no more than is absolutely ne- 
 cessary, it being found that the less the quantity 
 of gold, compared to the silver, used in the 
 assay, the more likely is the gold to be broken 
 into pieces. ' Suppose, for example,' says Mr. 
 Mushet, ' that a gold assay is made from the in- 
 teger, or pound, weighing twelve grains Troy, 
 an addition of from twenty-four to thirty-six 
 grains of pure silver is made in addition to the 
 small portion already supposed to exist in the 
 mass. This becomes thoroughly incorporated 
 with the gold in the process of cupellation. The 
 globule, or button, as soon as it is taken from 
 the furnace, is passed between a pair of polished 
 steel rollers, and drawn out into a thin lamina, 
 or plate, of the thickness of a sixpence, and re- 
 turned into the furnace to be annealed After 
 being kept m a red heat for some time, it is taken 
 out and suffered to cool. It is then wound up 
 into a comet. This is put into a glass matrass, 
 of the shape of an inverted cone, and with about 
 twice or thrice its weight of very pure nitric 
 acid. M. Vauquelin recommends it to be 1-25 
 specific gravity.' 
 
 The hot acid being very carefully poured from 
 the matrass, warm water is added to wash any 
 remains of silver from the gold, and the addition 
 repeated until tl-.e water comes off" perfectly clear. 
 The cornets of gold, which are of a dull brown 
 colorj are then put according to their numbers 
 
 into small clay crucibles, mto which they are 
 allowed gently to fall by inverting the matrass, 
 with a portion of water in it, which breaks their 
 fall, and also collects any grains of gold that may 
 be in the matrass. The water is then poured off, 
 and they are put into the furnace, and annealed 
 under a bright cherrj- heat. ^Vhen cooled, the 
 pieces of gold exhibit their beautiful character- 
 istic lustre, and possess all the softness and flexi- 
 bility of that metal. The weight of the original 
 metallic mass before cupellation and in the subse- 
 quent stages, compared with the final weight now 
 ascertained, indicates the degree of fineness of 
 the ingot, or ore, of wiiich it is a part. In esti- 
 mating or expressing this fineness in regard to 
 gold, the whole mass spoken of is supposed to 
 weigh twenty-four carats of twelve grains each, 
 either real, or merely proportional, like the 
 assayer's weights; and t)ie pure gold is called 
 fine. Thus, if gold be said to be twenty-three 
 carats fine, it is to be understood, that in a mass 
 ■weighing twenty-four carats, the quantity of pure 
 gold amounts to twenty-three carats. 
 
 The assay report of gold, says the official gen- 
 tleman we have quoted above, is made accord- 
 ing as it is better or worse than standard. Tlie 
 standard of our gold coin is tv\enty-two carats 
 fine, and two carats alloy. If, by assay, an ingot 
 of gold was found to contain twenty-one carats 
 of fine gold, it would be reported worse one 
 carat, the mass containing a carat of alloy more 
 than the proportion of two carats to twenty-two 
 carats fine. If the ingot weighed fifteen pounds 
 Troy, there would be deducted from the gross 
 weight one carat, or 240 grains Troy, reducing 
 the standard of the mass to 14 lbs. 11 ozs. lOdwts. 
 If, on the contrary, the mass was found to con- 
 tain twenty-three carats fine gold, it would be 
 reported one carat better than standard; and 
 this carat would be added to the gross weight of 
 the ingot, which we have supposed to weigh 
 fifteen pounds Troy, and would be called 15 lbs. 
 Ooz. 10 dwts. of standard gold. When the gold 
 assay pound or integer is only twelve grains, the 
 quarter assay grain weighs only ^l part of a Troy 
 grain. This will show how delicate the scales 
 must be by which the assayer works in order to 
 obtain accuracy. In the royal mint the scales of 
 the assayers will be sensibly affected even with
 
 64 
 
 ASSAYING. 
 
 the -njjjgth part of a Troy grain. When the em- 
 peror of Russia lately visited the mint, he was 
 particularly struck with the extreme delicacy of 
 the assay scales of Mr. Bin'^ley, the king's assay- 
 master. That gentleman requested the favor of 
 his imperial majesty to put one of the hairs of 
 his head into the scale, which he did, and, to the 
 great satisfaction of his majesty, it very sensihly 
 affected the equilibrium of the beam.' 
 
 It is necessary to be careful that the silver used 
 in this last process should contain no gold, other- 
 wise a source of material error would arise in 
 the operation ; and, as silver generally contains a 
 small portion of gold, the best assayers use that 
 which is revived from a precipitation of the ni- 
 trate of silver. This nitrate of silver is precipi- 
 tated by immersing in it plates of copper : it 
 may also be recovered by a solution of common 
 salt, which converts the silver into luna cornea, 
 of which, when washed and well dried, 100 parts 
 contain seventy-five of silver. The accuracy of the 
 assay may also be proved by this process. The 
 luna cornea, however, is more difficult to reduce 
 to the metallic state. 
 
 Many dealers in bullion (the bank of England 
 we believe uniformly) refuse to purchase any 
 foreign gold bullion, until it has been remelted 
 by refiners or melters on whose integrity they 
 can rely. 
 
 Platina, on account of its great value, is not 
 likely to be used in debasing silver; but it may be 
 fi'audulently added to gold. Like gold and sil- 
 ver, it resists the action of lead upon the cupel ; 
 but an expert assayer will recognise its presence 
 by the very different appearance which it gives 
 to the button of metal in fusion. This is less 
 perfect ; a much greater heat is required ; and 
 the color less bright ; and, in a very small pro- 
 portion, it gives to the gold a strong tendency to 
 crystallisation. Nothing is required for its sepa- 
 ration but to proceed exactly as in a gold assay ; 
 and, by reducing the lamina of metal very thin, 
 to form the cornet, the platina, though alone in- 
 soluble in nitric acid, may, with the silver, be 
 totally removed from the gold. 
 
 Some idea of tlie delicacy required through the 
 whole of the foregoing operations may be formed 
 from an authentic statement, that in our national 
 mint an assay of twenty grains is relied on for 
 giving the value of a mass of gold of fifteen 
 pounds, or of silver of sixty pounds in weight. 
 
 The Annates de Chimie, vol.vi. p. 64, contain 
 some very interesting details of recent attempts 
 of the French government to establish an accurate 
 assay of gold. The general result is as follows, 
 nearly in the terms of the experimenters : — 
 
 Six principal circumstances appear to affect 
 the operation of parting : namely, the quantity 
 of acid used in parting, or in the first boiling; 
 the concentration of this acid ; the time employed 
 in its application ; the quantity of acid made use 
 of in the reprise, or second operation; its con- 
 centration ; and the time during which it is 
 applied. From the experiments it has been 
 shown, that each of these unfavorable circum- 
 stances might easily occasion a loss of from the 
 half of a thirty-second part of a carat, to two 
 thirty-second parts. The writers explain their 
 technical language by observing, that, the whole 
 
 mass consisting of twenty-four carats, this thirty 
 second part denotes l-768th part of the mass- 
 It may easily be conceived, therefore, that if the 
 whole six circumstances were to exist, and be 
 productive of errors falling the same way, the 
 loss would be very considerable. 
 
 It is indispensably necessary, therefore, that 
 one uniform process should be followed in the 
 assays of gold ; and it is a matter of astonish- 
 ment, that such an accurate procesj should not 
 have been prescribed by government for assayers 
 in an operation of such great commercial im- 
 portance, instead of every one being left to follow 
 his own judgment. The process recommended 
 in the report before us is as follows : — 
 
 Twelve grains of the gold intended to be as- 
 sayed must be mixed with thirty grains of fine 
 silver, and cupelled with 103 grains of lead. 
 The cupellation must be carefully attended to, 
 and all the imperfect buttons rejected. When 
 the cupellation is ended, the button must be re- 
 duced by lamination into a plate of one inch and 
 a half, or rather more, in length, and four or five 
 limes in breadth. This must be rolled up upon 
 a quill, and placed in a matrass capable of hold- 
 ing about three ounces of liquid, when filled up 
 to its narrow part. Two ounces and a half of 
 very pure aqua-fortis, of the strength of twenty 
 degrees of Baume's areometer, must then be 
 poured upon it; and the matrass being placed 
 upon hot ashes, or sand, the acid must be kept 
 gently boiling for a quarter of an hour ; the acid 
 must then be cautiously decanted, and an ad- 
 ditional quantity of one ounce and a half must 
 be poured on the metal, and slightly boiled for 
 twelve minutes. This being likewise carefully 
 decanted, the small spiral piece of metal must 
 be washed with filtered river water, or distilled 
 water, by filling the matrass with this fluid. The 
 vessel is then to be reversed, by applying the 
 extremity of its neck against the bottom of a 
 crucible of fine earth, the internal surface of 
 which is very smooth. The annealing must then 
 be made, after having separated the portion of 
 water which had fallen into the crucible ; and, 
 lastly, the annealed gold must be weighed. For 
 the certainty of this operation, two assays must 
 be made in the same manner, together with a 
 third assay upon gold of twenty-four carats, or 
 upon gold the fineness of which is perfectly and 
 generally known. 
 
 No conclusion must be drawn from this assay, 
 unless the latter gold should prove to be of the 
 fineness of twenty-four carats exactly, or of its 
 known degree of fineness ; for, if there be either 
 loss or surplus, it may be inferred, that the other 
 two assays, having undergone the same opera- 
 tion, must be subject to the same error. The 
 operation being made according to this process, 
 by several assayers, in circumstances of import- 
 ance, such as those which relate to large fabri- 
 cations, the fineness of the gold must not be 
 depended on, nor considered as accurately known, 
 unless all the assayers have obtained a uniform 
 result without communication with each other. 
 The authors observe, however, that this identity 
 must be considered as existing to the accuracy of 
 half of the thirty-second part of a carat. For 
 notwithstanding every possible precaution or
 
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 ASSAYING. 
 
 65 
 
 uniformity, it very seldom happens that an abso- 
 lute agreement is obtained between tlie different 
 assays of one and the same ingot; because the 
 in;.^ot itself may difi'er in its fineness in different 
 parts of its mass. 
 
 The assaying of silver does not differ from that 
 of gold, excepting that the parting operation is 
 not necessary. A certain small portion of the 
 silver is absorbed by the cupel and the more 
 when a larger quantity of lead is used, unless 
 the quantity of lead be excessive ; in which case 
 most of it will be scorified before it begins to act 
 upon the silver. Messrs. Ilellot, Tillet, and 
 Alacquer, from their experiments made by order 
 of the French government, have ascertained, that 
 four parts of lead are requisite for silver of eleven 
 pennyweights twelve grains fine, or containing 
 this weight of pure silver, and twelve grains of 
 alloy, in twelve pennyweights ; six parts of lead 
 for silver of eleven pennyweights ; eight parts 
 lead for silver of ten pennyweights ; ten parts 
 lead tor silver of nine pennyweights : and so on 
 in the same progression. The following is the 
 assay table of M. D'Arcet : 
 
 1 
 
 ^1 
 
 
 
 
 S c 
 
 Doses of lead 
 
 Relation be- 
 
 Titles of the 
 
 
 necessary, the 
 
 tween the 
 
 Silver. 
 ^ 
 
 Quant 
 coppei 
 alloy. 
 
 weight of sil- 
 ver being 1. 
 
 lead and 
 copper. 
 
 Silver at 1000 
 
 
 
 3-lOths. 
 
 
 950 
 
 50 
 
 3 
 
 70tol 
 
 900 100 
 
 7 
 
 60—1 
 
 800 
 
 200 
 
 10 
 
 50—1 
 
 700 
 
 .300 
 
 12 
 
 40—1 
 
 600 
 
 400 
 
 14 
 
 35—1 
 
 300 
 
 500 
 
 from 16 to 17 
 
 32—1 
 
 400 
 
 600 
 
 16—17 
 
 26-66—1 
 
 300 
 
 700 
 
 16—17 
 
 22-857—1 
 
 200 
 
 800 
 
 16—17 
 
 20—1 
 
 100 
 
 900 
 
 16—17 
 
 17-77—1 
 
 Pure copper, 
 
 1000 
 
 16—17 
 
 16—1 
 
 This table supposes, that the title of the silver 
 to be assayed is known ; but when it is not, it 
 may be determined approximately, bv exposin"- 
 m the cupel 0-1 part of this silver with 1 of lead"^ 
 French gold and silver coin contains 1-1 0th of 
 copper united to the precious metal. British 
 silver coin consists of 12^ silver and 1 copper-; 
 our gold coin contains ll-12ths of gold. The 
 remamder is eitlier copper, or a mixture of silver 
 and copper. 
 
 In our plate entitled Assaying we give the 
 assay furnace and its instruments, as used at the 
 Koyal Mint, and Goldsmith's Hall, London. 
 
 Fig. 1. AAAAisafront elevation of the assay 
 turnace ; a a one of two iron rollers on which 
 the furnace rests; h the ash-pit; cc the ash-pit 
 dampers, movmg in a horizontal direction to- 
 wards each other, for regulating the draught of 
 the furnace; tithe door, or opening by which 
 the cupels are introduced into the muffle; e a 
 moval)le funnel or chimney, by which the 
 draueht of the furnace is increased. 
 
 BBBB, Fig. 2, is a pei-pendicular section of 
 hg. \; aa ends of the rollers; h the ash-pit; c 
 one of the ash-pit dampers; d the grate; e the 
 \ 01. III. 
 
 plate upon which the muffle rests, and which ij 
 covered with loam nearly one inch thick; /'a 
 section of the mufflle representing the situation 
 of the cupels; g the mouth-plate, and upon it 
 are laid pieces of charcoal, whicli during the pro- 
 cess are ignited, and heat the air that is to pass 
 over the surface of the cupels ; h the interior of 
 the furnace, exhibitin'^ the fuel. 
 
 The total height of the furnace is two feet six 
 inciies and a half; from the bottom to the grate 
 six inches; the grate, muffle, plate, and bed 
 of loam with which it is covered three inches ; 
 from the upper surface of the grate to the com- 
 mencement of the funnel, e, is six inches. The 
 square of the furnace which receives the muffle 
 and fuel is eleven inches and three-quarters by 
 fifteen inches. The external sides of the furnace 
 are made of plates of wrought iron, and are lined 
 with a two-inch fire brick. 
 
 Fig. 3 is the muffle, a sort of small oven, 
 made of crucible clay, and open at one end. On 
 the floor of the muffle the cupels are ranged in 
 order, so that by a corresponding board as a re- 
 gister, the position of each may be preserved 
 with reference to their respective contents. At 
 the sides of the muffle are three or four slits to 
 allow of the circulation of die air, which is essen- 
 tial to the process. It is usual to spread over the 
 floor of the muffle a thin layer of sand, or pow- 
 dered chalk, to prevent the fused oxide of lead 
 which may penetrate the cupel, from cementing 
 it to the bottom of the muflle. 
 
 I'ig. 4 is the muffle plate on which it rests in 
 the furnace. 
 
 Fig. 5 is the door seen at d in fig. 1, with n its 
 sliding mouth-plate. 
 
 Fig. 6 lepresents the mode of closing the 
 mouth of the furnace with cylinders of charcoal, 
 which being ignited, heat the air, before it arrives 
 at the surface of the metal in the cupels. 
 
 Fig. 7 two cupels ; they are made of bones 
 calcmed and reduced to a moderately fine pow- 
 der, which is mixed up with water so as to 
 form a paste. The shape is produced by ram- 
 ming this paste into truncated conical moulds, a 
 cavity is then formed at the upper surface of each 
 by means of a round ended pestle or rammer. 
 The cupel is disengaged from the mould, and 
 suffered to become thoroughly dry in the open 
 air before it can be made use of for an assay. 
 The core of ox horns is considered the best 
 substance for producing the phosphate of lime 
 for cupels. Those commonly employed in the 
 mint are one inch in diameter by seven-eighths 
 in depth. 
 . Fig. 8 the teaser for cleaning the grate. 
 
 Fig. 9 a larger teaser, which is introduced at 
 the top of the furnace, .for keeping a complete 
 supply of charcoal around the muffle. 
 
 Fig. 10 the tongs used for charging the essays 
 into the cupels. 
 
 Fig. 1 1 represents a board of wood used as a 
 register, and is divided into forty-five equal com- 
 partments, upon which the assays are placed 
 previous to their being introduced into the fur- 
 nace. When the operation is performed, the 
 cupels are placed in the furnace in situations 
 corresponding to these assays on the board ; by 
 these means all confusion is avoided, and wiih- 
 
 F
 
 ASS 
 
 66 
 
 ASS 
 
 out this regularity, it would be impossible to 
 preserve the accuracy which the delicate opera- 
 tion of the assayer requires. 
 
 Assay-Master, an officer, under certain cor- 
 porations, entrusted with the care of making tme 
 touch, or assay, of gold and silver; and giving a 
 just report of the goodness or badness thereof. 
 Such is the assay-master of the mint in the Tower, 
 called also assayer of the kinir. 
 
 The assay-master of the goldsmith's company 
 is an assistant-warden, called also a touch-war- 
 den, appointed to survey, assay, and mark all 
 the silver-work, &c. committed to him. There 
 are also assay-masters, appointed by statute, at 
 York, Exeter, Bristol, Chester, Norwich, New- 
 castle, and Birmingham, for assaying wrought 
 plate. The assay-master is to retain eight grains 
 of every pound Troy of silver brought to him ; 
 four whereof are to be put in the pix, or box of 
 deal, to be re-assayed the next year ; and the 
 other four to be allowed him for his waste and 
 spillings. 12 and 13 Will. III. c.4. 1 Ann. c. 9. 
 Note. The number of pennyweights set 
 down in the assay-master's report, is to be ac- 
 counted as per pound, or so much in every 
 pound of twelve ounces Troy. For every twenty 
 pennyweights, or ounce Troy, the silver is found 
 by the assay to be worse than standard, or ster- 
 ling, sixpence is to be deducted ; because every 
 ounce will cost so much to reduce it to standard 
 goodness, or to change it for sterling. In gold, 
 for every carat it is set down to be worse than 
 standard, you are to account that in the ounce 
 Troy it is worse by so many times 3s. Qd. And 
 for every grain it is set down worse, you must 
 account it worse by so many times \\d. in the 
 ounce Troy. And for every half grain, 5^d. ; 
 for so much it will cost to make it of standard 
 goodness, &c. 
 
 Assay-Balance, a balance used in the opera- 
 tion of assaying. See Balance. 
 
 Assay of Weights and Measures, often 
 signifies the trial or examination of common 
 weights and me;isures by the clerk of a market. 
 
 ASSECU'RE, ~\ Barbarous Lat. assecu- 
 
 Assecl'rance, >rare, Lat. securm, to give 
 
 Assecura'tion'. j assurance. 
 
 Can never mischief end as it begun ; 
 
 But being once out, must farther out of force ? 
 
 Think you that any means under the sun 
 
 Can oisecure so indirect a course ? 
 
 Daniel. Civii War. bk. iii. p. 473. 
 
 But how far then reaches this assecuration ? So far 
 as to exclude all fears, all doubting and hesitation ? 
 Neither of these. Bishop Hall's Sermons. 
 
 ASSECUTION. Lat. asseguor, assecutus, 
 from ad and sequor, the act of following up, ob- 
 taining. 
 
 By the canon law, a person after he has been in 
 full possession of a second benefice, cannot return to 
 his first, because it is immediately void by his assecu- 
 tion of a .second. Ai/liffe's Parergon. 
 
 ASSELYN (John), a famous Dutch painter, 
 the disciple of Isaiah \'andevelde. He distin- 
 guished himself in historical pieces, battles, land- 
 scapes, with ruins and animals, particularly 
 horses. He travelled into France and Italy; 
 and was much pleased with the manner of Bom- 
 bochio, which he always followed, except in the 
 
 painting landscapes, in which Claude Lorraine 
 was his model. Twenty-four of his landscapes 
 have been engraved by Perelle, and sold at high 
 prices. He died at Amsterdam in 1660. 
 
 ASSEMANI, I. S. and S. E. two learned 
 librarians of the Vatican, in the seventeenth and 
 eighteenth centuries. Joseph Simon was bom 
 at Rome 1687, and died 1768. He wrote Bib- 
 liotheca Orientalis Clemenlino Vaticana, Romae, 
 1719-28, 4 vols, folio, affording ample proof of his 
 learning in the numerous notices it contains of Sy- 
 riac, Arabic, and Persian manuscripts, with lives 
 of their authors. S. Ephra:m, Syri, Opera omnia, 
 qux extant, Grffice, Syriace, et Latine, Romae, 
 1732-34, 6 vols. folio; Italics Ilistoriae Scriptores 
 ex Bibl. Vat., Romae, 1751-53,4 vols. 4to; Ka- 
 lendaria Ecclesise Universal, &c. Romae, 1755- 
 57, 6 vols. 4to. Assemani, S. E. nephew of the 
 foregoing, wrote Bibliothecffi Mediceo Lauren- 
 tina? et Palatinae Codd. MSS. Orientalium Cata- 
 logus, Florenti?e, 1742,2 vols, folio; Acta Sanc- 
 torum Martyrum Oriental et Occidental, Romae, 
 1748, 2 vols, folio. 
 
 ASSEM'BLANCE. Fr. sembler, a likeness. 
 See Semblance. 
 
 FalsT. Will you tell me. Master Shallow, how to 
 chuse a man ? Care I for the limbe, the thewes, the 
 stature, bulke, and bigge assemblance of a man ? Give 
 me the spirit. Master Shallow, 
 
 Shakspeare. Henry IV. part ii. 
 
 ASSEMBLE, v. & w.^ 
 
 Assem'blage, 
 
 Assem'blance, 
 
 Assem'bler, 
 
 Assem'bling, 
 
 Assem'bly. 
 
 Fr. assembler, from 
 the Latin ad, to, and 
 si/nul, together. To 
 bring together, or in 
 one place; to collect; 
 J to convene. 
 
 A rout of people there assembled were. 
 Of every sort and nation under sky, 
 ■WTiich, with great uproar, pressed to draw near 
 To the upper part, where was advanced high 
 A stately seat of sovereign majesty. Spenser. 
 
 Mahomet made the people believe that he would 
 call a hill to him ; and from the top of it offer up 
 his prayers for the observers of his law. The people 
 assembled ; Mahomet called the hill to come to him, 
 again and again ; and, when the hill stood still, he 
 was never a whit abashed, but said ; ' If the hill will 
 not come to Mahomet, Mahomet will go to the hill.' 
 Lord Bacon's Essays. 
 
 These men assembled, and found Daniel praying. 
 
 Daniel. 
 
 And he shall set up an ensign for the nations, and 
 shall assemble the outcasts of Israel, and gather toge- 
 ther the dispersed of Judah. Isaiah xi. 12. 
 Ho wonders for what end you have assembled 
 
 Such troops of citizens to come to him. 
 
 Shakspeare. 
 Assemble all in choirs, and with their notes 
 
 Salute and welcome up the rising sun. Otway. 
 
 O Hartford (fitted, or to shine in courts 
 With unaffected grace, or walk the plains. 
 With innocence and meditation join'd 
 In soft assemblage) listen to my song ! Thomson. 
 
 The Assembly of Divines at Westminster, 
 was an association of ministers and others, sum- 
 moned by ordinance of parliament, in the year 
 1643, to meet at Westminster, ' for settling the 
 government and liturgy of the church of Eng- 
 land, and for vindicating and clearing the said 
 church from false aspersions and interpretations.'
 
 ASS 
 
 67 
 
 ASS 
 
 It also met expressly according to the words 
 of the covenant, ' for the extirpation of pre- 
 lacie, that is church-government by arch-bi- 
 shops, bishops, their chancellors, and com- 
 missaries, deans and chapters, archdeacons and 
 all other ecclesiastical officers.' This assem- 
 bly consisted of 121 divines and thirty laymen, 
 < celebrated ' in their party,' says Mr. Hume, 
 * for piety and learning.' The leading parties 
 •were the Presbyterians, Erastians, and Indepen- 
 dents. The works of the assembly, besides some 
 letters to foreign churches, and occasional admo- 
 nitions were, 1. Their humble Advice to Parlia- 
 ment, for Ordination of Ministers, and settling 
 the Presbyterian Government. 2. A Directory 
 for Public Worship. 3. A Confession of Faith. 
 4. A larger and a shorter Catechism. 5. A Review 
 of some of the Thirty-nine Articles. Both the 
 larger and shorter Assembly's catechism, are 
 largely in use at the present time among the 
 English Calvinistic dissenters. 
 
 Assemblies of the clergy are otherwise called 
 convocations, synods, councils. The annual 
 meeting of the church of Scotland is called the 
 General Assembly ; in which his Majesty is re- 
 presented by his commissioner, generally a 
 Scottish nobleman, but who has no voice in the 
 deliberations : his duty being confined to the 
 calling and dissolution of the meeting, which 
 'he does in the name of his Majesty, whilst the 
 Moderator does the same in the name of the 
 Lord Jesus Christ. This assembly possesses the 
 highest authority in the church of Scotland ; a 
 presbytery, composed of fewer than twelve pa- 
 rishes, sends two ministers and one ruling elder 
 to the assembly ; if it contains between twelve 
 and eighteen ministers, it sends three of these, 
 and one ruling elder ; if it contains between 
 •eighteen and twenty-four ministers, it sends four 
 ministers and two ruling elders ; and of twenty- 
 four ministers, it sends five with two ruling 
 elders. Every royal borough deputes one ruling 
 elder, and Edinburgh two ; their election must 
 be attested by the kirk-session of their respective 
 boroughs. Every university sends one commis- 
 sioner from its own body. The commissioners 
 are chosen annually six weeks before the meet- 
 ing of the assembly ; and the ruling elders are 
 often men of the first eminence for rank and 
 talents. 
 
 Assemblies of the Roman people were called 
 comitia. 
 
 Assemblies of the States. Under the Go- 
 thic governments, the supreme legislative power 
 was lodged in an assembly of the states of the 
 kingdom held annually for the like purposes as 
 our parliaments. There were some feeble remains 
 of them in France and Poland before the late re- 
 volutions and counter-revolutions. 
 
 Assembly, in the military art, the second 
 beating of a drum before a march ; at which the 
 soldiers strike their tents, roll them up, and 
 stand to arms. See Drum. 
 
 ASSENS, a bailiwic and town of Denmark, 
 on the west coast of the island of Funen, which 
 carries on a considerable trade in corn. It is 
 also called Asnes, which signifies the holy pro- 
 montory. A battle was fought in it, in 1536, 
 wherein Christian III. obtained a decisive victory 
 
 over Christian II. Here is a ferry across the 
 little Belt to Holstein. Long. 9° 54' E., lat. 55° 
 20' N. 
 
 ASSENT', V. &. w.-\ Lat. assentior, from ad, 
 Assenta'tion, / and sentio, to think to, to 
 Assexta'tor, ^be of the same opinion. 
 Assent'er, i To agree to what is pro- 
 
 Assent'ment. J posed, to bring one's 
 mind to a thinij;, to comply. Assentation is sy- 
 nonymous with flattery ; obsequiousness. 
 
 And the Jews also assented, saying that these things 
 ■were so. Acts xxiv. 9. 
 
 Their arguments are but precarious, and subsist 
 upon the charity of our assentmenis. 
 
 Brown's Vulgar Errors. 
 
 To urge any thing upon the church ; requiring 
 thereunto that religious assent of Christian belief, 
 wherewith the words of the holy prophets are receiv- 
 ed, and not to show it in scripture ; this did the 
 Fathers evermore think unlawful, impious, and exe- 
 crable. Hooker. 
 
 The evidence of God's own testimony, added unto 
 
 the natural assent of reason concerning the certainty 
 
 of them, doth not a little comfort and confirm the 
 
 same. Id. 
 
 Without the king's assent or knowledge. 
 
 You wrought to be a legate. Shakspeare. 
 
 Faith is the assent to any proposition, not thus made 
 out by the deduction of reason, but upon the credit of 
 the proposer. Locke. 
 
 All the arguments on both sides must be laid in 
 balance ; and, upon the whole, the understanding de- 
 termine its assent. Id. 
 
 ]\Ian is the world's high-priest, he doth present 
 The sacrifice for all, while they below. 
 Unto the sen'ice mutter an assent. 
 Such as springs use, that fall, and winds that blow. 
 
 Herbert. 
 
 One would think that hell should have little need 
 of the fawning assentation of others, when men carry 
 so dangerous parasites in their own bosoms ; but sure, 
 both together must needs help to people that region of 
 darkness. Bishop Hall's Soliloquies. 
 
 He ceased ; th' assembled warriors all assent. 
 
 All but Atrides. Cumberland. 
 
 Precept gains only the cold approbation of reason, 
 and compels an assent which judgment frequently 
 yields with reluctance, even when delay is impossible. 
 
 Hawkesworth. 
 
 The Royal Assent is the approbation given 
 by the king in parliament, to a bill which has 
 passed both houses, after which it becomes a 
 law. 
 
 The royal assent may be given in two ways. 1 
 In person ; when the king comes to the house of 
 peers, in his crown and royal robes, and sending 
 for the commons to the bar, the titles of all the 
 bills that have passed both houses are read ; and 
 the king's answer is declared by the clerk of the 
 parliament in Norman-French. If the king con- 
 sents to a public bill, the clerk usually declares, 
 ' le roy le veut ; the king wills it so to be ; ' if 
 to a private bill, ' soit fait comme il est desirb ; 
 be it as it is desired.' If the king refuses his 
 assent, it is in the gentle language of * le roy 
 s'avisera; the king will advise upon it.' ^^ hen 
 a money-bill, or bill of supply, is passed, it is 
 carried up and presented to the king by the 
 speaker of the house of commons ; and the royal 
 assent is thus expressed Meroy remercie ses loyal 
 sujets, accepte leur benevolence, et aussi le veut ; 
 
 F 'i
 
 ASS 
 
 68 
 
 the king thanks liis loyal subjects, accepts their 
 Ljenevolence, and wills it so to be.' 
 
 In case of an act of grace, which originally 
 proceeds from the crown, and has the royal as- 
 sent in the first stage of it, tiie clerk of the par- 
 liament thus pronounces the gratitude of the 
 subject ; ' les prelats, seigneurs, et commons, en 
 ce present parlement assemblees,au nom de touts 
 vous autres sujets, remercient tres humblement 
 votre majeste, et prient a Dieu vous donner en 
 sante bone vie et longue ; the prelates, lords, 
 and commons, in this present parliament assem- 
 bled, in the name of all your oiher subjects, 
 most humbly thank your majesty, and pray 
 to God to grant you health and wealth long to 
 live.' 
 
 2. By the statute 33 Hen. VIII. c. 21., the 
 king may give his assent, by letters patent, under 
 his great seal, signed with his hand, and notified 
 in his absence to both houses, assembled toge- 
 ther in the high house. And when the bill has 
 received the royal assent in either of these ways 
 it is then, and not before, a statute or act of par- 
 liament : a copy of which is usualiyprinted at the 
 king's press, for the information of the whole 
 land. See Blackst. Com. book i. chap. 2. 
 
 ASSER, or Asce, a Jewish rabbi of the fifth 
 century, who, with other learned rabbin, com- 
 piled the collection of Hebrew traditions called 
 the Babylonian Talmud. This was printed at 
 Leyden, 1630, in 4to. ; but the most complete 
 edition is one published in 1744, at Amsterdam, 
 twelve volumes folio, with an ample commen- 
 tary. Asser died in 427, aged seventy-four. 
 
 AssER (John), or Asserius Menevensis, (i. e. 
 Asser of St. David's), bishop of Sherborne in the ' 
 reign of Alfred the Great. He was born in Pem- 
 brokeshire, South Wales ; and educated in the 
 monastery of St. David's. By his assiduous ap- 
 plication he soon acciuired universal fame as a 
 person of profound learning and great abilities. 
 Alfred the munificent patron of genius, about the 
 year 880, sent for him to his court, then held at 
 Dean in Wiltshire. He was so charmed with 
 Asser, that he made him his preceptor and com- 
 panion ; appointed him abbot of two or three 
 different monasteries ; and at last promoted him 
 to the see of Sherborne, where he died in 910. 
 He is said to have been principally instrumental 
 in persuading the king to restore the university 
 of 0.\ford to its pristine dign'ty ; and wrote De 
 Vita et Rebus Gestis Alfredi, &c. Lond. 1574, 
 published by archbishop Parker, in the old 
 Saxon character, at the end of Walsinghami 
 Hist.— Francf. 1602, fol. Oxf. 1722, Bvo. Many 
 other works are ascribed to this author by Gale, 
 Bale, Sec. but on very doubtful authority. 
 
 ASSERIA, AssESiA,or AsisiA, an ancient town 
 of Liburnia, now in ruins. Pliny, having speci- 
 fied the Liburoian cities that were obliged to 
 attend the congress of Scardonia, adds to the ca- 
 talogue the free Asserians, immunesque Asse- 
 riates; apeople who created dieir own magistrates, 
 and wore governed by their own municipal 
 laws. 
 
 ASSERIDA, in botany, a name given by the 
 people of Guinea to a kmd of shrub, the leaves 
 of which being chewed, are a cure for tiie 
 
 ASS 
 
 ASSERT', ^ 
 
 Asserta'cion, I Assero, assertum, to knit 
 Asser'tio.n, I to, to sew to. To abide by, 
 Asser'tive, )>-to bear the consequence of 
 
 Asser'tively, 
 
 Asser'tor, 
 
 Asser'tory. 
 
 an opinion, to hold, to main- 
 tain, to ufiirm. 
 
 That tongue 
 Inspir'd with contradiction, durst oppose 
 A third part of the gods, in synod met. 
 Their deities to assert. Miltim. 
 
 Among th' asserterx of free reason's claim. 
 Our nation's not the Irast, in worth or fame. 
 The world to Bacon does not only owe 
 It's present knowledge, and its future too. 
 
 Dn/den's Epistles. 
 Faithful assertor of thy country's cause, 
 Britain with tears shall bathe thy glorious wound. 
 
 Prior. 
 It is an usual piece of art to undermine the autho- 
 rity of fundamental truths, by pretending to shew 
 how weak the proofs are which their assertor.i employ 
 in defence of them. Atterhury. 
 
 He was not so fond of the principles he undertook 
 to illustrate, as to boast their certainty ; proposing 
 them, not in a confident and assertive form, but as pro- 
 babilities and hypotheses. Glanville. 
 The Epicureans contented themselves with the de- 
 nial of a Providence, asserting at the same time tlio 
 existence of gods in general, because they would not 
 shock the common belief of mankind. Addison, 
 We, as it were, lean forward with surprise and 
 trembling, to behold the human soul collecting its 
 strength, and asserting a right to superior fates. 
 
 Uslier. 
 AVhen the great soul buoys up to this high point. 
 Leaving gross nature's sediments below. 
 Then, and then only, Adam's offspring quits 
 The sage and hero of the fields and woods. 
 Asserts his rank and rises into man. Young. 
 
 It is an erect countenance ; it is a firm adherence 
 to principle ; it is a power of resisting false shame 
 and frivolous fear, that assert our good faith and ho- 
 nour, and assure us of the confidence of mankind. 
 
 Btirhe, 
 Sophocles also, in a fragment of one of his trage- 
 dies, asserts the unity of the supreme being. 
 
 Cumberland. 
 But, lo ! from high Hymethus to the plain. 
 The queen of night asserts her silent reign. 
 
 Lord Byron's Corsair. 
 
 ASSESS', V. & 7?.>L Ital. assessaie, to set to, 
 AssEs'siONARY, (^ impose a tax. Legally 
 AssEs'sMENT, i done by a sitting or coun- 
 AssEs'soR. J cil, and agreement of those 
 
 authorised to impose it. Assessor is a legal ad- 
 viser to a magistrate, sitting by him on the 
 bench. 
 
 To his Son, 
 Th' assessor of his throne, he thus began. Milton. 
 
 Twice stronger than his sire, who sat above. 
 Assessor to the throne of thund'ring Jove. Dryden, 
 
 Minos, the strict inquisitor, appears ; 
 And lives and crimes, with his assessors, hears : 
 Round, in his urn, the blended balls he rolls; 
 Absolves the just, and dooms the guilty souls. Id. 
 
 What greater immunity and happiness can there 
 be to a people, than to be liable to no laws, but what 
 they make themselves? To be subject to no contri- 
 bution, assessment, or any pecuniary levy whatsoever, 
 but what they vote, and voluntarily yield unto them- 
 silves. Hou<:^-
 
 ASS 
 
 69 
 
 ASS 
 
 One of the answers of the jury, upon their oaths, at 
 the assessionary court, I have inserted. 
 
 Curew's Survey of Cornwall. 
 Pausanias sat the judge ; 
 Callicrates and Aemnestus wise. 
 His two assessors. Glover's Athenaid. 
 
 ASSETS, in law, are either real or personal. 
 Where a man hath lands in fee simple, and dies 
 seized thereof, the lands which come to his heir 
 are assets real ; and where he dies possessed of 
 any personal estate, the goods which come to the 
 executors are assets personal. Assets are also 
 divided into assets per descent, and assets inter 
 maines. 
 
 1 . Assets by Descent are where a person is 
 bound in an obligation, and dies seized of lands 
 which descend to the heir, the land shall be 
 assets, and the heir shall be charged a^s far as the 
 land to him descended will extend. 
 
 2. Assets inter Maines are when a man in- 
 debted makes executors, and leaves them suffi- 
 cient to pay his debts and legacies ; or where 
 some commodity or profit ariseth to them in 
 right of the testator, which are called assets in 
 their hands.' This term is also applied com- 
 mercially to any available property for the pay- 
 ment of a man's debts. 
 
 ASSEV'ER, > Lat. assevero ; ad, and se- 
 
 Assever'ation. S verus. To say or affirm se- 
 verely or solemnly; to assure; to maintain 
 seriously. 
 
 Guise. You must, you will, _and smile upon my 
 murder. 
 
 Marmontier. Therefore, if you are conscious of 
 a breach. 
 Confess it to me : lead me to the king. 
 He has promis'd me to conquer his revenge. 
 And place you next him ; therefore, if you're right. 
 Make me not fear it by asseverations. 
 But speak your heart, and O resolve me truly. 
 
 Dryden. Duke of Guise. 
 
 ' I will come and some of you shall see me 
 coming.' Can it be supposed that in such an asse- 
 veration, the word to ' come' may bear two different 
 senses. Horsley's Sermons. 
 
 ASSIDEANS, orCHASiDiEANs; from the Heb. 
 On'On, chasidim, merciful, pious ; those Jews 
 who resorted to Mattathias to fight for the law of 
 God and the liberties of their country. They 
 were men of great valor and zeal, having volun- 
 tarily deroted themselves to a more strict obser- 
 vation of the law than other men. . For after the 
 return of the Jews from the Babylonish captivity, 
 there were two sorts of men in their church; 
 those who contented themselves with that obe- 
 dience only which was prescribed by the law of 
 Moses, and who were called Zadikira, i. e. the 
 righteous ; and those who, over and above the 
 law, superadded the constitutions and traditions 
 of the elders, and other rigorous observances : 
 these latter were called Chasidim, i. e. the pious. 
 From the former sprung the Samaritans, Saddu- 
 cees, and Caraites ; from the latter, the Pharisees 
 and the Essenes. 
 
 ASSIDENT signs, in medicine, are symptoms 
 which usiially attend a disease but not always ; 
 hence differing from pathognomic signs, which 
 are inseparable from the disease : e. g. in the 
 pleurisy, a pungent pain in the side ; in an acute 
 fever, difficulty of breathing, &c. collectively 
 
 taken, are pathognomic signs ; but that the pain 
 extends to the hypochondrium or clavicle, or 
 that the patient lies with more ease on one side 
 than on the otlier, are assident signs. 
 
 ASSID'UATE,^ Lat. assideo, to sit down 
 Assid'uity, i^aX any thing constantly or 
 Assid'uous, i daily. Constant in appli- 
 Assid'uously. J cation, unwearied, diligent, 
 sedulous. 
 
 And if by pray'r 
 Incessant I could hope to change the will 
 Of him who all things can, I would not cease 
 To weary him with my assiduous cries. Milton. 
 
 The most assiduous tale-bearers, and bitterest le- 
 vilers, are often half-witted people. 
 
 Government of the Tongue. 
 In summer, you see the hen giving herself greater 
 freedoms, and quitting her care for above two hours 
 together ; but in winter, when the rigour of the sea- 
 son would chill the principles of life, and destroy 
 the young one, she grows more assiduous in her at- 
 tendance, and stays away but half the time. 
 
 Addison, 
 
 Each still renews her little labour, • 
 
 Nor justles her assiduous neighbour. Prior. 
 
 We observe the address and assiduity they will use 
 
 to corrupt us. Rogers. 
 
 The habitable earth may have been perpetually the 
 
 drier, seeing it is assiduously drained and exhausted 
 
 by the seas. Bentley. 
 
 A scholar is industrious, who doth assiduously bend 
 
 his mind to study for getting knowledge. 
 
 Barrow's Sermons. 
 Often as she mounts 
 Or quits the car, his arm her weight sustains 
 With tremblmg pleasure. His assiduous hand 
 From purest fountains wafts the living flood. 
 
 Glover. Leonidas, book viii. p. 57. 
 ASSIDUI, in Roman antiquity, volunteers 
 who served in the army at their own expense. 
 
 ASSIDUUS, or Adsiduus, from as, money, 
 among the Romans, denoted a rich or wealthy 
 person. Hence we meet with assiduous sureties, 
 assidui fide-jussores. VVhen Servius TuUius di- 
 vided the Roman people into five classes, accord- 
 ing as they were assessed, the richer sort who 
 contributed asses were denominated assidui ; and 
 as these were the chief people of business who 
 attended all the public concerns, those who were 
 diligent in attendances came to be denominated 
 assidui. 
 
 ASSIEGE'. Fr. assleger, to sit down before. 
 To sit down before a town, to besiege. 
 
 Surche wondring was ther on this hors of brass, 
 That sin the gret assege of Troye was, 
 Ther as men wondred on en horrs also, 
 Ne was ther swiche a wondring, as was tho. 
 
 Chaucer. The Squier's Tale, vol. i. p. 431. 
 On th' other side th' assieged castles ward 
 Their stedfast arms did mightily maintain. 
 
 Spenser. 
 I leave what glory virtue did attain. 
 At th'ever memorable Agincourt. 
 I leave to tell, what wit, what pow'r did gain 
 The assieg'd Roan, Caen, Dreux ; or in what sort. 
 Daniel. Civil If ar, book v. 
 
 ASSIENTO, Span, a contract. The first of this 
 kind was made by the French Guinea Company ; 
 and, by the treaty of Utrecht, transferred to the 
 English, who were to furnish 4800 negroes to 
 Spanish America annually.
 
 ASS 
 
 70 
 
 ASS 
 
 Lat. 
 
 assigno ; ad, and 
 
 signo, to mark or sign. 
 
 To mark off, to appoint, 
 
 flo set ap;irt, to appropriate 
 
 to a particular use, to 
 
 J allot, to bring forward as 
 
 ASSIGN', V. & n. 
 
 Assign'abie, 
 
 Assigna'tion, 
 
 Assignee', 
 
 Assigx'er, 
 
 Assign'ment. 
 a cause or reason. 
 
 At last, as forced by false Ulysses crye. 
 
 Of purpose he brake fourth, assigning me 
 
 To the altar. Surrey. 
 
 He assigned Uriah unto a place where he knew that 
 valiant men were. 2 Sam. xi. 16. 
 
 The two armies were assigned to the leading of two 
 generals, both of them rather courtiers assured to the 
 state, than martial men. Bacon. 
 
 The only thing which maketh any place publick, 
 is the publick assignment thereof unto such duties. 
 
 Hooker. 
 
 Thus most invectively he (Jaques) pierceth through 
 The body of the country, city, court. 
 Yea, and of this our life, swearing that we 
 Are mere usurpers, tyrants, and what's worse 
 Fright the animals, and to kill them up 
 In their assigned and native dwelling-place. 
 
 Shakspeare. As You Like It. 
 The cause of love can never be assigned, 
 
 'Tis in no face, but in the lover's mind. 
 
 Dryden. Tyrannic Love. 
 Both joining. 
 As join'd in injuries, one enmity 
 Against a foe by doom express assign'd us. 
 That cruel serpent. Milton. 
 
 This institution, which assigns it to ajerson whom 
 we have no rule to know, is just as good as an assign- 
 ment to nobody at all. Locke. 
 
 The lovers expected the return of this stated hour 
 with as much impatience as if it had been a real as- 
 signation. Spectator, 
 
 True quality is neglected, virtue is oppressed, and 
 vice triumphant. The last day will assign to every 
 one a station suitable to the dignity of his character. 
 
 Addison. 
 
 The gospel is at once the assigner of our tasks, and 
 the magazine of our strength. Decay of Piety. 
 
 Assign, or Assignee, in common law, a person 
 to whom a thing is assigned or made over. The 
 word assign is said to have been introduced in 
 favor of natural children ; who, because they can- 
 not pass by the name of heirs, are included under 
 that of assigns. For Assignee, in brankruptcy, 
 see Bankruptcy. 
 
 Assignable Magnitude, in geometry, any 
 finite magnitude. 
 
 Assignable Ratio, the ratio of finite quanti- 
 ties. 
 
 ASSIGNATS, a species of paper currency, 
 issued by the government of France, for sums of 
 different values, to the amount of many thousand 
 millions of livres, to support the credit of the re- 
 public during the course of the revolution. 
 
 Assignment, may be more accurately de- 
 fined the act of transferring the interest or pro- 
 perty a man has in any thing ; or of appointing 
 or setting over a right to another. 
 
 Assignment ob a Dowry, is the setting 
 out of a woman's portion by the heir. 
 
 ASSIjNI'ILATE, ~\ Lat. assiinilo, assimila- 
 
 Assim'ilateness, / turn ; from ad, and shnilis, 
 
 Assimila'tion, Vto bring to the like, to 
 
 Assim'ilative, i make like, to liken, to 
 
 Assim'ilable. J resemble, to convert to its 
 own substance by digestion, and the process car- 
 ried on in animal or vegetable bodies. 
 
 The spirits of many will find but naked habita- 
 tions ; meeting no aisimilahles wherein to re-act their 
 natures. Brown's Vulgar Errours. 
 
 How little must the ordinary occupations of men 
 seem to one who is engaged in so noble a pursuit as 
 the assimilation of himself to the Deity. Berkeley. 
 
 Fast falls a fleecy show'r : the downy flakes 
 
 Descending, and with never ceasing lapse 
 
 Softly alighting upon all below. 
 
 Assimilate all objects. Cowper's Poems. 
 
 A ruin is a sacred thing. Rooted for ages in the 
 
 soil, assimilated to it, and become as it were a part of 
 
 it, we consider it a work of nature, rather than of art. 
 
 Gilpin's Tour to the Lakes. 
 
 Assimilation, in physics, is that motion 
 by which bodies convert other bodies related to 
 them, or at least such as are prepared to be con- 
 verted, into their own substance and nature. 
 Thus flame multiplies itself upon oily bodies, 
 and generates new flame ; air upon water, and 
 produces new air; and all the parts, as well 
 similar as organical, in vegetables and animals, 
 first attract with some election or choice, nearly 
 the same, common or not very different juices for 
 aliment, and afterwards assimilate or convert 
 them to their own nature. 
 
 ASSINIBONS, a native tribe of North Ameri- 
 cans, whose name has been given to the western 
 branch of the Great Red River. This stream 
 divides itself into two branches, about thirty 
 miles from its estuary in lake Winnipeg, the 
 eastern branch bearing the name of the Red 
 River from its source, the western, which rises 
 in N. lat. 51° 15', and W. long. 103° 20', that 
 of Assinibons. Extensive plains, covered with 
 a short rank grass, and crowded with buffaloes 
 and elks, extend between these streams, but tim- 
 ber even for firewood is scarce. The soil is 
 gravelly, and beds of lime and stone form the 
 rapids of these rivers ; which are both navigable 
 by canoes up to their source. 
 
 ASSINT, a parish of Scotland in the county 
 of Sutherland, about fifteen miles in breadth, 
 and twenty-five in length. 
 
 ASSIRATUM, in antiquity, a bloody draught, 
 wherewith treaties were ratified. It was made of 
 wine and blood, called by the ancient Romans 
 assir. 
 
 ASSIS, in physiology, opium, or a powder 
 made of hemp-seed, which being formed into 
 boluses about the bigness of chestnuts, is swal- 
 lowed by the Egyptians, who hereby become 
 intoxicated and ecstatic. It is called by the 
 Turks asserac. 
 
 ASSISA Cadere, in law ; from assideo, to be 
 nonsuited ; when the complainant, from defect of 
 legal evidence can proceed no further. Assisa 
 cadit in juratum, is where a thing in controversy 
 is so doubtful that it must necessarily be tried by 
 a jury. Assisa continuanda, a writ directed to 
 justices of assize for the continuation of a cause 
 when certain records alleged cannot be produced 
 in time by the party that has occasion to use them. 
 Assisa proroganda, a writ for the stay of proceed- 
 ings by reason of the parties being employed in 
 the king's business. Assiza panis et cerevisiae, 
 assize of bread and beer, a statute for regulat- 
 ing their weight and quantity. Assisa No- 
 cumenfi, see Nuisance. Assisa capi in mo- 
 dum assisee, when the defendant pleads di- 
 rectly to the assize. — Assisa judicum, a judg-
 
 ASS 
 
 71 
 
 ASS 
 
 ment of the court given either against the plain- 
 lift' or the defendant. 
 
 ASSISI, a small town in the papal dominions, 
 in the duchy of Spoleto: the see of a bishop. 
 S*. Francis, the celebrated founder of the Fran- 
 ciscan order, was born here ; and lies buried in the 
 Sacro Convento. Near the foot of the hill on which 
 the town stands is a rustic chapel, dedicated to 
 the virgin and the angels, in which St. Francis 
 is supposed to have received his first call to 
 devotion. Over this a spacious church has been 
 erected; and, on the second of August, multi- 
 tudes of pilgrims flock to it from the adjoining 
 provinces. When Mr. Eustace passed it in 1802, 
 one of the fathers informed him, that more 
 than 10,000 persons had attended the last an- 
 niversary, and that ten had been suff'ocated or 
 trampled to death, in pressing forward to touch 
 the altar. Here are the ruins of a temple of 
 Minerva, built about the time of Augustus. The 
 portico consisted of six fluted Corinthian columns, 
 each having a distinct pedestal. It is now used 
 as the portico of the church of Santa Maria di 
 Minerva. In the neighbourhood of Assisi are 
 other vestiges of Roman magnificence; ruins of 
 baths, temples, and an aqueduct. The bishopric 
 was dissolved by the French in 1810. Twenty 
 miles N.N.W. of Spoleto. Long. 12° 30' E., 
 lat. 43' 3° N. 
 
 ASSISII, in ecclesiastical writers, persons 
 beneficed in a cathedral church, not in a rank 
 below that of canons ; thus called, either because 
 they were allowed an assisia or pension, or from 
 assiduus, diligent. 
 
 ASSIST', "\ Assisto ; from a<f, and sisto, 
 
 Assist'axce, fto stop or stay. To place 
 
 Assist'akt, ^one'self by another so as to 
 
 Assist'less. ' give him our strength; to stand 
 by, not in the sense of to look on, but to give 
 support — to help. 
 
 The council of Trent commends recourse, not only 
 to the prayers of the saints, but to their aid and as- 
 tiftance: what doth this aid and assittance signify ? 
 
 StUlingfieet. 
 
 You have abundant assistances for this knowledge, 
 in excellent books. Wake's Prep, for Death. 
 
 One bull, with curl'd black head beyond the rest. 
 And dew-laps hanging from his brawny chest. 
 With nodding front awhile did daring stand. 
 And with his jetty hoof spum'd back the sand : 
 Then, leaping forth, he bellow'd out aloud : 
 Th' amsLzed assistants back each other crowd. 
 While mouarch-like he rang'd the listed field ; 
 Some toss'd, some gor'd, some trampling dovsTi, he 
 kill'd. Dryden. Conquest of Granada, part i. 
 
 Let us entreat this necessary assistance, that by his 
 grace he would lead us. Rogers. 
 
 Loose at each joint; each nerve with horror shakes. 
 
 Stupid he stares, and all assistless stands. 
 
 Such is the force of more than mortal hands. 
 
 Pope. Homer's Iliad, book xvi. 
 
 God assists us in the virtuous conflict, and will 
 crown the conqueror with eternal rewards. Blair. 
 
 While my thoughts were thus employed, I was sent 
 by Metophis towards the mountains of the desert 
 Oasis, that I might assist his slaves in looking after 
 his flocks, which were almost without number. 
 
 Hawkesworth's Telemachvs. 
 Eternal God, 
 
 Guide thou my footsteps in the way of truth. 
 
 And oh ! assist me so to live on earth. 
 
 That I may die in peace, and claim a place 
 
 In thy high dwelling. Kirke White's Poems. 
 
 Assistants, in various trading or public 
 companies, members who have the whole power 
 of managing the company's affairs; and com- 
 monly called the court of assistants. 
 
 ASSISUS, in ancient law writers, a thing 
 farmed out for a certain rent, in money or pro- 
 visions. 
 
 ASSITH:MENT ; from ad, to, Lat. and sithe. 
 Sax. instead of; a wiregold, or compensation 
 by a pecuniary mulct, quod vita supplicii ad 
 expiandum delictum solvitur. 
 
 ASSIZE', V. & n. Fr. assis, part, past, from 
 the verb assevh; to sit. To sit judicially, or un- 
 der the sanction or appointment of the law. 
 
 There nas not a point trucly 
 That it nas in his right assise. 
 
 Chaucer. The Romaunt of the Rose, ch. i. 
 
 When in mid air the golden trump shall sound. 
 To raise the nations under ground ; 
 When in the valley of Jehosaphat 
 
 The judging God shall close the book of fate ; 
 And there the last assizes keep. 
 For those who wake, and those who sleep. 
 Dryden. Ode to the Memory of Mrs. A. Killigrew. 
 
 Assize, in old English law books, is defined to 
 be an assembly of knights, and other substantial 
 men, together with a justice, in a certain place, 
 and at a certain time ; but the word, in its pre- 
 sent acceptation, implies a court, place, or 
 time, when and where the writs and processes, 
 whether civil or criminal, are decided by judge 
 and jury. All the counties of England were. 
 very anciently, divided into six circuits, and two 
 judges assigned by the king's commission, to hold 
 their assizes twice a-year in every county, except 
 London and :Middlesex. They were afterwards 
 directed by magna charta, c. 12. to be sent into 
 every county once a-year to take or try certain 
 actions then called recognitions or assizes; the 
 most difficult of which they are directed to ad- 
 journ into the court of common pleas to be there 
 determined. But the present justices of assize 
 and nisi prius are more immediately derived from 
 the statute Westm. 2. 13 Edw. I.e. 30. explained 
 by several other acts, particularly the statute 1-' 
 Edw. III. c. 16. and must be two of the king 
 justices of the one bench or the other, or the 
 chief baron of the exchequer, or the king's Ser- 
 jeants sworn. They usually make their circuits 
 in the respective vacations after Hilary and Tri- 
 nity terms ; assizes being allowed to be taken in 
 the holy time of Lent by consent of the bishops 
 at the king's request, as expressed in statute 
 Westm. 1. 3 Edw. I. c. 51. The judges upon 
 the circuits now sit by virtue of five several 
 authorities. 1. The commission of the peace, 
 in every county of the circuits; and all justices 
 of the peace of the county are bound to be pre- 
 sent at the assizes; and sheriff's are also to give 
 their attendance on the judges, or they shall be 
 fined. 2. A commission of oyer and terminer,^ 
 directed to them and many other gentlemen of 
 the county, by which they a're empowered to try 
 treasons, felonies, Sec. and this is the largest 
 commission they have. 3. A commission ot 
 general gaol-delivery, directed to the judges and 
 the clerk of assize associate, which gives them 
 power to try every prisoner in the gaol commit- 
 ted for any off"ence whatsoever, but none except
 
 ASS 
 
 72 
 
 ASS 
 
 prisoners in the gaol, so that one way or other 
 they rid the gaol of all the prisoners in it. 4. A 
 commission of assize, directed to the judges and 
 clerk of assize, to take assizes; that is to take the 
 verdict of a peculiar species of jury called an 
 assize, and summoned for the trial of landed dis- 
 putes: the other authority is, 5. Tliat of nisi 
 prius, which is a consequence of the commission 
 of assize, being annexed to the office of those 
 justices by the statute of Westm. 2. 13 Edw. I. 
 c. 30. And it empowers them to try all ques- 
 tions of fact issuing out of the courts of \Vest- 
 minsler, that are then ripe for trial by jury. 
 Formerly, the judges could not act in counties 
 wliere they resided or were born ; but this cus- 
 tom is abrogated by 49 Geo. 3. c. 91. 
 
 Assize, or jury, in Scots law, consists of fif- 
 teen sworn men, (juratores,) picked out by the 
 court from a greater number, not exceeding 
 forty-five, who have been summoned for that 
 purpose by the sheriff, and given in a list to the 
 defender, at serving him with a copy of his libel, 
 
 ASSIZER, or Assiser, from assize; an officer 
 that has the care and oversight of weights and 
 measures in various parts of England. 
 
 ASSO'CIATE, I', n. oc arfy. "i Lat. adsocio, 
 
 Associa'tion, Mrom ad, and so- 
 
 Associa'tor. 3 cio, from sequor; 
 
 to follow. To meet together as equals, to keep 
 in company, to be partners, confederates. 
 
 Their defender, and his associatea, have sithence 
 proposed to the world a form, such as themselves like. 
 
 Hooker. 
 
 The church, being a society, hath the self-same 
 
 original grounds which other politick societies have ; 
 
 the natural inclination which all men have unto 
 
 sociable life, and consent to some certain bond of 
 
 association ; which bond is the law that appointeth 
 
 what kind of order they should be associated in. Id. 
 
 A fearful army, led by Caius Marcius, 
 
 Associated v.ith Aufidius, rages 
 
 Upon our territories. Shakspeare. 
 
 Sole Eve, associate sole, to me (beyond 
 Compare) above all living creatures dear. 
 
 Milton. 
 
 Associate in your town a wand'ring train ; 
 And strangers in your palace entertain. Drijden. 
 
 He was accompanied with a noble gentleman, no 
 unsuitable associate. Wotton. 
 
 They persuade the king, now in old age, to make 
 Plangus his associate in government with him. 
 
 Sidney. 
 
 Self-denial is a kind of holy association with God ; 
 and, by making you his partner, interests you in all 
 his happiness. Boyle, 
 
 Association of ideas is of great importance, and may 
 be of excellent use. Watts. 
 
 But my associates now my stay deplore. 
 
 Impatient. Pope.' Odyssey. 
 
 Associate Presbytery, tiie title first assumed 
 by those clergymen who associated togetlier, 
 after seceding from the church of Scotland, in 
 1733, 
 
 Associate Synop, was the highest ecclesias- 
 tical court among the Anliburgher Seceders of 
 Scotland. Its decisions being final, like those of 
 the General Assembly. See Antiburgher and 
 Seceders. 
 
 Association, in law, is a patent by the king, 
 either of his own motion, or at the suit of 
 a party plaintiff, to the justices of assize ; to 
 
 have other persons associated witli them, in 
 order to take the assize. 
 
 Association of Ideas, is where two or more 
 ideas constantly and immediately accompany 
 or succeed one another in the mind, so that 
 one shall almost infallibly produce the other, 
 whether there be any natural relation between 
 them or not. See Metaphysics. Wrong com- 
 binations of ideas, Mr. Locke shows, are a great 
 cause of the irreconcileable opposition between 
 different sects of philosophy and religion : for 
 we cannot imagine, that all who hold tenets dif- 
 ferent from, and sometimes even contradictory 
 to one another, should wilfully and knowingly 
 impose upon themselves, or refuse tnith offered 
 by plain reason : but some loose and indepen- 
 dent ideas are by education, custom, and the 
 constant din of party, so coupled in their minds, 
 that they always appear there together : these 
 they can no more separate in their thoughts, 
 than if they were but one idea; and they operate 
 as if they were so. This gives the appearance 
 of sense to jargon, of demonstration to absurdi- 
 ties, and of consistency to nonsense. It is the 
 foundation of the greatest, and almost of all the 
 errors in the world. Association forms a prin- 
 cipal part of Dr. Hartley's mechanical tlieory of 
 the mind. He distinguishes it into synchronous 
 and successive ; and ascribes our simple and 
 complex ideas to the influence of this principle 
 or habit. Particular sensations result from pre- 
 vious vibrations conveyed through the nerves to 
 the medullary substance of the brain ; and these 
 are so intimately associated together, that any 
 one of them, when impressed alone, shall be 
 able to excite in the mind the ideas of all the 
 rest. Thus we derive the ideas of natural 
 bodies from the association of the several sen- 
 sible qualities with the names that express them, 
 and with each other. The sight of part of a 
 large building suggests the idea of the rest in- 
 stantaneously, by a synchronous association of 
 the parts ; and the sound of the words, which 
 begin a similar sentence, brings to remembrance 
 the remaining parts, in order, by successive as- 
 sociation. Dr. Hartley maintams, that simple 
 ideas run into complex ones by association; 
 and apprehends, that, by pursuing and perfecting 
 this doctrine, we may some time or other be 
 enabled to analyse those complex ideas, that are 
 commonly called the ideas of reflection, or intel- 
 lectual ideas, into their several component parts, 
 i. e. into the simple ideas of sensation of which 
 they consist; and that this may be of con- 
 siderable use in the art of logic, and in ex- 
 plaining the various phenomena of the human 
 mind. 
 
 ASSODES, in medicine, a continued fever, 
 wherein the surface is moderately warm, but the 
 internal heat great. 
 
 ASSOIL', > Supposed to be from the 
 
 Assoil'ment. M'r- absoudrc ; Lat. ubsolverCy 
 to loose or free from. To absolve from guilt; to 
 liberate from punisliment ; to pardon, to forgive. 
 
 This is my drcde, and ye, my brethren twcic, 
 
 Assoilelh mo this question I proie. 
 
 Chaucer. The Marchantcs Tale. 
 But secretly assoiliny of his sin. 
 
 No other med'cinc will tmto him lay. 
 
 Mirror for JHuf/isfratcs.
 
 aSS 
 
 73 
 
 ASS 
 
 T also wj'U aske of you a ccrtayne qucstio."., whiche 
 yf ye assoyle mc, I in lykewyse wyll tell you by what 
 auctorile I do these thynges. 
 
 Bible, 1551. Matthew ch. xxi. 
 But with such guilefull appendices of oathes im- 
 posed on him, that this assoilement was not so much 
 the epilogue of his olde, as the prologue of his new 
 tragicall vexations. 
 
 Speed's History of Great Britaine. 
 
 To AssoiLE, in our ancient law hooks, sig- 
 nifies to absolve from an excommunication. 
 
 ASSONANCE, in rhetoric and poetry, a term 
 used where the words of a phrase or verse have 
 tlie same sound or termination, and yet make no 
 proper rhyme. These are usually accounted 
 vicious in English ; though the Romans some- 
 times used them with elegance : as, Militem 
 comparavit, exercitum ordinivat, aciem lus- 
 travit. 
 
 ASSORT, ^ Fr. assortir, from the Lat. 
 Assort'ment. S sors, lot. To sort, to put 
 things of the same kind or class together, to 
 match, to suit. 
 
 Ye ne be but fools of good disport ! 
 I wole you teachen a new play ; 
 Sit down here by one assort. 
 
 And better mirth never ye scigh. 
 
 Sir Ferumhras, in Ellis, v. ii. p. 401. 
 A taylor sat musically at it in a shed over against 
 the convent, in assorting four dozen of bells for the 
 harness, whistling to each bell as he tied it on with a 
 tliong. Sterne's Tristram Shandy. 
 
 An adjective is by nature a general, and in some 
 measure an abstract word, and necessarily presupposes 
 the idea of a certain species or assortment of things, 
 to all of which it is equally applicable. 
 
 Smith's Moral Sentiments. 
 
 ASSOS, a sea-port of Natolia, subject to the 
 Turks, on a bay of the iEgean Sea, twelve miles 
 south-east of Troas. 
 
 ASSRUMINA, in botany, the name given by 
 
 the people of Guinea to the shrub whose leaves 
 
 tliey use as a cure for long worms, which are 
 
 found in their flesh : they bruise the leaves, and 
 
 apply a large lump of the mass to the part. 
 
 ASSUA'GE, ^ Old Fr. assouager. The 
 
 Assuage'ment, > modern Fr. is soulager. To 
 
 Assua'sive. j soften, to alleviate pain or 
 
 grief, to lessen, to allay, to render tranquil. 
 
 Tell me, when shall these weary woes have end ; 
 Or shall tlicir ruthless torment never cease. 
 But all my days in pining languor spend. 
 Without hope of assuagement or release ? 
 
 Spenser's Sonnets. 
 Shall I, t' assuage 
 Their brutal rage. 
 The regal stem destroy? 
 
 Dry den's Albion. 
 The rest 
 W^s broiled and roasted for the future feast. 
 The chief invited guests were set around ; 
 And, hunger first asswag'd, the bowls were crown'd. 
 Which in deep draughts their cares and labours 
 drown'd. Id. Fables. 
 
 If in the breast tumultuous joys arise, 
 Husick her soft assuasive voice supplies. 
 
 Pope's St. Ceedlia. 
 Refreshing winds the summer's heats assuage ; 
 And kindly warmth disarms the winter's rage. 
 
 Addison. 
 
 Patroclus sat contentedly beside 
 Eurypylus, with many a pleasant theme. 
 Soothing the generous warrior, and his wound 
 Sprinkling with drugs assuasive of his pains. 
 
 Cowper's Iliad, bk. xv. p. 274 
 
 ASSUEF ACTION, > Assuefacio, assuefac- 
 
 As'suETUDE. 5 <«»/, to accustom. The 
 
 state of being accustomed. 
 
 We see that assuetude of things hurtful, doth make 
 them lose the force to hurt. 
 
 Bacon's Natural History. 
 
 Right and left, as parts inservient unto the motive 
 faculty, are differenced by degrees from use and assue- 
 faction, or according whereto the one grows stronger. 
 Brown's Vulgar Errours. 
 
 ASSUME', '\ Assumo, usmmptum, ad 
 
 Assu'mer, / and sumo, to take to [one's 
 
 Assu'ming, Vself.] To appropriate, to 
 
 Assumpt', t;. & n. i claim more than is due, to 
 
 Assump'tion. J arrogate, to suppose some- 
 thing granted without proof. 
 
 Preserve the right of thy place, but stir not ques- 
 tions of jurisdiction ; and rather assume thy right in 
 silence, and de facto, than voice it with claims and 
 challenges. Lord Bacon's Essays. 
 
 His majesty might well assume the complaint and 
 expressioa of king David. Clarendon. 
 
 ' With ravish'd ears 
 
 The monarch hears ; 
 Assumes the god, 
 Aifccts to nod ; 
 And seems to shake the spheres. Dryden. 
 
 His haughty looks, and his ass7tming air. 
 
 The son of Isis could no longer bear. Id. 
 
 This makes him over-forward in business, assuming 
 in conversation, and peremptory in answers. Collier. 
 
 For spirits freed from mortal laws, with ease 
 
 A ssume what sexes and what shapes they please. 
 
 Pope. 
 
 This, when the various god had urg'd in vain. 
 He strait assum'd his native form again. Id. 
 
 The personal descent of God himself, and his as- 
 sumption of our flesh to his divinity, more familiarly 
 to insinuate his pleasure to us, was an enforcement 
 beyond all methods of wisdom. 
 
 Hammond's Fundamentals. 
 
 In every hj'pothesis something is allowed to be 
 assumed. Boyle. 
 
 Upon the feast of the assumption of the Blessed 
 v'^irgin, the pope and cardinals keep the vespers. 
 
 Stillingfieet . 
 
 Adam, after a certain period of years, would have 
 been rewarded with an assumption to eternal felicity. 
 
 Wake. 
 
 It is scarce possible to conceive any scone so truly 
 agreeable, as an assembly of people elaborately edu- 
 cated, who assume a character superior to ordinary 
 life, and support it with ease and familiarity. Usher. 
 
 It very seldom happens that a man is slow enough 
 in ass7tming the character of a husb;.nd, or a woman 
 quick enough in condescending to that of a wife. 
 
 Steele. 
 
 Habits are soon assumed, but when we strive 
 To strip them off, 'tis being flayed alive. Cowper. 
 
 ASSU'MENT. Assuo, to stitch or tack on. 
 A tacking on. 
 
 This asstiment or addition. Dr. Marshall says, he 
 never could find any where but in this Anglo-Saxon- 
 ick translation, and that very ancient Greek and Latin 
 MS copy of Beza's. 
 
 Lewis's Editions of the Eng. Trans, of the Bible. 
 
 ASSUMPSIT, in the law of England, or 
 promise, is of the nature of a verbal covenant, 
 and wants nothing but the solemnity of writing
 
 ASS 
 
 ASS 
 
 and sealing to make it absolutely the same. If 
 therefore, it be to do any explicit act, it is an 
 express contract, as much as any covenant : and 
 the breach of it is an equal injury. The remedy 
 indeed is not exactly the same : since, instead 
 of an action of covenant, there only lies an 
 action upon the case, for what is called an as- 
 sumpsit or undertaking of the defendant; the 
 failure of performing which, is the wrong or 
 injury done to the plaintiff, the damages whereof 
 a jury are to estimate and settle. As, if a 
 builder promises or undertakes, that he will build 
 and cover a house within a limited time, and 
 fails to do it, an action on the case arises against 
 the builder, and the party injured may recover 
 a pecuniary satisfaction. But some agreements, 
 though ever so expressly made, are deemed of 
 so important a nature, that they ought not to 
 rest on a verbal promise only, which cannot be 
 proved but by the memory of witnesses, and 
 which oftentmies leads to perjury To pre- 
 vent this, the statute of frauds and perjuries, 
 29 Car. II. c. 3. enacts, that in the five following 
 cases, no verbal promise shall be sufficient to 
 ground an action upon ; but at the least some 
 note or memorandum of it shall be made in 
 writing, and signed by the party to be charged 
 therewith : 1 . Where an executor or adminis- 
 trator promises to answer damages out of his own 
 estate. 2. Where a man undertakes to answer 
 for the debt, default, or miscarriage, of another. 
 3. Where any agreement is made upon consi- 
 deration of marriage. 4. Where any contract 
 or sale is made of lands, tenements, or heredita- 
 ments, or any interest therein. 5. And lastly, 
 where there is any agreement that is not to 
 be performed within a year from the making 
 thereof. In all these cases, a mere verbal as- 
 sumpsit is void. 
 
 Assumption, a festival in the Romish 
 church, in honor of the miraculous ascent of 
 the Virgin Mary into heaven : the Greek church, 
 wlio also observe this festival, celebrate it on the 
 15th of August with great ceremony. 
 
 Assumption, or Assongong, one of the La- 
 drone islands, in the Pacific Ocean. Father 
 Gobien asserts that is eighteen miles in circum- 
 ference ; but Perouse diminishes its size to three. 
 It is of a conical figure, rising 600 feet in height, 
 of dreary aspect, and almost covered with lava 
 from the eruptions of a volcano in the centre. 
 A few cocoa-nut trees are found on the island ; 
 but there is no anchorage near the shore. Fifteen 
 miles south of St. Lawrence. Long. 140° 55' E., 
 lat. 19°45'N. 
 
 Assumption, the capital city of Paraguay, in 
 America. It is situated on the eastern bank of 
 the river Paraguay, eighteen miles above its 
 junction with the first mouth of the Pilcomayo. 
 It was originally a small fort, built in 1538, and 
 in 1547 was erected into a bishopric. It is now 
 inhabited by about 500 families of Spaniards, 
 and several thousand Indians and Meztizoes. 
 
 ASSUMPTIVE Arms, in heraldry, are such 
 as a person has a right to assume, with the ap- 
 probation of his sovereign, and of the heralds : 
 thus, if a person, who has no right by blood, 
 
 and has no coat of arms, shall captivate, in any 
 
 lawful war, any gentleman, nobleman, or prince, 
 
 he is, in that case, entitled to bear the shield of 
 
 that prisoner, and enjoy it to him and his heirs 
 
 for ever. 
 
 ASSURE', -N T. . b 
 
 . , ' i tr. assurer, to make sure. 
 
 ASSUR ED , / rr ' 
 
 ■ / ' r lo secure, to assert, aver, 
 AssuR ance, > ^ ' , .i- • 
 
 ■ / /^warrant, voucli, certitv, in- 
 
 ASSUR EDLY, i .', c, ■' 
 
 . / '1 spire with confidence. 
 
 AsSUR EDNESS. y *^ 
 
 What man is he that boasts of fleshly might. 
 And vaiu assurance of mortality ; 
 Which all so soon, as it doth come to fight 
 Against spiritual foes, yields by and by. 
 
 Faerie Queene^ 
 I must confess, your ofTer is the best ; 
 And, let your father make her the asmrance. 
 She is your own, else you must pardon me ; 
 If you should die before him, where's her dower ? 
 
 SJiak^eare. 
 I hold the entry of common-places to be a matter 
 of great use and essence in studying, as that which 
 assureth copiousness of invention, and contracted 
 judgment to a strength. Bacon's Essays. 
 
 An assurance, being passed through for a competent 
 fine, hath come back again by reason of some over- 
 sight. Id. 
 I revive 
 At this last sight ; assur'd, that man shall live 
 With all the creatures, and their seed preserve. 
 
 Milton 
 Well is that part of us lost which may give 
 assurance of the salvation of the whole. 
 
 Hall's Contemplations. 
 Assuredly he will stop our liberty, till we restore 
 him his worship. South. 
 
 It is the ennobling office of the understanding to 
 correct the fallacious and mistaken reports of the 
 senses, and to assure us that the staff in the water is 
 straight though our eye would tell us it is crooked. 
 
 Jd. 
 The obedient, and the man of practice, shall out- 
 grow all their doubts and ignorances ; till persuasion 
 pass into knowledge, and knowledge advance into 
 assurance. Id. 
 
 Hath he found in an evil course that comfortable 
 assurance of God's favour, and good hopes of his future 
 condition, which a religious life would have given 
 him ? Tilloison. 
 
 Almanz. No ; there is a necessity in fate j 
 Why still the brave bold man is fortunate ; 
 He keeps his object ever full in sight, 
 And that assurance holds him firm and right. 
 
 Dryden. Conquest of Granada, part i. 
 A man without assurance is liable to be made un- 
 easy by the folly or ill-nature of every one he con- 
 verses with. 
 
 Mehnoth's Translation of Cicero's LcbUus. 
 
 How happy it is to believe with a stedfast assurance 
 that our petitions are heard even while we are making 
 them, and how delightful to meet with a proof of it 
 in the elfectual and actual grant of them. 
 
 iJowper's Letters. 
 The soul reposing on assured relief. 
 Feels herself happy amidst all her grief; 
 Forgets her labour, as she toils along. 
 Weeps tears of joy, and bursts into a song. 
 
 CowpcT.
 
 75 
 
 ASSURANCE. 
 
 ASSURANCE, or Insurance, in commercial 
 affairs. Under the latter word, every thing con- 
 nected with the subjects, both of life and of 
 marine insurance, might with great propriety be 
 arranged. But mercantile usage, and tiie titles 
 of various respectable societies in this country, 
 have appropriated the former word to contracts 
 for paying sums of money upon the continuance 
 of life, or in the event of death ; and the latter, 
 to the insurance of property against the contin- 
 gencies of the sea. We propose, under Life 
 Annuities, to enter further into the principles on 
 which the contingency of life is calculated ; under 
 Marine Insurance, to treat of all that is usually 
 comprised under that head ; confining ourselves 
 in this paper to the practical detail of tiie methods 
 adopted by the most respectable Assurance com- 
 panies in the conduct of their afl'airs, and the 
 actual calculations on which they proceed. 
 
 Assurance on lives is the guaranteeing a cer- 
 tain sum of money to be paid in the event of a 
 person named being alive at a certain time, or 
 dying within a certain time, or to be paid within 
 a certain time after the death of a person named. 
 The party agreeing to pay this sum, is termed 
 the Assurer ; the sum he receives for his hazard, 
 or in compensation for what he is to pay, is 
 called the Premium of assurance; and the in- 
 strument by which the parties are mutually bound 
 to their contract, is called a Policy of assurance. 
 These are granted sometimes by individuals ; 
 but in this case the policies, though often for 
 larger sums than the companies insure, are 
 usually for short periods, and at higher rates 
 than the companies charge. It must be obvious, 
 that as they are particular bargains between in- 
 dividuals under circumstances known, par- 
 ticularly, perhaps, or that ought to be known by 
 those concerned, no uniform plan of proceeding 
 can be expected. 
 
 But the respectable societies who conduct this 
 business in the metropolis, and other parts of 
 Great Britain, proceed upon settled and mathe- 
 matical principles. Tables of the ordinary dura- 
 tion of human life, formed from bills of mortality, 
 are the basis of their calculations. The register 
 of mortality at Northampton, originally pub- 
 lished by Dr. Price, is that generally adopted ; 
 it having been found by long experience that 
 rather fewer deaths happen, according to the 
 books of the Equitable Assurance Society, than 
 are upon that scale to be expected. The most 
 esteemed tables are those of Aikin, De Parcieux, 
 Kerseboom, aud Gorsuch. j\I. de Moivre as- 
 sumes, that if eighty-six persons were born at the 
 same time, one would die in each year, until the 
 whole number ceased to live. Although tliis 
 hypothesis has not been found accurate enough 
 for extensive business in this way, it furnishes an 
 easy rate for estimating the expectation of life. 
 Subtract the given a^^e of a person from 86 ; 
 when, dividing the quotient by two, the remain- 
 der gives the expectation nearly. Thus, let the 
 
 age be 40, then ^i^zzi? is 23, which differs very 
 
 little from the Northampton table. At the age 
 of 50 again, the error is trifling, the Northampton 
 table giving 17-99, De Moivre's, 18. But, in 
 the higher ages, the error becomes considerable. 
 A scale of life having been adopted, the table 
 of premiums to be paid by the parties insuring 
 is calculated in the following manner : — ^The 
 premium for a certain age being supposed to be 
 known, then the premium for a person of one 
 year younger, being compounded of the premium 
 for one year and the present value of the above 
 premium, is easily calculated from the table of 
 lives, thus :— Multiply the premium on the old- 
 est life into the number of persons alive in the 
 tables of that age, and divide by the number of 
 persons of the younger age alive in the tables. 
 This sum, discounted for a year, gives the pre- 
 mium for assuring the desired sum at the end of 
 the year. Then multiply the sum to be assured 
 into the number of persons of the younger age, 
 that die according to the tables in a year, and 
 divide by the number of persons alive at that 
 age, and this sum discounted for a year is the 
 assurance of the sum for the first year, and con- 
 sequently the two sums, added together, give the 
 desired premium. Now, as the oldest person in 
 the scale of life dies in the ensuing year, the 
 premium on him is evidently the sum to be paid 
 discounted for one year, and thence the premium 
 for the age below is ascertained by the above 
 rule; and so of every age in succession. Errors 
 cannot be committed on this plan without de- 
 tection, as every step is checked by a similar 
 table drawn out for the value of an annuity at 
 each age. In the same manner are tables formed 
 for the assurance of a sum payable at the death 
 of one out of two persons, or at the death of the 
 survivor of two persons, or at the death of one on 
 the contingency of his surviving another, and so 
 on. The tables generally adopted by the com- 
 panies, on the contingency of one person sur- 
 viving another, being calculated by an approxi- 
 mation, founded on the expectation of their lives, 
 do not partake of the mathematical accuracy of 
 the other tables ; but the companies, in this case, 
 grant assurances at times to their own disadvan- 
 tage ; for if they take rather too much upon one 
 life, they lose that sum upon the other; the pre- 
 mium payable on the death of one of two parties, 
 being divided by the above-mentioned rule of 
 approximation into two premiums, to be paid by 
 the two parties on the contingency of one sur- 
 viving the other. These rules apply to tables of 
 rates for the payment of a gross premium : but as 
 it is generally more convenient to pay an equiva- 
 lent annual sum, a table of rates is made for 
 this case, which is formed by dividing the gross 
 premium by the value of an annuity upon each 
 age added to unity. If the annual premium were 
 paid at the end of the year, the addition of unity 
 would be unnecessary ; but a policy is not 
 granted till one premium is paid, and hence the 
 necessity of the addition is obvious. 
 
 Premiums being thus settled from a fixed table 
 of observations on life, it is evident that, unless
 
 "6 
 
 ASSURANCE. 
 
 the deaths happen exactly in the order prescribed 
 by the tables, there will be a surplus or defi- 
 ciency of capital for the payment of the assured 
 sums. The management of the surplus, or af)- 
 prehended surplus, which the prudence of re- 
 spectable companies generally insures, is dif- 
 ferent in different companies. Either the Com- 
 pany appropriates the whole of the surplus to 
 itself, or makes a compensation to the assured for 
 it. In the former case, the company pays the 
 sum specified in the policy, and no more ; con- 
 sequently, a party may pay to the office a sum 
 far greater than his executors or assigns receive 
 in return. Thus, if an assurance is effected on 
 a person between sixteen and seventeen for 
 £100, receivable at his death, the annual pre- 
 mium is £2. Os. Qd. ; and if he lives forty-nine 
 years, he will have paid more than the whole 
 sum to be received, without computing interest 
 on these payments. The surplus of the accumu- 
 lation of premiums above the claims may be 
 great from two causes : first, the increased in- 
 terest obtained by the company above that by 
 which the table of rates was computed ; and, 
 second, a longer duration of life in the earlier 
 years than is assigned by the table ; and here 
 great circumspection on the part of the company 
 is requisite to preserve it from imposition, and 
 to secure the best lives that circumstances admit. 
 In tlie companies where only the sum specified 
 in the policy is paid, the surplus does not go 
 entirely to the company ; for it is common in 
 these offices to allow a per centage on the pre- 
 mium to the party who brings an assurance to 
 them, generally a solicitor, who thus participat- 
 ing in the gains of the company, has an interest 
 in increasing its concerns, though to the evident 
 disadvantage of his client. 
 
 Where the surplus is made advantageous to 
 the assured, two methods are adopted ; the one 
 is to add, at certain periods, a sum to each po- 
 licy ; the other to diminish the premium. In 
 both cases a valuation is made of all the annual 
 premiums, with the past and future expected ac- 
 cumulations, and also of the claims upon every 
 policy. If the former exceeds the latter to a 
 sufficient amount, then an addition is made to 
 each policy, or the premium is diminished. It 
 is necessary, however, that the utmost care 
 should be taken to secure to each policy the sum 
 named in it, with every addition made to it; 
 and hence a tliird part of the surplus is constantly 
 retained to guard against possible contingencies. 
 This reservation has occasioned a singular ano- 
 maly in one of the most distinguished companies 
 for life assurance. In that company all are 
 partners, being mutually guarantees to each 
 other for the payment of their respective claims. 
 The surplus arising from the excess of pre- 
 miums, with their accumulations above the claims, 
 evidently belongs to the whole company, and 
 consequently each partner is entitled to a portion 
 of it. But of this surplus, a third being con- 
 stantly reserved, and each person at his death 
 ceasing to be a partner, every person leaves be- 
 hind him a portion for his successors. Such has 
 been the extreme caution of the Equitable So- 
 ciety. 
 
 This led to the formation of a plan, which is 
 
 adopted by the Rock Assurance Society, that 
 vests this third in determinate hands. To do 
 this, the company consists of a number of pro- 
 prietors, each of whom is bound to keep up an 
 assurance with it, and whose interest in these as- 
 surances is greater than that derived from the 
 profit of assurances granted to non-proprietors. 
 The company takes upon itself the whole risk of 
 policies made with it, being bound to pay to 
 each party assured the sum specified in his po- 
 licy ; and additions are made to each policy in 
 the manner above-mentioned. But the third 
 reserved is joined to, and makes part of the sub- 
 scription capital stock ; and the interest upon it 
 is annually divided among the proprietors. 
 Thus the third reserved belongs to, and continues 
 to add to, the security of the company ; and the 
 non-proprietor, secured from all risk, participates 
 in the two-thirds divisible at every period. 
 
 Other modes are sometimes adopted to dis- 
 pose of accumulating property ; such as, by di- 
 minishing, at certain periods, the premiums paid 
 on assurance ; in this case the sum specified in 
 the policy is paid, though the party assured may 
 have paid a much less sum than in the com- 
 panies above mentioned. The diminution of 
 premium depends on the excess of capital in 
 hand, with the present value of future premiums, 
 above the claims that are or may be made upon 
 it, and consequently the same care is necessary 
 to reserve a part of the surplus for fear of future 
 contingencies. The public have thus a choice 
 either to receive a fixed or an increasing sum ; 
 the fixed sum by means of a definite or a pro- 
 bably decreasing premium, and an increasing 
 sum by means of a definite premium. 
 
 Assurance policies are generally confined to 
 the limits of Europe, but they are capable of be- 
 ing extended to all parts of the world. In such 
 cases an addition is made to the premium, ac- 
 cording to the supposed addition to the risk 
 from unhealthiness of climate, and danger of the 
 seas. Additions are also made to the premium 
 on account of the profession (as of the army) 
 of the assured ; on account of disease, as of 
 gout, by which he is occasionally afflicted ; or of 
 diseases, as of small-pox and measles, to which 
 he may be liable. 
 
 The oldest of the societies for assurances on 
 lives in London, is the Amicable Society, insti- 
 tuted by charter in the year 1706. The same 
 contribution was originally required from every 
 member, whatever his age might be, and the 
 sums received at the death of members were 
 variable, depending on the number of persons 
 that died in the same year. Subsequent altera- 
 tions were made in this company by successive 
 charters. At present the several interests of the 
 members are divided into shares, each share being 
 now warranted to produce £200 at the death of 
 the insured, together with such additions as may 
 arise from the circumstances of the year in which 
 the death happens ; and any number of shares, 
 and half shares, not exceeding sixty-five shares, 
 may be granted on one and the same life, by 
 which assurances may be effected from £200 to 
 £3000, and participate in the benefits of the so- 
 ciety. 
 
 1 he Uoyal Exchange Assurance Company re-
 
 ASSURANCE. 
 
 77 
 
 ceived its charter in 1720, and is principally en- 
 gaged in insuring ships and goods at sea, and of 
 houses and goods from fire ; but it also grants 
 annuities and assurances on life. In the latter, 
 it confines itself to the payment of the sum as- 
 sured . 
 
 The Equitable is the most considerable in 
 point of numbers, and, on the whole, perhaps 
 the most respectable of the societies for the as- 
 surance of lives, to which it is chiefly confined. 
 In this society all are paitiiers, and mutually 
 assurers of each other. It arose from small be- 
 ginnings, and has made considerable alterations 
 from the rate of its first premiums, till it settled 
 in the table armexed to this article, which is that 
 generally adopted by these associations. At cer- 
 tain periods additions have been made to the 
 policies ; and, in this manner, its aifairs were 
 conducted till December 7, 1809, v/hen a change 
 took place respecting the members then assured, 
 namely, that instead of waiting tillthe end of the 
 next interval, for assigning a sum out of the ac- 
 cumulations to each policy, every member should 
 have two per cent, annually assigned to his po- 
 licy, during the years of this period. Conse- 
 quently, all holders of policies, prior to the year 
 1810, will leave to their heirs the sum assured 
 by the policy, together with its accumulations up 
 to the year 1810, and also two percent, per an- 
 num for his life, within 1810 and 1820 ; but tins 
 benefit does not accrue to members entering at 
 the close of the year 1809. Whether this plan 
 can be continued or extended, time will show. 
 The number of the members in this society 
 made it necessary to change some of their 
 regulations respecting votes ; and it was wisely 
 resolved, that persons becoming members, after 
 the 19th December 1809, should not have a vote 
 at the general meetings, unless they had been as- 
 sured for five years, for the whole continuance 
 of life, in the sum of £2000 ; and to be a direc- 
 tor, the qualification is an assurance of £5000 
 for the same time, which must have been held 
 for five years. 
 
 The history of this society is very important, 
 and has been well treated by Dr. Price, in his 
 Observations on Ileversionaiy Payments, and by 
 Mr. Morgan. In consequence of the connexion 
 of Dr. Price with this institution, he drew up 
 his remarks on the various societies which soon 
 after sprung up, and whose names, but for his 
 notice of them, would now be forgotten. Tiiey 
 were formed chietiy about the years 1770 and 
 1771, offering very fallacious terms to the pub- 
 lic, by which the aged were benefited at the ex- 
 ])ense of their juniors ; and the evil is not yet 
 cured. 
 
 For some time no other important society 
 arose; but, in the year 1792, the Westminster 
 Life Assurance was formed. The Pelican in 
 1797 ; the (Jlobe in 1799 ; the Albion in 1805 ; 
 the Rock and the Provident in 1806 ; the Eagle, 
 Hope, London Life Association, and Atlas, in 
 1807. The Rock and Equitable we have no- 
 ticed. 
 
 The Provident combines with life, policies on 
 fire ; but it assigns also, at certain times, addi- 
 tions to its policies. The Hope is also a fire and 
 life office, and both are proprietary companies. 
 
 The rates in these societies are the same as those 
 in the Equitable and Rock. 
 
 The Albion and the Globe are life and fire as- 
 surance companies ; their rates are also the same 
 They pay also the sum assured ; but a liberal 
 commission is allowed to solicitors, and to others 
 who effect assurances. 
 
 The London Life Association is confined en- 
 tirely to life assurances ; but it differs from the 
 others in this, that its aim is, that the benefits re 
 suiting from its transactions shall be enjoyed by 
 the members during life ; in other words, the 
 society assures to a person the sum named in the 
 policy, and no more; but at certain times it con- 
 siders whether the surplus of the accumulations 
 above the claims is sufficient to admit pf a dimi- 
 nution of premium, and one is made accordingly. 
 In this society all are members and assurers one 
 of tiie other, and consequently the surviving 
 members at any time are bound to make up the 
 deficiency, if any should arise by this mode of 
 arrangement. This could be done by raising, in 
 the first instance, the premiums that have been 
 lowered ; and it is very improbable, that, widi 
 good management, any thing farthor would be 
 necessary. In imitation of these London Com- 
 panies, several have been formed throughout the 
 country. 
 
 The practical mode of effecting an assurance 
 in these societies is as follows : The party de- 
 sirous of effecting an assurance, receives from 
 the office of the company a printed paper called 
 a declaration, which he fills up with the name 
 of the party to be assured, his age, the place and 
 time of his birth, and place of his present re- 
 sidence, v.'ilh certain particulars as to his health. 
 This declaration is then duly signed ; and it 
 contains a clause, stating, that any falsehood in 
 the declaration invalidates the policy. To cor- 
 roborate the statement, references are given to 
 two persons well acquainted with the party on 
 whom the assurance is made, one of whom is to 
 be a medical person, and sometimes more re- 
 ferences are required. The reasons for these 
 precautions are obvious. 
 
 When the declaration has been thus com- 
 pleted, the person by whom the assurance is 
 made makes his appearance before the directors 
 of the company, who enquire into the general 
 state of his health, and a minute is entvired in 
 their books accordingly. The letter of the re- 
 ferees, with the declaration, are subsequently 
 laid before the court, which from these docu- 
 ments, and information frequently derived from 
 other sources, forms its decision ; and this is 
 entered on the minutes of the court, and com- 
 municated to the applicant. A certain time is 
 allowed for the payment of the premium ; and 
 if it is not paid within that time, the assurance 
 cannot be effected, but by a fresh application to 
 the court, accorduig to the forms above mentioned. 
 On the payment of the premium a receipt is 
 given, containing the number of the policy, 
 which is then made out according to the decla- 
 ration, inspected by the court, signed by a 
 certain number of directors, and delivered to 
 the other party interested in it. 
 
 If the person, on whose life the assurance is 
 made cannot annear before the directors, or any
 
 78 
 
 ASSURANCE. 
 
 one appointed by thera for tliat purpose, an ad- 
 ditional sum is charged for non-appearance. 
 There is also a duty to be paid to government 
 on each policy, and this, with a small entrance 
 fee, makes an addition to the first year's pre- 
 mium. But the premium itself is only named 
 in the policy, as on the future payment of this 
 sum its existence depends. 
 
 A policy is assignable ; and it often forms a se- 
 curity for sums advanced, and not unfrequently 
 becomes an object of sale. In these cases, the 
 holder of the policy pays the future premiums, 
 and the advantage of a purchaser consists in 
 holding a policy at a less premium than he must 
 have paid at the present age of the party, on 
 whose life the assurance was made. Thus, 
 supposing a policy to have been granted for the 
 payment of a thousand pounds, at the death of 
 a party aged between thirty-seven and thirty- 
 eight, when the policy was made ; supposb it is 
 sold when the party is between fifty and fifty- 
 one ; the purchaser will have to pay £32. 5s. 
 annually, during the existence of the policy : 
 whereas, if he had taken out a policy at the 
 present age of the party, his premium would be 
 £46. 15a-. For the difference between these two 
 sums, namely £14. 10s., a price is fixed on ; but 
 it is to be observed, that, in the sale of a policy 
 in the market, this disadvantage attends it, — that 
 the bidders, not being acquainted with the 
 person on whose life the policy is made, and 
 being liable to trouble and expense, to ascertain 
 that he is alive at each payment of the premium, 
 must make a deduction on this account, from 
 what they might otherwise presume to be a 
 -compensation for the difference between the two 
 premiums. 
 
 On the death of the party on whom the claim 
 depends, certain documents are required, such 
 as the register of the burial of the deceased ; 
 and references to the medical persons or others 
 who attended him in his last illness ; and, if he 
 effected the policy himself, the probate of his 
 will, or, if it has been assigned to another, the 
 copy of the assignment. The grounds of these 
 precautions are, with respect to the receiver of 
 the sura assured, obvious ; and the nature of the 
 death must be ascertained; as, in case of suicide, 
 or dying by the hands of justice, or on a voyage 
 on the high seas, without licence from the com- 
 pany, (except, in general, in gomg from one part 
 in the united kingdom to another,) the policy is 
 vitiated. In the interval between the notice of 
 the party's death, and the time assigned for the 
 payment of the claim, due investigation is made ; 
 and, every thing having been found satisfactory, 
 the claimant brings wjth him the policy and a 
 receipt for the sum claimed, which is imme- 
 diately paid to him ; the seals are torn from the 
 policy, and the contract is at an end. In the 
 
 case that a claim is payable, in the event of a 
 person being alive at a certain time, his ap- 
 pearance before the court is requisite, or suf- 
 ficient proof must be given that he was alive at 
 the time defined by the policy. 
 
 Policies depending on a person being alive at 
 a certain time, are very rare, and chiefly confined 
 to endowments for children, in which case the 
 payment of a gross sum down, or of an annual 
 payment till the child attains the age of twenty- 
 one, secures to that child, at that age, the sura 
 named in the policy. This mode of assurance 
 has led some offices to compose a table of rates, 
 according to which, a person at the age of twenty 
 is required to pay a premium, which would pro- 
 duce at legal interest more than he would receive 
 at the expiration of the year, from the company ; 
 and thus a person, if any such could be found, 
 to effect an assurance of this kind, would run 
 the risk of losing the sum assured, and receive, 
 if successful, not so much as he could have at- 
 tained without any risk at all. 
 
 On the whole, the doctrine of assurance must 
 ahvays be considered a subject of the first im- 
 portance, in a commercial state like that of 
 Great Britain, and to involve an immense number 
 of interests. When we consider the thousands 
 of families in this country, who are living in a 
 state of comparative affluence, without possessing 
 any, or very little, disposable property; whose 
 income, in fact, depends almost entirely on the 
 exertions of the head of the family, and with 
 the extinction of whose life every source of 
 income ceases ; when we contemplate the po- 
 verty and distress in which many widows, with 
 their helpless children, would be plunged by 
 such an event, we cannot estimate too highly 
 the advantages which are held out by those so- 
 cieties, who, on honorable principles, furnish the 
 means whereby every provident father and 
 husband may, in part, avert the consequences of 
 a premature death ; to which every one is liable, 
 and against which event every man ought to be 
 provided. Perhaps, no part of the civil economy 
 of this country shows more decidedly the high 
 moral state of the middling classes of the people, 
 than the immense amount of life assurances ef- 
 fected in the different off.ces of the metropolis, 
 and in those of like local companies in several 
 of the counties in England ; nor, perhaps, can 
 we have a stronger instance of the high degree 
 of confidence that the people are disposed to 
 place in the moral rectitude of the government : 
 by far the greater part of the capital of the 
 companies to which we have alluded being in- 
 vested under government securities. 
 
 The following is a table of the rates generally 
 acted uj)on by the Life Assurance Offices in the 
 capital.
 
 ASSURANCE. 
 
 79 
 
 
 ASSURANCE OF SINGLE 
 
 SURVIVORSHIP OF A LIFE 
 
 ASSURANCE ON TWO JOINT 
 
 
 
 LIVFS. 
 
 
 ASSUKEU 
 
 
 
 LIVES. 
 
 
 
 
 To secure a Sum to the Nominee 
 
 
 
 
 To secure a Sum to the No- 
 
 or lawful Representatives of the 
 
 To secure a Sum, payable when 
 
 
 minee 
 
 , or to the lawful Re- 
 
 Assurec 
 
 , in case a Person named 
 
 either of Two Persons named shall 
 
 
 presentatives of the Assured. 
 
 shall survive another. 
 
 1 
 
 
 happen to die. 
 
 Prem 
 
 lUIE 
 
 Premium 
 Premium per cent. 
 
 Age of 
 :the life 
 
 Age of the life | Premium 
 against which uer cent. 
 
 
 
 Premium 
 
 
 
 
 Age. 
 
 per cent 
 if assurec 
 from yeai 
 
 per cent 
 
 'per an. i 
 
 assured 
 
 for seven 
 
 per an. it 
 assured 
 for the 
 whole 
 
 'assured 
 
 the assured 
 is made. 
 
 per an- 
 num. 
 
 
 so 
 < 
 
 6 
 to 
 
 < 
 
 per cent 
 per an- 
 num. 
 
 
 so 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 bO 
 < 
 
 Premium 
 
 per cent. 
 
 per annum. 
 
 
 
 
 
 to year. 
 
 years. 
 
 term of 
 
 
 
 £. S. d. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 life. 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 20 
 30 
 
 1 8 6 
 1 9 1 
 1 8 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 " If. . 
 
 d 
 
 £. s. d 
 
 £. S. d. 
 
 
 
 £. s. 
 
 d. 
 
 
 
 £. s. d. 
 
 8 to 14 17 
 
 9 115 
 
 1 17 7 
 
 
 40 
 
 17 8 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 2 17 
 
 1 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 4 8 11 
 
 1510 17 
 
 111 2 11 
 
 1 18 7 
 
 
 50 
 
 1 6 11 
 
 
 15 
 
 3 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 35 
 
 4 14 1 
 
 16 
 
 19 
 
 214 7 
 
 1 19 8 
 
 
 60 
 
 1 6 
 
 
 20 
 
 3 5 
 
 7 
 
 
 40 
 
 5 11 
 
 17 
 
 1 1 
 
 216 1 
 
 2 8 
 
 
 70 
 
 1 4 11 
 
 
 25 
 
 3 9 
 
 31 
 
 
 45 
 
 5 9 6 
 
 18 
 19 
 
 1 3 
 1 5 
 
 S!l 7 5 
 
 2 18 
 2 2 8 
 
 
 80 
 
 1 3 4 
 
 
 30 
 
 3 13 
 
 9 
 6 
 
 
 50 
 55 
 
 6 1 
 6 15 5 
 
 
 
 1 8 6 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 
 1 16 6 
 
 35 3 19 
 
 20 
 
 1 7 
 
 3 
 
 1 9 b 
 
 2 3 7 
 
 
 20 
 
 1 17 
 
 
 40'4 6 
 
 10, 
 
 
 60 
 
 7 15 
 
 21 
 
 1 8 
 
 10 
 
 1 10 1 
 
 2 4 6 
 
 
 30 
 
 1 15 9 
 
 
 45 4 15 
 
 11: 
 
 
 67 9 18 1 
 
 22 
 
 1 9 
 
 3 
 
 1 10 6 
 
 2 5 4 
 
 
 40 
 
 1 14 8 
 
 
 505 7 
 
 10 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 23 
 
 1 9 
 
 8 
 
 1 11 
 
 2 6 3 
 
 
 50 
 
 1 13 6 
 
 
 55,6 2 
 
 8 
 
 35 
 
 35 4 19 
 
 24 
 
 1 10 
 
 2 
 
 1 11 6i2 7 1 
 
 
 60 
 
 1 12 1 
 
 
 60j7 2 
 
 9| 
 
 
 40 5 5 6 
 
 25 
 
 1 10 
 
 7 
 
 1 12 1 
 
 2 8 1 
 
 
 70 
 
 1 10 6 
 
 
 67,9 6 
 
 3 
 
 
 45 5 13 10 
 
 26 
 27 
 
 1 11 
 1 11 
 
 1 
 7 
 
 1 12 7 
 1 13 2 
 
 2 9 1 
 2 10 1 
 
 
 80 
 
 1 8 3 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 50 (^ '=' ^ i 
 
 15 
 
 15*3 5 
 
 55 
 
 6 19 2 
 
 30 
 
 10 
 
 2 5 5 
 
 28 
 
 1 12 
 
 1 
 
 1 13 92 11 1 
 
 
 20 
 
 2 6 
 
 
 203 9 
 
 6, 
 
 
 60 
 
 7 18 6 
 
 29 
 30 
 
 1 12 
 1 13 
 
 8 
 3 
 
 1 14 4 
 1 14 11 
 
 2 12 3 
 2 13 5 
 
 
 30 
 
 2 4 6| 
 
 
 253 13 
 
 303 17 
 
 li 
 6 
 
 
 67 
 
 10 1 2 
 
 
 40 
 
 2 2 9i 
 
 
 
 
 
 31 
 
 1 13 
 
 9 
 
 1 15 7 2 14 7 
 
 
 50 
 
 2 11 
 
 
 354 3 
 
 li 
 
 40 
 
 40j 5 11 9 
 
 32 
 
 1 14 
 
 4 
 
 1 16 3 2 15 9 
 
 
 60 
 
 1 18 10 
 
 
 40 4 10 
 
 4 
 
 
 45 5 19 9 
 
 33 
 
 1 15 
 
 
 
 1 16 102 17 1 
 
 
 70 
 
 1 16 7 
 
 
 454 19 
 
 5 
 
 
 50 6 10 8 
 
 34 
 
 1 15 
 
 8 
 
 1 17 82 18 5 
 
 
 80 
 
 1 13 9 
 
 
 50 5 11 
 556 6 
 
 3| 
 
 1 
 
 
 55 7 4 5 
 60 8 3 4 
 
 35 
 
 1 16 
 
 4 
 
 1 18 10 2 19 10 
 
 40 
 
 10 
 
 2 19 2' 
 
 
 
 36 
 
 1 17 
 
 
 
 1 19 7 3 1 4 
 
 
 20 
 
 2 19 10 
 
 
 607 6 
 
 
 
 
 67 10 5 6 
 
 371 
 
 1 17 
 
 9 
 
 2 8 3 2 10 
 
 
 30 
 
 2 18 2 
 
 
 67 9 9 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 ; ' 1 
 
 38 
 
 1 18 
 
 6 
 
 2 1 9;3 4 6 
 
 
 40 
 
 2 15 11 
 
 
 
 
 4<; 4=; fi T A \ 
 
 
 
 
 ^0 
 
 ^, w I * 
 
 39 
 
 1 19 
 
 3 
 
 2 2 11 3 6 2 
 
 
 50 
 
 2 12 10 
 
 20 
 
 20 3 13 
 
 11 
 
 
 50 6 17 9 
 
 40 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 2 4 1'3 7 11 
 
 
 60 
 
 2 9 4' 
 
 
 25 3 17 
 
 5 
 
 
 55' 7 11 
 
 41 
 
 2 2 
 
 
 
 2 5 4399 
 
 
 70 
 
 2 5 11 
 
 
 30 4 1 
 
 9 
 
 
 60 8 9 6 
 
 42 
 
 2 3 
 
 6 
 
 2 6 63 11 8 
 
 
 ' 80 
 
 2 1 10 
 
 
 35 4 7 
 
 h 
 
 
 6710 11 1 
 
 43 
 44' 
 
 2 4 
 2 5 
 
 6 
 6 
 
 2 7 9 3 13 8 
 2 9 23 15 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 404 14 
 455 3 
 
 el 
 
 . : , I 
 
 50 
 
 10 
 
 4 11 
 4 1 10 
 4 1 
 
 
 50 50| 
 
 7 7 8 
 
 45 
 
 2 6 
 
 8 
 
 2 10 103 17 11 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 505 15 
 
 4I 
 
 
 55 
 
 8 3 
 
 46 
 
 2 7 
 
 10 
 
 2 12 6 
 
 4 2 
 
 
 30 
 
 
 55 6 10 
 
 2 
 
 
 60 8 18 2 
 
 47 i 
 
 2 9 
 
 
 
 2 14 4 
 
 4 2 7 
 
 
 40 
 
 3 17 10 
 3 13 10 
 
 
 60 7 10 
 
 2' 
 
 
 67 10 18 10 
 
 48 
 
 2 10 
 
 3 
 
 2 16 4 
 
 4 5 1 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 679 13 
 
 9i 
 
 
 ' 
 
 1 
 
 49| 
 50 
 
 2 12 
 2 15 
 
 3 
 1 
 
 -IQ A 
 
 A "T ^ A 
 
 
 60 
 
 3 7 7 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 ^«;!^^ « 19 9 
 
 3 8 4 10 8 
 
 
 70 
 
 3 1 6| 
 2 15 
 
 25 
 
 254 
 
 10 
 
 ^0 
 
 60 9 9 
 
 51 
 52 
 
 2 17 
 2 19 
 
 4 
 1 
 
 3 2 84 13 6 
 3 4 94 16 5 
 
 
 80 
 
 
 30,4 5 
 
 354 10 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 67 11 8 5 
 
 60 
 
 10 
 
 5 16 9 
 
 53 
 
 3 1 
 
 
 
 "7 f\\ A i r\ rr. 
 
 
 20 
 
 5 18 
 
 
 404 17 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 3 7 
 
 1 ly / 
 
 
 54 
 
 3 3 
 
 
 
 3 9 5 
 
 5 2 lo 
 
 
 30 
 
 5 16 3 
 
 
 45^5 6 
 
 2 
 
 60 60 10 4 9 
 
 55 
 
 3 5 
 
 
 
 3 12 
 
 5 6 4 
 
 
 40 
 
 5 14 
 
 
 505 17 
 
 10; 
 
 
 67 12 2 1 
 
 56 
 
 3 7 
 
 3 
 
 3 14 8 
 
 5 10 1 
 
 
 50 
 
 5 10 7 
 
 
 55,6 12 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 57! 
 
 3 9 
 
 8 
 
 3 17 6 
 
 5 14 
 
 
 60 
 
 5 2 4 
 
 
 60T 12 
 
 5| 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 58 
 
 3 12 
 
 3 
 
 4 6 
 
 5 18 2 
 
 
 70 
 
 4 9 10 
 
 
 67 9 15 
 
 9 
 
 67 67 13 15 8 1 
 
 59 
 60 
 
 3 15 
 3 18 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 4 3 8 fi 2 sl 
 
 
 80 
 
 3 17 11 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 ' 1 
 
 4 7 1 
 
 6 7 4 
 
 67 
 
 10 j 
 
 8 10 
 
 
 
 
 61 
 
 4 1 
 
 5 
 
 4 10 11 
 
 6 12 4 
 
 
 20 
 
 8 2 9 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 62 
 
 4 3 
 
 11 
 
 4 15 
 
 6 17 9 
 
 
 30 
 
 8 10 
 
 
 
 63 
 
 4 7 
 
 8 
 
 4 19 8 
 
 7 3 7 
 
 
 40 
 
 7 18 7 
 
 
 
 64 
 
 4 10 
 
 9 
 
 5 4 10 
 
 7 9 10 
 
 
 50 
 
 7 15 6 
 
 
 
 65 
 
 4 15 
 
 2 
 
 5 10 10 7 16 9 
 
 
 60 
 
 7 8 8 
 
 
 
 66 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 5 17 7|8 4 1 
 
 
 70 
 
 6 10 8 
 
 
 
 67 
 
 5 5 
 
 6 
 
 6 5 28 12 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 80 
 
 5 8 9 
 

 
 80 
 
 ASSYRIA. 
 
 ASSURGENT Leaves, in botany, denote 
 such as are first bent down, and then rise erect 
 towards the apex. 
 
 ASS US, or Assos, in ancient geography, a 
 town of Troas, though by others supposed to be 
 of Mysia, and the same with ApoUonia, but dif- 
 ferent from the Apolloniu on the Rhyndacus. 
 Ptolemy places it on the sea coast, but Strabo 
 more inland. It was the country of Cleanthes, 
 the stoic philosopher, who succeeded Zeno. St. 
 Luke and others of St. Paul's companions in his 
 voyage. Acts xx. 13, 14, went by sea from Troas 
 to Assos : but St. Paul went thither by land; 
 and, meeting them at Assos, they all went to- 
 getlier to Mitilene. See Assos. 
 
 ASSYRIA, an ancient kingdom of Asia, con- 
 cerning the extent, commencement, and duration 
 of which, historians difler greatly in their ac- 
 counts. Several ancient writers, in particular 
 Ctesias and Diodorus Siculus, have affirmed that 
 the Assyrian monarchy, under Ninus and Semira- 
 mis, comprehended the greater part of the known 
 world. Had this been the case, it is not likely 
 that Homer and Herodotus would have omitted a 
 fact so remarkable. The sacred records intimate 
 that none of the ancient states or kingdoms were 
 of considerable extent ; for neither Chedorlaomer 
 nor any of the neighbouring princes were tribu- 
 tary or subject to Assyria; and we find nothing 
 of the greatness or power of this kingdom in the 
 history of the judges and succeeding kings of 
 Israel, though the latter kingdom was oppressed 
 and enslaved by many different powers in that 
 period. It is highly probable, therefore, that 
 Assyria was originally of small extent. Accord- 
 ing to Ptolemy, it was bounded on the north by 
 Armenia major; on the west by the Tigris; on 
 the south by Susiana ; and on the east by Media. 
 
 The revolutions of the Assyrian monarchy were 
 numerous. Its founder was Ashur, the second 
 son of Sham, who went out of Shinar, either by 
 the appointment of Nimrod, or to elude the fury 
 of that tyrant ; conducted a large body of adven- 
 turers into Assyria, and laid the foundation of Ni- 
 neveh, Gen. x. 11. These events happened not 
 long after Nimrod had established the Chaldean 
 monarchy, and fixed his residence at Babylon. 
 The Persian historians suppose, that the kings of 
 Persia of the first dynasty were the same with the 
 kings of Assyria, of whom Zohath, or Nimrod, 
 was the founder of Babel. Herbelot Orient. Bib. 
 V. Bagdad. It does not, however, appear, that 
 Nimrod reigned in Assyria. The kingdoms of 
 Babylon and Assyria were originally distinct and 
 separate, Micah v. 6 ; and in this state they re- 
 mained until Ninus conquered Babylon, and made 
 it tributary to the Assyrian empire. Ninus, the 
 successor of Ashur, Gen. x. 11, Diod. Sic. lib. 1, 
 seized on Chaldea, after the death of Nimrod, 
 and united the kingdoms of Assyria and Babylon. 
 This prince is said to have subdued Asia, Persia, 
 Media, Kgypt, &c. If he did so. the effects of 
 his conquests were of short duration ; for in the 
 days of Abraham we do not find that any of the 
 neighbouring kingdoms were subject to Assyria. 
 lie was succeeded by Semiramis, a princess of 
 an heroic mind; bold, enterprising, fortunate; but 
 of whom many fabulous things have been record- 
 ed. It appears, however, that there were two 
 
 princesses of the same name, who flourished at 
 very different periods. One of them was the 
 consort of Ninus ; and the other lived five gener- 
 ations before Nitocris, queen of Nebuchadnezzar, 
 Euseb. Chron. p. 58. Herod, lib. l,cap. 184. This 
 fact has not been attended to by many writers. 
 Whether there was an uninterrupted series of 
 kings from Ninus to Sardanapalus, or not, is still 
 a question. Some suspicion has arisen, that the 
 list which Ctesias has given of the Assyrian kings 
 is not genuine ; for many names in it are of Per- 
 sian, Egyptian, and Grecian extraction. Nothing 
 memorable has been recorded concerning the suc- 
 cessors of Ninus and Semiramis. Of that eflemi- 
 nate race of princes it is barely said, that they 
 ascended the throne, lived in indolence, and died 
 in their palaces at Nineveh. Diodorus relates, that 
 in the reign of Teutames, the Assyrians solicited 
 by Priam their vassal, sent to the Trojans a supply 
 of 20,000 foot and 200 chariots, under the com- 
 mand of Memnon, son of Tithonus, president of 
 Persia. But this is not confirmed by any other 
 author. Sardanapalus was the last, and by all 
 accounts the most efTeminate of the ancient 
 Assyrian kings. Historians have unanimously 
 reprobated his character ; and Lord Byron has 
 made it the foundation of a beautiful poem. We 
 have only to add, that Arbaces, governor of Media, 
 taking advantage of Sardanapalus's indolence, 
 withdrew his allegiance and rebelled against 
 him. He was encouraged in this revolt by the ad- 
 vice and assistance of Belesis, a Chaldean priest, 
 who engaged the Babylonians to follow the ex- 
 ample of the Medes. These powerful provinces, 
 aided by the Persians and other allies, who de- 
 spised the efi'eminacy, or dreaded the tyranny of 
 their Assyrian lords, attacked the empire on all 
 sides. Their most vigorous efforts were, in the 
 beginning, unsuccessful. Firm and determined, 
 however, in their opposition, they at length pre- 
 vailed ; defeated the Assyrian army, besieged 
 Sardanapalus in his capital, which they demo- 
 lished, and became masters of the empire A. A. C. 
 821. The Assyrian empire was now divided 
 into three kingdoms, viz. the Median, Assyrian, 
 and Babylonian. Arbaces retained the supreme 
 power and authority, and fixed his residence at 
 Ecbatana in Media. He nominated governors in 
 Assyria and Babylon, who were honored with 
 the title of kings, while they remained subject and 
 tributary to the Median monarchs. Belesis re- 
 ceived the government of Babylon as the reward 
 of his services ; and Phul was entrusted with that 
 of Assyria. The Assyrian governor gradually en- 
 larged the boundaries of his kingdom, and was 
 succeeded by Tiglath-pileser, Salmanasar, and 
 Sennacherib, who asserted and maintained their 
 independency. After the death of Esar-haddon, 
 the brother and successor of Sennacherib, the 
 kingdom of Assyria was split, and annexed to tlie 
 kingdoms of Media and Babylon. Several tribu- 
 tary princes afterwards reigned in Nineveh ; but 
 1)0 particular account of them is found in the 
 annals of ancient nations. We hear no more of 
 the kings of Assyria, but of those of Babylon, 
 Cyaxares, king of Media, assisted Nebuchadnez- 
 zar, king of Babylon, in the siege of Nineveh, 
 which they took and destroyed, A. A.C. 606. 
 The most remarkable provinces of Assyria
 
 AST 
 
 were, 1. Arapachitis, bordering on Armenia. 2. 
 Corduem, a mountainous territory, tlie ancient 
 residence of the Carduclii, mentioned by Xeno- 
 phon in his Anabasis. 3. Adiabene, in Strabo's 
 time, the most considerable province in Assyria. 
 4. Calachene, lying between tlie mountains of 
 Armenia and Zabus Major. 6. Apollianatis, 
 watered by the river Ganges. G. Settacene, by 
 some reckoned a portion of Babylonia. 7. Cha- 
 lonitis, separated from Media by a branch of 
 Mount Taurus. 
 
 Assyrian Letters, a denomination given by 
 several Rabbins and Talmudists, to the characters 
 of the present Hebrew alphabet, as supposing 
 them to have been borrowed from the Assyrians 
 during the Jewish captivity in Babylon. 
 
 ASTA, an inland town of Liguria, a Roman 
 colony, on the river Tanarus, now called Asti. 
 
 AsTA, or AsTA Regia, a town of Bcetica, 
 situated at the mouth of the Baetis, which was 
 choked up with mud, north of Cadiz^ and sixteen 
 miles distant from its port. Its ruins show its 
 former greatness. Its name is Phoenician, de- 
 noting a frith or arm of the sea. It is said to be 
 the same with the present Xera. 
 
 ASTABAT, a town of Armenia, in Asia, three 
 miles from the river Aras, and twelve south of 
 Nakshivan. The land about it is excellent, and 
 produces very good wine. 
 
 ASTtEUS, a species of the crab insect. 
 ASTAKILLOS, a denomination given by Pa- 
 racelsus to a malignant gangrenous ulcer in the 
 legs, occasioned by a mercurial salt in the blood. 
 It is also called by him araneus, and ulcus ara- 
 neum, the spider's ulcer. 
 
 ASTANDA, in antiquity, a royal courtier or 
 messenger; the same with Angarus, Darius king 
 of Persia, is said by Plutarch, in his book on 
 the fortunes of Alexander, to have formerly been 
 an astanda. 
 
 ASTARIL.l"!,, AsTARiT^, or Astarothites, a 
 name given to those Jews who worshipped Ash- 
 taroth. 
 
 ASTARTE, in ancient geography, a city on 
 ihe other side Jordan; one of the names of Rab- 
 bah Ammon, in Arabia Petrsea. 
 
 Astarte, in pagan mythology. 
 r.OTH. On a medal of Caesa- 
 rea Palestina, Astarte is repre- 
 sented as in the annexed fi- 
 gure, in a short habit, crown- 
 ed with battlements, holding 
 the head of Osiris in her right 
 hand, and a staff in her left, 
 inscription COLonia Frima 
 TeUx AUGusta Flavia Commodiana, ^c. 
 ASTATE'. See Estate. 
 
 The vorlde stante ever upon debate. 
 So male be siker none antate. 
 Now here, now there, now to, now fro. 
 Now up, now down, the world goth so. 
 And ever hath done, and ever shall. 
 
 Gower. Con. A. The Prologue. 
 ASTATI, in the ninth century, the followers 
 of one Sergius, who renewed the errors of the 
 Manichees. They prevailed much under the 
 emperor Nicephorus ; but his successor, Michael 
 Curopalates, curbed them with very severe laws 
 Vol. III. 
 
 See Ashta- 
 
 81 AST 
 
 ASTEEPTNG. In steeping. See Steep. 
 
 Where Pcrah's flowers 
 Perfume proud Babel's bowers. 
 
 And paint hiwwall : 
 There we lay'd asteeping 
 Our eyes in endless weeping. 
 
 For S ion's fall. 
 
 P. Fletcher's Poems, p. 1C3. 
 
 ASTEISM, in rhetoric, a pleasant kind of 
 irony, or handsome way of deriding another. 
 Such, c. g. is that of Virgil : 
 Qui Bavium non odit, amet tua carmina, Mavi, &c 
 
 ASTELL (Mary) was the daughter of an opu- 
 lent merchant at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, where 
 she was born about 1668. She was educated in 
 a manner suitable to her station ; and amongst 
 other accomplishments was mistress of the French, 
 and had some knowledge of the Latin tongue. 
 Her uncle, a clergyman, observing in her marks 
 of a promising genius, took her under his tuition, 
 and taught her mathematics, logic, and philo- 
 sophy. She left the place of her nativity when 
 she was about twenty years of age, and spent the 
 remaining part of her life in London and at 
 Chelsea. Here she pursued her studies with 
 great assiduity, made great proficiency in the 
 above-mentioned sciences, and acquired a more 
 complete knowledge of the classics. Among 
 these Seneca, Epictetus, Hierocles, Antonius, 
 Tully, Plato, and Xenophon were her favorites. 
 Siie wrote, 1 . A Serious Proposal to the Ladies. 
 2. An Essay in Defence of the Female Sex. 3. 
 Letters concerning the Love of God. 4. Essays 
 upon Marriage, Crosses in Love, and Friend- 
 ship. 5. Moderation truly stated. 6. The Chris- 
 tian Religion, as professed by a daughter of the 
 Church of England. 7. Bart'lemey Fair, or an 
 Enquiry after wit ; and otiier works. She died in 
 1731, aged sixty-three, and was buried at Chelsea. 
 
 ASTENA, a genus of worms of the mollusca 
 order, in the Linnaean system. 
 
 ASTER, in ancient pharmacy, a kind of me- 
 dicine, invented by Andromachus, against de- 
 fluxions and divers pains. 
 
 Aster, in botany, starwort, a genus of the 
 polygamia superfiua order, and syngenesia class 
 of plants ; ranking in the natural method under 
 the forty-ninth order, composita; discoides. The 
 receptacle is naked ; the pappus simple ; the 
 i-ays of the corolla ten ; and the calyx imbricated. 
 There are above thirty species. All of them 
 may be raised from seed sown either in autumn 
 or spring : but the greater part being perennial 
 plants, and increasing greatly at the roots, are 
 generally propagated by parting their roots early 
 in the spring. They will grow in almost any 
 soil or situation ; and the larger sorts increase 
 very fast. They grow best in the shade : tiie 
 lower kinds do not run so much at the root, but 
 should be taken up and transplanted every other 
 year; which will make them produce much fairer 
 flowers. Some few sorts which are natives of 
 warm climates, will require artificial heat to raise 
 them, if not to preserve them. 
 
 Aster, in mineralogy, a species of Samian 
 earth. 
 
 ASTERABAD, a small province of Persia, 
 bounded on the west by the Caspian sea, on the 
 
 G
 
 AST 
 
 south by tlie districts of Damgan and Bistan, 
 and on the north and east by the river Aslior. 
 This province is the ancient Ilyrcania, and the 
 paternal estate of the present king of Persia, as 
 chief of the tribe Kajar, or Kujur, which has en- 
 tire possession of it. The capital is situated on 
 the south-east shore of the Caspian sea, at the 
 mouth of the river Aster, or Ester. It was de- 
 stroyed by Tamerlane, and is now governed by a 
 descendant of the reigning family of Persia. 300 
 miles N. N. E. of Ispahan. Long. 54° E., lat. 
 360 44' N. 
 
 ASTERAC, or Esterac, a ci-devant district 
 of France, in Armagnac, now included in the 
 department of Gers. It is fertile and populous. 
 
 ASTERIA, a gem, sometimes called the cat's 
 eye, or oculus felis. It is a very singular and 
 beautiful stone, and somewhat approaches to the 
 nature of the opal, in having a bright included 
 color, which seems to be lodged deep in the body 
 of the stone, and shifts about, as it is moved, in 
 various directions : but it differs from the opal 
 in all other particulars, especially in its want of 
 the great variety of colors seen in that gem, and 
 in its superior hardness. It is usually found be- 
 tween the size of a pea and the breadth of a six- 
 pence ; is almost always of a semicircular form, 
 broad and flat at the bottom, and rounded and 
 convex at the top ; and is naturally smooth and 
 polished. It has only two colors, a pale brown 
 and a white ; the brown seeming the ground, and 
 the white playing about in it, as the fire color in 
 the opal. It is considerably hard, and will take 
 a fine polish, but is usually worn with its native 
 shape and smoothness. It is found in the East 
 and West Indies, and in Europe. The island of 
 Borneo affords some veiy fine ones, but they are 
 usually small ; they are very common in the 
 sands of rivers in New Spain ; and in Bohemia 
 they are often found immersed in the same 
 masses of jasper with the opal. 
 
 AsTERiA, an extraneous fossil, called in Eng- 
 lish the star-stone. These fossils are small, 
 short, angular, or sulcated columns, between one 
 and two inches long, and seldom above a third 
 of an inch in diameter : composed of several 
 regular joints ; when separated, each resembles 
 a radiated star. They are, not without reason, 
 supposed to be a part of some sea-fish petrified, 
 probably the asterias or sea-star. The asteria is 
 also called astrites, astroites, and asteriscus. 
 They may be reduced to two kinds : those whose 
 whole bodies make the form of a star ; and those 
 which in the whole are irregular, but are adorned 
 as it were with constellations in the parts. The 
 asterial spoken of by the ancients appears to be 
 of this latter kind. The quality of moving in 
 vinegar, as if animated, is scarcely perceivable 
 in the astrites, but is signal in the asteria. The 
 former must be broken in small pieces before it 
 will move ; but the latter will move, not only in 
 a whole joint, but in two or three knit together. 
 The curious frequently meet with these stones in 
 many parts of England. 
 
 Asteria, in zoology, a name by which some 
 authors have called the falco palumbarius, or 
 gos-hawk. See Falco. 
 
 ASTERIAS, star-fish, or sea-star, in zoology, 
 a [renus of insects of the order of vermes mol- 
 
 82 
 
 AST 
 
 lusca. It has a depressed body, covered with a 
 coriaceous coat; is composed of five or more 
 segments, running out from a central part, and 
 furnished with numerous tentacula; and has the 
 mouth in the centre. The tentacula resemble 
 the horns of snails, but serve the animal to walk 
 with. They are capable of being contracted or 
 shortened : and it is only at the creatures moving 
 that they are seen of their full length ; at other 
 times, no part of them is seen but the extremity 
 of each, which is formed like a sort of button, 
 being somewhat larger than the rest of the horn. 
 Aristotle and Pliny called this genus azi)o, and 
 Stella marina, from their resemblance to the pic- 
 tured form of the stars of heaven; and they as- 
 serted that they were so exceedingly hot, as 
 instantly to consume whatsoever they touched ! 
 The fossil world has been greatly enriched by the 
 fragments and remains of the several pieces of 
 star-fish which have been converted into stones. 
 See Asteria. There are many species of this 
 genus : some of twelve, thirteen, and even four- 
 teen rays. Most of them are found in our seas. 
 We enumerate the principal : 1 . A. caput meducae, 
 or arborescent sea-star, having five rays issuing 
 from an angular body ; the rays divided into 
 innumerable branches, growing slender as they 
 recede from the base. These the animal, in 
 swimming, spreads like a net ; and when he per- 
 ceives any prey within them, draws them in 
 again. It is called by some the Magellanic star- 
 fish, and basket-fish. 2. A. clathatra, or cancel- 
 lated sea-star, with five short thick rays, hirsute 
 beneath, cancellated above, is found on our 
 coasts, but is rare. 3. A. decacnemos having 
 ten very slender rays, with numbers of long 
 beards on the sides ; the body small, and sur- 
 rounded beneath with ten filiform rays. It in- 
 habits the western coasts of Scotland. 4. A. gla- 
 cialis, with five rays, depressed, round at the 
 base, yellow, and having a round striated oper- 
 culum on the back, is the most common ; it feeds 
 on oysters, and is very destructive to the beds. 
 5. A. hispida, with five rays, broad, angulated at 
 top, and rough, with short bristles, is of a brown 
 color, and found about Anglesea. 6. A. oculata, 
 with five smooth rays, dotted or punctured, is of 
 a fine purple color, also found about Anglesea. 
 7. A. placenta, with five very broad and mem- 
 braneous rays, extremely thin and flat, found 
 about Weymouth. 8. A. spherulata, with a pen- 
 tagonal indented body; a small globular head 
 between the base of each ray ; the rays slender, 
 jointed, taper, and hirsute on their sides; found 
 off Anglesea. 
 
 Asterias, in ornithology, the ancient name of 
 the bittern. See Ardea. 
 
 ASTERION, in astronomy, one of the canes 
 venatici. 
 
 ASTERISCUS, in botany, asteriodes buph- 
 thalmum, the ox eye. 
 
 ASTERISK, > Gr.Affrtpifficoc, a diminutive 
 
 As'terism. i of aarrjn, a star. Asterisms 
 denote a number of stars, a constellation. 
 Asterisk is a character of reference used in print- 
 ing, resembling a small star. 
 
 Dwell particularly on passages with an asterism, for 
 the observations which follow such a note, will give 
 you a clear light. Dryden's Dufremoy.
 
 AST 
 
 83 
 
 Poetry had filled the skies with asterisms, and his- 
 tories belonging to them ; and then astrology devises 
 the feigned virtues and influences of each. 
 
 Beriiley's Sermons. 
 
 He also published the translation of the Scptuagint 
 by itself ; having first compared it with the Hebrew, 
 and noted by asterisks what was defective, and by 
 obelisks what was redundant. Grew. 
 
 ASTERIUS, or Asturius, a Roman consul, 
 •who lived about A. D. 449. He wrote A Con- 
 ference on the Old and New Testament, in Latin 
 verse, which is extant, and in which each strophe 
 contains, in the first verse, an historical fact in 
 the Old Testament, and in the second an appli- 
 cation of that fact to some point in the New. 
 
 AS'TERN. On the stern. See Stern. 
 
 Having left this strait astern, we seemed to be come 
 out of a river of two leagues broad, unto a large and 
 uiain sea. 
 
 The World encompassed by Sir F Drake, 1578. 
 
 The galley gives her side, and turns her prow. 
 
 While those astern descending down the steep. 
 
 Through gaping ways behold the boiling deep. 
 
 Dri/den. 
 
 Rut at seven in the evening, finding we did not near 
 the chase, and that the Wager was very far astern, we 
 shortened sail, and made a signal for the cruizers to 
 join the squadron. Anson's Voyage, p. 50, 
 
 Astern is used to signify any thing at some 
 distance behind the ship ; being the opposite of 
 a-iiead, which signifies the space before her. See 
 Ahead. 
 
 ASTEROP.EUS, a Trojan hero, who fought 
 with Achilles, in single combat, and proved him 
 not invulnerable, by wounding him in the right 
 arm; notwithstanding which Achilles slew him. 
 
 ASTEROPIIYTON, in natural history, a kind 
 of fish composed of a great number of cylindric 
 rays, each branching out into several others, so as 
 to represent the branched stalks of a very intri- 
 cate shrub. 
 
 ASTEROPODIUM, a kind of extraneous 
 fossil, of the same substance with the asteriae or 
 star-stones, to which they serve as a base. See 
 AsTERiA and Star-stone. 
 
 ASTESAN, the ancient county of Asti, a dis- 
 trict of Upper Italy, bounded by Chieri and 
 Carmagnola on the west, by the Vercellois on 
 the north and east, and by the marquisate of 
 (jorzegno on the south. It is a fruitful and po- 
 pulous territory, about twenty-five miles long 
 and ten broad, and belongs to the house of Sa- 
 voy. It produces excellent wines, and exports 
 to various parts of Italy large quantities of olives. 
 
 ASTETE'S Island, an island to the north- 
 west of the gulf of Carpentaria, New Holland, 
 containing some traces of iron ore, and well 
 wooded. 
 
 ASTHMA, a frequent, difficult, and short re- 
 spiration, joined with a hissing sound and a 
 cough, especially in the night-time, and when 
 the body is in a prone posture ; because then the 
 contents of the lower belly bear so against tiie 
 diaphragm, as to lessen the capacity of the breast, 
 whereby the lungs have less room to move. See 
 Medicine. 
 
 ASTI, a city of Montserrat in Italy, capital of 
 the county. It has a bishop's see ; is well for- 
 tified with strong walls and deep ditches : and is 
 divided into the city, borough, citadel, and castle. 
 
 AST 
 
 There are a great many churches, convents, and 
 other handsome buildings in it. It is seated on 
 the Tanaro, twenty-four miles east of Turin. 
 Population 22,000. The inhabitants carry on 
 a considerable trade in corn, wine, and silk, 
 which is promoted by the situation of the town 
 on the high-road from Alessandria to Turin. 
 
 ASTIGI, in ancient geography, a colony, and 
 conventus juridicus, of Bcetica, situated on the 
 Singulus, which falls into the Baetis ; called also 
 Colonia Astigitana, and Augusta Firma; now 
 Ecya, midway between Seville and Corduba. 
 
 ASTIP'ULATE, i To make an agreement. 
 
 Astip'ulation. 5 See Stipulate. 
 
 I do by my royal authority, confirm to persons of 
 monastical religion, and by the consent and astipula- 
 tion of my princes and peers do establish and consign 
 to them that monastery. 
 
 Bp, Hall's Polemical Works, p. 187. 
 
 Shortly, all, but a hateful Epicurus, have asiipu- 
 lated to this truth. Id. Devotional Works. 
 
 ASTIPULATOR, among the Roman Catho- 
 lics, he by whose consent and leave a nun takes 
 the religious habit. 
 
 ASTLE (Thomas), an English antiquary, was 
 the son of a farmer in Staffordshire. After he 
 had received a liberal education, Mr. Grenville 
 took him under his patronage, and about 1763 
 gave him a place along with Sir Joseph Ayloffe 
 and Dr. Ducarel, in the superintendance of the 
 Westminster records. In 1766 he was chosen to 
 conduct the printing of the ancient records of 
 parliament; and in 1775 was appointed prin- 
 cipal clerk in the record office in the Tower ; 
 from which, on the death of Sir John Shelly, he 
 succeeded to the office of keeper of the lecords. 
 He died in December 1803, and was the author 
 of many curious papers in the volumes of the 
 Archagologia ; also of a work entitled Origin and 
 Progress of Writing, as well hieroglyphic as ele- 
 mentary ; which was first printed in 1784, 4to, 
 and again in 1803. 
 
 ASTLEY (John), a native of Wem in Shrop- 
 shire, though he studied painting under the same 
 master with Sir Joshua Reynolds, is more me- 
 morable as a favorite of fortune, than as a limner. 
 His best pictures are copies of the Bentivoglio's, 
 Titian's Venus, &c. Lady Daniel, having sat to 
 him for her picture, within a week after gave 
 him the original, with the estate of Duckenfield, 
 worth £5000 a year. He died in 1787. 
 
 AsTLEY (Philip), the founder of the royal am- 
 phitheatre near Westminster Bridge, was born at 
 Newcastle-under-line in 1742, and bred a cabinet- 
 maker. In 1759 he enlisted in the Light Horse, 
 and served seven years in Germany, where he 
 acquired the reputation of a good soldier. On 
 his return home, he began to exhibit equestrian 
 performances; and in 1780 erected a building 
 which he called the amphitheatre riding house, 
 for which he subsequently procured a license. 
 In 1794 Mr. Astley went to the continent as a 
 volunteer in the army. This campaign led to the 
 publication of his Descriptive and Historical 
 Account of the places now the theatre of war in 
 the Low Countries, with plans of fortifications; 
 London, 1794, 8vo ; and Remarks on the Pro- 
 fession and Duty of a Soldier. Mr. Astley built 
 amphitheatres at Dublin and at Paris, and the 
 
 G2
 
 AST 
 
 84 
 
 Olympic Pavilion near the Strand. He closed 
 an active and diversified life at Paris, October 
 20th, 1814, at the a^e of seventy-two. Another 
 work of his is entitled A System of Equestrian 
 Education, exhibiting the Beauties and Defects 
 of the Horse, 1800, 4to. 
 
 ASTOMl, in anthropology, a people feigned 
 to be without mouths. Pliny speaks of a nation 
 of Astomi in India, who lived only by the smell 
 or effluvia of bodies taken in by the nose ! 
 
 ASTON (Sir Arthur), a commander in the 
 service of Charles I. was at the head of the dra- 
 goons at the battle of Edgehill, and three times 
 defeated the earl of Essex. He was successively 
 governor of Reading and Oxford. He had the 
 misfortune to break one of his legs in such a 
 manner as to make amputation necessary; and, 
 serving in Ireland after the death of the king, 
 when Cromwell took Drogheda, where Aston 
 ■was governor, his brains were beaten out with 
 his wooden leg. 
 
 Aston (Sir Thomas), of an ancient family in 
 Cheshire, was created baronet in 1628, and ap- 
 pointed high sheriff of Cheshire in 1635. He 
 raised a troop of horse for king Charles I., but 
 was defeated and wounded in the vicinity of 
 Nantwich in 1642. lie was afterwards made 
 prisoner, and carried to Stafford ; and, while 
 endeavouring to make his escape, a soldier 
 struck him on the head, which, with other 
 wounds he had received, brought on a fever, 
 which ended in his death, in 1643. Sir Thomas 
 was author of, 1. A Remonstrance against Pres- 
 bytery, 1641, 4to; 2. A Short Survey of the 
 Presbyterian Discipline ; 3. Brief Review of 
 the Institution, Succession, and Jurisdiction of 
 Bishops. 
 
 Ang.-Sax, stunian, to 
 stun. Old Fr. estonnc, to 
 amaze, to excite wonder, 
 surprise; to strike as with 
 , thunder, startle, stupify, 
 confound, benumb ; to ston- 
 ny, or, as we say in modern 
 phrase, to petrify. As- 
 tound is from the same 
 root, and of a correspond- 
 
 ASTON'E, 
 
 Aston'y, 
 Aston'ving, 
 Aston'jedness, 
 Aston'isii, 
 Aston'ishedly, 
 Aston'ishing, 
 Aston'ishingly, 
 Aston'ishment, 
 Astoun'd. 
 mg signification. 
 
 But ncthclcs how that it wende 
 He drad hym of his owne sonne 
 That maketli hym well the more astone. 
 
 Gower. Con. A. book vi. 
 And with this word she fell to ground 
 Aswoune, and there she lay astound. 
 
 Id. ib. 1. iv. 
 
 And anoon all the puple seyngc Jhesus was 
 
 mtonyed and thei dredden, and thei rennynge gretten 
 
 him, WicUf. Mark, chap, ix. 
 
 Bo astonyslied (O yc heaues), be afrayde, and 
 
 abashed at soch a thinge, sayethe the Lord. For my 
 
 people doue two euels. Bible, 1539. Jeremy, c. ii. 
 
 Her looks did so astonish me. 
 
 And set my heart a quaking ; 
 Like stag that gaz'd, I was amaz'd. 
 And in a stranger taking. 
 
 Belchier, in Ellis, vol. iii. 
 These thoughts may startle well, but not astound. 
 The virtuous mind ; that ever walks, attended 
 By a strong siding champion, conscience. Milim. 
 
 AST 
 
 Now they lie 
 
 Groveling and prostrate on yon lake of fire. 
 
 As we ere while, astminded and amaz'd. 
 
 No wonder, fall'a such a pernicious height. 
 
 Milton. Paradise Lost, h. i. 
 Princes, potentates. 
 Warriors, the flow'r of heaven, once yours, now lost. 
 If such astonishment as this can seize 
 Immortal spirits. Id. 
 
 But all sate mute. 
 Pondering the danger with deep thoughts ; and each 
 In other's countenance read his own dismay 
 Astonisht. Id. b, ii. 
 
 As when some peasant in a bushy brake. 
 
 Has with unwary footing pressed a snake ; 
 
 He starts aside, astonish'd, when he spies 
 
 His rising crest, blue neck, and rolling eyes. 
 
 Dryden's Virgil. 
 
 The palaces of Peru and Mexico were certainly 
 mean and incommodious habitations, if compared to 
 the houses of European monarchs ; yet who couUt 
 forbear to view them with astonishment, who remem- 
 bered that they were built without the use of iron. 
 
 Johnson. 
 
 Whence many wearied e'er they had o'erpast 
 The middle stream (for they in vain have tried) 
 Again return'd astounded and aghast, 
 No one regardful look would ever backward cast. 
 
 Gilbert West. 
 A genius, universal as his theme. 
 Astonishing as chaos. Thomson. 
 
 At first, heard solemn thro' the verge of heaven 
 The tempest growls ; but as it nearer comes. 
 And rolls its awful burden on the wind. 
 The lightning's flash a larger curve, and more 
 The noise astounds. Thomson's Seasons. 
 
 Unmanly dread invades 
 
 The French astuny'd. J. Philips. 
 
 Astonishment is that state of the soul in which all 
 
 its motions are suspended, with some degree of horror. 
 
 Burke on the Sublime and Beautiful. 
 
 A character so exalted, so strenuous, so various, so 
 authoritative, astonished a corrupt age, and the trea- 
 sury trembled at the name of Pitt, through all her 
 classes of venality. 
 
 Grattans Character of Lord Chatham. 
 
 ASTORCIIA, in botany, a name given by 
 some botanists to the stoechas. 
 
 ASTORGA, an ancient city of Spain, in the 
 kingdom of Leon, with a bishop's see, sealed on 
 the river Tuerto, and well fortified. It stands in 
 a most agreeable plain, about 160 miles north- 
 west of Madrid. It is now the chief place in a 
 small marquisate, the castle of which it contains. 
 In its territory lies the lake of Sanabria, through 
 which the Tuerto passes with such rapidity as to 
 agitate the whole surface. 
 
 ASTRiEA, in astronomy, a name of the sign 
 Virgo, by others called Erigone, and sometimes 
 Isis. 
 
 AsTR^A, in mythology, the goddess of jus- 
 tice, and daughter of Jupiter by Themis, or, 
 as others say, by Nemesis, the goddess of ven- 
 geance. The poets feign that Astrrea quitted 
 heaven to reside on earth, in the golden age; 
 but, growing weary of the iniquities of mankind, 
 she left the earth, and returned to heaven, where 
 she commenced a constellation of stars, and froni 
 her orb still looks down on the way5 of men. 
 
 ASTRAGAL, in architecture, a little round 
 moulding, which in the orders surrounds the top 
 of the shaft or body of the column. Its etymo-
 
 ASTRAKHAN. 
 
 85 
 
 logy is derived from its resemblance to tlic bone 
 of the heel, culled astragalos. It is also called 
 the talon and tondino; it is used at the bottoms 
 as well as tlie tops of columns, and on other oc- 
 casions ; it properly represents a ring, on what- 
 ever part of a colunni it is placed ; and the origi- 
 nal idea of it was that of a circle of iron put 
 round the trunk of a tree used to support an 
 edifice, to prevent its splitting. The astragal is 
 often cut into beads and berries, and is used in 
 the ornamented entablatures to separate the se- 
 veral faces of the architrave. See Akcuitec- 
 
 TURE. 
 
 Astragal, in gunnery, a round moidding 
 encompassing a cannon, about half a foot from 
 its mouUi. 
 
 ASTRAGALOIDES, in botany, the phaca of 
 I .inntcus. 
 
 ASTRAGALOMANCY; from a-rpayaXocand 
 liavrtia, divination; a species of divination per- 
 formed by throwing small pieces, with marks 
 corresponding to the letters of the alphabet ; the 
 accidental disposition of which formed the an- 
 swer required. This kind of divination was 
 practised in a temple of Hercules at Achaia. 
 
 ASTRAGALOTE, in natural history, a species 
 of fossile alum, tlu;s called from its resembling a 
 talus, or ankle-bone ; whence it is also denomi- 
 nated talare. 
 
 ASTRAGALUS, in anatomy, the bone of the 
 heel. See Anatomy. 
 
 Astragalus, in botany, milk-vetch, or lirjuor- 
 ice vetch; a genus of the decandria order, and 
 diadelphia class of plants ; ranking in the na- 
 tural method luider the thirty-second order, 
 papilionacea', the pod is gibbous and bilocular. 
 t,)f this genus there are thirty-nine species. 1. A. 
 communis, the common species, grows wild 
 upon dry uncultivated places, and is often re- 
 commended by ]\Ir. Anderson as proper food 
 for cattle. 2. A. tragacantha, a thorny bush, 
 growing in Crete, Asia, and Greece, which yields 
 the gum tragacanth. This is of so strong a 
 body, that a dram of it will give a pint of water 
 the consistence of a syrup, which a whole ounce 
 of gum Arabic is scarce sufficient to do. Hence 
 its use for forming troches and the like purposes, 
 in preference to the other gums. 
 
 ASTRAKHAN, a city and government of the 
 Russian emjiire, on the siiores of the Caspian, 
 anciently an independent Tutarian sovereignty, 
 but reduced to a Russian province by the Tzar 
 Ivan Vasiliovich in 1-554. It forms a distinct 
 province, named after its principal city ; having 
 been separated from that of Caucasus, in which 
 it was formerly included. It is bounded by the 
 governments of Caucasus, Saratov, Orenburg, the 
 country of the Kirgiz Tartars, the Caspian Sea, 
 and the ci-devant Persian provinces of Daghistun 
 and Lerpistan ; and contains 12,568 square geo- 
 graphical miles. The number of its inhabitants 
 is from 300,000 to 400,000. Its extent from 
 east to west is about 600 geograpiiical miles, and 
 from north to south about 520. The climate is 
 rather warm, tire thermometer rising in the sum- 
 mer to 158'' (rahrenheit) ; but the nights are 
 cold, and the dew very copioMS. The ice is 
 usually strong enough to bear at the end of 
 November, and is not melted again till February. 
 
 This is followed by violent storms; but spring 
 soon advances, the ground is covered with flowers, 
 and the whole face of nature changed. The 
 sunmicr is remarkably dry. This government is 
 separated from that of Kazan and the Ivozaks o ' 
 the Ural, by a liarren branch of the Uralian chain, 
 wjiich stretches from north to south, and is the 
 only line of hills in this province. The rest of 
 the government is one continued level. The. 
 principal rivers, besides the Volga and Ural, 
 are the Akhtuba, running parallel with the Volga, 
 the Manich, the great and little Uzen, the Kulian, 
 the Kuma, lost in the summer months in the 
 sands, the Terek, tiie Malka, and the Sula. The 
 air in the Steppes is said to be very unhealthy. 
 At a distance from the stream the soU becomes 
 salt and barren, and is covered with drifting sand. 
 There are several salt lakes, such as the liogdo, 
 liasinskoe, Graznoe, Kobilikha, &c. 
 
 On the banks of the Volga rhubarb and liquor- 
 ice are plentiful, and the extract from the root 
 of the latter is prepared in considerable quanti- 
 ties in the city of Astrakhan. The sea-rose, 
 found near the mouth of the Volga, is here con- 
 sidered as sacred and nutritious. Its flowers 
 have a fragrant smell, and give an essential water 
 of the scent of amber. The shrubs of the Steppes 
 are cherries, sloes, dwarf almcnds, and capers. 
 Near the river there are the willow, alder, birch, 
 ash, poplar, elm, and oak ; the beech also on the 
 Kuban ; but no large woods. The fruit trees are 
 Tatarian mulberries, cherries, apples, pears, 
 plums, apricots, peaches, quinces, and vines ; 
 and on the latter there are also figs, almonds, 
 wild olives, Spanish chestnuts, pomegranates, and 
 Cornelian cherries (Cornus mas), which, when 
 pickled, taste like olives. Silk, tobacco, and 
 cotton are plentiful ; and the gardens produce all 
 the common roots and herbs. The pasturage ii 
 excellent, and much cattle is reared. Sea and 
 rock-salt, natron, epsom-salt, salt-petre-earth, 
 bitumen, and mineral pitch, are also an abundant 
 source of wealth to Astrakhan. 
 
 The population of the province is composed of 
 a great number of difi'erent nations ; Russians, 
 Kozaks, Tartars, Kalmuks, Indians, Persians, 
 Armenians, &c. Generally the military, public 
 ofticers, merchants, mechanics, and other citizens, 
 are Russians. The garrisons on the Ural consist 
 of Kozaks, derived from those of die Don, who 
 choose their own officers, except their commander, 
 the hetman, or ataman, who is appointed by the 
 Russian government. The Tartars are, excepting 
 a small number, nomad tribes, continually en- 
 camped, consisting of about 9000 families. The 
 Kalmuks, about 12,000 families, are of the Uerbet 
 tribe, and encamp between the Volga, Don, and 
 Kuma. There are also Armenians, Greeks, 
 Georgians (Gruzinians), Bukharians, Khivinzians, 
 and Hindoos, in considerable numbers, constantly 
 inhabiting the city, to say nothing of the Euio- 
 peans who arc generally to be found there. 
 Some colonies, established on the Terek and 
 Kuma in 1781, cultivate grain, gardens, and 
 vineyards, and produce a considerable quantity 
 of silk. The number of their villages amounted 
 to fifty-diree in 1796. 
 
 Astrakhan, the capital of the above govern- 
 ment, (called originally Ilaje Teikhan, the
 
 86 
 
 ASTRAKHAN. 
 
 Giterchan, or Ginterchan, of the middle ages), 
 is situated in E. long. 48" 2' 15", N . lat. 46° 2 1' 1 2", 
 and is one of. the most populous and important 
 cities, ranking as the third town, perhaps, of the 
 Russian empire. It contains nearly 70,000 in- 
 habitants. It stands on a hill, in a long narrow 
 island of the \'olga, about thirty miles from its 
 entrance into the Caspian, surrounded by swamps, 
 which in spring are very unliealthy. The town 
 itself, without including the suburbs, is from six 
 to eight miles in circumference. The houses are 
 built principally of brick and sand-stone. Here 
 is an old Tatar castle, or kreml, and the Beloi- 
 Gorod (white tower), built by the tzar, Michael 
 Feodorovich, now in ruins; a cathedral, arch- 
 bishop's palace, public offices, main guard, 
 arsenal, and powder magazine. Belgorod, which 
 adjoins the kreml, on the same hill, is 2510 feet 
 long, 1440 feet broad, and 7110 feet in circum- 
 ference. The city has four gates, and some 
 ruined walls. The streets are ill paved, and 
 much exposed to inundations. Between the 
 kreml and the canal, on the Volga, is the dock- 
 yard, on the other side of which are the Tatarian 
 and Armenian suburbs (slobods), and barracks 
 for the troops. The exchange, where ships from 
 the Caspian unlade and land their goods, is not 
 far from St. Nicolas's Gate, and opposite to it is 
 the haven for vessels coming down the river. 
 Within the suburbs are about 100 vineyards, 
 thirty of which belong to the crown ; a school for 
 the artillery, a bank, and court of justice, in 
 what was formerly the Troitzkoi convent ; and, 
 in the Belograd, the Spasso-preobrashenski con- 
 vent, two parish churches, two hospitals, and a 
 bazar for the use of the Armenians and Hin- 
 doos. 
 
 The variety of nations and religions in Astra- 
 khan is manifested by the number and difference 
 of the places of worship. The total of them is 
 fifty-seven : twenty-three Russian churches of the 
 Greek communion ; twenty-seven Tatarian 
 mosques, churches, and temples ; four Arme- 
 nian, two Roman Catholic, one Lutheran, and 
 one Hindoo temple. There is also a handsome 
 hospital dedicated to St. Paul, and six monas- 
 teries; several dyeing-houses, brick-fields, tallow- 
 candle manufactories, one iron-foundry, and 
 looms for weaving linen, veils, and sashes. The 
 morocco leather manufactured here is most es- 
 teemed, next to the Turkish ; especially the red. 
 There is also an establishment here for rearing 
 silk-worms, and a botanic garden. European 
 goods are brought either by water from Peters- 
 burgh, or, on sledges, by land from Moscow, and 
 are shipped across the Caspian, or conveyed to 
 Mozdok, in Mount Caucasus. The merchants 
 engaged in this trade employ 250 vessels of dif- 
 ferent tonnage. More than half of the whole 
 trade carried on is in the hands of die Armenians. 
 Many of the Russian merchants employ their 
 vessels in trading voyages to Persia, Khiva, 
 or Bukhara, or carrying stores to Kizliaer, and 
 salt, for the crown, to the towns on the Volga. 
 The Hindoo merchants generally quit their native 
 country at an early age, setting out with a small 
 capital, which they soon increase by trade on 
 their way through Tatary and Persia; and make 
 enormous profits by letting the Tatars of Astra- 
 
 khan have their goods on credit; so that the 
 latter are always deeply in their debt. 
 
 The imports from Persia and Bukhara consist 
 of raw silk, about 120,000 lbs. yearly, vvool, dyed 
 woollens, madder, gulls, morocco leather, chintzes, 
 dyed linens, silks, gauzes, small carpets, counter- 
 panes, frankincense, bezoar, naphtha, rice, deer- 
 skins, lamb-skins, Circassian cloth, tulups 
 (pelisses), mountain-honey, tobacco, cotton 
 gowns, Persian peas, dried fruits, almonds, figs, 
 pomegranates, olives, oil, saffron, dried peaches, 
 and spices. The exports consist almost entirely 
 of foreign manufactures; such as velvet, cochineal, 
 satin, plush, linen, and other woven articles, 
 sugar, Russia-leather, iron, dyeing substances, 
 glass, coral, steel and iron wares, metal utensils, 
 wrought gold and silver, wax, soap, trinkets, 
 alum, quick-silver, vitriol, sal-ammoniac, &c. 
 Caravans often arrive by land at Astrakhan from 
 Bukhara and Khiva. The Indian trade alone is 
 from 6 to 700,000 roubles (£l20 to 140,000) an- 
 nually. The silk-manufactures are said to em- 
 ploy from 3 to 400,000 (£60 to 80,000). The 
 supplies sent to the Caucasian lines along the 
 Terek, from 4 to 500,000 (£l00 to 120,000). 
 The prices of all internal produce are low. Little 
 is known concerning the origin of Astrakhan 
 or of its condition before the thirteenth century, 
 when William de Rubruguis found it a village 
 without any fortifications ; but, at the close of 
 that century, it was a considerable emporium for 
 the trade with India and China ; and completely 
 ruined by Timur. It was still a mere village 
 when Josaphat Barbaro saw it in the fifteenth 
 century ; but Ambrosio Contareni, the Venetian 
 ambassador, in the latter end of that century, 
 found a considerable trade in rice and silk car- 
 ried on there. The conquest of it, by the tzar 
 Ivan Vasiliovich, in 1554, was therefore very 
 advantageous to Russia, as it gave her the com- 
 mand not only of the Volga, but also of the Cas- 
 pian, an advantage which she has not neglected 
 to improve. 
 
 ASTRALISH, among miners, is the ore of 
 gold in its first state. 
 
 ASTRANTIA, Masterwort, in botany, a 
 genus of the digynia order, and the pentandria 
 class of plants ; ranking in the natural method 
 under the forty-fifth order, umbellata;. The in- 
 volucrum is lanceolated, open, equal, and co- 
 lored. The species are two : 1. A. major. 2. 
 A. minor, both natives of the Alps, and possess- 
 ing no remarkable properties. 
 
 ASTRAP/EA, in natural history, a name 
 given by the ancients to a stone, since called, 
 improperly, astrapia, and by some astrapias. It 
 was of a blue, or blackish ore, with white varie- 
 gations, running in the form of waves and clouds. 
 Some specimens of the Persian lapis lazuli are of 
 this kind, but they are rare. 
 
 ASTRARII, in writers of the middle age, 
 the same with mansionarii, those who live in 
 the house or family, at the time when a person 
 dies. 
 
 ASTRARIUS II^RES ; from astre, old French, 
 a hearth ; is used in our old writers, where the 
 ancestor, by conveyance, hath set his heirs ap- 
 parent, and his family, in a house, in his life- 
 time.
 
 AST 87 
 
 ASTRAY'. According to Tooke, the past 
 part, of the Ang.-Sax. verb straegan, to stray, to 
 scatter. 
 First every day, beseech thy God on knee. 
 
 So to direct thy stagg'ring steppes alway; 
 That he which every secrete thought doth see. 
 May holde thee in, when thou wouldst goe astray. 
 
 Gwscoigne. 
 You labour may 
 To lead astray, 
 The heart that constant shall remain. 
 And I the while 
 Will sit and smile. 
 To see you spend your time in vain. 
 
 George Wither, in Ellis, v. i. 
 And darkness and doubt are now flying away. 
 
 No longer I roam in conjecture forlorn. 
 So breaks on the traveller, faint, and astray, 
 The bright and the balmy effulgence of morn. 
 
 Beattie's Hermit. 
 ASTRICT', V. & adj. "l Astringo, ustric- 
 Astric'tion, turn, ustringere, to 
 
 Astric'tive, I^ contract. To make 
 
 Astrin'ge, (strait or narrow, to 
 
 Astuin'gently, ■ heighten or draw 
 
 Astrin'cent, ?i, & ac/;.J close, to bind; op- 
 posed to relax. 
 
 Tears are caused by a contraction of the spirits of 
 the brain ; which contraction, by consequence, astrin- 
 geth the moisture of the brain, and thereby sendeth 
 tears into the eyes. Bacon. 
 
 This virtue requireth an astriction ; but such an 
 astriction, as is not grateful to the body : for a pleas- 
 ing astriction doth rather bind in the nerves, than 
 expel them ; and therefore such astriction is found in 
 things of a harsh taste. Id. 
 
 The juice is very astringent, and therefore of slow 
 motion. Id. Natural History. 
 
 What diminisheth sensible perspiration, encreaseth 
 the insensible ; for that reason, a strengthening and 
 astritigent diet often conduceth to this purpose. 
 
 Arbuthnot on Aliments. 
 
 The solid parts were to be relaxed or astricted, as 
 
 they let the humours pass, either in too small or too 
 
 great quantities. Id. 
 
 Lenitive substances are proper for dry atrabilarian 
 
 constitutions j who are subject to astriction of the belly, 
 
 and the piles. Id. on Diet. 
 
 Acid, acrid, austere and bitter substances, by their 
 
 astringency, create horrour j that is, stimulate the 
 
 fibres. Id. 
 
 Astringent medicines are binding, which act by the 
 
 asperity of their particles ; whereby they corrugate 
 
 the membranes, and make them draw up closer. 
 
 Quincy. 
 Astriction, in law. See Thirlage. 
 Astriction, in medicines, the operation of 
 astringent medicines. 
 
 ASTRICUS Lapis, in natural history, a kind 
 of figured stone, broken or cut from the enastros, 
 after the same manner as the trochitae, from the 
 entrochi. 
 
 ASTRID'E, ) On stride, on straddle. See 
 Astrad'dle. J Stride, and Straddle. 
 To lay their native arms aside. 
 Their modesty ; and ride astride. Hudibras. 
 I saw a place, where the Rhone is so straitened 
 between two rocks, that a man may stand astride upon 
 both at once. Boyle. 
 
 ASTRILD, in ornithology, a species of the 
 lokia. 
 
 Astringents, in the materia medica, sub- 
 stances distinguished by a rough austere taste, 
 
 AST 
 
 and changing solutions of iron, especially those 
 made in the vitriolic acid, into a dark purple or 
 black color ; such as galls, tormentil root, bistort 
 root, balaustines, terra japonica, acacia, &c 
 
 ASTROBOLISM ; from a'.rjQ, a star," and 
 PaWoj, to strike ; the same with sphacelus ; 
 though properly applied to plants which are de- 
 stroyed in the dog-days, as if blasted by that 
 
 ASTROCHITES, or Astroites. See As- 
 teria. 
 
 ASTROGNOSIA; from a'.tip, star, and yt- 
 vtDffKw, I know ; the art of knowing the fixed 
 stars, their names, ranks, situations in the con- 
 stellations, and the like. See Astronomy. 
 
 ASTROLABE, -> ^ 
 
 As'TROLABRE, L ^f" «<'^V(>,^ Star, and 
 
 As'trolaby. 3 ^«^/3«»"^' I ^^^^- 
 
 The firste partye of this treatise shall rehearse the 
 figures, and the membres of thine astrolaby, because 
 that thou shalt have the greater knowyng of thyne 
 owne instrument. Chaucer. Astrolabie, f. 262. c. i. 
 
 For I have ben toward the parties of Braban, and 
 beholden the astrolabre, that the sterre that is clept 
 the transmontayne, is 53 degrees highe. 
 
 Sir John Maundeville, 
 Liv'd Tycho now, struck with this ray which shone 
 More bright i' the mom, than others beam at noon. 
 He'd take his astrolabe, and seek out here 
 What new star 'twas did gild our hemisphere, 
 
 Dryden. On the Death of Lord Hastings. 
 
 Astrolabe, among the ancients, was the same 
 as our armillary sphere. 
 
 Astrolabe, among the moderns, is used for 
 planisphere, or a stereographic projection of the 
 sphere, either upon the plane of the equator, the 
 eye being supposed to be in the pole of the 
 world, or upon the plane of the meridian, when 
 when the eye is supposed in the point of the in- 
 tersection of the equinoctial and horizon. 
 
 ASTRO'LOGY, "^ A<r»;p, a star, and Xoyof, 
 Astro'loger, a discourse; fi^om Xcyoj, I 
 
 Astro'logian, [say. In Latin writers, 
 Astro'logick, j astrologywas synonymous 
 Astro'logicall, with, and more in use 
 Astrolo'gically.J than, astronomy. This 
 usage has been imitated by our elder writers. 
 
 On which was written, not in words. 
 But hieroglyphic mute of birds ; 
 Many rare pithy saws concerning. 
 The worth of astrologic learning. 
 
 Butler's Hudibras, part i. can. 3. 
 A worthy astrologer, by perspective glasses, hath 
 found in the stars many things unknown to the an- 
 cients. Raleigh. 
 Not unlike that, which astrologers call a conjunction 
 of planets, of no very benign aspect the one to the 
 other. Wotton. 
 Some seem a little astrological ; as, when they warn 
 us from places of malign influence. Id. 
 No astrologick wizard honour gains. 
 Who has not oft been banish'd, or in chains. 
 
 Dryden. 
 A happy genius is the gift of nature: it depends on 
 the influence of the stars, say the astrologers; on the 
 organs of the body, say the naturalists ; it is the par- 
 ticular gift of heaven, say the divines, both Christians 
 and heathens. Id. 
 
 Astrologers, that future fates foreshew. Pope.
 
 88 
 
 ASTROLOGY. 
 
 I never heard a finer satire against la\^7crs, than 
 tha.t oi astrnlogers ; when they pretend, by riles of 
 art, to tell when a suit will end, and whether to the 
 advantage of the plaintift" or defendant. Swift. 
 
 I know, the learned think of the art of astroloiji/, 
 that the stars do not force the actions or wills of men. 
 
 Id. 
 
 Astrological prayers seem to me, to be built on as 
 good reason, as the predictions. StUUmjjicet . 
 
 The poetical fables are more ancient than the 
 astrological influences ; that were not known to the 
 Greeks, till after Alexander the Great. Bentley. 
 
 The twelve houses of heaven, in the form which 
 astrologians use. Camden. 
 
 Astuology; from uTtjp, a star, and \oyoQ, dis 
 
 Arabs we owe it. At Rome the people were so 
 infatuated with it, that the astrologers, or, as 
 they were then called, the mathematicians, main- 
 tained their ground notwithstanding the edicts of 
 the emperors to expel them out of the city. 
 Domitian, in spite of his hostility to this art, 
 trembled at its denouncements. Tliey prophesied 
 the year, the hour, and the manner of his death ; 
 and agreed with his father in foretelling, that he 
 should perish, not by poison, but by the dagger. 
 On the evenmg of his assassination lie spoke of 
 the entrance of tlie moon into Aquarius on the 
 morrow. ' Aquarius,' he said, ' shall no longer 
 be a watery, but a bloody sign ; for a deed shall 
 
 course; was long considered as a science, by which there be done, which shall be the talk of all 
 
 future events could be foretold, from the aspects mankind.' The dreaded hour of eleven approach- 
 
 and positions of the heavetdy bodies. In the literal ed. Ilis attendants told him it was passed, and 
 
 sense of the term, astrology should signify no he admitted the conspirators and fell. Siicl. in 
 
 more than the doctrine or science of the stars; Doi/iit. 16. 
 
 which was its original acceptation, and made the 
 ancient astrology ; thougli, in course of time, an 
 alteration has arisen : that which the ancients 
 called astrology, being afterwards termed astro 
 
 The Brahmins, who introduced and practised 
 this art among the Indians, have hereby made 
 themselves the arbiters of good and evil hours, 
 which gives them great authority ; they are con- 
 
 nomy. Astrology may be divided into two suited as oracles; and have taken care never 
 branches, natural and judicial. to sell their answers but at good rates. The 
 
 Astrology, Judiciat, or Judiciary, is what same superstition lias prevailed in more modern 
 
 we commonly call simple astrology, that which 
 pretends to foretel moral events, i. e. such as 
 have a dependence on the free will and agency 
 of man ; as if they were directed by the stars. 
 This art, which owed its origin to the practices 
 of knavery on credulity, is now universally ex- 
 
 ages and nations. The French historians remark, 
 that in the time of Catherine de Medicis, astro- 
 logy was so much in vogue, that the most incon- 
 siderable thing was not to be done without 
 consulting die stars. And in the reign of king 
 Henry III. and IV. of France, the predictions of 
 
 ploded by the intelligent part of mankind. The astrologers were die common theme of the court 
 professors of this kind of astrology maintain, conversation. Tliis predominant humor in that 
 ' That the heavens are one great volume or book, court was well rallied by Barclay, in hisArgenis, 
 wherein God has written the history of the world ; on occasion of an astrologer, who had under- 
 and in which every man may read his own for- taken to instruct king Henry in the event of a 
 tune, and the transactions of his time. — The art, war then threatened by tl^e faction of the Guises, 
 they say, had its rise with the science of astro- Little is known of the early history of astro- 
 nomy. While the ancient Assyrians, whose se- logy in England. Bede and Alcuin, among our 
 rene unclouded sky favored their celestial obser- Anglo-Saxon ancestors, were addicted to its 
 vations, were intent on tracing the paths and pe- study ; and Roger Bacon could not escape the 
 riods of the heavenly bodies, they discovered a imputation of the art. His imprisonment was 
 constant settled relation of analogy between them owing, it is well known, to his being supposed 
 and things below ; and hence were led to conclude skilful in it. But it was the period of the Stuarts 
 these to be the parcas, the destinies, so much talk- which must be considered as the acme of astro- 
 ed of, which preside at our births, and dispose logy among us. Then Lilly drank the doctrine 
 of our future fate. The laws therefore of this of the magical circle, and the invocation of 
 
 relation being ascertained by a series of observa- 
 tions, and the share each planet has therein ; by 
 knowhig the precise time of any person's nativity, 
 tliey were enabled, from their knowledge in 
 astronomy, to erect a scheme or horoscope of the 
 
 spirits from die Ars Notoria of Cornelius Agrip- 
 pa ; used the form of prayer prescribed therein 
 to the angel Salmonceus ; and entertained among 
 his familiar acquaintance the guardian spirits of 
 England, Sammael and Malchidael. Merlin 
 
 situations of the planets, at that point of time; Anglicus, 1647. The author of Waverley has 
 and hence, by considering their degrees of power made ample use ofthis promising character in his 
 and influence, and how each was either strength- tales relative to this period 
 
 ened or tempered by some other, to compute 
 what must be the result.' Such are the argu- 
 ments of the astrologers in favor of their science. 
 Tlie cldef province now remaining to the profes- 
 sors of this art, is the making of calendars or 
 
 The signs of astrology were primarily di- 
 vided thus : the six first were called northern, 
 and commanding ; the six last southern, and 
 obeying. Next they were distributed into four 
 triplicities, (so called because three belonged to 
 
 Almanacks; and the prodigious sale of Moore's each), fieiy, earthy, airy, and watery. Of these 
 
 almanack, in this country, is no small proof of the fiery and airy were said to be masculine, tlie 
 
 the popular belief in this subject. earthy and watery, feminine. The planets by 
 
 Judicial astrology is commonly said to have their motion made several aspects. See Asi'ects. 
 
 been invented in Clialdea, and thence transmitted The remaining influential parts of the heaven 
 
 to the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans; though were two, Dragon's Head and Tail, that, is the 
 
 .some will have it of Egyptian origin, and as- nodes in which the ecliptic is intersected by 
 
 cribe the invention to llam. But it is to the tiie orbits of the planets; and the Part of For. 
 
 G 2
 
 AST 
 
 89 
 
 AS'l' 
 
 tune, that is the distance of the moon's plane 
 from the sun, added to the degrees of the ascen- 
 dant. 
 
 The influences of the heavenly bodies being 
 determined, it remained only, in each sejiarate 
 case, to observe their positions at some required 
 moment; for upon this, and their aspect to each 
 other, the resolution of any question depended. 
 Tor tliis purpose the whole circle of the heavens 
 was distributed into twelve parts or houses, by 
 ijreat circles drawn through the intersection of 
 the horizon and meridian, and cutting the equa- 
 tor in so many equal parts. The first house was 
 jilaced directly east, and the remainder were 
 counted round in order proceeding to the south 
 according to the motion of the planets. To each 
 of these houses was assigned some peculiar go- 
 vernment, according to the scheme below. 
 
 The remainder of the art consisted in accu- 
 rately filHng the scheme by an observation, and 
 then framing from it an oracular response. 
 
 At the revolution astrology declined ; and not- 
 withstanding the labors of the immortal Par- 
 tridge then, and those of Ebenezer Sibley, wliich 
 in our own days fill two 4to. volumes, the art 
 may now be considered as exploded. 
 
 AsTKOi.OGY, Natural, is the predicting of 
 natural effects from natural causes ; as, the 
 changes of weather, winds, storms, hurricanes, 
 thunder, floods, earthquakes, &c. This art 
 properly belongs to physiology, or natural philo- 
 sophy ; and is only to be deduced a posteriori, 
 from plienomena and observations. 
 
 ASTROLOMA, in botany; from a^pov, a 
 star, and \wfia, a fringe, alluding to tlie five tufts 
 of hair which form a star, near the bottom of 
 the tube of the flower, internally. Brown Prodr. 
 Nov. IloU. V. i. 538. Class and order, pentan- 
 <lria monogynia. Nat. ord. Ericae Juss. Epa- 
 cridetB, brown. 
 
 Gen. ch. cal. perianth inferior, permanent, 
 double ; inner of five elliptic-lanceolate, acute, 
 equal, erect leaves ; outer of four or more, much 
 shorter, concave, imbricated scales : cor. of one 
 petal, tubular ; tube twice the length of the calyx, 
 
 inflated, furnished on the inside, near the base, 
 with five tufts of soft hairs ; limb in five deep, 
 spreading, lanceolate, acute, hairy segments, 
 shorter than the tube. Nectary a cup-shaped 
 undivided gland, surrounding the base of the ger- 
 men : stam. filaments five, linear, inserted into 
 the tube, and enclosed within it ; anthers oblong, 
 in the mouth of the tube : pist. Germen superior, 
 roundish, of five cells; style capillary, the length 
 of the tube ; stigma ' globose, densely downy :' 
 PERic. drupa globular, slightly juicy : seed, nut 
 of five cells, hard and solid, not bursting, with 
 a pendulous oblong kernel in each cell. 
 
 Ess. ch. : outer calyx of several imbricated 
 leaves : corolla tubular : tube swelling, twice as 
 long as the calyx, with five internal tufts of hair 
 at the base : tube shorter, spreading, bearded : 
 filaments linear, within the tube: drupa almost 
 dry, of five cells. This genus is closely related 
 to stenanthera, as well as to melichrus. We 
 might perhaps unite them all to styphelia. 
 
 Astroloma consists of shrubs, of humble stature, 
 for the most part decumbent : leaves scattered, 
 often ciliated : flowers axillary, erect. There are 
 six species: 1. A. humifusum, diffuse astroloma; 
 stem prostrate, much branched. Found in various 
 parts of New Holland, on the south-west coast, 
 as well as at Port Jackson and in Van Diemen's 
 island. The remaining five species have all 
 been found in the southern part of New Hol- 
 land, by Mr. Brown, and apparently by no otlier 
 botanist. We give their names from his work: 
 2. A. prostratum, prostrate astroloma; 3. A. den- 
 ticulatum, toothed astroloma; 4. A. pallidum, 
 pale astroloma; 5. A. compactum, compact astro- 
 loma ; 6. A. tectum, upright astroloma. 
 
 ASTROLUS, in natural history, a name given 
 by authors to a white and splendid stone, small 
 in size, and of a roundish figure, resembling the 
 eyes of fishes. 
 
 ASTROMETEOROLOGIA, the art of fore- 
 telling the weather, and its changes, from the 
 aspects and configurations of the moon and pla- 
 nets. It is a species of astrology, sometimes 
 called meteorological astrology. 
 
 ASTRONIUM, in botany, a genus of the pen- 
 tandria order, and the dicecia class of plants. 
 The male calyx consists of five leaves, and the 
 corolla is quinquepetalous. Of the female the 
 calyx and corolla are the same as in the male ; 
 the styli are three, and the seed is single. There 
 is but one species, viz. A. graveolens, a na- 
 tive of Jamaica. 
 
 ASTRONOMICAL Calendar, an instru- 
 ment engraved on copper plates, printed on 
 paper, and pasted on a board, with a brass slider 
 carrying a hair : it shows by inspection the sun's 
 meridian altitude, right ascension, declination, 
 rising, setting, amplitude, &c. to a greater de- 
 gree of exactness than the common globes. 
 
 Astronomical Place of a star, or planet, is 
 its longitude, or place in the ecliptic, reckoned 
 from the beginning of Aries in consequentia, or 
 according to the natural order of the signs. 
 
 ASTRONOMICALS, a name used by some 
 writers for sexagesimal fractions ; on account of 
 their use in astronomical calculations.
 
 90 
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 ASTRO'NOMY, ^ 
 Astro NOMicK, | 
 
 Astronom'ical, y From aarijo, a star, 
 AsTRONO MicALLY, ( and vofioQ, a law. 
 Astron'omer, I 
 
 Astron'omize. J 
 
 images astronomicallt/ framed under certain con- 
 stellations to preserve from several inconveniences, 
 as under the sign of the Lion the figure of a lion 
 made in gold, against melancholic fancies, dropsie, 
 plague, fevers. Bp. Hall's Cases of Conscience. 
 
 Our forefathers, marking certain mutations to 
 happen in the sun's progress through the zodiack, 
 they registrate and set them down in their astrono- 
 inical canons. Brown's Vulgar Errors. 
 
 The old ascetick Christians found a paradise in a 
 desert, and with little converse on earth, held a con- 
 versation in heaven ; thus they astronomized in caves ; 
 and though they beheld not the stars, had the glory 
 of heaven before them. Brotvn. Chris. Mar. ii. 9. 
 
 Astrotpjmers no longer doubt of the motion of the 
 planets about the sun. Locke, 
 
 The old and new astronomers in vain 
 Attempt the heav'nly motions to explain. 
 
 Blackmore. 
 
 Can he not pass an astronomick line. 
 
 Or dreads the sun th' imaginary sign ; 
 
 That he should ne'er advance, to either pole ? Id. 
 
 To this must be added the understanding of the 
 
 globes, and the principles of geometry and astrojU),ny. 
 
 Cowley. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Sect. I. Etymology and Definition of 
 Astronomy. 
 
 1. Astronomy, a mixed mathematical science, 
 teaching the knowledge of the celestial bodies ; 
 their magnitudes, distances, motions, revolu- 
 tions, and eclipses : and it comprehends also a 
 knowledge of the natural causes on which all 
 celestial phenomena depend. Hence it is as 
 much a branch of physics as of mathematics, 
 and comprehends the theory of the universe. 
 
 Sect. II. History of Astronomy. 
 
 2. As Astronomy is the most sublime of all 
 the sciences, so it is also the most useful, the 
 most ancient, and, we may add, the most perfect. 
 How can it be otherwise than sublime, when 
 its object is the study of that theatre which our 
 merciful Creator has vouchsafed to establish as 
 an unerring testimony of his existence and his 
 power. Wherever we turn we perceive immen- 
 sity of operation, guided by the strictest regula- 
 rity. We find revolutions, intricate and complex, 
 but resolving themselves, by laws irrevocably 
 fixed, into paths the most simple, and the most 
 capable of suffering an increase of numbers with- 
 out confusion. In another point of view it is sub- 
 lime : the contemplation of its discoveries and 
 its usefulness would convince the dreary-minded 
 bigot, who sneers at human reason and its eflx)rts, 
 of tiie amazing extent to which that noblest gift 
 of God to man can be extended. Astronomy is 
 the proudest triumph of philosophy and of hu- 
 man reason. Its superior usefulness when com- 
 pared with the other sciences can never be op- 
 l)osed : by it the navigator is conducted through 
 
 unknown seas with safety ; and tlie merchant 
 transports the produce or the surplus of one 
 nation to increase the comforts or relieve the 
 wants of another ; in short, it affords the means 
 of intercourse to all the inhabitants of the globe. 
 If, from the folly of mankind, it Ijas sometimes 
 been compelled to efl'ect the transportation of 
 animosity and destruction, it has more frequently 
 assisted the dissemination of arts, civilisation, 
 and happiness. That it is the oldest science we 
 shall mc're clearly ascertain when we trace, as 
 we shall soon do, its history through the most 
 ancient, and its improvements through the most 
 modern, nations. If then astronomy is possessed 
 of the highest antiquity, the greatest usefulness, 
 and the utmost sublimity, it is an object of the 
 most transcendant worth that can occupy the at- 
 tention of the human mind. 
 
 3. None of the sciences appear to be of 
 higher antiquity than astronomy. From the ac- 
 count given by Moses of the creation of the 
 celestial luminaries, it appears extremely pro- 
 bable that our first progenitor received some 
 knowledge of their nature and uses from his 
 Almighty Creator himself. The Jewish rabbins 
 have adopted this opinion : and, indeed, it is 
 natural to think that no visible objects would 
 more readily excite the curiosity, or appear more 
 worthy of the contemplation of Adam in a state 
 of innocence, than the celestial bodies. 
 
 4. Consistently with this, Josephus ascribes to 
 Seth and his posterity a considerable degree of 
 astronomical knowledge. He speaks of two pil- 
 lars, the one of stone and the other of brick, 
 called the pillars of Seth, upon which were en- 
 graved the principles of the science; and he 
 says that the former was still entire in his time. 
 But, be this as it may, it is evident that the great 
 length of the antediluvian lives would afford 
 such excellent opportunities for observing the 
 heavenly bodies, that we cannot but suppose 
 that the science of astronomy must have been 
 considerably advanced before the flood. Jose- 
 phus says, that longevity was bestowed upon 
 them for the very purpose of cultivating the 
 sciences of geometry and astronomy ; observing, 
 that the latter could not be learned in less than 
 GOO years ; * for that period (he adds) is the 
 grand year.' 
 
 5. By this remarkable expression is probably 
 meant the period in whicli the sun and moon 
 come again into the same situation in which 
 they were at the beginning of it, with regard to 
 the nodes, apogee of the moon, &c. ' This pe- 
 riod (says Cassini), of which we find no intima- 
 tion in any monument of any other nation, is 
 the finest period that ever was invented ; for it 
 brings out tlie solar year more exactly than that 
 of Hipparchus and Ptolemy ; and the lunar 
 month within about one minute of what is deter- 
 mined by modern astronomers.' If the antedi- 
 luvians had such a period of 600 years they 
 must have known the motions of the sun and 
 moon more exactly than llieir descendants knew 
 them for many ages after the flood. That re- 
 markable expression in the book of Job, in which
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 91 
 
 the Deity is spoken of as the being who ' maketh 
 Arcturus, Orion, and the chambers of the south,' 
 is too striking to be overlooked. 
 
 6. Indeed, besides the motives of mere cu- 
 riosity, which of themselves may be supposed to 
 have excited people to a contemplation of the 
 glorious celestial canopy, it is easy to see that 
 some parts of the science answer such essential 
 purposes to mankind that they could not long be 
 dispensed with. And it has been remarked that 
 traces of this science, in different degrees of im- 
 provement, have been found among all nations. 
 
 7. Upon the building of the Tower of Babel, 
 it is supposed that Noah retired with his chil- 
 dren, born after the flood, to the north-eastern 
 part of Asia, where his descendants peopled the 
 vast empire of China. It is said also that the 
 Jesuit missionaries have found traditional ac- 
 counts among the Chinese of their having been 
 taught this science by their first emperor Fo-hi, 
 who is supposed to be the same with Noah ; and 
 Kempfer asserts that Fo-hi discovered the mo- 
 tions of the heavens, divided time into years and 
 months, and invented the twelve signs, into 
 which they divide the zodiac, and which they 
 distinguish by the following names: 1. the 
 mouse; 2. the ox or cow; 3. the tiger; 4. the 
 hare; 5. the dragon; 6. the serpent; 7. the 
 horse; 8. the sheep; 9. the monkey; 10. the 
 cock or hen; 11. the dog; and 12. the boar. 
 They divide the heavens into twenty-eight con- 
 stellations, or classes of stars, allotting four to 
 each of the seven planets ; so that the year 
 always begins with the same planet; and their 
 constellations answer to the twenty-eight lunar 
 mansions used by the Arabian astronomers. 
 
 ' 8. They do not, however, mark these constel- 
 lations with the figures of animals, like most 
 other nations, but by connecting the stars by 
 straight lines, and denoting the stars themselves 
 by small circles : so, for instance, the great bear 
 would be marked as represented in plate IV. 
 fig. 9. 
 
 9. The Chinese themselves have many re- 
 cords of the high antiquity of their astronomy ; 
 though not without suspicion of great mistakes. 
 They ascribe the discovery of the pole-star, the 
 invention of the sphere, and mariners' compass, 
 &c. to their emperor Hong-Ti, the grandson of 
 Noah. But on more certain authority it is as- 
 serted by Gaubil that, at least 120 years before 
 Christ, the Chinese had determined by observa- 
 tion the number and extent of their constella- 
 tions as they now stand; the situation of the 
 fixed stars with respect to the equinoctial and 
 solstitial points ; and the obliquity of the eclip- 
 tic, with the theory of eclipses; and that they 
 were, long before that, acquainted with the true 
 length of the solar year, the method of observing 
 meridian altitudes of the sun by the shadow of 
 a gnomon, and of deducing from thence his de- 
 clination and the height of \he pole. 
 
 10. The same missionary also says that the 
 Chinese have yet remaining some books of astro- 
 nomy which were written about 200 years be- 
 fore Christ; from which it appears that the 
 Chinese knew the daily motion of the sun and 
 moon, and the time of the revolutions of the 
 planets, many years before that period. Du 
 
 Halde informs us that Tcheou-cong, the most 
 skilful astronomer that ever China produced, 
 lived more than a thousand years before Christ; 
 that he passed whole nights in observing the ce- 
 lestial bodies and arranging them into constella- 
 tions, &c. At present, however, the state of as- 
 tronomy is but very low in that country, al- 
 though it is cultivated at Pekin by public autho- 
 rity, as in most of the capital cities of Europe. 
 This is ascribed, by Dr. Long, to a barbarous 
 decree of one of their emperors, to burn all the 
 books in the. empire excepting such as related to 
 agriculture and medicine. 
 
 11. Astronomy, according to Porphyry, must 
 have been of very ancient standing in the East. 
 He informs us that when Babylon was taken by 
 Alexander there were brought from thence ce- 
 lestial observations for the space of 1903 years; 
 which therefore must have commenced within 
 115 years after the flood, or within fifteen years 
 after the building of Babel. Epigenes, according 
 to Pliny, affirmed that the Babylonians had obser- 
 vations of 720 years engraven on bricks. 
 
 12. Achilles Tatius ascribes the invention of 
 astronomy to the Egyptians ; and adds that their 
 knowledge of that science was engraven on pil- 
 lars, and by that means transmitted to posterity. 
 Bailly, in his elaborate History of Ancient and Mo- 
 dern Astronomy, endeavours to trace the origia 
 of this science among the Chaldeans, Egyptians, 
 Persians, Indians, and Chinese, to a very early 
 period ; and he maintains that it was cultivated 
 in Egypt and Chaldea 2800 years before Christ; 
 in Persia, 3209; in India, 3101; and in China, 
 2952 years before that era. He also appre- 
 hends that astronomy had been studied even 
 long before this distant period, and that we are 
 only to date its revival from thence. 
 
 13. M. Bailly, in investigating the antiquity 
 and progress of astronomy among the Indians, 
 examines and compares four sets of astronomical 
 tables of the Indian philosophers, viz. that of the 
 Siamese, explained by M. Cassini in 1689 ; that 
 brought from India by M. le Gentil, of the Aca- 
 demy of Sciences ; and two other manuscript 
 tables, found among the papers of I\I. de Lisle : 
 all of which agree together, and refer to the me- 
 ridian of Benares. It appears that the funda- 
 mental epoch of the Indian astronomy is a con- 
 junction of the sun and moon which took place 
 at the distance of years 3102 A. A. C. And M. 
 Bailly computes that such a conjunction really 
 then happened. 
 
 14. He farther observes that at present the 
 Indians calculate eclipses from observations 
 made 5000 years ago ; the accuracy of which, 
 with regard to the solar motion, far exceeds that 
 of tlie best Grecian astronomers. The lunar 
 motions have been computed from the space 
 through which that luminary passes in 1,600,984 
 days. They also use the cycle of nineteen years, 
 the same as that ascribed by the Greeks to 
 INIeton. Their theory of the planets is better 
 than that of Ptolemy, as they do not suppose the 
 earth in to be the centre of the celestial motions, 
 and believe that Venus and Mercury move round 
 tlie sun. Their astronomy also agrees with the 
 most modern discoveries, with regard to the ob- 
 liquity of the ecliptic and the acceleration of the
 
 92 
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 equinoctial points, &c. The inhabitants of Japan, 
 of Siam, and of the Mogul's empire, have also 
 been acquainted with astronomy from time im- 
 memorial; and the celebrated observatory at 
 Benares is a monument both of the ingenuity of 
 the Hindoos, and of their skill in that science. 
 
 15. In the Transactions of the Royal Society 
 of Edinburgh, vol. ii, professor Playfair has 
 given a learned and ingenious dissertation on 
 the astronomy of the Brahmins, in which the 
 great accuracy and high antiquity of the science 
 among them is rendered extremely probable. It 
 appears that their tables and rules of computa- 
 tion have peculiar reference to an epoch, and to 
 observations 3000 or 4000 years A. C. It ap- 
 pears, too, that very considerable mathematical 
 knowledge had been employed in tlieir precepts 
 and calculations. But amongst all these pre- 
 cepts and those calculations, perhaps none will 
 strike the mind of the reader with greater force 
 than the following, from which we shall find, 
 without plucking a leaf from the never-fading 
 laurels of Sir Isaac Newton, that the principle 
 which he developed to the western world, was 
 discovered by the philosophers of the eastern, 
 thousands of years before he existed: of the 
 truth of this the following remarkable passage, 
 translated by Sir William Jones, from the poem 
 of Shirin and Ferhad : ' there is,' says the au- 
 thor of that poem, ' a strong propensity which 
 dances through every atom and attracts the 
 minutest particle to some peculiar object ; from 
 such propensity arises every motion perceived in 
 heavenly or terrestrial bodies. It is a disposition 
 to be attracted which taught hard steel to rush 
 from its place and rivet itself on the magnet ; it 
 is the same disposition which impels the light 
 straw to attach itself firmly on amber.' 
 
 16. We shall conclude this part of the his- 
 tory of Asiatic discoveries in the words of pro- 
 fessor Playfair: ' That observations made in 
 India, when all Europe was barbarous or unin- 
 inhabited, and investigations into the most subtle 
 effects of gravitation made in Europe near five 
 thousand years afterwards, should thus come in 
 mutual support of one another, is perhaps the 
 most striking example of the progress and vicis- 
 situdes of science, which the history of mankind 
 has yet exhibited.' 
 
 17. It appears too, that astronomy was not 
 unknown to the Americans ; though in their di- 
 vision of time they made use only of the solar 
 and not of the lunar motions. The Mexicans, 
 in particular, had a strange predilection for the 
 number thirteen : their shortest periods con- 
 sisted of thirteen days; their cycle of thirteen 
 months, each containing twenty days ; and their 
 epoch of four periods of thirteen years each. 
 This excessive veneration for the number thirteen 
 arose, according to Sigucnza, from its being the 
 number of their greater gods. Clavigero also 
 asserts it as a fact, that having discovered the 
 excess of a few hours in the solar above the 
 lunar year, they made use of intercalary days to 
 bring them to an ecjuality, as was done by Ju- 
 lius Caesar in the Roman calendar — but with 
 this difl'erence, that instead of one day every 
 four years, they interposed thirteen days every 
 iiUy-two years. 
 
 18. Among the ancients we find the name of 
 Chaldean used often for astronomer or astrologer. 
 Indeed both these nations pretended to a very 
 high antiquity, and claimed the honor of pro- 
 ducing the first cultivators of this science. The 
 Chaldeans boasted of their temple or tower of 
 Belus, and of Zoroaster, whom they placed 5000 
 years before the destruction of Troy ; while the 
 Egyptians boasted of their colleges of priests, 
 wliere astronomy was taught, and of the monu- 
 ment of Osymandias, in which, it is said, there 
 was a golden circle of 365 cubits in circumfe- 
 rence, and one cubit thick, divided into 365 
 equal parts, according to. the days of the year, 
 &c. It is indeed evident that both Chaldea and 
 Egypt were countries very proper for astrono- 
 mical observations, on account of the extended 
 flatness of [the country, and the purity and sere- 
 nity of the air. The tower of Belus, or of Babel 
 itself, was probably an astronomical observatory ; 
 and the pyramids of Egypt, whatever they were 
 originally designed for, might perhaps answer 
 the same purpose ; at least they show the skill 
 of this people in practical astronomy, as they 
 are all placed with their four fronts exactly 
 facing the cardinal points of the compass. 
 
 19. The Chaldeans began to make observa- 
 tions soon after the confusion of languages, as 
 appears from the observations found by Alexan- 
 der on the taking of Babylon ; and it is probable 
 they began much earlier. They determined, 
 with tolerable exactness, the length both of a pe- 
 riodical and synodical month. They discovered 
 that the motion of the moon was not uniform ; 
 and they even attempted to assign those parts of 
 the orbit in which the motion is quicker or slower. 
 W^e are assured by Ptolemy that they were not 
 unacquainted M'ith the motion of the moon's apo- 
 gee and nodes, the latter of which they supposed 
 made a complete revolution in 6585^ days, or a 
 little more than eighteen years, and contained 
 223 complete lunations, which period is called 
 the Chaldean Saros. * 
 
 20. Ptolemy also gives us from Hipparchus 
 several observations of lunar eclipses made at 
 Babylon above 720 years A. A. C. ; and Aristotle 
 informs us that they had many occultations of 
 the planets and fixed stars by the moon ; a cir- 
 cumstance which led them to conceive that eclip- 
 ses of the sun were to be attributed to the same 
 cause. They had also no inconsiderable share ia 
 arranging the stars into constellations, and the 
 comets did not escape their observation. DiaUing 
 was also practised among them long before the 
 Greeks were acquainted with that science. 
 
 21. The Egyptians were much of the same 
 standing in astronomy with the Chaldeans. He- 
 rodotus ascribes their knowledge in the science to 
 Sesostris ; but probably not the same whom New- 
 ton makes contemporary with Solomon, as tliey 
 were acquainted with astronomy at least many 
 hundred years before that era. We learn from 
 the testimony of some ancient authors, that they 
 believed the figure of the earth was spherical ; 
 that the moon was eclipsed by passing through the 
 earth's shadow, though it does not certainly ap- 
 pear that they had any knowledge of the true 
 system of the universe ; that they attempted to 
 measure the magnitude of the earth and sun,
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 93 
 
 tliough their methods of ascertaining the latter 
 were very erroneous ; and that they even pretend- 
 ed to foretel the appearance of comets, as well as 
 earthquakes and inundations. This science, how- 
 ever, gradually decayed, and in the time of Au- 
 gustus it was entirely extinct among them. 
 
 22. Astronomy passed from Chaldea and Egypt 
 to tlie Phamicians, and was applied by that com- 
 mercial people to the purposes of navigation ; 
 and they, in consequence, became masters of the 
 sea, and of almost all the commerce in the world. 
 The Greeks, it is probable, derived their astrono- 
 mical knowledge chiefly from the Egyptians and 
 Phoenicians, by means of several of their country- 
 men who visited these nations for the purpose of 
 learning the different sciences. Newton sup- 
 poses that the division into constellations was 
 made about the time of the Argonautic expedi- 
 tion ; but it is probable that most of them were 
 of a mucli older date, and derived from other 
 nations, though clothed in fables of their own in- 
 vention. 
 
 23. The fable of Atlas supporting the heavens 
 upon his shoulders, shows that some Mauritanian 
 monarch of that name had made considerable ad- 
 vances in astronomical knowledge ; and his dis- 
 coveries had probably been communicated to the 
 Greeks. Several of the constellations are men- 
 tioned by Ilesiod and Homer, who lived about 
 A. A. C. 870. Their knowledge in this science 
 however, wa^ greatly miproved by Thales the 
 Milesian, and other Greeks, who travelled into 
 Egypt, and brought from thence the chief prin- 
 ciples of the science. Thales was born about 
 A. A. C. 640, and he was the first among the 
 Greeks who observed the stars, the solstices, and 
 predicted the eclipses of the sun and moon. 
 
 24. The science was farther cultivated and ex- 
 tended by his successors Anaximander, Anaxi- 
 menes, and Anaxagoras ; but especially by Pytha- 
 goras, who, about A. A. C. 577, brought from 
 Egypt the learning of these people, taught it in 
 Greece and Italy, and founded the sect of the 
 Pythagoreans. He taught that the sun was in the 
 centre of the universe ; that the earth was round; 
 that there were antipodes ; that the moon reflect- 
 ed the rays of the sun, and was inhabited like the 
 earth ; tiiat comets were a kind of wandering 
 stars, disappearing in the further parts of their 
 orbits ; that the white color of the milky way 
 was owing to the united brightness of a great 
 multitude of small stars ; and he supposed that 
 the distances of the moon and planets from the 
 earth, were in certain harmonic proportions to 
 one another. 
 
 25. Philolaus, a Pythagorean, who flourished 
 about A.A. C. 450, and asserted the diurnal 
 motion of the earth on its own axis, was taught 
 by Hicetas, a Syracusan. About the same time 
 ]\leton and Euctemon flourished at Athens, where 
 they observed the summer solstice, A. A. C. 432, 
 with the risings and settings of the stars, and 
 what seasons they answered to. Meton also in- 
 vented the cycle of nineteen years, which still 
 bears his name. 
 
 26. Eudoxus, of Cnidos, lived about A. A. C. 
 370, and was one of the most skilful astronomers 
 and geometricians of antiquity, and the supposed 
 inventor of many of the propositions in Euclid's 
 
 Elements. He introduced geometry into the 
 science of astronomy, and travelled into Asia 
 Africa, Sicily, and Italy, to improve it : and we 
 are informed by Pliny, tliat he determined the 
 annual year to contain 365 days 6 hours, and 
 also the periodical time of the planets, and made 
 other important discoveries and observations. 
 Calippus flourished soon after Eudoxus, and his 
 celestial sphere is mentioned by Aristotle ; but 
 he is better known by a period of seventy-six 
 years which he invented, containing four correct- 
 ed Metonic periods, and which commenced at 
 the summer solstice, A. A. C. 330. About this 
 time the knowledge of the Pythagorean system 
 was carried into Italy, Gaul, and Egypt, by cer- 
 tain colonies of Greeks. 
 
 27. Vitruvius, however, represents the intro- 
 duction of astronomy into Greece, in a manner 
 somewhat different. He maintains that Berosus, 
 a Babylonian, brought it immediately from Baby- 
 lon itself, and opened an astronomical school in 
 the isle of Cos. And Pliny says, that, in conside- 
 ration of his wonderful predictions, the Athenians 
 erected a statue to him in the gymnasium, with a 
 gilded tongue. But if this Berosus be the same 
 with the author of the Chaldaic histories, he must 
 have lived before Alexander. About this time, 
 or rather earlier, the Greeks having begun to 
 plant colonies in Italy, Gaul, and Egypt, be- 
 came acquainted with the Pythagorean system, 
 and the notions of the ancient druids concerning 
 astronomy. Julius Caesar informs us that the 
 latter were skilled in this science ; and that the 
 Gauls in general were able sailors, which they 
 could not be without a competent knowledge of 
 astronomy ; and it is related of Pythoas, who 
 lived at Marseilles in the time of Alexander the 
 Great, that he observed the altitude of the sun at 
 the summer solstices by means of a gnomon. He 
 is also said to have travelled as far as Thule to 
 settle the climates. 
 
 28. After Alexander's death the sciences flou- 
 rished chiefly in Egypt, under the auspices of 
 Ptolemy Philadelphus, and his successors. He 
 founded a school there, which continued till the 
 invasion of the Saracens, A. A. C. 650. From 
 the founding of that school, the science of astrono- 
 my advanced considerably. Aristarchus, about 
 A. A. C. 270, strenuously asserted the Pythago- 
 rean system, and gave a method of determining 
 the sun's distance by the dichotomy of the 
 moon. — Eratosthenes, who was born at Cyrene 
 A. A. C. 271, measured the circumference of the 
 earth by a gnomon ; and being invited to Alexan- 
 dria, from Athens, by Ptolemy Euergetes, and 
 made keeper of the royal library there, he set up 
 for that prince those armillary spheres, which 
 Hipparchus and Ptolemy the astronomer after- 
 wards employed so successfully in observing the 
 heavens. He also determined the distance be- 
 tween the tropics to be ^ of the whole meridian 
 circle, which makes the obliquity of the ecliptic 
 in his time to be 23° 51' a. 
 
 29. The celebrated Archimedes, too, cultivated 
 astronomy, as well as geometry and mechanics, 
 determined the distances of the planets from one 
 another; and constructed a kind of planetarium 
 or orrery, to represent the phenomena and mo- 
 tions of the heavenly bodies.
 
 94 
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 30. Not to mention many others of the ancients 
 who cultivated astronomy, Ilipparchus, who 
 flourished about A. A. C. 140, was the first wlio 
 applied himself to the study of every branch of 
 that science. Ptolemy says he made great im- 
 provements in it ; he discovered that the orbits 
 of the planets are eccentric, that the moon moved 
 slower in her apogee than in her perigee, and 
 that there was a motion of anticipation of the 
 moon's nodes : he constructed tables of the mo- 
 tions of the sun and moon, collected accounts of 
 such eclipses, &c. as had been made by the Egyp- 
 tians and Chaldeans, and calculated all that were 
 to happen for 600 years : he discovered that the 
 fixed stars changed their places, having a slow 
 motion of their own from west to east ; he cor- 
 rected the Calippic period, and pointed out some 
 errors in Eratosthenes's method for measuring the 
 circumference of the earth ; he computed the sun's 
 distance more accurately than his predecessors : 
 but his best work is a catalogue of the fixed stars, 
 to the number of 1022, with their longitudes, la- 
 titudes, and apparent magnitudes ; which, with 
 most of his other observations, are preserved by 
 Ptolemy in his Almagest. 
 
 31. Prom the time of Hipparchus, till that of 
 Ptolemy, little progress was made in astronomy. 
 He was born at Pelusium, in Egypt, in the first 
 century, and made the greatest part of his obser- 
 vations at the celebrated school of Alexandria in 
 that country. Profiting by those of Hipparchus, 
 and other ancient astronomers, he formed a sys- 
 tem of his own, which, though erroneous, was 
 implicitly followed for many ages by all nations. 
 He compiled a great work, called the Almagest, 
 which contained the observations and collections 
 of his predecessors in astronomy. This work 
 was preserved from the conflagration of the Alex- 
 andrian library by the Saracens, and translated 
 into Arabic, A.D. 827, and into Latin in 1230. 
 The Greek original was not known in Europe 
 till the beginning of the fifteenth century, when 
 it was brought from Constantinople, then taken 
 by the Turks, by a monk of Trapezond, named 
 George, who translated it into Latin ; and various 
 other editions have been since made. 
 
 32. From A.D. 800, till the beginning of the 
 fourteenth century, the western parts of Europe 
 were immersed in gross ignorance, while the 
 Arabians, profiting by the books they had pre- 
 served from tlie wreck of tlie Alexandrian library, 
 cultivated and improved all the sciences, and par- 
 ticularly that of astronomy, in which they had 
 many able professors and authors. Tlie caliph 
 Al Mansur first introduced a taste for the sciences 
 into his empire. His grandson, Al Mamun, who 
 ascended the throne in 814, was a great encour- 
 ager and improver of the sciences, especially of 
 astronomy. Having constructed proper instru- 
 ments, he made many observations ; determined 
 the obliquity of the ecliptic to be 23° 35; and 
 under his auspices a degree of the circle of the 
 earth was measured a second time in the plain of 
 Singar, on the border of the Red Sea. 
 
 33. About this time Alferganus wrote ele- 
 ments of astronomy ; and Albategnius, who flou- 
 rished about the year 880, greatly reformed it, by 
 comparing his own observations with those of 
 Ptolemy. Hence he computed the motion of ttie 
 
 sun's apogee from Ptolemy's time to his own; 
 settled the precession of the equinoxes at one de- 
 gree in seventy years ; and fixed the obliquity of 
 the ecli])tic at 23° 35'. The tables which he 
 composed for the meridian of Aracta, were long 
 esteemed by the Arabians. 
 
 34. After this, though the Saracens had many 
 eminent astronomers, several centuries elapsed 
 without producing any very valuable observations, 
 excepting those of some eclipses observed by Ebn 
 Younis, astronomer to the caliph of Egypt, by 
 means of which the quantity of the moon's acce- 
 leration since that time may be determined. Other 
 eminent Arabic astronomers were Avzachel, a 
 Moor of Spain, v.:ho observed the obliquity of the 
 ecliptic, and improved trigonometry by construct- 
 ing tables of sines, instead of chords of arches, 
 dividing the diameter into 300 equal parts. Alha- 
 zen his contemporary, wrote upon the twilight, 
 the height of the clouds, the phasnomenon of the 
 horizontal moon, and first showed the importance 
 of the theory of refractions in astronomy. 
 
 35. Ulug Beg, grandson of the celebrated Ta- 
 merlane, the Tartarian prince, a great proficient 
 in practical astronomy, had very large instru- 
 ments, particularly a quadrant of about 180 feet 
 high, with which he made good observations. 
 From these he determined the latitude of Samar- 
 cand, his capital, to be 39° 27' 23" ; and compo- 
 sed astronomical tables for the meridian of the 
 same so exact, that they differ very little from 
 those constructed afterwards by Tycho Brahe. — 
 His principal work was his catalogue of the fixed 
 stars, made from his own observations in the year 
 1437. 
 
 36. At this period, almost all Europe was im- 
 mersed in ignorance ; which began to be dispel- 
 led by the settlement of the Moors in Spain. The 
 emperor Frederic H. about 1230, also began to 
 encourage learning; restoring some decayed uni- 
 versities, founding a new one in Vienna ; and 
 causing the works of Aristotle and Ptolemy's 
 Almagest, to be translated into Latin. Two years 
 after this, John de Sacro Bosco, that is of Halifax, 
 compiled from Ptolemy, Albategnius, Alserga- 
 nus, and other Arabic astronomers, his work, De 
 Sphsera, which was held in the greatest estima- 
 tion for 300 years after, rnd was honored witli 
 commentaries by Clavius and other learned men. 
 
 37. In 1240 Alphonso, king of Castile, not 
 only cultivated astronomy himself but greatly 
 encouraged others ; and by the assistance of se- 
 veral learned men corrected the tailes of Ptolemy, 
 and composed those which were denominated 
 from him the Alphonsine tables. About the 
 same time Roger Bacon, an English monk, 
 wrote several tracts relative to astronomy, par- 
 ticularly of the lunar aspects, the solar rays, ana 
 the places of the fixed stars; and about 1270 
 Vitello, a Polander, composed a treatise ou op- 
 tics, in which he showed the use of refractions in 
 astronomy. 
 
 38. Till the time of Purbach, who was born 
 in 1423, little farther improvement was made in 
 this science. He composed new tables of sines 
 for every ten minutes, making the radius sixty, 
 with four cyphers annexed. He constructed 
 spheres and globes, and wrote several astronomi- 
 cal tracts, as a commentary on Ptolemy's Alma-
 
 ASTRONOMY 
 
 95 
 
 gest ; some treatises on arithmetic and dialling-, 
 with tables for various climates; new tables of 
 the fixed stars reduced to the middle of that 
 century; and he corrected the tables af the 
 planets, making new equations to them where 
 the Alphonsine tables were erroneous. In his 
 solar tables, he jilaced the sun's apogee in the 
 the beginning of Cancer ; but retained the ob- 
 liquity of the ecliptic 23° 33^', as determined by 
 the latest observations. He also observed some 
 eclipses, made new tables for computing them, 
 and had just finished a theory of the planets, 
 when lie died in 1462, being only thirty-nine 
 years of age. 
 
 39. Purbach was succeeded in these labors 
 by his pupil and friend, John Muller, cominonly 
 called Ilegiomontanus, who completed the epi- 
 tome of Ptolemy's Almagest, which Purbach had 
 begun ; and after the death of his friend was in- 
 vited to Rome, where he made many astronomi- 
 cal observations. Being returned to Nuremberg 
 in 1471, by the encouragement of Bernard Wal- 
 ther, a wealthy citizen, he made several instru- 
 ments for astronomical observations, among which 
 was an armillary astrolabe, like that used at 
 Alexandria by Ilipparchus and Ptolemy, with 
 which, and a good clock, then but a late inven- 
 tion, he made many observations. He made 
 ephemerides for thirty years to come, showing 
 the lunations, eclipses, &c. ; printed the works 
 of many of the most celebrated ancient astrono- 
 mers, and wrote the theory of the planets and 
 comets, and a treatise on triangles, which con- 
 tains several good theorems ; computed a table 
 of sines for every single minute, to the radius 
 1 ,000,000, and introduced the use of tangents 
 into trigonometry. 
 
 40. After MuUer's death, which happened at 
 ]{ome in 1476, in his fortieth year, Bernard 
 ^\ alther collected his papers, and continued the 
 astronomical obser^'ations till his own death. 
 The observations of both were collected by order 
 of the senate of Nuremberg, and published there 
 in 1544 by John Schoner; they were also after- 
 wards published in 1618 by Snellius, at the end of 
 the observations made by the landgrave of Hesse; 
 and lastly with those of Tycho Brahe in 1666. 
 
 41. Walther was succeeded, as astronomer at 
 Nuremberg, by John Werner, a clergyman, who 
 observed the motion of the comet in 1500 ; and 
 wrote several tracts on geometry, astronomy, 
 and geography, in a masterly manner ; the most 
 remarkaule of which are those concerning the 
 motion of the eighth sphere, or the fixed stars : 
 in this tract, by comparing his own observations, 
 made in 1514, with thoseof Ptolemy, Alphonsus, 
 and others, he showed that the motion of the 
 fixed stars, since called the precession of the 
 equinoxes, is 1° 10' in 100 years. He made also 
 the first star of Aries 26° distant from the equi- 
 noctial point, and the obliquity of the ecliptic 
 only 23° 28'; constructed a planetarium, repre- 
 senting the celestial motions according to the 
 Ptolemaic hypothesis ; and published a transla- 
 tion of Ptolemy's geography, with a commentary, 
 in which he first proposed the method of finding 
 the longitude at sea by observing the moon's dis- 
 tance from the fixed stars. Werner died in 1528, 
 aged sixty. 
 
 42. Nicolaus Copernicus rose next, and made 
 so great a figure in astronomy, that the true sys- 
 tem discovered, or rather renewed by him, has 
 been ever since styled the Copernican. He 
 restored the old Pythagorean system of the world, 
 which had been set aside from the time of Pto- 
 lemy. About A. D. 1507 he conceived doubts 
 of the Ptolemaic system, and entertained notions 
 about the true one, which he gradually improved 
 by a series of astronomical observations, and the 
 study of former authors. By these he formed 
 new tables, and completed his work in 1530, 
 containing a renovation of the new system of the 
 universe, in which all the planets are considered 
 as revolving about the sun. This work was 
 printed in 1543, under the care of Schoner and 
 Osiander, by the title of Revolutiones Orbiura 
 C?elestium; and the author received a copy of it 
 a few hours before his death, on the 23d of May 
 1543, he being then seventy years of age. 
 
 43. After the death of this great luminary of 
 Astronomy, the science and practice of it were 
 greatly improved by Schoner, Nonius, Gemma, 
 Frisius, Rothman, Byrgius, the landgrave of 
 Hesse. &c. Schoner reformed and explained the 
 calendar; improved the methods of making celes- 
 tial observations ; and published a treatise on 
 cosmography. He died four years after Coper- 
 nicus. Nonius wrote several works on mathema- 
 tics, astronomy, and navigation, and invented 
 some useful and more accurate instruments than 
 formerly, one of these was the astronomical qua- 
 drant, on which he divided the degrees into 
 minutes, by a number of concentric circles ; the 
 first was divided into ninety equal parts or de- 
 grees, the second into eighty-nine, the third into 
 eighty-eight, and so on to forty-six ; so that the 
 index of the quadrant always falling upon or near 
 one of the divisions, the minutes are known by 
 an easy computation. 
 
 44. Appian's chief work, the Cesarean Astro- 
 nomy, was published at Ingolstadt in 1540; in 
 which he shows how to observe the places of the 
 stars and planets by the astrolabe; to resolve 
 astronomical problems by certain instruments ; 
 to predict eclipses, and to describe die figures of 
 them ; and the method of dividing and using an 
 astronomical quadrant. To these are added ob- 
 servations of five comets, one of which has been 
 supposed the same with that observed by Ileve- 
 lius, and if so, it ought to have returned again in 
 the year 1789; but astronomers were disappointed 
 in their expectations. 
 
 45. Gemma Frisius wrote a commentary on 
 Appian's cosmography, accompanied with many 
 observations of eclipses : he also invented the 
 astronomical ring, and several other instruments 
 useful in taking observations at sea ; and was the 
 first who recommended a time-keeper for deter- 
 mining the longitude. Rheticus began a very 
 extensive work, being a table of sines, tangents, 
 and secants, to a very large radius, and to every 
 ten seconds, or one-sixth of a minute ; which 
 was completed by his pupil Valentine Otho, and 
 printed in 1594. 
 
 46. William IV., landgrave of Hesse Cassel, 
 applied himself to the study of astronomy about 
 A. D. 1561 ; and, with the best instruments 
 which could then be procured, made a great
 
 96 
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 number of observations, published by Snellius in 
 1618, and preferred by Ilevelius to those of 
 Tycho Brahe. From these ol)servations he formed 
 a catalogue of 400 stars, with their latitudes and 
 longitudes, adapted to the beginning of the year 
 1593. 
 
 47. Tycho Brahe, a Danish nobleman, began 
 his studies about the same time with the Land- 
 grave of Hesse, and observed the great conjunc- 
 tion of Jupiter and Saturn ; but, finding the usual 
 instruments very inaccurate, he constructed many 
 others much larger and more exact. In 1571 
 he discovered a new star in the chair of Cassio- 
 peia ; which induced him, like Hipparchus on a 
 similar occasion, to make a new catalogue of the 
 stars; which he composed to the number of 777, 
 and adapted their places to the year 1600. In 
 1576, by the favor of the king of Denmark, he 
 built his new observatory, called Uraniburg, on 
 the small island Iluenna, opposite to Copen- 
 hagen, which he very amply furnished with many 
 large instruments, some of them so divided as to 
 show single minutes, and in others the arch might 
 be read off to ten seconds. One quadrant was 
 divided according to the method invented by 
 Noninus, that is by forty-seven concentric circles ; 
 but most of them were divided by diagonals ; 
 a method of division invented by Richard Chan- 
 celer, an Englishman. Tycho employed his time 
 at Uraniburg to the best advantage, till the death 
 of the king, when, falling into discredit, he was 
 obliged to remove to Holstein : he afterwards 
 introduced himself to the emperor Rodolph, 
 with whom he continued at Prague till his death 
 in 1601. Tycho was the inventor of a system of 
 astronomy, a kind of semi-Ptolemaic, which he 
 vainly endeavored to establish instead of the Co- 
 pernican. Ilis numerous works, however, show 
 that he was a man of great abilities ; and his 
 discoveries, together with those of Purbach and 
 Regiomontanus, were collected and published 
 together in 1621, by Longomontanus, the favorite 
 disciple of Tycho. 
 
 48. Tycho, while residing at Prague with the 
 emperor, prevailed on Kepler to leave the uni- 
 versity of Glatz, and to come to him ; and Tycho 
 dying in 1601, Kepler enjoyed all his life the 
 title of mathematician to the emperor, who 
 ordered him to finish the tables of Tycho Brahe, 
 which he published in 1627, under the title of 
 Rodolphine. He died about A. D. 1630, at 
 Ratisbon, where he was soliciting the arrears of 
 his pension. From his own observations and 
 those of Tycho, Kepler discovered several of the 
 true laws of nature, by which the motions of the 
 celestial bodies are regulated. He discovered 
 that all the planets revolve about the sun, not in 
 circular, but in elliptical orbits, having the sun 
 in one of the foci of the ellipse ; that tlieir mo- 
 tions are not equable, but varying, quicker or 
 slower as they are near to the sun, or farther from 
 him; that the areas described by the variable 
 line drawn from the planet to the sun, are equal 
 in equal times, and always proportional to the 
 times of describing them ; and that the cubes of 
 the distances of the planets from the sun, were 
 in the same proportion as tlie squares of their 
 periodical times of revolution. By observations 
 also on comets, he concluded that they are freely 
 
 carried about among the orbits of the planets, in 
 paths that are nearly rectilinear, but which he 
 could not then determine. 
 
 49. At this time there were many other good 
 proficients in astronomy ; as Wright, Napier, 
 Bayer, &c. Wright made several good meridio- 
 nal observations of the sun, with a quadrant of 
 six feet radius, in the years 1594, 1595, and 
 1596 ; from which he greatly improved the theory 
 of the sun's motion, and computed more accu- 
 rately his declination, than any person had done 
 before. In 1599 he published also, an excellent 
 work, entitled, * Certain Errors in Navigation 
 discovered and detected,' containing a method 
 which has commonly, though erroneously, been 
 ascribed to Mercator, To Napier we owe some 
 excellent theorems and improvements in spherics, 
 besides the ever-memorable invention of loga- 
 rithms. Bayer, a German, published his Ura- 
 nometria, or the figures of all the constellations 
 visiblein'Europe, with the stars marked on them, 
 and accompanied by names, or the letters of the 
 Greek alphabet; a contrivance by which they 
 may easily be referred to with distinctness and 
 precision. 
 
 50. About the same time, astronomy was cul- 
 tivated abroad by Mercator, Maurolycus, Magi- 
 nus, Homelius, Schultet, Stevin, Galileo, &c. 
 and in England by Thomas and Leonard Digges, 
 John Dee, Robert Flood, Harriot, &c. The 
 beginning of the seventeenth century was parti- 
 cularly distinguished by the invention of teles- 
 copes, and the application of them to astrono- 
 mical observations. The more distinguished 
 early observations witli the telescope, were made 
 by Galileo, Harriot, Huygens, Hook, Cassini, 
 &c. It is said that, from report only, Galileo 
 made for himself telescopes, by which he dis- 
 covered inequalities in the moon's surface, Jupi- 
 ter's satellites, and the ring of Saturn ; also spots 
 on the sun, by which he found out the revolu- 
 tion of that luminary on its axis; and he dis- 
 covered that the nebulae and milky way were full 
 of small stars. 
 
 51. Mr. Harriot, who had previously been 
 known only as an algebraist, made much the same 
 discoveries as Galileo, and as early, if not more 
 so, as appears by his papers in the possession of 
 the earl of Egremont. And Mr. Horrox, a young 
 astronomer of great talents, found out in 1633, 
 that the planet Venus would pass over the sun's 
 disc on the twenty-fourth of November 1639; 
 an event which he announced only to his friend 
 Crabtree; and these two were the only persons 
 in the world that observed this transit. Horrox 
 made also many other useful observations, and 
 had even formed a new theory of the moon, 
 taken notice of by Newton; but his early death, 
 in the beginning of 1640, put a stop to his 
 valuable labors. 
 
 52. Ilevelius, Burgomaster of Dantzick, flou- 
 rished about the same time, and observed the spots 
 and phases of the moon; from which observations 
 he compiled his Selenographia. An account of 
 his apparatus is contained in his work entitled 
 Machina Cselestis, a book now very scarce, as 
 most of the copies were accidentally burnt, with 
 the whole house and apparatus, in 1679. Ileve- 
 lius died in 1688, aged 76.
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 97 
 
 53. Doctor Hook, a contemporary of Ilevelius 
 invented instruments with telescopic siajhts, and 
 censured the others. This occasioned a sharp 
 dispute between them ; to settle which, Ilalley 
 was sent over to Ilevelius to examine his instru- 
 ments. The two astronomers made several ob- 
 servations together, very much to their satisfac- 
 tion ; and amongst them was one of an occulta- 
 tion of Jupiter by the moon, when they deter- 
 mined the diameter of the latter to be 30' 33". 
 
 54. Huygen's and Fontana, before the middle 
 of the seventeenth century, greatly improved the 
 construction of telescopes. The former con- 
 structed one of 123 feet, with which he observed 
 the moon and planets, and discovered that 
 Saturn was encompassed with a ring. With 
 telescopes too, of 200 and 300 feet focus, Cas- 
 sini savv five satellites of Saturn, with his zones 
 or belts, and the shadows of Jupiter's satellites 
 passing over his body. In 1666 Azout applied 
 a micrometer to telescopes, to measure the dia- 
 meters of the planets, and other small distances 
 in the heavens : but an instrument of this kind 
 had been invented before, by Gascoigne, though 
 it was but little known abroad. To obviate the 
 difficulties arising from the great lengths of re- 
 fracting telescopes, and the aberration of the rays, 
 Mersennus, in a letter to Descartes, first started 
 the idea of making telescopes of reflectors, instead 
 of lenses; and in 1663 James Gregory of Aber- 
 deen showed how such a telescope might be 
 constructed. 
 
 55. Sir Isaac Newton, after spending some time 
 on the construction of both sorts of telescopes, 
 found out the great inconvenience which arises 
 to refractors from the different refrangibility of 
 the rays of light ; for which not finding a remedy, 
 and pursuing the other kind, in 1672, he pre- 
 sented to the Royal Society two reflectors, con- 
 structed with spherical speculums. The incon- 
 venience, however, arising from the different 
 refrangibility of the rays of light, has since been 
 fully obviated by DoUond. 
 
 56. Towards the end of tne seventeenth, and 
 beginning of the eighteenth century, practical 
 astronomy rather languished; but the speculative 
 part was carried to the highest perfection by New- 
 ton in his Priucipia, by David Gregory, Keil, and 
 others. Soon after this, great improvements in 
 astronomical instruments began to take place, 
 particularly in Britain. Graham not only 
 improved clocks and watch work, but also car- 
 ried the accuracy of astronomical instruments to 
 a surprising degree. He constructed the old 
 eight feet mural arch at the Royal Observatory, 
 Greenwich, and a small equatorial sector for 
 making observations out of the meridian ; but he 
 is chiefl'y remarkable for contriving the zenith 
 sector of twenty-four feet radius, and afterwards 
 one of twelve feet and a half, with which Brad- 
 ley discovered the aberration of the fixed stars. 
 The reflecting telescope of Gregory and Newton 
 was greatly improved by Iladley, who presented 
 a very powerful instrument of that kind to the 
 lloyal Society in 1719. He invented also the 
 reflecting quadrant or sector, now called by his 
 name, presented to the society in 1731, and now 
 universally used at sea. It appears, however, 
 that an instrument similar to this" in its princi- 
 
 VOL. III. 
 
 pies, had been invented by Newton; and a 
 description, with a drawing of it, was given by 
 him to Ilalley, when he was preparing for his 
 voyage in 1701, to discover the variation of the 
 needle: it has also been asserted, that Godfrey 
 of Philadelphia, in America, made the same dis- 
 covery, and the first instrument of this kind. 
 
 57. About the middle of this century, the con- 
 structing and dividing of large astronomical 
 instruments were carried to great perfection by 
 Bird, and reflecting telescopes were not less im- 
 proved by Short, who first executed the divided 
 object glass micrometer, which had been pro- 
 posed and described by Louville and others. 
 Dollond also improved refracting telescopes, by 
 means of his achromatic glasses: and the dis- 
 coveries of Herschel are owing to the amazing 
 powers of reflectors of his own construction. 
 Thus, the astronomical improvements in the pre- 
 sent century have been chiefly owing to the 
 inventions of, and improvements in, the instru- 
 ments, and to the establishment of regular obser- 
 vatories in England, France, and other parts of 
 Europe. 
 
 58. Roemer, a celebrated Danish astronomer, 
 fir.st made use of a meridional telescope ; and, by 
 observing the eclipses of Jupiter's satellites, first 
 discovered the progressive motion of light, con- 
 cerning which he read a dissertation before the 
 Academy of Sciences at Paris, in 1675. Flam- 
 steed, appointed the first astronomer royal at 
 Greenwich, in 1675, observed for forty-four 
 years, and gave a catalogue of 3000 stars with 
 their places, to the year 1689; also new solar 
 tables, and a theory of the moon according to 
 Harrox; likewise, in Sir Jonas Moore's System 
 of Mathematics, he gave a curious tract on the 
 sphere, showing how to construct, geometrically, 
 eclipses both of the sun and moon, as well as oc- 
 cultations of the fixed stars by the moon. On his 
 observations were founded both Ilalley's tables, 
 and Newton's theory of the moon. Cassini, the first 
 French astronomer royal, made many observations 
 on the sun, moon, planets, and comets, greatly im- 
 proved the elements of their motions, erected the 
 gnomon, and drew the celebrated meridian line 
 in the church of Petronia at Bologna. 
 
 59. Flamsteed was succeeded, in 1719, as 
 astronomer royal at Greenwich, by Dr. Ilalley, 
 who had been sent at the early age of twenty- 
 one, to the island of St. Helena, to observe the 
 southern stars and make a catalogue of them, 
 which was published in 1679. In 1705 he 
 published his Synopsis Astronomiae Coraetica;, 
 in which he ventured to predict the return of a 
 comet in 1758 or 1759. He first discovered the 
 acceleration of the moon, and gave a very inge- 
 nious method for finding her parallax, by three 
 observed phases of a solar eclipse; published in 
 the Philosophical Transactions many learned 
 papers, and amongst them, some concerning the 
 use that might be made of the next transit of 
 Venus, in determining the distance of the sun 
 from the earth; composed tables of the sun, 
 moon, and all the planets, which are still in 
 great repute; and recommended the method of 
 determining the longitude, by the moon's dis- 
 tances from the sun, and certain fixed stars; a 
 method wiiich was first proposed by Warner, 
 
 H
 
 98 
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 and which has since been carried into execu- 
 tion. 
 
 60. A dispute concerning the fieiire of the 
 earth took place about this time. Newton had 
 determined, from a consideration of the laws of 
 gravity, and the diurnal motion of the earth, that 
 the figure of it was an oblate spheroid; but Cas- 
 sini, from the measures of Picart, supposed it to 
 be an oblong spheroid. To settle this dispute 
 it was resolved, under Louis XV'. to measure 
 tw^o degrees of the meridian; one near the equa- 
 tor, and the other as near the pole as possible. 
 For this purpose, the Royal Academy of Sciences 
 sent to Lapland, Maupertuis, Clairault, Camus, 
 and Le Monier: who were accompanied by 
 Outhier, and Celsus, professor of anatomy at 
 Upsal. On the southern expedition were sent 
 Godin, Condamine, and Bouguer, to whom the 
 king of Spain joined George Juan and Antonio 
 de Ulloa. These set out in 1735, and returned 
 at different times 1744, 1745, and 1746; but the 
 former party who set out only in 1736, returned 
 the year following; having both fulfilled their 
 commissions. Picart's measure was revised by 
 Cassini and De la Caille, which, after his errors 
 were corrected, was found to agree very well 
 with the other two ; and the result of the whole 
 served to confirm the determination of the figure 
 before laid down by Newton. On the southern 
 expedition, the attraction of the great mountains 
 of Peru was found to have a sensible effect on 
 the plumb-line of one of their largest instruments, 
 deflecting it seven or eight seconds from the true 
 perpendicular. 
 
 61. In 1742 Dr. Bradley succeeded, on the 
 death of Dr. Halley, as astronomer royal at 
 Greenwich. The accuracy of his observations 
 enabled him to detect the smaller inequalities in 
 the motions of the planets and fixed stars. The 
 consequence of his accuracy was, the discovery of 
 the aberration of light, the mutation of the earth's 
 axis, and a much greater degree of perfection in 
 lunar tables. He observed the places, and com- 
 puted the elements of the comets which appeared 
 in the years 1723, 1736, 1743, and 1757; made 
 new and more accurate tables of the motions of 
 Jupiter's satellites, and, from a multitude of obser- 
 vations of the luminaries, constructed a table of 
 refractions; which has ever since been in very 
 general estimation for its accuracy, though it is 
 now generally admitted that it gives the refrac- 
 tions too small. He also, with a very large 
 transit instrument, and a new mural quadrant of 
 eight feet radius, constructed by Bird in 1750, 
 made an immense number of observations for 
 settling the places of all the stars in the British 
 catalogue, together with nearly 1500 places of 
 the moon, the greater part of which he com- 
 pared with Mayer's tables. Bradley died in 1762. 
 
 62. Astronomers elsewhere were equally assi- 
 duous in their endeavours to promote this 
 science. The theory of the moon was parti- 
 cularly considered by Clairault, D'Alembert, 
 Euler, Mayer, Simpson, and Walmsley, and 
 especially Clairault, Euler, and Mayer, who 
 computed complete sets of lunar tables: those 
 of the last of these authors, for their superior 
 accuracy, were rewarded with a premium of 
 £3000, and brought into use in the computation 
 
 of the Nautical Ephemeris, published by thp 
 Board of Longitude. The most accurate tables 
 of the satellites of Jupiter were composed from 
 observations by Wargentin, an excellent Swedish 
 astronomer. But these have again been super- 
 seded by the more recent ones of Delambre. 
 There is much room for improvement, however, 
 in our knowledge of the elements of Jupiter's 
 satellites, even with respect to the first satellites, 
 the predicted and actual times of immersion or 
 e.mersion sometimes differ to the extent of two 
 minutes. 
 
 63. Among the many French astronomers who 
 contributed to the advancement of the science, 
 it was particularly indebted to De la Caille for 
 an excellent set of solar tubes. He, in 1750, 
 went to the Cape of Good Hope to make obser- 
 vations in concert with the most celebrated astro- 
 nomers in Europe, for determining the parallax 
 of Mars and the moon, and thence that of the 
 sun, which it was concluded did not much exceed 
 ten seconds. Here he re-examined and adjusted, 
 with great accuracy, the places of stars about the 
 southern pole; and also measured a degree of 
 the meridian. In Italy the science was assidu- 
 ously cultivated by Bianchini, Boscovich, Frisi, 
 Manfredi, Zanotti, and many others ; in Sweden, 
 by Wargentin, already mentioned, Blingenstern, 
 Mallet, and Planman; and in Germany by Euler, 
 Mayer, Lambert, Grischow, and others. 
 
 64. In 1760 all the learned societies in Eu- 
 rope made preparations for observing the transit 
 of Venus over the sun, which had been predicted 
 by Halley more than eighty years before, with 
 the use that might be made of it in determining 
 the sun's parallax, and the distances of the pla- 
 nets from the sun. The same exertions were re- 
 peated, to observe the transit in 1769, by sending 
 observers to different parts of the world ; and 
 from the whole, Short computed that the sun's 
 parallax was nearly 83 seconds, and consequently 
 the distance of the sun from the earth about 
 24,114 of the earth's diameters, or ninety-six 
 millions of miles. Bradley was succeeded, in 
 1762, in his office of astronomer royal, by Bliss, 
 Savilian professor of'astronomy ; who, being in 
 a declining state of health, did not long enjoy it. 
 
 65. In 1765 Bliss was succeeded by Nevil 
 Maskelyne, who, in January 1761, was sent by 
 the Royal Society, at a very early age, to the 
 island of St. Helena, to observe the transit of 
 Venus over the sun, and the parallax of the 
 star Sirius. The first of these objects partly 
 failed, by clouds preventing tlie sight of the se- 
 cond internal contact ; and the second also, owing 
 to Short having suspended the plumb-line by a 
 loop from the neck of the central pin. However, 
 he indemnified himself by many other valuable 
 observations : thus, he observed a-t St. Helena, 
 the tides ; the horary parallaxes of the moon ; 
 and the going of a clock, to find by comparison 
 with its previous going, which had been observed 
 in England, the difference of gravity at the two 
 places ; also in going out and returning, he prac- 
 tised the method of finding the longitude by the 
 lunar distances taken by Hadley's quadrant, 
 making out rules for the use of seamen, and 
 teaching the method to the officers on board the 
 ship. This method was explained in the Philo-
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 99 
 
 sophical Transactions, for 1762, and more fully 
 afterwards in the British Mariner's Guide, pub- 
 lished in 1763. In September 1763, he sailed 
 for the island of Barbadoes, to settle the longi- 
 tude of the place, to examine Harrison's watch, 
 and to try Irwin's marine chair. While at Bar- 
 badoes, he made many other observations, and 
 amongst them, many relating to the moon's 
 horary parallaxes, not yet published. 
 
 66. Maskelyne returning to England in the 
 end of 1764, recommended to the board of Lon- 
 gitude the lunar method offindin^ the longitude; 
 and proposed to it the project of a nautical alma- 
 nack, to be calculated and published to facilitate 
 that method. This the board agreed to, and the 
 first volume was published for 1767, and has con- 
 tinued ever since to the great benefit of naviga- 
 tion. 
 
 67. In consequence of a proposal, made by 
 this astronomer to the Royal Society, the project 
 was formed of measuring accurately the effect of 
 some mountain on the plumb-line, in deflecting 
 it from the perpendicular; and Schemallien, in 
 Scotland, having been found the most convenient 
 in this island for the purpose, he went into Scot- 
 land to conduct the business ; by this experi- 
 ment he showed that the sum of the deflections 
 on the two opposite sides was about 11|° of a 
 degree ; and proved to the satisfaction of the 
 whole world, the universal attraction of matter. 
 From the data resulting from these measures, 
 Dr. Ilutton computed the mean density of the 
 whole matter in the earth, to be about 4^ times 
 that of common water. 
 
 68. The discoveries of Dr. Herschel form a 
 new era in astronomy. In 1781, he began with 
 observations on the periodical star in Collo Ceti, 
 and a new method of measuring the lunar moim- 
 tains, none of which he made more than half a 
 mile in height ; and having constructed teles- 
 copes far more powerful than any former ones, 
 proceeded to other observations; such as, on the 
 rotation of the planets round their axes ; on the 
 parallax of the fixed stars ; catalogues of double, 
 triple, &c. stars ; on the proper motion of the 
 sun and solar system ; on the remarkable ap- 
 pearances of the solar regions of the planet Mars; 
 &c. Above all his discoveries of a new primary 
 planet, on the 13th of March, 1781, called by 
 him the Georgian Planet, but named the Ilers- 
 schel, and sometimes Uranus, by foreign astro- 
 nomers, and of its six satellites, discovered 
 since that time, has greatly enlarged the bounds 
 of the solar system, this new planet being more 
 than twice as far from the sun as the planet 
 Saturn. 
 
 69. 'M. Piazzi, astronomer royal at Palermo, 
 discovered on January 1st, 1801, another planet 
 moving in an orbit between Mars and Jupiter. 
 This planet has been named Ceres. Another 
 was discovered on March 28th, 1802, by Dr. 
 Oliers of Bremen, and named Pallas; a third 
 was discovered and named Juno by Mr. Harding 
 of Silverthal ; and a fourth by Dr. Oliers, and 
 named Peaton, on March 29th, 1807. These 
 planets are all very small, and all so nearly at the 
 same distance from the sun, and moving in or- 
 bits diff'ering so little either in eccentricity or 
 declination, that they have by some been con- 
 
 jectured to be fragments of a larger planet, which 
 from some explosion had been burst, and its 
 parts scattered abroad in space. 
 
 It is probable that as astrononaical instru- 
 ments become more improved, further discoveries 
 of the same kind will be made, and that the 
 boundaries of the solar system may be enlarged 
 by the discerning of planets which circulate round 
 the sun even beyond the orbit of the Georgian 
 planet. 
 
 71 . Dr. Maskelyne was succeeded at the Green- 
 wich observatory in 1 8 11 , by J . Pond, esq. the pre- 
 sent astronomer royal, under whose managment the 
 business of this important institution has been 
 kept in full activity. The number of instruments 
 has been greatly increased. The use of the mu- 
 ral quadrant has been abandoned for that of the 
 circle, two of which, one by Droughton, and one 
 by T. Jones, are in constant use, and give results 
 which accord with each other in a manner alto- 
 getlier surprising. The most important discove- 
 ries may be hoped for from the skill and activity 
 with wiiich the splendid instruments at Green- 
 wich are managed. All indeed that appears wanting 
 in that institution, is a telescope of the first class to 
 follow up the discoveries in siderial astronomy, 
 which conferred such splendor on the name of 
 Herschel. But we are glad to perceive that this 
 department of the science is likely to be carried 
 to a degree of perfection which few would have 
 hoped for, by Mr. Herschel, junior, the worthy 
 and able son of the great astronomer, and his 
 friend Mr. South, whose recent publication on 
 the motion of double stars does tliem the highest 
 credit. 
 
 72. On the continent of Europe, the greatest 
 ardor is at present evinced in the cultivation of 
 this science. The labors of Schumercher at Al- 
 tona, are unintermitted and most valuable. He 
 may be considered at present as a common bond 
 among astronomical men. Greass at Gottingen, 
 Littrow, at Venice; Bressel, at Konigsberg; 
 Struve, at Dorpat; Zach, atGenoa; and a host 
 of other individuals distinguished for their la- 
 bors and their zeal, have devoted themselves to 
 astronomy . 
 
 73. In our own country, it would be injustice 
 to pass over the names of Woodhouse and Brink- 
 ley, whose eminence in this science is of the 
 most distinguished kind. 
 
 74. Another striking feature of the present 
 day is the formation of ' The Astronomical So- 
 ciety of London,' an institution whose only 
 object is the cultivation of astronomical science. 
 This society includes among its members almost 
 every individual known to the world as distin- 
 guished for astronomical knowledge. The me- 
 moirs of the society, of which the third part is 
 just ready for publication, are very valuable and 
 interesting. 
 
 75. The university of Cambridge has recently 
 evinced its sense of the importance of a practical 
 knowledge of this science, by the erection of an 
 observatory on the most splendid scale ; and the 
 English government has also shown by the recent 
 order for the establishment of an observatory at 
 the Cape of Good Hope, that the importance^ 
 which it has always attached to the cultivation of 
 this science, has suffered no abatement. 
 
 H 2
 
 100 
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 76. Historical accounts and lists of the prin- 
 cipal authors and writings on this science, are 
 contained in Weidler's and I5ailly's History of 
 Astronomy. Adam, Vossius, Bayle, Chanffepie, 
 Niceron, Perraut, the chronological table of Ric- 
 cioli, and that of Sherburn, at the end of his 
 edition of INIanilius ; and the first volume of De 
 la Lande's astronomy, may also be consulted. 
 The more modern and popular books on as- 
 tronomy are very numerous and well known ; 
 as those of Ferguson, Long, Emerson, Vince, 
 De la Lande, Leadbetter, Brent, Keil, Whiston, 
 Wing, Street, Bonnycastle,Gregory, Brinkley, &c. 
 but the recent treatise on astronomy by Wood- 
 house, is by far the most complete that has ap- 
 peared in the English language. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 OF THE APPEARANCES OF THE CE- 
 LESTIAL BODIES. 
 
 Sect. I. — Of the Celestial Bodies, as seen 
 
 BT THE naked EYE. 
 
 77. Tlie most obvious celestial phenomenon 
 is the daily rising of the sun in the east, and his 
 setting in the west ; next to which is that of the 
 moon and stars appearing, and keeping the same 
 westerly course. These cannot be long taken 
 notice of before we must perceive that neither 
 the sun nor moon always rise exactly in the 
 same point of the heavens. If we observe the 
 sun, from the beginning of March, we find that 
 he seems to rise almost every day sensibly more 
 to the northward, than he did the day before, to 
 continue longer above the horizon, and to be 
 more elevated at mid-day, till towards the end 
 of June, when he is observed to move backward 
 in the same manner : this retrograde motion 
 continues beyond the middle of December, when 
 he begins ao;ain to move forwards, and so on. 
 
 78. When the new moon (as she is called, at 
 her early period,) first becomes visible, she ap- 
 pears in the western part of the heavens, at no 
 great distance from the sun. Every night she 
 increases in size, and removes to a greater dis- 
 tance from the sun ; till at last she appears in 
 the eastern part of the horizon, just at the time 
 the sun disappears in the western. After this 
 she gradually moves farther and farther east- 
 ward, rising every night later and later, till at 
 last she seems to approach the sun as nearly in 
 the east as she did in the west, and rises only a 
 little before him in the morning, as in the first 
 part of her course she set in the west not long 
 after him. All these difi'erent appearances are 
 completed in the space of a month ; after which 
 they begin in the same order as before. 
 
 79. Several of tire stars neither rise in the 
 east, nor set in tlie west, but seem to turn roimd 
 an immovable point, near which is placed a 
 single star called the pole, or pole star. This 
 point is more or less elevated according to the 
 difl^erent parts of the earth from which we take 
 our view. The inhabitants of Lapland, for in- 
 stance, see it much more elevated above the 
 horizon than we do; we see it more elevated 
 than the inhabitants of France and Spain ; and 
 they, again, see it liiore elevated than the 
 mhabitants of Barbary. By continually tia- 
 
 velling south, this star at last seems depressed 
 in the horizon, and another point appears di- 
 rectly opposite to it, round which the stars m 
 the southern part of the horizon seem to turn. 
 In this part of the heavens, however, there is no 
 star so near the pole as there is in the northern 
 part : nor is the number of stars in the southern 
 part of the heavens so great as in the northern 
 part. 
 
 80. Supposing us still to travel southward, 
 the north pole entirely disappears, and the whole 
 atmosphere appears to turn round a single point 
 in the south, as the northern hemisphere appears 
 to us to turn round the pole star. The general 
 appearance of the heavens, therefore, is that of a 
 vast concave sphere, turning round two points 
 fixed in the north and south parts of it, once in 
 twenty-four hours. 
 
 81. The majority of the stars keep their places 
 with respect to one another ; that is, if we ob- 
 serve two stars having a certain apparent dis- 
 tance from each other one night, they seem to 
 have the same every succeeding night. But all 
 the stars in the heavens do not appear to be of 
 this fixed kind: some of them change their 
 places, with regard to the fixed stars, and to one 
 another. Of these ten are at present known. 
 They are distinguished by the appellation of 
 planets, from irXavaoj, to wander, and are called 
 by the names of Mercury, Venus, Mars, Ceres, 
 Pallas, Juno, Vesta, Jupiter, Saturn, and Hers- 
 chel, Uranus, or the Georgium Sidus. The fixed 
 stars are likewise distinguished from the planets 
 by continually exhibiting that appearance which 
 is called the scintillation or twinkling of the 
 stars. 
 
 82. Mercury is a small star which emits a 
 very bright white light ; but, by always keeping 
 near the sun, he is seldom to be seen ; and when 
 he does make his appearance, his motion toward 
 the sun is so swift, that he can only be discerned 
 for a short time, a little after sun-set, and again 
 a little before sun-rise. 
 
 83. Venus the most beautiful star in the hea- 
 vens, known by the names of the morning and 
 evening star, keeps near the sun, though at 
 almost double the distance of Mercury. She is 
 never seen in the eastern quarter of the heavens 
 when the sun is in the western ; but seems to 
 attend him in the evening, or to give notice of 
 his approach in the morning. 
 
 84. Mars is of a red fiery color, and gives 
 a much duller light than Venus, though some- 
 times he equals her in size. He is not subject 
 to the same limitation in his motions as Mercury 
 or Venus ; but appears sometimes very near the 
 sun, and sometimes at a great distance from him; 
 sometimes rising when the sun sets, or setting 
 when he rises. Of this planet it is remarkable, 
 that when he approaches any of the fixed stars, 
 they change their color, grow dim, and often be- 
 come totally invisible, though at some little 
 distance from the body of the planet: but 
 Herschel thinks this has been exaggerated by 
 former astronomers. 
 
 85. Jupiter and Saturn often appear at great 
 distances from the sun. The former shines with 
 a bright white light, and the latter with a pale 
 faint one ; and the motion of Saturn among the
 
 ASTRONOMY, 
 
 101 
 
 fixed stars is so slow, that, unless carefully ob- 
 served, he will not be thought to move at all. 
 Herschel's motion is still slower, and he is sel- 
 dom to be seen without a telescope. 
 
 86. The apparent magnitudes of these bodies 
 are very different at different times. Every per- 
 son must have observed that Venus is not always 
 equally big; and this apparent difference of 
 magnitude is so remarkable, that she appears no 
 less than thirty-two times larger at some seasons 
 than at others. This increase of magnitude is 
 likewise very remarkable in Mars and Jupiter, 
 but less so in Saturn, Mercury and Herschel. 
 These planets by no means appear to us to move 
 regularly in the heavens, but, on the contrary, 
 sometimes go forward, sometimes backward, and 
 sometimes seem to be stationary. 
 
 87. There are other moving bodies, besides 
 the planets, which appear at uncertain intervals, 
 and with a very different aspect. These are very 
 numerous, and upwards of 500 are recorded as 
 having visited our system.. They are called 
 Comets, from Kontjrrn, hairy, having a long tail, 
 somewhat resembling the appearance of hair. 
 This, however, is not always the case ; for some 
 comets have appeared as round as planets : but 
 in general they have a luminous matter diffused 
 around them, or projecting out from them, which 
 to appearance very much resembles the Aurora 
 Borealis. They appear to come in a direct line 
 towards the sun, as if they were going to fall into 
 his body ; and after having disappeared for some 
 time, in consequence of their proximity to that 
 luminary, fly off again on the other side as fast 
 as they came, projecting a tail much greater and 
 brighter in their recess ; but, getting daily at a 
 farther distance from us in the heavens, they 
 continually lose some of their splendor, and at 
 last totally disappear. 
 
 88. The apparent magnitude of comets is very 
 different; sometimes they appear only of the 
 bigness of the fixed stars ; at other times they 
 equal the diameter of Venus, and sometimes 
 even of the sun or moon. In 1652 Hevelius ob- 
 served a comet which seemed not inferior to the 
 moon in size, though it was not so bright, but 
 appeared with a pale and dim light. These 
 bodies also sometimes lose their splendor sud- 
 denly, while their apparent bulk remains un- 
 altered. With respect to their apparent motions, 
 they have all the inequalities of the planets ; 
 sometimes seeming to go forwards, sometimes 
 backwards, and sometimes to be stationary. 
 
 89. The fixed stars are liable to changes : se- 
 veral observed by the ancients are now no more 
 to be seen; and. new ones have appeared which 
 were unknown to the ancients. Some of them 
 have also disappeared for some time, and again 
 become visible. At times some have been ob- 
 served to distinguish themselves by superlative 
 lustre ; but afterwards decreasing, to vanish by 
 degrees, and to be no more seen. One of these 
 stars being first seen and observed by Ilippar- 
 chus, set him upon composing a catalogue of 
 the fixed stars, that by it posterity might learn 
 whether any of the stars perish, and others are 
 produced afresh. After several ages Tycho Brahe 
 observed another new star, which put him on the 
 same design. Of these changes accounts have 
 
 been given by Halley, Montanere, and Pigot, in 
 the Philosophical Transactions. As a specimen 
 of these phenomena we shall here insert an ex- 
 tract from the former. 
 
 90. * The first new star in the chair of Cassio- 
 peia was not seen by Cornelius Gemma on the 
 8th of November, 1572, who says, he that night 
 considered that part of the heavens in a very se- 
 rene sky, and saw it not : but that the next night 
 November 9, it appeared with a splendor sur- 
 passing all the fixed stars, and scarcely less bright 
 than Venus. This was not seen by Tycho 
 Brahe before the 11th of the same month: but 
 from thence he assures us that it gradually de- 
 creased and died away, so that in March 1574, 
 after sixteen months, it was no longer visible ; 
 and at this day no signs of it remain. The place, 
 thereof, in the sphere of fixed stars, by the ac- 
 curate observations of Tycho, was Os 9° 17' a 
 1 nia ^ ryiis, with 53° 45' N. lat. 
 
 91. ' Such another star was seen and observed 
 by the scholars of Kepler, to begin to appear 
 Sept. 30. O. S. anno 16'04, and which was not 
 to be seen the day before. It broke out at 
 once with a lustre surpassing that of Jupiter ; 
 and like the former died away gradually, and 
 in much about the same time disappeared* to- 
 tally, there remaining no footsteps thereof in Ja- 
 nuary 160§. This was near the ecliptic, follow- 
 ing the right leg of Serpentarius ; and by the ob- 
 servations of Kepler and others, was in 7, 20° 
 CO' a l"* * (y, with north lat. 1° 56'. These 
 two seem to be of a distinct species from the 
 rest, and nothing like them has appeared since. 
 
 92. ' But between them, viz. in 1596, we 
 have the first account of the wonderful star in 
 Collo Ceti, seen by David Fabricius on the 3d 
 of August, as bright as a star of the third magni- 
 tude, which has been since found to appear and 
 disappear periodically; its period being pre- 
 cisely seven revolutions in six years, though it 
 returns not always with the same lustre. Nor is 
 it ever totally extinguished, but may at all times 
 be seen with a six feet tube. This was singular 
 in its kind till that in Collo Cygni was disco- 
 covered. It precedes the first star of Aries 1° 
 40', with 15° 57' south lat. 
 
 93. ' Another new star was first discovered by 
 William Jansonius in the year 1600, in pectore, 
 or rather in eductione, Colli Cygni, which ex- 
 ceeded not the third magnitude. This having 
 continued some years became at length so small 
 as to be thought by some to have disappeared 
 entirely; but in the years 1657, 1658, and 1659, 
 it again arose to the third magnitude; though 
 soon after it decayed by degrees to the fifth or 
 sixth magnitude ; and at this day is to be seen as 
 such in 9» 18° 38' a""* * r^,with 55° 29' north lat. 
 
 94. ' A fifth new star was first seen by Heve- 
 lius in 1600, on July 15, O. S. as a star of the 
 third magnitude, but by the beginning of Octo- 
 ber was scarce to be perceived by the naked eye. 
 In April following it was again as bright as be- 
 fore, or rather greater than of the third magni- 
 tude, yet wholly disappeared about the middle 
 of August. Tlie next year, in March 1672, it 
 was seen again, but not exceeding the sixth 
 magnitude : since when it has been no farther 
 visible, though we have frequently sought for its
 
 102 
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 return; its place is 9' 3° 17' a I""- * <t, and 
 has lat. north 47° 28'. 
 
 95. ' The sixth and last is that discovered by 
 Mr. G. Kirch in the year 1686, and its period 
 determined to be of 404^ days ; and though it 
 rarely exceeds the fifth magnitude, yet it is very 
 regular in its returns, as we found in the year 
 1714. Since then we have watched, as the ab- 
 sence of the moon and clearness of the weather 
 would permit, to catch the first beginning of its 
 appearance in a six feet tube, that, bearing a 
 very great aperture, discovers most minute stars. 
 And on June 15, last, it was first perceived like 
 one of the very least telescopical stars ; but in 
 the rest of that month and July it gradually in- 
 creased so as to become in August visible to the 
 naked eye, and so continued all the month of 
 September. After that it again died away by 
 degrees, and on the 8th of December, at night, 
 was scarcely discernible by the tube ; and, as 
 near as could be guessed, equal to what it was 
 at its first appearance on June 15th; so that this 
 year it has been seen in all nearly six months, 
 which is but little less than half its period; and 
 the middle, and consequently the greatest bright- 
 ness, falls about the 10th of September.' 
 
 96. The galaxy or milky way is a remarkable 
 appearance in the heavens, being a broad ring of 
 a whitish color surrounding the whole celestial 
 concave, whose light is now known to proceed 
 from vast clusters of stars, discoverable only by 
 the telescope. M. Brydone, in his journey to 
 the top of Mount iEtna, found this phenomenon 
 to make a glorious appearance, * like a pure 
 flame (as he expresses it) that shot across the 
 heavens.' 
 
 97. The only other appearances which are 
 very observable by the unassisted eye, are those 
 obscurations of the sun and moon commonly 
 called eclipses. These are too well known, and 
 attract the attention too much, to need any par- 
 ticular description. We have, however, accounts 
 very well authenticated, of obscurations of the 
 sun continuing for a much longer time than a 
 common eclipse possibly can do, and likewise of 
 the darkness being much greater than usual on 
 such occasions. 
 
 Sect. II. Of the Celestial Bodies as seen 
 THROUGH Telescopes. 
 
 98. Although the sun, to the naked eye, is 
 extremely bright and splendid, he is frequently 
 observed, even through a telescope of but very 
 small powers, to have dark spots on his surface, 
 which are said to have been first discovered in 
 1611; and the honor of the discovery is disputed 
 betwixt Galileo and Scheiner, a German Jesuit 
 at Ingolstadt. But whatever merit Scheiner 
 might have in the priority of the discovery, it is 
 certain that Galileo far exceeded him in accu- 
 racy; though Scheiner's work has considerable 
 merit, as containing observations selected from 
 above 3000 made by himself. 
 
 99. It appears from the papers of Harriot, 
 the English algebraist, which were found in 
 1784, at the seat of the earl of Egremont in 
 Sussex^ that he made a great number of obser- 
 vations upon the solar spots much about the 
 
 name time; and Dr. Zach, astronomer to the 
 duke of Saxe Gotha, in an account of Harriot's 
 papers, published in 1788, says that there is the 
 greatest probability of Harriot being the first dis- 
 coverer of these spots, even before either 
 Galileo or Scheiner. Galileo's first produced 
 observations are only for June 2, 1612, and those 
 of Scheiner of the month of October in the same 
 year, whereas Harriot's, as appears from his 
 MSS, are of December 8, 1610, 
 
 100. There is great variety in the magnitudes 
 of the solar spots ; the difference is chiefly in su- 
 perficial extent of length and breadth; their 
 depth or thickness is very small: some have 
 been so large as by computation to be capable 
 of covering the whole surface of the earth, or 
 even five times its surface. The diameter of 
 a spot, when near the middle of the disk, is 
 measured by comparing the time it takes in 
 passing over a cross hair in a telescope, with the 
 time wherein the whole disk of the sun passes 
 over the same hair. It may also be measured by 
 the micrometer; and thus we may judge how 
 many times the diameter of the spot is con- 
 tained in the diameter of the sun. 
 
 101. Spots are subject to increase and dimi- 
 nution of magnitude, and seldom continue long 
 in the same state. They are of various shapes ; 
 most of them having a deep black nucleus, sur- 
 rounded by a dusky cloud, whereof the iimer 
 parts near the black are a little brighter than the 
 outskirts. They change their shapes, something 
 in the manner that our clouds do, though not 
 often so suddenly; thus what is of a certain 
 figure to day, will to-morrow, or perhaps in a few 
 hours, be of a different one ; what is now but 
 one spot will in a little time be broken into two 
 or three ; and sometimes two or three spots will 
 coalesce, and be united into one. The number 
 of spots on the sun is very uncertain ; some- 
 times there are a great many, sometimes very 
 few, and sometimes none at all. 
 
 102. Scheiner made observations on the sun 
 from 1611 to 1629; and says he ne\-er found 
 his disk quite free from spots, excepting a few 
 days in December, 1624. At other times he fre- 
 quently saw twenty, thirty, and in the year 1625, 
 
 ' he was able to count fifty spots on the sun at a 
 time. In an interval afterwards of twenty years, 
 from 1650 to 1670, scarcely any spots were to 
 be seen, and since that time some years have 
 furnished a great number of spots, and others 
 none at all ; but since the beginning of the last 
 century, not a year has passed wherein some 
 were not seen. 
 
 103. It is evident from these various appear- 
 ances that the spots are not endowed with any 
 permanency, nor at all regular in their shape, 
 magnitude, number, or time of appearance or 
 continuance. Hevelius observed one that arose 
 and vanished in sixteen or seventeen hours ; and 
 no one has been observed to continue longer 
 than seventy days : those spots that are formed 
 gradually are gradually dissolved, while those 
 that arise suddenly are for the most part sud- 
 denly dissolved. When a spot disappears, that 
 part where it was, generally becomes brighter 
 than the rest of the sun, and continues so for se- 
 veral days : on the other hand, those bright parts
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 103 
 
 called feculas (as the otliers are called maculre) 
 sometimes turn to spots. 
 
 104. The solar spots appear to have a motion 
 across the sun's disk. , Every spot, if it conti- 
 nues long enough without being dissolved, ap- 
 pears to enter the sun's disk, on thn east side, to 
 go from thence with the velocity continually in- 
 creasing till it has gone half way, and then to 
 move slower and slower till it goes off at tlie 
 west side ; after which it disappears for about the 
 saire space of time that it spent in crossing the 
 disk, and then enters upon tlie east side again, 
 nearly m the same place, and crosses it in the 
 same track, and with the same unequal motion 
 as before. The motion of the spots is in tlie 
 order of the signs (the same way that all mo- 
 tions in the solar system, those of the comets 
 alone excepted, are performed) ; and therefore, 
 as the earth revolves round the sun the same 
 way with the solar spots, one of these will ap- 
 pear to remain longer on the disk than it would 
 otherwise do if the earth remained at rest. 
 
 105. The face of the sun, when clear of spots, 
 seen by the naked eye through a smoked or co- 
 lored glass, or through a thin cloud, or the va- 
 pours near the horizon, appears all over equally 
 luminous ; but when viewed through the teles- 
 cope, the glasses being smoked or colored, the 
 middle of the disk appears brighter than the out- 
 skirts, because the light is darted more directly 
 towards us from the middle than from any other 
 part, and the faculae appear more distinctly near 
 the sides, as being on a darker ground than in 
 the middle. 
 
 106. All the phenomena of the solar spots, as 
 delivered by Scheiner and Hevelius, may be sum- 
 med up in the following particulars : 1. Every 
 spot which has a nucleus, or considerably dark 
 part, has also an umbra, or fainter sliade, sur- 
 rounding it. 2. The boundary betwixt the nu- 
 cleus and umbra is always distinct and well de- 
 fined. 3. The increase of a spot is gradual, the 
 breadth of the nucleus and umbra dilating at the 
 same time. 4. In like manner, the decrease of 
 a spot is gradual ; the breadth of the nucleus 
 and umbra contracting at the same time. 5. 
 The exterior boundary of the umbra never con- 
 sists of sharp angles; but is always curvilinear, 
 how irregular soever |lhe outline of the nucleus 
 may be. 6. The nucleus of a spot, whilst on 
 the decrease, often changes its figure by the 
 umbra encroaching irregularly upon it, insomuch 
 that in a small space of time new encroach- 
 ments are discernible, whereby the boundary 
 betwixt the nucleus and umbra is perpetually 
 varying. 7. It often happens, by these encroach- 
 ments, that the nucleus of a spot is divided into 
 two or more nuclei. 8. The nuclei of the spots 
 vanish sooner than the umbrae. 9. Small umbrae 
 are often seen without nuclei. 10. An umbra of 
 any considerable size is seldom seen without a 
 nucleus in the middle of it. 11. When a spot 
 which consists of a nucleus and umbra is about 
 to disappear, if it is not succeeded by a facula, 
 or spot brighter than the rest of the disk, the 
 place where it was is soon after not distinguish- 
 able from the rest. 
 
 107. Dr. Wilson, in the Phil. Trans, vol. Ixiv. 
 
 mentions the following appearances: 1. When 
 the spot is about to disappear on the western edge 
 of the sun'j limb, the eastern part of the umbra first 
 contracts, then vanishes, the nucleus and western 
 part of the umbra remaining ; then the nucleus 
 gradually contracts and vanishes, while the west- 
 ern part of the umbra remains. At last this disap- 
 pears also; and if the spot remains long enou^^h 
 to become again visible, the eastern part of the um- 
 bra first becomes visible, then the nucleus; and 
 when the spot approaches the middle of the disk, 
 the nucleus appears environed by the umbra on 
 all sides, as already mentioned. 2. Wben two 
 spots lie very near to one another, the umbra is 
 deficient on that side which lies next the other 
 spot ; and this will be the case, though a larger 
 spot should be contiguous to one much smaller ; 
 the umbra of the large spot will be totally want- 
 ing on that side next the small one. If there are 
 little spots on each side of the large one, the um- 
 bra does not totally vanish ; but appears flattened 
 or pressed in towards the nucleus on each side. 
 When the little spots disappear, the umbra of the 
 large one extends itself as usual. This circum- 
 stance, he observes, may sometimes prevent the 
 disappearance of the umbra in the manner above 
 mentioned ; so that the western umbra may disap- 
 pear before the nucleus, if a small spot happens 
 to break out on that side. 
 
 108. Mr. Wollaston observes, in the same 
 volume, p. 337, that the appearances mentioned 
 by Wilson are not constant ; and as much depends 
 on the accuracy of observers and the situation of 
 the spots on the sun's orb, it is probable tliat the 
 observation will continue to differ in minute par- 
 ticulars, till a consistent theory is formed, by 
 which the cause of these phenomena may be ex- 
 plained. The spots are not confined to one part 
 of the sun's disk ; though they are generally 
 observed about his polar regions. The paths 
 they describe in their course over the disk are 
 exceedingly different ; sometimes being straight 
 lines, sometimes curves, sometimes descending 
 from the northern to the southern parts of the 
 disk, sometimes ascending from the southern to 
 the northern, &c. These appearances are in- 
 creased by the inclination of the solar axis to the 
 plane of the earth's orbit ; from whence it arises, 
 that the part described by a spot wiiich is on a 
 circle parallel to the solar equator sometimes ap- 
 pears oval, and at others a straight line, accord- 
 ing to the position of the earth with respect to 
 the sun. Besides these spots, there are others 
 which sometimes appear very round and black, 
 travelling over the disk of the sun in a few hours, 
 totally unlike the others, and proceeding from 
 an interposition of the planets ]\Iercury and Ve- 
 nus between the earth and the sun. Excepting 
 the two kinds of spots above-mentioned, how- 
 ever, no kind of object is discoverable on the 
 surface of the sun, but he appears like an im- 
 mense ocean of light. 
 
 109. The appearance of the Moon is very 
 different. Many darkish spots appear in her to 
 the naked eye ; and through a telescope their 
 number is prodigiously increased ; she also ap- 
 pears very plainly to be more protuberant in the 
 middle than at the edges, or to have the figure of
 
 104 
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 a globe, and not a fiat circle. When the moon 
 is gibbous or horned, the one side appears very 
 ragged and \ineven, but the other pretty well 
 defined and circular. The spots in the moon al- 
 ways keep their places exactly ; never vanishing, 
 or going from one side to the other, as those of 
 the sun do. We_ sometimes see more or less of 
 the northern or southern, the eastern or west- 
 ern part of the disk or face ; which is owing to 
 what is called her libration. Plate IV. fig. 1, 
 gives a representation of the full moon in her 
 mean libration, with the principal spots accord- 
 ing to Riccioli, Cassini, and Mayer. 
 
 110. Mercury, when looked at through tele- 
 scopes magnifying about 200 or 300 times, ap- 
 pears equally luminous throughout his whole 
 surface, without the least dark spot. He appears 
 to have the same phases with the moon, being 
 sometimes horned, sometimes gibbous, and some- 
 times shining almost with a round face, though 
 not entirely full, because his enlightened side is 
 never turned directly towards us. 
 
 111. Dr. Herschel has frequently examined 
 Mercury with telescopes of highly magnifying 
 powers ; but he always appeared equally bright 
 on every part of his disk, without any dark spot 
 or ragged edge. But Schroeter, who has so 
 much distinguished himself in this department 
 of astronomy, affirms that he has not only 
 seen spots, but even mountains in Mercury; 
 and that he has succeeded in measuring the 
 altitudeof two of them. He makes the elevation 
 of the higher of these about ten English miles 
 and three-quarters, or about thrice the height 
 of the highest mountain on our earth : but 
 where so small an error in the admeasure- 
 ment of the angle on which the computation is 
 founded would entail so great a mistake in the 
 result, we can only consider this determination 
 of the height of the mountains of Mercury, as a 
 strong evidence that considerable elevations do 
 exist on that planet. By examining the variation 
 on the appearance of Mercury's horns from day 
 to day, Schroeter found the period of his diurnal 
 rotation to be about twenty-four days, five hours, 
 and twenty-eight minutes. Considerable differ- 
 ence of opinion exists respecting the atmosphere 
 of this planet : if it possesses any, it certainly at 
 the centre subtends a very small angle. 
 
 112. Venus, when viewed tlirough a telescope, 
 is rarely seen to shine with a full face, but has 
 phases and changes like those of the moon, in- 
 creasing, decreasing, being horned, gibbous, &c. 
 Her illuminated part is constantly turned towards 
 the sun ; being directed towards the east when she 
 is a morning star, and towards the west when an 
 evening star. Her different phases were first dis- 
 covered by Galileo. Dr. Herschel has published, 
 in the Phil. Trans, for 1793, a long series of 
 observations on this planet, from which he con- 
 -ludes, 1 that the planet revolves about its axis, 
 but that the period, and the position of the axis, 
 are uncertain; 2. that the plaiKt's atmosphere is 
 very considerable; 3. that there are probably hills 
 and inequalities upon its surface, though he has 
 not been able to see much of them, owing, per- 
 haps, to the density of its atmosphere ; and, 4. 
 that this planet is somewhat larger than the earth. 
 
 instead of being less, as former astronomers have 
 imagined. Schroeter, also, in the Phil. Trans, 
 for 1792, published the result of a series of ob- 
 servations on this planet, which were begun in 
 1780. He infers from his observations that 
 Venus has an atmosphere of great density and 
 height, and that many of her mountains are five 
 or six times as high as those of the earth. 
 
 113. Much larger and more remarkable spots 
 have been perceived on the disk of Mars than on 
 that of any other primary planet. By very accu- 
 rate observations, Herschel has determined the 
 proportion between the polar and equatorial 
 diameters, and the length of the day in this 
 planet. He has also given some good conjectures 
 on its seasons and its atmosphere ; the latter it is 
 now ascertained to have; but though consider- 
 able, the atmosphere is not of so great an extent 
 as the conjectures on former observations led 
 astronomers to imagine. By very accurate obser- 
 vations, Dr. Herschel has determined that the pro- 
 portion of his polar and equinoctial axis is as 
 1272 to 1355, or nearly as 15 to 16; that its time 
 of rotation on its axis is 24 h. 22 m. and that the 
 inclination of the axis of Mars to the orbit of the 
 earth is 59°42'. From the great obliquity of this 
 planet's axis of rotation, the polar regions of it 
 are alternately presented towards the earth, and 
 a much better opportunity is thereby offered for 
 examining its surface than that of any other 
 planet. This, however, is in some degree coun- 
 terbalanced by the very dense atmosphere with 
 which this planet is surrounded. It is not a little 
 remarkable, that when either pole emerges into 
 the light of the sun, it exhibits a very striking 
 brilliancy, something like what would arise from 
 its being covered with snow. The analogy 
 between this phenomenon and what annually 
 takes place on our own globe, is too obvious to 
 escape notice. 
 
 114. The planet Ceres is of a red color, and 
 appears about the size of a star of the eighth mag- 
 nitude. It is surrounded by a very dense and 
 extensive atmosphere, in which very great and 
 sudden changes are observed to take place. The 
 estimates that have been made of this planet's 
 diameter are a striking instance of the difficulty 
 of measuring the apparent diameters of such 
 small objects. Herschel makes its diameter 
 about 163 miles; and Schroeter about 1624, or 
 nearly ten times as much. Its periodical revo- 
 lution round the sun is accomplished in about 
 four years, seven months, and ten days. 
 
 115. Pallas is nearly of the same size as Cere?J, 
 but not quite of so red an appearance. Its period 
 of revolution has been computed to be about four 
 years, ten months, and eleven days; and its dia- 
 meter has been estimated at from eighty to up- 
 \\ ards of 2000 miles. It has also an atmosphere, but 
 of less extent than that of Ceres ; but it differs 
 from that and all other planets in the great incli- 
 nation of its orbit. The planets generally circu- 
 late in planes diat do not deviate much from the 
 plane of the eclijjtic ; but the orbit of Pallas is 
 inclined about thirty-five degrees, nearly five 
 times as much as that of any other planet. 
 
 116. Juno is of a reddish color, and is sur- 
 rounded by an atmosphere of considerable den-
 
 JC 
 
 ©
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 105 
 
 sity. Its diameter is allowed by all observers 
 to be less than that of either Ceres or Pallas. It 
 differs from all other planets in the eccentricity 
 of its orbit ; being, when at its greatest distance 
 from the sun, at double the least distance. The 
 period of its revolution is about four years and 
 128 days. 
 
 117. Vesta appears like a star of the sixth 
 magnitude, and may on a clear night be some- 
 times seen with the naked eye. Its light is whiter 
 and more intense than any of the other three 
 small planets. Its apparent diameter has been 
 estimated at about half that of the fourth satellite 
 of Saturn ; and yet it is very remarkable that its 
 light is so intense, that Schroeter saw it several 
 times with his naked eye, while it requires a 
 telescope of considerable power to see the fourth 
 or indeed any satellite of Saturn. This planet 
 revolves in about three years, sixty-six days, and 
 four hours. The orbits of all these four little 
 planets (which from their smallness have been 
 called Asteroids) intersect each other in various 
 places ; and the points of intersection are conti- 
 nually varying from the changes in the places 
 of their aphelia. 
 
 118. Jupiter has the same general appear- 
 ance with Mars, only that the belts on his surface 
 are much larger and more permanent. Their 
 number is very variable, as sometimes only one, 
 and at other times no fewer than eight, may be 
 perceived. They are generally parallel to one 
 another, but not always so ; and their breadth is 
 likewise variable, one belt having been observed to 
 grow narrow, while another in its neighbourhood 
 has increased in breadth, as if the one had flowed 
 into the other. The time of their continuance is 
 very uncertain, sometimes remaining unchanged 
 for three months ; at others, new belts have been 
 formed in an hour or two. In some of these belts 
 large black spots have appeared, which moved 
 swiftly over the disk from east to west, and re- 
 turned in a short time to the same place ; from 
 whence the rotation of this planet about its axis 
 has been determined. 
 
 119. The figure of Jupiter is evidently an ob- 
 late spheroid, the longest diameter of his disk 
 being to the shortest as thirteen to twelve. His 
 rotation is from west to east, like that of the sun, 
 and the plane of his equator is very nearly coin- 
 cident with that of his orbit ; so that there can 
 scarcely be any difference of seasons in that planet. 
 His rotation has been observed to be somewhat 
 tjuicker in his aphelion than his perihelion. 
 
 120. The most remarkable circumstance at- 
 tending this planet, is his having four moons or 
 satellites, which constantly revolve round him 
 at different distances. These are all supposed to 
 move in ellipses ; though the eccentricities of all 
 of them are too small to be measured, excepting 
 that of the fourth ; and even this amounts to no 
 more than 00-07 of its mean distance from the 
 primary. 
 
 121. The periodic times and distances of these 
 satellites, in semidiameters of Jupiter, as well as 
 in English miles, the angles under which their 
 orbits appear, as seen from the earth, at its mean 
 distance from Jupiter, taken from the latest and 
 most exact observations, are as follow : 
 
 No. 
 
 Periodic times. 
 
 Distances in 
 
 Aagles 
 of Orb. 
 
 Semi- 
 diam. 
 
 Miles. 
 
 1 
 2 
 3 
 
 Id. 18A. 27' 34" 
 3 13 13 42 
 7 3 42 36 
 16 16 32 9 
 
 5f 
 
 1443 
 
 2515 
 
 266,000 
 
 423,000 
 
 676,000 
 
 1,189,000 
 
 3 55" 
 6 14 
 9 58 
 17 30 
 
 122. The nodes of these satellites are not in 
 the same place. All of them, by reason of their 
 immense distance, seem to keep near their prima- 
 ry, and their apparent motion is a kind of oscil- 
 lation like that of a pendulum, going alternately 
 from their greatest distance on one side to the 
 greatest distance on the other, sometimes in a 
 straight line, and sometimes in an elliptic curve. 
 When a satellite is in its superior semicircle, or 
 that half of its orbit which is more distant from 
 the earth than Jupiter is, its motion appears to 
 us direct, according to the order of the signs ; 
 but in its inferior semicircle, when it is nearer to 
 us than Jupiter, its motion appears retrograde ; 
 and both these motions seem quicker the nearer 
 the satellites are to the centre of the primary, 
 slower the more distant they are, and, at the 
 greatest distance of all, they appear for a short 
 time to be stationary. 
 
 123. It is evident, from this account of the 
 system of Jupiter and his satellites, diat occul- 
 tations of them must frequently happen by their 
 going behind their primary, or by coming in be- 
 twixt us and it. The former takes place when 
 they proceed towards the middle of their upper 
 semicircle ; the latter when they pass through the 
 same part of their inferior semicircle. Occulta- 
 tions of the former kind happen to the first and 
 second satellite ; at every revolution, the third 
 very rarely escapes an occultation, but the fourth 
 more frequently by reason of its greater distance. 
 It is seldom that a satellite can be discovered 
 upon the disk of Jupiter, even by the best tele- 
 scopes, excepting at its first entrance, when, by 
 reason of its being more directly illuminated by 
 the rays of the sun than the planet itself, it ap- 
 pears like a lucid spot upon it. Sometimes, 
 however, a satellite, in passing over the disk, ap- 
 pears like a dark spot, and is easily to be distin- 
 guished. This is supposed to be owing to spots 
 on the body of these secondary planets ; and it is 
 remarkable, that the same satellite has been 
 known to pass over the disk at one time as a dark 
 spot, and at another so luminous that it could 
 not be distinguished from Jupiter himself, ex- 
 cept at its coming on and going off. 
 
 124. To account for this phenomenon, we 
 must say that either the spots are subject to change; 
 or, if they be permanent like those of our moon, 
 that the satellites at different times turn different 
 parts of their globes towards us. Possibly both 
 these causes may contribute to produce the phe- 
 nomena just mentioned. For these reasons also 
 both the light and apparent magnitude of the sa- 
 tellites are variable; for the fewer spots there 
 are upon that side which is turned towards us, 
 the brighter it will appear ; and, as tlie bright side
 
 106 
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 only can be seen, a satellite must appear larger 
 the more of its bright side it turns towards the 
 earth, and the less so the more it happens to be 
 covered with spots. Tlie fourth satellite, though 
 generally tlie smallest, sometimes appears bigger 
 than any of the rest; the third sometimes seems 
 least, though usually the largest ; nay, a satellite 
 may be so covered with spots as to appear less 
 than its shadow passing over the disk of the pri- 
 mary, though we are certain that the shadow 
 must be smaller than the body which casts it. — 
 To a spectator placed on the surface of Jupiter, 
 each of these satellites would put on the various 
 appearances of the moon; but they appear to us 
 always round, having constantly their enlightened 
 half turned towards the earth. 
 
 125. When these moons pass through their in- 
 ferior semicircles, they cast a shadow upon Jupi- 
 ter, and thus cause an eclipse of the sun to his 
 inhabitants ; and in some situations this shadow 
 may be observed going before or following the 
 satellite. Herschel says, * April 6th, 1 780, I 
 had a fine view of Jupiter, and saw, as soon as 
 I looked into the telescope, without any previous 
 notice of it, the shadow of the third satellite, and 
 the satellite itself on tlie lower part of the disk. 
 The shadow was so black and well defined, that 
 I attempted to measure it, and found its diameter, 
 by the micrometer, to be 1" 562.' See plate XI. 
 fig. 2. On the other hand, in passing through 
 their superior semicircles, the satellites may be 
 eclipsed in the same manner as our moon is to 
 us, by passing through the shadow of Jupiter ; 
 and this is actually the case with the first, se- 
 cond, and third of tliese bodies ; but the fourth, 
 by reason of the largeness of its orbit, passes 
 sometimes above or below the shadow, as is the 
 case with our moon. The beginnings and end- 
 ings of these eclipses are easily seen by a teles- 
 cope when the earth is in a proper situation with 
 regard to Jupiter and the sun ; but when this 
 or any other planet is in conjunction with the 
 sun, the superior brightness of that luminary 
 renders both it and the satellites invisible. From 
 the time of its first appearing after a conjunction 
 until near the opposition, only the immersions of 
 the satellites into his shadow, or the beginnings 
 of the eclipses are visible ; at the opposition, 
 only the occultations of the satellites, by going 
 behind or coming before their primary, are ob- 
 servable ; and from the opposition to the conjunc- 
 tion, only the immersions, or end of the eclipses 
 are to be seen. For let S, plate V'l. fig. 8, be the 
 sun ; I Jupiter and its shadow ; A and P the earth, 
 before and after the opposition of Jupiter; Sp 
 the ])ath of the first satellite in the shadow ; A t 
 a tangent to Jupiter. When the first satellite 
 enters the shadow, the apparent distance of it 
 from the body of Jupiter is tAs; but at its 
 emersion, the line pA passes through Jupiter, 
 and therefore the emersion is not visible ; but 
 after opposition, the earth being at F, the emer- 
 sion, and not the immersion, will be seen. The 
 same things take place with respect to the second 
 satellite. Umnw be the path of the third sa- 
 tellite, m A frequently lies without the body of 
 Jupiter, and therefore both the imnicision and 
 emersion will be visible ; the satellite disappears 
 
 and re-appearing again at a distance from the 
 body of Jupiter, and on the same side. 
 
 126. This is exactly true in the first satellite, 
 of which we can never see an immersion with its 
 immediately subsequent emersion : and it is but 
 rarely that they can be both seen in the second ; 
 as in order to their being so, that satellite must be 
 near one of its limits, at the same time that the 
 planet is near its perihelion and quadrature with 
 the sun. With regard to the third, when Jupiter 
 is more than 46° from conjunction with, or op- 
 position to, the sun, both its immersions and im- 
 mediately subsequent emersions are visible ; as 
 they likewise are in the fourth, when the distance 
 of Jupiter from conjunction or opposition is 
 24°. It had long been suspected that the sa- 
 tellites of this planet revolved on their axis ; and 
 Dr. Herschel has discovered that each of them 
 revolves about its axis in the time of its revolu- 
 tion round its primary ; thus furnishing another 
 striking correspondence between the satellites of 
 the other planets and the moon, the satellite of 
 the earth. They must be very magnificent ob- 
 jects to the inhabitants of Jupiter. The first of 
 them appears to them four times larger than our 
 moon does to us, and goes through all the changes 
 of the moon in the short space of forty-two 
 hours, within which period it is itself eclipsed, 
 and causes an eclipse of the sun on the surface 
 of Jupiter, 
 
 127. When Jupiter is in quadrature with the 
 sun, the earth is fartliest out of the line that pas- 
 ses through the centres of the sun and Jupiter, 
 and therefore the shadow of the planet is then 
 most exposed to our view : but even then the 
 body of the planet will hide from us one side of 
 that part of the shadow which is nearest to it, 
 through which the first satellite passes ; which is 
 the reason that, though we see the entrance of 
 that satellite into the shadow, or its coming out 
 from tlience, as the earth is situate on the east or 
 west side thereof, we cannot see them both ; 
 whereas the other satellites, going through the 
 shadow at a greater distance from Jupiter, their 
 ingress and egress are both visible. The orbits 
 of the satellites are inclined to the plane of Ju- 
 piter's orbit, as is evident from the unequal dura- 
 tion of the eclipses of the same satellite. The 
 fourth satellite, like our own moon, is sometimes 
 in opposition to the sun, without being eclipsed. 
 The third and fourth satellites often disappear in 
 the shadow, and re-appear again on the same 
 side of Jupiter ; but only the beginnings or the 
 endings of the eclipses of the first and second 
 satellites are visible. The relative distances of 
 these moons from their primary, are shown in 
 plate VII. fig. 13. 
 
 127*. We cannot close this account of Jupiter 
 without noticing two curious results obtained by 
 La Place, with respect to the satellites of Ju- 
 piter; results which agree with observation in a 
 remarkable manner. The first is, that if m', in", 
 ni", represent the mean motions of the first, se- 
 couil, and third satellites respectively, the 
 rn + 2 ni" — Zm", is always equal to nothing. 
 The second is, that if /', /", and /'" represent the 
 mean longitudes of the satellites, as seen from 
 the centre of Jupiter, then /' — "i I" -\-2l"' =
 
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 J'LATESI 
 
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 A'>V'i- 
 
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 ^ .JV" 
 
 Ft'<//f>. 
 
 /.,m./,m,/i,mtf,r,n,rr/N.n,,,xrr,,,rJ:'>.r/,n,,.xu/<J,>ri7/'J/.Hili.
 
 A^JTK O V (XM r. 
 
 yv.A7/:\// 
 
 /•'/</ :■!> 
 
 .Iuj.it e>i- 
 
 ,1/1, //,U .\,Ue//ites 
 
 Ih\^ ta/tA'e or^'tTteJ^oort rhorn the£twt/i 
 
 Mercnrv 
 
 ^'entLs 
 3 
 
 Mail 
 
 J)i'*tanee o/'t/he4^Sate7hte r>fxnt rX^ 3 "^ 
 
 Sat-om 
 
 l,or„/,>n ./'ii/i/i.t/i,;/ /ji '/V/iimns 7'fi/i/,7:iJ7if/t/>.ri,/,' ,lf'r'/,/H'^6'. 
 
 J.Slrn^Sc
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 107 
 
 180°. It follows from this theorem, that the 
 first three satellites of Jupiter can never all be 
 eclipsed together. For if it was possible, then 
 /', /", and /'" would be equal, and consequently 
 /' — 3 Z" + 2 /"' = 0. When the second and 
 third are eclipsed together, then 1"=. I'", and con- 
 sequently /' — /" = 180 ; hence, when the se- 
 cond and third satellites of Jupiter are eclipsed 
 at the same time, the first is always in conjunc- 
 tion with Jupiter. Various other interesting con- 
 sequences of this theorem might be easily de- 
 duced ; but we leave the ingenious reader to 
 make them out for himself. The relative dis- 
 tances of the satellites from their primaries are 
 shown in plate VII. fig,l3. ' 
 
 128. Saturn, when viewed through a good 
 telescope, makes a more remarkable appearance 
 than any of the other planets. Galileo first dis- 
 covered his uncommon shape, and from the dis- 
 coveries made by him and other astronomers, it 
 appears that this planet is surrounded by a broad 
 thin ring, the edge of which reflects little, if any, 
 of the sun's light 4o us, but the planes of the ring 
 reflect the light in the same manner that the 
 planet itself does. If we suppose the diameter 
 of Saturn to be divided into three equal parts, 
 the diameter of the ring is about seven of these 
 parts. The ring is detached from the body of 
 Saturn in such a manner, that the distance be- 
 tween the innermost part of the ring and the 
 body is equal to its breadth. If we had a view 
 of the planet and his ring with our eyes, perpen- 
 dicular to one of the planes of the latter, we should 
 see them as in plate VII. fig. 12 ; but our eye is 
 never so much elevated above either plane as to 
 have the visual ray at right angles to it, nor in- 
 deed is it ever elevated more than about 30° 
 above it ; so that the ring being commonly 
 viewed at an oblique angle, appears of an oval 
 form, and through very good telescopes double, 
 as represented, plate VII. fig. 13. and plate XI. 
 fig. 3. When the ring appears most open, its 
 longest diameter appears about twice the length 
 of its shortest. 
 
 129. Both the outward and inward rim are 
 projected into an ellipsis, more or less oblong, 
 according to the different degreesof obliquity with 
 which it is viewed. Sometimes our eye is in 
 the plane of the ring, and then it becomes in- 
 visible ; either because the outward edge is not 
 fitted to reflect the sun's light, or more probably 
 because it is too thin to be seen at such a dis- 
 tance. As the plane of this ring keeps always 
 parallel to itself, that is, its situation in one part 
 of the orbit is always parallel to that in any 
 other part, it disappears twice in every evolution 
 of the planet, that is about once in fifteen years ; 
 and the planet sometimes appears quite round 
 for months together. At other times the dis- 
 tance betwixt the body of the planet and the 
 ring is very perceptible ; and Mr. Whiston tells 
 us, that Dr. Clarke's father saw a star through 
 the opening. 
 
 1 30. When Saturn appears round, if our eye 
 be in the plane of the ring, it will appear as a 
 dark line across the middle of the planet's disk ; 
 and if our eye be elevated above the plane of the 
 ring, a shadowy belt willte visible, caused by the 
 
 shadow of the rmg as well as by the interposition 
 of part of it betwixt the eye and the planet. The 
 shadow of the ring is broadest when the sun is 
 most elevated, but its obscure parts appear 
 broadest when our eye is most elevated above 
 the plane of it. When it appears double, the 
 ring next the body of the planet appears bright- 
 est ; when the ring appears of an elliptical form, 
 the parts about the ends of the largest axis are 
 called the ansae. These, a little before and after 
 the disappearing of the ring, are of unequal 
 magnitude : the largest ansae is longer visible 
 before the planet's round phase, and appears 
 again sooner than the other. In the diagram, 
 plate VII. fig. 2, are delineated the phases of the 
 ring from its full appearance in 1825, to its dis- 
 appearance in 1832, and its full re-appearance 
 in 1839. 
 
 131. Dr. Herschel has found that the ring 
 is double, or that there are two concentric rings ; 
 also that it has a motion of rotation in its own 
 plane, its axis of motion being the same as that 
 of Saturn himself, and its periodical time lOh. 
 32' 15", 4: But he thinks it probable that the 
 concentric rings may not revolve in the same 
 period. Their dimensions, and the space be- 
 tween them, he states in the following proportion 
 to each other : — 
 
 miles. 
 Inner diameter of the same ring . . 146,345 
 Outside diameter of ditto .... 184,393 
 Inner diameter' of the larger ring . . 1 90,248 
 Outside diameter of ditto .... 204,883 
 
 Breadth of the ring 20,000 
 
 Breadth of the outer ditto .... 7,200 
 Breadth of the vacant space .... 2,839 
 
 132. Dr. Herschel concludes, from his obser 
 vations on the ring, that its structure is such as 
 to allow it to remain permanently in its present 
 state ; nor does he think it at all probable that 
 the ring is of that changeable nature which some 
 persons have imagined. 
 
 133. The same excellent astronomer, from a 
 series of observations on the belts of Saturn, has 
 concluded, that he revolves upon his axis in 
 lOh. 16' 0", 4, that he has a dense atmosphere, 
 and that his polar diameter is to his equatorial 
 one as 10 to 11. 
 
 134. Saturn has, besides his ring, seven little 
 secondary planets or satellites revolving round 
 him. One of them, which till lately was reckon- 
 ed the fourth in order from Saturn, was discovered 
 by Huygens in 1655, by means of a telescope 
 100 feet long; and the others, viz. the first, se- 
 cond, third, and fifth", at different times by Cas- 
 sini, between 1671 and 1684, by the help of 
 glasses of 100 and 136 feet. The sixth and 
 seventh have lately been discovered by Herschel, 
 with his forty feet reflecting telescope, in 1787 
 and 1788. These he has called the sixth and 
 seventh satellites, though they are nearer to Sa- 
 turn than the other five ; that the names may not 
 be mistaken with regard to former observations 
 of them. 
 
 135. The periodical revolutions and distances 
 of these satellites expressed in semidiameters of 
 that planet, and in English miles are as follows :
 
 108 
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Distances in 
 
 Anj^les 
 
 y 
 
 
 Times. 
 
 
 
 of 
 
 _ 
 
 
 
 Semi- 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Orbs. 
 
 
 
 
 
 diam. 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 W. 
 
 21A 
 
 18' 27" 
 
 ^ 
 
 170,000 
 
 1' 27" 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 17 
 
 41 22 
 
 5i 
 
 217,000 
 
 1 52 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 12 
 
 25 12 
 
 8 
 
 303,000 
 
 2 36 
 
 4 
 
 15 
 
 22 
 
 41 13 
 
 18 
 
 704,000 
 
 6 18 
 
 5 
 
 79 
 
 7 
 
 48 
 
 54 
 
 2,050,000 
 
 17 4 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 53 9 
 
 35 
 
 135,000 
 
 1 14 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 40 46 
 
 21 
 
 107,000 
 
 57 
 
 136. The first four descnoe ellipses like those 
 of the ring, and are in the same plane : their in- 
 clination to the orbit is from 30° to 31°. The 
 fifth describes an orbit inclined from 17° to 18° 
 to the orbit of Saturn, his plane lying between 
 the ecliptic and those of the other satellites. Dr. 
 Ilerschel observes, that the fifth satellite turns 
 round its axis once, exactly in the time in which 
 it revolves round the planet Saturn. In this re- 
 spect, like the satellites of Jupiter, it resembles 
 our moon, which does the same thing. The pro- 
 portional distances of the seven satellites for- 
 merly known to astronomers, are shown in plate 
 VII. fig. 13. 
 
 137. The apparent form of the ring of Saturn, 
 £nd the form of the orbits of his first four satel- 
 lites, may easily be found by means of the follow- 
 ing table : 
 
 
 ARGUMENT. 
 
 
 
 Long, of Saturn -|- 13° 43'. 
 
 o 
 
 Sisns. 
 
 Signs. 
 
 Signs. 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 0. VI. 
 
 I. VII. 
 
 II. VIII. 
 
 o 
 
 
 - + 
 
 - + 
 
 — 4. 
 
 
 
 
 0-000 
 
 0-260 
 
 0-451 
 
 30 
 
 3 
 
 0-0'27 
 
 0-284 
 
 0-464 
 
 27 
 
 6 
 
 0-034 
 
 0-306 
 
 0-476 
 
 24 
 
 9 
 
 0081 
 
 0-328 
 
 0.486 
 
 21 
 
 12 
 
 0-108 
 
 0-348 
 
 0-495 
 
 18 
 
 15 
 
 0-135 
 
 0-368 
 
 0-503 
 
 15 
 
 18 
 
 0-161 
 
 0-387 
 
 0-509 
 
 12 
 
 21 
 
 0-187 
 
 0-405 
 
 0-514 
 
 9 
 
 24 
 
 0-'212 
 
 0-421 
 
 0-518 
 
 6 
 
 27 
 
 0-236 
 
 0-437 
 
 0-520 
 
 3 
 
 30 
 
 0-260 
 
 0-451 
 
 0-521 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 XI. V. 
 
 X. IV. 
 
 IX. III. 
 
 t) 
 
 era 
 
 + — 
 
 + — 
 
 + — 
 
 "2 
 
 y 
 
 Sigus. 
 
 Signs. 
 
 Signs. 
 
 n 
 
 planet's latitude, which correction is obtained by 
 taking one-fourth of the latitude in minutes, and 
 applying it to the number in the table, with the 
 sign — when the latitude is north, but -|- when 
 soutli. 
 
 Example. What is the shape of Saturn's ring 
 on January 25, 1826 ? 
 
 By the Nautical Almanack, his longitude, on 
 that day, is 2^15° 23', and latitude 1° 26' S. 
 Now 2s 15° 23' + 13° 43', is 23 29° 6', with 
 which, in the table, we find — "521, which cor- 
 rected by -|- 26, one-fourth of the latitude gives 
 — -495 ; or the shorter diameter is to the longer, 
 as 495 to 1000. The sign + indicates that the 
 most distant half of the ring is north, and — that 
 the most distant half is south of the centre of the 
 planet. 
 
 139. The Georgium Sidus, Herschel, or 
 Uranus, was discovered by Herschel on March 
 13th 1781. From certain inequalities m the 
 motion of Jupiter and Saturn, the existence of a 
 planet of considerable size, without the orbit of 
 either, had before been suspected. Its apparent 
 magnitude, as seen from the earth, is about three 
 seconds and a half; and as, from its distance 
 I'rom the sun, it shines but with a pale light, it 
 cannot often be seen with the naked eye. Its 
 d iameter is about four times and a half that of the 
 earth, and it revolves round the sun in 83 years, 
 150 days, 18 hours. The want of light in this 
 jilanet, on account of its great distance from the 
 sun, is supplied by no less than six moons, which 
 revolve round it in difierent periods. But there 
 Is a remarkable peculiarity in the position of the 
 orbits in which these moons revolve round their 
 primary, and in the direction in which they re- 
 volve in their orbits. The orbits are nearly per- 
 pendicular to the plane of the ecliptic, and they 
 revolve in them in a direction contrary to the 
 order of the signs of the ecliptic. La Place, from 
 theoretical considerations, concludes tiiat this 
 planet itself revolves on an axis very little in- 
 clined to the plane of the ecliptic ; but there is 
 little hope that this theoretical deduction will 
 ever be either confirmed, or set aside, by obser- 
 vations on a body so very remote. 
 
 140. The periods of the revolution of the sa- 
 tellites, and the greatest angle of elongation of 
 their orbits, as seen from the earth, are contained 
 in the following table. 
 
 138. To find the shape of Saturn's nng by this 
 table, add his longitude to 13° 43', and with the 
 sum as an argument enter the table, the number 
 from which will represent the shorter diameter, 
 the longer diameter being reckoned a thousand. 
 This, however, requires a small correction for the 
 
 Satellite. 
 
 Period. 
 
 1 
 Elongation 
 
 
 D. H. 
 
 M. 
 
 
 1 
 
 5 21 
 
 25 
 
 25-5' 
 
 2 
 
 8 17 
 
 1 
 
 33-9 
 
 3 
 
 10 23 
 
 4 
 
 38-57 
 
 4 
 
 13 11 
 
 5 
 
 44-22 
 
 5 
 
 38 1 
 
 49 
 
 88-44 
 
 6 
 
 107 16 
 
 40 
 
 176-88 
 
 141. We are unacquainted with any second- 
 ary cause that could have any influence in re- 
 gulating the respective distances of the planets 
 from the sim ; but there certainly does exist a 
 relation which, from its singularity, it is difficult 
 to believe quite accidental. This was first ob-
 
 A.S'lMiO.^'D.Ml'. 
 
 FiV'l. 
 
 /»//. 
 
 / / L. xLA-t 
 
 fc\ 
 
 .Mo] f ti e r' 
 
 ,/ h { -Tg-s 
 
 \ vuvr 
 
 K ^*f\ III 
 
 FufJ. 
 
 F?\/. :i. 
 
 
 C /D B 
 
 Ffh. 7. 
 
 -Fi'</. 3 
 
 Fi't/.O'. 
 
 . //vi-.r /;«,/•«.>■ {,> 
 
 Flo. fl. 
 
 EO-nQ V H n 
 ' t) %^;:^ )( 
 
 /v^/. Iff. 
 
 /'t/f/i K- ti/)prtirti)n-fs of'e/te ('iinirt o/' I<>iHO. irhiKfe periait is J>T,'> yT,' 
 lr«,-A c .. 7*- ^ -^S^fc^- «^^ » ■• ^i^ 
 
 F,t,./I. 
 
 /.on.UnJ',,hh^/,rJ/,v/y,..mus1ry,,7:i,r/,f.,,..>i,lrJ/>ri7/'.'/»-.'i;.
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 109 
 
 served by professor Bode of Berlin, who re- 
 marked, that a planet was wanting at the dis- 
 tance at which the new planets have been dis- 
 covered, to complete the relation. According 
 to him the distances of the planets may be ex- 
 pressed nearly as follows, the earth's distances 
 from the sun being ten. 
 
 Mercury ... 4 =z 4 
 
 Venus . . . 4 -|- 3 X 1 r= 7 
 Earth . . . 4 -|- 3 X 2 =z 10 
 Mars . . . . 4-1-3x2== 16 
 New Planets . 4+3x2^= 28 
 Jupiter . . . 4 -I- 3 X 2* zz 52 
 Saturn . . . 4 -j- 3 X 2^ =: 100 
 Herschel . . 4-|-3x2«=196 
 
 142. The comets, viewed through a telescope, 
 have a very different appearance from any of 
 the planets. The nucleus, or star, seems much 
 dimmer. They are to appearance surrounded 
 with atmospheres of a prodigious size, often 
 rising ten times higher than the nucleus, and 
 have often likewise different phases, like the 
 moon. 
 
 143. The head of a comet, seen through a 
 good telescope, appears to consist of a solid 
 globe, and an atmosphere, that surrounds it. 
 The solid part is frequently called the nucleus ; 
 •which, through a telescope, is easily distinguished 
 from the atmosphere or haiiy appearance. 
 
 144. A comet is generally attended with a 
 blaze or tail, whereby it is distinguished from a 
 star or planet; as it is also by its motion. Some- 
 times the tail only of a comet has been visible at 
 a place where the head has been all the while 
 under the horizon ; such an appearance is called 
 a beam. Whether the tail of a comet is caused 
 or not by the heat of the sun, it is always 
 observed to grow larger as it approaches, and to 
 diminish as it recedes from that luminary. 
 
 145. If the tail were to continue of the same 
 length, it would appear longer or shorter, accord- 
 ing to the different views of the spectator ; for if 
 his eye be in a line, drawn through the middle 
 of the tail lengthways, or nearly so, the tail will 
 not be distinguished from the rest of the atmos- 
 phere, but the whole will appear round ; if the 
 €ye be a little out of that Ime, the tail will ap- 
 pear short (see plate VII. fig. 8) ; and it is called 
 a bearded comet, when the tail hangs down to- 
 wards the horizon, as in thac figure. If the tail 
 of a comet be viewed sideways, the whole length 
 of it is seen. It is obvious, that the nearer the 
 eye is to the tail, the greater will be its apparent 
 length. 
 
 146. The tails of comets often appear bent 
 (see plate V. fig. 12, 13). This is probably 
 owing to the resistance of the nether; which, 
 though extremely small, may have a sensible 
 effect on so thin a vapour as the tail consists of. 
 This bending is seen only when the earth is not 
 in the plane of the orbit of the comet continued. 
 When that plane passes through the eye of the 
 spectator, the tail- appears straight. See plate 
 V. fig. 10, 11. ^ 
 
 147. The fixed stars, when viewed through the 
 best telescopes, appear not in the least magnified, 
 but rather diminished, on account, as is thought 
 by some, that the telescope takes off that twinkling 
 appearance they make to the naked eye ; but by 
 
 others more probably, that the telescope tube ex- 
 cludes a quantity of the rays of light, which are 
 not only emitted from the particular stars them- 
 selves, but by many thousands more, which 
 falling upon our eyelids and the aerial particles 
 about us, are reflected into our eyes so strongly 
 as to excite vibrations, not only on those points 
 of the retina where the images of the stars are 
 formed, but also in other points at the same dis- 
 tance round about. This, without the telescope, 
 makes us imagine the stars to be much bigger 
 than when we see them only by a few rays 
 coming directly from them, so as to enter our 
 eye without being intermixed with others. 
 
 148. The number of stars appear prodigiously 
 increased through the telescope ; seventy stars 
 have been counted in the constellation called 
 Pleiades, and no fewer than 2000 in that of 
 Orion. The late improvements of Herschel, 
 however, have shown the number of stars to be 
 exceedingly beyond even what the discoveries of 
 former astronomers would induce us to suppose. 
 He has also shown that many, which to the eye, 
 or through ordinary glasses, appear single, do in 
 fact consist of two or more stars ; and that the 
 galaxy, or milky way, owes its light entirely to 
 multitudes of small stars placed so close, that 
 the naked eye, or even ordinary telescopes, can- 
 not distinguish them. 
 
 149. The nebulae, or small whitish specks, 
 discoverable by telescopes in various parts of 
 the heavens, are owing to the same cause. 
 Former astronomers could only reckon 103 ; but 
 Herschel has discovered upwards of 1250. He 
 has also discovered a species of them, which he 
 calls planetary nebulae, on account of their 
 brightness, and shining with a well-defined disk. 
 
 Sect. III. — Conclusions drawn from the 
 
 APPEARANCES OF THE SuN AND PlANETS. 
 
 150. There is an appearance m the heavens, 
 termed semita luminosa, or the zodiacal light, 
 which is now generally supposed to be owing 
 to the sun's atmosphere. This was first dis- 
 covered by Cassini in 1683. It is something 
 like the milky way, a faint twilight, or the tail of 
 a comet, thin enough to let stars be seen through 
 it, and seems to surround the sun in the form of 
 a lens, the plane whereof is nearly co-incident 
 with that of the sun's equator. It is seen 
 stretched along the zodiac, and accompanies the 
 sun in his annual motion through the twelve 
 signs. Each end terminates in an angle of about 
 21° : the extent of it in length from either of the 
 angular points varies from 50 to 100°; it reaches 
 beyond the orbit of Venus, but not so far as that 
 of the earth. The breadth of it near the horizon 
 is also various; from 12° almost to 30° : near the 
 sun, where it may reasonably be supposed to be 
 broadest, it cannot be seen. 
 
 151. This light is weakest in the morning, 
 and strongest at night ; disappearing in full 
 moon-light, or in strong twilight, and dierefore 
 is not at all visible about midsummer, in places 
 so near either of the poles as to have their twi- 
 light all the night, but may be seen in those 
 places, in the middle of winter, both morning and 
 evening, as it may in places imder and near the 
 equator, all the year round. In north latitude it 
 is most conspicuous after the evening twilight.
 
 110 
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 about the latter end of February, and before the 
 morning twilight in the beginning of October ; 
 for at those times it stands most erect above tlie 
 horizon, and is therefore clearest from the thick 
 vapours of the twilight. Besides the difterence 
 of real extension of this light in length and 
 breadth at different times, it is diminisUed by the 
 nearness of any other light in the sky ; not to 
 mention, that the extent of it will be differently 
 determined by different spectators, according to 
 the goodness of their eyes. 
 
 152. Cassini supposed that, as by the rotation of 
 the sun, some gross parts are thrown up on his 
 surface, whereof spots and nebulosities are formed ; 
 so the great rapidity wherewith the equatorial 
 parts are moved, may throw out, to a consider- 
 able distance, a number of particles of a much 
 finer texture, of sufficient density to reflect 
 light. That this light was caused by an emana- 
 tion from the sun, similar to that of the spots, he 
 thought probable from the following observation : 
 That after the year 1688, when this light began 
 to grow weaker, no spots appeared upon the 
 sun ; whereas, in the preceding years, they were 
 frequently seen there ; and that the great in- 
 equality in the intervals between the times of the 
 appearances of the solar spots, has some analogy 
 to the irregular returns of weakness and strength 
 in this light, in like circumstances of the consti- 
 tution of the air, and of the darkness of the sky. 
 But the atmosphere of no planet can extend 
 beyond the point at which the centrifugal force 
 arising from its evolution is equal to the force 
 of gravity, and that distance is equal to the radius 
 of a planet's orbit, which revolves in the same 
 time that the sun revolves on his axis. Now the 
 sun revolves in about 25 days, and Mercury in 
 about eighty-eight, therefore the solar atmosphere 
 can never extend to the orbit of Mercury, while 
 the zodiacal light, whatever it is, certainly ex- 
 tends much farther. This consideration certainly 
 militates strongly against the hypothesis of the 
 zodiacal light being connected with the solar 
 ahnosphere. 
 
 153. He was also of opinion that this light in 
 the zodiac, as it is subject to great increase at 
 one time and diminution at another, may some- 
 times become quite imperceptible ; and thought 
 til is was the case in 1665, 1672, and 1681, when 
 he saw nothing of it, though he surveyed with 
 great attention those parts of the heavens where, 
 according to his theory, it must have appeared, 
 if it had been as visible then as it was in others. 
 lie cites also passages out of several autliors, 
 both ancient and modern, which make it prolia- 
 ble that it had been seen, both in former and 
 latter ages, but without being sufficiently attended 
 to, or its nature enquired into. 
 
 154. As to the solar spots, Dr. Long informs 
 us, that ' they do not change their places upon 
 the sun, but adhere to his surface, or float in his 
 atmosphere, very near his body; and if there be 
 twenty spots upon him at a time, they all keep 
 in the same situation with respect to one another; 
 and, as long as they last, are carried round in 
 the same manner : by the motion of the spots 
 therefore we learn, what we should not otherwise 
 have known, that the sun is a globe, and has a 
 rotation about his axis.' 
 
 155. Notwithstanding this, he tells us after- 
 wards, 'The spots, generally speaking, may be 
 said to adhere to the sun, or to be so near him 
 as to be carried round upon him uniformly; 
 nevertheless sometimes, though rarely, a s])ot 
 has been seen to move with a velocity a little 
 different from the rest ; spots that were different 
 parallels, have appeared to be carried along, not 
 keeping always die same distance, but approach- 
 ing nearer to each other ; and when two spots 
 moved in the same parallel, the hindmost has 
 been observed to overtake and pass by the other. 
 The revolution of spots near the equator of the 
 sun, is shorter than of those that are more dis- 
 tant from it.' The apparent change of shape in 
 the spots, as they approach the circumference of 
 the disk, according to this author, is likewise a 
 proof of the sun's rotation round his axis, and 
 that theyeidier adhere to the surface of the lumi- 
 nary, or are carried round his atmospliere very 
 near his surface. 
 
 156. The time of the apparent revolution of a 
 spot being known, the true time of its going 
 round upon the sun may be thus found : In plate 
 VII. fig. 3. the arc A C, which, in the month of 
 May, the earth goes through in her orbit in 27 
 days 12 hours and 20 minutes, is 26° 22' ; the 
 arc uc being equal to A C : the apparent revolu- 
 tion of a spot is the whole circle abed, or 360° 
 with the addition of the arc a c of 26° 22', which 
 makes 386° 22' : then say, as 386° 22' is to 27 d. 
 12 h. 20'; so is 360° to 25 d. 15 h. 16'; the true 
 time of the rotation of the sun as it would be 
 seen from a fixed star. 
 
 157. The angle of intersection of the sun's 
 equator with the ecliptic is but small, being 
 never more, according to Scheneir, than 8°, nor 
 less than 6" ; for which reason he settled it at 7°, 
 though Cassini makes it 7^ . This plane continued 
 cuts the ecliptic in two opposite points, which 
 are called the sun's nodes, being 10° of n, and 
 10° of •♦-* ; and twc points in the ecliptic, 90° 
 from the nodes, may be called the limits. These 
 are 10° of itj) and 10° of X- ^Vhen the earth is 
 in either of these nodes, the equator of the sun, 
 if visible, would appear as a straight line; and, 
 by reason of the vast distance of the sun from us, 
 all his parallels would likewise appear as straight 
 lines ; but, in every other situation of the earth, 
 the equator and parallels of the sun would, if 
 visible, appear as ellipses growing wider the 
 farther the 'earth is from the nodes, and widest of 
 all when the earth is in one of her limits. 
 
 158. There has been no small speculation respect- 
 ing the nature and formation of the solar spots. 
 Some have thought that the sun is an opaque 
 body, mountainous and uneven as our earth is, 
 covered all over with a fiery and luminous fluid ; 
 that this fluid is subject to ebbing and flowing, 
 after the manner of our tides, so as sometimes to 
 leave uncovered the tops of rocks or hills, which 
 appear like black spots ; and that the nebulosi- 
 ties about them are caused by a kind of froth. 
 Others have imagined that the fluid which sends 
 us so much light and heat, contains a nucleus or 
 solid globe, wherein are several volcanoes, which, 
 like yF.tna or Vesuvius, from time to time cast 
 up quantities of bituminous matter to the sur- 
 face of the sun, and form those spots which are
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 HI 
 
 seen thereon ; and that, as this matter is gradually 
 consumed by the luminous fluid, the spots dis- 
 appear for a time, but are seen to rise again in 
 the same places when these volcsnoes cast up 
 new matter. A third opinion is, that the sun 
 consists of a fiery luminous fluid, wherein are 
 immersed several opaque bodies of irregular 
 shapes ; and that these bodies, by the rapid 
 motion of the sun, are sometimes buoyed or 
 raised up to the surface, where they form the 
 appearance of spots, which seem to change 
 their shapes according as different sides of 
 them are presented to the view. A fourth 
 opinion is, that the sun consists of a fluid in 
 continual agitation ; that, by the rapid motion 
 of this fluid, some parts more gross than the 
 rest are carried up to the surface of the lumi- 
 nary, like the scum of melted metal rising up 
 to the top in a furnace ; that these scums, as 
 they are diff'erently agitated by the motion of 
 the fluid, form themselves into those spots we s?e 
 on the solar disk ; and, besides the optical changes 
 already mentioned, grow larger, are diminished 
 in their apparent magnitude, recede a little from, 
 or approach nearer to, each other, and are at 
 last entirely dissipated by the continual rapid 
 motion of the fluid, or are otherwise consumed 
 or absorbed. 
 
 159. Dr. Wilson, in the sixty-foiHth volume 
 of the Philosophical Transactions, advances a 
 new opinion, viz. that they are hollows in the 
 surface of the luminary. On this supposition he 
 offers some queries and conjectures concerning 
 the nature of the sun himself. He asks, Whether 
 it is not reasonable to think, that the vast body of 
 the sun is made up of two kinds of matter very 
 different in their qualities ; that by far the greatest 
 part is solid and dark ; and that this dark globe 
 is encompassed with a thin covering of that re- 
 splendant substance, from which the sun would 
 seem to derive the whole of his vivifying heat 
 and energy ? 
 
 160. This, if granted, will afford a satisfactory 
 solution of the appearance of spots ; because, if 
 any part of this resplendant surface shall be by 
 any means displaced, the dark globe must neces- 
 sarily appear ; the bottom of the cavity corres- 
 ponding to the nucleus, and the shelvmg sides 
 to the umbrae. The shining substance, he thinks, 
 may be displaced by the action of some elastic 
 vapour generated within the substance of the 
 dark globe. This vapour swelling into such a vo- 
 lume as to reach up to the surface of the luminous 
 matter, would thereby throw it aside in all direc- 
 tions : and as we cannot expect any regularity in 
 the production of such a vapour, the irregular 
 appearance and disappearance of the spots is by 
 that means accounted for ; as the reflux of the 
 luminous matter must always occasion the dark 
 nucleus gradually to decrease, till at last it be- 
 comes indistinguishable from the rest of the 
 surface. 
 
 161. But an objection occurs, that, on this 
 supposition, the nucleus of a spot, whilst on the 
 decrease, should always appear nearly circular, 
 by the gradual descent of the luminous matter 
 from all sides to cover it. To this Dr. Wilson 
 replies, that in all probability the surface of the 
 dark globe is ve.y uneven and mountainous. 
 
 which prevents the regular reflux of the shin- 
 ing matter ; and this, he thinks, is rendered very 
 probable by the enormous mountains and cavi- 
 ties which are observed on the moon ; and why, 
 says he, may there not be the same on the surface 
 of the sun ? lie thinks his hypothesis also con- 
 firmed by ihe dividing of the nucleus into seve- 
 ral parts, which might arise from the luminous 
 matter flowing in diff'erent channels in the bottom 
 of the hollow. 
 
 162. The appearance of the umbras after the 
 nucleus is gone, he thinks, may be owing to a 
 cavity remaining in the luminous matter, though 
 the dark globe is entirely covered. As to a mo- 
 tion of the spots, distinct from what they are 
 supposed to receive from the rotation of the sun 
 round his axis, he says he never co\ild observe 
 any, except what might be attributed to the en- 
 largement or diminution of them when in the 
 neighbourhood of one another. ' But,' says he, 
 ' what would farther contribute towards forming 
 a judgment of this kind, is the apparent alteration 
 of the relative place, which must arise from the 
 motion across the disk on a spherical surface ; a 
 circumstance which I am uncertain if it has been 
 sufficiently attended to.' 
 
 163. Dr. Wilson's hypothesis is further con- 
 firmed by the disappearance of the umbra; on the 
 sides of spots contiguous to one another; as the 
 action of the elastic vapour must necessarily drive 
 the luminous matter away from each, and thus as 
 it were accumulate it between them, so that no 
 umbras can be perceived. As to the luminous 
 matter itself, he conjectures, that it cannot be any 
 very ponderous fluid, but that it rather resembles 
 a dense fog which broods on the surface of the 
 sun's dark body. 
 
 164. Dr. Wilson's general conclusion is, that, 
 ' According to the view of things given in the 
 foregoing queries, there would seem to be some- 
 thing very extraordinary in the dark and unig- 
 nited state of the great internal spot of the sun. 
 Does not this, (he asks), seem to indicate that 
 the lum^inous matter that encompasses it derives 
 not its splendor from any intensity of heat ?• For, 
 if this were the case, would not the parts under- 
 neath, which would be perpetually in contact 
 with that glowing matter, be heated to such a 
 degree as to become luminous and bright ? At the 
 same time it must be confessed, that although the 
 internal globe was in reality much ignited, yet 
 when any part of it forming the nucleus of a spot 
 is exposed to our view, and is seen in competition 
 with a substance of such amazing splendor, it is 
 no wonder that an inferior degree of light, should 
 in these cases, be unperceivable. 
 
 165. As to the moon, it is allowed on all hands, 
 that tliere are prodigious inequalities on her sur- 
 face- This is proved by looking at her through 
 a telescope, at any other time than when she is 
 full ; for then there is no regular line bounding 
 light and darkness ; but the confines of these 
 parts appear as it were toothed and cut with in- 
 numerable notches and breaks; and even in the 
 dark part, near the borders of the lucid surface, 
 there are seen some small spaces enlightened by 
 the sun's beams. Upon the fourth day after new 
 moon, there may be perceived some shining 
 points like rocks or small islands within the dark
 
 112 
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 body of the moon ; and not far from the confines 
 of light and darkness, there are observed other 
 little spaces which join to the enlightened sur- 
 face, but run out into the dark side, which by 
 degrees change their figure, till at last they come 
 wholly within the illuminated space, and have no 
 dark parts round them at all. Afterwards many 
 more shining spaces are observed to arise by de- 
 grees, and to appear within the dark side of the 
 moon, which, before they drew near to the con- 
 fines of light and darkness, were invisible, being 
 without any light, and totally immersed in the 
 shadow. The contrary is observed in the decreas- 
 ing phases, where the lucid spaces which joined 
 the illuramated surface by degrees recede from it ; 
 and, after they are quite separated from the con- 
 fines of light and darkness, rernain for some time 
 visible, till at last they also disappear. Now it 
 is impossible that this should be the case, unless 
 these shining points were higher than the rest of 
 the surface, so that the light of the sun may reach 
 them. 
 
 166. Astronomers have endeavoured to mea- 
 sure the height of these lunar mountains, in the 
 following manner. Let E C D, Plate VII. fig. 6, 
 be the hemisphere of the moon illuminated by 
 the sun ; E C D the diameter of the circle bound- 
 ing light and darkness, and A the top of a 
 hill within the dark part when it first begins to 
 be illuminated. Observe with a telescope the 
 proportion of the right line A E, or the distance 
 of the point A from the lucid surface to the dia- 
 meter of the moon E D ; and because in this case 
 the ray of light E S touches the globe of the moon, 
 A E C will be a right angle, and therefore in the 
 triangle A E C having the two sides A E and 
 E C, we can find the third side A C ; from which 
 deducting BC or EC, there will remain AB the 
 height of the mountain. By this mode of mea- 
 suring, which would be just if the line AE could 
 be taken accurately, the height of St. Catherine 
 would be nearly 8| miles, if according to Riccioli 
 its top was about a sixteenth part of the moon's 
 diameter distant from the confines of the lucid 
 surface. But by the more accurate observations 
 and just calculations of Herschel, this dispropor- 
 tionate height appears to be ill founded, and the 
 generality of the lunar mountains do not exceed 
 half a mile in perpendicular ele/ation. He thus 
 calculates their heights : Let S L M or s / ?n, fig. 1 , 
 be a line drawn from the sun to the mountain, 
 touching the moon at L or /, and the mountain at 
 M or m. Then, to an observer at E or e, the 
 lines L M,/m, will not appear of the same length, 
 though the mountain should be of an equal 
 height; for LM will be projected into on, and 
 Im into ON. But these are the quantities that 
 are taken by the micrometer when we observe a 
 mountain to project from the line of illumination. 
 From the observed quantity o n, when the moon 
 is not in her quadrature, to find L M, we have 
 the following analogy. The triangles o O L, r 
 M L are similar ; therefore L o : LO : : L r : L AI, 
 
 or ^ Ox on _ Ljyi . but LO is the radius of 
 
 L 
 the moon, and L r or on is the observed distance 
 of the mountam's projection; and L o is the sine 
 of the angle KO Lr=t» L S ; which we may take 
 to be the distance of the sun from the moon with- 
 
 out any material error, and which therefore we 
 may find at any given time from an ephemeris. 
 
 167. Some modern astronomers have disco- 
 vered a still greater similarity between the lunar 
 mountains and those of our earth ; viz. that some 
 of them are really volcanoes, and emit fire, as 
 ours do. An appearance of this kind was dis- 
 covered some years ago by Ulloa, in an eclipse- 
 of the sun. It was a small bright spot like a star 
 near the margin of the moon, and which he at 
 that time supposed to have been a hole with the 
 sun's light shining through it. Succeeding ob- 
 servations, however, have induced astronomers to 
 attribute appearances of this kind to the eruption 
 of volcanic fire : and Herschel has particularly 
 observed several eruptions of the lunar volcanoes, 
 and similar appearances have been more recently 
 noticed by that acute and accurate observer, 
 captain Henry Rater. 
 
 168. Many conjectures have been formed-re- 
 specting the nature of the moon's substance ; some 
 have imagined, that, besides the light reflected 
 from the sun, the moon has also some obscure 
 light of her own, by which she would be visible 
 without being illuminated by the sun-beams. In 
 proof of this it is urged, that during the time of 
 even total eclipses the moon is still visible, ap- 
 pearing of a dull red color, as if obscured by a 
 great deal of smoke. In reply to this, it has been 
 advanced, that this is not always the case ; the 
 moon sometimes disappearing tOLully in the time ^ 
 of an eclipse, so as not to be discernible by the 
 best glasses, while little stars of the fifth and sixth 
 magnitudes were distinctly seen as usual ; and 
 when the moon is visible in a total eclipse, a suf- 
 ficient reason may be assigned for this appear- 
 rance from the refraction of the sun's rays through 
 our atmosphere, which are reflected back to the 
 earth by the otherwise dark surface of the moon. 
 
 169. Various speculations have also been in- 
 dulged concerning the spots on the moon's sur- 
 face. ?ome philosophers have been so taken with 
 the beauty of the brightest places observed in her 
 disk, that they have imagined them to be rocks 
 of diamonds ; and others have compared them to 
 pearls and precious stones. Keill, and the greater 
 part of astronomers are now of opinion, that these 
 are only the tops of mountains, which, by reason 
 of their elevation, are more capable of reflecting 
 the sun's light than others which are lower. The 
 duskish spots, he says, cannot be seas, nor any 
 thing of a liquid substance ; because, when ex- 
 amined by the telescope, they appear to consist 
 of an infinity of caverns and empty pits, whose 
 shadows fall within them, which can never be the 
 case with seas, or any liquid substance ; but even 
 within these spots, brighter places are also to be 
 observed ; which, according to his hypothesis, 
 ought to be the points of rocks standing up 
 within the cavities. 
 
 170. The existence of the lunar atmosphere, 
 so long a subject of controversy, is now de- 
 cidedly set at rest. Schroeter of Lilienthal has 
 observed phenomena precisely analogous to the 
 twilight, and which can in no way be accounted 
 for independently of atmospheric refraction. He 
 has also, as he says, observed several oliscura- 
 tions, and returning serenity, and other changes 
 in the lunar atmosphere. In the occultation of
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 113 
 
 Jupiter by the moon on April 5th, 1824, Mr. 
 Rimage of Aberdeen, and Captain John Ross, 
 R.N. at Stranraer, with each one of Mr. Ram- 
 age's splendid reflecting telescopes, observed 
 the disk of Jupiter to be decidedly distorted at 
 the time of its approach to the edge of the moon ; 
 and precisely similar appearances were noticed 
 by Mr. Comfiield of Northampton, and Mr. 
 Wallis, lecturer on astronomy, on the occultation 
 ■of Saturn by the moon, on October 30th, 1825. 
 
 This question, therefore, having been settled 
 by the most satisfactory of all tests, we deem it 
 unecessary to enter into the arguments which 
 were wont to be advanced on either side of the 
 question, before sufficient data were obtained for 
 determining it in any way. 
 
 171. It has been a question whether the moon 
 and other planets are inhabited. The answers 
 given to it in the negative depend on the posi- 
 tion, that human beings could not exist in any 
 of the planets on account of their distance from 
 the sun, and consequent inequality of heat 
 to that which the inhabitants of the earth ex- 
 perience; and the want of an atmosphere in 
 the moon, or the rarity of it, would as effectually 
 preclude that body from being a fit habitation 
 for man. But in reply it is argued, and with 
 reason, that the same power which could make 
 the earth a fit habitation for the animals upon it, 
 could also adapt the organs of other animals to 
 their various situations in the planets ; and as 
 the earth teems with life of all kinds, it is pro- 
 bable, that, as there is so great an analogy be- 
 tween it and the planets in other respects, the 
 same analogy prevails with respect to life and in- 
 "habitants. 
 
 Sect. IV. Conjectures and Conclusions 
 RESPECTiNo Comets. 
 
 172. None of the celestial bodies have given 
 rise to more speculation and conjecture than 
 comets. Their strange appearance has in all 
 ages been a matter of terror to the vulgar, who 
 uniformly have looked upon them as bad omens, 
 and forerunners of war, pestilence, &c. Others, 
 less superstitious, supposed them to be meteors 
 raised in the higher regions of the air. 
 
 Some part of the modern doctrine concerning 
 them, however, was received in the ancient 
 Italic and Pythagorean schools; for they held 
 them to be so much of the nature of planets that 
 they had their periodical times of appearing; 
 that they were out of sight for a long time, 
 while they were carried aloft at an immense dis- 
 tance from the earth, but became visible when 
 they descended into the lower regions of the air, 
 and- thus were nearer to us. 
 
 It would be as endless as useless to detail the 
 . various conjectures which in the dark ages were 
 formed respecting the nature of comets ; and the 
 various extravagant postulata by which each 
 theorist sought to reconcile their appearances 
 with his explanation. Aristotle conceived them 
 to be meteoric bodies ; Kepler huge animals, 
 that swam round the sun like fishes ; and Bodin 
 imagined that they are spirits, which, having 
 long dwelt on the earth, are about to be trans- 
 lated to the skies. 
 
 A celebrated comet, however, which appeared 
 Vol. III. 
 
 in 1577, enabled Tycho Brahe to determine 
 that, at any rate, these bodies were at an im- 
 mense distance ; as from many careful observa- 
 tions he found that that comet had no sensible 
 diurnal parallax ; and Kepler discovered, from 
 his own observations and those of his master, 
 Tycho, that the comets did not, as had been 
 supposed, move in straight lines, but in paths 
 concave towards tlie sun, and he conceived that 
 their orbits were parabolas. 
 
 At length, from observations made on the great 
 comet of 1680, Sir Isaac Newton found that these 
 bodies, like the planets, move round the sun in 
 elliptical orbits. This comet was seen for twenty- 
 one days in its passage towards the sun, and for 
 nearly three months as it receded from that lu- 
 minary. The most careful observations were 
 made to determine its place, and the conclusions 
 deduced from these observations are confirmed 
 by observations made on all that have been well- 
 observed since. 
 
 173. It has been remarked that a greater num- 
 ber of comets are seen towards the sun than 
 in the opposite hemisphere; the reason of which 
 will easily appear from fig. 9, plate VII. wherein 
 S represents the sun, E the earth, A B C D the 
 sphere of the fixed stars ; and because comets 
 neither reflect light enough to be visible, nor 
 emit tails conspicuous enough to attract our no- 
 tice, till they come within the planetary regions, 
 commonly a good way within the sphere of Jupi- 
 ter ; let K L M N be a sphere concentric to the 
 sun, at such a distance from him, that no comet 
 can be seen by us till it come within that distance : 
 through E draw the plane B D perpendicular to 
 S E, which will divide the sphere K L M N into 
 two hemispheres, one of which, BCD, is towards 
 the sun, the other DAB, opposite. Now it is 
 manifest, that the spherical portion L M N, which 
 is in the hemisphere BCD towards the sun, is 
 larger than the portion N K L in the hemispl}ere 
 opposite to him ; and consequently a greater 
 number of comets will appear in the hemisphere 
 BCD than in that marked DAB. 
 
 174. Although the orbs of all comets are very 
 eccentric ellipses, there are vast diff'erences among 
 them. Excepting Mercury and Pallas, there are 
 no great differences among the planets either as 
 to the eccentricity of their orbits, or the inclina- 
 tion of their planes ; but the planes of some 
 comets are almost perpendicular to. others, and 
 some of their ellipses are much wider than others. 
 The narrowest ellipsis of any comet hitherto ob- 
 served was that of 1680. There is also a much 
 greater inequality in the motion of the comets 
 than of the planets ; the velocity of the former 
 being incomparably greater in their perihelion 
 than in their aphelion ; but the plaaets are but 
 very little accelerated. 
 
 175. There is now no question among astro- 
 nomers, that comets are opaque bodies enlight- 
 ened by the sun. Their perihelion distances 
 from the sun are exceedingly various, ?ome 
 being not more than one-fifth, and others upr 
 wards of four-times the mean distance of the 
 earth. Their diameters too differ very greatly. 
 Their apparent diameters of course vary with 
 their distance; and some have supposed that 
 those apparently preternatural darknesses, of 
 
 I
 
 114 
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 wliich several are recorded in liistory, may have 
 been caused by t!ie interposition of a comet 
 between the earth and the sun, at a time when, 
 from its proximity to the earth, its apparent 
 diameter was greater than the sun's, and when 
 its apparent motion was in the same direction as 
 the sun's. The diameter of the comet of 1744, 
 when at the distance of tlie sun from us, was 
 about one minute, hence its real diameter was 
 about three times that of the earth. The diame- 
 ter of their atmosphere is however often ten or 
 fifteen times ;is great as that of the nucleus. 
 
 176. The tails of comets have given rise to 
 various conjectures ; but though it is apparent 
 that they are in some way connected with the sun, 
 we know as yet absolutely nothing of either tiieir 
 cause, or their uses. Perhaps the most rational 
 conjecture that has been made respecting them 
 is that of Euler, who imagines that on a comet's 
 approaching the sun tlie impulse of the solar 
 rays may drive the finer particles of the comet's 
 atmosphere in a direction of course opposite to 
 the sun, and that these particles become visible 
 in the shape of a tail, which, from the resistance 
 it may meet with moving obliquely through the 
 lether, may put on that curved appearance which 
 the tails are often observed to assume. If this 
 hypothesis were true, we might conceive that the 
 velocity of a comet may be so great, that a tail 
 may be produced opposite to the sun before the 
 previously formed one can overtake it. This 
 agrees with what is recorded of the comet of 
 1744, which is said to have had several tails 
 when near its perihelion. 
 
 177. Mr. Whiston has conjectured that the 
 deluge, of which, in the sacred writings, we have 
 the only authentic record, but of which the 
 annals of most nations have traditionary accounts, 
 was produced by the near approach of a comet, 
 whose atmosphere had been attracted by the 
 earth ; and he further surmises, that the final 
 catastrophe foretold in the scriptures may be pro- 
 duced by the approach of a comet prodigiously 
 heated in its perihelion. We pretend not, how- 
 ever, on such subjects as these, to penetrate the 
 secrets of Almighty wisdom, which can produce 
 its own ends, by means of which we nave no 
 conception. 
 
 178. On looking over the catalogue of ancient 
 comets, Dr. Halley found that there was consider- 
 able similarity in the elements of the orbits, and in 
 the periodic times of three which appeared in 
 1531, 1607, and 1682; and he strongly surmised 
 that these three comets had only been several 
 returns of the same comet, which might be ex- 
 pected to return again about the end of 1758 or 
 the beginning of 1759. ClairauU applied him- 
 self with great diligence and success to the inves- 
 tigation of the elements of these comets, which 
 he too conceived to be the same; and he pre- 
 dicted that it would be in perilielion on April 
 13th, 1759, and it actually was in its perihelion 
 on the 13th of March, differing about a month 
 from tiie predicted time. This comet may be 
 expected, again in 1835. 
 
 179. Clairault found, by applying the princi- 
 ples of physics to the computation of this comet's 
 motion, that its last period was lengtiiened about 
 100 days by the action of Saturn, and about 518 
 
 days by that of .Tupiter. And, as we know not 
 how the orbits of these eccentric bodies may be 
 affected by their mutual attractions among them- 
 selves, it is probable that many ages will elapse 
 before any very accurate knowledge of the peri- 
 odic times of many of them will be obtained. 
 Much attention however is at present paid to tliis 
 branch of astronomy; and, the consequence has 
 been, that a visit of a comet to our regions is 
 found to be an event of very frequent occurrence. 
 I» the year 1825 not less than five different 
 comets were observed. 
 
 180. The Astronomical Society of London, at 
 their anniversary in February 1824, voted a gold 
 medal to M. Rumker, for his re-discovery of a 
 comet, which was first discovered by M. Guke, 
 and has been called by his name. This comet 
 had been seen, in an intervening return in 1818, 
 by M. Pons, and the astronomical society voted 
 him a'silver medal as a token of their approbation 
 of the industry and talent with which he has ap- 
 plied to this interesting branch of the science. 
 
 In connexion with this subject too, we cannot 
 help noticing a most profound and ingenious 
 paper by M. Masotti, on the resistance of aether, 
 as deduced from the irregularities of the motion 
 of Guke's comet. 
 
 Sect. W — Conjectures and Conclusions 
 
 RESPECTING THE FiXED StARS. 
 
 ICl. Astronomers have supposed the innu- 
 merable multitude of fixed stars to be so many 
 suns, each of which is attended by a certain 
 number of planets or habitable worlds like our 
 own, as well as visited by comets. The strong- 
 est argument for this hypothesis is, that the stars 
 cannot be magnified by a telescope on account 
 of their immense distance ; whence it is concluded 
 tliat they shine by their own light, and are there- 
 fore so many suns ; each of which we may sup- 
 pose to be equal, if not superior, in lustre and 
 magnitude to our own. They are not supposed 
 to be at equal distances from us, but to be more 
 remote in proportion to their apparent smallness. 
 This supposition is necessary to prevent any in- 
 terference of their planets, and thus there may 
 be as great a distance between a star of tho first 
 magnitude and one of the second apparently 
 close to it, as between the earth and the fixed 
 stars first mentioned. 
 
 182. (Others object, that the disappearance of 
 some of the fixed stars is a demonstration that 
 they cannot be suns, as it would be in the highest 
 degree absurd to think that God would create a 
 sun which might disappear of a sudden, and 
 leave its planets and their inhabitants in endless 
 night. But this argument will have no weight 
 with those who believe in tlie doctrines of revela- 
 tion ; which assures us that our world will come 
 to an end, and that our sun will be deprived of 
 his light ; and consequently that all the planets 
 which circulate around him will be involved in 
 darkness. 
 
 183. In short, there is nothing inconsistent 
 with either scripture or reason in supposing, that 
 while infinite space is universally filled wiiii il- 
 luminating suns and circulating planets, each 
 world, or rather each solar system of worlds, has
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 115 
 
 its own periods of creation, Juration, and final 
 consummation ; as we are assured ours has had, 
 and will have. And the discoveries of astrono- 
 mers respecting old stars disappearing, and new 
 ones being observed, are perfectly consistent 
 with the doctrines of creation and dissolution, 
 which all Christians profess to believe, with re- 
 gard to our own solar system and the globe we 
 inhabit. 
 
 184. Some, however, have thought that the 
 variable stars which disappear for a time, are 
 planets, which are only visible during some part 
 of their course. But this their apparent immo- 
 bility, notwithstanding their decrease of lustre, 
 will not allow us to think. Some have imagined 
 that one side of them may be naturally much 
 darker tlian the other, and when by the revolu- 
 tion of the star upon its axis, the dark side is 
 turned towards us, the star becomes invisible, 
 and for the same reason, after some intei"val, re- 
 sumes its former lustre. 
 
 185. M. Maupertius is of opinion that some 
 ■stars, by tl eir prodigiously quick rotations on 
 their axes, may not only assume the figures of 
 oblate spheroids, but that by the great centrifu- 
 gal force arising from such rotations, they may 
 become of the figures of mill-stones, or be re- 
 duced to fiat circular planes, so thin as to be 
 quite invisible when their edges are turned to- 
 wards us; as Saturn's ring is in such positions. 
 But when very eccentric planets or comets go 
 round any fiat star, in orbits much inclined 
 to its equator, the attraction of the planets or 
 comets in their perihelions must alter the incli- 
 nation of the axis of that star ; on which account 
 it will appear more or less large and luminous, 
 as its broad side is more or less turned towards 
 us. And thus he imagines we may account for 
 the apparent changes of magnitude and lustre in 
 those stars, and likewise for their appearing and 
 disappearing. 
 
 106. In the Philosophical Transactions for 
 178.3, Mr. Mitchell, in proposing a method of 
 determining the distance, magnitude, &c. of the 
 fixed stars, by the diminution of the velocity of 
 their light, should any such thing be discovered, 
 supposes that by far the greater part, if not all 
 of them, are systems of stars so near each other, 
 as probably to be liable to be affected sensibly by 
 their mutual gravitation; and that it is therefore 
 not unlikely that the periods of the revolutions 
 of some of these about their principals (the 
 smaller ones being upon this hypothesis to be 
 considered as satellites to the others), m^ty some 
 time or other be discovered. And the recent 
 observations of Mr. Herschel and Mr. South on 
 double stars, when compared with those made 
 by Sir William Herschel many years ago, show 
 decidedly that many of these double stars do 
 certainly revolve round each other. 
 
 187. Herschel, improving on Mitchell's idea 
 of the fixed stars being collected into groups, 
 and assisted by his own observations with the ex- 
 traordinary telescopic powers already mentioned, 
 has suggested a theory concerning the construc- 
 tion of the universe entirely new and singular. 
 It had been the opinion of former astronomers, 
 that our sun, besides occupying the centre of 
 ithe system which properly belongs to him, occu- 
 
 pied also the centre of the universe : but Hers- 
 chel is of a different opinion. 
 
 188. The observations on which this theory is 
 founded, were made with a Newtonian reflector 
 of twenty feet focal length, and an aperture of 
 eighteen inches. With this powerful telescope 
 he first began to survey the Ma Lactea, and 
 found that it completely resolved the whitish 
 appearance into stars, which the telescopes he 
 formerly used had not light enough to do. The 
 portion he first observed was that about the hand 
 and club of Orion ; in which he found an asto- 
 nishing multitude of stars, whose number he 
 endeavoured to estimate by counting many fields 
 (or apparent spaces of the heavens, which he 
 could see at once through his telescope), and 
 computing from a medium of these how many 
 might be contained in a given portion of the 
 mi-lky way. In the most vacant place to be met 
 with in that neighbourhood, he found 63 stars; 
 other six fields contained 110, 60, 70, 90, 70, 
 and 74 stars ; a medium of all which gave 79 for 
 the number of stars to each field. Thus he found 
 that by allowing 15' for the diameter of his field 
 of view, a belt of 15° long and 2° broad, v.'hich 
 he had often seen pass before his telescope in an 
 hour's time, could not contain less than 50,000 
 stars, large enough to be distinctly numbered : 
 besides which he suspected twice as many more, 
 which could be seen only now and then by faint 
 glimpses, for want of sufficient light. 
 
 189. The doctor's success within the milky 
 way soon induced him to turn his telescope to 
 the nebulous parts of the heavens, of which an 
 accurate list had been published in the Connois- 
 sance des Temps for 1783 and 1784. Most of 
 these yielded to a Newtonian reflector of twenty 
 feet focal distance, and twelve inches aperture ; 
 which plainly discovered them to be composed 
 of stars, or at least to contain stars, and to show 
 every other indication that they consisted of 
 them entirely. 
 
 190. ' The nebulffi,' says he, ' are arranged 
 into strata, and run on to a great length ; and 
 some of them I have been able to pursue, and to 
 guess pretty well at their form and direction. 
 It is probable enough that they may surround 
 the whole starry sphere of the heavens not unlike 
 the milky way, which undoubtedly is nothing but 
 a stratum of fixed stars ; and as this latter im- 
 mense starry bed is not of ecpial breadth or 
 lustre in every part, nor runs on in one straight 
 direction, but is curved, and even divided intr^ 
 two streams along a very considerable portion 
 of it, we may likewise expect the greatest variety 
 in the strata of the clusters of stars and nebulte. 
 
 191. * One of these nebulous beds is so rich, 
 tliat in passing through a section of it in the 
 time of only thirty-six minutes, I have detected 
 no less tiian thirty-one nebulae, all distinctly visi- 
 ble upon a fine bhie sky. Their situation and 
 shape, as well as condition, seem to denote the 
 greatest variety imaginable. In another stratum, 
 or perhaps a different branch of the former, 1 
 have often seen double and treble nebulae va- 
 riously arranged ; large ones with small seeming 
 attendants ; narrow, but much extended lucid 
 nebulae or bright dashes ; some of tiie shape of 
 a fan, resembling an electric brush issuing from 
 
 I 2
 
 116 
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 a lucid point; others of the comctic shape, with 
 a seeming nucleus in the centre, or like cloudy 
 stars, surrounded with a nebulous atmosphere ; 
 a different sort again contain a nebulosity of the 
 milky kind, like that wonderful inexplicable phe- 
 nomenon about Orionis ; while others shine 
 with a fainter mottled kind of light, which de- 
 notes their being resolvable into stars. 
 
 192. ' It is very probable that the great stra- 
 tum called the milky way, is that in which the 
 sun is placed, though perhaps not in the very 
 centre of its thickness. We gather this fi-om the 
 appearance of the galaxy, which seems to en- 
 compass the whole heavens, as it certainly must 
 do if the sun is within the same. For suppose 
 a number of stars arranged between two parallel 
 planes, indefinitely extended every way, but at a 
 given considerable distance from one another, 
 and calling this a sidereal stratum ; an eye 
 placed somewhere within it will see all the stars 
 in the direction of the planes of the stratum pro- 
 jected into a great circle, which will appear 
 lucid on account of the accumulation of the 
 stars, while die rest of the heavens at the sides 
 will only seem to be scattered over with con- 
 stellations, more or less crowded according to 
 the distance of the planes, or number of stars 
 contained in the thickness or sides of the 
 stratum. 
 
 193. ' From appearances,' Dr. Herschel con- 
 tinues, ' we may infer that the sun is most likely 
 placed in one of the great strata of the fixed 
 stars, and very probably not far from the place 
 where some smaller stratum branches out from 
 it. This supposition will satisfactorily, and with 
 great simplicity, account for all the phenomena 
 of the milky way ; which, according to this hypo- 
 thesis, is no other than the appearance of the 
 projection of the stars contained in this stratum 
 and its secondary branch. As a farther induce- 
 ment to look on the galaxy in this point of view, 
 let it be considered that we can no longer doubt 
 of its whitish appearance arising from the mixed 
 lustre of the numberless stars that compose it. 
 Now should we suppose it to be an irregular 
 ring of stars, in the centre nearly of which we 
 must then suppose the sun to be placed, it will 
 appear not a little extraordinary that the sun, 
 being a fixed star like those which compose 
 this imagined ring, should just be in the centre 
 of such a multitude of celestial bodies, without 
 any apparent reason for this singular distinction ; 
 whereas, on our supposition, every star in this 
 stratum, not very near the termination of its 
 length or height, will be so placed as also to 
 liave its own galaxy, with only such variations 
 in the form and lustre of it as may arise from the 
 ))articular situation of each star.' 
 
 194. A continued series of observations con- 
 firmed Dr. Herschel in these opinions; and in a 
 succeeding paper he has given a sketch of his 
 ideas of the interior construction of the heavens : 
 ' That the milky way,' says he, * is a most ex- 
 tensive stratum of stars of various sizes, admits 
 no longer of the least doubt ; and that our sun is 
 one of the heavenly bodies belonging to it is as 
 evident. I have now viewed and gauged this 
 shining zone in almost every direction, and find 
 it composed of shining stars, whose number, by 
 
 the account of those gauges, constantly increases 
 and decreases in proportion to its apparent 
 brightness to the naked eye. 
 
 195. ' But, in order to develop the ideas of the 
 universe that have been suggested by my late 
 observations, it will be best to take the sub- 
 ject from a point of view at a considerable dis- 
 tance both of space and time. Let us then 
 suppose numberless stars of various sizes scatter- 
 ed over an indefinite portion of ^pace, in such a 
 a manner as to be almost equally distributed 
 tiirough the whole. Tlie laws of attraction, 
 which no doubt extend to the remotest regions 
 of the fixed stars, will operate in such a manner 
 as most probably to produce the following re- 
 markable effects : 
 
 196. 1. It will frequently happen that a star, 
 bfeing considerably larger than its neighbouring 
 ones, will attract them more than they will be 
 Httracted by others diat are immediately around 
 them ; by which means they will be in time as 
 it were condensed about a centre ; or in other 
 words, form themselves into a cluster of stars 
 of almost a globular figure, more or less regu- 
 larly so, according to the size and original dis- 
 tance of the surrounding stars. The perturba- 
 tions of the mutual attractions must undoubtedly 
 be very intricate, as we may easily comprehend 
 by considering what Sir Isaac Newton has said 
 (Princip. lib. i. prob. 38, et seq.) : but in order 
 to apply this great author's reasoning, of bodies 
 moving in ellipses, to such as are here for a 
 while supposed to have no other motion than 
 what their mutual gravity has imparted to them, 
 we must suppose the conjugate axes of these 
 ellipses indefinitely diminished, whereby the 
 ellipses will become straight lines. 
 
 197. 2. The next case, which will happen 
 almost as frequently as the former, is where a 
 few stars, though not superior in size to the rest, 
 may chance to be rather nearer each other than 
 the surrounding ones ; for here also will be 
 formed a prevailing attraction in the combined 
 centre of gravity of them all, which will occasion 
 the neighbouring stars to draw together ; not, 
 indeed, so as to form a regiilar globular figure, 
 but, however, in such a manner as to be con- 
 densed towards the common centre of gravity of 
 the whole irregular cluster. And this construc- 
 tion admits of the utmost variety of shapes, ac- 
 cording to the number and situation of the 
 stars which first gave rise to the condensation of 
 the rest. 
 
 198. 3. From the composition and repeated 
 conjunction of both the foregoing forms, a third 
 may be derived, when many large stars, or com- 
 bined small ones, are situated in long extended 
 regular or crooked rows, hooks, or branches ; 
 for they will also draw the surrounding ones so 
 as to produce figures of condensed stars coarsely 
 similar to the former, which g<) 'e rise to these 
 condensations. 
 
 199. 4. We may likewise admit of still more 
 extensive combinations ; when, at the same time 
 that a cluster of stars is forming in one part of 
 space, there may be another collecting in a dif- 
 ferent, but perhaps not far distant, quarter, which 
 may occasion a mutual approach towards their 
 common centre of gravity.
 
 ASTRO N O U Y. 
 
 117 
 
 200. 5. In the last place, as a natural conse- 
 quence of the former cases, there will be great 
 cavities or vacancies formed by the retreat of the 
 stars towards the various centres which attract 
 them; so that, upon the whole, there is evidently 
 a field of the greatest variety for the mutual and 
 combined attractions of the heavenly bodies to 
 exert themselves in. 
 
 201. From this theoretical view of the heavens, 
 which has been taken from a point not less dis- 
 tant in time than in space, we will now retreat to 
 our own retired station, in one of the planets at- 
 tending a star in its great combination with num- 
 berless others; and in order to investigate what 
 will be the appearances from this contracted 
 situation, let us begin with the naked eye. The 
 stars of the first magnitude, being in all proba- 
 bility the nearest, will furnish us with a step to 
 begin our scale. Setting off, therefore, with the 
 distance of Sirius or Arcturus, for instance, as 
 unity, we will at present suppose, that those of 
 the second magnitude are at double, those of the 
 third at treble, the distance, &:c. Taking it for 
 granted, then, that a star of the seventh magni- 
 tude (the smallest supposed visible with the 
 naked eye) is about seven times as far as one of 
 the first, it follows, that an observer who is en- 
 closed in a globular cluster of stars, and not far 
 from the centre, will never be able with the naked 
 eye to see to the end of it ; for since, according 
 to the above estimations, he can only extend his 
 view to above seven times the distance of Sirius, 
 it cannot be expected that his eyes should reach 
 the borders of a cluster which has perhaps not 
 less than fifty stars in depth everywhere around 
 him. The whole universe to him, therefore, will 
 be comprised in a set of constellations richly or- 
 namented with scattered stars of all sizes : or, if 
 the united brightness of a neighbouring cluster of 
 stars should, in a remarkably clear night, reach 
 his sight, it will put on the appearance of a small, 
 faint, whitish, nebulous cloud, not to be per- 
 ceived without the greatest attention. 
 
 202. Let us suppose him placed in a much 
 extended stratum, or branching cluster of millions 
 of stars, sucli as may fall under the third form 
 of nebulee already considered. Here also the 
 heavens will not only be richly scattered over 
 with brilliant constellations, but a shining zone 
 or milky way will be perceived to surround the 
 whole sphere of the heavens, owing to the com- 
 bined light of those stars which are too small, 
 that is, too remote to be seen. Our observer's 
 sight will be so confined, that he will imagine 
 this single collection of stars, though he does not 
 even perceive the 1000th part of them, to be the 
 whole contents of the heavens. 
 
 203. Allowing him now the use of a common 
 telescope, he begins to suspect, that all the milki- 
 ness of the bright path which surrounds the 
 sphere may be owing to stars. lie perceives a 
 few clusters of them in various parts of the 
 heavens, and finds also that there are kinds of 
 nebulous patches : but still his views are not 
 extended to reach so far as to the end of the 
 stratum in which he is situated; so that he looks 
 upon these patches as belonging to that system, 
 which to him seems to comprehend every ce- 
 lestial object. He now increases his power of 
 
 vision; and, applying liimself to a close obser- 
 vation, finds that the milky way is indeed no 
 other than a collection of very small stars. He 
 perceives, that those objects w^hich had been 
 called nebulae, are evidently nothing but clusters 
 of stars. Their number increases upon him ; 
 and when he resolves one nebula into stars, he 
 discovers ten new ones which he cannot resolve. 
 He then forms the idea of immense strata of 
 fixed stars, of clusters of stars, and of nebulae ; 
 till going on with such interesting observations, 
 he now perceives, that all these appearances 
 must naturally arise from the confined situation 
 in which we are placed. Confined it may justly 
 be called, though in no less a space than what 
 appeared before to be the whole region of the 
 fixed stars, but which now has assumed the shape 
 of a crookedly branching nebula; not indeed one 
 of the least, but perhaps very far from being the 
 most considerable, of those numberless clusters 
 that enter into the constraction of the heavens. 
 
 204. Dr. Herschel shows, that this theoretical 
 view of the heavens is perfectly consistent with 
 facts, and seems to be confirmed by a series of 
 observations. ' Upon the whole,' says he, ' I be- 
 lieve it will be found, that the foregoing theo- 
 retical view, with all its consequential appear- 
 ances, as seen by an eye enclosed in one of the 
 nebulce, is no other than a drawing from nature, 
 wherein the features of the original have been 
 closely copied : and I hope the resemblance wil/ 
 not be called a bad one, when it shall be con. 
 sidered how very limited must be the pencil 0! 
 an inhaljitant of so small and retired a portion 
 of an indefinite system, in attempting the picture 
 of so unbounded an extent.' 
 
 205. The doctor having determined that the 
 visible system of nature, by us called the uni- 
 verse, consisting of all the celestial Ijodies, and 
 many more than can be seen by the naked eye, 
 is only a group of stars or suns with their planets, 
 constituting one of those patches called a nebula, 
 and perhaps not one 10,000th part of what 
 is really the universe, he goes on to delineate the 
 figure of this vast nebula, which he is of opinion 
 may now be done ; and for this purpose, he gives 
 a table, calculating the distance of the stars which 
 form its extreme boundaries, or the length of the 
 visual ray in different parts, by the number of 
 stars contained in the field of his telescope at 
 different times. He then proceeds to off'er some 
 thoughts on the orisin of the nebulous strata of 
 the heavens ; in doing which, he gives some 
 hints concerning the antiquity of them ; con- 
 jectures which, though abundantly ingenious, 
 are of too fanciftil a nature to justify us in de- 
 tailing them. 
 
 206. An objection naturally occurred in the 
 course of Herschel's observations and enquiries 
 concerning the structure of the heavens, that if 
 the diff'erent systems were formed by the mutual 
 attractions of the stars, the whole would be in 
 danger of destruction by their falling one upon 
 another. 
 
 207. Several circumstances, however, he says, 
 manifestly tend to a general preservation. The 
 indefinite extent of the sidereal heavens, must 
 produce a balance that will effectually secure all 
 the great parts of the whole from approaching
 
 118 
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 to each other. ' There remains tlien (says he) 
 only to see how the particular stars belonging to 
 separate clusters are prevented from rushing on 
 to their centres of attraction.' This he supposes 
 may be done by projectile forces; ' the admis- 
 sion of which will prove such a barrier against 
 the seeming destructive power of attraction, as to 
 secure from it all the stars belonging to a cluster, 
 if not for ever, at least for millions of ages. 
 Besides, we ought perhaps to look upon such 
 clusters, and the destruction of a star now and 
 then in some thousands of ages, as the very 
 means by which the whole is preserved and 
 renewed. These clusters may be the laboratories 
 of the universe, wherein the most salutary 
 remedies for the decay of the whole are pre- 
 pared.' 
 
 208. The existence of such projectile forces is 
 rendered probable, from the apparent changes of 
 position of certain stars ; and from a comparison 
 of the best modern observations with the most 
 accurate of former times, there appears to have 
 been a real change in the places of some of them, 
 The Bull's Eye, Sirius, and Arcturus, are now 
 found to be half a degree more southerly than 
 the ancients reckoned them ; and the bright star 
 intheshoulder of Orion, has, in Ptolemy, almost 
 a whole degree of latitude more southerly than 
 at present. And, as we have already noticed, such 
 remarkable changes have been observed both in 
 the positions and distances of so many of the 
 double stars, that we are constrained to admit 
 that nothing created is stable. Appearances, 
 indeed, indicate that our own system is in 
 motion towards a point of the heavens whose 
 right ascension is about 250" and declination, 
 aboi't 50" north. Whether this motion is one of 
 rotation about some distant centre, or of direct 
 motion, must be left to time and accurate obser- 
 vation to determine. The consequence of this 
 motion, however, is, certain apparent motions of 
 several of the fixed stars, entirely unconnected 
 vrith the phenomena arising either from the 
 earth's figure, or its revolution round the sun. 
 Dr. Maskelyne has given a table containing the 
 proper motions, both in right ascension and 
 declination of thirty six of the principal fixed 
 stars. We subjoin this table as one of great im- 
 portance to the practical astronomer. 
 
 209. Table of the annual proper motions of 
 thirty-six fixed stars, in right ascension and de- 
 clination : 
 
 Names of the Stars. 
 
 Annual Proper Motion. 
 
 In right 
 ascension. 
 
 In declina- 
 tion. 
 
 y Pegasi . . . 
 a Arietes . . . 
 a Ceti .... 
 
 Aldebaran . . 
 
 Capella . . . 
 
 Iligel . . . 
 ft Tauri . . . 
 
 — 0-09 
 + 0-10 
 
 — 0-12 
 4- 0-03 
 + 0-21 
 
 — 0-03 
 + 0-01 
 
 — 0-15 N. 
 -f- 0-07 S. 
 
 — 0'08 N. 
 + 0-12 S. 
 -I- 0-44 S. 
 
 — 0-16 N. 
 + 0-10 S. 
 
 a Orion . . . 
 
 4- o-oi 
 
 — 0.13 N. 
 
 Sirius 
 
 — 0-42 
 
 4- 1-04 S. 
 
 Castor . . . 
 
 — 015 
 
 4- 0-44 S. 
 
 Procyon . . 
 
 — 0-80 
 
 4- 0-95 S. 
 
 Pollux . . . 
 
 — 0-74 
 
 0-00 
 
 a Hydraj . . . 
 
 — 0-09 
 
 — 0-14 N. 
 
 Regulus . . . 
 
 — 0-22 
 
 — 0.08 N. 
 
 ft Leoni . . . 
 
 — 0-57 
 
 4- 0-07 S. 
 
 ft Virginis . . . 
 
 -t- 0-74 
 
 4- 0-24 S. 
 
 Spicae Virgini . 
 
 — 0-02 
 
 — 0-19 N. 
 
 Arcturus . . 
 
 — 0-26 
 
 4- 1-72 S. 
 
 n.Libr. . [ 
 
 — 0-11 
 
 — 0-11 
 
 — 0-18 N. 
 
 — 015 N. 
 
 a Cor. Borealis . 
 
 4- 0-26 
 
 4- 0-03 S. 
 
 a Serpentis . . 
 
 4- Oil — 19 N. 1 
 
 Antares . . . 
 
 0-00 
 
 — 0-26 N. 
 
 a Herculis . . . 
 
 0-00 
 
 — 0-23 N. 
 
 a Ophiuchi . . 
 
 4- 006 
 
 — 0-05 S. 
 
 a Lyras . . . 
 
 4- 0-23 
 
 — 0-27 N. 
 
 a J- AquiljE • • • -\ 
 ftS t 
 
 — 0-11 
 4- 0-48 
 
 — 0-16 N. 
 
 — 0-54 N. 
 
 — 0-03 
 
 4- 0-35 S. 
 
 2 > a Capricorn! ! 
 
 0-00 
 
 — 20 N. 
 
 4- 0-05 
 
 — 0-26 N. 
 
 o Cygni ... 
 
 — 0.08 
 
 — 0-03 N. 
 
 a Aquani . . 
 
 — 0-08 
 
 — 0-19 N. 
 
 Fomalhaut . . 
 
 4- 0-35 
 
 — 006 N. 
 
 a Pegasi . . . 
 
 — 006 
 
 — 0-18 N. 
 
 a Andromedse 
 
 4- 0-08 
 
 4- 0-06 S. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 
 OF THE VARIOUS SYSTEMS OF 
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 Sect. I. — Of the most famous systems, by 
 
 WHICH THE celestial PHENOMENA HAVE 
 BEEN ATTEMPTED TO BE EXPLAIKED. 
 
 210. To explain the motions and appearances 
 of the heavenly bodies, various hypotheses have 
 been formed; and every hypothesis that ever was 
 framed, accounted for some one or other of them ; 
 but men being, in the early ages, ignorant of the 
 laws of motion, could not be expected to dis- 
 cover the true system, or explain all the various 
 phenomena of the celestial orbs. 
 
 211. In treating of the systems which have 
 been invented in different ages, we do not mean 
 to give an account of all the various absurdities 
 that have been broached by individuals on this 
 subject; but to confine ourselves to those sys- 
 tems which have been of considerable note, and 
 been generally followed for a number of years. 
 We are as ignorant of the opinions of the first 
 astronomers, respecting the system of the uni- 
 verse, as we are of the astronomers tliemselves. 
 Whatever opinions are handed down to us, 
 must be of much later date than the introduction 
 of astronomy among mankind. 
 
 212. If we may hazard a conjecture, however, 
 we are inclined to think, that the first opinions 
 on this subject were much more just, than those 
 that were held afterwards for many years. 
 Pythagoras maintained the motion of the earth, 
 which is now universally believed, but at that 
 time appears to have been the opinion of only a 
 few detached individuals in Greece. As the 
 Greeks borrowed many tilings from the Egyp- 
 tians, and Pythagoras had travelled into Egypt
 
 A S T R O N O M Y. 
 
 119 
 
 and PhcEnicia, it is probable he might receive an 
 account of this hypothesis from thence; but 
 whether he did or not, we have now no means 
 of knowing, neither is it of any importance. 
 Certain it is, however, that this opinion did not 
 prevail in his days, nor for many ages afterwards. 
 
 213. In the second century the Pythagorean 
 hypothesis was superseded by a system erected 
 by the famous geographer and astronomer, Clau- 
 dius Ptolemxus. This system, which commonly 
 goes by the name of the Ptolemaic, he seems not 
 to have originally invented, but adopted as the 
 prevailing one of that age; and he, perhaps, 
 made it somewhat more consistent than it was 
 before. He supposed the earth at rest in the 
 centre of the universe. Round the earth, and 
 the nearest to it of all the heavenly bodies, the 
 moon performed its monthly revolutions. Next 
 to the moon was placed the planet Mercury; 
 then Venus; and above that the Sun, Mars, 
 Jupiter, and Saturn, in their proper orbits ; then 
 the sphere of the fixed stars; above these, two 
 spheres of what he called chrystallme heavens; 
 above these was the primum mobile, which, by 
 turning round once in twenty-four hours, by 
 some unaccountable means or other, carried all 
 the rest along with it. This primum mobile 
 was encompassed by the empyrean heaven, 
 which was of a cubic form, and the seat of 
 angels and blessed spirits. Besides the motions 
 of all the heavens round the earth once in twenty- 
 four hours, each planet was supposed to have a 
 particular motion of its own ; the moon, for 
 instance, once in a month, performed an addi- 
 tional revolution, the sun in a year, kc- See 
 Plate VII. fig. 4. 
 
 214. It is evident, that on this supposition, 
 the complicated motions of the planets already 
 described could never be accounted for. Had 
 they circulated uniformly round tlie earth, their 
 apparent motion ought always to have been equal 
 and uniform, without appearing either stationary 
 or retrograde in any part of their courses. In 
 consequence of this objection, Ptolemy was 
 obliged to invent a great number of circles, 
 interfering with each other, which he called 
 epicycles and eccentrics. These proved a ready 
 and effectual salvo for all the defects of his sys- 
 tem; as whenever a planet was deviating from 
 the course it ought on his i^lan to have followed, 
 it was then only moving in an epicycle or an 
 eccentric, and would in due time fall into its 
 proper path. As to the natural causes, by which 
 the planets were directed to move in these epi- 
 cycles and eccentrics, it is no wonder that he 
 found himself much at a loss, and was obliged 
 to have recourse to divine power for an explana- 
 tion, or, in other words, to own that his system 
 was unintelligible. It, however, continued to be 
 in vogue till the beginning of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury, when it was superseded by the Copernican, 
 of which afterwards. 
 
 215. The only other systems worth mention- 
 ing, besides the true system, are the Tychonic, 
 the semi-Tychonic, and the Cartesian; all of which 
 have gained proselytes, though none of them 
 were ever so universally received as the Ptole- 
 maic and Copernican. 
 
 216. The Tychonic system, plate VII. fig. 7, 
 
 was invented by Tycho Bralie, who sup])osed 
 that the earth was at rest, and that the moon and 
 sun revolved about it; the moon in a month, and 
 the sun in a year ; and at the same time, that the 
 rest of the planets, Mercury, \'enus. Mars, Jupi- 
 ter, and Saturn, revolved round the sun ; the 
 three last also encompassing the earth. Besides 
 these motions, he supposed them all to have a 
 diurnal motion round the earth, as well as all 
 the stars. 
 
 217. The semi-Tychonic system supposed the 
 planets to revolve round tlie sun, wliile the sun 
 and moon revolve about tlie earth as their cen- 
 tre of motion ; and it supposed the earth to 
 move about its axis from west to east in twenty- 
 four hours. This system differs from the Tycho- 
 nic only in this, that it supposes a diurnal motion 
 in the earth, but, like the Tychonic, denies an 
 annual one. 
 
 218. The Cartesian system, so named from its 
 author, Des Cartes, supposes a variety of vor- 
 tices or whirlpools, in which the motions of the 
 heavenly bodies are performed, being carried 
 round the sun in a vortex of ethereal matter, in 
 different times, proportioned to their distances ; 
 and each planet having also a particular vortex 
 of its own, in which the motions of its satel- 
 lites are performed. From the laws of motion 
 it will easily appear, that the irregular motions 
 of the planets cannot be accounted for by these 
 vortices ; and besides, the supposition of an 
 ethereal matter to perform the operations, is 
 without any foundation, or analogy in nature. 
 
 Sect. II. — Of the Copernican, or Tkue 
 System of Astronomy. 
 
 219. The Ptolemaic system had gained uni- 
 versal credit, when Copernicus began to entertain 
 doubts of its truth, and to trj' if a more satis- 
 factory method of accounting for the apparent 
 motion of the celestial bodies, might not be ob- 
 tained. He had recourse to every author upon 
 the subject, but obtaine:! no satisfaction, till 
 he found from Cicero, that Nicetas, the Sy- 
 racusan, had maintained the motion of the earth; 
 and from Plutarch, that Pythagoras and others 
 of the ancients had been of the same opinion. 
 
 220. From these small hints, this great genius 
 deduced a most complete system of astronomy, 
 capable of solving every phenomenon in a sa- 
 tisfactory manner : — a system which has been 
 more and more confirmed by the discoveries and 
 improvements that have been made In astronomy 
 and mathematics, since his time ; as well as by 
 the use of telescopes, which have discovered nu- 
 merous celestial phenomena formerly quite un- 
 known. Like all important discoveries, however, 
 when they run counter to general prejudices, the 
 Copernican system was at first much opposed ; 
 and by none more than the celebrated Tycho 
 Brahe, who could never assent to the motion of 
 the earth, and who invented the system described 
 in the last section, with a view to supersede the 
 necessity of it. 
 
 221. But while philosophers were divided be- 
 tween the Ptolemaic, the Tychonic, the Carte- 
 sian, and Copernican systems. Sir Isaac Newton 
 laid down the laws of nature and motion, and.
 
 120 
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 comparins; all the phenomena in the heavens, 
 discovered the true system of the universe, con- 
 firmed the Copernican system of astronomy, and 
 demonstrated its truth by unanswerable argu- 
 ments, drawn from the most obvious laws of na- 
 ture. This system, wliich is founded on a basis 
 not to be shaken, is as follows : 
 
 222. The sun, which to us is the fountain of 
 light and heat, is an immense spherical body, 
 which revolves on its own axis in about twenty- 
 five days ; and is the centre round which eleven 
 other bodies, called planets, are known to revolve 
 at different distances and in different periods. 
 The planes in which the planets revolve all pass 
 through the centre of the sun, and they are in 
 general inclined to each other in very small 
 angles. They are called primary planets, and 
 some of them are attended by smaller ones, called 
 sUellites, which revolve round them in the same 
 manner as they revolve round the sun. See 
 plate III. 
 
 223. The sun and the planets are called the 
 solar system. The orbits of the planets are not 
 strictly circular, but elliptical or oval, and the 
 sun is situated in a focus of the ellipse ; so that 
 the planets, at one period of their revolution, are 
 nearer to the sun than at another. 
 
 224. Besides the periodical revolution round 
 the sun, each of the planets has a uniform ro- 
 tatory motion round an imaginary line, called the 
 axis, passing through the centre ; and, during 
 the whole of any planet's revolution, its axis of 
 rotation preserves the same parallel position. In 
 consequence of this rotation, the different parts 
 of the surfaces of the planets are presented to the 
 sun in succession ; but it has not been observed, 
 that the axis round which any planet rotates, is 
 perpendicular to the plane in which it revolves 
 round the sun ; therefore, at one period of the 
 revolution, one extremity of the axis and the ad- 
 jacent parts of the surface will be inclined to- 
 wards the sun, and the other at the opposite period. 
 
 225. There is a class of bodies called comets, 
 which also revolve round the sun, and appear to 
 be governed in their motion by the same laws 
 that regulate the motions of the planets. Their 
 orbits are greatly elongated, and they eome to- 
 wards the sun from all quarters of the heavens, 
 differing in this respect from the planets, which 
 
 revolve pretty nearly in the sun's plane. They 
 are further distinguished from the other stars, by 
 a luminous stream of light which they emit when 
 tliey come near the sun. 
 
 226. The earth, on which we live, is one of 
 the planets ; it revolves round the sun in a year, 
 and performs its rotation on its axis, from west 
 to east, once in a day. The moon is a satellite 
 attending tlje earth, round which it revolves 
 from west to east in about twenty-seven days 
 eight hours. 
 
 227. The planets, in the order of their distance 
 from the sun, are : Mercury, \'enus, the Earth, 
 Mars, \'esta, Juno, Ceres, Pallas, .lupiter, Saturn, 
 and Herschel, Uranus, or the Georgium Sidus. 
 Mercury, and \'enus, which are nearer the sun 
 than the earth, are called inferior planets; and 
 those which are more distant are called superior 
 planets, as Jupiter, Saturn, and lierschel. These 
 latter, indeed, are also by far the largest, \enus, 
 Juno, Ceres, and Pallas, which are all nearly at 
 
 the same distance from the sun, and all lately dis- 
 covered, are so small that they are generally called 
 asteroids. Jupiter has four satellites; Saturn seven; 
 and Herschel six : Saturn is besides surrounded 
 with a thin, broad, and beautiful ring, perfectly 
 detached from his body. When an inferior 
 planet is between the earth and the sun, its dark 
 side being turned towards the earth, it cannot of 
 course be seen by us, except as a spot apparently 
 passing over the surface of the sun; but it can 
 only be so seen when it passes the sun in one 
 of those points in which it.« orbit enters into the 
 plane of the earth's orbit. These points are 
 called the nodes of the planet's orbit. For the 
 characteristic marks of the sun and planets, see 
 plate VIII. fig. 8. 
 
 228. The fixed stars are at an immense dis- 
 tance ; for it has not yet been determined, by 
 the nicest observations, that they have any annual 
 sensible parallax; that is, they appear to the 
 earth, when on different sides of its orbit, to be 
 exactly in the same places, the earth's orbit seen 
 from a fixed star, appearing only as a point. Con- 
 sequently, the fixed stars all shine with their 
 own native light ; for it would be impossible for 
 light, transmitted from the sun, ever to render 
 them visible, as it would be infinitely weak at so 
 immense a distance. 
 
 229. The distance of the sun is immensely great,, 
 in comparison with that of the moon, although 
 it is almost nothing with respect to that of the 
 fixed stars. For the sun's diurnal parallax, that is, 
 the apparent semidiameter of the earth seen 
 from the sun, is so small^ that no instruments 
 could be so exactly made as to find it. Hence, 
 it is inferred, that the sun's magnitude is vastly 
 greater than the earth's. For, supposing the 
 sun's parallax to amount to as much as a minute, 
 then, since the apparent diameter of the sun is 
 half a degree, this would make the sun's dia- 
 meter fifteen times as big as the earth's ; but the 
 sun's parallax has been found not to exceed 
 Q-T", which will make the sun's diameter 100 
 times as great as the earth's. That the sun is of 
 a globular form, is plain from the apparent mo- 
 tion of the spots upon its surface ; for while the 
 sun moves uniformly about its axis, the spots in 
 the middle of the disk move very quickly 
 and near the edges more slowly, agreeably to th; 
 motion of a globe about its axis. By observa 
 tions on these spots, the sun is found to revolvi 
 about its axis in twenty-five or twenty-six days. 
 
 230. None of the celestial bodies in our pla- 
 netary system shine with their own native light, 
 except the sun ; so that all the planets, both 
 primary and secondary, are opaque bodies, that 
 have no other light but what they receive from 
 the sun, and reflect it back towards the earth and 
 other planets. This is evident from the moon; 
 for only that side of her is observed to shine 
 which is directly opposed to the sun ; but the 
 other side, which is from the sun, is quite dark, 
 except so far as it is illuminated by the reflection 
 from the earth ; for the more of the illuminated 
 side that is turned towards the earth, the more 
 we see her enlightened, the rest being dark ; and 
 the more of her dark side that is turned towards 
 the earth, the more of her appears dark. Thus, 
 at the full, she appears all enlightened, and at 
 her change, all dark.
 
 rO/'E/tXIfA 
 
 r Mam'ti"!^ '/ 
 
 i J 
 
 ^
 
 A?3TM€)I^(DMir, 
 
 rLATEvm 
 
 ^^"- JL 
 
 L„n<ion.rul>fi^ftr,r fvr/ntma.t /W///, 7:\Cfi''»/u-"'f. .1///I /f.'/,1'~'f>. 
 
 J.Stcr^Sc.
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 121 
 
 231. Mercury and Venus exhibit similar phe- 
 nomena, and show all the phases of the moon 
 according to their various situations. Mars 
 likewise appears gibbous when near the quadra- 
 tures with the sun. The satellites of Jupiter 
 are eclipsed when they are behind his body, 
 being then immersed in his shadow; they like- 
 wise cast their shadows upon the body of Jupiter. 
 
 In Saturn, the shadow of the ring upon his body^ 
 proves its opacity. And the v^eaksiiess of *Iie 
 light of those that are far distant from the sun, 
 shows that it is not innate but borrowed. 
 
 232, The following tables contain a synopsis 
 of the periods, distances, &c. of the sun and 
 planets, according to the latest and best obser- 
 vations : 
 
 233. TABLE I. 
 
 
 Periodical revo- 
 
 Proportional 
 
 Mean distances 
 
 Mean distances 
 
 Eccentricities 
 
 
 lutions round 
 
 mean dis- 
 
 from the semi- 
 
 from the sun 
 
 in parts of 
 
 
 the sun. 
 
 tances from 
 
 diameters of 
 
 in English 
 
 the mean 
 
 
 
 the sun. 
 
 the earth. 
 
 miles. 
 
 distances. 
 
 
 D. n. M. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mercury . . 
 
 87 23 15i 
 
 •3871 
 
 9,210 
 
 37,000,000 
 
 -^ 
 
 Venus . . . 
 
 224 16 49i 
 
 •72333 
 
 17,210 
 
 68,000,000 
 
 138 
 
 The Earth 
 
 365 6 9i 
 
 !• 
 
 23,799 
 
 95,000,000 
 
 ^ 
 
 Mars . . . 
 
 686 23 30| 
 
 1^52369 
 
 36,262 
 
 144,000,000 
 
 A 
 
 Vesta . . . 
 
 1848 • 
 
 23-5513 
 
 56,049 
 
 222,000,000 
 
 ^ 
 
 Juno . . . 
 
 2007i 
 
 26-6400 
 
 63,400 
 
 290,000,000 
 
 i 
 
 Pallas . . 
 
 1682 
 
 27-6700 
 
 65,804 
 
 205,000,000 
 
 X 
 
 4 
 
 Ceres . . . 
 
 1681 
 
 27-6500 
 
 05,851 
 
 200,000,000 
 
 1^ 
 
 Jupiter . . 
 
 4332 8 5U 
 
 5-20098 
 
 123,778 
 
 490,000,000 
 
 * 
 
 Saturn . . 
 
 10,761 14 36| 
 
 9-53937 
 
 227,028 
 
 900,000,000 
 
 ^ 
 
 Herschel . . 
 
 30,445 18 — 
 
 19-03421 
 
 453,000 
 
 1800,000,000 
 
 -^ 
 
 234. TABLE IL 
 
 
 Greatest appa- 
 rent diameter 
 as seen from 
 the earth. 
 
 Diameter in 
 
 English 
 miles. 
 
 Diurnal rota- 
 tions upon 
 their axes. 
 
 Inclinations of 
 their orbits to 
 the ecliptic. 
 
 Place of the 
 
 ascending 
 
 node. 
 
 The Sun . 
 Mercury . 
 
 V^ENUS . . 
 
 The Earth 
 Mars . . 
 Vesta . . 
 Juno . . 
 Pallas 
 Ceres . . 
 Jupiter 
 Saturn 
 Herschel 
 
 
 
 32' 36" 
 11 
 
 58 
 
 25 
 Very small, 
 perhaps 
 about 
 1" 
 46 
 20 
 4 
 
 883,217 
 3222 
 7687 
 7964 
 4189 
 Estimated 
 from eighty 
 to 4000 
 miles. 
 89,170 
 79,042 
 35,109 
 
 D. H. M. S. 
 
 25 15 16 
 unknown. 
 23 22 
 23 56 4 
 24 39 22 
 uncertain. 
 
 7° 0' 
 3 231 
 
 1 S 15° 46f' 
 
 2 14 44 
 
 1 51 
 
 7 8 
 
 13 4 
 
 34 38 
 
 10 38 
 
 1 19i 
 
 2 30i 
 48 
 
 1 17 59 
 3 13 18 
 5 21 4 
 5 22 31 
 
 2 21 7 
 
 3 8 50 
 3 21 48i 
 3 13 1 
 
 
 
 9 56 
 10 16 
 unknown. 
 
 235. TABLE III. 
 
 
 Greatest elon- 
 gation of infe- 
 rior, and pa- 
 rallax of supe- 
 rior planets- 
 
 Proportion of 
 
 light and 
 
 heat. 
 
 Bulk in re- 
 spect to the 
 earth. 
 
 Proportion of 
 density. 
 
 Place of the 
 aphelion. 
 
 The Sun . . 
 Mercury . 
 
 V^ENUS . 
 
 The Earth 
 Mars . . 
 Vesta . . 
 Juno . . 
 Pallas 
 Ceres . . 
 Jupiter 
 Saturn 
 Herschel . 
 
 
 
 28° 20' 
 47 48 
 
 6-68 
 1-91 
 1 
 
 -43 
 
 •18 
 
 •16 
 
 -13 
 
 -13 
 -037 
 •Oil 
 -00276 
 
 1,380,000 
 
 .1 
 1 
 
 h 
 uncertain, 
 
 but ex- 
 ceedingly 
 small. 
 1400 
 1000 
 96 
 
 2 
 
 li 
 1 
 
 ■ioij 
 unknown. 
 
 8 S 14° 13' 
 10 9 38 
 
 9 9 15} 
 
 5 2 Oi 
 2 9 42 
 7 22 49 
 
 10 4 36 
 
 10 26 9 
 
 6 10 57^- 
 9 45i 
 
 11 23 23 
 
 47 24 
 
 
 
 
 
 11 51 
 6 29 
 3 4i 
 
 1^ 
 to
 
 122 
 
 A S T R O N O M Y. 
 
 Sect. III. On Central Forces. 
 
 236. As the doctrine of central forces is of the 
 greatest importance in the science of astronomy, 
 it will be proper to explain here some of the most 
 material propositions relative to that subject. 
 
 237. In this doctrine it is supposed, that mat- 
 ter is equally indifferent to motion and rest ; or 
 that a body at rest never moves itself, and that 
 a body in motion never changes either the velocity 
 or direction of its motion, but would move uni- 
 formly forward in a straight line for ever, unless 
 some external force or resistance should stop or 
 change it. 
 
 238. Hence when a body at rest has a tend ency 
 to move, or when a body moving in a straight 
 line, has its velocity continually increased or 
 diminished, or when the direction of a motion 
 is continually changed, and thereby a curve line 
 described; it is supposed that these circumstances 
 proceed from the influence of some power that 
 acts incessantly, which power may be measured 
 in the first case by the pressure of the quiescent 
 body against the obstacle that hinders it from 
 moving ; or by the change made on the velocity 
 in the second case ; or by the flexure of the curve 
 described in the third case ; due regard being 
 had to the time in which these effects are pro- 
 duced, and other circumstances, according to the 
 principles of mechanics. Now the power or 
 force of gravity produces effects of each of these 
 kinds, which fall under our observation at the 
 surface of the earth ; for the same power that 
 renders bodies heavy while at rest, accelerates 
 their motion when they descend perpendicularly, 
 and bends the path of their motion into a curve 
 line when they are projected in a direction 
 oblique to that of their gravity. But we can 
 judge of the forces or powers that act on the 
 celestial bodies by eff'ects of the last kind only, 
 and hence it is that the doctrine of central force 
 is of so much use in the theory of the planetary 
 motions. 
 
 239. The following proposition is the founda- 
 tion of this doctrine, and is given by Sir I. New- 
 ton in his Principia. The areas which revolving 
 bodies describe by radii drawn to an immovable 
 centre of force, lie in the same planes and are 
 proportional to the times in which they are de- 
 scribed. Let the time supposed be divided into 
 equal parts, and in the first part let a body be 
 supposed, by its own inert force, to describe a 
 right line, AD, Plate VIII. fig. 5. From what 
 we have premised it will appear, that in the 
 second part of time the body would describe the 
 line D B equal to A D, if nothing acted upon it. 
 But when the body is come to D, suppose a 
 centripetal force tending to the point C acts upon 
 it by a single impulse, such, that it would have 
 carried the body from D to a in the same time. 
 The body being now acted upon by two powers, 
 one in the direction D B, and another in the 
 direction D a passing through the centre of force, 
 if the parallelogram aDBE be completed, the 
 body will move in the diagonal D E, and a;t the 
 end of the time will be found at E, by the prin- 
 ciples of mechanics. Join AC,CE ; the trian- 
 gle A D E, D C B, having equal bases, will there- 
 fore be equal, and the triangles CDB, CDE, 
 are equal, for they stand on the same base C D, 
 and lie between the parallels DC, BF; therefore 
 
 the triangles A CD, DCE are equal. By the 
 same method of reasoning, if in the third particle 
 of time the 'body describes any other right lin€ 
 E G, it may be proved that the triangle C D E is 
 equal to C E G ; and in a fourth particle there 
 will be described a triangle CGI equal to C EG, 
 and so on : it is also obvious that the lines AD, 
 D E, E G, G I, &c. lie in the same plane. 
 
 240. Thus it appears that in equal times the 
 areas described by radii drawn to the centre of 
 force will be equally increased, and therefore by- 
 composition, any sums of the areas are to one 
 another, as the times in which they are described. 
 Let the number of triangles be supposed to be 
 now augmented, and their breadth diminished ad 
 infinitum, the lines AD, DE, EG, GI, &c. will 
 now become a curve line lying in the same plane, 
 and the centripetal force which was supposed to 
 act by starts, will now act continually, deflecting 
 the body from the tangent, and thus causing it to- 
 move in a curve. 
 
 241. We may hence infer, that the velocity of 
 a body attracted towards an immovable centre, 
 in spaces void of resistance, is reciprocally as a 
 perpendicular let fall from that centre on the 
 right line that touches the orbit. For draw C Y 
 perpendicular to D E, and suppose the body to 
 describe D E in a given time, hence the velocity 
 of the body will be proportional to D E, and 
 from what has been said, the area of the triangle 
 C E D will be given, for it is proportional to the 
 time : but when the area of a triangle remains the 
 same,the base varies inversely as the perpendicu- 
 lar, therefore D E, or the velocity of the body, is 
 inversely as C Y the perpendicular ; and the same 
 will hold true, whether the body, by successive 
 impulses, moves by a polygon in the way here 
 described ; or, by the continual action of the cen- 
 tral force, moves in a curve line, 
 
 242. The central force of a body moving in 
 
 the circumference of a circle, is as the versed 
 
 sine, A M (plate X. fig. 7), of the indefinitely 
 
 small arc A E; or it is as the square of that arc 
 
 divided by the diameter AB. For AM is the 
 
 space through which the body is drawn from tlie 
 
 tangent in the given time, whence 2 A M is the 
 
 measure of the intensity of the force. But A E 
 
 being very small, and therefore nearly equal to 
 
 AE* 
 its chord, we have AM n —rrr ^^ therefore 
 
 two Tjodies revolve uniformly in diff'erent circles, 
 their central forces are directly as the jquares of 
 their velocities, and inversely as the diameters, 
 or as the radii of the circles. For the velocities 
 are as the space uniformly described in the same 
 
 time. Hence, F : f : 1 -rr- : -- Hence, if the 
 
 diameters are inversely as the squares of the 
 velocities, the forces will be as the fourth power 
 of the velocities. 
 
 244. The central forces are to each other as 
 the diameters divided by the squares of the peri- 
 odic times. For if C be the circumference 
 described in the time t, with the velocity v, then 
 
 C V* v^ 
 
 C zz t V, OT v=: ■- Hence, F : f'.l -rrr • y 
 ■ ' 2. ^ D a 
 
 Q2 c^ T) d 
 
 • ' : — , • • — — : — ; for the diameter 
 
 •• DT^ df'-' T- f'' 
 
 varies as the circumference.
 
 A.STKOXOMT. 
 
 PL.rrr, x 
 
 Lt»iiio7i /'ii/ifi,t/it'tlbvT7iii/Hiis7i-</if. T.'i, ( '/leapsufr ./laif/'f/lfiff.
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 123 
 
 245. If two bodies, revolving in different 
 circles, be acted upon by the same central force, 
 their periodic times are as the square roots of 
 the diameters, or of the' radii of those circles. 
 Fer when Y ■=. f, the expression F : / : : 
 
 ^ : p, gives fp = ^2' whence T : ^ , . VD 
 
 :^/d. 
 
 246. If the velocities be inversely as the dis- 
 tances from the centre, the forces will be in- 
 versely as the cubes of the same distances, or 
 directly as the cubes of the velocities. For F : 
 
 f ;', fi ■ -J', whence, if D vary as \, inversely, 
 
 F :■ / : : V3 : 1)3 ; or F : f : : d» : D^ 
 
 247. If the velocities be mversely as the squaie 
 roots of the radii, the squares of the times will 
 be as the cubes of Ihe radii. For, as has been 
 
 shewn above, F : /" : : — : — : and F : f : : 
 
 -:-;whence-:^:.p:-, Andif\-: 
 
 r R 
 v^ : : r : R, this proportion becomes — : — : : 
 
 = KP 1= 2 PC; therefore a • /) F =: ]> IVP. Now 
 the time in P p is represented by the area of the 
 
 ■ , CO u SP-pM 
 triangle !Sr p or by — - 
 
 SP- • pM2 
 
 K 
 
 R3 
 
 ^'■'? 
 
 and consequently p M^ :r 
 
 whence T- 1^ 
 4T2 
 
 SP^- 
 
 whence j3 F (the force) rr 
 
 4 T2 
 
 — n-no) or (as the in- 
 
 crements of time are uniform), the force is in- 
 versely as the square of the distance from the 
 focus. 
 
 250. We may hence infer, that if several pla- 
 nets revolve in different ellipses about a com- 
 mon focus, that the areas of the sectors described 
 in the same time are as the square roots of the 
 parameter of the transverse axes. For by conies 
 
 a. p F = p RP; but p F varies as -^r—:; hence 
 
 o i "5 
 
 R r _7^_ R2 
 
 rp : ^2- VTtien ^^,_ _ _ , ^■, ^, _ .^ 
 
 T^ : ^- : : R' : r^ Hence, also, if the forces 
 be inversely as the squares of the radii, the 
 squares of the periodic times will be as the 
 
 R r 
 cubes of the distances. For F : /" : : =r, •• „ 
 
 hence, t^ : R^ : : ^^ : ^, or T- : i^ : : R^ : r^ 
 
 248. We shall now apply the doctrine of cen- 
 tral forces, to the circumstances of a planet re- 
 volving in an ellipsis, by a force directed towards 
 the focus. 
 
 249 . Let A B H L (plate VI. fig. 2) represent the 
 ellipses, S and A the foci, and let P be the place 
 of the planet, and PT a tangent at P, and let 
 Pp be an indefinitely small arc described by 
 the planet. Join PS, /> s, and draw pF parallel 
 to SP, meeting PT in F. Then p F is the central 
 force in the arc p P. Let a =i the parameter of 
 the transverse All ; or let a AC zr 2 BC^. From 
 p draw p I parallel to PT, meeting PK in I, and 
 SP in t. Then the triangles PI i, PCE being 
 similar, and P i equal and parallel to p F. Pi 
 or p F : PI : : P£, or (by conies) AC : PC. 
 When a -p P : a • PI : : AC : PC. And simi- 
 larly a • PI : : PI • IK : : a : KI ; and by the 
 property of the ellipse IP • IK : Ip^ : : PC : 
 CN^. From p draw pM perpendicular to SP, 
 then in the similar right angled triangles p i M 
 PED, we have jp, or Ip (for they differ by 
 quantities indefinitely small) p M : : PE : PD. 
 But by conies PE : PD : : CN : CB, whence 
 Ip ; pM : : CN : CB, and consequently \f :, 
 p ftp : : CN' : CB-. Hence, by comparing 
 these proportions, we have p F • a IP • IP • KI 
 
 • I p= : IP • a • IP • KI • Ip2 • p M- : : CA • a . 
 PC^ • CN^ : PC • KI • CN'^ • CB=; or by reduc- 
 tion a • PF : p ]\P : a • AC • PC : KI • CB"' ; or, 
 a- PF : p RP : 2 CB' • PC : CB= • KI : : PC : 
 KI. But P and T being indefinitely near, KI 
 
 a = pM. SP2, or ^a= PM. SP. ButPM. 
 S P is proportionate to the area of elementary 
 sector S Pp, which therefore varies as t^Ja. 
 
 251. We may farther infer, that the velocities 
 in the different ellipses, are as the square root of 
 the parameter of the transverse, divided by the 
 perpendicular from the focus on the tangents, 
 passing through the places of the planets. For the 
 velocity, in an indefinitely small space of time, 
 is as the arcpP; and from the similar triangles 
 S P T, p MP, an hour S^ : S P : : P M : pP. 
 
 Whence pP=?|^^=-^^ 
 
 252. It is farther apparent from what has been 
 done, that the areas of the different ellipses are 
 to each other as the product of the times by the 
 square roots of the parameters of the transverse 
 axes. For the area, Q, is as the product of the 
 sector SPp by the time, t, and the sector varies 
 as v'a; therefore Q varies as tyja. 
 
 253. Again, the squares of the periodic times 
 are proportional to the cubes of the transverse 
 axes. For let b be the less, d the greater axis, 
 and a the parameter; then by conies a d zz b'^, 
 or a d^ 3: 6* d-. But the whole areas are as the 
 product of the axes ; and also, as has been just 
 shown, as tA^a^ Hence b" d^, ox d^ a zz. t^ a, 
 OT d^ varies as f^. 
 
 Sect. IV. Of the Orbits and Motions 
 
 OF THE PRIMARY PLANETS. 
 
 254. For the theorems in the preceding section 
 on the subject of central forces we are indebted 
 to the sagacity of Newton. They had before his 
 time, however, been found by Kepler to be true 
 in the case of the known planets of the solar 
 system. Kepler showed that these laws did ob- 
 tain in the system; Newton shewed that they 
 must obtain. — The three fundamental laws of 
 planetary motion which Kepler discovered, and of 
 which the demonstrations given above, are these. 
 
 255. l.The primary planets and comets de- 
 scribe round the sun, and the secondary planets 
 describe round their respective primary planets^ 
 are as proportioned to the times. 
 
 256. 2. The orbits described round the sun, 
 and round the primary planets, are ellipses, having 
 the sun of the primary planet in the focus.
 
 124 
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 257. 3. The squares of the periodic times of 
 planets revolving round common centres, are 
 proportional to the cubes of their mean dis- 
 tances. 
 
 258. These laws are universal; they are obeyed 
 by all the planets of our system, which revolve 
 nearly in the same plane, and they are found to 
 obtain also in the comets which move round the 
 sun in all directions. 
 
 259. In addition to what has been said, the 
 following popular illustration may be given of 
 the peculiarities of the motion of a planet in the 
 different planets of its orbit. Let A B and E F 
 be the axis of an ellipse, of which D is the 
 centre, and C the focus. See plate VIIT.fig. 4. 
 Suppose that P is the place of a planet moving 
 in the curve AF B E, (supply P in the fig.) and 
 that P G is drawn touching the curve at P. Join 
 C P, C E, and draw C G perpendicular to P G. 
 The place of the sun will be at C the focus, and 
 the planet will move in the curve ; so that the 
 line C P shall pass over equal areas in equal 
 times. Since the velocity of the planet is in- 
 versely as the perpendicular upon the tangent, 
 and the lines C B, C A, are perpendicular to 
 tangents at the points B and A, the velocity at 
 A, as C A to C B, and the velocity at B is to the 
 velocity at P as C G to C B. Thus at B, which 
 is called the perihelion, the velocity will be the 
 greatest, and at A, the aphelion, it will be the 
 least; and at any other point, P, it will be 
 between these two extremes. The line C E is 
 equal to B D, which is a mean between B C and 
 C A ; and when the planet is at E, it is said to 
 be at its mean distance. The force, that, acting 
 upon the planet at P, bends it from the tangent, 
 is to the force that acts upon it at E, any other 
 point, as the square of C E to the square of 
 CP. 
 
 260. We have hitherto supposed the sun to 
 remain absolutely at rest, and that the planet 
 was urged towards it, as to an immovable point ; 
 but the tendency of the planets towards the sun, 
 arises from a law, that not only connects the 
 planets with the sun, but with each individual 
 particle of matter in the solar system ; a par- 
 ticular cause of this law or fact, is the gravity 
 of bodies at the surface of our earth, and the 
 general law that includes all particular cases, 
 has been termed gravitation. Hence it follows, 
 that not only the planets gravitate towards the 
 sun, but the sun gravitates towards the planets ; 
 so that, in strict truth, both the sun and each 
 planet revolve round a point, which is their com- 
 mon centre of gravity, and which is as much 
 nearer to the sun than to the planet, as the sun 
 contains more matter than the planet. 
 
 261. The truth of this general law is only to 
 be proved by a careful examination of particular 
 cases ; and, supposing it to be true, the effects it 
 ought to produce in the planetary motions round 
 the sun, are in perfect coincidence with the best 
 observations. 
 
 262. If all matter gravitates to, or is attracted 
 by, all other matter, it is evident that the planets 
 must also gravitate towards each other ; and 
 thus in some measure the uniformity of their 
 motions round the sun will be affected. Now, 
 by the most accurate observations, this is really 
 
 found to be the case ; and the effects produced 
 are precisely what they ought to be, supposing 
 that the same la%v, which regulates the tendency 
 of the planets towards the sun, also regulates 
 their tendency to one another. 
 
 263. If the planets were acted on by a power 
 directed to the centre of the sun only, varying 
 according to the general law of gravity, and that 
 centre were quiescent, their motions about it 
 would be perfectly regular ; but since they are 
 acted on by a power directed to every body in 
 the system, in order to judge of the effects of 
 these actions, Newton first supposes two bodies 
 revolving about their common centre of gravity, 
 and gravitating towards each other, and since the 
 direction of this mutual gravitation passes always 
 through that centre, and their distances from it 
 vary always in the same proportion as their dis- 
 tances from each other, they must describe 
 similar figures about that point and about each 
 other, and describe equal areas in equal times, 
 about that centre, and about each other ; so that 
 there will be no irregularities in the motion of 
 two bodies about each other, because of their 
 mutual attractions, whatever the law of their 
 gravity is supposed to be ; only they will revolve 
 in less time about their centre of gravity, than 
 the one would have done about the other quies- 
 cent, because the orbit described abo>it the 
 other centre of gravity rs less than that which is 
 described by any one of them about the other 
 quiescent ; their distance in both cases being the 
 same, and the orbits similar. 
 
 264. If three or more bodies mutually attract 
 each other, the gravitation of any one of them, 
 arising from the attractions of the rest, may be 
 determined by the rule for composition of motion; 
 and if the law of gravity be such as olHains in 
 the solar system, its gravitations will not be 
 always directed to the centre of gravity of the 
 other bodies, or indeed to any fixed point, but 
 sometimes to one side of that centre and some- 
 times to the other, and therefore equal areas 
 will not be described in equal times about 
 any point in the system ; and some irregu- 
 larities will therefore arise in the motions of the 
 bodies. 
 
 265. But if one of these bodies should be 
 vastly greater than the others, so that the actions 
 of the other bodies may be neglected, when 
 compared with its action ; and the centre of 
 gravity of the system be always found near it, 
 the irregularities of such a system will be very 
 small, the areas described in equal times about 
 the centre of the great body will be nearly 
 equal, and the orbits described will be nearly 
 elliptic, having that centre in their focus. 
 
 266. We have seen that the determination of 
 the circumstances relative to two bodies in 
 motion, is a matter of great simplicity; but 
 when the number of bodies is increased even 
 by one, the general estimation of their effects 
 on each other's motions is a problem that has 
 hitherto baffled the skill of the most eminent 
 philosophers. It happens very fortunately that, 
 in the only case in which it is of much im- 
 portance to us, it admits of an approximate 
 solution, from the sun being so much greater 
 than all the other planets ; for in the case of the
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 12^ 
 
 moon, the sun, and the earth, which we may 
 take for the sake of illustration, the sun disturbs 
 the motions of the moon as seen from the earth, 
 only by the difference of its attractions on the 
 moon and the earth, which difference, when 
 compared with the former by which the moon is 
 attracted towards the earth, is always very small. 
 
 267. The action of Jupiter on Saturn, when 
 greatest (that is, when their distance is least), is 
 found by calculation to be ^ of the action of 
 the sun upon Saturn. This produces an effect 
 which is decidedly perceptible. 
 
 268. The whole action of Jupiter disturbs the 
 motion of Saturn in their conjunction, because 
 Jupiter then acts upon Saturn and upon the sun 
 in opposite directions. But because Saturn 
 then acts upon Jupiter and upon the sun in the 
 same direction, if it acted also with the same 
 force on both, it would have no effect on the 
 motion of Jupiter about the sun ; and it is by 
 the excess of its action on Jupiter, above its 
 action on the sun, that it disturbs the motion of 
 Jupiter. This excess is found to be one 1913th 
 part of the action of the sun on Jupiter ; and 
 therefore is much less than the force with which 
 Jupiter disturbs the motion of Saturn. 
 
 269. The actions of the other planets on each 
 other are incomparably less than these, and the 
 irregularities proceeding from those actions are 
 always less in any planet, as it is nearer the 
 sun ; but the orbit of the earth is a little more 
 irregular than that of its neighbouring planets, 
 from the great comparative size of its moon, 
 round the common centre of gravity of which, 
 and the earth, both the earth and the moon make 
 a monthly revolution. 
 
 Sect. V. — Of the Orbits and Motions of 
 THE Secondary Planets. 
 
 270. The same general principle of gravita- 
 tion which contains the primary planets in their 
 orbits, extends also to the motions of the se- 
 condary planets, both in regard to their motion 
 round the sun along with their primaries, and 
 to their motions round their primaries as a 
 centre ; which furnishes us with an additional 
 proof of this general law, that all matter gravi- 
 tates to all other matter with a force reciprocally 
 proportional to the square of the distance. 
 
 271. That each secondar}' planet is kept in 
 its orbit by a power directed towards its primary, 
 &c. is proved from the phenomena of the satel- 
 lites of Jupiter and Saturn ; because they move 
 in circles, as far as we can observe, about their 
 respective primaries with an equal course, the 
 primary being the centre of each orbit : and by 
 comparing the times in which the different 
 satellites of the same primary perform their 
 periods, they are found to observe the same 
 relation to the distances from their primary, as 
 the primary planets observe in respect of their 
 mean distances from the sun. The same thing 
 holds good also with respect to the earth and 
 moon ; for she is found to move round the earth 
 in an ellipsis after the same manner as the 
 primary planets do about the sun, excepting only 
 .some small irregularities in her motions, the 
 cause of which will be particularly explained 
 in what follows ; nd it will appear that diey 
 
 are no objections against the earth's acting on 
 the moon in the same manner as the sun acts 
 on the primary planets ; that is, as Jupiter and 
 Saturn act upon their satellites. 
 
 272. The power of Jupiter and Saturn may 
 be measured to a very considerable distance, by 
 the number of satellites which move round them; 
 for the distance of the outermost satellite of each 
 of them exceeds several times that of the inner- 
 most. That the force which retains the moon in 
 her orbit, bears precisely that relation which 
 accords with its distance to the known force of 
 gravity on the surface of the earth, may be 
 shown by the following very simple process. 
 
 273. Let A in plate \'II. fig. 5, represent 
 the earth, B the moon, BCD the moon's orbit ; 
 which differs little from a circle of which A is 
 the centre. If the moon in B were left to itself 
 to move with the velocity it has in the point B, 
 it would leave the orbit and proceed straight 
 forward in the line B E which touches the orbit 
 in B. Suppose the moon would upon this con- 
 dition move from B to E in the space of one 
 minute of time '. by the action of the earth upon 
 the moon, whereby it is retained in its orbit, the 
 moon will really be found at the end of this 
 minute in the point F, from whence a straight 
 line drawn to A will make the space B F A in 
 the circle equal to the triangular space B E A ; 
 so that the moon, in the time wherein it would 
 have moved from B to E, if left to itself, has 
 been impelled towards the earth from E to F. 
 And when the time of the moon's passing from 
 B to F is small, as here it is only one minute, 
 the distance between E and F scarcely differs 
 from the space through which the moon would 
 descend in the same time, if it were to fall 
 directly down from B towards A, without any 
 other motion. A B, the distance of the moon 
 from the earth, is about sixty of the semi- 
 diameters of the latter ; and the moon completes 
 her revolution round the earth in about twenty- 
 seven days, seven hours and forty-three minutes : 
 therefore the space E F will here be found by 
 computation to be about 16 J feet. Consequently, 
 if the power by which the moon is retained in 
 its orbit, be greater, near the surface of the earth, 
 than at the distance of the moon, in tlie duplicate 
 proportion of that distance, the number of feet 
 a body would descend near the surface of the 
 earth, by the action of this power upon it, in 
 one minute, would be equal to the number 16J 
 multiplied twice into the number sixty, that is, 
 to 58,050. 
 
 274. Now bodies falling near the surface of 
 the earth have [been found, by exact experi- 
 ments, to descend 16^ feet in one second; and 
 the spaces described by falling bodies being as 
 the squares of the times of their fall, the number 
 of feet a body would describe in its fall near the 
 surface of the earth in one m.inute of time, 
 would be equal to 16J multiplied by 60^; the 
 same as the power which acts upon the raoon 
 wc.uld cause. 
 
 275. We may hence conclude, that the power 
 which retains the moon in her orbit is the same 
 as that which causes bodies near the surface of 
 the earth to gravitate; for, since the power by 
 which the earth acts on the moon will cause
 
 126 
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 Ixjdies near the surface of it to descend witli pre- 
 cisely the velocity they are found to do, it is 
 certain that no other power can act upon them 
 besides ; because, if it did, they must of neces- 
 sity descend more swiftly. It is therefore evi- 
 dent, that the power in the earth which we call 
 gravity, extends up to the moon, and decreases 
 as the square in the same proportion as the square 
 of the distance from the centre of the earth in- 
 creases. If to the motion of the satellite where- 
 by it would be carried round its primary at rest, 
 we superadd the same motion, both in regard 
 to velocity and direction, as the primary itself 
 has, it will describe about the primary the same 
 orbit with as great regularity as if the primary 
 had been indeed at rest. This proceeds from 
 the law of motion, which makes a body near the 
 surface of the earth descend perpendicularly, 
 though the earth be in a swift motion, of which 
 if the falling body did not partake, its descent 
 would be oblique. 
 
 276. From this we learn, that, if the satellite 
 moved about its primary with perfect regularity, 
 besides its motion about the primary, it vv-ould 
 have the same progressive velocity witli which the 
 primary is carried about the sun, in a direction 
 parallel to that impulse of its primary ; and, on 
 the contrary, the want of cither of these, in par- 
 ticular . of the impulse towards the sun, v/ill 
 occasion great inequalities in the motion of the 
 secondary planet. The inequalities which would 
 arise from the absence of this impulse towards 
 the sun are so great, that by the regularity which 
 appears in the motion of the secondary planets, 
 it is proved, that the sun communicates to them 
 the same velocity by its action as it gives to their 
 primary at the same distance. 
 
 277. The sun therefore acts upon the secondary 
 planets with the same force as upon the primaries 
 ttt the same distance : but the action of the sun 
 upon bodivis is reciprocally in the duplicate pro- 
 portion of the distance; therefore the secondary, 
 planets being sometimes nearer to the sun than 
 to the primary, and sometimes more remote, they 
 are not always acted upon in the same degree 
 with their primary, but when nearer to the sun 
 are attracted more, and when farther off are at- 
 tracted less. Hence arise various inequalities in 
 the motions of the secondary planets. Some of 
 those inequalities, however, would take place, 
 though the moon, if undisturbed by the sun, had 
 moved in a circle concentrical to the earth, and 
 in the plane of the earth's motion ; others depend 
 on the elliptical figure and oblique situation of 
 the moon's orbit. One of the former is, that the 
 moon does not describe equal spaces in equal 
 times, but is continually accelerated as she passes 
 from the quarter to the new or full, and is 
 retarded again by the like degrees in returning 
 from the new and full to the next quarter ; but 
 here we consider not so much the absolute as 
 the apparent motions of the moon with respect 
 to us. 
 
 278. These two may be distinguished in the 
 following manner : — Let S, in plate X, fig. 6. 
 represent the sun, A the earth moving in its 
 orbit, B C, D E F G the moon's orbit, and H 
 the place of the moon in her orbit. Suppose 
 the eartli to have moved from A to I. Because 
 
 it has been shown that the moon partakes of all 
 the progressive motions of the eartii, and likewise 
 that the sun attracts both the earth and moon equal- 
 ly when they are at the same distance from it, or 
 that the mean action of the sun upon the moon is 
 equal to its action upon the earth ; we must there- 
 fore consider the earth as carrying about with it 
 the moon's orbit; so that, when the eardi is re- 
 moved from A to I, the moon's orbit shall like- 
 wise be removed from its former situation into 
 that denoted by K L M N. But now the earth 
 being in I, if the moon were found in O, so that 
 O I should be parallel to HA, though the moon 
 would really have moved from H to O, yet it 
 would not have appeared to a spectator upon the 
 earth to have moved at all, because the earth has 
 moved as much ; so that the moon would still 
 appear in the same place with respect to the fixed 
 stars. But if the moon be observed in P, it will 
 then appear to have moved, its apparent motion 
 being measured by the angle O I P. And if the 
 angle P I S be less than the angle II A S, the 
 moon will have approached nearer its conjunc- 
 tion with the sun. Now, to explain particularly 
 the inequality of the moon's motion already 
 mentioned, let S, plate VIII. fig. 9, represent 
 the sun, A the earth, B C D E the moon's orbit, 
 C the place of the moon when in the latter 
 quarter. Here it will be nearly at the same 
 distance from the sun as the earth is. In this 
 case, therefore, they will be both equally attract- 
 ed, the earth in the direction A S, and the moon 
 in that of C S. Whence, as the earth, in moving 
 round the sun, is continually descending towards 
 it, so the moon in this situation must in any equal 
 portion of time descend as much; and, therefore, 
 the position of the line A C in respect of A S, and 
 the change which the moon's motion produces \a 
 the angle CAS, will not be altered by the sun : 
 but as soon as the moon is advanced from the 
 quarter toward the new or conjunction, suppose 
 to G, the action of the sun upon it will have a 
 different effect. Were the sun's action upon the 
 moon here to be applied in the direction G II par- 
 allel to A S, if its action on the moon were equal 
 to its action on the earth, no change would bo 
 wrought by the sun on the apparent motion of 
 the moon round the earth. But the moon receiv- 
 ing a greater impulse in G than the earth receives 
 in A, were the sun to act in the direction Gil, 
 yet it would accelerate the description of the 
 space DAG, and cause the angle G A D to de- 
 crease faster than it otherwise would. The sun's 
 action will have this effect, upon account of the 
 obliquity of its direction to that in which the 
 earth attracts the moon. For the moon by this 
 means is drawn by two forces oblique to one ano- 
 ther: one drawing from G towards A, the other 
 from G towards II ; therefore the moon must ne- 
 cessarily be impelled towards D. 
 
 279. Again, because the sun does not act in 
 the direction G H parallel to S A, but in the di- 
 rection G S oblique to it, the sun's action on the 
 moon will, by reason of this obliquity, farther 
 contribute to the moon's acceleration. Suppose 
 the ea.th, in any short space of time, would have 
 moved from A to I, if not attracted by the sun, 
 the point I being in the straight line C E, which 
 touches die eartli's orbit in A. Suppose the mouu
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 127 
 
 m the same time would liave moved in her orbit 
 from G to K, and besides have partaken of the 
 progressive motion of the earth. Then, if K L be 
 drawn parallel to A I, (the line K L must be sup- 
 plied in the figure) and taken equal to it, the 
 moon, if not attracted to the sun, would be found 
 in L. But the earth, by the sun's action, is re- 
 moved from I. Suppose it were moved down to 
 M in the line I IM N parallel to S A, and if the 
 moon vvere attracted but as much, and in the 
 same direction as the earth is here supposed to 
 be attracted, so as to have descended during the 
 same time in the line L O parallel also to A S, 
 down as far as P, till LP were equal to I M, let 
 P M be joined, the angle P M N will be equal to 
 LIN; that is, the moon will appear advanced 
 as much farther forward as if neither it nor the 
 earth had been subject to the sun's action. But 
 this is on the supposition that the actions of the 
 sun upon the earth and moon are equal ; wheie- 
 as the moon being acted upon more than the 
 earth, did the sun's action draw the moon in the 
 line LO parallel to AS, it would draw it down 
 so far as to make LP greater than I ]M, whereby 
 the angle P M N will be rendered less than LIN. 
 But, as the sun draws the earth in a direction 
 oblique to IN, the earth will be found in its or- 
 bit, somewhat short of the point M. However, 
 the moon is attracted by the sun, still more out 
 of the line LO, than the earth is out of the line 
 I N ; therefore, this obliquity of the sun's action 
 will yet farther diminish the angle under P^IN. 
 Thus the moon, at the point G, receives an im- 
 pulse from the sun, whereby her motion is ac- 
 celerated ; and the sun producing this effect in 
 every place, between the quarter and the con- 
 junction, the moon will move from the quarter, 
 with a motion continually more and more ac- 
 celerated ; and therefore, by acquiring, from time 
 to time, an additional degree of velocity in its or- 
 bit, the spaces which are described in equal times 
 by the line drawn from the earth to the moon, 
 will not be everywhere equal, but those towards 
 the conjunction will be greater than those towards 
 the quarter. But, in the moon's passage, from 
 the conjunction D to the next quarter, the sun's 
 action will again retard the moon, till, at the 
 next quarter at E, it be restored to the first velo- 
 city which it had in C. 
 
 280. When the moon moves from E to the 
 full, or opposition to the sun in B, it is again ac- 
 celerated ; the deficiency of the sun's action on the 
 moon from what it has upon the earth, produc- 
 ing here the same effect as before the excess of 
 its action. Let us now consider the moon in Q, 
 as moving from E towai-ds B. Here, if she were 
 attracted by the sun in a direction parallel to AS, 
 yet being acted on less than the eardi, as the lat- 
 ter descends towards the sun, the moon will, in 
 some measure, be left behind. Therefore, RF 
 being drav.'n parallel to S B, a spectator would see 
 the moon move as if attracted from the point Q, 
 in the direction RF, with a degree of force equal 
 to that whereby the sun's action on the moon falls 
 short of its action on the earth. But the obliquity 
 of the sun's action has here also an effect. In 
 the time the earth would have moved from A to 
 I, without the influence of the sun, let the moon 
 have moved in its orbit from Q to R. Drawing, 
 
 therefore, RT parallel to AT, the moon, by the 
 motion of its orbit, if not attracted by the sun 
 must be found in T ; and therefore, if attracted 
 in a direction parallel to S A, would be in the line 
 TV parallel to AS ; suppose in W. But the 
 moon in Q being farther off the sun than the 
 earth, it will be less attracted ; that is, TW will 
 be less than I M ; and if the line N M be pro- 
 longed towards X, the angle XMW will be less 
 than XIT. 
 
 281. Thus, by the sun's action, the moon's 
 passage from the quarter to the full would be ac- 
 celerated, if the sun were to act on the earth and 
 moon in a direction parallel to AS; and the obli- 
 quity of the sun's action will still increase this ac- 
 celeration : for the action of the sun on the moon 
 is oblique to the line SA, the whole time of the 
 moon's passage from Q to T, and will carry her 
 out of the line TV towards the earth. Here we 
 suppose the time of the moon's passage from Q 
 to T so short, that it shall not pass beyond the 
 line S A. The earth will also come a little short 
 of the line I N, as was already mentioned ; and 
 from these causes the angle X M W will be still 
 farther lessened. The moon, in passing from the 
 opposition B to the next quarter, will be retarded 
 again in the same manner as it was accelerated 
 before its appulse to the opposition ; and thus the 
 moon, by the sun's action upon it, is twice acce- 
 lerated, and twice restored to its first velocity 
 every circuit it makes round the earth; and this 
 inequality of the moon's motion about the earth 
 is called by astronomers its variation. 
 
 283. The orbit of the moon is dilated when 
 nearer the sun, and contracted when she is more 
 remote : for it has been proved by Newton, 
 that the action of the sun, by which it dimi- 
 nishes the earth's power over the moon in the 
 conjunction or opposition, is about twice as 
 great as the addition to the earth's action by the 
 sun in the quarters ; so that, upon the whole, the 
 power of the earth on the moon is diminished by 
 the sun ; and therefore is most diminished when 
 that action is strongest. But as the earth, by its 
 approach to the sun, has its influence lessened, 
 the moon, being less attracted, will gradually re- 
 cede frcm the earth ; and as the earth, in its 
 recess from the sun, recovers by degrees its 
 fonner power, the orbit of the moon must again 
 contract. 
 
 284. Two consequences follow from hence, 
 viz. that the moon will be more remote from the 
 earth, when the latter is nearest the sun, and will 
 take up a longer time in performing its revolution 
 through the dilated orbit, than througii tlie more 
 contracted. These irregidarities would be pro- 
 duced, if the moon, without being acted upon 
 unequally by the sun, should describe a perfect 
 circle about the earth, and in the plane of its mo- 
 tion : but, though neither of these circumstances 
 take place, yet the above-mentioned inequalities 
 occur only with some little variation with regard 
 to the degree of them ; but some others are ob- 
 served to take place from the moon's motion be- 
 ing performed m the manner already described, 
 lor, as the moon describes an ellipsis, having the 
 earth in one of its foci, this curve will be sub- 
 jected to various changes, neither preserving 
 constantly the same ht,ure nor position; and,
 
 128 
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 because the piane of this ellipsis is not the same 
 with that of the earth's orbit, it follows, that the 
 former will continually change ; so that neither 
 the inclination of the two planes towards each 
 other, nor the line in which they intersect, will 
 remain for any length of time unaltered. 
 
 285. The various forces by which the motion 
 of the moon is disturbed, and the changes which 
 take place in its orbit, may be investigated in 
 the following manner. See plate IX. fig. 13. Let 
 C A B D be the moon's orbit, T the earth, S the 
 sun, P the moon ; make SK =: ST ; and let SK 
 : S L : : S P2 : S K2. Then if SK or ST represent 
 the sun's force at T, SL will represent his force at 
 P. Draw L M parallel to PT; divide the force 
 LS into the two forces LM acting parallel to PT, 
 and MS acting parallel to TS. But the force LM, 
 and the part TM disturb the moon's motion. — 
 The force LM in its mean quantity is equal to 
 PT, and by so much the force of the earth is in- 
 creased. Also TM in its mean quantity is equal 
 to 3 PK, acting in a direction PN parallel and equal 
 to T S ; and the force M T draws the moon out 
 of her orbit. Let P p he the periodical times 
 of the earth and moon ; then the sun's centripe- 
 tal force at T (ST) : the earth's centripetal force 
 
 ST PT 
 at P : : pr,: — ; therefore the earth's centripetal 
 
 PTx PP 
 
 force at P = And this is to the ad- 
 
 PP 
 
 ditional force PT 
 
 PTxP P 
 
 PP 
 
 : P T : : P P 
 
 pp. 
 
 That is, the force by which the moon is retained 
 in her orbit : is to the increase of centripetal force 
 by the sun's action : : FP : pp : : 178-723 : 1. — 
 Therefore the increase of the moon's centripetal 
 
 ft>rce is ^y^:^ of that force. 
 
 286. Also force PT : force SPK or PL : : PT : 
 
 3P K. Therefore, ex sequo, the force by which 
 
 the moon is retained in her orbit: disturbing force 
 
 PL or TM : : PT X 178-725 : 3 PK. Therefore 
 opv 
 
 the disturbing force TM=-r= — ^^„ ^^^ x earth's 
 ° PTx 178-725 
 
 centripetal force on the moon:i:3a the sine of the 
 
 moon's distance from the quadratures x earth's 
 
 centripetal force, divided by 178-725 x radius. 
 
 Let C, c, be the centripetal forces of the sun and 
 
 earth, s zz sine of the moon's distance from the 
 
 quadrature, radius zz. r. Then the additional force 
 
 For the triangles P K T and P Q R are similar- 
 whence PK : PT : : PQ ( PT) : PR (3 PK) ; there- 
 fore 3 P K^ = P T-*, or 3ss zz rr, whence s =. 
 
 ^ 3 
 
 S. 350 16'. And when PQ =: PT, the 
 
 (PT): 
 
 178 '725 
 3sc 
 
 — . And the disturbing force (TM) 
 
 178-725r 
 Produce TP, and make PR = PL, or TM, and 
 
 draw RQ perpendicular to TQ. Then QR is 
 the force that accelerates the moon, and PQ is 
 the diminution of its centripetal force. 
 
 For the force PR is divided into two forces, 
 P Q, and Q R, of which P Q, acting towards Q, 
 diminishes the moon's centripetal force ; and QR 
 being parallel to the tangent at P, accelerates 
 the moon at P. 
 
 287. There are therefore four points in the 
 moon's orbit, each 35° 16' from the quadratures, 
 where the moon's disturbing force makes no al- 
 teration in the earth's central force. 
 
 diminution of the force is equal to the addition, 
 which makes no alteration. 
 
 The mean force PT is zz of the force 
 
 643410 
 of gravity of the earth. 
 
 For the force of gravity is 3600 times greater 
 than the force at P . 
 
 The whole increase of the centripetal force at P is 
 
 \ rr / 
 
 171-725 
 For rad 
 
 178-725r' 
 
 if) 
 
 •.piC 
 
 And PR = 3PK 
 
 178-725 
 3fs 
 
 ) : PK = 
 
 178-725r 
 
 And 
 
 rad (r) : PR ( ^" V : S.R (r) : PQ = 
 
 3css 
 
 178-725rr 
 
 1— 
 
 l78-725ry 
 And PT — PQ = whole additional 
 3ss 
 
 force =: 
 
 178-7-25 
 
 If A = sine of twice the moon's distance from 
 the quadratures; then the force QR, accelerat- 
 ing or retarding the moon's motion in its orbit, is 
 
 3c A 
 
 178-725 ^2>* 
 
 "^ Let 2 = S.QPR or KPT = cos 
 3cs 
 
 rad (r) : RP 
 
 / 3cs \ 
 
 \178-725r/ 
 
 3c 
 
 78-725r 
 X S2 =z (by trigonometryj 
 
 PTK; then 
 S.QPR (2) : QR =: 
 
 3c 
 
 178.725 
 
 178-725rr 
 A 
 
 2? ' 
 
 288. Hence the moon is accelerated in the 
 quadrants C A, D B ; and retarded in the qua- 
 drants AD, BC ; and the force which accelerates 
 or retards the moon's motion, is greatest in the 
 octants. 
 
 For it is greatest when A is greatest, that is, 
 when 2 C P is ninety degrees, or C P :z 45°. 
 
 The disturbing force TM, in the syziges A and 
 B, is 2 P T. And therefore the earth's force upon 
 the moon in the syziges, is twice as much di- 
 minished, as it is increased in the quadratures. 
 
 The moon's orbit is more flat in the syziges, 
 and more curve in the quadratures ; and there- 
 fore she goes farther from the earth in tlie 
 quadratures. 
 
 For the orbit will be more curve where the 
 central force is greater, that is in the quadratures. 
 
 289. The motion of the moon's nodes, sup- 
 posing her orbit to be nearly circular, may be 
 thus found : 
 
 In fig. 7, plate XIII, let A9BQ be the moon's 
 orbit, T the earth, P the moon, SAB the line of 
 the apsides, Q, f/ the quadratures, 7«N7J the line 
 of the nodes. P K, PH, AZ perpendiculars upon 
 T Q and 'Nii. The force by which the moon is 
 drawn out of her orbit has been found to be
 
 
 rL.iTF./\ 
 
 Fu/ 3 . i 
 
 h f 
 
 Fiff4. 
 
 Fi(f ff. z 
 
 Fi^ S. 
 
 Lomion. fl,/./u>-A<'</ />,■ 77„m,„y Tea,/ 73, r/,f<i/>.u,feM.>V /'.'UVilf.
 
 ASTIROI^OMir, 
 
 FLAT F.X m 
 
 Pcartaible AstranoTincal Qnadrant 

 
 ASTRONOMY, 
 
 129 
 
 3s s 
 
 178-725r ~" 59-575r 
 
 c. Let PM be the arch 
 
 ■which the moon describes in any small time ; 
 and M L a small line, which the moon describes 
 
 in the same time by the force c, as this 
 
 55"o75r 
 
 force is directed to the sun, the line M L will be 
 
 parallel to TA. As ML is the distance that the 
 
 moon is drawn from the arch P JNI, by the said 
 
 accelerative force ; 2 M L will be the uniform 
 
 motion it has acquired in that time, by the said 
 
 force. Let M P be continued back to rn, in the 
 
 moon's orbit, to cut the line of the nodes T N in 
 
 m. Now since M L is parallel to the ecliptic ; a 
 
 plane drawn through M L and 'SI P m, will cut the 
 
 ecliptic m a line ?« /, which will be parallel to 
 
 ML; therefore draw LP/ to cut ml in/, and the 
 
 triangles PML and Fml are similar, and there- 
 
 C 1 WlPxML,^. ATD- 
 
 tore ml zz -, „ ; but smce i\l P is eiven, 
 
 MP b > 
 
 and M L is as the force 3 P K, therefore m I is as 
 mV X PK. Now when the moon was at P, the 
 line of the nodes was at Tw, where the plane of 
 the moon's orbit TMP cuts the ecliptic. But, 
 when the moon comes to L (instead of M), the 
 plane of her orbit will then be in the plane 
 TLP ; and the line of the nodes at 17, where 
 the plane TLP/ cuts the ecliptic. Therefore the 
 angular motion of the nodes generated in that 
 time will be ir angle otT/. But the angle 7«T / 
 
 is as = — X sine of Tm/ or AT N ; that is, as 
 1 m 
 
 ffiP X PK 
 
 X A Z ; that is, because by similar 
 
 m'Y 
 
 triangles 
 
 /mP_PH\ 
 VwiP~PT/ 
 
 PH X PK 
 
 X AZ, 
 
 ,wiP~PT/ PT 
 
 that is, (because PT is given) as PH x PK x 
 AZ. 
 
 The line M L is to the versed sine of the arch 
 P M, as the forces that produce them ; that is, as 
 
 ~ — c to c, or as s to 59'575r. That is 
 
 59-575r 
 
 PM' 
 
 s : 39-575r; therefore ]\IL=: 
 
 PM= 
 2MT 
 
 ————r- When P falls upon A, or the moon is 
 
 in the syzigy ; then s "=. r, and the angle P il L 
 is a right angle : therefore in the triangle P M L, 
 
 ML^- ''''' 
 
 PM 
 
 or m P / rz: 
 
 \2MT X 39-5 
 PM 
 
 575/ 
 
 radius :S.LPM 
 
 2MT X 59-573- ^"^ '^ ^ ^' ^' Q' 
 or the nodes in the quadratures, and P at A ; 
 then PM and PL being parallel to the ecliptic, 
 7>i and / will be at an infinite distance, and then 
 the anscle ?/iT/ will be equal to ?«P/, whose sine is 
 
 And the angle mTl answering 
 
 angles PTK, PTN, and STN are right angles. 
 And in other cases, the horary motion of the 
 node will be to .3.3-18", as the product of the 
 sines of the three angles PTK, PTN, and STN 
 to the radius cube ; and the nodes are ref^essive 
 when all the sines are positive. But if any sine 
 changes to be negative, the nodes will be pro- 
 gressive. 
 
 290. Hence the nodes are progressive, when 
 the moon is between either quadrature, and the 
 node nearest that quadrature; otherwise they 
 are regressive. And by the excess of the regress 
 above the progress, they are in the whole moved 
 forward. 
 
 For in the arches Q A ?j and 9 B N, P K and P H 
 are both affirmative or both negative. And in 
 the arches NQ, 71 q, only one is negative, the 
 other being affirmative. 
 
 If it were not for the sun's perturbating force, 
 the moon would always describe the same ellip- 
 sis, and the transverse axis and eccentricity of the 
 orbit would remain unaltered. But since the 
 perturbating force of the sun always acts upon 
 her more or less, and causes all the irregularities 
 of her motion ; it is evident that all these effects 
 will be the greater as that force is the greater. 
 But when the transverse axis, or line of the ap- 
 sides, is in the syziges, then the perturbate force 
 TxM or 3 PK, fig.' 13, plate IX., is the greatest 
 possible, by which the moon is removed farther 
 from the earth, and consequently the transverse 
 axis is lengthened, and the eccentricity becomes 
 greater. And the contraiy happens when the 
 transverse is in the quadratures '; for by its being 
 in tlie quadratures, the force LM is greater; and 
 the whole centripetal force towards T being 
 greater, the body will be drawn nearer the earth, 
 and describe a less orbit, or one less eccentric 
 than before. Therefore when the apsides are in 
 the quadratures, the eccentricity is less ; and 
 when they are in the syziges, it is greater. But 
 how much it is greater or less depends upon the 
 mean eccentricity; and that depends upon ob- 
 servation. 
 
 292. Hence the eccentricity continually in- 
 creases, as the apsides move from the quadratures 
 to the syziges ; and decreases from the syziges to 
 the quadratures. And the eccentricity of the 
 orbit continually increases, as the moon passes 
 from the quadratures to the syziges; and de- 
 crease?, in passing from the syziges to the quad- 
 ratures. For the perturbating force increases 
 from the quadratures to the syziges, and de- 
 creases from the syziges to the quadratures. 
 
 Sect. VI. — Of the Nature axd Motions o« 
 Comets. 
 
 293. It is certain that comets are not meteors 
 in our air, because they rise and set in the same 
 manner as the moon and stars. It is long since 
 astronomers had gone so far in their enquiries 
 concerning them, as to prove by their observa- 
 tions that they moved in the celestial spaces 
 -,,1 iir^nr tv.o,. P\T .1-, u • • ^ond thc moon ; but they had uo notiou of the 
 
 s ' sr' ' tZl >^'r °'^"^ T.'T '' P^'l^ ^^'"^h they described. Now the power of 
 
 32 30 „ ^^hose sine, as it differs insensibly from the sun bemg reciprocally in the duplicate pro- 
 
 portion of the distance, every body acted upon 
 by him must either fall directly down or move 
 about him in one of the conic sections. If a 
 
 K 
 
 2MT X 59-375" 
 
 to =ML is the motion of the node, whose sine is 
 
 PM 
 MT X 59-575 ' ^"PP°^^ ^ ^ ^° ^^ described in 
 
 the arch, we shall have the arch = ^'^' ^^^ 
 
 59-575 
 (putting PM zzl) ■=! 33-18",' where all the 
 Vol. hi.
 
 130 
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 body wliich descends towards the sun as low as 
 the orbit of any planet, move with a swifter mo- 
 tion than the planet, it will describe an orbit of 
 a more oblong figure than that of the planet, and 
 have at least a longer axis. The velocity of the 
 body may be so great, that it shall move in a 
 parabola, so that having once passed the sun, it 
 shall ascend for ever witliout returning, tliough 
 the sun will still continue in the focus of that 
 parabola ; and with a velocity still greater, they 
 will move in a hyperbola. The best observa- 
 tions, however, show that the comets move in 
 very eccentric ellipses ; and hence those bodies 
 are sometimes found at a moderate distance from 
 the sun, and appear within the planetary regions ; 
 at otlier times they ascend to vast distances, far 
 beyond the orbit of the most distant known 
 planet, and become invisible. 
 
 294. The analogy between the periodic times 
 of the planets, and their distances from the sun, 
 discovered by Kepler, of course takes place, also 
 in the comets, at least in those which revolve in 
 elliptic orbits ; and consequently, if the periodic 
 time of a comet were known, its mean distance 
 might be easily computed. Now the comet of 
 1759 is known to perform its revolution in se- 
 venty-six years nearly, whence it appears that its 
 mean distance is about eighteen times that of the 
 earth, or a little less than the mean distance of 
 Uranus ; but, in consequence of the great eccen- 
 tricity of its orbit, its aphelion point, or the 
 greatest distance from the sun, is nearly double 
 that of the above planet. The perihelion dis- 
 tance of this comet is about six of the mean dis- 
 tance of the earth, which being taken from 36, 
 the mean transverse axis of its orbit, leaves 35"4 
 for its aphelion distance, which is nearly double 
 the greatest distance of Uranus, and about four 
 times that of Saturn. 
 
 295. The above is the only comet whose pe- 
 riodic return has been ascertained, till the recent 
 re-discovery of Enke's comet, and consequently 
 the only one whose mean distance can be known; 
 but with regard to the perihelion distance of 
 these bodies, this may be determined by observa- 
 tions ; and accordingly we have an account of this 
 element of the orbits of about 100 comets, which 
 have been observed with considerable accuracy. 
 The greater number of these have had their pe- 
 rihelion point fall within the terrestrial orbit, and 
 many of them at less than half the mean distance 
 of the earth ; but the comet of 1680 is that of 
 all others which approaches the nearest to the 
 sun, its perihelion distance being only -006 of the 
 perihelion of the earth, that is, about 540,000 
 miles from the sun's centre, and must, therefore, 
 according to Newton, have been involved in its 
 atmosphere. This comet also passed very near 
 the terrestrial orbit, having been, according to 
 Dr. Halley's calculation on the 11th of November, 
 1 h. 6 m. P. M.,not more than one semi-diameter 
 of the earth, or about 4000 miles to the northward 
 of the earth's orbit, af which time had we been 
 in this part of our track, the comet would have 
 had a parallax exceeding that of the moon ; and 
 the mutual gravitation of the two bodies must 
 have caused a change in the inclination of the 
 earth's orbit, and in the length of the year; at 
 the same time the waters on the eaith would have 
 
 been so elevated from th6 same cause, as would 
 in all probability have caused a universal deluge, 
 and reduced this beautiful frame to its original 
 chaos. 
 
 296. The limits of a comet's distance may be 
 easily ascertained from its tail, it being supposed 
 to be directed from the sun. Let S, fig. 9, plate VI., 
 be the sun, E the earth, E T the line in which 
 the head of the comet appears, E W the line in 
 which the extremity of the tail is observed, and 
 draw S T parallel to E W ; then the comet is 
 within the distance E T. For if tlie comet were 
 at T, the tail would be directed in a line parallel 
 to EW, and therefore could never appear in that 
 line. Now TEW is known from observation, 
 and consequently its equal E T S, together with 
 T E S, the angular distance of the comet from 
 the sun, and E S to find S T, the limit of the 
 comet's distance-. 
 
 On the Orbits of Comets, and their Perio- 
 dical Revolutions. 
 
 297. It is extremely difficult to determine 
 from computation, the elliptic orbit of a comet to 
 any degree of accuracy ; for when this orbit is 
 very eccentric, a very small error in the observa- 
 tion will change the computed orbit into a para- 
 bola, or hyperbola. Now from the thickness and 
 inequality of the atmosphere with which the co- 
 met is surrounded, it is impossible to determine 
 with any precision, when either the limb or cen- 
 tre of the comet pass the wire at the time of 
 observation. And this uncertainty in the obser- 
 vations will subject the computed orbit to a great 
 error. Hence it happened, that M. Bouguer 
 determined the orbit of the comet in 1729 to be 
 an hyperbola. M. Euler first determined the 
 same for the comet in 1744 ; but having received 
 more accurate observation, he found it to be an 
 eclipse. The period of the comet in 1680 ap- 
 pears from observations to be 575 years, which 
 M. Euler by his computation determined to be 
 I665 years. 
 
 298. The only safe way to get the period of 
 comets, is to compare the elements of all those 
 which have been computed, and where you find 
 they agree very well, you may conclude that 
 they are elements of the same comet ; it being so 
 extremely improbable that the orbits of two dif- 
 ferent comets should have the same inclinations, 
 the same perihelion distance, and the places of 
 the perihelion and node of the same. Thus, 
 knowing the periodic time, we get the major axis 
 of the ellipse, and the perihelion distance being 
 known, the minor axis will be known. When 
 the elements of the orbits agree the comets may 
 be the same, although the periodic times should 
 vary a little ; as that may arise from the attrac- 
 tion of the bodies in our system, and which may 
 also alter all the other elements in a small degree. 
 The following approximating method of deter- 
 mining that part of a comet's orbit through 
 which it moves, while it can be observed from 
 the earth, is due to Boscovich. 
 
 299. Having collected the greatest possible 
 number of observations, choose three of them which 
 were taken when the comet was not too near its 
 perihelion, (because near the perihelion the orbit 
 does not diff'er sensibly from a circle), and
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 131 
 
 \ 
 
 make these the basis of the operations : let S, 
 plate VI. fig. 6, be the sun, U W the orbit of 
 the earth, supposed here to be a circle, E the 
 place of the earth at the first, e at the third, draw 
 E,C, € c, to represent the observed directions of 
 the comets, and let L, /, w, be the longitudes of 
 the first, second, and third observations, ?n and 71 
 the geocentric latitudes of the first and third ob- 
 servation, and t, T, the intervals of time between 
 the first and second, second and third observa- 
 tions. Assume C for the place of the comet at 
 the first observation, reduced to the ecliptic ; 
 . then, to determine the place of the third observa- 
 tion, say T X sine w — I : t x sine i — L : : 
 E C : e c, and c will be nearly the place required : 
 join C c, and it will represent the path of the 
 comet on the ecliptic, according to this assump- 
 tion. Draw C K, c k, perpendicular to the eclip- 
 tic, taking C K : E C : : tang INI : radius, and 
 ck : ec : : tang n : radius ; join K k, and it 
 will represent the orbit of the comet, if the first 
 assumption be true. Bisect C c in x, and draw 
 xi/ parallel to C K, and K k will be bisected in 
 7/ ; join y s. Let S Enl ; then if r be the mean 
 velocity of the earth in its orbit, the velocity of 
 
 /2 X V 
 the comet at y^ . -^ - (Art. 586), taking there- 
 's/ sy 
 
 \/2xv , .^ , . , 
 fore vzniE e, compute —7= — and if this be equal 
 \/sy 
 
 to Kk, the assumed point C was the true point. 
 
 300. But if these quantities be not equal, a 
 new point must be assumed for C, in choosing 
 which we must be directed by the nature and 
 quantity of the error arising from the first assump- 
 tion ; thus if the computed value of KA", be 
 greater than its value measured in the figure, and 
 the lines C K, c /c diverge from each other as they 
 recede from the sun, the point c must be taken 
 farther from E by how great a quantity we must 
 conjecture from the magnitude of the error, and 
 from the consideration that the comet's velocity 
 diminishes as it recedes from the sun. Find 
 CK, ck, as before, and compare the measured 
 and computed value of K /c ; and if a fresh as- 
 sumption be necessary, make it in conformity to 
 the considerations above suggested. Having thus 
 ascertained the position of the points C, c, very 
 nearly produce c C, A: K to meet at N ; join N S, 
 and it will be the line of the nodes ; and if C r, 
 c z, be drawn perpendicular to N S, either of the 
 angles K r C, k zc will measure the inclination 
 of the orbit. Also from the two distances S C, 
 S c, and the included angle C S c, the parabola 
 may be easily constructed ; thus, having set off 
 S C, S c (fig. 10, plate VI.) in their proper rela- 
 tive position, with the centres C, c, and radii 
 equal to S C, S c, describe the arcs aR 0, e r i, 
 and draw the line R r d to touch those arcs, this 
 line will manifestly be the directrix of the para- 
 bola : which, being known, together with the 
 focus S and the determining ratio (that of equa- 
 lity), the parabola may be constructed. 
 
 301. Or, letting fall SD perpendicularly upon 
 R D, and bisecting it in A, the vertex and focus of 
 the parabola A c C will be known ; whence it 
 may be drawn by well-known methods. From 
 either of these constructions, the ratio of the co- 
 met's perihelion distance SA (fig. 1. plate IX.) 
 
 to the earth's mean distance S E (fig. 10. plate 
 VIII.), will be known, and consequently the 
 comet's velocity in perihelion: the velocity in 
 either of the points C, or c, will be determined 
 by the observations ; and since the angular dis- 
 tances are reciprocally as the squares of the dis- 
 tances from the centre of force, the S C, S c, are 
 hence found in terms of S E : if these agree 
 nearly with the construction, the assumptions 
 have been properly made ; if not, some farther 
 corrections are necessary. The angles A S C, 
 A S c, may either be measured or calculated from 
 the known distances ; then having the perihelion 
 distance and the true anomaly, the time from the 
 perihelion may be determined, whence, as the 
 observations will show, whether the comet be 
 approaching to, or receding from, the perihelion, 
 an epoch of the perihelion will readily be ascer- 
 tained. 
 
 302. When a parabola is found to agree nearly 
 with the given positions, it is needless to continue 
 the approximation farther; for if the observations 
 are accurate, we cannot expect a parabola to 
 agree perfectly with them ; if the body move in 
 an elipsis, as it is highly probable that all these 
 bodies do. If the observations are only nearly 
 accurate, a parabola found to agree with them, 
 might probably not agree with other observations 
 made upon the comet. 
 
 Sect. VII. — Of the Booies of the Sun and 
 Planets, the Quantity of Matter they con- 
 tain, AND THEIR DENSITIES. 
 
 303. The primary planets and comets being 
 retained in their orbits by a power directed 
 towards the sun, and the secondaries being also 
 retained by a similar power directed to the cen- 
 tre of the primaries, the same power is diffused 
 through their whole substance, and inherent in 
 every particle. This is proved by showing that 
 each of the heavenly bodies attracts the rest, and 
 other bodies, with such different degrees of force, 
 as that the force of the same attracting body is 
 exerted on others, exactly in proportion to the 
 quantity of matter contained in the body at- 
 tracted. 
 
 304. The first proof of this is from the experi- 
 ments made on bodies on our earth. Pendulums 
 vibrate by the same power which makes heavy 
 bodies fall to the ground ; but if the ball of any 
 pendulum of the same length with another were 
 more or less attracted in proportion to the quan- 
 tity of solid matter it contains, that pendulum 
 would vibrate faster or slower than the other. 
 Now the vibrations of pendulums continue for a 
 long time, and the number of vibrations they 
 make may be easily and correctly determined ; 
 and Newton assures us that he examined several 
 substances, as gold, silver, lead, glass, sand, 
 common salt, wood, water, and wheat ; in all 
 which he found not the least deviation from the 
 theorj', though he made the experiment in such 
 a manner that, in bodies of the same weight, a 
 difference in the quantity of their matter less than 
 the thousandth part of the whole would have dis- 
 covered itself. 
 
 305. It appears, therefore, that all bodies are 
 made to descend here by the power of gravity 
 with the same degree of swiftness. This descent 
 
 K i
 
 132 
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 has been determined at 16J feet in a second from 
 the beginning of their fall. If any terrestrial 
 body could be conveyed as high as the moon, it 
 would descend with the very same velocity as the 
 incremental deflection of the moon towards the 
 earth; and therefore the power of the earth upon 
 the moon is in the same proportion to its force on 
 other bodies at the same distance as the quantity 
 of matter in the moon bears to the quantity in 
 those bodies. Thus with respect to the earth, its 
 power on every body it attracts is, at the same 
 distance from the earth, proportional to the 
 quantity of solid matter in the body acted upon. 
 
 306. As to the sun, the power of his action 
 upon the same primary planet is reciprocally in 
 the duplicate proportion of its distance ; and that 
 his power decreases throughout in the same pro- 
 portion, is testified by the motion of the planets 
 traversing the whole planetary regions. Hence 
 if any planet were removed from the sun to any 
 distance whatever, its tendency towards the sun 
 would yet be reciprocally in the duplicate pro- 
 portion of the distance. But the degree of ac- 
 celeration given to the planets by the sun is 
 observed to be reciprocally in the duplicate pro- 
 portion of their respective distances ; from tliis 
 we may safely infer, that the power of the sun 
 upon any planet removed into the place of any 
 other, would give it the same velocity of descent 
 as it gives that other ; and consequently, that the 
 sun's action upon different planets at the same 
 distance would be proportionable to the quantity 
 of matter in each. The sun attracts the primary 
 planets and their respective secondaries, when at 
 the same distance, in such a manner as to com- 
 municate to both the same degree of velocity ; 
 and therefore the force wherewith the sun acts 
 on the secondary planet, bears the same propor- 
 tion to the force wherewith it attracts the primary, 
 as the quantity of matter in the secondary planet 
 bears to the quantity of matter in the primary. 
 
 307. This property tlierefore is found in the 
 sun with regard to both kinds of planets ; so that 
 he possesses the same quality found in the earth, 
 viz. that of acting on bodies with a degree of 
 force proportional to the quantity of matter they 
 contain. All the phenomena of the planetary 
 motions produced by their mutual attractions 
 agree precisely with this law of force ; and we 
 are thence warranted in concluding, that this is 
 the principle which the great Author of nature 
 has appointed to regulate the motions at least of 
 the system to which we belong. 
 
 308. In a word, the attractive power both of 
 the sun and the planets appears to be the same ; 
 for it acts in each in the same proportion to the 
 distance, and alike upon every particle of matter. 
 This power therefore in the sun and planets, 
 is the same in its nature as the power of gravity 
 in the earth ; and hence the attracting power 
 lodged in the sun and planets belongs likewise to 
 every part of them ; and their respective powers 
 upon the same body are proportional to the 
 quantity of matter of which they are composed ; 
 for instance, the force with which the earth at- 
 tracts the moon, is to the force with which the 
 sun would attract it at the same distance, as the 
 quantity of solid matter in the earth is to that in 
 the sun. 
 
 309. The rule that action is equal to re-action 
 holds good in attractive powers as well as in any 
 other powers. The most remarkable force of 
 this kind with which we are acquainted, next to 
 that of gravity, is the attraction which the load- 
 stone has for iron. Now if a loadstone and piece 
 of iron are both made to swim on water, they 
 move towards each other, and thus the attraction 
 is shown to be mutual ; and when they meet, 
 they mutually stop each other ; which shows that 
 their velocities are reciprocally proportioned to 
 the quantities of solid matter in each ; and that 
 by the stone's attracting the iron, it receives as 
 much motion itself, in the strict philosophic 
 sense of the word, as it communicates to the iron. 
 
 310. From this mutual action of the sun and 
 planets upon each other, it follows, as has been 
 already mentioned, that they both revolve about 
 their common centre of gravity. Thus let A (in 
 plate IX. fig. 7.) represent the sun, B a planet, 
 and C their common centre of gravity. If these 
 bodies were once at rest, they would direcdy ap- 
 proach each other by their mutual attraction, 
 and that with such velocities, that their common 
 centre of gravity would remain at rest, and they 
 would meet in that point. Were the planet B 
 to receive an impulse, as in the direction B E, 
 this would prevent the two bodies from falling 
 together ; but their common centre of gravity 
 would be put into motion in the direction of the 
 line C F, parallel to B E. In this case, the sun 
 and planet would describe round their common 
 centre of gravity similar orbits, while that centre 
 would proceed with an uniform velocity in the 
 line C F, and so the system of the two bodies 
 would move on with the centre of gravity without 
 end. In order to keep the system in the same 
 place, it is necessary, that when the planet re- 
 ceived its impulse in the direction B E, the sun 
 should receive such another the contrary way, so 
 as to keep the centre of gravity, C, without any 
 motion, in which case it would always remain 
 fixed. 
 
 311. The action therefore between the sun and 
 planets is mutual. The power which acts be- 
 tween the sun and primary planets is of the same 
 nature with that which acts between the secon- 
 dary planets and their primaries, or between the 
 earth and bodies near its surface. In diff'erent 
 planets the force of the sun's action upon each at 
 the same distance, would be proportional to the 
 quantity of solid matter contained in the planet : 
 therefore the re-action of the planet on the sun at 
 the same distance, or the motion which he would 
 receive from each planet, would also be pro- 
 portional to the quantity of matter in the planet ; 
 that is, these planets, at the same distance, would 
 act on the same body, with the degrees of strength 
 proportioned to the quantity of solid matter con- 
 tained in each. 
 
 312. From these principles Newton has proved 
 that the particles of which the sun, moon, and 
 planets are formed, exert their power of gravita- 
 tion by the same law, and in the same proportion 
 to the distance, as the great bodies they compose. 
 
 313. The following propositions constitute the 
 principal steps in the process of the investiga- 
 tation. In fig. 4, plate VI., if A C is perpen- 
 dicular to AB, and a corpuscle at C is atti acted
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 towards every particle of the line A B, by forces 
 inversely as the squares of the distances, then 
 the whole force which the particles in A B exert 
 
 AD 
 
 upon C, in the direction AC, is aa „,. p^ . 
 
 For put A C zz a, and A D, any variable part of 
 AB zr X ; then the force of a particle at D being 
 
 as j^Tpj; in the direction DC, its force in the 
 direction AC, will be as ttt:?, j or as ~ 
 
 represents the fluxion of the 
 
 Hence 
 
 whole force, whose fluent is 
 AD 
 
 {«- + ^'')^' 
 
 CA X CD- 
 
 314. Again, let BC D E, plate VI. fig. 5, re- 
 present a circular plane, and 11 a corpuscle per- 
 pendicularly over its centre, then if the forces 
 with which each particle in the plane acts upon H 
 be inversely as the squares of the distances, the 
 force with which H will be urged towards the 
 
 plane will be represented by ( 1 ^-ry j2 p ; 
 
 p being zr 3-14159, &c. For let AH zi a, and 
 H / zi X ; then A 6^ zz a:^ — a^ . andp . A 6° zz j9. 
 x^ — a- zz the area of the circle, Acd b e; 
 and the fluxion of the area of this circle is 2pxx. 
 But the force of a particle at b in the direction 
 
 HA is as , or — , by the preceding pro- 
 
 position ; therefore the fluxion of the whole force 
 
 .,, , 2apxxa 2apx „v n r , • 
 
 will be — =. f—. The fluent of this 
 
 corrected, gives 2 p X 1 ~2pxl — ktT 
 
 for the whole force. 
 
 315. To apply this to the determination of the 
 law of force, by which a particle without a sphere 
 would be acted upon by that sphere, the law of 
 force of each particle in the sphere being in- 
 versely as the squares of its distance ; let A B E C, 
 plate VI. fig. 3, represent a section of a sphere 
 of which the centre is F ; let H be the particle, 
 draw B C perpendicular to II E, join 11 B and 
 BA. Put A Fzz «, FHzzi, AHr:6^r^ 
 = €, H D zz _v and H B = c -|- x ; then A D 
 z=z y ~ c, E i) zz 2 a — y + C, and hence 
 B D' zz A D - D E z zHB ' — H D^ or ^"^=^c 
 X 2a — 3/ + c ZZ c -f cT^ — 3/2, an equation 
 fromwhichweget3/z:?-'''^ + 2c2-f2cx + x2 
 
 _ 2 b c + 2 c X -f x2 
 
 26 
 
 2a + 2c 
 , as a -\- c ■=. b. Hence, 
 
 the attractive force of the particles on the circle 
 whose diameter is B C is, by the last proportion, 
 
 = 2pxl-'^ = 2px(l-''-^^±^^^±£) 
 "" ^ 2bx c + x / 
 
 2p X 2 ax — x'^ 
 2 b-c + X 
 
 133 
 
 which multiplied by 
 
 c X 4- X X . p X 2 a X X — xx , 
 
 — i-T zz gives ^- for the 
 
 fluxion of the required force, and the fluent of 
 this expresssion, P ^ "^^ ^ ^ is the force of 
 
 the segment ABC, and therefore when B coin- 
 cides with E, or a; zz: 2 a, this expression be- 
 comes —wjT ^^^ attractive force of the whole 
 
 sphere. 
 
 316. If the particles, of which the globe is 
 composed, acted upon those without in the re- 
 ciprocal duplicate proportion of their distances, 
 the whole globe would hence act upon them in 
 the same manner as it does ; but, if the particles 
 of the globe have not all of them that property, 
 some must act in a greater, and some in a less 
 proportion; and if this be the condition of the 
 globe, it is plain that when the body attracted is 
 in such a situation in respect of the globe, that 
 the greater number of the strongest particles are 
 nearest to it, the body will be more forcibly at- 
 tracted than when, by turning the globe about, 
 the greater quantity of weak particles should be 
 nearest, though the distance of the body should 
 remain the same from the centre of the globe ; 
 which is contrary to what was at first remarked, 
 that the globe acts equally on all sides. If all 
 the particles of the globe attract all the particles 
 of another in the proportion already mentioned, 
 the attracting globe will act upon the other in the 
 same proportion to the distance between the cen- 
 tre of the globe which attracts, and the centre of 
 that which is attracted : and the proportion holds 
 true, though eitlier or both of the globes be com- 
 posed of dissimilar parts, some rarer, and some 
 more dense ; provided only that all the parts in 
 the same globe, equally distant from the centre, 
 be homogeneous, and likewise if both globes at- 
 tract each other. 
 
 317. It is thus shown, that this power in the 
 great bodies of the universe is derived from the 
 same being lodged in every particle of the mat- 
 ter which composes them ; and consequently that 
 it is universal in matter, though the power is too 
 minute to produce any visible eflects on the 
 small bodies with which we are conversant, by 
 their action on one another. In the fixed stars 
 indeed we have no particular proof that they 
 have this power, as we find no appearance to 
 demonstrate that they either act or are acted 
 upon by it. But since this power is found to 
 belong to all bodies whereon we can make ob- 
 servation, and we find that it is not altered 
 by any change in the shape of bodies, but ac- 
 companies them in every form without diminu- 
 tion, being ever proportional to the quantity of 
 solid matter in each, it is highly probable that 
 such a power belongs universally to all matter. 
 
 318. From the times in which the satellites 
 perform their revolutions, compared with tlieir 
 distances from their respective primaries, the 
 proportion between the power with which one 
 primary attracts his satellites, and the force with
 
 134 
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 •which any other attracts his, may be found ; and 
 the proportion of the power with which any 
 planet attracts his secondary to the power with 
 ■which it attracts a body at its surface, is found 
 by comparing the distance of the secondary planet 
 from the centre of the primary with the distance 
 of the primary planet's surface from the same ; 
 and from hence is deduced the proportion be- 
 tween the power of gravity upon the surface of one 
 planet to the gravity upon the surface of another. 
 
 319. In a like manner by comparing the 
 periodical time of a primary planet about the 
 sun, with the revolution of a satellite about its 
 primary, may be found the proportion of gravity, 
 or of the weight of any body, on the surface of 
 the sun, to the gravity or to the weight of the 
 same body upon the surface of the planet which 
 carries about the satellite. 
 
 320. Amongst the ancient mathematicians, 
 nothing could have appeared more completely out 
 of the reach of human intellect, than by calcula- 
 tion to determine the internal structure of remote 
 and inaccessible bodies, that is, than to find the 
 densities of the planets. Such, however, has been 
 effected in modern times. The density of a 
 planet can be found by comparing the velocity 
 in its orbit round the sun with the velocity of its 
 satellite, or by determining the distance which it 
 deflected from its tangent in one second of time, 
 comparing its angular velocity with the mean 
 radius of its orbit, and by knowing the space 
 which a heavy body falk through in one second 
 by the force of gravity at its surface. 
 
 321. To understand the principle upon which 
 this determination rests, we may observe that the 
 effect of attraction at equal distances will be in 
 
 Log. D zz log. 95000000 = 7-9777236 
 Log. m zz log. 883217 r: 5-9460674 
 
 proportion to the quantity of matter in the at- 
 tracting body ; and at different distances, at the 
 quantity of matter and the inverse square of the 
 distance conjointly. The quantity of matter is 
 also in proportion to the magnitude of the body 
 and its density conjointly. If tlierefore we know 
 the effects of the attraction of different bodies, 
 together with their magnitudes, we can find their 
 densities, and thence their quantities of matter. 
 
 To find their densities, put 
 
 d = the density of the celestial object, 
 
 m = its diameter, 
 
 a = its quantity of matter, 
 
 P = the periodic time of the revolving body, 
 
 D = the mean distance of the revolving body 
 from its central body, 
 
 s = the sine of the angle under which m ap- 
 pears at the distance D, to radius unity. 
 
 Then a varies as dm^, and P^ varies as — ,or 
 
 pa 
 
 hence, d varies as 
 
 D' 
 
 but s z= 
 
 — rr- ; hence, d varies as , „., ■ . 
 
 From this we conclude that the logarithm of the 
 
 density varies as 3 X log.^ 2 log. P. But^ 
 
 in order to make the comparison between dif- 
 ferent planets as simple as possible, we shall 
 suppose the density of the sun to be 1, and find a 
 logarithm, which, taken from the above formula, 
 will make it so. Forthis purpose we shall take the 
 diameter of the sun zz. 883,217 miles, its distance 
 from the earth 95,000,000 miles, and the earth's 
 periodic time 365'2564 days. Hence, we have — 
 
 2-0316562 X 3 =: 6-0949686 
 
 Log. P = log. 365-2564 = 25625978 X 2 = 5-1251956 
 
 0-9697730 
 325. To find the density of Saturn, if we take 
 
 = 2-75, 
 
 the logarithm of the sun's density. But the lo- 
 garithm of 1 is ; hence the logarithm of the den- D 
 
 sity of a planet is to that of the sun, considered as the second satellite we shall have — - 
 
 unity, as 1 to 3 X log. -- 2 logP--9697730. ^nd P = 2-7368, therefore 3 x log. - _ 2 log. 
 
 lit a ^^, o 
 
 323. To find the density of the earth, we take 
 
 the moon as the revolving, and the earth as the 
 central body. D — 240000, m z=. 7955, and P 
 
 =: 27-32167 ; and 3 X log. - — 2 log. P— 
 
 P — -9697730 is equal to — 1-4737389, the log. 
 of "2977. Let us take the fifth ; then we have 
 
 - = 27, and P rr 79-3196. Hence 3 x log, 
 - — 2 log. P — -9697730 is equal to — 
 
 -9697730 is then equal to - 5959255, the log. of 
 3-9439. 
 
 To find the density of Jupiter. If we take the 1-5255573 the log. of -3354. 
 
 first satellite as the revolving body, we shall have 326. To find the density of Uranus, if we take 
 
 -r=2-8385 and P ~ 1-7691 : hence 3 X log. the third sateUite we shall have — z=. 9-5, and 
 
 2 log. -9697730 is then equal to 1-8916918 P=: 10-9611, then 3 x log - — 2 log ofP — 
 
 the log. of -7793. -9697730 is equal to— 1-8836886, the log. of 
 
 324. Again, if we take the fourth satellite, we 7650. 
 D 
 
 shall have — =: 1265 and P 
 
 1 ' ^oor,o Again, let us take the sixth satellite, and we 
 
 16-68898, T-j 
 
 '" shall have — =r 44, and Prr 107-6944; hence, 
 
 therefore 3 X log — — 2 log. P — -9697730 -q'" 
 
 is the equal tc ^ 1-8916389 the log. of -7792. ^ ^ ^"S" T. " "^ ^°^' ^ " "^^^^^'^ ^^ ^^""' ^"
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 135 
 
 — 1-8961985 the log. of -7874. A trifling dif- 
 ference, either in the periodic time, or the dis- 
 tance of the satellite, will make a considerable 
 difference in the density of the primary ; and 
 hence, if these be not very correct, the density 
 cannot be depended on with any degree of ac- 
 curacy. 
 
 327. The above are the only planets whose 
 densities can be found by this method. Those 
 which have no satellite, have obliged astrono- 
 mers to have resource to a method much less 
 accurate, depending on the effect, which by ob- 
 servation the planet is found to produce in dis- 
 turbing the motions of the other planets. Dr. 
 Maskelyne makes the density of Venus 1-024, 
 and M. de la Lande 1-038, that of the earth being 
 1 . Laplace concludes the density of Mars to be 
 •6563, and of Mercury 2-5833, the earth being 
 1. The density of the moon has been estimated 
 at 1-456 times the density of the earth. 
 
 If the density of the earth be taken equal to 
 4^ times that of water, we shall have the densi- 
 ties, or specific gravities, of the planets in the 
 following proportions : — 
 
 Sun 1-1410 nearly ^ to the specific gra- 
 
 vity of opaque copal 
 Mercury 11-6250 . . . lead 
 Venus 4'6395 . . . molybsena 
 Earth 4*5000 . . . ponderous spar 
 
 Moon 6-5520 . . . cast antimony 
 
 Mars 2-9533 . . . flint glass 
 
 Jupiter 0-8891 . . . mulberry tree 
 Saturn 0-3612 . . . poplar 
 Uranus 0-8356 . . . beech tree. 
 
 PART III. 
 
 EXPLANATION OF THE CELESTIAL PHE- 
 NOMENA, ACCORDING TO THE NEW- 
 TONIAN DOCTRINE. 
 
 Sect. I. — Of the Circles, Nodes, Aspects, 
 Conjunctions, &c. of the Planets. 
 
 328. To a spectator placed in the sun all the 
 planets would appear to describe circles annually 
 in the heavens; for, though their motions are 
 really elliptical, the eccentricity is so small, that 
 the difference between them and true circles is 
 not easily perceived, even on earth ; and at the sun, 
 whether great or small, it would entirely vanish. 
 These circles, which in such a situation would ap- 
 pear to be annually described among the fixed 
 stars, are called the heliocentric circles of the 
 planets. To a spectator in the sun, the comets, 
 though moving in the most eccentric orbits, would 
 also appear to describe circles in the heavens : for, 
 though their orbits are in reality very long ellipses, 
 the planes of them extended to the heavens would 
 mark a great circle of which the eye would be the 
 centre ; only, as the real motion is in an ellipsis, 
 the body would appear to move much more slow- 
 ly in some part of the circle than another, and 
 to differ excessively in magnitude. 
 
 329. To an inhabitant of any planet, however, 
 the sun appears to go round in its own heliocen- 
 tric circle, or to describe in the heavens that same 
 '•urve, which the planet would appear to do if seen 
 from the sun. Thus, in plate XVI. fig. 8, when 
 
 the earth is at a, if we draw a line from a through 
 the sun at S, the point G, in the sphere of the 
 heavens where the line terminates, is the place 
 where the sun then appears to an inhabitant of the 
 earth. In a month's time the earth will go from 
 a to 6 ; draw a line then through the sun, and its 
 extremity at II will point out his apparent place 
 at that time. In like manner, if we draw lines 
 from the earth in twelve several situations, in 
 which it is represented for the twelve months of 
 the year, the sun's apparent place will be found 
 as above ; and so it would be found by a spec- 
 tator placed in Venus, or any other planet. 
 
 330. The heliocentric circle of the earth is call- 
 ed the ecliptic ; because eclipses of the sun or 
 moon can only happen when the latter is in or 
 near it. By some ancient writers it has been 
 called the circle of the sun, or the oblique circle, 
 because it cuts the equator at oblique angles. It 
 is also called by Ptolemy the circle which passes 
 through the midst of the animals ; because the 
 twelve constellations through which it passes, 
 were anciently all represented by animals, or 
 parts of them, though now the balance is intro- 
 duced in place of the claws of the scorpion. For 
 this reason a belt, taken in the concave sphere 
 of the heavens, about ten degrees on each side of 
 the ecliptic, is called the zodiac, from ^wov, an 
 animal, and the constellations through which the 
 ecliptic is drawn, are called the constellations of 
 the zodiac. 
 
 331. Although the sun apparently goes round 
 the earth annually in this circle, we cannot deter- 
 mine his place by mere inspection, asv*e can do 
 that of any other heavenly body ; for the fixed 
 stars are the only marks by which we can deter- 
 mine the place of any of the celestial bodies ; and 
 the superior brightness of the sun renders them 
 totally invisible, except in the time of a great 
 eclipse, when his light is for a time totally ob- 
 scured. But thougli we cannot know the place 
 of the sun directly, it is easily found from a 
 knowledge of those fixed stars which are opposite 
 to him. 
 
 332. Thus, in plate IX. fig. 9, suppose it the 
 time of the year in which the earth is at g, it 
 we know that the point G is then diametrically 
 opposite to the sun, we know that A, its opposite, 
 is the sun's place, and consequently, by finding 
 the places throughout the year diametricallv op- 
 posite to the sun, as G 11 1 K L :\I A B C D E F, we 
 may be assured tiiat in these times the sun's place 
 was in the points A B C D E F G H I K L :M. The 
 point in the heavens diametrically opposite to the 
 sun may be known every night at twelve o'clock 
 when the stars are visible ; for the star which has 
 an elevation above the horizon, at that time equal 
 to the sun's depression below it, is directly op- 
 posite to him. 
 
 333. When the position of the ecliptic is thus 
 determined, the latitude of the moon, or any 
 star, is measured by its distance from the eclip- 
 tic, in tlie same manner as the latitudes of places 
 on the earth are reckoned by their distance from 
 the equator, and circles passing through the poles 
 of the ecliptic at right angles to its plane, are 
 called circles of latitude. The declination of any 
 celestial body is its deviation from llie equator 
 towards the role nearest to it.
 
 136 
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 334. The latitude of any planet is either he- 
 liocentric or geocentric. The heliocentric latitude 
 is its distance from the ecliptic as seen from tlie 
 sun, and its geocentric as seen from the earth. As 
 the orbits of the planets are inclined in different 
 angles to the ecliptic, the heliocentric latitude of 
 any planet, is almost always different from its geo- 
 centric latitude. Thus, let AB, plate VII. fig. 
 1 1, be the orbit of the earth, C D the orbit of Ve- 
 nus, viewed with the eye in their common section, 
 wherein they appear straight lines ; let E and F 
 be two opposite points of the ecliptic ; and sup- 
 pose Venus to be in the point C. If she were at 
 that time viewed from the sun S, she would ap- 
 pear in the point of the heavens marked H, and 
 her heliocentric latitude is then F H ; but if 
 viewed from the earth in B, she will appear at 
 g ; and her geocentric is only F g. 
 
 335. The planets Mercury and Venus, whose 
 orbits are included in that of the earth, are called 
 inferior ; and Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and the 
 Georgium Sidus, are called superior planets. 
 The two points where the heliocentric circle of 
 any planet cuts the ecliptic, are called its nodes; 
 and that which the planet passes through as it 
 goes into north latitude, is called the ascending 
 node, and is marked thus y ; and the opposite 
 to this is called the descending node, and is 
 marked fl . A line drawn from one node to the 
 other is called the line of the nodes of the pla- 
 net, which is the common section of the plane of 
 the ecliptic, and that of the planet produced on 
 each side to the fixed stars. 
 
 336. The zodiac is either astral or local. 
 Hie astral is divided into twelve unequal parts, 
 because it contains twelve celestial constellations, 
 some of which are larger than others. The local 
 zodiac is divided into twelve equal parts, called 
 signs, each containing thirty degrees. These are 
 counted from the point where the equator and 
 ecliptic intersect each other at the time of the 
 vernal equinox; and are denoted by particular 
 marks, according to the apparent annual motion 
 of the sun. See plate V, fig. 6. A motion in 
 the heavens in the order of these signs, as from 
 Aries to Taurus, is said to be a motion in conse- 
 quence ; and such are the true motions of all the 
 planets, though their apparent motions are some- 
 times contrary, and then they are said to move in 
 antecedence. The local zodiac is not always in- 
 variably the same as to the places of the several 
 signs, though the whole always takes up the same 
 place in the heavens, viz. ten degrees on each 
 side the ecliptic. The points where the celestial 
 equator cuts the ecliptic, are found to have a mo- 
 tion in antecedence of about fifty seconds a 
 year. 
 
 337. This change of place of the first point of 
 the ecliptic, from whence the signs are counted, 
 occasions a like change in the signs themselves; 
 ■which, though scarcely sensible for a few years, 
 has now become very considerable. Thus, since 
 astronomy was first cultivated among the Greeks, 
 which is about 2000 years ago, the first point of 
 the ecliptic is removed backward above a whole 
 sign : and, though it was then about the middle 
 of the constellation Aries, is now about the mid- 
 dle of Pisces. Notwithstanding this alteration, 
 however, the signs still retain their ancient names 
 
 and marks. When the zodiac is mentioned by 
 astronomers, the local zodiac is generally meant, 
 
 338. The longitude of a phenomenon in the 
 heavens is in the number of degrees counted 
 from the first point of Aries on the ecliptic to the 
 place where a circle of latitude drawn through 
 the phenomenon would cut the ecliptic at right 
 angles. Every phenomenon in the heavens, 
 whether in the zodiac or not, is thus referred to 
 the ecliptic by its circle of latitude, or great circle, 
 passing through the phenomenon, and cutting 
 the ecliptic at right angles ; and whatever sign 
 the circle of latitude passes through, the pheno- 
 menon is said to have its place in that sign, 
 though ever so far distant from it. 
 
 339. Some astronomers make the local zodiac 
 invariable ; for which purpose they imagine a cir- 
 cle of latitude drawn through the first star of the 
 constellation Aries, marked in Bayer's catalogue 
 by the Greek letter y ; and reckon their longitude 
 from the point where that circle cuts the ecliptic. 
 This star is called the first star of the Ram ; and, 
 when this method is made use of, the longitude 
 of any phenomenon is said to be so many signs, 
 degrees, minutes, &c. from the first star of the 
 Ram. Thus, in Street's Caroline Tables, the 
 longitude of Jupiter's ascending node is two 
 signs eight degrees from the first star of Aries, 
 which is thus marked : Long, i; g^ a 1* r^ 2^ 8°, 
 The common way of reckoning the longitude of 
 a phenomenon, is to take ^ for the first point of 
 the ecliptic, and not to number the degrees quite 
 round that circle as a continued series, but to 
 make a new beginning at the first point of every 
 sign, and to reckon from thence only the length 
 of 30°. When this method is made use of, the 
 longitude of any phenomenon is expressed by 
 saying it is in such a degree, and such a minute 
 of a sign ; and thus we may express the longi- 
 tude of the ascending node of Mercury, ^ $? 8 
 13° 40', and so of any other. The place of a 
 phenomenon in the heavens is expressed by set- 
 ting down its longitude and latitude. 
 
 340. Every planet, like the moon, is sometimes 
 ■in conjunction with the sun, and sometimes in 
 opposition. Its conjunction is when the geo- 
 centric place of the planet is the same with that 
 of the sun ; though an exact or central conjunc- 
 tion can only take place when the line of its 
 nodes passes through the earth, and the planet 
 itself is in one of its nodes at the time. It is 
 however, in general, called a conjunction or op- 
 position, when the same circle of latitude passes 
 through the sun and planet at the same time. 
 When the geocentric place of a planet is 90°, or 
 a quarter of a circle from the sun's place, the 
 planet is said to be in quadrature or in a quar- 
 tile aspect with the sun ; and these terms are 
 used in a like sense when applied to any two 
 of the heavenly bodies. Thus the sun and moon, 
 or the moon and any planet, or any two planets, 
 may be in conjunction, opposition, or quadrature. 
 
 341. Besides these, the ancients reckoned two 
 other aspects, the trine and the sextile; the for- 
 mer when the bodies were distant 120°, and the 
 latter when only half that distance. These as- 
 pects are marked thus : 
 
 Conjunct. Opposition Quadra. Trine Sextile 
 6 8 DA*
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 137 
 
 The aspects were formerly supposed to influence 
 the affairs of mankind ; but astrology, which 
 treated of these influences, is now justly re- 
 jected. 
 
 342. The inferior planets have two kinds of 
 conjunction with the sun ; one in the inferior part 
 of their semicircles, the other in the superior part. 
 In the former the planet is between the earth 
 and the sun ; and in the latter the sun is between 
 the earth and planet. The inferior planets can 
 never be in opposition to the sun, nor even ap- 
 pear at a great distance from him. The length 
 they go is called their elongation. Thus, in 
 plate IX. fig. 11, let OPQRT be part of the 
 ecliptic ; S the sun ; and the three circles round 
 him the orbits of IVIercury, Venus, and the earth. 
 Suppose the earth to be at A, the sun's geocen- 
 tric place will be at Q. If Mercury be then at 
 I, his geocentric place is likewise at Q ; so that 
 he is in conjunction with the sun in his inferior 
 semicircle : if at M, his geocentric place is like- 
 wise at Q ; so that he is in conjunction in his 
 superior semicircle. 
 
 343. In like manner, Venus at E is in con- 
 junction in her inferior semicircle, at G in her 
 superior : but if we suppose the earth to be at A, 
 and Venus at H, her geocentric place is T, and 
 Ler elongation Q T, which in this figure is the 
 greatest possible; for this always takes place 
 when a straight line from the earth touches the 
 orbit of the planet, as is evident from the figure ; 
 that is, provided the planet be in its aphelion at 
 the time. Thus the greatest possible elongation 
 of Mercury is Q P when he is in his aphelion at 
 L; and the quantity of this is found by astrono- 
 mical observations to be about twenty-eight 
 degrees, and that of Venus about forty-eight. 
 The inferior planets in their elongations are 
 sometimes eastward and sometimes westward of 
 the sun ; in the former case they appear in the 
 evening, and in the latter in the morning. The 
 smailness of Mercury and his nearness to the sun 
 prevent him from being often taken notice of; 
 but the largeness and beauty of Venus have 
 made her, in all ages, celebrated as the evening 
 and morning star. 
 
 344. The planets sometimes appear to go 
 forward, sometimes backward, and sometimes to 
 stand still. These different conditions are by 
 astronomers called direct, retrograde, and station- 
 ary. Were they to be viewed from the sun they 
 would always appear direct; but when viewed 
 from the earth, the inferior planets appear direct 
 while moving in their upper semicircles, and 
 retrogade when in their lower ones. Thus in 
 plate IX. fig. 11, suppose the earth at rest at A, 
 while ^Mercury is going on his orbit from N to I, 
 and from I to L, his motion appears to an ob- 
 server at A to be retrograde, or contrary to the 
 order of tlie signs, namely from R to Q and 
 from Q to P ; but when in that part of his orbit 
 which lies between L and N, his motion appears 
 direct, or from P to Q and from Q to R. 
 
 345. When the earth is in the line of nodes of 
 an inferior planet, the apparent motion of the 
 former is then in a straight line, because the 
 plane of it passes through the eye ; if in a con- 
 junction in his upper semicircle, he passes behind 
 the sun; if in his lower semicircle, he passes 
 
 before it, and will then be seen by an observer 
 on the earth to pass over the sun's disk like a 
 round and very black spot. Were the plane 
 of his orbit coincident with the ecliptic, this 
 appearance would be seen every year; but by 
 reason of the obliquity of the two planes to each 
 other, it is much more rare. 
 
 346. Mercury, however, was seen in this man- 
 ner November 12th, 1782, at 3h. 44 m. in the 
 afternoon; May 4th, 1786, at 6h.57m. in the 
 morning; and December 6th, 1789, at 3 h. 55 m. 
 in the afternoon ; but was not seen again, in this 
 island at least, until the year 1799, May 7th, at 
 2 h. 34 m. in the afternoon. In like manner, 
 Venus sometimes appears as a black spot on the 
 sun, but more seldom than Mercury. She was 
 thus seen first in 1639; afterwards in the years 
 1761 and 1769; but will not again be visible in 
 this manner till the year 1874. 
 
 347. When the earth is out of the line of the 
 nodes of an inferior planet, its orbit appears an 
 ellipsis, more or less eccentric, according to the 
 situation of the eye of the spectator. In these 
 cases the motion of Mercury is unequal ; faster 
 near the inferior conjunction, but most unequal 
 in the inferior semicircle, going through the un- 
 equal spaces into which the ellipsis is divided. 
 The motions of the inferior planets, both direct 
 and retrograde, are very unequal ; and this ine- 
 quality proceeds not from the eccentricity of 
 their orbits, but from the projection of their 
 orbits into long ellipses, and is therefore a mere 
 optical deception. 
 
 348. These planets appear stationary while 
 changing their motion from direct to retrograde, 
 or from retrograde to direct If the earth stood 
 still, the times oftheirappearmg stationary would 
 be at tlieir greatest elongation ; for though it be 
 a property of the circle, that a straight line can 
 only touch it in one point, yet when the circle is 
 very large, the recess from the tangent is not per- 
 ceptible for a considerable time. Thus in plate 
 IX. fig. 11, suppose the earth to be at rest in A, 
 Venus would appear stationary, her geocentric 
 place continuing at T all the while she is going 
 in her orbit from a to b; because her deviation 
 from the visual line A T would scarcely be per- 
 ceptible so near the point of contact H. 
 
 349. The inferior planets, therefore, to an in- 
 habitant of the earth, appear always near the sun ; 
 alternately going from and returning to him, 
 sometimes in straight lines, at others in elliptical 
 curves, first on one side and then on the other ; 
 sometimes so near as to be rendered invisible by 
 his stronger light. Sometimes, when in or near 
 their nodes, they pass behind the sun in their 
 superior semicircles, or pass between him and 
 us ; in which case they appear like black spots 
 on his disk, as above-mentioned. For the better 
 com.preh ending of these motions, however, we 
 have hitherto supposed the earth to stand still in 
 some part of its orbit, while they go round the 
 sun in theirs ; but as this is not the case, it now 
 remains to consider the changes which take place 
 in consequence of the earth's motion. 
 
 350. Were the earth to stand still in any part 
 of its orbit, as at A, the places of conjunction, 
 both in the superior and inferior semicircle, as 
 also of the greatest elongation ; and, consequently.
 
 138 
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 the places of direct and retrograde motion, and 
 of the stations of an inferior planet, would 
 always be in the same part of the heavens. Thus, 
 in plate IX. fig. 11, upon this supposition, the 
 places of Mercury's stations would always be the 
 points P and R, the arc of his direct motion P R, 
 and of his retrograde motion R P ; whereas, on 
 account of the earth's motion, the places where 
 these appearances happen are continually advanc- 
 ing forward in the ecliptic, according to the order 
 of the signs. In fig. 10, plate VIII., let A B C D 
 be the orbit of the earth ; efg h that of Mercury, 
 the sun ; G F K I an arc of the ecliptic ex- 
 tended to the fixed stars. When the earth is at 
 A, the sun's geocentric place is at F ; and Mer- 
 cury, in order to a conjunction, must be in the 
 line A F ; that is, in his orbit he must be at /' or 
 h. Suppose him to be dXf, in his inferior semi- 
 circle ; if the earth stood still at A, his next 
 conjunction would be when he is in his superior 
 semicircles at h ; the places of his greatest elonga- 
 tion also would be at e and g, and in the ecliptic 
 at E and G; but supposing the earth to goon in 
 its orbit from A to B, the sun's geocentric place 
 is now at K; and Mercury, in order to be in 
 conjunction, ought to be in the line B K at m. 
 As by the motion of the earth, the places of Mer- 
 cury's conjunctions with the sun, are thus con- 
 tinually carried round in the ecliptic, in conse- 
 quence, so the places of his utmost elongations 
 must be carried in consequence also. Thus, 
 when the earth is at A, the places of his greatest 
 elongation from the sun are in the ecliptic E and 
 G ; the motion of the earth from A to B ad- 
 vances them forward from G to L, and from E 
 to I. 
 
 351. The geocentric motion of Venus may be 
 explained in a similar manner; only as the mo- 
 tion of \ enus is much slower than that of Mer- 
 cury, his conjunctions, oppositions, elongations, 
 and stations, all return much more frequently 
 than those of Venus. 
 
 352. To explain the stationary appearances of 
 the planets, it must be remembered that the 
 diameter of the earth's orbit, and even of that of 
 Saturn, are but mere points in comparison of the 
 distance of the fixed stars; and, therefore, any 
 two lines, absolutely parallel, though drawn at 
 the distance of the diameter of Saturn's orbit 
 from each other, would if continued to the fixed 
 stars, appear to us to terminate in the same point. 
 Let the two circles, plate IX. fig. 4, represent the 
 orbits of Venus and of the earth ; let the lines 
 A E, B F, C G, D H, be parallel to S P ; we may 
 nevertheless affirm that, if continued to the dis- 
 tance of the fixed stars, they would all terminate 
 in the same point with the line S P. Suppose, 
 then, Venus at E, while the earth is at A, the vi- 
 sual ray, by which she is seen, is in the line A E. 
 Suppose again, that while \'enus goes from E to 
 F, the earth goes from A to B, the visual ray, by 
 •which Venus is now seen, is B F, parallel to A 
 E ; and therefore, Venus will be all that time 
 stationary, appearing in that point of the hea- 
 vens where S P extended would terminate ; this 
 station is at her changing from direct to retro- 
 grade. Again, suppose, when the earth is at C, 
 Venus is at G, and the visual hue C G ; if, while 
 the earth goes from C to D, \'enus goes from G 
 
 to H, so that she is seen in the line G H, parallel 
 to C G, she will be all that time stationary, ap- 
 pearing in the point where a line drawn from S 
 through P would terminate. This station is at 
 her changing from retrograde to direct ; and both 
 are in her inferior semicircle. 
 
 853. An inferior planet, when in conjunction 
 with the sun, in its inferior semicircle, is said to 
 be in perigee, and when in the other, to be in 
 apogee, on account of its different distances from 
 the earth. Their real distances from the earth 
 when in perigee are variable, partly owing to 
 the eccentricities of their orbits, as well as tliat 
 of the earth; and partly owing to the motions of 
 the different bodies, by which it happens that 
 they are in perigee, in different parts of their 
 orbits. The least possible distance is when the 
 perigee happens at the time that the earth is 
 in its perihelion, and when the planet is in its 
 aphelion. 
 
 356. The difierence of distance between the 
 earth and inferior planets, at different times, 
 makes a considerable variation in their apparent 
 diameters, which indeed is very observable in all 
 the planets ; and thus, they sometimes look con- 
 siderably larger than at others. This difference 
 of magnitude in Mercury is nearly as 5^ to 1 ; 
 and in Venus, no less than 32 to 1. Any person, 
 unassisted by instruments, may observe an in- 
 ferior planet alternately approacli nearer and 
 nearer the sun, until at last it comes into con- 
 junction with him, and then recedes farther and 
 farther, till it is at its greatest elongation, which 
 will be first on one side, and then on the other; 
 but, if we observe the apparent change of place, 
 of an inferior planet, in the sphere of the heavens, 
 its direct motions, stations, and retrogradations, 
 measuring its diameter frequently with the mi- 
 crometer, we shall find, by its decrease at some 
 times, and increase at others, that its distance 
 from us is very considerably varied. 
 
 355. As the superior planets move in a larger 
 orbit than the earth, they can only be in con- 
 junction with the sun, when they are on that side 
 opposite to the earth ; as, on the other hand, 
 they are in opposition to him, when the earth is 
 between the sun and them. They are in qua- 
 drature with him, when the geocentric places 
 are 90° distant from that of the sun. In order 
 to understand their apparent motions, we shall 
 suppose them to stand still, in some part of 
 their orbit, while the earth makes a complete 
 revolution in hers ; in which case, any superior 
 planet would then have the following appear- 
 ances : 
 
 356. 1. While the earth is in her most distant 
 semicircle, the motion of the planet will be 
 direct. 2. While the earth is in her nearest 
 semicircle, the planet will be retrograde. 3. 
 While the earth is near those places of its orbit, 
 where a line drawn from the planet would be a 
 tangent, it would appear to be stationary. Thus, 
 in plate VIII. fig. 6, let o 6 c d represent the orbit 
 of the earth ; S the sun ; EFG an arc of the 
 orbit of Jupiter; ABC an arc of the ecliptic, 
 projected on the sphere of the fixed stars. Sup- 
 pose Jupiter to continue at F, while the earth 
 goes round in her orbit, according to the order 
 of the letters abed. While the earth is in the
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 139 
 
 semicircle most distant from Jupiter, going from 
 a to 6 and from 6 to c, his motion in the heavens 
 would appear direct, or from A to B, and from 
 B to C ; but, while the earth is in its nearest 
 semicircle cde, the motion of Jupiter would ap- 
 pear retrograde from C to B, and from B to A ; 
 for a, b, c, d, may be considered as so many dif- 
 ferent stations, from whence an inhabitant of the 
 earth would view Jupiter at different seasons of 
 the year, and a straight line drawn from each of 
 these stations, through F the place of Jupiter, 
 and continued to the ecliptic, would show his 
 apparent place there to be successively at A, B, 
 C, B, A. While the earth is near the points of 
 contact, a and c, Jupiter would appear stationary, 
 because the visual ray drawn through both pla- 
 nets, does not sensibly differ from the tangent 
 Fa or Fc. When the earth is at b, a line drawn 
 from b through S and F to the ecliptic, shows 
 Jupiter to be in conjtmction with the sun at B. 
 When the earth is at d, a line drawn from d 
 through S, continued to the ecliptic, would ter- 
 minate in a point opposite to B ; which shows 
 Jupiter then to be in opposition to the sun ; and 
 thus, it appears, that his motion is direct in the 
 conjunction, but retrograde when in opposition 
 with the sun. 
 
 357. The direct motion of a superior planet is 
 swifter the nearer it is to a conjunction, and 
 slower as it approaches to a quadrature with the 
 the sun. Thus, in fig. 9, plate XIII., let be 
 the Sim ; the little circle round it the orbit of the 
 earth, whereof abed efg is the most distant 
 semicircle ; O P Q, an arc of the orbit of Jupiter ; 
 and ABC D EFG, an arc of the ecliptic in the 
 sphere of the fixed stars. If we suppose Ju- 
 piter to stand still at P, by the earth's motion 
 from a to g, he would appear to move direct- 
 from A to G, describing the imequal arcs AB, 
 BC, CD, DE, EF, FG, in equal times. When 
 the earth is at d, Jupiter is in conjunction with 
 the sun at D, and there his direct motion is 
 swiftest. When the earth is in that part of her 
 orbit where a line drawn from Jupiter would 
 touch it, as in the points e or g, Jupiter is 
 nearly in quadrature with the sun ; and the 
 nearer the earth is to any of these points, the 
 slower is the geocentric motion of Jupiter; for 
 the arcs C D and D E are greater than B C or 
 EF, and the arcs BC and EF are greater than 
 ABorFG. 
 
 358. The retrograde motion of a superior 
 planet is swifter the nearer it is to an opposition, 
 and slower as it approaches to a quadrature 
 with the sun. Thus, let 0, fig. 10, plate XIII. 
 be the sun, the little circle round it the orbit of 
 the earth, whereof^ h i k I m n is the nearest se- 
 micircle; OPQ, an arc of the orbit of Jupiter, 
 NKG an arc of the ecliptic: if we suppose Ju- 
 piter to stand still at P, by the earth's motion 
 from g to n, he would appear to move retro- 
 grade from G to N, describing the unequal arcs 
 GH, HI, IK, KL, LM, M N, m equal times. 
 When the earth is at k, Jupiter appears at K, in 
 opposition to the sun, and there his retrograde 
 motion is swiftest. When the earth is either at 
 g oi n, the points of contact of the tangents Pg 
 and Pn, Jupiter is nearly in quadrature with 
 the sun ; and the nearer he is to either of these 
 
 points, the slower is his retrogradation ; for the 
 arcs I K and K L are greater than H I or L M ; 
 and the arcs H I and K M are greater than G H or 
 MN. Since the direct motion is swifter when 
 the earth is at d, and continues diminishing till 
 it changes to retrograde, it must be insensible 
 near the time of change; and, in like manner, 
 the retrograde motion being swiftest when the 
 earth is in k, and diminishing gradually till it 
 changes to direct, must also at the time of that 
 change be insensible ; for any motion gradually 
 decreasing till it changes into a contrary one 
 gradually increasing, must at the time of the 
 change be altogether insensible. 
 
 359. The same changes in the apparent mo- 
 tions of this planet will also take place, if we 
 suppose him to go on slowly in his orbit ; only 
 they will happen every year when the earth is in 
 different parts of her orbit, and consequently at 
 different times of the year. Thus, fig. 6, plate 
 VIII., let us suppose that while the earth goes 
 round her orbit Jupiter goes from F to G, the 
 points of the earth's orbit from which Jupiter 
 will now appear to be stationary, will be a and 
 7/ ; and consequently his stations must be at a 
 time of the year different from the former. The 
 conjunction of Jupiter with the sun will now be 
 when the earth is at/', and his opposition when 
 it is at e ; for which reason these also will hap- 
 pen at times of the year different from those of 
 the preceding opposition and conjunction. The 
 motion of Saturn is so slow, that it makes but 
 little alteration either in the times or places of 
 his conjunction or opposition ; and no doubt the 
 same will take place in a more eminent degree 
 in Herschel; but the motion of jNIars is so much 
 swifter than even that of Jupiter, that both the 
 times and places of his conjunctions and op- 
 positions are thereby very much altered. 
 
 360. A superior planet is in apogee when in 
 conjunction with the sun, and in perigee when 
 in opposition ; and every one of the superior 
 planets is at its least possible distance from the 
 earth where it is in perigee and perihelion at the 
 same time. Their apparent diameters are va- 
 riable, according to their distances, like those of 
 the inferior planets ; and this, as might natu- 
 rally be expected, is most remarkable in the 
 planet Mars, who is nearest us. In his nearest 
 approach, this planet is twenty-five times larger 
 than when farthest off, J upiter twice and a half, 
 and Saturn once and a half. As the times of 
 conjunction, utmost elongation, direct or re- 
 trograde motions of the inferior planets, depend 
 on the combinations of their motions in their 
 orbits with the motion of the earth in its orbit, 
 any of these appearances will be more frequent 
 in Mercury than in Venus, because the former 
 moves with a swifter motion in his orbit, and 
 consequently must more frequently pass through 
 those places where he is in conjunction, &c. 
 
 361. The time in which any of the inferior 
 planets will return into a given situation, may be 
 easily known. Compute the diurnal heliocentric 
 motions of Venus and of the earth ; the differ- 
 ence of these motions is the diurnal motion of 
 Venus from the earth, or the quantity by which 
 \'enus would be seen to recede from the earth 
 every day by a spectator placed in the sun : thus
 
 140 
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 the mean motion of Venus is every day about 
 59 m. and 8 s. ; the difference is 37 m. There- 
 fore, as 37 m. is to 360% or to 21,600 m. so is 
 one day to tlie time wherein Venus, having left 
 the earth, recedes from her 360'' ; that is, to the 
 time wherein she returns to the earth again, or 
 the time between two conjunctions of the same 
 kind. 
 
 362. The calculations of the times are here 
 made according to the mean or equable mo- 
 tions of the planets ; and is therefore called a 
 mean conjunction : but because Venus and the 
 earth are really carried in elliptic orbits, in 
 which their motions are sometimes swifter and 
 sometimes slower, the true conjunctions may 
 happen some days either sooner or later than 
 what these rules will give. The time of the true 
 conjunction is to be computed from that of the 
 mean conjunction in the following manner. -Find 
 by astronomical tables the places of Venus and 
 the earth in the ecliptic, from which we shall 
 have the distance of the two as seen from the 
 sun; compute also for the same time the an- 
 gular motions of these two planets for any given 
 time, suppose six hours ; the difference of these 
 two motions will give the access of Venus to the 
 earth, or her recess from it in six hours. As this 
 difference is to the arc between the places of 
 Venus and the earth at the time of a mean 
 conjunction, so is six hours to the time between 
 the mean conjunction and the true. This time 
 added to, or subtracted from, the time of the 
 mean conjunction, according as Venus is in an- 
 tecedence or consequence from the earth, shows 
 the time of their true conjunction. 
 
 363. As to the conjunctions, oppositions, di- 
 rect and retrograde motions, &c. of the superior 
 planets, they depend on the combinations of their 
 motions with that of the earth, and are more fre- 
 quent in Saturn than in Jupiter, and in Jupiter 
 than in Mars, but most frequent of all in Hers- 
 chel ; because the slower the motion of the pla- 
 net is, the sooner the earth will overtake it, so as 
 to have it again in any given situation. 
 
 364. Thus, suppose Saturn to be in conjunc- 
 tion with the sun in c^, if he were to stand still 
 for one year, then he would again be in con- 
 junction in (Y* ', but as he goes on slowly, ac- 
 cording to the order of the signs, about 12° an- 
 nually, the earth must go through almost 13° 
 more than an entire revolution ; so that there will 
 be almost a year and thirteen days between any 
 conjunction between the sun and Saturn and the 
 conjunction immediately following. As Jupiter 
 moves in his orbit with greater velocity than 
 Saturn, the earth must have- a proportionably 
 larger space added to the year ; and, as Mars 
 moves swifter still, the time betwixt any two of 
 his conjunctions must be still longer. The time 
 when a superior planet will return into any 
 given situation may be found by the methods 
 already laid down for the inferior planets ; and 
 the true conjunctions, &c. may be found in the 
 superior planets as in the inferior. 
 
 Sect. II. Of the Velocity, Figure, Motions, 
 &c. of the Eartu. 
 
 365. The earth is 95,173,000 miles from the sun, 
 and goes round in 365 days, five hours, forty- 
 
 nine minutes, from any equinox or solstice to the 
 same again ; but from any fixed star to the same 
 again, as seen from the sun, in 365 days, six 
 hours, nine minutes ; the former being the length 
 of the tropical year, and the latter the length of 
 the sideral. It travels at the rate of 68,000 miles 
 every hour ; a motion which, though upwards of 
 140 times swifter than that of a cannon ball, is 
 little more than half as swift as Mercury's mo- 
 tion in his orbit. The earth's diameter is 797a 
 miles ; and by turning round its axis every 
 twenty-four hours, from west to east, it causes an 
 apparent diurnal motion of all the heavenly 
 bodies from east to west. By this rapid motion 
 of the earth on its axis, the inhabitants about the 
 equator are carried 1042 miles every hour, whilst 
 those on the parallel of London are carried only 
 about 580, besides the 68,000 miles by the an- 
 nual motion above-mentioned, which is com- 
 mon to all places whatever. 
 
 366. A variety of circumstances afford the 
 clearest evidence that the earth is of a globular 
 figure. 1 . When we are at sea on board a ship, 
 we may be out of sight of land, when the land is 
 near enough to be visible, if it were not hid from 
 our eye by the convexity of the water. Thus, 
 let ABC D, fig. 11, plate VIII., represent a por- 
 tion of the globe of the earth. Let M be the 
 top of a mountain, this cannot be seen by a per- 
 son on board the ship at B, because a line drawn 
 from M to his eye at E, is intercepted by the 
 convexity of the water ; but let the ship come to 
 C, then the mountain will be visible, because a 
 line may be drawn from M to his eye at E. 2. 
 The higher the eye the farther the view will be 
 extended. It is very common for sailors from 
 the top of the mast of a ship, to discover land or 
 ships at a much greater distance than they can 
 do when they stand upon deck. 3. When we 
 stand on shore, the highest part of a ship is 
 visible at the greatest distance. If a ship is 
 going from us out to sea, we shall continue to see 
 the mast after the hull or body of the ship disap- 
 pears, and the top of the mast will continue to 
 be seen the longest. If a ship is coming to- 
 wards us, the top of the mast comes first in view, 
 and we see more and more till at last the hull 
 appears. If the surface of the sea were a flat 
 plain, a line might be drawn from any object si- 
 tuated upon it, as the ship D, fig, 12, plate VIII. 
 to the eye, whether placed higli or low, at A or 
 B. In this case, any object upon the earth oi 
 sea would be visible at any distance which wa? 
 not so great as to make the appearance of it toe 
 faint, or the angle under which it appears too 
 small, to be seen by us. An object would be 
 visible at the same distance, whether the eye were 
 high or low. Not the highest, but the largest, 
 objects would be visible to the greatest distance, 
 so that we should be able to see the hulk of a 
 ship farther off than the mast. 
 
 376. 4. Several navigators, such as Fer- 
 dinand Magellan, Sir Francis Drake, Lord 
 Anson, Captain Cook, &c. have sailed round 
 the globe ; not in an exact circle, the land pre- 
 venting them, but by going in and out as the 
 shores happened to lie. 5. All the appear- 
 ances in the heavens are the same, whether at 
 land or sea. 6. Eclipses of the moon arise
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 141 
 
 from the shadow of the earth, which is always 
 circular. Although the earth presents, during 
 several hours, different portions of its surface to 
 the moon, yet still the shadow is round. The 
 small inequalities upon the surface of the earth 
 bear no kind of proportion to its magnitude, suf- 
 ficient to alter the appearance of its shadow. 
 
 368. 7. The globular. -figure of the earth is 
 also inferred from the operation of levelling, in 
 which it is found necessary, to make an allow- 
 ance for the difference between the apparent and 
 true level. 
 
 369. The earth's axis makes an angle of 23|° 
 with the axis of its orbit, and its position at any 
 time is parallel to its position at any other time. 
 Thus it points always to the same quarter of the 
 heavens, throughout its annual course. That the 
 earth moves round the sun may be proved, 
 beyond a doubt, by the following arguments. 
 
 370. I. The sun is found by the most accurate 
 observations, to be immensely larger than the 
 earth; for his diameter, as seen by us, subtends 
 an angle of more than 30', but it is certain that 
 the earth, were it seen from the sun, would not 
 subtend a greater angle than about 17". If, 
 therefore, the sun be formed of materials not 
 very much rarer than the earth, the quantity of 
 matter in the sun, must far exceed the whole 
 mass of matter in all the planets ; and to sup- 
 pose, that gravity retains all the other planets in 
 their orbits, without affecting the earth, would 
 be as absurd as to suppose, that six cannon bul- 
 lets might be projected up to different heights in 
 the air, and that five of them should fall to the 
 ground, but that the sixth, though neither the 
 highest nor the lowest, should remain suspended 
 in the air without falling, and the earth move 
 round it. 
 
 371. There is no such thing in nature as a 
 heavy body moving round a light one as its cen- 
 tre of motion. A pebble fastened to a mill-stone 
 by a string, may, by an easy impulse, be made 
 to circulate round the mill-stone : but no impulse 
 can make a mill-stone circulate round a loose 
 pebble; for the mill-stone would go off, and 
 carry the pebble along with it. The sun is so 
 very much bigger and heavier than the earth, 
 that, if he were moved out of his place, not only 
 the earth, but all the other planets, if they were 
 united into one mass, would be carried along with 
 him as the pebble would be with the mill-stone. 
 
 372. II. If the earth revolve round the sun, 
 then the analogy between the squares of the 
 periodic times and the cubes of the distances, 
 will obtain in all the bodies which circulate 
 round a common centre ; whereas, this will not 
 be the case with respect to the sun and moon, if 
 both turn round the earth. 
 
 373. III. Besides these, other proofs might be 
 given ; but the most complete proof of all, and 
 which indeed amounts to a demonstration is, the 
 aberration of the fixed stars, arising from the 
 progressive motion of light, combined with the 
 earth's annual motion round the sun : a discovery 
 made by Dr. Bradley, and one of the finest in 
 modem astronomy. 
 
 274. By frequent observations of the eclipses 
 pf Jupiter's satellites, it is found, that light is 
 about eight minutes in moving from the sun to 
 tlie earth, And since the earth describes about 
 
 one degree, or 3600", in a day, or 1440', in 
 
 eight minutes it will describe 20"25" in its 
 
 orbit; therefore the velocity of light is to the 
 
 velocity of the earth in its orbit, as radius to an 
 
 arch of twenty seconds, or the third part of a 
 
 •0002909 
 minute, that is, as one to or -00009697, 
 
 or as 10300 to one. That is, the velocity of 
 light is 10300 times greater than the velocity of 
 the earth in its orbit. Now if AN, plate VIII. 
 fig. 15, be the way or path of a body in free 
 space, as of a ray of light ; its apparent way on 
 a movable plane will be different. For it will 
 be that which is made by the composition of the 
 two motions of the body and plane. Thus, if 
 AN be described in any time by the body, and 
 N F be described by (a point in) the plane, in 
 the same time as the plane moves forward in 
 the direction N F or AB, it leaves all the points 
 of the fixed line AN behind it, all which will 
 therefore seem to move backwards in the plane. 
 Therefore make ND^NF, being taken back- 
 wards or contrary to the motion of the plane; 
 and the body, instead of going to N in the free 
 space, will seem to go to D, in the same time, 
 upon the movable plane ; and therefore A D will 
 be the apparent path of the body in that plane. 
 
 375. It will be the same thing, if we suppose 
 the plane fixed, and the body to have the plane's 
 motion communicated to it, in a contrary direc- 
 tion, so as the relative motion be the same as 
 before. Thus, if the body moves from B to A, in 
 the same time that it would also move from A to 
 N, then by that compound motion it would move 
 along the diagonal B N of the parallelogram whose 
 sides are BA, AN, and in the same time. There- 
 fore rays of light emitted from a star in the direc- 
 tion A N, will fall upon the point D of the mov- 
 ing plane; that is, upon the eye of the observer, 
 in the direction A D : and an obsener at D will 
 suppose the star situated in the line DA. If B N 
 be parallel to AD, and the point D translated to 
 N in the same time; an observer at N will sup- 
 pose the star situated in the line BN ; making the 
 angle BNF or ADF less than AN F, the angle 
 it would appear under if the plane were at rest. 
 So that the angle of elevation BNF, above the 
 line of direction N E, of the observer, is less 
 than before, being taken on the side of F, towards 
 which the observer moves. The observer, in- 
 stead of seeing the star at A, its real place, will 
 see it at B, its apparent place; but if the ob- 
 server moves from F to N and D, and B be the 
 real place of the star, its apparent place would 
 be at A to an observer at N. 
 
 376. The apparent place B is always in the 
 plane of aberration, drawn through the way of 
 the observer NF, and the line NA drawn from 
 the observer to the real place of the star; for AB 
 being parellel to NF, is in the plane AD NF. 
 The angle B N A or N A D is the angle of aberra- 
 tion; by the quantity of this angle the star is 
 depressed, in going towards it; or raised in 
 going from it. In the triangle AN D ; AN : N D 
 :: S.ADN: S.NAD; and AN and ND being 
 given; the S.NAD the aberration will be as the 
 S.ADN. Because AN is 10,300 times greater 
 than ND: the S . N A D does not differ from its 
 arch or angle ; whence, the angle of aberration 
 N AD or AN B is always as the sine of the angle
 
 142 
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 ADN, or ANF, which are nearly equal, and 
 which may be called the angle of the earth's 
 way. Hence the angle of aberration ANB is 
 greatest, when AN is perpendicular to ND; and 
 becomes nothing when ANF is nothing. Since 
 AN is to N D, as radius to 20"; when AN is per- 
 pendicular to ND, the angle NAD or ANB will 
 be 20" 25", which is the greatest it can be. In 
 other cases, as radius to S, angle of the earth's 
 way A N F : : so 20'25", to the aberration, answer- 
 ing to that angle ; which angle is always taken in 
 the plane of aberration ADNF. 
 
 377. In Plate VIII. fig. 7, let BC D E be the 
 earth's orbit, S the sun, A or Q a star, N any 
 place of the earth in its orbit. Through the star 
 A draw the circle AH perpendicular to the plane 
 of the ecliptic, and draw KS BH, and ESC per- 
 pendicular to it, or parallel to the tangent at B. 
 Draw the tangent N d, and draw N I towards the 
 star, and make N I to N t/ as the velocity of light 
 to that of the earth, or as 10,300 to one, and draw 
 d I which leads to the apparent place of the star; 
 and suppose DA, S A parallel to c?I, N I ; then 
 DA will also lead to the apparent place of the 
 star. Draw SFG perpendicular to SN, or par- 
 allel to N d. Then will I Nt/ be the plane of aber- 
 ration. This plane continually changes its situ- 
 ation, revolving round the sun in a year along 
 with the tangent Nc?. Since AS, SF are par- 
 allel to I N, N/, A S F is equal to I N/, and ASF 
 is equal to the angle of the earth's way. Hence the 
 plane ASF may be taken for the plane of aber- 
 ration, which continually turns round the line 
 AS, as tlie earth revolves about the sun; the line 
 SF being always in quadrature with the earth at N. 
 
 378. Let the earth be at E, then the plane of 
 aberration ASB will be perpendicular to the 
 ecliptic ; and the angle of the earth's way A'S B 
 is the least that it can be, and the angle of the 
 aberration the least. Whilst the earth moves to 
 B, the angle of the earth's way, and of aberra- 
 tion increases, and at B the plane of aberration 
 is AC S, and the angle of the earth's way AS C, 
 a right angle, which is the greatest it can be; 
 therefore the angle of aberration is the greatest 
 possible. While the earth moves to C, the an- 
 gles of the earth's way and aberration decrease 
 
 again, and at C are tlie least ; and in moving to 
 K they increase again to K, where they are great- 
 est. From K to E they diminish again, where 
 they are least. 
 
 379. It is evident then, that whilst the earth 
 is at E moving towards N, the star's apparent 
 place is at c lower than A ; at B moving towards 
 F, it appears at b forward. When the earth is at 
 C, the star appears at c above A. And when the 
 earth is at K, the star is seen at A-, having gone 
 backward. Hence the apparent place of a star 
 describes a small ellipsis in a year, about the 
 true place of the star iu its centre, whose trans- 
 verse axis is parallel to the ecliptic; and lesser 
 axis perpendicular to it. This ellipsis is bcke, 
 answering to places of the earth at B, C, K, E. 
 And the points k, c, k, e, answer respectively to 
 the points C, K, E, B, where the plane of aber- 
 ration cuts the ecliptic, being ninety degrees 
 before the earth, or ninety degrees behind the sun. 
 
 380. This phenomenon, the apparent change 
 of place in celestial objects, arising from the com- 
 bined motions of the earth and the light from 
 those objects, is one of the most curious and im- 
 portant discoveries of modern times. We are 
 indebted for it to Bradley, who, as has been well 
 observed, ' swept the ground of astronomical 
 discovery, and left little to be gathered by those 
 that followed him.' 
 
 381. The following formulae represent the effect 
 of aberration on any fixed stars, both in right as- 
 cension and declination, fi representing 20-25" the 
 quantity found above for the maximum effect of 
 aberration, a and S the right ascension and decli- 
 nation of the star, w the obliquity of the ecliptic, 
 and the sun's longitude. 
 
 Aberration in right ascension r: — jji. 
 
 { sin. sin. a -\- cos. cos a cos a> sec. S. \ 
 
 Aberration in decimation iz. — /*. 
 
 I sin. cos. a . sin. o — cos. (sin. a . cos. w . 
 
 sin. S — sin. w cos. o.)J 
 
 By the following tables, deduced from these 
 formulae, the effect of the aberration on the right 
 ascension and decimation of any fixed star may 
 readily be computed. 
 
 
 382. TABLE 
 
 I. 
 
 
 
 382 
 
 . TABLE 
 
 II. 
 
 
 
 ARGUMENT. 
 
 For Aber. in R. A. 
 
 ;{<' R.A. — 0^ long. 
 
 For Aber. in Declin. 
 
 >^ ' R. A. -|- 90° — 0« long. 
 
 
 
 ARGUMENT. 
 
 For Aber. in R. A. 
 
 *.ll.A. + 0. long. 
 
 For Aber. in Declin. 
 
 * • R. A. -j- 30° + 0' long. 
 
 
 Signs. 
 
 Signs. 
 
 1 
 
 0. VI. 
 
 I. VII. 
 
 II. VIII. 
 
 
 
 0. VI. 
 
 I. VII. II VIII. 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 - + 
 
 - + 
 
 - + 
 
 
 
 + — 
 
 + - + — 
 
 
 0° 
 
 1917" 
 
 16-60" 
 
 9-59" 
 
 30° 
 
 0° 
 
 0-83" 
 
 0-72" 
 
 0-41" 
 
 30° 
 
 5 
 
 19-10 
 
 15-71 
 
 8-10 
 
 25 
 
 5 
 
 0-82 
 
 0-67 
 
 0-35 
 
 25 
 
 10 
 
 18.88 
 
 14-69 
 
 6-56 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 
 0-82 
 
 0-63 
 
 0-28 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 18-52 
 
 13-56 
 
 4-96 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 0-80 
 
 0-58 
 
 0-22 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 1802 
 
 12-32 
 
 3-33 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 0-78 
 
 0-53 
 
 0-14 
 
 10 
 
 25 
 
 17-38 
 
 11-00 
 
 1-67 
 
 5 
 
 25 
 
 0-75 
 
 0-47 
 
 0-07 
 
 5 
 
 30 
 
 16-60 
 
 9.59 
 
 0-00 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 0-72 
 
 0-41 
 
 0-00 
 
 
 
 
 - + 
 
 — + 
 
 - + 
 
 
 
 + — 
 
 + — 
 
 + — 
 
 
 ! 
 
 XI. V. 
 
 X. IV. 
 
 IX. III. 
 
 
 
 XI. V. 
 
 X. IV. 
 
 IX. ill. 

 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 143 
 
 
 384 
 
 . TABLE 
 
 III. 
 
 
 
 ARGU3IEXT. 
 
 
 
 For part 2d of Aber. in Declin. 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 0' long. + *' Declin. 
 
 
 
 For part 3d of Aber. in Declin. 
 
 
 
 01 Long. — * s Declin. 
 
 
 Signs. 
 
 
 0. VI. I. VI] . 
 
 II. VIII. 
 
 
 
 - + - + 
 
 — + 
 
 30° 
 
 0° 
 
 3-98" 
 
 3-45" 
 
 1-99" 
 
 5 
 
 3-97 
 
 3-26 
 
 1-68 
 
 23 
 
 10 
 
 3-92 
 
 3-05 
 
 1-36 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 3-85 
 
 2-82 
 
 V03 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 3-74 
 
 2-56 
 
 0-69 
 
 10 
 
 25 
 
 3-61 
 
 2-28 
 
 0-35 
 
 5 
 
 30 
 
 3-45 
 
 1-99 
 
 000 
 
 
 
 
 - + 
 
 - + 
 
 — 4- 
 
 
 
 XI. V. 
 
 X. IV. 
 
 TX. III. 
 
 
 385. To find from these tables the aberration 
 of a star at right ascension. — To the logarithms ot" 
 the Slim or difference of the equations from 
 tables I and II, answering to the proper argu- 
 ments, add the longitude east of the star's de- 
 clination, and the sura will be the logarithms of 
 the aberration in right ascension. 
 
 386. To find the aberration of a star in decli- 
 nation. — Find the sum or difference of the equa- 
 tions answering to the former arguments, in- 
 creased by 90°, to the logarithm of which add 
 the logarithm sine of the star's declination, and the 
 sum will be the logarithm of the first part of the 
 aberration. Take parts second and third from 
 table III, and these applied to the former, will 
 give the aberration in declination. If the de- 
 clination is south, change the sign of parts 2d 
 and 3d. 
 
 387. The strongest objection that can be made 
 against the earth's moving round the sun like the 
 other planets, is, that, in opposite points of the 
 earth's orbit, its axis, which always keeps a paral- 
 lel direction, would point to different fiixed stars; 
 which is not found to be fact. B\it this objec- 
 tion is easily removed, by considering the im- 
 mense distance of the stars in respect of the dia- 
 meter of the earth's orbit; the latter being no 
 more than a point when compared to the former. 
 If we lay a ruler on the side of a table, and along 
 the edge of the ruler view the top of a spire at 
 ten miles distance ; then lay the ruler on the op- 
 posite side of the table in a parallel situation to 
 what it had before, and the spire will still appear 
 along the edge of the ruler; because our eyes, 
 even when assisted by the best instruments, are 
 incapable of distinguishing so small a change 
 at so great a distance. As the apparent places 
 of the stars, therefore, correspond with this the- 
 ory, the motion of the earth and the motion of 
 light are both determined. 
 
 388. In fact, we find that the sun, and those 
 planets on which there are visible spots, turn 
 round their axes : for the spots in general move 
 
 regularly over their disks, allowing for the vari- 
 ations already taken notice of Hence we may 
 reasonably conclude, that the other planets, on 
 which we see no spots, and the earth, which is 
 likewise a planet, have such rotations. But 
 being incapable of leaving the earth to view it at a 
 distance, and its rotation being smooth and uni- 
 form, we can neither see it move on its axis, as 
 we do the planets, nor feel ourselv.9s affected 
 by its motion. Yet there is one effect of such 
 motion, which will enable us to judge with 
 certainty whether the earth revolves on its axis 
 or not. 
 
 389. All globes which do not turn round their 
 axes, will be perfect spheres, on account of the 
 equality of the weight of bodies on their sur- 
 faces; especially of the fluid parts. But all 
 globes, which turn on their axes will be oblate 
 spheroides; that is, their surfaces will be higher 
 or farther from the centre in the equatorial than 
 in the polar regions : for, as the equatorial parts 
 move quickest, they will recede farthest from the 
 axis of motion, and enlarge the equatorial dia- 
 meter. That our earth is really of this figure, is 
 demonstrable from the unequal vibrations of a 
 pendulum, and the unequal lengths of degrees in 
 different latitudes. Since then, the earth is 
 higher at the equator than at the poles, the sea, 
 which naturally runs downward, or towards the 
 places which are nearest the centre, would run 
 towards the polar regions, and leave the equa- 
 torial parts dry, if the centrifugal force of these 
 parts, by which the waters were carried thither, 
 did not keep them from returning. The earth's 
 equatorial diameter is thirty six-miles longer than 
 its axis. 
 
 390. One phenomenon, called the precession 
 of the Equinoxes, depending on this pecuharity 
 of form in the figure of the earth, has been 
 noticed from the early ages of astronomy. The 
 pole of the celestial equator appears to move 
 witli a slow and nearly uniform motion round 
 the pole of the ecliptic ; while the intersections 
 of the equator and ecliptic move backward on 
 the ecliptic, with a motion nearly uniform. 
 This motion is at the rate of about 1° in seventy- 
 two years, or more accurately 50'2" in a year; 
 consequently the sun returns again to the same 
 equinoctial point before he has completed his 
 revolution in the ecliptic, whence the origin of 
 the term precession of the equinoxes. In con- 
 sequence of this apparent motion all the fixed 
 stars increase their longitude 50'2" in a year, 
 and also change their right ascensions and de- 
 clinations, but their latitudes are not affected. 
 The period of the revolution of the celestial 
 equiuoctial pole, round the pole of the ecliptic, 
 is nearly 26,000 years. 
 
 391. The north celestial pole therefore, about 
 13,000 years hence, will be nearly 49° from the 
 present polar star; and about 10000 years hence 
 the bright star CC, Syrac, will be within 5° of the 
 north pole. This star therefore, which now in 
 these latitudes passes the meridian within a few 
 degrees of the zenith, will then remain nearly 
 stationary with respect to the horizon. This 
 motion of the celestial pole arises from the at- 
 traction of the sun and moon on the excess of 
 mailer at the equatorial parts of the earth.
 
 144 
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 392. The precession of the equinoxes is not 
 entirely uniform, for a small inequality in the 
 precession, and change in the obliquity of the 
 ecliptic, depends on the position of the moon's 
 nodes. The intersections of its orbit with the 
 ecliptic were discovered by Bradley, and have since 
 been confirmed by Physical Astronomy. Ihe 
 precession of the equinoxes was first discovered 
 by Hipparchus. As the quantity of it is so 
 perceptible in a hundred years, a comparison of 
 the positions of the circles of the sphere as re- 
 corded in early times, and of their positions now, 
 has been used to assist chronology. 
 
 393. Even the inclination of the equator and 
 ecliptic have been shovim by observation to be va- 
 riable^, and it is remarkable that from the date of 
 the earliest observations that inclination has been 
 diminishing. If it should continue to do so till the 
 two circles coincided, a most important change 
 "would be effected in the phenomenon attending 
 the earth's annual and diurnal revolutions, as 
 the days would everywhere be of the same 
 length, and the seasons would not alter with the 
 times of the year. But we learn from the prin- 
 ciples of physical astronomy, that this change in 
 the obliquity will never exceed a certain limit, 
 which when it reaches, it will return again, os- 
 cillating by a small quantity on each side of 
 its mean state. We learn from physical as- 
 tronomy too, that by this action the ecliptic is 
 progressive on the equator, about 14" in a 
 century. The sun also according to his place 
 in the ecliptic produces a small inequality in 
 the precession, never amounting to more than 
 1-1". 
 
 394. If dz=. the declination of a star, and a iz. 
 its right ascension, then the following formulse 
 will express nearly the annual variations of a 
 and b, arising from precession : 20-084" x cos. 
 a HZ the annual precession in declination, and 
 46-0619 -i- 20-084" X sin. a X tan. d = the an- 
 nual precession in right ascension. 
 
 395. From these expressions, the following table 
 has been constructed for determining, by inspec- 
 tion, the annual precession for any star. 
 
 Rt. Ascension of 
 
 Ann. Precession. 
 
 Rt. Ascension of 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 
 + 
 
 — 
 
 
 + — 
 
 0° 
 
 180° 
 
 -70" 
 
 180° 360° 
 
 10 
 
 190 
 
 3-47 
 
 170 350 
 
 20 
 
 200 
 
 6-84 
 
 160 340 
 
 30 
 
 210 
 
 10-00 
 
 150 330 
 
 40 
 
 SW 
 
 12-85 
 
 140 320 
 
 50 
 
 230 
 
 15-31 
 
 130 310 
 
 60 
 
 240 
 
 17-31 
 
 120 300 
 
 70 
 
 250 
 
 18-78 
 
 110 290 
 
 80 
 
 260 
 
 19-69 
 
 100 280 
 
 90 
 
 270 
 
 1999 
 
 90 270 
 
 Use of the above Tables. 
 
 396. Take the number opposite.the star's right 
 
 ascension, multiply it by the natural tangent of 
 
 the stars declination, and add the product to 
 
 460619 for the annual precession in right 
 
 ascension. Again add 90° to the star's right 
 ascension, and with the sum as an argument 
 enter the table, and the corresponding number 
 will be the annual precession in declination. 
 If the declination is south, the signs of the 
 numbers in the table must be changed, both in 
 finding the precession or right ascension and 
 declination. 
 
 397. It is found that bodies near the poles are 
 heavier than those towards the equator, because 
 they are nearer the earth's centre, where the whole 
 force of the earth's attraction is accumulated. 
 They are also heavier, because their centrifugal 
 force is less, on account of their diurnal motion 
 being slower. For both these reasons, bodies car- 
 ried from the poles towards the equator gradually 
 lose their weight. Experiments prove that a 
 pendulum, which vibrates seconds near the poles, 
 vibrates slower near the equator, which shows 
 that it is lighter or less attracted there. To make 
 it oscillate in the same time, it is found necessary 
 to diminish its length . By comparing the diflferent 
 lengths of pendulums swinging seconds at the 
 equator and at London, it is found that a pendu- 
 lum must be 2^^ lines (or 12th parts of an inch) 
 shorter at the equator than at the poles. 
 
 398. A person on the earth can no more be 
 sensible of its undisturbed motion on its axis, than 
 one in the cabin of a ship on smooth water can be 
 sensible of the ship's motion, when it turns gently 
 and uniformly round. It is therefore no argu- 
 ment against the earth's diurnal motion, that we 
 do not feel it ; nor are the apparent revolutions 
 of the celestial bodies every day, a proof of the 
 reality of these motions; for whether we or they 
 revolve, the appearance is the very same. A per- 
 son looking through the cabin windows of a ship, 
 as strongly fancies the objects on land to go round 
 when the ship turns, as if they actually did so. 
 
 399. The other common objections against the 
 earth's motion on its axis, are easily answered. 
 Some imagine, that if the earth turns eastward, 
 as it certainly does if it turns at all, a ball fired 
 perpendicularly upward in the air should fall 
 considerably westward of the place it was pro- 
 jected from. This objection will be found to have 
 no weight, if we consider that the gun and ball 
 partake of the earth's motion ; and therefore the 
 ball being carried forward with the air as quick 
 as the earth and air turn, must fall down on the 
 same place. A stone let fall from the top of a 
 main-mast, if it meets with no obstacle, falls on 
 the deck as near the foot of the mast when the 
 ship sails as when it does not. 
 
 400. As for those scriptural expressions which 
 seem to contradict the earth's motion, this gene- 
 ral answer may be made to them all, that the 
 scriptures were never intended to instruct us in 
 philosophy or astronomy ; and therefore, on these 
 subjects, expressions are not always to be taken 
 in the literal sense, but for the most part as ac- 
 commodated to the common apprehensions of 
 mankind. M«n of sense in all ages, when not 
 treating of the sciences purposely, have used 
 common language ; and it would be absurd to 
 adopt any other in addressing the majority of 
 mankind. 
 
 401. We have said above, that the axis of the 
 earth preserves always the same parallel position ;
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 145 
 
 but this must be understood with a slight limita- 
 tion. Bradley found that the axis of the earth 
 made a sort of conical revolution round the mean 
 place of the pole, the earth's centre being the 
 apex of the cone, and the diameter of the base 
 about 18". With that admirable sagacity for 
 which he was not less remarkable than for his 
 accuracy and faithfulness as an observer, he 
 clearly traced the most curious phenomena to its 
 cause, which is the action of the sun and moon, 
 when out of the equator, and the protuberant 
 equatorial parts of the earth. This correction, 
 which is called the Nutation of tiie earth's axis, 
 goes through all its variations with respect to the 
 moon in about eighteen years, the period of the 
 revolution of the moon's nodes, and with respect 
 to the sun in a year ; but the maximum effect 
 of the sun's action nearly amounts to half a se- 
 cond. 
 
 402. In strictness, however, the curve of nu- 
 tation is not a circle but an ellipse, whose axes 
 according to the best observations, are about 18" 
 and 13'4". If S? denote the longitude of the 
 moon's node, r the right ascension of a star or 
 planet, and d its declination ; then the effect of 
 the sun's nutation on the right ascension and de- 
 clination will be expressed by the following for- 
 mula; ; viz. the nutation and declination : 
 
 405. TABLE II. 
 
 — 7-85" X sm. r— ^ -(- 1-15' X sm r -f- ^ 
 and the nutation in right ascension. r= (7'85" X 
 gin. r— ^— 90° -f 1-15" sin. r -f $^—90°) 
 + tan d— 15-43" sin Q. 
 
 403. From these expressions, the following 
 tables have been computed for finding the effect 
 of the lunar nutation on the right ascension and 
 declination of any celestial object : 
 
 404. TABLE I. 
 
 
 ARGUMENT 
 
 
 
 
 For Nutation in Right Ascension. 
 
 
 
 
 r-9, 
 
 
 
 
 For Nutation in Dech 
 
 nation. 
 
 
 r 
 
 + 90°-g2 
 
 Signs. 
 
 
 0. VI. 
 
 I. VII. 
 
 II. VIII. 
 
 
 
 - + 
 
 - + 
 
 - + 
 
 
 0° 
 
 8-33" 
 
 7-21" 
 
 4-16" 
 
 30° 
 
 5 
 
 8-30 
 
 6-82 
 
 3-52 
 
 25 
 
 10 
 
 8-20 
 
 6-38 
 
 2-85 
 
 9,0 
 
 15 
 
 8-05 
 
 5-89 
 
 2-15 
 
 15 
 
 '20 
 
 7-83 
 
 5-35 
 
 1-45 
 
 10 
 
 '25 
 
 7-55 
 
 4-78 
 
 0-73 
 
 5 
 
 30 
 
 7- '21 
 
 4-16 
 
 0-00 
 
 
 
 — + 
 
 - + 
 
 - + 
 
 
 
 XI. V. 
 
 X. IV. 
 
 IX. III. 
 
 
 Vo 
 
 L. III. 
 
 
 
 
 
 ARGUMENT. 
 
 
 
 For Nutat 
 
 ion in Right I 
 
 scension. 
 
 
 r— 9. 
 
 
 For Nut 
 
 ation in Decl 
 
 ination. 
 
 
 '•+ 90° -h 9, 
 
 Signs. 1 
 
 
 0. VI. 
 
 I. VII. 
 
 II. VIII. 
 
 
 
 - + 
 
 - + 
 
 - + 
 
 
 0° 
 
 1-22" 
 
 1-06" 
 
 0-61" 
 
 30° 
 
 5 
 
 1-21 
 
 1-00 
 
 0-52 
 
 25 
 
 10 
 
 1-20 
 
 0-93 
 
 0-42 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 1-18 
 
 0-86 
 
 0-32 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 1-15 
 
 0-78 
 
 0-21 
 
 10 
 
 25 
 
 1-11 
 
 0-70 
 
 0-11 
 
 5 
 
 30 
 
 1-06 
 
 0-61 
 
 0-00 
 
 
 
 
 - + 
 
 - + 
 
 - + 
 
 
 
 XL V. 
 
 X. IV. 
 
 IX. III. 
 
 
 
 406 
 
 . TABLE 
 
 [II. 
 
 
 Equation of Equinoxes in R 
 
 ght Ascension 
 
 
 
 ARGUMENT 
 
 
 
 
 
 9, 
 
 
 
 
 
 Signs. 
 
 
 
 
 0. VI. 
 
 L VII. 
 
 II. VIII. 
 
 
 
 - + 
 
 - + 
 
 - + 
 
 
 0° 
 
 0-0" 
 
 8-2" 
 
 14-2" 
 
 30° 
 
 5 
 
 1-4 
 
 9-4 
 
 14-8 
 
 25 
 
 10 
 
 2-8 
 
 10-5 
 
 15-4 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 4-2 
 
 11-6 
 
 15-8 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 56 
 
 12-5 
 
 16-1 
 
 10 
 
 25 
 
 6-9 
 
 13-4 
 
 16-3 
 
 5 
 
 30 
 
 8-2 
 
 14-2 
 
 16-2 
 
 
 
 
 + 1 
 
 + 1 
 
 + 1 
 
 
 
 XI. V. 
 
 X. IV. 
 
 IX. III. 
 
 
 Use OF THE ABOVE Tables. 
 407. To the logarithm of the sum or differ- 
 ence of the equations from tables I. and II., an- 
 swering to their proper arguments, add the loga- 
 rithm tangent of the star's declination, and the 
 sum will be the logarithm of part first of the nu- 
 tation, or right ascension if the decnnation is 
 north. If it is south, change the sign and apply . 
 the equation from table III., and the sum or dif- 
 ference will be the nutation or right ascension. 
 Increase the arguments in tables I. and II. each
 
 14() 
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 by 90°, and the sum or difference of the corres- 
 ponding; difference of the equations taken from 
 those tables, will be the nutation or declination. 
 
 408. The annual motion of the earth has been 
 effectually confirmed by an argument drawn from 
 the progressive motion of light; and from the 
 same consideration the truth of the diurnal mo- 
 tion may be completely established. 
 
 409. In consequence of the progressive motion 
 of light, the apparent place of a fixed star is east 
 of its true place, and the difference is proporti- 
 onal to the cosine of the star's declination ; this 
 displacement of the fixed stars has changed, be- 
 cause of the precession of the equinoctial points. 
 Therefore, if the diurnal revolution of the heavens 
 were a real motion, the whole heavens must have 
 changed their ajjpearance; and the respective 
 positions of the stars must be very different now, 
 from what they were in the time of Hipparchus. 
 A star which is now near the vernal equinox, must 
 have changed its apparent distance, at least 5° 
 from another ecliptical star which is 60° east from 
 it. Nay, it is highly probable that no zodiacal 
 star could be ever visible ; such would have been 
 the direction that the rays of light must have 
 taken, because of their own proper motion being 
 compounded with that of the star, whose velocity 
 must have been exceedingly great, by reason of 
 its distance from the poles of the motion. But 
 since no such remarkable displacement of the 
 stars has been observed, we may conclude, that 
 the cause which w^ould have produced it, has no 
 existence; and that the revolutions of the heavens 
 is not a real, but only an apparent motion. 
 
 410. The annual and diurnal motions of the 
 earth, together with the different lengths of days 
 and nights, and all the beautiful variety of sea- 
 sons, depending on those motions, may be thus 
 illustrated. 
 
 411. In-plate X, fig. 5. let FG H I bethe earth, 
 O its centre; and let it revolve about an axis 
 perpendicular to the plane of the figure, in the 
 order I F G H ; that is, from west to east. Let 
 A be the sun, draw AF O H C, and G O I per- 
 pendicular to it : let a spectator be at I ; then 
 since the tangent at I (which represents the ho- 
 rizon) will be parallel to A F H, and A at an im- 
 mense distance, they will nearly meet in A, and 
 the sun at A will be rising in the horizon at I. 
 As the earth moves round, the spectator is car- 
 ried towards F, and the sun at A seems to rise 
 higher and higher ; and when the spectator js 
 arrived at F, then the sun is at the highest. As 
 the earth still turns round, and the spectator is 
 carried from F towards G, the sun appears to de- 
 scend, as if it moved towards D; and when the 
 spectator is arrived at G, then the sun appears in 
 the tangent at G; that is, in the horizon at G; 
 and therefore the sun is setting. Afterwards, all 
 the time the spectator is moved through G II I, 
 the sun appears under the horizon, till it comes 
 at I, where the sun seems to rise again. 
 
 412. Thus it is evident, that while the specta- 
 tor is carried through the illuminated half of the 
 earth I F G, it is day light; at the middle point 
 F, it is noon day ; at the dark hemisphere GUI, 
 it is nigiit ; and at H, it is midnight. And tl.us 
 the vicissitude of day and night appears, by the 
 rotation of the earth about its axis. What has 
 
 been said of the sun is equally true of the moon, 
 or any star placed at A. And therefore all the 
 celestial bodies seem to rise and set by turns, one 
 after another, according to their various situations. 
 For let A, B, C, D be four stars ; when the spec- 
 tator is at I, the star A rises ; and wlien at G, it 
 sets. When the spectator is at F, B rises; and 
 when he is at H, it sets. When he is at G, C 
 rises ; and when at I, it sets. When the spec- 
 tator is at H, D rises ; and when at F, it sets. 
 
 413. Hence it is the very same thing, as to 
 the diurnal motions, whether the earth moves 
 uniformly about its axis, while the heavens stand 
 still ; or whether the heavens move uniformly 
 round, while the earth stands still ; tlie pheno- 
 mena being exactly the same either way. For 
 whether the spectator move uniformly in the arch 
 I F, from west to east, whilst A is fixed ; or A 
 moves uniformly in the arch A D, from east to 
 west, whilst I is fixed ; the same angle will be 
 described, and therefore the altitude of A, above 
 the horizon, will be the same either way. 
 
 Sect. III. — Of the Seasons. 
 
 414. To explain the causes of the various sea- 
 sons in plate VII. fig. 10, let <y^ sb ^5= vf be the 
 earth's orbit, and S the sun. This orbit is so 
 small with respect to the distance of the fixed 
 stars, that the same aspect of the heavens will 
 appear, whether a man be placed in the earth or 
 in the sun. If the earth be at cy', a spectator will 
 see the sun in :Ci: ; when the earth comes to ^ , 
 he will see the sun in irj^ ; and the sun will appear 
 to have moved through dCtz it].- Whilst the earth 
 is moving to 11, the sun will seem to pass through 
 tr|_ t 5 ^nd ^ person in the earth observes the 
 sun to go through the same space in the heavens, 
 that a spectator at the sun would see the earth 
 go through ; and as he is not sensible of the 
 earth's motion, he ascribes that motion to the sun, 
 which in reality is unmoved. Hence, because tlie 
 relative motion is the same, whether of the two 
 is moved, and all effects are the same as to their 
 places; astronomers generally suppose the sun to 
 move along the ecliptic, describing its orbit 
 round the earth at rest. 
 
 415. Let NEAQ be the earth, N A be its 
 axis, N the north pole, A the south ; E Q the 
 equinoctial, and P 11 a parallel of latitude pass- 
 ing through any place. Draw a plane G <>". I 
 perpendicular to^S ©, which divides the illu- 
 minated hemisphere from the dark one. The axis 
 N A is inclined to the plane of the ecliptic or 
 earth's orbit, in an angle of 66^° : and during 
 the earth's motion in its orbit, the axis always 
 remains in a parallel position, or pointing to the 
 same star. The earth also moves uniformly 
 round this axis ; and describes equal arches in 
 equal times. Now let the earth be at ^^ ; in 
 tliis position, the circle dividing the light and 
 dark hemispheres passes through the poles N and 
 A. and divides all the parallels as P R into two 
 equal parts ; therefore any point in that parallel, 
 as the earth revolves round, will stay as long in 
 the light hemisphere as in the dark ; that is, 
 tlie days and nights are equal. As it moves to 
 tlj^, the pole N comes into the light hemisphere, 
 by reason of the oblique position of the axis N A ; 
 and as it proceeds to / and yf , the light liemis-
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 147 
 
 phere reaches farther and farther beyond N, till 
 coming to '/f , it is at the farthest, reaching to G, 
 and making the arch N G 23^° the complement 
 of N "/5' S, or 662°. Then the opposite pole A 
 is as far involved in the dark hemisphere ; whence 
 in north latitudes, or in the hemisphere E N Q, 
 the days have been increasing from £^ to ^/f, 
 where they are at their longest; for the greater 
 part of the parallel P R is in the illuminated 
 hemisphere, and the smaller part in the dark. 
 
 416. In the opposite or southern hemisphere 
 the days have been decreasing, and are at their 
 shortest when the earth is at ^/f : for all parallels 
 to E Q have their greater part in the dark hemis- 
 phere. If through the point G a parallel be de- 
 scribed, this parallel is called the arctic circle ; 
 and all the space contained therein is illuminated, 
 and there is no night, when the earth is at 
 yf . For the same reason, the space within a pa- 
 rallel drawn tlirough I, will be all dark, and all 
 is night there. If a parallel be drawn through B, 
 ■where S "/f outs' the arch N E, that parallel is 
 called the tropic of Cancer ; and then the sun 
 will shine perpendicular upon the inhabitants in 
 that parallel. This is the summer season for 
 those that are in the hemisphere E N Q, and the 
 winter for those that live in EAQ; and since 
 E Q is equally divided by the circle of light and 
 darkness G I, the days and nights are always 
 equal under the equinoctial. 
 
 417. While the earth moves through ;:;? and 
 K to cy^, the circle of light and darkness comes 
 nearer and nearer to the pole N, the angle N ^/f 
 G, and consequently B vf E grows less and less, 
 till they vanish in (v ; then the circle of light and 
 darkness passes again through the poles N and A, 
 bisecting all the parallels as P R ; and the days 
 and nights are again equal all over the earth. 
 
 418. While the earth moves through (y-, ^, 
 n, to 3, the sun seems to go through :tb, )r|_, ^ , 
 to ^/f ; and the circle separating light and dark- 
 ness, falls short more and more of the north pole 
 N, and goes further and further beyond the south 
 pole A ; whence the parallels cut by that circle 
 will have the greater part in the dark in the north 
 hemisphere ; but in the south hemisphere, tlie 
 greater part will be in the light : and it is winter 
 to the northern hemisphere E N Q, the days being 
 at the shortest ; and summer to the southern he- 
 misphere EAQ, their days being at the longest. 
 Within the parallel drawn through G, there will 
 be no day whilst the earth is at 3 J and in the 
 parallel drawn through I, there will be no night. 
 At the pole A it will be day for six months, and 
 at the pole N it will be night for six months ; just 
 the contrary of what happens when the earth is 
 at 1/f . In this position, if a parallel be drawn 
 through B, the sun will shine perpendicular to 
 the earth in that parallel, and it is called the 
 tropic of Capricorn ; and a parallel drawn 
 through I is called the antarctic circle. 
 
 419. When the earth moves from 05 tlirough 
 Si and nil to ^ again ; it is evident the circle 
 separating light and darkness draws nearer and 
 nearer to the poles N and A, by which the light 
 and dark parts of the parallels become nearer an 
 equality, and so to the days and nights. There- 
 fore in the north hemisphere E N Q, the days are 
 increasing ; and in the south hemisphere they are 
 
 decreasing : and the days and nights become 
 equal in every place, wnen the earth arrives at ^, 
 420. In tliis manner are the several seasons 
 caused, being owing to the obliquity of the axis 
 of rotation of the earth, to the plane of the earth's 
 orbit. But if the axis was perpendicular to it, 
 there could be no variety in the length of days 
 in whatever part of the orbit the earth was ; smd 
 all seasons would be alike. Thus the obliquity of 
 the earth's axis to the ecliptic, or which is tlie 
 sam.e thing, of the equinoctial to the ecliptic ; is 
 the cause of the different seasons, summer, win- 
 ter, spring, and autumn, during the year. With- 
 out this, there could be no difference of seasons ; 
 and consequently it could not be easy to know 
 the length of the year, without observations of the 
 stars. For the length of the year is known from 
 finding the time by observation, when the sun is 
 in the equinoctial points ; and there being no 
 such points to observe by, there could be no me- 
 thod but to observe by the position of the stars, 
 when the same star was again in opposition to 
 the sun, which none but an astronomer could do. 
 
 421. The sun appears 47° higher in the sum- 
 mer tropic than it does in the winter tropic ; for 
 in summer it seems to have ascended througli 
 the arch B E ; and in winter to have descended 
 through the arch BQ equal to B E; and their 
 sum is 470. 
 
 422. All these phenomena may be thus repre- 
 sented : Take a small globe that has the equinoc- 
 tial and parallels drawn on it ; and, placing a 
 candle upon a table, move the globe round tiie 
 candle in a circle parallel to the table, so that 
 the axis of the equator may be oblique to that 
 circle, and be kept always in a parallel position 
 whilst it moves about. The candle will illumi- 
 nate the globe as it is carried round, just as the 
 sun does the earth in its orbit ; and the poles 
 and the parallels will be the same way affected 
 with light and darkness as the globe. 
 
 423. The orbit of the earth being elliptical, and 
 the sun constantly keeping in its lower focus, 
 which is 1,617,941 miles from the middle point 
 of the longer axis, the earth approaches twice as 
 near, or 3,235,882 miles nearer the sun at one 
 time of the year than at another ; for the sun ap- 
 pearing under a larger angle in our winter than 
 summer, proves that the earth is nearer the sun in 
 winter. But here this question naturally arises. 
 Why have we not the hottest weather when the 
 earth is nearest the sun ? In answer it must be ob- 
 served, that the eccentricity of the earth's orbit, 
 or 1,617,941 miles, bears no greater proportion 
 to the earth's mean distance from the sun, tlian 
 seventeen does to 1000; and therefore this small 
 difference of distance cannot occasion any great 
 difference of heat or cold. 
 
 424. But the principal cause of this difference 
 is, that in winter the sun's rays fall so obliquely 
 upon us, that any given number of them is spread 
 over a much greater portion of the earth's sur- 
 face where we live ; and each point must tlien 
 have fewer rays than in summer. There comes 
 also a greater degree of cold in the long winter 
 nights than there can return of heat in so short 
 days ; and on both these accounts the cold must 
 increase. In summer the rays fall more perpen- 
 dicularly upon us ; come with greater force, and 
 
 L2
 
 148 
 
 ASTRONOMY 
 
 in greater numbers, on the same place ; and by 
 their long continuance, a much greater degree of 
 heat is imparted by day than can fly off by 
 night. 
 
 425. Besides, those parts which are once heat- 
 ed, retain the heat for some time ; which, with 
 the additional heat daily imparted, makes it con- 
 tinue to increase though the sun declines towards 
 the south. This is the reason why July is hotter 
 than June; and often, in our cold climate, Au- 
 gust hotter than both, although the sun has with- 
 drawn from the summer tropic ; as we find it is 
 generally hotter at three in the afternoon, when 
 the sun has gone towards the west, than at noon 
 when he is in the meridian. Those places too 
 which have been well cooled require time to be 
 heated again ; for the sun's rays do not heat even 
 the surface of any body, till they have been some 
 time upon it. Hence we find January for the 
 most part colder than December, although the 
 sun has withdrawn from the winter tropic, and 
 begins to dart his beams more, perpendicularly 
 upon us. Art iron bar is not heated immediately 
 upon being put into the fire, nor grows cold till 
 some time after it has been taken out, 
 
 426. If we suppose the degree of heat to be as 
 tn th. power of the sun's altitude, into the nth 
 power of the time of his continuance above the 
 horizon, that 5 and c are the sine and cosine of 
 any given latitude ; s' and c' the sine arid cosine 
 of the sun's declination at the semidiurnal one ; 
 T the time in the afternoon, when the heat is the 
 greatest ; and x and y the sine and cosine of T- 
 Then cc' -{■ ss'^ will be the sine of the sun's alti- 
 tude ; and consequently {cc' -\- ssy)"-|-A-|-T" 
 must be a maximum ; whence its fluxion tti ssy 
 X A -1- T + n T 4- {ss' + ss/) =. 0. But by 
 
 the property of the circle — = T, and conse- 
 
 ny 
 
 quently A-hT — x ^ = 
 
 r ; an equation 
 
 from whence the relation between x and 3/ may 
 be determined. 
 
 427. The sun completes what is called a tro- 
 pical year, when he arrives at the same equinoc- 
 tial or solstitial point. This he does in 365d. 
 5h. 48' 37". When he arrives at the same fixed 
 star again, as seen from the earth, he completes 
 the siderial year, which contains 363d. 6h. 9'. 
 14^". The siderial year is therefore 20' 17^" 
 longer than the solar or tropical year, and 9' 14^" 
 longer than the Julian or the civil year, which 
 we state at 363d. 6h. ; so that the civil year 
 is almost a mean between tbe siderial and tro- 
 pical. 
 
 428. As the sun describes the whole ecliptic, 
 or 360°, in a tropical year, he moves 39' 8" of a 
 degree every day at a mean rate ; and con- 
 sequently 30" of a degree in 20' 17^" of time; 
 therefore he will arrive at the same equinox or 
 solstice, when he is 30" of a degree short of the 
 same star, or fixed point in the heavens, from 
 which he set out the year before. So that, with 
 respect to the fixed stars, the sun. and equinoctial 
 points fall back, as it were, 30° in 2160 years, 
 which will make the stars appear to have gone 
 30° forward with respect to the signs of the eclip- 
 
 tic in that time : for the same signs always keep 
 in the same points of the ecliptic without regard 
 to the constellations. 
 
 429. The sun returns to the equinox again in 
 363d. 5h. 48' and 37" ; and this is the period 
 in which the seasons complete their revolution. 
 But as it is convenient in civil life to make the 
 year consist of an exact number of days, three 
 years in succession are made to consist of 365 
 days, and a fourth of 366 days ; making the aver- 
 age length of a civil year to be 365d. 6h. or 11' 
 3" too little. 
 
 430. These 11' 3", by which the civil or Julian 
 year exceeds the solar, amount to 1 1 days in 
 1433 years ; and so much our seasons had fallen 
 back, with respect to the days of the months, 
 since the time of the Nicene council in A. D. 
 325. In order, therefore, to bring back all the 
 fasts and festivals to the days then settled, it was 
 requisite to suppress 11 nominal days; and, 
 that the same seasons might be kept to the same 
 times of the year in future, to leave out the bis- 
 sextile day in February, at the end of every cen- 
 tury of years not divisible by 4 ; to reckon them 
 only common years ; as the 17th, 18th, and 19th 
 centuries, viz. the years 1700, 1800, 1900, &c. 
 because a day intercalated every fourth year was 
 too much ; and to retain the bissextile day at the 
 end of those centuries of years which are divisible 
 by 4, as the 16th, 20th, and 24th centuries, viz. 
 the years 1600, 2000, 2400, &c. 
 
 437. Without these changes, the seasons in 
 length of time would be quite reversed with re- 
 gard to the months of the year; though it would 
 have required near 23,783 years, to have brought 
 about such a total change. If the earth had made 
 exactly 365i- diurnal rotations on its axis, while 
 it revolved from any equinoctial or solstitial 
 point to the same again, the civil and solar years 
 would always have kept pace together and the 
 style would never have needed any alteration. 
 
 Sect. IV. Of the Phenomena of the Moon. 
 
 432. The moon is not a primary planet, but 
 only a satellite, or attendant of the earth, circu- 
 lating around it in 29d. 12h. and 44', and round 
 the sun along with it every year. The moon's 
 diameter is 2180 miles ; and her distance from 
 the earth's centre about 240,000 miles. She goes 
 round her orbit in 27d. 7h. 43'. moving about 
 2290 miles every hour; and turns round her 
 axis exactly in the same time that she goes round 
 the earth, which is the reason of her keeping al- 
 ways the same side towards us, and that her day 
 and night taken together is as long as our lunar 
 month. 
 
 433. The moon is an opaque globe like the 
 earth, and shines only by refleVting the light of 
 the sun ; therefore, whilst that half of her which 
 is towards the sun is enlightened, the other half 
 must be dark and invisible. Hence she disap- 
 pears when she comes between us and the sun ; 
 because her dark side is then towards us. When 
 she is gone a little way forward, we see a little 
 of her enlightened side ; which increases to our 
 view as she advances, until she comes to be op- 
 posite to the sun ; when her svhole enlightened 
 side is towards the earth, and she appears a 
 round illuminated orb, which we call the full
 
 A'S T R O N O M Y. 
 
 149 
 
 moon ; her dark side being then turned away 
 from the earth. From the full she seems to de- 
 crease gradually as she goes through the other 
 half of her course; showing us less and less 
 of her enlightened side every day, till her next 
 change or conjunction with the sun^ when she 
 disappears as before. 
 
 434. The moon has scarcely any difference of 
 seasons; her axis being almost perpendicular to 
 the ecliptic. What is very singular, one half of 
 her has no darkness at all; the earth constantly 
 affording it a strong light in the sun's absence; 
 ■while the other half has a fortnight's darkness 
 and a fortnight's light by turns. 
 
 435. Our earth appears as a moon to the 
 inhabitants of the moon; waxing and waning 
 regularly, but appearing thirteen times as big, 
 and affording them thirteen times as much 
 light as she does to us. When she changes 
 to us, the earth appears full to her ; and when 
 she is in her first quarter to us, the earth is 
 in its third quarter to her; and vice versa. But 
 from one half of the moon the earth is never 
 seen at all: from the middle of the other half 
 it is always seen over head; turning round al- 
 most thirty times as quick as the moon does. 
 From the circle which limits our view of the 
 moon, only one half of the earth's side next 
 her is seen ; the other half being hid below the 
 horizon of all places on that circle. To her in- 
 habitants the earth appears the largest body in 
 the universe ; for it appears thirteen times as 
 large as she does to us. 
 
 436. While the earth turns round its axis, the 
 several continents, seas and islands, appear to the 
 moon's inhabitants like so many spots of different 
 forms and brightness, moving over its surface; 
 but much fainter at some times than odiers, ac- 
 cording as our clouds covev them. By these spots 
 the Lunarians can determine the time of the 
 earth's diurnal motion, just as we do die motion 
 of the sun : and they may measure their time 
 by the motion of the earth's spots, for they can- 
 not have a more true dial. 
 
 437. The axis of the moon is so nearly per- 
 pendicular to the ecliptic, that the sun nev-er re- 
 moves sensibly from her equator ; and the obli- 
 quity of her orbit, which is next to notliing as 
 seen from the sun, cannot cause the sun to decline 
 sensibly from her equator. Yet her inhabitants 
 are not destitute of means for ascertaining the 
 length of their year, though their method must 
 differ from ours. We know the length of our 
 year by the return of our equinoxes ; but the Lu- 
 narians, having always equal day and night, must 
 have recourse to another method; and, we may 
 suppose, they measure their year by observing 
 when either of the poles of our earth begins to 1)€ 
 enlightened, and the other to disappear, which 
 is always at our equinoxes; they being conveni- 
 ently situat-ed for observing great tracts of land 
 about our earth's poles, which are entirely un- 
 known to us. Hence we may conclude, that the 
 year is of the same absolute length to the inhabi- 
 tants of the earth and moon, though very differ- 
 ent as to the number of days; we having 365^ 
 natural days, and the Lunarians only 12^, every 
 day and night in the moon being as long as 295 
 on the earth. 
 
 438. The inhabitants of the moon, on the side 
 next the earth, may find the longitude of their 
 places as easily as we can find the latitude of 
 ours. For the earth keeping constantly, or very 
 nearly so, over one meridian of the moon, the 
 east or west distances of places from that meri- 
 dian are as easily found as we can find our dis- 
 tance from tlie equator by the altitude of our 
 celestial poles. 
 
 439. As the sun only enlightens that half of 
 the earth which is towards him, and leaves the 
 opposite half in darkness, he does the same to 
 the moon ; but with this difference, that as the 
 earth is surrounded by an atmosphere, we have 
 twilight after the sun sets ; but if the moon has 
 neither an atmosphere of her own, nor is in- 
 cluded in that of the earth (as is supposed), the 
 Lunarians must have an immediate transition 
 from the brightest sunshine to tlie blackest dark 
 ness. 
 
 440. The moon being an opaque spherical 
 body (for her hills take off no more from her 
 roundness than the inequalities on tlie surface of 
 an orange take of from its roundness,) we can 
 only see that part of the enlightened half which 
 is towards the earth. And therefore, when die 
 moon is at A, see plate IV. fig. 3, in conjunction 
 with the sun S, her dark half is towards the 
 earth, and she disappears, as at a, there being 
 no light on that half to render it visible. When 
 she comes to her first octant at B, or has gone 
 an eighth part of her orbit from her conjunction, 
 a quarter of her enlightened side is towards the 
 earth, and she appears horned, as at b. When 
 she has gone a quarter of her orbit from between 
 the earth and sun to C, she shows us one-half of 
 her enlightened side, as at c, and we say she is a 
 quarter old. At D she is in her second octant ; 
 and by showing us more of her enlightened side, 
 she appears gibbous, as at d. At E her whole 
 enlightened side is towards the earth; and there- 
 fore she appears round, as at e, when we say it is 
 full moon. In her third octant at F, part of her 
 dark side being towards the earth, she again ap- 
 pears gibbous, and is on the decrease, as at f. 
 At G we see just one-half of her enlightened 
 side ; and she appears half decreased, or in her 
 third quarter, as at g. At H we only see a 
 quarter of her enlightened side, being in her 
 fourth octant, where she appears horned, as at A. 
 And at A, having competed her course from the 
 sun to the sun again, she disappears, and we say 
 it is new moon. Thus, in going from A to E, 
 the moon seems continually to increase ; and in 
 going from E to A, to decrease in the same pro- 
 portion; having like phases at equal distances 
 from A to E, but as seen from the sun S, she 
 is always full. 
 
 441. The moon does not appear perfectly 
 round when she is full in the highest or lowest 
 part of her orbit, because we have not a full 
 view of her enlightened side at that time. When 
 full, in the highest part of her orbit a small de- 
 ficiency appears on her lower edge; and the 
 contrary when full in the lowest part of her 
 orbit. 
 
 442. From the figure it is evident, that when 
 the moon changes to the earth, the earth appears 
 full to the moon ; and vice versa. For when the
 
 150 
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 moon is at A. new to the earth, the whole en- 
 lightened side of the earth is towards the moon ; 
 and when the moon is at E, full to the earth, its 
 dark side is towards her. Hence a new moon 
 answers to a full earth, and a full moon to a new 
 earth. The quarters are also reversed to each 
 other. 
 
 443. The position of the moon's cusps, or a 
 right line touching the points of her horns, is very 
 differently inclined to the horizon at different 
 hours of the same days of her age. Sometimes 
 she stands, as it were, upright on her lower horn, 
 and then such a line is perpendicular to the ho- 
 rizon : when this happens, she is in what the as- 
 tronomers call the nonagesimal degree, which is 
 the highest point of the ecliptic above the ho- 
 rizon at that time, and is 90° from both sides of 
 the horizon, where it is then cut by the ecliptic. 
 But this never happens when the moon is on the 
 meridian, except when she is at the very begin- 
 ning of Cancer or Capricorn. 
 
 444. It is easy to demonstrate that the moon 
 turns round her axis in the time that she goes 
 round her orbit ; for a spectator at rest, without 
 the periphery of the moon's orbit, would see all 
 her sides turned regularly towards him in tliat 
 time. She turns round her axis from any star 
 to the same star again, in 27d. 7h. ; from the 
 sun to the sun again in 29^d.; the former is 
 the length of her siderial day, and the latter the 
 length of her solar day. A body moving round 
 the sun would have a solar day in every revolu- 
 tion, without turning on its axis ; the same as if 
 it had been at rest, and the sun moved round it; 
 but without turning round its axis it could never 
 have one siderial day, because it would always 
 keep the same side towards any particular star. 
 
 445. If the earth had no annual motion, the 
 moon would go round it so as to complete a lu- 
 nation, a siderial, and a solar day, all in the same 
 time. But because the earth goes forward in its 
 orbit, wliile tlie moon goes round the earth in 
 her orbit, the moon must go as much more than 
 round her orbit, from change to change, in com- 
 pleting a solar day, as the eartli has gone forward 
 in its orbit during that time, i. e. almost a twelfth 
 part of a circle. If the earth had r-o annual mo- 
 tion, the moon's motion round the earth, and her 
 track in open space, would always be the same. 
 But, as the earth and moon move round the sun, 
 the moon's real path in the heavens is very dif- 
 ferent from her visible path round the earth ; the 
 latter being in a progressive circle, and the for- 
 mer in a curve of different degrees of concavity ; 
 which would always be the same in the same 
 parts of the heavens, if the moon performed a 
 complete number of lunations in a year without 
 any fraction. 
 
 446. Newton ascribed the equality between 
 tlie periods of rotation and revolution of the 
 moon to her being of an oval form, and being 
 denser on one side than the otirer; but La 
 Grange has shown that though, from the diminu- 
 tion ot the centrifugal force, the moon ought to 
 be elevated at the equator, yet the aberration is 
 four times as great in the direction of the equa- 
 torial diameter, which is directed towards the 
 earth; and he has proved that, in consequence 
 of the attraction of the earth on this elevated 
 
 portion, the moon's motion is alternately acce- 
 lerated and retarded ; and that this attraction 
 tends to produce an equality between the rota- 
 tion and revolution of tlie moon, and to occa- 
 sion a coincidence both in the position and mo- 
 tion of the nodes of the moon's orbit. 
 
 447. The motion of the moon in her orbit 
 not being equable, if her rotation on her axis be 
 uniform there must be parts on her eastern and 
 western edges which are only occasionally seen. 
 These changes, called her libration in longitude, 
 are found to agree with an equable motion of 
 rotation. There are parts also about her poles 
 only occasionally visible. This, called her li- 
 bration in latitude, arises from her axis being 
 constantly inclined to the plane of her orbit, in 
 an angle of about 86°. A diurnal libration also 
 takes place ; at rising a part of the western edge 
 is seen, which is invisible at setting, and the 
 contrary takes place with respect to the eastern 
 edge. This is occasioned by the change of place 
 in the spectator, occasioned by the earth's rota- 
 tation. Having found by any means^ the moon's 
 angular distance from the sun, the appearance 
 of her disk for that time may be easily deli- 
 neated in the following manner : Let the arch 
 C O B P, Plate IV. figs. 6 and 8, represent the 
 disk of the moon which is turned towards the 
 earth, and let O P be cut by the diameter B C 
 at right angles, take LP to L F as radius to 
 cosine of the moon's angular distance from the 
 sun, and upon B C as the greater and L F the 
 less axis describe the semi-ellipse B F C ; then 
 B F C P will represent that portion of the moon's 
 illumined face which is visible from the earth. 
 
 448. To illustrate this, let the nail in the 
 end of the axle of a chariot-wheel represent the 
 earth, and a pin in the nave the moon : if the 
 body of the chariot be propped up so as to keep 
 that wheel from touching the ground, and the 
 wheel be then turned round by iiand, the pin 
 will describe a circle both round the nail and in 
 the space it moves through. But if the props be 
 taken away, the horses put to, and the chariot 
 driven over a piece of ground which is circularly 
 convex, the nail in the axle will describe a cir- 
 cular curve, and the pin in the nave will still 
 describe a circle round the progressive nail in 
 the axle, but not in the space tlirough which it 
 moves. In this case, the curve described by the 
 nail will resemble in miniature as much of the 
 earth's annual part round the sun, as it describes 
 whilst the moon goes as often round the earth 
 as the pin does round the nail ; and the curve 
 described by the pin will have some resemblance 
 to the moon's path during so many lunations. 
 
 449. The surface of the moon being uneven, 
 some are surprised that her edge does not ap- 
 pear jagged, as well as the curve bounding the 
 light and dark places. But if we consider that 
 what we call the edge of the moon's disk is not a 
 single line set round with mountains, in which 
 case it would appear irregularly indented, but a 
 large zone, having many mountains, lying behind 
 one another from the observer's eye, we shall 
 find that the mountains in some rows will be op- 
 posite to the vales in others ; and thus fill up the 
 inequalities so as to make her appear quite 
 round; just as when one looks at an orange.
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 151 
 
 although its roughness be very discernible on 
 the side next the eye, especially if the sun or a 
 candle sliines obliquely upon that side, yet the 
 line terminating the visible part still appears 
 smooth and even. 
 
 Sect. V. Of the Tides. 
 
 450. The tides are found to follow periodi- 
 cally the course of the sun and moon, and hence 
 it has been suspected, in all ages, that the tides 
 were somehow produced by the influence of these 
 luminaries. Of this, Pliny, Ptolemy, Macrobius, 
 and others, seem to have had some knowledge. 
 The celebrated Kepler formed some conjectures 
 long ago, as to the true cause of the tides. * If,' 
 says he, ' the earth ceased to attract its waters 
 towards itself, all the water in the ocean would 
 rise and flow into the moon. The sphere of the 
 moon's attraction extends to our earth and draws 
 up the water.' What Kepler only surmised, has 
 been completely verified in the theory laid down 
 by Newton, and by Halley from his principles. 
 The principal phenomena of the tides are as 
 follows : 
 
 451. I. The sea is observed to flow for about 
 six hours from south to north, gradually swell- 
 ing ; and after a flux of about six hours, it seems 
 to rest for a quarter of an hour ; and then to 
 ebb or retire back again from north to soutli for 
 six hours more. Then, after a seeming pause of 
 about i of an hour, the sea again begins to flow ; 
 and so on alternately. 
 
 452. II. Hence the sea ebbs and flows twice 
 a-day, but falling every day later and later by 
 about forty-eight minutes, the period of a flux 
 and reflux being on an average about 12 h. 24 m. 
 and the double of each 24 h. 48 m. which is 
 the period of a lunar day, or the time between 
 the moon's passing a meridian and coming to it 
 again. So that the sea flows as often as the 
 moon passes the meridian, both the arch above 
 the horizon, and that below it; and ebbs as 
 often as she passes the horizon, both on the 
 eastern and western side. These are the most 
 obvious appearances ; the other phenomena are 
 as follows : 
 
 453. III. The elevation towards the moon 
 exceeds the opposite one a little, and the cjuan- 
 tity of the ascent of the water is diminished from 
 the equator to the poles. 
 
 454. IV. The sun raises and depresses the 
 sea twice every day, in the same manner that 
 the moon does ; but the solar tides are much 
 less than the lunar ones, although subject to the 
 same laws. 
 
 455. V. The tides which depend upon the 
 actions of the sun and moon are not distin- 
 guished but compound ; and thus they form to 
 appearance one united tide which, increasing 
 and decreasing, produce neap and spring tides. 
 
 456. VI. In the syzygies the elevations from 
 the actions of both luminaries concur, and the 
 sea is more elevated ; but the sea ascends less in 
 the quadratures ; for where the water is elevated 
 by the action of the moon, it is depressed by 
 that of the sun, and vice versa. Therefore, while 
 the moon passes from the syzygy to the qua- 
 drature, the daily elevations are continually di- 
 minished ; on the contrary, they are increased 
 
 while the moon passes from the quadrature to 
 the syzygy. At the new moon also caeteris pa- 
 ribus the elevations are greater; and those that 
 follow one another the same .day, are more dif- 
 ferent than those at full moon.' 
 
 457. VII. The greatest elevations and depres- 
 sions take place on the 2d or 3d day after the 
 new or full moon ; and they are the greater, the 
 nearer the luminaries are to the plane of the 
 equator ; being greatest in the syzygies, near the 
 equinoxes. 
 
 458. VIII. The actions of the sun and moon 
 are greater the nearer those bodies are to the 
 earth ; and the greatest tides happen when the 
 sun is a little to the south of the equator : but 
 this does not happen regularly every year, be- 
 cause some variation may arise from the situa- 
 tion of the moon's orbit, and the distance of the 
 syzygy from the equinox. 
 
 459. IX. The mean force of the moon to 
 move the sea, is to that of the sun nearly as 4 J 
 to 1 ; and therefore if the action of the sun alone 
 produce a tide of two feet, which it is said to do, 
 then that of the moon will be nine feet; from 
 which it follows, that the spring-tides will be 
 eleven feet, and the neap-tides seven feet. But 
 such elevations as far exceed these, happen from 
 the motion of the water against some obstacles, 
 and from the sea violently entering straits or 
 gulfs, where the force is not broken till the 
 water rises higher. 
 
 460. The preceding phenomena take place in 
 the open sea, where the ocean is extended enough 
 to be subject to their motions. But the parti- 
 cular situations of places, as to shores, capes, 
 bays, &c. disturb in a considerable degree these 
 general rules. We are now to show how these 
 phenomena may be explained, from the prin- 
 ciple of universal gravitation. 
 
 461. If tlie earth were entirely fluid and qui- 
 escent, its particles, by their mutual gravity 
 towards each other, would form the whole mass 
 into the figure of an exact sphere. If a power 
 were to act on all the particles of this sphere, 
 with an equal force, and in parallel directions, 
 the whole mass would be moved together; but 
 no change would be produced on its spherical 
 figure, and its centre would have the same 
 motion as each particle. 
 
 462. Upon this hypothesis, if the motion of 
 the earth round the centre of gravity of the earth 
 and moon, were destroyed, and the earth left to 
 the influence of its gravitation towards the moon, 
 as the power above mentioned, then the earth 
 would fall or move straight towards the moon, 
 without changing its spherical figure. 
 
 463. But the fact is, that the effects of the 
 moon's action, as well as the action itself on dif- 
 ferent parts of the earth, are not equal ; those 
 parts, by the general rules of gravity, being most 
 attracted that are nearest to the moon, and those 
 being least attracted that are farthest from her; 
 while the parts that are at a middle distance are 
 attracted by a mean degree of force. Besides, all 
 the parts are not acted upon in parallel lines, but 
 in lines directed towards the centre of the moon, 
 on both which accounts the spherical figure of 
 the fluid earth must suffer some change from the 
 action of the moon ; so that in falling, as we ha^e
 
 152 
 
 ASTRONOMY, 
 
 supposed, the nearer parts being: most attracted, 
 would fall quickest, the farther parts being least 
 attracted, would fall slowest, and the fluid mass 
 would be lengthened out, and take a kind of 
 spheroidical form. 
 
 464. Hence it appears (which must be care- 
 fully observed), that it is not the action of the 
 moon itself, but the inequalities in that action, 
 that cause any variation from the spherical figure; 
 and that if this action were the same in all the 
 particles, as in the central parts, and operating in 
 the same direction, no such change would ensue. 
 
 465. Let us now admit the parts of the earth 
 to gravitate towards its centre, then as this gravi- 
 tation far exceeds the action of the moon, and 
 much more exceeds the ditferences of her actions 
 on different parts of the earth, the effect which 
 results from the inequalities of these actions of 
 the moon, will be only a small diminution of the 
 gravity of those parts of the earth, which it 
 endeavoured in the former supposition to sepa- 
 rate from its centre ; that is, those parts of the 
 earth which are nearest to the moon, and those 
 that are farthest from her, will have their gravity 
 towards the earth somewhat abated, to say no- 
 thing of the lateral parts ; so that supposing the 
 earth fluid, the columns from the centre to the 
 nearest, and to the farthest parts must rise, till, 
 by tlieir greater height, they are able to balance 
 the other columns, whose gravity is less altered 
 by the inequalities of the moon's action, and 
 thus the figure of the earth must be an oblong 
 spheroid. 
 
 466. Let us now consider the earth, instead of 
 falling towards the moon by its gravity, as pro- 
 jected in any direction, so as to move round the 
 centre of gravity of the earth and moon, it is evi- 
 dent, that in this case the several parts of the 
 fluid earth will still preserve that relative posi- 
 tion, and the figure of the earth will remain the 
 same as if it fell freely towards the moon ; that 
 is, the earth will still assume a spheroidal form, 
 having its longest axis directed toward the moon. 
 
 467. From the preceding reasoning, it appears, 
 that the parts of the earth directly under the moon, 
 as at H, plate X. fig. 4, and also the opposite 
 parts at D, will have the flood or high-water at 
 the same time, whilst the parts at B and F, at 
 90° distance, or where the moon appears in the 
 horizon, will then have the ebbs, or lowest waters. 
 
 Hence as the earth turns round its axis from 
 the moon to the moon again in 24h. 48m. 
 this oval of water must shift with it, and thus 
 there will be two tides of flood, and two of ebb 
 in that time. It farther appears, that by the 
 motion of the earth on her axis, the most ele- 
 vated part of the water is carried beyond the 
 moon, in the direction of the rotation ; so that 
 the water continues to rise after it has passed 
 directly under the moon, though the inmiediate 
 action of tlie moon there begins to decrease ; and 
 comes not to its greatest elevation, till it has got 
 about half a quadrant farther. It continues to 
 descend after it has passed at 90° from the point 
 below the moon, to a like distance of half a 
 quadrant. 
 
 468. The greatest elevation, therefore, is not in 
 the line drawn through the centres of the earth 
 and moon, nor the lowest points, where the moon 
 
 appears in the horizon, but all these are removed 
 about half a quadrant eastward from these points 
 in the direction of the motion of rotation. Thus, 
 in open seas, where the water flows freely, the 
 moon, M, is generally past the north and south 
 meridian, as at p, when the high water is at Z, 
 and at n; the reason of which is plain, because 
 the moon acts with the same force after she has 
 passed the meridian, and thus adds to the libra- 
 tory or waving motion which die water acquired 
 when she was in the meridian. 
 
 469. Besides, the tides answer not always to 
 the distance of the moon from the meridian, at 
 the same places, for the action of the sun brings 
 them on sooner when the moon is in her first and 
 third quarters, and keeps them back later when 
 she is in her second and fourth : because, in the 
 former case, the tide, raised by the sun alone, 
 would be earlier than that raised by the moon, 
 and in the latter case, later. 
 
 470. We have hitherto adverted only to the 
 action of the moon in. producing the tides; but 
 it is evident, that for the same reasons, the ine- 
 quality of the sun's action on different parts of 
 the earth, would produce a like effect, and a like 
 deviation from an exact spherical figure ; so that 
 in reality, there are two tides, every natural day, 
 from the action of the sun, as there are in a lunar 
 day, from the action of the moon, subject to the 
 same laws; and the lunar tide, as has been ob- 
 served, is somewhat changed by the action of the 
 sun, the change varying every day, on account 
 of the inequality between th'e natural and luipar 
 day. 
 
 471. Although the gravitation of the earth, 
 towards the sun, is much greater than its gravi- 
 tation towards the moon, yet, by reason of the 
 sun's immense distance, to which the earth's dia- 
 meter bears a small proportion, his action upon 
 the side of the earth next to him differs but little 
 from that which is exerted on the side farthest 
 from liim, and it is only the inequalities in that 
 action that produce the tide. However, the effect 
 of the sun is still very sensible, but that of the 
 moon is much more so ; for, by its proximity to 
 the earth, there is a considerable inequality, 
 both in the direction of its action, and in the in- 
 tensity of that action upon different parts of the 
 earth. 
 
 472. Hence it is easy to see, that the tides 
 must be greatest at new and at full moon, because 
 the actions of the sun and moon are then exerted 
 in the same directions. These are called spring 
 tides; whereas, when the sun and moon are 90° 
 distant, the action of the one luminary raises the 
 tides, just where that of the other depresses them, 
 and thus are produced what are called neap tides. 
 Newton has calculated the effects of the sun and 
 moon respectively upon the tides from their at- 
 tractive powers, the former he finds to be to the 
 force of gravity, as one to 12,868,200. To find 
 the force of the latter upon the water, he com- 
 pares the spring tides at the mouth of the river 
 Avon, below Bristol, with the neap tides, and 
 finds the proportion as nine to five; whence, after 
 several necessary corrections, he concludes, that 
 the force of the moon, in moving the waters, is to 
 that of the sun, as 44815 to one. 
 
 473. Dr. Ilorsley, however, in his edition of
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 153 
 
 Newton's Principia, estimates the force of the 
 moon to that of the sun, as 3'0469 to one, and 
 other authors have given different proportions ; 
 but Newton computes, from his proportion, that 
 the moon may raise the waters nine feet, 1|- inch, 
 and the sun and moon together may produce an 
 elevation of about eleven feet, two inches ; and 
 about 12| feet, when the moon is at her nearest 
 distance. Now this is found by observation, to 
 be nearly the height to which the water rises, on 
 the coasts of the open and deep ocean. 
 
 474. It must be observed, that the spring tides 
 do not happen precisely at new and full moon, 
 nor the neap tides precisely at the quarters, but 
 a day or two after; because, as in other cases, 
 so in this, the effect is not greatest or least when 
 the immediate influence of the cause is greatest 
 or least ; for if the actions of the sun and moon 
 were to cease, yet the tides would continue for 
 some time ; as the waves of the sea continue their 
 motion after a storm. 
 
 475. The different distances of the moon from 
 the earth produce a sensible variation in the tides ; 
 and Newton has shown, that they increase as the 
 cubes of the distances decrease ; so that the moon 
 at half her distance, would produce a tide eight 
 times greater. The moon describes an oval 
 round the earth; and at her nearest distance, 
 produces a tide sensibly greater than at her 
 farthest distance. Hence two great spring tides 
 never succeed each other, at the distance of four- 
 teen days ; for if the moon be at her least distance 
 at the change, and therefore produce a great spring 
 tide, she will be at her greatest distance at the 
 full, and therefore the spring tide will be less. 
 
 476. The spring tides are highest, and the 
 neap tides lowest, about the time of the equi- 
 noxes; because, were the sun or moon in the 
 pole of the world, there would be no tide; for 
 their action would raise the water at the equator 
 or any parallel, equally round the earth: there- 
 fore, the nearer they are to the equator, the 
 greater must be the effect. When the sun and 
 moon traverse the equator, the tides, which are 
 under them, will traverse the greatest circle, and 
 the waters will be put into the greatest agitation. 
 They will also be the greater at these times, be- 
 cause the earth is nearer to the sun, about the 
 beginning of March and end of September, than 
 in the summer months. 
 
 477. As the greatest of the two tides, happen- 
 ing in every diurnal revolution of the moon, is 
 that in which the moon is nearest the zenith or 
 nadir, therefore, while the sun is in the northern 
 signs, the greater of the two diurnal tides, in our 
 climate, will be that arising from the moon when 
 above the horizon; and when the sun is in the 
 southern signs, the greatest is that arising from 
 the moon below the horizon. Thus, the evening 
 tides in summer exceed the morning tides, and 
 the morning tides in winter exceed the evening 
 tides. This difference is found at Bristol to be 
 fifteen inches, and at Plymouth twelve inches. 
 
 478. Such would the tides regularly be, if the 
 earth were all covered over with the sea, to a 
 great depth, so that the waters might freely fol- 
 low the influence of the sun and moon ; but, as 
 the tides pass over shoals, and run through 
 
 straits into bays of the sea, their motion be- 
 comes more various, and their height depends 
 upon a great many circumstances. That the 
 tides may have their full motion, the ocean, in 
 which they are produced, ought to be at least 90° 
 extended from east to west; because that is the 
 distance between the greatest elevation, and the 
 greatest depression, produced in the waters by 
 the moon. 
 
 479. Hence it appears, that it is only in the 
 great oceans that such tides as we have described 
 can be produced, and why in the larger Pacific 
 Ocean they exceed those in the Atlantic Ocean. 
 Hence it is obvious why the tides are not so 
 great in the torrid zone, between Africa and 
 America, where the ocean is narrower, as in the 
 temperate zones on either side ; and hence, also, 
 we see why the tides are so small in islands, at 
 great distances from the shores. It likewise ap- 
 pears, that the waters cannot rise on one shore of 
 the Atlantic Ocean, but by descending on the 
 other, so that at tlie intermediate islands it must 
 remain at a mean height, between its elevations 
 on those two shores. 
 
 480. The tides that enter the mouths of ri- 
 vers from the ocean, are greatly retarded in their 
 progress, by the currents of the rivers. Mr. 
 Condamine, while in South America, observed, 
 that in the river Amazons, there were five high 
 waters, and four intermediate low waters at once; 
 and a similar circumstance takes place in the 
 Thames. For the tide propagated by the moon 
 in the German Ocean, when she is three hours 
 past the meridian, takes twelve hours longer to 
 come to London Bridge, so that when it is high 
 water there, a new tide is already come to its height 
 in the ocean; and in some intermediate place, it 
 must be low water at the same time. 
 
 481. At several places, it is high water three 
 hours before the moon comes to her meridian; 
 but that tide, which the moon pushes as it were 
 before her, is only the tide opposite to that which 
 was raised by her, when she was nine hours past 
 the opposite meridian. 
 
 482. There are no sensible tides in the Baltic, 
 \he Mediterranean, or the Black Seas ; for they 
 communicate with die ocean by such narrow 
 inlets, and are of so immense an extent, that 
 they cannot speedily receive and empty water 
 enough, to raise or depress their surfaces sen- 
 sibly. In the Caspian Sea, and in lakes, &c. 
 the moon's attraction is nearly the same upon all 
 parts of their surface, so that no sensible swelling 
 can take place in their waters. 
 
 483. We may also conclude, that by reason 
 of the fluidity of the atmosphere, it must have 
 tides similar to those of die ocean ; and hence, 
 there will be a general current from east to west, 
 both of the waters of the ocean, and of the air; 
 but the changes produced in the state of the at- 
 mosphere, from chemical causes, will so much 
 affect the general current, as to prevent it from 
 being perceived. 
 
 484. We shall conclude this subject with a 
 table, by the aid of which the time of high 
 water may be found with great ease and cor 
 rectness.
 
 154 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 Table for finding the Time of High Water ; being the Correction of the Moon's southing. 
 
 Moon's 
 
 
 Moon's Semidiameter. 
 
 Moon's 
 
 Moon's 
 
 Moon's Semidiameter 
 
 
 Moon's 
 
 pass, over 
 
 
 
 pass, over 
 Merid. 
 
 pass, over 
 Merid. 
 
 
 
 
 
 pass, over 
 Merid. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 14' 30 '1 15' 30" 
 
 16' 30" 
 
 
 
 14' 
 
 30" 
 
 15' 
 
 30" 
 
 lb' 
 
 60' 
 
 
 
 H, 
 
 M. 
 
 H. M. 
 
 H. M. 
 
 H. M. 
 
 H. M. 
 
 H. M. 
 
 H. 
 
 M. 
 
 H. 
 
 M. 
 
 H. 
 
 M. 
 
 H. 
 
 M. 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 4 
 
 — 00 
 
 + 05 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 — 
 
 55 
 
 — 1 
 
 3 
 
 — 1 
 
 12 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 — 
 
 8 
 
 — 5 
 
 + 1 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 — 
 
 49 
 
 — 
 
 55 
 
 — 1 
 
 3 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 40 
 
 — 
 
 12 
 
 — 10 
 
 — 8 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 — 
 
 43 
 
 — 
 
 47 
 
 — 
 
 53 
 
 
 40 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 17 
 
 — 16 
 
 — 15 
 
 13 
 
 7 
 
 — 
 
 32 
 
 — 
 
 34 
 
 
 
 37 
 
 19 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 — 22 
 
 — 22 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 — 
 
 22 
 
 — 
 
 22 
 
 — 
 
 22 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 40 
 
 — 
 
 27 
 
 — 28 
 
 - 29 
 
 40 
 
 ■ 40 
 
 
 11 
 
 — 
 
 9 
 
 — 
 
 6 
 
 
 40 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 _ 
 
 31 
 
 — 33 
 
 — 36 
 
 14 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 + 
 
 3 
 
 + 
 
 9 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 — 
 
 36 
 
 — 39 
 
 — 43 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 + 
 
 5 
 
 + 
 
 11 
 
 + 
 
 19 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 40 
 
 
 40 
 
 — 44 
 
 — 50 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 + 
 
 11 
 
 + 
 
 19 
 
 + 
 
 29 
 
 
 40 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 _ 
 
 44— 49 
 
 — 55 
 
 15 
 
 9 
 
 + 
 
 14 
 
 + 
 
 21 
 
 + 
 
 32 
 
 21 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 — 
 
 48 
 
 - 54 
 
 — 12 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 + 
 
 16 
 
 + 
 
 24 
 
 + 
 
 36 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 40 
 
 — 
 
 51 
 
 — 58 
 
 — 1 7 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 + 
 
 16 
 
 + 
 
 23 
 
 + 
 
 35 
 
 
 40 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 _ 
 
 55 
 
 — 12 
 
 — 1 12 
 
 16 
 
 10 
 
 + 
 
 15 
 
 + 
 
 23 
 
 + 
 
 34 
 
 22 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 — 
 
 57 
 
 — 15 
 
 — 1 15 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 + 
 
 13 
 
 + 
 
 20 
 
 + 
 
 30 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 40 
 
 — 
 
 59—1 7 
 
 — 1 18 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 + 
 
 11 
 
 + 
 
 18 
 
 + 
 
 28 
 
 
 40 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 _ 
 
 1 0— 1 8 
 
 — 1 19 
 
 17 
 
 11 
 
 + 
 
 7 
 
 + 
 
 14 
 
 + 
 
 23 
 
 23 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 — 
 
 11—19 
 
 — 1 20 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 + 
 
 4 
 
 — 
 
 10 + 
 
 18 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 40 
 
 — 
 
 58— 1 5 
 
 — 1 16 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 + 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 5 + 
 
 11 
 
 
 40 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 55J— 1 3 
 
 — 1 12 
 
 18 
 
 12 
 
 — 
 
 4 
 
 + 
 
 o|. 
 
 5 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 485. To find the time of high water by this 
 table, seek in the Nautical Almanack, White's 
 Ephemeris, or any other similar astronomical 
 work, for the time of the moon's passing the 
 meridian of Greenwich ; with which enter the 
 table, and take out the corresponding correction 
 of the said time of the moon's meridian passage, 
 and apply it by addition or subtraction as di- 
 rected in the table, and add the result to the time 
 of liigh water at tiie proposed place on the full 
 and change days, and the sum rejecting twenty- 
 four hours if necessary, will be the hours and mi- 
 nutes past noon, when it willbe high water. 
 
 Sect. VI. — Of the Harvest Moon. 
 
 486. It is remarkable, that the moon, during 
 the week in which she is full about the time of 
 harvest, rises sooner after sun-set, than she does 
 in any odier full moon week throughout the 
 year. By this means, she affords an immediate 
 supply of light after sun-set, which is very 
 beneficial for those employed in the harvest, and 
 gathering in the fruits of the earth. Hence this 
 full moon is distinguished from all others in the 
 year, by calling it the Harvest Moon. 
 
 487. To conceive the reason of this pheno- 
 menon, it may first be considered, that the moon 
 is always opposite to the sun when she is full, 
 and therefore, in the harvest months, she is full 
 in Pisces and Aries, which are opposite to Virgo 
 and Libra, the signs occupied by the sun about 
 the same season. Now the signs Pisces aud 
 Aries rise in a shorter space of time than others, 
 
 as is easily shown and illustrated by a celestial 
 globe ; and the same thing may be conceived 
 from this circumstance, that in northern lati- 
 tudes, the smallest angle made by the ecliptic 
 and horizon, is when Aries rises, at which time 
 Libra sets ; and it is obvious, that the smaller 
 the angle contained by the ecliptic and horizon, 
 the greater portion of the ecliptic will rise by 
 the earth's rotation in a given time. Conse- 
 quently, when the moon is full in harvest, she 
 rises with less difference of time, or more im- 
 mediately after sunset, than at any other season 
 of the year. 
 
 488. In our winter the moon is in Pisces 
 and Aries, about the time of her first quarter, 
 wlien she rises about noon, and therefore, her 
 rising is not then noticed. 
 
 489. In spring the moon is in Pisces and 
 Aries about the time of her change, but as she 
 then gives no light, and rises with the sun, her 
 rising cannot be perceived. 
 
 490. In summer the moon is in Pisces and 
 Aries at the time of the last quarter, and then, 
 as she does not rise till midnight, her rising 
 usually passes unobserved. 
 
 491. But, in autumn, the moon is in Pisces 
 and Aries at the time of her full, and rises soon 
 after sun-set, for several evenings successively ; 
 which makes her regular risings very con- 
 spicuous at that time of the year. 
 
 492. All this would happen, if the moon's 
 orbit lay in the ecliptic ; but her orbit makes 
 with the ecliptic an angle of 5° 18', and crosses
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 155 
 
 it in two points, called her nodes ; so that her 
 rising-, when in Pisces and Aries, will sometimes 
 not differ above an hour and forty minutes, 
 through a wliole week ; and at other times, in 
 the same two signs she will differ in a week 3^ 
 hours in the time of her rising, according to the 
 different positions of the nodes with respect to 
 the signs ; which positions are always changing, 
 because the nodes go backward through the 
 ecliptic in eighteen years, 225 days. 
 
 493. This revolution of the nodes causes the 
 harvest moons to go through a whole course of 
 the most advantageous and least beneficial states, 
 with respect to the harvest, every nineteen years. 
 They were least beneficial in 1796, and conti- 
 nued so until 1 r97 ; after which, they became 
 most beneficial from that period to 1806. In 
 1807 they again became least beneficial, and 
 continued so till 1815. Their most advantageous 
 period began agaih i'a 1816, and lasted till 1825, 
 when the opposite period commenced, and will 
 last until the yearlP»34; then again they will 
 be most beneficial from 1835 to 1843 ; and so on. 
 
 Sect. VII. — Of the Horizontal Sun and 
 Moon. 
 
 494. Philosophers have been much at a loss 
 to account for the apparent magnitude of the sun 
 and moon, being greater when they are in the 
 horizon, than when elevated above it. For, ac- 
 cording to the laws of vision, they should appear 
 least, when nearest the horizon, because they 
 are then farthest from the eye ; and yet, it is 
 found, that the contrary is true, in fact. Thus, 
 although the diameter of the moon, when in the 
 horizon, .as measured by an instrument, is not 
 found to be greater than when measured at her 
 greatest elevation in the meridian, yet her ap- 
 parent 'diameter, when in the horizon, seems to 
 the eye two or three times greater than when 
 ■sbe is considerably elevated above it. 
 
 495. According to Alhazen, one of the ear- 
 liest writers on optics, the sight appreliends the 
 surface of the heavens as flat, and judges of the 
 stars, as it would of ordinary objects extended 
 upon a wide plain. The eye sees them indeed 
 under equal angles, but at the same time per- 
 ceives a difference in their distances, and (on 
 account of the semi-diameter of the earth, which 
 is interposed in the one case, but not in the other) 
 it is hence induced to judge those that appear 
 more r-emote to be greater. 
 
 496. Des Cartes, and firom him Dl:. Wallis 
 and most other authors, account for the ap- 
 pearance of a different distance under the same 
 angle, from the long series of objects interposed 
 between the eye and the extremity of the horizon, 
 which makes us imagine it is more remote than 
 wlien in the meridian, where the eye sees nothing 
 in t!ie way between itself and the object. This 
 idea of a great distance makes us imagine the 
 luD/iinary larger; for an object being seen under 
 any certain angle, and believed at the same time 
 more remote, we naturally imagine it to be very 
 large, to appear under such an angle at such a 
 distance, and thus a pure judgment of the mind 
 makes us se-i the sun or the moon larger in the 
 'lorizon than in the meridian, notwithstanding 
 their diameters, when measured, are really less 
 in the fornjer situation diap. in the latter. 
 
 497. This opinion, however, seems hardly te- 
 nable, although it be sanctioned by the authority 
 of very eminent men ; for it is daily seen, that 
 the sun and moon, when near the horizon, very 
 suddenly change their magnitude as they ascend 
 and descend, though all the intervening objects 
 remain the same as before ; and the luminaries 
 appear largest of all, when fewest objects appear 
 on the earth, as in a thick fog or mist. 
 
 498. Dr. Desaguliers has endeavoured to ex- 
 plain the appearance of the horizontal moon, on 
 the supposition that we imagine the visible heavens 
 to be only a small portion of a spherical surface, 
 and consequently suppose the moon to be farther 
 from us in the horizon than near the zenith ; 
 and he has shown how liable we are to such de- 
 ceptions, 
 
 499. Upon this idea. Dr. Smith has determi- 
 ned, in his optics, that the centre of the appa- 
 rent splierical segment of sky, lying much 
 below the eye, the apparent distance of its parts, 
 near tl?e horizon, is about three or four times 
 greater tnan the apparent distance of its parts 
 over head ; for which reason it is, he infers, that 
 the moon always appears larger as she is lower, 
 and also that we always think the height of a 
 celestial object to be greater than it really is. 
 
 500. Of th-e apparent figure of the sky, we 
 shjiU have occasion to treat more fully under 
 optics ; and shall only observe here, tliat if it be 
 allowed, tliat we judge of the apparent mag- 
 nitude of the heavenly bodies, by the arc which 
 they cover of the concave sky, it is evident, since 
 the sky appears to us as a segment less than a 
 hemisphere, that ti.e horizon will appear farther 
 distant than the zenith ; and therefore the sun 
 and moon, while in the horizon, will cover a 
 larger portion of the apparent sky, than when 
 more elevated, and thus their apparent diameter 
 will be greater. 
 
 Sect. VIII. — Of the Refraction of Light 
 BY THE Atmosphere. 
 
 501. If it were not for the atmosphere, the 
 rays of light that come from the heavenly bodies, 
 and by which they are seen, would enter the eye 
 in the direction of a straight line joining the lu- 
 minous body and the eye. But the earth being 
 covered to a considerable height with an atmos- 
 phere of unequal density, a ray of light falling 
 obliquely upon its surface,, instead of continuing 
 to move forward in the same rectilineal direction, 
 is bent downwards into a curve, in its future 
 progress ; and enters the eye in a direction 
 differing more or less from its original one, ac- 
 cording as it falls upon the atmosphere, with a 
 greater or less degree of obliquity. 
 
 502. This effect may be thus illustrated : 
 Suppose Z Y, plate IV. fig. 7, a quadrant of a 
 vertical circle described from the centre of the 
 earth T, under which is A B a quadrant of a 
 circle on the surface of the earth, and G H a 
 quadrant of the surface of tlie atmosphere. 
 Then suppose S E a ray of light emitted from a 
 star at S, and falling on the atmosphere at E; 
 because the ray passes out of a rare medium 
 (and most probably a perf-)ct vacuum) into a 
 denser medium ; by the laws of optics, it will 
 be refracted towards the perpendicular, or more 
 inclintid towards the earth ; and since the
 
 156 
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 farther that a ray descends in the atmosphere, 
 the more dense is the medium through which it 
 passes, it will move in the curve E A, and at last 
 enter the eye in the direction of A F Q, a tangent 
 to the curve. Therefore the star will appear at 
 Q instead of S, and thus its apparent place Q 
 will be nearer the zenith than its true place. 
 
 503. The nearer the star S is to the horizon, 
 the greater will be the refraction as well as the 
 distance between the apparent and true place of 
 the star. Hence the heavenly bodies appear to 
 be above the horizon, by reason of the refraction, 
 when they are really below it. Tliere is no re- 
 fraction in the zenith, for a ray, coming from Z, 
 will fall perpendicularly on the surface of the at- 
 mosphere at G, and continue its rectilinear 
 course to the eye at A. 
 
 Tlie following neat and elegant method of 
 computing the atmospherical refraction has been 
 given by Dr. Brinkley, the present learned and 
 active professor of astronomy at Dublin : 
 
 504. Let LI, fig. 7, plate VI, be a ray of light 
 falling on the atmosphere at I, and refracted in 
 the curvineal course I S. The object appears to 
 a spectator at S in the direction S T, a tangent to 
 the curve, VST is the apparent zenith distance. 
 The space in the figure between the concentric 
 circles represents all the atmosphere which has 
 any effect on the ray of light, so tliat the light 
 may be considered as passing out of a vacuum 
 into this space. 
 
 505. If the surface of the earth were a plane, the 
 different strata of air might be considered as 
 parallel thereto ; and by the principles of optics, 
 the refraction would be the same as would take 
 place were the ray of light to pass from a vacuum 
 into air of the same density with that at the sur- 
 face. It is therefore evident, that if we take into 
 account the spherical form of the earth and at- 
 mosphere, the error resulting from the supposition 
 of an uniform atmosphere will necessarily be 
 very small, compared with the change occasioned 
 by considering the atmosphere spherical, pro- 
 vided that change be small. 
 
 506. Let ?«:!:: sin. of incidence : sin. of re- 
 fraction, when a ray of light passes from a vacuum 
 into air of the density of that at the surface of the 
 earth. Suppose all the air contracted into an 
 uniform atmosphere, then SI is a right line. 
 Let HIL = i, SIC = r, VSI = c, SC = a, 
 the height of the uniform atmosphere =: /, or 
 C I = a 4- /. 
 
 a -\- I : a : 
 1 : in ', 
 Hence 
 
 sm. ;: : sin. r 
 sin. r : sin. i. 
 
 in a sm. z / l\ 
 
 sin. I -rz — — rr in sm. z ( 1 inearly. 
 
 « + / \ a / ■' 
 
 a sin. z / ^\ , 
 
 Let i :3: r 4- R, then II is the quantity of re- 
 fraction. Sin. (r 4- R) n sin. i. 
 Or, because R is small, sin. r + cos. r sin. R = 
 sin. i, or sin r -f- R sin. 1" cos. r = sin. i, sub- 
 stituting in this equation for sin. r and sin. i, as 
 above. Also for cos. r. 
 
 ^/1 
 
 a / 
 
 \/ cos. °ir -I- — sin. -z = 
 a 
 
 (l+itan.^.) 
 
 cos. z 
 nearly, we obtain 
 
 R=^ 
 
 sm. I. — sm. r 
 
 771 — 1 • sin . 2 • ( 1 
 
 (^-i) 
 
 sin. l"xcos r 
 
 sin. 1". cos. c( 14- ' tan.*s ) 
 
 (m — 1) tan. z (m — 1) I. tan. ^z 
 
 sin. 1 ' 
 
 a sin. 1 cos. ^z 
 
 nearly. 
 
 507. Taking z = 80°, 2 = 5 and a = 4000 
 miles, the second term (arising from the spheri- 
 cal figure of the atmosphere) = 10" nearly. 
 If a were indefinite, that is, if the surface of the 
 earth were a plane, this second term would 
 vanish. Hence we may safely conclude, that as 
 far as 80 zenith distance, the error arising from 
 supposing the atmosphere of uniform density 
 must be much less than 10", and that conse- 
 quently the above expression gives the refraction 
 as far as 80 from the zenith with sufficient ac- 
 curacy. If we neglect the second term, the re- 
 fraction will vary as the tangent of the zenith 
 distance. 
 
 508. The exact experiments ofM.M. Biot and 
 Arago, have determined the value of m — 1 =, 
 •0002946, when the barometer is at 29,93 (in 
 metre) and Fah. therm, at 32°. From theii ex- 
 periments, and the law of expansion of air, it 
 
 . , , , m — 1 
 
 may be inferred that -. -r = 
 
 •' sm. 1 
 
 ^'"■^^^ X—— X 57" 82, nearly 
 
 1 4-, 002083 {t — 32)^ 29,60 
 
 where b is height of th« barometer, and t that of 
 
 Fahrenheit's thermometer. When t — 50° and 
 
 . , , ■ . . m — 1 
 
 b = 29,60 inches, this expression gives _ 
 
 sin 1 
 
 ^ 57-82, a resuJt independent of astronomical 
 
 observations. 
 
 509. The French tables of refraction, by De- 
 lambre, founded on astronomical observations, 
 
 give "' = 57-72" ; and from upwards of 
 
 sin. 1" 
 500 observations made by himself, Dr. Brinkley 
 m — 1 
 
 = 57-56". 
 
 finds 
 
 sin. 1" 
 510. Mr. H.Atkinson, in a memoir recently read 
 before the Astronomical Society of London, and 
 printed in the forth-coming part of the Society's 
 Memoirs, has treated the subject of refractions 
 in a manner altosether new ; and has evinced 
 talents for scientific investigation which place 
 him in a high rank among the philosophers of 
 the present day. He treats tlie question alto- 
 gether as one depending on the optical proper- 
 ties of air, by dividing tlie whole atmosphere 
 into various concentric strata, and computes the 
 deviation produced by refraction on each stratum. 
 We should be glad, did our limits permit us, to 
 quote very largely from this most elaborate and 
 instructive essay, but we must content ourselves 
 with extracting one of the results of his labors 
 in a
 
 ASTRONOMY. 157 
 
 511. Table of Mean Refraction, adapted to 50° Fahrenheit, and 29-6 inches of Barometric pressure 
 
 Zenith dist. 
 
 Refraction, j 
 
 Zenith dist. 
 
 Refraction. 
 
 Zenith dist. 
 
 Refraction. 
 
 1 Zenith dist. 
 
 Refraction. 
 
 1° 
 
 0' 
 
 0' 1-01" 
 
 58° 30' 
 
 1' 33-87" 
 
 76° 20' 
 
 3' 52-93" 
 
 84 40"° 
 
 9' 15-59" 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 201 
 
 59 
 
 1 35-72 
 
 76 30 
 
 3 55-80 
 
 84 45 
 
 9 22-86 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 3-02 
 
 59 30 
 
 1 37-64 
 
 76 40 
 
 3 58-74 
 
 84 50 
 
 9 30-32 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 4-p3 
 
 60 
 
 1 39-60 
 
 76 50 
 
 4 1-75 
 
 84 55 
 
 9 37-95 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 505 
 
 60 20 
 
 1 40-93 
 
 77 
 
 4 4-83 
 
 85 
 
 9 45-77 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 606 
 
 60 40 
 
 1 42-30 
 
 77 10 
 
 4 800 
 
 85 5 
 
 9 53-79 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 7-08 
 
 61 
 
 1 43-70 
 
 77 20 
 
 4 11-23 
 
 85 10 
 
 10 2-01 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 811 
 
 61 20 
 
 1 45-13 
 
 77 30 
 
 4 14-55 
 
 85 15 
 
 10 10-44 
 
 9 
 
 ] 
 
 914 
 
 61 40 
 
 1 46-59 j 
 
 77 40 
 
 4 17-95 
 
 85 30 
 
 10 19-09 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 10-17 
 
 62 
 
 1 48-08 j 
 
 77 50 
 
 4 21-43 
 
 85 25 
 
 10 27-96 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 11-21 
 
 62 20 
 
 1 49-60 
 
 78 
 
 4 25-00 
 
 85 30 
 
 10 37-00 
 
 12 
 
 ! 
 
 12-26 
 
 62 40 
 
 1 51-16 
 
 78 10 
 
 4 28-66 
 
 85 35' 
 
 10 46-41 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 13-32 
 
 63 
 
 1 52-75 i 
 
 78 20 
 
 4 32-41 
 
 85 40 
 
 10 50-01 
 
 U 
 
 
 
 14-38 
 
 63 20 
 
 1 54-37 
 
 78 30 
 
 4 36-27 
 
 85 45 
 
 11 5-87 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 15-46 
 
 63 40 
 
 1 56-03 I 
 
 78 40 
 
 4 40-23 
 
 85 50 
 
 11 1600 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 16-54 
 
 64 
 
 1 57-73 1 
 
 78 50 
 
 4 44-30 
 
 85 55 
 
 11 26-40 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 17-64 
 
 64 20 
 
 1 59-48 
 
 79 
 
 4 48-48 
 
 86 
 
 11 37-09 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 18-74 
 
 64 40 
 
 2 1-26 
 
 79 10 
 
 4 52-79 
 
 86 5 
 
 11 48-09 
 
 19 
 
 
 
 19-86 
 
 65 
 
 2 3-10 
 
 79 20 
 
 4 57-21 
 
 86 10 
 
 11 59-41 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 2100 
 
 65 15 
 
 2 4-50 
 
 79 30 
 
 5 1-76 
 
 86 15 
 
 12 11-05 
 
 21 
 
 
 
 2214 
 
 65 30 
 
 2 5-92 
 
 79 40 
 
 5 6-43 
 
 86 20 
 
 12 2303 
 
 22 
 
 
 
 23-31 
 
 65 45 
 
 2 7-38 
 
 79 50 
 
 5 11-25 
 
 86 25 
 
 12 35-36 
 
 23 
 
 
 
 24:49 
 
 66 
 
 2 8-86 
 
 80 
 
 5 16-21 
 
 86 30 
 
 12 48-05 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 25-68 
 
 66 15 
 
 2 10-76 
 
 80 10 
 
 5 21-31 
 
 86 35 
 
 13 1-13 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 26-90 
 
 66 30 
 
 2 11-91 
 
 80 20 
 
 5 26-57 
 
 86 40 
 
 13 14-61 
 
 26 
 
 
 
 28-13 
 
 66 45 
 
 2 13-48 
 
 80 30 
 
 5 32-00 
 
 86 45 
 
 13 28-50 
 
 27 
 
 
 
 29-39 
 
 67 
 
 2 15-08 1 
 
 80 40 
 
 5 37-59 
 
 86 50 
 
 13 42-82 
 
 28 
 
 
 
 30-67 
 
 67 15 
 
 2 16-71 
 
 80 50 
 
 5 43-37 
 
 86 55 
 
 13 57-59 
 
 29 
 
 
 
 31-97 
 
 67 30 
 
 2 18-38 
 
 81 
 
 5 49-33 
 
 87 
 
 14 12-83 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 33-30 
 
 67 45 
 
 2 20-08 
 
 81 10 
 
 5 55-50 
 
 87 5 
 
 14 28-55 
 
 31 
 
 
 
 34-66 
 
 68 
 
 2 21-82 
 
 81 20 
 
 6 1-87 
 
 87 10 
 
 14 44-78 
 
 32 
 
 
 
 3604 
 
 68 15 
 
 2 23-60 ! 
 
 81 30 
 
 6 8-46 
 
 87 15 
 
 15 1-54 
 
 33 
 
 
 
 37-45 
 
 68 30 
 
 2 25-41 1 
 
 81 40 
 
 6 15-27 
 
 87 20 
 
 15 18-86 
 
 34 
 
 
 
 38-90 
 
 68 45 
 
 2 27-27 
 
 81 50 
 
 6 22-32 I 
 
 87 25 
 
 15 36-75 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 40-38 
 
 69 
 
 2 29-17 
 
 82 
 
 6 29-63 
 
 87 30 
 
 15 55-24 
 
 36 
 
 
 
 41-89 
 
 69 15 
 
 2 31-12 
 
 82 5 
 
 6 33-37 
 
 87 35 
 
 16 14-36 
 
 37 
 
 
 
 43-45 
 
 69 30 
 
 2 33-11 
 
 82 10 
 
 6 37-19 
 
 87 40 
 
 16 34-14 
 
 38 
 
 
 
 45-05 
 
 69 45 
 
 2 35-14 
 
 82 15 
 
 6 41-7 
 
 87 45 
 
 16 54-60 
 
 39 
 
 6 
 
 46-69 
 
 70 
 
 2 37-21 
 
 82 20 
 
 6 4503 
 
 87 50 
 
 17 15-78 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 48-38 
 
 ' 70 15 
 
 2 39-32 
 
 82 25 
 
 6 49-07 
 
 87 55 
 
 17 37-69 
 
 41 
 
 
 
 5012 
 
 ' 70 30 
 
 2 41-49 
 
 82 30 
 
 6 53-18 
 
 88 
 
 18 0-41 
 
 42 
 
 
 
 51-91 
 
 i 70 45 
 
 2 43-72 
 
 82 35 
 
 6 57-37 
 
 88 5 
 
 18 24-06 
 
 43 
 
 
 
 53-76 
 
 71 
 
 2 4600 
 
 82 40 
 
 7 1-65 
 
 88 10 
 
 18 48-57 
 
 44 
 
 
 
 55-66 
 
 71 15 
 
 2 48-36 
 
 82 45 
 
 7 6-01 
 
 88 15 
 
 19 13-95 
 
 45 
 
 
 
 57-63 
 
 71 30 
 
 2 50-77 
 
 82 50 
 
 7 10-45 
 
 88 20 
 
 19 40-24 
 
 46 
 
 
 
 59-67 
 
 71 45 
 
 2 53-23 
 
 82 55 
 
 7 14-98 
 
 88 25 
 
 20 7-39 
 
 47 
 
 
 
 1 1-79 
 
 72 
 
 2 55-75 
 
 83 
 
 7 19-60 
 
 88 30 
 
 20 35-58 
 
 48 
 
 
 
 1 3.98 
 
 72 15 
 
 2 58-33 
 
 83 5 
 
 7 24-31 
 
 88 35 
 
 21 4-88 
 
 49 
 
 
 
 1 6-27 
 
 72 30 
 
 3 0-98 
 
 83 10 
 
 7 29-12 
 
 88 40 
 
 21 35-31 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 1 8-64 
 
 72 45 
 
 3 3-71 
 
 83 15 
 
 7 34-02 
 
 83 45 
 
 22 7-02 
 
 50 
 
 30 
 
 1 9-87 
 
 73 
 
 3 6-51 
 
 83 20 
 
 7 39-03 
 
 88 50 
 
 22 39-92 
 
 51 
 
 
 
 1 11-12 
 
 73 15 
 
 3 9-40 
 
 83 25 
 
 7 44-13 
 
 88 55 
 
 23 14-05 
 
 51 
 
 30 
 
 1 12-40 
 
 73 30 
 
 3 12-36 
 
 83 30 
 
 7 49-35 
 
 89 
 
 23 49-49 
 
 52 
 
 
 
 1 13-71 
 
 ; 73 45 
 
 3 15-41 
 
 83 35 
 
 7 54-67 
 
 89 5 
 
 24 26-42 
 
 52 
 
 30 
 
 1 15-04 
 
 74 
 
 3 18-56 
 
 83 40 
 
 8 0-11 
 
 89 10 
 
 25 4-66 
 
 53 
 
 
 
 1 16-41 
 
 74 15 
 
 3 21-79 
 
 83 45 
 
 8 5-66 
 
 89 15 
 
 25 44-26 
 
 53 
 
 30 
 
 1 17-81 
 
 74 30 
 
 3 25-13 
 
 83 50 
 
 8 11-34 
 
 89 20 
 
 26 25-25 
 
 54 
 
 
 
 1 19-24 
 
 1 74 45 
 
 3 20-56 
 
 83 55 
 
 8 17-13 
 
 89 25 
 
 27 7-36 
 
 54 
 
 30 
 
 1 20-71 
 
 75 
 
 3 32-09 
 
 84 
 
 8 23-06 
 
 89 30 
 
 27 51-22 
 
 55 
 
 
 
 1 22-21 
 
 75 10 
 
 3 34-51 
 
 84 5 
 
 8 29-12 
 
 89 35 
 
 28 36-89 
 
 55 
 
 30 
 
 1 23-75 
 
 75 20 
 
 3 36-97 
 
 84 10 
 
 8 35-31 
 
 89 40 
 
 29 24-47 
 
 56 
 
 
 
 1 25.33 
 
 75 30 
 
 3 39-49 
 
 84 15 
 
 8 41-65 
 
 89 45 
 
 30 14-05 
 
 56 
 
 30 
 
 1 26-95 
 
 75 40 
 
 3 42-06 
 
 84 20 
 
 8 48-13 
 
 89 50 
 
 31 5-72 
 
 57 
 
 
 
 1 28-61 
 
 75 50 
 
 3 44-69 
 
 84 25 
 
 8 54-73 
 
 89 55 
 
 31 59-57 
 
 57 
 
 30 
 
 1 30-31 
 
 76 
 
 3 47-38 
 
 84 30 
 
 9 1.54 
 
 90 
 
 32 55-72 
 
 58 
 
 
 
 1 3207 
 
 76 10 
 
 3 50-12 
 
 84 35 
 
 9 8-48 
 
 1 

 
 158 
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 512. This refraction of the light by the atmos- 
 phere produces the twilight ; for while the sun is 
 less than 18° below the horizon, his rays, al- 
 though prevented from reaching us directly, by 
 reason of the interposed body of the earth, yet 
 fall upon the superior regions of the atmosphere, 
 and are so refracted and reflected by its particles 
 as to produce a brightness over the horizon, 
 which continues through the whole night during 
 the summer months, in the regions of the earth 
 towards the poles. 
 
 513. The subject of twilights has given rise to 
 a problem which, from the talents of the mathe- 
 maticians who have applied themselves to its 
 investigation, has obtained considerable celebrity. 
 The problem is, to find the day in any given 
 latitude in which the twilight is the shortest. It 
 might be imagined that the twilights would in- 
 crease from midsummer to midwinter ; but this 
 both observation and theory show not to be the 
 case; for though the twilights continue to increase 
 in duration for some time after the sun's decli- 
 nation, allov(fed a denomination different from the 
 latitude, yet they reach a maximum, after which 
 they again increase. 
 
 514. In fig. 11, plate VI, let P be the pole, Z 
 the zenith, HO the horizon, AL the boundary 
 of twilight, S s the places of the sun at the be- 
 ginning and end of twilight. Draw the great 
 circles PS, V s, Z S, and Zs, also PR = ZP, 
 making the angle ZPR = Z. SP.?, and com- 
 plete the triangle Z R s with great circles Z II, R S. 
 Then as the Z Z PR = Z SPs, we have the L 
 RPs = Z. ZPS; also, since Ps = PS, and 
 PR = P Z, the triangles RPs, ZPS, are simi- 
 lar and equal: therefore Rs = ZS, and in the 
 triangle Z Rs we have given Z S and Rs, and as 
 Z P, R P, are equal and given, and the /. Z P R = 
 /. SPs a minimum, we shall have ZR the least 
 possible, which by the writers on spherics it is 
 shewn to be when = Zs— =-Rs, Rs coincide: 
 hence the following 
 
 Construction. — With ZP, r P, each := colat 
 of the place, and Z r = Zs — R s (Z S) = 18° ; 
 describe the isosecles triangle Z P r prolong Z r 
 making r s =: Z S = 90, draw P s, which is the 
 co-declination of the sun on the required day. 
 
 515. Calculation. — Draw P^ perpendicular 
 and bisecting Z r in i, then, by spherical trig- 
 onometry, we have cos. z r ; rad. 1 : : cos. P r 
 
 ; COS. P z, or cos. P z = — : : and in the 
 
 cos. zr 
 triangle xPs, as rad. 1 ; cos. zs : : cos. P2 = 
 cos.Pr. 
 
 COS. 
 
 COS. Ps, or sin. decl.="°^-^^X"°^-P^ 
 
 COS. , 
 
 cos. 99** X sine lat. 
 cos. 9°. 
 
 _ — sine 9° X sine lat. 
 cos. 9°. 
 
 = — tang. 9° X sine lat. A simple and general 
 theorem, from which it appears that the declina- 
 tion and latitude are of contrary names. From 
 this theorem it appears, that the shortest twilight 
 at Petersburgh is about October 14th ; at Lon- 
 don, October 11th, and at Rome, October 9lh. 
 
 516. The rays of light are equally refracted 
 by the atmosphere, whether they come from the 
 sun, the moon, or the stars ; but the quantity of 
 the refraction, and therefore the duration of the 
 twilight, are influenced by the changes which are 
 
 perpetually taking place with respect to the heat 
 and cold, the moisture and dryness, &c. of the 
 atmosphere. 
 
 PART IV. 
 ASTRONOMICAL OPERATIONS AND 
 
 CALCULATIONS. 
 Sect. I. — Of Drawing a Meridian Line. 
 
 517. Upon a plain board, set parallel to the 
 horizon, describe a circle ABF, as in plate VIII, 
 fig. 2. And upon the centre C, erect a stile or 
 gnomon, exactly perpendicular to it, and so 
 high, that the top of the shadow thereof may 
 fall upon the circumference of the circle about 
 the middle of the forenoon. Mark the point B 
 exactly where the top of the shadow falls in the 
 forenoon, and the point F where the top of the 
 shadow falls on the circumference, in the middle 
 of the afternoon. Then, through the centre C, 
 draw the line A C D, bisecting the arch B F. 
 The AD is the meridian required. 
 
 518. It is proper to draw several concentric 
 circles, and to make observations with them all, 
 that they may confirm one another. If the sun 
 happens to be clouded in one, it may be clear in 
 another. It is best to make these observations 
 about the solstices, when the sun does not alter 
 his declination sensibly ; and the summer sol- 
 stice is to be preferred. 
 
 519. The sun is evidently highest when in the 
 meridian ; and at equal distances therefrom has 
 equal altitudes. Therefore, when the distances 
 D B, D F, are equal, the shadows C B, C F, will 
 be equal, and therefore the altitudes equal. And 
 vice versa. 
 
 520. 2. Hang up two threads and plummets 
 AB, CD, plate VIII. fig. 13, at a good dis- 
 tance, in vessels of water, to keep them steady ; 
 of which C D is movable towards the left and 
 right, upon a pin C. Wait till the polar star, 
 E, and the star Alioth, F, (in the great bear's 
 rump), come into the same plumb line, A B, to 
 an eye placed at I. At that instant (or rather 
 before) move the thread C D also into the same 
 line ; so that the thread C D may hide the thread 
 A B, and the polar star E from the eye at I. 
 Then the plane A B C D is the plane of the 
 meridian ; and where it intersects the horizontal 
 plane, is the meridian line. And the same may 
 be done with the star, called Cassiopeia's hip. 
 To take away the star's rays, look through a 
 small hole in a thin plate. This must be per- 
 formed in a calm place. 
 
 521. If it is wished to have a meridian drawn 
 in some other place, let the threads and plum- 
 mets A B, CD, remain ; and hang up two others 
 ab, cd, in the place proposed, as in fig, 14, let- 
 ting a 6 be movable upon a pin at a. "Then 
 wait till any star, as G, comes into the plane 
 abed to the eye, at h ; and at that instant, 
 move the thread a b, till the same star G fall in 
 the plane abed, to the eye at h ; then abed is 
 the plane of the meridian. Tliis is best done by 
 the help of an assistant. This method will in 
 time deviate a little from the truth, occasioned by 
 the stars changing their places ; but that change 
 is very inconsiderable for several years. 
 
 522. 3. Having a clock or watch, with mi- 
 nutes and seconds, find the northing of the star, 
 Alioth, F, fig. 13, by the astronomical tables ; and
 
 ASTRONOMY 
 
 159 
 
 ■wait till the polar star E is in a plumb line with 
 F. At that instant, set the clock to the said time 
 of northing. And next day at twelve o'clock, 
 draw a meridian line, by the shadow of a plumb 
 line hung in the sun. Or find the time of south- 
 in£f of any other star, as G, and the clock remain- 
 ing as before, when she shows the time of south- 
 mg, place the threads ab, cd, fig. 14, so that the 
 line G/» may pass through them both. Then 
 abed will be in the plane of the meridian. 
 
 523. These methods are only to be considered 
 as affording a first and very rough approximation 
 to the meridian, and may assist in placing a tran- 
 sit instrument nearly in its position with respect 
 to the meridian, previously to the application of 
 the more exact methods by which the final ad- 
 justment is made. 
 
 Sect. II. — Of Finding Time, and the Equa- 
 tion OF Time. 
 
 524. Having drawn a meridian line, as directed 
 in the last article, the time when the sun, or any 
 other celestial body is exactly in the meridian, 
 may be found by a common quadrant, placing 
 the edge of it along the line, and observing when 
 the sun or other luminary can be seen exactly 
 through its two sights, and noting exactly the 
 time ; which, supposing the luminary viewed to 
 be the sun, will be precisely noon, or twelve 
 o'clock : but, as the apparent diameter of the sun 
 is pretty large, it ought to be known exactly when 
 his centre is in the meridian, which will be some 
 short space after his eastern limb has arrived at 
 it, and before his western limb comes thither. 
 It will be proper, therefore, to observe exactly 
 the time of the two limbs being seen through the 
 sights of the quadrant ; and the half of the dif- 
 ference between these times, added to the one or 
 subtracted from the other, will give the exact 
 time when the sun's centre is in the meridian. 
 
 525. The same method is equally applicable to 
 the moon ; but not to the stars, which have no 
 sensible diameter. It is found, by observation, 
 that the stars appear to go round the earth in 
 twenty-three hours, fifty-six minutes, four seconds, 
 and the sun in twenty-four hours ; so that the 
 stars gain three minutes, fifty-six seconds upon 
 the sun every day, which amounts to one diurnal 
 revolution in a year ; and therefore, in 365 days, 
 as measured by the returns of the sun to the me- 
 ridian, there are 366 days as measured by the 
 stars returning to it : the former are called solar 
 days, and the latter siderial. 
 
 526. These may be considered as first steps in 
 the determination of this important element. 
 With the aid of a transit instrument, the time 
 can always be determined with the greatest sim- 
 plicity and exactness. But supposing the lati- 
 tude of the place of observation to be known, the 
 time may be deduced with great ease and pre- 
 cision from the altitude of any celestial object 
 observed with a quadrant or sextant, taken by 
 reflection from a basin of water or quicksilver. 
 Equal altitudes of stars, perhaps, furnisli the 
 most ready and convenient method of deter- 
 mining the time, as the use of trigonometrical 
 formulae is not required ; and there is besides no 
 farther dependence on the goodness of the in- 
 strument, than that it shall be in the same state 
 at both observations. 
 
 527. As we shall have occasion, when treating 
 of Nautical Astronomy (which we shall do under 
 the article Navigation), to explain the various 
 ways by which time may be found, and conse- 
 quently, how clocks may be regulated, we shall 
 here merely give the practical method of finding 
 the error ofaclockby equal altitudes of fixed stars. 
 
 528. Take the altitude of a star when east- 
 ward of the meridian, and mark the time by the 
 clock when the observation is made ; wait till the 
 star when west of the meridian comes to the same 
 altitude, and mark the time by the clock. Half 
 the sum of these times will be the time by the 
 clock when the star is on the meridian. Now 
 the siderial time at which a star is on the me- 
 ridian is equal to the star's right ascension ; and 
 the solar or apparent time is obtained by sub- 
 tracting the sun's right ascension from the star's. 
 Hence the error of the clock, either for mean or 
 siderial time, is obtained at once. In practice, 
 however, it is preferable to take several altitudes, 
 and their corresponding times, both eastwa'rd 
 and westward of the meridian, and to take half 
 the sum of the mean of the times for the time 
 by the chronometer at which the star passes the 
 meridian. 
 
 529- For example, suppose that on February 
 20th, 1826, the time at which Regulus had the 
 following altitudes, was as under: 
 Times E. of Alts. Times W. of 
 
 the merid. the merid. 
 
 k. m. s. h. m. s. 
 
 9 4 26 . 38° 0' . 16 43 14 
 
 5 14 . 10' . 42 26 
 
 6 7. 20' . 41 31 
 6 58 . 30' . 40 43 
 
 9 5 41-25 mean. 
 
 16 41 58-5 
 9 5 41-25 
 
 25 47 39-75 
 
 12 53 49-87 Time 
 
 by the chronometer when the star is on the me- 
 ridian. Hence by comparing this with the star's 
 right ascension on the same day (9h. 59ra. 8-8s.), 
 it is found that the watch is 2h. 54m. 41-07 s. 
 fast for siderial time. 
 
 530. If the earth had no annual motion, but 
 only a diurnal, any given meridian would revolve 
 from the sun to the sun again, in the same quan- 
 tity of time as from any star to the same star 
 again ; because the sun would never change his 
 place with respect to the stai-s. But, as the 
 earth advances almost a degree eastward in its 
 orbit, in the time that it turns eastward round its 
 axis, whatever star passes over the meridian on 
 any day with the sun, will pass over the same 
 meridian on the next day, when the sun is almost 
 a degree short of it; that is, three minutes, fifty- 
 six seconds sooner. If the year contained only 
 360 days, as the ecliptic does 360 degrees, the 
 sun's apparent place, so far as his motion is 
 equable, would change a degree every day ; and 
 then the siderial days would be just four minutes 
 shorter than the solar. 
 
 531. As the motion of the earth round its axis 
 is perfectly uniform and equal at all times of the 
 year, the siderial days are always precisely of an
 
 160 
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 equal length ; and so would the solar or natural 
 days be, if the earth's orbit were a perfect circle, 
 and its axis perpendicular to its orbit. But the 
 earth's diurnal motion on an inclined axis, and its 
 annual motion in an elliptic orbit, cause the sun's 
 apparent motion in the heavens to be unequal : 
 for sometimes he revolves from the meridian to 
 tlie meridian again in somewhat less than twenty- 
 four hours, shewn by a well-regulated clock; 
 and at other times in somewhat more : so that the 
 time shewn by a good clock and a true sun-dial is 
 never exactly the same, excepting on the 15th of 
 April, the 16th of June, the 31st of August, and 
 the 24th of December. The clock, if it goes 
 equably and true all the year round, will be 
 before tlie sun from the 24th of December till the 
 15th of April; from that time till the 16th of 
 June, the sun will be before the clock ; from the 
 16th of June till the 31st of August, the clock 
 will be again before the sun ; and from thence to 
 the 24th of December, the sun will be faster than 
 the clock. 
 
 532. The equation of time, therefore, or dif- 
 ference between the time shewn by a well-regu- 
 lated clock and a true sun-dial, depending upon 
 two causes, viz. the obliquity of the ecliptic, and 
 the unequal motion of the earth in it, the united 
 effects, resulting from their combination, may 
 be explained in the following manner : — 
 
 533. Let Z (y. s ^, in plate V., fig. 1, be the 
 earth; ZFRz, its axis; abcde, &c. the equa- 
 tor; ABCDE, &c. the northern half of the 
 ecliptic from r^ to r^ on the side of the globe 
 next the eye; and MNOP, &c. the southern 
 half on the opposite side from rCh to rf>. Let us 
 suppose a fictitious sun to set out from cy, at the 
 same instant with the real sun. Let the points at 
 A B C D E F G, &c. quite round, from (y to 
 ty again, bound equal portions of the ecliptic, 
 gone through in equal times by the real sun ; 
 and those at abcde fg, &c. equal portions 
 of the equator described in equal times by the 
 fictitious sun ; and let Z ry s be the meridian. 
 
 534. As the real sun moves obliquely in the 
 ecliptic, and the fictitious sun directly in the 
 equator, with respect to the meridian ; a degree, 
 or any number of degrees, between fy and F on 
 the ecliptic, must be nearer the meridian Z <y i', 
 than a degree, or any corresponding number of 
 degrees, on the equator from tyi to/' ; and the 
 more so, as they are the more oblique : and 
 therefore the true sun comes sooner to the me- 
 ridian every day, whilst he is in the quadrant (y 
 F, than the fictitious sun does in the quadrant 
 qf> f; for which reason, the solar noon precedes 
 noon by the clock, until the real sun comes to F, 
 and the fictitious to /; which two points, being 
 equidistant from the meridian, both suns will 
 come to it precisely at noon by the clock. 
 
 535. While the real sun describes the second 
 quadrant of the ecliptic F G H I K L, from Cancer 
 to :^, he comes later to tlie meridian every day, 
 than the fictitious sun moving through the second 
 quadrant of the equator, from fto ^^ ; for the 
 points at G H I K, and L, being farther from 
 the meridian, their corresponding points at g h 
 i k and /, must be later in coming to it : and as 
 both suns come at the same moment to the point 
 r^, they come to the meridian at the moment of 
 noon by the clock. 
 
 536. In departing from Libra, through the 
 third quadrant, the real sun going through M N 
 O P Q towards yf at R, and the fictitious sun 
 through mnopq towards r, the former comes to 
 the meridian every day sooner than the latter 
 until the real sun comes to "/f, and the fictitious 
 to r, and then they come both to the meridian at 
 the same time. Lasdy, as the real sun moves 
 equably through S T U V W, from yf towards 
 fy ; and the fictitious sun through stuvw, from r 
 towards ry, the former comes later every day to 
 the meridian than the latter, until they both 
 arrive at the point ty, and then they make it 
 noon at the same time with the clock. 
 
 537. We now proceed to explain the other 
 cause of this difference, viz, the inequality of the 
 sun's apparent motion, which is slowest in sum- 
 mer, when the sun is farthest from the earth, and 
 swiftest in winter when he is nearest to it. 
 
 538. As the real sun moves unequably in the 
 ecliptic, let us suppose a fictitious sun to move 
 equably in a circle coincident with the plane of 
 the ecliptic. Let A B C D in plate V., fig. 2, be 
 the ecliptic or orbit in which the real sun moves, 
 and the dotted circles abed the imaginary orbit 
 of the fictitious sun : each going round in a year 
 according to the order of letters, or from west to 
 east. Let H I K L be the earth turning round 
 its axis the same way every twenty-four hours ; 
 and suppose both suns to start from A and a, in 
 a right line with the plane of the meridian E H, 
 at the same moment : the real sun at A, being 
 then at his greatest distance from the earth, at 
 which time his motion is slowest ; and the fic- 
 titious sun at a, whose motion is always equable, 
 because his distance from the earth is supposed 
 to be always the same. In the time that the 
 meridian revolves from H to H again, according 
 to the order of the letters H I K L, the real sun 
 has moved from A to F ; and the fictitious with a 
 quicker motion from a tof, through a large arc : 
 therefore, tlie meridian E A will revolve sooner 
 from H to A under the real sun at F, than from 
 11 to k under the fictitious sun at /; and conse- 
 quently it will then be noon by the sun-dial 
 sooner than by the clock. 
 
 539. As the real sun moves from A towards 
 C, the swiftness of his motion increases all the 
 way to C, where it is at the quickest. But not- 
 withstanding this, the fictitious sun gains so 
 much upon the real, soon after his departing 
 from A, that the increasing velocity of the real 
 sun does not bring him up with the equally 
 moving fictitious sun, till the former comes to C, 
 and the latter to c, when each has gone half 
 round its respective orbit; and then being in 
 conjunction, the meridian EH, revolving to EK, 
 comes to both suns at the same time, and there- 
 fore it is noon by them both atthe same moment. 
 
 540. But the increased velocity of the real 
 sun, now being at the quickest, carries him before 
 the fictitious one; and therefore, the same me- 
 ridian will come to the fictitious sun sooner than 
 to the real : for whilst the fictitious sun moves 
 from c to g, the real sun moves through a greater 
 arc from C to G : consequently, the point K has 
 its noon by the clock when it comes to k, but 
 not its noon by the sun till it comes to /. And 
 althougli the velocity of the real sun diminishes 
 all the way from C to A, and the fictitious sun
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 161 
 
 by an equable motion is still coming nearer to 
 the real sun, yet they are not in conjunction till 
 the one comes to A and the other to a, and then 
 it is noon by them both at the same moment. 
 
 541. Thus, it appears, that the solar noon is 
 always later than noon by the clock, whilst the 
 sun goes from C to A ; sooner, whilst he goes 
 from A to C; and at these two points the sun 
 and clock being equal, it is noon by them both 
 
 at the same moment. Upon these principles 
 tables for the equation of time are calculated 
 the one giving the difference between the sun's 
 true and mean motion ; the other the difference 
 between the sun's longitude and light ascension ; 
 from which the arc is calculated by addition or 
 subtraction. But the calculation cannot, from 
 the precession of the equinoxes, be depended 
 upon for a considerable length of time. 
 
 542. By means of the following Table, however, of the Equation of Time for 1824, and the 
 subjoined auxiliary Table, the Equation of Time may be found for any subsequent year in the 
 present centurj-, with sufficient exactness for regulating clocks and watches for the practical 
 purposes of civil life. 
 
 543. Equation of Time, ichen the Sun is on the Meridian of Greenwich, for every day in the 
 
 year 1824. 
 
 > 
 
 < 
 
 Jax. 
 
 Feb. 
 
 Mar. 
 
 April 
 
 May. 
 
 June 
 
 July 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Oct. 
 
 N 
 
 ov. 
 
 Dec. 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 Add 
 
 Add 
 
 Add 
 
 Add 
 
 Sub. 
 
 Sub. 
 
 Add. 
 
 Add. 
 
 Sub. 
 
 Sub. 
 
 Sub. 
 
 Sub. 1 
 
 
 M. 
 
 S. 
 
 M. 
 
 S. 
 
 M. 
 
 S. 
 
 M. 
 
 S. 
 
 M. 
 
 S. 
 
 M. 
 
 S. 
 
 M. 
 
 S. 
 
 M. 
 
 s. 
 
 M. 
 
 S. 1 M. 
 
 S. 
 
 M. 
 
 S. ! M. S. 
 
 1 ! 3 
 
 35 
 
 13 
 
 52 12 
 
 36 
 
 3 
 
 55 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 33 
 
 3 
 
 25 
 
 5 
 
 58 
 
 
 
 12 10 
 
 23 
 
 16 
 
 15 10 37 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 4:14 
 
 1 12 
 
 24 
 
 3 
 
 37 
 
 3 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 24 
 
 3 
 
 37 
 
 5 
 
 54 
 
 
 
 3i;io 
 
 41 
 
 16 
 
 1610 14 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 32 14 
 
 8 12 
 
 11 
 
 3 
 
 19 
 
 3 
 
 19 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 3 
 
 48 
 
 5 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 51J11 
 
 00 
 
 16 
 
 16 9 51 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 14 
 
 1411 
 
 58 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 25 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 59 
 
 5 
 
 45 
 
 1 
 
 1011 
 
 18 
 
 16 
 
 15 9 26 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 27 14 
 
 20;11 
 
 44 
 
 2 
 
 44 
 
 3 
 
 31 
 
 
 54 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 39 
 
 i 
 
 30'll 
 
 36 
 
 16 
 
 14i 9 2 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 54 14 
 
 25|11 
 
 30 
 
 2 
 
 26 
 
 3 
 
 36 
 
 
 44 
 
 4 
 
 19 
 
 5 
 
 33 
 
 1 
 
 50 11 
 
 54 
 
 16 
 
 11! 8 36 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 21 14 
 
 29,11 
 
 15 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 41 
 
 
 33 
 
 4 
 
 29 
 
 5 
 
 26 
 
 2 
 
 10 12 
 
 11 
 
 16 
 
 8! 8 10 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 4714 
 
 3211 
 
 00 
 
 1 
 
 51 
 
 3 
 
 45 
 
 
 22 
 
 4 
 
 39 
 
 5 
 
 19 
 
 2 
 
 3012 
 
 28 
 
 16 
 
 4 
 
 7 44 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 13 14 
 
 34|10 
 
 45 
 
 1 
 
 34 
 
 3 
 
 48 
 
 
 11 
 
 4 
 
 48 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 5V12 
 
 44 
 
 15 
 
 59 
 
 7 17 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 3814 
 
 36 10 
 
 29 
 
 1 
 
 18 
 
 3 
 
 51 
 
 
 
 59 
 
 4 
 
 56 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 12 13 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 53 
 
 6 50 
 
 11 
 
 8 
 
 214 
 
 36 10 
 
 30 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 53 
 
 
 
 47 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 53 
 
 3 
 
 3213 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 46 
 
 6 22 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 26 14 
 
 36 9 
 
 57 
 
 
 
 45 
 
 3 
 
 55 
 
 
 
 35 
 
 5 
 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 43 
 
 3 
 
 53 13 
 
 30 
 
 15 
 
 38 
 
 5 54 
 
 13 
 
 8 
 
 49 14 
 
 35 9 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 29 
 
 3 
 
 56 
 
 
 
 23 
 
 5 
 
 19 
 
 4 
 
 32 
 
 4 
 
 1413 
 
 44 
 
 15 
 
 30 
 
 5 26 
 
 14 
 
 9 
 
 11 14 
 
 34 9 
 
 23 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 3 
 
 57 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 26 
 
 4 
 
 22 
 
 4 
 
 35 13 
 
 58 
 
 15 
 
 21 
 
 4 57 
 
 15 
 
 9 
 
 33 14 
 
 31 9 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 57 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 32 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 56 14 
 
 11 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 ,4 28 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sub. 
 
 
 
 Add 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 9 
 
 54 14 
 
 28 8 
 
 48 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 3 
 
 56 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 5 
 
 38 
 
 3 
 
 58 
 
 5 
 
 17 14 
 
 24 
 
 14 
 
 59 
 
 3 58 
 
 ( 17 
 
 10 
 
 15 14 
 
 241 8 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 31 
 
 3 
 
 55 
 
 
 
 28 
 
 5 
 
 44 
 
 3 
 
 46 
 
 5 
 
 38 14 
 
 36 
 
 14 
 
 47 
 
 3 29 
 
 18 
 
 10 
 
 3414 
 
 20 8 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 45 
 
 3 
 
 54 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 5 
 
 49 
 
 3 
 
 33 
 
 5 
 
 59 14 
 
 47; 
 
 14 
 
 35 
 
 2 59 
 
 19 
 
 10 
 
 54 14 
 
 15 T 
 
 54 
 
 
 
 59 
 
 3 
 
 51 
 
 
 
 53 
 
 5 
 
 53 
 
 3 
 
 20 
 
 6 
 
 20:14 
 
 58 
 
 14 
 
 21 
 
 2 29 
 
 20 
 
 11 
 
 12 14 
 
 9 7 
 
 36 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 3 
 
 48 
 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 57 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 41 15 
 
 8 
 
 14 
 
 6 
 
 1 59 
 
 21 
 
 11 
 
 30 14 
 
 2 7 
 
 18 
 
 1 
 
 25 
 
 3 
 
 45 
 
 
 19 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 52 
 
 7 
 
 2 15 
 
 18 
 
 13 
 
 51 
 
 1 29 
 
 22 
 
 11 
 
 46113 
 
 55 7 
 
 00 
 
 1 
 
 37 
 
 3 
 
 41 
 
 
 32 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 37 
 
 7 
 
 23;15 
 
 26 
 
 13 
 
 35 
 
 59 
 
 23 
 
 12 
 
 313 
 
 47 6 
 
 41 
 
 1 
 
 49 
 
 3 
 
 46 
 
 
 45 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 22 
 
 7 
 
 4415 
 
 35 
 
 13 
 
 18 
 
 28 
 
 24 12 
 
 18 
 
 13 
 
 39 6 
 
 23 
 
 2 
 
 00 
 
 3 
 
 31 
 
 
 58 6 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 4|15 
 
 42' 
 
 13 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 j 
 
 
 
 Add 
 
 25 
 
 12 
 
 33 
 
 13 
 
 30 6 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 3 
 
 26 
 
 2 
 
 11 6 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 50 
 
 8 
 
 24 15 
 
 49 
 
 12 
 
 42 
 
 32 
 
 26 
 
 12 
 
 4613 
 
 20 5 
 
 46 
 
 2 
 
 21 
 
 3 
 
 20 
 
 2 
 
 24 6 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 34 
 
 8 
 
 45,15 
 
 55 
 
 12 
 
 23 
 
 1 2 
 
 27 
 
 12 
 
 5913 
 
 10 5 
 
 27 
 
 2 
 
 31 
 
 3 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 37 6 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 17 
 
 9 
 
 5116 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 3 
 
 1 31 
 
 28 
 
 13 
 
 12:12 
 
 59 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 40 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 49' 6 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 24'l6 
 
 5 
 
 11 
 
 43; 
 
 2 1 
 
 29 jl3 
 
 23 12 
 
 48 
 
 4 
 
 50 
 
 2 
 
 49 
 
 2 
 
 58 
 
 3 
 
 1 6 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 42 
 
 9 
 
 44 16 
 
 8 
 
 11 
 
 22 
 
 2 30 
 
 30 13 
 
 34 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 32 
 
 2 
 
 58 
 
 2 
 
 50 
 
 3 
 
 13 6 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 2 59 
 
 31 13 
 
 44 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 42 
 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 3 28i 
 
 544. Auxiliary Table, for finding the Equation of Time when the Sun is on the Meridian of 
 Greenwich, on any day from the year 1824 till the year 1900. 
 
 
 1824 
 
 28 
 
 32 
 
 36 
 
 40 
 
 44 
 
 48 
 
 52 
 
 56 
 
 60 
 
 64 
 
 68 
 
 72 
 
 76 
 
 80 
 
 84 
 
 88 
 
 92 
 
 96 
 
 1900 
 
 
 
 Sec. 
 
 Sec. 
 
 Sec. 
 
 Sec. 
 
 Sec. 
 
 Sec. 
 
 Sec. 
 
 Sec. 
 
 Sec. 
 
 Sec. 
 
 Sec. 
 
 Sec. 
 
 Sec. 
 
 Sec. 
 
 Sec. 
 
 Sec. 
 
 Sec. 
 
 Sec. 
 
 Sec. 
 
 Sec. 
 
 Sec. 
 
 g 3 i 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 ,2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 >>.S = 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 Dai 
 
 oft 
 tion 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 Add the Seconds from this Table, when the E(]ualion en the corresponding day is increasing. 
 
 Subtract ....<., decreasittg. 
 
 Vol. III. M
 
 162 
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 Use of the preceding Tables. 
 
 545. Take from the first table the equation of 
 time for the given day in the year 1824, and the 
 daily difference of the equation, with this dif- 
 ference, or the nearest second to it in the side 
 column of die Auxiliary Table, and below the 
 leap year preceding the given year, will be found 
 a correction, which applied to the equation be- 
 fore taken from the first Table, will give the 
 equation on the given day of the leap year pre- 
 ceding the given year. 
 
 546. Then take i, ^, or |, of the daily diffe- 
 rence of the equation of time, according as the 
 given year is the 1st, 2d, or 3d after leap year, 
 and add it to the previously found equation on 
 the same day of the preceding leap year, w-hen 
 that equation is decreasing; but subtract it when 
 increasing ; and the sum or remainder will be the 
 equation at noon, Greenwich time, of the given 
 day. 
 
 547. If the day proposed is in leap year, the 
 correction for that year in the Auxiliary Table, 
 applied to the equation of time on the proposed 
 day in 1824, will give the required equation. 
 
 EjMimple . — Required the equation of time, 
 Sept. 12, 1867, at noon, Greenwich time ? 
 
 548. Equation, see the first table, 3 min. 53 sec. 
 subtractive ; daily difference 21 sec. nearly. In 
 table 2, opposite 20 sec. and below 1864, stands 
 6 sec. ; which, added to 3 min. 53 sec, gives 
 3 min. 59 sec. the equation of time on Sept. 12, 
 1864. Now, 1867 is the third year after leap 
 year; therefore, take f of 21 sec. or 15 sec. and 
 as the declination is increasing, subtract it from 
 3 min. 59 sec. ; and the remainder 3 min. 44 sec. 
 is the required equation at Greenwich noon of 
 the given day, at noon. 
 
 549. By means of the following tables and 
 rules, the sun's declination also, at noon, Green- 
 wich time, may be found for any day in the pre- 
 sent century, to within a few seconds. 
 
 TABLE I. 
 
 550. The Suits Declination at Noon, Greenwich time, for every Day in the Year 1824. 
 
 
 January. 
 
 February. 
 
 ' 
 
 VIarch. 
 
 Aprii 
 
 
 
 May 
 
 
 
 June. 
 
 Days. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 South. 
 
 South. 
 
 South. 
 
 North. 
 
 North. 
 
 North. 
 
 1 
 
 23" 
 
 4' 
 
 43"' 
 
 17° 
 
 18' 
 
 20" 
 
 7° 
 
 28' 
 
 50" 
 
 4° 
 
 38' 
 
 14" 
 
 15° 
 
 8' 
 
 49" 
 
 22° 
 
 5' 42" 
 
 2 
 
 22 
 
 59 
 
 51 
 
 17 
 
 1 
 
 18 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 57 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 19 
 
 15 
 
 26 
 
 47 
 
 22 
 
 13 37 
 
 3 
 
 22 
 
 54 
 
 30 
 
 16 
 
 43 
 
 58 
 
 6 
 
 42 
 
 58 
 
 5 
 
 24 
 
 18 
 
 15 
 
 44 
 
 30 
 
 22 
 
 21 8 
 
 4 
 
 22 
 
 48 
 
 43 
 
 16 
 
 26 
 
 20 
 
 6 
 
 19 
 
 54 
 
 5 
 
 47 
 
 12 
 
 16 
 
 1 
 
 58 
 
 22 
 
 28 15 
 
 5 
 
 22 
 
 42 
 
 28 
 
 16 
 
 8 
 
 26 
 
 5 
 
 56 
 
 45 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 59 
 
 16 
 
 19 
 
 9 
 
 22 
 
 34 59 
 
 6 
 
 22 
 
 35 
 
 46 
 
 15 
 
 50 
 
 16 
 
 5 
 
 33 
 
 31 
 
 6 
 
 32 
 
 40 
 
 16 
 
 36 
 
 5 
 
 22 
 
 41 19 
 
 7 
 
 22 
 
 28 
 
 37 
 
 15 
 
 31 
 
 49 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 55 
 
 14 
 
 16 
 
 52 
 
 43 
 
 22 
 
 47 16 
 
 8 
 
 22 
 
 21 
 
 2 
 
 15 
 
 13 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 46 
 
 50 
 
 7 
 
 17 
 
 41 
 
 17 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 22 
 
 52 48 
 
 9 
 
 22 
 
 13 
 
 1 
 
 14 
 
 54 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 7 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 17 
 
 25 
 
 10 
 
 22 
 
 57 57 
 
 10 
 
 22 
 
 4 
 
 33 
 
 14 
 
 34 
 
 55 
 
 3 
 
 59 
 
 55 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 17 
 
 40 
 
 57 
 
 23 
 
 2 41 
 
 11 
 
 21 
 
 55 
 
 40 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 28 
 
 3 
 
 36 
 
 23 
 
 8 
 
 24 
 
 15 
 
 17 
 
 56 
 
 26 
 
 23 
 
 7 1 
 
 12 
 
 21 
 
 46 
 
 21 
 
 13 
 
 55 
 
 47 
 
 3 
 
 12 
 
 49 
 
 8 
 
 46 
 
 10 
 
 18 
 
 11 
 
 38 
 
 23 
 
 10 56 
 
 13 
 
 21 
 
 36 
 
 36 
 
 13 
 
 35 
 
 52 
 
 2 
 
 49 
 
 13 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 57 
 
 18 
 
 26 
 
 31 
 
 23 
 
 14 27 
 
 14 
 
 21 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 
 43 
 
 2 
 
 25 
 
 35 
 
 9 
 
 29 
 
 34 
 
 18 
 
 41 
 
 5 
 
 23 
 
 17 34 
 
 15 
 
 21 
 
 15 
 
 53 
 
 12 
 
 55 
 
 22 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 56 
 
 9 
 
 51 
 
 1 
 
 18 
 
 55 
 
 21 
 
 23 
 
 20 16 
 
 16 
 
 21 
 
 4 
 
 54 
 
 12 
 
 34 
 
 49 
 
 1 
 
 38 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 20 
 
 19 
 
 9 
 
 18 
 
 23 
 
 22 33 
 
 17 
 
 20 
 
 53 
 
 32 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 14 
 
 34 
 
 10 
 
 33 
 
 28 
 
 19 
 
 22 
 
 55 
 
 23 
 
 24 26 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 41 
 
 45 
 
 11 
 
 53 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 52 
 
 10 
 
 54 
 
 26 
 
 19 
 
 36 
 
 13 
 
 23 
 
 25 53 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 29 
 
 35 
 
 11 
 
 31 
 
 57 
 
 
 
 27 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 15 
 
 13 
 
 19 
 
 49 
 
 11 
 
 23 
 
 26 57 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 17 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 37 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 29 S 
 
 11 
 
 35 
 
 49 
 
 20 
 
 1 
 
 49 
 
 23 
 
 27 35 
 
 21 
 
 20 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 49 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 12 N 
 
 11 
 
 56 
 
 14 
 
 20 
 
 14 
 
 6 
 
 23 
 
 27 48 
 
 22 
 
 19 
 
 50 
 
 47 
 
 10 
 
 27 
 
 27 
 
 
 
 43 
 
 51 
 
 12 
 
 16 
 
 27 
 
 20 
 
 26 
 
 3 
 
 23 
 
 27 37 
 
 23 
 
 19 
 
 37 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 37 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 30 
 
 12 
 
 36 
 
 29 
 
 20 
 
 37 
 
 39 
 
 23 
 
 27 1 
 
 24 
 
 19 
 
 23 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 43 
 
 37 
 
 1 
 
 31 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 56 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 48 
 
 54 
 
 23 
 
 26 
 
 25 
 
 19 
 
 18 
 
 39 
 
 9 
 
 21 
 
 29 
 
 1 
 
 54 
 
 41 
 
 13 
 
 15 
 
 54 
 
 20 
 
 59 
 
 47 
 
 23 
 
 24 34 
 
 26 
 
 18 
 
 53 
 
 53 
 
 8 
 
 59 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 18 
 
 13 
 
 13 
 
 35 
 
 13 
 
 21 
 
 10 
 
 19 
 
 23 
 
 22 43 
 
 27 
 
 18 
 
 38 
 
 47 
 
 8 
 
 36 
 
 48 
 
 2 
 
 41 
 
 43 
 
 13 
 
 54 
 
 28 
 
 21 
 
 20 
 
 29 
 
 23 
 
 20 28 
 
 28 
 
 18 
 
 23 
 
 21 
 
 8 
 
 14 
 
 16 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 14 
 
 13 
 
 25 
 
 21 
 
 30 
 
 17 
 
 23 
 
 17 48 
 
 29 
 
 18 
 
 7 
 
 34 
 
 7 
 
 51 
 
 36 
 
 3 
 
 28 
 
 31 
 
 14 
 
 32 
 
 7 
 
 21 
 
 39 
 
 42 
 
 23 
 
 14 44 
 
 30 
 
 17 
 
 51 
 
 28 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 51 
 
 50 
 
 14 
 
 50 
 
 35 
 
 21 
 
 48 
 
 45 
 
 23 
 
 11 15 
 
 31 
 
 17 
 
 35 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 15 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 51 
 
 21 
 

 
 Days. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 .5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 Ig 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 28 
 
 29 
 
 30 
 
 31 
 
 ASTRONOMY 
 
 TABLE I. — (Continued). 
 
 163 
 
 July. 
 
 North. 
 
 23° 7' 22" 
 23 3 4 
 22 58 23 
 22 53 17 
 22 47 28 
 55 
 38 
 22 28 58 
 
 22 41 
 
 22 35 
 
 ArcusT. September. October. | November. December. 
 
 North. 
 
 18° 0' 0" 
 
 17 44 41 
 
 17 29 5 
 
 17 13 12 
 
 16 57 2 
 
 22 
 
 21 
 
 54 
 
 22 
 
 14 
 
 28 
 
 22 
 
 6 
 
 38 
 
 21 
 
 58 
 
 26 
 
 21 
 
 49 
 
 51 
 
 21 
 
 40 
 
 53 
 
 21 
 
 31 
 
 54 
 
 21 
 
 21 
 
 52 
 
 21 
 
 11 
 
 49 
 
 21 
 
 1 
 
 24 
 
 20 
 
 50 
 
 37 
 
 20 
 
 39 
 
 29 
 
 20 
 
 28 
 
 1 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 11 
 
 20 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 19 
 
 51 
 
 32 
 
 19 
 
 38 
 
 42 
 
 19 
 
 25 
 
 32 
 
 19 
 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 18 
 
 58 
 
 16 
 
 18 
 
 44 
 
 9 
 
 18 
 
 29 
 
 44 
 
 18 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 16 
 
 40 
 
 36 
 
 16 
 
 23 
 
 54 
 
 16 
 
 6 
 
 5Q 
 
 15 
 
 49 
 
 43 
 
 15 
 
 32 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 14 
 
 31 
 
 14 
 
 56 
 
 32 
 
 14 
 
 38 
 
 19 
 
 14 
 
 19 
 
 53 
 
 14 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 42 
 
 18 
 
 13 
 
 23 
 
 11 
 
 13 
 
 3 
 
 51 
 
 12 
 
 44 
 
 18 
 
 12 
 
 24 
 
 33 
 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 36 
 
 11 
 
 44 
 
 28 
 
 11 
 
 24 
 
 8 
 
 11 
 
 3 
 
 37 
 
 10 
 
 42 
 
 56 
 
 10 
 
 22 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 '39 
 
 53 
 
 9 
 
 18 
 
 33 
 
 8 
 
 57 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 35 
 
 27 
 
 North. 
 
 South. 
 
 South. 
 
 South. 
 
 13' 
 51 
 
 29 
 7 
 
 6 45 
 6 23 
 
 
 38 
 15 
 52 
 29 
 
 6 
 43 
 20 
 
 2 57 
 2 34 
 
 11 
 
 48 
 
 24 
 
 1 
 
 37 
 
 14 
 
 8 
 
 32 
 
 55 
 
 19 
 42 
 6 
 29 
 52 
 
 41" 
 
 48 
 
 48 
 
 40 
 
 25 
 
 3 
 35 
 
 o 
 
 22 
 38 
 48 
 53 
 54 
 51 
 44 
 33 
 19 
 
 3 
 44 
 22 
 59 
 35 N 
 50 S 
 16 
 43 
 
 
 35 
 
 
 24 
 46 
 
 3° 16' 6' 
 
 3 39 24 
 
 2 39 
 
 25 52 
 
 49 1 
 
 12 7 
 
 35 9 
 
 58 6 
 
 20 59 
 
 6 43 46 
 
 7 6 29 
 7 29 5 
 
 51 36 
 
 14 
 
 36 18 
 
 58 28 
 
 20 31 
 
 42 25 
 
 11 
 11 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 10 4 12 
 
 10 25 49 
 
 10 47 17 
 8 36 
 
 29 45 
 
 11 50 43 
 
 12 11 30 
 12 32 6 
 
 12 52 31 
 
 13 12 43 
 13 32 42 
 
 13 52 29 
 
 14 12 2 
 
 14° 31' 
 14 50 
 
 15 
 15 
 
 15 46 
 
 16 4 
 16 22 
 16 39 
 
 16 56 
 
 17 13 
 17 30 
 
 17 46 
 
 18 2 
 18 18 
 18 34 
 
 18 49 
 
 19 4 
 19 18 
 19 32 
 19 46 
 
 19 59 
 
 20 12 
 20 25 
 20 37 
 
 20 49 
 
 21 
 21 11 
 21 22 
 21 32 
 21 42 
 
 21" 
 
 26 
 
 17 
 
 53 , 
 
 13 
 
 18 
 
 7 
 39 
 54 
 52 
 32 
 54 
 58 
 43 
 
 9 
 15 
 
 1 
 26 
 31 
 15 
 36 
 36 
 14 
 28 
 20 
 48 
 53 
 33 
 49 
 40 
 
 21° 52' 
 
 22 1 
 
 22 9 
 
 22 17 
 
 22 25 
 
 22 32 
 
 22 39 
 
 22 46 
 
 22 52 
 
 22 57 
 
 23 
 23 
 23 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 11 
 
 23 15 
 
 23 18 
 
 23 21 
 
 23 23 
 
 23 25 
 
 23 26 
 
 23 27 
 
 23 27 
 
 23 27 
 
 23 27 
 
 23 26 
 
 23 24 
 
 23 22 
 
 23 20 
 
 23 17 
 
 23 13 
 
 23 10 
 
 23 5 
 
 6" 
 
 7 
 43 
 53 
 36 
 54 
 45 
 10 
 
 7 
 38 
 41 
 17 
 25 
 
 6 
 19 
 
 3 
 20 
 
 9 
 29 
 21 
 45 
 40 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 36 
 38 
 12 
 17 
 55 
 
 5 
 47 
 
 551. TABLE IL 
 
 To reduce the Sun's Declination from Table I, to the Noon of any Day, Greenwich Time, till the 
 
 Year 1900. 
 
 Periods of 4 Yrs. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 44 
 
 6 
 48 
 
 7 
 52 
 
 8 
 
 .9 
 
 10 
 
 64 
 
 11 
 
 68 
 
 12 
 72 
 
 13 
 
 76 
 
 14 
 80 
 
 15 
 84 
 
 16 
 88 
 
 17 
 92 
 
 18 
 96 
 
 19 
 1900 
 
 Leap Yrs. 
 
 1824 
 
 28 
 
 32 
 
 36 
 
 40 
 
 56 60 
 
 Daily Difl". 
 
 
 
 
 of Sun's 
 
 
 
 Correctiou. Subtr-action. 
 
 Declin. 
 
 
 
 
 1' 
 
 0" 
 
 2" 
 
 4" 
 
 6" 
 
 8' 
 
 10" 
 
 12" 
 
 14" 
 
 16" 
 
 18" 
 
 20" 
 
 22" 
 
 24" 
 
 26" 
 
 28" 
 
 30" 
 
 32° 
 
 1 
 34" 36" 
 
 38" 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 11 
 
 13 
 
 15 
 
 17 
 
 19 
 
 21 
 
 24 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 29 
 
 31 
 
 33 35 
 
 37 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 16 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 2627 
 
 28 
 
 19 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 20 21 
 
 22 
 
 21 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 1515 
 
 16 
 
 23 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 6 
 
 i 
 
 7 
 
 M 2
 
 164 
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 Use of the preceding Tables. 
 
 552. To find the sun's declination on any day. 
 Take from table I. the declination for the noon 
 of the corresponding day in the year 1824, and 
 the daily change of the declination. Opposite 
 that daily change, in table II. and below the leap- 
 year preceding the given one, will be found the 
 first correction of the declination. 
 
 553. Multiply the seconds in the daily changes 
 of declination, by the period of four years in 
 table II. and parts of a period from 1824, to the 
 given year, and the product multiplied by -O-SOS 
 will give the seconds, in the second correction 
 of the declination. 
 
 554. Lastly, take J, J, or f, of the daily 
 change of declination, according as the year is 
 the first,' second, or third after leap-year, and the 
 result will be the third correction of the decli- 
 nation. 
 
 555. Subtract the first correction from the de- 
 clination on the corresponding day of 1824, add 
 the second correction, when the declination is 
 increasing, and subtract it when decreasing ; and 
 apply the third in a manner contrary to the se- 
 cond, and the result will be the declination at 
 noon, Greenwich time, of the proposed day. — 
 
 Note. — If the given year be leap-year, the third 
 correction is nothing. 
 
 Example. — Required the sun's declination at 
 noon, Greenwich time, Oct. 18, 1875? 
 
 556i By table I. the sun's declination on Oct. 
 18, 1824, is 9° 42' 25' S., and daily change 
 21' 47", increasing. Now the leap-year pre- 
 ceding the given one, is 1872, below which, in 
 table II. and opposite 22' (the nearest minute to 
 the daily change) stands 7", the first correction. As 
 the given year is the third after leap-year, and there 
 are (see table II.) 12 periods of 4 years from 1824 
 to 1872, there are 12J periods from 1824 to 1875. 
 Hence, 12| x -0308 X 1307" (21' 47")=513"=r 
 8-33', the second correction, addition, because 
 the declination is increasing. As the given 
 year is the third after leap-year, we have f of 
 21' 47" rz 16' 19", the third correction, subtrac- 
 tion, because the second is addition. Hence, 
 the declination at the proposed time, is 9° 42' 25" 
 —7" + 8' 33"— 16' 19"=:9° 34' 34". 
 
 557. As immediately connected with this sub- 
 ject, we add a table of the sun's right ascension 
 for the year 1824, with a method of adapting it 
 to any subsequent instant in the present century, 
 with sufficient exactness for ordinary purposes. 
 
 558. Table of the Sun^ s Right Ascerision, at Noon, Greenwich Time, for every Day in the Year 1824. 
 
 
 January. 
 
 February. 
 
 March. 
 
 Aprii 
 
 
 
 May 
 
 
 June. 
 
 Days. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H. 
 
 M. 
 
 S. 
 
 H. 
 
 M. 
 
 S. 
 
 H. 
 
 M. 
 
 S. 
 
 H. 
 
 M. 
 
 S. 
 
 H. 
 
 M. 
 
 s. 
 
 H. 
 
 M. S. 
 
 1 
 
 18 
 
 43 
 
 58 
 
 20 
 
 56 
 
 30 
 
 22 
 
 49 
 
 34 
 
 
 
 43 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 34 
 
 20 
 
 4 
 
 37 5 
 
 2 
 
 18 
 
 48 
 
 24 
 
 21 
 
 
 
 35 
 
 22 
 
 53 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 46 
 
 43 
 
 2 
 
 38 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 41 11 
 
 3 
 
 18 
 
 52 
 
 48 
 
 21 
 
 4 
 
 39 
 
 22 
 
 57 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 22 
 
 2 
 
 41 
 
 59 
 
 4 
 
 45 17 
 
 4 
 
 18 
 
 57 
 
 13 
 
 21 
 
 8 
 
 42 
 
 23 
 
 
 
 45 
 
 
 
 54 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 45 
 
 49 
 
 4 
 
 49 24 
 
 5 
 
 19 
 
 1 
 
 37 
 
 21 
 
 12 
 
 44 
 
 23 
 
 4 
 
 28 
 
 
 
 57 
 
 39 
 
 2 
 
 49 
 
 40 
 
 4 
 
 53 31 
 
 6 
 
 19 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 21 
 
 16 
 
 46 
 
 23 
 
 8 
 
 11 
 
 
 1 
 
 18 
 
 2 
 
 53 
 
 32 
 
 4 
 
 57 38 
 
 7 
 
 19 
 
 10 
 
 24 
 
 21 
 
 20 
 
 46 
 
 23 
 
 11 
 
 52 
 
 
 4 
 
 57 
 
 2 
 
 57 
 
 24 
 
 5 
 
 1 45 
 
 8 
 
 19 
 
 14 
 
 47 
 
 21 
 
 24 
 
 46 
 
 23 
 
 15 
 
 34 
 
 
 8 
 
 37 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 16 
 
 5 
 
 5 53 
 
 9 
 
 19 
 
 19 
 
 9 
 
 21 
 
 28 
 
 45 
 
 23 
 
 19 
 
 15 
 
 
 12 
 
 16 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 10 1 
 
 10 
 
 19 
 
 23 
 
 30 
 
 21 
 
 32 
 
 43 
 
 23 
 
 22 
 
 56 
 
 
 15 
 
 56 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 14 9 
 
 11 
 
 19 
 
 27 
 
 51 
 
 21 
 
 36 
 
 40 
 
 23 
 
 26 
 
 36 
 
 
 19 
 
 36 
 
 3 
 
 12 
 
 57 
 
 5 
 
 18 17 
 
 12 
 
 19 
 
 32 
 
 12 
 
 21 
 
 40 
 
 37 
 
 23 
 
 30 
 
 16 
 
 
 23 
 
 16 
 
 3 
 
 16 
 
 52 
 
 5 
 
 22 26 
 
 13 
 
 19 
 
 36 
 
 31 
 
 21 
 
 44 
 
 32 
 
 23 
 
 33 
 
 56 
 
 
 26 
 
 57 
 
 3 
 
 20 
 
 48 
 
 5 
 
 26 35 
 
 14 
 
 19 
 
 40 
 
 50 
 
 21 
 
 48 
 
 27 
 
 23 
 
 37 
 
 36 
 
 
 30 
 
 38 
 
 3 
 
 24 
 
 43 
 
 5 
 
 30 44 
 
 15 
 
 19 
 
 45 
 
 9 
 
 21 
 
 52 
 
 21 
 
 23 
 
 41 
 
 15 
 
 
 34 
 
 19 
 
 3 
 
 28 
 
 40 
 
 5 
 
 34 53 
 
 16 
 
 19 
 
 49 
 
 27 
 
 21 
 
 56 
 
 15 
 
 23 
 
 44 
 
 54 
 
 
 38 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 32 
 
 37 
 
 5 
 
 39 2 
 
 17 
 
 19 
 
 53 
 
 44 
 
 22 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 23 
 
 48 
 
 33 
 
 
 41 
 
 43 
 
 3 
 
 36 
 
 35 
 
 5 
 
 43 11 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 58 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 3 
 
 59 
 
 23 
 
 52 
 
 11 
 
 
 45 
 
 25 
 
 3 
 
 40 
 
 33 
 
 5 
 
 47 21 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 2 
 
 16 
 
 22 
 
 7 
 
 51 
 
 23 
 
 55 
 
 50 
 
 
 49 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 44 
 
 32 
 
 5 
 
 51 30 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 6 
 
 31 
 
 22 
 
 11 
 
 41 
 
 23 
 
 59 
 
 28 
 
 
 52 
 
 52 
 
 3 
 
 48 
 
 31 
 
 5 
 
 55 40 
 
 21 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 
 45 
 
 22 
 
 15 
 
 31 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 
 5Q 
 
 35 
 
 3 
 
 52 
 
 31 
 
 5 
 
 59 50 
 
 22 
 
 20 
 
 14 
 
 59 
 
 22 
 
 19 
 
 21 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 44 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 3 
 
 5<j 
 
 32 
 
 6 
 
 3 59 
 
 23 
 
 20 
 
 19 
 
 11 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 22 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 33 
 
 6 
 
 8 9 
 
 24 
 
 20 
 
 23 
 
 23 
 
 22 
 
 26 
 
 57 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 49 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 35 
 
 6 
 
 12 18 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 27 
 
 34 
 
 22 
 
 30 
 
 45 
 
 
 
 17 
 
 38 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 35 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 37 
 
 6 
 
 16 28 
 
 26 
 
 20 
 
 31 
 
 45 
 
 22 
 
 34 
 
 32 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 16 
 
 2 
 
 15 
 
 21 
 
 4 
 
 12 
 
 39 
 
 6 
 
 20 37 
 
 27 
 
 20 
 
 35 
 
 55 
 
 22 
 
 38 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 54 
 
 2 
 
 19 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 16 
 
 43 
 
 6 
 
 24 46 
 
 28 
 
 20 
 
 40 
 
 3 
 
 22 
 
 42 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 28 
 
 32 
 
 2 
 
 22 
 
 55 
 
 4 
 
 20 
 
 46 
 
 6 
 
 28 55 
 
 29 
 
 20 
 
 44 
 
 11 
 
 22 
 
 45 
 
 49 
 
 
 
 32 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 26 
 
 43 
 
 4 
 
 24 
 
 50 
 
 6 
 
 33 14 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 48 
 
 19 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 35 
 
 48 
 
 2 
 
 30 
 
 31 
 
 4 
 
 28 
 
 55 
 
 6 
 
 37 13 
 
 31 
 
 20 
 
 52 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 39 
 
 27 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 33 
 
 
 

 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 Table of iSwri's Right Ascension — (Continued). 
 
 165 
 
 
 
 July 
 
 
 August. 
 
 September. 
 
 October. 
 
 November. 
 
 1 
 December. | 
 
 Days. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H. 
 
 M. 
 
 S. 
 
 H. 
 
 M. 
 
 S. 
 
 H. 
 
 M. 
 
 S. 
 
 H. 
 
 M. 
 
 S. 
 
 H. 
 
 M. 
 
 S. 
 
 H. 
 
 M. 
 
 S. 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 41 
 
 21 
 
 8 
 
 46 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 42 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 30 
 
 14 
 
 14 
 
 26 
 
 34 
 
 16 
 
 30 
 
 29 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 45 
 
 29 
 
 8 
 
 50 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 45 
 
 47 
 
 12 
 
 33 
 
 52 
 
 14 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 16 
 
 34 
 
 49 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 49 
 
 37 
 
 8 
 
 53 
 
 53 
 
 10 
 
 49 
 
 25 
 
 12 
 
 37 
 
 30 
 
 14 
 
 34 
 
 26 
 
 16 
 
 39 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 53 
 
 45 
 
 8 
 
 57 
 
 44 
 
 10 
 
 53 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 41 
 
 8 
 
 14 
 
 38 
 
 24 
 
 16 
 
 43 
 
 30 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 57 
 
 52 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 33 
 
 10 
 
 56 
 
 38 
 
 12 
 
 44 
 
 47 
 
 14 
 
 42 
 
 28 
 
 16 
 
 47 
 
 52 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 58 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 25 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 12 
 
 48 
 
 26 
 
 14 
 
 46 
 
 21 
 
 16 
 
 52 
 
 14 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 15 
 
 11 
 
 3 
 
 51 
 
 12 
 
 52 
 
 5 
 
 14 
 
 50 
 
 21 
 
 16 
 
 66 
 
 36 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 9 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 11 
 
 7 
 
 27 
 
 12 
 
 55 
 
 45 
 
 14 
 
 54 
 
 22 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 39 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 14 
 
 16 
 
 9 
 
 16 
 
 53 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 3 
 
 12 
 
 59 
 
 25 
 
 14 
 
 5-8 
 
 23 
 
 17 
 
 5 
 
 23 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 18 
 
 22 
 
 9 
 
 20 
 
 40 
 
 11 
 
 14 
 
 39 
 
 13 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 15 
 
 2 
 
 26 
 
 17 
 
 9 
 
 47 
 
 11 
 
 7 
 
 22 
 
 26 
 
 9 
 
 24 
 
 28 
 
 11 
 
 18 
 
 15 
 
 13 
 
 6 
 
 47 
 
 15 
 
 6 
 
 29 
 
 17 
 
 14 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 26 
 
 31 
 
 9 
 
 28 
 
 14 
 
 11 
 
 21 
 
 50 
 
 13 
 
 10 
 
 29 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 33 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 36 
 
 13 
 
 7 
 
 30 
 
 34 
 
 9 
 
 32 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 25 
 
 26 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 11 
 
 15 
 
 14 
 
 38 
 
 17 
 
 23 
 
 1 
 
 14 
 
 7 
 
 34 
 
 38 
 
 9 
 
 35 
 
 46 
 
 11 
 
 29 
 
 1 
 
 13 
 
 17 
 
 54 
 
 15 
 
 18 
 
 44 
 
 17 
 
 27 
 
 26 
 
 15 
 
 7 
 
 38 
 
 41 
 
 9 
 
 39 
 
 32 
 
 11 
 
 32 
 
 37 
 
 13 
 
 21 
 
 37 
 
 15 
 
 22 
 
 51 
 
 17 
 
 31 
 
 58 
 
 16 
 
 7 
 
 42 
 
 43 
 
 9 
 
 43 
 
 16 
 
 11 
 
 36 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 25 
 
 21 
 
 15 
 
 26 
 
 58 
 
 17 
 
 36 
 
 18 
 
 17 
 
 7 
 
 46 
 
 45 
 
 9 
 
 47 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 39 
 
 48 
 
 13 
 
 29 
 
 5 
 
 15 
 
 31 
 
 7 
 
 17 
 
 40 
 
 44 
 
 18 
 
 7 
 
 50 
 
 47 
 
 9 
 
 50 
 
 44 
 
 11 
 
 43 
 
 23 
 
 13 
 
 32 
 
 50 
 
 15 
 
 35 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 45 
 
 11 
 
 19 
 
 7 
 
 54 
 
 47 
 
 9 
 
 54 
 
 27 
 
 11 
 
 46 
 
 59 
 
 13 
 
 36 
 
 36 
 
 15 
 
 39 
 
 27 
 
 17 
 
 49 
 
 37 
 
 20 
 
 7 
 
 58 
 
 48 
 
 9 
 
 58 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 50 
 
 34 
 
 13 
 
 40 
 
 23 
 
 15 
 
 43 
 
 38 
 
 17 
 
 54 
 
 4 
 
 21 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 48 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 52 
 
 11 
 
 54 
 
 10 
 
 13 
 
 44 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 47 
 
 50 
 
 17 
 
 58 
 
 31 
 
 22 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 47 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 34 
 
 11 
 
 57 
 
 46 
 
 13 
 
 47 
 
 57 
 
 15 
 
 52 
 
 2 
 
 18 
 
 2 
 
 58 
 
 23 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 46 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 15 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 21 
 
 13 
 
 51 
 
 46 
 
 15 
 
 56 
 
 16 
 
 18 
 
 7 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 8 
 
 14 
 
 44 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 56 
 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 57 
 
 13 
 
 55 
 
 35 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 18 
 
 11 
 
 51 
 
 25 
 
 8 
 
 18 
 
 42 
 
 10 
 
 16 
 
 37 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 34 
 
 13 
 
 59 
 
 25 
 
 16 
 
 4 
 
 45 
 
 18 
 
 16 
 
 18 
 
 26 
 
 8 
 
 22 
 
 39 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 17 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 3 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 44 
 
 27 
 
 8 
 
 26 
 
 35 
 
 10 
 
 23 
 
 57 
 
 12 
 
 15 
 
 46 
 
 14 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 16 
 
 13 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 •25 
 
 11 
 
 28 
 
 8 
 
 30 
 
 31 
 
 10 
 
 27 
 
 36 
 
 12 
 
 19 
 
 23, 
 
 14 
 
 10 
 
 58 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 34 
 
 18 
 
 29 
 
 37 
 
 29 
 
 8 
 
 34 
 
 26 
 
 10 
 
 31 
 
 15 
 
 12 
 
 23 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 14 
 
 51 
 
 16 
 
 21 
 
 52 
 
 18 
 
 34 
 
 3 
 
 30 
 
 8 
 
 38 
 
 21 
 
 10 
 
 34 
 
 53 
 
 12 
 
 26 
 
 37 
 
 14 
 
 18 
 
 45 
 
 16 
 
 26 
 
 10 
 
 18 
 
 38 
 
 29 
 
 31 
 
 8 
 
 42 
 
 15 
 
 11 
 
 38 
 
 32 
 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 22 
 
 39 
 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 42 
 
 54 
 
 559. To find the sun's higher ascension at 
 the noon of any day, Greenwich time, till the 
 year 1900. 
 
 Take the right ascension for the corresponding: 
 day of the year 1824 from the above table, and 
 multiply 7- 3s. by the periods of four years, and 
 parts of a period from 1824 till the given period, 
 and the product will be the period in the first 
 correction, always to be added. Take j, ^, or f 
 of the daily change of right ascension, according 
 as the given year is the first, second, or third 
 after leap-year ; for the second correction always 
 to be subtracted. Apply these corrections to 
 the right ascension taken for the correspond- 
 ing day of 1824, and the result will be the 
 right ascension at the Greenwich noon of the 
 proposed day. 
 
 Note. — If the given year is a leap-year, the 
 second correction is nothing. 
 
 Example. 
 
 Required the sun's right ascension, May 4, 1853. 
 
 560. The sun's right ascension. May 4, 1824, 
 is 2h. 45m. 49s. and daily increase 3m. 51s. 
 Now there are 7y periods of four years from 
 1824 till 1853 ; when 7-3s. X 71=: 53s. the first 
 correction; and ^h. of 3m. 51s. in 58s., the 
 second correction. Then 2h. 48m. 55d. x53s. 
 
 — 58s. =: 2h. 45m. 40s. 
 the proposed time. 
 
 the right ascension at 
 
 Sect. III. — Of calculating the Distances, 
 Magnitudes, &c. of the Celestial Bodies. 
 
 561-. One of the first objects of an observer is 
 to ascertain the latitude of his place of observa- 
 tion. There are many methods by which this 
 may be effected. If the declination o of any 
 celestial object be known, and its distance z from 
 the zenith be observed, then the latitude / will be 
 either ■= 8 -\- z, or S — z, according as S and z 
 are of the same or different denominations. ■ But 
 the latitude may be determined from altitudes of 
 circumpolar stars, independently of any previous 
 knowledge of the places of those stars, for it is 
 arlways equal to half the sum of their greatest and 
 least altitudes. The pole star is most conve- 
 niently situated for observations of this kind, and 
 it is generally observed for that purpose. 
 
 562. Considerable attention has been paid to 
 the simplification of the method by which the 
 latitude may be found from altitudes of this star 
 when it is out of the meridian. Mr. F. Bailey, 
 the present learned president of the Astronomical 
 Society of London, has given the following for- 
 mula, in which \p is the colatitude, p the star's
 
 166 
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 polar distance, and t its meridian distance, and z its 
 observed zenith distance, iL = z — — m^t. cot. 
 
 „3 
 
 z + p cos. t + ^— .s in ^t cos. t. This formula 
 
 may be put under the form \p =z z + (p + C) 
 cos. t — B cot. : ; whence, the coefficients p + 
 C and B being computed and arranged in tables, 
 xj/ may easily be determined. 
 
 563. The latitude being determined, it becomes 
 next of importance to determine the inclination 
 of the plane of the earth's orbit to the plane of 
 the equator, or the obliquity of the ecliptic. 
 This is the difference between the sun's greatest 
 altitude and the colatitude of the plan of obser- 
 vation. If the sun was in the solstice at the mo- 
 ment at which he was on the meridian, the dif- 
 ference between his meridian altitude and the 
 colatitude, would be die obliquity. This, how- 
 ever, is unlikely to happen, and, on the ground 
 of utility, not at all to be desired ; as, from me- 
 ridional observations made near the solstice, the 
 obliquity may be determined with a degree of 
 accuracy to which no single observation could 
 justify us in pretending. 
 
 564. If w be the obliquity, d the sun's decli- 
 nation, and his longitude, d' the greatest de- 
 clination, and 0' the corresponding longitude ; 
 then, 
 
 sin. d zz sin. 0. sin. w 
 
 sin. d' =z sin. 0'. sin. w. 
 
 When sin. c? — sin. d = sin. w (sin. 90°— sin. 0) 
 
 Or, if w = 900—0 and w {= d') = d + S, 
 
 . S , d^ . u 
 
 sm. cos. {w — -) = sm. w. sin.-' -. And ex- 
 panding and substituting for 7h - and cos. - their 
 
 approximate values in terms of o, we obtain 
 tan. w. sin. s'. iv^ 
 ~ 2 
 
 from which, with the greatest ease, the correction 
 of the declination d deduced from the altitude 
 'may be obtained, and hence from a series of me- 
 ridional altitudes, observed on each side of the 
 solstice, the obliquity of the ecliptic may be ob- 
 tained to a very great degree of nicety. 
 
 565. The obliquity of the ecliptic being ob- 
 tained, the next step in this department of en- 
 quiry is to ascertain the place of the equinoctial 
 point, or that point on the ecliptic in which it 
 crosses the equator. Now the point in which 
 the sun is when his meridional altitude is equal 
 to the colatitude, will be the equinoctial point. 
 Let « = his meridional altitude less than the 
 colatitude I, a = his meridional altitude greater 
 than /, and n = the days between the two obser- 
 vations, then as near the equinox u may be consi- 
 dered as varj'ing uniformly, we have .' " =: 
 
 a' —a 
 the time after the sun had the altitude a when he 
 was on the equator, whence his place at the time 
 on the portion of the equinoctial point, with re- 
 ference to the meridian of any known iixed star 
 may be determined. 
 
 566. The distances of the heavenly bodies are 
 obtained by finding die horizontal parallax of the 
 body whose distance is desired to be known ; 
 that is, the angle under which the semidiameter 
 
 of the earth would appear provided we could see 
 it from that body. In general the parallax of a 
 planet is the difference between the real and ap- 
 parent place of a planet; that is, between its 
 place seen from some part of tlie surface, and 
 from the centre of the earth ; so that the parallax 
 is the angle under which the semidiameter of the 
 earth, terminated by die place of an observer, is 
 seen at the planet; and to find this parallax 
 many methods have been devised. 
 
 567. I. Let A D, plate V. fig. 3, be the earth, 
 C its centre, P the planet ; and let the planet's 
 distance C P from the centre of the earth be 
 given. Then Z A P is the complement of the 
 apparent altitude, Z C P the complement of the 
 true altitude. As the planet's distance from the 
 centre of the earth C P : to the earth's radius 
 AC : : so is the cosine of the apparent altitude, 
 S.Z A P : to the sine of the parallax. For draw 
 A F parallel to C P. The angle F A P is equal 
 to the angle A P C. But Z A F is equal to 
 Z C P, the true zenith distance, and Z A P is the 
 apparent zenith distance ; and their difference 
 F A P, or its equal A P C, is the parallax. But in 
 the triangle C A P, it is C P : S.C A P or Z A P : : 
 C A : S.C P A, or P A F, the parallax. 
 
 568. II. If the distances of two planets or stars, 
 having the same apparent altitude, be known, 
 and the parallax of one of them, let P and G be 
 the planets in the line A P G ; then A P C is the 
 parallax of P, and A G C die parallax of G. 
 Therefore in the triangle C P C, we have C P, 
 C G, and an angle opposite, suppose G, to find 
 the other opposite angle. Therefore distance C P : 
 distance CG::SCGP:SCPGorCPA; that 
 is, the sines of the parallaxes are reciprocally as 
 t!ie distances from the earth's centre. 
 
 569. III. Let S be the star or planet whose 
 parallax is sought. See plate V. fig. 7. Observe 
 it when it is in the same vertical circle with any 
 two fixed stars, A, B. Observe again when the 
 same two stars come into a position parallel to 
 the horizon at a and b ; and let the planet be 
 come to s. Then with an instrument measure 
 the altitude of a or b, and likewise the altitude of 
 s ; and the difference of these altitudes is the pa- 
 rallax. For the real place of the star S, is some- 
 where in the line A B, and therefore it is also 
 somewhere in the line a b, and therefore its alti- 
 tude is the same as that of a or b. Therefore the 
 parallax is the difference of the altitudes of a and 
 s, or of b and s. 
 
 570. IV. Let S be the star or planet; observe 
 its distance from any fixed star B, which is in the 
 same vertical circle Z S B ; and measure the dis- 
 tance S B with an instrument. Then observe 
 again when the same two stars have equal altitudes 
 above the horizon at b and s, and then take the 
 distance b s, This distance will be very near the 
 true distance of the stars B and S ; therefore the 
 first distance B S subtracted from tlie latter dis- 
 tance b s, when B is below S, gives tlie parallax ; 
 or the latter distance subtracted from the former, 
 when B is above S, gives tlie parallax. 
 
 571 . V. The parallax may be found by observ- 
 ing the azimuth and altitude of die star or planet. 
 Let H Z O, plate V. fig. 4, be the meridian, E Q 
 the equinoctial, II O the liorizon, Z the zenith, 
 P the yiole, S the star, Z S B u vertical circle \)ass-
 
 ASTRO N O lyi Y. 
 
 16: 
 
 ing through it. Observe the altitude B S, and V. fig. 5, re'quires two observers in different 
 
 the azimuth BO, and mark the moment of time places of the earth, and can be applied to none 
 
 when these observations are made ; then observe of the planets but Mars in opposition to the sun, 
 
 the moment of time that the star comes to the or to Venus on the sun's disk. It is best per- 
 
 meridian, and you then have the distance of time formed when the suu is about the equinox. Let 
 
 from the observations. Convert this into degrees, P E R Q be the earth, P R its axis, E Q the equi- 
 
 allowing only 23h. 56m. to 360°, (which is the noctial, S the planet Mars in opposition to the 
 
 time of the earth's rotation to the same star), and sun, and if near the perihelion, it is better. Let 
 
 you have the arch E D or angle E P A, suppos- two places F G, be taken, the one in north lati- 
 
 ing PAD an hour circle. Therefore in the tude, the other in south latitude, the further from 
 
 spherical triangle Z P A, we have the angle the equinoctial the better ; and nearly in the 
 
 Z P A, and angle P Z A equal to B O, and the same meridian, or rather so placed, that the line 
 
 side Z P the co-latitude, to find the side Z A the F G, drawn from the one to the other, may be 
 
 complement of the altitude ; this subtracted from nearly perpendicular to the orbit of Mars. By 
 
 Z S, known by observation, the remainder AS this there is a greater base to work upon. Then 
 
 is the parallax. let the two observers pitch upon some fixed star 
 
 572. VI. Another method is performed by a as A, which Mars comes very near at that time ; 
 telescope, with cross hairs in the focus. Direct and the nearer the better. Having two good in- 
 the telescope to the planet, and turn it round till struments perfectly alike, furnished with micro- 
 its motion is along one of the cross hairs, which meters, and being situated at F and G; let them 
 represents part of the planet's parallel circle ; and observe for several nights successively about mid- 
 the other hair perpendicular to it, will represent night, the places of Mars at B and C, as he passes 
 its hour circle. Observe the time when the planet by the star A; and take the distances A B and 
 comes to this hour circle, there fix the telescope, A C every night, during his transit by this star, 
 and then take its altitude; then observe the time These observations are to be continued till the 
 ■when some fixed star, whose right ascension is distances begin to increase, and no longer ; for 
 known, comes to the same hour circle. The dif- then he is past the star. 
 
 ference of time between the planet and star com- 576. From these observations, the nearest dis- 
 
 ing to this hour circle, turned into degrees tance of ]\Iars from the star A may be found, as 
 
 (allowing 360° to 23h. 56m.), gives the difference observed from the places F and G ; at least they 
 
 of right ascensions of the planet and star ; and so may be found by interpolation. Let these nearest 
 
 the apparent right ascension of the planet is distances be A B and A C ; then we have the dif- 
 
 known. ference B C, or the angle B S C or F S G. And 
 
 573. When the planet comes to the meridian, from the situation of the places F and G, the 
 observe it with the telescope, and note the time ; lengtli and position of F G will be known ; and 
 and wlien the star comes to the meridian, note by these F S may be found. And lastly, the an- 
 the time of that : then the difference of the times gle which the radius of the earth subtends at the 
 reduced to degrees as before, gives the true diffe- distance F S, or the horizontal parallax of ^Mars 
 rence of right ascensions, whence the true right will be known. If, instead of ^Nlars in opposition, 
 ascension of the planet will be known. Therefore Venus be observed on the body of the sun ; then 
 let H O, plate V. fig. 8, be the horizon, H Z O her nearest distances from either limb of the sun 
 the meridian, Z the zenith, P the pole, A the must be taken, whose difference will give the 
 true place of the planet, S its apparent place, angle at Venus, subtended by F G ; the rest as 
 Z S B a vertical circle ; then in the triangle Z P S, before. Thus the parallax of Venus will be ob- 
 
 we have Z P, Z S, and angle Z P S to find the 
 angle P Z S. In the triangle'Z P A, we have Z P, 
 angles Z P A, P Z A ; to find Z A, which taken 
 from Z S, gives AS the parallax. 
 
 parallax of ^Mars, when nearest the 
 m found 25", 27", and 30" at difier- 
 
 tained. The 
 earth, has been 
 ent times. 
 
 577. Besides these methods of computing the 
 
 574. If the planet have a proper motion of its parallax, there is another depending on observa- 
 
 own, its true place will be always changing ; and 
 therefore the change of p/lace must be computed 
 for the time of the observations. This is done by 
 observing its place when in the meridiau, twice ; 
 and thence the change of place is had for 24 
 
 tions made out of the meridian, which may be 
 thus explained : let JNI, plate I^^ fig. 5, be the 
 true place, and m the apparent place of a planet, 
 Z the zenith, and P the pole, then M P ot will re- 
 present the apparent change in the right ascen- 
 
 hours : and therefore the place at the times of sion of the planet arising from parallax. This 
 
 observations will be had by proportioning the change may be thus estimated : make Pn :^ PM, 
 
 motion accordinsr to the times. Here the angle and join I\Ir2. M P 7J rr il w cosect ]\I P r:: -M >« 
 
 Z P S should be" about 90°, to have APS the sin. Z M P cosect P 'SI — A sin. Z M. sin. Z M P 
 
 greatest possible. cosect P M (A representing the horizontal par- 
 
 575. VII.. The operation represented in plate allax) = A sin. ZP sin. ZPM cosect PM. 
 
 ^j , MPra MPncos. declin. 
 
 Hence \ ^z • = ^^ ■ 
 
 sin. Z P • sin. Z P i\I ' cosect PM cos. lat. sin. hour angle ' 
 
 Or, calling M P me, A n: 
 
 £ cos. declin. 
 
 cos. lat. sin hour angle. 
 
 \V e should have a similar expression for it, if the object were observed on the o;her side 
 of the meridian, and therefore 
 
 £ cos. declin. e cos. declhi. 
 
 A = 
 
 COS. !at. X (sin. /» -j- ^m. h' 
 
 h -\- h' ii — h' 
 COS. lat. sin. — ~ cos. —
 
 168 
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 This method serves tolerably well to find the 
 parallax of the moon ; and it has been applied 
 successfully to find the parallax of Mars; but it 
 requires observations of much too great nicety to 
 determine by it the parallaxes of the two planets. 
 Those are chiefly deduced from the parallax of 
 the sun, as determined by the transit of \'enus. 
 
 578. In the above investigations, the earth has 
 been considered as a spherical body ; but in 
 computing the parallax of the moon, from obser- 
 vations, the peculiarity of the form of the earth 
 becomes very apparent ; and it is a striking cir- 
 cumstance that from the eclipses of the moon, 
 we shew in a general way that the earth is round, 
 and from her parallaxes that it is not spherical. 
 
 579. A star or planet appears lower than it 
 really is, by the quantity of the parallax, which 
 is greater the lower the star is ; and therefore the 
 horizontal parallax is the greatest. The paral- 
 laxes of two planets are as the cosines of the 
 apparent altitudes directly, and their distances 
 from the earth's centre reciprocally. For when 
 the distance is given, the parallax is as the sine 
 of the zenith distance (by method 1), and if the 
 apparent altitude be given, the parallax is reci- 
 procally as the distance, (by method 2), and there- 
 fore is in a compound ratio, when neither is given. 
 Here the parallax being very small, one may 
 take the parallax itself for the sine of the pa- 
 rallax. 
 
 580. The parallax of a planet being known, 
 its distance may be found. For this is only 
 working backward, saying, as sine of the paral- 
 \a.x, to the earth's radius; so S zenith distance 
 to the planet's distance. 
 
 581. Having the parallax of any of the pla- 
 nets, the distances of all the planets from the 
 sun may be known, in diameters of the earth, 
 or any sort of measure. For the distances of the 
 planets from the sun and from one another, are 
 known in some assumed measure; and by the 
 parallax of a planet, the true distance of the earth 
 from it is known ; and therefore all the other 
 distances will be known by proportion. 
 
 582. The seventh of these methods has been 
 practised in determining the parallax of Venus, 
 from observations made at different parts of the 
 earth, upon what is called her transit over the 
 sun's disk, a phenomenon that rarely happens : 
 but when it does happen, it affords the best, and 
 indeed the only accurate method of determining 
 that most important problem in astronomy, the 
 sun's parallax, or the angle under which the 
 earth's semi-diameter appears from the sun. 
 
 583. The first transit or passage of Venus over 
 the sun's disk, that ever was observed, happened 
 in 1639, but perhaps the only mortals who saw it 
 were Mr. Horrox and his friend Mr. Crabtree. 
 Two transits have happened since ; the first in 
 1761, and the last in 1769. There will be no more 
 before 1874, and the next to that will happen 
 in 1996. The two last transits were carefully 
 observed. From the first of these Mr. Short has 
 computed the sun's parallax to be 8-69"; and 
 from tlie last the best astronomers have concluded 
 it to be 8-6". This is an observation of the greatest 
 consequence, because it 'is only by a knowledge 
 of the sun's distance from the earth, in some 
 known measure, that we can acquire a knowledge 
 
 of the true dimensions of the solar system. For 
 an account of the principles of this method of 
 finding the solar parallax, see Venus, transit of. 
 
 584. As to the fixed stars, no method of as- 
 certaining their distance has hitherto been found 
 out. Those who have formed conjectures con- 
 cerning them, have thought that they were at 
 least 400,000 times farther from us than we are 
 from the sun. 
 
 585. Dr. Herschel has proposed a method of 
 ascertaining the parallax of the fixed stars, some- 
 thing similar, but more complete, than that men- 
 tioned by Galileo and others ; for it is by the 
 parallax of the fixed stars that we should be 
 Isest able to determine their distance. The me- 
 thod pointed out by Galileo, and first attempted 
 by Hooke, Flamsteed, Molineux, and Bradley, 
 of taking the distances of stars from the zenith 
 that pass very near it, has given us a much juster 
 idea of the immense distance of the stars, and 
 furnished us with an approximation to the know- 
 ledge of their parallax, that is much nearer the 
 truth than we ever had before. 
 
 586. But Herschel mentions the insufficiency 
 of their instruments, which were similar to the 
 present zenith sectors, the method of zenith dis- 
 tances being liable to considerable errors on ac- 
 count of refraction, the change of position of the 
 earth's axis arising from nutation, precession of 
 the equinoxes, and other causes, and the aberra- 
 tion of light. The method of his own is by means 
 of double stars; which is exempted from these 
 errors, and of such a nature that the annual pa- 
 rallax, even if it should not exceed the tenth part 
 of a second, may still become more visible, and 
 be ascertained, at least to a much greater degree 
 of approximation than it has ever been done. 
 
 587. This method is capable of every improve- 
 ment which the telescope and mechanism of 
 micrometers can furnish ; but as it goes on pre- 
 sumptions which can hardly lead to any firm con- 
 viction, we are not likely to gain any farther 
 knowledge, than that the stars are at too great 
 distance to be subjected as yet to our calculations. 
 He supposes that the stars are, one with another, 
 about the size of the sun ; and that the diff'erence 
 of their apparent magnitudes is owing to their 
 apparent distances ; both of which suppositions 
 being only hypothetical, it is evident that the 
 conclusions founded on them cannot be depended 
 on with absolute certainty. 
 
 588. Considerable discussion has recently 
 taken place between Mr. Pond, the present as- 
 tronomer royal, andDr. Brinkley, respecting the 
 annual parallax of a Lyrae, which parallax Dr. 
 B. conceives his instrument shews clearly to 
 be about 1-12". Mr. Pond, asserts, that the 
 Greenwich circle is a better instrument than the 
 Dublin circle, and that observations made with 
 it give no indications of parallax either in a Lyrae, 
 or in any other fixed star. Dr. Brinkley, how- 
 ever, has endeavoured to shew that, if the place 
 of the pole-star can be relied on, the Greenwich 
 observations do indicate a parallax in a Lyrae very 
 nearly equal to that shewn by his instrument ; 
 but Mr. Pond, in a recent communication to 
 the astronomical society of London, states, that 
 observations on the pole-star are on the whole 
 more unsatisfactory than any other star. What
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 169 
 
 seems to go far towards settling this delicate 
 question is, that there are now two circles in 
 constant use at Greenwich ; and that they agree 
 together in a manner that must be gratifying to 
 their distinguished makers, Mr. Droughton 
 and Mr. Thomas Jones ; they bear steady and 
 united testimony against the parallax of the fixed 
 stars, and shew even in some instances a ten- 
 dency to exhibit a deviation of an opposite 
 character. 
 
 Sect. IV. — Of the Divisions of the Starby 
 Heavens. 
 
 589. The stars, from their apparently various 
 magnitudes, have been distributed into several 
 classes^ or orders. Those which appear largest, 
 are called stars of the first magnitude ; the next 
 to them in lustre, stars of the second magnitude ; 
 and so on to the sixth, which are the smallest that 
 are visible to the bare eye. This distribution 
 having been made long before the invention of 
 telescopes, the stars which cannot be seen with- 
 out the assistance of these instruments, are dis- 
 tinguished by the name of telescopic stars. 
 
 590. The ancients divided the starry sphere 
 into particular constellations, or clusters of stars, 
 according as they lay near one another, so as to 
 occupy those spaces which the figures of diffe- 
 rent sorts of animals or things would take up, 
 if they were there delineated. And those stars 
 which could not be brought into any particular 
 constellation, were called unformed stars . 
 
 591. By this division, the stars are so distin- 
 guished from one another, that any particular 
 star may be readily found in the heavens, by 
 means of a celestial globe ; on which the con- 
 stellations are so delineated, that the most re- 
 markable stars are placed in such parts of the 
 figures, as are most easily distinguished. See 
 plates I, a-nd 11. 
 
 592. The number of the ancient constellations is 
 forty-eight, and upon our present globes about 
 seventy. On Senex's globes are inserted Bayer's 
 letters ; the first in the Greek alphabet being put 
 to the largest star in each constellation, the se- 
 cond to the next, and so on; by which means 
 every star is as easily found as if a name were 
 given to it. Thus if the star y in the constel- 
 lation of the ram be mentioned, every astronomer 
 knows as well what star is meant, as if it were 
 pointed out to him in the heavens. 
 
 593. The starry heavens are also divided into 
 three parts, viz. 1. The Zodiac, which extends 
 quite round the heavens ; is about 16° broad, so 
 that it takes in the orbits of all the planets, as 
 well as that of the moon ; and along the middle 
 of which is the ecliptic. 2. AH that region of 
 the heavens which is on the north side of the zo- 
 diac, containing twenty-one constellations; and, 
 3. That on the south side, containing fifteen. 
 
 594. Tiie following tables exhibit the names 
 of the ancient and modern constellations, and the 
 number of stars observed in each of them by 
 different astronomers : 
 
 595. TABLE I. 
 THE ANCIENT CONSTELLATIONS. 
 
 J 
 
 V; 
 
 \ 
 
 
 Number of Stars in 
 
 Each, according to 
 
 / Names. 
 
 English Names. 
 
 Ptolemy. 
 
 T. Brake. 
 
 Hevelius. 
 
 Flamst. 
 
 'Jrsa Minor . . 
 
 The Little Bear 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 24 
 
 Ursa Major . . 
 
 The Great Bear , . 
 
 35 
 
 29 
 
 73 
 
 87 
 
 Draco .... The Dragon . ' . . 
 
 31 
 
 32 
 
 40 
 
 80 
 
 Cepheus . . . 
 
 Cepheus .... 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 51 
 
 35 
 
 Bootes, or Arctophilax 
 
 
 23 
 
 18 
 
 52 
 
 54 
 
 Corona Borealis 
 
 The Northern Crown 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 21 
 
 Hercules, or Engonasin 
 
 Hercules Kneeling . 
 
 29 
 
 28 
 
 45 
 
 113 
 
 Tyra 
 
 The Harp . . 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 17 
 
 21 
 
 Cyngus, or Gallina 
 
 The Swan . . . 
 
 10 
 
 18 
 
 47 
 
 81 
 
 Cassiopeia . . . 
 
 The Lady in her Chair 
 
 13 
 
 26 
 
 37 
 
 55 
 
 Perseus .... 
 
 Perseus .... 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 
 46 
 
 59 
 
 Auriga .... 
 
 The Waggoner . . 
 
 14 
 
 9 
 
 40 
 
 66 
 
 Serpentarius, or ) 
 Opiuchus . S 
 
 Serpentarius . . . 
 
 29 
 
 15 
 
 40 
 
 74 
 
 Serpens .... 
 
 The Serpent . . . 
 
 18 
 
 13 
 
 22 
 
 64 
 
 Sagitta .... 
 
 The Arrow . . . 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 18 
 
 Aquila, or Vultur . 
 
 The Eagle . . . 
 
 15 
 
 12 
 
 23 
 
 71 
 
 Antinous .... 
 
 Antinous .... 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 19 
 
 71 
 
 Delphinlis . . . 
 
 The Dolphin . . 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 14 
 
 18 
 
 Equuiyi,or Equi sectio The Horse's Head . 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 Pegas^as, or Equus . 
 
 The Flying Horse . 
 
 20 
 
 19 
 
 38 
 
 89 
 
 .\nf'.iomeda ... 
 
 Andromeda . . . 
 
 23 
 
 23 
 
 47 
 
 66 
 
 Triangulum . . . 
 
 The Triangle 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 12 
 
 16 
 
 Aries 
 
 The Ram .... 
 
 18 
 
 21 
 
 27 
 
 66 
 
 Taurus .... 
 
 The Bull .... 
 
 44 
 
 43 
 
 51 
 
 1 141 
 
 Gemini .... 
 
 The Twins . . . 
 
 ' 25 
 
 25 
 
 38 
 
 85
 
 170 
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 TABLE I.— (Continued). 
 
 Names. 
 
 English Names. 
 
 Number of Stars in Each, according to 
 Ptolemy. I T. Brake. I Hevelics. Flamst. 
 
 Cancer . . , 
 Leo .... 
 Coma Berenices 
 Virgo . . . , 
 Libra, or Chelae 
 Scorpius . . 
 Sagittarius . , 
 Capncornus . 
 Aquarius . . , 
 Pisces .... 
 Cetus . . . , 
 Orion . . . , 
 Eridanus, or Fluvius 
 Lepus . . . , 
 Canis Major . . 
 Canis Minor . 
 Argo Navis . . 
 Hydra .... 
 Crater .... 
 Corvus . . . 
 Centaurus . . 
 Lupus . . . 
 Ara . . . 
 
 Corona Australis 
 Piscis Australis 
 
 The Crab 
 The Lion . . 
 Berenice's Hair 
 The Mrgin 
 The Scales 
 The Scorpion 
 The Archer . 
 The Goat . . 
 Th'e Water-Beare 
 The Fishes 
 The Whale . 
 Orion . 
 
 Eridanus, or the 
 The Kare . . 
 The Great Dog 
 The Little Dog 
 The Ship . . 
 The Hydra 
 The Cup . 
 The Crow 
 The Centaur 
 The Wolf . 
 The Altar 
 The Southern Cro\ 
 The Southern Fish 
 
 23 
 35 
 35 
 32 
 17 
 24 
 31 
 28 
 45 
 38 
 22 
 38 
 S4 
 12 
 29 
 2 
 
 45 
 
 27 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 37 
 
 19 
 
 7 
 
 13 
 
 18 
 
 15 
 30 
 14 
 33 
 10 
 10 
 14 
 28 
 41 
 36 
 21 
 42 
 10 
 13 
 13 
 2 
 3 
 19 
 3 
 4 
 
 29 
 49 
 21 
 50 
 20 
 20 
 22 
 29 
 47 
 39 
 45 
 62 
 27 
 16 
 21 
 13 
 4 
 3] 
 10 
 
 83 
 95 
 43 
 110 
 51 
 44 
 69 
 51 
 108 
 113 
 97 
 78 
 84 
 19 
 31 
 14 
 64 
 60 
 31 
 9 
 35 
 24 
 9 
 12 
 24 
 
 596. TABLE IL 
 THE NEW SOUTHERN CONSTELLATIONS. 
 
 Columba Noachi 
 Robur Caroiinum 
 Grus .... 
 Phoenix . . 
 Indus . . . 
 
 Pavo .... 
 Apus, or Avis Indica 
 
 Noah's Dove 
 The Royal Oak 
 The Crane . . 
 The Phoenix . . 
 The Indian , 
 The Peacock 
 The Bird of Paradise 
 
 10; Apis, or Musca . 
 12JChamceleon . . 
 13 Triangulum Australis 
 13 Piscis volans, or Passer 
 12 Dorado, or Xiphias . 
 14. Toucan .... 
 lliHydrus .... 
 
 The Bee or Fly . 
 The Cameleon 
 The South Triangle 
 The Flying Fish . 
 The Sword Fish . 
 The American Goose 
 The W"ater Snake 
 
 597. TABLE HI. 
 HEVELIUS'S CONSTELLATIONS MADE OUT OF THE UNFORMED STARS. 
 
 Lynx 
 
 Leo Minor . . . 
 Asterion and Chara 
 Cerberus .... 
 Vulpecula and Anser 
 Scutum Sobieski 
 Lacerta .... 
 Camelopardalus 
 Monoceros . . . 
 Sextans .... 
 
 The Lynx . , 
 The Little Lion 
 The Greyhounds 
 Cerberus 
 The Fox and Goose 
 Sobieski's Shield 
 The Lizard . . 
 The Camelopard 
 The Unicorn 
 The Sextant . . 
 
 Hevelics. Flamstead. 
 
 19 
 
 23 
 4 
 27 
 7 
 10 
 32 
 19 
 11 
 
 44 
 53 
 25 
 
 35 
 
 16 
 58 
 32 
 41 
 
 Sect. V. — Of Calculating the Periodical 
 Times, Places, &c. of the Celestial Bo- 
 dies; Constrvcting Astronomical Tables, 
 and Delineating the Phases of the Moon. 
 598. This section, if treated fully, would com- 
 prehend almost the whole of practical astronomy, 
 
 a subject so extensive, that the whole space 
 which we can devote to the subject of astronomy 
 would not suffice to do it justice. We shall, 
 however, we hope, give an abstract of the leading 
 points in this department of the science, whicli 
 may at once gratify the wishes of the amateur.
 
 ASTRONOMY 
 
 171 
 
 and stimulate the further enquiries of those who 
 may be inclined to pursue the subject. 
 
 599. Indeed the elements of the chief bodies 
 in our system have long been tabulated, and the 
 mere practical astronomer may, without any 
 knowledge of the causes of the planetary mo- 
 tions, compute from the tables where any planet 
 in the system will be found at any given instant. 
 The tables in the third volume of Vince's Astro- 
 nomy are a treasure to the astronomer, though 
 those of the moon have been superseded by 
 the improved ones of Burkhardt. 
 
 600. We have already shown how an observer 
 ■who knows his own latitude may find the posi- 
 tion of the ecliptic with respect to the equator, 
 and that point of the heavens in which the celes- 
 tial equator and the ecliptic intersect. We now 
 proceed to the solution of Kepler's problem, or 
 to the method of finding the place of a planet in 
 an elliptical orbit. 
 
 601. Let AP B, fig. 12, plate VI., be an 
 ellipse, E the sun in the focus, round which the 
 earth, P, or any other planet revolves. Let the 
 planet's motion, and the time of its motion, be 
 dated from the extremity of the major onis. A, 
 called the aphelion or apside. Now we are sup- 
 posed to have given the time of the planet's 
 quitting it, to find the position of the point P in 
 the ellipse, either by finding the value of the an- 
 gle A E P, or by cutting off from the whole 
 ellipse and area A E P, which is to the area of 
 the whole ellipse as the time from A to P bears 
 to the whole time of revolution. The line E P 
 is called a radius rector. 
 
 602. Let a circle A M B be described on A B 
 as its diameter, and suppose a point to describe 
 this circle uniformly, and the whole of it in the 
 same time as the planet describes the ellipse, let 
 t denote the time elapsed during P's motion from 
 
 2.t .AUB 
 
 A to P ; then if A M — ^-r- — — - i\I will be 
 ' periodic time 
 
 the place of the point that moves uniformly, 
 whilst P is that of the planets ; the angle is called 
 the mean .anomaly, and A E P the true ano- 
 maly. 
 
 603. Hence, as the angle ACM can always 
 be found when t is given, the solution of Kep- 
 ler's problem is reduced to this, to find the true 
 anomaly in terms of the mean. 
 
 604. The angle D C A, determined by pro- 
 ducing the ordinate A- P to the ellipse is called 
 the eccentric anomaly, which has been devised 
 for the purpose of expediting the computation of 
 the true anomaly. It holds a mean between the 
 two other anomalies, and is a step in the com- 
 putation from the one lo the other. 
 
 605. Vie shall first deduce two equations, by 
 which the eccentric anomaly is expressed, in 
 terms of the true and mean anomalies respec- 
 tively. 
 
 Let t r: the time in describing A P, P rz the 
 
 periodic time in the ellipse a =: C A, ae =zEC, 
 
 ^= ^ P E A, M = Z. D C A, (whence E T = 
 
 E C. sin. u, E T being perpendicular to D T) r p 
 
 = P E, TT = 3-1415986 ; then, by the law of the 
 
 equable description of areas, 
 
 .. area P E A „ area D E A 
 
 f = P X T-r,r — ~ P X 
 
 (by conies )=— x fD EC +D C A)= ^x 
 
 wa frar 
 
 (ET.DC , AD. DC Pa 
 
 H :; = ,; . ., X (E C sina-f- 
 
 D C 
 
 P 
 
 •w)=—- X (e. 
 
 2 TT 
 
 2 
 
 sin. M -1- k) : hence if we 
 
 P 1 ^. 
 
 put — =- we have 
 ^ 2 TT n 
 
 n t = e. sin. u x u, an equation connecting the 
 
 mean anomaly n t with the eccentric u. 
 
 606. To find the equation between the true 
 and eccentric anomaly we must investigate and 
 equate two values of p. Now the value of p in 
 terms of the true anomaly is by conies = 
 a . 1 — e- 
 1 — e. COS. u. 
 and in terms of u the eccentric anomaly p^= a 
 \ -\- e. COS. u. 
 
 In p2 ^ E N^ X P N2=E N^ -t-D N- i^'' — 
 a e + a- cos. u^ + a* sin.^ u 1 — e^ = 0^+ 2 e 
 COS. u + COS. 2 M + <z* 1 — e^ "m^ Jt = "^ -f 
 ^e .'cos. u — e^ cos- ti when p = a \+ e. cos- u. 
 
 By equating these two values of P we have, 
 1 — e-= cos u 1 + e . cos u ; whence cos. v = 
 
 ■ " "^ -, an expression which may readily 
 
 1 + e COS. u 
 
 be transformed into 1 tan 
 
 -V^T 
 
 tan — 
 
 2 
 
 area of ellipse 
 
 area 
 
 2 ' 1 — e 
 The difference between the mean and true 
 anomalies is called the Equation of the Centre ; 
 which has its greatest value when P moves with 
 its mean angular velocity, as may be thus made 
 evident. If we conceive a body to move uni- 
 formly in a circle round E, as a centre, with the 
 mean angular velocity of P round E, revolving 
 round the circle in the same time that P revolves 
 round the ellipsa. If they bodi depart from P 
 together, then P at the first moving with its least 
 angular velocity, will describe round E a less 
 angle than the fictitious body does, which body 
 will therefore advance before P, till the angular 
 velocity of P becomes equal to that of the body, 
 at which time their angular distance will be the 
 greatest, and P will immediately afterwards 
 begin to gain upon the body. 
 
 608. To determine in the ellipse in which tlie 
 equation of the centre is the greatest, conceive a 
 circle to be described round E as a centre, setting 
 the ellipse on some point P, and the line E A 
 somewhere between E and A. Then, if the 
 angular velocities be inversely as the squares of 
 the distances from E, the angular velocity in the 
 ellipse from A to P, will in every intermediate 
 point be less than the angular velocity of the 
 body in the circle, in all the points between E A 
 and P. But if the areas described by the body 
 in the ellipse, and the body in the circles, be res- 
 pectively equal, the angular velocities are in- 
 versely as the squares of the distances. 
 
 609. If then the incremental areas be equal, 
 the whole areas are equal, since by condition, 
 the lines of revolution are equal. Let therefore 
 X be put for the value of E P, 2 a = the major 
 axis, and ue = the eccentricity of the ellipse, thim 
 by equaling the expression for the elliptic area.
 
 172 
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 and that of the circle we obtain 
 
 \ 4 32 / 
 nearly. 
 
 609. From the above value of the radius vector 
 when the equation of the centre is the greatest, 
 the corresponding, true, and eccentric anomalies 
 may be computed by the general equations for 
 those purposes given above. 
 . 1 — e''' 
 
 Viz. p : 
 
 ■1 p =: a. 1 + e. cos u; 
 
 1 — ecos.u 
 
 and hence, too, the mean anomaly n ^ is deter- 
 mined from ntz^u-\-e. sine u, and finally 
 there results the greatest equation of the centre 
 :z: + V — nt. 
 
 We proceed now to the principles of the 
 method by which the place and motion of the 
 aphelia are determined. 
 
 610. It is evident that the sun being in perigee 
 at the least distance and in apogee at his greatest, 
 if we could measure his diameter with sufficient 
 nicety, so as to determine when it is greatest or 
 least, the corresponding places of the sun would 
 be those of the perigee and the apogee respec- 
 tively ; or if, by observing the sun's place from 
 day to day, we could ascertain the times when 
 his angular motion was the greatest or least, his 
 places at the corresponding time would be those 
 of the required points. And if, at a period con- 
 siderably distant, like observations were repeated, 
 a comparison of the results would shew whether 
 the place of the apogee was stationary or not. 
 
 61 1 . Now by the observations of various astro- 
 mers, it has been found that the apogee of the 
 earth's orbit is progressive, as may be seen from 
 the following statement : 
 
 Astronomer. Year. Longitude of Apogee. 
 
 Cochin King . 1279 3s. 0° 8' 0" 
 Waltherus . . 1496 3 3 57 57 
 La Hine . . 1684 3 7 28 
 Flamsteed . . 1690 3 7 35 
 The mean result of these observations gives 
 
 about 1' 3'4" for the annual progressive motion 
 
 of the apogee of the earth's orbit. 
 
 612. The following, however, is a more accu- 
 rate method of determining the progression of 
 the apogee. Let S E r (fig. 13. Plate VL) be a right 
 line, and draw T E<, making with A B, the major 
 axis, an angle TEA rn SEA; now the time 
 through r B < S is less than the time through 
 the remaining are SAT?; for the equal and 
 similar areas S E i, T E r, are described in equal 
 times, but the area /• E t, is less than SET, and 
 it will therefore be described in less time; 
 whence r E < -|- S E ^, which is equal to S E r ^ S, 
 is described in less time than SET -f T E 7-, 
 which compose the area SErTS. This pro- 
 perty belongs to every line drawn though E, 
 except AB, the major axis, or the line which 
 joins the aphelion and perihelion of the orbits. 
 Hence, if on comparing two observations of the 
 sun in opposite longitudes, as at S and r, it ap- 
 pears that the time elapsed is not half a year, 
 we may be sure that the sun has not been ob- 
 served in apogee or perigee. In practice, how- 
 ever, the interval will not differ much from half 
 a year, and the true position of the apogee may 
 be determined in the following manner : 
 
 613. The time from r to S rr the time from 
 r toB -\- the time from B to A — the time from 
 S to A ; or, time from B to A — time from r to 
 S =r time from S to A — time from r to B. 
 Now the first of these differences is known, 
 being the difference between half an anoma- 
 listic year (the time from the sun's leaving the 
 apogee till his return to it) and th-e observed in- 
 terval ; and the second term of the second dif- 
 ference may be expressed by means of the first. 
 For let the first term z=. t, then the time from r to 
 R -f area r E B _ rBx EB . , „ 
 
 ^-'•areaSEA-^SAxEA ^^ ^""^ ^ 
 being supposed near the apsides) 
 
 — *"— ^ 1^ B^ _ E B» 
 ~EB ^ SA^EA'-^^TK' 
 
 = t X 
 
 angular velocity at A 
 
 r B 
 
 lor —— — 
 angular velocity at B' E B A E 
 
 each representing the incremental angle r E B. 
 
 614. Now the angular velocities at A and B, 
 or the increments of the sun's longitude, being 
 known from observation, and the time from r to 
 B being expressed in terms of those velocities 
 and of t, the quantity t may be readily deter- 
 mined ; whence the exact time when the sun is 
 at A ; and his longitude, computed for that time, 
 is the longitude of the apogee. 
 
 Example. 
 
 1743.Dec.30. Oh. 3ni. 7s. 0's long.9s 8° 29' 12-5" 
 1744.Jun.30. 0h.3m.0s 3 8 51 1-5 
 
 DifTerence 
 
 6 21 4-9 
 
 Therefore at the second observation, June 
 30th, the sun was past S. In order to find 
 when he was at S, that is, when the difference of 
 the longitude was six signs (or supposing the peri- 
 gee to have progressed through 31") when the 
 difference of the longitudes was 6 s 0" 0' 31", we 
 must find the time of describing 21' 49" — 31", 
 or 21' 18". This is easily effected by this pro- 
 portion, as the sun's daily motion on June 30th 
 (57' 12") : 24 hours : : 21' 18"; 8h. 56m. 13s., 
 which taken from June 30th, Oh. 3m., leaves 
 June 29th 15h. 6m. 47s. for the time when the 
 difference of the sun's longitudes under the given 
 circumstances was 180° 0' 31". 
 
 615. The interval between this last time and 
 Dec. 30th, Oh. 3m. 7s. the time of the past ob- 
 servation, is 182d. 15h. 3ni. 40s., nearly the 
 time from r to S : but this time is less than half 
 an anomalistic year, which is 182d. 15h. 7m. 
 1 s., as has been found by repeated observations, 
 and as we have seen above : t — time from r to 
 B n: 3m. 21s.; and time from r to B ziz t. 
 
 57' 12" 
 
 r-; whence, by substitution and reduction, 
 
 61 la"' •' 
 
 we have t ^z 47m. 54s. This added to June 
 29th, 15 h. 6m. 47s., when the sun was at S, 
 gives June 29th 15h. 6m. 47s. for the time 
 when he was in apogee. 
 
 616. The sun's longitude at that time must be 
 less than his longitude on June 30th, Oh. 3m. 
 by the difference due on the difference of the 
 times, which is 8h. 8m. 19s. This quantity is 
 easily found by proportion to be 19'. 21", and
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 173 
 
 hence the longitude of the apogee is 98°. 31' 
 405", or 8" 31' 40-5" past the summer solstice. 
 
 617. From the longitude at any given time 
 and the annual progression, the position of the 
 apogee and of the axis of the solar ellipse may 
 be found by proportion for any other time. If 
 it were required, for example, to find when the 
 axis of the solar ellipse was perpendicular to the 
 line of the equinoxes, or when the longitude of 
 the perigee was 270°. Now its longitude in 
 1750 was 9' 8° 37' 28", hence, taking the an. 
 
 qO oy oft* 
 
 nual progression at 62", — ^^ zz about 500 
 
 years, as the major axis was perpendicular to 
 the line of the equinoxes in 1250. It is remark- 
 able, that the period in which the major axis 
 coincided with the time of the equinoxes, is at 
 the time which astronomers consider to be that 
 of the beginning of the earth. 
 
 618. Our next object is to explain those ob- 
 servations made at the earth, and reduced to 
 what they would have been if the observer had 
 been at the sun ; as the methods of extricating 
 from the geocentric observations of a planet's 
 place, the elements of the orbit which it de- 
 scribes round the sun. 
 
 619. The observations made on the earth are, 
 generally speaking, for right ascensions by the 
 transit instruments, and polar distances by the 
 quadrant or axle The latitudes and longitudes 
 are not observed, but computed from the right 
 ascensions and declinations. Let A, fig. 15. 
 plate VI., represent the first point of Aries, A C 
 a portion of the ecliptic, AB a portion of the 
 equator, S a star, S B its declination, and S C its 
 latitude ; then A B will be its right ascension 
 and A C its longitude round BAG, the obli- 
 quity of the ecliptic. Now the method of find- 
 ing BAG has already been shown; BS is de- 
 termined by the circle or quadrant, and A B by 
 the time shown by the siderial clock when the 
 sun is on the meridian. Hence AG, CS, and 
 the angle BAG, are given to find A B and B S. 
 Now COS. A S rr cos A G . cos. G S ; cos. SAG 
 = cos. GS.inAG, SAB=SAG = BAG; 
 tan A B r= cos. SAB. tan. A S and sin. B S 
 = sin. A S . in B A S. Hence the geocentric la- 
 titudes and longitudes may be always determined. 
 
 620. li a z:z the right ascension, d =z the de- 
 clination, I rr the latitude, \ = the longitude, 
 and rr the obliquity of the ecliptic, then / 
 and X may be determined from the following 
 equations : 
 
 tan.Xrrsin.o . tan.c? . sec. a -}- tan. a . cos. o 
 sin. Izz aind . cos. a — sin. a . cos. d . sin.e. 
 
 621. By either of these methods the geocen- 
 tric latitude and longitude may be determined. 
 Among the resulting values of the latitude, some 
 •will be either nothing or very small. If the 
 geocentric latitude is nothing, the heliocentric 
 latitude is also nothing, or the planet is in the 
 plane of the earth's orbit, or in that point of its 
 own orbit which is called its node ; the node 
 being the intersection of the orbit of a planet 
 with the plane of the ecliptic. It is not likely, 
 however, that the planet will be observed 
 exactly in the node; but if by one observa- 
 tion its latitude is found to be a south, and 
 
 by another at an interval of time t, to be a' north, 
 
 the —7- is the interval, which added to the 
 
 a -(- « 
 
 time when the planet had the latitude, a will 
 give the instant at which it was in its node. 
 
 622. As we can thus find the time of a planet's 
 entering its node, we can determine the time of 
 its passage from the descending to the ascending 
 node, and also the time between two successive 
 returns to the same node ; and if the place of 
 the nodes and the dimensions and line of 
 the orbit remain unchanged, the latter interval 
 must be the periodic time of the planet ; and if 
 the former interval were half the latter, it would 
 prove either that the orbit of the planet was cir- 
 cular, or, if elliptical, that its major axis coin- 
 cided with the positions of the nodes. 
 
 623. Now let N P, fig. 14, plate VI. be part 
 of the orbit of a superior planet, N tt G a portion 
 of the ecliptic, E the earth, S the sun ; and let 
 P TT be an arc of a great circle from P perpen- 
 dicular to the ecliptic. A spectator at E, sees 
 P 7r under the angle P E tt, which is therefore 
 the geocentric latitude; and a spectator, as S, 
 would see P tt under the angle P S tt, which is 
 therefore the heliocentric latitude. If y be the 
 first point of Aries, then as the diameter of the 
 earth's orbit subtends no sensible angle at the 
 fixed stars, a line drawn from E to y may be 
 considered as parallel to a line drawn from S to y. 
 Hence 
 
 the geocentric longitude of P (L) is /. 7r E y 
 the heliocentric longitude of P (P) is Z tt S y 
 the longitude of the sun, (0) is /. S E y, 
 
 and consequently, 
 
 LZZ0 + Z SEttzz © -f- E, 
 
 E representing the angle S E tt, called the angle 
 
 of elongation. 
 
 624. The angle E S tt, is called the angle of 
 commutation, (C) the angle S tt E, or rather the 
 angle S P E, under which the earth's radius ap- 
 pears from the planet, is called the annual pa- 
 rallax. 
 
 625. To proceed, y S tt, (P) = Z. S E y -|- 
 180° — ES7r = -I- 180° — C, whence P may 
 be determined, if G be previously known. But 
 S E is known from the solar theory, and S E tt, 
 or E = L — is known, since L can be com- 
 puted as we have shown above from the obser- 
 ved right ascension and declination, and is 
 known from the solar theory ; therefore to find 
 the angle E S tt, and all the other parts of the 
 triangle, it is only necessary to know S tt, which 
 is called the curtate distance. 
 
 626. Now S TT = S P cos. Z. P S tt = y . 
 COS. H; whence to find S tt we must know the 
 values of y and 11. Let I zz P N tt, represent 
 the inclination of the planet's orbit, to the plane 
 of the ecliptic. Then by spherics, tan. H =z cos. 
 N 7r . tan. I, whence to find II we must pre- 
 viously know I and N tt, the distance of the re- 
 duced place of the planet from the node of its 
 orbit, which distance is evidently equal to the 
 longitude of the planet, minus the longitude of 
 the node. 
 
 627. If the eccentricity of the orbit be small, 
 S P, or r, may be determined by Kepler's law, 
 but it is the mean distance which is determined
 
 174 
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 by that law ; and therefore except P move in a 
 circle, S P so determined will not be quite cor- 
 rect. And in fact there is no direct and general 
 method of determining S P. Astronomers there- 
 fore select those positions of a planet in which its 
 heliocentric longitude is exactly known. Now 
 when the inferior planets are in conjunction, their 
 longitudes are exactly known, as when they are 
 in superior conjunction their longitudes are equal 
 to 0, and in inferior equal to 180° -\- 0. 
 
 628. In such positions then the heliocentric 
 longitude is obtained without any knowledge of 
 S P, and without trigonometrical computation. 
 The geocentric longitude may be computed from 
 the right ascension and declination by the formu- 
 Ise already given. 
 
 629. If we conceive N tt C to represent the 
 earth's orbit, and e E that of an inferior planet, 
 then E TT S is called the planet's angle of elong- 
 ation, and n- E S its annual parallax, when tt E 
 is a tangent to E e. 
 
 To Jind the periodic time, mean motion, and dis- 
 tance of a planet. 
 
 630. From the observed right ascensions and 
 declinations compute its geocentric latitude ; and 
 find wiien it is equal to nothing. The planet 
 is then in its node. Find in the same way at 
 some subsequent period when it returns to the 
 same node, and thence the periodic time may be 
 determined. 
 
 631. This method of finding the periodic time 
 serves also to show whether the orbit is eccentric, 
 and the degree of the eccentricity ; as will appear 
 from the following detail given by Delambre, for 
 finding the periodic time of Mars : — July 23d, 
 1807. $ in his descending node (y) and his 
 southern latitude increased till Dec. 16th. If 
 the latter time be assumed as that when his lati- 
 tude was greatest, and the interval (145 days) 
 of his passage from the node to that position, be 
 taken as one-fourth of his periodic time, the pe- 
 riod will then be 360 days. 
 
 632. ButonMay 21st, 1808, $ in his ascend- 
 ing node (g^) and the interval in his passage 
 from y to ^ was 302 days. If that interval 
 were half the period, the period would be 604 days. 
 
 633. Again on March 7th, 1809, the north 
 latitude of Mars was 2° 49' ; and in June 8th, it 
 was (0), when Mars had returned to the node in 
 which he was on July 23d, 1807, in 687 days, 
 which must be very nearly the period of his 
 revolution. 
 
 634 Now from this detail, and what we have 
 done before, we may infer that the orbit of Mars 
 is not circular, and that the major axis is neither 
 perpendicular to, nor coincident with, the line of 
 the node. 
 
 635. But we may draw farther inferences. 
 
 The time from ^J to Q, being less than the other 
 
 half of the period by 83 days; if (plate VI. fig. 
 
 13) N re represent the line of the nodes, we have 
 
 NAre — NB« 83 . 
 
 ,ri rr smce the areas are propor- 
 
 NA« 385 ^ ^ 
 
 tional to the times. Now when Nn is perpen- 
 dicular to A B, the difference between N A n and 
 NBn is a maximum. In such a position 
 
 AEN — NEB ,j , ,41 
 
 , „ -■ would be nearly 77^;^ or the 
 
 AEN ^ 193 
 
 time from B to N would he nearly 152 days and 
 from N to A 193 days. 
 
 636. But the period being nearly 687 days m 
 which the planet describes 360° the time of de- 
 scribing 90° would be nearly 171 days, supposing 
 the planet to depart from B, and to move witli 
 its mean motion; but as we have seen, the planet 
 was in N nineteen days previously, in which 
 time its mean motion is equal to nearly 10°. 
 When the real planet therefore was at N, the fic- 
 titious body moving witli the planet's mean 
 motion would be nearly 10° behind. Now this 
 difference is what has been denominated the 
 equation of the centre, which at N is nearly at 
 its greatest value. Hence the greatest equation 
 of the centre in Mars cannot be less than 10°. 
 The same process for finding the periodic time, 
 and like inferences respecting the eccentricity 
 are applicable to Jupiter and Saturn. But the 
 Georgian planet has not completed more than half 
 a revolution since it was first discovered, and yet 
 we have the elements of its orbit to a very con- 
 siderable degree of exactness. The following 
 method of determination by LaLande (one indeed 
 of trial and conjecture, but which after a few 
 times is sure of succeeding) will be easily under- 
 stood. 
 
 637. Resuming the notation already employed ; 
 
 the angle of elongation (EJ = L — 0, L being 
 
 the geocentric longitude, and E tt S, the angle of 
 
 parallax (tt^ is the diff'erence of the heliocentric 
 
 and geocentric longitudes, and therefore equal to 
 
 P — L. Now E == L — is known, and tt is 
 
 T> SE 
 known from the expression sin. tt = sin. E,-;- — 
 
 if we can find S tt. If we assume a value (r) for 
 S TT (Stt and SP being nearly equal) we shall 
 from the above equation have a corresponding 
 value of TT, and thence of P : let this value be 
 represented by P'. jNIake another computation 
 "with TT and a second and third geocentric longi- 
 tude, and let the resulting heliocentric longitudes 
 be P" and P'". Then we have P" — P', P'" — 
 P", and P'" — P', and from the three times of 
 observation, t; t" and t'" we have t" — t', t'" — 
 t" and t'" — t'. 
 
 Hence P'" — P' : t'' — t':: 360° : planet's period. 
 Or P" — P' :t"~f :: 360° : planet's period, 
 As P"' — P" : t'" — t":: 360° : planet's period. 
 
 638. By any of these three proportions may 
 the period be computed ; but r is assumed as the 
 mean distance, and if 1 =2 the earth's mean dis- 
 tance, and p its periodic time ; tlie periodic time 
 of the planet will be represented by p r | ; and 
 if this result agree with the former one, it will be 
 a proof that r has been rightly assumed ; and the 
 disagreement by its nature and magnitude will 
 point out the manner and extent of correcting 
 the first assumption for y. 
 
 639. LaLande computed from three geocentric 
 observations of the planet made on April 25th, 
 July 31 St, and Dec. 12th, 1781, and he found 
 from the above formulae, the periodic time. The 
 two values disagreeing he amended his first as- 
 sumption, guided partly by conjecture and partly 
 by his first trial, till a value of r was obtained, 
 which agreed with all the observations. 
 
 640. The distance of an inferior planet may 
 also be determined from observations on its dis-
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 175 
 
 tance from the sun when stationary, or from what 
 !ias been called its greatest elongation. Let E 
 and E' be two of the greatest elongations, one 
 when the planet is in aphelion and the other in 
 penhelion, e the eccentricity of the orbit, K and 
 R' the distances of the earth from the sun, 
 and 7- the planet's mean distance ; then e rr 
 R sin=E — R' sin E' 
 
 ^ an equation which deter- 
 mines the relation between the eccentricity and 
 mean distance. 
 
 641. We proceed now to the method of deter- 
 mining the place of the node of a planet's orbit, 
 and the inclination of its orbit to the plane of the 
 ecliptic. In fig. 16, plate VI. let N n, represent 
 the nodes. Now from the observed right ascen- 
 sion and declination we can in an hour even com- 
 pute the planet's geocentric latitude, and when 
 this is equal to 0, the planet is in its node. 
 Lat. E, E' be the two positions of the planet 
 when, as viewed from the earth, it is respectively 
 at n and N. Then S E tz ni geocentric longitude 
 of planet at ti — and S E' N z: 0' — geocen- 
 tric longitude of planet at N. Now we already 
 know how to compute S N or S n, and hence in 
 the triangles S E 7t, SEN, we can compute the 
 angles ra S E, S ?j E, and N S E', S N E' ; and 
 thence heliocentric Ion. of 7j= 180+0 — /. nSE 
 and heliocentric Ion. of N = 0' — 180 -f- 
 Z N S E', and 0' representing the sun's lon- 
 gitudes at the two times of observation ; and the 
 angle ESE' is proportional to the earth's mo- 
 tion during the planet's passage from 7i to N. 
 
 642. It is evident that the determination of the 
 place of the node is the more difficult, the less is 
 the inclination of the planet's orbit; and it is 
 difiicult on this account to determine the nodes 
 of the orbits of Jupiter and the Georgian planets. 
 
 643. The longitude of the node being found, 
 the inclination of the orbit may be thus deter- 
 mined : Compute the day on which the sun's 
 longitude will be the same, or nearly the same 
 as the longitude of the node, the earth will then 
 be nearly in the line of the nodes N n, at some 
 point e, fig. 16, plate VI. On that day obser^^e 
 the planef s right ascension and declination, and 
 thence deduce the geocentric latitude (G.) Then 
 
 ^ „ sin.^Se sin.N^ 
 
 tp =z et tan. G = S ^ -■ — ^ — tan.G =—- — f^ 
 
 ^ sm.bep sm.E 
 
 tan.G; but sin. N t=cot.t'N p. t p; or tan. I sin. 
 
 N f = <p (I denoting the inclination); whence 
 
 tan.G 
 tan.I.= —. — f,. Alike diagram and a similar 
 
 sm.E ° 
 
 process will apply to a superior planet. The 
 inclination may also be determined from observing 
 the planet at conjunction when its latitude is con- 
 siderable. If r =: the planet's distance from the 
 sun reduced to the ecliptic, I the inclination, and 
 G, as above, the geocentric latitude. Then it 
 may be easily shown, that : 
 
 tan. I = ( 1 _ . + J- tan. '^ l) ^-^^J^, 
 
 an equation from which I may be obtained either 
 by approximation, or the solution of a quadratic 
 equation. 
 
 644. The next step in the investigation is the 
 determination of the form of the planetary orbits. 
 For the sake of simplifying the problem, in the 
 first instance, we shall suppose that the planet's 
 orbit lies in the plane of the ecliptic. Since the 
 mean motion is known from the periodic time, 
 and by observing in opposition or conjunction 
 the planet's true longitude we can at any instant 
 determine its mean longitude. Then if the 
 elapsed time were the inten-al between two con- 
 junctions, and the orbit were circular, the com- 
 puted mean longitude would agree with the last 
 observed longitude ; and a difference would be 
 an indication of the orbit's eccentricity; which 
 difference must depend both on the eccentricity 
 and the place of the aphelion. 
 
 645. To apply these considerations to the sub- 
 ject in hand, let N (fig. 14, plate VI.) be the 
 node of the orbit. Then as its longitude may be 
 considered (from what has preceded) as known, 
 and the longitude of a planet when in conjunc- 
 tion with the sun is known, being equal to 180° 
 + 0, if we deduct the longitude of the planet 
 from the longitude of the node, there remains 
 N IT. Now as the elliptical motion takes place 
 in the orbit N P it is requisite to know N P, and 
 other like distances of the planet from its node. 
 ButN —being known, and the angle PN tt; the 
 distance N P may be computed. For let P N= 
 cos. N. cos. N ir. 
 
 646. If we set off on the orbit of the planet 
 an arc (A) = N r, the longitude of the node, 
 we shall have A + N P which is called the lon- 
 gitude of the planet on its orbit ; and we can 
 have as many such longitudes as there are obser- 
 vations in conjunction or opposition. 
 
 647. Three observations are sufficient to deter- 
 mine the two elements of the eccentricity, and 
 the place of the aphelion ; for if we have three 
 longitudes (V, V, V,) we have two indepen- 
 dent differences of longitude, and as soon as the 
 planet's period is known, we can compute two 
 portions of its mean motion corresponding to 
 the two correspanding noted intervals of time ; 
 and the two real differences of longitude com- 
 pared according to the elliptic theory, with the 
 corresponding portions of mean motion, will give 
 us two equations for determining the eccentricity 
 and place of the aphelion. 
 
 648. Let e be the eccentricity (supposed to be 
 very small) ^ the longitude of the perihelion^ 
 the place of which suppose to be at some point' 
 between N and P, and let M, il', M", be the 
 mean anomalies reckoned from the perihelion, 
 Then we have 
 
 M + 2 e . sin. V — 
 sin. V — I 
 M"4- 2 e . sin. V" — ^ 
 
 V — = ]M' -|- 2 e . sin. V — ^ 
 
 Hence V — V — M' — M (= «) = 2 e. \ sin. V — ^ — sin. \ — <l>\ 
 
 Y^r h\ — O .. ^ 
 
 And V"— V— M"— M'(= 6) = 2 e. \ sin. V 
 
 sin. \' — (p /
 
 176 
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 Now as V V V" are known and M' M oftheseeqiiationsbedividedby the second we iiave 
 
 M" — M' are known from the period of the planet sin. V — — sin. V^ — 
 
 and the elapsed time ; for if t be the interval be- -=g.^^ y»_ . _g-^^ vZT^ "^"^ whence, by re- 
 
 tween the observations of V and V; we have , . w ■ , 
 
 . r>crf> auction we obtam tan. (j> n: 
 
 Hanet's period : 360° : : « : M' — M = -^^j^ a • sin. V" — sm. V" — h ■ sin. V — sin. V 
 
 Hence since a and b are known, we have two « * ^os. V" — cos. V' — b- cos. \" — cos. V 
 
 equations for determining e and (p. If the first Hence, ^ being determined, we have 
 
 a • sin. 1" a • sin. 1' 
 
 2[sin.V' — (p — sin.V — <) 
 
 4 • sm 
 
 U5d. 21h. nearly. 
 
 277-287 
 
 2 
 
 -C^-*). 
 
 649. Tlien e and (p, and the major axis being 
 ■determined, we can compute the radius sector y 
 
 - , . a • 1 — e'^ 
 
 Jrom this expression, r zz =^=r 
 
 1 + e • cos. V — : 
 and since the place of the node, and the inclina- 
 tion of the orbit are determined, we can compute 
 the curtale distance S tt, on the supposition that S 
 P, from which it is deduced, is the radius sector of 
 an elliptical orbit. If, therefore, in any of the 
 processes for determining the elements of the 
 planet's orbit, the curtale distance S tt has been 
 supposed derived from S P, considered as a mean 
 distance, we may now, with a more correct value 
 of S TT, repeat the operations and correct the re- 
 sults. 
 
 650. We shall now direct our attention to the 
 method of finding the synodical revolutions of 
 the planets, and of computing tbeir returns to 
 the same point of their orbits. 
 
 651. The time between conjunction and con- 
 junction, or between opposition and opposition, 
 is called a synodical period. Let us suppose 
 that at a given instant the sun, Mercury, and the 
 earth, are in the same right line ; then, after any 
 elapsed time (a day for example). Mercury will 
 have described an angle m, and the earth an 
 angle M, round the sun, therefore at the end of 
 a day the separation of Mercury from the earth, 
 as seen from the sun, will be rn — M, and at the 
 end of s. days s. m — M ; and when s. m — M = 
 360°, the sun, Mercury, and the earth, will be 
 again in the same right line, and in that case 
 
 s == -TT, where s denotes a synodical period 
 
 and 7n, M the mean motions of Mercury and 
 the earth for any equal intervals of time. 
 
 653. Let P and p denote the siderial periods 
 of the earth and the planet ; then, since 1 d. : M° 
 : : P : 360° and 1 d. : m° : : p : 360°, we have 
 -. 360 , 360° 
 
 M = and vi = ; which substituted 
 
 P 
 for m and M in the preceding equation, gives 
 
 _ Pp 
 » — p Or if 1 represents the earth's mean 
 
 distance, and r that of the planet ; we have P ; 
 
 ^ P — ? P 
 p::l:r ; or — = r '^whences = -. 
 
 P ^- i ^ 1 
 
 We have here three expressions, from any of 
 which s may be computed. 
 
 654. For instance, in the case of Mercury, p = 87 
 d. 969, and P being 365-269, v/ehave s, the synodi- 
 
 .al period of Mercury = 365-256x87-969 
 
 In the case of the moon, rn = 13°- 1763, and 
 
 M, the earth's daily mean motion = 59' 8'- 3 ; 
 
 360° 
 whence s = = 29 d. 12h. nearly. 
 
 M 
 
 arK C ^P' 
 
 655. Since s ^ ^r— ^ — 
 ¥—p 
 
 P 
 
 sP 
 
 there- 
 
 s +¥' 
 
 fore from the known periodic time of the earth, 
 and the observed synodic period of a planet, we 
 can determine p, the periodic time of the planet. 
 But to insure accuracy in the determination, the 
 return of the planet to a conjunction nearly in 
 the same part of its orbit, at which a previous 
 one was observed, ought to be noted, and the 
 interim divided by the number of synodical 
 revolutions will give the mean synodic period. 
 For under these circumstances there will be 
 nearly a mutual compensation of the inequalities 
 arising from the elliptic form of the planet's 
 orbit. 
 
 656. Another reason for attending to this 
 caution, is that on such conjunction depend the 
 transits of Venus and Mercury, over the sun's 
 disk. For it is evident that Venus to be seen on 
 the sun's disk, must not only be in conjunction, 
 but near the node of her orbit : at the next con- 
 junction, after one synodical revolution, she 
 cannot be near he: node, and can only be again 
 near when she returns to the same part of her 
 orbit, as at the first time of observation. 
 
 657. The preceding formuljE for the synodic 
 periods afford us the means of knowing these 
 particular conjunctions. — 
 
 Pp 
 
 The time s of a synodic period is zz tj ~, 
 
 72 X P P 
 
 tlierefore at— rr —, the planet will still be in 
 
 P — p ^ 
 
 conjunction, n representing any whole number. 
 It will therefore be for the first time in conjunc- 
 tion, and the earth and planet will also be in 
 
 71 . P 7? 
 
 the same part of tbeir orbits, when -5^ — i- — 
 
 _P-P 
 P 
 
 P, or when n 
 
 Hence the 
 
 P 
 required 
 
 P — 1 
 
 P 
 
 conjunction can only take place when 
 
 some of its multiples is a whole number, say 
 
 , »« . P — p , »« p 
 
 when, — ■ zz. n, or when — 3: ,. — ; 
 
 p n P — p 
 
 whence we have simply to find two integers, m 
 
 and 71, such that - i^ —J- — . 
 n P — p 
 
 658. Now the tropical revolution of Mercury 
 
 • o~ r.^c. 1 , m 87-968 
 
 IS 8r968 days, hence - zz.- 
 
 365-256 
 
 87-968
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 177 
 
 87-968 
 
 57551 
 
 consequently in 87,988 periods of &c.a6eriesofapproximatingvalueto-^— — , from 
 
 — 277- 288 
 
 the earth, there will be 277288 synodical revolu- 
 tions of Mercury, which will then be observed 
 again in conjunction, and in the same part of its 
 orbit. This result however, from the length of 
 the period, is of no practical use ; we must, 
 therefore by means of continued fractions (see 
 Algebra) endeavour to find fractions in smaller 
 
 ■ . , , , 87968 
 
 terms, havmg nearly the same value as ■, 
 
 659. Making the computation we find the fol- 
 lowing series of fractions continually approxima- 
 ting to this value. 
 
 ~ _6_ J7_ 21. J^ 46 ^^ .^ 
 3 ' 19' 22 ' 41 ' 104': 145' 
 which the denominators denote the number of 
 synodical revolutions, corresponding to the num- 
 ber of years expressed by- the numerator. Take 
 as an example the fourth fraction, in thirteen 
 years, one 474-8328 days, and forty-one synodi- 
 cal periods, 475-0875 days, differing by only about 
 six hours. If the sixth fraction be taken the 
 difference will be little more than two hours. 
 
 660. In a similar way we may compute a 
 series of fractions which will indicate the periods 
 when transits of Venus may be expected. Thus, 
 as Venus's period (p) =: 224 d. 7008240, and 
 the earth's (P) zz 365d. 236385, the synodical 
 
 Pp 
 period of Venus (s) ^ - rr 583-92 d. nearly ; 
 
 and consequently in one synodical period the 
 earth describes 575°-51 nearly; as in n synodical 
 periods, ?i. 575°-51 ; and when this first becomes 
 a multiple of 360°, the earth and Venus will be 
 first in conjunction, in the line from which they 
 originally departed. If, therefore, Venus were 
 so near the node in this original position that a 
 transit took place, a transit will take place when 
 
 (as before) ^zz ~ Whence, by continued 
 
 , . ,. 1 2 3 8 222 235 
 
 fractions, we obtam — , — , — , -— , , — , 
 
 ' 1 ' 1 ' 2 ' 5 ' 142 ' 143' 
 
 36000' 
 
 which we are able to tell after what number of 
 synodic periods Venus and the earth will be 
 nearly in the same parts of their orbits. 
 
 661. Thus, taking the fifth fraction, we infer 
 that after 142 synodic periods, 227 circumfer- 
 ences nearly, will be described ; or 142 synodic 
 periods are nearly equal to 227 years; and o,\ 
 trial we find 575°-51 X 142 = 360^ X 227 -}- 
 2° 42', or 2°-42 in excess. If we take the sixth 
 fraction we shall find the result only 0°-03 in de- 
 fect. Hence, 235 years after a transit of Venus 
 we may confidently expect another, and also 
 after 235 -|- 8, or 243 years ; neglecting as we 
 have done, and may safely do, the small altera- 
 tion in the place of the node, that takes place in 
 the interval of the transit. 
 
 662. A transit, however, may happen when 
 the planet is in, or nearly in, the opposite node 
 of her orbit. To find the time when it is proba- 
 ble that transits in the opposite node may 
 happen, we have merely to find approximative 
 
 , , 57551 , . , .„ , 3 16 227 
 
 values of — , which will be — ■ , — , — , 
 
 18000' 1 5 ' 71 ' 
 
 . , &c. Taking the third of these fraction.s, 
 
 147 
 
 we have 71 x 575°-51 — 180° x 227 + l°-2i: 
 the fourth gives 147 X 575°-51 = 180° x 470° 
 — 0°-03. Whence, supposing the earth, \'enus, 
 and the sun, to be exactly in a line, Venus being 
 in one of her nodes, then, in 71 synodic periods, 
 Venus will be 1°21 distant from the other node, 
 and in 147 synodic periods, only about three 
 hundreth parts of a degree distant from that node. 
 
 663. Did our limits permit, we should now 
 enter upon the most difficult branch of the 
 science, the Lunar Theory , but we must content 
 ourselves with referring those who would acquaint 
 themselves with this highly interesting subject, 
 to the works of La Lande, La Place, and other 
 foreigners, and to the astronomy of the late Pro- 
 fessor Vince; more especially, however, to the 
 elegant and masterly work of Professor Wood- 
 house. 
 
 664. Table of the Transits of Venus over the Sun's Disk, that will occur to the Year 3000. 
 
 Years. 
 
 True Time of Middle of Transit. 
 
 Semiduration 
 
 Shortest Dist. 
 
 for 
 
 :entre 
 
 of 
 
 observed at the 
 
 
 Venus 
 
 
 Earth 
 
 s centre. 
 
 H. 
 
 M. 
 
 S. 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 41 
 
 13' 
 
 51" N 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 43 
 
 10 
 
 29 S 
 
 2 
 
 44 
 
 50 
 
 11 
 
 19 S 
 
 3 
 
 20 
 
 45 
 
 8 
 
 20 N 
 
 2 
 
 22 
 
 50 
 
 13 
 
 N 
 
 2 
 
 48 
 
 20 
 
 11 
 
 28 S 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 52 
 
 13 
 
 17 S 
 
 3 
 
 36 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 23 N 
 
 2 
 
 42 
 
 27 
 
 11 
 
 49 N 
 
 2 
 
 29 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 37 S 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 14 S 
 
 3 
 
 46 
 
 24 
 
 4 
 
 29 N 
 
 2 
 
 56 
 
 47 
 
 10 
 
 56 N 
 
 2 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 13 
 
 17 
 
 20 S 
 9 N 
 
 3 
 
 53 
 
 23 
 
 2 
 
 35 N 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 24 
 
 9 
 
 5Q N 
 
 1 
 
 54 
 
 10 
 
 14 
 
 12 S 
 
 3 
 
 56 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 45 N 
 
 1874 
 1882 
 2004 
 2112 
 2117 
 2125 
 2247 
 2255 
 2360 
 2368 
 2490 
 2498 
 2603 
 2611 
 2733 
 2741 
 2846 
 2864 
 2984 
 Vol. in. 
 
 
 
 H. 
 
 M. 
 
 S. 
 
 Dec. 
 
 8 
 
 15 
 
 43 
 
 27 
 
 Dec. 
 
 16 
 
 4 
 
 49 
 
 41 
 
 June 
 
 7 
 
 20 
 
 26 
 
 58 
 
 June 
 
 5 
 
 13 
 
 37 
 
 25 
 
 Dec. 
 
 10 
 
 14 
 
 34 
 
 
 
 Dec. 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 44 
 
 30 
 
 June 
 
 11 
 
 23 
 
 51 
 
 13 
 
 June 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 59 
 
 9 
 
 Dec. 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 29 
 
 31 
 
 Dec. 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 38 
 
 5 
 
 June 
 
 12 
 
 3 
 
 13 
 
 58 
 
 June 
 
 9 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 58 
 
 Dec. 
 
 15 
 
 12 
 
 25 
 
 54 
 
 Dec. 
 
 13 
 
 1 
 
 40 
 
 30 
 
 June 
 
 15 
 
 6 
 
 33 
 
 52 
 
 June 
 
 12 
 
 23 
 
 38 
 
 38 
 
 Dec. 
 
 16 
 
 11 
 
 26 
 
 34 
 
 Dec. 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 44 
 
 20 
 
 June 
 
 14 
 
 2 
 
 51 
 
 52
 
 178 
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 665. Table of the Transits of Mercuri/ over the Sun's Disk, that will occur before the Year 1900. 
 
 
 
 •' 
 
 
 Shortest Declin. 
 
 Years. 
 
 True Time of Middle of Transit. 
 
 Semiduration. 
 
 observed at the 
 
 
 
 
 
 Earth's centre. 
 
 
 
 H. M. S. 
 
 H. M. S. 
 
 
 1832 
 
 May 
 
 4 18 
 
 3 28 2 
 
 8' 16"N 
 
 1835 
 
 Nov. 
 
 7 8 12 21 
 
 2 33 53 
 
 5 37 S 
 
 1845 
 
 May 
 
 8 7 32 57 
 
 3 22 33 
 
 8 58 S 
 
 1848 
 
 Nov. 
 
 9 7 49 42 
 
 2 41 33 
 
 2 36 N 
 
 1861 
 
 Nov. 
 
 11 19 20 13 
 
 2 23 
 
 10 52 N 
 
 1868 
 
 Nov. 
 
 4 19 18 20 
 
 1 45 2 
 
 12 20 S 
 
 1878 
 
 May 
 
 6 6 55 13 
 
 3 53 3 
 
 4 39 N 
 
 1881 
 
 Nov. 
 
 7 12 59 32 
 
 2 39 9 
 
 3 57 S 
 
 1891 
 
 May 
 
 9 14 14 32 
 
 2 34 20 
 
 12 21 N 
 
 1894 
 
 Nov. 
 
 10 6 36 28 
 
 2 37 36 
 
 4 20 
 
 Sect. VI. — Preliminary Observations 
 
 RESPECTING EcLlPSES. 
 
 666. Before we lay down rules for calculating 
 eclipses, it is necessary to make a few general ob- 
 servations respecting their nature and causes. 
 All the planets and satellites being illuminated by 
 the sun, cast their shadows towards that point of 
 the heavens which is opposite to the sun. This 
 shadow is nothing but a privation of light, in the 
 space hid from the sun by the opaque body that 
 intercepts his rays. When the sun's light is in- 
 tercepted by the moon, so that he appears covered 
 in whole, or in part, to any part of the earth, lie 
 is said to undergo an eclipse; though, properly 
 speaking, it is only an eclipse of that part of the 
 earth where the moon's shadow or penumbra 
 falls. When the earth comes between the sun 
 and moon, the moon falls into the earth's sha- 
 dow; and having no light of her own, she suffers 
 a real and total eclipse from the interception of 
 the sun's rays. When the sun is eclipsed to us, 
 the moon's inhabitants, on the side next the 
 earth, see her shadow like a dark spot travelling 
 over the earth, about twice as fast as its equato- 
 rial parts move, and the same way a? they move. 
 "\S hen the moon is in an eclipse, the sun ap- 
 pears eclipsed to her inhabitants ; totally to all 
 those parts on which the earth's shadow falls, 
 and of as long continuance as they are in the 
 shadow. 
 
 667. Although all opaque bodies, on which 
 the sun shines, have their shadows, yet such are 
 the distances of the planets, and the size of the 
 sun, that the primary planets can never eclipse 
 one another. A primary can eclipse only its 
 secondary, or be eclipsed by it; and never but 
 when in opposition or conjunction with the sun. 
 The primary planets are very seldom in these 
 positions, but the sun and moon are so eveiy 
 month ; whence one may imagine that these two 
 luminaries should be eclipsed every month. But 
 there are few eclipses in respect of the number 
 of new and full moons ; the reason of which we 
 shall now explain. 
 
 668. If the moon's orbit were coincident with 
 the plane of the ecliptic, in which the earth al- 
 ways moves, and the sun appears to move, the 
 moon's shadow would fall upon the earth at 
 every change, and eclipse the sun to some parts 
 
 of the earth. In like manner, the moon would 
 go through the middle of the earth's shadow, and 
 be eclipsed at every full; but with this difference, 
 that she would be totally darkened for above an 
 hour and an half; whereas the sun never was 
 above four minutes totally eclipsed to us by the 
 interposition of the moon. But one half of the 
 moon's orbit is elevated 5^ degrees above the 
 ecliptic, and the other half as much depressed 
 below it ; and when the sun and moon are more 
 than 17° degrees from either of the nodes at the 
 time of conjunction, the moon is then generally 
 too high or too low in her orbit to cast any part 
 of her shadow upon the earth : when the sun is 
 more than 12° from either of the nodes at the 
 time of full moon, the moon is generally too 
 high or too low in her orbit to go through any 
 part of the earth's shadow ; and in both these 
 cases there will be no eclipse. 
 
 669. But when the moon is less than 17° from 
 either node at the time of conjunction, her sha- 
 dow or penumbra falls more or less jipon the 
 earth, as she is more or less within this limit. 
 And when she is less than 12° from either node 
 at the time of opposition, she goes through a 
 greater or less portion of the earth's shadow, as 
 she is more or less within this limit. Her orbit ' 
 contains 360°; of which 17°, the limit of solar 
 eclipses on either side of the nodes, and 12°, the 
 limit of lunar eclipses, are but small portions ; 
 and, as the sun commonly passes by the nodes 
 but twice in a year, it is no wonder that we have 
 so many new and full moons without eclipses. 
 
 670. To illustrate this, let ABCD, plate V. 
 fig. 9, be the ecliptic, RSTU a circle lying in 
 the same plane with the ecliptic, and VXYW 
 the moon's orbit, all thrown into an oblique 
 view, which gives them an elliptical shape to the 
 eye. One half of the moon's orbit, as V W X, 
 is always below the ecliptic, and the other half, 
 X Y V, above it. The points X and X, where tht 
 moon's orbit intersects the circle RSTU, which 
 lies even with the ecliptic, are the moon's nodes; 
 and a right line, X E \', drawn from one to the 
 other through the earth's centre, is the line of the 
 nodes, which is carried almost parallel to itself 
 round the sun in a year. If the moon moved 
 round -the earth in the orbit RSTU, which is 
 coincident with the ' plane of the ecliptic, her
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 179 
 
 slradow would fall upon the earth every time she 
 is in conjunction with the sun, and at every op- 
 position she would go through the earth's 
 shadow ; and thus the sun would be eclipsed at 
 every change, and the moon at every full. 
 
 671. But although the moon's shadow N must 
 fall upon the earth at a when the earth is at E, 
 and the moon in conjunction with the sun at ?', 
 because she is then very near one of her nodes ; 
 and at her opposition, n, she must go through the 
 earth's shadow I, because she is then near the 
 other node, yet, in the time that she goes round 
 the earth to her next change, according to the 
 order of XYVW, the earth advances from E to 
 e, according to the order of EFGH; and the 
 line of the nodes V E X, being carried nearly 
 parallel to itself, brings the point f of the moon's 
 orbit in conjunction with the sun at that next 
 change. The moon being then at j", is too high 
 above the ecliptic to cast her shadow on the 
 earth ; and, as the earth is still moving forward, 
 the moon at her next opposition will be at ^, 
 too far below the ecliptic to go through any part 
 of the earth's shadow ; for by that time the point 
 g will be at a considerable distance from the 
 earth as seen from the sun. 
 
 672. When the earth comes to F, the moon, 
 in conjunction with the sun Z, is not at /c in a 
 plane coincident with the ecliptic, but above it 
 at Y, in the highest part of her obit ; and then the 
 point h of her shadow O goes far above the 
 earth, as in fig. 2, plate IV, which gives an edge 
 view of fig. 9. The moon, at her next opposition, 
 is not at o, but at W, where the earth's shadow 
 goes far above her, as in fig. 2, plate IV. In 
 both these cases the line of the nodes is about 
 90° from the sun, and both luminaries are as far 
 as possible from the limits of the eclipses. When 
 the earth has gone half round the ecliptic, from 
 E to G, the line of the nodes VOX is nearly, if 
 not exactly, directed towards the sun at Z ; and 
 then the new moon /, casts her shadow P on the 
 earth G ; and the full moon /} goes through the 
 earth's shadow L ; which brings on eclipses again, 
 as when the earth was at E. When the earth 
 comes to H, the new moon falls not at /?;, in a 
 plane coincident with the ecliptic C D, but at 
 W in her orbit below it; and then her shadow 
 Q, see fig. 2, plate I\', goes far below the earth . 
 At the next full she is not at q, fig. 9, plate V, but 
 at Y in her orbit 5| degrees above 9, and at her 
 greatest height above the ecliptic CD; being then 
 as far as possible, at any opposition, from the 
 earth's shadow M, as in fig. 2, plate IV. 
 
 673. Thus when the earth is at F and G, the 
 moon is about her nodes at new and full, and in 
 her greatest north and south declination (or lati- 
 tude as it is generally called) from the ecliptic at 
 her quarters ; but when the earth is at F or H, 
 the moon is in her greatest north and south decli- 
 nation from the ecliptic at new and full, and in 
 the nodes about her quarters. The point X, 
 where the moon's orbit crosses the ecliptic, is 
 called the ascending node, because the moon as- 
 cends from it above the ecliptic ; and the oppo- 
 site point of intersection, V^, is called the 
 descending node, because the moon descends 
 from it below the ecliptic. 
 
 674. When the moon is at Y, in the highest 
 
 f)oint of her orbit, she is in her greatest north 
 atitude ; and when she is at W, in the lowest 
 point of her orbit, she is in her greatest south 
 latitude. If the line of the nodes, like tlie earth's 
 axis, was carried parallel to itself round the sun, 
 there would be just half a year between the con- 
 junctions of the sun and nodes. But the nodes 
 shift backwards, or contrary to the earth's annual 
 motion, 19^° every year; and therefore the same 
 node comes round the sun nineteen days soonar 
 every year than on the year before. Conse- 
 quently, from the time that the ascending node 
 X (when the earth is at E) passes by the sun as 
 seen from the earth, it is only 173 days (not half 
 a year) till the descending node, V, passes by 
 him. 
 
 675. Therefore, in whatever time of the year 
 we have eclipses of the luminaries about either 
 node, we maybe sure that in 173 days afterward 
 we shall have eclipses about the other node. 
 And when at any time of the year the line of the 
 nodes is in the situation VGX, at the same time 
 next year it will be in the situation rGs ; the as- 
 cending node having gone backward, that is, 
 contrary to the order of signs, from X to .?, and 
 the descending node from V to r ; each 19^°. 
 
 676. At this rate the nodes shift through all the 
 signs and degrees of the ecliptic in 18 years and 
 225 days ; in which time there would always be 
 a regular period of eclipses, if any complete 
 number of lunations were finished without a frac- 
 tion. But this never happens ; for if both the 
 sun and moon should start from a line of con- 
 junction with either of the nodes in any point of 
 the ecliptic, the sun would perform 18 annual 
 revolutions and 222° over and above, and the 
 moon 230 lunations and 85° of the 231st by the 
 time the node came round to the same point of 
 the ecliptic again ; so that the sun would then be 
 138° from the node, and the moon 85° from the 
 sun. But in 223 mean lunations, after the sun, 
 moon, and nodes,, have been once in a line of 
 conjunction, they return so nearly to the same 
 state again, as that the same node, which was in 
 conjunction with thesun and moon at thebeginning 
 of the first of these lunations, \viU be within 28' 
 12" of a degree of a line of conjunction with the 
 sun and moon again, when the last of these lu- 
 nations is completed. And therefore in that 
 time there will be a regular period of eclipses, or 
 return of the same eclipse, for many ages. 
 
 677. In this period, which was first discovered 
 by the Chaldeans, there are 18 Julian y. lid. 
 7h. 43m. 20s., when the last day of February 
 in leap years is four times included ; but when 
 it is five times included, the period consists of 
 only 18y. lOd. 7h. 43m. 20s. Consequently, if 
 to the mean time of any eclipse, either of the 
 sun or moon, you add 18 Julian y. lid. 7h. 
 43m. 20s., when the last day of Febniary in 
 leap-years comes in four times, or a day less 
 when it comes in five times, you will have the 
 mean time of the return of the same eclipse. 
 But the falling back of the line of conjunctions, 
 or oppositions of the sun and moon 28' 12", with 
 respect to the line of the nodes in everj' period, 
 will wear it out in process of time; and after 
 that it will not return again in less than 12,492 
 years. 
 
 N2
 
 180 
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 678. These eclipses of the sun, which happen 
 about the ascending node, and begin to come in 
 at the north pole of the earth, will go a little 
 southerly at each return, till they go quite off the 
 earth at the south pole ; and those which happen 
 about the descending node, and begin to come 
 in at the south pole of the earth, will go a little 
 north at each return, till at last they quite leave 
 \he earth at the north pole. 
 
 Sect. VII. — Of Calculating Eclipses. 
 
 679. The chief things to be considered in the 
 calculation of eclipses are, the magnitudes of the 
 shadow and penumbra of the opaque body, and 
 the eclipticaJ limits, or the distance from the 
 node, when an eclipse of the sun or moon will 
 happen. These must be calculated both for 
 lunar and solar eclipses. The operations maybe 
 performed as follows : — • 
 
 I. — For Lunar Eclipses. 
 
 680. In plate \TII. fie. 3, let AB be the sun, 
 and CD the earth. Draw AC, B D, by the 
 edges of the sun and earth, which will meet in 
 a point V, because the sun is bigger than the 
 earth. Through the centres of the sun and earth, 
 S andT, draw ST V. Also draw BCE, ADF, 
 touching the contrary sides of the sun and earth, 
 intersecting in P; also draw SC and CT. If 
 the whole figure be turned round, about the axis 
 SV, the lines AV, BV, APF, BPE, will gene- 
 rate the two cones C VD, E P F ; the cone C VD, 
 IS the dark shadow of the earth, E P F continued, 
 is the penumbral cone. And beyond \', the sec- 
 tion of the cone E P F, will be all in the pen- 
 umbra. 
 
 681. Hence, 1. Half the angle of the cone of 
 the earth's shadow CVT, is equal to the sun's 
 apparent semidiameter, less his horizontal paral- 
 lax. For in the triangle SCA", the external 
 angle SCA = CVS + CST. AndCSTisthe 
 sun's parallax. Therefore CVT nz: SCA — 
 CST. 
 
 682. 2. Half of the angle of the earth's pe- 
 numbral cone C P T, is equal to the 'sun's semi- 
 diameter and his horizontal parallax. For in the 
 triangle C S P, the external angle C P T rr PCS 
 + CST. 
 
 683. 3. Hence half the angle of the earth's 
 penumbral cone C PT, is equal to half the angle 
 of the dark cone CVT + twice the sun's hori- 
 zontal parallax CST. 
 
 684. 4. The apparent semidiameter of the 
 earth's dark shadow I K, upon the moon's orbit, 
 is equal to the sum of the horizontal parallaxes 
 of the sun and moon, less the sun's apparent 
 semidiameter. For the angle VCInzCIT — • 
 CVI = CIT — SCA-1-CST. 
 
 685. 5. Theapparentseraidiameterof theearth's 
 penumbra, G I, upon the moon's orbit, is equal 
 to the sum of the horizontal parallaxes of the sun 
 and moon + the sun's apparent semidiameter. 
 For in the triangle PCI, the external angle 
 ECI = CIT + CPTzz CIT-i-PCS-h 
 CST. 
 
 686. 6. Hence to find the length of the earth's 
 shadow. In the triangle C T \' there is given 
 
 the angle V — sun's apparent semidiameter — 
 his parallax, and CT the earth's radius, to find 
 TV. 
 
 II. — For the Shadow and Penumbra, in 
 SOLAR Eclipses. 
 
 687. In plate IV, fig. 10, let AB be the sun, 
 K'L the moon, CD the earth. Draw the tan- 
 gents AK, BL, by the edges of the sun and 
 moon, on the same side, to meet in V; and BK 
 G, ALII to touch the contrary sides. Draw S K, 
 IK; and through S and I, the centres of the sun 
 and moon, draw the axis SIV. Then if the 
 whole figure AKVLB be turned about the axis 
 S V. the sides AV, B V, and P H, PG, will ge- 
 nerate two cones KVL, GPH. The cone K VL 
 is the dark shadow of the moon, and the cone 
 G P H is the moon's penumbral cone. Hence, 
 
 688. 1. The angle of the cone of the moon's 
 shadow KLV, the angle of the penumbral cone 
 KPL, the angles GKV, and HLV, are each 
 equal to the sun's apparent diameter A KB, very 
 nearly ; and half the angle of either cone F or V 
 is equal to the sun's apparent semidiameter. For 
 by reason of the great distance of the sun from T, 
 in respect of T P, T V, TI ; the apparent diameter 
 of the sun, seen from any of the places V, T, I, 
 P, K, will be the same, that is, the angles AVB 
 or KVL, APB or KPL, AKB or GKV, 
 ALB or VLH are all equal; differing only by 
 the angle K S I, which in the moon is insensible. 
 
 689. 2. The height of the cone I P is equal to 
 the cone VI. And KPL, KVL, are equal and 
 similar. For the angles at P and V are equal ; 
 and K L is common. 
 
 690. 3. The apparent semidiameter of tlie 
 moon's dark shadow Q O, upon the earth at O, 
 seen from the moon, is equal to the moon's ap- 
 parent semidiameter — the sun's apparent semi- 
 diameter. And if the sun's apparent semidia- 
 meter be greater, the shadow does not reach die 
 earth. For draw K O ; then in the triangle K O 
 V, V K O = K O S — K V S = KG I — A V 
 S =: K O I — ^ the sun's apparent diameter. 
 
 691. 4. The apparent semidiameter of the 
 moon's penumbra G O, upon the surface of the 
 earth, as seen from the moon, is equal to the 
 sura of the apparent .«emidiameters of the sun and 
 moon. Draw GI and TGR. Then in the tri- 
 angle G P I, the external angle G I O = G P I 
 -|-PGI = KPI-|-KGI=:KPI-fKOI 
 = AKS -f KOI. 
 
 692. 5. Hence, to find the length I V' of the 
 moon's shadow. In the triangle K V I, there 
 is given the angle K V I n half the sun's appa- 
 rent diameter, and KI the earth's radius; whence 
 V I will be had ; and to find the arch Q N of the 
 earth, involved in the moon's dark shadow. In 
 the triangle Q V T, we have given T V the dif- 
 ference between the moon's distance from the 
 earth, the height of the shadow; and the an- 
 gle QVO =: the sun's apparent diameter, and 
 T Q the radius of the earth; to find the angle 
 TQ V, to which add QVT, and the sum is the 
 angle QTO or arch QO; and doubled gives the 
 whole arch Q N. 
 
 693. 6. To find the arch of the earth G II 
 involved in the penumbra ; say, as the earth'? 
 radius Ci T : to S, of the sun's apparent semidia-
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 181 
 
 meter : : so is PT the sum of the moon's dis- 
 tance and cone's height: to S.TG P or KG K. 
 From this take the sun's apparent semidiameter, 
 and there remains G T () =: G O, which doubled 
 gives G H. For in the triangle G P T, there is 
 given the ancjle P zr the sun's apparent semidia- 
 meter, and PT the moon's distance and height of 
 the cone, and TG the earth's radius; to find the 
 angle RGK=:GPT-|-PTG. Therefore P 
 TG or OTG = RGK — GPT= RGK— 
 tlie sun's apparent semidiameter. 
 
 III. To FIND THE ECLIPTICAL LiMITS. 
 
 694. An eclipse of the moon can only hap- 
 pen, when the distance of the centres of the 
 moon, and of the earth's penumbra, is less than 
 the sura of their semidiameters. For if the dis- 
 tance is greater, the moon and penumbra cannot 
 touch one another. 
 
 69.5. An eclipse of the sun cannot happen un- 
 less the distance of the centres of the sun and 
 moon, be less than the sum of their semidiame- 
 ters, when seen from a certain place. That it 
 shall appear in no place, the moon's parallax 
 must be added to the sum of the semidiameters. 
 
 696. In lunar eclipses, therefore, the moon's 
 latitude must be less than the sum of the semi- 
 diameters of the moon and of the earth's penumbral 
 shadow, taken at the moon's orbit. And in solar 
 eclipses, the moon's latitude must be less than 
 the sum of the sun's and moon's semidiameters 
 added to the moon's horizontal parallax ; that the 
 eclipse may be visible some way : or without the 
 parallax, to be visible in a certain place. 
 
 697. Therefore in the right angled spherical 
 triangle, plate IV", fig. 4, Q SJNI, having tlie 
 angle Q, and the distance S M, the distance of 
 the sun from the node, ^ S will be known, or 
 t!ie ecliptic limits. The mode of finding which, 
 may be seen from the following 
 
 Example. , „ 
 
 Zvlean apparent semidiameter of the sun 16 4 
 Parallax of the sun . . . . 12 
 
 Mean apparent semidiam. of the moon 15 38 
 Parallax of the moon . . . 59 5 
 Inclination of the moon's orbit . 5 8 30 
 
 Hence will be obtained, 
 The semidiameter of the earth's pe- 
 numbra . . . 1 13 21 
 The semidiameter of the moon and 
 
 earth's shadows . . 56 51 
 
 The semidiameter of the sun and moon 31 42 
 The same with the parallax . 1 28 47 
 
 In the triangle ^ S M for the eclipse of the moon. 
 Here SM = 1° 13' 21" + 15 38" r= 1° 28' 59". 
 S. $^ := 5 Si . . . 8.952398 
 S.SM=:l 28 59 . . . 8.413067 
 Radius ..... 10. 
 
 S.QS = 16 47 . . . 9.460669 
 
 the limit for the lunar eclipse at a medium. 
 
 In the triangle Q H'M for the eclipse of the sun. 
 
 Here S M rz 1° 28' 47". 
 
 S. $^, =5 8J- . . 8.952398 
 
 S . S M = 1 28 47 . . 8.412009 
 
 Radius 10. 
 
 S. $2.S.= 16 15 
 
 9.459611 
 
 the limit for the solar eclipse, in any place ; 
 about the same as for the lunar. But for a par- 
 ticular place, SM = 31 42; and S ^ comes 
 out only 5° 54' for the limit. 
 
 698. 1. Hence there will at least be four eclip- 
 ses in a year, taking one year with another ; two 
 of the moon, and two of the sun. For 16° 47' 
 + 16M5 = 33° 32' or 32 1°. Therefore the 
 sun stays above a month within the ecliptic limits 
 twice in the year. During which time the moon 
 makes two revolutions, and therefore must cause 
 two eclipses, either time ; one of the moon, and 
 another of the sun. 
 
 699. 2. Half of the eclipses will, in general, be 
 invisible at any given place. And consequently 
 one year with another there can only be two 
 visible eclipses in a year, the one lunar and the 
 other solar. For the sun and moon spend as 
 much time below the horizon as above it. 
 
 700. 3. The ecliptical limits may be found 
 for total eclipses, as well as for partial ones, by 
 the same method ; i. e. by taking S M =. tlie dif- 
 ference of the semidiameters of the earth's dark 
 shadow and of the moon, in lunar eclipses; or 
 = the difference of the semidiameters of the 
 moon and sun, in solar eclipses. 
 
 701. 4. Eclipses do not always happen in 
 the same places of the zodiac ; but in places . 
 more and more westward. For the eclipses being 
 about the nodes, and tlie nodes regressive at the 
 rate of nineteen degrees in a year ; the places 
 of the eclipses are nineteen degrees more west 
 every succeeding year. 
 
 702. From these premises it will be necessary, 
 in calculating a particular eclipse, to consider the 
 angle that the moon's way makes with the sun 
 at the time of an eclipse. See plate XI. fig. 4. 
 Let g:^ S be the ecliptic, ft, M the moon's orbit, 
 Q the node. And let S be the sun, in the solar 
 eclipse ; or the centre of the earth's shadow, in 
 the lunar ; and M the moon at the time of the 
 syzygy. "Take ^ A to ^ S as the sun's hora^ 
 motion, to the moon's, at that time ; draw ]M A, 
 then M A S is the angle required ; and A M the 
 moon's apparent orbit. 
 
 703. For by construction, in the time that the 
 moon has been moving from Q to JM (that is, 
 through Q, S reckoned in the ecliptic,) the sun 
 has moved through a space D S equal to ^ A. 
 Therefore the sun was in D, when the moon was 
 in the node at g, . Draw D B, MB parallel to 
 Sot, S D; and draw B ^, which will be parallel 
 to M A. Now since the moon makes the same 
 latitude D B or S M, in the same time, whether 
 the sun moves or stands still ; and since S M is 
 her latitude, when the sun is at S, D B (equal to 
 S M) will be her latitude, supposing the sun had 
 stood at D, without any motion towards S ; and 
 consequently ^ B will be her apparent way, to 
 an eye at D, through which she seems to move 
 in the same time. Or, which is the same thing, 
 A M will be her apparent way to an eye fixed at 
 S.— For the triangles A M S are g, BB are 
 equal; and MAS is the angle of her way with 
 the ecliptic. By the theory of relative motions, 
 in bodies moving the same way, all the apparent 
 motions are the same, as if one body stood still 
 and the other moved forward, with the difference 
 of their motions. And here J^ D or A S is the dif- 
 ference of their motions supposing S to be fixed.
 
 182 
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 70-1 Hence, as the moon's horary motion : to 
 the sun's horary motion : : S ^ the distance from 
 tlie node to A g^ . Then SA=S^— Ag^. 
 As sine of S A : rad : : tangent moon's latitude 
 S M : tangent angle A. 
 
 705. It is the apparent orbit AM that must 
 be made use of, in calculating all the particulars 
 of an eclipse. For an observer considers not S 
 as moving; and therefore only the relative mo- 
 tions are concerned. To calculate, therefore, an 
 eclipse of the moon, the following rules will be 
 found useful. 
 
 IV. Rules FOR Calculating Lunar Eclipses. 
 
 706. 1. Find the true time of the opposition, 
 when an eclipse is to happen ; and let that be 
 reduced to apparent time. 
 
 707. 2. Find the true places of the sun and 
 moon, when in opposition : 2. The sun's mean 
 anomaly, and the place of his apogee: 3. The 
 place of the moon's ascending node, and of her 
 apogee, and her latitude. 
 
 708. 3. Let $^ S, fig. 1, plate VIIL be a 
 part of the ecliptic; $B M the moon's orbit; S 
 the centre of the earth's shadow, and M the moon, 
 when in opposition. Take ^ A, to ^ S which 
 is known by calculation ; as the sun's horary mo- 
 tion, to the moon's ; which are known from the 
 astronomical tables. Draw A M, for the way of 
 the moon from the sun. Then in the right 
 angled spherical triangle A S M, there is given 
 AS (= g^ S — g^ A); and S M the moon's 
 latitude found by calculation : to find the angle 
 S M A. 
 
 709. 4. Let SP fall perpendicular to A M ; 
 then since the arches SM, M P, S P, are very 
 small, they may be taken for right lines ; and the 
 triangle S M P for a plane triangle. Then hav- 
 ing S M and angle S I\I P ; M P and S P will be 
 found, where P is the place of the moon in 
 tlie middle of the eclipse. Likewise the time of 
 the moon's moving through M P will be known 
 by her horary motion ; and from thence the time 
 when she is at P, or the middle of the eclipse. 
 
 710. 5. From the astronomical tables, find the 
 sua and moon's apparent semidiameters, for 
 the time of opposition; and their horizontal 
 parallaxes. 
 
 711. 6. From any convenient scale of equal 
 parts, with the centre P and radius P B, equal 
 to the minutes contained in the moon's radius, 
 describe the circle B C o for the moon. And 
 with the radius S D (equal to the sura of the 
 sun and moon's horizontal parallaxes ; tlie sun's 
 semidiameter, all in minutes,) describe the cir- 
 cle DEB, from the centre S, then this circle 
 will represent the earth's dark shadow. Like- 
 wise with the same centre S, and radius S F 
 (equal to the sum of the sun and moon's paral- 
 laxes -|- the sun's semidiameter, in minutes,) 
 describe the circle F Q G ; and this will be the 
 earth's penumbra. 
 
 712. 7. These rules being observed, it will 
 be easy to find all the requisites by scale and 
 compasses, by measuring them ; or rather by 
 calculation, in the several right-angled plain 
 triangles, contained in the scheme. Thus, to 
 find when the moon first touches the penumbra at 
 L ; in the right ungled triangle S P K, there is 
 
 given S P, and B K (the sum of the radii S L 
 and PB), to find PK. Which being known, 
 the time of the moon's passing through it will 
 be known, by the moon's horary motion from 
 the sun. 
 
 713. To find when the moon first enters the 
 dark shadow of the -^arth in D : in the right 
 angled triangle S P I, there is given S P, and S I, 
 (the sum of the radii S D, P B,) to find P I ; and 
 consequently the time of half the duration in the 
 shadow. , 
 
 714. To find the digits, or 12th parts of the 
 
 moon eclipsed. Here no the part eclipsed is rz: 
 
 c .r. oT^ ,12 no 6no. . 
 
 Sn-f-Po — SP: and -— rr- or -— — is the nuri- 
 2 ro r 
 
 ber of digits eclipsed. In total eclipses of the 
 moon, the earth's shadow often reaches farther 
 than the moon. And then more than twelve di- 
 gits are said to be eclipsed, supposing the moon's 
 disk to be produced so far. 
 
 715. To find the time when the moon wholly 
 enters into the dark shadow BED, follow the 
 same method as when it entered into the penum- 
 bra G Q F. This will be evident, by supposing 
 G Q L the dark shadow. In that case S I will 
 be the difference of the semidiameters of the moon 
 and dark shadow. Tlie times of passing through 
 P I, P K, &c. being known, and the time of the 
 middle of the eclipse at P, the beginning and 
 end will be known. 
 
 716. 8. Hence, if the moon or circle CBo 
 never touches the circle G Q F, there will be no 
 eclipse, not even by the penumbra. And if the 
 same circle never touches the circle B D E, there 
 will be no part of the moon totally eel ipsed. And 
 if the whole circle CBo enter into the circle 
 BED, the whole moon will be totally eclipsed ; 
 and that is when S P is less than the difference 
 of the semidiameters S D and P B. If the point 
 S be in the node, then P falls upon S, and the 
 eclipse is central. When only a part of the cir- 
 cle C B o goes into the circle BED, the eclipse 
 is a partial one, as in this figure. 
 
 717. 9. The time of the eclipse being known 
 for any particular place, it is easy to know if it be 
 visible at that place, by knowing if the moon be 
 risen. Or the place will be known where the 
 moon is vertical; and therefore it will be visible 
 to all places within a quadrant's distance from 
 it. 
 
 718. 10. If the spectator live in the place, (or 
 in the same longitude) which the tables are calcu- 
 lated for; he will see the eclipse at the time 
 determined by the calculation. If not, he will 
 see it an hour sooner for every 15° difference of 
 longitude, that he lives west from it. And so 
 much later, if he lives eastward ; that is, in the 
 way of reckoning time. But in regard to ab- 
 solute time, it is seen from all places at the same 
 instant. 
 
 Example. 
 
 To find the time of the Lunar Eclipse, December 
 '[3th, 1769; its Duration and Digits eclipsed. 
 
 719. 1. The mean time of the syzygies, by the 
 tables, is found to be December 12d. 19h. 27m. 
 at which time the moon's horaiy motion from the 
 sun is 35' 33". At this time, computing the 
 true places of the sun and moon, the moon will
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 183 
 
 appear to be 35 10" before the sun. And there- 
 fore the time is past the syzygy, 59m. 12s. 
 Therefore, 
 
 From Id. 19h. 27m. Os. 
 
 Take 59 12 
 
 True time 1 18 27 
 
 48 
 
 The places being computed again, the moon is 
 only 7" before the sun, which amounts to 12" 
 of time; therefore the time of opposition is 12d. 
 18h. 27m. 36s. which reduced to apparent time 
 is December 12d. IBh. 32m 51s. 
 
 2. The sun's place is . . 8s. 21° 37' 35" 
 The moon's place .. 2 21 37 35 
 Place of the ascending node 8 14 46 13 
 Her latitude south . . 37 58 
 The sun's horary motion 2 33 
 The moon's horary motion 38 6 
 
 3. Hence the moon is 6° 51' 22" past the de- 
 scending node: that is Q Sis 6^ 51' 22". There- 
 fore g, A := 17' 32", and A S = 6° 23' 50". 
 Therefore the angle S :\I A = 84^ 22' 28". 
 
 4. Hence drawing the ecliptic R S, and S M 
 perpendicular to it, and equal to 37' 58" from a 
 scale of minute?, as in fig. 12, plate IX. and 
 making the angle S M A = 84° 22^'. We find 
 the perpendicular S P r: 7' 47", and M P =r 3' 
 43". And therefore, the horary motion of the 
 moon from the sun being 35' 33", P M will be 
 passed over in 6' 17". And since this is before 
 the opposition at M, this time must be deducted 
 from the time of opposition. And the time of 
 the middle of the eclipse will be December 12d. 
 18h. 26m. 34s. 
 
 5. The sun's apparent semidiameter 16' 20" 
 His horizontal parallax .... 12 
 The moon's apparent semidiameter 16 48 
 Her horizontal parallax . . . .61 7 
 
 6. Hence the radius B P — 16' 48". 
 
 radius S D zr 44 59. 
 radius S F = 77 39. 
 
 7. Hence also P K or P /c n 86 34. 
 
 and P I or P i =z 48 53. 
 and therefore the time of passing through P K is 
 2h. '26m.6s., and through Plrr Ih. 22m. 30s. 
 And the whole duration in the shadow from I to 
 i, is 2h. 45m. And the digits eclipsed 8^ on 
 the upper side. Whence, 
 
 D. H. M. S. 
 First entering the penumbra 
 
 December . . .. 13 4 28 morn. 
 Entering the dark shadow at 5 4 4 
 
 Middle 6 26 34 
 
 Opposition 6 22 51 
 
 Leaving the shadow ... 7 49 4 
 Leaving the penumbra . .0 8 52 40 
 
 Duration 2 45 
 
 Digits eclipsed 8^ 
 
 720. All these calculations may be made suf- 
 ficiently near, by scale and compasses, in a large 
 draught ; making use of a scale of minutes and 
 sixtieth parts; or rather by making a scale of 
 time answering thereto, by the help of the horary 
 motion of the moon from the sun. For by this 
 .scale, the several hours and minutes may be 
 marked along the line A A-, by which it will ap- 
 
 pear at what time the centre of the moon is at 
 aiiy given point. For the time is known when 
 the moon is at 'M, and from thence the points at 
 each hour and minute are easily found. And 
 this construction, with only right lines and cir- 
 cles, will be exact enough in a large figure ; for 
 the best lunar tables give the times of the phases 
 of an eclipse no nearer than to four or five 
 minutes of time ; and therefore such a construc- 
 tion is sufficient to answer the purpose. Hence 
 it may be observed, that no eclipse of the moon 
 can last above five hours and a half fi-om the 
 moon's first touching the earth's penumbra, to 
 its last leaving it. For S K r= 94' 27" = 94-45, 
 and the horary motion is 35' 33" := 35"55 and 
 
 94*45 
 
 ;— -r-. = 2-66 = 2h. 39m. = seraiduration ; and 
 
 no eclipse of the moon, by the earth's shadow, 
 
 can last above 3| hours. Nor when total, above 
 
 If hours. For SI = 61' 47" = 61-78, and 
 
 61-78 , , ., - 
 
 zz 1-745 ~ 1 45' ~ the semiduration. 
 
 35-55 
 
 and SD — SI = 28' 11" = 28-18, and 
 
 28-18 
 35'o5 
 
 z: -79 z=. 47m. the semiduration. 
 
 721. The refraction of the earth's atmosphere, 
 in lunar eclipses, makes the shadow less ; by 
 bringing the rays, which terminate the shadow, 
 sooner to a point. And hence comes that red 
 color of the moon even in total eclipses. But 
 that light must be very dim, by reason of a great 
 number of the rays being stopt and lost in the 
 earth's atmosphere. 
 
 722. The circles terminating the shadow and 
 the penumbra BED and G Q F, cannot be dis- 
 tinguished. For the darkness from BED, di- 
 minishes by insensible degrees, to G Q F, being 
 darkest at E, and lightest at Q, w-here it vanishes 
 insensibly. And therefore the moon does not 
 appear to be eclipsed till she is a good way 
 within the penumbra. For that reason, there 
 may happen eclipses of the moon which cannot 
 be discovered as such. 
 
 723. All lunar tables show the moon's place 
 in eclipses, more truly in the syzygies than in the 
 quadratures, or any other place. For the times 
 of the syzygies, and the moon's place, have been 
 more accurately observed in eclipses, than at any 
 other time ; and from thence the moon's theory 
 has been deduced. Besides, many of the ine- 
 qualities cease in the syzygies, but have sensible 
 effects in other places ; becoming greater, as the 
 moon is further from the syzygies ; being greatest 
 in the quadratures. Whence the lunar tables do 
 not determine the moon's place truly in the 
 quadratures. And her place calculated from 
 these tables is not so exact in the quadratures as 
 in the syzygies. 
 
 724. Several inequalities depend on the aspect 
 of the nodes and the sun ; but these cease when 
 the nodes are in the syzygies. When the moon 
 and the nodes are in the syzygies, the moon's 
 place, then wanting fewer equations, as being 
 subject to fewer inequalities, will be more cor- 
 rect than when she is in other places, where 
 there are more and greater inequalities, and more 
 equations. From hence more errors will happen 
 out of tlie syzygies than in them.
 
 184 
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 v. — to find the way of the moon from thk 
 Sun, in a Solar Eclipse, supposing the 
 Observer at rest. 
 
 725. Let HZO, in plate IX. fig. 6, be the 
 meridian of the place, H O the horizon, E C the 
 equinoctial, E L the ecliptic, Z the zenith, P the 
 pole, S and M the places of the sun and moon in 
 conjunction, P S D the sun's meridian. Having 
 found the sun's distance from the node, Q, S, and 
 the moon's latitude S ]\I, &c. take ^ A g^ to S, 
 as the sun's horary motion to the moon's horary 
 motion; then SAis known. Draw MA; then 
 in the spherical triangle ASM, right angled at 
 S, there is given S A, S M ; to find the angle 
 S M A ; AM being the moon's way from the sun. 
 
 726. But, as the eye of the observer is in mo- 
 tion, by the rotation of the earth, which gives an 
 apparent motion to the moon, contrary to that of 
 the observer, we must find the quantity and 
 direction of that motion. As the observer is 
 carried eastward, towards the point C, the ap- 
 parent motion of the moon caused thereby will 
 be in the line C S. And to determ.ine the position 
 of C S, in respect of AM or S M, several spheri- 
 cal triangles must be resolved, as follows : 
 
 727. In the right-angled triangle EDS there 
 is given E S, and angle E to find D S, and angle 
 E S D or A S P ; or these may be easier had 
 from the astronomical tables. And in the tri- 
 angle Z P S, there is given P S (the complement 
 of D S), the angle Z P S (from the time of the 
 day), and Z P the complement of the latitude ; 
 to find Z S, and angles P Z S and Z S P. Then 
 Z S P and ASP being known, Z S A will be 
 known. And M S A being a right angle, Z S M 
 will be known. In the right angled triangle 
 ^J F S, there is given C F, the measure of the 
 angle F Z C (the difference between the angle 
 PZS and the right angle CZ P), and S F the 
 complement of Z S ; to find C S, and the angle 
 C S F or B S Z. Then B S Z and Z S M being 
 known, B S M will be known. And S M A 
 being known, its supplement S M B is known, 
 and consequently the angle S B M. 
 
 728. To find the quantity of the motion. 
 That along A M is already known ; and to find 
 the apparent motion along SB. The sine of 
 15° (the horary motion of a point in the equinoc- 
 tial), is -259 to the radius 1. And if h be the 
 moon's horizontal parallax, then the radius of the 
 earth appears at the moon under the angle h, and 
 therefore 15° of the equinoctial appears under 
 the angle of "259 h ; this then is the liorary mo- 
 tion of a point in the equinoctial, viewed directly 
 from the moon. And the moon's apparent motion 
 seen from that point in the equinoctial is the 
 very same. But this motion is to be diminished 
 upon two accounts. 1. Because it is less in a 
 parallel circle, in proportion to the cosine of the 
 latitude. And 2. Upon account of the obliquity 
 of the motion, when not perpendicular to the 
 rays of the sun ; and this will be as the sine of 
 C S, the sun's distance from the east or west 
 point of the horizon. Therefore to find the 
 quantity of this motion. 
 
 To the logarithm of -255 h. 
 Add the cosine latitude. 
 And the sine of C S. 
 
 Then the sum, abating twice radius, is the logar- 
 ithm of this apparent horary motion. Then this 
 motion is to be compounded with the motion 
 along A M B as follows : 
 
 729. Let AS, plate IX. fig. 5, be a portion of 
 the ecliptic, S B the way of the apparent mo- 
 tion, MA the moon's way from the sun. Draw 
 N M parallel to S B ; and let M N be the horary 
 motion along SB or M N, and M I the horary 
 motion of the moon from the sun. Then com- 
 plete the parallelogram N M I Q ; draw the 
 diagonal M Q R, which is the direction of the mo- 
 tion, compounded of the observer's and the moon's 
 motions, and M Q is the total apparent horary 
 motion, supposing the observer at rest. Then in 
 the plain triangle Q M I, there is given M I, and 
 X Q (or M N), and the angle M I Q = M B S ; 
 to find the angle Q M I, and side M Q or the ab- 
 solute horary motion. And the angles Q M I 
 and IMS being known, Q M S is known. 
 
 730. If the sun be in the eastern hemisphere, 
 in which case the concave side of the eastern he- 
 misphere is here projected (in fig. 6), then the 
 moon's motion from the sun is from M towards 
 A, and the other apparent motion from S to- 
 wards B, or from M towards N. But if the sun 
 is in the western hemisphere, this projection re- 
 presents the convex side of the sphere; and 
 then the moon moves from the sun, in direction 
 A M, and the other apparent motion is from S 
 towards C. being contrary. 
 
 VI. — To Calculate Solar Eclipses. 
 
 731. The eclipses of the sun are more diffi- 
 cult to calculate than those of the moon ; the 
 latter being clear of parallaxes, which the former 
 are incumbered with, which gives a great deal of 
 trouble. But a great part of it may be avoided 
 by using projections instead of calculations. 
 The riiles are, 
 
 732. 1. Find the true time of the conjunction, 
 and the places of the sun and moon at that time. 
 
 733. 2. Having found the way of the moon 
 from the sun by projection or calculation ; find, 
 by the astronomical tables, the moon's horizon- 
 tal parallax, her apparent diameter, and horary 
 motion, also the sun's apparent diameter and ho- 
 rary motion. But, to avoid a great deal of calcu- 
 lation, if the sphere be projected by a large scale, 
 it will give all the requisites with sufficient ex- 
 actness, by measuring the several angles and 
 .sides, without any calculation, or very little. 
 And here it is best to project the concave side, 
 and then every thing appears as it is in nature. 
 
 734. 3. Find the moon's parallax of alti- 
 tude, by making as rad. : cos. altitude : : so the 
 moon's horizontal parallax : to her parallax of 
 altitude V t or Mm. fig. 8. Then find her pa- 
 rallax of latitude M m, and longitude S s, or r« n, 
 and from thence her apparent latitude and longi- 
 tude is known. 
 
 735. 4. Draw the line SL, fig. 10, for the 
 ecliptic, and from a large scale of minutes, erect 
 S M perp. to LS, and equal to the apparent la- 
 titude ; make the angle S M R, as found in the 
 last prob. and draw ^ M R for the moon's ap- 
 parent path. From S let fall SP perpendicular 
 to M R, and S P will be the least distance of the 
 centres of the sun and moon, or the middle of
 
 ASTRONOMY. 185 
 
 the eclipse. From the centre S, with the radius of 31' 20" an [hour, is 52' 45" for the semidu- 
 
 eoual to the minutes contained in the sun's semi- ration. By reason of the parallax (24' 13"), she 
 
 diameter, describe the circle ABC for the sun. is past the apparent conjunction ; the difference 
 
 And froin the centre P, with the radius equal to being what the parallax causes, which comes to 
 
 the moon's semidiameter, describe the circle 47' 23". Therefore the middle of the eclipse 
 
 A O C D for the moon. If these circles do not is so much sooner, being at 3d. 19h. 41m. 20s. 
 
 intersect, there will be no eclipse. But if they This reduced to apparent time is 3d. 19h. 43m. 
 
 intersect, an eclipse must necessarily happen. 27s. for the middle. 
 
 736. 5. Then P is the place of the moon in 6. The digits eclipsed are 5-^, nearly, 
 
 the middle of the eclipse. . Make S I and S K 740. In this example, the concave side of the 
 
 equal to the sum of the semidiameters of the sun sphere is projected, which suits best to the ap- 
 
 Hnd moon ; and the moon's centre will be at I pearance of the heavens. And the figures are 
 
 when the moon first touches the sun, or at the drawn upon that supposition. It appears from 
 
 moon's centre, at the end of it. In the triangle the process, that the moon is advancing to her 
 
 P S I, there is given SI, S P ; to find P I = FK, descending node, and therefore has north lati- 
 
 which reduced to time by help of the moon's ap- tude. And by the position of that part of the 
 
 parent horary motion, shews half the duration of ecliptic, her parallax in longitude, advances her 
 
 the eclipse; and consequently we shall have the so much forward, viz. 24' 13". And therefore 
 
 beeinnino'and end. she is so much past the apparent conjunction. 
 
 >37. 6. And to find the quantity n o, or the Hence we gain these several particulars, as to 
 
 digits eclipsed; wc have wo = Sn + PO — SP, the eclipse : 
 
 Cno J D. u. ' ' 
 
 ^"^ "Po" ~ "^"^^^"^ ^ ^^''^" 741.1.Thebegin. June,morn. 4 6 53 42 
 
 738. 7. The time found being mean time, ™'^<^^^ • ' * ' 4 I 46 12 
 
 it must be reduced to the common or apparent ^'^ 1 j ' ■ ' ' ' ' t a- r>n 
 
 time, by the equation of time. And if the given total duration . 1 4o du 
 
 place be not that for which the tables are made, digits eclipsed oi, on the upper side of the sun, 
 
 add so much time, if the place lie eastward, to ^'''''^'^' ^^^5^^' ^s appears by the figure, 
 
 the time of conjunction, as answers to the dif- /f . 2. Hence the position of the horns at C 
 
 ference of meridians; or subtract it if it lie ^"^ A' are easily found m the middle of the 
 
 "vestward eclipse, i or they are in a position parallel to 
 
 Example R I, the moon's way. 
 
 743. 3. Tlie middle of the eclipse will not be 
 
 To Find the Time of the Sun's Eclipse, at the same time in all places of the same longi- 
 
 JuNE 4, 1769, ITS Duration and Digits tude; for the parallax of longitude will be dif- 
 
 eclipsed at London. ferent in different places. 
 
 739. 1. By the tables the mean time of the con- 744. No eclipse of the sun can last above two 
 
 junction is found to be June 2d. 20h. 41m. And hours. For SI orSA -H M D = 32' 26" = 
 
 hence, the true time of conjunction is June 3d. 32.6 and the horary motion = 34' 47"^ 35.78. 
 
 20h. 27m. 43s. And their places are 2» 13"" 51 A^ri 32.6 ^^ ^., . . , .!,„„„„; 
 
 n-ir ^ J .u • 1 . r- ..-. .u rru AuQ = '91 =: 541 minutes, for the semi- 
 
 9.0 . And the moons lat. 5o-32 north. The 35.78 
 
 moon's motion from the sun 35' 47'. duration. 
 
 2. In fig. 5 and 6, Plate IX. the angle A M S 745. If it were not for the parallax, eclipses of 
 
 — 84° 47'. Z S M — 35° 20'. C S F = 5° 18' the sun would be as easily calculated as those of 
 
 S B M = 43° 49'. S F = 42° 16', C F = 3° 34'. the moon. And in order to get the parallax, the 
 
 C S = 42° 24'. The angle Q M I = 8° 25'. angle Z S M and S P must be known, fig. 2, 
 
 S M Q = 92° 52'. M N or I Q = 6° 38'. M Q which occasions the resolving several spherical 
 
 = 31° 20'. Also triangles before they can be had. Likewise it 
 
 The moon's horizontal parallax . . 60' 58" may be observed, that the apparent way of the 
 
 Her apparent diameter . . . . 33 32 moon is strictly curve line, concave towards S, 
 
 Her horary motion 38 10 which arises from the parallel of latitude being 
 
 The sun's diameter 31 41 a curve, and the moon being out of its plane. 
 
 His horary motion 2 23 Likevrise the moon's apparent velocity is some- 
 
 3. In fig. 4, the moon's parallax in altitude thing greater at the beginning than at the end. 
 M m is 45' 09" ; her parallax in latitude M n, 
 
 .38' 05"; her remaining latitude Sn, 17' 26"; VI.— Rules for calculating a General 
 
 her parallax in longitude Ss, 24' 13"; which is Eclipse of the Sun. 
 
 increased so much. 746. The elements necessary for this are : 1- 
 
 4. Draw SL for the ecliptic, as in fig. 10, at The sun and moon's place, and the time at the 
 any point S, erect the perp. M S equal to 17' true conjunction ; 2. "The moon's latitude, hori- 
 26", the moon's apparent latitude; through M zontal parallax, diameter, and horary motions ; 
 draw the moon's way Q M R, making the angle 3. The sun's declination, diameter, and horary 
 S M R = 92° 52'. Draw S P perp. IVI R, which motion ; and 4, the angle the moon's way makes 
 here falls very near M. From the centre S, with a circle of latitude. 
 
 with the radius S A = 15' 50", describe the cir- 747. 2. From a large scale of minutes, take 
 
 cle A B C for the sun. And with the radius the moon's horizontal parallax in the compasses, 
 
 M D = 16' 46", and centre P, describe the cir- and at any point C, in the right line B D, (which 
 
 cle ADCO for the moon. represents the ecliptic in plate XI. fig. 6), de- 
 
 5. Hence P I or P K = 27' 33". And the scribe the circle ABED, for the eartii's disk, or 
 time of moving through I P or P K, at the rate the earth's flat face as it appears at a distance, in
 
 186 
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 a line drawn to the sun. Draw C M perpendi- 
 cular to C D, and equal to the latitude of the 
 moon upwards, if north. Make the angle C JNI G 
 equal to that which the moon's way makes witli 
 a circle of latitude ; acute to the right hand, if 
 she tend to the node ; or obtuse, if she be past 
 it; and drawing FM G, it will be the way of 
 the centre of the moon's shadow upon the earth. 
 From C let fall C H perpendicular to FG. Then 
 at II will be the middle of the earth's eclipse. 
 
 748. 3. With the centre H, and radius HO, 
 equal to the sum of the semidiameters of the sun 
 and moon, describe the circle Q O R, which will 
 be the moon's penumbra. Also describe a small 
 circle round the centre H, whose radius is the 
 difference of the sun and moon's semidiameters, 
 that little circle will be the dark shadow of the 
 moon. Then all tlie countries of the earth con- 
 tained in the segment V A W will be successively 
 eclipsed by the penumbra, as the shadow moves 
 along the tract F G ; while the other segment 
 V E W suffers no eclipse at aP. All places in the 
 line st will be totally eclipsed, as the dark sha- 
 dow, or the small circle at H passes successively 
 over them. But this circle, or dark shadow, be- 
 ing very small, a total eclipse at any place conti- 
 nues but a small time. Sometimes the sun's se- 
 midiameter exceeds the moon's ; and then there 
 will be no dark circle, or total eclipse, but a lu- 
 cid ring will appear about the moon in these pla- 
 ces, and this is called an annular eclipse. The 
 difference between the semidiameters of the sun 
 and moon is so little, that no total eclipse lasts 
 above four minutes. 
 
 749. 4. Draw C F, C G = sum of the semi- 
 diameters of the sun and moon, and the moon's 
 parallax ; then the moon's shadow will touch the 
 earth at L and K, where the eclipse begins and 
 ends. In the triangle C F H, there is given C F, 
 CH ; to find F H ^ 11 G, which, converted into 
 time, gives half the duration, or half the time that 
 the moon's shadow is upon the earth. Also NO 
 measured, shews how far the eclipse reaches ; 
 or C O measured, does the same. It may be 
 sufficient to measure all these by the scale with- 
 out calculation. 
 
 750 5. To find the pole. Draw the arch 
 A P, making the angle KAP equal to the sun's 
 longitude, and A P the distance of the poles of 
 the equator and ecliptic, 23°^ ; then P is the 
 pole. For A P is a part of the solstitial colure, 
 and passes through Cancer and Capricorn. And 
 CAP is what the sun wants of Cancer, there- 
 fore PAK is what it is past Aries. Through 
 P draw C P T. And here we may suppose that 
 the pole P is fixed during die time of an eclipse. 
 Then in the right angled spherical triangle APT, 
 there is given AP and the angle A, to find AT 
 or angle A C P. In this triangle P T is the sun's 
 declination, and A P T or C P K his right ascen- 
 sion from Cancer. Here note, that any place in 
 the line C T is in the suij's meridian ; and C is 
 the place where the sun is vertical at the time of 
 the eclipse. 
 
 751. 6. To find the situation of any given 
 place^ at a given hour. INIake the angle C P X 
 (with the sun's meridian), equal to the time from 
 noon ; on the left hand, if it is before noon. And 
 make P Z the complement of the latitude ; then 
 
 Z is the place required. And if it falls in the 
 penumbra, it is eclipsed ; or anywhere in the 
 segment VAW; if its motion in the parallel 
 circle does not carry it out, before the penumbra 
 reaches it. 
 
 752. 7. To find the place which is first or 
 last touched by the penumbra, as K. Draw the 
 arch P K. In the triangle G C A, there are 
 given C G and C H, to find the angle G C H, 
 from which subtract -H C P which is known, gives 
 the angle P C K or TK. Then in the right-angled 
 spherical triangle PTK, there is given T K, and 
 PT the sun's declination ; to find P K the com- 
 plement of the latitude of K, and T P K or C PK 
 the difference of longitude of K, and the sun. — 
 Therefore its longitude and latitude is obtained. 
 In the same manner may be found that of L. And 
 by the same method the latitude and longitude 
 of the places s and t may be found, where the 
 dark shadow first enters the earth's disk, or quite 
 leaves it. Thus also may be found the place which 
 is in the line F H, at any point of time : or if the 
 place be given, what the time will be ; and that 
 by help of the horary motion, with other parti- 
 culars of like nature. 
 
 753. 8. The part of the sun's diameter 
 eclipsed by the moon, is known by the situation 
 of the place within the penumbra, or its distance 
 from the centre of the penumbra. And the pha- 
 sis of the eclipse, as seen from any place Z, upon 
 the disk, will be found thus, for anytime. Find 
 the centre of the shadow for that time, as suppose 
 at H. Describe about H, a circle, whose radius 
 is the moon's radius, and about Z, a circle with 
 the sun's radius. Then the part cut off the sun's 
 circle will be the part obscured. 
 
 Sect. VIII. — Remarks on Eclipses iw 
 
 GENERAL. 
 
 754. In eclipses of the moon, even when she 
 is near the centre of the earth's shadow, her body 
 is still visible, and appears of a tarnished copper 
 color. This seems to be occasioned by the rays 
 of light which come from the sun, and which, 
 passing near the earth, are inflected from their 
 rectilinear course by our atmosphere ; so that 
 they enter the earth's conical shadow, thus pro- 
 ducing that faint illumination on the surface of 
 the moon, which some have supposed to be her own 
 native light ; but there seems to be no just ground 
 for such a conjecture. 
 
 755. In most solar eclipses, the moon's disk is 
 covered with a faint light, which is attributed to 
 the reflection of the light from the illuminated 
 part of the earth ; and in total eclipses, the moon's 
 limb is seen surrounded by a pale circle of light: 
 which some astronomers consider as an indication 
 of a lunar atmosphere, but others as the atmos- 
 phere of the sun ; because it is observed to move 
 equally with the sun, but not with the moon. 
 
 756. Eclipses have in all ages greatly attracted 
 the attention of mankind. The ignorant and su- 
 perstitious have viewed them with terror, and 
 m former ages they were often considered as the 
 forerunners of national calamities. The Chinese, 
 even at the present day. upon their appearance, 
 perform the most absurd and superstitious cere- 
 monies, although they are so far acquainted with 
 their nature, as to be able to predict them. See 
 China. But true philosophy has taught us, that
 
 w 

 
 A s^ TB Or^' DMT. rzATExn 
 
 GBAXD ORRERT ^^s^^^,,^ made forking GEORGE 1. 
 
 FEUGITSONS 
 ORREKT. 
 
 l.firn/t>n,/'uS/txhn/ hyT/uiniai- 7'ft/t/, 7?>,('/irnps7tif ^/wif J'J/8^S.
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 187 
 
 instead of these appearances being portentous of 
 evil to mankind, they may, by proper observa- 
 tions upon them, be made of great advantage to 
 the sciences, and to some of the arts of life. 
 
 757. We have already shewn, that, by eclipses 
 of the moon, the earth is demonstrated to be a 
 globular figure. The longitudes of places on the 
 earth are also determined by observations on 
 solar and lunar eclipses ; as will appear by con- 
 sulting the articles Geography, Longitude, Na- 
 vigation, &c. Eclipses are also of great im- 
 portance in Chronology, (which see), as by them 
 we are enabled to determine exactly the time 
 when events recorded in history happened. 
 
 758. From the observations made upon the 
 ancient eclipses, it appears that the period of the 
 moon is now shorter, and consequently that her 
 distance from the earth is now less, than in for- 
 mer ages ; and this has been considered as an ar- 
 gument against those who assert, that the world 
 may have existed from eternity ; for it was hence 
 inferred, that the moon moves in a resisting me- 
 dium, and therefore that her motion must by de- 
 grees be all destroyed, in which case she must at 
 last come to the earth. But M. de La Place has 
 shewn, that this acceleration of the moon's period 
 is a necessary consequence of universal gravita- 
 tion, and that it arises from the action of the 
 planets upon the moon. He has also shewn that 
 this acceleration will go on, till it arrive at a 
 certain limit, when it will be changed into a re- 
 tardation ; or in other words, that there are two 
 limits, between vfhich the lunar period fluctuates, 
 but neither of which it can pass. 
 
 759. M. de La Grange has also discovered, 
 that all the seeming irregularities in the motions 
 of our system are periodical ; so that although 
 the obliquity of the ecliptic, the eccentricities of 
 the planetary orbits, the precession of the equi- 
 noxes, the length of the year, &c. may change, 
 yet these changes will not pass certain limits, and 
 after staled periods, they will return precisely to 
 what they had formerly been. Some of these 
 periods, however, may be very long. The acce- 
 leration of the moon, for example, has been going 
 on from the earliest ages of astronomy to the pre- 
 sent day. 
 
 760. We cannot close this section, without 
 observing, that eclipses happen very frequently 
 to all the satellites of Jupiter; and, as they are 
 of great service in determining the longitude of 
 places on the earth, astronomers have been at 
 pains to calculate tables for the eclipses of these 
 satellites by their primary ; for the satellites them- 
 selves have never been observed to eclipse one 
 another. But this falls more properly to be con- 
 
 ■ sidered under the articles Geography, and Lon- 
 gitude, to which the reader is therefore referred. 
 
 761. The primary planets would also eclipse 
 one another, were it not for their great distances; 
 but, as the comets are not subject to the same 
 laws with th€ planets, it is possible they may 
 sometimes approach so near to the primary pla- 
 nets, as to cause an eclipse of the sun to those 
 yjlanets ; and astlie body of a comet bears a much 
 larger proportion to the bulk of a primary planet 
 than any secondary, it is plain, that a cometary 
 ecli'pss would both be of much longer continu- 
 ance, and attended with greater darkness, than 
 
 that occasioned by a secondary planet. If we 
 suppose the primary planet and comet to be 
 moving both the same way, the duration of such 
 an eclipse would be prodigiously lenglhened ; 
 and thus, instead of four minutes, the sun might 
 be totally darkened to the inhabitants of certain 
 places for as many hours : and, from this cau.se, 
 some account for that prodigious darkness, whicii 
 we sometimes read of in history, at times when 
 no eclipse of tlie sun by the moon could possi- 
 bly happen. 
 
 PART V. 
 
 ASTRONOMICAL MACHINERY AND IN- 
 STRUMENTS. 
 
 Sect, I. — Description of the Astronomical 
 Machinery invented for Illustrating 
 THE Science. 
 
 762. The Grand Orreiy, a very magTiificent 
 machine, first made in this kingdom, by Mr. 
 Rowley, for king George I. is represented in 
 plate XIL fig. 1. The frame of it, which con- 
 tains the wheel-work, Sec. and regulates the 
 whole machine, is made of ebony, and about 
 four feet in diameter. Above the frame is abroad 
 ring, supported with twelve pillars, which repre- 
 sents the plane of the ecliptic. Above the ecliptic, 
 stand some of the principal circles of the sphere, 
 viz. No. 1 0, are the two colures divided into de- 
 grees, and half degrees; No. 11, is one half of 
 the equinoctial circle, making aa angle of 23^°. 
 The tropic of Cancer, and the arctic circle, are 
 each fixed parallel, at their proper distance from 
 the equinoctial. On the northern half of the 
 ecliptic, is a brass semicircle, movable upon two 
 points, fixed in ty and ^, representing the 
 movable horizon to be put to any degree of la- 
 titude upon the north part of the meridian, and 
 the whole machine may be set to any latitude, 
 without disturbing any of the internal motions, 
 by two strong hinges, (No. 13.) fixed to the bot- 
 tom-frame, upon which the instrument moves, 
 and a strong brass arch, having holes at every 
 degree, through which a strong pin is put at every 
 elevation. This arch, and the two hinges, sup- 
 port the whole machine, when it is lifted up, ac- 
 cording to any latitude ; and the arch, at other 
 times, lies conveniently under the bottom frame. 
 
 763. The sun, (No. 1.) stands in the middle 
 of the whole system, upon a wire, making an 
 angle with the ecliptic, of about 82°. Next the 
 sun is a small ball, (2), representing Mercury. 
 Next to Mercury is Venus, (3), represented by 
 a larger ball. The earth is represented (No. 4), 
 by an ivory ball, having some circles and a map 
 sketched upon it. The wire which supports 
 the earth, makes an angle with the ecliptic, of 
 66^°, the inclination of the earth's axis to the 
 ecliptic. Near the bottom of the earth's axis is a dial 
 plate, (No. 9.) having an index, pointing to the 
 hours of the day, as the earth turns round its 
 axis. Round the earth is a ring supported by 
 two small pillars, representing the orbit of the 
 moon; and the divisions upon it answer to the 
 moon's latitude. The motion of this ring repre- 
 sents the motion of the moon's orbit, according 
 to that of the nodes. Within this ring is the 
 moon, (No. 5), having a black cap or case, by
 
 188 
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 which its motion represents the phases of the 
 moon, according to her age. Without the orbits 
 of the earth and moon, is Mars, (No. 6.) The next 
 in order to Mars is Jupiter, and his four moons, 
 (No. 7.) Each of these moons is supported by a 
 ■wire fixed in a socket, which turns about the 
 pillar supporting Jupiter. Tliese satellites may 
 be turned by the hand to any position, and yet, 
 when the machine is put into motion, they will 
 all move in their proper times. The outermost 
 of all is Saturn, his five moons, and his ring, 
 (No. 8.) These moons are supported and con- 
 trived, similar to those of Jupiter. 
 
 764. The machine is put in motion, by 
 turning a small winch, (No. 14) ; and the whole 
 system is also moved by this winch, and by pull- 
 ing out, and pushing in, a small cylindrical pin 
 above the handle. When it is pushed, all the 
 planets, both primary and secondary, will move 
 according to their respective periods, by turning 
 the handle. When it is drawn out, the motions 
 of the satellites of Jupiter and Saturn will be 
 stopped, while all the rest move without interrup- 
 tion. There is also a brass lamp, having two 
 convex glasses, to be put in room of the sun ; 
 and also, a smaller earth and moon, made some- 
 what in proportion to their distance from each 
 other, which may be put on at pleasure. The 
 lamp turns round at the same time with the earth, 
 and the glasses of it cast a strong light upon her ; 
 and when the smaller earth and moon are placed 
 on, it will be easy to show when either of them 
 will be eclipsed. 
 
 765. Mr. Ferguson's orrerj-, plate XII. fig. 2, 
 shows the motions of the Sun, Mercury, Venus, 
 Earth, and Moon ; and occasionally the superior 
 planets, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn may be put 
 on. Jupiter's four satellites are put round hhn in 
 their proper times, by a small winch ; and Sa- 
 turn has his five satellites, and his ring, which 
 keeps its parallelism round the sun ; and by a 
 lamp put in the sun's place, the ring shows all its 
 various phases already described. In the centre, 
 No. 1, represents the sun; No. 2, INIercury; No. 
 3, Venus; No. 4, the earth; No. 6, is a siderial 
 dial-plate under the earth ; and No. 7, a solar 
 dial-plate on the cover of the machine. The in- 
 dex of the former shows siderial time, and of the 
 latter, solar time. 
 
 766. The earth always keeps opposite to a 
 moving index, (No. 10), which shews the sun's 
 daily change of place, and also the days of the 
 months. The earth is half covered with a black 
 cap, for dividing the apparently enlightened half 
 next the sun, from the other half, which, when 
 turned away from him, is in the dark. The edge of 
 the cap represents the circle bounding light and 
 darkness, and shows at what time the sun rises 
 and sets to all places throughout the year. The 
 earth's axis inclines 23^° from the axis of the 
 ecliptic ; by which means, the different lengths 
 of days and nights, and the cause of the various 
 seasons, are demonstrated to sight. 
 
 767. There is a broad horizon, to the upper 
 side of which is fixed a meridian semicircle, in 
 the north and south poii'its. From the lower 
 side of this thin horizontal plate stand out four 
 small wires, to which is fixed a twilight-circle, 
 eighteen degrees from the graduated side of the 
 
 horizon, all round. This horizon may be put 
 upon the earth (when the cap is taken away), 
 and rectified to the latitude of any place ; and 
 then by a small wire, called the solar ray, which 
 may be put on, so as to proceed directly from 
 the sun's centre towards the earth's, but to come 
 no farther than almost to touch the horizon. The 
 beginning of twilight, time of sun rising, with 
 his amplitude, meridian altitude, time of setting, 
 amplitude then, and end of twilight, are shown 
 for every day of the year, at that place to which 
 the horizon is rectified. 
 
 768. The moon, (No. 5.) exhibits all the 
 phases already described. When the horizon is 
 rectified to the latitude of any given place, the 
 times of the moon's rising and setting, together 
 with her amplitude, are shown to that place, as 
 well as the sun's; and all the various phenomena 
 of the harvest moon are made obvious to sight. 
 The moon's orbit, (No. 9.) is inclined to the 
 ecliptic, (No 11.) one half being above, and tho 
 other below it. The nodes, or points at and 0, 
 lie in the plane of the ecliptic, as before describ- 
 ed, and shift backward, through all its sines and 
 degrees, in 18f years. 
 
 769. The degrees of the moon's latitude, to 
 the highest in NL, (north latitude,) and lowest 
 at SL, (south latitude,) are engraven both ways 
 from her nodes at and ; and, as the moon 
 rises and falls in her orbit, according to its incli- 
 nation, her latitude and distance from her nodes 
 are shown for every day, having first rectified her 
 orbit, so as to set the nodes to their proper places 
 in the ecliptic ; and then, as they come about, at 
 different, and almost opposite times of the year, 
 and then point towards the sun, all the eclipses 
 may be shown for hundreds of years (without 
 any new rectification), by turning the machinery 
 backward, for time past, or forward for time 
 to come. 
 
 770. At 17° distance from each node, on both 
 sides, is engraved a small sun; and at 12° dis- 
 tance a small moon, which show the limits of 
 solar and lunar eclipses ; and when, at any 
 change, the moon falls between either of these 
 suns and the node, the sun will be eclipsed on the 
 day pointed to by the annual index, (No. 10). And 
 when at any full, the moon falls between either 
 of the little moons and node, she will be eclipsed, 
 and the annual index shows the day of that 
 eclipse. There is a circle of 293 equal parts (No. 
 8) on the cover of the machine, on which an in- 
 dex shows the days of the moon's age. There is 
 a jointed wire, of which, one end being put into 
 a hole in the upright stem that holds the earth's 
 cap, and the wire laid into a small forked piece 
 which may be occasionally put upon Venus or 
 Mercury, shows the direct and retrograde mo- 
 tions of these two planets, with their stationary 
 times and places, as seen from the earth. The 
 whole machinery is turned by a v/inch, (No. 12) 
 and is so easily moved, that a clock might turn 
 it, without any danger of stopping. 
 
 771. ]Mr. Jones's Planetarium, plate XI. fig. 
 1, represents in a general manner, by various 
 parts of its machinery, all the motions and phe- 
 nomena of the planetary system. This machine 
 consists of, the Sun in the centre, witii the pla^ 
 nets, Mercurj', Venus, the Earth and Moon,
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 }89 
 
 Mars, Jupiter and his four moons, Saturn and 
 his five moons; and to it is occasionally applied 
 an extra long arm for the planet Herschel and his 
 two moons. To tlie earth and moon is applied a 
 frame C D, containing only four wheels and two 
 pinions, which serve to preserve the earth's axis 
 in its proper parallelism in its motion round the 
 sun, and to give the moon her due revolution 
 about the earth at the same time. These wheel.^ 
 are connected with the wheel-work in the round 
 box below, and the whole is set in motion by the 
 winch H. The arm M, which carries round die 
 moon, points out on the plate, B, her age and 
 phases for any situation in her orbit, and which 
 accordingly are engraved thereon. In the same 
 manner the arm points out her place in the 
 ecliptic B, in signs and degrees, called her geo- 
 centric place. The moon's orbit is represented 
 by the flat rim A'; the two joints of which, and 
 upon which it turns, denoting her nodes. This 
 orbit is made to incline to any desired angle. 
 The earth of this instrument is usually made of 
 a three inch or 1^ glohe, papered, &c. for the 
 purpose ; and by means of the terminating wire 
 that goes over it, points out the changes of the 
 seasons, and the different lengths of days and 
 nights more conspicuously. This machine is 
 also made to represent the Ptolemaic system, or 
 such as is vulgarly received ; which places the 
 earth in the centre, and the planets and sun re- 
 volving about it. This is done by an auxiliary 
 small sim and an earth, which change their places 
 in the instrument. 
 
 772. The true causes of the solar and lunar . 
 eclipses are here very clearly seen ; for by placing 
 the lamp, fig. 5, plate XI., upon the centre, in- 
 stead of the brass Viall denoting the sun, and tur- 
 ning the winch until the moon comes into a 
 right line between the centres of the lamp (or 
 sun) and the earth, the shadow of the moon 
 will fall upon the earth. On the other side, the 
 moon passes (in the aforesaid case) through the 
 sliadow of the earth, and is by that means 
 eclipsed. And the orbit A, fig. 1, is so movable 
 on the two joints called nodes, that any person 
 may easily represent the due position of tlie 
 nodes and intermediate spaces of the moon's 
 orbit; and thence show when there will, or will 
 not be, an eclipse of either luminary, and 
 what the quantity of each will be. While the 
 moon is continuing to move round the earth, the 
 lamp on the centre will so illuminate her, that 
 all her phases, as new, dichotomised, gibbous, 
 full, waning, &c. will be seen just as they ap- 
 pear in the heavens. All the same phases of the 
 earth, as they appear at the moon, will also be 
 exhibited. The satellites of Jupiter and Saturn 
 are movable only by the hand ; yet all their 
 phenomena may be easily represented, excepting 
 the true relative motions and distances. 
 
 773. The Trajectorium Lunare, fig. 8, plate 
 XIII, is intervded, by delineating the paths of 
 the earth and moon, to show what sort of curves 
 they make in the ethereal regions. S is the sun, 
 and E the earth, whose centres are ninety-five 
 inches distant from each other ; every inch an- 
 swering to 1,000,000 of miles. M is the moon, 
 wtiose centre is -^ parts of an inch from tlie 
 
 earth's in this machine, this being in just pro" 
 portion to the moon's distance from the earth. 
 A A is a bar of wood, to be moved by hand 
 round the axis g, which is fixed in the wheel Y. 
 The circumference of this wheel is to the cir- 
 cumference of the small wheel L, below the other 
 end of the bar, as 365^ days to 29|,or as a year 
 is to a lunation. The wheels are grooved round 
 their edges, and in the grooves is the catgut 
 string G G, crossing between the wheels at X. 
 On the axis of the wheel L, is the index F, in 
 which is fixed the moon's axis I\I, for carrying her 
 round the earth E, fixed on the axis of the wheel 
 L in the time that the index goes round a circle 
 of 295 equal parts, which are the days of the 
 moon's age. The wheel Y has the months and 
 days of the year all round its limb ; and in the 
 bar A A is fixed the index /, which points out the 
 days of the months answering to the days of the 
 moon's age, shewn by the index F, in the circle 
 of 29^ equal parts at the otner end of the bar. 
 On the axis of the wheel is put the piece U, below 
 the cock C, in which this axis turns round; and 
 in D are put the pencils e and m, directly under 
 the earth C and moon j\I ; so that m is carried 
 round e as jNI is round E. 
 
 774. Lay the machine on an even floor, pres- 
 sing gently on the wheel Y, to cause its spiked 
 feet (of which two appear at P, the third being 
 supposed to be hid from the sight by the wheel) 
 to eater a little into the floor to secure the wheel 
 from turning. Then lay a paper about four feet 
 long under the pencils e and w, cross-ways to the 
 bar ; which done, move the bar slowly round 
 the axis g of the wheel Y ; and as the earth E 
 goes round the sun S, the moon M will go round 
 the earth with a duly proportioned velocity ; and 
 the friction wheel W, running on the floor, will 
 keep the bar from bearing too heavily on the 
 pencils e and m, which will delineate the paths 
 of the earth and moou. As the index I points 
 out the days of the months, the index F shows 
 the moon's age on these days, in the circle of 
 29^ equal parts. And, as this last index points 
 to the different days in its circle, the like nu- 
 meral figures may be set to those parts of the 
 curves of the earth's and moon's paths, where 
 the pencils e and m are at those times re- 
 spectively, to shew the places of the earth and 
 moon. If the pencil e be pushed a very little 
 off, as if from the pencil ;», to about ^ part of 
 their distance, and the pencil m pushed as much 
 towards e to bring them to the same distances 
 again, though not to the same points of space ; 
 then ?n goes round e, e will go as it were round 
 the centre of gravity between the earth e and 
 moon m ; but this motion will not sensibly 
 alter the figure of the earth's path or that of the 
 moon's. 
 
 775. If a pin, as p, be put through the pencil 
 m, with its head towards that of the pin g, in the 
 pencil e, its head will always keep thereto as »;, 
 goes round e, or as the same side of the moon is 
 still obverted to the earth. But the pinp, which 
 may be considered as an equatorial diameter of 
 the moon, will turn quite round the point m, 
 making all possible angles with the Ime of itii 
 progress, or line of the moon's path. This is
 
 190 
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 an ocular proof of the moon's turning round her 
 axis. 
 
 Sect. II. Of the Principal Instruments 
 
 USED FOR MAKING ASTRONOMICAL OBSER- 
 VATIONS. 
 
 776. In practical astronomy it is necessary to 
 have a place conveniently situated, and suitably 
 furnished with proper astronomical instruments. 
 It should have an uninterrupted view from the 
 zenith down to, or even below, the horizon, at 
 least towards its cardinal points. For this pur- 
 pose that part of the roof in particular which lies 
 in the direction of the meridian, should have 
 moveable covers, wliich may easily be moved and 
 put on again ; by which means an instrument 
 may be directed to any point of tlie heavens be- 
 tween the horizon and zenith, either northward 
 or soutliward. This place, called an observatory, 
 should contain some, if not all, of the following 
 instruments : 
 
 777. 1. A pendulum clock for showing equal 
 time. This should show time'in hours, minutes, 
 and seconds; and with which tlie observer, by 
 hearing the beats of tlie pendulum, may count 
 them by Ids ear, wliile his eye is employed on the 
 motion ofthe celestial object he is observing. Just 
 before the object arrives at the position described, 
 the observer should look on the clock and mark 
 the time, suppose it 6h. 15min. 25sec. ; then 
 saying, 25, 26, 27, 28, &c. responsive to the 
 beat of die pendulum, till he sees through the in- 
 strument the object arrived at the position expec- 
 ted ; which suppose to happen when he says 38, 
 he then writes down 9h. 15m. 38sec. for the time 
 of observation, annexing the year and the day of 
 the month. 
 
 778. 2. An achromatic refracting telescope, or 
 a reflecting one, of two feet at least in length, for 
 observing particular phenomena. See the de- 
 scription under Optics. 
 
 779. 3. A micrometer, for measuring small 
 angular distances. See Micrometer 
 
 780. Astronomical quadrants, both mural and 
 portable, for observing meridian and other alti- 
 tudes of the bodie-s. 
 
 781. 4. The mural quadrant, so called from 
 murus a wall : it is in the form of a quarter of a 
 circle, contained under two radii at riglit angles 
 to one anotlier, and an arch equal to one fourth 
 part of the circumference of the circle. This is 
 tlie most useful and valuable of all the astrono- 
 nomical instruments ; and, as it is sometimes 
 fixed to the side of a stone or brick wall, and the 
 plane of it erected exactly in tlie plane of tlie 
 meridian, it receives the name of mural quadrant. 
 Tycho Brahe was the first person who applied 
 this arch to a wall ; and Flamsteed the first in 
 England who, with indefatigable pains, fixed one 
 up in the royal observatory at Greenwich. 
 
 782. Mural quadrants iiave usually been made 
 from five to eight feet .radius. Fig. 1, plate 
 XIII. represents the instrument fixed to the 
 wall. The frame is formed of flat bars, and 
 strengthened by edge bars, fixed underneath per- 
 pendicular to them. The radii 11 K, A A, being 
 divided each into four equal parts, serve to find 
 the points D and E, by wliicli the quadrant is freely 
 suspended on its iron supports, that are fastened 
 
 in the wall. One of the supports, E, is repre- 
 sented separately in e on one side of the quadrant. 
 It is moveable by means of a long slender rod E E 
 or e /, which goes into a hollow screw in order 
 to restore the instrument to its situation when it 
 is discovered to be a little deranged. This may 
 be known by the very fine perpendicular thread 
 II A, which ought always to coincide witli the 
 same point A of the limb, and carefully examined 
 to be so by a small magnifying telescope at every 
 observation. 
 
 783. In order to prevent the unsteadiness of 
 so great a machine, there should be placed behind 
 the limb four copper ears with double cocks, I, 
 K, I, K. There are others along the radii II A 
 and H B ; each of these cocks contains two 
 screws, into which is fastened the ears that are 
 fixed laehind the quadrant. Over the wall or 
 stone which supports the instrument, and at the 
 same height as the centre, is placed horizontally 
 the axis P O, which is perpendicular to the plane 
 of the instrument, and which would pass through 
 the centre if it was continued. This axis turns 
 on two pivrts P. On this axis is fixed at right 
 angles another branch, O N, loaded at its extre- 
 mity with a weight, N, capable of equipoising 
 with its weight that of the telescope L M ; whilst 
 the axis, by its extremity nearest the quadrant, 
 carries the wooden frame P R M, which is fasten- 
 ed to the telescope in ]M. The counterpoise takes 
 off from the observer the weight of the telescope 
 when he raises it, and hinders him from either 
 forcing or straining the instmment. The lower 
 extremity, V, of the telescope, is furnished with 
 two small wheels, which take the limb of the 
 quadrant on its two sides. The telescope hardly 
 bears any more upon the limb than the small 
 friction of these two wheels ; which renders its 
 motion so extremely easy and pleasant, that by 
 giving it with the hand only a small motion, the 
 telescope will run of itself over a great part of the 
 limb, balanced by the counterpoise N. 
 
 784. When the telescope is to be stopped at a 
 certain position, the copper hand T is to be made 
 use of, whicli embraces the limb and springs at 
 the bottom. It is fixed by a setting screw, which 
 fastens it to the limb. Then, in turning the re- 
 gulating screw, the telescope will be advanced; 
 which is continued until the star, or other object 
 whose altitude is observing, be on the horizontal 
 fine thread in the telescope. Then on the plate 
 X, supporting the telescope, and carrying a ver- 
 nier or nonius, will be seen tlie number of degrees 
 and minutes, and even quarter of minutes, that 
 tiie angular height of the object observed is equal 
 to. The remainder is easily estimated within 
 two or three seconds nearly. 
 
 785. There are several methods of subdividing 
 tlie divisions of a mural quadrant, which are 
 usually from five or ten minutes each ; but that 
 which is most commonly adopted is by the ver- 
 nier or nonius, the invention of Peter X'ernier, a 
 Frenchman. This vernier consists of a piece of 
 copper or brass, C D A B, fig. 6, which is a 
 small portion of X, fig. 1, represented separately. 
 The length, C D, is divided into twenty equal 
 parts, and placed contiguously on a portion of 
 the division of the limb of the quadrant,
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 191 
 
 containing twenty-one divisions, and thereby di- 
 viding their length into twenty equal parts. 
 Thus the first division of the vernier piece 
 nnrked 15, beginning at the point D, is a little 
 backward, or to the left of the first division of the 
 limb, equal to 13". 
 
 786. The second division of the vernier, is to 
 the left of the second division of the limb double 
 of tlie first difference, or 30" ; and so on to the 
 twentieth, and last division on the left of the ver- 
 nier piece; where the twenty differences being 
 accumulated, each of the twentieth part of the di- 
 vision of the limb, this last division will be found 
 to agree exactly with the twenty-first division of 
 the limb of the quadrant. The index must be 
 pushed the twentieth part of a division, or 15" to 
 the right; to make the second division on the ver- 
 nier coincide witjj one of the divisions of the limb, 
 in like manner in moving two 20ths, or 30", we 
 must look at the second division of the index, 
 and there will be a coincidence with a division of 
 the limb. Thus tlie beginning, D, of the vernier, 
 which is always the line of reckoning, has advan* 
 oed two divisions, or 30" to the right, when the 
 second division, marked 30 on the vernier, is seen 
 to correspond exactly with one of the lines of the 
 quadrant. 
 
 787. The plate of copper which carries the 
 telescope, is placed on the side of the quadrant, 
 and carries two verniers. The outer line CD di- 
 vides five minutes into twenty parts, or 15" each. 
 The interior line A B answers to the parts of ano- 
 ther division, not having 90°, but 96 parts of the 
 quadrant. It is usually adopted by English astro- 
 nomers, on account of the facility of its subdivi- 
 sions. Each of the 96 portions of the quad- 
 rant is equivalent to 56' 15" of the usual divisions. 
 It is divided on the limb into sixteen parts, and 
 the arch of the vernier A B contains twenty-five 
 of these divisions ; and being divided itself into 
 twenty-four, immediately give parts, the value of 
 each of which is 8" 47^"'. 
 
 788. 6. The portable astronomical quadrant is 
 generally made from twelve to twenty-three 
 inches. Fig. 2, plate XIII. represents one of 
 brass, and strongly framed together by crossed 
 perpendicular bars. The arch A C, and tele- 
 scope E F, are divided and constructed in a simi- 
 lar manner to the mural quadrant, but generally 
 without the division of ninety-six parts. The 
 counterpoise to the telescope T is represented at 
 P, and also another counterpoise to the quadrant 
 itself at P. The quadrant is fixed to a long axis, 
 which goes into the pillar K R. Upon this axis 
 is fixed an index, which points to, and subdi- 
 vides by a vernier, the divisions of the azimuth 
 circle, K. This azimuth circle is extremely use- 
 ful for taking the azimuth of a celestial body, at 
 the time its altitude is observed. Tlie upper 
 end of the axis is firmly connected with the ad- 
 justing frame G H ; and the pillar is supported 
 on the crossed feet at the bottom of the pillar K 
 11, with the adjusting screws abed. 
 
 789. \V hen the instrument is erected for ob- 
 servation, it is necessary that two adjustments be 
 very accurately made ; one, that the place or sur- 
 face of the instrument be truly perpendicular to 
 the horizon ; the other, that the line supposed to 
 be drawn from the centre to the first line of t!ie 
 
 limb, be truly on a level or parallel with the ho- 
 rizon. The first of these particulars is done bv 
 means of the thread and plummet p ; the thread 
 of which is usually of very fine silver wire, and 
 is placed opposite to a mark made upon the 
 end of tlie limb of the instrument. The four 
 screws at the foot abed, are to be turned until 
 a perfect coincidence is observed of the thread 
 upon the mark, which is accurately observed by 
 means of a small telescope T, that fits to the 
 limb. The other adjustment is effected by means 
 of the spirit-level L, which applies on the frame 
 G 11, and the small screws turned as before until 
 the bubble of air in the level settles in the mid- 
 dle of the tube. The dotted tube E B is a kind 
 of prover to the instrument ; for, observing at 
 what mark the centre of it appears against, or, 
 by putting up a mark against it, it will at any 
 time discover if the instrument has been dis- 
 placed. The screw S, at the index, is the regu- 
 lating or adjusting screw, to move the telescope 
 and index, during the observation, with the ut- 
 most nicety. 
 
 Sect. VII. — The Mural Circle. 
 
 790. Valuable as have been the services which 
 the astronomical quadrant has rendered to astro- 
 nomical science, its use, in modern times, has 
 been altogether superseded by the muial circle, 
 of which we shall row give the description and 
 use: — 
 
 791. The circle, with its attached telescope, is 
 made to revolve by means of a horizontal axis, 
 which works in collars fixed in the stone wall. 
 The plane of the circle, see plate X. fig. 3, is pa- 
 rallel to the wall, but the graduations are made 
 on the outer rim of the instrument, which rim 
 is perpendicular to the wall. 
 
 792. Tliese graduations are viewed and read 
 off by six microscopes fixed to the wall, one of 
 which microscopes is represented at A, and the 
 places of the five others (precisely similar to the 
 former) are m.arked by the letters B, C, I), E, 
 F. The microscopes are distant from each other 
 sixty degrees, or so placed as nearly as can be by 
 the instrument maker. 
 
 793. The rim is divided into equal parts of 
 five minutes each, and the readings off to a less 
 number of minutes, and to single seconds, are 
 effected by the micrometer microscopes, A, B, 
 &c. the construction of whicli is as follows : 
 The microscope A, or micrometer microscope A, 
 is directed, as it is shown in the figure, to the 
 rim on which the graduations are made. Con- 
 sider the object to the microscope to be one 
 graduation of the instrument, or the space oc- 
 cupied by five minutes. The image of this 
 space will be formed in the conjugate focus of 
 the object glass, and will be seen distinctly 
 through the eye-glass of the microscope, when 
 the above-mentioned image vs in its focus. In 
 this latter focus (the focus of the eye-glass) are 
 placed a thin indented slip of metal, and a wire 
 capable of being moved in a parallel direction 
 from one mark of division to another by means 
 of a screw. The revolutions of the screw, and 
 parts of its revolution, are noted by means of a 
 screw-head and graduated plate. Now, it is 
 desirable, for the more convenient noting of the
 
 192 
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 results of observations, that by the five revolu- 
 tions of the screw, the wire should be translated 
 through the space occupied by five minutes ; in 
 which case one revolution would answer to one 
 minute, and one-sixtieth to a second. The mode 
 of effecting this may be thus explained : — 
 
 794. Suppose tlie object-glass of the micros- 
 cope being at a certain distance from the gra- 
 duated rim, and there being distinct vision, that 
 the moveable wire appears to be translated through 
 the five minutes by five revolutions and a half of 
 the screw. In such case the image of the five 
 minutes is too small. It will be increased by 
 moving the object-glass towards the graduated 
 rim; the eye-glass, with its wire, &c. being ad- 
 justed, by a separate morement, to distinct vi- 
 sion. A second trial must now be made, to as- 
 certain whether five revolutions of the screw are 
 equal or not to the translation of the wire over 
 the image of five minutes of the divided limb. 
 If there is not an equality, the adjustments must 
 be repeated till there be an exact correspondence, 
 as considerable trouble is thereby saved in re- 
 ducing the graduations of the screw-head to 
 minutes and seconds. If the microscope of the 
 micrometer were allowed to remain in its first 
 state, then, since 5-5 revolutions = 5', one re- 
 volution would equal 50.454" &c. 
 
 795. But, whatever be the value of a revolu- 
 tion, the uses of the moveable wire and indented 
 slip of brass are the same. A star is observed 
 on the centre of the cross-wire of the telescope ; 
 and on looking through the microscope, the in- 
 dex, or slip of brass, occupies, probably, a place 
 between two graduations. The wire moved from 
 the index, either to the graduation above or be- 
 low it, measures the distance of the index from 
 that graduation by the revolutions of the screw- 
 head. For convenience, each tooth of the in- 
 dented brass answers to one minute, so that if the 
 wire is moved from the index post, two teeth, and 
 the index of the screw-head points to 37, then 
 2' 37" are to be added to, or subtracted from, the 
 degrees and minutes which are read off by the 
 eye without the aid of the micrometer. In every 
 observation all the six microscopes are used, to 
 diminish the errors of division, and the effects of 
 partial expansion. 
 
 796. In reading off at the several microscopes, 
 we need only to attend to ihe seconds. For, 
 suppose a star to be in the pole, and the teles- 
 cope directed to it, the whole circle must be 
 turned round in the direction from B towards C, 
 D, &c. ; and the end of the telescope, instead of 
 being directed, as in the figure, to a point in the 
 south, between B and C, will be directed to a 
 point between D and A. If (the telescope being 
 directed to the pole) the reading off at the mi- 
 crometer A were 0° 0' 0", the index error would 
 be 0. If the other microscopes, F, E, B, &:c. 
 were placed exactly at equal distances, the lead- 
 ing off at them would be 60°, 120°, 180°, 240°, 
 360°. This, however, is not likely to take place, 
 the index error of each will probably be of some 
 magnitude. The reading off at A, for instance, 
 instead of being 0° 0' 0", may be -f 3", + 10", 
 -f- 7" ; and in the same way the reading off at 
 the other microscopes, from their not being 
 placed at equal distances, or from inequality of 
 
 graduation, partial expansion, or from all these 
 causes conjoined, may be 60° ± 4" 60° ± 6", 
 120° + 9", 120°+ l",&c. 
 
 799. Suppose that, independently of the de- 
 grees and minutes, the seconds at the six mi- 
 croscopes were + 5", + 7", -f 4" -\- 12" + 8", 
 -\- 9"; then these are the several index errors ; 
 and if the polar distance of an observed star 
 were read off only at one microscope, the in- 
 dex error belonging to that microscope must be 
 applied to the polar distance so read off. Thus, 
 if only the microscope B were used, whose in- 
 dex error is -|- 12", and the north polar distance 
 of (S Ursa Minores, were read off, 195° 4' 46", 
 then deducting 180° for the position of the mi- 
 croscope, and 12" for the index error, we should 
 have the north polar distance of the star :=. 50° 
 4' 34". 
 
 800. If all the six microscopes are used, the 
 mean index error, or one-sixth of the several 
 index errors, is applied to the result of the several 
 readings. 
 
 801. The same illustration would serve if we 
 suppose the telescope directed to a star whose 
 polar distance is previously known. If, for ex- 
 ample, we knew that the north polar distance of 
 Polaris was 1° 41' 41-3" ; then if the micrometer 
 A, marked 1° 41' 48'5", we should know that its 
 index error was 7*2"; and the equation to be ap- 
 plied to its observed north polar distance at that 
 microscope — 7"2. In like manner we should 
 know from the same star the index errors of the 
 other microscopes, and thence the mean index 
 error. 
 
 802. That the results from this instrument do 
 not depend on the accurate positions of the mi- 
 croscopes, may be easily shown. Suppose the 
 telescope directed to the pole, and that the se- 
 conds indicated by the micrometer A be 7", let 
 B indicate b + 23"; C, c + 4; B, d + 5 ; 
 E, e -(- 9, and F,_/" + 15; b, c, d, &c. denoting 
 the degrees and minutes. Let X be the north 
 polar distance of any star (Capella, for example, 
 X being :^ 44° 12' 16"), and let the number of 
 seconds in X be 16; so that, 3/ being the de- 
 grees and minutes x zz y -\- 16"; then the in- 
 strument being directed to Capella (and con- 
 sequently turned through an angle X), and the 
 errors of division, expansion, and uncertainties 
 in reading off not being considered, the seconds 
 at which \t will stand will be 23, B, 39; C, 20; 
 D, 21 ; E, 25, and F, 31 ; one-sixth of the sum 
 of which is 26-5", whence the north polar dis- 
 tance of Capella by the instrument, is Y -|- 26-5" 
 rr 44° 12' 26-5''; and consequently the mean 
 index error 3/ -|- 26-5" — .r rr y -f 26-5" — y -|- 
 16"= 10-5. 
 
 803. The index error may be found in the 
 same way by any other star, since x may be any 
 angle ; and if the catalogues were exact, and the 
 instrument perfect, the same index error would 
 result from all stars. If, for instance, the seconds 
 in X, instead of 16" were 36", we should still have 
 the same index error 10-5". But in practice, the 
 index error will be found different with different 
 stars, both on account of the imperfection of the 
 catalogues, the inaccuracy of graduation, and 
 other defects in the instrument. The index 
 error, therefore, is found from observations on a
 
 ASTRONOMY 
 
 193 
 
 great number of stars, and the mean of the whole 
 of the errors so found, is considered as the ge- 
 neral mean index error. 
 
 804. For the purpose of lessening the errors 
 of division, the telescope can be shifted to dif- 
 ferent parts of the circle, so that instead of the 
 microscope A, nearly coinciding with O, when the 
 telescope is pointed to the pole, it may point 
 nearly to 10°, 20°, 30°, or any other degree of 
 the circle. In this case the index error in se- 
 conds, found as above, added to the degrees and 
 minutes read off by the eye, is the index error of 
 the microscope. 
 
 805. The mural circle, like the transit instru- 
 ment, requires three adjustments, 1. Its axis must 
 be made horizontal. 2. Its line of coUimation 
 must be made perpendicular to the horizontal 
 axis. 3. The line of coUimation must be made to 
 move in the plane of the meridian. 
 
 806. The method of making the first adjust- 
 ment is the same as that for making the like ad- 
 justment in the transit instrument ; and as the 
 two instruments are commonly used in conjunc- 
 tion, we may use the transit instrument for 
 bringing the plane of the circle and its telescope 
 into the plane of the meridian. When a star is 
 on the meridional wire of the transit instru- 
 ment, move the mural circle, so that the star may 
 be also on its middle wire. Observe, by the 
 transit instrument, when a star in or near the 
 zenith crosses the meridian, and if it is also at 
 the same time on the middle vertical wire of the 
 telescope of the mural circle, its line of coUima- 
 tion is rightly adjusted. If a difference exists, 
 adjust till an exact agreement takes place. 
 
 807. The great difficulties attending the veri- 
 fication of the line of coUimation in the mural 
 circle, wiU always prevent its becoming a good 
 transit instrument; though, in this respect, it 
 acts better than the telescope of the mural quad- 
 rant, which slides along the limb of the quad- 
 rant, whose plane cannot be made wholly on the 
 plane of the meridian. 
 
 808. The mural circle is evidently sufficient 
 to determine to the extent of 180°, the differ- 
 ences of the declinations of stars south and north 
 of the zenith of the observer. There must be two 
 quadrants to effect the same object; and besides 
 this advantage (that of a single instrument), the 
 circle is better balanced, and its six microscopes, 
 which are firmly fixed in a stone wall, together 
 with the power of changing the position of the 
 telescope, must, when we take the mean results 
 of a great number of observations, in a great 
 measure do away the errors of division or partial 
 expansion. 
 
 809. The direct and special office of the mural 
 circle is to determine the meridional anirular dis- 
 tances of stars. But we may extend .the prin- 
 ciple of its uses, and view the image of the pole 
 star, by reflection, from a basin of quicksilver, 
 and we thence obtain the angular distance be- 
 tween the star and its image, which is twice the 
 elevation of the star above the horizon. Hence 
 its zenith distance becomes known, and the ze- 
 nith distances of other stars are consequently 
 readily given by the instrument. The circle in 
 this application combines in itself die properties 
 of the mural quadrant and zenith sector. It was 
 
 Vol. III. 
 
 first applied by the present astronomer royal, and 
 it is one of the many improvements on practical 
 astronomy for which the world is indebted tc 
 that eminent, active, and unassuming astrono- 
 mer. 
 
 810. The preceding is a concise description of 
 the circle which Troughton fixed at the Royal 
 Observatory. Some triflinsr differences between 
 the results given by it and other instruments, 
 lately induced government to have another made 
 by Jones, which is now fixed to the west wall, 
 five feet from the other circle. The agreement 
 between them is almost perfect. 
 
 811. Dr. Brinkley of Dublin has a circle, and 
 a very admirable one, which moves round a pil- 
 lar, or azimuth; and consequently, in two 
 days it determines double the zenith distance of 
 any celestial object. He employs only three 
 microscopes in reading off; but the principle of 
 reading is the same as that which we have above 
 described ; and a person who attentively con- 
 siders what we have said on the subject of the 
 Greenwich circle, will have no difficulty in com- 
 prehending the method of using the Dublin one. 
 
 812. 8. The Astronomical or Equatorial 
 Sector, is an instrument for finding the differ- 
 ence, in right ascension and declination, between 
 two objects ; the distance of which is too great 
 to be observed by tlie micrometer, and was in- 
 vented by Graham. Let A B, plate XIII. fig. 4, 
 represent an arch of a circle containing ten or 
 twelve degrees well divided, having a strong 
 plate C D for its radius, fixed to the middle of 
 the arch at D : let this radius be applied to the 
 side of an axis HFI, and be movable about a 
 joint fixed to it at F, so that the plane of the 
 sector may be always parallel to the axis H I ; 
 which being parallel to the axis of the earth, the 
 plane of the sector will always be parallel to the 
 plane of some hour circle. Let a telescope C E 
 be movable about the centre C, of the arch AB, 
 from one end of it to the other, by turning a 
 screw at G ; and let the line of sight be parallel 
 to the plane of the sector. Now, by turning the 
 whole instrument about the axis H I, till the 
 plane of it be successively directed, first to one 
 of the stars and then to another, it is easy to 
 move the sector about the joint F, into such a 
 position, that the arch A B, when fixed, shall 
 take in both the stars in their passage, by the 
 plane of it, provided the difference of their de- 
 clinations does not exceed the arch A B. Then, 
 having fixed the plane of the sector a little to 
 the westward of both the stars, move the tele- 
 scope C E by the screw G ; and observe by a 
 clock the time of each transit over the cross 
 hairs, and also the degree and minutes upon the 
 arch A B, cut by the index at each transit; then 
 in the difference of the arches, the difference of 
 the declinations, and by the difference of the 
 times, we have the difference of the right ascen- 
 sions of the stars. 
 
 813. The dimensions of this instrument are 
 these : The length of the telescope, or the radius 
 of the sector, is 2^ feet ; the breadth of tht 
 radius, near the end C, is 1^ inch; and at the 
 end D, two inches. The breadth of the limb, 
 AB, is 1^ inch ; and its length six inches, con- 
 taining ten degrees, divided into quarters, and 
 
 ()
 
 194 
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 numbered from either end to the otlier. Tliu 
 telescope carries a nonius or subdividing plate, 
 whose length, bein.;- equal to sixteen quarters of 
 a degree, is divided into fifteen equal parts ; 
 which, in effect, divides the limb into minutes, 
 and by estimation, mto smaller parts. The 
 length of the square axis, li I F, is eighteen 
 inches, and of the part HI twelve inches; and 
 its thickness is about a quarter of an inch : the 
 diameters of the circles are each five inches : 
 the thickness of the plates, and the other mea- 
 sures, may be taken at the direction of a work- 
 man. 
 
 814. This instrument may be rectified, for 
 making observations, in this manner : By placing 
 the intersection of the cross hairs at the same 
 distance from the plane of the sector, as the 
 centre of the object-glass, the plane described 
 by the line of sight, during the circular motion 
 of the telescope upon the limb, will be suffici- 
 ently tme, or free from conical curvity ; which 
 may be examined, by suspending a long plumb- 
 line at a convenient distance from the instru- 
 ment ; and, by fixing the plane of the sector in 
 a vertical position, and then by observing, while 
 the telescope is moved by the screw along the 
 limb, whether the cross hairs appear to move 
 along the plumb-line. 
 
 815. The axis, hfo, fig. 5, may be elevated, 
 nearly parallel to the axis of the earth, by means 
 of a small common quadrant ; and its error may 
 be corrected, by making the line of sight follow 
 the circular motion of any of the circumpolar 
 stars, while the whole instrument is moved about 
 its axis, hfo, the telescope being fixed to the 
 limb ; for this purpose, let the telescope /c / be 
 directed to the star «, when it passes over the 
 highest point of its diurnal circle, and let the 
 division cut by the nonius be then noted: then, 
 after twelve hours, when the star comes to the 
 lowest point of its circle, having turned the in- 
 strument half round its axis, to bring the tele- 
 scope into the position m n ; if the cross hairs 
 cover the same star supposed at b, the elevation 
 of the axis, hfo, is exactly right; but, if it be 
 necessary to move the telescope into the position 
 u Vi in order to point to the star at c, the arch m 
 11, which measures the angle 711 fu or b fc, will 
 be known ; and then the axis hfo must be 
 depressed half the quantity of this given angle, 
 if the star passed below b, or must be raised so 
 much higher, if above it ; and then the trial must 
 be repeated, till the true elevation of the axis be 
 obtained. By making the like observations upon 
 the same star on each side the pole, in the six 
 o'clock hour circle, the error of the axis, toward 
 the east or west, may also i)e found and corrected, 
 till the cross hairs follow the star quite round the 
 pole : for, supposing a p b c to be an arch of 
 the meridian (or in the secondary practice of 
 the six o'clock hour circle), make the angle afp 
 equal to half an angle afc, and the line//) will 
 point to the pole ; and the angle fp, which is 
 the error of the axis, will be equal to half the 
 angle b fc, or mfu, found by the observation; 
 because tlie diff'erence of the two angles afb, a f 
 c, is double the difi'erence of their halves a f o 
 and afp. Unless the star be near the polo, 
 allowance must be made for refractions. 
 
 81G. 9. Tiie transit instrument is used for 
 observing objects as diey pass over tlio meridian, 
 and consists of a telescope fixed at right angles 
 to an horizontal axis, so supported that what is 
 called the line of coUimation, or line of sight of 
 the telescope, may move in the plane of the 
 meridian. 
 
 817. Let AD, plate X. fig. 1, represent a 
 telescope fixed, as it is represented in the figure, 
 to an horizontal axis formed of two cones. The 
 two small ends of these cones are gi'ound into 
 two perfectly equal cylinders ; Avhich cylindrical 
 ends are called pivots. These pivots rest on two 
 angular bearings, in form like the upper part of 
 a Y, and denominated Y's. The Y's are placed 
 in two dove-tailed brass grooves, fastened in two 
 stone pillars, E and W, so erected as to be per- 
 fectly steady. One of the grooves is horizontal, 
 the other vertical ; so tliat, by means of screws, 
 one end of the axis may be pushed a little for- 
 wards or backwards, and the other end may be 
 either slightly depressed or elevated.. Which 
 two small movements are necessary, as it will 
 be soon explained, for two adjustments of the 
 telescope. 
 
 818. Let E be called the eastern pillar, W the 
 western. On the eastern end of the axis is fixed 
 (so that it revolves with the axis) an index n, 
 the upper part of which, when the telescope 
 revolves, nearly slides along the graduated face 
 of a circle ; attached, as it is shown in the figure, 
 to the eastern pillar. The use of this part of 
 the apparatus is to adjust the telescope to the 
 zenith, or polar distance (for the one is as easily 
 done as the other) of a star, the ti'ansit of which 
 is to be observed. Thus, suppose the index of 
 n to be at (in the upper part of the circle) 
 when the telescope is horizontal ; then, by ele- 
 vating the telescope, the index of 71 is moved 
 downwards. Suppose the position to be that 
 represented in the figure, then the number of 
 degrees between o, and what the index of n 
 marks, is the altitude of the telescope ; or we 
 may so graduate the circle, that the index shall 
 mark the telescope's zenith distance ; or, if we 
 make the 0, the beginning of the graduation, to 
 belong to that position of the telescope in which 
 it is directed to the pole, the number of degrees, 
 &c. between and any other position of the index, 
 will mark either the telescope's polar distance, or 
 if w3 please, may be made to mark the telescope's 
 declination ; the telescope in all these cases being 
 supposed to move in the plane of the meridian. 
 
 819. There are several other parts and con- 
 trivances belonging to the instrument not shown 
 in the figure ; for instance, one of the cones is 
 hollowed ; and, opposite the orifice, there is 
 placed in the pillar a lamp, which, throwing its 
 light on a plane speculum, placed in the axis of 
 the telescope, and inclined at an angle of 45°, 
 illuminates the cross wires. It is usual, also, in 
 large transits, to have counterpoises, by which 
 the pressure of the pivots of the axis on the Y's 
 is relieved. We will now explain the three 
 principal adjustments of the transit. 
 
 820. 1. To make the axis on which the tele- 
 scope moves, horizontal. 
 
 821. 2. To make the line of collimation move 
 in a great vertical circle ; or, which is the same
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 195 
 
 thing, to make it perpendicular to the horizontal 
 axis. 
 
 822. 3. To make it move in that vertical circle 
 which is the meridian. 
 
 823. The first adjustment is effected by means 
 of a level; the figure A is intended to represent 
 the level L, as hanging by means of its upright 
 arms (bent, however, in their upper e.xtremities) 
 on the two pivots of the axis. The principle, 
 however, and mode of rendering any axis hori- 
 zontal, by means of a level, may be best explained 
 by the subjoined figure. 
 
 824. In plate X, fig. 2, the spirit-level (includ- 
 ing in that term the brass tube that partly enve- 
 lopes it, the horizontal bar to which it is affixed, 
 and the two vertical arms by which it is hung on 
 any cylinder or rod) is represented as hanging on 
 a straight cylinder a h, the end towards a lying 
 on a crotchet, which is capable of being raised or 
 lowered by a screw B. The end A of the tube A 
 D, which contains the level, is also capable of 
 being lowered or raised by means of a screw at 
 A, as is shown in the figure. 
 
 825. If a 6 were horizontal, and the tube of the 
 spirit-level were parallel to a b, then the bubble 
 would occupy the middle, or the two extremities 
 of the bubble would be equidistant from the cen- 
 tre, and would be, for instance, atf and c. The 
 same thing would happen if the level were re- 
 versed, that is, if it were taken off the rod, turned 
 round, and again hung on ; so that d in the second 
 position, should occupy the place that A did in 
 the first, or should be to the right hand. But if 
 a b, should not be horizontal, the above circum- 
 stances cannot take place. Suppose the end a 
 to be lower than the end b, then if the level should 
 not be parallel to a b, the bubble might still 
 stand in the middle, by the end at A being, by 
 a certain quantity, higher than the end at B. 
 But on reversing the level the bubble cannot 
 occupy its middle ; since then, the lower part of 
 the rod a b, and the lower part of the level, would 
 both be situated at the right hand. The bubble, 
 liowever, may not stand in the middle from two 
 causes, the want of horizontality in « b, and 
 the want of parallelism to it in the tube contained 
 bet^veen AD. 
 
 826. If the level were parallel to a b, and the 
 extremity of the bubble, instead of being at e, 
 should l>e at h, on reversing the level, the other 
 extremity of the bubble (which, by the reversion, 
 would be towards a) would be at h; J k being 
 equal to e h. But suppose this is found not to 
 be tiie case, and that the extremity of tlie bubble, 
 on reversing the level, is at n, then the circum- 
 stance of the bubble not standing at the two 
 points e andy", cannot arise solely from the end a 
 being higher than b ; but the level cannot be par- 
 allel io ab; and in the case we have put, the end 
 at A must be lower than the end at D, when the 
 level then is in the second or tlie reversed posi- 
 tion ; so elevate the end at A, by means of the 
 screw A, that the extremity of the bubble shall 
 descend from n, and occupy a place intermediate 
 to n and k, and then the level is made parallel to 
 a b: this is tlie first adjustment. Next, by means 
 of the screw B, so depress the end, a that 
 the extremities of the bubble shall be (as they 
 ought to be, e/ being the length of the bubble) at 
 
 e and f; then is a i adjusted or made horizon- 
 tal; this second adjustment completes the ope- 
 ration. 
 
 827. In the preceding reasonings, a b has been 
 considered (the whole of it) as cylindricaL But 
 this is not necessary : it is sufficient if its extre- 
 mities at a and b (the pivots), on which the level 
 is hung, be equal cylinders, the axis of which lie 
 in the same straight line. The intermediate 
 parts of the axis of the transit between the pivots, 
 may be of any form : they may be formed, as 
 they generally are, of two cones. The preceding 
 process then will render the axis of the transit 
 horizontal ; the level, whether in its primary or 
 in its reversed position, being supposed to be 
 hung on the equally cylindrical pivots. 
 
 828. The axis bein'^ now horizontal, the next 
 operation is to make the line of collimation de- 
 scribe a great vertical circle, or, which is now 
 the same thing, to make the line of collimation 
 perpendicular to the axis of the transit. The 
 telescope A D is furnished, like the telescope of 
 the quadrant, with a system of cross-wires placed 
 in the principal focus of the object-glass. Sup- 
 pose the wires so placed, that the line of colli- 
 mation is perpendicular to tlie axis of the tran- 
 sit. If then a small and well-defined object be 
 bisected by the centre of the cross-wires, it will 
 still be bisected when the transit is lifted off its 
 angular bearings, reversed and directed to the 
 object ; that is, if the end of the axis carrying 
 the index n, which is placed on the eastern Y, 
 should be placed on the western. Let now the 
 wires be deranged, so that their intersection is 
 moved, not, as in the former case, in tlie plane 
 of the meridian, but in a direction perpendicular 
 to that plane, and suppose it moved a little to- 
 wards the east. In thig case, the object before 
 bisected is no longer so, but will be seen in the 
 field of view a little to the west of the present 
 centre of the cross-wires. Reverse the telescope, 
 then the centre will be towards the west, and the 
 original object will be seen a little to the east of 
 the centre : as much towards the east as it was 
 before towards the west. If, therefore, there 
 should be two objects or marks (on the horizon, 
 for instance,) bisected by the centre of the wires 
 in the two positions of the transit, the correction 
 or adjustment of the line of collimation would 
 consist in moving the centre of the cross-wires 
 half-way towards that object which is not on the 
 centre. 
 
 829. But the moving the centre of the cross- 
 wires half-way towards an object, is a matter of 
 guess, and not of certainty. In order to ascer- 
 tain whether, in moving tlie centre, we have ad- 
 justed it rightly, we may avail ourselves of that 
 angular bearing, or Y, which, by means of an 
 horizontal groove and screw, we can move, toge- 
 ther with the pivot of the axis, in azimuth. So 
 move these then, that the object to wiiich we 
 have already made the centre to approach half- 
 way, may be exactly bisected by that centre. 
 Reverse the transit, and the object and centre 
 are either coincident, or very nearly so. If the 
 latter be the case, again by their proper motion, 
 move the centre of the wires half-way towards 
 the object, and move it the other half-way by the 
 screw that acts on the axis. Reverse the instru- 
 
 O 2
 
 196 
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 ment, and again, if it be necessary, repeat the 
 above operations. 
 
 830. By these means, after a few trials, we are 
 sure of making the line of collimation, or axis of 
 vision, perpendicular to the axis of the transit ; 
 and when that is effected, the cross-wires are no 
 longer to be meddled with, although we must 
 continue to use the above horizontal movement 
 of the axis, for the purpose of placing the line of 
 collimation in the plane of the meridian. That 
 line now moves in a vertical circle, and produced 
 passes through the zenith : it is farther necessary 
 to make it pass through the pole. 
 
 831. The transit instrument is supported be- 
 tween two fixed pillars. It must be supposed to 
 be nearly in the meridian, and to need only some 
 slight adjustments to place it there exactly. It 
 would be easy to effect this, were the pole-star 
 exactly in the pole ; for, then, it would be only 
 requisite to bisect tliat star by the middle vertical 
 cross-wire. But the pole-star being, in fact, a 
 circumpolar one, we must compute, by means of 
 existing tables and observations, tlie time of its 
 transit ; and, at that computed time, bisect the 
 star by the middle vertical wire. By these me- 
 thods we may place the transit very nearly in the 
 plane of the meridian. 
 
 832. We will now .show how to place it there 
 more exactly by means either of the polar, or of 
 any other circumpolar star. 
 
 833. The axis being horizontal, the optical 
 axis perpendicular to it passes through the ze- 
 nith : let Z P H in fig. 1, plate VI., be the true 
 meridian, and Zsm the vertical circle described 
 by the optical axis or line of collimation ; then 
 H m, which is the measure of the angle at Z, is 
 the deviation of the transit from the meridian. 
 
 Let s s' s" a represent the circle described by 
 a circumpolar star, which is seen through the 
 transit telescope at o-, its inferior passage, and at 
 s, its superior. Now, when the transit is not in 
 the meridian, the time from o- to s cannot equal 
 the time from s through s' and s" to a : for P 
 being the pole, the former time is proportional 
 to the angle <r P s, or, 
 
 180° — ^ sPs' — Z. <7 Ps". 
 the latter to 
 
 180° + Z sPs' + Z (tPs". 
 
 834. Hence, if the interval between the infe- 
 rior and superior passage should be less than the 
 interval between the superior and inferior, the 
 plane in which the transit moves from the zenith 
 to the north of the horizon (P being the north 
 pole) is to the eastward of the true meridian. 
 
 835. But in order to estimate the quantity of 
 deviation from the observed difference of inter- 
 vals between the passages, we must compute the 
 angles 5 P i* or s P Z, and a P H, — now 
 
 sin. s P Z rr sin. s Z P x — '- — ^ 
 sin.Ps' 
 
 sin. (T P H = sin. o- P Z = sin. s Z P-|- ■ — '—, — 
 
 sin. P <s 
 Let /. s Z P (measured by H in) iz. Z, 
 
 PS= P(T = 7r 
 
 the latitude of the place (= H P) zz L. 
 Then since Z, or the deviation from the meri- 
 dian is, by the conditions, very small, we have, 
 nearly sin. Z = Z 
 
 Zi =: Z P — Ps = 90° — ( L + tt), 
 
 Z (T = Z P -f- P s = 90° — ( L— it), 
 
 consequently, s P Z (which is, nearly, = its sine) 
 
 (L -|- Tt) .^ • T\ 
 
 :^ Z. (cos.Lcos.TT — sm.L), 
 
 = Z. COS. 
 
 sin. TT 
 
 and,TPH = Z. '^os-CL -^) 
 
 Z (cos. L. 
 
 sm. TT 
 COS. TT -|- sin. L). 
 Hence, the time from (t to s ^ 180° — 2 Z cos. 
 
 L. cot. TT, 
 
 and fi-om ,5 to (t = 180° -(- 2 Z cos. L. cot. tt; 
 let the former time = 12 h. — a, 
 the latter = 12h. -f a ; 
 
 then, since 180° is the angular measure, or ex- 
 ponent of twelve hours of siderial time, 
 
 12h. — A = 12h. — 2Z. cos. L. cot. tt, 
 12 h. -f- A = 12 h. -h 2 Z. cos. L. cot. tt, 
 
 whence Z = 
 
 2 cos. L. cot. TT. 
 
 or ^ — sec. L tan. tt. 
 
 ■2- 
 
 836. The plane in which the line of collima- 
 tion moves is brought into the plane of the me- 
 ridian by means of a screw; and supposing the 
 adjustment nearly effected, it may be completed 
 in the following manner : Let the time of the 
 transit of an equatorial star be noted on a parti- 
 cular day. Alter the inclination of the plane in 
 which the line of collimation moves, by turning 
 the screws once round, and observe the time ot 
 the star's next transit. If the difference between 
 the siderial times of transit be s seconds, then, s 
 seconds of time corresponding to one revolution 
 of the screw, it is easy to find the number of re- 
 volutions, or parts of a revolution, that will give 
 the correction 2, in the above equation ; whence 
 the adjustment may be made to any degree of 
 accuracy. 
 
 837. Computing from the above formulae for 
 Z, we shall find that, in the case of Polaris, a 
 deviation of ten seconds in the position of the 
 transit instrument will, in the latitude of London, 
 produce a difference of about seven minutes in 
 the times between the upper and lower transits 
 of the star ; and in the case of Capella, a dif- 
 ference of only about twenty-five seconds. Hence, 
 CEeteris paribus, the pole-star is better adapted 
 than Capella, to adjust, by the preceding method, 
 a transit telescope to the plane of the meridian. 
 The slow motion of the pole-star, however, in 
 some measure detracts from this superiority. In 
 small instruments it is hid for some seconds be- 
 hind the wire. Even in the splendid ten feet 
 transit, at Greenwich, it may be considered as hid 
 for about a second. 
 
 838. Still, however, on the whole, this star 
 is the most convenient one that can be made use 
 of. The following is the method of making this ad- 
 justment by means of the transits of the pole-star 
 and of a star which passes near the zenith of the 
 place of observation. In our latitudes, for in- 
 stance, if the transit deviate only slighdy from 
 the plane of the meridian, Capella would pass 
 the meridian very nearly at the time of its pass- 
 ing the vertical wire of the telescope. Assume it 
 to pass exactly, and note the difference between 
 the time shown by the clock and the star's known 
 right ascension. Observe the time when the
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 197 
 
 pole-star is on the meridian, (which will differ 
 more from the star's right ascension than the 
 transit of Capella did from its right ascension), 
 and compute, from the difference between its 
 true right ascension and the observed time of its 
 transit, the deviation of the instrument, and 
 adjust it accordingly. 
 
 839. This operation will give a near approxi- 
 mation to the required position ; and by a repe- 
 tition or two of the process, the adjustment may 
 be effected with great precision. 
 
 840. The line of colliraation being now sup- 
 posed, by means of the previous adjustments, to 
 describe a great circle passing through the ce- 
 lestial pole and the zenith of the observer, the 
 transit instrument is in a fit state to note the pas- 
 sages of stars across the meridian. A star passes 
 the meridian when it coincides with the centre a, 
 fig. 3. plate IX., of the cross-wires ; but lide were 
 truly vertical, a star on any point of c?e would 
 be on the meridian ; hence it is desirable to 
 make de vertical, since we might then observe 
 the star's transit on any part of that line. This 
 may be easily done thus : Direct the transit tele- 
 scope to some well-defined distant object, so that 
 it is bisected by some point oi de; move the te- 
 lescope upwards and downwards on its hori- 
 zontal axis, and observe whether the same ob- 
 ject is bisected by every part of de, or whether 
 it runs along de If it does, the wire is vertical, 
 or the middle wire is a meridional wire ; if it 
 does not, the wire must be adjusted till the object 
 coincides with it in every part. 
 
 841. In large instruments these various ad- 
 justments are made with considerable trouble 
 and difficulty ; and in order to prevent a repeti- 
 tion of these troublesome verifications, when the 
 instrument is once adjusted to the plane of the 
 meridian, two marks are set up, one to the north 
 and the other to the south, and their places de- 
 termined by means of the meridional wire. They 
 are first placed by means of the mstrument, ad- 
 justed by the astronomical means above ex- 
 plained, and they are subsequently used to bring 
 the instrument into the meridian, should it be- 
 come deranged. 
 
 842. Besides the meridional wire, it is usual 
 to place on each side of it, and at equal dis- 
 tances from it, parallel side wires, to check the 
 middle wire and to supply its place, if from 
 clouds or other accidents, an observation on it 
 should not be obtained. The old transit, at 
 Greenwich, had four side wires, or, in all, five 
 wires. The present one has seven ; though only 
 five are in general used. In fig. 2, plate IX. 
 five wires are represented, and numbered 1, 2, 
 3, 4, 5. 
 
 843. If the wires are equidistant, then the fifth 
 part of the sum o£ the times at which a star is ob- 
 served on the several wires, will be the time of 
 its passing the meridian, and it ought, if tlie ob- 
 servation is well made, to agree with the time of 
 passing the middle wire. 
 
 844. But the fact is, we are not able to note 
 absolutely the times at the several wires ; for 
 probably no beat of the pendulum will happen 
 exactly when the star is on the wire. The ob- 
 server is obliged to estimate to the best of his 
 judgment, the fraction of a second sum, the la.st 
 
 beat of the pendulum, when the star is on the wire. 
 A tenth or two of a second may be put down too 
 much at one wire, and too little at another ; but 
 the errors will probably in a great degree com- 
 pensate each other, and the result will certainly 
 be entitled to more confidence than a single ob- 
 servation at the middle wire. 
 
 845. It will soon be perceived by the observer, 
 that stars near the equator, pass more speedily 
 from wire to wire than stars near the pole. It is 
 easy to prove that the time of a star's describing 
 small spaces perpendicular to the meridian varies 
 as the secant of its declination. For (fig. 1, plate 
 IX.) let P represent the pole P e, P /', two quad- 
 rants ; let s ^ represent the interval of the wires, 
 which, by reason of its smallness is nearly coinci- 
 dent with srt. Take e qzzst ; then by the re- 
 volution of the earth or star apparently moves 
 from s to f in the same time that another moves 
 from e iof. But the time through s t (n the time 
 
 ef 
 through e f ) — time through e o x - — zz time 
 
 e f . , , , rad. 
 through e o A — 13 time through e a -\- 
 
 sect. .■? e 
 
 ■=. time through e q -\- '—, — Hence, if the 
 
 ° ^ ^ rad. ' 
 
 time through e g, that is the time of an equatorial 
 star crossing the interval e q, be given, the time of 
 crossing an equal interval, s t, varies as the secant 
 of the star's declination. 
 
 846. There is, however, no star exactly in the 
 equator; but the equatorial time of a star's running 
 from wire to wire, may be readily obtained from the 
 time which a star of known declination is observed 
 to take. Let t be the observed time, and d the 
 declination, then t, sect, d zr the equatorial time. 
 
 847. By the preceding methods, the upright 
 wires of the telescope may be adjusted vertically, 
 and the true intervals between the wires found 
 in parts of siderial time. To know whether the 
 wires, which ought to be at right angles to the 
 former, are truly horizontal, direct the telescope 
 towards a star near the equator, and if the star en- 
 tering at h, plate IX. fig. 2, in an inverting teles- 
 cope, run along h f ; then ^^"is horizontal. 
 
 848. This test of horizontality is strictly true 
 only with respect to a star in the equator. If the 
 star be out of the equator, it cannot be bisected 
 during the whole of its passage from h to f; for 
 the star then describes the arc of a small circle. 
 In fig 1, plate IX. let s m t be an arc of a great 
 circle ; then a star describing s m t would seem to 
 an eye situated in a plane passing through sjn t 
 and s t, to describe s t; but srt, part of a small 
 circle parallel to ef, is the star's apparent path, 
 which coinciding at its extremities with the chord 
 s t would appear, in the astronomical telescope, 
 to describe a curve below the cross horizontal 
 wire, the apparent curvature of the path increas- 
 ing with the declination. There are, however, 
 many stars near enough the equator to make 
 this adjustment, without reference to the appa- 
 rent curvature of their paths in the transit 
 instrument, as they will differ from straight lines 
 by a quantity too small to be estimated. 
 
 849. We have hitherto spoken only of the 
 transits of stars, which are but as points without 
 disks. The sun and the moon, ho%7ever, have
 
 198 
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 disks, but no marked points for their centres ; 
 and the transit of a heavenly body means the 
 transit of its centre. With respect to the sun, 
 the time at which his first or preceding limb 
 touches each wire is noted, and the timeatwhich 
 his following limb comes to tlie same wire is also 
 noted, and the sum of the times of observation 
 divided by the number of observations, gives the 
 time at which his centre is on the meridian. 
 
 850. It is seldom, however, that the transit of both 
 limbs of the moon can be observed ; but the mean 
 of the times at which her enlightened limb is in 
 contact with the several vertical wires, is the time at 
 which that limb is on the meridian ; and adding 
 to this, or subtracting from it, the time that the 
 moon takes to move over a space equal to her 
 own semidiameter, according as the east or west, 
 the following or preceding limb is observed, we 
 obtain the time at which her centre is on the me- 
 ridian. 
 
 We have judged it right to devote so much 
 space to the description of the circle and tran- 
 sit instruments, as in the present state of as- 
 
 tronomical science, they, with the astronomical 
 clock, are the capital instruments of our obser- 
 vatory. 
 
 851. 10. The Equatorial or Portable Observa 
 tory ; an instrument designed to answer a num- 
 ber of useful purposes in practical astronomy, 
 independent of any particular observatory, may 
 be made use of in any steady place, and per- 
 forms most of the useful operations in the science. 
 The principal parts of this instrument, plate 
 XIII. fig. 3, are, 1. The azimuth or horizontal 
 circle A, which represents the horizon of the 
 place, and moves on a long axis B, called the 
 vertical axis. 2. The equatorial or hour circle 
 C, representing the equator, placed at rioht 
 angles to the polar axis D, or the axis of the 
 earth upon which it moves. 3. The semicircle 
 of declination E, on which the telescope is placed, 
 and moving on the axis of declination, or the 
 axis of motion of the line of collimation. 
 
 852. These circles are measured and divid'ed 
 as in the following table : 
 
 Measures of the several 
 circles, and divisions of 
 
 Radius. 
 In dec. 
 
 Limb divided 
 
 Nonius of 
 30 given 
 
 Divided on 
 limb into 
 
 Divided by 
 Nonius into 
 
 them. 
 
 
 seconds. 
 
 parts of inc. 
 
 parts of inc. 
 
 Azimutli or horizontal ^ 
 circle. S 
 
 5 1 
 
 Id' 
 
 30" 
 
 45t!i 
 
 1350th 
 
 Equatorial or hour cir- 
 
 5 1 
 
 5 15' 
 
 30' 1 
 
 2" ] 
 
 4oth 
 
 1 350th 
 
 cle. 
 
 
 ( 1 in time. 
 
 
 
 Vertical semicircle for"^ 
 declination or lati- J 
 tude. } 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 5 
 
 15' 
 
 30" 
 
 42nd 
 
 1260th 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■853. 4. The telescope in this equatorial may 
 be brought parallel to the polar axis, as in the 
 figure, so as to point to the pole star in any part 
 of its diurnal revolution : and thus it has been 
 observed near noon, when the sun has shone very 
 bright. 5. The apparatus for correcting the error 
 in altitude occasioned by refraction, which is ap- 
 plied to the eye-end of the telescope, and consists 
 of a slide G, moving in a groove or dovetail, and 
 carrying the several eye-tubes of the telescope, on 
 which slide there is an index corresponding to five 
 small divisions engraved on the dovetail ; a very 
 small circle, called the refraction circle, II, move- 
 able by a finger screw at the extremity of the eye 
 end of the telescope ; which circle is divided into 
 half minutes, one entire revolution of it being 
 equal to 3' 1 8", and by its motion raises the cen- 
 tre of the cross hairs on a circle of altitude ; and 
 a quadrant, I, of 1 J inch radius, with divisions 
 on each side, one expressing the degree of alti- 
 tude of the object viewed, and the other express- 
 ing the minutes and seconds of error occasioned 
 by refraction corresponding to that degree of al- 
 titude. To tliis quadrant is joined a small round 
 level, K, which is adjusted paitly by the pinion 
 that turns the whole of this apparatus, and partly 
 by the index of the quadrant; for which purpose 
 the refraction circle is set to the same mirmte, &c. 
 which the index points to, on the limb of the 
 quadrant; and if tlie minute, &c. given by the 
 quadrant exceed the 3' 18", contained in one en- 
 tire revolution of the refraction ciicle, tliis must 
 be set to the excess above one or more of its en- 
 
 tire revolutions ; then the centre of the cross hairs 
 will appear to be raised on a circle of altitude to 
 the additional height which the error of refraction 
 will occasion at that altitude. 
 
 854. To adjust this instrument make the line 
 of collimation to describe a portion of an hour- 
 circle in the heavens; in order to which, the azi- 
 muth circle must be truly level, the line of colli- 
 mation, or some corresponding line represented 
 by the small brass rod, M, parallel to it, must be 
 perpendicular to the axis of its own proper mo- 
 tion ; and this last axis must be perpendicular to 
 the polar axis; on the brass rod INI, there is oc- 
 casionally placed a hanging level, N, the use of 
 which will appear in the following adjustments. 
 
 855. The azimuth circle may be made level, 
 by turning the instrument till one of the levels is 
 parallel to an imaginary line joining two of the 
 feet screws ; then adjust the level with these two 
 feet screws; turn the circle half round, i. e. 180°; 
 and, if t!ie bubble be not then right, correct half 
 the error by the screw belonging to the level, and 
 the other half error by the two feet screws; repeat 
 this till the bubble comes right; then turn the 
 circle 90° from the two former positions, and set 
 the bubble right, if it be wrong, by the foot 
 screw at the end of tlie level; when this is done, 
 adjust the other level by its own screw, and 
 the azimuth circle will be truly level. The 
 hanging level must then be fixed to the brass 
 rod by two hooks of equal length, and made truly 
 j)arall8l to it: for this purjiose make the polar axis 
 perpendicular or nearly perpendicular to the ho-
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 199 
 
 riion; llien adjust the level by the pinion of the 
 declination semicircle; reverse. the level and, if it 
 be wrong, correct half the error by a small steel 
 screw that lies under one end of the level, and 
 the other half error by the pinion of the declina- 
 tion semicircle ; repeat this till the bubble be 
 right in both positions. 
 
 856. To make the brass rod on which the level 
 is suspended at right angles to the axis of motion 
 of the telescope or lino of collimation, make the 
 polar axis horizontal, or nearly so : set the decli- 
 nation semicircle at 0°, turn the hour circle till 
 the bubble comes right ; then turn the declination 
 circle to 90° ; adjust the bubble by raising or de- 
 pressing the polar axis ; first by hand till it be 
 nearly right; afterwards tighten, with an ivory 
 key, the socket which runs on an arch with the 
 polar axis ; and then apply the same ivory key 
 to the adjusting screw at the end of the said arch, 
 till the bubble comes quite right; then turn the 
 declination circle to the opposite 90°; if the level 
 be not then right, correct half the error, by the 
 aforesaid adjusting screw at the end of the arch, 
 and the other half error by the two screws 
 which raise or depress the end of the brass rod. 
 The polar axis remaining nearly horizontal as 
 before, and the declination semicircle at 0°, 
 adjust the bubble by the hour circle ; then turn 
 the declination semicircle to 90°, and adjust the 
 bubble by raising or depressing the polar axis ; 
 then turn the hour circle twelve hours; and if 
 the bubble be wrong, correct half the error by 
 the polar axis, and the other half error by the 
 two pair of capstan screws at the feet of the two 
 supporters on one side of the axis of motion of 
 the telescope; and thus this axis will be at right 
 angles to the polar axis. 
 
 857. The next adjustment is to make the cen- 
 '-'•e of cross hairs remain on the same object, 
 while the eye-tube is turned quite round by the 
 pinion of the refraction apparatus. For this ad- 
 justment, set the index on the slide to the first 
 division on the dovetail ; and set the division 
 marked 1 8" on the refraction circle to its index ; 
 then look through the telescope, and with the 
 pinion turn the eye-tube quite round ; and if the 
 centre of the hairs does not remain on the same 
 spot during that revolution, it must be corrected 
 by the four small screws, two and two at a time, 
 wliich will be found upon unscrewing the nearest 
 end of the eye-tube that contains the first eye- 
 glass ; repeat this correction till the centre of the 
 hairs remains on the spot looked at, during an 
 entire revolution. 
 
 858. To niiUce the line of collimation parallel 
 to the brass rod on which the level hangs, set the 
 polar axis horizontal, and the declination circle 
 to 90° ; adjust the level by the polar axis ; look 
 tlirough the telescope on some distant iiorizontal 
 object, covered by the centre of the cross hairs ; 
 then invert the telescope, which is done by turn- 
 ing the hour circle half round, and, if the centre 
 of the cross hairs does not cover the same object 
 as before, correct half the error by the uppermost 
 and lowermost of the four small screws at the 
 eye-end of the large tube of the te'escope. This 
 correction will give a second object, now covered 
 by the centre of the hairs, which must be adopted 
 instead of the first object : then invert the teles- 
 
 cope as before ; and if the second object be not 
 covered by the centre of the hairs, correct half 
 tlie error by the same two .screws which were 
 used before. This correction will give a third 
 object, now covered by the centre of the hairs, 
 which must be adopted instead of the second ob- 
 ject; repeat this operation tilf no error remains; 
 then set th.e hour circle exactly to 12 hours (the 
 declination circle remaining at 90° as before) ; 
 and, if the centre of the cross hairs does not cover 
 the last object fixed on, set it to that object by 
 the t%vo temaining small screws at the end of the 
 large tube, and then the line of collimation will 
 be parallel to the brass rod. 
 
 859. For rectifying the nonius of the declina- 
 tion and equatorial circles, lov.er the telescope as 
 many degrees, minutes, and seconds, below 0°, 
 or A, on the declination semicircle as are equal 
 to the complement of the kititude ; then elevate 
 the polar axis till the bubble be horizontal, and 
 thus the equatorial circle will be elevated to the 
 co-latitude of the place; set this circle to 6 
 hours ; adjust the level by the pinion of the decli- 
 nation circle ; then turn the equatorial circle 
 exactly 12 hours from the la.st position; and if 
 the level be not right, correct one half of the 
 error by the equatorial circle, and the other half 
 by the declination circle ; then turn the equato- 
 rial circle back again exactly 12 hours from the 
 last position; and if the level be still wTong, 
 repeat the correction as before till it be right, 
 when turned to either position ; that being done, 
 set the nonius of the equatorial circle exactly to 
 6 hours, and the nonius of the declination circle 
 exactly to 0°. The uses of this equatorial are : 
 
 860. 1. To find the meridian by one observa- 
 tion only : for this purpose, elevate the equatorial 
 circle to the co-latitude of the place, and set the 
 declination semicircle to the sun's declination for 
 the day and hour required ; then move the azi- 
 muth and hour circles both at the same time, 
 either in the same or contrary direction, till the 
 centre of the cross hairs in the telescope exactly 
 covers the centre of the sun. When that is done, 
 the index of the hour circle will give the apparent 
 or solar time at the instant of observation ; and 
 thus the time is gained, though the sun be at a 
 distance from the meridian. Then turn the hour 
 circle till the index points precisely at 12 o'clock, 
 and lower the telescope to the horizon, in order 
 to observe some point there in the centre of the 
 glass, and that point is the meridian mark found 
 by one observation only ; the best time for this 
 operation is three hours before or three hours af- 
 ter twelve at noon. 
 
 861. 2. To point the telescope on a star, 
 though not on the meridian, in full day light. 
 Having elevated the equatorial circle to the co- 
 latitude of the place, and set the declination 
 semicircle to the star's declination, move the in- 
 dex of the hour circle till it point to the precise 
 time at which the star is then distant from the 
 meridian, found in tables of the right ascension 
 of the stars, and the star will then appear in the 
 glass. Besides these uses, peculiar to this instru- 
 r-ent, it is also applicable to all the purposes to 
 which the princioal astronomical instruments, 
 viz. a transit, a qiiadrant, and an equal altitude 
 instrument, are applied.
 
 200 
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 862. This instrument, however, like all instru- 
 ments that profess to do much, does nothing so 
 well as instruments whose objects are more 
 limited. The splendid equatorial of sir Geo. 
 Shuckburgh, now at the royal observatory at 
 Greenwich, is seldom used, except to observe 
 comets when they cannot be seen at the time of 
 their transit. And even for that purpose it is 
 now likely to be superseded, by an equatorial 
 lately put up in the north-west turret of the ob- 
 servatory, by Mr. DoUand. The polar axis of this 
 equatorial is fixed in the direction of the earth's 
 axis, and carries round with it a vernier which 
 points out right ascensions, on an equatorial cir- 
 cle, fixed at its lower extremity ; and a circle at 
 right angles to the equatorial is attached to 
 the axis, which shows at once the distances of 
 objects to which its telescope is pointed. 
 
 862. We shall conclude the subject of astro- 
 nomy with the following catalogue of sixty of 
 the principal fixed stars, recently published by 
 astronomer royal, who remarks upon it that ' The 
 catalogue will require a small correction, comr 
 inon to every star, both in right ascension, and 
 north polar distance. The correction in R. A. 
 
 will be subtract] ve, and may amount to nearly 
 one-tenth of a second in time. The correction 
 in N P D will, I imagine, be likewise subtractive, 
 and will not exceed a quarter of a second. 
 
 ' It is divided into four classes, according to 
 the supposed degree of accuracy of each. The 
 stars of the first class are those that have been 
 determined both by direct vision, and reflection. 
 The second class consists chiefly of those too 
 near the zenith to be observed by reflection. 
 The third class is not quite so exact as the second, 
 and the fourth still less exact than the third. The 
 errors of the first and second classes, I should 
 think, can rarely exceed a quarter of a second : 
 in the third class the error may probably amount 
 to double that quantity; and the fourth class 
 cannot be relied on but to the nearest second. 
 Regulus ought, from the number of observations, 
 to be in the first class ; but, from some accidental 
 discordances, I have reserved it for future ex- 
 amination. The errors are quite independent of 
 the common error above-mentioned, the exact 
 amount of which will be the future subject of 
 investigation.' 
 
 863. Catalogue of the Right Ascejisions and North Polar Distance of Sixt^ Stars, for the be- 
 ginning of 1823, by J. Bond, Esq. Astronomer Hoyal. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 N. P. 
 
 D. 
 
 
 V. P. 
 
 D. . 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 No. 
 
 Names of Stars. 
 
 Rigtt Ascension. 
 
 Bradl 
 
 ey's 
 
 
 French 
 
 Class. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Refraction. 
 
 Refraction. 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 H. 
 
 M. 
 
 S. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 y Pegasi . . 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 8-1 
 
 75° 48' 
 
 2-2" 
 
 75° 
 
 48' 
 
 3-4" 
 
 1 ' 
 
 2 
 
 a Cassiopese 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 31-3 
 
 34 26 
 
 6-0 
 
 34 
 
 26 
 
 6-4 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 Polaris 
 
 
 
 57 
 
 46-2 
 
 1 38 
 
 7-7 
 
 1 
 
 38 
 
 7-7 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 a Arietes . . 
 
 1 
 
 57 
 
 131 
 
 67 22 
 
 44-4 
 
 67 
 
 22 
 
 45-1 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 a Ceti . . . 
 
 2 
 
 53 
 
 2-3 
 
 86 36 
 
 36-5 
 
 86 
 
 36 
 
 38-1 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 a Persei . . 
 
 
 11 
 
 44-3 
 
 40 46 
 
 39-1 
 
 40 
 
 46 
 
 39-7 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 Aldebaran . 
 
 4 
 
 25 
 
 46-6 
 
 73 51 
 
 17-7 
 
 73 
 
 51 
 
 18-6 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 Capella . . 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 37-8 
 
 44 11 
 
 36-9 
 
 44 
 
 11 
 
 37-5 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 Rigel . . 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 2-2 
 
 98 24 
 
 48-5 
 
 98 
 
 24 
 
 50-3 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 j3 Tauri . . 
 
 5 
 
 15 
 
 6-8 
 
 61 33 
 
 6-5 
 
 61 
 
 33 
 
 7-4 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 
 5 
 
 15 
 
 38-7 
 
 83 49 
 
 8-0 
 
 83 
 
 49 
 
 9-5 
 
 3 
 
 12 
 
 
 5 
 
 22 
 
 58-3 
 
 90 26 
 
 18-0 
 
 90 
 
 26 
 
 19-7 
 
 4 
 
 13 
 
 
 5 
 
 27 
 
 14-3 
 
 91 19 
 
 22-9 
 
 91 
 
 19 
 
 24-6 
 
 4 
 
 14 
 
 
 5 
 
 31 
 
 50-1 
 
 92 2 
 
 38-0 
 
 92 
 
 2 
 
 39-7 
 
 4 
 
 15 
 
 
 5 
 
 45 
 
 35-6 
 
 82 38 
 
 41 
 
 82 
 
 38 
 
 5-3 
 
 1 
 
 16 
 
 
 5 
 
 46 
 
 32-9 
 
 45 4 
 
 55-9 
 
 45 
 
 4 
 
 56-7 
 
 3 
 
 17 
 
 
 6 
 
 37 
 
 20-9 
 
 106 28 
 
 48-5 
 
 106 
 
 28 
 
 50-5 
 
 3 
 
 18 
 
 
 7 
 
 23 
 
 17-6 
 
 57 43 
 
 59-1 
 
 57 
 
 44 
 
 59-9 
 
 1 
 
 19 
 
 
 7 
 
 30 
 
 2-2 
 
 84 19 
 
 43-3 
 
 84 
 
 19 
 
 44-8 
 
 1 
 
 20 
 
 
 7 
 
 34 
 
 28-5 
 
 61 33 
 
 16-8 
 
 61 
 
 33 
 
 17-6 
 
 1 
 
 21 
 
 
 9 
 
 18 
 
 53-5 
 
 97 53 
 
 44-4 
 
 97 
 
 53 
 
 46-2 
 
 3 
 
 22 
 
 
 9 
 
 58 
 
 56-3 
 
 77 10 
 
 15-6 
 
 - 77 
 
 10 
 
 17-0 
 
 - 
 
 23 
 
 
 10 
 
 52 
 
 43-5 
 
 27 17 
 
 43-7 
 
 27 
 
 17 
 
 441 
 
 1 
 
 24 
 
 
 11 
 
 40 
 
 1-7 
 
 74 26 
 
 18-1 
 
 74 
 
 26 
 
 19-3 
 
 3 
 
 25 
 
 
 11 
 
 44 
 
 28-6 
 
 35 19 
 
 14-9 
 
 35 
 
 19 
 
 15-6 
 
 2 
 
 26 
 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 37-2 
 
 31 59 
 
 0.3 
 
 31 
 
 59 
 
 0-9 
 
 3 
 
 27 
 
 
 13 
 
 15 
 
 52-9 
 
 100 14 
 
 0-4 
 
 100 
 
 14 
 
 2-2 
 
 3 
 
 23 
 
 
 13 
 
 16 
 
 46-8 
 
 34 8 
 
 51-2 
 
 34 
 
 8 
 
 51-9 
 
 2 
 
 29 
 
 
 13 
 
 40 
 
 33-5 
 
 39 47 
 
 59-6 
 
 39 
 
 48 
 
 0-4 
 
 2 
 
 30 
 
 
 13 
 
 59 
 
 35-9 
 
 24 46 
 
 31-4 
 
 24 
 
 46 
 
 31-9 
 
 3 
 
 31 
 
 Arcturus 
 
 14 
 
 7 
 
 35-6 
 
 69 53 
 
 29-2 
 
 69 
 
 53 
 
 30-1 
 
 1 
 
 32 
 
 
 14 
 
 37 
 
 15-6 
 
 62 10 
 
 27-8 
 
 62 
 
 10 
 
 28-9 
 
 3 
 
 ? 33 
 
 
 14 
 
 40 
 
 54-6 
 
 105 15 
 
 14-5 
 
 105 
 
 15 
 
 16-5 
 
 4 
 
 34 
 
 
 14 
 
 41 
 
 6-4 
 
 105 17 
 
 560 
 
 105 
 
 17 
 
 58(> 
 
 4 
 
 35 
 
 
 14 
 
 51 
 
 19-5 
 
 15 7 
 
 15-6 
 
 15 
 
 7 
 
 15-9 
 
 1
 
 •ASTRONOMY. 
 
 Astronomer JloyuVs Catalogue continued. 
 
 CO I 
 
 
 
 N. P. D. 
 
 N. P. D. 
 
 1 
 
 No. 
 
 Names of Stars. 
 
 Right Ascension. 
 
 Bradley's 
 Refraction. 
 
 French 
 Refraction. 
 
 Class. 
 
 ! 
 
 
 
 H. M. S. 
 
 
 
 
 36 
 
 
 15 27 120 
 
 62 41 0-8 
 
 62 41 1-6 
 
 1 
 
 37 
 
 
 15 35 33o 
 
 83 00 36-8 
 
 83 00 381 
 
 1 
 
 38 
 
 
 16 5 50 
 
 93 13 49-0 
 
 93 13 50-8 
 
 3 
 
 39 
 
 
 16 18 34-2 
 
 116 1 43-3 
 
 116 1 45-5 
 
 4 
 
 40 
 
 
 17 6 350 
 
 75 24 0-4 
 
 75 24 1-5 
 
 1 
 
 41 
 
 
 17 26 25-9 
 
 37 33 48-8 
 
 37 33 49-5 
 
 2 
 
 42 
 
 
 17 26 43-5 
 
 77 18 110 
 
 77 18 12-2 
 
 1 
 
 43 
 
 
 17 52 301 
 
 38 29 10-6 
 
 38 29 11-3 
 
 2 
 
 44 
 
 
 18 29 22-3 
 
 3 25 111 
 
 3 25 11-2 
 
 3 
 
 45 
 
 
 18 30 570 
 
 55 22 31-2 
 
 51 22 31-9 
 
 1 
 
 46 
 
 
 18 43 33-0 
 
 56 50 120 
 
 56 50 13-0 
 
 1 
 
 47 
 
 
 18 57 16-8 
 
 76 23 31-3 
 
 76 23 32-6 
 
 2 
 
 48 
 
 
 19 12 29-7 
 
 22 38 58-9 
 
 22 38 59-5 
 
 2 
 
 49 
 
 
 19 16 3-4-6 
 
 87 13 47'3 
 
 87 13 48-9 
 
 , 2 
 
 50 
 
 
 19 37 50-8 
 
 79 48 39-0 
 
 79 48 40-2 
 
 , 2 
 
 51 
 
 
 19 42 8-9 
 
 81 35 29-7 
 
 81 35 30-9 
 
 1 
 
 52 
 
 
 19 46 37-3 
 
 84 1 40-2 
 
 8-i 1 41-4 
 
 2 
 
 53 
 
 
 20 7 49-9 
 
 103 2 49-6 
 
 103 2 51-5 
 
 4 
 
 54 
 
 
 20 8 13-7 
 
 103 5 6-6 
 
 103 5 8-5 
 
 4 
 
 55 
 
 
 20 35 24-2 
 
 45 20 52-4 
 
 45 20 53-1 
 
 1 
 
 56 
 
 
 20 58 58-6 
 
 52 6 55-2 
 
 52 6 56-1 
 
 3 
 
 57 
 
 
 21 14 210 
 
 28 9 43-0 
 
 28 9 43-6 
 
 1 
 
 58 
 
 
 21 22 14-2 
 
 96 20 38.5 
 
 96 20 40-3 
 
 ' 2 
 
 59 
 
 
 21 26 20-4 
 
 20 12 53-9 
 
 20 12 54-3 
 
 1 
 
 60 
 
 
 21 56 41-5 
 
 91 10 31-3 
 
 91 10 33-0 
 
 1 
 
 61 
 
 
 22 55 57-2 
 
 75 44 41-7 
 
 75 44 42-9 
 
 1 
 
 62 
 
 
 23 59 15-6 
 
 61 53 12-5 
 
 61 53 13-2 
 
 I 1 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Aberration of light, discovered by Bradley, 56. 61. 
 373. Cause of, investigations respecting, formu- 
 lae and tables for computing, 374 — 386. 
 
 Adam supposed to have been acquainted with astro- 
 nomy, 3. 
 
 Almagest, compiled by Ptolemy, 31. Commented 
 on by Purbach, 38. and completed by Muller, 
 39. 
 
 Alphonsine tables composed, 37. and corrected, 38. 
 
 Altitude of the sun observed by Pythoas, 27. 
 
 Amazon river, five high, and four low tides in, at 
 once, 480. 
 
 Americans acquainted with astronomy, 17. 
 
 Anni'al motion of the earth illustrated, 410 — 413. 
 
 Anomaly, mean and true, 602. Eccentric, 604. 
 To find true on terms of mean, 604—609. 
 
 Antarctic circles defined, 418. 
 
 Antediluvians acquainted with astronomy, 3 — 5. 
 
 Anticipation of the equinoxes, 429 — 431. 
 
 Aphelion or Apside of the planets, 601. Method 
 of finding place and motion of, 610. 617. 647. 
 Table of places of, 235. 
 
 Apogee, motion of the sun's, computed by Albateg- 
 nius, 33. Defined, 353. 360. 
 
 Arabians cultivated astronomy, 32, 33. 
 
 Aracta, ubles formed for the meridian of, 33. 
 
 Arctic circle defined, 416. 
 
 Arctuki's, half a degree more southerly than ob- 
 served by the ancients, 208. 
 
 Armillary sphere erected at Alexandria, 28. 
 
 Ascending node of planets, table of places of, 234. 
 Denned, 335. 673. 
 
 Aspects of the planets, 340. 
 
 Astronomical instruments described, 776 — 862. 
 Quadrants, 780—789. Mural circle, 790—811. 
 Equatorial sector, 812 — 815. Transit Instru- 
 ment, 816 — 850. Equatorial, 851 — 861. Ma- 
 chinery for illustration, 762 — 775. 
 
 Astronomical Society of London, 74. 180. 
 
 Astronomy, etj-mology of, definition of, sublimity 
 and usefulness, 2. Antiquity of, 3 — 19. History 
 of, 3—76. Various systems of, 210. 218. True 
 system of, 219. 235. 
 
 Athenians erect a statue to Berosus the astronomer, 
 27. 
 
 Atlantic Ocean, tides on the, less than on the Paci- 
 fic, 479. 
 
 Atmosphere, lunar, 170. Supposed to have tides, 
 483. Light refracted by it, 501—511. 
 
 Atmospheres, Venus and Mars have, 112, 113. 
 Doubtful whether Mercury has one. 111. 
 
 Atkinson on refraction, 510,511. 
 
 Attraction of the great mountains affects the plumb 
 line, 60. Dr. Herschel's ideas of the effects of 
 attraction of the heavenly bodies, 194. 200. Its 
 power supposed to be balanced by projectile forces, 
 207. Effects of attraction on the motions of the 
 planets, 254. 327. 
 
 Attractive force, law of, between difi'ercnt planets, 
 303—314.
 
 202 
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 Axis of the earth described, 369. 420. 
 Azimuth circle, utility of the, 788. Method of ad- 
 justing, 855. 
 
 Baltic sea has no sensible tides, 482. 
 
 Bearded comet explained, 145. 
 
 Belts. See Jupiter. 
 
 Benares, a celebrated observatory at, 13. 
 
 Black sea has no sensible tides, 482. 
 
 Bodies of the sun and planets described, 303 — 307. 
 
 Bode, remarkable analogy among the distances of 
 
 the planets noticed by, 141. 
 Brinkley, 503.588. 
 Bull's eye, more southerly than the ancients placed 
 
 it, 208. 
 
 Calippic period corrected by Hipparchus, 30. 
 
 Cambridge observatory, 75. 
 
 Cartesian system, 218. 
 
 Caspian sea has no sensible tides, 482. 
 
 Celestial bodies, appearances of the, as ocn by the 
 naked eye, 77 — 97. Or seen through telescopes, 
 98—149. 
 
 Central forces, 236 — 247. Application of to the 
 planetary theory, 248 — 253. Obeyed by comets, 
 253. 
 
 Ceres, 69. 114 
 
 Chaldea, a country proper for astronomical observa- 
 tion, 18. 
 
 Chaldeans, early astronomers, 12. 18, 19. 
 
 Chinese, said to have been taught astronomy by 
 Noah, 7. Their superstition, 756. 
 
 Chronology, eclipses useful in, 757. 
 
 Circles, described by the planets, 328 — 336. 
 
 Clairault computed the orbit of a comet, 178, 179. 
 
 Cold, cause of in winter, 423 — 425. 
 
 Comets, written on by Mullar, 39. Observed by Wer- 
 ner, 41. And Hevelius, 44. Paths of, discovered by 
 Kepler, 43. Places of observed, and elements com- 
 puted by Bradley, 61. Number and appearancesto 
 the eye, 87. Apparent magnitude, 88. Appear- 
 ances through telescopes, 142 — 146. Of their tails, 
 144 — -146. Fancies respecting, 172. Perihelion 
 distances, 175. Conjectures respecting tails, 176. 
 Methods of determining the orbits of, 294 — 302. 
 Resistance of aether inferred from the motion of 
 Guke's, 180. 
 
 Commutation, angle of, 624. 
 
 Conjunction of Jupiter and Saturn observed by 
 Tycho Brahe, 47. 
 
 Conjunctions of planets, 340, 341. 
 
 Constellations, number of the Chinese, 7. How 
 marked, 8. When first used by the Greeks, 22, 23. 
 Names of the ancient, 595. And of tlie modern, 
 596, 597. Number of stars in each, 595^97. 
 
 COPERNICAN System published, 42. Improved, 43. 
 Account of, 219 — 235. Much opposed at first, 
 220. Confirmed by Newton, 221. 
 
 Corpuscle, attraction of a line on, 313. Of a plane 
 on, 314. Of a sphere on, 315. 
 
 Crabtree, Mr. sees the first transit of Venus ever 
 observed, 51. 583. 
 
 Crystalline heavens, an erroneous notion in the 
 Ptolemaic system, 213. 
 
 Curtate distance, 625. 
 
 Darkness, extraordinary, supposed to be caused by 
 comets, 761. 
 
 Declination, sun's, table of, 550, Principal fixed 
 stars, 863. 
 
 Deluge, supposed to have been caused by a comet, 
 177. 
 
 Density of the whole matter on the earth, 67. Pro- 
 portional of the sun and planets, 235. 320 — 327, 
 
 DESCENDING node defined, 673. 
 
 Diameter of the sun and planets, 234. 
 
 Dichotomy of the moon, used by Aristarchus to de- 
 termine the sun's distance, 28. 
 
 Direct motion of a planet defined, 357. 
 
 Diurnal rotations of the sun and planets, 234. Of 
 the earth illustrated, 410 — 413. 
 
 Disturbing etTccts of planets on each other, more 
 easily computed from their smallness with respect 
 to the sun, 266. 
 
 Double stars, some, revolve round each other, 186. 
 Herschel and South on motions of, 71. 
 
 Druids early astronomers, 27. 
 
 Earth, figure of the, dispute concerning, 60. Mean 
 density of matter in it, 67. The motion of main- 
 tained by Pythagoras and Nicetas, 219. Its revo- 
 lution, diurnal motion, proportional density, &c. 
 233. 235. 327. Distance from the sun, 366. 
 Diameter and motion, ib. Form, 366 — 368. Angle 
 of its axis, 369. Its motion round the sun proved, 
 370 — 386. Objection, 387. Revolves on its axis, 
 383—409. Its motions illustrated, 411—431. 
 Appears as a moon to the Lunarians, and the 
 largest body in the universe, 435. Irregularity of 
 the form of its orbit, 276. 
 
 Eccentricities of the planets, 233. Method of 
 finding, 648. 
 
 Eccentrics, a term used in the Ptolemaic system, 
 214. 
 
 Eclipses, the theory of, known to the Chinese, 9. 
 Accounts of, collected by Hipparchus, 50. Prc- 
 liminai-y observations respecting, 666 — 678. Rules 
 and examples for calculating, 679 — -745. For a 
 general solar eclipse, 746 — 753. Eclipses of Ju- 
 piter's satellites, 25 — 760. Cometary eclipses, 
 761. Causes of explained, 772. 
 
 Ecliptic, obliquity of the, in Ptolemy's time, 28. 
 Fixed by Albategnius, 33. Observed by Arzachel, 
 34. Corrected by Werner, 41. Derivation of the 
 name, 330. To find the obliquity of, 331. 333. 
 563, 564. Periodical variation in obliquity, 393. 
 Comprehended in the zodiac, 593. 
 
 Egypt, a country adapted to astronomical observa- 
 tions, 13. 
 
 Elliptical orbits of the planets discovered by Kep- 
 ler, 48. Of Saturn's satellites, 136. Of comets, 
 very eccentric, 225. 
 
 Elongation, greatest of inferior planets, 235. De- 
 fined, 362—629. 
 
 Ephemerides, made by Purbach, 38. 
 
 Epicycle, a term in the Ptolemaic system, 214. 
 
 Equation of centre, 607, 608. 
 
 Equation of time, table of, 543. Auxiliary table for 
 reducing to subsequent year, 54. 
 
 Equatorial described, 851 — -862. 
 
 Equinoctial, obliquity of the, 420. Cause of the 
 seasons, 420. 
 
 Equinoctial point, method of finding the, 565. 
 
 Equinoxes, precession of the, 33 — 41. 
 
 Evening star, 83. 
 
 FacULjE of the sun explained, 103. 
 
 Falling bodies, velocity of, 273, 274. 
 
 Fields of stars defined, 188. 
 
 Fixed stars, table of proper motions of, 209. Cata- 
 logue of principal, 865. 
 
 Fo-HE, emperor of China, taught the Chinese astro- 
 nomy, 7. 
 
 Forces, central, 236. 242. 247. 
 
 Galaxy. See Milky Way. - 
 Geocentric latitude defined, 334. 
 Geocentric motion explained, 342, 343. 351. 
 Geocentric observations, method of reducing to he- 
 liocentric, 618, 625.
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 203 
 
 Georgian planet, Georgium Sidus, Uranus, or Her- 
 scliel, discovered by Herschel, 139. Apparent mag- 
 nitude, ib. Diameter, ib. Periodic revolution, ib. 
 Has six satellites, ib. Remarkable peculiarity in 
 the position of their orbits, ib. Theoretical deduc- 
 tion of La Place respecting, ib. Periods and elon- 
 gations of satellites, 140. 
 
 Gnomon, the use of a, known to the Chinese, 9. 
 Used by Pythoas, 27. One erected at Bologna, 
 58. 
 
 Gravitation defined, 260. Its efl'ects on the pla- 
 nets, 261—269. 307. And satellites, 270—277. 
 On the moon in particular, 275—285. Illustrated, 
 286 — 292. Is ditl'uscd through the substance of 
 the celestial bodies, 303 — 318. 
 
 Greeks, probable origin of their astronomy, 22 — 25. 
 Viiruvius's account of it, 27. 
 
 Halley, Dr. examines Hevelius's instruments, and 
 makes observations along with him, 53. Makes a 
 catalogue of the fixed stars ; discovers the accel- 
 eration of the Hioon ; points out the method of find- 
 ing the distance of the sun from the transit of Ve- 
 nus, 59. 
 
 Harding, discovered Juno, 69. 
 
 Harvest moon, rises sooner than any other, 486. 
 Reasons of this, 487 — 492. Goes through a course 
 of more and less beneficial states, 493. 
 
 Heat, formula for determining time of day when 
 greatest, 426. 
 
 Heavens, general appearance of the, 80. Divisions 
 of the starry, 589 — 597. 
 
 Heliocentric circle defined and described, 323 — 
 330. 
 
 Heliocentric latitude defined, 334. 
 
 Herschel, Dr. improves refiecting telescopes, 57. 
 Constructs very powerful ones, and discovers a new 
 planet, with satellites, 68. His observations on 
 Venus, 112. And on Mars, 113. Sees a satellite 
 and its shadow both on the disk of Jupiter, 125. 
 Discovers the double ring of Saturn, 131 — 133. A 
 sixth and seventh satellite, 134. And vast num- 
 bers of nebula, 146. Observes eruptions of the lu- 
 nar volcanoes, 167. Forms a new theory of the 
 universe, 187. His theory of the heavens^ 195 — 
 203. Proposes a method of determining the pa- 
 rallax of the fixed stars, 586. 
 
 Herschel, Jun, on double stars, 71. 
 
 Herschel, the new planet, so named by foreign as- 
 stronoraers, 63. See Georgium Sidus. 
 
 High water, to find the time of, 484, 485. 
 
 Horizontal parallax defined, 566. How to find it, 
 567. 
 
 Horizontal sun and moon, apparent magnitude of 
 the, 494. Accounted for by Alhazen, 495. Des- 
 cartes and Wallis, 496, 497. Dr. Desaguliers, 
 498. And Dr. Smith, 499. Probable cause of, 
 500. 
 
 HUENNAjTycho Brahe builds an observatory on, 47. 
 
 Inclinations of the planetary orbits to the ecliptic, 
 234. 
 
 Indians early astronomers, 13. 
 
 Inferior planets defined, 227 — 335. 
 
 Instruments, astronomical, described, 776— 862. 
 
 Jones, constructed Greenwich mural circle, 790. 
 
 Italy, great astronomers in, 63. 
 
 Julian year, excess of the, above the solar, 430. 
 
 Juno, 116. 
 
 Jupiter, phenomena of, eclipses of, satellites of, 25. 
 Conjunction of, with Saturn observed, 47. Occul- 
 tation of, by the moon, 53. Eclipses of, by his sa- 
 tellites, observed by Cassini, 54. Theory of his 
 satellites still imperfect, 62. His appearance to 
 the eye, 85. And through a telescope, 118. .\ 
 
 satellite and its shadow seen on the planet at the 
 same time, 125. Revolution of satellites on their 
 axes, 126. Remarkable connexion among their 
 periodic times, 127. Spots observed on him, 118. 
 His figure and rotation, 119. His four satellites, 
 120. Account of these phenomena, 127. Other 
 phenomena, 231. 233,234, 235. Attractive power 
 of Jupiter, 271, 272. Motion of light, from Jupi- 
 ter to the earth, 374. Eclipses of his satellites 
 very frequent, useful in finding the longitude, 760. 
 
 Kater observed a volcanic appearance in the moon, 
 
 167. 
 Kepler and Newton's discoveries, distinctive natun^ 
 
 of, 254. 
 Kepler's laws,255— 257.— Illustrated, 259, 260. 
 
 Latitude of a planet defined, 334. Methods of 
 computing, 620. Terrestrial, methods of finding, 
 561, 562, 
 
 Libration, 109. 447. 
 
 Light, progressive motion of, discovered, 58. 373. 
 Proportion of, in the planets, 235. Velocity and 
 alienation of, 376 — 387. Aflords evidence of the 
 motion of the earth, 395. 408 — -411. Illustrated, 
 411 — 413, Quantity of, afTordcd by the earth to 
 the moon, 435. Refraction of by the atmosphere , 
 500—516. 
 
 Local zodiac described, 336. 
 
 London bridge, time of tides arriving at, 480. 
 
 Longitude, method of finding the, proposed by 
 Werner, 41. By Dr. Halley, 59. Has since been 
 carried into execution, ib. Longitude of a celestial 
 phenomenon defined, 333. Method of computing, 
 620. Of places easily found in the moon, 438. 
 Erlipses useful in determining it, 661, 664. 
 
 Lunar eclipses, two, at least, happen annually, 698. 
 One visible, the other not, 699. Rules for calcu- 
 lating, 706—724. Exemplified, 772. 
 
 Lunar tables computed, 62. When the moon's place 
 is most correctly in the syzygies, 723, 724. 
 
 Lunarians, app.arance of the earth to the, 435, 
 436. 442. Have always equal day and night, 
 437—439. 
 
 Lunations, no complete number of, finished without 
 a fraction, 676. See MoON. 
 
 Machinery, astronomical, described, 762 — 775. 
 
 Maculae of the sun defined, 103. 
 
 Magnitudes of the celestial bodies, 561 — 588. Of 
 the stars distinguished, 589. 
 
 Mars, his appearance to the eye, color, and other 
 phenomena, 84. Appearance through a telescope, 
 113. Rules for deducing his distance, 575, 576. 
 Obliquity of axis of rotation, appearance of snow 
 about poles of, 113. 
 
 Marseilles, the gnomon early used at, 27. 
 
 Matter, universal attraction of, proved, 67. 262. 
 303. 318. Diversity of, in the earth, 67. 262. 
 And planets, 320—327. 
 
 Mean distances of the planets, 233. 
 
 Mediterranean sea has no tides, 482. 
 
 Mercury, appearance of, to the eye, 82. Through 
 a telescope, 110. Mountains in, 1 11. Has phases 
 similar to those of the moon, 231. Seen in con- 
 junction with the sun, 345. And passing over 
 his disk, 346. Table of occultations of, 665. 
 
 Meridian, rules for finding the, 517 — 522. To 
 place a transit instrument in, 831 — 839. 
 
 MlCROTNlETER improved, 57. Necessary for measur- 
 ing small angular, distances, 779. 
 
 Milky way, appearance of the, 96. Dr. Herschel 
 discovers innumerable nmltitudes of stars in it ; 
 he views it by fields, 188. And supposes the sun 
 to be set, 192. Gauges it, 194.
 
 204 
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 ftfooN, acceleration of the, determined by Ebn. 
 Younis's observations, 34. Discovered by Halley, 
 59. Her appearance to the eye, 78. And through 
 a telescope, 109. Great inequalities on her sur- 
 face, 165. Supposed to be mountainous ; attempts 
 made to measure their height, 166. Volcano ob- 
 served in her by Kater, 167. Also by others, ib. 
 Dr. Herschel's estimate of the height of the lunar 
 mountains, 166. Conjectures respecting the moon's 
 substance, 168. And her spots, 169. Atmos- 
 phere of, discovered by Ramage, Ross, and Corn- 
 field, 170. Enquiry whether the moon is inha- 
 bited, 171. Her orbit and motion, 271, 272. Il- 
 lustrated, 273 — 292. Her conjunction, 340, 341. 
 And peculiar phenomena, 432 — 449. She influ- 
 ences the tides, 450 — 482. Proportion of her 
 power to that of the sun in moving the sea, 459. 
 Her appearance at the full in harvest, 486. Causes 
 of it, 487—493. Appearance near the horizon, 
 494. Various reasons assigned for it, 490 — 500. 
 Causes of her eclipses, 666 — 678. Rules for com- 
 puting them, 680 — 724. To find her way from the 
 sun, 725—730. Her color, &c. during an eclipse, 
 754, 755. Her distance from the earth less than 
 formerly, 758. Her various phases exemplified, 
 768. 770. 772. Method of delineating her visible 
 disk, 447. Parallaxes indicate the shape of the 
 earth, 578. 
 
 Morning star, 83. 
 
 Motion, planetary, laws of, 255— 259. 344. 364. Of 
 light, 373—386. 
 
 Motions of comets, 293—302. Of planets, in ante- 
 cedence and consequence, defined, 336. Direct, 
 344. 357. And retrograde, 344—358. Pro- 
 gressive of light, 408, 409. Annual and diurnal, 
 of the earth, 410—413. 531. 
 
 Mural quadrant described, 781 — 787. 
 
 Mural circle, and its uses, described, 790 — 811. 
 
 Nautical almanack, or Nautical Ephemeris, annually 
 published, 62—66. 
 
 Neap tides, cause of the, 455. 472. 476. 
 
 NebuLjE explained, vast numbers of, discovered by 
 Herschel, 149. His account of them, 188 — 205. 
 
 New stars, accounts of several, 90 — 95. 
 
 Newton, Sir Isaac, constructs reflectors with sphe- 
 rical speculums, 55. Brings theoretical astronomy 
 to perfection, 56. Determines the figure of the 
 earth, 60. Confirms the Copernican system, and 
 lays down the fundamental laws of motion and 
 gravity, 221. 
 
 Nodes defined, 621. Method of finding when a 
 planet is in, ib. To find the motion of the moon's, 
 289, 290. Line of the nodes defined, 335. 
 
 NoNAGESiMAL degree defined, 443. 
 
 North Pole star, appearance of the, 79, 80. 
 
 Nutation, natural, and cause of, 401. Formula 
 and tables for computing, 402 — 407. 
 
 Obliquity of ecliptic, periodical variation in, 393. 
 Method of finding, 563, 564. 
 
 Observatories, the towers of Babel and Belus sup- 
 posed to have been, and the pyramids of Egypt, 
 probably used as such, 18. 
 
 Observatory, principal instruments m, described, 
 776—862. 
 
 Observatory, portable or eijuatorial, described, 
 851—862. 
 
 Occultation of Jupiter by the Moon, observed, 53. 
 170. And of Saturn, ib. 
 
 Octants of the moon described, 440. 
 
 Oliers discovered Pallas and Vesta, 69. 
 
 Opposition defined, 340. Mark of, 341. 
 
 Orbits of the planets, inclination of the, to the eclip- 
 tic, 234. Of tho moon, 286—291. Method of 
 
 finding the form of, 644. Inclination of, 643. Ec- 
 centricity, 648. Place of a planet in an elliptical 
 orbit, 598—609. 
 
 Orion, number of stars in, 148. 
 
 Orrery, erected by Archimedes, 30. Description ol 
 the grand, made for King George I., 762 — 764.. 
 Of Mr. Ferguson's, 765—772. 
 
 OsYMANDlUS, an astronomical circle on the monu- 
 ment of, 18. 
 
 Pallas, 69. 115. 
 
 Parallax of planets, methods of determining, 577, 
 Of fixed stars, no sensible quantity, 588. 
 
 Parabola of a comet, method of finding the, 297 — 
 302. 
 
 Pendulum, a test of velocity, 274. Cause of its 
 vibration, 304. Vibrates most quickly near the 
 poles, 397. 
 
 Pendulum clock, 777. 
 
 Penumbra, method of finding the place first or last 
 touched by, 752. 
 
 Perigee defined, 353—360. 
 
 Period of eclipses, 676. See Eclipses. 
 
 Periodical revolutions, 233. 630. 
 
 Pisces and Aries, appearance of the moon in, 487^ 
 492. 
 
 PlAZZi discovered Ceres, 69. 
 
 Planetarium erected by Archimedes, 29. Mr. 
 Jones's described, 771. 
 
 Planets, a theory of the, written by Muller, 39. 
 Their appearance to the eye, 81 — 86. Number, 
 81. Apparent magnitudes and motions, 86. Their 
 names and order, 222 — 227. Are all opaque bo- 
 dies, 230. Their periods, distances, and eccentri- 
 cities, 233. Secondary planets, 270—292. Their 
 circles defined and described, 328 — 333. 336. Their 
 latitude, 334 — 337. Method of computing lati- 
 tude of, 620. Longitude, 357. Method of com- 
 puting, 620. Conjunctions, oppositions, and as- 
 pects, 340 — 349. Stationary appearances, 350. 
 354. Motions, 355, 356. Direct, 357. Retro- 
 grade, 358. In apogee and perigee, 353. 360. 
 Periods of return, 361 — 364. Methods of finding 
 the parallax of the planets, 566 — 579. Their dis- 
 tances, 580—582. 609. 630—649. Periodic times, 
 630. Method of computing densities, 320 — 326. 
 Comparative view of densities, 327. 
 
 Pleiades, number of stars in, 148. 
 
 Pole, to find the place of, in projecting a solar 
 eclipse, 750. 
 
 Poles of the earth, bodies heaviest when near, 
 397. 
 
 Pond, astronomer royal, 71, 588. 
 
 Precession of the equinoxes, 390 — 392. Table and 
 formulae for computing effect of, 394 — 396. 
 
 Progressive motion of light proves the motion of 
 the earth, 373—386. 
 
 Projectile forces, supposed by Dr. Herschel to 
 counteract the power of attraction, 207. Rendered 
 probable by changes in the positions of stars, 
 208. 
 
 Proportional distances of the planets from the sun, 
 233, 
 
 Proportions of light, heat, bulk, and density of the 
 planets, 235. 
 
 Pythagorean system of astronomy, taught by Phil- 
 olaus, 25. And by Aristarchus,28. Carried into 
 Italy, Gaul, and Egypt, 26, 27. Restored by Co- 
 pernicus, 42. 218. 
 
 Pythagoras held comets to be of the nature of 
 planets, 172. 
 
 Quadrant, mural, described, 781 — 787. 
 Quadrant, portable, described, 788, 789. 
 Quadrant, reflecting, invented, 56.
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 205 
 
 QCADRATURE defined, 340, 341. 
 
 Radius, vector, 601. Method of finding length of, 
 609. 649. 
 
 Refraction of light by the atmosphere, 501. Il- 
 lustrated, 502. Method of computing by Brinkley, 
 504 — 509. Table of mean refractions, by Mr. 
 Henry Atkinson, 511. 
 
 Refractions, the use of, in astronomy, shown by 
 Alhazen, 34. And Vitello,37. 
 
 Retrograde motion of a planet defined, 344. 
 
 Revolution of the heavens, only an apparent mo- 
 tion, 409. 
 
 Revolution, synodical, method of determining, 
 650—656. 
 
 Right Ascension, method of computing, of the stars, 
 620. Table of principal, 865. Of the sun, 558. 
 560. 
 
 Ring. See Saturn. To find the form of, 137. 
 
 Samarcand, the latitude of, determined by Llug 
 Beg, 35. 
 
 Satellites, four revolve round Jupiter, 120. Seven 
 round Satum, 134. And six round Herschcl, 
 139. 
 
 Saturn, his ring discovered, 50. 128. And five of 
 his satellites, 54. His appearance to the naked 
 eye, 85. And through a telescope, 128. His 
 ring described, 129, 130. Found by Dr. Hershel 
 to be double, 131. Not changeable, 132. Period 
 of his revolution, 133. Seven satellites, 134. 
 Their periodical revolutions and distances from Sa- 
 turn, and greatest angular distance as seen from the 
 earth, 135. Table to determine the apparent form 
 of the ring, and of the orbits of satellites, 137, 138. 
 Mutual attraction between Jupiter and Saturn, 267, 
 268. Their power, 272. 
 
 Schroeter, 111. 113. 
 
 Sea, the ebbing and flowing of the, causes of, 450. 
 483. 
 
 Seasons, causes of the, 414. 423. Had fallen back 
 from the error of the Gregorian oilendar, 430. 
 Rectified by the new style, ib. 431. 
 
 Sector, equatorial, described, 812. 815. 
 
 Semita Luminosa, or zodiacal light, 150 — 152. 
 
 Semi Tychonic system, 217. 
 
 Sextile, definition and marks of, 341. 
 
 Shadow of the earth always round, 367. 
 
 Siderial days defined, 525. 
 
 Signs, Chinese names of the, 7. Defined, 336. 
 
 Solar days defined, 525. 
 
 Solar eclipses, of the shadow of the penumbra in, 
 687—693. When they can happen, 695. Num- 
 ber that may happen in a year, 698. Rules for 
 computing, 731 — 753. 
 
 Solar noon, deviation of the, from the clock, 541. 
 
 Solar systems, ours, in motion, 208. Synoptic view 
 of 222— 227. 
 
 Solar systems, space universally filled with, 183. 
 
 Southern constellations, 596. 
 
 Stars, fixed, catalogues of the, made by Hipparchus, 
 30. Ulug Beg, 35. William IV. of Hesse, 46. 
 Tytho Brahe, 47. Flamsteed, 58. Halley, 59. 
 Hcirschel, 68. Their aberration discovered, 56. 
 Apjjearances to the eye, 79 — 81. Most numerous 
 in the northern partof the heavens, 79 — 31. Liable 
 to changes. 89. Their appearance through teles- 
 copes, 147, 14b. Supposed to be suns, 181 — 186. 
 Dr. Horschel's theory, 187. Observations of in- 
 numerable multitudes of stars, 188 — 205. His in- 
 ferences, 205 — 208. Apparent changes of stars, 
 ib. Are situated at an immense distance, shine by 
 their own native light, 228. No method yet found 
 to ascertain their distance, 584. Conjecture as to 
 it, 585. Dr. Herschel's method, 586. Still in- 
 sufficient, 587. Divisions of the stars, 589 — 597. 
 
 Number of, in different constellations, 595 — 597. 
 Table of proper motion of, 209. Catalogue of prin- 
 cipal, 865. 
 
 Style, reason for the change of, 430, 431. 
 
 Sun, spots on the, discovered, 50. His parallax and 
 distance computed, 64. His appearance to the eye, 
 77. And through a telescope, 98 — 108. His 
 spots observed by Galileo Scheiner, and Harriot, 
 about the same time, 98, 99. Variety of aimcn- 
 sions, 100. Subject to increase and diminution, 101 
 — 103. Their velocity and uniform motion from east 
 to west, 104. Other phenomena attending them 
 105 — 108. Dr. Long's account of them, 154. To 
 find the time of their revolutions, 156, 157. Dii- 
 ferent opinions concerning them, 158. Dr. Wilson, 
 159 — 164. The sun supposed not to be in the 
 centre of the universe, 192. Is at an immense 
 distance, 229. Mutual gravitation between the 
 sun and planets, 260 — 269. Action rif the sun oa 
 the secondary planets, 270 — 292. Proportion of 
 his action on both, 306 — 318. His conjunctions 
 with the planets, 340 — 364. Is immensely largi r 
 than the earth, 370, 371. Proofs that the earth 
 revolves round the sun, 371 — 413. And that the 
 sun revolves on his axis, 388, 389. He is higher 
 in summer than in winter, 421. And more dis- 
 tant, 423. Reasons for the greater heat in sum- 
 mer, 423 — 426. Periods of his completing a tro- 
 pical revolution, 427. Appears to fall back with 
 respect to the stars, 428. Reasons for the ap- 
 parent increase of magnitude near the horizon, 
 494 — 500. The motion of the sun illustrated by 
 supposing a fictitious sun moving in the equator, 
 533 — 541. The sun's parallax the most important 
 problem in astronomy, 532. Table of the sun's 
 declination for 1824 ; with auxiliary table to find 
 it for subsequent years, 550, 551. To find the 
 moon's way from the sun in eclipses, 725 — 730. 
 to calculate eclipses of the sun, 731 — 753. 
 
 Synopsis of the sun and planets, 232 — 235. 
 
 Systems of astronomy, account of the most famous, 
 210 — 227. Of the Pythagorean, 212. Ptolemaic, 
 213,214. Tychonic," 216. Semi Tychonic, 217. 
 Cartesian, 218. And Copernican, 219—227. 
 
 Tables, astronomical, published, 37. 48. 59. 62. 
 
 Telescopes, improvement of, 54 — 57. Various 
 kinds of, used by astronomers, 778. 784. 816. To 
 point the telescope of an equatorial to a star, 
 861. 
 
 Telescopic stars defined, 589. 
 
 Tides, theory of, 450 — 483. Causes of the spring 
 and neap, 455. 472. 475, 476. Tides supposed in 
 the atmosphere, 483. 
 
 Time, methods of finding, 526 — 529. Equation of 
 time, table of, 543, 544. Illustration of equation 
 of time, 533 — 536. Explanation of, 537 — 541. 
 
 Time keeper, recommended by Frisius to determme 
 the longitude, 45. 
 
 Trajectorium Lunare, described, 773 — 775. 
 
 Transit instrument, description and use of, 817 
 —850. 
 
 Transits of inferior planets over the sun ; intervals 
 at which they may happen, 657. 663. List of 
 transits of Venus, 664. Of Mercury, 665. 
 
 Tropic of Cancer described, 416. Of Capricorn, 
 418. 
 
 TroUGHTON, maker of one of the Greenwicn mural 
 circles, 71. 
 
 Twilight, cause of the, 512. Method of determin- 
 ing the time of shortest at any place, 513 — 515. 
 
 Tychonic system, account of the, 216. 
 
 Velocity of the spots on the sun, 104. Of comets, 
 greatest in their perihelion, 174. Of bodies, pbeno-
 
 AST 
 
 206 
 
 AST 
 
 mena of the, 237. 273. 274. Of the earth, 386. 
 Of light. 396. 
 
 V^ENUS, the first transit of, ever observed, 51. The 
 second and third observed at various places, 
 inferences, 64. Her appearance to the eye, 83. 
 And through a telescope ; her phases and changes 
 similar to those observed in the moon were 
 first observed by Galileo ; Dr. Herschel's ob- 
 servations and inferences ; she has an atmos- 
 phere, and is probably a little larger than the 
 earth, 112. Mountains in her, seen by Schroeter, 
 113. Periods of her transits, 346. 664. Her 
 motions, 361, 362. Methods of deducing her pa- 
 rallax, 571, 572. 581, 582. Advantage of observ- 
 ing her transits, 582. Account of those that have 
 been observed, 583. 
 
 Vernier described, 785, 786. 
 
 Vesta, 69, 117. 
 
 Vibration of pendulums, cause of the, 304. 
 
 Visible disk, moon's, method of delineating, 447. 
 
 Visible eclipses, number of, in the year, 699. 
 
 Umbrae in the sun defined, 106, 107. 
 
 Unformed stars defined, 590. 
 Uramburg, built by Tycho Brahe, 47. 
 Uranometria, a work published by Bayer, 49. 
 Ursa, major and minor, number of stars in, 595. 
 
 Whiston, conjecture of, respecting comets, 177. 
 
 XiPHlAS, number of stars in the constellation, 596. 
 
 Year, the grand, Josephus's mention of, 4. Cassini'* 
 remark on, 5. The tropical and siderial defined, 
 427. Civil and solar difference of, 429, 430. 
 Rectified by the change of style, 430, 431. 
 
 Zenith sector, invented by Graham, 56. 
 
 Zodiac, Chinese divisions of the, 7. Etymology and 
 definition of, 330. Division of, astral and local 
 defined, 336. Extent of, 593. 
 
 Zodiacal light, discovered by Cassini, 150. De- 
 scribed, 151 — 153. Reason for supposing that it 
 is not connected with the solar atmosphere, 152. 
 
 Zones, or belts round Jupiter, 54. 118. 
 
 ASTROPECTEN, in natural history, a species 
 of star fisli, composed of a central nucleus, fur- 
 rowed like the shell of the common scallop, and 
 parting into five principal rays, from each of 
 which issue several ti-ansverse processes, covered 
 with a hairy down. 
 
 ASTROPODIA, the star-stone. SeeAsTERiA. 
 
 ASTROSCOPE, an astronomical instrument, 
 composed of two cones, on whose surface the 
 constellations, with their stars, are delineated, by 
 means whereof the stars may easily be known. 
 
 ASTROSCOPIA, the art of examining the 
 stars by telescopes. Huygens improved this art 
 considerably. See his Astroscopia Compendiaria. 
 
 ASTROTHEMATA, in astrology, the posi- 
 tions of the stars in a theme of the heavens. 
 
 ASTRUC (John), a celebrated French phy- 
 sician, was born in 1684, at the little town of 
 Sauve in Languedoc. He studied at the univer- 
 sity of Montpelier, and in 1717 was in great re- 
 pute there as a teacher of medic'ne. His fame 
 became so considerable that the king assigned 
 him an annual salary, and appointed him to 
 superintend the mineral waters in Languedoc. 
 As Montpelier, however, did not aflbrd sufficient 
 scope for his genius, he removed to Paris, but 
 soon after left it, having in 1729 accepted the 
 office of first physician to the king of Poland. 
 Upon the death of the celebrated Geoffroy, in 
 1731, he was appointed Regius Professor of 
 medicine at Paris. Of his numerous writings the 
 following are the principal : 1 . De Morbis Vene- 
 reis. 2. Memoirs relative to the Natural History 
 of Languedoc. 3. A Treatise on Pathology. 
 4. On Therapeutics. 5. On the Inoculation for 
 the Small-pox. 6. On Tumors and Ulcers. 7. 
 Ori'^ine de la Paste. 8. De motu Musculari. 
 0. L'Art de I'Accoucheur. 10. De motus Fer- 
 inentativi. 11. Memoire sur la Digestion. 12. 
 On the diseases of Women. The first and last 
 have been translated into English. He died 
 universally regretted, on the 15th of May 1766, 
 in the eighty-second year of his age. 
 
 ASTRUM, or Astron, a constellation, or as- 
 semblage of stars ; as distinguished from aster, a 
 single star. 
 
 ASTRUT'. On strut. See Strut. 
 
 What good can the great gloton do w« his bely 
 standing a strote lik-e a taber, and liis noil toty with 
 drink. Sir Thos. More, fol. 98. 
 
 Inflated and astrut with self conceit. 
 He gulps the windy diet ; and ere long. 
 Adopting their mistake, profoundly thinks 
 The world was made in vain, if not for him. 
 
 Cowper. The Task, book v. 
 
 ASTURA, in ancient geography, a town of 
 Italy, in the Campagna di Roma, which had a 
 good harbour. Cicero lost his life in it, and 
 prince Conradin, last heir of the house of Hohen- 
 stausen, was taken prisoner here in 1268. 
 
 ASTURIA, an ancient kingdom of Spain, 
 subdued by Augustus emperor of Rome. 
 
 ASTURIANS,thebrave inhabitants of Asturia, 
 who, along with those of Cantabria, asserted their 
 liberty long after the rest of Spain had submitted 
 to the Roman yoke. So great was their desire 
 of liberty, that, after being closely shut up by 
 the Roman aimy, they endured the most terrible 
 calamities of famine, even to the devouring of 
 one another, rather than submit to the enemy. 
 At length, however, the Asturians proposed to 
 surrender ; but the Cantabrians opposed the mea- 
 sure, and maintained that tliey ought rather to 
 die sword in hand. Upon this the two nations 
 quarrelled, notwithstanding their desperate situa- 
 tion; and a battle ensuing, 10,000 of the Astu- 
 rians were driven to the entrenchments of the 
 Romans, whom they begged, in the most moving 
 manner, to receive them on any terms. But 
 Tiberius refusing to admit them into the camp, 
 some of these unhappy people put an end to 
 their lives by falling on their own swords ; others, 
 lighting great fires, threw themselves into them, 
 while some poisoned themselves by drinking the 
 juice of a venemous herb. The campaign being 
 closed by the winter, the next year the Asturians 
 summoned all their strength against the Romans ; 
 but, after frequent eflbrts, sometimes in conjunc- 
 tion with the Cantabrians, diey were reduced by 
 the imperial armies, and submitted to the Roman 
 power till the subversion of that empire by the 
 Goths.
 
 AST 
 
 207 
 
 ASY 
 
 ASTURIA, or Asturias, anciently tlie king- 
 dom of Astoria, is now a principality of modern 
 Spain. It is bounded by Biscay on the east, 
 Galiciaon the west, Castile and Old Leon on the 
 south, and the sea on the north. Its greatest 
 length is about 120 miles, and its breadth 54. 
 On the south it is separated from Castile and 
 ( )ld Leon by high mountains covered with woods. 
 The provmce is tolerably fertile, but is thinly in- 
 liabited. It has mines of gold, lapis lazuli, and 
 vermilion. The liereditary prince of Spain is 
 styled Prince of the Asturias ; the infant Don 
 Henriquez, son of John I. of Castile, being the 
 first who took that title in 1388. This princi- 
 pality is commonly divided into Asturia d'Oviedo, 
 and Asturia de Santillana, so called from their 
 principal towns ; the former occupying two-thirds 
 of the principality to the west, and being about 
 thirty Spanish leagues in length, and eighteen in 
 breadth ; the latter the otlier third, sixteen leagues 
 long and twelve broad. The climate of the whole 
 principality is colder than the rest of Spain ; but 
 the mountains and hills, though often covered 
 with snow during the whole winter, abound with 
 excellent pastures, and a great variety of fruit 
 trees. Apples are particularly abundant, and a 
 great deal of cyder is made and exported ; 
 Spanish America alone has received 28,000 arobas 
 of 2.5 lb. each yearly. But the most important 
 Ijranch of their agriculture is the breeding of cat- 
 tle ; and their horses have been celebrated for 
 strength from the days of Martial and Silius 
 Italicus. The Asturias contain a bishopric, 668 
 parishes, 36 religious houses, including 23 mo- 
 nasteries and nunneries, a university, 3 colleges, 
 a royal court of justice, 4 cities, 50 towns, and 
 3 sea-ports, the principal of which is Oijon, 
 together with several villages ; and a population 
 of about 350,000. In more modern history, they 
 are celebrated for having received Pelayo and 
 the other Christians who escaped from the Moors 
 after the battle of Xeres de la Frontera, and who, 
 protected by this mountainous country, bade de- 
 fiance to, and finally expelled the invaders, lay- 
 ing in these provinces the foundation of the 
 Spanish monarchy. Hence the Asturian nobility 
 and gentry are possessed of some extraordinary 
 privileges, and the inhabitants of the mountain 
 Ancena are still distinguished by the title of * the 
 illustrious mountaineers.' 
 
 Asturias, in zoology, a name by which some 
 authors have called the goshawk. 
 
 ASTUTE. Lat. astutus ; from Gr. a<rw, a 
 city. Acute, penetrating, sharp. Applied to the 
 inhabitants of a city who are supposed to be 
 sharp-witted in consequence of having much in- 
 tercourse with the chicane and craft of mankind, 
 and are therefore prepared to contend with it. 
 
 We term those niost astute which are most vcrsute. 
 Sir M. Sandy's Ess. p. 168^ 
 
 ASTYAGES, son of Cyaxares, the last king 
 of the Medes. He dreamed, that from the womb 
 of his daughter Mandane, married to Cambyses 
 king of Persia, there sprung up a vine that 
 spread itself over ail Asia ; and she being with 
 child, he resolved to kill the infant as soon as 
 bom. Its name was Cyrus ; but Harpagus being 
 sent to destroy it, preserved it ; which Astyages 
 iiearing of long after, he caused Harpagus to eat 
 
 his own son. Harpagus, in revenge, called in 
 Cyrus, who dethroned his grandfather, and 
 thereby ended the monarchy of the Medes ; the 
 tyrant thus losing his kingdom by the barbarous 
 means he took to preserve it. See Media and " 
 Persia. 
 
 ASTYANAX, the only son of Hector and 
 Andromache. After the taking of Troy, he was 
 thrown from the top of a tower by Ulysses' 
 orders 
 
 ASTYNOMI, in Grecian antiquity, magis- 
 trates in Athens, corresponding to the sediles of 
 the Romans ; they were ten in number. See 
 iEniLE. 
 
 ASUNDER. '^On sunder. 
 
 Two indirect lines ; the further that they are drawn 
 Out, the further they go asunder. Spenser on Ireland. 
 So looks the pent up lion o'er the wretch 
 That trembles under his devouring paws ; 
 And so he walks insulting o'er his prey. 
 And so he comes to tear his limbs asunder. 
 
 Skakspeare's Third Part of Henry VI. act i. sc. 5. 
 The way of Fortune is like the milken way in the 
 skie, which is a meeting or knot of a number of small 
 stars ; not seen asunder, but giving light together : so 
 are there a number of little and scarce discerned ver- 
 tues, or rather faculties and customes, that make men 
 fortunate. Lord Bacon's Essays. 
 
 Sense thinks the planets spheres not much asunder ; 
 What tells us then, their distance is so far ? 
 
 Davies. 
 Greedy hope to find 
 His wish and best advantage, us asunder. 
 
 Paradise Lost. 
 The fall'n archangel, envious of our stale. 
 Seeks hid advantage to betray us worse ; 
 Which, when asunder, will not prove too hard , 
 For both together are each other's guard. 
 
 Dryden. 
 Borne far asitnder by the tides of men. 
 Like adamant and steel they meet again. 
 
 Dryden's Fables. 
 All this metallick matter (_both that which conti- 
 nued asunder, and in single corpuscles, and that 
 which was amassed and concreted into nodub s,) sub- 
 sided. Woodward's Natural History. 
 The diversified but connected fabrick of universal 
 justice is well cramped and bolted together in all 
 parts; and depend upon it, I never have employed, 
 and I never <ihall employ, any engine of power which 
 may come into my hands, to wrench it asunder. 
 
 Burke. 
 Upon the whole, there was in this man something 
 that could create, subvert, or reform ; an understand- 
 ing, a spirit, and an eloquence, to summon mankind 
 to society, or to break the bands of slavery asunder, 
 and to rule the wilderness of free minds with un- 
 bounded authority ; something that could establish or 
 overwhelm empire, and strike a blow in the world 
 that should resound through the universe. 
 
 Grattan's Character of Lord Chatham. 
 ASYLA, the plural of Asylu.m. The as\ la of 
 altars and temples were very ancient ; and like- 
 wise those of tombs, statues, and other monu- 
 ments of considerable personages. Thus, the 
 temple of Diana at Ephesus was a refuge for 
 debtors ; the tomb of Theseus for slaves. In 
 order to people Rome, a celebrated asylum 
 was opened by Romulus between the mounts 
 Palatine and Capitoline, for all sorts of persons 
 indiscriminately, fugitive slaves, debtors and 
 criminals of every kind. It had a temple 
 dedicated to the god Asylaeus. The Jews had
 
 ASY 
 
 208 
 
 ATA 
 
 their asyla ; the most remarkable of which were, 
 the six cities of refuge, the temple, and the altar 
 of burnt offerings ; which protected those who 
 had incurred tlie lash of the law, but not for any 
 deliberate crime. But it was customary among 
 the heathens to allow refuge and impunity, even 
 to the vilest and most flagrant offenders ; some 
 out of superstition, and others for the sake of 
 peopling their cities. They had an idea, that a 
 criminal who fled to the temple or altar, sub- 
 mitted his crime to the punishment of the gods ; 
 and that it would be impiety in man to take ven- 
 geance out of their hands. It was by this means, 
 and with such inhabitants, that Thebes, Athens, 
 and Rome, were first stocked. We even read of 
 asyla at Lyons and Vienne, among the ancient 
 Gauls ; and there are some cities in Germany, 
 which still preserve this ancient right. On the 
 medals of several ancient cities, particularly in 
 Syria, we meet with the inscription A2YA0I, to 
 which is added lEPAI. The emperors Honorius 
 and Theodosius, granting the like immunities to 
 churches, the bishops and monks soon selected 
 certain tracts or territories, without which they 
 fixed the bounds of the secular jurisdiction ; and 
 so well did they manage their privileges, that 
 convents in a little time became a kind of for- 
 tresses, where the most notorious offenders were 
 in safety. These privileges at length were ex- 
 tended, not only to the churches and church- 
 yards, but also to the bishops' houses ; whence the 
 criminal could not be removed without a legal 
 assurance of life, and an entire remission of the 
 crime. At last these asyla were stripped of most 
 of their immunities. In Great Britain particu- 
 larly, they have been entirely abolished as pro- 
 tecting criminals, although there are still some 
 privileged places of refuge for debtors, such as 
 the precincts of the royal palaces, the Abbey of 
 Holy-rood-house, Edinburgh, kc. 
 
 ASY'LUM. Gr. a, the privative, and avXr], 
 spoil; because it was not lawful to spoil those 
 who fled to a sanctuary. 
 
 So sacred was the church to some, that it had the 
 right of an asylum or sanctuary. Ayliffe's Parer. 
 
 But noble dames. 
 In this asylum sojourning awhile. 
 Trust your own merits, and a guanlian god. 
 
 Glover's Athenaid, book ii. 
 
 The adventurer knows he has not far to go before 
 he will meet with some fortress that has been raised 
 by sophistry for the asylum of error. Hawkesworth. 
 
 ASYLUS, the gad-fly. See Asilus. 
 
 ASYM'METRY, '\ A, the privative, and cvfi- 
 
 Asym'metral, >/i£rpov, proportion. Want 
 
 Asym'metrous. 3 of symmetry,' dispropor- 
 tion. 
 
 Quantities compared with respect to such a mea- 
 sure, are by geometricians wont to be called symme- 
 trous or asymmetrous, i. e. commensurable or incom- 
 mensurable. Barrow's Mathematical Lectures. 
 
 The asymmetries of the brain, as well as the defor- 
 mities of the legs or face, may be rectified in time. 
 
 Grew. 
 
 ASYMPTOTE; from a priv. avv, with, 
 and irroiu, to fall ; which never meet ; incoinci- 
 dent. Asymptotes are right lines, which ap- 
 proach nearer to some curve; but which, though 
 they and their curve were infinitely continued, 
 would never meet ; and may be conceived as 
 
 tangents to their curves at an infinite distance. 
 See Conic Sections. 
 
 ASYNDETON, fi-om the privative a, and 
 avvhui, I bind together ; a figure in rhetoric, im- 
 plyinii an omission of words, or a defect of con- 
 junctive particles. The want of such particles 
 represents either the celerity of an action, or the 
 haste and eagerness of the speaker. As, in the 
 celebrated instance, ' veni, vidi, vici,' ' I came, 
 I saw, I conquered.' 
 
 AT. From the Latin ad. In its abstract 
 sense designating completion, termination, toucii- 
 ing the surface by approach. 
 
 For all the field was but of sand 
 As small as men may see at eye 
 In the desert of Libye. 
 
 Chaucer. The Hotise of Fame, b. i. c. 3. 
 I speke the thingis that I saigh at my fadir ; and 
 ye doen the thingis that ye saighen at youre fadir. 
 
 Wiclif. Jon. chap. viii. p. 61. 
 Under pardon. 
 You are much more af task, for want of wisdom ; 
 Than prais'd for harmless mildness. Shakspeare. 
 
 Others, with more helpful care, 
 Cry'd aloud, ' Beware, brave youth, beware'.' 
 At this he tum'd ; and, as the bull drew near, 
 Shunn'd and receiv'd him on his pointed spear. 
 
 Dry den. 
 Their various news T heard, of love and strife. 
 Of storms at sea, and travels on the shore. Pope. 
 
 ATABALIPA, or Atahualpa, the last of the 
 Incas. On the death of his father, in 1529, he 
 succeeded to the throne of Quito, while his bro- 
 ther Huascar obtained the kingdom of Peru. 
 Not long after a disagreement took place, and* 
 hostilities commenced betwixt them, in which 
 Huascar was defeated. The Spaniards taking 
 advantage of these disturbances, with Pizarro ag 
 their leader, invaded Peru, where they were en- 
 tertained with no little hospitality by the king 
 and the people ; but, instead of making any return 
 for his kindness, they, with their usual treachery, 
 held him in captivity. The inca, as a ransom, 
 offered to give the Spaniards a room full of gold, 
 and, when they had got the treasure in their pos- 
 session, they, with the utmost baseness, burnt the 
 unhappy monarch at the stake, in 1533. 
 
 ATABULUS, in physiology, a provincial wind 
 in Apulia, of a dry pinching quality, and very 
 noxious in its effects. The ancient naturalists 
 speak of the Atabulus in terms of horror, on 
 account of tlie ravages it made among the fruits. 
 
 ATABYRIS, a very high mountain in the 
 island of Rhodes, on which, according to Strabo 
 and Diodorus Siculus, stood a temple of Jupiter 
 Atabyrius, whose worship a colony of Rhodians 
 carried into Sicily. 
 
 ATACAMA, a chain of mountains in Soutli 
 America, which separate Peru from Quito, and 
 where the cold is very violent. 
 
 Atacama, a province of Peru, bounded on 
 the north by the province of Arica ; east by 
 Lipes, Salta, and Tucuman ; south by a desert 
 extending to the kingdom of Chili ; and west by 
 the South Sea. Its population is under 3000. 
 Its chief town, of the same name, lies in long. W. 
 69" 30'. lat. S. 23° 30'., on a barren spot, about 
 100 miles from the sea. 
 
 ATACAMITE, in mineralogy, a name given 
 to a variety of muriate of copper, found in the
 
 ATA 
 
 209 
 
 ATE 
 
 district of Atacama, in minute crystals and frag- 
 ments. 
 
 ATAD, a Canaanite, rendered memorable by 
 his threshing-floor, Gen. 1. 10. See Abel- 
 
 VltRAIM. 
 
 ATALANTA, in ancient geography, an island 
 in the Euripus of Eubcea, near the Locri Opuntii, 
 said to have been originally a city of the Locri, 
 but torn from the continent in the time of an 
 earthquake, and during an eruption of mdunt 
 jT.tna; in the fourth year of the ninety-third 
 Olympiad, in the reign of Artaxerxes-Mnemon. 
 
 Atalanta, in fabulous history, the daughter 
 of Schoeneus, king of Scyros. Being resolved 
 against marriage, and at the same time very swift 
 of foot, she, to get rid of her numerous suitors, 
 declared that she would marry none but the man 
 who was willing to risk his life for her, by striving 
 to outrun her, and to forfeit it if he failed. This 
 several attempted and suffered accordingly. But 
 Hippomenes, being furnished by Venus with 
 three golden apples, dropt them at proper dis- 
 tances during the race, and while she stooped to 
 gather them, gained both the race and the prin- 
 cess. Atalanta was present at the hunt of the 
 Caledonian boar, and received from Meleager, 
 who was enamoured of her, its skin and head, as 
 a testimony of her skill in havina: first wounded 
 the animal. This roused the jealousy of Toxeus 
 and Plexippus, his uncles, who endeavoured to 
 strip Atalanta of her honorable spoil. Meleager 
 killed ihem in defence of her right; and his 
 mother Althaea, irritated by the death of her 
 brothers, committed to the flames the charmed 
 brand upon which the life of Meleager depended. 
 The goddess Venus being enraged at the ingra^ 
 titude of Hippomenes, who never performed the 
 vow he had made to erect a temple to her at 
 Scyros, changed both him and Atalanta into 
 lions. 
 
 Atalanta, in entomology, a species of Eu- 
 ropean papilio, of which a variety is also found 
 in America. The wings are black, indented, and 
 spotted with white ; a red band across the an- 
 terior pair ; border of the posterior pair of the 
 same color. It is sometimes called the red admi- 
 rable butterfly, and by the French Atalante. 
 
 ATALAYA de Alagouta, a town in Portu- 
 guese Estremadura, district of Thomar, with the 
 title of county, and between 1300 and 1400 in- 
 habitants, eighteen miles north-west of Lisbon. 
 
 Atalaya Sortelha, a town of Portugal, in 
 the province of Beira, thirteen miles north-east 
 of Castel Branco. 
 
 ATALAYAS, Santiago de las, the capital 
 of the province of San Juan de los Llanos, in 
 the kingdom of Granada. It contains 400 house- 
 holders, and is nine leagues from the city of Pore. 
 
 ATANARI, a considerable river of New Gra- 
 nada, which enters the Mota. 
 
 ATANTA, in botany, a name given by the 
 people of Guinea to a kind of sumach, called, by 
 Petiver, rhus Guineense trifoliatum scabiura, 
 from its being trifoliate, and having rough and 
 serrated leaves. They give it as a restorative 
 boiled in water. 
 
 ATAPUERA, a town of Spain, in Old Cas- 
 tile, near Burgos. In 1053, a battle was fought 
 here between Don Garcia, king of Navarre, and 
 Vol. hi. 
 
 his brotlier Don Ferdinand, in which the former 
 was defeated and slain. 
 
 ATARAX I A, Ataraxy, arapalia. Exemp- 
 tion from vexation ; tranquillity. The sceptics, 
 says Glanville, aff'ected an indiff"erent equiponder- 
 ous neutrality, as the only means to their ataraxia, 
 and freedom from passionate disturbances. 
 
 ATARGATIS Fanum, the temple of the 
 goddess Atergatis, in Bambyce, which was ex- 
 tremely rich. Crassus, in his march against the 
 Parthians, spent several days in weighing the 
 treasure. 
 
 ATARNEA, or Atarnya, an ancient town 
 of ]Mysia, situated between Adramyttium and 
 Pitane, memorable for the marriage of Aristotle 
 with the sister of Hermias, the prince of it. 
 
 ATAULFUS, the first king of the Goths in 
 Spain, established his government there, about 
 A. D. 404, and died, A.^D. 416. See Spain. 
 
 ATAXY, from a negative, and ra^ig, order, 
 the want of order. With physicians, it signifies 
 irregularity of crises and paroxysms of fevers. 
 
 Neither is there any ataxy to be fear."d in bringing 
 in this distinction, betwixt pastors and the flock. 
 
 Bp, Halt's Polemical Works. 
 
 ATCHE, in commerce, the smallest silver 
 coin current in Turkey, worth about one-third 
 of a penny sterling. 
 
 ATCHIEVEMENT, or Achievement, vul- 
 garly called Hatchment. Armorial bearings in 
 front of the houses of deceased persons. 
 
 Atchievement, in heraldry, denotes the arms 
 of a person or family, together with all the exte- 
 rior ornaments of the shield , as helmet, mantle, 
 crest, scrolls, and motto, together with such 
 quarterings as may have been acquired by alli- 
 ances, all marshalled in order. 
 
 ATE ; from ara<o, to hurt ; the goddess of 
 mischief, in the mythologj'. She was daughter of 
 Jupiter, and cast down from heaven at the birth 
 of Hercules. For Juno naving deceived Jupiter, 
 in causing Euristheus to be born before Hercules, 
 Jupiter expressed his resentment against Ate, as 
 the author of that mischief, and threw her head- 
 long from heaven to earth, swearing she should 
 never return thither again. Homeri II. xix. 125. 
 Her being the daughter of Jupiter means, accora 
 ing to mythologists, that no evil happens to us 
 but by the permission of Providence ; and her 
 banishment to earth the terrible effects of divine 
 justice among men. 
 
 ATEGAR ; from the Saxon aeton, to throw, 
 and gar, a weapon ; a weapon among the Sax- 
 ons, which seems to have been a hand-dart. 
 
 ATEGUA, or Attegua, an ancient town of 
 Spain, placed by some in the road from Anti- 
 quara, now Antequera, to Hispalis, or Seville ; 
 by others, near Alcala Real. It was situated near 
 the river Flumen Salsum, or Salsusa. Pompey, 
 having passed this river, encamped between 
 Ucubis and Ategua, to oblige Caesar to raise the 
 siege of the latter place ; but it was taken in his 
 presence. 
 
 ATELIA, an exemption from taxes, or other 
 burdens, is particularly used in some ancien< 
 laws, for an exemption from offices granted to 
 the Egyptian clergy by Constantius. 
 
 Ateha, an ancient town of Campania in 
 Italy, between Capua and NeapoL-s. Ihe ruin*
 
 ATH 
 
 210 
 
 ATH 
 
 are still to be seen about eleven miles from the 
 modern Aversa. 
 
 ATELLANyE Fabul«, Atellani Ludi, a 
 species of farce, so named from Atella, called 
 also Osci, from their inventor, in whose territory 
 Atella lay. They were generally interlarded 
 with much ribaldry and buffoonery, and some- 
 times were exordia, or interludes, presented be- 
 tween the acts of other plays. The actors in 
 these farces were not reckoned among the com- 
 mon players, nor deemed infamous ; but retained 
 the rights of their tribe, and might be enlisted 
 for soldiers, the privilege only of free men. 
 
 ATEMPO GiusTO, in music, signifies to sing 
 or play in an equal, true, and just time. 
 
 ATENA, a town of Italy, in Naples, near the 
 Negro, twelve miles north-west of Marsico, and 
 twenty-two north of Policastro. 
 
 ATER, in conchology, a species of mytilus, 
 described in Molin. Hist. Chili, p. 177, and said 
 to be frequent on the shores of that country : 
 also a species of strombus found in the boggy 
 parts of the island of Araboyna. 
 
 Ater, in entomology, 1. a species of der- 
 mestes found in the neighbourhood of Upsal. 2. 
 A species of hydrophilis, a native of Europe. 3. 
 A species of byrrhus that inhabits Germany. 4. 
 A species of tenebrio found in Europe. 3. A 
 species of carabus that inhabits Denmark. 6. A 
 species of cerambyx (Callidium, Fabr.) found in 
 the environs of Venice. 7. A species of gryllus 
 (Acheta, Fab.) that inhabits Surinam. 8. A 
 species of cimex. 
 
 Ater, in natural history, a species of anguis ; 
 also a species of limax, slug or snail 
 
 Ater, in ornithology, a species of falco; 
 also a species of psittacus. 
 
 ATERGATIS, in mythology, a goddess of the 
 Syrians and Parthians, supposed to be the mother 
 of Semiramis, and called Derceto by the Greeks. 
 She was represented with the face and breasts of 
 a woman, but the rest of her body resembled a 
 fish. Vossius makes the name Phoenician, from 
 addir-dag, the great fish; and says it signifies, 
 without fish ; whence he conjectures that the vo- 
 taries of this deity abstained from fish. 
 
 ATERNUM, in ancient geography, 1. a town 
 of Lucania in Italy, now called Aterni. 2. A 
 town in the territory of the Piceni, now called 
 Pescara, a port town of Naples, on the Adriatic. 
 
 ATERRIMA, in conchology, a species of ne- 
 rita, figured by Chemnitz. 
 
 Aterrima, in entomology, 1. a species of 
 blatta. 2. A new British species of chrysomela, 
 described by M. Marsham, Ent. Brit. 
 
 Aterrimus, 1. a species of curculio, very 
 common in Europe ; black, with the wing-cases 
 shining. Linn. Fn. Sv. Fabr., &c. 2. A species 
 of carabus. 3. A species of elater, found in the 
 north of Europe. 4. A species of cimex (rotun- 
 datus, sec.) that inhabits Spain. 
 
 Aterrimus, in ornithology, the specific name 
 of the great black cockatoo of New Holland. 
 
 ATESTE, a town in the territory of Venice in 
 Italy, now called Este. 
 ATH, or ^th. See ^th. 
 Ath, Atha, or Athe, among our Anglo-Saxon 
 ancestors, signifies an oath, especicdly that taken 
 
 by way of purgation. In this sense, we meet 
 with breaking of ath, privilege of ath, atha, or 
 ordela. 
 
 ATHABOLI, or Agastoboli, a town of 
 Turkey in Europe, on the Black Sea, in the 
 extensive province of Romania, sixty-eight miles 
 north-east of Adrianople. Long. 27° 39' E., lat. 
 42° 27' N. 
 
 ATHALARIC, the grandson of Theodoric, 
 and the second king of the Ostrogoths in Italy, 
 succeeded A. D. 526, and reigned along with 
 his mother Amalasuntha, about eight years. They 
 both died A. D. 534. 
 
 ATHALIAH, n'^jni?, Heb. i.e. the time of the 
 Lord ; the daughter of Ahab king of Israel, by 
 Jezebel, and wife of Jehoram king of Judah. 
 See 2 Chron. xxi. 10, and xxiii. 12. 
 
 ATHAMADULET, or Athemadaulet, the 
 prime minister of the Persian empire. He is 
 great chancellor of the kingdom, president of the 
 council, superintendant of the finances ; and has 
 the charge of all foreign affairs. He is in effect 
 viceroy of the kingdom. 
 
 ATHAMANTA, Spignel, in botany, a genus 
 of the digynia order, and pentandria class of 
 plants, ranking in the natural method under the 
 fourth order, umbellatae. The fruit is oblong and 
 striated ; and the petals are inflected and emar- 
 ginated. Of this genus Linnaeus enumerates nine 
 species : but none of them merit particular notice; 
 except the Cretensis, or Daucus Creticus, which 
 grows wild in the Levant and the warmer parts 
 of Europe. The leaves are irregularly disposed, 
 and formed like those of fennel. The flower- 
 stalk rises about two feet high, sending out many 
 branches, terminated at the top by compound 
 umbels, composed of nearly twenty small ones. 
 The seeds have a warm biting taste, with an 
 agreeable aromatic smell. They are kept in the 
 shops as a carminative ; but are little used in 
 practice. 
 
 ATHANASIA, Goldilocks, in botany, a 
 genus of the polygamia aequalis order, and syn- 
 genesia class of plants ; ranking in the natural 
 method under the forty-ninth order, compositae 
 discoides. The receptacle is chaffy ; the pappus 
 chaffy and very short , and the calyx imbri- 
 cated. There are twenty species, all tender 
 plants except one ; and none of them possessed 
 of much beauty. 
 
 Athanasia, in ancient medicine, an epithet 
 given to a kind of antidotes, supposed to have 
 the power of prolonging life, even to immor- 
 tality. In the Augustan dispensatory we still find 
 a medicine under the appellation of athanasia 
 magna, recommended against dysenteries and 
 haemorrhages. 
 
 Athanasia, in botany, is used by some au- 
 thors for tanzy. 
 
 ATHANASIAN Creed; a formulary, or con- 
 fession of faith, long supposed to have been 
 drawn up by Athanasius bishop of Alexandria, in 
 the fourth century, to justify himself against the 
 calumnies of his Arian enemies ; but now gene- 
 rally allowed among the learned not to have been 
 his. Dr. Waterland ascribes it to Hilary bishop 
 of Aries, for the following among other reasons : 
 1 . Because Honoratus of Marseilles, the writer
 
 ATH 
 
 211 
 
 ATH 
 
 of his life, tells us, that he composed an Expo- 
 sition of the Creed ; a more proper title for the 
 Athanasian, than that of Creed simply, which it 
 now bears. 2. Hilary was a great admirer and 
 follower of St. Austin ; and the whole compo- 
 sition of this creed is in a manner upon St. Aus- 
 tin's plan, both with respect to the trinity and 
 the incarnation. 3. It is agreeabl3 to the style 
 of Hilary, as far as we can judge from the little 
 that is left of his works. About A. D. 570, it 
 became so famous as to be commented upon ; 
 but, for several years after, it had not acquired 
 the name of Athanasian, but was simply styled 
 the catholic faith. This creed obtained in France 
 about A. D. 850, and was received in Spain and 
 Germany about 100 years later. As to our own 
 country, we have clear proofs of its being sung 
 alternately in our churches in the tenth century. 
 It was in common use in some parts of Italy, 
 particularly in the diocese of V^erona, about A.D. 
 960, and was received at Rome about 1014. As 
 to the Greek and oriental churches, it has been 
 questioned whether any of them ever received 
 this creed at all : with regard to its matter, it is 
 given as a summary of the true orthodox faith, 
 and a condemnation of all heresies, ancient and 
 modern. Unhappily, however, it has proved a 
 fruitful source of unprofitable controversy and 
 unchristian animosity even down to the present 
 time. 
 
 ' The account given of Athanasius's creed,' 
 says archbishop Tillotson, in a letter written 
 from Lambeth, Oct. 23, 1694, to a right reverend 
 prelate, * seems to me no wise satisfactory : 
 I wish we were well rid of it.' Bishop Taylor, 
 in his Liberty of Prophesying, sect. ii. says, 
 * If it were considered, concerning Athanasius's 
 creed, how many people understand it not, how 
 contrary to natural reason it seems, how little 
 the scripture says of those curiosities of expli- 
 cation, and how tradition was not clear on his 
 side for the article itself, much less for those 
 forms and minutes ; it had not been amiss if the 
 final judgment had been left to Jesus Christ : 
 and indeed to me it seems very hard to put un- 
 charitableness into the creed, and so to make it 
 become as an article of faith.' ' It certainly is 
 to be lamented,' says Dr. Tomline, the present 
 bishop of Worcester, in his Elements of Christian 
 Theology, vol. ii. p. 220, ' that assertions of so 
 peremptory a nature,' referring to the damnatory 
 clauses, ' unexplained and unqualified, should 
 have been used in any human composition.' ' I 
 am ready to acknowledge,' p. 222, ' that, in my 
 judgment, notwithstanding the authority of 
 former times, our church would have acted more 
 wisely, and more consistently with its general 
 principles of mildness and toleration, if it had 
 not adopted the damnatory clauses of the Atha- 
 nasian creed. Though I firmly believe that the 
 doctrines themselves of this creed are all founded 
 on scripture, I cannot but conceive it to be both 
 unnecessary and presumptuous to say, that ' ex- 
 cept every one do keep them whole and unde- 
 filed, without doubt he shall perish everlastingly'.' 
 Dr. Horsley, late bishop of St. Asaph, avowed a 
 similar opinion. 
 
 ATHANASIUS, St. bishop of Alexandria, and 
 one of the most violent opponents of the Arians, 
 
 was born in Egypt. lie followed St. Alexander 
 to the council of Nice, in 325, where he disputed 
 against Arius, and the following year was made 
 bishop of Alexandria ; but, in 335, was deposed 
 by the council of Tyre: when, having recourse 
 to the emperor Constantine, the Arian deputies 
 accused him of having hindered the exportation 
 of corn from Alexandria to Constantinople ; on 
 which the emperor, without suffering him to 
 make his defence, banished him to Treves. The 
 emperor, two years after, ordered him to be re- 
 stored to his bishopric : but, on his return to 
 Alexandria, his enemies brought fresh accusations 
 against him, and chose Gregory of Cappadocia 
 to his see ; which obliged Athanasius to go to 
 Rome, to reclaim it of pope Julius. He was 
 there declared innocent, in a council held in 342, 
 and in that of Sardica, in 347, and two years after 
 was restored to his see by order ot the emperor 
 Constans ; but, after the death of that prince, he 
 was again banished by Constantius, on which he 
 retired into the deserts. The Arians then elected 
 one George in his room ; who being killed, in 
 a popular sedition under Julian, in 360, Atha- 
 nasius returned to Alexandria, but was banished 
 under Julian, and restored to his see under 
 Jovian. He addressed to that emperor a letter, 
 in which he proposed, that the Nicene creed 
 should be the standard of the orthodox faith, and 
 condemned those who denied the divinity of the 
 Holy Ghost. He was also banished by \"alens, 
 in 367, and afterwards recalled. He died on the 
 2d of May, 373. His works principally contain 
 a defence of the mystery of the Trinity, and of 
 the incarnation and divinity of the Word and 
 Holy Spirit. There are three editions of his 
 works which are esteemed ; that of Commelin, 
 printed in 1600; that of Peter Nannius, in 
 1627 ; and that of father Montfaucon. 
 
 ATHANATI, i. e. immortals ; from a, privative, 
 and aQavaroQ, death ; a body of cavalry, among the 
 ancient Persians, consisting of 10,000 men, al- 
 ways complete, because when any one of them 
 died another was immediately put into his place. 
 
 ATHANOR. Chemists have given this name 
 to a furnace so constructed, that it can always 
 maintain an equal heat, and lasts a long time, 
 without addition of fresh fuel. The body of the 
 athanor has nothing in it particular, and is con- 
 structed like ordinary furnaces. But at one of 
 its sides, or its middle, there is an upright hollow 
 tower, which communicates with the fire-place, 
 by one or more sloping openings. This tower 
 ought to have a lid, which exactly closes its up- 
 per opening. When the athanor is to be used, 
 as much lighted coal is put in the fire-place as is 
 judged necessary, and the tower is filled to the 
 top with unlighted fuel. The tower is then to be 
 exactly closed with its lid. As fast as the coal 
 in the fire-place is consumed, that in the tower 
 falls down and supplies its place. As the coal 
 contained in the tower has no free communica- 
 tion with the external air, it cannot burn, till it 
 falls into the fire-place. The athanor being 
 much celebrated and used by ancient chemists, 
 has been particularly described by many au- 
 thors, and was formerly found in all laboratories. 
 At present, this furnace is much less employed, 
 and even neglected. The reason is, that all the 
 
 P2
 
 ATH 
 
 212 
 
 ATH 
 
 ancient chemists were in searcli of the art of 
 making gold ; and being excited by this powerful 
 motive, and confident of success, they spared no 
 trouble or expense to accomplish this design. — 
 They undertook, without hesitation, operations 
 which required great length of time, and unre- 
 mitted heat. Whereas now, these alluring hopes 
 having vanished, the cultivators of chemistry 
 have no other view than to extend and perfect 
 the theory of this essential part of natural philo- 
 sophy. This motive, although undoubtedly much 
 nobler than the former, seems, however, to be 
 less powerful over most men. For now, all long 
 and laborious operations, whence chemistry might 
 receive great advantages, are neglected, as being 
 tiresome and disgustful. There is, in fact, a 
 considerable difference betwixt the hope of ex- 
 plaining a philosophical phenomenon, and that 
 of obtaining an ingot of gold capable of produc- 
 ing many others. Hence the instruments employed 
 in long operations, and particularly the athanor, 
 are now much neglected ; and also, because the 
 fuel in the tower is apt to stick there, or fall 
 down at once in too great quantity. The lamp 
 furnace, which is a true athanor, may be success- 
 fully employed in operations which do not re- 
 quire much heat. 
 
 ATHAPESCOW, a lake in the north-west of 
 North America, and fifty-ninth degree of north 
 latitude, so called from a tribe of Indians inha- 
 biting its banks. It is contiguous to the Lake 
 of the Hills, and has now become so shallow, 
 that, according to Mackenzie, it will in time be 
 probably converted into a swamp. 
 
 ATHARER, in astrology, a term used when 
 the moon is in the same degree and minute wita 
 the sun. 
 
 ATHBOY, a town of Ireland, in the county of 
 Meath, situated on a stream of the same name. 
 It was a^ borough, which returned members to 
 the Irish parliament before the union. Three 
 fairs are held here annually. Distant twenty- 
 nine miles north-west of Dublin. 
 
 ATHEE, a town of France, in Anjou, with 
 260 houses, belonging to the arrondissement of 
 Chateau-Gontier, in the department of Mayenne. 
 It lies on the river Oudon, five leagues S. S. W. 
 of Lava. 
 
 Atuee, a town of France, in the department 
 of the Indre and Loire, arrondissement of Tours, 
 on the left bank of the Cher, with 255 houses, 
 three leagues south-west of Amboise. 
 
 ATHEISM, "j A, privative, Gtoc, God; 
 
 A'theist, 71. & adj. without God. One of its 
 Atheist'ical, significations is illustrated 
 
 Atheist'igally, (^ by the following citation 
 Atheist'icalness, ffrom St. Paul's Epistle 
 Atheist'ick, I to the Ephesians, A Qioi 
 
 A'theize, I ivT(^Ko<yyi<^, without God 
 
 A'theous. J in the world. 
 
 God never wrought miracles to convince atheism, 
 because his ordinary works convince it. Bacon. 
 
 Nor stood unmindful Abdiel, to annoy 
 The atheist crew. Milton. Paradise Lost. 
 
 Thy Father, who is holy, wise, and pure. 
 Suffers the hypocrite, or atheous priest. 
 To tread his sacred courts. Paradise Regained. 
 
 Men are atheittical, because they are first vicious ; 
 and qaestion the truth of Christianity, because they 
 hate the practice. South. 
 
 Is it not enormous, that a divine, hearing a grea 
 sinner talk aiheistically, and scoff profanely at religion, 
 should, instead of vindicating the truth, tacitly approve 
 the scoffer? /d. 
 
 Though he were really a speculative atheist ; yet, 
 if ho would but proceed rationally, he could not how- 
 ever, be a practical atheist, nor live without God in 
 this world. Id. 
 
 I entreat such as are atheistically inclined, to con- 
 sider these things. Tillotson. 
 It is the common interest of mankind, to punish 
 all those who would seduce men to atheism. Id. 
 
 Atheist, use thine eyes ; 
 And, having view'd the order of the skies. 
 Think (if thou canst) that matter, blindly hurl'd 
 Without a guide, should frame this wondrous world. 
 
 Creech. 
 No atheist, as such, can be a true friend, an affec- 
 tionate relation, or a loyal subject. Bentley. 
 Lord, purge out of all hearts profaneness and 
 atheisticalness. Hammond's Fundamentals. 
 This argument demonstrated the existence of a 
 Deity, and convinced all atheistick gainsayers. 
 
 Ray on the Creation. 
 Chester, civilized as well as Wales, has demon- 
 strated, that freedom and not servitude is the cure 
 of anarchy ; as religion, not atheism, is the true re- 
 medy for superstition. Burke. 
 Atiietsm, absurd and unreasonable as it is, 
 has had its votaries and martyrs. In the seven- 
 teenth century, Spinosa, a foreigner, was its 
 noted defender. Lucilio Vanini, an Italian, a 
 native of Naples, publicly taught atheism in 
 France, about the beginning of the seventeenth 
 century ; and being convicted of it at Toulouse, 4 
 was condemned and executed. 
 
 An Atheist may be defined, a person who does 
 not believe in any thing superior to the material 
 world. Many people iDoth ancient and modern, 
 have pretended to be, or have been reckoned, 
 atheists ; but it is justly questioned whether any 
 man ever seriously adopted such a principle. 
 These pretensions, are often, indeed, founded on 
 pride and affectation. Such motives, together 
 with an honest indignation against the imposi- 
 tions and intolerance of superstition and priest- 
 craft (which had so often deluged France with 
 blood), seem to have co-operated to produce 
 that extraordinary moral phenomenon, exhibited 
 in the French Convention, of several of the lead- 
 ing members openly avowing themselves atheists ; 
 in consequence of which the whole nation was 
 absurdly branded with atheism. Cicero, however, 
 represents it as a probable opinion, that they, 
 who apply themselves to philosophy, believe there 
 are no gods. This must doubtless be meant of the 
 academic philosophy, to which Cicero himself 
 was attached, and which taught to doubt of every 
 thing. On the contrary, the Newtonian philo- 
 sophers, continually recur to a Deity, whom they 
 always find at the head of their chain of natural 
 causes. Among the modern philosophers, who 
 have been the principal advocates for the exis- 
 tence of a Deity, are Sir Isaac Newton, Boyle, 
 Cheyne, Nieuwentyt, &c. To which may be added 
 many others, who, though of the clergy, yet have 
 distinguished themselves by their philosophical 
 pieces in behalf of the existence of a God ; e. g. 
 Derham, Bentley, Winston, Ray, Samuel and 
 John Clarke, Fenelon, &c. So true is that say- 
 ing of Lord Bacon, that though a smattering of
 
 ATH 
 
 219 
 
 ATH 
 
 philosophy may lead a man into atheism, a deep 
 draught will certainly bring him back again to 
 the belief of a God and Providence ; agreeably 
 to what the poet observes of learning in general : 
 
 * A little learning is a dangerous thing : 
 Drink deep, or taste not the Pierian spring.' 
 
 Archbishop Tillotson justly observes that spe- 
 culative atheism is unreasonable on five accounts : 
 1. Because it gives no tolerable account of the 
 existence of the world : 2. It does not give any 
 reasonable account of the universal consent of 
 mankind in this comprehension, that there is a 
 God : 3. It requires more evidence for things 
 than they are capable of giving : 4. The atheist 
 pretends to know what no man can know : 5. 
 Atheism contradicts itself. Under the first of 
 these he advances the following arguments : ' I 
 appeal to any man of reason whether any thing 
 can be more unreasonable than obstinately to 
 impute an effect to chance, which carries in the 
 very face of it all the arguments and characters 
 of a wise design and contrivance. Was ever any 
 considerable work, in which there was required 
 a great variety of parts, and a regular and orderly 
 disposition of those parts, done by chance ? Will 
 chance fit means to ends, and that in ten 
 thousand instances, and not fail in any one .' 
 How often might a man, after he had jumbled a 
 set of letters in a bag, fling them out upon the 
 ground before they would fall into an exact poem ; 
 yea, or so much as make a good discourse in 
 prose ? And may not a little book be as easily 
 made as the great volume of the world ? How 
 long might a man be in sprinkling colors upon 
 canvass with a careless hand, before tliey would 
 happen to m_ake the exact picture of a man ? 
 And is a man easier made by chance than his 
 picture ? How long might twenty thousand 
 blind men, who should be sent out from several 
 remote parts of England, wander up and down 
 before they would all meet upon Salisbury plain, 
 and fall into rank and file in the exact order of 
 an army / Yet this is m.uch more easy to be ima- 
 gined than how the innumerable blind parts of 
 matter should rendezvous themselves into a world. 
 A man that sees Henry the Seventh's chapel at 
 A^estminster, might with as good reason maintain 
 (yea, with much better, considering the vast dif- 
 ference betwixt that little structure and the huge 
 fabric of the world) that it was never so con- 
 trived or built by any means, but that the stones 
 did by chance grow into those curious figures, 
 into which they seem to have been cut and 
 graven ; and that upon a time (as tales usually 
 begin) the materials of that building, the stone, 
 mortar, timber, iron, lead, and glass, happily met 
 together ; and very fortunately ranged themselves 
 into that delicate order in which we see them 
 now, so close compacted, that it must be a very 
 ireat chance that parts them again. What would 
 the world think of a man that should advance 
 such an opinion as this, and write a book for it / 
 If they would do him right, they ought to look 
 upon him as mad, but yet with a little more 
 reason than any man can have to say that the 
 ■world was made by chance, or that the first men 
 grew out of the earth as plants do now. For 
 can any fV-i""- '>" more ridiculous, and against all 
 
 reas Jn, than to ascribe the production of men to 
 the first fruitfulness of the earth, without so much 
 as one instance and experiment, in amy age of 
 history, to countenance so monstrous a supposi- 
 tion ? The thing is, at first sight, so gross and 
 palpable, that no discourse about it can be more 
 apparent. And yet, these shameful beggars of 
 principles give this precarious account of the 
 original of things ; assume to themselves to be 
 the men of reason, the great wits of the worldj 
 the only cautious and wary persons that hate tc 
 be imposed upon, that must have convincing 
 evidence for every thing, and can admit of 
 nothing without a clear demonstration for it.' 
 
 ATHELING, Adeling, Edling, Ethlikg. 
 or Etheling ; from sthel, noble, Saxon; a title 
 among the Anglo-Saxons, properly belonging to 
 the heir apparent to the crown. This appella- 
 tion was first conferred by king Edward the Con- 
 fessor on Edgar, to whom he was great uncle, 
 when, being without any issue of his own, he in- 
 tended to make him his heir. See Edoar. 
 
 ATHELNEY, an island of England, in the 
 county of Somerset, formed by the junction of 
 the rivers Thane and Parret, a few miles below 
 Taunton. Alfred took refuge here while the 
 country was overrun by the Danes, and is said to 
 have built an abbey on the spot Many anti- 
 quities were dug up in 1674 
 
 ATHELSTANE, a Saxon king of England, 
 natural son of Edward the Elder, and grandson 
 of the great Alfred. He succeeded in 925, and 
 reigned sixteen years. There was a remarkable 
 law passed by this prince, which shows his jujt 
 sentiments of the advantages of commerce, as 
 well as the early attention paid to it in this coun- 
 try: viz. that any merchant who made three 
 voyages on his own account beyond the British 
 Channel, should be entitled to the privilege of a 
 thane, or gentleman. 
 
 Athelstane, king of Northumberland, or, ac- 
 cording to Buchanan, a Danish chief, who ob- 
 tained a grant of that country from king Alfred, 
 flourished about the beginning of the ninth cen- 
 tury ; and, carrying on a predatory war in Scot- 
 land, was killed in battle byHungus, king of the 
 Picts, at the village since named from him Athei- 
 staneford, near the rivulet called LugdownBurn, 
 which is said to be a corruption of Hug Down, 
 and to have taken its name from the circum- 
 stance of Athelstane being rugged down, or pull- 
 ed from his horse, in the battle. 
 
 ATHELSTANEFORD, a village and parish 
 of Scotland, in the county of Haddington. It 
 was the birth-place of Blair, the author of Tlie 
 Grave ; and here Mr. Home was settled as parish 
 minister, but was obliged to relinquish the living 
 in consequence of having written the tragedy of 
 Douglas. Distant two miles from Haddington, 
 seventeen from Edinburgh, east. 
 
 ATHENA, in the ancient physic, a plaster or 
 liniment commended against wounds of the head 
 and nerves, of which we find descriptions given 
 by Oribasius, .E,lius, and iEgineta. 
 
 ATHENA^A, a feast of the ancient Greeks 
 held in honor of Minerva, whom they called 
 A^jjvjj. They were afterwards called Pana- 
 
 ATHENyEUM, in antiquity, a public place
 
 214 
 
 ATHENS. 
 
 wherein the professors of the liberal arts held 
 their assemblies, the rhetoricians declaimed, and 
 the poets rehearsed their performances. These 
 places, of which there were a great number at 
 Athens, were built in the manner of amphi- 
 theatres, and encompassed with seats called 
 cunei. The three most celebrated Athense were 
 those at Athens, at Rome, and at Lyons ; the 
 second of which was built by the emperor Adrian. 
 
 ATHENiEUS, a Greek grammarian, born at 
 Naucratis in Egypt, in the third century, one of 
 the most learned men of his time. Of all his 
 works we have none extant but his Deipnoso- 
 phis, i. e. the sophists at table ; there is a great 
 fund of facts and quotations in this work, which 
 render it very agreeable to admirers of antiquity, 
 as they are nowhere else to be met with. 
 
 ATHEN.EU3, a mathematician, who wrote a 
 treatise on mechanics, which is inserted in the 
 works of the ancient mathematicians, printed at 
 Paris in 1693, in folio, in Greek and Latin. 
 
 Athensus, a physician, bom in Cilicia, con- 
 temporary with Pliny, and founder of the pneu- 
 matic sect. He taught that the fire, air, water, 
 and earth, are not the true elements, but that 
 their qualities are, viz. heat, cold, moisture, and 
 dryness ; and to these he added a fifth element 
 which he called spirit, whence his sect had their 
 name. Pneumatics. 
 
 ATHENAGORAS, an Athenian philosopher, 
 who flourished about the middle of the second 
 century ; and was equally remarkable for his zeal 
 for Christianity, and his great learning ; as ap- 
 pears from the Apology which he addressed to 
 the emperors AureUus Antoninus and Lucius 
 Commodus ; as well as from another work still 
 extant upon the Resurrection. They are both 
 written in a style truly Attic. 
 
 ATHENATORIUM, among chemists, a thick 
 glass cover placed on a cucurbit, having a slender 
 umbo, or prominent part, which enters like a 
 stopple, within the neck of the cucurbit. 
 
 ATHENE ; A(pr}vr], Greek ; the name given 
 by the Greeks to Minerva. See Minerva. 
 
 ATHENIPPUM, in the ancient physic, a col- 
 lyrium commended against divers diseases of the 
 eyes ; thus denominated from its inventor Athe- 
 nippus. It is described by Scribonius Largus 
 and Gorraeus. Galen mentions another athenip- 
 pura, of a different composition, by which it 
 appears that this was a denomination common to 
 several coUyriums. 
 
 ATHENODORUS, a famous stoic philoso- 
 pher, born at Tarsus, who went to the court of 
 Augustus, and was made by him tutor to Tibe- 
 rius. Augustus had a great esteem for him, and 
 found him by experience a man of virtue and 
 probity. He was accustomed to speak very freely 
 to the emperor. Before he left the court to return 
 home, he warned the emperor not to give himself 
 up to anger, but, whenever he should be in a 
 passion to rehearse the twenty-four letters of the 
 alphabet before he resolved to say or do any 
 thing. He did not live to see his bad success in 
 the education of Tiberius. 
 
 ATHENOPOLIS, a town of the Massilienses, 
 an ancient nation of Gaul, conjectured to be the 
 same with Telo Martins, now Toulon. 
 
 ATHENRY, a village of Ireland, in the 
 county of Galway, formerly a borough, and a 
 walled town. In the year 1315 a battle was 
 fought near this town between the English and 
 Irish, in which the latter was defeated. In 1599 
 the Irish put all the inhabitants to the sword. 
 Distant ten miles east of Galway, ninety-one 
 from Dublin. 
 
 ATHENS. 
 
 ATHENS, in geography and ancient history, 
 a celebrated kingdom of ancient Greece, the 
 capital of Attica, situated 100 miles N. E. of 
 Lacedaemon and 320 S. by W. of Constantinople. 
 It is at present the chief town of Livadia, a pro- 
 vince of the Turkish empire, and is seated in the 
 Gulf of Eugia, Lon. 23° 57' E., lat. 38" 5' N. 
 
 Origin and Ancient Name. — ^The kingdom 
 of Attica received the name of Oxygia, from 
 Oxyges, commonly placed 1586 years before 
 Christ; but Athens is scarcely mentioned in 
 history till some time after the days of Cecrops, 
 an Egyptian by birth, supposed to be contem- 
 porary with Moses, and affirmed by the Greeks 
 to be the first builder of cities. This leader who 
 appears to have either founded or new modelled 
 the Acropolis, or ancient city, under the name of 
 Cecropia, placed himself at the head of it, and 
 introduced from Sais in Egypt, the worship of 
 Neith, adopted by the people under the name of 
 'Adijvrj. In the early ages of Greece, that which 
 was afterwards called the citadel, was the whole 
 city, and called Polis, or ' the city,' by way of 
 eminence. 
 
 Alteration of Name. — In the reign of Erich- 
 thonius it lost the name of Cecropia, and ac- 
 quired that of Athens, from AOi/vt), the Greek 
 
 name of the goddess Minerva, the Neith of the 
 Egyptians already mentioned, who was esteemed 
 its protectress. This old city was seated on the 
 top of a rock in the midst of a large and pleasant 
 plain, which, as the number of inhabitants in- 
 creased, became full of buildings ; which induced 
 the distinction of Acropolis and Catopolis, i. e. 
 of the upper and lower city. The extent of the 
 citadel was sixty stadia ; it was surrounded by 
 olive trees, and fortified with a strong palisade ; 
 in succeeding times it was encompassed with a 
 strong wall, in which there were one very large 
 and eight small gates. 
 
 Original Succession and Government. — 
 The successors of Cecrops are but imperfectly 
 known, but, according to the most ancient tradi- 
 tions, they were 1 . Amphictyon ; 2. Erectheus I, 
 the same as Erichthonius, the place of whose in- 
 terment is still called Erectheium. It was this 
 prince who raised an image of Minerva made of 
 olive wood in the Cecropia, and also in honor of 
 the goddess instituted festivals called Athenaea, 
 to be celebrated by the twelve Attic cities. To 
 him succeeded 3. Pandion I. 4. Erectheus II. 
 5. iEgeus. 6. Theseus. The last of whom es- 
 tablished the Prytaneum, a court of judicature 
 common to all Attica; also the Panathenaea,
 
 ATHENS. 
 
 215 
 
 sacred festivals to be observed by all the pro- 
 vinces in the Erechtheium every five years. His 
 wise government increased the power and popu- 
 lation of Athens, and finally, about the year 
 B.C. 1300, concentrated the other eleven cities 
 of Attica under one general government. 
 
 Introduction of Pelasgi, and Rise of 
 Athenian Greatness. — The Pelasgi came to 
 Athens from the North B. C. 1192, to whom 
 those beautiful specimens of polygonal architec- 
 ture are ascribed, which are found in the ancient 
 fortresses of Greece and Italy, consisting of irre- 
 gtilar blocks carefully adjusted to each other, 
 without cement, whereas the Cyclopeian, with 
 which it has been frequently confounded, is com- 
 posed of masses laid together and the interstices 
 filled up with smaller stones. 
 
 Next to the Pelasgi, Athens stands indebted for 
 much of her early grandeur to Pisistratus, who, 
 with his sons, founded a public library and two 
 magnificent temples, one to Jupiter Olympus, 
 the other to Apollo Pythias, besides which he 
 collected and edited the works of Homer. 
 
 Invasion of Xerxes and re-building of 
 Athens. — Athens was now rising in population 
 and importance,; possessed of considerable mari- 
 time ascendency, together with an extent of terri- 
 tory and influence beyond any other state in 
 Greece, Sparta excepted, and tlie invasion of 
 Xerxes served to raise her to the pinnacle of 
 military glory. It is true the Persians at first 
 were successful in burning and destroying the 
 ancient city founded by Cecrops ; but, after their 
 shameful defeat at Thermopylae, the city of 
 Athens rose from its ruins in an enlarged and 
 improved scale, the queen of empire, enriched 
 by the resources of the invasion, dignified by 
 a naval superiority, by which she commanded 
 the islands of the Archipelago, together with the 
 colonies of Asia, Macedonia, and Thrace, em- 
 bellishtJd by the hand of Minerva, who seems to 
 have employed herself the fifty years intervening 
 between the victory of Salamis and the Pelopon- 
 nesian war, to beautify the city of her residence ; 
 her ancient Cecropian monuments yet remaining 
 upon the Acropolis. 
 
 Survives the Peloponnesian War. — The- 
 mistocles restored the military works of the city, 
 and fortified it as before. Cimon erected the 
 Temple of Theseus, the Stoos, the Paecile, the Di- 
 onysian Theatre, the Gymnasia, together with the 
 ornaments of the Academy and the Agora. Pe- 
 ricles conferred upon it the Odeum, the Parthe- 
 non, and the Propylaea, and numerous other 
 works, rendering it the wonder of nations. The 
 superb glory of Athens was little injured by the 
 war of Peloponnesus. The defeat of iEgcspo- 
 tami, it is true led to the destruction of the walls 
 of PircEUS, but these were shortly restored, and 
 so skilful was Minerva that defeats as well as vic- 
 tories seemed to raise the political importance, 
 and enrich the site of her favorite capital. 
 
 Ravages of Philip of Macedon. — The rise 
 of Macedon seemed however to eclipse the glory 
 of Athens, and her alliance with Rome was the 
 first political blow that tended to the real injury 
 of this ancient city. Philip of Macedon invested 
 her before her allies could come to her succour, 
 and as the city was too well fortified to be taken 
 
 easily, he ravaged the suburbs, overthrew the 
 temples, shrines, images, and tombs ; broke the 
 marbles which were too precious to yield to the 
 influence of fire ; the Cynosaeges and the Ly- 
 cffium, all the favorite retreats of pleasure and 
 devotion were alike felled by the arm of the 
 destroyer. 
 
 Siege of Sylla. — About 84 years B. C. 
 during the Mithridatic war, the Roman Sylla 
 resolved upon the conquest of Athens, and 
 employed all Greece with her arms and trea- 
 sures, to aid his design. He plundered Epi- 
 daurus and Olympia, carried away the pre- 
 cious deposits of Delphi, felled the groves of 
 the Academy and the Lycaeum. By means of 
 an ill-fortified wall near Heptachalcos he passed 
 the sacred gates at midnight, and the streets of 
 the Cerameicus are said to have run with blood. 
 The city however suffered little, but the destruc- 
 tion of the Piraean fortifications and the arsenal 
 of Philo prevented the re-assumption of maritime 
 power, and with that fell for ever the political 
 importance of Athens. (Plutarch, in vit^ Syllac). 
 As a school of science and art, Athens never- 
 theless maintained her dignity among enlight- 
 ened natioi.i-j, and foreigners from all parts 
 resorted there to attend the lectures of her philo- 
 sophers. 
 
 Science and Architecture. — The Romans, 
 whose taste in some respects was formed upon 
 the Grecian models, added considerably to the 
 embellishment of the city. Julius Caesar erected 
 the Propylaea of the new Argora nearly at his 
 own expense. Statues were erected to Brutus 
 and Cassius by the friends of those distinguished 
 Romans. Antony endowed the capital with nu- 
 merous public gifts and a large accession of 
 insular territory ; nor were Augustus and other 
 illustrious personages in that powerful empire 
 remiss in testifying their friendship for the city 
 of Minerva, and some of them were even initia- 
 ted into the Eleusinian mysteries (for the nature 
 of which see Eleusinia.) Hadrian, on his ele- 
 vation to the imperial dignity, was one of the 
 greatest benefactors Athens enjoyed after the 
 overthrow of her civil hierarchy. He finished 
 the temple of Jupiter Olympius, which Pisis- 
 tratus had begun ages before, and such was its 
 beauty, costliness, and magnitude, that it was 
 considered the glory of Athens ; superb beyond 
 any other structure in Greece. The temple of 
 the winds, more properly called the Honologium, 
 in the Agora, was the benefaction of Andronicus 
 Cyrrhestes. A new theatre was raised by Agrip- 
 pa, and another was shortly afterwards erected 
 at the foot of the Acropolis by Herodes Atticus, 
 the ruins of which are yet remaining. The casing 
 of the seats of the stadium with pentelic marble, 
 is attributed to the generous profusion of the 
 same illustrious individual. 
 
 Splendor in the time of Antony. — In the 
 Antonine age Athens enjoyed its greatest splen- 
 dor. It had been enriched by the accumulated 
 magnificence of six centuries. The works of the 
 age of Pericles, according to Plutarch, retained 
 the freshness of modern buildings, and a bloom 
 was diff'used over them, which preserved their 
 aspect untarnished. Athens, in a remarkable 
 manner escaped the ravages and plunder which
 
 216 
 
 ATHENS. 
 
 followed the conquest of Greece, and the still 
 more formidable dilapidations of time itself. 
 She sat supreme amid the conrvulsions of states 
 and changes of governments, rather contributing 
 than otherwise to the imperial grandeur. Having 
 pursued the history of Athens up to the zenith of 
 her glory, we shall present the reader with a brief 
 description of that eminent seat of learning and 
 politeness, as she existed in her prosperous ages. 
 
 Appearance and Harbours. — Seated upon 
 a ^ulf, Athens, commanding three harbours sur- 
 roanded by dock-yards and buildings, forming a 
 I ontinued town more extensive than Athens itself. 
 The first of these was the Piraeus, the piosent 
 Apacii^v of the Greeks, the Asian Limani of the 
 Turks, and the Porto Leone of the Italians. The 
 Greek and Italian names being derived from an 
 immense line of Pentelic marble which stood 
 originally upon the beach, nearlythirty-five or forty 
 stadia distant from the city, and was displaced at 
 'he Venetian siege. The harbour had three docks, 
 Cantharos, Aphradisium, and Zea; the first de- 
 rived its name from an ancient hero, the second 
 from the goddess \ enus, the third from bread corn ; 
 it was dignified with several public buildings. A 
 stoa, including five distmct stoas or porticos un- 
 der the general name of JNIacra Stoa; two tem- 
 ples of \ enus ; a sanctuary of Jupiter Soter; the 
 Hippodameia, from Hippodamus the architect, 
 which was used as an agora or commercial ex- 
 change ; two great fora or markets, one near the 
 portico, the other near the city; the tribunal 
 Phreathys; the bath Serangium; a deigma or 
 maritime exchange, and a theatre, about 240 feet 
 in diameter, some traces of which are yet re- 
 maining. The second of these harbours was 
 Mynychia, to the east of Piraeus, Irom which it 
 is separated by a peninsula of the same name. 
 It is of circular figure, and now called Stratis- 
 tiki, and so strong is this promontory or penin- 
 sula by nature, that Epimenides said, if the Athe- 
 nians saw what mischief it would one day pro- 
 duce to them, they would eat it away with their 
 teeth. This part of Athens is adorned with a 
 Dionysaic theatre, a temple of Diana of the 
 Doric order, some remains of which are yet 
 standmg on the shore ; also a Bendideium, pro- 
 bably in honor of the same goddess whose 
 Thracian name was Bendis. The third and most 
 ancient part was Phalerum, to the east of Myny- 
 chia, distant from the city, according to Thucy- 
 dides, thirty-five stadia, and according to Pausa- 
 nias twenty. It was formerly famous for the 
 temple of Jupiter, Ceres, and Minerva Sciras, 
 which have been long whelmed in ruin, and lost 
 in the lapse of time. 
 
 Walls, Fortifications, &:c — Peiraeeus from 
 its natural division into three great basins, and 
 also from its great capacity, became an object of 
 capital importance with the Athenians ; and ac- 
 cordingly it was fortified strongly in the second 
 year of the Peloponnesian wars. The works which 
 surrounded it consisted of a wall nearly seven 
 miles in length and sixty feet in height. The 
 long walls (Ta fiacpd Tuxij, or Td (tksXtj) ex- 
 tended from the asty or city, on the north to 
 Peiraeeus, and on the south to Phalerum; a dis- 
 tance of five miles, protecting the city on every 
 side from which any danger was apprehended 
 
 These walls ran parallel to each other at the distance 
 of 550 feet, from the cen*re of the Phaleric hill in 
 the direction of the entrance of the Acropolis. 
 The circumference of the whole walls, including 
 those of the ports, the city, and the long walls, 
 appears to have been about twenty miles. These 
 walls were surrounded with cemeteries. The 
 asty was embraced by the streams of Ilissus and 
 Cephisus, uniting in the marshes of Phalerum. 
 The gates were, JNIelitides, Peiraicae, Acharnicae, 
 IthonicP, Hippades, Heriaeae, Diomeiae, Diocharis, 
 and Dipylum; called also, Thriasia, Sacrae, or 
 Cerameicae. 
 
 Entrance from the gate PeiraicjE. — A 
 cenotaph to Euripides adorned the outside of the 
 gate Peir.iicce; witliin it stood the Pompeion 
 for the arrangement of processions; and the in- 
 terior of the city, from this vie%v, seemed crowded 
 with temples, statutes, and porticoes. The Pnyx 
 (eta TO newKvw(xdai), in which certain popular 
 assemblies were held, stood on the right; the 
 road continuing through the district of Cerami- 
 cus, passed the Stoa Basileius, or portico of the 
 king, where the Archon held his court ; at which 
 point commenced the street of Herrase, so called 
 from Mercury, with whose head it was said to 
 have been adorned; and after passing a consider- 
 able distance, ended in a stoa called Poecile, from 
 its numerous and highly finished pictures of the 
 taking of Troy, the battle of Marathon, the bat- 
 tle of Theseus and the Amazons, and the battles 
 with the Lacedemonians at Q^noe and Argolis ; 
 to keep alive the remembrance of which the cap- 
 tured shields were also suspended. 
 
 Ar.oRA. — The Agora, fronting the Pcecile, was 
 planted with trees, and beautifully divided into 
 markets, streets, porticoes, public halls, See. 
 One of these halls was for the assembling of the 
 senate, another for the Prytanes to dine. Here 
 stood a noble temple, also, to the mother of the 
 gods, and altars to the twelve gods, to Pity, 
 Modesty, Fame, and Impetuosity. The Areo- 
 pagus sloped down from the north to a beautiful 
 plane, where stood the temple of Theseus. It was 
 called Mars Hill, because Mars was the first 
 person tried here for murder, viz. for the murder 
 of Hallirhotius. The Theseium, from its beauti- 
 ful remains, must have been a most magnificent 
 spot. It is a peripteral hexastyle, having on the 
 sides thirteen columns of the doric order, each 
 three feet four inches diameter at the base. The 
 whole building is of pentelic marble, thirty feet 
 in lieight, from the base to the summit of the 
 pediment. The cell is forty feet in length, and 
 twenty in breadth ; the depth of the posticum is 
 twenty-seven feet; that of the prondos and por- 
 tico thirty three. Contiguous to the Tiieseium 
 were the Gymnasium of Ptolemy, the temple of 
 the Dioscuri, and the Horologium of Androni- 
 cus Cyrrhestes. To the south-east stood the 
 Prytaneum or Senate house, from which, the 
 street of the tripods led to the theatre of Bacchus. 
 This street was adorned by the victors in the 
 prize games, and amongst its magnificent deco- 
 rations stood the horagic monument of Lysicra- 
 tes (the lantern of Demosthenes), the circular 
 roof of which still preserves the triangular apex, 
 intended to receive his native tripod. Adjoining 
 to the theatre above mentioned stood the Odeum
 
 A T H E N S. 
 
 217 
 
 of Pericles, from which, after passing through a 
 gateway erected by Hadrian in the modern walls, 
 arose the temple of Jupiter Olympius, which 
 was completed and dedicated by the same em- 
 peror. It was of decastyle construction consist- 
 ing of one hundred and twenty-four columns, 
 sixteen of which are yet standing. Within it 
 was a colossal statue of the god, made of ivory 
 and gold (chryselephantine). The whole length 
 of the sacred precinct (TrtpijSoXoQ) was 689 feet, 
 and its circuit about half a mile. 
 
 The Hill IMus.cum. — The fountain of 
 Enneacrunos or Callirrhoe, the only natural 
 spring by which Athens was supplied with pala- 
 table water, was on the Ilissus; from which, 
 proceeding to the south-west angle of the walls we 
 come to the hill Musaum, the summit of which is 
 embellished by a monument of the Syrian C. J. ; 
 Antiochus Philopappus, grandson of Antiochus 
 IV. the last king of Comagene. He erected it on 
 his return to Athens, after having been greatly 
 honored by Trajan at Rome, and even made 
 Consul and Frater Arvalis. The lower part was 
 embellished with the grand triumph of his illus- 
 trious patron ; above which were seated statues 
 of himself, his grandfather Antiochus, and Seleu- 
 cus Nicator, founder of the original dynasty. 
 This monument has excited a degree of attention 
 little inferior to that of Lysicrates above-men- 
 tioned. 
 
 Acropolis. — On the north-east side of the 
 jVIusgem, rises the Acropolis or ancient citadel. 
 The rock is lofty, abrupt, and inaccessible, ex- 
 cept the front, which is toward the Pirzeus ; but 
 furnishes a very ample field to the virtuosi. It 
 was filled with monuments of Athenian glory, 
 and exhibited an amazing display of beauty, of 
 opulence, and of art. Heliodorus, named Pe- 
 negetes the guide, had employed on it fifteen 
 books. The curiosities of various kinds, with 
 the pictures, statues, and pieces of sculpture, 
 were so many and so remarkable as to supply 
 Poiemo Periegetes with matter for four volumes; 
 and Strabo affirms, that as many would be re- 
 quired in treating of other portions of Athens 
 and of Attica. In particular, the number of 
 statues was prodigious. Tiberius Nero, who 
 was fond of images, plundered the Acropolis as 
 well as Delphi and Olympia ; yet Athens, and 
 each of these places, had not fewer than 3000 
 remaining in the time of Pliny. Even Pausa- 
 rias seems here to be distressed by the multi- 
 plicity of his subject. But this banquet of the 
 senses has long been withdrawn ; and is now 
 become like the tale of a vision. The spectator 
 views with concern the marble ruins intermixed 
 with mean flat-roofed cottages, and extant amid 
 rubbish ; the sad memorials of a nobler people ; 
 which, however, as visible from the sea, should 
 have introduced modern Athens to more early 
 notice. The Acropolis has only one entrance, 
 which fronts the Pirreus. The ascent is by tra- 
 verses and rude fortifications furnished with can- 
 non, but without carriages, and neglected. By 
 the second gate is the station of the guard. 
 Over this gate-way is an inscription in large 
 characters on a stone turned upside down, re- 
 cording a present of a pair of gates. Going 
 farther up, you come to the ruins of the pro- 
 
 pyl^a, an edifice which graced the entrance into 
 the citadel. No fewer than four temples were 
 to be passed in this ascent, those of ^Esculapius, 
 Themis, V'enus and Peitho, also of Tellus and 
 Ceres. Two equestrian statues stood in front of 
 the wings of propyla?a, supposed to represent 
 Marcus Agrippa, and Caius Caesar Octavianus. 
 The propylffia was one of the structures of Pe- 
 ricles, who began it when Euthymenes was 
 archon, 43.5 years before Christ, and completed it 
 in five years, at the expense of 2012 talents. It 
 was of marble of the Doric order, and had five 
 doors, to afford an easy passage to the multitudes 
 which resorted on business or devotion to the 
 Acropolis Six fluted Doric columns raised on 
 four steps, supported the central pediment, each 
 five feet in diameter, twenty-nine in height, and 
 seven in their intercolumniation, except between 
 the two central columns, where was a space of 
 thirteen feet, for the admission of carriages. 
 Behind was a vestibule forty-three feet in depth, 
 sustained by a double row of six Ionic columns, 
 three and a half feet diameter, and thirty-four in 
 height, three of which were placed on each 
 side, whilst marble beams depending on the 
 lateral walls and columns, supported a painted 
 ceiling of exquisite workmanship. The doors 
 contiguous to the frontage, opened into a portico 
 of the depth of eighteen feet, upon a level of 
 five steps ascent, from which a single step 
 descended to the platform of the Acropolis. 
 The middle door occupied the whole space be- 
 tween the central columns. The next door on 
 each side was of inferior dimensions, and the 
 two extreme doors proportionally smaller. The 
 portico itself consisted of a large square room 
 roofed with slabs of marble which were laid on 
 two great marble beams, and sustained by four 
 beautiful columns. These were Ionic, the pro- 
 portions of that order best suiting the purpose 
 as taller than the Doric. The roof which so ex- 
 quisitely embellished the building, after standing 
 above 2000 years, was with all the pediments 
 destroyed in 1687 by the Menation siege. The 
 right wing of t!ie propyla;a is said to have been 
 a temple of \'ictory. The Athenians related 
 that Ageus stood there, viewing the sea, anxious 
 for the return of his son Theseus from Crete, 
 and precipitated himself at the sight of the black 
 sails. The idol was named Victory without 
 wings, because the news of the success of The- 
 seus did not arrive but with the conqueror. It 
 had a pomegranate in the right hand, and an 
 helmet in the left. As the statue was without 
 pinions, it was hoped the goddess would remain 
 for ever on the spot. On the left wing of the 
 Propylaea, and fronting the temple of Victory, 
 was a building decorated with paintings by Polyg- 
 notus, of which an account is given by Pausa- 
 nias. This edifice, as well as the temple, was 
 of the Doric order, the columns fluted, and 
 without bases. Both contributed alike to the 
 uniformity and grandeur of the desi;.in ; and the 
 whole fabric, when finished, was deemed equally 
 magnificent and ornamental. Its loof of white 
 marble, was unsurpassed both in the size of the 
 stones, and in the beauty of their arrangement. 
 On the northern side of the Acropolis within the 
 propyla:a, stood the celebrated statue of Mi-
 
 218 
 
 ATHENS. 
 
 nerva Promachus, executed by Phidias after the 
 battle of Marathon. Its height together with 
 the pedestal exceeded seventy feet, rising con- 
 siderably above the summit of the parthenon ; 
 the crest of the helmet and point of the spear 
 being seen out at sea, by persons sailing from 
 Servium towards Athens ; and a brazen qua- 
 driga stood near the statue in commemoration of 
 the victory of the Athenians over the Boetians 
 and the Chalcidenses. See Hen. v. 79. 
 
 The propylaea, according to the Greek his- 
 torians, took five years in building, and was 
 formed after the designs of Mnesicles. It was 
 completed 437 years B.C. and was estimated 
 by Heliodorus, as cited by Harpocration, at 
 2012 talents, or £452,700 sterling, and was 
 the most expensive of all the works of Pericles. 
 Parthenon. — But the chief glory of the 
 Acropolis is said to have been the Parthenon, or 
 temple of Minerva, so elevated that the pave- 
 ment of its peristyle was on a level with the 
 capitals of the eastern portico of the propylaea. 
 It was a periptoral octostyle of the Doric order, 
 with seventeen columns on the sides, each six 
 feet two inches in diameter at the base, and thirty- 
 four feet in height, elevated on three steps. 
 Within the peristyle, at each end stood six 
 columns of 5^ feet diameter, forming a vestibule 
 to the cell which rose two steps from the peris- 
 tyle level. The cell itself contained two cham- 
 bers of sixty-two feet six inches in width, and 
 of lengths differing from forty-three feet ten 
 inches, to ninety-eight feet seven inches, the roof 
 of the former being supported by four columns of 
 four feet diameter, and of the latter by sixteen 
 of three feet diameter. The height of the temple 
 from the base to the pediment being fifty-six 
 feet, and the dimensions of the area 228 feet, by 
 102. The pediment contained two compositions 
 of about eighty feet in length, each containing 
 upwards of twenty colossal statues, in two 
 groups, the first representing the birth of the 
 goddess Minerva, and the second her contest 
 with Neptune, for the government of Attica. 
 The figures of the western pediment enumerating 
 them from the left were Cecrops, Aglaurus, 
 Theseus, Hebe, Eresichthon, Pandrosus, Victory 
 without wings drawn in a Biga by two horses, 
 Erechtheus, Minerva and Jupiter in the centre, 
 and to the right, Neptune, Thalassa, Latona, 
 Mercury, Maia, Vesta, Mars and Venus. The 
 figures which occupied the eastern pediment 
 have never been perfectly ascertained. Some of 
 them, however, were Hyperion, Hercules, Venus, 
 Iris, Peitho, Vesta, Proserpine, Victory with 
 wings, Ceres, and the car of Night. The frieze 
 advancing in two parallel columns from west to 
 east, was sculptured on both sides, and contained 
 a representation of the Panathenaic procession. 
 Six seated figures of deities also represented the 
 head of each column, while the central group 
 represented the presentation of the peplus to 
 the second archon. Of the ninety-two metopes 
 which anciently adorned the frieze of the peristyle, 
 these on the south side, some of which are now 
 in the British INluseum, contained each a cen- 
 taur, and hence those only of the eastern 
 side have been assigned to the actions of Mi- 
 nerva ; those of the western to some other point 
 
 of Athenian history, the subject of which has 
 been lost; those of the northern to the Amazo- 
 nian war ; those of the southern to the war with 
 the Centaurs. A chryselephantine statue of 
 Minerva stood in the Opis, the domos thirty-nine 
 feet in height, the buskins sculptured with the 
 battle of the Centaur, and the iEgis which lay at 
 her feet containing a representation of the battle 
 of the Amazons on the outside, and on the 
 inside that of the Titans. Ictinus is said to have 
 been the architect of this temple ; Phidias the 
 artist ; and the entire cost one million and a half 
 sterling. The remains of this beautiful specimen 
 of ancient architecture have been described by 
 Dr. Chandler, a few extracts from whose obser- 
 vations we shall subjoin. * The chief ornament,' 
 he observes, * of the Acropolis was the Par- 
 thenon or great temple of Minerva, a most 
 superb and magnificent fabric. The Persians 
 had burned the edifice, which before occupied 
 the site, and was called hecatompedon, from its 
 being 100 feet square. Tlie zeal of Pericles and 
 of all the Athenians was exerted in providing a 
 far more ample and glorious residence for their 
 favorite goddess. The architects were Calli- 
 crates and Ictinus ; it was of white marble, of 
 the Doric order, the columns fluted and without 
 bases, the number in front eight ; and adorned 
 with admirable sculpture. The story of the birth 
 of Minerva was carved in the front pediment ; 
 and in the back, the contest with Neptune for 
 the country. The statue of Minerva, made for 
 this temple by Phidias, was of ivory, twenty-six 
 cubits or thirty-nine feet high. It was decked 
 with pure gold to the amount of forty-four 
 talents, so disposed by the advice of Pericles as to 
 be taken ofi'and weighed, if required. This image 
 was placed in the temple in the first year of the 
 eighty-seventh Olympiad, in which the Pelopon- 
 nesian war began. The gold was stripped off 
 by the tyrant Lachares, when Demetrius Polior- 
 cetes compelled him to fly. The same plunderer 
 plucked down the golden shields in the Acropolis, 
 and carried away the golden Victories, with the 
 precious vessels and ornaments provided for the 
 Panathensan festival. The Parthenon remained 
 entire for many ages after it was deprived of the 
 goddess. The Christians converted it into a 
 church, and the Mahommedans into a mosque. 
 It is mentioned in the letters of Crusius, and 
 miscalled the Pantheon, and the temple of the 
 unknown God. The Venetians under Konings- 
 mark, when tliey besieged the acropolis in 1687, 
 threw a bomb, which demolished the roof, and 
 setting fire to some powder, did much damage 
 to the fabric. The floor, which is indented, 
 still witnesses the place of its fall. This was the 
 sad forerunner of farther destruction ; the Turks 
 breaking the stones, and applying them to the 
 building of a new mosque, which stands within 
 the ruin, or to the repairing of their houses and 
 the walls of the fortress. The vast pile of pon- 
 derous materials, which lay ready, is greatly di- 
 minished ; and the whole structure will gradually 
 be consumed and disappear. The temple of 
 Minerva in 1676 was, as Wheeler and Spon 
 assert, the finest mosque in the world, witliout 
 comparison. The Greeks had adapted tlie fabric 
 to their ceremonial by constructing at one end a
 
 ATHENS. 
 
 219 
 
 semicircular recess for the holy tables, with a 
 window : for before it was enlightened only by 
 the door, obscurity being preferred under the 
 heathen ritual, except on festivals, when it 
 yielded to splendid illuminations; the reason, it 
 has been surmised, why temples are commonly 
 found simple and unadorned on the insides. In 
 the wall beneath the window were inserted two 
 pieces of the stone called phengites, a species of 
 marble discovered in Cappadocia in the time of 
 Nero ; and so transparent that he erected with it 
 a temple to Fortune, which was luminous within, 
 when the door was shut. These pieces were 
 perforated, and the light which entered was 
 tinged with a redish or yellowish hue. The 
 picture of the Panagia or Virgin ^lary, in Mo- 
 saic, on the ceiling of the recess, remained ; 
 with two jasper columns belonging to the screen, 
 which had separated that part from the nave; 
 and within, a canopy supported by four pillars 
 of porphyry, with Corinthian capitals of white 
 marble, under which the table had been placed ; 
 and behind it, beneath the window, a marble 
 chair for the archbishop ; and also a pulpit, 
 standing on four small pillars in the middle aisle. 
 The Turks had white-washed the walls, to obli- 
 terate the portraits of saints, and the other paint- 
 ings with which the Greeks decorate their places 
 of worship ; and had erected a pulpit on the 
 right hand for the iman or reader. The roof was 
 disposed in square compartments ; the stones 
 massive; and some had fallen in. It had been 
 sustained in the Pronaos by six columns ; but 
 the place of one was then supplied by a large 
 pile of rude masonry, the Turks not having been 
 able to fill up the gap more worthily. The roof 
 of the naos was supported by colonnades ranging 
 with the door, and on each side ; consisting of 
 twenty-two pillars below, and of twenty-three 
 above. The odd one was over the entrance, 
 which by that disposition was left wide and un- 
 embarrassed. In the portico were suspended a 
 few lamps, to be used in the mosque at the 
 seasons when the Mussulmans assemble before 
 day-break, or to be lighted up round the mi- 
 naret, as is the custom during die Ramazan or 
 Lent. It is not easy to conceive a more striking 
 object than the Parthenon, though now a mere 
 ruin. The columns within the naos have all 
 been removed : but on the floor may be seen the 
 circles which directed the workmen in placing 
 them ; and at the farther end is a groove across 
 it, as for one of the partitions of the cell. The 
 recess erected by the Christians is demolished ; 
 and from the rubbish of the ceiling, the Turkish 
 boys collect bits of the Mosaic, of different colors, 
 which composed the picture. We are told at 
 Smyrna, that this substance had taken a polish, 
 and been set in buckles. This cell is about half 
 demolished ; and in the columns which surround 
 it, is a large gap near the middle. On the walls 
 are some traces of the paintings. Before the 
 portico is a reservoir sunk in the rock, to supply 
 the Turks with water for the purifications custo- 
 mary on entering their mosques. In it, on the 
 left hand, is the rubbish of tlie pile erected to 
 supply the place of a column ; and on the right 
 a staircase which leads out on the architrave, and 
 has a marble or two with inscriptions, but worn 
 
 so as not to be legible. It belonged to the mi- 
 naret, which has been destroyed. The travellers, 
 to whom we are indebted for an account of the 
 mosque, have likewise given a description of the 
 sculpture then remaining in the front. In the 
 middle of the pediment was seen a bearded Ju- 
 piter, with a majestic countenance, standing, and 
 naked ; the right arm broken. The thunderbolt, 
 it has been supposed, was placed in that hand, 
 and the eagle between his feet. On his right was 
 a figure, it is conjectured, of Victory, clothed to 
 the mid-leg ; the head and arms gone. This was 
 leading on the horses of a car, in which ^Minerva 
 sat, young and unarmed ; her head-dress, instead 
 of a helmet, resembling that of a Venus. The 
 generous ardor and lively spirit visible in this 
 pair of celestial steeds, was such as bespoke the 
 hand of a master, bold and delicate, of a Phidias 
 or Praxiteles. . Behind ]\Iinerva was a female 
 figure, without a head, sitting, with an infant in 
 her lap ; and in this angle of the pediment was 
 the emperor Hadrian with his arm round Sabina, 
 both reclining, and seeming to regard Minerva 
 with pleasure. On the left side of Jupiter were 
 five or six other trunks to complete the assembly 
 of deities into which he received her. These 
 figures were all wonderfully carved, and appeared 
 as big as life. Hadrian and his consort, it is 
 likely, were complimented by the Athenians with 
 places among the marble gods in the pediment, 
 as benefactors. Both of them may be considered 
 as intruders on the original company ; and pos- 
 sibly their heads were placed on trunks, which 
 before had other owners. They still possess 
 their corner, and are easy to be recognised, 
 though not unimpaired. The rest of the statues 
 are defaced, removed, or fallen. Morosini was 
 ambitious to enrich Venice with the spoils of 
 Athens ; and by an attempt to take down the 
 principal group, hastened their ruin. In the 
 other pediment is a head or two of sea-horses 
 finely executed, with some mutilated figures; 
 and on the architrave beneath them are marks of 
 the fixtures of votive offerings, perhaps of the 
 golden shields, or of festoons suspended on 
 solemn occasions, when the temple was dressed 
 out to receive the votaries of the goddess. 
 
 Erechtheium. — The erechtheium, about 160 
 feet north of the parthenon, containing the united 
 temples of Minerva, Polias, Pandrosus, or, ac- 
 cording to some writers, Neptune, was of irre- 
 gular fig-ure, the eastern front of which pre- 
 sented a hexastyle Ionic colonnade, the western 
 being pseudo-peripteral, and the entablature 
 supported by half columns. Two deities are 
 supposed to have inhabited two great divisions 
 in the interior. The Pandrosseium (according to 
 some) on the western side, opened into porticoes 
 to the north and south ; the former being tetra- 
 style, and the latter supported by six caryatides. 
 This beautiful edifice was small, the entire area 
 not exceeding sixty-three feet by thirty-six, nor 
 the height twenty. Here was preserved the mark 
 of Neptune's trident, which struck when the 
 horse issued forth; also the olive-tree of Mi- 
 nerva; an image of the goddess which fell from 
 heaven, before which was suspended a golden 
 lamp, the wick of which, being Carpathian flax, 
 never consumed, and required oil but once a
 
 220 
 
 ATHENS. 
 
 year ; together with a brazen palm-tree above it, 
 which carried off the smoke ; the wooden Hermes 
 presented by Cecrops ; the chair by Daedalus ; 
 the scimitar of Mardonius ; the breastplate of 
 Masistrus, who commanded the Median cavalry 
 at Platsea; and numerous groups of statues. 
 
 As Dr. Chandler's description of this celebrated 
 depository of arts, at the time of his visit, is 
 highly interesting, we shall again refer the reader 
 to that authority. ' Neptune and Minerva,' ob- 
 serves the Dr. ' once rival deities, were joint and 
 amicable tenants of the Erechtheium, in which 
 was an altar of Oblivion. The building was 
 double, a partition wall dividing it into two tem- 
 ples, which fronted different ways. One was the 
 temple of Neptune Erechtheus, the other of Mi- 
 nerva Polias. The latter was entered by a square 
 portico connected with the marble skreen, which 
 fronts towards the propylaea. The door of the 
 cell was on the left hand ; and at the further end 
 of the passage was a door, leading down into the 
 Pandroseum, which was contiguous. Before the 
 temple of Neptune Erectheus, was an altar of 
 Jupiter the supreme, on which no living thing 
 ■was sacrificed, but they offered cakes without 
 wine. Within it was the altar of Neptune Erec- 
 theus; and two, belonging to Vulcan, and a hero 
 named Butes, who had transmitted the priesthood 
 to his posterity, which were called Butadas. On 
 the walls were painting of this illustrious family, 
 from which the priestess of Minerva Polias was 
 also taken. It was asserted, th^t Neptune had 
 ordained the well of salt water, and the figure of 
 a trident in the rock, to be memorials of his con- 
 tending for the country. The former, Pausanias 
 remarks, was no great wonder, for other wells 
 of a similar nature, were found inland ; but this, 
 Avhen the south wind blew, afforded the sound of 
 waves. The temple of Alinerva Polias was de- 
 dicated by all Attica, and possessed the most 
 ancient statue of the goddess. This temple was 
 burned when Callias was Archon, twenty-four 
 years after the death of Pericles. Near it was 
 the tomb of Cecrops, and within it Erectheus 
 was buried. The ruin of the Erectheum is of 
 white marble ; the arcliitectural ornaments of 
 very exquisite workmanship, and uncommonly 
 curious. The columns of the front of the temple 
 of Neptune are standing with tlie architrave ; 
 and also the skreen and portico of Minerva 
 Polias, with a portion of the cell, retaining traces 
 of the partition wall. The order is Ionic. An 
 edifice revered by ancient Attica, as holy in the 
 highest degree, was, in 1676, the dwelling of a 
 Turkish family, and is now deserted and neg- 
 lected ; but many ponderous stones and rubbish 
 must be removed before the well and trident 
 would appear. The former, at least, might pro- 
 bably be discovered. The portico is used as a 
 powder magazine ; but we obtained permission 
 to dig and to examine the outside. The door- 
 way of the vestibule is walled up, and the soil 
 risen nearly to the top of the door-way of the 
 Pandroseum. By the portico is a battery com- 
 manding the town, from which ascends an 
 amusing hum. The Turks fire from it, to give 
 notice of the commencement of llamazan, or of 
 their Lent, and of Bairam, or the holy days.' 
 Schools, Gymnasia, &c. — The schools and 
 
 places of public instruction of Athens during he'' 
 prosperity were several : the most celebrated 
 were two called Ceramicus ; one within the 
 city, containing a multitude of buildings of all 
 sorts; the other in the suburbs, in which was 
 the academy and other edifices. There were 
 many gymnasia in Athens ; the most remarkable 
 were the Lyceum, Academia, and Cynosarges. 
 The Lyceum stood on the banks of Ilissus ; some 
 say it was built by Pisistratus, others by Pe- 
 ricles, others by Lycurgus. Here Aristotle taught 
 philosophy, instructing such as came to hear him 
 as they walked, whence his disciples derived the 
 name of Peripatetics. It was also the place 
 where the Polemarch kept his court, and the 
 chief gymnasium of the Athenian youth. The 
 ceramicus without the city was six stadia from 
 its walls. The academy made part thereof. It 
 was a marshy unwholesome place till Cimon 
 got it drained, and then it became* extremely 
 pleasant and delightful, being adorned with 
 shady walks, where Plato read his lectures, and 
 from thence his scholars were styled Academics. 
 The Cynosarges, sacred to Hercules, and com- 
 monly considered as the position occupied by the 
 Athenians after the battle of Marathon, when the 
 Persians sailed to Phalerum, was a place in the 
 suburbs not far from the Lyceum ; it was famous 
 on many accounts, but particularly for a noble 
 gymnasium erected there, appointed for the spe- 
 cial use of such as were Athenians only by one 
 side. Themistocles sjot much ill-will by car- 
 rying many of the nobility to exercise with him 
 here, because, being but of the half-blood he 
 could exercise nowhere else but in this gymna- 
 sium. Antisthenes instituted a sect of philoso- 
 phers, who from the name of this district, as 
 many think, were styled Cynics. 
 
 Of the walls of the acropolis the southern is 
 called the Cimonian and the northern the Pe- 
 lasgic ; both commonly attributed to Cimon and 
 Themistocles. A few rude fragments of the an- 
 cient Hecatonipedum are still remaining in the 
 latter, of Doric architecture, supposed to be the 
 workmanship of the original Pelasgi, who first 
 fortified the citadel anterior to the invasion of the 
 Persians. On the northern side of the Propylaea 
 is still to be seen an ancient jjrotto, consecrated 
 to Apollo and Pan, in which the former received 
 the favors of Creusa, daughter of Erectheus.' It 
 was descended by a flight of steps. 
 
 The other remarkable places and erections are 
 the Stadium, south of the Lyceum, constructed 
 by Lycurgus for the contest of the panathenaic 
 festival, 350 B. C, and afterwards covered with 
 marble by 11 erodes Atticus. It measured 675 
 feet by 130, and was capable of accommodating 
 upwards of 25,000 persons. The temple of the 
 Eumenides stood upon the hill Colonos, sacred 
 to Neptune, and celebrated in the history of 
 (Edipus. It was about a mile and a quarter 
 north of the walls, and between it and the city 
 lay the sepulchral plain. To the enst rises a hill, 
 supposed to be the mount Anchesmus of the an- 
 cients, and at present one of the most remark- 
 able features of modern Athens, occupied by the 
 church of St. George. 
 
 Remains of the Temple of Jupiter Olym- 
 PIU5. — The ruins of the temple of Jupiter Olym-
 
 ATHENS. 
 
 221 
 
 pius and several other remarkable antiquities are 
 thus described by the celebrated gentleman to 
 whom we have already referred. ' The ruin of 
 the temple of Jupiter Olympius,' says he, * con- 
 sists of prodigious columns, tall and beautiful, 
 of the Corinthian order, fluted ; some single, 
 some supporting their architraves ; with a few 
 massive marbles beneath ; the remnant of a vast 
 heap, which only many ages could have con- 
 sumed and reduced into so scanty a compass. 
 The columns are of very extraordinary dimen- 
 sions, being about six feet in diameter, and nearly 
 sixty in height. The number, without the cell, 
 was 116 or 120. Seventeen were standing in 
 1676; but, a few years before we arrived, one 
 was overturned with much difficulty, and ap- 
 plied to the building a new mosque in the bazar 
 or market-place. This violence was avenged by 
 the bashaw of Negropont, who made it a pretext 
 for extorting from the vaiwode, or governor, fifteen 
 purses ; the pillar being, he alleged, the pro- 
 perty of their master, the grand seignior. It 
 was an angular column and of consequence in 
 determining the dimensions of the fabric. We 
 regretted that the fall of this mighty mass had 
 not been postponed until we came, as it would 
 have aflbrded an opportunity of inspecting and 
 measuring some members wliich we found far 
 too lofty to be attempted. On a piece of the 
 architrave, supported by a couple of columns, 
 are two parallel walls of modern masonry, arched 
 about the middle, and again near the top. You 
 are told it has been the habitation of a hermit, 
 doubtless of a Stylites ; but of whatever building 
 it has been part, and for whatever purpose de- 
 signed, it must have been erected thus high in 
 air while the immense ruin of this huge struc- 
 ture was yet scarcely diminished, and the heap 
 inclined so as tp render it accessible. It was re- 
 marked that two stones in a step in the front had 
 coalesced at the extremity, so that no juncture 
 could be perceived ; and the like was discovered 
 also in a step of the Parthenon. In both in- 
 stances it may be attributed to a concretory fluid, 
 which pervades the marble in the quarry. Some 
 portion remaining in the pieces when taken 
 green, as it were, and placed in mutual contact, 
 it exuded and united them by a process similar 
 to that in a bone of an animal when broken and 
 properly set. Besides the more stable antiqui- 
 ties, many detatched pieces are found in the 
 town, by the fountains, in the streets, the walls, 
 the houses, and churches. Among these are 
 fragments of sculpture, a marble chair or two, 
 which probably belonged to the gymnasia or 
 theatres ; a sun-dial at the catholicon, or cathe- 
 dral, inscribed with the name of the maker ; and, 
 at the archiepiscopal house close by, a very cu- 
 rious vessel of marble, used as a cistern to re- 
 ceive water, but once serving, it is likely, as a 
 public standard or measure. Many columns 
 occur with some maimed statues and pedestals, 
 several with inscriptions, and almost buried in 
 earth. A custom has prevailed, as at Chios, of 
 fixing in the wall, over the gateways and doors 
 of the houses, carved stones, most of which ex- 
 hibit the funeral supper. In the courts of the 
 nouses lie many round stelae or pillars, once 
 placed on the graves of the Athenians ; and a 
 
 great number are still to be seen applied to the 
 same use in the Turkish burying-grounds before 
 the acropolis. These generally have concise in- 
 scriptions containing the name of the person, 
 and of the town and tribe to which the deceased 
 belonged. Another species, which resembles our 
 modern head-stones, is sometimes adorned with 
 sculpture, and has an epitaph in verse. We saw 
 a few mutilated herma'. These were busts on 
 long quadrangular Ijases, the heads frequently 
 of brass invented by the Athenians. At first 
 they were made to represent only Hermes or 
 Mercury, and designed as guardians of the se- 
 pulchres in which they were lodged, but after- 
 wards the houses, streets, and porticoes of Athens, 
 were adorned with them, and rendered vene- 
 rable by a multitude of portraits of illustrious 
 men and women, of heroes, and of gods ; and 
 it is related that Ilipparchus, son of Pisistratus, 
 erected them in demi or borough towns, and by 
 the road side, inscribed with moral apophthegms 
 in elegiac verse ; thus making them vehicles of 
 instruction.' 
 
 Decline of Athens.— The decline of Athens, 
 one of the most remarkable subjects of history, 
 was occasioned by that great revolution which 
 took place in the moral world upon the propa- 
 gation of Christianity and the consequent anni- 
 hilation of those idolatrous superstitions which 
 had been handed down from the ages bordering 
 on the deluge. The general conduct of the early 
 Christians, wherever their influence extended, 
 was to destroy all works of pagan architecture 
 dedicated to the purposes of superstition, whilst, 
 by propagating the gospel and thoroughly extin- 
 guishing the principles that gave birth to them, 
 no hope remained of their reproduction. At 
 Athens, however, the early Byzantine emperors 
 forbore to destroy these sacred edifices, and in 
 lieu of it consecrated them to the Christian cause. 
 Even Alaric used every effort for the preserva- 
 tion of Athens, and the noble statue of Minerva 
 Promachus still crowned the city and towered 
 above the iminjured Parthenon at the close of 
 the fourth century. During the ducal govern- 
 ment of the Franks, however, the city dwindled 
 to the rank of a provincial town, and in 1436 
 Omar took possession of it in the name of Ma- 
 homet. This was shortly followed by the ruin 
 of the city and the demolition of those stupend- 
 ous works of art which had been the wonder of 
 so many ages. 
 
 Venetian Invasion- — In 1687 the Venetians, 
 as already intimated, under count Koningsmark, 
 a Swede, besieged the acropolis. The explosion 
 of the beautiful temple of Victory without 
 wings, (viKTj aiTTipog) the frieze of which is now 
 in the British Museum, followed the bombard- 
 ment ; an explosion of the Parthenon followed ; 
 the eastern wall and statues of that pediment 
 were thrown to tlie ground ; the middle of the 
 temple was destroyed ; the western front consi- 
 derably shaken, and little less except part of the 
 opisthodomas and a few of the lateral columns of 
 the peristyle adjoining the cell were left stand- 
 ing. These two celebrated temples, which had 
 been used by the Turks as powder-magazines, 
 constituted the chief glory of Athens, and after 
 the destruction of these she surrendered. During
 
 222 
 
 ATHENS. 
 
 the short time the Venetians held possession of 
 the city several ancient monuments were de- 
 stroyed. A celebrated car of Victory, which 
 stood on the western pediment of the Parthenon, 
 with horses of a natural size, was taken down by 
 the Doge Morosini, with a view of being re- 
 moved to Venice, but in lowering it to the 
 ground the engineers suffered it to fall, by which 
 it was entirely destroyed. 
 
 Knowledge of Athenian Antiquities in 
 Europe. — The antiquities and works of Athens 
 were little noticed in Europe till the close of the 
 17th century. The accounts received by means 
 of travellers had been mostly perplexed and mis- 
 taken. Some called the Parthenon the pantheon, 
 and described it to be oval, others thought it the 
 temple of the unknown God, mentioned in the 
 narrative of the apostle Paul. Sir G. Wheeler, 
 and Dr. Spar, who visited Athens before the Ve- 
 netian siege, were the first who by their descrip- 
 tion of the city impressed European nations with 
 the great value of these celebrated remains. The 
 Dillettanti society employed Dr. Chandler, 
 already quoted, to visit this famous depository 
 of the sciences, and examine its antiquities and 
 topography. Mr. Stuart, an ingenious artist, 
 also went over from England, and employed 
 three years in studying and forming correct draw- 
 ings of its principal remains. 
 
 Laudable Efforts of Lord Elgin. — Lord 
 Elgin, on his appointment as ambassador to the 
 Porte in 1799, established a society of distin- 
 guished artists in Athens, who in three years 
 presented him with a complete body of finished 
 drawings of the plans and details of the most 
 important monuments and remains, accompanied 
 by just admeasurements of the elevation and 
 extent, besides bas reliefs and characteristic fea- 
 tures of Athenian architecture, moulded from the 
 originals, in which they were the more diligent, 
 as the Turks from motives of avarice were in the 
 habit of breaking up marbles, in the hope of 
 finding some hidden treasure under them, and of 
 defacing the most perfect sculptures from motives 
 of superstition. The British ambassador, who 
 appears to have been a man of taste and genius, 
 employed his interest at the Porte in obtaining 
 permission to remove some of the most valuable 
 marbles, and transfer them to England, the French 
 liaving removed some valuable deposits to the 
 gallery of the Louvre. 
 
 Lord Elgin's Collection of Antiquities, 
 &c. — Lord Elgin's collection consisted chiefly of 
 the following articles : Several original Metopes 
 from the interio rfrieze of the Parthenon, descrip- 
 tive of the combat between the Centaurs and the 
 Lapithae ; part of the outer frieze of the same 
 temple, representing the procession at the Pana- 
 thenaic festival, both of which occupied the pedi- 
 ments of the eastern and western fronts, the 
 former being in such high relief as to seem 
 groups of .statues. Several inscriptions after the 
 Kionedon manner, in which singular care is 
 taken to preserve an equal number of letters in 
 each line, occasionally even to the division of 
 monosyllables. A Doric capital, assizes of the 
 columns, a triglyph, some of the modules of the 
 cornice, and a few of the marble tiles (amtefixa,) 
 which roofed the original ambulatory. Models 
 
 of the metopes in the temple of Theseus, contain- 
 ing the labors of Theseus and Hercules, taken 
 from the interior frieze, representing the battle of 
 the Centaurs and Lapithse ; together with seve- 
 ral incidents of the battle of Marathon. The 
 temple being in a considerable state of preser- 
 vation, the originals could not be obtained. In 
 addition to these he obtained from the vestibule 
 of the temple of Neptune, and that of Minerva 
 Polias, in the Erechtheium, a capital, a base, 
 and some original blocks of the frieze and cor- 
 nice, with plans of the architecture, &c. From 
 the adjoining Pandroseium, one of the Caryatides. 
 From the temple of the bearded Bacchus, a sta- 
 tue of the god, and a sun-dial, said to have 
 existed in the time of the Trajedians. The con- 
 vents and other buildings furnished bronzes, 
 cameos, intaglios, and medals. Besides the 
 above laudable undertakings, he traced the walls 
 of the city, made extensive excavations, and, from 
 the numerous tumuli which opened in the sub- 
 urbs, formed a magnificent collection of the vases 
 hitherto improperly denominated Etruscan. But 
 perhaps one of his most successful efforts was 
 the removing of the celebrated Boustrophedon 
 inscription, which anciently adorned the Sisean 
 promontory. This celebrated monument had for 
 some time formed a seat at the door of a Greek 
 chapel, and was the resort of persons afflicted 
 with the ague ; the letters having been nearly 
 obliterated by the numbers of patients who had 
 reclined upon it. The most valuable part of his 
 collection has been thought by some to be a 
 complete series of Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian 
 capitals, from the birth of Athenian architecture 
 to its greatest height under Pericles. The same 
 gentleman obtained some fragments of the tem- 
 ple of Victory without wings, on the right of the 
 pro pylaea, representing scenes from the battles of 
 Marathon, Salamis, and Platcea, which had been 
 built in the wall of a powder magazine ; the 
 finest blocks of the whole being placed in an in- 
 verted position. These and some other sculptures 
 were afterwards embarked for England, but un- 
 happily wrecked off the island of Cerigo. Many 
 cases however by the assistance of the most ex- 
 pert divers were obtained from tlie vessel, at the 
 depth of twenty fathoms of water, and the remain- 
 der, although two successive winters of laborious 
 exertion were employed about them, were left 
 upon the wreck. On the acquisition of so nu- 
 merous a collection of remains from the most 
 valuable part of Athenian antiquity, the British 
 ambassador conceived the idea of engaging the 
 most distinguished of the modern artists, to at- 
 tempt their restoration, but they declined the 
 task. Canova, in particular, affirmed that the 
 marbles of the ancient parthenon had never been 
 retouched, and were so superior in their style of 
 execution, that it would be sacrilege for any man 
 to presume to violate them with a chisel. They 
 were therefore transported to England as Athe- 
 nian originals, and purchased by a £35,000 
 grant of Parliament, to enrich the British Mu- 
 seum, where they still remain to guide the im- 
 provements of taste, and excite the emulation 
 of modem genius. 
 
 Present State of Athens. — The present 
 state of Athens, like that of most other celebra-
 
 ATH 
 
 223 
 
 ATH 
 
 ted cities of antiquity, exhibits a remarkable 
 spectacle of fallen greatness. It is incorporated 
 in the Turkish empire, and placed under the 
 government of a waywode, or lieutenant, who 
 is chief black eunuch of the seraglio. The town 
 is surrounded by an insignificant wall, about ten 
 feet in height, far short of the dimension of its 
 ancient circumference. The streets are narrow. 
 The population is diminished to one-tenth of its 
 number in the time of Demosthenes, said to 
 have been 116,000; and the beautiful Acropolis, 
 converted into a Turkish fortress, is disfigured 
 
 by a huge Venetian tower, the architecture of 
 which looks the more barbarous, from the highly- 
 finished models that surround it. The parthenon 
 is degraded in the front by a mean house, in 
 which resides the disdar, or governor of the for- 
 tress, and the south-east angle exhibits a wretched 
 mosque. The town is inhabited chiefly by Turks 
 and Christians, of the Greek church. It is the 
 see of an archbishop, under whom five archons 
 and a number of secretaries are appointed to the 
 management of its ecclesiastical concerns. 
 
 Athens, a flourishing post town of New York, 
 on the west bank of the Hudson, opposite Hud- 
 son city. The situation of this place is pleasant, 
 and very eligible for trade. It contains a Lu- 
 theran church, three school-houses, and a mar- 
 ket-house, an extensive rope-walk, a large dis- 
 tillery, a pottery of stoneware, and other smaller 
 manufactories. Population 1000. Twenty-eight 
 miles south of Albany. 
 
 ATHERINA, in ichthyology, a genus of fishes 
 of the order of abdominales. The characters of 
 this genus are these: — the upper jaw plain ; the 
 rays of the branchiostege membrane are six ; and 
 the side belt or line shines like silver. The spe- 
 cies are two, viz. 
 
 1. A. hepsetus, the smelt, with about twelve 
 rays in the fin next the anus. It is found in the 
 Mediterranean, and is also very common in the 
 sea near Southampton. The highest season is 
 from March to the beginning of June ; in which 
 month it spawns. It is also found on other 
 coasts of our island. 
 
 2. A. menidea, has twenty-four rays in the fin 
 next the anus. This is a very pellucid fish, with 
 many black points interspersed ; it has many 
 teeth in the lips, but none in the tongue or jaws. 
 It is found in the fresh waters of Carolina, and 
 spawns in April. 
 
 ATHERINOIDES, a species of clupea, dis- 
 tinguished by a silvery lateral line. In the dor- 
 sal fin are twelve rays; fourteen in the pectoral 
 fins ; eight in the ventral fins ; thirty-two in the 
 anal fin ; and eighteen in the tail. It is a native 
 of Surinam. 
 
 ATHERIX, in entomology, a genus of the 
 order diptera, and family rhagionidae. Its ge- 
 neric characters are antennae muniliform; the 
 third joint not ringed, but terminated by a seta, 
 the palpi erect. The only known species is ma- 
 culatus, found in the woods of Great Britain. 
 
 ATHEROMA, a kind of tumor, occurring 
 chiefly in the neck and arm-holes, and contain- 
 ing matter resembling aOripa, or pap, intermixed 
 with hard and stony particles. These tumors 
 are easily cured by incision. 
 
 ATHhSIS, in ancient geography, a river of 
 Cisalpine Gaul, which, rising in the Rhsetian 
 Alps, runs southward, and washes Tridentum 
 and Verona, which last it divides; and after- 
 wards bends its course eastward, and falls into 
 the Adriatic, between Fossa Claudia and Phi- 
 listina. It separated the country of the Euganei 
 from that of the \eneti. It is now called the 
 Adige. 
 
 ATHIAS (Joseph), a learned Jewish printer, 
 in the seventeenth century. He resided at Am- 
 sterdam, where, in 1667, he published a Hebrew 
 bible, which is held in great estimation. He 
 likewise printed the bible in Spanish, German, 
 and English. The States presented him with a 
 gold medal and chain, as a mark of the value 
 they put upon nis labors. 
 
 ATHIRST. On thirst. See Thirst. 
 With scanty measure then supply their food ; 
 
 And, when athirst, restrain 'em from the flood. 
 
 Dryden, 
 Unnumbered suppliants crowd Preferment's gate, 
 Athirst for wealth, and burning to be great; 
 Delusive Fortune hears the incessant call. 
 They mount, they shine, evaporate, and fall. 
 
 Johnson. 
 
 ATHLETjE, A^Xjjr»jc,Gr. from aOXoQ, a com- 
 bat ; in antiquity, persons of strength and agility, 
 disciplined to perform in the public games. Un- 
 der Athletce were comprehended wrestlers, boxers, 
 runners, leapers, throwers of the disk, and those 
 practised in other exercises, exhibited in the 
 Olympic and Pythian games, &c. for the con- 
 querors in which there were established prizes. 
 To obtain a firm, bulky, weighty body, by force 
 of which they frequently overpowered their an- 
 tagonist, they fed altogether on dry, solid, and 
 viscous meats. In the earlier times their chief 
 food was dry figs and cheese, which was called 
 arida saginatio,?fpa rpo0?j. Oribasius first brought 
 this in disuse, and substituted flesh instead of 
 these. They had a peculiar bread, called koXtitiu : 
 they exercised, eat, and drank, without ceas- 
 ing ; were not allowed to leave off" eating when 
 satiated, but were obliged to cram on till they 
 could hold no more ; by which means they at 
 length acquired a degree of voracity, which to us 
 seems incredible, and a strength proportional. 
 Pausanias relates of Milo, the Crotonian, that he 
 carried a bull on his back a considerable way, 
 then knocked him down with a blow of his fist, 
 and, lastly, devoured him at a meal ! 
 
 ATH'LETE, } AOXijttjc, a wrestler in the 
 
 Ath'letick. J agonistic exercises of the 
 Greeks ; from aOXo^, labor. One whose phy- 
 sical powers enable him to labor, struggle, 
 contend. 
 
 And health itself, if it be athletic, maj' by its very 
 excess become dangerous. Bp. J. Taylor. 
 
 Science distinguishes a man of honour, from one of 
 those athletic brutes, whom undeservedly we call 
 heroes. Dryden. 
 
 Was he [the wise man] in adversity ; he equally 
 returned thanks to the director of this spectacle of
 
 ATH 
 
 224 
 
 ATH 
 
 hume.n life, for having opposed to him a vigorous 
 athlete, over whom, though the contest was likely to 
 be more violent, the victorj' was more glorious and 
 equally certain. Smith't Moral Sentiments, 
 
 ATHLON, Gr. AOXov, in antiquity, the prize 
 adjudged to the victor, in the athletic exercises, 
 at the public games. 
 
 ATHLONE, a town of Ireland, pleasantly si- 
 tuated on botli sides of the Shannon ; the one 
 half lying in the county of Westmeath, and the 
 other in that of Roscommon. ITiese divisions of 
 the town are united by a well built bridge, in the 
 middle of which stands a monument, on which 
 there are some badly executed figures and in- 
 scriptions, celebrating the success of Queen 
 Elizabeth of England, and relating how the 
 rebels m her reign were executed, quartered, 
 and their skulls, &.c. stuck upon poles, about the 
 country, and at Dublin castle ; and every thing 
 brougiit into a state of the greatest prosperity. 
 Athlone, though so advantageously situated for 
 trade, still remains a poor, ruinous, neglected, 
 dirty place. The castle was founded by king 
 John, on some land belonging to St. Peter's abbey, 
 for which he granted a compensation. It is 
 built on a high raised round hill, resembling one 
 of the Danish forts. It had formerly two con- 
 vents, and was strongly fortified. In 1691 part 
 of the English army imder General Ginckle, 
 although tlie Irish were strongly entrenched on 
 the opposite shore, forded the river, stormed and 
 took possession of the town, not losing more 
 than fifty men in the attack ; which is esteemed 
 as bold an enterprise as any recorded in historj'. 
 General Ginckle obtained the title of Earl of 
 Athlone, as a reward for his services. There are 
 generally two troops of horse, and four compa- 
 nies of foot quartered at Athlone. Athlone is 
 fifty-nine miles west from Dublin. Long. 7° 41' 
 W., lat. 53^ 22' N. 
 
 ATHLOTHETA, in antiquity, an officer ap- 
 pointed to superintend the public games, and 
 adjudge the prizes. The athlotheta was other- 
 wise called resymneta, brabeuta, &c. 
 
 ATHNACH, the name of one of the principal 
 of the Hebrew accents, which serves not only to 
 regulate the voice, but to distinguish the mem- 
 bers of a sentence, whence its name athnach, i. e. 
 respiration. On this account it is called king 
 and pause, and answers to our colon, and some- 
 times to a note of interrogation. It is marked 
 under a letter thus {/,)• 
 
 ATHOL, or Atholl, the most northern dis- 
 trict of Perthshire in Scotland, extending in 
 length forty-three miles, and in breadth thirty. 
 The country is very rough and mountainous, and 
 contains part of the ancient Caledonian forest : 
 but these mountains are interspersed with ft-uit- 
 ful valleys. It has several villages, but no town 
 of any consideration. The most noted place is 
 Blair castle, which belongs to the duke of Atholl, 
 who derives his title from this district. In the 
 neighbourhood is the pass of Killicranky, ren- 
 dered memorable by the battle fought there, in 
 the beginning of king William's reign, between 
 general M'Kay, and the Highlanders adhering to 
 king James. 
 
 ATHOS, a mountain of Chalcidia in Macedo- 
 nia, celebrated in ancient and modem times. 
 
 The ancients entertained extravagant notior 
 concerning its height ; and it was a received opi- 
 nion, that the summit of mount Athos was above 
 the middle region of the air, and that it never 
 rained upon it. Its modern name of ^lonte Santo 
 (Holy Mount) it has got from the number of 
 Greek monasteries that are built on it. They 
 amount to nearly thirty, are protected by fortifi- 
 citions from the incursions of the corsairs, and 
 ;ire inhabited by about 6000 monks, who lead a 
 life of monotony and indolence. The air is re- 
 markably pure, and many of the inhabitants 
 reach a great age. About half-way up the hill 
 lies a small town, called Kareis, which is also 
 fortified, and is the scat of the Turkish aga. A 
 market is held here every Saturday, from which 
 females are excluded. They pay an annual tri- 
 bute for protection to the Turkish government. 
 The manuscripts in their libraries have been 
 recently examined, and some account of them 
 will be found in Dr. Clarke's Travels. Accord- 
 ing to the accounts of modern travellers, this 
 mountain advances into the Archipelago, on the 
 south of the Gulf of Contessa, and is joined to 
 the continent by an isthmus about half a league 
 in breadth. It is about thirty miles in circum- 
 ference, and two in perpendicular height. It 
 abounds with many different kinds of plants and 
 trees, particularly the pine and fir. In the val- 
 leys grows a plant called elegia, whose branches 
 serve to make pens for writing. Through this 
 mountain, or rather through the isthmus behind 
 it, Xerxes, king of Persia, is said to have cut a 
 passage for his fleet when about to invade 
 Greece. In this work he spent three whole years, 
 and employed in it all the forces on board the 
 fleet. He is also said, before the work was be- 
 gun, to have written the following ridiculous 
 letter to tiie mountain: 'Athos, thou pioud and 
 aspiring mountain, that liftest up thy head to the 
 very skies, I advise thee not to he so audacious, 
 as to put rocks and stones, that cannot be cut, in 
 the way of my workmen ! If thou makest that 
 opposition, I will cut thee entirely down, and 
 throw thee headlong into the sea ! ' The direc- 
 tors of this enterprise are said to have been 
 Bubaris, the son of Megabyzus, and Artacheus, 
 the son of Arbeus, both Persians ; but, as no 
 traces of such a great work remain, the truth of 
 the whole relation has been questioned. Dino- 
 crates, a sculptor, who followed the march of 
 Alexander, offered to convert mount Athos into 
 a statue of that king, holding a town in his right 
 hand, and in his left a basin large enough to 
 contain all the waters that flowed from it ; but 
 the proposal was deemed too extravagant to be 
 accepted. This venerable mountain constitutes 
 one entire chain, extending seven miles in length, 
 and three in breadth, and is situated about 
 seventy miles east of Salonichi, the ancient Thes- 
 salonica. 
 
 ATHULIA, in entomology, a very small spe- 
 cies of papilio, found in the northern parts of 
 Russia. This is the papilio phoebe of Esper, 
 and belongs to the family satyri in the Fabrician 
 system. 
 
 ATHWART, prep. & adj. From to thwart. 
 Across ; in a transverse direction ; figuratively, 
 wrong, in a vexatious manner.
 
 ATI 
 
 225 
 
 ATL 
 
 There let the clcissic page thy fancy lead 
 Through rural scenes, such as the Mantuan swaia 
 Paints in the matchless harmony of song ; 
 Or catch thyself the landscape gilded swift 
 Athwart Imagination's vivid eye. Thomson. 
 
 Shook sudden from the bosom of the sky, 
 A thousand shapes, or glide athwart the dusk. 
 Or stalk majestic on. Id. 
 
 With thee, my bark. 111 swiftly go. 
 
 Athwart the foaming brine ; 
 Nor care what land thou bear'st me to. 
 So not again to mine. 
 
 Lord Byron's Childe Harold. 
 Athwart, in navigation, is synonymous with 
 across the line of the course. It is also used in 
 other senses, such as, 
 
 Athwart-haise, expresses the situation of 
 a ship, when she is driven by wind or tide, 
 or any other accident across the fore part of 
 anotlier. 
 
 Athwakt-ships, reaching across ships from 
 one side to the other. 
 
 Athwart the fore foot, denotes the flight 
 of a cannon ball from one ship across the course 
 of another, to intercept the latter, and oblige her 
 to shorten sail, that the former may come near 
 enough to examine her. 
 
 ATIIY, a town of Ireland, in the county of 
 Kildare, near the borders of Queen's county. It 
 is situated on the river Barrow, on which boats 
 pass by Carlow to ^^ aterford. It is ten miles 
 south of Kildare, and thirty-two south-west of 
 Dublin ; from which a branch of the grand canal 
 extends, and boats pass between them daily, 
 through the whole extent. It is governed by a 
 sovereign, two bailiffs, and a recorder; and is, 
 alternately with Naas, the assizes town. 
 
 ATHYMIA, aOvfiia, despondency ; dejection 
 of the spirits. 
 
 ATIBAR, the nameby which the inhabitants 
 of Gago in Africa call gold-dust ; from which 
 word Europeans, and especially the French, 
 have composed the word tiber, which also signi- 
 fies gold-dust among those who trade in that 
 commodity. 
 
 ATILIA, in ancient records, signifies utensils, 
 implements for country business. 
 
 ATILT. On tilt. Lifted up in the attitude 
 of attack; also, any thing with one end lifted up, 
 as a barrel. 
 
 In the city Tours 
 Thou ran'st atilt, in honour of my love ; 
 And stol'st away the ladies' hearts from France. 
 
 Shakspeare. 
 
 To run atilt at men, and wield 
 
 Their naked tools in open field. Hudibras. 
 
 Such a man is always atilt ; his favours come 
 
 haurdly from him. Spectator. 
 
 ATINGA GuACu-Mucu. See Corxltus Cl- 
 
 CULVS. 
 
 Atixga, in ichthyology, a species of diodon, 
 of an oblong form, beset with rounded spines. 
 It is called by Marcgrave, guamajucu antinga; 
 and in England is known by the name of porcu- 
 pine fish. 
 
 This species lives in the i\jnerican seas, and 
 about the Cape of Good Hope. Its food consists 
 of crabs and other shell-fish. The length rather 
 exceeds twelve inches ; the body is compressed 
 at tlie sides, and bluish. This creature has the 
 Vol. III. 
 
 power of dilating its body, and erecting its spines 
 at pleasure. It is usually taken in nets, but will 
 also take bait, which is commonly the tail of a 
 crab, fastened on the hook. 
 
 ATINIA Lex, a law passed by the tribune 
 Atinius, which gave a tribune of the people the 
 privileges of a senator, and the right of sitting in 
 the senate. 
 
 ATIZOE, in the writings of ancient naturalists, 
 a stone used in the consecration and anointing 
 of kings. Pliny describes it to have been of a 
 lenticular figure, and of the size of three fingers, 
 of a bright silvery color, and of a pleasant smell. 
 He says it was found in India, and in some other 
 places. Agricola is of opinion it was a kind of 
 bitumen. 
 
 ATKINS (.Tames), bishop of Galloway, the 
 son of Henry Atkins, sheriff of Orkney, was bom 
 at Kirkwall, educated at the university of Edin- 
 burgh, where he took the degree of A. M. and 
 finished his studies at Oxford, under the cele- 
 brated Dr. Prideaux, about A. D. 1638. Being 
 appointed chaplain to the Marquis of Hamilton, 
 he was soon after, presented to the church of 
 Birsay in Orkney, where he was much esteemed. 
 In 1650, being moderator of the presbytery, he 
 was appointed to draw up a declaration of 
 loyalty, in their names, and present it to the 
 iNlarquis of Montrose ; for which he and the 
 whole presbytery were deposed by the general 
 assembly, and the doctor was excommunicated 
 for corresponding with the Marquis. The coun- 
 cil soon after passed an act for bringing him to 
 trial, but being privately warned by his friend. 
 Sir Archibald Primrose, the clerk of council, he 
 fled to Holland, where he remained till 1653, 
 when he returned to Edinburgh, and resided in 
 quiet obscurity till the restoration. He then 
 accompanied Dr. Sydserf to London, and ob- 
 tained the rectory of Winfrith. In 1677 he was 
 elected bishop of Moray, and in 1680 translated 
 to the see of Galloway, which he governed seven 
 years, and died much respected in 1687, aged 
 seventy-four. 
 
 Atkins (Sir Robert), lord chief baron of the 
 exchequer, was born in 1621, and educated at 
 the university of Oxford, from whence he removed 
 to the inns of court, and became eminent in the 
 law. He was made knight of the bath, at the 
 coronation of king Charles II. In 1662 he was 
 appointed one of the judges of Common Pleas ; 
 in which station he continued till 1679, when 
 foreseeing the troubles that soon after ensued, he 
 resigned, and retired into the country. In 1689 
 he was made by king William lord chief baron of 
 the exchequer; and about the same time filled the 
 office of speaker to the house of lords. He dis- 
 tinguished himself by an unshaken zeal for the 
 laws and liberties of his country; and wrote 
 several pieces which have been collected into 
 one volume 8vo. under the title of Parliamentary 
 
 and Political Tracts. 
 ATLAN'TEAN. Possessing the strength of 
 
 Atlas. 
 
 Where are the pillars, that support the skies ? 
 
 What more than Atlantean shoulder props 
 
 Th' incumbent load ? What magic, what strange art. 
 
 In fluid air these pond'rous orbs sustain ? 
 
 Young's Night Thoughts, ix. 
 
 Q
 
 226 
 
 ATLANTIC. 
 
 ATIANTES. See Atlas. 
 
 ATLANTIC. The Atlantic Ocean is that 
 great basin of waters that separates Europe and 
 Africa on the east, from America on the west, 
 and stretches from the arctic ocean on the north 
 to a Ime which joins Cape Horn and the Cape 
 of Good Hope on the south. It is divided from 
 the north sea, on the north-east, by the Straits of 
 Dover, Great Britain, the isles of Faroe and Ice- 
 land. The Mediterranean with its gulfs, the 
 Gulf of Mexico, and Hudson's and Baffin's Bay, 
 are consequently branches of it. That part of 
 the Atlantic, however, between Brasil and Africa, 
 and from the nearest approximation of these 
 countries to the southern limits, is sometimes 
 called the Ethiopic Ocean. It has been conjec- 
 tured that the vast bed of the Atlantic was 
 formed at the time of the deluge, by the great 
 southern ocean below the equator, rushing on 
 the northern hemisphere. This the shape of the 
 opposite shores has been supposed to justify, 
 which have the exact appearance of having been 
 formed by the action of water, the great protu- 
 berances of the one correspondmg to the inden- 
 tations of the other. One of the most remarkable 
 features of the Atlantic is its currents. It par- 
 takes of the general current which flows from the 
 poles towards the equator, and which arises from 
 the increased evaporation in the equatorial re- 
 gions, and the augmented temperature of tlie 
 waters, rendering them specifically lighter than 
 those of the ocean in higher latitudes, as well as 
 from the increased supplies produced by the 
 melting of the polar ice. The existence and effects 
 of this great current are fully proved by the enor- 
 mous masses of polar ice, which they convey into 
 the more temperate regions of the ocean, and 
 which sometimes float as low as 40^ of latitude. 
 
 The coast of America, and the numerous 
 islands with which it is flanked, intercept the ge- 
 neral current of the Atlantic, and create what 
 uavigators call the gulf stream. This enters the 
 Gulf of Mexico, sweeps round the shores of that 
 Gulf, and issues with accelerated velocity towards 
 the north, by the channel between the southern 
 point of Florida and the Bahama Islands. It 
 then rolls along the shore of North America, di- 
 minishing in velocity, but increasing in breadth, 
 till it reaches the great bank of Newfoundland. 
 There it suddenly turns towards the east and 
 south-east, and flows with still decreasing velo- 
 city towards the shores of Europe, the Azores, 
 and the coasts of Africa. Navigators readily dis- 
 tinguish it by the high temperature of its waters, 
 their great saltness, their indigo color, and the 
 .shoals of sea-weed that cover their surface. The 
 celebrated Dr. Franklin first caused it to be laid 
 down on a map, and in his various voyages from 
 America to Europe, made numerous oloservations 
 on its peculiarities. Humboldt, in May 1804, 
 observed its velocity in the twenty-seventh de- 
 gree of latitude, and found it about eighty miles 
 in twenty-four hours, though the north wind 
 blew very strongly at the time of the observation. 
 \\'hen it issues from the Gulf of Florida, its ve- 
 locity resembles that of a torrent, and is some- 
 times five miles an hour, but at others not more 
 than three. Between tlie nearest point of Florida 
 and the bank of Bahama, the breadth is only fif- 
 
 teen leagues, but a few xlegrees further north it 
 is seventeen ; in the parallel of Charlestown, it is 
 from forty to fifty leagues in breadth ; and in 
 latitude 40° 25', this is increased to nearly eighty 
 leagues. The waters of the torrid zone, being 
 thus forcibly impelled towards the north-east, 
 preserve their high temperature to such a degree, 
 that in latitude 40° and 41° it has been found to 
 be 22-5° of the centigrade thermometer, or 72° 
 of Fahrenheit ; while out of the current the tem- 
 perature of the water was only 63'5°. In the 
 parallel of New York, the temperature of the 
 gulf stream is equal to that of the sea in latitude 
 80°. When the stream reaches the western 
 Azore island, where the breadth is about 160 
 leagues, the waters still preserve a part of the 
 impulsion they received in the Gulf of Florida, 
 nearly 1000 leagues distant. Thence it proceeds 
 to the Canaries and the coast of Africa, and in 
 the latitude of Cape Blanco, where the waters 
 flow towards the south-west, they mingle with 
 the current of the tropics, and recommence their 
 tour from east to west. 
 
 Thus it appears that the waters of the Atlantic, 
 between the eleventh and forty-third degrees, 
 are constantly drawn by currents into a kind of 
 whirlpool; and if a body floating on these waters 
 be supposed to return precisely to the place from 
 which it commenced its motion, M. Humboldt 
 has calculated, from the known velocity of the 
 current, that it would require two years and ten 
 months to complete its circuit of 3800 leagues. 
 ' A boat,' he observes, ' which maybe supposed 
 to receive no impulsion from the winds, would 
 require thirteen months from the Canary islands, 
 to reach the coast of Caraccas, ten months to 
 make the tour of the Gulf of Mexico and reach 
 Tortoise shoals, opposite the port of Havannah, 
 while forty or fifty days might be sufficient to 
 carry it from the Straits of Florida to the banks of 
 Newfoundland. Estimating the velocity of the 
 water at seven or eight miles in twenty-four hours, 
 in their progress from this bank to the coast of 
 Africa, it would require ten or eleven months for 
 this last distance. Such are the eff'ects of this 
 slow but regular motion, which agitates the wa- 
 ters of the ocean.' A branch of this current evi- 
 dently reaches the western shores of Europe, as 
 the productions of the tropical regions of America 
 are frequently thrown on the coasts of the He- 
 brides, Scotland, and Norway. 
 
 M. Humboldt endeavoured to ascertain the 
 comparative height of the waters of this ocean 
 along its shores. In reference to the Gulf of 
 Mexico, and the opposite side of the isthmus on 
 the shores of the Pacific, he found the surface of 
 the former to be six or seven metres higher than 
 that of the latter. The depth of the Atlantic is 
 also extremely various; in many places being 
 wholly beyond the power of man to fathom. 
 Captain Scoresby, in the Greenland sea, in 1817, 
 plumbed to the greatest known depth which a 
 line has reached, i. e. 7200 feet. Many parts of 
 the Atlantic, however, are thought to be three 
 times this depth. 
 
 The saltness and specific gravity of the Atlan- 
 tic differ in various parts ; and gradually diminish 
 from the equator to the poles. In the neigh- 
 bourhood of the British isles, the salt has been
 
 ATLANTIC 
 
 s»atecl at J^rd of the weight of the water; and 
 Dr. Thomjjson, in his Chemistry, observes, that 
 as far as experience has gone, the proportion of 
 saline contents does not appear to differ much, 
 whatever may be the latitude in which the water 
 is examined. Captain Phipps, in north latitude 
 80°, and sixty fathoms under ice, found the sa- 
 line contents of sea-water to be 0'0354 ; in lati- 
 tude 74°, he found them to be 0"036 ; in latitude 
 60°, 0',034. Pages found sea-water, taken up in 
 north latitude 45° and 39°, to contain 0-04 of 
 saline contents ; and Baumfe, obtained by analy- 
 sis from water taken up by Pages, in north lati- 
 tude 34° and 14°, exactly the same proportion of 
 saline matter. In southern latitudes, Pages 
 found the following proportions of saline con- 
 tents, viz. : 
 
 Latitude Sal. Matter 
 
 49° 50' . 0-0416 . 
 
 46 . 0045 
 
 40 30 . 0040 . 
 
 Latitude Sal. Mat. 
 
 25° 54' . 004 
 
 20 00 . 0-039 
 
 1 16 . 0-035 
 
 The specific gravity of the water is greatest 
 where the saline ingredients contained are the 
 most abundant; as it is the mixture of these with 
 the pure water that increases its weight. 
 
 The water of the Atlantic ocean is warmest be- 
 tween 5° 45' and 6° 15' of north latitude, where 
 it has been found by actual observation to vary 
 from about 82° 5' to 84° 5' of Fahrenheit's ther- 
 mometer. There, too, the temperature of the sea 
 is generally a few degrees higher than that of the 
 air which reposes upon it. Nearer the poles the 
 influence of the seasons on the surface of the 
 ocean, becomes more sensible ; but, as the tem- 
 perature of the water changes more slowly than 
 that of the atmosphere, the means do ndt, in 
 point of time, exactly correspond. Where not 
 disturbed by local causes, the mean temperature 
 of the surface water is not very different from 
 that of the incumbent atmosphere. It is about 
 81° at the equator, 70° at 26° of north latitude, 
 and 60° at 45°. 'The temperature diminishes as 
 the depth increases. M. Peron found that at 
 the depth of 380 fathoms, the temperature was 
 only 45° 5', though at the surface it was 80°. 
 Currents greatly modify the temperature by 
 transmitting the water of one region to another, 
 as well as in some degree by the agitation they 
 create. While the current which sets into the Gulf 
 of Mexico is much warmer than the adjacent 
 parts of the sea, it is not so warm as that which 
 flows through Magellan's Straits into the Pacific. 
 
 Humboldt made various experiments on the 
 surface of the Atlantic Ocean, between the 9th 
 of June and the 15th of .July, 1799, from which 
 the following are selected : 
 
 
 
 Temperatiiro ^f the 
 
 forth lat. 
 
 West Ion. 
 
 Atlantic octa.'i, at 
 
 O ' 
 
 / 
 
 its surface. 
 
 o « 
 
 39 10 . 
 
 . . 16 18 . . 
 
 . 59 00 Fahrenheit 
 
 34 30 . 
 
 . . 16 55 . . 
 
 . . 61 34 
 
 32 16 . 
 
 . . 17 4 . . 
 
 , . 63 86 
 
 30 36 . 
 
 . . 16 54 . . 
 
 . . 65 48 
 
 29 18 . 
 
 . . 16 40 . , 
 
 . . 66 74 
 
 26 51 . 
 
 . . 19 13 . , 
 
 . . 68 00 
 
 20 8 . 
 
 . . 28 51 . , 
 
 , . 70 16 
 
 IT 57 . 
 
 . . 33 14 . 
 
 . . 72 32 
 
 14 57 . 
 
 . . 44 40 . 
 
 . . 74 66 
 
 13 51 . 
 
 . . 49 43 . . 
 
 . . 76 46 
 
 10 46 . . 
 
 , . 60 54 . , 
 
 . . 78 44 
 
 227 
 
 lie farther remarks tliat, ' from Corunna to 
 the mouth of the Tagus, tlie water of tlie sea 
 varied but little in its temperature ; but from the 
 thirty-ninth degree of latitude to the tenth, the 
 increment was very sensible and very constant, 
 though not always uniform. From the parallel 
 of Cape ]Montego to that of Salvage, the progress 
 of the thermometer was almost as rapid as from 
 20° 18' to 10° 46'; but it slackened extremely at 
 the limits of the torrid zone, from 29° 18' to 
 20° 8'. This inequality is, no doubt, caused by 
 the currents that mingle the waters of different 
 latitudes, and which, as we approach the Canary 
 Islands, on the coast of Guiana, set either to the 
 south-east, or north-west. M. de Churuca, who 
 crossed the equator in his voyage to the straits of 
 Magellan, in the twenty-fifth degree of west 
 longitude (in October), found the maximum of 
 the temperature of the Atlantic ocean, at the 
 surface in 6° of north latitude.' Humboldt's 
 Personal Narrative. 
 
 ]\Iasses of ice, and icebergs, having their origin 
 in high latitudes, are carried towards the south 
 and south-west by the general current, which flows 
 from the poles towards the equator ; and they have 
 a great influence in lowering the summer temper- 
 ature both of the ocean and atmosphere. Frag- 
 ments of these icebergs occasionally reach the 
 fortieth degree of latitude. At 50° the rivers, 
 lakes, and bays, of the sea, sometimes freeze ; and 
 at 60°, the gulfs and interior seas sometimes 
 freeze in their whole extent. 
 
 ATLANTIDES, in astronomy, the Pleiades, 
 or seven stars, so called, as being supposed to 
 have been the daughters of Atlas, who, the poets 
 fabled, were translated into heaven. 
 
 ATLANTIS, Atalantis, or Atlantica; an 
 island mentioned by Plato and some others of 
 the ancients, concerning the real existence of 
 which there have been many disputes. Homer, 
 Horace, and the other poets, make two Atlanti- 
 cas, calling them Hesperides and Elysian Fields, 
 making them the habitations of the blessed. The 
 most distinct account of this island we have in 
 Plato's Tiraseus, of which Mr. Chambers gives 
 the following abridgement. ' The Atlantis was 
 a large island in the western ocean, situated op- 
 posite to the straits of Gades. Out of this island 
 there was an easy passage into some others, 
 which lay near a large continent, exceedii^ in 
 bigness all Europe and Asia. Neptune settled 
 in this island, from whose son. Atlas, its name 
 was derived, and divided it among his ten sons. 
 To the yovmgest fell the extremity of the island, 
 called Gadir; which, in the language of the 
 country, signifies fertile, or abundant in sheep. 
 The descendants of Neptune reigned here fronc 
 father to son for a great number of generations 
 in the order of primogeniture, during the space 
 of 9000 years. They also possessed several other 
 islands; and, passing into Europe and Africa, 
 subdued all Lybia as far as Egypt, and all 
 Europe to Asia Minor. At length the island 
 sunk under water: and fo"- a long time after- 
 
 Q2
 
 ATL 
 
 228 
 
 ATM 
 
 wards the sea thereabouts was full of rocks and 
 shelves.' Many of the moderns also are of opi- 
 nion, that the existence of the Atlantis is not to 
 be looked upon as entirely fahulous. Some take 
 it to have been America ; and from thence, as 
 well as from a passage in Seneca's Medea, and 
 some other obscure hints, they imagine that the 
 new world was not unknown to the ancients. 
 But allowing this to be the case, the above- 
 mentioned continent, which was said to lie 
 beyond Atlantis, would seem rather to have 
 been the continent of America than that of At- 
 lantis itself. The learned Rudbeck, professor 
 in the University of Upsal, in a work entitled 
 Atlantica sive Manheim, endeavours to prove 
 that Sweden and Norway are the Atlantis of the 
 ancients ; but this its situation will not allow us 
 to believe. By Kircher it is supposed to have 
 been an island extending from the Canaries to 
 the Azores; tliat it was swallowed up by the 
 ocean, as Plato asserts; and that these small 
 islands are the sliattered remains of it. 
 
 Atlas, one of the Titans, son of Japetus and 
 Clymene, one of the Oceanides. lie was brother 
 to Epimetheus, Prometheus, and Mencetius. 
 He married Pleione, daughter of Oceanus, or 
 Ilesperis, according to otherF. by whom he had 
 seven daughters, called Atlantides. He was king 
 of Mauritania, and master of a thousand flocks ; 
 as also of beautiful gardens, abounding in fruit, 
 which he entrusted to the care of a dragon. Per- 
 seus, after the conquest of the Gorgons, passed 
 by the palace of Atlas, and demanded hospitality. 
 The king, who had been informed by Themis 
 that he should be dethroned by one of the 
 descendants of Jupiter, refused to receive him. 
 Perseus showed him Medusa's head, and Atlas 
 was instantly changed into a large mountain. 
 This mountain which runs across the deserts of 
 Africa, east and west, is so high that the ancients 
 have imagined that the heavens rested on its top, 
 and that Atlas supported the world on his shoul- 
 ders. Hyginus says, that Atlas assisted the 
 giants in their wars against the gods, for which 
 Jupiter compelled him to bear the heavens on 
 his shoulders. 
 
 Atlas, in anatomy, the name of the first ver- 
 tebra of the neck, which supports the head. It 
 has no spinal apophyses; because the motions of 
 the head do not turn on this vertebra, but on the 
 second. 
 
 Atlas, in architecture, is a name given to 
 those figures, or half figures of men, sometimes 
 used instead of columns, or pilasters, to support 
 any member of architecture, as a balcony, or the 
 like. These Atlantes are also called Telamones. 
 Atlas, in commerce, a silk satin, manufac- 
 tured in the East Indies. There are some plain, 
 some striped, some flowered, the flowers of which 
 are either gold, or silk. There are atlasses of all 
 colors ; but most of them false, especially the 
 red and the crimson. The manufacture of them 
 is admirable ; the gold and silk being worked 
 together after such a manner as no workman in 
 Europe can imitate; yet they are far from having 
 that fine lustre which the I'rench know how to 
 give to their silk stuffs. In the Chinese manu- 
 factures of this sort, they gild paper on one side 
 with leaf-gold; then cut it in long .slips, and 
 
 weave it into their silks; which makes them, with 
 little cost, look very rich and fine. The same 
 long slips are twisted about silk threads, so arti- 
 ficially, as to look finer than gold thread, though 
 it be of no great value. 
 
 Atlas, in geography, a lofty chain of moun- 
 tains which separate Barbary from the great 
 desert of Zaara. They are said to have derived 
 their name from Atlas, king of Mauritania. The 
 mountains which form the eastern boundary of 
 the empire of Morocco are by far the loftiest 
 part of this chain; their height rises to upwards 
 of 13,000 feet; and their summits are covered 
 with perpetual snow. As the chain stretches 
 through eastern Barbary, it diminishes consider- 
 ably in height, spreading into various branches. 
 These Dr. Shaw represents as generally consisting 
 of a number of little hills of the perpendicular height 
 of 400 or 500 yards, covered with groves, and 
 ranges of fruit and forest trees rising behind each 
 other. From this chain numerous rivers de- 
 scend and fertilise the plains of Morocco in their 
 way to the ocean ; while others flow southwards 
 into the desert, till they are lost in its sands. The 
 geology of the Atlas is very little known ; but Us 
 basis is probably granite, while in its lower parts 
 calcareous rocks appear to prevail. Consider- 
 ing its 'extent and magnitude, the Atlas does not 
 produce any very copious supply of minerals. 
 Lead and silver are obtained in considerable 
 quantity, and farther to the south are mines of 
 gold and silver, which the sovereigns of Morocco 
 have prevented from being worked, from jea- 
 lousy of the natives. Antimony, for which there 
 exists an extensive demand as a cosmetic, is 
 drawn very copiously from these mountains. 
 The most valuable kind is found near Tafilelt, 
 and IS* called El Kahol Filelly. Opposite to Te- 
 rodant, sulphur is found in immense quantities. 
 Iron is also produced though not very abun- 
 dantly. The ancients, whose knowledge of geo- 
 graphy was very confined, conceived these moun- 
 tains to be the pillars of the world, and that their 
 summit upheld the heaven : we subjoin the fol- 
 lowing quotation. 
 
 Ner patitur nomen proferri longius Atlas, 
 Atlas siibducto tacturus vertice ca?lum ; 
 Sidera nubiferum fulcit caput, astheriasque 
 Erigit aeternum compages ardua cervix ; 
 Canet barba gelu, frontemque immanibus umbris 
 Pinea silva preinit, vastant cava tempora venti 
 Nimbosoque ruunt spumantia flumina rictu. 
 
 Sil. 1. 1. 
 
 ATLITA, in entomology, a species of papilio, 
 indented, brown, fulvous beneath, with undulated 
 glaucous streaks, and five blind-eye shaped spots. 
 Native of the East Indies. 
 
 ATMOSPHERE, ( From the Gr. aT/iog, 
 
 Atmospiier'ical. S vapor, and ff^atpa, 
 sphere. The body of air and vapor that sur- 
 rounds the earth. 
 
 We did not mention the weight of the incumbent 
 atmosp/ierical cylinder, as a part of the weight resisted. 
 
 Boyle. 
 
 The exteriour part of this our habitable world is 
 the air, or atmotphere ; a light, thin, fluid, or springy 
 body, that encompasses the solid earth on all sides. 
 
 Locke,
 
 ATMOSPHERE. 
 
 229 
 
 Immense the whole excited atmosphere 
 ImpL'tuous rushes o'er the sounding world. 
 
 Thonuon. 
 
 Then no more 
 The expansive atmosphere is cramped with cold. 
 But full of life, the vivifying soul 
 
 Lifts *he light clouds sublime, and spreads them thin, 
 Fleecy, and white, o'er all-surrounding heaven. Id. 
 
 Atmosphere ; this word is used to signify 
 the whole of the fluid mass consisting of air, 
 aqueous and other vapors, electric fluids, &c. 
 which surrounds the earth to a considerable 
 height, and partakes of both its diurnal motion 
 on its axis, and its annual motion round the sun. 
 Its composition was, until within these few 
 years, very little known. That it is a very hete- 
 rogeneous mass, mi<^ht readily be concluded, 
 upon considering tliat it is tlie common recepta- 
 cle of all the effluvia, exhalations, and particles, 
 raised from innumerable bodies upon the earth : 
 hence it has been compared to a vast chemi- 
 cal vessel in which the matter of all kinds of 
 bodies is continually floating, and thus exposed 
 to the action of tlie sun; from whence proceed 
 innumerable operations, sublimations, separa- 
 tions, compositions, digestions, fermentations, 
 putrefactions, &c. The discoveries of modern 
 chemistry have, however, shown us its essential 
 constituents and their proportions, a subject 
 which we have treated at considerable length 
 under the word Air. 
 
 It only remains therefore for us to add a few sup- 
 plementary observations to that paper ; and these 
 will principally respect the figure of the atmos- 
 phere and its supposed limits. If the earth had 
 no diurnal rotation upon its axis, then according 
 to the laws of gravity the atmosphere would be 
 of an uniform height, enclosing the earth, which 
 in this case would be perfectly spherical. But 
 as the earth and the atmosphere revolve about an 
 axis, the diff'erent parts of both have a centrifugal 
 force, by which their gravity is diminished to- 
 wards the equator, the figure of the atmosphere 
 becomes an oblate spheroid ; the parts that cor- 
 respond to the equator being farther removed 
 from the centre than the parts that correspond to 
 the poles, and the ratio of the poles to the equa- 
 torial diameter, being as two to three. Besides, 
 the figure of the atmosphere must on another 
 account represent a flattened spheroid ; namely, 
 because the sun strikes more directly the air be- 
 tween the tropics, than the air in the polar 
 regions, and hence the mass of atmospheric air 
 adjoining the poles being less heated, cannot 
 expand so much, nor reach so high as the air in 
 the neighbourhood of the equator. And yet 
 higher columns about the equatorial regions may 
 not be heavier than those at the poles ; seeing 
 lliat the same force which contributes to elevate 
 the air, diminishes its gravity and pressure on the 
 surface of the earth. 
 
 Mr. Kirwan has given in the Transactions of 
 the Royal Irish Academy an ingenious disserta- 
 tion on the figure, height, weight, &c. of the 
 atmosphere, where he observes, that in the natu- 
 ral state of the atmosphere, its weight must be 
 equal over all the earth, and since the density of 
 the air at the earth's surface increases from the 
 equator to the poles, its height must diminish 
 I'rom the poles to the equator, and from this it 
 
 follows that although the equatorial air be less 
 dense to a certain height than tiie polar, yet at 
 some greater heights it must be more dense. 
 Hence it is inferred that in the higher regions of 
 the atmosphere, the denser equatorial air not 
 being supported by the collateral extra-tropical 
 columns, gradually flows over and rolls down to 
 the north and south. 
 
 La Place, in that part of his Systeme du Monde 
 which treats of the atmosphere of the planets, 
 ingeniously observes, that in all the changes to 
 which the atmosphere is subject, the sum of the 
 products of the particles of the revolving body 
 and its atmosphere, multiplied respectively by 
 the areas they describe round the common cen- 
 tre of gravity (the radii being projected on the 
 plane of the equator), remains the same in equal 
 times. Supposing therefore by any cause what- 
 ever, the atmosphere should be contracted, or 
 that part thereof should become condensed on 
 the surface of the body, the rotatory motio-n of 
 the latter and its atmosphere would be accele- 
 rated ; for the radii vectores of the areas des- 
 cribed by the particles of the original atmosphere 
 becoming smaller, the sum of the products of all 
 the particles by their corresponding areas cannot 
 remain the same unless their velocities be aug- 
 mented. 
 
 The limits of the atmosphere have been a fre- 
 quent subject of philosophical inquiry, especially 
 since it was discovered by the Torricellian tube 
 tliat air is endued with weight and pressure. 
 Indeed, if the air possessed no elastic power, 
 but were everywhere of the same density, from 
 the surface of the earth to the extreme limit of 
 the atmosphere, like water, which is equally 
 dense at all depths, the whole height of the at- 
 mosphere might be ascertained without difficulty. 
 It has been well established, that the weight of 
 a column of air reaching to the top of the atmos- 
 phere, is equal to the weight of the mercury con- 
 tained in the barometer, and counterbalancing 
 it ; and the proportion of weight likewise being 
 known between equal bulks of air and mercury, 
 it will be easy to find the height of such a 
 column, and consequently that of the atmosphere 
 itself. For a column of air one inch high being 
 to an equal column of mercury as 1 to 11364"6; 
 it is evident that 11364-6 such columns of air, 
 that is a column 947 feet high, would be equal 
 in weight to one inch of mercury : and conse- 
 quently the 30 inches of mercury sustained in 
 the barometer, require a column of air 28,410 
 feet high ; whence the height of the atmosphere 
 would only be 28,410 feet, or little more than 
 five English miles and a quarter high. But the 
 air by its elastic property expands and contracts; 
 and it being found by repeated experiments that 
 the spaces it takes up when compressed by diffe- 
 rent weights, are reciprocally proportional to 
 those weights themselves ; or, that the air takes 
 up the less space the more it is pressed ; it fol- 
 lows that the air in the upper regions of the at- 
 mosphere, where the weight is so much less, 
 must be much rarer than near the surface of the 
 earth ; and consequently that the heigiit of the 
 atmosphere must be much greater than is above 
 assigned. 
 
 On this subject it has been further and well 
 remarked, that if the earth were perfectly mo-
 
 230 
 
 ATMOSPHERE. 
 
 tionless, the elasticity of the atmosphere uni- 
 formly as the compressing force, and matter 
 infinitely divisible, we could have no other than 
 an atmosphere indefinitely extended; but the 
 diurnal motion at a certain height brings the 
 centrifugal force equal to that of gravity, and 
 beyond this limit no atmosphere can exist. Its 
 particles by the operation of this force would 
 here become projected into space ; and the pro- 
 cess would continue until the entire atmosphere 
 was dissipated. Dr. WoUaston, in an ingenious 
 paper in Part I. of the Phdosophical Transac- 
 tions for 1822, observes, that if we admit that 
 air has been rarefied so as to sustain only -jig of an 
 inch of barometrical pressure, and that this mea- 
 sure has afforded a true estimate of its rarity, we 
 should infer from the law of elasticity observed 
 within certain limits, that the atmosphere extends 
 at least to the height of forty miles with proper- 
 ties yet unimpaired by extreme rarefaction. Be- 
 yond this limit we are left to conjecture, founded 
 on the supposed divisibility of matter ; and if this 
 be infinite, so also must be the extent of the at- 
 mosphere, except so far as regards the centrifugal 
 force to which we have already reierred ; for if 
 the density be throughout as the compressing 
 force, then must a stratum of given thickness at 
 every height be compressed by a superincum- 
 bent atmosphere, bearing a constant ratio to its 
 own weight, whatever be its distance from the 
 earth. But if air consists of any ultimate par- 
 ticles no longer divisible, then must expansion 
 of the medium composed of them cease at that 
 distance where the force of gravity downwards 
 upon a single particle is equal to the resistance 
 arising from the repulsive force of the medium. 
 
 On the supposition of limited divisibility, the 
 atmosphere which surrounds us must be con- 
 ceived to be a medium of finite extent, and may 
 be peculiar to our planet, since its properties 
 would afford no ground to presume that similar 
 matter exists in any other planet. But if we 
 adopt the supposition of unlimited expansion, 
 we must conceive the same kind of matter to 
 pervade all space, where it would not be in 
 equilibrio unless the sun, the moon, and all the 
 planets possessed their respective shares of it 
 condensed around them, in degrees depending 
 upon their respective force of attraction, unless 
 in those instances where the tendency to accu- 
 mulate may be counteracted by the interference 
 of other kinds of matter, or of other powers of 
 which we have no experience, and concerning 
 which we cannot be supposed to reason cor- 
 rectly. 
 
 Now on this supposition, since we know the 
 ma5s and diameter of the principal bodies in our 
 system, we should know also the density of their 
 atmospheres at their respective surfaces; and 
 also at what distance from the surface of each, 
 the density would be the same as at the surface 
 of the earth ; at which height a sensible degree 
 of refraction that is more than a degree, ought to 
 be produced on a ray of light passing through it. 
 For example, if the mass of the sun be consider- 
 ed as 330,000 times that of the earth, the dis- 
 tance at which bis force is equal to that of ter- 
 restrial gravity at our surface, will be^/ 330,000, 
 or about 575 times the earth's radius ; and if his 
 
 radias be 111 '5 times that of the earth then the 
 575 
 
 distance will be 
 
 111-5 
 
 = 5-15 times the sun's 
 
 radius. Now the mean apparent semi-diameter 
 of the sun being 15'49", we have 15' 49" x 5-15 
 = 1° 21' 29", for the distance from the sun's 
 centre, where the refractive power of his atmos- 
 phere is equal to that at the earth's surface ; that 
 is where it would produce a deviation of a degree 
 to a ray passing through it at that distance. We 
 are able, as Dr.WoUaston has shown, to observe 
 \'enus within this distance of the sun ; and 
 since in this observation we find no effect pro- 
 duced by refraction, the observed and computed 
 places agreeing to a fraction of a minute, we 
 have a right to infer that at die distance we have 
 computed, the density of the sun's atmosphere is 
 not such as it would be if each body in the system 
 possessed an atmosphere proportional to its own 
 attractive power ; but this must be the case if the 
 elastic matter of the atmosphere were infinitely 
 divisible, hence then again we may conclude 
 that matter is not infinitely divisible, and 
 consequently that the atmosphere of this §arth 
 is of a finite and limited height, and may be 
 peculiar to it. But some doubt will hang 
 over this deduction in respect to the sun, on 
 account of the probable heat near his surface, 
 which may produce a rarefaction far exceeding 
 any thing that we can farm an idea of; but this 
 will not be the case if we select Jupiter as the 
 body for observation. 
 
 Since the mass of Jupiter is full 309 times 
 that of the earth, the distance at which his attrac- 
 tion is equal to gravity must be about -v/309, or 
 17'6 times the earth's radius; and since his 
 diameter is nearly 11 times greater than that of 
 
 the earth, we shall have- =1*6 times his own 
 
 radius ; for the distance from his centre at which 
 an atmosphere equal to our own should occasion 
 a refraction exceeding one degree to the fourth 
 satellite. This distance would subtend an angle 
 of about 3° 37', so that an increase of density to 
 3^ times our common atmosphere, would be 
 more than sufficient to render the fourth satellite 
 visible to us when behind the centre of the 
 planet ; and consequently to make it appear on 
 both or all sides at the same time. Hence, what- 
 ever doubt may remain on the deduction made 
 from observations on Venus seen through the 
 solar atmosphere, in consequence of the possible 
 effects of heat which cannot be appreciated, it is 
 evident that no error from this source can be 
 apprehended in regard to Jupiter. This planet 
 therefore does not possess an atmosphere pro- 
 portional to his mass, as he would do if the 
 matter composing it were infinitely divisible, and 
 therefore, as we have seen, common to the whole 
 solar system. Hence then we have a right to 
 conclude, that matter is not infinitely divisible, 
 and that each planet possesses an atmosphere 
 peculiar to itself of limited height, composed of 
 ultimate atoms of definite magnitude, no longer 
 divisible by the repulsion of their parts. 
 
 We may, in conclusion, observe that to the 
 refractive and attractive power of the atmosphere 
 we owe all the blessings and phenomena of 
 twilight. By the former the rays of light are
 
 A T O O I. 
 
 231 
 
 bent from the right-lined direction, by the latter 
 objects are enlightened more uniformly on all 
 sides. The want of this power would occasion 
 a strange alteration in the appearance of things; 
 shadows would be totally dark, and the en- 
 lightened sides of objects overpoweringly bright; 
 so that probably we could see no more of them 
 than their bright halves; and for a view of the other 
 halves must turn them round, or, if immovable, 
 wait until the sun could come round upon them. 
 Such a pellucid unreflective atmosphere might 
 be very commodious for astronomical observa- 
 tions on the course of the sun and planets among 
 the fixed stars visible by day as well as by night; 
 but such a sudden transition from darkness to 
 light, and from light to darkness immediately 
 upon the rising and setting of the sun, without 
 any twilight, and even upon turning to or from 
 the sun at noon day, would be very incon- 
 venient and offensive to our eyes. See Keil's 
 Astron. Led. 20, &c. See also Light and IIe- 
 rKACTiON in our alphabet. 
 
 ATOLLENS Oculi, in anatomy, a name 
 given by Albinus to one of his quatuor recti 
 musculi oculi. This is the muscle called by 
 JMolinett, and others, the superbus, and by 
 Cowper, the elevator oculi. 
 
 A'TOM, "^ From a, privative, and rt/i- 
 Atom'ical, I vw, to cut. Something so small 
 A'tomist, [as not to be cut into smaller 
 Atom'like, Tparticles ; so simple as not to 
 Atom'ology, be capable of reduction to 
 At'omy. J simpler elements. 
 It is as easy to count atoms, as to resolve the pro- 
 positions of a lover. Slmkspeare. As You Like it. 
 Drawn with a team of little atomies. 
 Athwart men's noses, as they^be asleep. 
 
 Shakspeare. 
 
 Vitrified and pellucid bodies are clearer in their 
 
 continuities, than in powders and atomical divisions. 
 
 Brown's Vulgar Erroiirs. 
 
 These atomic theists utterly evacuate that grand 
 
 argument for a God, taken from the phenomenon of 
 
 the artificial frame of things, which has been so much 
 
 insisted upon in all ages. 
 
 Cudworth's Intellectual System. 
 Innumerable minute bodies are called atoms; be- 
 cause, by reason of their perfect solidity, they were 
 really indivisible. Ray. 
 
 The atomists (who define motion to be a passage 
 from one place to another) what do they more, than 
 put one synon3rmous word for another ? Locke. 
 
 See plastick nature, working to this end ! 
 The single atoms, each to other tend ; 
 Attract, attracted to, the next in place, 
 Form'd and impell'd its neighbour to embrace. 
 
 Pope. 
 Now can judicious atomists conceive. 
 Chance to the sun could his just impulse give ? 
 
 Blaekmore. 
 Vacuum is another principal doctrine of the atomi- 
 cal philosophy. Bentley's Sermom. 
 Atom ; atomus, Lat. ^ rofiog ; such a small par- 
 ticle as cannot be physically divided ; and these 
 are the first rudiments, or the component parts 
 of all bodies. 
 
 Atomical Philosophy. See Attraction. 
 ATONE', V. & ad.^ To be at one. Imply- 
 Atone'ment, Mng a state of former 
 
 Atoke'maker. J estrangement, and ex- 
 pressing present reconciliation. To satisfy the 
 
 claims of justice and equity by making repara- 
 tion and expiation; to enjoy the renewed friend- 
 ship and regard of the injured party. 
 
 Paul sayth, 1 Timothy ii. One God, one Mediator 
 (that is to say, aduocate, intercessor, or an atone- 
 maker), betweene God and man ; the man Christ 
 Jesus which gaue himselfe a raunsom for all men. 
 Tfw WMe Workes of W. Tyndall, fol. 158. c. i. 
 He seeks, to make atonement. 
 Between the duke of Glo'ster and your brothers. 
 
 Shakspeare. 
 He and Aufidius can no more atone. 
 Than violentest contrariety. Id. Coriolanus. 
 
 From a mean stock, the pious Decii came ; 
 Yet such their virtues, that their loss alone. 
 For Rome and all our legions, did atone. 
 
 Dryden. Juvenal. 
 
 The good intention of a man of weight and worth, 
 
 or a real friend, seldom atones for the uneasiness 
 
 produced by his grave representations Locke. 
 
 Let thy sublime meridian course. 
 
 For Mary's setting rays, atone : 
 
 Our lustre, with redoubled force. 
 Must now proceed from thee alone. Prior. 
 His virgin sword j^gysthus' veins imbrued ; 
 The murd'rer fell, and blood aton'd for blood. 
 
 Pope, 
 Soon should yon boasters cease their haughty strife ; 
 Or each atone his guilty love, with life. Id. 
 
 And the Levites were purified ; and Aaron made 
 an atonement for them, to cleanse them. Numbers. 
 "Purely, it is not a sufficient atonement for the writers ; 
 that they profess loyalty to the government, and 
 sprinkle some arguments in favour of the dissenters ; 
 and, under the shelter of popular politicks and reli- 
 gion, undermine the foundations of all piety and 
 virtue. Swift. 
 
 If any contention arose, he knew none fitter to be 
 their judge, to atone, and take up their quarrels, but 
 himself. Drummond. 
 
 Atonement. The word "l£)3,translated atone- 
 ment in the sacred writings, some writers say, 
 signifies covering ; and thus it would seem to 
 imply that man can only be at-one with an in- 
 finitely just God, when that for which his pro- 
 genitor was banished God's presence, and that 
 which he has himself acquired by following a 
 similar course, is covered. See Expiation and 
 Sacrifice. 
 
 ATONICS, in grammar, words unaccented. 
 
 ATONY ; from a, and tovoq, tone ; in raec'i- 
 cine, a defect of tone or tension, or a laxity or 
 debility of the solids of the body. 
 
 ATOOI, one of the Sandwich islands. — 
 Towards the north-west and north-east the face 
 of the country is ragged and broken ; but to the 
 southward it is m.ore even. The hills rise from 
 the sea side with a gentle acclivity, and, at a 
 little distance back, are covered with wood. Its 
 produce is the same with that of the other islands 
 of this cluster; but its plantation? are managed 
 much better than those of all the neiglibouring 
 islands. In the low grounds, contiguous to the 
 bay wherein our navigators anchored, they were 
 regularly divided by deep ditches; the fences 
 were formed with a neatness approaching to 
 elegance, and the roads through them were 
 finished in such a manner as would have re- 
 flected credit even on an European engineer. 
 The anchoring place, which our vessel occup/cd, 
 is on the south-west side of the island, about two
 
 232 
 
 A T O O I. 
 
 leagues from the west end, before a village named 
 Wymoa. As far as was sounded, the bank was 
 free from rocks, except to the eastward of the 
 village, where there projects a shoal, on which are 
 some rocks and breakers. This road is some- 
 what exposed to the trade wind, notwithstaTiding 
 which defect, it is far from being a bad station, 
 and greatly superior to those which necessity con- 
 tinually obliges ships to use, in countries where 
 the winds are not only more variable, but more 
 boisterous ; as at Madeira, Teneriffe, the Azores, 
 &c. The landing too is not so difficult as at 
 most of those places ; and, unless in very bad 
 weather, is always practicable. The water in 
 the neighbourhood is excellent, and may be con- 
 veyed with ease to the boats. But no wood can 
 be cut at any convenient distance, unless the 
 islanders could be prevailed upon to part with 
 the few etooa trees (cordia sebestina) that grow 
 about their villages, or a species called dooe 
 dooe, which grows farther up the country. 
 Atooi is about 300 miles in circumference. Long. 
 200O 20' E., lat. 21° 57' N. 
 
 The natives of Atooi are of the middle size, 
 and in general stoutly made. They are neither 
 remarkable for a beautiful shape nor for striking 
 features. Their visage, particularly that of the 
 women, is sometimes round, but others have it 
 long; nor can it justly be said th-it they are dis- 
 tinguished as a nation by any general cast of 
 countenance. Their complexion is nearly of a 
 nut brown ; but some individuals are of a darker 
 hue. They are far from being ugly, and have, 
 to all appearance, few natural deformities of any 
 kind. Their skin is not very soft nor shining; 
 but their eyes and teeth are, for the most part, 
 pretty good. Their hair in general is straight ; 
 and though its natural color is usually black, 
 they stain it, as at the Friendly and other Islands. 
 They are active, vigorous, and most expert 
 swimmers, leaving their canoes upon the most 
 frivolous occasion, diving under them and swim- 
 ming to others, though at a considerable dis- 
 tance. Women with infants at the breast, when 
 the surf was so high as to prevent their landing 
 in the canoes, frec|uently leapt overboard, and 
 swam to the shore without endangering their 
 little ones. They appeared to be of a frank 
 cheerful disposition, and are equally free from 
 the fickle levity which characterises the inhabi- 
 tants of Otaheite, and the sedate cast which is 
 observable among many of those of Tonoataboo. 
 They seem to cultivate a sociable intercourse 
 with each other; and except the propensity to 
 thieving, whicii is as it were innate in most of 
 the people in those seas, they appeared extremely 
 friendly. It was pleasing to observe with what 
 affection the women managed their inflmts, and 
 with what alacrity the men contributed their as- 
 sistance in such a tender office ; thus distinguish- 
 ing themselves from tliose savages who consider 
 a wife and child as things rather necessary than 
 desirable, or worthy of their regard and esteem. 
 From the numbers that were seen assembled at 
 every village, in coasting along, it was conjec- 
 tured that the inhabitants of this island are pretty 
 numerous. Including the straggling houses, it 
 was computed there might perhaps be, in the 
 Tihole island, sixty such villages as that near 
 
 which our ships anchored; and, allowing fin; 
 persons to each house, there would be in every 
 village 500, or 30,000 in all upon the island. 
 This is by no means exaggerated ; for there were 
 sometimes 3000 people at least collected upon 
 the beach, when it could not be supposed that 
 above a tenth part of the natives were present. 
 
 The ground, from the wooded part to the sea, 
 is covered with an excellent kind of grass, about 
 two feet in height, which sometimes grows in 
 tufts, and appeared capable of being converted 
 into abundant crops of fine hay. But on this ex- 
 tensive spot not even a shrub grows naturally. 
 Besides taro, the sweet potatoe, and other simi- 
 lar vegetables used by our crews as refreshments, 
 among which were at least five or six varieties of 
 plantains, the island produces bread fruit ; which, 
 however, seems to be scarce. There are also a 
 few cocoa palms ; some yams ; the kappe of the 
 Friendly Islands, or Virginian arum ; the etooa 
 tree, and odoriferous gardenia or cape jasmine. 
 Our people also met with several trees of the 
 dooe dooe, that bear the oily nuts, which are 
 stuck upon a kind of skewer, and made use of as 
 candles. There is a species of sida, or Indian 
 mallow ; also the morinda citrifolia, which is 
 here called none ; a species of convolvulus ; the 
 ava or intoxicating pepper, besides great quanti- 
 ties of gourds. These last grow to a very large 
 size, and are of a remarkable variety of shapes, 
 which are perhaps the effect of art. The scarlet 
 birds, which were brought for sale, were never 
 met with alive ; except one small one, about the 
 size of a canary bird, of a deep crimson coior. 
 A large owl, two brown hawks or kites, and a 
 wild duck, were also seen. Other birds were 
 mentioned by tiie natives ; among which were the 
 otoo, or bluish heron, and the torata, a sort of 
 whimbrel. It is probable that this species of 
 birds are numerous, if we may judge by the 
 quantity of fine yellow, rrreen, and small, velvet 
 like, blackish feathers, used upon the cloaks and 
 other ornaments worn by these people. Fish, 
 and other productions of the sea, were to appear- 
 ance not various. The only tame or domestic 
 animals found here were hogs, dogs, and fowls, 
 which were all of the same kind that had been 
 met with at the islands of the South Pacific. 
 There were also small lizards, and some rats. 
 ATOP. On top, at the top. See Top. 
 
 Atop whereof, but far more rich, appear'd 
 The •work, as of a kingly palace-gate. 
 
 Paradise Lost. 
 What is extracted by -water from coffee is the oil, 
 ■which often swims atop of the decoction. 
 
 Arbuthnot on Aliment. 
 
 ATRA BILIS, black bile, or melancholy. 
 According to the ancients' it hath a two-fold ori- 
 gin : first, from the grosser parts of the blood, 
 and this they called the melancholy humor. 
 Second, from yellow bile being higiily concocted. 
 Dr. Percival, in his Essays Medical and Experi- 
 mental, suggests that it is the gall, rendered 
 acrid by a stagnation in the gall-bladder, and 
 rendered viscid by the absorption of all its fluid 
 parts. Bile in this state discharoed into the 
 .duodenum, occasions universal disturbance and 
 disorder until it is evacuated ; it occasions vio- 
 lent vomiting or purging, or both; and, previous
 
 ATR 
 
 233 
 
 ATR 
 
 tc this, the pulse is quick, the head aches, a de- 
 lirium comes on, a iiiccough, intense thirst, 
 inward heat, and a fetid breath. Some describe 
 this kind of bile as being acid, harsh, corroding, 
 and, when poured on the ground, bubbling up, 
 and raising tlie earth, after the manner of a fer- 
 ment. Dr. Percival says, that by the use of the 
 infus. sense limoniet., warmed with the tinct. 
 columb., he had checked the vomitings occa- 
 sioned by this matter. 
 
 ATRACTOCERUS, in entomology, a genus 
 
 ATRAMENT'AL, ^ Lat. atramentum, ink. 
 
 Atrament'ous. J Having the blackening 
 property of ink. 
 
 If we enquire, in what part of vitriol this atramen- 
 tal and denigrating condition lodgeth ; it will seem 
 especially to lie in the more fixed tult thereof. 
 
 Brown's Vulgar Errours. 
 
 I am not satisfied, that those black and alramen- 
 tous spots, which seem to represent them, arc ocular. 
 
 Brown. 
 
 ATRAPHAXIS, in botany, a genus of the 
 
 of the order coleoptera, and family malacodermi. digynia order and class of plants; natural order 
 
 twelfth, holoracese. Cal. two leaves ; the petals 
 are two, and sinuated ; stigmas capitate ; and 
 there is but one seed. There are two species, 
 both natives of warm countries 
 
 ATRATUS (Hugh), was born at Evesham, in 
 
 Worcestershire. He made such proficiency in 
 
 Its generic characters are: cal. many the knowledge of the sciences, particularly mathe- 
 
 coR. compound radiate: stam. five fila- matics, medicine, and philosophy, th-at he was 
 
 Its generic characters are : antenna; simple, and 
 fusiform; short elytra, and sub-quadrate thorax. 
 There is but one species, A. necydaloides, the 
 uecydalis brevicornis of Linnaeus. 
 
 ATRACTYLIS, distaff thistle, a genus of the 
 polygamia a;qualis order, and syngenesia class of 
 plants, 
 leaved 
 
 ments; cylindric anther: pist. germen very~short; called the phoenix of the age. Pope Martin II 
 
 style filiform ; stigma bifid : per. none : seeds 
 turbinate. The species are : 1. A. cancellata, or 
 small cnicus, an annual plant, rising about eight 
 or nine inches high, with a slender stem, gar- 
 nished with hoary leaves, having spines on their 
 edges. 2. A gummifera, or prickly gum-bearing 
 
 gave him a cardinal's hat in 1281. He died of 
 the plague in 1287. He wrote Genealogiis 
 Ilumanis Problemata ; and also Canones MedTci- 
 nalis. 
 
 ATRAX, in fabulous history, a son of /Etolus, 
 or, as others say, of the river Peneus. He was 
 
 cnicus, known among physicians by the name of king of Thessaly, and built a town which he 
 carliue thistle, is a perennial plant. It sends out named Atrax or Atracia ; which became so fa- 
 many narrow leaves, which are armed -with spines mous that the word Atracius was commonly 
 on their edges, and lie close on the ground ; be- given to an inhabitant of Thessaly. He was the 
 tween them the flower is situated, without a father of that Ilippodamia who married Pirithous, 
 stalk, and having many florets enclosed in a and who must not be confounded with the wife 
 prickly empalement. Its roots were formerly of Pelops, who was so named, 
 used as a warm diaphoretic and alexipharmic ; ATREBATES, the ancient inhabitants of 
 but never came much into use in Britain, and Gallia Belgica, who possessed that part of Gaul 
 the present practice has entirely rejected them, now called Artois. A colony of them settled in 
 3. A humilis, or purple prickly cnicus, a peren- Britain. They are mentioned by Ca;sar anion"' 
 nial plant, rising about a foot high, with in- the nations which composed the Beloic con- 
 dented leaves, having small spines on their federacy against him ; and the quota of troops 
 edges. All these plants are natives of the warm which they engaged to furnish on that occasion 
 parts of Europe, as Spain, Sicily, and the Archi- was 15,000. 
 
 pelago islands. Atrebates, or Atrebatii, a people of Britain, 
 
 ATRA DIES, in antiquity. The word literally seated next to the Bibroci, in part of Berk- 
 imports a black day ; a denomination taken from shire, and Oxfordshire ; and one of those Belgic 
 the color, which is the emblem of death and colonies which came out of Gaul into Bri- 
 mourning. Whence the Thracians had a custom tain, and there retained tlieir ancient name, 
 of marking all their happy days with white Comius of Arras was a king or chieftain amono- 
 stones or calculi, and their unhappy days with the Atrebates in Gaul, in Ca;sar's time : and he 
 black ones; which they cast, at the close of each seems to have possessed some authority over our 
 day, into an urn. At the person's death the Atrebatii in Britain ; for he was sent by Ca!sar 
 stones were taken out ; and, from a comparison to persuade them to submission. This circum- 
 of the numbers of each complexion, a judgment stance makes it probable that this colony of the 
 was made of the felicity or infelicity of his course Atrebatii had not been settled in Britain very 
 of life. The dies atrae, or atri, were denominated long before that time. The Atrebatii were 
 nefasti, and posteri. Such, in particular, was among those British tribes which submitted to 
 the day when the tribunes were defeated by the Csesar ; nor do we hear of any remarkable re- 
 Gauls at the river Allia, and lost the city; also sistance they made against the Romans, at their 
 that whereon the battle of Cann» was fought; next invasion, under Claudius, 
 and several others marked in the Roman calen- ATRESIA; from a, and rpau), whence rtrpaw, 
 dar as atra; or unfortunate. to perforate; in medicine, imperforation, or the 
 
 ATRAGENE, in botany, a genus of plants, state of those persons who want some natural 
 class polyandria, order polygnia. Its generic aperture. 
 
 characters are : cal. four-leaved perianth : cor. ATRETI, those persons of either sex in whom 
 twelve petals: stam. filaments very many ; ob- the anus, or genitals, are imperforate, whether 
 long antherae : pist. germs many ; villose style ; naturally, or occasioned by some accident or 
 stigma simple: per. none: seeds very many, disease ; as the growth of some fleshy excrescence, ' 
 The species are shrubs, as atragene japonica, or membrane, which stops the orifice, 
 atragene alpina. &c. ATREUS, in fabulous history, the supposed
 
 ATR 
 
 234 
 
 ATR 
 
 king of Mycense and Argos, about A. A. C. 1228. 
 He was the son of Pelops by Ilippodamia, and 
 brother to Pittheus, Troezen, Thyestes, and 
 Chrysippus. The latter being an illegitimate 
 son, and a favorite with his father, Hippodamia 
 resolved to remove him; and for this purpose 
 she endeavoured to persuade Thyestes and 
 Atreus to murder him ; but her arguments prov- 
 ing vain, she executed it herself. Pelops was 
 grieved at his son's death ; and the brothers being 
 suspected, they fled from his presence. Atreus 
 retired to the court of his nephew, Eurysdieus 
 king of Argos, on whose death he succeeded to 
 that throne. Some writers say he married 
 iErope, his predecessor's daughter, by whom he 
 had Plisthenes, IMenelaus, and Agamemnon ; 
 but, according to others, iErope was the wife of 
 Plisthenes, by whom she had Agamemnon and 
 Menelaus, who are the reputed sons of Atreus, 
 because he took care of their education, and 
 brought them up as his own. Thyestes had 
 followed his brother to Argos, where he lived 
 with him, and debauched his wife, by whom he 
 had some children. When Atreus discovered 
 this incestuous commerce, he banished his brother 
 from his court ; but, determined to have more 
 ampie revenge for the violence offered to his bed, 
 he soon after recalled him, and invited him to a 
 sumptuous feast. Thyestes was served up with 
 the flesh of the children he had by his sister-in- 
 law the queen; and, when the entertainment was 
 over, to convince him of what he had feasted 
 upon, the arms and the heads of the murdered 
 children were shown him. This action appeared 
 so horrid that the sun is said to have withdrawn 
 his light. Thyestes fled directly to the court of 
 Thesprotus, and thence to Sicyon, where he 
 ravished his own daughter Pelopea, in a grave 
 sacred to Minerva, not knowing who she was ; 
 though some say he committed this incest in- 
 tentionally, to revenge himself on his brother 
 Atieus, as the oracle had promised him satisfac- 
 tion for the cruelties he had sufl'ered, only by the 
 hand of a son by himself with his own daughter. 
 Pelopea brought forth a son whom she named 
 iEgisthus, and soon after she married Atreus, 
 who had lost iiis wife. Atreus adopted ii^.gis- 
 thus, and sent him to murder Thyestes, who had 
 been made prisoner. Thyestes knew his son, 
 and made himself known to him ; when, instead 
 of murdering his father, he espoused his cause, 
 and avenged his wrongs by returning to Atreus 
 and assassinating him. 
 
 ATKI, or Atri.4, a town of Italy, in Abruzzo, 
 in Naples. It lies 26 miles west of Aquila, and 
 was the birth place of the emperor Adrian. It 
 is the see of a bishop, and is seated on a crag- 
 gy mountain, five miles from the Adriatic sea. 
 Long. 15° 20' E., lat. 42° 40' N. 
 
 ATRICAPILLA, in ornithology, a little bird, 
 commonly known by the name of the black cap, 
 and called, by some authors, ficedala, sycalis, or 
 melanchoryphus. and by the Italians, coponegro. 
 ATllICES, or Attrices, in medicine, small 
 tubercles about the anus, which sometimes dis- 
 appear, and then return again, at least in their 
 early state. They are ranked in the number of 
 condylomata, or fici. Some authors also give tiie 
 denomination atrici to a kind of latent wounds 
 
 in the extremity of the rectum, which how v* 
 do not perforate it. 
 
 ATRICILLA, in ichthyology, a species of the 
 larus. 
 
 ATRIDES, a patronymic of Agamemnon and 
 Menelaus, the sons of Atreus. 
 
 ATRIENSES, in antiquity, a kind of servaKts 
 in the great families at Rome, who had the car 
 of the atria, and the things lodged therein. See 
 Atrium. They were also called atriarii, ihougi" 
 some make a distinction between atrienses and 
 atriarii ; suggesting, that the latter were an infe- 
 rior order of servants, employed in the more ser- 
 vile offices of the atrium, as to attend at the door, 
 sweep the area, &c. and to assist the former. 
 The atrienses are represented as servants who 
 had command over the rest, and acted as agents 
 for their master, in selling his goods, &c. To 
 their care were committed the images of the mas- 
 ter's ancestors, &c. which were placed round the 
 atrium ; and which they carried in procession at 
 funerals, Sec. In the country houses, the atrien- 
 ses had the care of the other furniture and uten- 
 sils, particularly those of metal, which they were 
 to keep from rust. Other things they were to 
 hang in the sun, to keep them dry, &c. They 
 were clothed in a short white linen habit, to 
 distinguish them, and prevent their loitering from 
 home. 
 
 ATRIP, in nautical language, is applied either 
 to the anchor or sails. The anchor is atrip, when 
 it is drawn out of the ground, in a perpendicular 
 direction, either by the cable or buoy rope. 
 The top sails are atrip, when they are hoisted up 
 to the mast head, or to their utmost extent. 
 
 ATRIPLEX, Orach, or Arrach, a genus 
 of the monoecia order and polygamia class of 
 plants ; natural order twelfth, holoracete. Cal. 
 the hermaphrodite flower, five-leaved ; cor. 
 none; stam. five; sty. bifid; seed, one, de- 
 pressed. There are fourteen species, of which 
 the following are the most remarkable: 1. A. 
 halimus, the broad leafed orach, formerly culti- 
 vated in gardens as a shrub, by some formed 
 into hedges, and constantly sheared to keep them 
 thick. It may be propagated by cuttings, and 
 planted in any of the summer months, in a shady 
 border ; where they will soon take root, and be 
 fit against the following 3lichaelmas to trans- 
 plant. 2. A. hortensis, the garden orach, was for- 
 merly cultivated in gardens, and used a» a 
 substitute for spinage. There are three or four 
 varieties of this plant, whose only difference is 
 their color; one is a deep green, another a dark 
 purple, and a third has green leaves and purple 
 borders. They are all annual, and must be pro- 
 pagated by seeds. These are to be sown at 
 Michaelmas, soon after they are ripe. This spe- 
 cies is an article of the materia medica ; a decoc- 
 tion of the leaves is recommended in costiveness 
 where the patient is of a hot bilious disposition. 
 3. A. petulacoides, the shrubby sea orach, grows 
 wild by the sea side, in many places of Britain. 
 It is a low under shrub, seldom rising above two 
 feet and a half, or at most three feet high ; but 
 becomes very bushy. 
 
 ATRIUAl, in antiquity, the large room or 
 court at the first entrance into the house, in which 
 the Romans used to sup, and in which they kept
 
 A T R O P A. 
 
 235 
 
 the statues and images of their ancestors. In 
 ecclesiastical antiquity it si<;nified an open place 
 or court before a church, makinij part of what 
 was called the narthex, or antetemple. The atri- 
 um in the ancient churches was a large area or 
 square plat of ground, surrounded with a portico 
 or cloister, situtate between the porch or 
 vestibule of the church and the body of the 
 church. Some have mistakenly confounded the 
 atrium with the porch or vestibule, from which 
 it was distinct ; others with the narthex, of which 
 it was only a part. The atrium was the mansion 
 of those who were not suffered to enter farther 
 into the church. More particularly, it was the 
 place where the first class of penitents stood to 
 beg the prayers of the faithful, as they went into 
 the church. Atrium, in the canon law, the ceme- 
 tery or church yard. In this sense, we find a law, 
 prohibiting buildings to be raised in atrio eccle- 
 sia?, except for the clergy ; which the glossary 
 explains thus, id est in ccemeterio, which includes 
 the space of forty paces around a large church, 
 or thirty round a small church or chapel. 
 
 ATRO'CIOUS, ^ Lat. atroi. Perhaps a, 
 Atro'ciously, ^ intentive, and fri<r, fierce, 
 Atuo'ciousness, C savage, rough in manners. 
 Atro'city. J Used in the sense of inflex- 
 
 ible, terrible, dreadful, enormously wicked. 
 
 An advocate is necessary ; and therefore audience 
 ought not to be denied him in defending causes, un- 
 less it be an atrocious offence. Aylijfe's Parergon. 
 
 I never recal it to mind, without a deep astonish- 
 ment of the very horror and atrocity of the fact in a 
 Cliristian court. Wotton. 
 
 They desired justice might be done upon offenders, 
 as the atrotity of their crimes deserved. Clarendon. 
 
 Bad as Herod was, the petition of Salome at first 
 shocked him. * The king was sorry.' He thought 
 of John's character, the atrocionsness of the murder, 
 and the opinion which the world would entertain of 
 tlie murderer. 
 
 Home on the Life and Death of St. John tfte 
 Baptist. 
 
 ATROPA, Deadly Night-shade : A genus 
 of the monogynia order, and pentandria class of 
 plants; natural order twenty-fifth, Luridae. The 
 corolla is campanulated ; the stamina are distant ; 
 the berry is globular, and consisting of two cells. 
 There are eight species ; the most common are : 
 1 . A. belladonna, growing wild in many parts of 
 Britain. It hath a perennial root, which tends 
 out strong herbaceous stalks of a purplish 
 color. These rise to the height of four or five 
 feet, garnished widi entire oblong leaves, which, 
 towards antumu, change to a purplish color. 
 The flowers are large, and come out singly be- 
 tween the leaves, upon long foot stalks ; bell- 
 shaped, and of a dusky color on the outside, 
 but purplish within. After the flower is past, 
 the germen turns to a red berry, a little flatted at 
 the top, about the size of a cherry. It is first 
 green ; but when ripe, turns to a shining black, 
 sits close upon the empalement, and contains a 
 purple juice of a nauseous sweet taste, and full 
 of small kidney-shaped seeds. This species be- 
 ing remarkable for its poisonous qualities, is very 
 seldom admitted into gardens, nor should it ever 
 be cultivated or allowed to grow in those places 
 to which children have access. The symptoms 
 produced by this poison are vertigo, delirium, 
 
 great thirst, painful deglutition, and retching, fol- 
 lowed by furor, stridor dentium, and convul- 
 sions ; the eye-lids are drawn down, the uvea 
 dilated and immovable, the face becomes red 
 and tumid, and spasms affect the mouth and jaw ; 
 the sensibility and irritability of the body suffer 
 such great diminution, that large and repeated do- 
 ses of the strongest emetics produce no sensible 
 effect; the pulse is small, hard, quick ; and sub- 
 sultus tendinum, risus sardonius, and coma, 
 close the fatal scene, \inegar liberally drank 
 has been found most efficacious in obviating the 
 effects of this poison. The leaves of the bella- 
 donna were first used externally to discuss scirr- 
 hous and cancerous tumors, and as an appli- 
 cation to ill-conditioned ulcers ; and their good 
 effects in this way at lengtli induced physicians 
 to employ them internally for the same disor- 
 ders ; and we find a considerable number of 
 well-authenticated facts, which prove them to 
 have been of important service. 2. Afrutescens, 
 is a native of Spain, and rises with a shrubby 
 stem to the height of six or eight feet ; dividing 
 into many branches, garnished with round leaves, 
 in shape like those of the storax tree : these are 
 placed alternately on the branches. The flowers 
 come out between the leaves, on short foot stalks, 
 shaped like those of the former, but much less; 
 of a dirty yellowish color, with a few brown 
 stripes ; but these are never succeeded by berries 
 in Britain. 3. A herbacea, is a native of Cam- 
 peachy, and has an herbaceous stalk and a peren- 
 nial root, which puts fortli several channelled 
 herbaceous stalks, rising about two feet. Towards 
 the top they divide into two or three small 
 branches, garnished with oval leaves, four inches 
 long, and three broad, having several prominent 
 transverse ribs on their under side. The flowers 
 come out from between the leaves ; on short 
 foot stalks; they are white, and shaped like 
 those of the common sort, but smaller. It flowers 
 in July and August, but seldom ripens its fruit 
 in Britain. 4. A mandragora, the mandrake, has 
 been distinguished into the male and female. 
 The male mandrake has a very large, long, and 
 thick root : it is largest at the top or head, and 
 from thence, gradually grows smaller. Some- 
 times it is single and undivided to tlie bottom ; 
 but more frequently it is divided into two or 
 more parts. From this root arise a number of 
 very long leaves, broadest in the middle, narrow 
 towards the base, and obtusely pointed at the 
 end : they are a foot or more in length, and about 
 five inches in breadth ; of a dusky and disagree- 
 able green color, and of a very foetid smell. 
 The female mandrake perfectly resembles the 
 other in its growth ; but the leaves are longer and 
 narrower, and of a darker color, as are also the 
 seeds and roots. It grows naturally in Spain, 
 Portugal, Italy, and the Levant. These three last 
 species are propagated by seeds, and placed in 
 stoves. This plant has been recommended as a 
 cure for barrenness. Its fresh root is a violent 
 purge, the dose being from ten to twenty grains 
 in substance, and from half a dram to a dram in 
 infusion. It has been found to do ser\ice in 
 hysteric complaints ; but must be used with 
 great caution, otherwise it will bring on convul- 
 sions, and other mischievous symptoms. It has 
 also a narcotic quality. At present only the
 
 ATT 
 
 236 
 
 ATT 
 
 fresh leaves are sometimes used in anodoyne and 
 emollient cataplasms and fomentations. It used 
 to be an ingredient in one of the old officinal 
 unguents ; but both that and the plant itself are 
 now rejected from our pharmacopoeias. It still, 
 however, retains a place in the foreign ones, and 
 may perhaps be considered as deserving farther 
 attention. No modern botanist will admit the 
 human figure ordinarily ascribed to its roots, 
 especially since the discovery of the artifice of 
 charlatans in fashioning it, to surprise the credu- 
 lity of the people. Moses informs us, (Gen. 
 XXX. 14.) that Reuben, being in the field, hap- 
 pened to find mandrakes, which he brought home 
 to his mother Leah. Rachel wished for them, 
 and obtained them from Leah, upon a certain 
 condition. The term D'Xlll dudaim, here made 
 use of by Moses, is one of those words of which 
 the Jews at this day do not understand the true 
 signification. Some translate it violets, others 
 lilies or jessamine. Junius calls it agreeable 
 flowers ; Codurquus makes it truffle, or mush- 
 room ; but Calmet will have it to be the citron. 
 
 ATROPHY. From a, privative, and Tpt(pio, 
 
 I nourish. Want of nourishment; a disorder, 
 
 in which what is taken at the mouth, cannot 
 
 contribute to the support of the body. 
 
 Pining atrophy. 
 
 Marasmus, and wide-wasting pestilence. Milton. 
 
 The mouths of the lacteals may De shut up by a 
 viscid mucus ; in which case the chj4e passeth by 
 stool, and the person falleth into an atrophy. 
 
 Arhuthnot on Aliments. 
 The shaking head, and the contracted limb ; 
 
 And lingering atrophy, and hoary age. Jago. 
 
 Atrophy. See Medicine, Index. 
 ATROPOS, in heathen mythology, the name 
 of the third of the Parcae, or Fates. Iler business 
 was to cut the thread of life. 
 
 ATTACH', \ Fr. attacker, to fasten by 
 Attach'mext. ^ means of some tie. To bind 
 both literally and metaphorically. 
 
 Eftzoons the guards, which on his state did wait, 
 Attach'd that traitor false, and bound him strait. 
 
 Spenser. 
 The Tower was chosen ; that if Clifford should 
 accuse great ones, they might ^(without suspicion or 
 noise) be presently attached. Bacon's Henry VII. 
 
 Bohemia greets you : 
 Desires you to attach his son, who has 
 His dignity eind duty both cast off. 
 
 Shakspeare. 
 Attach thee firmly to the virtuous deeds 
 And offices of life : to life itself. 
 With all its vain and transient joys, sit loose. 
 
 Mallet. 
 
 It must be confessed a happy attachment , which 
 
 can reconcile the Laplander to his freezing snows, 
 
 and the African to his scorching sun. Cumberland. 
 
 A sensible mind cannot do violence even to a local 
 
 attachment without much pain. Cowper's Letters. 
 
 ATTACHIAMENTA Bonorum, in ancient 
 law books, denotes a distress taken upon the goods 
 or chattels of any person sued for a personal 
 estate, or debt, by the legal attachiators, as a se- 
 curity to answer the action. 
 
 Attachment, in the law of England, im- 
 plies the taking or apprehending a person by 
 virtue o-f a writ or precept. It is distinguished 
 from an arrest, by proceeding out of a higher 
 court, by precept or writ ; whereas., the latter 
 
 proceeds out of an inferior court, by precept only 
 An arrest lies only on the body of a man J 
 whereas, an attachment lies often on the goods 
 only, and sometimes on the body and goods. 
 Attachment by Writ differs from distress, 
 in not extending to lands, as the latter does ; 
 nor does a distress touch the body as an attach- 
 ment does. 
 
 Attachment, Foreign, is an attachment of 
 money or goods found within a liberty or 
 city, to satisfy some creditor within such 
 liberty or city. By the custom of London, 
 and several other places, a man can attach money 
 or goods in the hands of a stranger, to satisfy 
 himself. If a plaint be exhibited in the mayor's 
 or the sheriff's court (the proceeding in the for- 
 mer being the most advantageous) against A, 
 and the process be returned nihil, and thereupon 
 the plaintiff suggests that another person within 
 London is indebted to A, the debtor shall be 
 warned (whence he is called the garnishee), and 
 if he does not deny himse'lf to be indebted to A, 
 the debt shall be attached in his hands. But 
 nothing is attachable, but for a certain and due 
 debt; though by the custom of London, money 
 may be attached before due, as a debt, but not 
 levied before due. Sid. 327. 1 Nels. Abr. 282, 
 283. 
 
 Attachment of Privilege is, by virtue 
 of a man's privilege, to call another to that 
 court whereto he himself belongs, and in 
 respect whereof he is privileged to answer some 
 action. 
 
 Attachment of the Forest, is one of the 
 four courts held in the king's forests. The lowest 
 court is called the court of attachment, or wood- 
 mote court ; the second is the court of regard, or 
 survey of dogs ; the tliird is that of swein-mote, 
 the highest, the Justice in eyre's seat. This at- 
 tachment is by three means : by goods and chat- 
 tels, by body, pledges, and mainprize ; or by body 
 only. This court is held every forty days through- 
 out the year ; whence it is also denominated 
 forty days' court. 
 
 Attachment out of the Chancery, i« 
 obtained upon an affidavit made, that the de- 
 fendant was served with a subpoena, and made 
 no appearance ; or it issues upon not perform- 
 ing some order or decree. Upon the return 
 of this attachment by the sheriff, quod non 
 est inventus in balliva sua, another 'attaciiment, 
 with a proclamation, issues ; and if lie still refu- 
 ses to appear, a commission of rebellion. 
 
 ATTACK', V. & n. Fr. attuquer ; from alta- 
 cher, to come into close contact with hostile in- 
 tentions ; to be the aggressor, to ofilsnd. 
 Satan who that day 
 Prodigious power had shown, aud met in arms' 
 No equal ranging through the dire attack 
 Of fighting Seraphim, confus'd at length 
 Saw where the sword of Michael smote. Milton. 
 An indiscreet man is more hurtful than an ill- 
 natured one, for as the latter will only attack his ene- 
 mies and those he wishes ill to ; the other injures 
 indifferently both friends and foes. Addison. 
 
 Hector opposes ; and continues the attack ; in which 
 Sarpedon makes the first breach in the wall. 
 
 Pope. Iliad. 
 
 ATTACOTTI, an ancient people of Britain, 
 mentioned by Ammianus Marcellinus, and St.
 
 ATT 
 
 237 
 
 ATT 
 
 Jerome, as well as in the Notitia Imperii. They 
 are represented as allies of the Scots and Picts, 
 and were, therefore, probably their neighbours ; 
 though their precise situation has not been deter- 
 mined by antiquaries. 
 
 ATTAGEN, arrayag, or arrayev ; in ornitho- 
 logy, the same with our gor-cock, moor-cock, or 
 red game. 
 
 AITAIN', '\ Lat. attineo ; from ad, 
 
 Attain'able, f and tcneo, to hold. To 
 . Attain'ableness, i^ reach as the object of pur- 
 
 Attain'ment. * suit or effort, to realize 
 one's desire, to procure. 
 
 Crowns and diadems, the most splendid terrene 
 attains, are akin to that •, which, to-day is in the field, 
 and to-morrow is cut down. Glanville's Scepsis. 
 
 He wilfully neglects, the obtaining unspeakable 
 good ; which, he is persuaded is certain and attainable. 
 
 Tillvtson. 
 
 Persons become often enamoured of outward beauty, 
 without any particular knowledge of its possessor, or 
 its attainableness by them. Cheyne. 
 
 So pleas'd at first the tow'ring Alps we try, 
 Mount o'er the vales, and seem to tread the sky ; 
 The eternal snows appear already past. 
 And the first clouds and mountains seem the last : 
 But those attained, we tremble to survey 
 The growing labour of the lengthened way. 
 The increasing prospect tires our wond'ring eyes. 
 Hills peep o'er hills, and Alps on Alps arise. 
 
 Pope's Essay on Criticism, 
 
 Among nations, as well as individuals, the powers 
 of imagination attain some degree of vigour before 
 the intellectual faculties are much exercised in spe- 
 culative or abstract disquisition. Robertson. 
 
 Attainder, in law, is the immediate con- 
 sequence, when sentence of death, the highest 
 judgment in our laws, is pronounced. For when 
 it is now clear beyond all dispute, that the crimi- 
 nal is no longer fit to live upon the earth, but is 
 to be exterminated as a monster and a bane to 
 human society, the law sets a note of infamy 
 upon him, puts him out of its protection, and 
 takes no farther care of him than barely to see 
 him executed. He is then called attaint, attinc- 
 tus, stained, or blackened. He is no longer of 
 any credit or reputation ; he cannot be a witness 
 in any court ; neither is he capable of perform- 
 ing tJie functions of another man : for, by an 
 anticipation of his punishment, he is already 
 dead in law. This is after judgment ; for there 
 is a great difference between a man convicted and 
 attainted ; though they are frequently confound- 
 ed together. After conviction only, a man is 
 liable to none of these disabilities ; for there is 
 still in contemplation of law a possibility of his 
 innocence. Something may be offered in arrest 
 of judgment : the indictment may be erroneous, 
 which will render his guilt uncertain, and there- 
 upon tlie conviction may be quashed : he may 
 obtain a pardon, or be allowed the benefit of 
 clergy ; both which suppose some latent sparks 
 of merit, which plead in extenuation of his fault. 
 But, when judgment is pronounced, both law 
 and fact conspire to prove him completely guilty ; 
 and there is not the remotest possibility left of 
 any thing to be said in his favor. Upon judg- 
 ment, therefore, of death, the attainder of a cri- 
 minal commences : or upon such circumstances 
 as are equivalent to judgment of outlawry on 
 
 a capital crime, pronounced for absconding from 
 justices which tacitly confesses the guilt : and 
 therefore, upon judgment, either of outlawry, or 
 of death, for treason or felony, a man is said to 
 be attainted. A person attainted of high treason, 
 forfeits all his lands, tenements, and heredita- 
 ments ; his blood is corrupted, and he and his 
 posterity rendered base. See Corruption, For- 
 feiture, &c. Attainders may be reversed or 
 falsified, (i. e. proved to be false) by writ of 
 error, or by plea. If by writ of error, it must be 
 by the king's leave, &c. and, when by plea, it 
 may be by denying the treason, pleading a par- 
 don by act of parliament, &c. Persons may be 
 attainted by act of parliament. Acts of attainder 
 of criminals have been passed in several reigns, 
 on the discovery of plots and rebellions, from the 
 reign of king Charles II. when an act was made 
 for the attainder of several persons, guilty of the 
 murder of king Charles I. Among acts of this 
 nature, that for attainting Sir John Fenwick, for 
 conspiring against king William, is the most re- 
 markable ; it being made to attaint and convict 
 him of high treason, on the oath of one witness, 
 just after a law had been enacted, ' That no per- 
 son should be tried or attainted of high treason, 
 where corruption of blood is incurred , but by the 
 oath of two lawfiil witnesses, unless the party 
 confess, stand mute, &c.' Stat. 7 and 8 W. III. 
 cap. 3. But he was indicted of treason, on the 
 oaths of two witnesses, though but only one could 
 be produced against him on his trial. By the 
 Vllth Ann. chap. 21, all corruption of blood, 
 and the forfeiture for ever of a traitor's estate of 
 inheritance, were to have ceased on the death of 
 the then Pretender ; but the legislative policy or 
 panic of the reign of George II. caused a further 
 extension of these vindictive principles of law, 
 to the time of the death of the Pretender's sons. 
 And, by an act of the 39th of the late king, the 
 provisions of the statutes of Anne and of George 
 II. for the future abrogation of these hard conse- 
 quences of attainder, were repealed, and the law 
 stood in its original severity. But by an act, in- 
 troduced by Sir Samuel Romilly, in the 54th 
 year of his late Majesty's reign, corruption of 
 blood, and forfeiture beyond the term of the 
 offender's own life were abolished, except in 
 cases of treason, petty treason, and murder ; 
 thus, in part, realising the hope expressed by 
 Mr. Justice Blackstone (Comm. b. iv. c. 29), 
 ' That as every other oppressive mark of feudal 
 tenure is happily worn away, corruption of blood, 
 with all its connected consequences, not only of 
 present escheat, but of future incapacities of in- 
 heritance, even to the twentieth generation, may 
 in process of time be abolished by act of Par- 
 liament.' 
 
 ATTAINT', V. n. & adj.-\ Old Fr. attaindre ; 
 Attain'der, (^from tungere, to 
 
 Attain'ture, i touch, says Min- 
 
 Attain'ment. ^ stero, because he 
 
 who is attainted is touched, cauglit, or taken : 
 or, from tingere, to stain, which is more pro- 
 bable. To stain, to impute charge, or accuse. 
 
 Were it not an endless trouble, that no traitor or 
 
 felon should be attainted, but a parliament must be 
 
 called ? Spenser. 
 
 I must offend, before I be attainted. Shaksjieare.
 
 ATT 
 
 238 
 
 ATT 
 
 His warlike shield 
 Was all of diamond, perfect, pure, and clean ; 
 For, so exceeding shone his glistering ray. 
 That Phcebus' golden face it did attaint ; 
 As, when a cloud his beams doth overlay. 
 
 Spenser's Faerie Queene. 
 My tender youth was never yet attaint 
 With any passion of inflaming love. Id. 
 
 So smooth he daub'd his vice with shew of virtue ; 
 He liv'd, from all attainder of suspect. Id. 
 
 Hume's knavery will be the duchess's wreck, 
 And her aitainture will be Humphrey's fall. h' . 
 
 The ends in calling a parliament were chiefly, to 
 liave the attainders of all his party reversed ; and, on 
 the other side, to attaint by parliament his enemies. 
 
 Bacon. 
 
 How would the sons of Troy in arms renown'd. 
 And Troy's proud dames whose gjirmenls sweep the 
 
 ground, 
 Attai?it the lustre of their former name. 
 Should Hector basely quit the field of fame ? 
 
 Pope. Homer. 
 
 Attaixt, in the English law, is a writ that 
 lies after judgment against a jury of twelve men, 
 that have given false verdict in any court of 
 record, in an action real and personal, where the 
 debt or damages amount to above forty shillings, 
 Stat. 5 and 34 Ed. III. c. 7. It is called attaint, 
 because the party that obtains it endeavours 
 thereby to stain or taint the credit of the jury 
 with perjury, by whose verdict he is grieved. 
 The jury who are to try this false verdict must 
 be twenty-four, and are called the grand jury ; 
 for the law wills not that the oath of one jury of 
 twelve men should be attainted or set aside by 
 an equal number, nor by less indeed than double 
 the former. And he that brings the attaint can 
 give no other evidence to the grand jury, than 
 what was originally given to the petit. For, as 
 their verdict is now trying, and the question is, 
 whether or no they did right upon the evidence 
 that appeared to them, the law adjudged it the 
 highest absurdity to produce any subsequent 
 proof upon such trial, and to condemn the prior 
 jurisdiction for not believing evidence which 
 they never knew. But those against whom it is 
 brought, are allowed, in the affirmance of the 
 first verdict, to produce new matter: because the 
 petit jury may have formed their verdict upon 
 evidence of their own knowledge, which never 
 appeared in court; and, because very terrible 
 was the judgment which the common law inflicted 
 upon them, if the grand jury found their verdict 
 a false one. The judgment was, 1. That they 
 should lose their liberam legem, and become for 
 ever infamous. 2. That they should forfeit all 
 their goods and chattels. 3. That their lands and 
 tenements should be seized to the king. 4. That 
 their wives and children should be thrown out of 
 doors. 5. That their houses should be rased. 6. 
 That their trees should be rooted up. 7. That 
 their meadows should be ploughed. 8. That their 
 bodies should be cast into jail. 9. That the party 
 should be restored to all that he lost by reason of 
 the unjust verdict. But, as the severity of this 
 punishment had its usual effect, in preventing the 
 law from being executed, therefore, by the sta- 
 tute 1 1 Hen. VU. c. 24, revived by 23 Hen.VIlI. 
 
 c. 3, and made perpetual by 13 Eliz. c. 25, it is 
 allowed to be brought after the death of the 
 party, and a more moderate punishment was 
 inflicted upon attainted jurors; viz. perpetual 
 infamy, and if the cause of action were above 
 forty pounds value, a forfeiture of twenty pounds 
 a-piece by the jurors ; or, if under forty pounds, 
 then five pounds a-piece ; to be divided between 
 the king and the party injured. So that a man 
 may now bring an attaint, either upon the statute 
 or at common law, at his election ; and in both 
 may reverse the former judgment. But, the 
 practice of setting aside verdicts upon mo- 
 tion, and granting new trials, has so superseded 
 the use of both sorts of attaints, that there is 
 hardly any instance of an attaint later than the 
 sixteenth century. 
 
 Attaint, or Atteint, in horsemanship, a 
 hurt in a horse's leg, proceeding either from a 
 blow with another horse's foot, or from an over- 
 reach in frosty weather, when a horse, being 
 rough-shod, or having shoes with long caulkers, 
 strikes his hinder feet against his fore legs. 
 
 ATTALIA, in ancient geography, a sea-port 
 of Pamphylia, seated on a bay of the INIediter- 
 ranean sea; founded by one of the Attali, kings 
 of Pergamus. In this city Paul and Barnabas 
 preached, about A. D. 49 ; and it had bishops 
 in the fifth and sixth centuries. It is now called 
 
 S ATTALI A. 
 
 ATTALIC.T, Vestes, in antiquity, garments 
 made of a kind of cloth of gold. They took the 
 denomination from Attains, surnamed Philo- 
 meter, a wealthy king of Pergamus, who was the 
 first, according to Pliny, who caused gold to be 
 woven into cloth. 
 
 ATTELABUS, in zoology, a genus of insects 
 belonging to the order of coleoptera, or the beetle 
 kind. It has four wings, of ;which the superior 
 are crustaceous, and serve as a sheath or cover to 
 the inferior, which are membranous. The head 
 tapers behind, and is inclined ; the feelers turn 
 thicker towards the apex. The species are thir- 
 teen. 1. A. apiarus is bluish, with red elytra, and 
 three black belts. It is a native of Germany. 2. A. 
 avellana is black, with the breast, feet, and elytra 
 red. 3. A. betula has springy legs, and the whole 
 body is of a dark red. It frequents the leaves of 
 the birch. 4. A. buprestoides is of a dark color, 
 with a globular breast, and nervous elytra. It is 
 a native of Europe. 5. A. ceramboides, is of a 
 blackish red color, and the elytra is furrowed. It 
 frequents the spongy boletus, a species of mush- 
 room. 6. A. coryli is black, with red elytra, or 
 crustaceous wings. 7. A. curculionoides is black, 
 with red elytra and breast. These two last spe- 
 cies, and the avellana, frequent the leaves of the 
 hazel and filbert-nut trees. 8. A. formicarius is 
 black, with red elytra, and a double white belt 
 towards the base. It is a native of Europe. 9. 
 A. melanurus is black, with testaceous elytra, 
 black at the apex. It is a native of Sweden. 10. 
 A. mollis is hairy and yellowish, with pale ely- 
 tra, and three belts. It is a native of Europe. 
 1 1 . A. Pennsylvanicus is black, with red elytra, 
 a black belt round the middle, and another 
 towards the apex of the elytra. It is a native of 
 Philadelphia. 12. A. sipylus is green, with a 
 hairy breast, and a double yellow belt upon the
 
 ATT 
 
 239 
 
 ATT 
 
 elytra. 13. A. Surinamensis has a double inden- 
 tation, or two teeth, in the top of the elytra. 
 ATTEM'PER, v. & adj.-\ Lat. of the mid- 
 Atte.m'perate, (die ages, attempero. 
 
 Attem'perance, ^Lat. temperare, to 
 
 Attem'perly. J abate, the predomi- 
 
 nant qualities of a thing. To moderate, to ac- 
 commodate. 
 
 A man should love his wyf by discretieu, patiently 
 and attemprely, and than is she as though it were his 
 sister. Chaucer. The Persones Tale, v. ii. p. 363. 
 
 The joyous birds shrouded in cheerful shade. 
 Their notes unto the voice attempered sweet. 
 The angel-call, soft trembling voices made. 
 To the instruments' divine respondence meet. 
 
 Spenser. 
 
 A monarchy, where is no nobility at all, is ever a 
 
 pure and absolute tyranny, as that of the Turks ; for 
 
 nobility attemper* sovereignty, and draws the eyes of 
 
 the people somewhat aside from the line royal : but 
 
 for democracies they need not. Bacon's Essays^ 
 
 Phemius ! let arts of gods and heroes old, 
 
 Attemper'd to the lyre, your voice employ. Pope. 
 
 Hope must be proportioned and attemperate to the 
 promise, if it exceed that temper and proportion, it 
 becomes a tumour and tympany of hope, 
 
 Hammond's Pract. Catechism. 
 Attemper'd suns arise, 
 Sweet-beam'd, and shedding oft thro' lucid clouds 
 A pleasing calm. Thomson. 
 
 In the midst a form divine ! 
 Her eye proclaims her of the Briton line ; 
 Her lion-port, her awe-commanding face, 
 Attemper'd sweet to virgin-grace. 
 
 Gray's Bard. 
 
 ATTEMPT, v. & ra.-\ Fr. attenter ; from 
 Attempt'er, t tenter, which is from 
 
 Attempt'able, l^the Latin tentare, to 
 
 Attextate. J try. To make experi- 
 
 ment; to make an effort to accomplish an ob- 
 ject; to undertake. 
 
 The gentleman, vouching his to be more fair, vir- 
 tuous, wise, and less attemptaUe, than the rarest of 
 our ladies. Shakspeare. 
 
 Lrcio. Our doubts are traitors. 
 And make us lose the good we oft might win 
 By fearing to attempt. Id. Measure for Measure. 
 Alack! I am afraid, they have awak'd. 
 And 'tis not done ; th' attempt, and not the deed. 
 Confounds us. Id. Macbeth. 
 
 He flatt'ring his displeasure, 
 Tript me behind ; got praises of the king. 
 For him attempting, who was self-subdu'd. Id. 
 He would have cry'd ; but, hoping that he dreamt. 
 Amazement tied his tongue, and stopp'd th' attempt. 
 
 Dryden. 
 
 If we be always prepared to receir* an enemy ; we 
 
 shall long live in peace and quietness, without any 
 
 attempts upon us. Bacon. 
 
 I have nevertheless attempted to send unto you, 
 
 for the renewing of brotherhood and friendship. 
 
 1 Mac. xii. 17. 
 Who, in all things wise and just, 
 Hindcr'd not Satan to attempt the mind 
 Of man, with strength entire and free-will ann'd. 
 
 3Iilton. 
 The Son of God, with godlike force endu'd. 
 Against th' altempter of thy Father's tkronc. Id. 
 You are no factors, for glory or treasure ; but dis- 
 interested attempters, for the universal good. 
 
 Glanville's Scepsis. 
 
 Fools only make attempts beyond their will, 
 A wise man's pow'r's the limit of his will. 
 
 Congrete. 
 He that would succeed in a project of gain, must 
 never attempt to gain too much ; and uoon proper 
 occasions, must know how to lose. 
 
 Hawkesworth's Telemachus. 
 A lion of Numidia, that hunger has made more 
 furious, rushes among the flocks ; he kills and tears 
 to pieces without resistance ; and the shepherds, in- 
 stead of attempting to defend their sheep, fly with 
 terror and trepidation to preserve themselves. Id, 
 
 ATTEND', ^ Lat. attendo; from 
 
 Attend'akce, 
 
 Attend'ant, 71. & adj. 
 
 Attexd'er, 
 
 Attext', 
 
 Atten'tiox, 
 
 Attentive, 
 
 Atten'tively, 
 
 Atten'tivene'ss. 
 
 ad and tendo, to stretch 
 to or towards. To 
 direct the mind to ; 
 >Xo look to what one is 
 about; to have the 
 faculties engaged on 
 the affair in hand ; to 
 wait. 
 
 The fifth had charge, sick persons to attend ; 
 And comfort those, in point of death which lay. 
 
 Spenser, 
 He that goeth about to persuade a multitude, that 
 they are not so well governed eis they ought to be, 
 shall never want attentive and favourable hearers. 
 
 Hooker's Ec. Polity. 
 I will be returned forthwith : dismiss your attend- 
 ant there ; look it be done ! Shakspeare. Othello, 
 England is so idly king'd. 
 Her sceptre so fantastically home ; 
 That fear attends her not. Id. 
 
 I'm never merry, when I hear sweet musick : 
 The reason i?, your soirits are attentive. 
 
 Id. Mercliant of Venice. 
 My pray'rs and wishes always shall attend 
 The friends of Rome. Addison's Cato. 
 
 A vehement, burning, fixed, pungent pain in the 
 stomach, attended with a fever. Arbuthrwt on Diet. 
 I saw most of them attentive to three Sirens, dis- 
 tinguished by the ncunes of Sloth, Ignorance, and 
 Pleasure. Tatter. 
 
 The diligent pilot, in a dangerous tempest, doth 
 not attend the unskilful words of a passenger. Sidney/. 
 The gj'psies were^ there. 
 Like lords to appear ; 
 AVith such their attenders. 
 As you thought offenders. Ben Jonsoti. 
 Now mine eyes shall be open ; and mine ears 
 attent unto the prayer, that is made in this place. 
 
 2 Chron. vii. 15. 
 What can then be less in me, than desire 
 To see thee, and approach thee, whom I know 
 Declar'd the Son of God ; to hear attent 
 Thy wisdom, and behold thy godlike deeds ? 
 
 Milton, 
 Other suns perhaps. 
 With their attendant moons, thou wilt descry. 
 Communicating male and female light. 
 
 Id. Paradi.ie Lost. 
 Unknown sins have their guilt and shame, and arc 
 justly attended with known punishments. 
 
 Hall's Contemplations. 
 
 We all are never weary of receiving, soon weary of 
 
 attending. Id. 
 
 At length her lord descends upon the plain 
 
 In pomp attended with a numerous train. Itrydeu. 
 
 Hush'd winds the topmast branches scarcely bend. 
 
 As if thy tuneful song they did attend. Id. 
 
 Plant anemonics after the first rains, if you will 
 
 have flowers very forward : but it is surer to attend 
 
 till October. I Evelyn.
 
 ATT 
 
 240 
 
 ATT 
 
 With these four more of lesser fame. 
 
 And humble rank attendant came ; 
 
 Hypocrisy with smiling grace. 
 
 And Impudence with brazen face. 
 
 Contention bold with iron lungs, 
 
 And Slander with her hundred tongues. Moore. 
 He [Termosiris priest of Apollo] related past events 
 with such force of expression that they seemed to be 
 present ; and with such comprehensive brevity, that 
 attention was not wearied ; and he foresaw the future 
 by a sagacity that discovered the true characters and 
 dispositions of mankind, and the events which they 
 would produce. Hawkesworth's Telemachus, 
 
 Attention has also been defined, a due appli- 
 cation of the ear, or the eye, as v?ell as of the 
 mind, to any thing said or done, in order to 
 acquire a knowledge thereof. 
 
 Attention of mind is not properly an act of 
 the understanding, but rather of the will, by 
 which it calls the understanding from the con- 
 sideration of other objects, and directs it to 
 the thing in hand. Nevertheless, our attention 
 is not always voluntary ; an interesting object 
 seizes and fixes it beyond the power of control. 
 Attention, in respect of hearing, is the stretching 
 or straining of the membrana tympani, so as to 
 make it more susceptible of sounds, and better 
 prepared to catch even a feeble agitation of the 
 air: or, it is the adjusting the tension of that 
 membrane to the degree of loudness or lowness 
 of tlte sound to which we are attentive. Accord- 
 ing to the degree of attention, objects make a 
 stronger or weaker impression. Bacon, in his 
 Natural History, observes, that ' Sounds are me- 
 liorated by the intension of the sense, where the 
 common sense is collected most to the particular 
 sense of hearin?, and the sight suspended. There- 
 fore sounds are sweeter, as well as greater, in the 
 night than in the day ; and I suppose they are 
 sweeter to blind men than to others ; and it is 
 manifest, that between sleeping and waking, when 
 all the senses are suspended, music is far sweeter 
 than when one is fully waking.' Attention is re- 
 quisite even to the simple act of seeing : the eye 
 can take in a considerable field at one look; but 
 no object in the field is seen distinctly but that 
 singly which fixes the attention : in a profound 
 reverie that totally occupies the attention, we 
 scarce see what is directly before us. In a train 
 of perceptions, no particular object makes sucli 
 a figure as it would do singly and apart : for, 
 when the attention is divided among many ob- 
 jects, no particular object is entitled to a large 
 share. Hence, the stillness of night contributes to 
 terror, there being nothing to divert the atten- 
 tion. In matters of sliglit importance, attention 
 is mostly directed by the will ; and, for that 
 reason, it is our own fault if trifling objects make 
 any deep impression. Had we power equally to 
 withhold our attention from matters of import- 
 ance, we might be proof against any deep im- 
 pression. But our power fails us here ; and, 
 while 'Our attention is thus forcibly attached to 
 one ol)ject, others will solicit it in vain. 
 
 ATTENDANTS, or Attenuating Medi- 
 cines, are such as subtilise and break the hu- 
 mors into finer parts ; and thus dispose them for 
 motion, circulation, excretion, &c. They are 
 of extensive use in physic, and come under 
 different denominations, according to the differ- 
 
 ent effects they produce. Thus, when tenacious 
 and viscid juices not only stagnate in the cavities 
 of the vessels, but obstruct the minute ducts of 
 the viscera and emunctories, these medicines, by 
 their inciding and attenuating qualities, discharge 
 the humors, and remove the obstructions ; for 
 which reason they are not improperly called ape- 
 rients. Attenuants produce so great a variety of 
 effects, that it is proper we should be well ac- 
 quainted with their several kinds, as appropriated 
 to the several disorders, and know which will 
 prove most serviceable in each. According to 
 Hoffman, the dissolving and attenuating of viscid 
 crudities in the stomach and primse via;, is well 
 answered by the roots of arum, acorus, pepper, 
 ginger, and the like ; as also by sal ammoniac, 
 vitriolated tartar, the fixed alkaline salts, and the 
 simple or dulcified spirit of salt. When cr\ide 
 and unconcocied humors are to be evacuated by 
 stool, this intention is very well answered by the 
 neutral salts, as the salts of the purging waters, 
 and the sal polycrestum, with a sufficient quan- 
 tity of a watery vehicle. When viscid humors, 
 occasioning disorders of the breast, are to be at- 
 tenuated and expectorated, the intention is most 
 effectually answered by elecampane and orrice 
 roots ; and by gum ammoniacum, myrrh, or ben- 
 jamin, and balsum of Peru ; or by regenerated 
 tartar, oxymel of squills, a solution of crabs' 
 eyes in distilled vinegar, and the syrup of to- 
 bacco, and the like, ^^llen the mass of blood is 
 tainted by thick and tenacious sordes, and the 
 emunctories are by that means obstructed, and 
 the humors contaminated by a saline sulphureous 
 and scorbutic dyscrasy, the most efficacious of 
 the attenuants are the horse-radish, scurvy-grass, 
 water and garden cresses, mustard, gum ammo- 
 niac, benjamin, myrrh, the oil of fixed nitre, oil 
 of tartar per deliquium, solutions of nitre, spirit 
 of sal ammoniac, salt of wormwood with lemon 
 juice, and the salts of the medicinal waters. 
 V\ hen grumous or coagulated blood, occasioned 
 by contusions or blows, is to be attenuated and 
 again dissolved, the intention is sure to be an- 
 swered by the roots of Solomon's Seal, vinegar, 
 and crabs' eyes, the regenerated tartar, and nitre 
 prepared with antimony. And in cases where 
 the lymph has acquired a preternatural thickness 
 and viscidity, especially if from a venereal taint, 
 the curative intention is most effectually an- 
 swered by guaicum, the acrid tincture of anti- 
 mony, calomel, iEthiop's mineral, and the like; 
 which, when skilfully used, are of singular effi- 
 cacy in dissolving and attenuating the viscid 
 juices impacted in the glands of the liver. 
 
 ATTEN'UATE, v. & n. I Lat. attenuo, to 
 
 Attenua'tion ithin; from ad and 
 
 tenuis, to thin ; from tendo, to stretch. To draw 
 out in length or superficial extent ; to lessen or 
 thin ; to dilate. 
 
 Chiming with a hammer upon the outside of a bell, 
 the sound will be according to the inward concave of 
 the bell ; whereas the elision, or attentiation of the 
 air, can be only between the hammer and the outside 
 of the bell. Bacon. 
 
 Vivification ever consisteth in spirits attenuate, 
 which the cold doth congeal and coagulate. Id. 
 
 The ingredients are digested and attenuated by heat j 
 they are stiiTcd and constantly agitated by winds. 
 
 Arhuthnnt,
 
 ATTERBURY. 
 
 241 
 
 Of such concernment too is drink and food, 
 T' encrassate or attenuate the hlood. 
 
 Dryden's Translation of Lucretius. 
 
 Attenuation is defined more generally by 
 Chauvin, the dividing or separating of the mi- 
 nute parts of any body, which before, by their 
 mutual nexus or implication, formed a more 
 continuous mass. Accordingly, among alche- 
 mists we sometimes find the word used for pul- 
 verisation, or the act of reducing a body into an 
 impalpable powder, by grinding, pounding, or 
 the like. 
 
 Attenuation, in medicine, the lessening the 
 power or quantity of the morbific matter. 
 
 ATTERBURY (Bishop Francis), son of Dr. 
 Lewis Atterbury, was born at Milton in Buck- 
 inghamshire, in 1662; educated at Westminster, 
 and thence elected to Christ-Church, in Oxford, 
 where he soon distinguished himself by his ge- 
 nius. In 1687 he was made M.A., when he 
 exerted himself in the controversy with the 
 papists, vindicated Luther in the strongest 
 manner, and displayed an uncommon fund of 
 learning, enlivened with great vivacity. In 
 1690 he married Miss Osbom, a lady of great 
 beauty, but moderate fortune. About 1690 he 
 took orders, and in 1691 was elected lecturer of 
 St. Bride's church in London, and preacher at 
 Bridewell chapel. He was soon after appointed 
 chaplain to king William and queen Mary. The 
 share he took in the controversy against Bentley, 
 (about the authenticity of Phalaris's Epistles) is 
 now clearly ascertained. In 1700 a still larger 
 field of activity opened, in which Atterbury was 
 engaged four years with Dr. Wake (afterwards 
 archbishop of Canterbury), and others, concern- 
 ing ' the Rights, Powers, and Privileges of Con- 
 vocations ;' in which he displayed so much 
 learning and zeal for the interests of his order, 
 that the lower house of Convocation returned 
 him their thanks, and the university of Oxford 
 complimented him with the degree of D.D. 
 January 29, 1700, he was installed archdeacon 
 ofTotness. The same year he was engaged, 
 with some other learned divines, in revising an 
 intended edition of the Greek Testament, with 
 Greek Scholia, collected chiefly from the fathers, 
 by Mr. Archdeacon Gregory. At this period he 
 was popular, as preacher at the Rolls chapel ; 
 an office which had been conferred on him by 
 Sir John Trevor, in 1698, when he resigned 
 Bridewell. Upon the accession of queen Aime, 
 in 1702, Dr. Atterbury was appointed one of 
 her chaplains; and in October 1704, was ad- 
 vanced to the deanery of Carlisle. About two 
 years after this, he was engaged in a dispute 
 with Mr. Hoadly, concerning the advantages of 
 virtue, with regard to the present life ; occa- 
 sioned by his sermon, preached August 30, 
 1706, at the funeral of Mr. Thomas Bennet, a 
 bookseller. In 1707 Sir Jonathan Trelawney, 
 bishop of Exeter, appointed him one of the 
 canons residentaries of that church. In 1709 
 he was engaged in a fresh dispute with Mr. 
 Hoadly, concerning ' Passive cibedience;' oc- 
 casioned by his Latin sermon, entitled ' Concio 
 ad Clerum Londinensem, habita in Ecclesia S. 
 Elphegi.' In 1710 came on the famous trial of 
 Dr. Sacheverell, whose remarkable speech on 
 Vol. III. 
 
 that occasion was generally supposed to have 
 been drawn up by our author, in conjunction 
 with Dr. Smalridge and Dr. Freind. The same 
 year Dr. Atterbury was unanimously chosen 
 prolocutor of the lower house of Convocation, 
 and had the chief management of affairs in that 
 house. May 11, 1711, he was appointed by the 
 convocation one of the committee for comparing 
 Mr. Whiston's doctrines with those of the church 
 of England ; and in June following, he had the 
 chief hand in drawing up ' A Representation 
 of the present State of lieligion.' In 1712 he 
 was made dean of Christ Church, notwithstand- 
 ing the strong interest and warm applications of 
 several great men in behalf of his competitor, 
 Dr. Smalridge. In the beginning of June, 1713, 
 the queen advanced him to the bishopric of Ro- 
 chester, with the deanery of Westminster in 
 commendam. He was confirmed July 4, and 
 consecrated at Lambeth next day. The death of 
 the queen, in 1714, put an end to all farther 
 hopes of advancement ; for the new king treated 
 him with great coolness, doubtless aware of either 
 the report or the fact of his offer, on the death 
 of Anne, to proclaim the Pretender in full canon- 
 icals, if allowed a sufficient guard. This dislike 
 operated like oil on the inflammable mind of 
 Atterbury, who not only refused to sign the 
 loyal declaration of the bishops in the rebellion 
 of 1715, but suspended a clergyman for lend- 
 ing his church for the performance of divine 
 service to the Dutch troops brought over to serve 
 against the rebels. Not content with a consti- 
 tutional opposition, he entered into a correspond- 
 ence with the Pretender's party, in favor of the 
 dispossessed family ; for which offence he was 
 apprehended in August 1722, and committed to 
 the Tower ; and in the March following a bill 
 was brought into the House of Commons, for the 
 infliction of pains and penalties. This measure, 
 which on constitutional grounds can never be 
 defended, and which indeed was supported 
 chiefly on the urgency of the particular time and 
 case, met with considerable opposition in the 
 Lords, and was resisted with great firmness and 
 eloquence by the bishop, who maintained his 
 innocence with his usual acuteness and dexte- 
 rity. His guilt however has been tolerably well 
 proved by documents since published ; and 
 nothing more is necessary to warrant a con- 
 firmed moral distaste to his character, than the 
 contemplation of such a scene of smooth dissi- 
 mulation and hypocrisy. By this bill the bishop 
 was deprived and outlawed, and no British sub- 
 ject was permitted to visit him abroad, without 
 the king's sign manual ; which however was not 
 refused to his relatives. 
 
 On the 27th, this prelate having that day 
 taken leave of his friends, who, from the time of 
 passing the bill against him to the day of his de- 
 parture, had free access to him in the Tower, em- 
 barked on board the Aldborough man of war, and 
 landed the Friday following at Calais. When 
 he went on shore, having been infonned that 
 lord Bolingbroke, who, after the rising of the 
 parliament, had received the king's pardon, was 
 arrived at the same place on his return to Eng- 
 land, he said, with an air of pleasantry, ' Then 
 1 am exchansred !' When bishop Atterburj- first 
 
 U
 
 ATT 
 
 242 
 
 ATT 
 
 entered upon his banishment, Brussels was the 
 place destined for his residence ; but he was 
 compelled to leave that place, and retire to 
 Paris. He next changed his abode for Mont- 
 pelier, in 1728 ; and, after residing there about 
 two years, returned to Paiis, where he died Feb- 
 ruary 15, 1731. As a composer of sermons. 
 Dr. Atterbury still retains the highest reputation ; 
 his periods are easy and elegant, his style flowing 
 and beautiful ; but as a critic or disputant, he is 
 rather dexterous than accurate, and rather po- 
 pular than profound. 
 
 Atterbury (Dr. Lewis), eldest son of the 
 Dr. and brother to the bishop, was born at Cal- 
 decot, in Backs, in 1656 ; educated at Westmin- 
 ster, and sent to Oxford in 1674. In 1679 he 
 entered into orders, and commenced A. M. in 
 1680; in 1683 he was made chaplain to Sir W. 
 Pritchard; in 1684 rector of Symel; in 1687, 
 LL.D. and in 1691 lecturer of St. Mary-at-Hill, 
 London. In 1695 he was elected preacher at 
 Highgate, and was appointed one of the six 
 preaching chaplains to the princess Anne of 
 Denmark, at Whitehall and St James's ; in 
 which place he was continued after she became 
 queen, and during part of the reign of George I. 
 In 1707 the queen appointed him rector of 
 Shepperton, and in March 1709, the bishop of 
 London collated him to the rectory of Ilornsey. 
 He died at Bath, of a paralytic disorder, in 1731. 
 He published, during his life, 2 vols, of Ser- 
 mons, and four occasional ones, besides other 
 pieces. He was remarkably benevolent and 
 charitable. While he resided at Highgate, ob- 
 serving that the poor in that neighbourhood were 
 much at a loss for medical advice, he studied 
 physic, and practised it gratis among them : 
 he also gave £10 annually to a teacher, to in- 
 struct young girls at Newport Pagnel, and bur- 
 dened his estate with this annual payment for 
 ever. He left 200 volumes of pamphlets to the 
 library of Christ Church, Oxford. 
 
 ATTES, in fabulous history, a son of Calaus 
 of Phrygia, who was born impotent. The wor- 
 ship of Cybele was introduced among the Ly- 
 ^ dians by him, after which he was highly honored 
 by the goddess. His success awakened a jeal- 
 ousy in Jupiter, and he sent a wild boar to 
 •lay waste the country, that Attes might be de- 
 «troyed. 
 
 ATTEST', u. & n. "^ Lat. attestor; ad and 
 Attest'er, \te&tor, to call to witness. 
 
 Attest a'tion. j To corroborate or strength- 
 en by witness, i. e. by one who has had the evi- 
 dence of one or more of the senses. 
 
 With thn voice divine 
 Nigh thunderstruck, th' exalted man, to whom 
 Such high attest was giv'n, a while survey'd 
 With wonder. Paradise Regained. 
 
 Many particular facts are recorded in holy writ, 
 .attested by particular pagan authors. Addison. 
 
 We may derive a probability, from the attestation 
 of wise and honest men, by word or writing ; or the 
 concurring witness of multitudes, who have seen and 
 known, what they relate. Watts. 
 
 Prodigious actions may as well be done 
 By weaver's issue, as by prince's son. 
 This ajch-attestor of the publick good. 
 By that one deed ennobles all his blood. 
 
 Dri/den's Absalom and Achituphel. 
 
 ATTHIS, a daughter of Cranaus, the second 
 king of Athens. According to ApoUodorus she 
 gave her name to Attica. 
 
 ATTIC, any thing relating to Attica, or Athens, 
 or any thing peculiarly elegant or excellent. 
 
 Attic Base, a peculiar kind of base used by 
 the ancient architects in the Ionic order ; and 
 by Palladio, and some others, in the Doric. 
 
 Attic Order, or Attics, in architecture, a 
 kind of order, after the manner of a pedestal, 
 raised upon another larger order, by way of 
 crowning, or to finish the building. See Archi- 
 tecture, Index. 
 
 Attic Salt, a delicate, poignant kind of wit, 
 peculiar to the ancient Athenians. The term is 
 applied to any similar piece of humor in mo- 
 dern writings. 
 
 Attic Story, in architecture, a story in the 
 upper part of a house, where the windows are 
 usually square. 
 
 Attic Witness, a witness incapable of cor- 
 ruption. 
 
 ATTICA, an ancient state of Greece, situated 
 along the nortli coast of the gulph of Saron, 
 bounded on the west by Megara, mount Ci- 
 thaeron, and part of Bceotia ; on the north by the 
 gulf of Euripus (now called Stretto di Negro- 
 ponte, or the Strait of Negropont), and the rest 
 of Bceotia ; and on the east by the Euripus. It 
 extended in length from north-west to south- 
 east, about sixty miles ; its breadth from north to 
 south was fifty-six, decreasing as it approached the 
 sea. The soil of this country was naturally barren 
 and craggy, though by the industry of its inha- 
 bitants it produced all the necessaries of life. 
 On this account, Attica was less exposed to in- 
 vasions than other more fertile countries ; and 
 hence, it preserved its ancient inhabitants, 
 beyond all the other kingdoms in its neighbour- 
 hood ; so that they were reputed to be the spon- 
 taneous production3K)f the soil ; and as a badge 
 of this, Thucydides tells us, they wore golden 
 grasshoppers in their hair. 
 
 The principal mountains of Attica were Lau- 
 rium, celebrated for its silver mines, and situated 
 near the Sunian promontory ; Pentelicus, famous 
 for its quarries of white marble ; and Hymettus, 
 near Athens, remarkable for the abundance and 
 fineness of its honey. Other mountqiins men- 
 tioned in history, are TE.gialeus, Brilessus, Ica- 
 rius, Lycabettus, and Parnethus. Its principal 
 rivers were the Cephisus, Eridanus, and Ilissus. 
 Although the mountainous character of the coun- 
 try rendered it unpromising and sterile for grain 
 generally, barley was produced in abundance ; 
 and Aristotle observes that the fruits of Attica 
 had a peculiar sweetness. The culture of the 
 olive tree was protected by law, and a fine of 
 200 drachmae (upwards of £8 sterling) was paid, 
 by any person who rooted up on his grounds 
 more than two trees in a year, unless for the 
 service of the gods. The olives called colym- 
 bades, considered larger and of richer flavor than 
 any other, retain their name to this day, and 
 were, until the late civil wars, monopohsed for 
 the personal use of the grand signior. 
 
 The chief cities of Attica were Athens, the ca- 
 pital. See Athens. Next to it Eleusis, situ- 
 ated on the same gulf, near the coasts of Megara ;
 
 A T T I L A. 
 
 243 
 
 and next to that Rliamnus, famed for the temple 
 of Amphiaraus, and the statue of the goddess 
 Nemesis, sculptured by Phidias, from a block of 
 Parian marble, which the Persians had brought 
 thither to assist in erecting a trophy of their pro- 
 posed victory. It was ten cubits high, and was 
 inscribed with the name of his favorite pupil 
 Agarocrutus. Nor ought we to omit to mention 
 the town of Marathon, ten miles north-east of 
 Athens, immortalised by the victory gained there 
 by Miltiades over the Persians. On the plain 
 of the battle the Athenians erected small co- 
 lumns, on which the names of those warriors 
 who fell were inscribed. A monument after- 
 wards raised to Miltiades himself, was set apart, 
 a small distance from the rest : in the intervals 
 between these columns were trophies, bearing 
 the arms of the Persians. 
 
 Attica was divided into ten tribes, called 
 <pv\ai; and these again were subdivided into 
 174 boroughs, or Sijfiot. The inhabitants were 
 of three classes: 1. Citizens, ttoXitm; whose 
 numbers underwent little change from the time 
 of Cecrops, and averaged about 20,000. They 
 had a right, from a certain property, to vote in 
 the general assembly ; about 60,000 others were 
 freemen without this privilege. Those who 
 sprung from pa'rents both of whom were Athe- 
 nian citizens, were considered freeborn, though 
 occasionally the privilege was extended to such 
 as had one parent only of this class. The honor 
 was conferred on foreigners by a vote of the 
 people, ratified at two solemn assemblies ; at the 
 second of which it was requisite that 6,000 citi- 
 zens should be present. But no one, except a 
 free born Athenian, could hold an archonship. 
 2. Foreigners settled in Attica, and enrolled in 
 the public registers, -ntroiKoi. They were pro- 
 tected by the state ; but were not permitted to 
 hold any public office. Each fitroiKoc selected a 
 citizen as his protector, fipoffrarrjc ; who stood 
 to him much in the same relation as the Roman 
 patronus did to his cliens. They paid an an- 
 nual tribute to the state of twelve drachmae 
 (about nine shillings), and in default of payment 
 they were sold as slaves. Their number (males 
 only) in the time of Demetrius of Phalerum, 
 (307 B. C.) was 10,000. 3. Slaves, ^owXot, who, 
 when numbered at the same time, amounted to 
 400,000. The agricultural, mining, and menial 
 labor was performed by them ; as well as the 
 greater part of that of the public works, and of 
 private manufactures. The entire population of 
 ancient Attica may be taken at about half a mil- 
 lion, or nearly 900 to a square mile ; about one- 
 fourth of that of Middlesex. For the political 
 history of this interesting country, including the 
 details of its recent struggles for liberty, see 
 our article Greece. 
 
 AT'TICISE,-^ 
 
 At'ticism, f Gr. Arnici^w, to speak or 
 
 At'tick, i write after the Attic dialect. 
 
 At'tical. ' 
 
 There while they acted and overacted, among other 
 young scholars, I was a spectator ; they thought 
 themselves gallant men, and I thought them fools; 
 •they made sport, and I laughed ; they mispronounced, 
 and I misliked ; and to make up the atiichm, they 
 were out, and I hist, Milton. 
 
 If any will still excuse the tyrant for alticising in 
 those circumstances, it is hard to deny them the glory 
 of being the faithfuUest of his vassals. 
 
 Bentley. Dissertation on Pluilaris, 
 
 ATTICUS (Titus Pomponius), one of tlie 
 most remarkable characters of ancient Rome. 
 He managed himself with such address, that he 
 preserved the esteem and affection of all parties. 
 lie sent money to the younger Marius, and yet 
 was a favorite with Sylla. He pleased Ctesar 
 without offending Pompey. He sent supplies to 
 Brutus, while he was doing kind offices to An- 
 tony. His strict friendship with Cicero did not 
 hinder him from having great intimacy with 
 Hortensius ; and in the contests between Antony 
 and Augustus, he preserved the regard of both. 
 The contests at Rome between the parties of 
 Sylla and Marius, however, induced him to re- 
 tire to Athens, where he gained the affection of 
 the Athenians so much, that the day he left them 
 was a day of mourning. He was very fond of 
 learning, and kept several librarians and readers. 
 He might have obtained the most considerable 
 posts in the republic ; but chose rather not to 
 meddle, because in the corruption and faction 
 which then prevailed, he could not discharge 
 them according to the laws. He wrote annals, 
 which Cicero praises, as having been of great 
 use to him. He married his daughter to Agrippa, 
 and died at the age of 77. 
 
 Atticus (Herodes), a celebrated orator of 
 antiquity, was born at Marathon. His lectures 
 on elocution were heard with such applause, that 
 he was sent for by Titus Antoninus, to instruct 
 Marcus Aurelius, and Lucius Verus, He was 
 honored with the consulship, and other high 
 offices. He generously erected an aqueduct at 
 Troas, of which he had been made governor, 
 and some other public buildings in different 
 places of the empire, equally useful and mag- 
 nificent. He was particularly liberal as a bene- 
 factor to Athens. He died at Marathon, at tlie 
 age of 76. 
 
 Atiicus, patriarch of Constantinople, was by 
 birth an Armenian, and flourished in the fifth 
 century. In A.D. 406, he condemned John 
 Chrysostom, by which he got possession of the 
 patriarchate; but Pope Innocent I. being of- 
 fended at his proceedings, excommunicated him. 
 However, when Chrysostom died, he was al- 
 lowed to retain his seat. He died in 427. 
 
 ATTILA, king of the Huns, lived in the 
 fifth century. He was surnamed * the Scourge 
 of God,' a title which all offensive conquerors 
 have more or less merited, though none but At- 
 tila is said to have assumed and gloried in it. 
 He may justly be ranked among the greatest con- 
 querors, for there was scarcely any province in 
 Europe which did not feel the weight of his 
 victorious arms. Attila deduced his descent 
 from the ancient Huns, who had formerly con- 
 tended with the monarchs of China. His fea- 
 tures, according to the obser^'ation of a Gothic 
 historian, bore the stamp of his national origin ; 
 and the portrait of Attiia exhibits the genuine 
 deformity of a modern Calmuck ; a large head, 
 a swarthy complexion, small, deep-seated eyes, 
 a hooked nose, a few hairs in the place of a 
 beard, broad shoulders, and a short square 
 
 R 2
 
 244 
 
 A T T I L A. 
 
 body, of nervous strength, though of a dispro- 
 portioned form. The haughty demeanor of this 
 tyrant, expressed the idea he entertained of his 
 superiority above the rest of mankind ; and he 
 had a custom of fiercely rolling his eyes, as if he 
 wished to enjoy the terror which he inspired. 
 Yet this savage hero was not inaccessible to pity ; 
 his suppliant enemies might confide in his as- 
 surance of peace or pardon; and he was con- 
 sidered by his subjects as a just and indulgent 
 master. He delighted in war ; but, after he had 
 ascended the throne in a mature age, his head, 
 rather than his hand, achieved the conquest of 
 the north ; and the fame of an adventurous sol- 
 dier was usefully exchanged for that of a prudent 
 and successful general. The effects of mere per- 
 sonal valor are indeed so inconsiderable, that 
 victory, even among barbarians, depends on the 
 degree of skill, with which the passions of the 
 multitude are guided for the service of a single 
 man. The arts of Attila were skilfully adapted 
 to his age and country. It was natural that the 
 Scythians should adore the god of war; but as 
 they were incapable of forming either an ab- 
 stract idea, or a corporeal representation of 
 him, they worshipped him under the symbol of 
 an iron scymitar. One of the shepherds of the 
 Huns perceived that a heifer, who was grazing, 
 had wounded herself in the foot ; and curiously 
 followed the tract of the blood, till he dis- 
 covered among the long grass, the point of an 
 ancient sword ; which he dug out of the ground, 
 and presented to Attila. That artful prince ac- 
 cepted with pious gratitude this celestial favor ; 
 and, as the rightful possessor of the sword of 
 Mars, asserted his divine and indefeasible claim 
 to the dominion of the earth. Thus this favorite 
 of Mars acquired a sacred character, which ren- 
 dered his conquests easy and permanent; and 
 the barbarian princes confessed, in the language 
 of devotion or flattery, that they could not pre- 
 sume to gaze with a steady eye on the divine 
 majesty of the king of the Huns. His brother 
 Bleda, who reigned over a considerable part of 
 the nation, was compelled to resign his sceptre 
 and his life. Yet even this cruel act was attri- 
 buted to a supernatural impulse ; and the vigor 
 with which Attila wielded tlie sword of Mars 
 convinced the world that it had been reserved 
 alone for his invincible arm. But tlie extent of 
 his empire affords the only remaining evidence of 
 the number and importance of his victories ; and 
 the Scythian monarch, however ignorant of the 
 value of science and philosophy, might lament 
 that his illiterate subjects were destitute of the art 
 which could perpetuate the memory of his ex- 
 ploits. Attila, indeed, may claim the title of su- 
 preme and sole monarch of the barbarians. He 
 alone, among the conquerors of ancient and mo- 
 dern times, united the two mighty kingdoms of 
 Germany and Scythia. Tliuringia, which stretched 
 beyond its actual limits as far as the Danube, 
 was in the number of his provinces : he inter- 
 posed, with the weight of a powerful neighbour, 
 in the domestic aff'airs of the Franks ; and one of 
 his lieutenants chastised, and almost extermi- 
 nated, the Burgundians of the Rhine. He sub- 
 dued the islands of the ocean, the kingdoms of 
 Scandinavia, encompassed and divided by the 
 
 waters of the Baltic ; and the Huns derived a 
 
 tribute of furs from that northern region, which 
 has been protected from all other conquerors by 
 the severity of the climate, and the courage of the 
 natives. Towards the east, it is difficult to cir- 
 cumscribe the dominion of Attila over the Scy- 
 thian deserts; yet we may be assured that he 
 reigned on the banks of the Volga ; that he was 
 dreaded, not only as a warrior, but as a magi- 
 cian ; that he vanquished the khan of the formi- 
 dable Geougen ; and that he sent ambassadors to 
 negociate an equal alliance with the empire of 
 China. In the proud review of the nations who 
 acknowledged the sovereignty of Attila, and who 
 never entertained during his lifetime the thought 
 of a revolt, the Gepidae and the Ostrogoths were 
 distinguished by their numbers, their bravery, 
 and the personal merit of their chiefs. Ardaric, 
 king of the Gepidae, was the faithful and saga- 
 cious counsellor of the monarch ; who esteemed 
 his intrepid genius, whilst he loved the mild and 
 discreet virtues of the noble Walamir, king of the 
 Ostrogoths. The crowd of vulgar kings, who 
 sensed under the standard of Attila, were ranged 
 in the submissive order of guards and domestics 
 round the person of their masters. They watched 
 his nod ; they trembled at his frown ; and at the 
 first signal of his will they executed without he- 
 sitation his absolute commands. In time of 
 peace the dependent princes with their national 
 troops attended the royal camp in regular suc- 
 cession ; but when Attila collected his military- 
 force he was able to bring into the field an army 
 of five, or according to some, 700,000 barbarians. 
 See Huns. The circumstances attending Attila's 
 death (about A. D. 453) were remarkable; from 
 the festive throng, which celebrated his nuptials 
 Vv'ith a beautiful virgin named lldico, he retired 
 late to bed, oppressed with wine, and during 
 the night a blood-vessel burst and suff'ocated 
 him. In the morning the bride was found by 
 the bed-side, bewailing his death and her own 
 danger. His body was exposed in the plain, 
 while the Huns marched round it in martial 
 order, singing funeral songs to his praise ; and 
 was afterwards enclosed in coffins of gold, silver, 
 and iron, and interred privately in the night. To 
 prevent the violation of his remains, by the dis- 
 covery of his grave, the slaves who were em- 
 ployed on the occasion were put to death. 
 
 ATTILATUS Equus, in old law Latin, a 
 horse dressed in his harness, for the plough or 
 cart. 
 
 ATTILUS, in ichthyology, a river-fish, of the 
 sturgeon kind, called by some adello, adano, and 
 adeno. It grows to a very large size, and when 
 full grown, casts its scales, and never has any 
 fresh ones, but remains perfectly smooth; in 
 which it differs from the common sturgeon. But 
 it seems not to differ in any essential point from 
 the hussu germanorum. It is an eatable fish, 
 but is greatly inferior in taste to the sturgeon. 
 
 ATTINGA, in ichthyology, a species of the 
 diodon. 
 
 ATTIR'E, V. & 71.'^ Of uncertain derivation. 
 
 Attir'ing, ? It may be observed, with- 
 
 Attou'r. j out deciding the question 
 
 of etymology, that the tiara was an head-dress 
 worn by Phrygian and Persian priests and kings
 
 ATT 
 
 245 
 
 ATT 
 
 at sacrifices. Hence the word is found in Greek 
 authors, and is probably derived from the Persic — 
 
 Phrygia vestitur bucca tiara. Juvenal. 
 
 The high crowned covering for the head, still 
 •worn by the natives of Persia, in contradistinc- 
 tion to the low turban of the Turks, is worthy of 
 remark. The word is sometimes applied to the 
 mitres of bishops. The French atlirer, is to 
 draw to ; attirail, is the apparatus necessary to 
 an equipage or adorning. 
 
 Let it likewise your gentle breast inspire. 
 With sweet infusion ; and put you in mind 
 Of that proud maid, whom now those leaves attire. 
 Proud Daphne. Spenser. 
 
 It is no more disgrace to Scripture, to have left 
 things free, to be ordered by the church ; than for 
 Nature, to have left it to the wit of man, to devise his 
 own attire. Hooker. 
 
 My "Nan shall be the queen of all the fairies ; 
 Finely attired in a robe of white. 
 
 Shakspeare. Merry Wives of Windsor. 
 With the linen mitre shall he be attired. 
 
 Lev. xvi. 4. 
 After that, the Roman attire grew to be in account, 
 and the gown to be in use among them. 
 
 Daviea on Ireland. 
 Now the sappy boughs 
 Attire themselves with blooms. Philips, 
 Whose herds with milk, whose fields with bread. 
 
 Whose flocks supply him with attire. 
 Whose trees in summer yield him shade. 
 
 In winter fire. Pope's Ode on Solitude. 
 
 Attire, in hunting ; the attire of a stag,, if 
 perfect, consists of bur, pearls, beam, gutters, 
 antler, fur-antler, royal, fur-royal, and crotches ; 
 and that of a buck, of the bur, beam, brow- 
 antler, advancer, palm, and spellers. 
 
 ATTIRET (John Denis), a French Jesuit and 
 painter, was bom at Dole, in Franche Comte, 
 in 1702, and died in 1768 at Pekin, whither he 
 had accompanied the mission. He was employed 
 by the emperor Kien Long to paint many battle- 
 pieces, with which he was so much pleased, that 
 lie offered him the dignity of a mandarin, and 
 when he declined the honor of the title, he granted 
 him the revenues of the post. 
 
 AT'TITUDE. Ital. attitudine. Supposed to 
 be corrupted from the Latin attitudo, from apto, 
 I fit. A term used by the Italians in the art of 
 design, to denote the gesture fitted for the display 
 of grace, beauty, or other quality of form ; ex- 
 pressive posture. 
 
 Bernini would have taken his opinion, upon the 
 beauty and attitude of a figure. Prior's Ded. 
 
 They were famous originals, that gave rise to 
 statues, with the same air, posture, and attitudes. 
 
 Addison. 
 
 ATTIUM, in ancient geography, a promon- 
 tory on the north-west of Corsica, now called 
 Punta di Acciuolo. 
 
 ATTLEBOROUGH, a town in Norfolk, once 
 the capital of the county, on the road from Thet- 
 ford to Norwich, about twelve miles from each, 
 and ninety-three from London. It is also called 
 Attlebury. Market, Thursday. 
 
 ATTOCK, a river of Asia, which rises in the 
 Tartarian mountains, north of Hindostan, and 
 passing by Cubul, falls into the Indus. By a 
 treaty between Kouli Khan, Schah of Persia, and 
 
 the Great Mogul, it was made the boundary be- 
 tween Persia and India. 
 
 Attock, Atac, a limit, a town in the province 
 of Lahore, on the east side of the Indus, which is 
 here, in the month of July, from three-fourths to 
 one mile across. Lat. 33° 6' N., long. 71° 13' E. 
 The ancient name of Attock, to this day, is Va- 
 ranas, or Benares ; but it is more generally known 
 by the name of Attock. The fortress was built 
 by Acber, A. D. 1581. 
 
 ' It is remarkable,' says IVIr. Hamilton, ' that the 
 three great invaders of Hindostan, Alexander, 
 Tamerlane, and Nadir Shah, in three distant 
 ages, and with views and talents extremely dif- 
 ferent, advanced by the same route, with hardly 
 any deviation. Alexander had the merit of dis- 
 covering the way : after passing the mountains 
 he encamped at Alexandria Paropamisana, on 
 the same site with the modern city of Candahar ; 
 and having subdued or conciliated the nations 
 seated on the north west-bank of the tndus, he 
 crossed the river at Taxila, now Attock, the only 
 place where the stream is so tranquil that a bridge 
 can be thrown over it.' 
 
 ATTOLLENS, in anatomy, an appellation 
 given to several muscles otherwise called levato- 
 res and elevatores. 
 
 ATTONITUS Morbus, Attoxitus SxbPOR, 
 an apoplexy ; also being planet-struck or blasted. 
 
 ATTOR'N, -^ Fr. attourner ; attor- 
 
 Attor'ney, v. & n. %nare, Du Fresne, to turn 
 
 Attor'neyship. 3 over to, or transfer; to 
 perform service. Ang.-Sax. tyrnan, to turn. 
 As I was then. 
 Advertising and holy to your business. 
 Nor changing heart with habit ; I am still 
 Attornied to your service. Shakspeare. 
 
 But marriage is a matter of more worth. 
 
 Than to be dealt in attorneyship. Id. 
 
 I will attend my husband ! it is my office ; 
 
 And will have no attorney but myself ; 
 
 And therefore let me have him home. Id. 
 
 I am a subject. 
 
 And challenge law : attorneys are dcny'd me ; 
 
 And therefore personally I lay my claim. 
 
 To mine inheritance. Id. 
 
 The king's attorney on the contrary, 
 
 Urg'd on examinations, proofs, confessions. Id. 
 
 Despairing quacks with curses fled the place ; 
 
 And vile attorneys, now an useless race. Pope. 
 
 An attorney at law answers to the procurator, or 
 proctor, of the civilians and canonists. And he is 
 one who is put in the place, stead, or turn of another, 
 to manage his matters of law. 
 
 Blackstone's Commentaries. 
 
 ATTORNARE Personam, in common law, 
 to depute a representative, or proxy, to appear 
 and act for another. 
 
 Attornare Rem, to turn over money and goods, 
 that is, to assign and appropriate them to certain 
 persons or uses. 
 
 ATTORNATO Faciendo, vel Recipiendo, 
 in common law, a writ to command a sheriff, or 
 steward, to receive and admit an attorney to ap- 
 pear for the person that oweth suit of court, to a 
 country or hundred. Every person that owes 
 suit to the country court, court-baron, &c. may 
 make an attorney to do his suit. 
 
 Attorney at Law is one who is put in the 
 place, stead, or turn of another, to manage his
 
 246 
 
 ATTORNEY. 
 
 matters at law. Formerly every suitor was 
 obliged to appear in person, to prosecute or de- 
 fend his suit (according to the old Gothic consti- 
 tution,) unless by special licence under the king's 
 letters patent. This is still the law in criminal 
 cases ; and an idiot cannot to this day appear by 
 attorney, but in person ; for he hath not discre- 
 tion to enable him to appoint a proper substitute : 
 and, upon hi* being brought before the court in 
 so defenceless a condition, the judges are bound 
 to take care of his interests, and they shall admit 
 the best plea in his behalf that any one present 
 can suggest. But, as in the Roman law, when it 
 was in use, one person could not act in the name 
 of another ; yet, as this was attended with no 
 small inconvenience, men were allowed to litigate 
 by procurators ; so with us, ont he same principle 
 of convenience, it is now permitted in general, 
 by divers ancient statutes, whereof the first is sta- 
 tute West. 2, c. 10, that attorneys may be made 
 to prosecute or defend any action in the absence 
 of the parties to the suit. Attorneys are now, 
 therefore, formed into a regular profession ; they 
 are admitted to the execution of their office by 
 the superior courts of Westminster hall ; are in 
 all points officers of the respective courts in which 
 they are admitted ; and as they have many privi- 
 leges on account of their attendance there, so they 
 are peculiarly sufi ject to the censure and animad- 
 version of the judges. No man can practise as an 
 attorney in any of these courts, but such as is 
 admitted and sworn an attorney of that particu- 
 lar court. To practise in the court of chancery, 
 it is also necessary to be admitted a solicitor 
 therein : and by the statute 22 Geo. II. c. 49, 
 no person shall act as an attorney in the court of 
 quarter sessions, but such as has been regu-larly 
 admitted in some superior court of record. So 
 early as the statute 4 Hen. IV. c. 18, it was en- 
 acted that none should be admitted attorneys but 
 such as were virtuous, learned, and sworn to do 
 their duty. And many subsequent statutes have 
 laid them under farther regulations. 
 
 By 2 Geo. II. c. 23, all attornies shall be 
 sworn, administered, and enrolled, before they 
 are allowed to sue writs in the courts of West- 
 minster ; and, after the 1st of December, 1730, 
 none shall be permitted to practise but such as have 
 served a clerkship of four years to an attorney, 
 and they shall be examined, sworn, and admitted 
 in open court. Any person duly admitted a so- 
 licitor, may be admitted an attorney, and vice 
 versa. An attorney's bill may be taxed, and if 
 it be reduced a sixth part, he is to pay the costs 
 of taxation. 
 
 By 34 Geo. III. c. 14, every person bound 
 as clerk to an attorney of the courts at West- 
 minster, pays £100 stamp duty. After admission 
 in one court, no farther duties are required for 
 the others. Nor are farther duties required for 
 new contracts with new masters. An attorney is 
 privileged from being pressed as a soldier, but he 
 may be drawn for the militia. He need not 
 serve any parochial or borough office against his 
 will. They may sue and be sued only in their 
 own courts. Special bail is not required of 
 them as defendents ; as plaintiffs they may de- 
 mand it. Payment to the attorney is payment 
 to the principal. An attorney has a lien on the 
 
 money recovered for his client, and he may re- 
 tain the amount of his bill. Attornies may be 
 summarily punished by an attachment, or by 
 being struck off the rolls of the court for ill- 
 practice, fraud, or corruption ; and sometimes 
 (in order to be called to the bar) they are struck 
 off the roll on their own application. 
 
 Attorney General, a great law-officer of the 
 crown, whose business is to exhibit informations, 
 and prosecute for the crown, in matters criminal; 
 also to file bills in the exchequer, for any thing 
 concerning the king in inheritance or profits ; 
 and others may bring bills against the king's 
 attorney. His proper place in court, upon any 
 special matters of a criminal nature, wherein his 
 attendance is required, is under the judges on 
 the left hand of the clerk of the crown ; but this 
 is only upon solemn and extraordinary occasions ; 
 for usually he does not sit there, but within the 
 bar in the face of the court. The queen consort 
 IS also privileged to have an attorney-general. 
 
 Attorney of the duchy court of Lan- 
 caster is the second officer in that court ; placed 
 as assessor to the chancellor of the court. 
 
 ATTORNMENT, attourner, old French, to 
 turn over to; under the feudal system, the assent 
 of a tenant to his lord's alienation of the seignory ; 
 thus securing him against having his fealty and 
 services transferred to another without his know- 
 ledge. There was a reciprocal obligation on the 
 tenant to obtain the lord's consent to any aliena- 
 tion. 
 
 Lat attraho, attrac- 
 tum, to draw to ; 
 from ud and traho. 
 
 ATTRACT' i-.&n. 
 
 Attractabil'ity, 
 Attrac'tion, 
 
 Attrac'tive, n. & adj. Vfrom trans veto, to 
 
 Attrac'tively, carry over, Voscius. 
 
 Attrac'tiveness, I To draw to, bring 
 
 Attrac'tor. J over; to exercise a 
 
 real but subtle agency in drawing an object to 
 
 its subject; to conciliate, to coin the heart, to 
 
 gain the affections. 
 
 Setting the attraction of my good parts aside, I have 
 no other charms. Shakspeare. 
 
 The drawing of amber and jet, and other electrick 
 bodies ; and the attraction in gold, of the spirit of 
 quicksilver at distance ; and the attraction of heat, at 
 distance ; and that of fire, to naphtha ; and that of 
 some herbs to water, though at distance j and divers 
 others, we shall handle. Bacon. 
 
 What, if the sun 
 Be centre to the world ; and other stars. 
 By his attractive virtue and their own 
 Incited, dance about him various rounds ? 
 
 Milton, 
 Adorn 'd 
 She was indeed, and lovely, to attract 
 Thy love ; not thy subjection. Id. 
 
 Loadstones and touched needles, laid long in quick- 
 silver, have not amitted their attraction. 
 
 Brow l's Vulgar Errours. 
 
 If the straws be in oil, amber draweth them not-, 
 
 oil makes the straws to adhere so, that they cannot 
 
 rise unto the attractor. Id. 
 
 A man should scarce persuade the affections of the 
 
 loadstone, or that jet and amber atlracteth straws and 
 
 light bodies. Id. 
 
 Shew the care of approving all actions so, as may 
 
 most effectually attract all to this profession. 
 
 Hammond.
 
 ATTRACTION. 
 
 247 
 
 Feels darts and charms attracts ana flames. 
 
 And woo and contract in their names. Hudibras. 
 
 There were then the same incentives of desire on 
 
 the one side, the same attractiveness in riches, the 
 
 same relish in sovereignty. Soxith. Sermon xiv. 293. 
 
 Attraction may be performed by impulse, or some 
 
 other means ; I use that word, to signify any force 
 
 by which bodies tend towards one another. 
 
 Newton's Opticks. 
 Attract, attracted to, the next in place, 
 Form'd and impell'd its neighbour to embrace. 
 
 Pope. 
 Deign to be lov'd, and ev'ry heart subdue ! 
 What nymph could e'er attract such crowds, as you ? 
 
 Id. 
 Homer hurries and transports us with a command- 
 ing impetuosity, Virgil leads us with an attractive ma- 
 jesty. Id. 
 As the attractive power in bodies is the most uni- 
 versal principle which produceth innumerable effects, 
 so the corresponding social appetite in human souls 
 is the great spring and source of moral actions. 
 
 Berkeley. 
 Ah '. why was ruin so attractive made. 
 Or, why fond man so easily betray'd ? 
 Why heed we not, while mad we haste along. 
 The gentle voice of PeJice, or Pleasure's song ? 
 
 Collins. 
 Forests in every age must have had attractive hor- 
 rors : otherwise so many nations would not have 
 resorted thither to celebrate the rites of superstition. 
 
 Beattie, 
 
 Attraction. The word attraction is em- 
 ployed to express the power by which bodies 
 approach each other ; or rather that which gives 
 them the tendency to this approximation. It is 
 considered and designated differently as its ope- 
 ration is upon greater or less distances, and as 
 the masses or particles of matter are affected by 
 it. In the first instance, viz. that of operation 
 through distance, and upon mass, the power is 
 termed gravitation, while contigtioiis attraction 
 denotes the agency of the power as exerted upon 
 minute particles, and as operating upon dis- 
 tances that are not sensible. 
 
 All bodies composing the material system of 
 the universe are considered as having a mutual 
 disposition, to approach each other what- 
 ever may be the distances at which they are 
 placed. The nature or absolutely essential prin- 
 ciple of this gravitating tendency is of course 
 unknown ; but many of its laws have been in- 
 vestigated and satisfactorily applied to the expla- 
 nation of phenomena. The main and leading 
 circumstances which characterise gravitation are 
 these, that its action on bodies is directly as the 
 mass or quantity of matter, and inversely as the 
 square of the distance. These, then, are the 
 laws of gravitation generally. (See Gravita- 
 tion.) But there are other species of attractions 
 which likewise seem to be in operation upon 
 mass and at distance, but which are apparently 
 peculiar in modification. Such are the magnetic 
 and electric attractions, v/hich some philosophers, 
 however, are disposed to generalize into an iden- 
 tity with the power just adverted to. See Mag- 
 KETiSM and Electricity. 
 
 But masses of matter are necessarily composed 
 of minute particles, and the power by which 
 this combination of separate particles into a whole 
 or mass is effected, is termed, as we have above 
 
 staled, contiguous attraction ; this being again 
 subdivided into the attraction of cohesion or 
 aggregation ; and into chemical attraction or 
 affinity; the former being exerted between par- 
 ticles of different kinds of matter : the first unites 
 bodies so as to form aggregates, the essential 
 properties of which are the same as that of the 
 particles which compose it ; the second forming 
 substances which have qualities different from 
 those of the bodies that hav6 entered into com- 
 bination. 
 
 These two varieties of contiguous attraction 
 may perhaps be viewed as ultimately the same 
 power, the difference of their effects being rather 
 referribie to the difference of the material operated 
 upon ; but it is necessary to consider them dis- 
 tinctly, as the effects which they respectively pro- 
 duce, are themselves so different. 
 
 The attraction of cohesion or aggregation is 
 exerted with the greatest force and effect when 
 the body is at its maximum of solidity. In this 
 case the particles which compose the mass are 
 united by a reciprocal attraction of such energy, 
 that they oppose mechanical attempts at sepa- 
 ration, as is instanced in the force required to 
 break a solid compact stone ; but the attractive 
 energy seems in different states of solidification 
 to be exerted with different degrees of strength ; 
 then, again, from loose solid, the gradation pro- 
 ceeds to absolute liquid, and ultimately to gaseous 
 and vaporous existence ; in the ratio indeed of 
 departure from solidity does the attraction of 
 cohesion become weaker and weaker. In the 
 condition of fluidity ' it is only exerted under 
 such a modification, that a slight impulse is suffi- 
 cient to disunite the parts, and scarcely any re- 
 sistance is now opposed to any force, the opera- 
 tion of which is to bring these into new arrange- 
 ments ;' and, when vaporous existence obtains, 
 this resistance is entirely overcome, ' the parti- 
 cles instead of attracting, now repel each other ; 
 they are made to approximate only by pressure, 
 and they recede when this is withdrawn. Bodies, 
 therefore, exist in the aeriform, the liquid, or the 
 solid state, according as this attraction is exerted 
 between their particles, and it is this power which 
 unites their particles.' 
 
 It was supposed by the earlier philosophers, 
 that as the attraction of gravitation influences 
 bodies with a force inversely as the squares of the 
 distance, so the laws of attraction between the 
 particles themselves follow the same ratio ; but 
 the adhesion of bodies is found to be much 
 greater than could be inferred from this source, 
 and it was therefore conceived that cohesive 
 attraction is governed by a much higher ratio, 
 and probably the cube of the distances. ' The 
 moderns on the contrary, among whom are 
 Borgman, Guyton, Morveau, and others, have 
 remarked that these deductions are too general, 
 because for the most part drawn from the con- 
 sideration of spherical bodies, which admit of 
 no contact but such as is indefinitely small, and 
 exert the same powers on each other, whichever 
 side may be obverted. They remark likewise, 
 that the consequence depending upon the sura 
 of the attractions in bodies not spherical, and at 
 minute distances from each other, will not follow 
 the inverted ratio of the square of the distance
 
 248 
 
 ATTRACTION. 
 
 taken from any point assumed as the centre of 
 gravity, admitting the particles to be governed 
 by that law ; but that it will greatly differ accord- 
 ing to the sides of the solids which are presented 
 to each other, and their respective distances ; in- 
 somuch that the attractions of certain particles 
 indefinitely near each other will be indefinitely 
 increased, though the ratio of the powers acting 
 upon the remoter particles, may continue nearly 
 the same.' — Ure. 
 
 Much however is requisite in application to 
 the rationale of minute attraction, if it may be so 
 expressed', before a generalisation of its laws can 
 be admitted, in the same manner as is done with 
 respect to the principle of gravitation generally. 
 ' Speculation on these heads (says the same able 
 author from whom we have above extracted,) 
 may be regarded in die present state of science 
 as standing much in the same situation as the 
 theory of gravity, which is minutely described in 
 Plutarch, did with regard to astronomy before 
 the time of Newton. As the celestial phenomena 
 were formerly arranged from observation merely, 
 but are now computed from the physical cause, 
 gravitation, so, at present, the science now re- 
 ferred to, is the science of matter of fact duly 
 arranged, without the assistance of any extensive 
 theory, immediately deduced from the figures, 
 volumes, densities, or mutual actions of the par- 
 ticles of bodies.' 
 
 As matter of fact, however, it is necessary to 
 observe that to the power of cohesive attraction 
 is opposed those influences which alter the forms 
 of bodies from solids to fluids, and from fluids 
 to vapor ; and that aggregation is thus weaken- 
 ed or overcome by three opposing influences, 
 viz. mechanical violence, heat, and chemical 
 agency. The first is instanced in the operation 
 of powdering or pulverising, and other processes 
 by which separation to a greater than natural 
 distance is effected of the constituent particles of 
 matter.^ With respect to heat it is to be observed, 
 that if a solid substance be exposed to it under 
 circumstances favorable to its action, the volume 
 of the substance is enlarged, the particles com- 
 posing it are therefore separated from each other, 
 and the altraction by which they were kept in 
 union is counteracted. The enlargement of 
 volume continuing to proceed as the heat is in- 
 creased, until the point is reached, at which the 
 attraction is so far modified that the body passes 
 into a fluid form. If the application of heat be 
 continued, the particles are still further separated 
 from each other ; and this still continues increas- 
 ing until the attraction between them is overcome, 
 a repulsion is established, and the fluid passes 
 into the aerial form. Chemical action, as we 
 have above remarked, is capable of effecting the 
 same formative change. If a liquid be poured 
 on a solid, it often happens that from the mutual 
 attraction exerted between them, the aggregation 
 of the solid is subverted, its particles are detach- 
 ed and diffused through the liquid so as to be no 
 longer perceptible, c.nd not even to impair the 
 transparency. This constitutes the chemical 
 process named solution, which is merely a case 
 of chemical combination, differing from others 
 in the circumstance that one of the bodies exists 
 in the liquid form, and communicates that form 
 
 to the other. It is the result of the predomi- 
 nance of the mutual affinity of the liquid and 
 solid over the cohesion of the solid. The affinity 
 exerted to a solid by a substance in the aerial 
 form may in like manner overcome its cohesion 
 and cause it to pass into the aeriform state. And 
 even the mutual attraction exerted between two 
 solids is sometimes such as to diminish the power 
 of cohesion in each so as to admit of their union 
 and their transition to a liquid state- 
 
 We have now to notice those changes in bo- 
 dies, which, as opposed to their mere formative 
 existence, may be regarded as the manifestation 
 more directly and unequivocally of what would 
 be called chemical agency ; viz. that, in which 
 the power is exerted between the particles or 
 atoms of different kinds ; the result of the union 
 effected by this affinity not being a mere aggregate, 
 having the same essential properties, though per- 
 haps different in form, but being altogether a 
 new material. 
 
 It is remarkable that Sir Isaac Newton was the 
 first to indicate with precision, the nature and 
 extent of this power, as well as that of gravita- 
 tion. In his letter to Mr. Boyle, containing ob- 
 servations on the nature of acids, and in other 
 publications, he speaks of bodies combining in 
 some cases, and refusing to unite in others, be- 
 cause in the one instance an attraction exists, in 
 the other it does not ; and he further talks of 
 compounds being again decomposed by the 
 agency of another body, owing to an attraction 
 exerted by that body to one of the principles of 
 the compound, superior in force to the first at- 
 traction. 
 
 Since the time of Newton, the subject of chemi- 
 cal attraction, or the attraction of affinity, has been 
 investigated with abundant ardor, and with great 
 success ; minute observation of its laws and the phe- 
 nomena it produces, has developed a multitude of 
 most interesting facts, and principles which will 
 fall to be noticed under the head of Chemistry, 
 and in other parts of this work. But there is 
 one leading principle by which it is regulated 
 that demands to be noticed in the present article ; 
 it is this, that there is a general reciprocity of 
 saturating proportions in uniting bodies ; or, in 
 other words, that combination is effected in 
 definite proportions ; the. full development of 
 this law was made by Mr. Dalton, who has thus 
 ovepturned the doctrine of indefinite affinity 
 taught by the celebrated BerthoUet, and has been 
 successful in showing ' that the different com- 
 pounds of the same principles do not pass into 
 each other by imperceptible gradations, but pro- 
 ceed in successive proportions, each a multiple 
 of the first.' 
 
 So far indeed as the fact of definite proportions 
 goes, we ought to give the credit of discovery 
 and detection to Richterof Berlin. Mr. Higgins 
 too, in his Comparative View of the PWogistic 
 and Antiphlogistic Theory, published in the be- 
 ginning of the year 1789, had plainly indicated 
 the doctrine of multiple proportion, with respect 
 to the successive compounds of the same consti- 
 tuents ; but to Mr. Dalton is due the merit of 
 having, to use the language of Dr. Wollaston, 
 shown, ' that in all cases the simple elements of 
 bodies are disposed to unite atom to atoir; singly ;
 
 ATTRACTION. 
 
 249 
 
 or if either is in excess, it exceeds by a ratio to 
 be expressed by some multiple of the number of 
 its atoms.' 
 
 In the course of our researches, undertaken for 
 the purpose of giving the reader a correct notion 
 of this theory, we have found no statement more 
 clear and explicit on the subject than that which 
 we have met with in the last edition of Dr. 
 Henry's Etements of Chemistry. We proceed, 
 therefore, to extract largely from that section of 
 this work which is devoted to the consideration 
 of the atomic theory; the several objections that 
 have been proposed to this theory, we purpose 
 canvassing in the article Chemistry, under which 
 head many opportunities will necessarily occur 
 of repeatedly adverting, both in direct and inci- 
 dental ways, to the doctrine under notice. We 
 shall here, however, take occasion to say, with 
 the author from whom we are about to extract, 
 that the instances in which the theory agrees with 
 the results of analysis are too numerous to be 
 considered as accidental coincidences ; and no 
 phenomena have hitherto been shown to be irre- 
 concileable with the hypothesis. Its value and 
 importance, if not contradicted by new facts, will 
 be scarcely less felt as a guide to further inves- 
 tigations into the constitution of bodies, than as 
 a test of the accuracy of our present knowledge ; 
 and the universality of its application to chemical 
 phenomena, will be scarcely inferior to that of 
 the law of gravitation, in explaining the facts of 
 natural philosophy. 
 
 In the chemical combination of bodies with 
 each other, says Dr. H. a few leading circum- 
 stances deserve to be remarked. 
 
 1st. Some bodies unite in all proportions; for 
 example, water and sulphuric acid, or water and 
 alcohol. 
 
 2dly. Other bodies combine in all proportions, 
 as far as a certain point, beyond which, combina- 
 tion no longer takes place. Thus water will take 
 up successive portions of common salt, until at 
 length it becomes incapable of dissolving any 
 more. In cases of this sort, as well as in those in- 
 cluded under the first head, combination is weak 
 and easily destroyed, and the qualities, which 
 belonged to the components in their separate 
 state, continue to be apparent in the compound. 
 
 3dly. There are many examples in which bo- 
 dies unite in one proportion only ; and in all 
 such cases the proportion of the elements of a 
 compound must be uniform for the species. Thus 
 hydrogen and chlorine unite in no other propor- 
 tions, than those constituting muriatic acid, 
 which, by weight, are 1 of the former to 36 of the 
 latter. In cases of this sort, combination is ge- 
 nerally energetic ; and the characteristic qualities 
 of the components are no longer observable in the 
 compound. 
 
 4thly. Other bodies unite in several propor- 
 tions ; but these proportions are definite, and, in 
 the intermediate ones, no combination ensues. 
 Thus six parts by weight of charcoal combine 
 with 8 of o.xygen, or with 16, but with an inter- 
 mediate quantity'; 64 parts copper combme with 
 8 of oxygen, or with 16, and with those propor- 
 tions only. 
 
 It is further remarkable, that when one body 
 enters into combination with another, in several 
 
 different proportions, the numbers indicating the 
 greater proportions are exactly simple multiples 
 of that denoting the smallest proportion. In 
 other words, if the smallest proportion in which 
 B combines with A, be denoted by 10, A may 
 combine with twice 10 of B, or with three times 
 10, and so on : but with no intermediate quan- 
 tities. There cannot be more striking instances 
 of this law than those above mentioned, of the 
 compounds of copper and charcoal with oxygen; 
 in which the oxygen of the last compound may, 
 in both cases, be observed to be a multiple of 
 that of the first by the number 2. Examples, 
 indeed, of this kind have, of late, so much in- 
 creased in number, that the law of simple multi- 
 ples, first discovered by Mr. Dalton, bids fair to 
 become universal with respect at least to chemi- 
 cal compounds, the proportions of which are 
 definite. 
 
 Facts of this kind are not only important in 
 themselves, but also on accouut of the generali- 
 sations that have been deduced from them; for 
 on them Mr. Dalton has founded what may be 
 termed the atomic theoiy of the chemical con- 
 stitution of bodies. Till this theory was pro- 
 posed, we had no adequate explanation of the 
 uniformity of the proportions of chemical com- 
 pounds; or of the nature of the cause which 
 renders combination, in other proportions, im- 
 possible. In this place I shall offer cmly a brief 
 illustration of the theory ; for in the course of 
 the work I shall have occasion to apply it to the 
 explanation of a variety of phenomena. 
 
 Though we appear, when we effect the chemi- 
 cal union of bodies, to operate on masses, yet it 
 is consistent with the most rational view of the 
 constitution of bodies to believe, that it is only 
 between their ultimate particles, or atoms, that 
 combination takes place. By the term atoms, it 
 has been already stated, we are to understand 
 the smallest parts of which bodies are composed. 
 The infinite divisibility of matter, indeed, against 
 which powerful arguments before existed, has 
 been rendered still less probable by Dr. Wollas- 
 ton, in his essay on ,the ' Finite Extent of the 
 Atmosphere' (Phil. Trans. 1822); all the phe- 
 nomena according with the supposition that the 
 earth's atmosphere ' is of finite extent, limited 
 by the weight of ultimate atoms of definite mag- 
 nitude, no longer divisible by repulsion of their 
 parts.' An atom, therefore, must be mechani- 
 cally indivisible, and of course a fraction of an 
 atom cannot exist, and is a contradiction in 
 terms. 
 
 The atoms of all bodies probably consist of a 
 solid corpuscle, forming a nucleus, and of an al- 
 mospliere of heat, by which that corpuscle is 
 surrounded ; for absolute contact is never sup- 
 posed to take place between the atoms of bodies. 
 The figure of a simple atom may readily, there- 
 fore, be conceived to be spherical. But in com- 
 pound atoms, consisting of a single central atom, 
 surrounded by other atoms of a different kind, it 
 is obvious that the figure (contemplating the solid 
 corpuscles only) cannot be spherical ; yet if we 
 include the atmosphere of heat, the figure of a 
 compound atom may be spherical, or some shape 
 approaching to a sphere. To determine the 
 relative diameters of the atoms of bodies is a
 
 250 
 
 ATTRACTION. 
 
 problem of considerable difficulty. With respect 
 to those of elastic fluids, it was some time ago 
 effected by Mr. Dalton (New Syst. p. 226), and 
 the same principle has been lately extended by 
 Mr. Emmett to solid and liquid bodies. (Ann. 
 Phil. N. S . ix. 110). 
 
 Taking for granted that combination takes 
 place between the atoms of bodies only, Mr. 
 Dalton has deduced, from the relative weights 
 in which bodies unite, the relative weights of 
 their ultimate particles, or atoms, which is all 
 that we are likely to determine respecting them; 
 
 1 atom of A -|- 1 atom of B 
 
 1 atom of A -f 2 atoms of B 
 
 2 atoms of A + 1 atom of B 
 1 atom of A -|- 3 atoms of B 
 
 3 atoms of A + 1 atom of B 
 
 for it is not probable that our knowledge will 
 ever extend beyond the ratios of these weights. 
 When only one combination of any two elemen- 
 tary bodies exists, he assumes, unless the con- 
 trary can be proved, that its elements are united 
 atom to atom singly. Combinations of this sort 
 he calls binary. But if several compounds can 
 be obtained from the same elements, they com~ 
 bine, he supposes, in proportions, expressed by 
 some simple multiple of the number of atoms. 
 The following table exhibits a view of some of 
 these combinations : 
 
 = 1 atom of C, binar}'. 
 = 1 atom of D, ternary. 
 = 1 atom of E, ternary. 
 = 1 atom of F, quaternary. 
 = 1 atom of G, quaternary. 
 
 A different classification of atoms has been pro- with 2 of A, or with 3, 4, &c. When such a 
 posed by Berzelius, viz. 1st, elementary atoms; series of compounds exists, the relative propor- 
 
 2dly, compound atoms. The compound atoms 
 he divides again into three different species, viz. 
 1st, atoms formed of only two elementary sub- 
 stances united, or compound atoms of the first 
 order : 2dly, atoms composed of more than two 
 elementary substances ; and these, as they are 
 only found in organic bodies, or bodies obtained 
 by the destruction of organic matter, he calls or- 
 
 tion of their elements ought necessarily, on ana- 
 lysis, to be proved to be 5 of A to 4 of B ; or 
 5 to (4 4- 4 =z) 8 ; or 5 to (4 4- 4 —) 12, &c.; 
 or contrariwise, 4 of B to 5 of A ; or 4 to (5 -j- 
 5 rz) 10 ; or 4 to (5 -t- 5 -j- 5 =) 15. Be- 
 tween these there ought to be no intermediate 
 compounds : and the existence of any such (as 
 5 of A to 6 of B, or 4 of B to 7^ of A) would, if 
 
 game atoms : 3dly, atoms formed by the union clearly established, militate against the hypo- 
 
 of two or more compound atoms ; as for exam- thesis. 
 
 pie, the salts. These he calls compound atoms To verify these numbers, it may be proper to 
 of the second order. examine the combinations of A and Bwith some 
 If elementary atoms of different kinds were of third substance, for example, with C. Let us 
 the same size, the greatest number of the atoms suppose that A and C form a binary compound^ 
 of A that could be combined with an atom of B in which analysis discovers 5 parts of A and 3 of 
 would be 12 ; for this is the greatest number of C. Then, if C and B are also capable of form- 
 spherical bodies that can be arranged in contact ing a binary compound, the relative proportion 
 with a sphere of the same diameter. But this of its elements ought to be 4 of B to 3 of C ; for 
 
 equality of size, though adopted by Berzelius, is 
 not necessary to the hypothesis of Mr. Dalton, 
 and is, indeed, supposed by him not to exist. 
 
 these numbers denote the relative weights of 
 their atoms. Now this is precisely the metliod 
 by which Mr. Dalton has deduced the relative 
 
 As an illustration of the mode in which the weights of oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen ; the 
 
 weight of the atoms of bodies is determined, let 
 us suppose that any two elementary substances, 
 A and B, form a binary compound ; and that 
 they have been proved experimentally to unite in 
 
 two first from the known composition of water, 
 and the two last from the proportion of the ele- 
 ments of ammonia. Extending the comparison 
 to a variety of other bodies, he has obtained a 
 
 the proportion, by weight, of 5 of the former to scale of the relative weights of their atoms. 
 4 of the latter; then, since, according to the In several instances, additional evidence is ac- 
 
 hypothesis, they unite particle to particle, those quired of the accuracy of the weight, assigned to 
 
 numbers will express the relative weights of their an element, by our obtaining the same number 
 
 atoms. But besides combining atom to atom from the investigation of several of its com- 
 
 singly, 1 atom of A may combine with 2 of B, pounds. For example : 
 or with 3, 4, 4cc. Or 1 atom of B may unite 
 
 1. In water, tlie hydrogen is to the oxygen as . 1 to 8. 
 
 2. In olefiant gas, the hydrogen is to the carbon as 1 to 6. 
 
 3. In carbonic oxide, the oxygen is to the carbon as 8 to 6. 
 
 Whether, therefore, we determine the weight In selecting the body, which should be as- 
 of the atom of carbon, from the proportion in sumed as unity, INlr. Dalton has been induced to 
 
 which it combines with hydrogen, or with Oxy- 
 gen, we arrive at the same number 6 : an agree- 
 ment which, as it occurs in various other 
 instances, can scarcely be an accidental coinci- 
 dence. In a similar manner, 8 is deducible, as 
 representing the atom of oxygen, boih from the 
 combination of that base witli hydrogen and with 
 carbon ; and 1 is inferred to be the relative 
 weight of the atom of hydrogen from the two 
 principal compounds into which it enters. 
 
 fix on hydrogen, because it is that body which 
 unites with others in the smallest proportion. 
 Thus, in water, we have 1 of hydrogen by weigiu 
 to 8 of oxygen ; in olefiant gas, 1 of hydrogen 
 to 6 of carbon ; and in sulphureted hydrogen, 
 1 of hydrogen to 10 of sulphur. Taking for 
 granted that all these bodies are binary com- 
 pounds, we have the following scale of numbers, 
 expressive of the relative weights of the atoms of 
 their elements :
 
 ATTRACTION. 
 
 251 
 
 Hydrogen 1 
 
 Oxygen 8 
 
 Carbon 6 
 
 Sulphur 16 
 
 Drs. Wollaston and Thomson, and Professor 
 Berzelius, on the other hand, have assumed 
 ©xygen as the decimal unit (the first making it 
 10, the second 1, and the third 100), chiefly with 
 a view to facilitate the estimation of its numer- 
 ous compounds with other bodies. This, it 
 appears to me, is to be regretted, even though 
 the change may be in some respects for the bet- 
 ter, because it is extremely desirable that chemi- 
 cal writers should employ an universal standard 
 of comparison for the weights of the atoms of 
 bodies. It is easy, however, to reduce their 
 numbers to Mr. Dalton's by the rule of propor- 
 tion. Thus as 8 (Mr. Dalton's number for oxy- 
 gen, corrected by the latest experiments), is to 1 
 (his number for hydrogen), so is 10 (Dr.WoUas- 
 ton's number for oxygen), to 1-25, the number 
 for hydrogen. 
 
 Sir H. Davy has assumed, with Mr. Dalton, 
 the atom of hydrogen as unity: but that philo- 
 sopher, and Berzelius also, have modified the 
 theory, by taking for granted that water is a 
 compound of one proportion (atom) of oxygfen, 
 and two proportions (atoms) of hydrogen. This 
 is founded on the fact, that two measures of hy- 
 drogen gas, and one of oxygen gas, are neces- 
 sary to form water; and on the supposition, 
 that equal measures of different gases contain 
 equal numbers of atoms. And as, in water, the 
 hydrogen is to the oxygen by weight as one to 
 eight, two atoms or volumes of hydrogen must, 
 on this hypothesis, weigh one, and one atom or 
 volume of oxygen eight; or if we denote a single 
 atom of hydrogen by one, we must express an 
 atom of oxygen by sixteen. It is objectionable, 
 however, to this modification of the atomic 
 theory, that it contradicts a fundamental propo- 
 sition of Mr. Dalton, the consistency of which 
 with mechanical principles he has fully shown; 
 namely, that that compound of any two ele- 
 ments, which is with most difficulty decomposed, 
 must l3e presumed, unless the contrary can be 
 proved, to be a binary one. 
 
 It is easy to determine, in the manner al- 
 ready explained, the relative weights of the 
 atoms of two elementary bodies, which unite 
 only in one proportion. But when one body 
 unites, in different proportions, with another, it 
 is necessary, in order to ascertain the weight of 
 its atom, that we should know the smallest pro- 
 portion in which the former combines with the 
 latter. Thus, if we have a body A, 100 parts of 
 which, by weight, combine with not less than 
 thirty-two of oxygen, the relative weight of its 
 atom will be to that of oxygen as 100 to thirty- 
 two; or, reducincj these numbers to their lowest 
 terms, as twenty-five to eight; and the number 
 twenty-five will, therefore, express the relative 
 weight of the atom of A. But if, in the progress 
 of science, it should be found, that 100 parts of 
 A are capable of uniting with sixteen parts of 
 oxygen, then the relative weight of the atom of 
 A must be doubled ; for as 100 is to sixteen, so 
 is fifty to eight. This example will serve to ex- 
 plain the changes that have been sometimes 
 
 made in the weights of the atoms of certain bo- 
 dies ; changes which, it may be observed, always 
 consist either in the multiplication or division of 
 the original weight by some simple number. 
 
 There are, it must be acknowledged, a few 
 cases in which one body combines with another 
 in different proportions; and yet the greater 
 proportions are not multiples of the less, by any 
 entire number. For example, we have two 
 oxides of iron, the first of which consists of 100 
 iron and about thirty oxygen ; the second of 
 100 iron and about forty-five oxygen. But the 
 numbers thirty and forty-five are to each other 
 as one to one and one-half. It will, however, 
 render these numbers (one and one-half) con- 
 sistent with the law of simple multiples, if we 
 multiply each of them by two, which will change 
 them to two and three; and if we suppose that 
 there is an oxide of iron, though it has not yet 
 been obtained experimentally, consisting of 100 
 iron and fifteen oxygen ; for the multiplication 
 of this last number by two and three, will then 
 give us the known oxides of iron. 
 
 In some cases, the peroxide of iron for in- 
 stance, where we have the apparent anomaly of 
 one atom of one substance, united with one and 
 one-half of another, it has been proposed by Dr. 
 Thomson, Annals of Philosophy, p. 87, to re- 
 move the difficulty, by multiplying both num- 
 bers by two; and by assuming that, in such 
 compounds, we have two atoms of the one com- 
 bined with three atoms of the other. Such com- 
 binations, it is true, are exceptions to a law 
 deduced by Berzelius; that in all inorganic 
 compounds, one of the constituents is in the 
 state of a single atom. But they are in no re- 
 spect inconsistent with the views of Mr. Dalton ; 
 and are, indeed, expressly admitted by him to 
 be compatible with his hypothesis, as well as 
 confirmed by experience. 
 
 The reader is referred to an able account of 
 the atomic theory, published by Mr. Ewart, 
 in the sixth volume of Thompson's Annals. 
 Under the word Equivalents too, in Ure's Dic- 
 tionary of Chemistry, the subject will be found 
 handled in a masterly manner. 
 
 On elective affinity, or the unequal, and 
 selecting attraction of bodies, and on the causes 
 which modify this action, both in a simple and 
 complex manner, let the reader consult the arti- 
 cle Chemistry, in the present work. 
 
 Attractives, or Attractive remedies, me- 
 dicines which are to be externally applied, and 
 which by their activity and warmth penetrate the 
 pores, mix with, and rarefy, any obstructed mat- 
 ter, so as to render it fit for discharge, upon lay- 
 ing open the part by a caustic or incision. 
 
 ATTRAIIENTS, in medicine, are the same 
 with maturants, digestives, &c. 
 
 ATTKAP'. Fr. attrapir, to catch, seize, ap- 
 prehend, over-reach ; used as we now use entrap. 
 See Trap. 
 
 But Richard his brother being an expert and poli- 
 tique man, so craftilyc conueyed, and so wisely or- 
 dered himsclfe in his stormy tempest, that he vraiJ 
 not altrappcd eyther with net or sn.ire. Grujton, v. 2. 
 For, all his armour was like salvage weed 
 
 With woody mossc bedight, and all his steed 
 
 With oaken leaues attrapt, ih.it seemed fit 
 
 For saluage v.cisht. Spenser's Faerie Queene.
 
 /^TT 
 
 252 
 
 ATT 
 
 ATTRIBUTE, -\ Lat.attribuo,{rom 
 
 Attrib'i'Table, tad and tribuo, to lay 
 
 Attribu'tion, ^a thing to. To ap- 
 
 Attribu'tive, n. & adj. ) portion, to give a 
 proper share ; to yield as due, to impute, to 
 ascribe, assign, charge. 
 
 It (envy) is also the vilest affection, and the most 
 depraved : for which cause it is the attribute of the 
 Devil, who is called the envious man, that soweth 
 tares amongst the wheat by night : as it always 
 Cometh to pass, that Envy worketh subtily, and in the 
 dark, and to the prejudice of good things, such as is 
 the wheat. Lord Bacon's Essat/s. 
 
 It takes 
 
 From our achievements, tho' perform'd at height. 
 
 The pith and marrow of our attribute, Shakspeare. 
 If speaking truth. 
 
 In this fine age, were not thought flattery ; 
 
 Such attribution should the Douglas have. 
 
 As not a soldier of this season's stamp. 
 
 Should go so general current through the world. 
 
 Id. 
 
 We suffer him, to persuade us we are as gods; and 
 never suspect, these glorious attributions may be no 
 more than flattery. Decay of Piety. 
 
 We attribute nothing to God, that hath any repug- 
 nancy or contradiction in it. Power and wisdom have 
 no repugnancy in them. Tillotson. 
 
 Much of the origination of the Americans seems 
 to be attributable to the migrations of the Seres. 
 
 Hale. 
 Your vain poets after did mistake. 
 Who ev'ry attribute a god did make. Dryden, 
 
 All the perfections of God are called his attributes ; 
 for he cannot be without them. Watts's Logick. 
 
 1 have observed a campania determine, contrary to 
 appearances, by the caution and conduct of a general, 
 which were attributed to his infirmities. Temple. 
 
 The imperfection of telescopes is attributed to sphe- 
 rical glasses ; and mathematicians have propounded, 
 to figure them by the conical sections. 
 
 Newton's Opticks. 
 
 As to be perfectly just is an attribute of the Divine 
 Nature ; to be so, to the utmost of our abilities, is the 
 glory of a man. Addison. 
 
 Perhaps it may appear upon examination that the 
 most polite ages are the least virtuous. This may be 
 attributed to the folly of admitting wit and learning 
 as merit in themselves, without considering the appli- 
 cation of tliem. Steele. 
 
 Beneficence, would the followers of Epicurus say, 
 is all founded on weakness ; and whatever be pre- 
 tended the Vindaess between men and men, is by 
 every man directed to himself. This, it must be con- 
 fessed, is of a piece with that bopeful philosophy 
 which having patched man up out of the four ele- 
 ments, attributes his being to chance. Grove. 
 
 Attribute, in physics, a quality determining 
 something to be after a certain manner. Thus 
 understanding is an attribute of mind, and exten- 
 sion an attribute of body. That attribute which 
 the mind conceives as the foundation of all the 
 rest is called its essential attribute ; thus extension 
 is by some, and solidity by others, esteemed the 
 essential attributes of body or matter. 
 
 Attributes, in logic, the predicates of any 
 subject, or what may be affirmed or denied of 
 any thing. 
 
 Attributes, in painting and sculpture, sym- 
 bols added to several figures to intimate their 
 jnirticular office and character. Thus the eagle 
 
 is an attribute of Jupiter ; a peacock, of Juno ; 
 a caduceus, of Mercury ; a club, of Hercules ; and 
 a palm, of Victory. 
 
 Attributives, in grammar, are words which 
 are significant of attributes ; and thus include 
 adjectives, verbs, and particles, which are at- 
 tributes of substances ; and adverbs, which de- 
 note the attributes only of attributes. Mr. Harris, 
 who has introduced this distribution of words, 
 denominates the former attributives of the first 
 order, and the latter attributives of the second. 
 ATTRITE, ) Lat. attero, attritum, to rub 
 Attri'tion. ^against; ad and tero, to beat 
 small, to wear out by rubbing. The art of rub- 
 bing used figuratively by theological writers. 
 
 ( Or, by collision of two bodies, grind 
 
 Their air attrite to fire. Milton. 
 
 From these premises it follows, that if the priest 
 
 can absolve him that is attrite, he may pardon him 
 
 who hath affections to sin still remaining ; that is, one 
 
 who fears hell, but does not love God. 
 
 Taylor's Polemical Discourses. 
 
 Attrition is a trouble for sin, merely for fear of the 
 punishment of it. Tillotson. 
 
 This vapour, ascending incessantly out of the 
 abyss, and pervading the strata of gravel and the 
 rest, decays the bones and vegetables lodged in those 
 strata ; this fluid, by its continual attrition, fretting 
 the said bodies. Woodtvard. 
 
 The change of the aliment is effected, by attrition 
 of the inward stomach, and dissolvent liquor, assisted 
 with heat. Arbuthrwt. 
 
 ATTROW, in botany, a name given by the 
 people of Guinea to a plant which they use in 
 cases of swellings, boiling the leaves in water, 
 and using the decoction by way of a fomentation. 
 It is a species of kali, and is called by Petiver, 
 kali Guineense foliis polygoni, floribus verticilli 
 in modum dispositis, from its leaves resembling 
 the common knot-grass, and its flowers growing 
 in rundles round the stalks. 
 
 ATTRUMMAPHOC, in botany, a name given 
 by the people of Guinea to a shrub which they 
 boil in water, and give the decoction in the 
 venereal disease. The juice, when fresh pressed 
 out, is snuffed up the nostrils to promote sneezing, 
 and cure disorders of the head and eyes. It is a 
 species of colutea. Dr. Herman calls it astra- 
 galus. 
 
 ATTUAL, a town of Arabia, in Tehama, in 
 tlie province of Yemen. Long. 42° 10' E., lat. 
 15°57'N. 
 
 ATTUDSJE, a town of Arabia, in Yemen, 
 between Kusma and Sai-id. Long. 43° 25' E., 
 lat. 14° 40' N. 
 
 ATTUIE, a fort of Arabia, in Tehama, seated 
 on the coast of the Arabic Gulf. Long. 41° 40' E., 
 lat. 17° 37' N. 
 
 ATTUNE. To tune, to set to a tune. 
 
 Airs, vernal airs. 
 Breathing the smell of field and grove, attune 
 The trembling leaves. Milton. 
 
 Th' ethereal glow that stimulates thy frame. 
 When all th' according powers harmonious move. 
 And wake to energy each social aim. 
 Attuned spontaneous to the will of Jove ; 
 Be these, O man, the triumphs of thy soul. 
 
 Beattie. Judgment of Paris.
 
 ATW 
 
 253 
 
 ATY 
 
 ATTURNATUS, in old law Latin, an at- 
 torney. 
 
 ATUR.^, a town of ancient Gaul, in the dis- 
 trict of Novempopulana in Aquitania, on the 
 Aturus; now called Aire. Long. 0° 16' E., lat. 
 43° 42' N. 
 
 ATURUS, a river of ancient Gaul in Aqui- 
 tania, now called the Adour. 
 
 ATWArNE,-^ 
 
 Atwee'n, f In twain, in two. Gothic 
 
 At'wixt, itwos, two. 
 
 Atwo. ' 
 
 And Jhesus gaf out a great cry and diede. And 
 the vcyl of the temple was to rent a two from the 
 higheste to bynethe. Wiclif. Mark, c. xv. 
 
 And wth that word he gan sigh as sore. 
 
 Like as his heart rine would atwaine, 
 
 And held his peace, and spake no more. 
 
 Chaucer. The Complaint of the Black Knight, 
 Her loose long yellow locks (like golden wire, 
 
 Sprinkled with pearl, and perling flowers atween) 
 
 Do, like a golden mantle, her attire. Spenser, 
 
 With them an hideous storm of wind arose 
 
 With dreadful thunder, and lightning atwixt, 
 
 And an earthquake, as if it straight would loose, 
 
 Tlie world's foundations from its centre fixt. 
 
 Id. Faerie Queerte, b. ii. 
 
 ATWOOD (George), a celebrated author in 
 mathematical and mechanical investigations, 
 was born in the early part of the year 1746. 
 He was educated at Westminster school, where 
 lie was admitted in 1759. Six years afterwards 
 he was elected to Trinity college, Cambridge, 
 and took his degree of Bachelor of Arts in 1769, 
 with the rank of third wrangler. This distinc- 
 tion was amply sufficient to give him a claim to 
 further advancement in his own college, on the 
 list of which he stood foremost of his contempo- 
 raries ; and, in due time, he obtained a fellow- 
 ship, and was afterwards one of the tutors. He 
 became Master of Arts in 1772 ; and, in 1776, 
 was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of 
 London. The higher branches of the mathe- 
 matics having previously made some important 
 advances at Cambridge, under the auspices of 
 Dr. Waring, Mr. Atwood delivered, for several 
 successive years, a course of lectures in the ob- 
 servatory of Trinity college, which were very 
 generally attended. In 1784, or soon afterwards, 
 Mr. Pitt, who had become acquainted with his 
 merits by attending his lectures, bestowed on 
 him a patent office, which required but little of 
 his attendance, in order to have a claim on the 
 employment of his mathematical abilities in 
 financial calculations. He died universally 
 respected in 1807. The following, we believe, 
 is a correct list of ^Ir. Atwood's publications : — 
 1. A Description of Experiments to illustrate a 
 Course of Lectures, Bvo. 1775, or 1776. 2. This 
 work was reprinted with additions, under the 
 title of An Analysis of a Course of Lectures on 
 the Principles of Natural Philosophy, Bvo. 
 Cambridge, 1784. 3. A General Theory for 
 the Mensuration of the Angle subtended by two 
 objects, of which one is observed by Rays after 
 two Reflections from plane Surfaces, and the 
 other by Rays coming directly to the Spectator's 
 Eye. Phil. Trans. 1781, p. 395. 4. A Treatise 
 on the Rectilinear Motion and Rotation of 
 
 Bodies, with a Description of Original Experi- 
 ments relative to the Subject, 8vo. Cambridge, 
 1784. 5. Investigations founded on the Theory 
 of Motion, for determining the Times of Vibra- 
 tion of Watch Balances. Phil. Trans. 1794. p. 
 119. 6. The Construction and Analysis of 
 Geometrical Propositions, determining the posi- 
 tions assumed by homogeneal bodies, which float 
 freely, and at rest, on a fluid surface ; also De- 
 termining the Stability of Ships, and of other 
 Floating Bodies. Phil. Trans. 1796, .p. 46. 
 7. A Disquisition on the Stability of Ships. 
 Phil. Trans. 1798, p. 201 . 8. A Review of the 
 Statutes and Ordmances of Assize, which have 
 been established in England from the 4th year 
 of King John, 1202, to the 37th of his present 
 Majesty, 4to. London, 1801. 9. A Dissertation 
 on the Construction and Properties of Arches, 
 4to. London, 1801. 10. A Supplement to a 
 Tract entitled a Treatise on the Construction 
 and Properties of Arches, published in the year 
 1801; and containing Propositions for Deter- 
 mining the weights of the several sections which 
 constitute an arch, inferred from the angles. 
 Also containing a Demonstration of the angles of 
 the several sections, when they are inferred from 
 the weights thereof. To which is added, a 
 Description of original experiments to verify 
 and illustrate the principles in this treatise. 
 With occasional remarks on the construction of 
 an iron bridge of one arch, proposed to be 
 erected over the river Thames at London. Part 
 II. By the author of the first part, 4to. London, 
 1804. Dated 24th Nov. 1803. 11. A Treatise 
 on Optics is mentioned by Nichols, as having 
 been partly printed by Bowyer, in 1776, but 
 never completed. 
 
 ATYCHIA, in entomology, a genus of in- 
 sects of the order lepidoptera, and family zygae- 
 nides. Its generic characters are : palpi riting 
 considerably beyond the clypeus, anteriorly very 
 hirsute with long hairs, wings short; posterior 
 tibiae with scales and elongated spurs. 
 
 ATYPOS ; from a negative, and tvitoq, form; 
 irregular, a word used by the old writers in medi- 
 cine, for such diseases as did not observe any 
 regularity in their periods. Others have used 
 the word for deformities in the limbs ; and others 
 for defects in the organs of speech. 
 
 ATY PUS, in entomology, a genus of the class 
 arachnides, order acera, and family araneides. 
 Its generic characters are : eyes on each side 
 geminate ; labium inserted under the base of the 
 maxillae, very small, quadrate ; palpi placed at 
 the base of the external dilatation of Uie maxillas. 
 The A. sulzeri has been found in this country by 
 Dr. Leach, and inhabits turfy declivities, where 
 it forms a deep cylindrical excavation, seven or 
 eight inchesjlong, in which it weaves a kind of 
 funnel of white silk. The cocoon in which the 
 eggs are deposited, is fixed at the bottom of this 
 cavity by means of threads attached to each end. 
 
 ATYS, the son of Croesus, king of Lydia, is 
 reported to have been born tongue-tacked, and 
 of consequence to have been dumb for many 
 years ; till observing one of Cyrus's soldiers going 
 to kill his father, his passion suddenly broke the 
 membrane that held his tongue, and he cried out 
 ' Save the king !'
 
 AVA 254 
 
 Aits, in fabulous history, a celebrated shep- 
 herd of Phrygia, with whom Cybele, commonly 
 called the mother of the gods, fell passionately in 
 love. She gave him the care of her temple, at 
 the same time making him vow he would always 
 live in celibacy. He afterwards violated his 
 promise by an amour with the nymph Sangaris, 
 on which account the goddess brought upon him 
 such a species of insanity which made him castrate 
 himself with a sharp stone. The same operation 
 was purposely performed by his sacerdotal suc- 
 cessors, in the service of Cybele, that their vows 
 of perpetual chastity might not be broken. This 
 is the most generally received account ; though, 
 according to some writers, the cause of the fond- 
 ness of the goddess for Atys, was his introducing 
 her festivals into the greatest part of Asia Minor ; 
 and that she herself mutilated him. From Pau- 
 sanias we learn that Atys was the son of a 
 nymph of the Sangar, who became pregnant by 
 placing the branch of an almond tree in her 
 bosom. According to the passage (Achaic. c. 
 17), Jupiter having had an amorous dream, some 
 of the impurity of the god dropt upon the earth, 
 from which a monster of an human form was 
 produced, with the parts of both sexes. This 
 monster was named Agdistis, and was by the 
 gods deprived of the characteristics of the male 
 sex. The mutilated parts having been thrown 
 on the ground, an almond tree sprung from 
 them, a branch of which one of the daughters of 
 the Sangar took and put in her bosom. As soon 
 as Atys was born, he was exposed in a wood, 
 where a she-goat nourished and preserved him. 
 While in the wood, he was observed by Agdistis, 
 who was captivated with his beauty ; and when 
 Atys was about to celebrate his nuptials with 
 the king of Pessinus's daughter, Agdistis, jealous 
 of a rival, infused into the king and his intended 
 son-in-law such a spirit of madness as led them 
 to attack and mutilate one another in the struggle. 
 ^V^e farther learn from Ovid, that as Atys was 
 going to lay violent hands upon himself, he 
 was changed by Cybele into a pine-tree ; and 
 that from that time the pine-tree was held sacred 
 to the mother of the gods. Divine honors were 
 paid to Atys after his death, and temples erected 
 to his memory, among which that at Dymae was 
 the most famous. 
 
 Atys, a Trojan, who accompanied .Eneas to 
 Italy, and from whom it is supposed the family 
 of the Atii at Rome descended. 
 
 AVA, or Angwa, a city of the Birman empire, 
 four miles west of Amarapura, the metropolis. 
 It is in lat. 21° 51' N., and long. 95° 58' E. ; and 
 was once the capital, but is now in ruins. Here 
 are two large temples, one of which contains an 
 im.age of Gaudma, (Gautama) or Budd'ha, twenty- 
 four feet in height, and ten feet across the breast. 
 There are also the reliques of many other temples 
 in decay. For Ava, as an empire, see Birman 
 Empire, its more usual and modern designation. 
 
 A\'A-A\'A, a plant, so called by the inhabi- 
 tants of Olaheite, from the leaves of which they 
 express an intoxicating juice. It is drank very 
 freely by their chiefs, who vie with eacli other in 
 drinkmg the greatest number of draughts, each 
 draught being about a pint; but they keep it 
 carefully from their women. 
 
 AVA 
 
 AUACII, or AvACH, the ancient name of 
 Avoch. 
 
 AUAD, a mountainous district of Arabia, in 
 the province of Yemen, near the city of Udden. 
 Long. 44° 10' E., lat. 14° 5' N. 
 
 A\' ACHA, AwATSCHA, a considerable river of 
 Kamschatka, falling, after a course of ninety 
 miles from west to east, into a bay which bears 
 the same name. Its mouth is rather narrow, 
 but deep enough to admit ships of the greatest 
 burden, and abounding in good anchorage ; the 
 best of which is the harbour of St. Peter and St. 
 Paul. On the north side of the bay is the \'ol- 
 cano of Avacha, which constantly smokes, though 
 it has had no considerable eruption since 1734, 
 and that only lasted twenty-four hours. A small 
 town called the Avachinski Ostrog was begun in 
 1 740 ; it is in a tolerably flourishing state, and 
 principally supported by the trade in beaver 
 skins. The river Avacha has a course of about 
 ninety miles. 
 
 AV'ADOUTAS, a sect of Indian Brahmins, 
 who in austerity surpass all the rest. The other 
 sects retain earthen vessels to hold their provi- 
 sions, and a stick to lean on : but none of these 
 are used by the Avadoutas ; they only cover 
 their nakedness with a piece of cloth, and some 
 of them even lay that aside, and go stark naked, 
 besmearing their bodies with cow-dung ! When 
 hungry, some go into houses, and, without speak- 
 ing, hold out their hand; eating on the spot 
 whatever is given them. Others retire to the 
 sides of holy rivers, and there expect the peasants 
 to bring them provisions, which they generally 
 do very liberally. 
 
 AVAIL', V. Si,n. "^ Fr. valoir, to be worth; 
 
 Avail'able, >Lat. valeo, to be strong, to 
 
 Avail'ableness.3 be in health. To possess 
 advantageous properties ; to be of force or signi- 
 fication. The a is intensive. 
 
 All things subject to action, the wi!! does so far in- 
 cline unto ; as reason judges them more available to 
 our bliss. Hooker. 
 
 Laws human are available by consent. Id. 
 
 Drake put one of his men to death, having no au- 
 thority nor commission available. Raleigh. 
 For all that else did come, were sure to fail ; 
 Yet would he further none, but for avail. Spenser. 
 I charge thee. 
 As heav'n shall work iu me for thine avail. 
 To tell me truly. Shakspeare, 
 We differ, from that supposition of the efficacy, or 
 availableneit, Oi- suitableness, of these to the end. 
 
 Hale. 
 Those excellent means God has bestowed on us, 
 well employed, cannot but much avail us : but if other- 
 wise perverted, they ruine and confound us. 
 
 Burton's Anatomy of Melancholy. 
 
 Truth light upon this way, is of no more avail to 
 
 us than errour. Locke. 
 
 Nor can my strength avail ; unless, by thee 
 
 Endu'd with force, I gain the victory. Dryden. 
 
 When real merit is wanting ; it avails nothing, to 
 
 have been encouraged by the great. 
 
 Pope's Preface to hit IVorks, 
 Mean time he voyag'd, to explore the will 
 Of Jove, on high Dodona's holy hill ; 
 What means might best his safe return avail. 
 
 Pu},e.
 
 AVA 
 
 255 
 
 AVA 
 
 Ah ! what maiU the lore of Rome and Greece, 
 All that art, fortune, enterprise can bring. 
 If envy, scorn, remorse, or pride, the bosom wring. 
 
 Beattu;. 
 Avail of Marriage, in ancient Scot's law, 
 tV.at casuality in inward-holding, by which the 
 superior was entitled to a certain sum from his 
 vassal, upon his attaining the age of puberty, or 
 fourteen years, as the avail and value of his tocher. 
 A\'AL, or IBahurein, the largest of the Bah- 
 hrein islands in the gulf of Persia. It is about 
 thirty miles in length, and twelve wide, where it 
 is broadest. Besides the fortified town of Bah- 
 hrein, it contains about sixty poor villages. Long. 
 48° 4' E., lat. 26° 36' N. 
 
 A\'ALANCHES, prodigious masses of snow 
 and ice that roll down the mountains in Savoy, 
 particularly mount Blanc, to the extreme danger 
 of travellers. 
 
 * Oft rushing sudden from the loaded cliffs. 
 
 From steep to steep, loud thund'ring down they come, 
 
 A wintry waste in dire commotion all; 
 
 And herds and flocks, and travellers and swains. 
 
 And sometimes whole brigades of marching troops, 
 
 ■Or hamlets sleeping in the dead of night. 
 
 Are deep beneath the smothering ruin hurl'd.' 
 
 Some of them are 150 or 200 feet diameter; 
 being fragmjBnts of the ice-rocks which break by 
 their own weight from the tops of the precipices. 
 See Blanc, Mount. 
 
 AVALON, or Avallon, the chief town of an 
 tirrondissement in the department of the Yonne 
 in France, situated, with its strong castle, on the 
 river Cousin. Population 4200 ; that of the 
 arrondissement is 42,800. It is twenty leagues 
 "west of Dijon. 
 
 Avalon, or AvoLON, a peninsula of New- 
 foundland. 
 
 AvALON, or AvALONiA, the ancient name of 
 Glastonbury, where king Arthur was buried. See 
 Arthur, and Glastonbury. 
 
 AVALOS (Ferdinand Francis d'), marquis of 
 Pescara, was born in the kingdom of Naples. 
 He entered into the service of Charles V. and ac- 
 companied the ai'my into the battle of Ravenna, 
 where he was made prisoner. During his cap- 
 tivity he amused himself in writing a Dialogue 
 on Love, and dedicated it to his wife. After his 
 release he again entered into the emperor's ser- 
 vice, and was present at the taking of Milan, 
 where he died in 1525, aged thirty-six. 
 
 Avalos (Alphonso d"), marquis del \'asto, was 
 horn in 1502. He was a near relation of the 
 above ; and was likewise a zealous officer in the 
 armies of Charles V. He died in 1546. 
 
 AVANIA, in the Turkish legislature, a fine for 
 crimes, and on deaths, paid to the governor of 
 the place. In the places wherein several nations 
 live together under a Turkish governor, he takes 
 this profitable method of punishing all crimes 
 amon'j; the Christians or Jews, unless it be the 
 murder of a Turk. 
 
 A\ ANT, the front of an army. See \'an. 
 
 AvANT is defined by Mr. Chalmers, a French 
 preposition, signifying before, or any priority in 
 respect of time or place; sometimes used m com- 
 position, in our language, but more usually con- 
 tracted, and wrote vaunt, vant, or van. 
 
 AvAKT FossF, &c. See Van Fosse. 
 
 Avant-guard, avantgarde, French. The van ; 
 the first body of an army. — Tlie horsemen might 
 issue forth without disturbance of the foot, and 
 the avant-guard without shuffling with the battail 
 or arriere. — Haicard. 
 
 AvANT Mure, an outward wall. 
 
 AvANT Peach, a peach early ripe. 
 
 AvANT Ward, the van of an army. 
 
 A\'ANTE, among ancient medical authors, 
 a name given to a disease, seeming, from their 
 accounts of it to be the same with hypocon- 
 driasis. 
 
 AX'ANTIO (John Mario), an Italian lawyer 
 of great eminence, born in 1564. He displayed 
 his abilities first at Ferrara, and afterwards at 
 Padua; at which last place he died in 1622. 
 Besides several other pieces, he wrote an eccle- 
 siastical history, from the commencement of the 
 reformation. 
 
 AvANTio (Charles), a celebrated physician, 
 was a son of the above. He was author of a 
 commentary on the work of Bapt. Fiera, printed 
 at Padua, in 1649. 
 
 AVANTURINE, in mineralogy, a species of 
 common quartz, containing a number of minute 
 fissures, and sometimes crystals of mica. These 
 lie in parallel, or nearly parallel planes : so that 
 when the stone is cut into a double convex figure, 
 the imaginary plane of junction of the two sphe- 
 rical segments being parallel to the planes in 
 which the fissures lie, a play of light is produced 
 on the surface of the stone. The most beautiful 
 varieties have been found in Spain. 
 
 AVARA, a river of Gallia Celtica, mentioned 
 by Caesar, in the county of Brituriges, now called 
 Aruon. 
 
 AVARES, one of the predatory tribes in tlie 
 north of Asia Minor, who made great ravages in 
 the eastern empire. Having penetrated the 
 Sclavonian and Greek territories, they first ap- 
 peared on the banks of the Danube, A. D. 560, 
 and established themselves at Sirmium, and in 
 Upper Hungary. Their riches, and their alliance 
 with Thassilo, chief of the Baii, alarmed Charle- 
 magne, who, in A. D. 803, attacked them in per- 
 son, and drove them into Corinthia. They have 
 been conjectured to be the Aorsi, or Adorsi, of 
 Strabo. 
 
 There is still on the banks of the Koiju, in 
 Lezgislan, and on the eastern side of Mount 
 Caucasus, a tribe called Aor or Avar, whose 
 language is a peculiar one, but has an affinity with 
 several others used in the neighbouring districts. 
 There is also a city of this name consisting of 
 about 600 houses, the residence of a hereditary 
 prince or chief. He has considerable influence ; 
 and, on a late occasion, a neighbouring potentate 
 purchased his sister in marriage for £25,000. 
 In his palace, the only one with glass windows 
 in eastern Caucasus, there is a large hall, well 
 provided with provisions, constantly open to all 
 strangers. In the city of Avar fine shawls are 
 manufactured from the wool of Caucasian sheep; 
 one of which, an ell and a half long, may be 
 drawn through a ring. These people are war- 
 like and courageous ; and their chief, the Avar 
 Khan, is much courted by the Russians. He 
 was raised to the rank of a lieutenant-general, 
 with a pension of 10,000 silver rubles (£2000)
 
 256 
 
 AVATAR. 
 
 n 1807. He can bring 20,000 men into the 
 field, and his dependant khan 10,000 more. 
 
 AVARIA, in the Turkish and Persian domi- 
 nions, a sum of money exacted from the Christians 
 or Europeans, to be quit of some false accusation 
 framed on purpose. 
 
 A^^'ARICE, -^1 Lat. avaritia, avarus ; 
 AvARic'ious, i from avare, to covet, to 
 AvARic'iousLY, V desire greedily. Applied 
 AvARic'iousNESsA to one whose ruling pas- 
 
 AVARICUM, an ancient town of the Bituriges 
 
 in Gallia Celtica, situated on the Avara, in a very 
 fertile soil ; now called Bourges. Long, 2° 28' E., 
 lat. 47° 5' N. 
 
 AVAROMO Temo, in botany, a siliquose 
 tree, which grows in the Brasils. The bark is 
 externally of a cineritious, and internally of a 
 deep red color, and is the only part of the plant 
 used for medicinal purposes, though some indeed 
 use the leaves. But the bark, which is bitter. 
 
 Av'arous. J sion is the acquisition of whether reduced to a powder, or boiled and used 
 
 as a fomentation, cures inveterate ulcers, and, it 
 is said, has been found to cure even cancers. It 
 is also used as a corroborant, on account of its 
 astringent quality, by way of bath. 
 
 Avast, from basta, Ital. it is enough : enougti ; 
 cease. A word used among seamen. It always 
 precedes some orders, or some conversation, and 
 answers the same purpose as — harkye, list, attend, 
 take heed, hold. Like the Ital. avacci, I think 
 it means — be attentive, be on the watch, i. c. 
 awake. — Tooke, ii. 362. 
 
 AVATAR, in the Hindoo mythology, an incar- 
 nation of the Deity. Ten of these are incarna- 
 tions of Vishnu, the supreme God, in his cha- 
 racter of preserver. Four are the subjects of 
 Puranas, or sacred poems. Nine of them are 
 believed to be past, and the tenth is yet to come. 
 The first is the Matsya Avatar, or descent of 
 the deity in the form of a fish. Of what species 
 this fish was, the sages have not determined ; but 
 Vishniis' object was the recovery of the holy Vedas 
 from the ocean, in which they remained after 
 one of the periodical dissolutions of the universe. 
 The second is the Kachyapa, or Kurma Avatar, 
 in which the same god appeared in the form of a 
 tortoise, in order to sustain and give stability to 
 the newly created earth. 
 
 The third is the Varaha Avatar, when he ap- 
 peared in the shape of a boar, and plunging into 
 the waters which had overwhelmed the earth, in 
 one of its periodical destructions, fixed his tusks 
 in it and drew it up. 
 
 The fourth is the Nara-sing'ha, or man-lion 
 Avatar. Kas'yapa, one of the descendants of 
 Uaksha, the first created man, had two wives, 
 whose characters, to judge from their children, 
 were very different, for one produced the gods, 
 and the other the giants. Among the latter 
 
 wealth for its own sake. 
 
 Now good men ! God forgive you your trespass. 
 And ware you fro the sinne of avarice, 
 Min holy pardon may you all warice •, 
 So that ye offre nobles or starlinges. 
 Or elles silver broches, spones, ringes. 
 
 Chattcer, Pardeneres Tale, 
 But father I herde you say 
 How the aitorous hath yet some way 
 Whereof he maie be glad. For hee 
 Maie, whan hym list, his tresure see. 
 And grope, and fele it all aboute. 
 
 Gower. Con. A. book v. 
 This speech has been condemned as avaricious ; and 
 Eustathius judges it to be spoken artfully. 
 
 Broome on the Odyssey. 
 Luxurious, avaricious, false, deceitful. 
 
 Shaksp. Macbeth. 
 There grows 
 In my most ill-compos'd affection, such 
 A sianchless avarice ; that, were I king, 
 I should cut off the nobles for their lands. 
 
 Shakspeare. 
 This avarice of praise in times to come ; 
 Those long inscriptions, crowded on the tomb. 
 
 Dry den. 
 Nor love his peace of mind destroys. 
 Nor wicked avarice of wealth. Id. 
 
 Avarice is insatiable ; and so he went, still pushing 
 on for more. L' Estrange. 
 
 Though the apprehensions of the aged may justify 
 a cautious frugality, they can by no means excuse a 
 sordid avarice. Blair. 
 
 An insatiable thirst of riches renders Pygmalion 
 every day more wretched and detestable. In his do- 
 minions it is a crime to be wealthy : avarice makes 
 him jealous, suspicious, and cruel : he persecutes 
 the rich, and he dreads the poor. 
 
 Hawkesworth's Telemachus. 
 
 Avarice, of all the various passions by which 
 
 mankind is governed, is the least to be accounted were two Hiranyaksha and Hiranyakas'ipu, who 
 
 for, as it precludes its subject from all pleasure it seems stole a march on Brahma, and almost 
 
 except that of hoarding. The ambitious man, compelled him, by dint of their austerities, to 
 
 the gamester, or even the prodigal, have all grant what he had no mind to give them — im- 
 
 something to plead, by way of palliatives for their mortality. Their strength was already quite 
 
 inordinate affections to their respective objects terrific, so that to give it an endless duration 
 
 and pursuits ; but the subject of avarice gratifies was more than the god thought prudent. How- 
 
 his passion at the expense of every conveniency, ever, he could HOt resist the claim of austerities 
 
 indulgence, or even necessary of life. And practised for some thousands of years, and, 
 
 though convinced that money is only the means therefore, to release himself from this dilemma, 
 
 of enjoyment, not the end, and that it is only he engaged that no ordinary being should destroy 
 
 valuable as far as it is useful for attaining that them; and that they should not die either by 
 
 end, yet such is his infatuation, that the images day or by night, in earth or in heaven, by fire, 
 
 of his bags and shining metal, with all the an- by water, or by the sword. Satisfied with this 
 
 nexed ideas of property, enjoyment, security assurance, they immediately began to show how 
 
 against want, independence, &c. prevent him well they understood the value of their powers, 
 
 from using the means, and make him appear they conquered the whole earth, and then 
 
 without property, in misery, in want, and de- dethroned Indra, king of heaven. He immedi- 
 
 pendent. No passion is more opposite to the diately carried his complaint to Brahma, who 
 
 hope of a future life than avarice. very coolly answered that he could take no part
 
 AVATAR. 
 
 257 
 
 against those upon wliom he had bestowed a 
 blessing ; but that perhaps Vishnu would. This 
 latter deity kindly undertook to settle the busi- 
 ness, and restore Indra to his kingdom. To 
 efiect that purpose he assumed a mixed form, 
 half man and half lion ; he concealed himself in 
 a column in Hiranya-kas'ipu's palace, and, when 
 that s^igantic monster struck the column in a fit 
 of rage and profaneness, out started Nerasing'ha, 
 seized the giant by his thigh, and ripped 
 him up in an instant. This was certainly the 
 action neither of fire, water, nor the sword ; it 
 was ce-Jtainly not done by any ordinary being; 
 neither was it done by day or night, for it was 
 in the evening, and it was also under the eaves, 
 and consequently between earth and heaven. 
 Thus was Brahma's promise fulfilled. How 
 the other worthy Hiranyaksha, or Gold-eye, was 
 killed we are not told; but ^'ishnu consoled 
 Pralhfida, Hyranya-kas'ipu's pious son, by assur- 
 ing him that his father would ascend to heaven. 
 
 The fifth, or V'amana incarnation, was occa- 
 sioned by the same family. Pralhad'ha had a 
 very audacious son, named Bali, who daringly 
 made offerings to himself, and performed tlie 
 as'wa-med'ha, or sacrifice of a horse so often, 
 that scarcely any thing could be refused to him, 
 and he demanded the throne of heaven. Vishnu, 
 having been applied to for relief against this 
 troublesome giant, conveyed himself into the 
 body of Aditi, the wife of Kas'ypa, the grand- 
 father of the giants, and was born a dwarf — Va- 
 mana. His diminutive size charmed the tyrant 
 Bali, who, to gratify him, promised to give what- 
 ever he should ask. He modestly demanded as 
 much land as could be measured by three steps : 
 and, placing one foot on earth and another on 
 heaven, out started a third from his belly, for 
 which he demanded a resting-place; the king's 
 head was the only one that could be found, and 
 to make up matters with the god, whose power 
 was now indisputable, Bali consented to go 
 down to Patala, or hell, on a promise of Vishnu's 
 protection. Thus did a dwarf repress the turbu- 
 lence of a giant. 
 
 In the sixth, or Farasii-Rama Avatar, Vishnu 
 came into the world, as the son of Jamadagni, a 
 descendant of the sage B'lirigu, in order to chas- 
 tise the military caste, or Kshatriyas, whose in- 
 solence and disorder had become insufferable. 
 One of them, a king, named Arjuna, took a fancy to 
 a marvellous cow, named Kama-d'henu, the pro- 
 perty of Jamadagni, and attacking her possessor 
 with a large army, routed and slew him. Rama, 
 the son of the luckess sage, determined to avenge 
 his father's death, and going to Kailasa (Olympus), 
 knocked down Siva's porters, who refused ad- 
 mittance to him, presented himself to the god, 
 and received from him a paras'u, or weapon with 
 which he slew Arjuna. These incarnations all 
 took place in the Satya Yuga, or Golden Age : the 
 remamder are more modern. 
 ^ The seventh, or Rama-chandra Avatar, was 
 Vishnu's descent for the purpose of subduing 
 another giant Ravana, who reigned in Lanka, or 
 Ceylon, and carried off Sita, the wife of Rama, 
 in his absence from home. Their contests and 
 the final victory of Rama are the subject of the 
 celebrated epic poem called the Ramavana. 
 Vol. 111. ^ 
 
 Pralamba, and other troublesome ciar.ts, who. 
 it appears, were not confined to the golden age of 
 the Hindoo mythology, made an eiglith incarna- 
 tion requisite, and Vishnu again descended in the 
 formofBala-Rama. This took place in theDwa- 
 par, or Brazen Age, and brings us nearer to the 
 period of something like genuine history. 
 
 Budd' ha, the ninth, overcame the giants, his 
 adversaries, by a very singular artifice ; he pro- 
 duced, by his preaching, an universal scepticism, 
 so that the gods, no longer compelled to grant 
 prayers, had no difficulty in ridding the world of 
 its scourges, these all-powerful giants. 
 
 The Kalki, or tenth Avatar, is yet to come ! 
 He wUl be the son of Brahman, and be born in 
 the city of Samb'hala at the close of the Kali 
 Yuga, or Iron age. He will appear, say the 
 Brahmans, mounted, like a crowned conqueror 
 on a white steed, with a scymitar blazmg like a' 
 comet, to mow down all his foes. Plates of the 
 incarnations of Vishnu from Indian drawings, 
 were first given by Athanasius Kircher, in his 
 China Illustrata, in 1667. They are to be found 
 also in Baldaeus (Churchill's collection), whence 
 they were copied in Mr. Maurice's Indian An- 
 tiquities : which s&&.— Ward's View of Hindoo 
 Literature, Ac. 
 
 AVAUNCHERS, among hunters, the second 
 branches of a deer's horns. 
 
 A VAUNT. Fr. avant, a word of abhorrence, 
 by which any one is driven away. 
 
 O, he is bold, and blushes not at death; 
 
 Avaunt, thou hateful villain, get thee gone 1 
 
 Shakspeare. 
 
 AVAUX, a town of Champagne, in France, 
 with 1500 inhabitants, belonging to the depart- 
 ment of the Ardennes, arrondissement of Rhetel. 
 It is seated on the Aisne, not far from Rheims, 
 and formerly belonged to the family of de Memes, 
 from whom sprung the celebrated diplomatist 
 Claudius comte d'Avaux, ambassador of France, 
 at the treaty of Westphalia. 
 
 AUB, or Auw, a baliwick and town of Fran- 
 conia, on the GoUach, between Uffeuheim and 
 Ochsenfurt. It had, in 1804, about 160 houses, 
 and 1120 inliabitants, and belonged to the dis- 
 trict of Rottingen, in the principality of Wurtz- 
 burg, but was united to Bavaria in 1815. The 
 hospital is well endowed. It is seventeen miles 
 south of Wurtzburg. Long. 10° 10' E.. lat 
 49° 37' N. 
 
 AUBAINE, in the ci-devant customs o 
 France, was a right vested in the king of being 
 heir to all foreigners that died within his do- 
 minions. By this right the French king claimed 
 the whole inheritance of foreigners, notwithstand- 
 ing any testament the deceased could make. 
 But an ambassador was not subjected to it; and 
 the Swiss, Savoyards, Scots, and Portuguese, 
 were also exempted. 
 
 Al'BE, a department of France, so named 
 from the river bounded on the north by that- of 
 Marne ; on the east by Upper ]\Iarne ; on the 
 south by those of the Cote d'Or and Yonne ; 
 and on the west by that of Seine and Marne. 
 Its chief town is Troyes. 
 
 AuBE, a river of France, which rises in the de- 
 partment of Upper Marne, and, running through
 
 AUB 
 
 258 
 
 AUB 
 
 that of Aube, passes by Bar-sur-Aube and Arcis, 
 and falls into the Seine, near Nogent. 
 
 AUBENAS, a town of France, in the Lower 
 Vivarais, in Languedoc, now included in the 
 department of the Ardeche, arrondissement of 
 Privas. It was for some time the capital of an ar- 
 rondissement, but is now only theheadof acanton. 
 The population is about 3315. Aubenas is a manu- 
 facturing place of some consequence, containing 
 silk-mills and extensive cloth-works. The twisted 
 silk, called organsin, is wrought here by a mill, 
 constructed by the ingenious Vaucanson;' tlie 
 average quantity manufactured in a year being 
 550 cwt. Here also are made handkerchiefs, 
 neckcloths, chintzs, and stuffs, partly consumed 
 in the country, and partly exported to the 
 Levant. The raw material is brought chiefly 
 from Spain. The cloths dyed here are also in 
 great repute. In the neighTjourhood is a famous 
 medicinal spring, and mines of coal. It lies on 
 the Ardeche, five leagues S. W. of Privas, and 
 135 S. S. E. of Paris. 
 
 AUBERT (Peter), an eminent French lawyer, 
 born at Lyons in 1642. He appeared very early 
 in the world as an author, by the publication of 
 a romance, called Retour dTsle d'Amour. He 
 filled several important stations in the city of 
 Lyons, and established an extensive public li- 
 brary. In 1710 he published two volumes of 
 Cases, and, in 1723, a new edition of Richelel's 
 Dictionary, three volumes, folio. 
 
 AUBERTIN (Edmund), a French Protestant 
 divine, — was born in 1595, and in 1631 was 
 chosen minister of the reformed church at Paris. 
 In 1633 he published a work on the Eucharist 
 of the ancient church, which was attacked by 
 Arnauld and other Catholic writers. He died at 
 Paris in 1652. 
 
 AUBERY (Anthony), a French lawyer, and 
 liistorical writer, born in 1617. He was very 
 much given to study, taking no pleasure in the 
 bustle of public business, but preferring a retired 
 life. The following are the principal fruits of 
 his labours : 1. The History of the Cardinals, five 
 volumes, 4to. 1642. 2. INIemoirs of the Cardinal 
 de.Richelieu, two volumes, folio, 1660; in which 
 the character of the cardinal is more respected 
 than truth, which is sometimes sacrificed to liis 
 praise. 3. The History of Cardinal Mazarin, 
 four volumes, 12mo. 1751. 4. On the Pre- 
 eminence of the kings of France, 4to. 1649. 5. 
 A Treatise on the Pretensions of the king of 
 France to the Empire, 4to. 1667. He died in 1695. 
 AuBEEY (John), a French physician of the se- 
 venteenth century. He was author of an Apology 
 for Physic, in Latin, 8vo. printed at Paris in 
 1608, and an Antidote to Love, in French, 
 12mo. 1559. 
 
 AuBERY (Louis de Maurier), a French writer. 
 In 1682 he published Memoirs for a History of 
 Holland, two volumes, 12mo. He died in 1687, 
 leaving Memoirs of Hamburgh, Lubeck, liol- 
 stein, Denmark, and Sweden, which were pub- 
 lished at Amsterdam, in 1737. 
 
 AUBESPINE (Claude de 1'), baron of Cha- 
 teau-Neuf. He was a descendant of a noble family 
 at Chartrain, and filled the office of secretary of 
 state under several of the kings of France. He 
 died ia 1567. 
 
 AuBESPiNE (Charles de 1'), marquis of Ciia- 
 teau-Neuf. He was chancellor of France, but 
 was imprisoned ten years. After his liberation 
 he was taken into favoi by Henry I\^ He died 
 in 1653. 
 
 Al'bespine (Gabriel de 1'), was of the same 
 family with the above. He became bishop of 
 Orleans, in which station he showed himself u 
 man of great learning. He died in 1630, aged 
 fifty-two. 
 
 AuBESPiNE (Magdalen de 1'), a celebrated 
 French lady. She was the wife of de Neuville, 
 seigneur de Villeroi, and author of several ex- 
 cellent pieces in prose and verse. She died 
 in 1596. 
 
 AUBIER, or Aubour, the French name for 
 that soft whitish substance which lies round 
 a tree between the bark and the solid wood. 
 Mr. Barkley thinks it performs the office of 
 veins. It may be considered as a third bark, 
 whose fibres are less compact than those of the 
 others, and is properly the fat of the tree. It 
 hardens gradually, and becomes imperceptibly a 
 part of the woody substance. There are few 
 trees without some aubier, which is more or less 
 thick according to the situation in which the 
 trees are planted, for the more they are exposed 
 to the rays of the sun the less aubier will be 
 found in them. In the oak it is seldom above 
 an inch, or an inch and a half- thick. \Vh<?n 
 a tree is cut down, or dies in the ground, the 
 aubier remains always of the same consistency 
 without being turned into solid wood. It is 
 liable to rot, and therefore merchants ought to 
 take care that as little aubier is left on their 
 wood as possible. 
 
 AUBIGNAN, a town of France, in the Ve- 
 naissin, with the title of marquisate, and 1320 in- 
 habitants, now included in the department of 
 Vaucluse, arrondissement of Orange. It is famed 
 for its oil. Yive leagues and a half N. E. from 
 Avignon. 
 
 AUBIGNE (D' Theodore Agrippa), an illus- 
 trious French author, was born in 1550. He 
 made such an early progress in letters, that he is 
 said to have translated Plato's Crito, from the 
 Greek into French, when he was only eight 
 years old. His father dying when he was thir- 
 teen, he attached himself to the cause of Henry 
 IV^ under whom he fought, and who made him 
 gentleman of his bedchamber. He soon became 
 a favorite with Henry, who raised him to several 
 other high offices ; but he at length lost his fa- 
 vor, partly by refusing to comply with his pas- 
 sions, and partly by a democratic kind of inflexi- 
 bility. Quitting France, he took refuge in Ge- 
 neva, where he was highly honored, and spent 
 the remainder of his days in wriling different 
 works. His chief production is his Histoire Uni- 
 verselle, from 1550 to 1601; witli a short Ac- 
 count of the Death of Henry IV. three volumes, 
 folio. The first volume was scarcely published 
 when the parliament of Pans condemned it to be i 
 burnt, as ' a work wherein kings are treated not 
 only with little respect, but even outraged !' lie 
 died at Geneva, in 1630, aged eighty. 
 
 ATjBiGNE,orAuBiGNY, a Small town of France, 
 in the department of Cher, seated on the Nerre, 
 in a fine plain, twenty-four miles north of Eruges.
 
 AUB 
 
 259 
 
 AUB 
 
 It is surrounded with strong walls, wide ditches, 
 and hieh counterscarps. The castle is within the 
 town, and is very handsome. Long. 2° 28' E., lat. 
 47° 31' N. 
 
 AuBiGNY, a ci-devant dukedom in France, 
 belonging to the duke of Richmond in Eng- 
 land, as descendant of the duchess of Portland, 
 the favorite mistress of Charles II., at whose so- 
 licitation it was given her. It was confirmed to 
 the duke of Riclimond and registered in the Par- 
 liament of Paris in 1777, but abolished with 
 other Trench titles in 1790. 
 
 AUBIN, in horsemanship, a broken kind of 
 gait, between an amble and a gallop, — accounted 
 a defect. 
 
 AuBix (St.), sometimes called Hodiere, a 
 market town, situated on a bay of the same name, 
 in the island of Jersey, three miles from St. Hil- 
 lier's. The port is defended by a pier, which 
 runs out into the sea, in the same manner as that 
 at Guernsey. The town is well built, and much 
 frequented by merchants. The parish church 
 being at some distance, there is here a chapel of 
 ease. Market on ^Mondays. Latitude 49° 7', N. 
 long. 2° 15' W. 
 
 AUBLETIA, in botany, a genus of the class 
 and order polyandria mono2;ynia. The essential 
 characters are, calyx five-leaved, corolla, five pe- 
 talled, capsule many celled, echinate, with many 
 seeds in each cell. There are three species, all 
 trees, and natives of South America. 
 
 AUBONNE, a district or bailiage of Switzer- 
 land, in the canton of Bern, and territory of 
 Vaux, which contains several villages, mostly at 
 the foot of mount Jura. 
 
 AiTBONNF., a rapid river of Switzerland, which 
 runs through the above district, and falls into the 
 lake of Geneva. In mount Jura there is a very 
 deep cave, which is a natural and perpetual ice- 
 house. At the bottom is heard a great noise, 
 like that of a subterraneous river, which is sup- 
 posed to be that of the Aubonne, because it first 
 appears with several sources, about a hundred 
 paces from the foot of that mountain. 
 
 Afboxxe, a town of Switzerland, in the above 
 district, situated near the river, seven miles north 
 of the lake of Geneva, upon an eminence which 
 has a gentle declivity, at the foot of which runs 
 the river, with an impetuous torrent. It is built 
 in the form of an amphitheatre ; on the upper 
 part of which stands a castle with a court, and a 
 portico supported by pillars of a single stone each. 
 The castle stands high, and tliere is a most de- 
 lightful prospect, not only of the towu and neigh- 
 bouring fields, but of the whole lake of Geneva 
 and the land that surrounds it. Aubonne is si- 
 tuated eighteen miles W. of Lausanne. Loni. 6° 
 13' E., lat. 46° 30' N. 
 
 AUBREY (John), F.R.S. a famous English 
 antiquary, born at Eston-Piers, in Wiltshire, in 
 162G, and educated at Trinity college, Oxford. 
 In 1046 he was entered of the middle Temple, 
 l:iit quitted the study of the law on account of 
 some embarrassments in his private affairs. He 
 contracted an intimacy with several learned men, 
 and was one of the first members of tlie Royal 
 Society. He made the history and antiquities of 
 England his peculiar study ; and coiitributeii 
 considerable assistance to the famous Monasticon 
 
 Anglicanum. He succeeded to several good es- 
 tates, but law-suits and other misfortunes con- 
 sumed them all, so that he was reduced to abso- 
 lute want. In this extremity he found a va'uable 
 benefactress in lady Long, of Dracot, who gave 
 him an apartment in her house, and supported 
 him till his death, which happened about A. D. 
 1700. He was a good Latin poet, and an excel- 
 lent naturalist, but somewhat credulous, and 
 tinctured with superstition. He wrote, 1. Mis- 
 cellanies. 2. A Perambulation of the county of 
 Surry, in five volumes, 8vo. 3. The Life of Mr. 
 Hobbes of Malmsbury. 4. Monumenta Brilan- 
 nica, or a Discourse concerning Stonehenge, and 
 Roll-Rich Stones in Oxfordshire. 5. Architec- 
 tonica Sacra. 6. The Natural History of Wilt- 
 shire. 7. Universal Education, and several other 
 works still in MS. 
 
 AUBRIOT (Hugo), a Frencn reformer, from 
 whom the appellation Hugonots. He was trea- 
 surer of the finances, and mayor of Paris; and 
 under his magistracy the Bastile was built, in 
 1369. Soon after he was accused of heresy, and 
 sentenced to confinement between two walls, 
 from which the Maillotins, a set of insurgents, 
 released him, in 1381. He however left them, 
 and retired into Burgundy, where he died tlie 
 following year. 
 
 AUBRUSSON (Peter d'), grand master of the 
 knights of Rhodes, was born in La Marche, in 
 1423. Having entered into the order of St. John 
 of Jerusalem, he was elected grand master, in 
 1476 ; and, in 1480, when the Turks made an 
 attack upon the island, it was by his vigorous con- 
 duct they were repulsed. He obtained a car- 
 dinal's hat by very dishonorable means — the de- 
 livering up to the pope prince Zizim, brother of 
 Bajazet, who had taken refuge in Ixhodes, from 
 the vengeance of the sultan. He died in 1503. 
 
 AU'BURN. Sometimes written Abrox, which 
 it is suggested may be the past participle of to 
 hren, or brln, to burn ; quasi, browned. Others 
 contend for alburn, from whiteness, regarding it 
 as a color inclining to white. 
 
 His faire auberne haire had nothing upon it but 
 ■white ribbin. Pembroke's Arcadia. 
 
 Not wanten white, but such a manly colour 
 Next to an abron, tough, and nimble set ; 
 Which shows an active soul. 
 Beaumont and Fletcher. The Two Noble Kinsmen. 
 
 These curious locks so aptl}' twin'd. 
 Whose every hair a soul doth bind. 
 Will change their auburn hue and grow 
 White, and cold as winter snow. 
 
 Carew. Persuasions to Love. 
 
 Close to her side, in radiant arms, a youth. 
 Who like the brother of the Graces moves. 
 His head uncas'd, discovers auburn locks 
 Curl'd thick, not flowing. 
 
 Glover's Leonidas, book ii. 
 
 And not a year but pilfers as he goes 
 Some youthful grace that age would gladly keep, 
 A tooth, or auburn lock. Coupcr's Poems. 
 
 AUBUSSON, a small town of France, in the 
 department of Creuse, thirty-seven miles north- 
 east of Linioses. Its situation is very irregular, 
 on the river Creuse, in a bottom surrounded with 
 rocks and mountains. 
 
 S 2
 
 AL'C 
 
 260 
 
 AUG 
 
 AUCAUGREL, the capital of the kingdom of 
 Adel, in Africa, seated on a mountain. Long. 
 i4° 25' E., lat. 9°10'-N. 
 
 AUCII, Ache, Auche, or Aux. See Au\. 
 
 Aicii, a district of the parish of Glenorchy, 
 in Argyleshire. 
 
 Aucu, or AcH, in the Gaelic, signifies a field 
 of some extent, generally arable and horizontal. 
 In composition, Auchen, Auchin, or, as it ought 
 rather to be spelt, Auch-an, signifies the field of, 
 the particle an, in Gaelic, being always the sign 
 of the genitive, when placed between two sub- 
 stantives ; although when prefixed to one sub- 
 stantive, it implies only the definite article the. 
 
 AUCIIABEll, or Achaber, a hill in Aber- 
 deenshire, in the parish of Forgue, on the south- 
 east declivity, of which there are the remains of 
 an elegant circular Roman redoubt. 
 
 AUCIilNLECK, in Gaelic, a field of rock ; 
 a parish of Scotland, in Ayrshire, eighteen 
 miles in length, and two in breadth ; memorable 
 for being the birth-place, as well as the property, 
 of the late James Boswell, Esq. The soil, ex- 
 cept upon the rocks and banks of the rivers, is 
 poor ; but this is compensated by Us abounding 
 in excellent coals, free-stone, a black stone, 
 which is fire-proof, used for building ovens, and 
 other minerals. It has also a lead mine, which 
 some think rather a silver mine, but it has never 
 been wrought; and two mineral wells. It has 
 the ruins of an ancient castle, of whose age 
 there is no tradition; and is ornamented with 
 an elegant mansion-house, built by the late lord 
 Auchinleck. 
 
 AUCIIINLILY Linn Spout, a cataract in 
 the parisli of Fintry, in Stirlingshire, over which 
 the Carron rushes in its course from Carron bog 
 to the carse of Falkirk. 
 
 AUCHLOSSEN, Loch of, a lake in the parish 
 of Lumphanan, in Aberdeenshire, nearly a mile 
 in length, and above half a mile broad at the 
 south end. It produces eels and pikes ; some 
 of the latter six feet long, and twenty-five pounds 
 inweiglit. It often overflows its banks in summer. 
 
 AUCHMUTY (Sir Samuel), lieutenant-ge- 
 neral, G. C. B. and colonel of the 78th regiment 
 of foot, entered the army in 1776, as a volunteer 
 in the 45th regiment ; and served with Sir W. 
 Howe in North America, the three following 
 campaigns. In 1783 he held a company in the 
 75th foot in the East Indjes, and was present at 
 the first siege of Seringapatam, under lord Corn- 
 wallis. In 1801 he was appointed adjutant- 
 general to the expedition against Egypt. He 
 was ordered out to South America in 1806, where 
 h-e assumed the command of the troops, with the 
 rank of brigadier-general ; and in February, 
 1807, carried Monte Video by assault, after a 
 most determined resistance ; for which services 
 lie received the thanks of parliament. In 1809 
 he was appointed commander-in-chief of the 
 Carnatic ; and in 1811 reduced the settlements 
 of Java and Batavia under the dominion of 
 Great Britain, for which he again obtained the 
 thanks of both houses. On his return to Europe, 
 Sir Samuel succeeded Sir 1). Baird, as chief of 
 the staff in Ireland. His death, occasioned by 
 apoplexy, took place August 11, 1822, in the 
 si-xty-sixlh year of his age. His remains, after 
 lying in stiUe at Rilmainham hospital, were in- 
 
 terred in the loyal vault in Christ Church Catlie- 
 dral, Dublin. 
 
 AUCHTER, a Gaelic word, signifying high, 
 or upper, which in composition makes part of 
 many ancient names of places. 
 
 AUCHTERMUCIITY, a town of Scotland, 
 in Fifeshire, which was constituted a royal burgh 
 by James IV. confirmed by James VI. and still 
 enjoys all the privileges, except that of electina 
 a representative in parliament. It has three 
 bailies, , fourteen counsellors, a treasurer and 
 clerk; and four fairs, viz. on 21st August, firs^t 
 Tuesday of November and April, and 13th July, 
 wiiich last is one of the most considerable in I ife, 
 for horses, cattle, &c. The cliurch was built in 
 1780, and an elegant manse in 1792. The chief 
 manufacture is white and brown linens. 
 
 AUCKLAND, Bishop, a market town in the 
 county palatine of Durham, with a population 
 of near 2000. Here is the palace of the Bishop 
 of Durham, began in 1283, by bishop Beck, and 
 is a noble, though irregular, structure. It is 257 
 miles north-west of London, and ten miles and a 
 half south-west of Durham. 
 
 Auckland (William Eden, lord), was the third 
 son of Sir I^obert Eden, bart. of West Auckland, 
 in the county of Durham. Educated at Eton 
 and Oxford, he was called to the bar by the so- 
 ciety of the Middle Temple in 1769, and accom- 
 panied the earl of Carlisle, in 1778, to negociate 
 terms with the revolted colonies of America. He 
 was chief secretary during tlie same nobleman's 
 viceroyalty in Ireland. In 1785 he was sent 
 ambassador extraordinary to negociate a com- 
 mercial treaty with France; and in 1788 per- 
 formed a similar service with Spain. In 1789 
 he concluded, at the Hague, a treaty between 
 Great Britain, the emperor, and the king of 
 Prussia, in settlement of the aflfairsof the Nether- 
 lands ; and the same year he was created baron 
 Auckland, of the kingdom of Ireland. In 1793 
 he was advanced to the English peerage by the 
 same title. Lord Auckland was considered an 
 able diplomatist, and is the author of the fol- 
 lowing works : The Principles of Penal Law, 
 8vo. 1771; Five Letters to the earl of Carlisle, 
 8vo. ; On the Population of England, in Answer 
 to Dr. Price, 8vo.; \ iew of the Treaty of Com- 
 merce with France, 8vo. ; The History of New 
 Holland, 8vo.; Remarks on die War, 8vo.l795; 
 and various speeches in the House of Lords. He 
 died in 1814. 
 
 AUCTION, ^ Lat. augeo, auctuvi. Gr. 
 
 Auc'tionary, y Av^to, increase; auctio, an in- 
 
 Auc'tioneer. j creasing. Auction is a selling 
 to those who will give the highest price for the 
 article offered. After successive biddings at a 
 price constantly advancing, the last bidder is the 
 buyer. 
 
 And much more honest, to be hir'd, and stand 
 
 With auctionary hammer in thy hand ; 
 
 Provoking, to give more, and knocking thrice. 
 
 For the old household stuff, or picture's price. 
 
 Dryden't Juvenal. 
 Estates are landscapes, gaz'd upon awhile. 
 
 Then advertis'd, and auctioneer'd away. 
 
 Cowper's Poems. The Garden, book iii. p. 10 L 
 
 Auction, in old medical writings, the nourish- 
 ment of an animal body, whereby it is increased 
 in size.
 
 AUD 
 
 261 
 
 AUD 
 
 Auction, in Roman antiquity, was originally 
 a kind of sale, performed by the public crier sub 
 hasta, i. e. under a spear stuck up on the occa- 
 sion, and by a magistrate, who delivered the 
 goods. It was termed auctio, q. d. increase, be- 
 cause the goods were sold to him, qui plurimum 
 rem augeret, who bid most for them. The auc- 
 tioneer was called Auctor ; and the term aucto- 
 ritas denoted the right of property which the 
 sale vested in the purchaser. A spear being set 
 up in the forum as the sign of an auction, the 
 phrase sub hasla venire; (literally, to be sold 
 under the spear) denoted a sale by auction. 
 
 The civil law, according to lluber, Pra;lec- 
 ti<ines, xviii. 2. 7. held private biddings, by or 
 on behalf of the seller, to be fraudulent : and 
 this principle was adopted by the courts of law 
 in this country, in the days of. Lord Man.sfield, 
 whose inclination to adopt the maxims of the 
 civil code is well known ; but latterly the legis- 
 lature seems to recognise the practice, by ex- 
 empting such private biddings from the duty im- 
 posed on sales by auction. A sale, liowever, 
 cannot be supported where the purchaser was 
 tl)e only real bidder, and public notice was not 
 given of the owner's intention to bid ; but that 
 public notice is not essential to the validity of a 
 sale, if there be a contest between one or more 
 real bidders. (See Sugden's Law of Vendors). 
 In a Dutch auction, the auctioneer commences 
 by naming a high price, and gradually reduces 
 it, until some person closes with his ofl'er. 
 
 AUCTORATI, in Roman antiquity, persons 
 who entered the lists as gladiators, and received 
 wages, or hired themselves to perform in the 
 public games. 
 
 AucTORATi MiLiTES, soldiers bound by oath, 
 and the receipt of wages, to serve in war. They 
 stood opposed to the exauctorati, who were dis- 
 banded. The payment they received for their 
 service was denominated auctoramentum. 
 
 AUDA'CIOUS, "v Lat.flurfaj:, daring; from 
 Auda'ciously, taudeo, I da.xe. These words 
 Auda'ciousness, i^ describe that bold enter- 
 Auda'city. j prising incautious spirit, 
 
 which, without deliberation, undertakes to try to 
 vanquish. 
 
 Your reasons at dinner have been sharp and sen- 
 tentious ; pleasant without scurrility, witty without 
 affectation, audacious without impudency. 
 
 Shakspeare. Love's Labour Lost. 
 
 Excusing, cavilling upon mandates and directions, 
 is a kind of shaking off the yoke and assay of disobe- 
 dience ; especially, if in those disputings they which 
 are for the direction speak fearfully and tenderly, and 
 those that are against it, audaciously. 
 
 Lord Bacon's Essays. 
 
 Anniball took his losse and dammage nothing neere 
 the heart, but rather made full reckning, tliat he had 
 caught (as it were) with a bait, and fleshed the attda- 
 ciousnesse of the foolehastie consul!, and of the soul- 
 diours especially. HuUaud's Livy. 
 
 As when the wolf has torn a bullock's hide. 
 
 At unawares, or ranch'd a shepherd's side ; 
 
 Conscious of his audacious deed he flies. 
 
 And claps his .juiv'ring tail between his thighs. 
 
 Drydeti's Virgil. Mn. 11. 
 
 As knowledge without justice ought to be called 
 cunning rather than wisdom, so a mind prepared to 
 
 meet danger, if excited by its own eagerness, and not 
 the public good, deserves the name of audacity rather 
 than of fortitude. Steele. 
 
 AUDE, a department of France, bounded by 
 that of Arriege on the west, Upper Garonne on 
 the north-west, Tarn on the north, Ilerault on 
 the north-east, the Mediterranean on the east, 
 and the eastern Pyrenees on the south. It is 
 named from the river. 
 
 AuDE, a river in France, which rises in the 
 Cerdagne among the Pyrenees, and, running 
 north by Alet, visits Carcassone, and, directing 
 its course by Quillan and Limouse, falls into 
 the Mediterranean, a little to the north-east of 
 Norbonne. The Romans dug up gold from its 
 banks and channel. 
 
 AUDEANISM, the same with anthropomor- 
 phism. See Anthropomorpiiite. 
 
 AUDEBERT, Germain, a counsellor of Or- 
 leans, on whom the senate of Venice conferred 
 the order of knight of St. Mark, for a panegyric 
 in verse, upon the republic, written by him while 
 at that city. Henry II. honored him witli a pa- 
 tent of nobility. He died in 1598; and his poems 
 were collected and published in 1602. 
 
 AuDEBERT, John Baptist, a French natural- 
 ist, and a celebrated engraver of natural history, 
 was born at Rochefort, in 1759. So much did 
 he excel in the just and elegant representation 
 of animals, that his productions are accounted 
 among the most valuable in the line. His first 
 piece was LTIist. Nat. des Singes des Makis et 
 des Galeopithfeques ; a folio volume, published in 
 1800. This work drew the attention of the pro- 
 fessors of the museum of natural history at Paris, 
 who recommended it and the author in honor- 
 able terms to the minister of the interior. He 
 did not live to enjoy the fruits of his labors : but 
 died in 1800, while engaged in other works of 
 equal splendor. 
 
 AUDEUS, or Audius, the chief of the Aude- 
 ans, obtained the name of a heretic, and the 
 punishment of banishment, for celebrating easter 
 in the manner of the Jews, and attributing a 
 human form to the Deity. He died in the 
 country of the Goths, about A. D. 370. 
 
 AUDIANISM, the system of Audius and his 
 followers ; particularly as to the belief of the 
 human figure of the Deity. See Anturopomor- 
 
 PHITES. 
 
 AU'DIBLE, n. &. adj.-\ Lat. audio, I hear; 
 
 Au'dibly, f that which may be 
 
 At;'dience, ^ heard. Loud enough 
 
 Au'dient. J to be heard; sounding. 
 
 But when this lady comen was 
 
 To th' emperour, in his presence. 
 
 She said aloud in audience. 
 
 Govoer. Con. A. book ii. 
 Visibles are swiftlier carried to the sense than au- 
 dibles ; as ajjpeareth iu thunder and lightning, flame 
 and report ot a piece. Bacon's Works, vol. i. 
 
 Therefore the Omnipotent 
 Eternal Father (for where is not ho 
 Present), thus to his Son audibly spake. 
 
 Milton. Paradise Lost, b. vii. 
 
 Don Quixote did prosecute his discourse, in such 
 
 sort, and with so pleasing terms, as he had almost 
 
 induced his aitdients to esteem him to be at that time 
 
 at least exempt from his frenzie. 
 
 aitclton't Trans, of Bon Quixjtc.
 
 AUD 
 
 262 
 
 AUD 
 
 Audience Court; a court belonging to the 
 archbishop of Canterbury, of equal authority 
 with the arches court, though inferior both in 
 dignity and antiquity. The original of this court 
 was, because the archbishop of Canterbury heard 
 several causes extrajudicially at home in his own 
 palace ; which he usually committed to be dis- 
 cussed by men learned in the civil and canon 
 laws, whom he called his auditors ; and so in 
 time it became the power of the man, who is 
 called causarum negotiorumque audientias Can- 
 tuarensis auditor, seu officialis. Cowel. 
 
 Audience Courts are chiefly concerned in 
 deciding differences arising upon elections, con- 
 secrations, institutions, marriages, &c. 
 
 Audience is also the name of a court of 
 justice established in the West Indies by the Spa- 
 niards, answering in effect to the parliament 
 under the old government of France. These 
 courts take in several provinces, called also audi- 
 ences, from the names of the tribunal to whicli 
 they belong. 
 
 Audience of Ambassadors: a ceremony ob- 
 served in courts at the admission of ambassadors 
 or public ministers to a hearing. In England, 
 audience is given to ambassadors in the presence 
 chamber : to envoys and residents, in a gallery, 
 closet, or in any place wliere tlie king happens to 
 be. Upon being admitted, as is the custom of all 
 courts, they make three bows ; after which they 
 cover and sit down ; but not before the king has 
 covered and sat down, and has given them the sign 
 to put on their hats. When the king does not 
 wish to have them covered, and sit, he liimself 
 stands uncovered ; which is taken as a slight. At 
 Constantinople, ministers usually have audience 
 of the prime vizier. 
 
 AUDIENDO ET Terminando, a writ, or 
 rather a commission to certain persons, when 
 any insurrection or great riot is committed in 
 any place, for the appeasing and punishment 
 thereof. 
 
 AUDIENTES, or Auditores, in church his- 
 tory, an order of catechumens, consisting of those 
 newly, instructed in the mysteries of the Christian 
 religion, and not yet admitted to baptism. 
 
 AUDIFRET (,l ohn Baptist),an eminent French 
 geographer, born in 16.57. He was employed on 
 embassies to the courts of IMantua, Parma, and 
 Modena ; and was author of Ancient and Mo- 
 dern Geography, 3 vols. 4to, Paris, 1689. He 
 died at Nancy, in 1733. 
 
 AUDIGUIER (Vital d'), a French nobleman, 
 born at Naiac, near \'ille-franche de Rouergue, 
 about 1565. Besides several other pieces, he 
 wrote a treatise on Duels, printed at Paris in 
 1617; and Poems on different subjects, 2 vols. 
 8vo. 1614. He died in 1630. 
 
 AU'DIT, V. k, n. -\ Lat. audio, I hear. 
 
 Au'ditor, (^To audit is to hear 
 
 Au'ditory, n. & adj. i whatever may be said 
 
 Au'ditress. J on the subject in hand 
 
 with a view of passing a judgment ; generally 
 applied to the e.xamination and passing of ac- 
 counts by persons denominated auditors, but 
 who are, perhaps, in these transactions, more 
 properly, inspectors. Auditory applies to per- 
 sons who hear, and sometimes to the place in 
 •*hich they are assembled. 
 
 In vain shall this be expected from our younger 
 years ; which the wise philosopher excludes froir 
 being meet oi«fi<ors, much less judges of true morality, 
 Bp. Hall's Balm of Gilead. 
 Yet went she not ; as, not with such discourse 
 Delighted ; or not capable her ear. 
 Of what was high : such pleasure she reserv'd, 
 Adam relating, she sole auditress. Milton. 
 
 Met in the church, I look upon you, as an auditory, 
 fit to be w'aited on (as you are) by both universities. 
 
 South. 
 
 Several of this auditory were, perhaps, entire 
 
 strangers to the person whose death we now lament. 
 
 Atterhury. 
 Foh I 'twas a bribe that left it ; he has touch 'd 
 Corruption ! whoso seeks an audit here 
 Propitious, pays his tribute, game or fish. 
 Wild fowl or ven'son ; and his errand speaks. 
 
 Cowper's Poems. 
 Will make your very heart strings ake 
 With loud and everlasting clack. 
 And beat your auditory drum. 
 Till you grow deaf, or they grow dumb. 
 
 Beattie. The Wolf and Shepherds. 
 
 AUDITA Querela, a writ whicl~. lies against 
 him who has taken a recognizance in the nature 
 of a statute-staple, or the like, and has asked, or 
 obtained, execution from the mayor and bailiffs, 
 or judges, before whom it was entered, &c. It 
 is granted by the lord chancellor, upon view of 
 the exception suggested, to the judges of either 
 bench, willing them to grant summons to the 
 sheriff of the county where the creditor is, for 
 his appearance at a certain day before them. 
 But the indulgence now shown by the courts in 
 granting a summary relief upon motion, in cases 
 of evident oppression, has almost rendered this 
 writ useless, and driven it quite out of practice. 
 A late learned judge, Ch. J. Eyre, i. B. and p. 
 428, states that the court will grant relief upon 
 motion in all cases where a party would have 
 been entitled to reliefs by auditA querela. 
 The legal student will find this subject clearly 
 expounded in Mr. Serjeant Williams's notes to 
 Saunders's Reports, in the case of Turner v. Da- 
 vies, vol. ii. p. 137, d. 
 
 AUDITIONALIS Scholasticus, in writers 
 of the middle age, an advocate who pleads causes 
 for his clients in audiences. 
 
 Auditors of the Revenue, or of the exche- 
 quer, officers who take the accounts of those 
 who collect the revenue and taxes raised by par- 
 liament, the accounts of the sherifi's, escheators, 
 collectors, tenants, customers, &c. The auditor 
 of the excliequer, an office enjoyed for life, is 
 one of considerable trust. He is to file the tel- 
 ler's bills, by which they charge themselves with 
 all the monies received ; and by warrant from 
 the lord treasurer, or the commissioners of the 
 treasury, he draws all orders to be signed by 
 him or them, for issuing forth all monies, by 
 virtue of privy seals, which are recorded in the 
 clerk of the Pells' office, and entered and lodged 
 in the auditor's office. He also, by warrant of 
 the lord treasurer, or commissioners of the trea- 
 sury, makes debentures to such as have fees, an- 
 nuities or pensions, by letters patent from the 
 king, out of the exchequer, and directs them 
 for payment to the tellers. He daily receives 
 the state of the account of e ch teller^ and weekly
 
 AUD 
 
 263 
 
 AUD 
 
 certificates the whole to the lords of the treasury. 
 At Michaelmas and lady-day the auditor of the 
 exchequer makes a declaration ; that is, he de- 
 livi rs an abstract of all accou-nts and payments 
 made in the preceding half year, one for the 
 lords of the treasury, and the other for the chan- 
 cellor of the exchequer. The office is holdeu 
 for life. 
 
 Al'DITORES, in church history, a branch of 
 the iNIanichean sect, who were divided into electi 
 and auditores ; correspondin'^, according to some 
 writers, to clergy and laity ; and according to 
 others, to the faithful and catechumens among 
 the catholics. By the [Nlanichean rule, a differ- 
 ent course of life was prescribed to the elect from 
 that of the auditors. The latter might eat flesh, 
 drink wine, bathe, marry, traffic, possess estates, 
 bear magistracy, and the like ; all which things 
 were forbidden to the elect. The auditors were 
 obliged to maintain the elect, and kneeled down 
 to ask their blessing. Beausobre observes, that 
 the elect were ecclesiastics, and in general such 
 as made profession of observing certain counsels, 
 called evangelic ; such as the clergy and monks,- 
 and they were called the perfect by Theodoret. 
 The auditors were the laity, and so denominated 
 because they heard in the church, while others 
 taught and instructed. See Audiextes. 
 
 AUDITORIUM, in the ancient churches, was 
 that part where the audientes stood to hear and 
 be instructed. The auditorium was the part now 
 called navis ecclesiae. See Nave. In the primi- 
 tive times, the church was so strict in keeping 
 people together in that place, that the person 
 who went from thence in sermon-time was 
 ordered by the council of Carthage to be excom- 
 municated. 
 
 AUDITORIUS Meatus, the auditory passage 
 or entrance of the ear, called also aurium alveare, 
 on account of the wax collected in it. 
 
 AfDiTORY, in ancient churches. See Audi- 
 torium. 
 
 Auditory is also used for the bench whereon 
 a magistrate, or judge, hears causes. At Rome, 
 the magistrates had auditories, according to their 
 dignity. Those of the superior officers were 
 called tribunals ; those of the inferior, subsellia. 
 The pedanei had their auditories in the portico of 
 tlie imperial palace. Those of the Hebrews, at 
 the gates of cities. The judges appointed by the 
 ancient lords distributed justice under an elm, 
 which was usually planted before the manor- 
 house, and served them for an auditory. 
 
 Auditory Nerves, the seventh pair, arising 
 from the medulla oblongata, and distributed, the 
 one to the ear, the other to the tongue, eye, &c. 
 
 AUDLEY (l'.dmund), the son of Lord Aud- 
 ley, bishop of Rochester and Hereford, under 
 Henry VII., was a man of great learning and 
 generosity. He gave £400 to Lincoln College, 
 to purchase lands, and was also a benefactor 
 to St. Mary's Church, Oxford. He died in 
 1524. 
 
 Audley (James, Lord Audley), one of the 
 English heroes who fought under Edward III. 
 was born about 1314. In 1343 he was made 
 governor of Berwick. In 1353 he reduced a 
 great part of the country of \'alois in I'rance ; 
 ^d was present at the famous battle of Poictiers 
 
 in 1356 ; where, having obtained leave of Edward 
 tlie Black Prince, to charge in front (in conse- 
 quence of a vow he had made), he performed 
 extraordinary feats of personal valor : but being 
 at last dangerously wounded, was carried out of 
 the field. In 1360 he again attended Edward 
 III. to the wars in France ; and after the peace, 
 in 1361, was made constable of Gloucester 
 Castle, governor of Aquitain, and seneschal of 
 Poictou. He died April 1, 1386. 
 
 Audley (SirThomas), descended of an ancient 
 family in Essex, was born in 1488 ; and, having 
 the advantage of an university education, was 
 taken notice of by Henry VTII. and appointed 
 speaker of the House of Commons in 1529. 
 Having pleased the king in this station, he pro- 
 moted him farther next year; and m 1532, ap- 
 pointed him Lord keeper of the Great Seal, on 
 the resignation of the famous Sir Thomas More. 
 In 1533 he made him Lord Chancellor, with 
 suitable emoluments. In 1535 Audley sat in 
 judgment, and pronounced sentence of death 
 upon Sir Thomas [More, as guilty of high treason, 
 in refusing to acknowledge the king's supremacy 
 in the church ! L^pon receiving sentence, Sir 
 Tiiomas ^lore said ' he had studied this subject 
 for seven years, but could find no authority for a 
 layman being head of the church ;' to which 
 Audley gave this decisive answer ; ' Sir, will you 
 be reckoned wiser, or of a better conscience, than 
 all the bishops, the nobility, and the whole king- 
 dom ?' For these and the like services, Henry 
 created Audley a baron and a knight of the gar- 
 ter in 1538. He died in 1544. 
 
 Audley Castle, a fort of Ireland, built on a 
 promontory in the county of Down, which hats 
 a prospect of the whole lake of Strangford. 
 
 Audley Road, a part of Strangford Bay, on 
 the west side, on the coast of Down in Ulster, 
 where ships may lie in safety. 
 
 AUDRAN (Benoit, or Benedict), the second 
 son of Germain Audran, was born at Lyons in 
 1661, where he learned the first principles of 
 design and engraving under his father. But soon 
 after going to Paris, his uncle Gerard Audran 
 took him under his tuition ; and he profited so 
 greatly by his instructions, that though he never 
 equalled the sublime style of his tutor, yet he 
 desen^edly acquired great reputation. Abbe 
 Fontenai says, ' We admire in his works a share 
 of those beauties which we find in the engravings 
 of the illustrious Gerard.' He was appointed 
 the king's engraver, received the ro}'^l pension, 
 was made an academician, and admitted into the 
 council, in 1715. He died unmarried at Lou- 
 zouer, where he had an estate, in 1721. His 
 manner was founded upon the bold clear style of 
 his uncle. His outUnes were firm and deter- 
 mined; his drawing correct; the heads of his 
 figures are in general very expressive ; and the 
 other extremities well marked. His works, com- 
 pared with those of his uncle, appear to want 
 that mellowness and harmony so conspicuous in 
 the latter; and the round dots with which he 
 finishes his flesh upon the lights are often too 
 predominant. In his most finished plates the 
 mechanical part of the engraving is extremely 
 neat, and managed with great taste. < )ne of his 
 neatest piints is that of Alexander sick, drinking
 
 264 
 
 A U D R A N. 
 
 from the cup which his physician presents to 
 him; a circular plate, from Le Sueur. 
 
 AuDRAN (Benoit), the second en^craver of that 
 name, the son of John Audran, and nephew 
 to the former Benoit; was also established 
 at Paris. A little attention will easily distinguish 
 his works, which are vastly inferior to those of 
 his uncle. One of the best of his plates is the 
 descent from the cross, from a picture of Poussin. 
 
 Audran (Carl), an eminent French engraver, 
 brother, or cousin to Claude, was born at Paris 
 in 1594. In his infancy he discovered much 
 taste for the arts ; and to perfect himself in en- 
 graving he went to Rome, where he produced 
 several prints that did him great honor. At his 
 return, he adopted that species of engraving which 
 is performed with the graver only. lie settled 
 at Paris, where he died in 1674, unmarried. 
 The abbe ]Marolles, who speaks of him with 
 great praise, attributes 130 prints to iiim : 
 amongst which, the annunciation, a middling 
 sized plate, upright, from Annibale Caracci ; and 
 the assumption, in a circle, from Dominichino, 
 are the most esteemed. In the early part of his 
 life he marked his prints with C, for Carl, till his 
 brother Claude published some plates with the 
 same initial, when, for distinction sake, he used 
 the letter K, or wrote his name Karl. 
 
 AuDRAX (Claude), a French engraver, the 
 first of the celebrated artists of that name, was 
 the son of Lewis Audran, an officer belonging to 
 the wolf hunters in the reign of Henry IV, of 
 France; and was born at Paris in 1592. Al- 
 though he never made any great progress in the 
 art, yet he had the honor to be the father of three 
 great artists, Germain, Claude, and Gerard. 
 The last of whom has immortalised the name of 
 the family. He died at Lyons, in 1677. 
 
 AuDRAX (Claude), the second son to Claude, 
 was born at Lyons in 1639, and went to Rome 
 to study painting; where he succeeded so well, 
 that at his return he was employed by Le Brun 
 to assist him in the battles of Alexander, which 
 he was then painting for Louis XIV. He was 
 received into the Royal Academy in 1675, and 
 died unmarried at Paris in 1684. His virtues 
 (says abbe Fontenai) were as praise-worthy as his 
 talents. 
 
 Audran (Gerard), the most celebrated artist 
 of his family, was the third son of Claude, and 
 born at Lyons in 1640. He learned from his 
 father the first principles of design and engraving 
 at Lyons ; and went to Paris, where his genius 
 soon began to manifest itself. Le Brun em- 
 ployed him to engrave the battle of Constantine, 
 and the triumph of that emperor ; and for these 
 works he obtained apartments at the Gobelins. 
 At Rome he is said to have studied under Carlo 
 IVIaratti, to perfect himself in drawing ; and in 
 that city he engraved several fine plates. M. 
 Colbert was so struck with the beauty of Au- 
 dran's works while he resided at Rome, that ht 
 persuaded Louis XIV. to recal him. On his 
 return, he was appointed engraver to the king. 
 In 1681 he was named counsellor of the Royal 
 Academy; and died at Paris in 1703. He had 
 been married, but left no male issue. The 
 greatest excellency of this artist, above that of 
 any other engraver, was, that though he drew 
 
 admirably himself, yet he contracted no manner 
 of liis own ; but transcribed on copper simply, 
 with great truth and spirit, the style of the mas- 
 ters whose pictures he copied. On viewing his 
 prints, we lose sight of the engraver, and natu- 
 rally say, it is Le Brun, Poussin, Mignard, or 
 Le Sueur, &c. as we turn to the prints which he 
 engraved from those masters. ' This subli.me 
 artist,' says the abbe Fontenai, 'far from con- 
 ceiving that a servile arrangement of strokes, and 
 the too frequently cold and affected clearness of 
 the gravei, were the great essentials of historical 
 engraving, gave worth to his works by a bold 
 mixture of free hatchings and dots, placed toge- 
 ther apparently without order, but with an inimi- 
 table degree of taste ; and has left to posterity 
 most admirable examples of the style in which 
 grand compositions ought to be treated. His 
 greatest works, which have not a very flattering 
 appearance to the ignorant eye, are the admira- 
 tion of true connoisseurs and persons of fine 
 taste. He acquired the most profound know- 
 ledge of the art, by the constant attention he 
 bestowed upon the science of design, and the 
 frequent use he made of painting from nature. 
 He knew how to penetrate into the genius of the 
 painter he copied from ; often improved upon, 
 and sometimes even surpassed him. Without 
 exception, he was the most celebrated engraver 
 that ever existed in the historical line. We have 
 several subjects which he engraved from his own 
 designs, that manifested as much taste as cha- 
 racter and facility. But, in the battles of Alex- 
 ander, he surpassed even the expectations of Le 
 Brim himself.' These consist of three very large 
 prints, length-ways, each consisting of four 
 plates, W'hich join together, from Le Brun, viz. 
 The passage of the Granicus ; The battle of Ar- 
 bela ; and Porus brought to Alexander, after his 
 defeat. To this set are added two large prints, 
 length-ways, on two plates each, also from Le 
 Brun, viz. Alexander entering the tent of Darius, 
 and the triumphal entry of Alexander into Ba- 
 bylon. Tlie former was engraved by Gerard 
 Edelink, and the latter by Gerard Audran. Of 
 all these plates, those impressionsk^are most es- 
 teemed which have the name of Goyton the 
 printer marked upon them. 
 
 Audran (Germain), the eldest son of Claude, 
 was born in 1631 at Lyons, where his parents 
 then resided. Not content with the instructions 
 of his father, he went to Paris, and perfected 
 himself under his uncle Carl. Upon his return 
 to Lyons, he published several prints which did 
 him great honor. His merit was in such esti- 
 mation, that he was made a member of the aca- 
 demy, and chosen a professor. He died at 
 Lyons in 1710, and left behmd him four sons, 
 all artists; namely, Claude, Benoit, John, and 
 Lewis. 
 
 Audran (John), the third son or Germain 
 Audran, was born at Lyons in 1667 ; and, after 
 being instructed by his father, went to Paris to 
 perfect himself in the art under his uncle Ge- 
 rard. At the age of twenty he began to display 
 his genius in a surprising manner ; and his suc- 
 cess vi'as such, that in 1707 he obtained the title 
 of engraver to the king, and had a pension al- 
 lowed him, with apartments in the Gobelins ;
 
 AVE 
 
 265 
 
 AVE 
 
 and the following year he was made a member 
 of the Royal Academy. lie was eighty years 
 of age before he quitted the graver ; and near 
 rinety when he died, at the apartments assigned 
 him by the king. lie left three sons, one of 
 whom was also an engraver. ' The most mas- 
 terly and best prints of this artist (in Mr. Strutt's 
 opinion) are those which are not so pleasing to 
 tlie eye at first sight. In these the etching con- 
 stitutes a great part ; and he has finished them 
 in a bold rough style. The scientific hand of 
 the master appears in them on examination. 
 The drawing of the human figure, where it is 
 shown, is correct. The heads are expressive 
 and finely finished ; the other extremities well 
 marked. He has not, however, equalled his 
 uncle. He wants that harmony in the effect ; 
 his lights are too much and too equally covered; 
 and there is not sufficient difference between the 
 style in which he has engraved his back grounds 
 and his draperies. This observation refers to a 
 fine print by him of Athaliah, and such as he 
 engraved in that style. At other times he seems 
 almost to have quitted the point, and substituted 
 the graver. But here I think he has not so well 
 succeeded. The effect is cold and silvery : see 
 for example, the Andromache from Sylvestre. 
 One of his best finished prints, ni this neat 
 style, seems to be Cupid and Psyche from Ant. 
 C'oypel.' 
 
 AuDRAX (Lewis), the last son of Germain 
 Audran, was born at Lyons in 1 670 ; from whence 
 he went to Paris in 1712, before he had produced 
 any great number of prints. The most esteemed 
 are his seven acts of mercy, on seven middling- 
 sized plates, from Sebastian Bourdon. 
 
 AUDREY, or Ethelreda, an Anglo-Saxon 
 princess, wife of Egfrid, king of Northumber- 
 land. She turned abbess, and was canonized 
 after her death. 
 
 AVE, } A corruption of tlie Latin 
 
 Av'e ^Iary. i Jie Maria, Hail .Alary! A 
 reverential address used by Catholics to the 
 \'irgin ]\lary. 
 
 All his mind is bent on holiness. 
 To anmbei Ave Marias on his beads. Shakspeare. 
 
 Ave Mary. In the Romish church, their 
 chaplets and rosaries are divided into so many 
 ave-marias and so many paternosters. It has 
 been observed by Bingham and others, that 
 among all the short prayers used by the ancients 
 before their sermons, there is not the least men- 
 tion of an ave-mary ; and that its original can 
 be carried no higher than the beginning of the 
 fifteenth century, when Vincentius Ferrerius,who 
 was a celebrated preacher, first used it before 
 his discourses; from his example it obtained 
 such authority, as not only to be prefixed to all 
 the sermons of the Romish preachers, but to be 
 joined with the Lord's Prayer in their breviary. 
 
 AVI-JRO, a considerable town of Portugal, 
 in Beira, seated near the head of a small gulf at 
 the mouth of the \'ou2a; which forms a haven 
 with a bar, over which vessels may pass that do 
 not draw above eight or nine feet water. The city 
 stands in a long plain, well watered, and very 
 fertile. This plain is nine miles broad, from 
 Porto to Coimbro ; and is bounded on the east 
 
 by a chain of mountains called Sara d'Al- 
 coba, which reach from the one town to the 
 other. Near this city salt is made in sufficient 
 quantity to serve two or tliree provinces. It has 
 a nunnery, where none are admitted but the 
 daughters of the nobility. Many English are 
 settled here, on account of the thriving trade in 
 oil, salt, and fish, especially sardels. It lies thirty 
 miles S.of(Jporto. Long.8° 30'W.lat. 40°40'N. 
 AVEIRON, a department of France, bounded 
 by that of Cantal on the north, by those of Lo- 
 zere and Card on the east, Herault and Tarn on 
 the south, and Lot on the west. It is named 
 from the river. 
 
 AvEiRON, a river of France, which rises 
 neir Severac, and flowing by Rhodes and V'il- 
 lefranche, falls into the Garonne below ]NIont- 
 aulian. 
 
 AvEL, avello, Lat. to pull away. 
 The beaver in chase makes some divulsion of parts, 
 yet are not these parts avelled to be termed testicles. 
 
 Brown. 
 A\'ELLA, a town of Campagni di Romani. 
 AvEf.LA. See Aquila. 
 AVELLANA, in botany, nux pontica, filbert, 
 a sort of niif, anciently so called, from Avellanum, 
 a town of Campania, where they abounded. See 
 Avelli.no It is the corylus avellana of Lin- 
 naeus. Plin.l. 25, c. 23. 
 
 Avellana Purgatrix, in the materia ine- 
 dica, the fruit of a species of ricinus. 
 
 AVELLANDA, in botany, a name given by 
 the Spaniards to the roots of the Torsi, or sweet 
 cyperus. These are esculent, and of a verj" de- 
 licious taste : they seem to liave had the name 
 from their likeness to the avellana, or hazel nut. 
 Garcias, and some others, have thought that the 
 curcas of ilalabar was the same with the avel- 
 landa of Europe. But this does not seem to be 
 the case ; for the curcas, though of the same 
 size and shape with the avellanda, has a hard 
 coat like the common filbert. 
 
 A\'ELLANE, in heraldry, a cross, the quarters 
 of which somewhat resemble a filbert-nut. Syl- 
 vanus Morgan says, that it is the cross which 
 ensigns the sovereign's globe. 
 
 AV'ELLINO, a city of Italy, in the kingdom 
 of Naples, with a bishop's see. It was almost 
 ruined by an earthquake in 1694. It is, however, 
 at present a pretty considerable place, extending 
 a mile in length down the declivity of a hill, 
 with u'ily streets, but tolerable houses. The 
 churches have nothing to recommend them, be- 
 ing crowded with monstrous ornaments in the 
 barbarous style, which the Neapolitans seem to 
 have borrowed from the Spaniards. The ca- 
 thedral is a poor building, in a wretched situation, 
 witli little to attract the eye. The good catholics 
 need not run to Naples to see the blood of St. 
 Januarius; for they have a statue of St. Law- 
 rence, with a phial of his !)lood ; which, for 
 eight days in August, entertains them here with 
 a similar miraculous liquefaction. The only 
 edifice of note is a public granary, of the Com- 
 posite order, adorned witli antique statues, and 
 a very elegant bronze one of Charles II. of 
 Spain, while a boy, cast by Cavalier Cosimo. 
 The number of inhabitants amounts to 8000, 
 some say 10,000. The bishop's revenue is
 
 AVE 
 
 266 
 
 AVE 
 
 about 6000 ducatis (£ll25) a-year. The ma- 
 gistracy consists of a syndic and four eletti, all 
 annual ; which offices are engrossed by a certain 
 number of families of distinction. Avellino has 
 a considerable manufacture of cloth of various 
 qualities and colors, but chiefly blue. Many 
 wealthy merchants have a concern in this busi- 
 ness. The second article of trade is maccaroni, 
 and paste of many kinds, which, beino- of an ex- 
 cellent quality, are in high repute all over the 
 country. Wooden chairs are also made and 
 sold in great quantities. Avellino abounds with 
 provisions of every sort ; each street is supplied 
 with wholesome water; but the wine is indif- 
 ferent. The soil of this district, which consists 
 chiefly of volcanic substances, produces little 
 corn, but fruit in abundance, of which the apple 
 is deservedly held in great esteem. The most 
 profitable, however, of all its fruit-trees is the 
 hazel. Nut-bushes cover the face of the valley, 
 and in good years bring in a profit of 60,000 
 ducats (£11,2.50). The nuts are mostly of the 
 large round species of filbert, which we call Spa- 
 nish. These bushes were originally imported into 
 Italy from Pontus, and known among the Ro- 
 mans by the appellation of nux Pontica, which, 
 in process of time, was changed into that of nux 
 Avellana, from the place where they had been pro- 
 pagated with the greatest success. The proprietors 
 plant them in rows, and by dressing, form them 
 into large bushes of many stems. Every year 
 they refresh the roots with new earth, and prune 
 off the straggling shoots with great attention. 
 Between Avellino and 'Benevento is the Val di 
 Gargano, better known in histofy by the name of 
 Furcffi Condinae, where the Romans were blocked 
 up by the Samnites, and compelled to pass under 
 the yoke, in the 433d ye^r of Rome. Avellino 
 is situated twenty-five miles N. E. of Naples. 
 Long. 15° 20' E., lat. 41°11'N. 
 
 AVELTON. See Alton. 
 
 AVEN, one of the Orkney Islands, better 
 known by the name of Sanda. 
 
 AvEX, the Scriptural name of several an- 
 cient places; particularly, 1. of Bethel, by way 
 of metaphor, Hos. x. 8. 2. of Heliopolis, a 
 city of Egypt, Ezek. xxx. 17. See Heliopolis. 
 
 3. of a plain in Syria, between Lebanon and 
 Antilibanus, Amos, i. 5 ; supposed to be the 
 same with Baal-beck, or the valley of Lebanon. 
 See Baal-Beck. 
 
 AVENA, Oats, in botany, a genus of the 
 dyginia order, and triandria class of plants ; rank- 
 ing in the natural method under the fourth 
 order, gramina. The calyx has a double valve, 
 and the awn on the back is contorted. There 
 are thirteen species, of which the first six fol- 
 lowing are natives of Britairi : viz. 1. A. elatior, 
 the tall oat-grass. 2. A. fatua, the bearded oat- 
 grass. 3. A. flavescens, the yellow oat-grass. 
 
 4. A. nuda, the naked oat. 5. A. pratesis, the 
 meadow oat-grass. 6. A. pubescens, the rough 
 oat-grass. 7. A. sativa, the common oat culti- 
 vated in our fields. It is remarkable, that the 
 original native place of this plant is almost to- 
 tally unknown. Anson says, that he observed 
 it ffrowing wild or spontaneously in the island 
 of Juan Fernandez : but a vague observation 
 from a single author is not to be depended on. 
 
 For the culture, see IIvsbaxdry. Oats are an 
 article of the materia medica. Gruels made 
 from them have a kind of soft mucilaginous 
 quality; by which they obtund acrimonious hu- 
 mors, and prove useful in inflammatory dis- 
 eases, coughs, hoarseness, and exulcerations of 
 the fauces. 
 
 AV'ENACEOUS, something belonging to, or 
 partaking of the nature of oats. 
 
 AVENANT, agreeable; beautiful.— CAawc. 
 AVENCHE, an ancient city of Switzerland, 
 in the canton of Bern, formerly the capital of all 
 Switzerland, but nov greatly decayed. It lies 
 four miles S. W. of Murat, and fifteen W. of 
 Bern. Long. 6° 52' E., lat. 46° 50' N. 
 
 AVEN'GE, V. & n.^ Fr. venger, Lat. vin- 
 Aven'geaxce, / driare (vim dicere, Vos- 
 
 Avex'gement, V sius), to repel force with 
 
 Aven'ger, i force. To deal out the 
 
 Aven'geress. J measure allowed by the 
 
 Jewish law — ' a tooth for a tooth,' &c. ; to de- 
 nounce vengeance, to retaliate an injury, to exact 
 punishment not sanctioned by good laws, or the 
 benign spirit of Christianity. 
 
 That he might work th' avengement for his shame. 
 On those two caitives, which had bred him blame. 
 
 Spenser. 
 All those great battles (which thou boasts to win 
 Through strife and bloodshed, and avengement 
 Now praised) hereafter thou shalt repent. 
 
 Id. Faerie Queene. 
 There that cruel queen avengeress 
 Heap on her new waves of weary wretchedness. 
 
 Id. 
 This neglected, fear 
 Signal avengeance ; such as overtook 
 A miser. Philips. 
 
 I will avenge me of mine enemies. Isaiah. 
 
 They stood against their enemies, and were 
 avenged of their adversaries. Wisdom. 
 
 I will avenge the blood of Jezreel, upon the house 
 of J.;hu. Hosea. 
 
 Till Jove, no longer patient, took his time, 
 T' avenge with thunder your audacious crime. 
 
 Dryden. 
 The just avenger of his injured ancestors, the vic- 
 torious Louis, was darting his thunder. Id. 
 But just disease to luxury succeeds ; 
 And ev'ry death its own avenger breeds. Pope. 
 Too daring bard I whose unsuccessful pride 
 Th' immortal Muses in their art defied ; 
 Th' avenging Muses of the light of day 
 Depriv'd his eyes, suid snatch'd his voice away. 
 
 Id. 
 The day shall come, that great avenging day. 
 When Troy's proud glories in the dust shall lay. 
 
 Id. 
 Send thy arrows forth. 
 Strike, strike these tyrants and avenge my tears. 
 
 Cumberland. 
 Little did I dream that I should have lived to see 
 such disasters fallen upon her [the queen of France] 
 in a nation of gallant men — in a nation of men of 
 honour and of cavaliers. I thought ten thousand 
 swords must have leaped out of their scabbards to 
 avenqe even a look that threatened her with insult. — 
 But the age of chivalry is gone. Burke. 
 
 AUENIIEIM, a town of Germany, in the 
 circle of Suabia, near Ossenbourg. 
 
 AVENIO an ancient town of Cavares, and 
 one of the most opulent in Gallia Narbonensis ; 
 now called Avignon.
 
 AVE 
 
 267 
 
 AVE 
 
 AVENPACE, a Spanish :Moor of tlie twelfth 
 century, who wroLe a commentary upon Euclid ; 
 but having adopted the peripatetic philosophy, 
 he attempted to explain the Koran, by the sys- 
 tem of Aristotle, for which he was imprisoned 
 at Corduba. 
 
 AVENS, in botany. See Caryophvllis. 
 
 AVENTINE (John), was born in 1466, in 
 Abensperg, in Bavaria. He studied first at In- 
 golstadt, and afterwards at Paris. In 1503 he 
 taught eloquence and poetry at Vienna ; and in 
 1507 he taught Greek at Cracow, in Poland. 
 In 1509 he read lectures on Cicero, at Ingold- 
 stadt; and in 1512 was appointed preceptor to 
 the princes Lewis and Ernest, sons of Albert 
 the Wise, duke of Bavaria; and travelled with 
 the latter. After this he wrote the Annals of 
 Bavaria, being encouraged by the dukes, who 
 settled a pension on him. This work, which 
 gained great reputation, was first published in 
 1534, by Jerome Ziegler, professor of poetry in 
 the university of Ingolstadt; and afterwards at 
 Basil, in 1580, by Nicolas Cisner. In 1529 he 
 was forcibly taken out of his sister's house at 
 Abensperg, and hurried to a jail ; the true cause 
 of which violence was never known; but it 
 would probably have been carried to a much 
 greater length, had not the duke of Bavaria in- 
 terposed, and taken tliis learned man under his 
 protection. Mr. Bayle remarks, that the in- 
 curable melancholy, which from this time pos- 
 sessed Aventine, was so far from determining 
 him to lead a life of celibacy, as he had done 
 till he was sixty-four, that it induced him to 
 think of marrying. He advised, however, with 
 two of his friends, and consulted certain pas- 
 sages of the Bible relative to marriage. The 
 result was, that it was best for him to marry ; and 
 having lost too much time, considering his age, 
 he took the first woman he met with, who hap- 
 pened to be his own maid, ill-tempered, ugly, 
 and extremely poor. lie died in 1534, aged 
 sixty-eight; leaving one daughter, who was then 
 but two months old. 
 
 Aventine, or Aventixus, one of the seven 
 hills on which Rome was built. It was also 
 called Murcius, from Murcia, the goddess of 
 sloth, who had a little chapel there; CoUis 
 Dianie, from the temple of Diana ; and Remo- 
 nius, from Remus, who was buried there. It 
 was taken within the compass of the city by 
 Ancus jMarcus. To the east it had the city 
 walls ; to the south the Campus Figulinus ; to 
 the west the Tiber ; and to the north INIons Pa- 
 latinus ; in circuit two miles and a quarter. 
 
 AVENTURiE, in our ancient writers, signify 
 tournaments, or military exercises on horseback. 
 
 AVENUE. Fr. venir, avenir ; participles 
 venii, avenu; Lat. venire, to come. Approach, 
 opening, passage. 
 
 Good guards were set up, at all the aveyiues of 
 the city ; to keep all people, from going out. 
 
 Clarendon. 
 
 The regulations that are established at Thebes for 
 keeping the avenues free from incumbrances, main- 
 taining the aqueducts and rendering tlic baths conve- 
 nient, for the cultivation of arts, and for the security 
 of the public, are the most excellent that can be ima- 
 e'D"fb Hawkesworth's Telemachut. 
 
 Truth is a strong hold, and diligence is laying 
 siege to it : so that it must observe all the avenues 
 and passes to it. South. 
 
 Avenue, in fortification, an opening or 
 inlet into a fort, bastion, or the like place, or the 
 passes and ways to and from it. 
 
 Avenue, in gardenins:, a walk planted on each 
 side with trees, and leading to a house, garden- 
 gate, wood, &c. and generally terminated by 
 some distant object. All avenues that lead to a 
 house ought to be at least as wide as the whole 
 front of the house ; if wider, they are better 
 still ; and avenues to woods and prospects ought 
 not to be less than sixty feet wide. The trees 
 should not be planted nearer to one another 
 than thirty-five feet, especially if they are of a 
 spreading kind ; and the same ought to be the 
 distance, if they are for a regular grove. The 
 trees most proper for avenues with us, are the 
 English elm, the lime, the horse-chestnut, the 
 common chestnut, the beech, and the abele. The 
 English elm will do in all grounds, except such 
 as are very wet and shallow ; and this is pre- 
 ferred to all other trees, because it will bear cut- 
 ting, headin?, or loppina:, in any manner, better 
 than many others. The rough or smooth Dutch 
 elm is approved by some, because of its quick 
 growth; this is a tree which will bear removing 
 very well ; it is also green almost as soon as any 
 plant whatever in spring, and continues so as long 
 as any. It makes an incomparable hedge, and is 
 preferable to all other trees for lofty espaliers. 
 The lime is valued for its natural growth and 
 fine shade. The horse-chestnut is proper for all 
 places that are not much exposed to rough 
 winds. The common chestnut will do very well 
 in a good soil ; and rises to a considerable 
 height when planted somewhat close; though, 
 when it stands single, it is rather inclined to 
 spread than to jjrowtall. The beech is a beautiful 
 tree, and naturally grows well with us in its wild 
 state ; but it is less to be chosen for avenues, 
 because it does not bear transplanting, and is 
 very subject to miscarry. The abele is fit for 
 any soil, and is the quickest grower of any forest- 
 tree. It but seldom fails in transplanting: ; and 
 succeeds very well in wet soils, in which the 
 others are apt to fail. The oak is little used for 
 avenues, because of its slow growth. The old 
 method of planting avenues was with regular 
 rows of trees, and this has been the practice till 
 of late : but we have now a much more mauuifi- 
 cent method, by setting the trees in clumps, 
 making the opening much wider, and placmg 
 the clumps at about 300 feet distant from one 
 another. In each of these clumps there should 
 be planted either seven or nine trees; but this 
 is only proper where the avenue is to be of 
 some considerable length ; for in short walks 
 single rows of trees look better. The avenues 
 made by clumps are fittest of all for parks. The 
 trees in each clump should be planted about 
 thirty feet asunder; and a trench should be 
 thrown up round the whole clump, to prevent 
 the deer from coming to the trees to bark them. 
 
 AVENZOAR, or Eun-Zoak, Abu Merwan 
 Abdalmalec, an eminent Arabian physician, wlio 
 flourished about the end of the eleventh and be- 
 ginning of the twelfth centurj'. He was of noble
 
 AVE 
 
 268 
 
 AVE 
 
 descent, and born at Seville, where he exercised 
 his profession with great reputation. His grand- 
 father and father were both physicians. Tiie 
 large estate he inherited, set him above prac- 
 tising for gain : he therefore took no fees from 
 the poor, or from artificers, though he refused 
 not the presents of princes and great men. His 
 liberality was extended even to his enemies; for 
 which reason he used to say, that they hated him 
 not for any fault of his, but rather out of envy. 
 Dr. Friend writes, that he lived to the age of 
 i35; that he began to practise at forty, others 
 say twenty, and had the advantage of a longer 
 experience than almost any one ever had, for he 
 enjoyed perfect health to his last hour. Aven- 
 zoar was contemporary with Averroes, who, ac- 
 cording to Leo Africanus, heard the lectures of 
 the former, and studied physic under him ; this 
 seems the more probable, because Averroes more 
 than once gives Avenzoar a very high and de- 
 served encomium, calling him ' admirable, glo- 
 rious, the treasure of all knowledge, and the 
 most suprtme in physic, from the time of Galen 
 to his own.' Avenzoar, notwithstandins:, is by 
 the generality of writers reckoned an empiric : 
 but Dr. Friend observes, that this character suits 
 him less than any of the Arabians. ' He was 
 bred,' says he, ' in a physical family, his father 
 and grandfather being both practitioners. He 
 had a regular education ; and not only learned 
 what properly belongs to a physician, but every 
 thing which relates to pharmacy or surgery.' 
 Dr. Friend adds, ' that he was averse to quackery, 
 rejected the idle superstition of astrologers ; and 
 throughout all his work professes himself so 
 much of the dogmatical sect, that he has a great 
 deal of reasoning about the causes and symptoms 
 of distempers ; and as in his theory lie chiefly 
 follows Galen, so he quotes him upon all occa- 
 sions. Notwithstanding he is so Galenical, there 
 are several particulars in him which seldom or 
 never occur in other authors; and there are 
 some cases which he relates from his own expe- 
 rience, which are worth perusing.' He wrote a 
 book entitled Tayassir fi'lmadawat w'altadbar, 
 i. e. The method of preparing medicines and 
 diet; which is much esteemed. This work was 
 translated into Hebrew, A.D. 1280, and thence 
 into Latin by Paravicius, whose version has had 
 several editions. The author added a supple- 
 ment to it, under the title of .lam^, or a collec- 
 tion. He also wrote a treatise Fi'ladwiyat 
 wa'laughdiyat, i. e. Of Medicines and Food ; 
 wherein he treats of their qualities. 
 
 Avenzoar, or Ebn-zoar, the son of the 
 former, followed his father's profession ; was in 
 great favor with Almanzur, emperor of Mo- 
 rocco, and wrote several treatises on physic. 
 A\'ER', ^ Fr. averer ; Lat. vcreor, to 
 Aver'ment. S fear with reverence. Com- 
 pounded of ve pro vallde, greatly, and reoi; to 
 think. To declare positively, solemnly. 
 
 The reason of the thing is clear ; 
 Would Jove the naked truth aver. 
 
 Prior. 
 
 Then vainly the philosopher avers, 
 That reason guides our deeds, and instinct theirs ; 
 How can we justly diff'rent causes frame. 
 When the effects entirely arc the same ? ^(». 
 
 To avoid the oath, for averment of the continuance 
 of some estate, which is eigne, the party will sue a 
 pardon. Bacon. 
 
 We may aver, though the power of God be infinite, 
 the capacities of matter are within limits. Bentley. 
 
 That which Bucer and his associates averred above 
 a hundred years ago, we still say and maintain ; that 
 which was the truth then, hath been so ever since, 
 and shall be to all eternity. Bp. Hall's Peace-maker. 
 
 AVERA, in our ancient customs, a day's 
 work of a ploughman, or other laborer, which 
 tlie king's tenants in his demesne lands were 
 obliged to pay the sheriff. 
 
 AVERAGE. Low Lat. averagium, to make 
 or obtain a mean proportion by collecting the 
 maxima and minima, or the highest and lowest 
 prices. 
 
 Average, in commerce and navigation, is 
 divided into three kinds. l.The simple average, 
 which consists in the extraordinary expences in- 
 curred for the ship alone, or for the merchan- 
 dizes alone; such as the loss of anchors, masts, 
 and rigging, occasioned by the common acci- 
 dents at sea; the damages which happen to 
 merchants by storm, prizes, shipwreck, wet, or 
 rotting; all which must be paid and borne by 
 the thing which suffered the damage. 2. The 
 large and common average, being those expences 
 incurred, and damages sustained, for ttie com- 
 mon security of the merchandizes and vessels, 
 consequently to be borne by the ship and carsro, 
 and to be regulated upon the whole. Of this 
 number, are the goods or money given for the 
 ransom of the ship and cargo, things thrown 
 overboard for the safety of the ship, the ex- 
 pences of unloading, for entering into a river or 
 harbour, and the provisions and hire of the 
 sailors, when the ship is put under an embargo. 
 3. The small averages, which are the expences 
 for towing and piloting the ship out of or into 
 harbors, creeks, or rivers, one-tliird of which 
 must be charged to the ship, and two-thirds to 
 the cargo. 
 
 Average, in agriculture, a term used by 
 the farmers in many parts of England, for the 
 breaking of corn-fields. 
 
 AVERANI (Benedict), a native of Florence, 
 who became Greek professor at Pisa, and wrote 
 several critical tracts on classical authors. He 
 died in 1707. After his death, his works were 
 collected and printed at Florence, in S vols. 8vo. 
 1717. 
 
 Averani (Joseph), brother to Benedict, was 
 born in 1662. He became professor of law at 
 Pisa, but was particularly devoted to the study 
 of mathematics and natural philosophy. He 
 died in 1738. Two volumes of his orations in 
 the academy at Florence, and some other tracts, 
 were printed after his death. 
 
 AUERBACH, a town of Upper Saxony, in 
 Voigtland, fourteen miles south of Zwickau, and 
 sixty W. S. W. of Dresden. On a high rock, 
 about four miles from this place, is found a 
 species of topaz, called kings-crown, which is 
 said to excel the Spanish and Bohemian in hard- 
 ness, and to equal the oriental in brilliancy. 
 
 AVER-CORN, in ancient writings, such corn 
 as by custom is brought by the tenant's car- 
 riages to the lord's granary.
 
 A V £ R N U S. 
 
 269 
 
 AVERDUPOIS. See Avoirdupois. 
 AV'ERDY (Clement Charles de 1'), an emi- 
 nent French statesman, was born at Paris in 
 1720. He was counsellor of parliament, mi- 
 nister and comptroller general of the finances 
 \inder Louis XV. His reputation was so great, 
 that his appointment gave general satisfaction to 
 tiie people, but falling into some mismanage- 
 ment, he requested his dismission in 1764. He 
 afterwards retired to his estate, and occupied 
 himself in agricultural pursuits. Though he took 
 no part in the revolution, but kept perfectly neu- 
 tral, vet he was arrested and brought to the 
 guillotine in 1793. He wrote, 1. Suite des Ex- 
 periences de Gambais sur le bios noirs ou ca- 
 ries, 8vo. 2. Memoire sur le Proces criminal 
 de Robert d'Artois, Comte de Beaumont pair 
 de France. 
 
 AVERIA, in our old law books, properly 
 signify oxen or horses used for the plough ; but 
 in a general sense any cattle. When mention is 
 made of one beast, they say ' quidam equus, vel 
 quidam bos ;' when of two or more they do not 
 say equi or boves, but averia. 
 
 AvERiA, in commerce, a branch of the Spanish 
 revenue, signifying a tax paid for convoys to 
 guard the ships trading to America. It was first 
 imposed when Sir Francis Drake made his 
 voyage to the South Sea. 
 
 AVERIIS Captis in Withernam, a wiitfor 
 taking cattle when unlawfully distrained and 
 driven out of the countrj', so that they cannot be 
 replevied by the sheriff. 
 
 A\'ER-LAND, in our old writers, such lands 
 as the tenants ploughed with their cattle, and 
 manured cum averiis suis, for the use of a mo- 
 nastery, or the lords of the soil. 
 
 A\ ERNAT, a sort of grape. See Vine. 
 AVERNI ; from the privative a, and opvig, a 
 bird, as intimating that birds could not fly over 
 them, but dropped down dead ; among the an- 
 cient naturalists certain lakes and other places 
 which infect the air with poisonous steams or 
 vapors ; called also mephites. Avemi are said 
 to be common in Hungary, on account of its 
 abundance of mines. 'I'he Grotto del Cani, in 
 Italy, is a famous one. See Avernus. 
 
 AVERNO, the ancient Avernus, a lake of 
 Lavoro in Naples, lying in a narrow valley, two 
 miles long and one broad. It is 180 feet deep 
 in some places, and the old walls standing upon 
 its banks are supposed to be the ruins of a temple 
 of Apollo. Vibus Sequester, and other an- 
 cient authors represented it as bottomless. JVlr. 
 Chambers says the modern Italians call it Lago 
 di Tripergola. See the next article. 
 
 A\ EUNL'S, a lake of Campania in Italy, near 
 Baiae, famous among the ancients for its poison- 
 ous qualities. It is described by Strabo as lying 
 within the Lucrine bay, deep and darksome, sur- 
 rounded with steep banks that hang threatening 
 over it, and only accessible by one narrow pas- 
 sage. Black, aged groves stretched their boughs 
 over the watery abyss, and with impenetrable 
 foliage excluded almost every ray of wholesome 
 light ; mephilic vapors ascending from the hot 
 bowels of the earth, being denied free passage to 
 the upper atmosphere, floated along the surface 
 in poisonous mist; and killed even the birds that 
 
 attempted to fly over it. These circumstances 
 produced horrors fit for the gloomv votaries of 
 the infernal deities. A colony of Cimmerians 
 as well suited to the rites as the place itself, cut 
 dwellings in the bosom of the surrounding hills, 
 and officiated as priests of Tartarus. Supersti- 
 tion, always delighted in dark ideas, early and 
 eagerly seized upon this spot, and represented a 
 cavern near it called the Sybil's cave, as the 
 mouth of the infernal regions. Hither she led 
 her trembling votaries to celebrate her dismal 
 orgies; here she evoked the manes of departed 
 heroes — here she offered sacrifices to the gods of 
 hell, and attempted to dive into the secrets of 
 futurity. Poets enlarged upon the popular 
 theme, and painted its awful scenery with the 
 strongest colors of their art. Homer brings 
 Ulysses to Avernus, as to the mouth of the in- 
 fernal abodes, and, in imitation of the Grecian 
 bard, Virgil conducts his hero to the same 
 ground. Whoever sailed thither, first did sacri- 
 fice, and endeavoured to propitiate the infernal 
 powers, with the asistance of some priest, who 
 attended upon the place, and directed the mvstic 
 performance. Within, a fountain of pure water 
 broke out just over the sea, but which nobody 
 tasted, as it was fancied to be a vein of the river 
 Styx ; near this fountain was the oracle ; and the 
 hot waters, frequent in these parts, were supposed 
 to be branches of the burning Phlegethon. Tiie 
 holiness of these shades remained unimpeached 
 for many years. Hannibal marched his armv to 
 offer incense at this altar; though it may be sus- 
 pected he was led to this act of devotion rather 
 by the hopes of surprising the garrison of Puteoli, 
 than by his piety. After a long reign of un- 
 disturbed gloom and celebrity, a sudden glare of 
 light was let in upon Avernus ; the horrors were 
 dispelled, and with them vanished the sanctity of 
 the lake : the axe of Agrippa brought its forest 
 to the ground, disturbed its sleepy waters with 
 ships, and gave vent for all its malignant effluvia 
 to escape. The virulence of these exhalations, 
 as described l)y ancient authors, has appeared so 
 verj' extraordinary, that modern writers, who 
 know the place in a cleared state only, charge 
 these accounts with exaggeration ; but Swinburn 
 thinks them entitled to more credit ; for even 
 now, he observes, the air is feverish and danger- 
 ous, as the jaundiced faces of the vine-dressers, 
 who havesucceeded theSybilsand theCimmerians 
 in the possession of the temple, most ruefully 
 testify. Boccaccio relates, tl.at during his resi- 
 dence at the rseapolitan court, the surface of this 
 lake was suddenly covered with dead fish, black 
 and singed, as if killed by some subaqueous 
 eruption of fire. The changes of fortune in 
 these lakes, is singular : in the splendid days of 
 imperial Rome, the Lucrine was the chosen spot 
 for the brilliant parties of pleasure of a volup- 
 tuous court : now, a slimy bed of rushes covers 
 the scattered pools of this once beautiful sheet of 
 water; while the once dusky Avernus is clear 
 and serene, offering a most alluring surface and 
 charming scene for similar amusements. Oppo- 
 site to the temple is a cave usually styled the 
 Sybil's grotto; but apparently more hkely to 
 have been the mouth of communication between 
 Cuma and Avernus, than the abode of a pro-
 
 270 
 
 A V E R H O A. 
 
 phetess ; especially as the Sybil is positively said 
 by historians to have dwelt in a cavern under 
 the Cumocan citadel. Mr. Eustace (Classical 
 Tour) aescribes the Avernus as a circular sheet 
 of water, about a mile and a half in circum- 
 ference, and in many places nearly 190 feet 
 deep ; surrounded by ground low on the one 
 side, on the other high, but not steep, in rich 
 cultivation, and slightly wooded. On the 
 southern bank stands a large and lofty octagonal 
 building, vaulted, and of brick, with halls ad- 
 joining. This probably was the temple of Pro- 
 serpine, or of Avernus itself. It is surrounded 
 by vineyards. On the northern bank, under a 
 steep, overhung with shrubs and brambles, is a 
 subterraneous gallery, still called the Grotto della 
 Sibilla. The tirst gallery runs under the Monte 
 Grillo, in the direction of Baia;. It opens into 
 a second on the right, tending towards Cumae ; 
 after some distance, a piece of water crosses it, 
 called the Sybil's bath. The ground then rises 
 rapidly, and all farther progress is stopped by 
 the fallen walls. The situation and appearance 
 of the cavern agree very closely with the descrip- 
 tion of \ irgil. It branched out into several 
 other galleries ; and probably furnished him with 
 much of the scenery in the sixth book. The 
 Lago di Tripergola, as it is called at present, has 
 lost all claim to its former appellation, since in 
 winter it abounds in water-fowl. There can be 
 no doubt that the lake is the crater of an ex- 
 hausted volcano. 
 
 AVER-PENNY, q. d. Average Penny, 
 money contributed towards the king's averages ; 
 or money given to be freed thereof. See Ave- 
 rage. 
 
 AVERHOA, in botany, a genus of the decan 
 
 order, by touching properly the leaf intended to 
 be put in motion. But if the impression even 
 on a single leaf be strong, all the leaves on that 
 pinna, and sometimes on the neighbouring ones, 
 will be affected by it. Notwithstanding this 
 apparent sensibility of the leaf, however, large 
 incisions may be made in it with a pair of sharp 
 scissars, without occasioning the smallest mo- 
 tion ; nay, it may even be cut almost entirely off, 
 and the remaining part still continue unmoved, 
 when by touching the wounded leaf with the 
 finger or point of the scissars, motion will take 
 place as if no injury had been offered. The 
 reason is, that although the leaf be the ostensible 
 part which moves, the petiolus is the seat both of 
 sense and action : for although the leaf may be 
 cut in pieces, or squeezed with great force, pro- 
 vided its direction be not changed without any 
 motion being occasioned ; yet if the impression 
 on the leaf be made in such a way as to affect 
 the petiolus, the motion will take place. When, 
 therefore, it is wanted to confine the motion of a 
 single leaf, either touch it so as only to affect its 
 own petiolus, or without meddling with the leaf, 
 touch the petiolus with any small pointed body, 
 as a pin or knife. By compressing the universal 
 petiolus near the place where a partial one comes 
 out, the leaf moves in a few seconds in the same 
 manner as if the partial petiolus had been 
 touched. Whether the impression be made by 
 puncture, percussion, or compression, the motion 
 does not instantly follow ; generally several 
 seconds intervene, and then it is not with a jerk, 
 but regular and gradual. Afterwards when the 
 leaves return to their former situation, which is 
 commonly in a quarter of an hour or less, it is in 
 so slow a manner as to be almost imperceptible. 
 
 I 
 
 dria order, belonging to the pentagynia class of On sticking a pin into the universal petiolus, as 
 plants ; ranking in the natural method under the 
 fourth order, gruinales. The calyx has five 
 leaves, the petals are five, opening at top ; and 
 the apple or fruit is pentagonous, and divided 
 into five cells. There are three species, viz. 
 1 . A. acida ; 2. A. blimbi ; and 3. A. carambola, 
 called in Bengal the camrue or camrunga. This 
 plant is remarkable for possessing a power some- 
 what similar to those species of mimosa which 
 are termed sensitive plants ; its leaves on bemg 
 touched moving very perceptibly. In the mi- 
 mosa the moving faculty extends to the branches; 
 but from the hardness of the wood this cannot be 
 expected in the carambola. The leaves are 
 
 alternately pinnated with an odd one ; and their 
 
 most common position in the day-time are hori- 
 zontal, or on the same plane with the branch 
 
 from which they come out. On being touched 
 
 they move themselves downwards, frequently in 
 
 so great a degree that the two opposite almost 
 
 touch one another by their under sides, and the 
 
 young ones sometimes either come into contact, 
 
 or even pass each other ; the whole of the leaves 
 
 of one pinna move by striking the branch with 
 
 the nail of the finger, or other hard substance ; 
 
 or each leaf can be moved singly, "by making an 
 
 impression that shall not exceed beyond that 
 
 leaf. In this way the leaves of one side of the 
 
 pinna may be made to move one after another, 
 
 whilst the opposite ones continue as they were ; 
 
 or they may be made to move alternately in any 
 
 its origin, the leaf next it, which is always on die 
 opposite side, next the second leaf on the outer, 
 and so on. But this regular progression seldom 
 continues tliroughout ; for the leaves on the 
 outer side of the pinna seem to be affected both 
 more quickly, and with more energy, than those 
 of the inner ; so that the fourth leaf on the outer 
 side frequently moves as soon as the third on the 
 inner, and sometimes a leaf, especially on tlie 
 inner side, does not move at all, whilst those 
 above and below it are affected in their proper 
 time. Sometimes the leaves at the extremity of 
 the petiolus move sooner than several others, 
 which were nearer the place where the pin was 
 put in. On making a compression with a pair 
 of pincers on the universal petiolus, between 
 any two pair of leaves, those above the com- 
 pressed part, or nearer the extremity of the peti- 
 olus, move sooner than those under it, or nearer 
 the origin ; and frequently the motion will ex- 
 tend upwards to the extreme leaf, whilst below 
 it perhaps does not go farther than the nearest 
 pair. If the leaves happen to be blown by the 
 wind against one another, or against the branches, 
 they are frequently put in motion ; but when a 
 branch is moved gently, either by the hand or 
 the wind, without striking against any thing, no 
 motion of the leaves take place. When left to 
 themselves in the day-time, shaded from the sun, 
 wind, rain, or any disturbing cause, the appear- 
 ance of the leaves is different from that of other
 
 AVE 
 
 271 
 
 AVE 
 
 pinnated plants. In the latter a great uniformity 
 subsists in tlie respective position of the leaves 
 on the pinna ; but in the carambola, some will 
 be seen on the horizontal plane, some raised 
 above it, and others fallen under it ; and in an 
 hour or so, without any order or regularity which 
 can be observed, all of them will h^ve changed 
 their respective positions. Cuttino; the bark of 
 the branch down to the wood, and even sepa- 
 rating it about the space of half an inch all 
 around, so as to stop all communication by the 
 vessels of die bark, does not for the first day 
 affect the leaves, either in their position or their 
 aptitude for motion. In a branch, which was 
 cut through in such a manner as to leave it sus- 
 pended only by a little of the bark no thicker 
 than a thread, the leaves next day did not rise so 
 high as the others ; but they were green and 
 fresh, and, on being touched, moved, but in a 
 much less degree than formerly. After sun-set 
 tlie leaves go to sleep, first moving down so as to 
 touch one another by their under sides ; they 
 therefore perform more extensive motion at night 
 of themselves than they can be made to do in 
 the day-time by external impressions, ^^'ith a 
 convex lens the rays of the sun may be collected 
 on a leaf, so as to burn a hole in it, without oc- 
 casioning any motion. But upon trying the ex- 
 periment on the petiolus, the motion is as quick 
 as if from strong percussion, although the rays 
 be not so much concentrated as to cause pain 
 when applied in the same degree on the back of 
 the hand. The leaves move very fast from the 
 electrical shock, even although very gentle. 
 
 AVERRHOISTS. See Aveuroists. 
 
 AVERROES, one of the most subtle of the 
 Arabian philosophers, flourished about the end 
 of the eleventh and beginning of the twelfth 
 centuries. He was the son of the high-priest 
 and chief judge of Cordova in Spain ; and edu- 
 cated in the university of Morocco, in wliich he 
 was afterwards a professor ; and studied natural 
 philosophy, medicine, mathematics, law, and di- 
 vinity. After the death of his father he enjoyed 
 his posts ; and was farther promoted by Alman- 
 zor, emperor of Morocco, to be judge of Mo- 
 rocco and ^Mauritania, with leave to appoint de- 
 legates, and remain at Cordova. But notwith- 
 standing his great emoluments, his liberality to 
 men of letters in necessity, whether they were 
 his friends or his enemies, made him always in 
 debt. He was afterwards stripped of all his 
 posts, and thrown into prison for heresy ; but 
 the judge who succeeded him, being convicted 
 of oppression, he was restored to his former em- 
 ployments. He died at Morocco in 1206. Aver- 
 roes was excessively corpulent, though he eat but 
 once a-day. He spent his nights in the study of 
 philosophy ; and when fatigued, amused himself 
 with poetry or history. But was never seen to 
 play at any game, or to partake in any diversion. 
 He was extremely fond of Aristotle's "works, and 
 wrote commentaries on them, whence he was 
 styled the commentator, by way of eminence. 
 He likewise wrote Colliget, i. e. Universat ; or. 
 The Whole Art of Physic ; and many amorous 
 verses ; but these he burnt when he grew old. 
 His other poems are lost. As to religion, his 
 opinions 'A^ere, that Christianity is absurd ; Ju- 
 
 daism, the religion of children ; and ]\Iahommed- 
 anism, the religion of swine. 
 
 AVEllROISTS, a sect of peripatetic philoso- 
 phers, who appeared in Italy some time before 
 the restoration of learnin?, and attacked the im- 
 mortality of the soul. They took their denomi- 
 nation from Averroes, the celebrated mterpreter 
 of Aristotle, above mentioned. Although they 
 held the soul to be mortal, according to reason 
 or philosophy, yet they snbniitted to the Christ- 
 ian theology, which declares it immortal. But 
 their distinction was held suspicious ; and this 
 divorce of faith from reason was condemned by 
 the last council of Lateran, under Leo X. 
 
 AVERRUN'CATE, ^ Lat. averrunco, I turn 
 Averrunca'tig.v. S or take away whatevf^r 
 hurts. To weed, to avert an evil, to cut off what 
 is superfluous. 
 
 I wish myself a pseudo-prophet. 
 
 But sure some mischief will come of it. 
 
 Unless by providential wit, 
 
 Or force, we averruncate it. Butler's Hudihras. 
 
 AVERRUNCI Dei ; from averrunco, to 
 avert; gods, whose business it was, according to 
 the Pagan theology, to avert misfortunes. Apollo 
 and Hercules were of the number, among the 
 Greeks ; Castor and Pollux among the Romans, 
 and Isis among the Egyptians. 
 
 AVERSA, a town of Naples, in the Terra di 
 Lavoro, anciently called Atella. It is situated 
 in a fine plain, covered with vineyards and 
 orange trees, and is the seat of a bishop (who 
 holds immediately of the pope), of a royal go- 
 vernor and a judge. There are here sixteen 
 cloisters of different orders, exclusive of nine 
 parish churches. Population 13,800. Eight miles 
 north of Naples. Long. 14^ 1' E., lat. 41° N. 
 
 Aversion, according to lord Kames, is op- 
 posed to affection, and not to desire, as it com- 
 monly is. We have an affection to one person ; 
 we have an aversion to another ; the former dis- 
 poses us to do good to its object, the latter to do 
 ill. 
 
 Aversioxe Locare, Aversioxe Venire, 
 in the civil law, the selling, or letting things in 
 the lump, without fixing particular prices for 
 each piece. 
 
 AVERT', 
 
 Aver'ter, 
 
 Aver'se, 
 
 Averse'ly, 
 
 A, and verito, versum, to 
 turn away or from. Averse 
 ^ expresses the state of having 
 
 Averse'ness, '^the mind turned from a thing. 
 
 Aversa'tion, 
 
 Aveu'sion, 
 
 Aver'sive. 
 
 It signifies also 
 loath, reluctant. 
 
 unwilling, 
 
 It is most true, that a natural and secret hatred, 
 and aversation towards society in any man, hath some- 
 what of the savage beast ; but it is most untrue, tliat 
 it should have any character at all of the Divine Na- 
 ture, except it proceed not out of a pleasure in soli- 
 tude, but out of a love and desire to sequester a 
 man's self for a higher conversation. 
 
 Lord Bacon's Essat/s, 
 
 When people began to espy the falsehood of oracles, 
 whereupon all gentility was built ; their hearts were 
 utterly averted from it. Hooker. 
 
 Even cut themselves off from the opportunities of 
 proselyting others, by averting them from their com- 
 pany. Government of the Tongue.
 
 AVE 
 
 272 
 
 AUG 
 
 There is such a general aversation (in human na- 
 ture )'t.o contempt, that there is scarce any thing more 
 exasperating : I will not deny, but the excess of the 
 aversation may be levelled against pride. Id. 
 
 I beseech you, 
 T' avert your liking a more worthy way, 
 Than on a wretch. Shakspeare. King Lear. 
 
 At this, for the last time, she lifts her hand ; 
 Averts her eyes, and half unwilling drops the brand. 
 
 Dry den. 
 Averters and purgers must go together, as tending 
 all to the same purpose, to divert this rebellious hu- 
 mour and turn it another way. 
 
 Burton's Anatomy of Melancholy. 
 Has thy uncertain bosom ever strove. 
 With the first tumults of a real love ? 
 Hast thou now dreaded, and now bless'd his sway, 
 By turns averse and joyful to obey? Prior. 
 
 Averse alike, to flatter or offend ; 
 Not free from faults, nor yet too vain to mend. 
 
 Pope. 
 The corruption of man is in nothing more mani- 
 fest, than in his averseness to entertain any friendship 
 or familiarity with God. Atterbury. 
 
 Hatred is the passion of defiance ; and there is a 
 kind of aversation and hostility included in its essence. 
 
 South. 
 The jealous man's disease is of so malignant a na- 
 ture that it converts all it takes into its own nourish- 
 ment. A cool behaviour is interpreted as an instance 
 of aversion : a fond one raises his suspicions. 
 
 Addison. 
 
 AVERTI, in horsemanship, is applied to a 
 regular step or motion enjoined in the lessons. 
 In this sense they say pas averte. 
 
 AVERY, a place where oats, or provender, 
 are kept for the king's horses. 
 
 AVES, birds, the name of Linnaeus's second 
 class of animals. See Ornithology and Zoo- 
 logy. 
 
 AvES, or the Isle of Birds, 1. One of the 
 Carribee islands, 451 miles south of Porto Rico, 
 with a good harbour for careening ships. It is 
 so called from the great number of birds that fre- 
 quent it; 2. another lying northward of this. 
 Lat. 15° 0' N. ; and a third near the eastern coast 
 of Newfoundland. Lat. 50° 5' N. 
 
 AVESBURY (Robert), an English historian, 
 of whom little more is known, than that he was 
 keeper of the registry of the court of Canterbury, 
 in the reign of Edward III. and consequently 
 that he lived in the fourteenth century. He wrote 
 Memorabilia gesta magnihci regis Anglioe domini, 
 Edwardi teatii post conquestum, procerumque ; 
 tactis primitus quibusdam gestis de tempore pa- 
 tris sui domini Edwardi secundi, quag in regnis 
 Anglise, Scotiae, et Franciae, ac in Aquitannia 
 et Britannia, non humana sed Dei potentia, con- 
 tigerunt, per Robertum Avesbury. This history 
 ends with the battle of Poictiers, about A. D. 
 1356. It continued in MS. till 1720, when it 
 was printed by the industrious Thomas Hearne 
 at Oxford, from a MS. belonging to Sir Thomas 
 Seabright. It is now very scarce. 
 
 AVESE, or Avase, a river of the United 
 States of America, in the north-western territory, 
 which runs mto the Mississippi, in a south-west 
 direction, about sixty miles above the Ohio. It 
 is navigable in boats for upwards of sixty miles. 
 
 AVESNES, or Avexn'es, an irregular, but 
 well fortified town on the Hepres, in Ilainault, 
 
 on tlie frontier of France, towards the Nether- 
 lands, and tliree leagues distant from Maubeuge. 
 It is die head of an arrondissement, in the de- 
 partment of the north ; population about 3000. 
 In the neighbourhood there are excellent quar- 
 ries, and several iron foundries and smelting- 
 houses. This was one of the frontier towns re- 
 tained for a definite period by the allies, in fulfil- 
 ment of the treaty of Paris in 1815. Long. 4° E. 
 lat. 50° r N. 
 
 A\EYRON, or Aveiron, a department of 
 France, having its name from the river, which 
 running from east to west, separates it into two 
 parts. Its boundaries are to the north, the de- 
 partment of the Cantal ; north-east, the Lozere ; 
 east, the Gard ; south-east, Herault; south-west. 
 Tarn, and west, Lot. It corresponds to the an- 
 cient province of Rouergue, and is divided into 
 five arrondissements ; viz. those of Rodez (which 
 is the capital of the department), Ville Tranche, 
 Milhau, St. Afrique, and Espalion. It contains 
 474 square leagues, equal to about 3740 square 
 miles, and had at the last enumeration 318,047 
 inhabitants. They paid in direct taxes in 1803, 
 £140,000 sterling. It constitutes, with die de- 
 partment of Lot, the spiritual jurisdiction of 
 the bishop of Cahors. This department is wa- 
 tered by the Aveyron, the Lot, the Tarn, and the 
 Viaur, and is covered with high and craggy 
 mountains. Hence it abounds in game, fish, and 
 wood, and is more adapted for grazing tlian for 
 the cultivation of grain. Corn and wine, how- 
 ever, are raised in tolerable quantity. The mi- 
 neral productions are copper, iron, lead, sul- 
 phur, alum, coal, and vitriol. There is also a 
 considerable trade in cattle, wool, woollen stufts, 
 and in excellent cheese. The climate is reckoned 
 fine, though occasionally severe in winter. 
 
 AVEZZANO, a town of Naples in Abruzzo. 
 It is built on an almost imperceptible declivity, 
 one mile from the lake of Celano, to which an 
 avenue of poplars leads from the baronnial 
 castle. This edifice stands at a little distance 
 from the town, is square, and flanked with towers ; 
 it was erected by V'irginio Orsimi, to which 
 family this and many other great lordships be- 
 longed, before they were wrested from them in 
 times of civil war, and transferred to the Colon- 
 nas. Avezzano was founded in 860, and contains 
 2800 inhabitants, and two religious communities 
 within its walls, which are indeed in a ruinous 
 condition. The houses are in general mean ; but 
 there are some large buildings and opulent fa- 
 milies of the class of gentlemen, not possessed of 
 fees held in capite. 
 
 AUF'. Sometimes written oaf and elf. For 
 definition, see Elf. 
 
 These when a child haps to be got. 
 Which after proves an idiot. 
 When folk perceive it thriveth not ; 
 
 The fault therein to smother. 
 Some silly doating brainless calf. 
 That understands things by the half. 
 Says, that the fairy left this aulf. 
 And took away the other. 
 
 AUGA, Auge, or Agea, in fabulous history, 
 the daughter of Aleus, king of Tegea, by Neaera, 
 she was ravished by Hercules, and brought forth 
 a son, whom she left in the woods to conceal her
 
 AUG 
 
 273 
 
 AUG 
 
 amors from her father; but the child was pre- 
 served, and was named Telephus. When Aleus 
 was informed of his daughter's shame, he de- 
 livered her to Nauplius to be put to death ; but 
 instead of executing the father's cruel purpose, 
 Nauplius gaveAuga toTeuthras, king of Mysia, 
 who, having no children of his own, adopted her 
 iis his daughter. The dominions of Teuthras be- 
 ing soon after invaded by an enemy, he promised 
 his crown and daughter to the man who could de- 
 liver him from the threatening danger ; and Tele- 
 phus having been directed by the oracle to go to 
 the court of Teuthras, if he desired to find his 
 parents, made an offer of his services, which was 
 accepted. Having obtained a victory, he was 
 about to unite himself to Auga, when she rushed 
 from him with secret horror, and the gods sent a 
 serpent to separate them. Auga implored the 
 assistance of Hercules, by whom her son was 
 made known to her, and she returned with him 
 toTegea. According to Pausanias, Auga was 
 shut up in a coffer with her infant son, and 
 thrown into the sea, where they were preserved 
 and protected by Minerva, till found by king 
 Teuthras. 
 
 AUGEAN Codex, Codex Augiensis, a Greek 
 and Latin MS. of St. Paul's Epistles ; supposed 
 by Michaelis to have been written in the ninth 
 century, and so called from Augia major, the 
 name of a monastery at Rheinau, to which it be- 
 longed. It came, in 1718, into the hands of the 
 celebrated Dr. Bentley, who purchased it for 250 
 Dutch florins ; it is now in the library of Trinity 
 College, Cambridge. This MS. (noted F. in the 
 second part of \N etstein's New Testament), is 
 written in uncial letters, and without accents, 
 not continua serie, as is common with the more 
 ancient copies, but with intervals between the 
 words, and a dot at the end of each. The Greek 
 text is in capitals, and the Latin in Anglo-Saxon 
 letters ; whence it is tolerably clear that it must 
 have been written in the west of Europe, where 
 that formation of the Latin letter was in general 
 use between the seventh and twelfth centuries. 
 The MS. is defective from the beginning to Ro- 
 mans, iii. 8 ; and the epistle to the Hebrews is 
 only found in the Latin version. 
 
 AUGEAS, in fabulous history, king of Elis, 
 famed for his stable, which contained 3000 oxen, 
 and had not been cleaned for thirty years. Her- 
 cules was desired to clear away the filth in one 
 day ; and Augeas promised, if he performed it, 
 to give him a tentli part of the cattle. This task 
 Hercules is said to have executed, by turning 
 the course of the river Alpheus, or, as some say, 
 the Peneus, through the stable, which immedi- 
 ately carried away the dung and filth. Augeas 
 not only refused to stand by his engagement, pre- 
 tending that Hercules had used artifice, and ex- 
 perienced no labor or trouble, but banished his 
 own son Phyleus from his kingdom, for support- 
 ing the claims of the hero. Upon this a war 
 commenced, and Hercules conquered Elis, put 
 Augeas to death, and gave his kingdom to Phy- 
 leus. Augeas has been called the son of Sol, be- 
 cause Ehs signifies the sun. After his death, the 
 honors usually paid to heroes, were paid to 
 Augeas. 
 
 AUGER. Teutonick Auenher ; An'^^.-Sax. 
 Vol. III. 
 
 Aeg. From the same root we have edge, a tool 
 used in the mechanic arts. 
 
 The auger hath a handle and bit ; its office is to 
 make great round holes. When you use it, the stuff 
 3'ou work upon is commonly laid low under you, that 
 you may the easier use your strength : for, in twisting 
 the bit about by the force of both your hands, on each, 
 end of the handle one, it cuts great clips cut of the 
 stuflF. Moxoti's Mech. Erercise*. 
 
 Auger (Athanasius), a learned classic, and 
 professor of rhetoric at Rouen, and vicar-general 
 of Lescar, published a splendid edition of the 
 works of Isocrates, from the press of Didot, Paris, 
 3 vols. 4to. 1782 ; and the works of Lysias in 
 1783, in 2 vols. 4to. afterwards reprinted together 
 in 3 vols. 8vo. He also published translations 
 of the discourses of the Greek Orators of the ora- 
 tious of Cicero, and of harangues taken from the 
 history of Herodotus, Thucydides, and Xeno- 
 phon. His translations are considered as very 
 correct, but his style is deficient in ease and ele- 
 gance. He died at Paris in 1792. 
 
 AUGES, in astronomy, two points in a pla- 
 net's orbit, otherwise called apsides, the one 
 denominated the apogee, the other perigee. See 
 Apsis. 
 
 AUGETTE, in fortification, the wooden pipe 
 which contains the powder by which a mine is 
 fired. 
 
 AUGHT. Ang.-Sax. liwit, a whit or ovvhit. 
 See Wait. 
 
 If I can do it. 
 By aught that I can spezik in his dispraise. 
 She shall not long continue love to him. 
 
 Shakspeare. 
 
 They may, for aught I know, obtain such substances, 
 as may induce the chymists to entertain other 
 thoughts. Boyle. 
 
 But go, my son ; and see, if aiyht be wanting 
 
 Among thy father's friends. Addison's Cato^ 
 
 AUGILA, a district and town of Africa, be- 
 tween Siwah and Fezzan. It is included under 
 the dominion of Tripoli, though the subjection is 
 but nominal. This city is of great antiquity, being 
 known in the time of Herodotus. It is about a 
 mile in circumference, but dirty and ill-built ; the 
 apartments are dark, there being no aperture for 
 light, except the door. The buildings are also 
 very mean. Dates of excellent quality are pro- 
 duced abundantly. The inhabitants are em- 
 ployed partly in agriculture, but still more in 
 following the caravans which pass through this 
 territory. Long. 22° 25' E., lat. 29" 35' N. 
 
 AUGITES, among ancient naturalists, a kind 
 pf gem, of a pale green color, inferior in value to 
 the topaz. "This mineral is crystallised in small 
 six or eight-sided prisms, with dihedral summits. 
 Its colors are green, brown, and black. Inter- 
 nal lustre shining. Uneven fracture. Translu- 
 cer>t. Easily broken. It scratches glass. Specific 
 gravity 3-3. Melts into a black enamel. Its com- 
 position, according to Klaproth, is forty-eight 
 silica, twenty-four lime, twelve oxide of iron, 
 8-75 magnesia, five alumina, and one manga- 
 nese. 
 
 AUGMENT, V. & w.-\ LdX.augmentum,ixom. 
 Avomekta'tion, (^«Mgere, to increase. To 
 Acgmen'tative, i put a smaller quantity 
 Augmen'ter. * to a greater, to enlarge, 
 
 to make greater, and so to strengthen.
 
 274 
 
 AUGSBURG. 
 
 The ■wretched animal heavM forth such groans. 
 That their discharge did stretch lii^i leathern coat 
 Almost to bursting; and the big round tears 
 Cours'd one another dowTi his innocent nose 
 In piteous chase ; and thus the hairy fool. 
 Much marked of the melancholy Jaques, 
 Stood on the extremest verge of the swift brook 
 Augmenting it with tears. 
 
 Shalispeare. As You Like It. 
 
 Heat in a certain degree is very pleasant, which 
 may be augmented to the greatest torment. 
 
 Locke on the Human Understanding. 
 
 I have determined to consult the best writers for 
 explanations real as well as verbal ; and perhaps I 
 may at last have reason to say, after one of the aug- 
 mentcrs of Furcticr, that my book is more learned 
 than its author. Or. S. JoJtnson. 
 
 Augmented, a musical term, used in contra- 
 distinction to perfect, major, minor, and dimi- 
 nished : thus, an augmented note forms an 
 interval of three chromatic degrees ; as C, d-sharp ; 
 E, flat, f-sharp ; F, g-sharp. See Intervals. 
 Augmented intervals become, by inversion, di- 
 minished. 
 
 Augmentation of Livings. The shamefully 
 poor livings of many of the inferior clergy of the 
 church of England, attracted the attention of the 
 legislature so long ago as the reign of queen 
 Anne. The governors of the bounty of queen 
 Anne, for the augmentation of the maintenance 
 of the poor clergy, by virtue of several acts of 
 parliament, made for that purpose, are empower- 
 ed to augment all livings not exceeding £50 per 
 annum ; and the number of livings following 
 were certified to be capable of augmentation. 
 
 No. of Rate per 
 
 livings. annum. 
 
 1071 UnderflO 
 14G7 From £lO to 20 
 
 1126 20 to 30 
 
 1049 30 to 40 
 
 May be No. of aug- 
 augmented. mentations. 
 6 times 6426 
 
 4 5868 
 
 3 3378 
 
 twice 2093 
 
 884 
 
 40 to 50 
 
 once 
 
 884 
 
 5597 Total of augmentations to be-\ 
 
 made by the bounty before (^ io rrA 
 these 5597 livings will ex- i ' 
 ceed £50 a-year. J 
 
 Mr. Chalmers observes, that computing the clear 
 amount of the bounty to make fifty-five aug- 
 mentations yearly, it will be 339 years, from 
 1714 (which was the first year in which any liv- 
 ings were augmented), before all the small liv- 
 ings above certified can exceed £50 per annum ; 
 and if even one-half of such augmentations 
 should be made, in conjunction with other bene- 
 factors (which is not probable) it will still re- 
 quire 226 years before all the above livings will 
 exceed £50 per annum ! This is the more dis- 
 graceful, considering the immense incomes en- 
 joyed by the superior clergy. 
 
 Augmentation, in heraldry,a 
 particular mark of honor, borne 
 either on an escutcheon, or a 
 canton, as argent, a hand, gules, 
 borne by every baronet not being 
 of higher dignity, as in the an- 
 nexed example. 
 
 Al'GSBURG, the second place in the king- 
 dom of Bavaria, botli in population and cele- 
 brity, was formerly one of the free and imperial 
 cities of Ciermany. It is situated at the con- 
 fluence of the Wertach and the Lech. Though 
 less flourishing than in former times, it contains 
 a population of about 30,000 individuals, and is 
 well fortified, in the ancient style, having four 
 principal gates and six smaller ones. Augsburg 
 partakes largely in the manufactures and com- 
 merce of the country, and has long been dis- 
 tinguished for its engravings, and its consider- 
 able bookselling trade, especially in Catholic 
 literature. By means of its agents and bankers, 
 Augsburg is the general medium of exchange 
 with other countries, as well as a central depot 
 for the Neckar, Tyrolese, Greek and Italian 
 wines. This city is venerable from its antiquity, 
 and interesting from its connexion, both with the 
 civil and ecclesiastical history of Germany. In 
 the diet of the empire^ Augsburg was originally 
 called Vindelicia, as being the capital of the 
 Vindelici. When it subsequently fell under the 
 dominion of the Romans, and a colony was set- 
 tled there by Dmsus, it was called Augusta- 
 Vindelicorum and Rhsstorum. It is mentioned 
 by Tacitus (Germ, xli.) as a very splendid city 
 of the province of Rheetia. From the Romans 
 it passed to the Alemanni, and subsequently to 
 the Goths and the Franks. Under these its im- 
 portance declined. It was subsequently in a 
 precarious condition, but revived after Rudolph 
 was elected emperor ; several of its former pri- 
 vileges being confirmed by him, and new ones 
 granted. 
 
 In 952 the order for the celibacy of the priests 
 in the Catholic church was confirmed by the 
 council of Augsburg; and the extent of its com- 
 merce conferred great celebrity upon it in the 
 fourteenth and fifteen centuries. In 1518 the 
 diet was held here for concerting and promoting 
 the crusade against the Turks. Here the cele- 
 brated confession of the Protestant faith, drawn 
 up by Luther and Melancthon, was presented 
 in 1530. Here the well-known Interim was 
 published in 1548 — and here the convention of 
 Passau was confirmed, and the peace which 
 terminated the religious war was concluded in 
 1555. It was also fixed upon as the seat of 
 one of the bishops of Bavaria by the concordat 
 of 1817. It has frequently suffered by military 
 force, a calamity which it endured no less tlian 
 five times in the course of the late revolution- 
 ary wars of F'.urope. Bayer, the astronomer, 
 who first denoted the stars by the letters of the 
 Greek alphabet, was a native of this place. 
 Augsburg is forty miles north-west of Munich. 
 Long. 10° 53' E., lat. 48° 17' N. from Green- 
 wich. 
 
 Augsburg, a secularised bishopric of Ger- 
 many, now forming part of the kingdom of Ba- 
 varia. It took its name from the imperial city 
 of Augsburg, and was founded so early as the 
 sixth century. The territory of which it was 
 composed contained 1012 square miles, and lay 
 partly along the banks of the Lech, in the direc- 
 tion of the Tyrol, in the margraviate of Beocgau, 
 and partly beyond the Danube, in the principa- 
 lity of Neuburg. The population was computed
 
 AUG 
 
 211 
 
 AUG 
 
 at 8G,000, and the total revenue at .'iOO.OOO dol- 
 lars. The only towns of note are Dillingen and 
 Fussen, with eleven market towns, and a number 
 of villages, mostly situated in the northern part 
 of the bishopric, which is by far tlie most fruit- 
 ful and populous. The chapter was composed 
 of forty prebendaries, each of whom had a salary 
 of from 1000 to 1700 florins. The bishopric 
 came into the possession of Bavaria in 1802. 
 
 Augsburg, or Augustan, CoNrF.ssiON, a 
 celebrated confession of faitli drawn up by Lu- 
 ther and Melancthon, on behalf of themselves 
 and otlier ancient reformers, and presented, in 
 lo50, to the emperor Charles V. at the diet Au- 
 gusta or Augsburg, in the name of the evan- 
 gelic body. This confession contains twenty- 
 eight ciiapters ; of which the greatest part 
 is employed in representing, with perspicuity and 
 truth, the religious opinions of the Protestants, 
 and the rest in pointing out the errors and abuses 
 that occasioned their separation from the church 
 of Rome. A civil war followed, that lasted up- 
 wards of twenty years, but which only spread the 
 new opinions, as they were then called, instead 
 of extirpating them. 
 .AU'GUll, V. & n. ") Augurium quasi avige- 
 Au'guuate, rium, to see ; quo modo 
 
 Augura'tion, aves se gererent in volan- 
 
 Au'gurer, J^do, what direction birds 
 
 Aucu'rial, take in flying, Vossius. 
 
 Au'gurous, Auguries were also taken 
 
 Au'gurv. J from their singing and 
 
 feeding. Hence it signifies to notice the move- 
 ments of birds, and thereby to predict, to foretel 
 future events. We now apply the words gene- 
 rally to predictions of the future by means of 
 any signs or tokens. 
 
 Oh sir, you are too sure an augurer 
 That you did feare is done. 
 
 Shahspeare. Antony and Cleopatra. 
 
 What say the augurs ? 
 
 — They would not have you stir forth to-day : 
 Plucking the entrails of an offering forth. 
 They could not find a heart within the beast. 
 
 Shak^eare. 
 Thy face and thy behaviour, 
 Which, if my augury deceive me not. 
 Witness good breeding. Id. 
 
 Calchas, the sacred seer, who had in view 
 Things present and the past, and things to come 
 
 foreknew : 
 Supreme of augurs. Dry den's Fables. 
 
 The pow'rs we both invoke 
 To you, and yours, and mine, propitious be. 
 And firm our purpose with an augury. Dryden. 
 She knew, by augury divine, 
 Venus would fail in the design. Swift. 
 
 So fear'd 
 The fair-man'd horses, that they flew back, and their 
 
 chariots turn'd. 
 Presaging in their augurmts hearts the labours that 
 they moum'd. Chapman's Iliad. 
 
 He deluded many nations in his augurial and exti- 
 spicious inventions, from casual and uncontrived con- 
 tingencies divining events succeeding. 
 
 Brown's Vulgar Errours. 
 Augur, in Rom^^n antiquity, an officer ap- 
 pointed to foretel future events, by the chartering, 
 flight, and feeding, of birds. There was a college 
 or community of them, consisting originally of 
 
 three members with respect to tiie tiiree Luceres, 
 Rhamnenses, and Tatienses ; afterwards the 
 number was increased to nine, of whom four were 
 patricians and five plebeians. They bore an au- 
 gural staff", as the ensign of their authority ; and 
 their dignity was so much respected, that they 
 were never deposed, nor any substituted in their 
 place, thougli they should have been convicted 
 of the most enormous crimes. 
 
 AUGURALE, a place in a camp where the 
 general took auspicia. This answered to the 
 Auguratorium in tlie city. Augurale is also used 
 in Seneca for the ensign or badge of an augur, 
 as the lituus. 
 
 AUGURATORIUM, or Auguraculum, a 
 building on the Palatine mount, where public 
 auguries were taken. 
 
 AUGURELLO (John Aurelio), an Italian 
 poet, born at Rimini, in 1441. He was profes- 
 sor of the belles letters at Trevisa, at which place 
 he died in 1524. He wrote several pieces, but 
 his chief work was a Latin poem, entitled Chry- 
 sopcaia, or the art of making gold. He dedicated 
 his poem to Leo X. upon which the pontiff pre- 
 sented him with a large empty purse, and said, 
 ' that as he could make gold he best knew how 
 to fill it.' 
 
 AUGURY, is more fully defined the art of fore- 
 telling future events, by observations taken from 
 the chattering, singing, feeding, and flight, of 
 birds. It is also used in a more general signifi- 
 cation, as comprising all the different kinds of 
 divination. To make his observations, the augur 
 commonly seated himself on a high tower, with 
 his face towards the east, the north on his left 
 hand, and the south on his right. lie divided 
 the face of the heavens into four parts, with a 
 crooked staff, after which he sacrificed to the 
 gods, while he covered his head with his vest- 
 ment. The augurs drew omens from five different 
 things : 1 . The phenomena of the heavens, as 
 thunder, lightning, comets, &c. 2. The chirping 
 of birds, as already mentioned : 3. The eager- 
 ness or indifference of the sacred chickens in 
 eating the bread which was thrown to them, they 
 interpreted lucky or unlucky : 4. Quadrupeds 
 crossing or appearing in some unfrequented 
 place : 5. From different casualties, which were 
 called dia, such as spilling salt on a table, or 
 wine upon clothes, hearing strange noises, stum- 
 bling or sneezing, meeting a wolf, hare, fox, or 
 pregnant bitch. The sight of birds on the left 
 hand was always considered as a lucky object, 
 and the words sinister laevus, though commonly 
 imagined to be terms of ill luck, were uniformly 
 used by the augurs in an auspicious sense. 
 
 Augury was a very ancient superstition. We 
 know from Hesiod, that husbandry was in part 
 regulated by the coming or going of birds ; and 
 most probably it had been in use long before his 
 time, as astronomy was then in its infancy. In 
 process of time, tliese animals seemed to have 
 grained a greater and very wonderful autliority, 
 till at last no affair of consequence, either of pri- 
 vate or public concern, was undertaken without 
 consulting them. They were looked upon as the 
 interpreters of the gods ; and those who were 
 qualified to understand their oracles were held 
 among the chief men in the Greek and Roman 
 
 T2
 
 276 
 
 AUGUSTA 
 
 States, and became tlie assessors of kings, and 
 even of Jupiter himself. However absurd such 
 an institution as a colleije of augurs may appear 
 in our eyes, yet, like all other extravagant insti- 
 tutions, it had in part its origin from nature. 
 When men considered the wonderful migration 
 of birds, how they disappeared at once, and ap- 
 peared again at stated times, and could give no 
 guess where they went, it was not unnatural to 
 suppose, that they retired somewhere out of the 
 sphere of this earth, and perhaps approached the 
 ethereal regions, where they might converse with 
 the gods, and thence be enabled to predict events ; 
 at least it was not unnatural for a superstitious 
 people to believe this as soon as some impostor 
 was impudent enough to assert it. Add to this, 
 that the disposition in some birds to imitate the 
 human voice, must contribute much to the con- 
 firmation of such a doctrine. This institution of 
 augury seems to have been much more ancient 
 than that of aruspicy ; for we find many instances 
 of the former in Homer, but not a single one of 
 the latter, tliough frequent mention is made of 
 sacrifices in that author. Thus it is probable that 
 natural augury gave rise to religious augury, and 
 this to aruspicy, as the mind of man makes a 
 a very easy transition from a little truth to a great 
 deal of error. A passage in Aristophanes gave 
 the hint for these observations. In the comedy 
 of the birds, he makes one of them say, ' The 
 greatest blessings which can happen to you, 
 mortals, are derived from us ; first, we show you 
 the seasons, viz. spring, winter, autumn. The 
 crane points out the time for sowing, when she 
 flies with her warning notes into Egypt ; she bids 
 the sailor hang up his rudder and take his rest, 
 and every prudent man provide himself with 
 winter garments. Next the kite appearing, pro- 
 claims another season, viz. when it is time to 
 shear his sheep. After that the swallow informs 
 you when it is time to put on your summer 
 clothes. We are to you (adds the chorus) Am- 
 mon, Dodona, Apollo : for, after consulting us, 
 you undertake every thing; merchandise, pur- 
 chases, marriages, &:c.' Now, it seems not im- 
 probable, that the same transition was made in 
 the speculations of men, which appears in the 
 poet's words ; and that they were easily induced 
 to think, that the surprising foresight of birds, as 
 to the time of migration, indicated something of 
 a divine nature in them. 
 
 AUGUST. Lat Angustus. Said to be so 
 called from the thing signified being consecrated 
 by augury, and on that account was sacred and 
 venerable. 
 
 Aug VST, Augustus, Lat. The name of the 
 eighth month from January, inclusive. August 
 was dedicated to the honor of Augustus Caesar, 
 because in the same month he was created con- 
 sul ; tlirice triumpher in Rome ; subdued Egypt 
 to the Roman empire ; and made an end of civil 
 wars ; being before called Sextilis, or the sixth 
 from March. August was, by our Saxon ances- 
 tors (who, like the modern French, gavf their 
 months significant names), called weod-;;;- t: 'th, 
 i. e. weed-month, on account of the great i^ienty 
 of weeds at that season. It answers to part of 
 ihe two last months in the year in the new French 
 calendar ; comprehending the seventeen last days 
 
 of Thermidor, and the fourteen first days of 
 Fmctidor. 
 
 AUGUSTA, a considerable and flourishing 
 town of Georgia, and the present seat of govern- 
 ment. It is pleasantly situated in Richmond 
 county, on the south-west side of Savannah 
 river, upon a beautiful plain, five miles in length, 
 and one and a half in breadth. It is regularly 
 laid out, the streets intersecting one another at 
 right angles, and contains about 250 dwellings. 
 The public buildings are, a church ; an academy ; 
 a government-house, where the governor, secre- 
 tary of state, and other public officers transact 
 their business ; a market-house ; a new stone 
 jail ; a spacious building, where the courts of 
 justice are administered, and the legislature hold 
 their sessions ; and three ware-houses, large 
 enough to contain 10,000 hogsheads of tobacco. 
 The academy generally contains between eighty 
 and ninety students, who are under the direction 
 of two tutors and a professor of oratory. It is 
 governed by a board of trustees, who are a body 
 corporate in law. The funds belonging to this 
 institution are considerable, consisting of lands, 
 houses, and money, to tlie amount of several 
 thousand pounds sterling. From the advantages 
 which it enjoys, it probably will, on a future day, 
 become a place of considerable note in the lite- 
 rary world. Opposite the centre of the town, a 
 large wooden bridge has been erected across the 
 Savannah, which opens a commodious and easy 
 communication with South Carolina ; it is nine- 
 teen feet wide, and between 700 and 800 in 
 length. It has already been of considerable ad- 
 vantage to the town, by inducing the planters in 
 the upper part of South Carolina to bring their 
 produce to this market. It is about 236 miles from 
 the mouth of Savannah river, including its mean- 
 ders, 120N.N.W. of Savannah, and 746 S. W. S. 
 of Philadelphia. Population upwards of 4000. 
 Lat. 33° 19'N., long. 80" 46'. W. 
 
 Augusta, a county of Mrginia, lying partly 
 east and partly west of the North Mount, a ridge 
 of the Alleghany. It is fertile, and contains up- 
 wards of 12,000 inhabitants, including slaves. It 
 has a remarkable cascade, called Falling Spring. 
 
 Augusta, in antiquity, a title given to the 
 Roman empresses, and frequently to the mothers 
 and daughters of the emperors, who had been 
 empresses. 
 
 Augusta, in ancient geography, the nime of 
 various ancient cities, mostly named after Au- 
 gustus or his successors : such as, 
 
 1. Augusta, a city and island in the Adriatic 
 sea, called also Austa, on the coast of Ualmatia, 
 near Ragusa, subject to Venice. Long. 17" 50' E., 
 lat. 42° 35' N. 
 
 2. Augusta Acilia, a town in Bavaria, now 
 called Azelburg. 
 
 3. Augusta Ausciorum, a town of Aquita- 
 nia, originally called Climberum, which name 
 it afterwards resumed. In the middle age, how- 
 ever, it took the name of the people, Ausci ; and 
 is now called Auch or Aix. 
 
 4. Augusta Braccarum, a city of Portugal, 
 now called Braga. 
 
 5. Augusta Drusi, a town in Suabia, now 
 called Memmingen. 
 
 6. Augusta Emerita, a town of Lusitania,
 
 AUGUSTINE. 
 
 277 
 
 on the Anas, capital of the province ; a colony 
 of the Emeriti, now called Merida, in Spanish 
 Estremadura. 
 
 7 and 8. Augusta Pretoria ; 1. a town and 
 colony of Gallia Cisalpina, the capital of the Sa- 
 lassi ; seated at the foot of the Alps ( jraiae, on the 
 Diiria; now called Austa. 2. another in Tran- 
 sylvania ; now called Cronstadt. 
 
 9. Augusta Rauracokcm, a town of Gallia 
 Belgica, six miles east from Basil ; now called 
 August. From the ruins, which are still to be 
 seen, it appears to have been a considerable 
 colony. 
 
 10. Augusta Romaxduorum, the ancient 
 name of Luxemburg. 
 
 11. Augusta Suessoxum, a town of Gallia 
 Belgica, on the Axona ; with great probability 
 supposed to be the Noviodunum Suessonum of 
 Caesar ; now called Soissons. 
 
 12. Augusta Taurinorum, a town of the 
 Taurini, at the foot of the Alps, where the Duria 
 Minor falls into the Po ; now called Turin. 
 
 13. Augusta Tiberii, a city of Bavaria; now 
 called Ratisbon. 
 
 14. Augusta Treba, a town of the /Equi, 
 near the springs of the river Anio in Italy ; now 
 called Trevi, in Umbria. 
 
 15. Augusta Trevirorum, a town of the 
 Treviri ; now called Trieres or Treves. 
 
 16. Augusta Tricassium, the ancient name 
 of Troceres. 
 
 17. Augusta Trinobaxtum, the name given 
 by the Romans to London. 
 
 18. Aogusta Veromaxduorum, a town of 
 ancient Gaul ; now Su Quintin. 
 
 Augusta \'iNDELicoRUM, a town of the Li- 
 cates on the Licus ; styled by Tacitus a noble 
 colony of Rhcetia ; now called Augsburg, in 
 Suabia. See Augsburg. 
 
 Augusta Historia, in literature, the history 
 of the Roman emperors, from Adrian to Carinus ; 
 that is, from A. D. 137 to 285, composed by six 
 Latin writers, viz. /Elius Spartianus, Julius Ca- 
 pitolinus, iElius Lampridius, Vulcatius Gallica- 
 nus, Trebellius Pollio, and Flavins Vopiscus. 
 
 AUGUSTALIS Pr.£fectus, a title peculiar 
 to a Roman magistrate who governed Egjpt, 
 with a power much like that of a proconsul in 
 other provinces. 
 
 AUGUSTAN, relating to Augustus, or Au- 
 gusta. 
 Augustan Confession. See Augsburg. 
 AUGUSTICL'M, in writers of the middle 
 age, a largess of an emperor to the people or 
 soldiery. 
 
 AUGUSTEUM Marmor, in the natural his- 
 tory of the ancients, a name given to the common 
 green and white marble, so frequent in use with 
 us for tables, &c, and called by our artificers 
 Egyptian marble. 
 
 AUGUSTIA, an ancient town in Wallachia, 
 now called Kusty. 
 
 AUGUSTIN (St.), the capital town of the 
 province of East Florida, North America, is si- 
 tuated on the Atlantic, on a peninsula, consisting 
 of a narrow strip of land. It is of an oblong 
 fieure, intersected by four streets, which cut each 
 other at right angles. It is reckoned a healthy 
 place, and is well supplied with fresh water. It 
 
 has a good port, although the breakers, at it.s 
 entrance, have formed two channels, whose bars 
 have only eight feet of water each. It has a stronc 
 castle for its defence ; a good parish church, 
 and two hospitals, one for the garrison of troops, 
 and another for the community. It was burned 
 by Sir Francis Drake, in i586, and by captain 
 Davis, with the Buccaniers, inlG85; but was 
 immediately after rebuilt. In 1702 it was be- 
 sieged by the English, who, not being able to take 
 the castle, burned and destroyed the town. In 
 1714 it was again unsuccessfully attacked by 
 the English under general Oglethorpe. Long. 
 81° 40' W., lat. 29'' 58' N. 
 
 AUGUSTINE, a cape of South America, in 
 Brasil, on the Atlantic, 300 miles north-east of 
 All-Saints' Bay. Long. 35° 4' W., lat. 8° 30' S. 
 
 Augustine, or Austin (St.), the first archbi- 
 shop of Canterbury, wa^ originally a monk in the 
 convent of St. Andrew at Rome, and educated 
 under St. Gregory, afterwards Pope Gregory I. 
 by whom he was despatched into Britain, with 
 forty other monks, about A. D. 596, to convert 
 the English to Christianity. He landed in the 
 isle of Thanet, and having sent some French in- 
 terpreters to king Ethelbert, with an account of 
 the errand on which he came, the king gave him 
 leave to convert as many of his subjects as he 
 could, and assigned his place of residence at Do- 
 roverum, since called Canterbury ; here the king 
 himself was converted ; whose example had a 
 powerful influence in promoting that of his sub- 
 jects. Austin now despatched a priest and a 
 monk to Rome, to acquaint the pope wit'i the 
 success of his mission, and to desire his resolu- 
 tion of certain questions. These men brought 
 back with them a pall and several books, vest- 
 ments, utensils, and ornaments for the churches ; 
 with directions to Augustine concerning the set- 
 tling of episcopal sees in Britain ; ordering him 
 not to pull down the idol temples, but to convert 
 them into Christian churches; only destroying 
 the idols, and sprinkling the place with holy 
 water, that the natives, by frequenting the tem- 
 ples they had been always accustomed to, might 
 be the less shocked at their entrance into Chris- 
 tianity. Augustine resided principally at Can- 
 terbury, which thus became the metropolitan 
 church of England ; and having established 
 bishops in several of the cities, he died A. D. 
 607. The popish writers ascribe several miracles 
 to him. The observation of his festival was first 
 enjoined in a synod held under Cuthbert, arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury, and afterwards by the 
 pope's bull in the reign of Edv.ard III. 
 
 Augustine (St.), a famous father of the church, 
 was born at Thagaste, in Numidia, A. D. 354. 
 His father, a burgess of that city, was called Pa- 
 tricius ; and his mother, Monica, who being a 
 woman of great virtue, instructed him in the 
 principles of Christianity. In his early youth he 
 was in the rank of the catechumens ; and falling 
 dangerously ill, earnestly desired to be 'oaptized, 
 but the violence of the distemper ceasing, bis 
 baptism was delayed. His father, who was not 
 yet baptised, made him study at Thagaste, Ma- 
 daura, and afterwards at Cartliage. Augustine 
 having read Cicero's books of pliiiosophy, applied 
 himself to the study of the scriptures; but suf-
 
 278 
 
 AUGUSTINE. 
 
 fered himself to be seduced by the Manicheans. 
 At the age of nineteen he returned to Thagaste, 
 taught grammar, and frequented the bar: he 
 afterwards taught rhetoric at Carthage with ap- 
 plause. The insolence of the scholars at Car- 
 thage made him take a resolution to go to Rome, 
 though against his mother's will. Here also he 
 had many scholars ; yet he quitted Rome, settled 
 at Milan, and was chosen professor of rhetoric 
 in that city. Here he had opportunities of 
 hearing the sermons of St. Ambrose, which, to- 
 gether with the study of St. Paul's epistles, and 
 the conversion of two of his friends, determined 
 him to retract his errors, and quit the sect of the 
 Manicheans : this was in the thirty-second year 
 of his age. In the year 386 he retired to the 
 house of a friend of his, named \'erecundus, 
 where he seriously applied himself to the study 
 of the Christian religion, to prepare himself for 
 baptism, which he received at Easter, in 387. 
 He went to Africa about the end of 388 ; and 
 having obtained a garden-plot without the walls 
 of the city of Hippo, he associated himself with 
 eleven other persons of eminent sanctity, who 
 distinguished themselves by wearing leathern 
 girdles, and lived there in a monastic way for 
 three years, exercising themselves in fasting, 
 prayer, study, and meditation, day and night ; 
 from hence sprung up the Augustine friars, or 
 eremites, of St. Augustine, the first order of men- 
 dicants. About this time, or before it, Valerius, 
 bishop of Hippo, against his will, ordained him 
 priest : nevertheless, he continued to reside in his 
 little monastery, with his brethren, who, renoun- 
 cing all property, possessed their goods in com- 
 mon. A'alerius, who had appointed St. Augus- 
 tine to preach in his palace, allowed him to do it 
 in his presence, contrary to the custom of the 
 churches in Afiica. He explained the creed, in 
 a general council of Africa, held in 393. Two 
 years after, \'alerius, fearing he might be prefer- 
 red to be bishop of another church, appointed 
 him his colleague, and caused him to be ordained 
 bishop of Hippo, by ]Me2:alus, bishop of Calame, 
 then primate of Numidia. St. Augustine died 
 the twenty-eighth day of August, 430, aged 
 seventy-six, having had the misfortune to see his 
 country invaded by the X'andals, and the city 
 where he was bishop besieged for seven months. 
 His works make ten volumes ; ttie best edition 
 of them is that of Maurin, printed at Antwerp, 
 in 1700. 
 
 AvGUSTiJiE (Anthony); an eminent prelate, 
 born at Saragossa, in Spain. He was employed 
 by the pope on an embassy to England, in 1554; 
 and afterwards assisted at the council of Trent. 
 In 1574 he was preferred to the archbishopric of 
 Tarragona. So great was his charity, that at his 
 death, in 1586, he did not leave what was suffi- 
 cient to defray his funeral expences. He wrote 
 several treatises on law, and on medals, in the 
 Spanish language, which were printed in 1587. 
 
 AuousTiNE(Leonardj, or Agostim, anit'alian 
 antiquary, was a native of Sienna, and flourished 
 in the seventeenth century. He compiled an 
 elaborate work on ancient gems, which was first 
 published in 1657, in two volumes, 4to. and 
 again in 1707, four volumes, 4to. A Latin 
 translation of this work, by Gronovius, was pub- 
 
 lished at Amsterdam in 1685, and at Franeker in 
 1694. 
 
 Augustine, Mount, St. a remarkable island 
 within the entrance of Cook's islet, about six 
 miles from its western shore. It was seen by 
 Capt. Cook, who was doubtful whether it did 
 not belong to the continent. It was since visited, 
 in 1794, by Mr. Paget, who, in the Chatham, 
 sailed round the world, in company with \'an- 
 couver. He states it to be about nine leagues in 
 circuit. 
 
 Augustine, St. a port on the coast of La- 
 brador, opposite St. John's Bay, Newfoundland. 
 About two miles south-west runs a chain of small 
 islands, called St. Augustine's Chain, about 
 long. 58° 50' west, and lat. 51° 11' north. 
 
 Augustine's Square, St. a number of small 
 islands in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, Labrador, 
 reaching from Shecatica bay on the north-east, 
 to Outer Island on the south-west. 
 
 AUGUSTUS lANS, divines who maintain, on 
 the authority of St. Augustine, that grace is effec- 
 tual from its nature, absolutely and morally, and 
 not relatively and gradually. They are divided 
 into rigid and related. 
 
 Augustinians, or Augustins, an order of 
 religious ; so called from St. Augustine, whose 
 rule they observe. The Augustins, or Austin 
 friars, were originally hermits, whom pope Alex- 
 ander IV. first congregated into one body, under 
 their general Lanfranc, in 1256. Soon after, this 
 order was brought into England, where they had 
 about thirty-two houses at the time of their sup- 
 pression. The Augustins are clothed in black, 
 and make one of the four orders of mendicants. 
 From these arose others, under the denomination 
 of bare-foot Augustins, Minorites, or Friars mi- 
 nor. There are also canons regular of St. Au- 
 gustine, who are clothed in white, excepting 
 their cope, which is black. At Paris they are 
 known under the denomination of religious of 
 Genevieve ; that abbey being the chief of the 
 order. There are also nuns and canonesses, who 
 observe the rules of St. Augustine. 
 
 AUGUSTINUS, a work of Jansenius, bishop 
 of Ypres, in three volumes, folio, printed at Lou- 
 vain in 1540; the first whereof contains a dis- 
 course against Pelagianism ; and the second, 
 treatises on reason ; the use of authority in theo- 
 logical matters ; the state of innocence ; fall of 
 nature by sin ; grace, &c. From these treatises 
 the five famous propositions of the Jansenists 
 were collected. 
 
 AUGUSTOBONA, a city of the Tricasses, in 
 ancient Gaul, from whom it was afterwards called 
 Tricasses, and Trecassa ; and still farther cor- 
 rupted to Thracje, or Treci ; whence its modern 
 name Troves. 
 
 AUGUSTOBRIGA, an ancient town of 
 Spain, now called Medina Cell. 
 
 AUGUSTODUNU.^I, the capital of the^Edui, 
 where there was a famous academy for the edu- 
 cation of youth ; now called Autun. 
 
 AUGUSTOMAGUS, an ancient town of Gal- 
 lia Belcfica, now called Senlis, in the Isle of 
 France.^ Long. 2° 40' E, lat. 49° 12' N. 
 
 AUGUSTONIMETUiNI, a town of ancient 
 Gaul, now Nevers. 
 
 AUGUSTORITUM, according to some au-
 
 A V I C E N A. 
 
 279 
 
 thors the capital of the Pictones, afterwards called 
 Pictavi ; now Poictiers. But by Antonine's 
 Itinerary from Burdigala to Argantomagus (or 
 Arjenton, as it is interpreted by many), it can be 
 no other but the capital of the Leniovices, now 
 Lim0j;est, situated between Vesunna of Petro- 
 corii, or Perigueux, and Argantonia'^us. Long. 
 1° 22' E. lat. 43° 52' N. 
 
 AUGUSTALIA, in Roman antiquity, a festi- 
 val on which games (Augustales ludi) were cele- 
 brated, in Rome, annually, on the day of the 
 return of Augustus Ceesar, at the conclusion 
 of his wars. It was instituted ann. U. C. 735, 
 and kept on the IVth ides (12th) of October. 
 After his decease, the tribunes of the people 
 asked permission to celebrate the festival at their 
 own private expense. 
 
 AUGUSTALES Sodales, priests institu- 
 ted by Tiberius after the apotheosis of Augustus 
 Caesar, to perform the service of the new god. 
 One and twenty of the noblest Romans were 
 chosen by lot to this office ; and among the first 
 members were Tiberius himself, Drusus, Clau- 
 dius, and Germanicus. 
 
 AUGUSTOWO, or Augustow, a town in the 
 department of Lomza, Poland. It contains 2000 
 inhabitants, and has a staple for salt, fifty-six 
 miles north-west of Rielsk. 
 
 AUGUSTULUS, otherwise called Flavins Ro- 
 mulus Augustus, was the son of Orestes, and the 
 last Roman emperor. Being subdued by Odo- 
 acer, the king of the Ileruli, he abdicated the 
 throne, in 475, and thus put 
 an end to the western empire, 
 after it had subsisted 522 
 years from the battle ofPhar- 
 salia. This prince is repre- 
 sented on some medals, as in 
 the annexed figure; inscrip- 
 tion, D. N. ROMULUS AU- 
 GUSTULUS. P. F. AUG. 
 
 AUGUSTUS, an appellation conferred upon 
 Caesar Octavianus. See Octavianvs, and Rome. 
 The obscure name of Octavianus, Mr. Gibbon 
 observes, he derived from a mean family in Ali- 
 cia. It was stained with the blood of the pro- 
 scription ; and he was desirous, had it been 
 possible, to erase all memory of his former life. 
 The illustrious surname of Caesar he had assumed 
 as the adopted son of the dictator ; but he had 
 too much sense either to hope to be confounded, 
 or to be compared with that extraordinary man. 
 It was proposed in the senate, to dignify their 
 minister with a new appellation; and after a 
 very serious discussion, that of Augustus was 
 chosen among several others, as being the most 
 expressive of the character of peace and sanctity 
 which he uniformly affected. Augustus was 
 therefore a personal, Caesar a family, distinction. 
 The former should naturally have expired with 
 the prince on whom it was bestowed ; and how- 
 ever the latter was diffused by adoption and 
 female alliance, Nero was the last who could 
 allege any hereditary claim to the honors of 
 the Julian line. But at his death, the practice 
 of a century had inseparably connected those 
 appellations with the imperial dignity, and they 
 have been preserved by a long succession of 
 emperors, Romans, Greeks, Franks, and Ger- 
 
 mans, from the fall of the republic to the present 
 time. A distinction was, however, soon intro- 
 duced. The sacred title of Augustus was always 
 reserved for the monarch ; tlie name of Ca?sar 
 was more freely communicated to his relations ; 
 and from the reign of Adrian, at least, was appro- 
 priated to the second person in the state, who 
 was considered as the presumptive heir of the 
 empire. 
 
 AuorsTUs Fort, a small fortress of Scotland, 
 in Invernesshire, at the head of Lochness, be- 
 tween the rivers Taarf and Oich. The name of 
 this fort in Erse is Killchuimin, or the burial 
 place of the Cummins. It lies on the road to 
 the Isle of Sky. 
 
 AU-GUY-L'AN-NEUF, or Auguii.laxnevf. 
 See Misleto. 
 
 AVIA. See Aquila. 
 
 AVIARY. Lat. avis, a bird. A place where 
 birds are kept. 
 
 In aviaries of wire, to keep birds of all sorts, the 
 Italians bestow vast cxpence ; including great scope 
 of ground, variety of bushes, trees of good height, 
 running waters, and sometimes a stove annexed, to 
 contemper the air in the winter. Wotton's Architecture. 
 
 Look now to your aviary ; for now the birds grow 
 sick of their feathers. Evtlyn's Kulendar. 
 
 Aviary is now used for any place in which 
 birds are kept, but more particularly where the 
 beauty of their plumage or the sweetness of their 
 song has been the cause of their confinement. 
 La^nius Strabo, an opulent and luxurious Roman, 
 was the first who introduced aviaries upon an 
 extensive scale, and erected a splendid one at his 
 villa near Brundusium. \'arro, however, out- 
 shone all in his ornithological buildings, and 
 elegant and spacious aviary, at his country house 
 near Casinum. With evident satisfaction, ho 
 relates, that in his days there were two sorts of 
 aviaries, one for containing birds intended for 
 the table, and the other the birds which werp 
 kept for their song or plumage. The former 
 sort were built entirely for use, but the latter 
 were often beautiful pavilions, with an apartment 
 or saloon in the centre, for the company to sit in 
 and enjoy the melody of the feathered songsters. 
 Aviaries have never, in modern times, equalled 
 the splendor and extent of those of the Romans; 
 yet the aviarj- at Woburn Abbey, the seat of the 
 Dukeof Bedford, is of great extent and value; and 
 ]Malmaison, one of the palaces of the late Em- 
 peror Napoleon, contains an aviary at once large, 
 elegant, and well stocked with birds from all 
 quarters of the globe. 
 
 A\'ICENA, AvicEXES, or Avicexna, the 
 prince of Arabian philosophers and physicians, 
 was born at Assena, a village near Bokhara. 
 His father was a Persian, and had married at 
 Bokhara. The first years of Avicenna were de- 
 voted to the study of the Koran and the Belles 
 Lettres. His progress was so rapid, that v.hen 
 he was but ten years old, he was perfectly ac- 
 quainted with tiie most hidden senses of the 
 Koran. Abu-AbdouUah at that time professed 
 philosophy at Bokhara with great reputation. 
 Avicenna studied logic und-jr him ; but, disgusted 
 with the slow manner of the schools, he set about 
 studying alone, and read all the authors that 
 had written on philosophy, without any other
 
 280 
 
 A V I C E N A. 
 
 nelp than that of the commentators. After read- 
 ing the first six propositions of Euclid, ^he pro- 
 ceeded alone to the last, having made himself 
 perfect master of them, and treasured up all of 
 them equally in Jiis memory. Endued with an 
 extreme avidity for all the sciences, he did not 
 neglect the study of medicine. Persuaded that 
 this divine art consists as much in practice as 
 in theory, he sought all opportunities of seeing 
 the sick ; and afterwards confessed that he had 
 learned more from experience than from all the 
 books he had read. Hfe was now in his six- 
 teenth year, and was already celebrated as the 
 light of his age. He resolved at this age to re- 
 sume his philosophical studies, which medicine 
 had made him neglect ; and he spent a year and 
 a half without ever sleeping a whole night 
 together. If he felt himself oppressed by sleep, 
 or exhausted by study, a glass of wine refreshed 
 his wasted spirits, and gave him new vigor. At 
 the age of twenty-one he conceived tlie bold de- 
 sign of incorporating, in one work, all the ob- 
 jects of human knowledge ; and carried it into 
 execution in an Encyclopaedia of twenty volumes, 
 to which he gave the title of the Utility of Utili- 
 ties ; an immense labor for one man at such a 
 period. Several great princes had been taken 
 dangerously ill, and Avicena was the only one 
 that knew their ailments and cured them. His 
 reputation increased daily, and all the kings of 
 Asia desired to retain him as tlieir physician. 
 Mahmud, the first sultan of the dynasty of the 
 Samanides, was then the most powerful prince of 
 the east. Imagining that an implicit obedience 
 should be paid by all manner of persons to the 
 injunctions of his will, he wrote a haughty letter 
 to Mamun sultan of Kharazm, ordering him to 
 send Avicena to him, who was at his court, 
 with several other learned men. Philosophy, the 
 friend of liberty and independence, looks down 
 with scorn on the shackles of tyranny. Avicena, 
 accustomed to the most flattering distinctions 
 among the great, could not endure the imperious 
 manner of Mahmud's inviting him to his court, 
 and refused to gc. But the sultan of Kharazm, 
 who dreaded his esentment, obliged the philoso- 
 pher to depart, * th others, whom that prince had 
 demanded to be ^ent to him. Avicena pretended 
 to obey; but, instead of repairing to Gazna, he 
 took the rout of Georgian. Mahmud, who had 
 gloried in the thoughts of keeping him at his 
 palace, was greatly irritated at his flight. He 
 despatched portraits, done in crayons, of this 
 philosopher to all the princes of Asia, with 
 orders to have him conducted to Gazna, if he 
 appeared in their courts. But Avicena had 
 fortunately escaped the most diligent search after 
 him. He arrived in the capital of Georgian, 
 where, under a disguised name, he performed 
 many admirable cures. Cabous then reigned in 
 that country. A nephew whom he was extremely 
 fond of, having fallen sick, the most able phy- 
 sicians were called, and none of them were able 
 to know his ailment, or give him any ease. Avi- 
 cena was at last consulted. So soon as he had 
 felt tlie young prince's pulse, he was confident 
 that his illness proceeded from a passion which 
 he durst not avow. Avicena commanded the 
 percou who had the care of the different apart- 
 
 ments of the palace to name them all in their 
 respective order. A more lively motion in the 
 prince's pulse, at hearing one of these apart- 
 ments mentioned, betrayed a part of his secret. 
 Avicena then ordered tlie keeper to name all the 
 female slaves that inhabited that apartment. At 
 the name of one of these beauties the young 
 Cabous could not contain himself; an extraor- 
 dinary vehemence of his pulse is said to have 
 completed the discovery of what he in vain de- 
 sired to conceal. Avicena, now fully assured 
 that this slave was the cause of the prince's ill- 
 ness, declared that she alone had the power to 
 cure him. The sultan's consent was necessary, 
 and he of course was curious to converse with 
 his nephew's physician ; but had scarce seen him, 
 when he knew in his features those of the por- 
 trait sent him by Mahmud : still Cabous, far 
 from forcing Avicena to repair to Gazna, re- 
 tained him for some time, and heaped honors 
 and presents on him. The philosopher passed 
 afterwards into the court of Nedjmeddevle, sultan 
 of the race of the Bouides. Being appointed first 
 physician to that prince, he found means to gain 
 his confidence to so great a degree that he raised 
 him to the post of grand vizier. This dignity, 
 however, he did not long enjoy. Too great an 
 attachment to pleasure made him lose at once 
 his post and his master's favor. From that time 
 Avicena felt all the rigors of adversity, which 
 he had thus brought upon himself. He wandered 
 about as a fugitive, and was often obliged to 
 shift the place of his habitation to secure his life 
 from danger. He died at Hamadan, aged fif*y- 
 eight, A. D. 1036, and in the year of the Hegira 
 428. No one composed with greater facility 
 than Avicena. He is said to have written fifty 
 pages a-day without fatigue. Until the twelfth 
 century he was preferred for philosophy and 
 medicine to all his predecessors. His works 
 were the only writings in vogue, even in Europe. 
 The following are their titles: 1. Of the Utility 
 and Advantage of Science, 20 books. 2. Of 
 Innocence and Criminality, 2 books. 3. Of 
 Health and Remedies, 18 books. 4. On 
 the means of preserving Health, 3 books. 5. 
 Canons of Physic, 14 books. 6. On Astro 
 nomical Observations, 1 book. 7. On Mathe- 
 matical Sciences. 8. Of Theorems, or Mathe- 
 matical and Theological Demonstrations, 1 book. 
 9. On the Arabic Language, and its Proprieties, 
 10 books. 10. On the Last Judgment. 11. On 
 the Origin of the Soul, and the Resurrection of 
 Bodies. 12. Of the end we should propose to 
 ourselves in Harangues and Philosophical Argu- 
 mentations. 13. Demonstration of collateral 
 Lines in the Sphere. 14. Abridgment of Euclid. 
 15. On Finity and Infinity. 16. On Physics 
 and Metaphysics. 17. On Animals and Vege- 
 tables, &:c. 18. Encyclopedia, 20 volumes. 
 
 AVICENNIA, or Avicenia, eastern ana- 
 cardium, a genus of the angiospermia order, and 
 didynamia class of plants ; ranking in the natural 
 method under the fortieth order, personatae. The 
 calyx is quinquepartite ; the corolla is bilabiatcd, 
 the upper lip squared; the capsule is leathery, 
 romb-like, and monospermous. There are two 
 species, viz. 1. A. nitida, the sliining, ea.Uern 
 anucardium; and, 2. A. toraentosa, the downy
 
 AVI 
 
 281 
 
 AVI 
 
 anacardium. The seeds are said to be the Ma- 
 lacca beans formerly kept in the shops, the ker- 
 nels of which were eaten as almonds. Others 
 say that the plant producing the Malacca bean 
 is rather the bontia germinans. 
 
 AVICH, Loch, anciently called Loch-luina, 
 a lake of Scotland, in the parish of Dalavich, in 
 Argyllshire. Mr. Campbell, in his Statistical 
 Report, says it is 'a beautiful sheet of water, of 
 a regular triangular form, about eight miles in 
 circumference, full of trouts ; having a castle and 
 several islands, the resort of gulls, cranes, water 
 eagles, and wild ducks. Near this lake lay tfie 
 scene of an ancient Celtic poem, called Cathluina, 
 or the conflict of Luina ; and in the lake is an 
 island, the scene of another poem, called Laoi 
 Fraoich, or the death of Fraoch. Many places,' 
 he adds, ' in this neighbourhood are still denomi- 
 nated from Ossian's heroes.' 
 
 AvicH, a river rising from the above-men- 
 tioned lake, and running throut;h a wood, and 
 part of the parish of Dalavich, to which it gives 
 names, and at last fulls into Lochow. 
 
 AVID'ITY, i Lat. avidus; from aveo, I 
 
 Avid'iously. S desire earnestly. Covetous- 
 ness, greediness, insatiable appetite. 
 
 For nothing is more auydyously to be desired, than 
 is the sweet peace of God. 
 
 Bale's Image of both Churches, part i. 
 No writings would have been received with such 
 avidity and respect as those. 
 
 Paley's Evidences. 
 
 AVIENUS, Rufus Festus, a Latin poet of the 
 fourth century. He translated the Phsenomena 
 of Aratus, the description of the earth by Uiony- 
 sius, iEsop's Fables, &c. An edition of his 
 works was printed at Paris in 1590, and again 
 in 1731. 
 
 AVIGATO Pear. See L\urus. 
 
 AVIGLLANO, a small town of Piedmont in 
 Italy, seven miles west of Turin. 
 
 AVIGNON, a city of France, in the depart- 
 ment of Vaucluse, on the banks of the Rhone, 
 168 leagues from Paris. Before the revolution 
 it was subject to the Pope ; and the residence of 
 several of them in it had rendered it considerable. 
 This occasioned many of the natives to be ene- 
 mies to the new government; especially after the 
 Convention had abolished the establishment of 
 the Roman Catholic religion in France ; and was 
 the cause of much bloodshed. It is now, however, 
 completely annexed to France. Near the Rhone 
 there is a large rock, within tVie circumference of 
 the walls, upon which is a platform, whence may 
 be had a prospect of the whole city and its en- 
 virons. Its circumference is somewhat more 
 than three miles. Its manufactories are silks, 
 saltpetre, oil of vitriol, and aqua-fortis. Its pro- 
 ducts, wine, brandy, almonds, olives, oil, saflron, 
 truffles, corn, and wool ; and it contains a well- 
 regulated lunatic asylum, and an hospital of in- 
 valid soldiers which lodges 1500 in-pensioners. 
 Before the French revolution its population 
 exceeded 30,000 ; but in the latest census they 
 are 23,311. It is the seat of a bishop, whose 
 diocese contains the departments of X'aucluse 
 and the Gard ; and, in 1803, an university, or 
 Lyceum, was established here. 
 
 Avignon was ceded by Philip III. of France 
 to the see of Rome in 1273. On the decease of 
 B edict XI. the papal court was transferred 
 here ; and the six successive pontiffs, Clement 
 V. John XXII. Benedict XII. Clement VI. 
 Innocent VI. and Urban V. made it their only 
 abode. The entreaties of Petrarch were often 
 addressed to the four last. He was well ac- 
 quainted with Avignon, which had been the 
 residence of his father ; and the celebrated foun- 
 tain of Vauckise, but a short distance from its 
 walls, has been immortalised by the complaints 
 of his unreturned love. The tomb of Laura is 
 still shown in the church of the Cordeliers ; and 
 her husband, Hugh de Sade, sleeps there by her 
 side. He speaks of it as the sink of vice and 
 corruption, as an object of universal hatred and 
 contempt, as barbarous, and as the mystic Baby- 
 lon. Yet for seventy years, from 1309, it con- 
 tinued to be the seat of the holy see ; Dtid after 
 the death of Gregory XL who returned once 
 more to the Vatican, on the commencement of 
 the great schism of the west, during forty years 
 more, the two rival pontiff's of the day thundered 
 their respective excommunications against each 
 other from the banks of the Rhone and of the 
 Tiber. The election of Martin V. terminated the 
 distraction, and Rome once again became the 
 single metropolis of the papacy. During its 
 subjection to the papal see, Avignon was several 
 times seized by France: once in 1662, when the 
 French ambassador at Rome had been insulted 
 by the Corsican guards; again in 1680; and 
 again in 1733, on account of the loss occasioned 
 to the French revenue by smuggling. Another 
 instance of seizure happened in 1768, when pope 
 Clement XIII. threatened to excommunicate the 
 duke of Parma, and took the Jesuits under his 
 protection ; it was not given back till 1774, by 
 which time the papal chair had changed its oc- 
 cupant. The Count de Grignan, the husband of 
 Madame de Sevigne's daughter, held it as vice- 
 roy for two years, and many of Madame de 
 Sevigne's letters are addressed to Avignon. 
 
 Avignon Berry, the fruit of a species of ly- 
 ceum, which grows plentifully near Avignon 
 and in other parts of France. The berry is some- 
 what less than a pea; its color is green, ap- 
 proaching towards a yellow; and it is of an 
 astringent and bitter taste. It is much used ty 
 the dyers, who stain a yellow color with it; 
 and by the painters, who also make a fine golden 
 yellow of it. 
 
 AVILA, a city of Spain in Old Castile, seated 
 on an eminence on the banks of the river Adaja, 
 and m sight of the mountains of Pico. It is 
 fortified both by nature and art, having had a 
 wall 9075 feet in circumference, adorned with 
 lofty towers and handsome gates. The houses 
 are generally good and stately. It has an uni- 
 versity, and a considerable bishopric; besides a 
 cathedral, which has eight dignitaries and forty 
 canons and minor canons. It stands in tlie mid- 
 dle of a large plain, surrounded with mountains, 
 and covered witli fruit-trees and vineyards. 
 There is likewise a manufacture of cloth. 
 
 AviLA, or AviLES, a town of Spain, in Aus- 
 turias, on the Bay of Biscay, eight miles south of 
 Cape de Pinas, and twenty-five north of (Jviedo.
 
 AVI 
 
 282 
 
 AUL 
 
 AviLA (Giles Gonzales,) a Spanish historian. 
 He went to Rome for his education, and when 
 he returned to his own country obtained a rich 
 benefice, and was appointed historiographer to the 
 king. He wrote a Treatise on the Antiquities of 
 Salamanca, also the Theatre of the Churches of 
 India, and other works. He died in 1658. 
 
 AVILA (Louis d'), a Spanish gentleman sent 
 by Charles the Fifth, as ambassador to the popes 
 Paul IV. and Pius V. and was afterwards a com- 
 mander at the siege of Metz. He wrote histori- 
 cal memoirs of the wars of Charles V. against the 
 Protestants of Germany, entitled ' Los Commen- 
 tarios de la Guerra del Emparador Carlos V. 
 contra los Protestantes de Alcmania ;' first print- 
 ed in 1546, and afterwards translated into 
 French and Latin. He also wrote Memoirs of 
 the War in Africa. 
 
 AUJILAH, an oasis, in the great Sahra, or 
 Lybian desert, in lat. 29° 30' N. and long. 22° 
 30' E. through which Mr. Hornemann passed in 
 1798. He says, there are three towns in the 
 territory of Aujilah, the capital of that name, 
 Mojabrah, and Meledilah; the latter are near 
 each other, and both about four hours distant 
 from Aujilah. That city is about a mile in cir- 
 cumference; ill built, though of stone, dirty, and 
 wretched. Mojabrah, is smaller but more popu- 
 lous; its inhabitants are principally engaged in 
 commerce, as those of Meledilah are in agricul- 
 ture. The women are skilful weavers, and ex- 
 port their clothes to Fezzan. The soil round the 
 town is sandy, but fertile when well watered. 
 It is subject to Tripoli, and the Bey of Ben- 
 ghazi was resident there during his visit. 
 
 AVILER (Augustine Charles d'), a French 
 architect, born in 1653. He was taken by the 
 Algerines in his passage to Rome, and carried to 
 Tunis, where he designed a grand mosque, 
 which is much admired. He was liberated 
 after two years, and settled at Montpelier, where 
 lie died, in 1700. He wrote a Course of Archi- 
 tecture, in 4 vols. 4to. 
 
 AVIO, a town of Germany in the bishopric of 
 Trent, a little west of the Adige. 
 
 AVIS, a river of Portugal, in Alentejo. 
 
 Avis, or Aviz, a small town of Portugal, in 
 Alentejo, seated on an eminence with a castle 
 near the river. 
 
 Avis, Knights of, an order of knighthood in 
 Portugal, established about A. D. 1162. When 
 Evora was taken from the Moors, in the reign of 
 Alphonso I. king of Portugal, it was garrisoned 
 by several persons who assumed the title of 
 knights of St. Mary of Evora, which was soon 
 after changed for that of knights of Avis, which 
 town the king gave them, and whither they 
 removed from Avora. The badge of the order is 
 a green cross flory, and they observe the rule of 
 St. Benedict. 
 
 Avis Longa, a name given by Nieremberg to 
 the hoitlattotl of the Americans, a bird remark- 
 able for the swiftness of its running. 
 
 Avis Nivea, a name under which Nieremberg 
 has described an American bird, of the size of a 
 thrush, brown and black on the back, and yel- 
 low under the belly ; it imitates the human voice, 
 and is called by the natives, ceoan. 
 
 Avis Pennipulcua, the name of an Ameri- 
 
 can bird, described by Nieremberg, and called, 
 by the Indians quetzaltototl. It is of the sizi 
 of a pigeon, and is of more beautiful colors 
 than the peacock. There are, besides this spe- 
 cies, tiiree or four others. Mr. Ray has, how- 
 ever, ranged all these under the number of birds, 
 the account of which he is either dubious about, 
 or suspicious of the truth of. 
 
 Avis Tropicorum, the Tropic bird, a bird of 
 the size of the common duck, found only about 
 the tropics. 
 
 Avis \"enti, the bird of the wind. See 
 Heatototl. 
 
 AVISANDUM, in Scots law, literally advis- 
 ing, or under consideration. A process is said 
 to be under avisandura, when the whole proofs, 
 with the arguments on both sides, are under the 
 consideration of the judge, before he has given an 
 interlocutor or decision upon the cause. 
 
 AVIS'ION. Used for Vision. 
 The kinge of this auision, 
 Hath great imaginacion, 
 Wliat thinge it signifie maie. 
 
 Gower, Con. A. bookviii. p. 264. 
 
 AVISO, adviso, Italian; a term chiefly used 
 in matters of commerce to denote an advertise^ 
 ment, an advice, or piece of intelligence. 
 
 AVISON (Charles), an English musician of 
 Newcastle, where he practised the whole of his 
 life. In 1752 he published an Essay on Musi- 
 cal Expression, which was favorably received, 
 and reached a second edition in 1763, when it 
 produced published remarks from Dr. Hayes, 
 professor of music at Oxford. Avison quickly 
 retorted, and his reply is appended to the third 
 edition of the original essay. He died at New- 
 castle in 1770, and left five concertos for the 
 violin, and other compositions, which are esteemed 
 light and elegant. 
 
 AVITES, a tribe of Samaritans, who came 
 from Avah, in Chaldea, and were settled by 
 Sennacherib in Samaria. They worshipped the 
 idols Nibhaz and Tartak. 2 Kings xvii. 24 — 31. 
 
 AVITUS, one of the emperors of Rome, in 
 the last stage of its declension. He succeeded 
 Maximus, A. D. 455, and reigned only one 
 year, being cut off and succeeded by Majorians^ 
 A. D. 456. 
 
 AVrZE. See Advise. 
 
 No power lie had to stir, nor will to rise ; 
 That when the careful knight 'gan well avize. 
 He lightly left the foe. Faerie Qucene. 
 
 As they 'gan his library to view. 
 And antique registers for to avize. Spenser, 
 With that, the husbandman 'gan him avize. 
 That it for him was fittest exercise. /d. 
 
 But him avixing, he that dreadful deed 
 Forbore, and rather chose, with scornful shame. 
 Him to avenge. Id, 
 
 AUK, in ornithology. See Alda. 
 AUKLAND, Bishops. See Auckland. 
 AULA, is used for a court baron, by Spel- 
 man ; by some old ecclesiastical writers, for the 
 nave of a church, and sometimes for a court- 
 yard. 
 
 Aula Regia, or Aula regis, a court establish- 
 ed by William the Conqueror in his own hall, com- 
 posed of the king's great officers of state, who 
 resided in his palace, and were usually attendant
 
 AUL 
 
 283 
 
 AUL 
 
 in his person. This court was rep:ulated by the 
 irticle wliich forms the eleventh chapter of 
 iSlagna Charta, and established in Westminster- 
 hall, where it hath ever since continued. See 
 King's Bench. 
 
 AULD WIFE'S LIFT, an ancient structure, 
 in the parish of Baldernock, Dumbartonshire, 
 about a mile from the church ; supposed to be a 
 relict of ancient druidism, and from its name 
 to have been the work of Druidesses. The 
 uppermost stone is eighteen feet long, eleven 
 broad, and six deep. 
 
 AULEN, an ancient imperial city of Ger- 
 many, in the circle of Suabia, thirty miles north 
 of Ulm. 
 
 AULETES, avXTjTfc, in antiquity, a flute- 
 player. One of the Ptolemies of Egypt, bore 
 the surname of Auletes. 
 
 AULIC, an act, in the Sorbonne and foreign 
 universities, which a young divine maintains 
 upon being admitted a doctor in divinity. It 
 begins by an harangue of the chancellor, addres- 
 sed to the young doctor ; after which he receives 
 the cap, and presides at the aulic or disputations. 
 AuLic, an epithet given to certain officers of 
 the empire, who compose a court which decides, 
 without appeal, in all processes entered m it. 
 The Aulic council is a jurisdiction of the Ger- 
 man empire, established by Maximilian I. in 
 1502, to counterbalance the authority of the Im- 
 perial Chamber. It is called Aulic, because it 
 follows the emperor's court aula. The emperor 
 names all the members, consisting of a president, 
 vice-president, and an unlimited number of 
 counsellors ; six of whom at least must be Pro- 
 testants. All points relating to feudal rights and 
 the reserved territories of the emperor in Italy 
 are arranged by this council. In order to pre- 
 vent any collision with the emperor's will, it 
 sometimes contents itself with making a report to 
 him in the form ' fiat votum ad Casarem.' 
 Following the emperor's court, it is sometimes 
 called justitiam imperatoris, the emperor's jus- 
 tice. "The aulic court ceases at the death of the 
 emperor. 
 
 AULIS, in ancient geography, a sea-port town 
 cf Boeotia, over against Chalcis of Euboea, on 
 the Euripus, where that strait is narrowest; and 
 ■which were some time joined by a mole or cause- 
 way; on a craggy situation, and a village of the 
 Tanagraci, distant from Chalcis three miles. The 
 harbour is famous for the rendezvous of 1000 
 ships under Agamemnon, previous to the Trojan 
 expedition. It is now entirely destroyed. 
 
 AULIUS Atticus, a captain of a Roman 
 cohort under Julius Agricola, who was killed in 
 a battle with Galgacus, at the foot of the Gram- 
 pians. Two urns were dug up in the parish of 
 Iledgorton, containing human ashes; one of 
 which Mr. Moncrieff supposes to have contained 
 those of this officer, and the other those of Agri- 
 cola's son. 
 
 AULON, anciently a town and station for 
 ships, in Illyricum, on the Adriatic; now called 
 Volano, a port town on one of tlie moutlis of the 
 To, on the gulf of Venice. 
 
 Aii.oN, or AuLOXA, anciently a town of Elis, 
 in Peloponnesus, on the confines of ^lessenia. 
 Here stood a temple of .Esculapius. 
 
 AULONIAS, an epithet of TEsculapius. See 
 last article. 
 
 AULOS, a Grecian long measure, the same 
 with stadium. 
 
 AULTGllANDE, a river of Scotland, in the 
 parish of Kiltearn, in Rosshire, which takes its 
 rise from Loch Glass, and after running six miles 
 falls into the sea. Its course for two of these 
 miles is through a deep chasm of an extensive 
 and rugsed precipice, called Craig-grande, or 
 the uglv rock; of which the Rev. Mr. Robertson, 
 in his statistical account of the parish, gives the 
 following description. ' This is a deep chasm 
 or abyss, formed by two opposite precipices that 
 rise perpendicularly to a great height, through 
 which the Aultgrande runs for the space of two 
 miles. It begins at the distance of four miles 
 from the sea, by a bold projection into the chan- 
 nel of the river, whicti it diminishes in breadth 
 by at least one half. The river continues to run 
 with rapidity for about three quarters of a mile,^ 
 when it is confined by a sudden jutting out of 
 the rock. Here, the side view from the suminit 
 is very striking. The course of the stream being 
 thus impeded, it whirls and foams, and beats 
 with violence against the opposing rock, till, 
 collecting strength, it shoots up perpendicularly 
 with great fury, and forcing its way, darts with 
 the swiftness of an arrow throusjh the winding 
 passage on the other side. After passing this 
 obstruction, it becomes in many places invisible, 
 owing partly to the increasing depth and narrow- 
 ness of the chasm, and partly to the view being 
 intercepted by the numerous branches of trees 
 which grow on each side of the precipice. 
 About a quarter of a mile further down, the 
 country people have thrown a slight bridge, 
 composed of trunks of trees covered with turf, 
 over the rock, where the chasm is about sixteen 
 feet wide. Here the observer, if he has intrepi- 
 dity enough to venture himself on such a totter- 
 ing support, and can look down the gulph below 
 without any uneasy sensations, will be gratified 
 with a view equally awful and astonishing. The 
 wildness of the steep and rugged rocks; the 
 gloomy horror of the cliff's and caverns, inac- 
 cessible by mortal tread, and where the genial 
 rays of the sun never yet penetrated; the water- 
 falls which are heard pouring down in different 
 parts of the precipice, with sounds various in 
 proportion to their distance; the hoarse and hol- 
 low murmuring of the river, whicli runs at the 
 depth of nearly 130 feet below the surface of the 
 earth ; fine groves of pines, which majestically 
 climb the sides of a beautiful eminence, that 
 rises immediately from the brink of the chasm; 
 all these objects cannot be contemplated without 
 exciting emotions of wonder and admiration in 
 the mind of every beholder. The appearance of 
 this singular and picturesque scene, will naturally 
 bring to the recollection of the chissical spec- 
 tator those beautiful hnes of \'irgil, in which he 
 describes the gulph, tlirough which his Alecto 
 shoots herself into the infernal region* • 
 
 densis hunc frondibus atrum 
 
 Urget utrinque latus nemoris, medioffue iragosus 
 Dat sonitum saxis et torto vortice torrcns 
 Hie specus horrcndum, ct sacvi spiracula Ditis 
 Monstrantur ; ruptoque ingens Acheronto vorago 
 Pestifcras aperit fauces.
 
 AUN 
 
 284 
 
 AVO 
 
 Critics may labor to convey the force and mean- 
 ing of the author's words ; and travellers may, by 
 their insjenious descriptions, give us a still more 
 lively idea of their beauty and propriety; but he 
 who would see a living commentary on this noble 
 passage, must visit the rock of Aultgrande,' 
 
 AULUS Gellius. See Gellius. 
 
 AUMALE. See Albemarle. 
 
 AUME, a Dutch measure for Rhenish wine, 
 containing forty English gallons. 
 
 AUMERY. See Ambry. 
 
 AUMONE, in old law style, alms. — Bailei/. 
 
 AuMONE, tenure in, lands given to a church or 
 manastery. 
 
 AUMONIER. See Almoner. 
 
 AUNA, the ancient name of Emly, in Ireland. 
 
 AUNCEL weight, an ancient kind of balance, 
 yjrohibited by several statutes, on account of the 
 many deceits practised by it. It consisted of 
 scales hanging on hooks, fastened at each end of 
 a beam, which a man lifted up on his hand. In 
 many parts of England, auncel weight signifies 
 meat sold by the hand, without scales. 
 
 AUNC ESTER, ancestor. — Chaucer. 
 
 AUNE, a river of Devonshire, which runs 
 into the sea, east of Plymouth. 
 
 AuNE, a long measure used in France to mea- 
 sure cloths, stuffs, ribbons, &c. At Rouen, it is 
 equal to one English ell ; at Calais, to 1'52 ; at 
 Lyons, to 1-061 ; and at Paris, to 0-95. 
 
 AUNEAU, or AunSaux, a town of France, in 
 the department of the Eure and Loire, arrondis- 
 sement of Chartres, with 250 houses. It has a 
 castle, and some hosiery manufactures. Here 
 the duke of Guise defeated, in 1587, the Germans 
 who had come to the assistance of the Protes- 
 tants. Five leagues east of Chartres. 
 
 AUNEDONACUM, the ancient name of 
 Fontenay, in France. 
 
 AUNGERVILLE (Richard,) commonly known 
 by the name of Richard de Buiy, was bom in 
 1281 at St. Edmund's Bury in Suffolk, and edu- 
 cated at the university of Oxford : after which he 
 entered into the order of Benedictine monks, 
 and became tutor to Edward Prince of Wales, 
 afterwards king Edward III. Upon the acces- 
 sion of his royal pupil to the throne, he was first 
 appointed cofferer, then treasurer of the ward- 
 robe; archdeacon of Northampton, prebendary 
 of Lincoln, Sarum, and Litchfield, keeper of the 
 privy seal, dean of Wells, and last of all bishop 
 of Durham. He likewise enjoyed the offices of 
 lord high chancellor and treasurer of England : 
 and discharged two important embassies at the 
 court of France. Learned himself, and a patron 
 of letters, he maintained a correspondence with 
 .^ome of the greatest geniuses of the age, particu- 
 larly with the celebrated Italian poet Petrarch. 
 He was also of a most humane and benevolent 
 temper, and performed many signal acts of cha- 
 rity. Every week he made eight quarters of 
 wheat into bread, and gave it to the poor. When- 
 2ver he travelled between Durham and Newcas- 
 Je, he distributed £8 sterhng in alms ; between 
 Durham and Stockton £5, between Durham and 
 A-ukland five marks, and between Durham and 
 Middleham £3. He founded a public library at 
 Oxford, for the use of the students, which he fur- 
 j.ished with the best collection of books then in 
 
 England ; and appointed five Keepers, to whoinr 
 he granted yearly salaries. At the dissolution 
 of religious houses in the reign of Henry VIII. 
 Durham college, where he fixed the library, 
 being also dissolved, some of the books were 
 removed to the public library, some to Baliol 
 college, and some into the hands of Dr. George 
 Owen, who bought the college of king Edward 
 VI. Bishop Aungerville died at his manor of 
 Aukland, April 24, 1345, and was buried in the 
 south part of the cross isle of the cathedral 
 church of Durham, to which he had been a 
 benefactor. He wrote, 1. Philobiblos, contain 
 ing directions for the management of his library 
 at Oxford, and a great deal in praise of learning 
 in Latin. 2. Epistolae Familiarum ; some ot 
 which are written to the famous Petrarch. 3. 
 Orationes ad Principes ; mentioned by Bale 
 and Pitts. 
 
 AUNIS, or Aunix, the smallest of the ci- 
 devant provinces in France. It was bounded 
 on the north by Poictou, on the west by the 
 ocean, and on the east and south by Saintogne. 
 It is now comprehended in the department of 
 Lower Charente. It is watered by the Seure 
 and the Charente. The coast has the advantage 
 of several ports, the most remarkable of which 
 are Rochefort, Rochelle, Brouge, St. Martin de 
 Re, Tremblade, Tounai, and Charente. The 
 soil is dry. yet produces good corn and plenty 
 of wine. The marshes feed a great number of 
 cattle, and the salt marshes yield the best salt in 
 Europe. 
 
 AUNT. Some ingenuity is necessary to de- 
 rive this word from the Fr. tante — ' Lat. amita 
 from avita, and this from avia! In Todd's John- 
 son it is deduced from the Old Fr. ante, from a 
 Celtic root, a father or mother's sister. 
 
 Who meets us here ? my niece Plantagenet, 
 
 Led in the hand of her kind aunt of Glo'ster. 
 
 Shakspeare. 
 
 She went to plain work, and to purling brooks. 
 Old fashion'd halls, dull aunts, and croaking rooks. 
 
 Pope. 
 
 AVOCATORIA, a mandate of the emperor 
 of Germany, addressed to some prince in order 
 to stop proceedings in any cause appealed to 
 him. 
 
 AVOCII, or AuACH, Gael, a ford, a parish in 
 
 Scotland, Rosshire, on the coast of the Moray 
 
 Fritli, and extending about four miles from south 
 
 to north, and two and a half from east to west. 
 
 AVOID', ^ Fr. vuider, or eviter. Lat. 
 
 Avoid'able, # evito. The word vidtius, in whole 
 
 Avoid'ance, p> or in part, is supposed to be the 
 
 Avoid'er, i etymon. To make void or free 
 
 Avoidless. } from, to leave empty, to go out 
 
 of, to move away from, to leave, to escape. The 
 
 word shun is usually applied to persons, and 
 
 avoid to things. ' Avoid the room,' no longer 
 
 means, as in Lord Bacon's time, go out of the 
 
 room, but ' go not into the room.' 
 
 What have you to do here, fellow? pray you, 
 avoid the house. Sluikspeare. 
 
 If any rebel should be required of the prince con- 
 federate, the prince confederate should command 
 him to avoid the country. Bacon.
 
 AVO 
 
 285 
 
 AUR 
 
 That avoidless ruin in which the whole empire would 
 be involved. Dtntiis's Letters. 
 
 Want of exactness in such nicecxperimeuls is scarce 
 avoidable. Bvyle. 
 
 To take several things for granted, is hardly avoid- 
 able toany one, whose task it is to shew the fals.-hood 
 or improbability of any truth. Locke. 
 
 Now what things can there be of greater moment 
 or importance for men to know or God to reveal, than 
 the nature of God and ourselves, the state and con- 
 dition of our souls, the only way to avoid eternal 
 misery, and enjoy everlasting bliss. Stillingjieet , 
 
 It is appointed to give us vigour in the pursuit of 
 what is good, or in the avoidance of what is hurtful. 
 
 Watts. 
 
 AVOIRDUPOIS, avoir du pois, French. A 
 kind of weight, of which a pound contains six- 
 teen ounces, and is in proportion to a pound 
 Troy, as seventeen to fourteen. All the larger 
 and coarser commodities are weighed by avoir- 
 dupois weight. Avoirdupois ounce is less than 
 the Troy ounce in the proportion of 700 to 768 : 
 but the avoirdupois pound is greater than the 
 Troy pound in the proportion of 700 to 576. 
 
 Avoirdupois Weight. For the table of its 
 divisions, see Arithmetic. 
 
 AV'O'KE, "^ Lat. avoca, avocatum, I call ; 
 Avo'cATE, > from a, and roco. Evoke is now 
 Avoca'tiox. j used instead of the verb. Avo- 
 cations are those engagements which call off our 
 time and attention from other things. 
 
 We have written to your grace in our common 
 letter, for a confirmation of many inconveniences and 
 dangers which we persuaded to his Holiness, to follow 
 both to himself and to the see apostolick, in case his 
 Holiness should avoke the cause. 
 
 Burnet's Reform Records, vol. i. 
 
 For what is a scholar, but one who retireth his 
 person, and avocateth his mind, from other occupations 
 and worldly entertainments. Barrott's SanmDjs. 
 
 Sorrow ought not to be suffered to increase by in- 
 dulgence, but must give way after a stated time to 
 social duties and the coinnion avocatiom of life. 
 
 Jjlmson. 
 
 Whom could I select with such perfect propriety as 
 yourself, who, like the younger Scipio, can so usefully 
 mingle the avocations of business with elegant litera- 
 ture ? Dr. Stuart's Dedication of S/dlust. 
 
 -WOIA'TION. Lat. avolatio {a volo), a fly- 
 ing away from. 
 
 These airy vegetables are made by the relicks of 
 plantal emissives, whose avolation was prevented by 
 the condensed enclosure. Glanville's Scepsis. 
 
 Strangers, or the fungous parcels about candles, 
 only signify a pluvious air, hindering the avolation of 
 the favillous particles. Brown's Vulgar Errours. 
 
 AVON, the name of four rivers in England ; 
 VIZ. 1 . rising in Leicestershire, runs south-west 
 by Warwick and Evesham, and falls into the 
 Severn at Tewksbury ; 2. in Monmouthshire ; 3. 
 rising in Wiltshire, coasts the edge of the New 
 lorest, and enters the English channel at Christ 
 Church Bay in Hampshire ; and 4. the Lower 
 Avon, which rises near Tedbury in Wiltshire, 
 and running west to Bath, becomes navigable; 
 continues its course to Bristol, and falls into the 
 Severn north-west of that city. 
 
 AVONA PoRTicosA, the ancient name of the 
 isle of Sanda. 
 
 AV^OSETTA, in ornithology. See Recuuvi- 
 
 ROSTRA. 
 
 AVOU'CH, r. & n.^ Fr. avouer, to affirm- 
 
 Avou'cHER, -To maintain, declare ab- 
 
 Avoich'.mext. 3 snlutely, to vindicate, to 
 
 justify, to corroborate, to answer for the truth of, 
 
 [O support a statment with documents. 
 
 They boldly avouched that themselves only had 
 the truth, which they would at all times defend. 
 
 Hooker. 
 Wretched though I seem, 
 I can produce a champion that will prove 
 What is avouched here. Shakspeare. King Lear. 
 Such authours and avouchera of thinges. 
 
 Udall. Luke, cap. i. 
 But I maruail much that maister Moore beyng a 
 great learned man, would not for the avouchement of 
 his credite, and the truth of so great a matter, allege 
 so much as the testimonie and auctoritie of some one 
 aucthor, for the prouyng of his assertion. 
 
 Grafton, vol. i. 
 A\'OW, ,;. & 71.-^ 
 AvOw'aBLE, I ti t Tr t 
 
 ' rr. avouer. Lat. Voveo, I 
 vow or promise. To make 
 a solemn declaration, to ac- 
 knowledge, to confess. 
 
 Avov'ai,, 
 
 Avow'ed, 
 
 Avow'edly, 
 
 Avow'er, 
 
 Avow'ry. 
 
 His cruel stepdame, seeing what was done. 
 Her wicked days with wretched knife did end ; 
 In death avowing th' innocence of her son. 
 
 Faerie Queenc. 
 
 Wihnot could not avowedly have excepted against 
 
 the other. Clarendon. 
 
 He that delivers them mentions his doing it upon 
 
 his own particular knowledge, or the relation of some 
 
 credible person, avovoing it upon his own experience. 
 
 Boyle. 
 Left to myself, I must avow, I strove 
 From publick shame to screen my secret love. 
 
 Dry den, 
 Virgil makes jEneas a bold avower of his own virtues. 
 
 Id. 
 Such assertions proceed from principles which can- 
 not be avowed by those who are for preserving church 
 and state. Swift. 
 
 This management, when no avowable rejison could 
 be given for it, gave suspicious and refining persons 
 occasion to throw out a great deal of slander. 
 
 Bolingbroke. 
 Then blaz'd his smother'd flame, avow'd and bold. 
 
 T/iomson. 
 
 AU-PIS-ALLER, a French phrase, sometimes 
 used among English writers, signifying at the 
 worst. 
 
 AL^RA, among physiologists, an airy exhala- 
 tion or vapor. The word is Latin, derived 
 from the Greek, avpa, gentle wind. 
 
 Aura, in chemistry, a name given to that 
 certain fine and pure spirit, found in every ani- 
 mal or vegetable body ; but so subtle, as only to 
 be perceptible by its smell and taste, or other 
 effects, not found in any other body. This aura, 
 says Boerhaave, exhibits the proper character of 
 the body, and is lodged in the oil of the body, to 
 prevent its being dissipated and thrown off. 
 
 AiRA, in ornitholou^y, a species of vulture. 
 
 .\URACI1, a town of Germany, with a good 
 castle, in the south part of Suabia, in the duchy 
 of Wirtemberg. It is the usual residence of the 
 youngest sons of the house of Wirtemberg; is
 
 AUR 
 
 286 
 
 AUR 
 
 seated at the foot of a mountain on the rivulet 
 Ermst, fifteen miles east of Tubingen. 
 
 AUR/E, in mythology, a name given by the 
 Romans to the nymphs of the air. They are 
 mostly to be found in the ancient paintings of 
 ceilings ; where they are represented as light 
 and airy, generally with long robes and flying 
 veils of some lively color or other, and fluttering 
 about in the rare and pleasing element assigned 
 to them. They were cliaracterised as sportive 
 and happy in themselves, and ■wellwishers to 
 mankind- 
 
 AVRANCHES, a town of Lower Normandy, 
 formerly the capital of the district called Avran- 
 chin, and now of an arrondissement in the de- 
 partment of La Manche. It stands on a hill 
 near the Seez, and commands an extensive pros- 
 pect of the surrounding country. It was formerly 
 the see of a bishop, whose palace still remains, and 
 who was suffragan to the archbishop of Rouen. 
 The cathedral was founded in the 1 1 20. It is only 
 half a league distant from the sea, and the tide 
 hrings up small vessels close to the town. The 
 inhabitants carry on a traflic in grain, flax, hemp, 
 cattle, butter, wheat, salt, and cyder, which is 
 here made of an excellent quality. Provisions 
 and fuel are both cheap. Population about 
 6000. Avranches was much resorted to by the 
 English after the peace of 1814. It lies 222 
 niiles due west of Paris. Long. 1° 17' W., lat. 
 48° 41' N. 
 
 AURANTIA, in botany, a natural order, 
 comprehending the entire orange tribe. Jussieu 
 is the author of this order, the seventieth in his 
 arrangement; nor are there any traces of it 
 among the fragmenta of Linnaeus, cal. one leaf, 
 often deeply divided, pet. definite, broad at the 
 base, inserted round a disk on which the germen 
 is placed, stam. placed on the same disk. 
 GEKM. one; style one; stigma simple, or rarely 
 divided. Fruit mostly pulpy, sometimes capsu- 
 lar, of one or many cells, with one or two seeds 
 in each. This order is divided into three sec- 
 tions, according to the seed contained in the 
 fruit. 1. Fruit with only one seed. The leaves 
 are not marked with resinous dots, and hence the 
 plants of this section are termed spurious au- 
 rantia. 2. Fruit many-seeded, pulpy. These 
 are genuine aurantia, having the leaves full of 
 pellucid resinous dots. 3. Fruit many-seeded, 
 capsular. Leaves not dotted. Genera akin to 
 aurantia and to meliae. 
 
 ALRANTIAM, in botany. See Citrus. 
 
 AURANTIUS Piscis, in ichthyology, a name 
 given by TVieremberg to the dorado, or dolphin, 
 a species of the corypheena, distinguished from 
 the others by its forked tail. 
 
 AURARIA FuNCTio, pensio, or praestatio, a 
 tax to be paid in gold. 
 
 AIJRATA, in ichthyology, the fish called 
 gilt head. 
 
 AURAY, a town in the province of Bretange, 
 in France, a department of Morbihans, arrondis- 
 sement of L'Orient, and the head of a canton. It 
 stands on the gulf of Morbihan, and has a har- 
 bour, with considerable trade in corn, honey, 
 skins, and salted fish. The only manufactures 
 are a few woollen stuffs. It trades principally 
 with Spain, and receives in exchange for the 
 
 above-mentioned articles, Biscay-iron and wine. 
 Population 3200. Four leagues W. of \'anne3. 
 Long. 2" 53' W., lat. 47° 40' N. 
 
 AUREA Alexandrina, in pharmacy, a kind 
 of opiate, or antidote against the cholic and apo- 
 plexy, composed of a great number of ingre- 
 dients, which was in great fame among the an- 
 cient writers. It is called aurea, from the gold 
 (aurum) which is an ingredient in its composi- 
 tion ; and Alexandria, as having been invented 
 by a physician named Alexander. 
 
 Aurea Chersonesus, a name given by an- 
 cient authors to Japan. 
 
 AUREAPOLIS, an ancient town of Bavaria, 
 now called Ingolstadt. 
 
 AU'REAT, ) Lat. aururn, gold ; partaking 
 
 Aurife'rous. S of the nature and qualities of 
 gold. Poetical epithets. 
 
 And surn departe in freklis rede quhyte. 
 Sum bricht as gold with aureate leuis lyte. 
 
 Douglas. Eneados, Prol. to book xii. p. 401 . 
 
 Rocks rich in gems, and mountains big with mines. 
 Whence many a bursting stream auriferous plays. 
 
 Thomson. 
 
 AURELIA, in natural history, the same with 
 what is usually called chrysalis, and sometimes 
 nymph. See Chrysalis. 
 
 AuREUiA, the ancient name of Orleans. 
 
 AURELIANUS, Coelius, or, as some have 
 called him, Lucius Coelius Arianus, an ancient 
 physician, and the only one of the sect of the Me- 
 thodists of whom we have any remains, was of 
 Sicca, a town of Numidia in Africa. This we 
 learn from the elder Pliny, and his style much 
 resembles that of the African writers. It is half 
 Greek, half Latin, harsh, and difficult ; yet strong, 
 masculine, full of good sense, and valuable for 
 the matter it contains. It is frequently very 
 acute and smart, especially where he exposes the 
 errors of other physicians, and always nervous. 
 What age Coelius Aurelianus flourished in, cannot 
 be determined ; but it is probable that he lived 
 before Galen, as he does not make the least men- 
 tion of him. He was not only a careful imitator 
 of Soranus, but also a strenuous advocate for 
 him. He had read over very diligently the an- 
 cient physicians of all the sects ; and to him we 
 are indebted for the knowledge of many dogmas 
 which are not to be found but in his books, ' De 
 Celeribus et Tardis PassionibuS.' The best edi- 
 tion of these books is that published at Amster- 
 dam, 1722, in quarto. He wrote, as he himself 
 tells us, several other works ; but they are all 
 perished. 
 
 Aurelianus (Lucius Domitius), emperor of 
 Rome, was one of the greatest generals of anti- 
 quity, and commanded the armies of the emperor 
 Claudius II. with such glory, that, after the death 
 of that emperor, the legions agreed to place him 
 on the throne, A.D. 270. He was a native of 
 Dacia, born of obscure parentage, and was 
 elected emperor in the fifty-fifth year of his age. 
 He was a man of amazing strength and courage, 
 and had risen through all the gradations of mili- 
 tary duty. In one engagement he is said to 
 nave killed forty of the enemy with his own 
 hand ; and, in the various battles in which he 
 was engaged, above 900 in all. He carried the 
 war from the east to the west with as much faci-
 
 AUR 
 
 287 
 
 AUR 
 
 lity, says a modem writer, as a body of troops 
 marches from Alsace into Flanders. He de- 
 feated the Goths, Sarmatians, Marcomanni, the 
 Persians, Esryptians, and Vandals ; conquered 
 Zenobia, queen of the Palmyrenians, and Tetri- 
 ciis, general of the Gauls, both of whom graced 
 his triumph in 274. In a word, for valor and 
 expedition, he might be compared to Julius 
 Caesar, had he possessed equal clemency and mo- 
 deration. He showed great clemency indeed to 
 -queen Zenobia, although he destroyed her city, 
 for he gave her lands and an income sufficient to 
 maintain her in all the splendor of her former 
 royalty without the trouble of it. But his gene- 
 rosity to that princess was sullied by his order- 
 ing her secretary, Longinus, the celebrated critic, 
 to be put to death, whose work on the sublime 
 ought to have procured him respect from any 
 person one degree removed from barbarism. His 
 severities were at last the cause of his destruc- 
 tion. Mnestheus, his secretary, conspired against 
 him, and he was slain by one of his generals in 
 passing with a small guard from Heraclea in 
 Thrace towards Byzantium, A. D. '275, after a 
 very active reisn of five years. See Rome. 
 
 AURELLI, or Arelli, a Latin poet of the 
 sixteenth century, who obtained the government 
 of a district from Leo X. but whose tyrannical 
 behaviour made the inhabitants throw him into a 
 well, in 1520. His poems are much in the 
 manner of Catullus. 
 
 AURENGABAD, or Aueungabad. See Au- 
 
 RUNG.iBAD. 
 
 AUHENG-ZEBE, the Great Mogul, was the 
 third son of Schah lehan. He was born in 1618, 
 and in his youth feigned an air of religious sanc- 
 tity, but in 1658 he and his brother Morad 
 seized Agra, and took their father prisoner. Not 
 long after, he put ]Morad and Dara, another bro- 
 ther, to death. He, however, showed some ten- 
 derness towards his father, who died in 1666. 
 Aureng-zebe increased his dominions so much, 
 and became so powerful, that ambassadors were 
 sent to him from all the eastern princes ; and for 
 the sake of commercial advantages, many Euro- 
 pean princes did the same. He died atAhmed- 
 naghur in 1707, aged eighty-nine. His posses- 
 sions were, by his will, divided among his sons. 
 He was of a low stature, with a large nose, a 
 white beard, and olive complexion. He was 
 slender, and supported himself on a staff; yet 
 he endorsed petitions without spectacles, and 
 seemed pleased with doing business at a public 
 audience, lie subdued Visapour, Golconda, 
 and the Carnatic ; overran the kingdom of Asen ; 
 reduced Bengal; and cleared the mouth of the 
 Ganges from the Portuguese pirates. He had 
 formed a design to destroy all the native princes, 
 and to force a conversion of the Hindoos ; but 
 harrassed in his turn by the rebellion of his sons, 
 he was obliged to put off the execution of this 
 momentous endeavour. By his indulgence to- 
 wards his omrahs and governors his meaner sub- 
 jects were oppressed with impunity. ' God,' he 
 observed, in his usual sanctimonious manner, 
 ■ would punish them if they did evil.' The real 
 state of the case was, that he shared in the fruits 
 of their oppression. 
 
 AUREOLA, in ecclesiastical antiquity, ori- 
 
 ginally signified a jewel, proposed as a reward of 
 victory in some public dispute. Hence the Ro- 
 man schoolmen applied it to denote the reward 
 bestowed on martyrs, virgins, and doctors, on 
 account of their works of supererogation ; and 
 painters use it to signify the crown of glory 
 with which they adorn the heads of saints, con- 
 fessors, &c. 
 
 AUREOLUS, a Dacian shepherd, who as- 
 pired to the empire, but was defeated and slain 
 by Claudius, a general of the emperor Gallienus. 
 This usurper is known by some medals bearing 
 on one side his head, crowned with rays, as in 
 the annexed fieure, inscription IMP. M. ACIL. 
 AUREOLUS P. F. AUG. on the reverse a 
 goddess, resting on a pillar, with a sceptre 
 in her right hand, a cornucopia in her left, and 
 a globe at her feet, inscription PROV'IDENTIA 
 AUG. 
 
 AUREUS, a Roman gold coin, equal in value 
 to twenty-five denarii, or 100 sesterces. Accord- 
 ing to Ainsworth, the aureus of the higher ein- 
 pire weighed nearly five pennyweights ; and in 
 the lower empire little more than half that weight. 
 Suetonius says, that it was customary to give 
 aurei to the victors in the chariot races. 
 
 Aureus Mons, in ancient geography, 1. A 
 mountain in the north-west of Corsica, whose 
 ridge runs out to the north-east and south-east, 
 forming an elbow. 2. Another of Mcesia Supe- 
 rior, or Servia, south of the Danube, which the 
 emperor Probus planted with vines ; and 3. A 
 town at the foot of it, on the same river. 
 
 AURIA (Vincent), a Sicilian writer, bom at 
 Palermo^, 1625. He was author of several works 
 in Latin and Italian; but the principal are a 
 History of the most eminent Men of Sicily, 
 1704; 'and a History of the Viceroys of Sicily, 
 1697, folio. He died in 1710. 
 
 AURICHxVLCUM, opuxa\Kov, mountain- 
 brass ; from opoc, a mountain, and x^^'^pf » 
 brass ; the metal now called brass being a mix- 
 ture of copper and lapis calaminaris. It is called 
 aurichalcum by Plautus, and onchalcum by 
 Virgil and Horace. Plaut. Mil. act iii. scene 1. 
 V. 64. 
 
 Cedo mihi tres homines aurichalco contra cum istis 
 moribus. 
 
 AURICULA, in botany. See Primula. 
 
 Auricula, in ichthyology, the earwig. 
 
 Auricula Jud.i, or Jew's Ear, a kind of 
 fungus, or mushroom, somewhat resembling in 
 figure a human ear. It grows on elder-trees, the 
 tree on which, as some pretend, Judas hanged 
 himself: and hence, they tliink, the name is de- 
 rived, this fungus steeped in water and applied 
 to the eyes, is said to free them of inflammation ; 
 but its chief use is in the form of a gargle in 
 decoctions against inflammations of the throat, 
 or swellings of tlie tonsils.
 
 288 
 
 AURORA BOREALIS. 
 
 AURICULAR, ) Lat. auricula, tlie flap of 
 AuRic'uLARi.Y. iear; sometimes the ear it- 
 self. Addressed to the ear — as much as to say, 
 to go no further. Private, secret, confidential. 
 
 You shall hear us confer, and by an auricular as- 
 surance have your satisfaction. 
 
 Shakspeare. King Lear. 
 
 The alchymists call in many varieties out of astro- 
 logy, auricular traditions, and feigned testimonies. 
 
 Bacon. 
 
 These will soon confess, and that not auricularly , 
 but in a loud and audible voice. Decay of Piety, 
 
 AURICULATED Leaf, in botany, is a leaf 
 which has a lobe on each side towards the base. 
 
 AURIFLAMMA, in the French history, a 
 standard belonging to the abbey of St. Dennis, 
 suspended over the tomb of that saint, which the 
 religious, on occasion of any war in defence of 
 tlieir land or rights, took down, with great cere- 
 mony, and gave to their protector or advocate, 
 to be borne at the head of their forces. Hence 
 the word is sometimes used to denote the chief 
 flag or standard of an army. 
 
 AURIGA, the waggoner, in astronomy, a 
 constellation of the northern hemisphere, consist- 
 ing of twenty-three stars, according to Tycho ; 
 forty, according to Hevelius; and sixty-eight, in 
 the Britannic catalogue. It is figured as an old 
 man with a goat, her kids in his left iiand, and a 
 bridle in his right. Capella, the goat, is a star 
 of the first magnitude. Its rising was deemed by 
 the ancients a prognostic of rain. 
 
 AURIGNAC, a town of Gascony, the head of a 
 canton, in the department of the Upper Garonne, 
 arrondissement of St. Gaudens. The inhabitants, 
 who amount to about 1230, trade in cattle, and 
 manufacture woollen goods. It is seated on the 
 river Louge, fourteen leagues S. E. of Toulouse. 
 
 AURIGNY, a small island in the English 
 channel, belonging to France, about twenty miles 
 north from Jersey, and seven west of Cape La 
 Hogue. Long. 2° 9' E., lat. 49° 43' N. 
 
 AURIGRAPHUS; from aurum, gold, and 
 ypafio, I write ; in the middle age, writers, a 
 copyist, or calligrapher, who wrote in gold letters. 
 
 AURILLAC, a town of France, on the Jor- 
 dane, in Upper Auvergne. At present it is the 
 cb.ief town in the department of the Cantal. 
 Here are manufactures of woollen stuffs, carpets, 
 slamine, shalloon, and lace; in which, as well as 
 in cattle and cheese, an active trade is carried on. 
 Population 10,332 in 1815. Fifteen leagues south- 
 east of Tulle, and 111 south of Paris. Long. 
 2° 31' E., lat. 44° 55' N. 
 
 AURIOL, a town of France, in the depart- 
 ment of the Douches du Rhone, arrondissement 
 of Marseilles. Here are some woollen manu- 
 factures. Population 3700, five leagues north- 
 cast of Marseilles. 
 
 AURIPIGMENTUM. See Orpiment. 
 
 AURIS, the ear. See Anatomy, Index. 
 
 AuKis AsiNi, ass-ears, a name given by na- 
 turalists to a species of sea-shell, supposed to 
 resemble the ear of an ass. 
 
 AuRis Externa, the auricle. 
 
 AuRis Marina, ear-shell. 
 
 Auris PoRcr, hog's ear, in natural history, a 
 sea-shell, a species of the murex. 
 
 AL'KISCALPUM, an instrument to clean the 
 
 ears, and serving also for other operations in dis- 
 orders of that part. 
 
 AURISPA (John), a Sicilian writer. He 
 was appointed secretary to Nicholas V. from 
 whom he obtained two abbeys. He died at 
 Ferrara, at the end of the fifteenth century. He 
 translated the works of Archimedes, and Hiero- 
 cle's Commentary on the golden verses of Py- 
 thagoras. 
 
 AUROG-ALLUS (Matthew), professor of lan- 
 guages at Wittemberg, was a native of Bohemia; 
 he assisted Luther in his translation of the Bible 
 into German, and wrote a Hebrew and Chaldee 
 Grammar, printed at Basle in 1539. He died 
 in 1543. 
 
 AURIUM Abscissio, cutting off the ears, 
 was a punishment inflicted, by the Saxon laws, 
 on those who robbed churches; afterwards on 
 every thief; andj at length, on divers other cri- 
 minals. 
 
 AURON, a river of France, in the department 
 of Cher, anciently called avara. 
 
 AURORA, in the mythology, the goddess of 
 the morning, was the daughter of Hyperion and 
 Theia, according to Hesiod; but of Titan and 
 Terra, according to others. It was under this 
 name that the ancients deified the light which 
 foreruns the rising of the sun above our hemi- 
 sphere. The poets represent her as rising out of 
 the ocean in a chariot, with rosy fingers dropping 
 gentle dew. Virgil describes her ascending in a 
 flame colored chariot with four horses. She had 
 various lovers, Cephalus, Pandion, Tithonus, 
 &c. Aurora is also used for the morning twi- 
 light, or that faint light which appears in the 
 morning when the sun is within 18° of the horizon. 
 
 Aurora, one of the New Hebrides islands in 
 the South Sea, in which Mr. Forster supposes 
 the Peak d'Etoil, mentioned by Mr. Bouganville 
 to be situated. The island is inhabited; but 
 none of its inhabitants came off to visit Captain 
 Cook. The country is woody, and the vege- 
 tation seemed to be excessively luxuriant. It is 
 about twelve leagues long, but not above five 
 miles broad in any part ; lying nearly north and 
 south. Tiie middle lies in long. 168° 24' E., lat. 
 15° 6' S. 
 
 Aurora Australis, Southern Light, or 
 Streamers, similar to the aurora borealis, or 
 northern light, only more clear and white. See 
 Aurora Borealis. 
 
 Aurora Borealis, Northern Twilight, or 
 Streamers ; a kind of meteor appearing in the 
 northern parts of the heavens, mostly in the 
 winter-time, and in frosty weather. It is now so 
 generally known, that no description is requisite 
 of the appearance which it usually makes in this 
 country. But it is in the arctic regions that it 
 appears most remarkable, particularly during 
 the solstice. In the Shetland islands, the merry 
 dancers, as they are there called, are the constant 
 attendants of clear evenings. They commonly 
 appear at twilight near the horizon, of a dun 
 approaching to yellow ; sometimes continuing 
 for several hours without any sensible motion ; 
 after which they break out into streams of stronger 
 light, spreading into columns, and altering slowly 
 into ten thousand different shapes, varying their 
 colors from all the tints of yellow to the obscurest 
 russet. They often cover the whole licmispliere,
 
 AURORA BOREALIS. 
 
 289 
 
 and then make the most brilliant appearance. 
 Their motions at these times are most amazindy 
 quick ; and they astonish the spectator with the 
 rapid change of tlieir form. They break out in 
 places where none were seen before ; darting 
 along the heavens, are suddenly extinguished, 
 and leave behind an uniform dusky tract. This 
 again is brilliantly illuminated in the same man- 
 ner, and as suddenly left a dull blank. Some- 
 times they assume the appearance of vast co- 
 lumns, on one side of the deepest yellow, on the 
 other declining away till it becomes undistin- 
 guishable from the sky. They have generally a 
 tremulous motion from end to end, which con- 
 tinues till the whole vanishes. In a word, we, 
 who only see the extremities of these northern 
 phenomena, have but a faint idea of their splendor 
 and their motions. According to the state of the 
 atmosphere, they differ in colors. They often 
 put on the color of blood, and make a dreadful 
 appearance. The rustic sages become prophetic, 
 and terrify the gazing spectators with the dread 
 of war, pestilence, and famine. This super- 
 stition was not peculiar to the northern islands ; 
 nor are these appearances of a recent date. Tlie 
 ancients called them Chasmata, and Trabes, and 
 Bolides, according to their forms or colors. The 
 Aurora Borealis in this country, appears usually 
 of a reddish color, inclining to yellow, and sends 
 out frequent coruscations of pale light, which 
 seem to rise from the horizon in a pyramidal un- 
 dulating form, and shooting with great velocity 
 up to the zenith. They appear often in the form 
 of an arch, which is partly bright, and partly 
 dark, but generally transparent : and the matter 
 of them is not found to have any effect on the 
 rays of light, which pass freely through them. 
 Dr. Hamilton observes, that he could plainly 
 discern the smallest speck in the Pleiades 
 through the density of those clouds which 
 formed part of t?ie aurora borealis in 1763, 
 without the least diminution of its splendor, or 
 increase of twinkling. Sometimes it produces 
 an iris ; and hence, M. Godin judges, that most 
 of the extraordinary meteors and phenomena in 
 the skies, related as prodigies by historians, as 
 battles, and the like, may probably enough be 
 reduced to the class of aurora borealis. This 
 kind of nicteor never appears near the equator ; 
 but it seems, is frequent enough towards the 
 south pole, like as towards the north, having 
 been observed there by voyagers. See Philo- 
 sophical Transactions, No. 461, and vol. liv. ; 
 also Forster's account of his voyage round the 
 world with Captain Cook, where he describes 
 iheir appearance, as observed for several nights 
 together, in sharp frosty weather, which was 
 much the same as those observed in the north, 
 excepting that they were of a lighter color. 
 Meteors of this kind have appeared more fre- 
 quently at some periods than others ; whence it 
 would seem, that the air, or earth, or both, is 
 not at all times disposed to produce this pheno- 
 menon. The extent of these appearances is 
 also amazingly great. That which occurred in 
 March, 1716, was visible from the west of Ireland 
 to the confines of Russia, and the east of Poland ; 
 extending at least near thirty degrees of longitude, 
 and from about the fiftieth degree in latitude, over 
 Vol.. III. 
 
 almost all the north of Europe ; and in all places, 
 at the same time, it exhibited the like wondrous 
 appearances. Father lioscovich has determined 
 the height of an aurora borealis, which was ob- 
 served by the marquis of Polini the 16th of 
 December, 1737, and found it was 825 miles 
 high ; and Mr. Bergman, from a mean of thirty 
 computations, makes the average height of the 
 aurora borealis amount to seventy Swedish, or 
 469 English miles. But Euler supposes the 
 height to be several thousands of miles ; and 
 Mairan also assigns to them a very elevated 
 region. Many attempts have been made to de- 
 termine the cause of this phenomenon. Dr. 
 Halley imagines that the vapors, or effluvia, 
 exceedingly rarefied by subterraneous fire, and 
 tinged with sulphureous steams, which many 
 naturalists have supposed to be tlie cause of 
 earthquakes, may also be the cause of this ap- 
 pearance ; or tliat it is produced by a kind of 
 subtle matter, freely pervading the pores of the 
 earth, and which, entering into it nearer the 
 southern pole, passes out again with some force 
 into the lether, at the same distance from the nor- 
 thern. This subtile matter, by becoming more 
 dense, or having its velocity increased, may 
 perhaps be capable of producing a small degree 
 of light, after the manner of effluvia from elec- 
 tric bodies, which, by a strong and quick friction, 
 emit light in the dark ; to which sort of light 
 this seems to have an affinity. On this subject 
 see Philosophical Transactions No. 347 ; and 
 also Mr. Cotes's description of this phenomenon, 
 and his method of explaining it, by streams 
 emitted from the heterogeneous and fermenting 
 vapors of the atmosphere, in Smith's Optics, 
 p. 69. The celebrated M. de Mairan, in an ex- 
 press treatise on the aurora borealis, published 
 in 1731, supposes its cause to be the zodiacal 
 light, which according to him, is no other than 
 the sun's atmosphere ; this light happening, oa 
 some occasions, to meet the upper part of our 
 atmosphere about the limits where universal 
 gravity begins to act more forcibly towards the 
 sun, ialls into our air to a greater or less depth, 
 as its specific gravity is greater or less compared 
 vTith the air through which it passes. However, 
 M. Euler thinks the cause of the aurora borealis 
 not owing to the zodiacal light, as M. de Mairan 
 supposes: but to particles of our atmosphere, 
 driven beyond its limits by the impulse of the 
 solar light. And on this supposition he endea- 
 vours to account for the phenomena observed 
 concerning this light. He supposes the zodiacal 
 light, and the tails of comets, to be owing to a 
 similar cause. Hut ever since the identity of 
 lightning and the electric matter has been de- 
 termined, philosophers have been naturally led 
 to seek for the explication of aerial meteors in 
 the principles of electricity; and there is now 
 no doubt but most of them, and especially the 
 aurora borealis, are electrical phenomena. Be- 
 sides the more obvious and known appearances 
 which constitute a resemblance between this 
 meteor and the electric matter by which lightning 
 is produced, it has been observed tliat the aurora 
 occasions a very sensible fluctuation in the mag- 
 netic needle; and that when it has extended 
 lower than usual in the almo~p!ierP, the flashes 
 
 U
 
 290 
 
 AURORA POREALIS. 
 
 have been attended witli various sounds of 
 rumbling and hissinpr, especially in Russia and 
 the other more northern parts of Europe ; as 
 noticed by Sig. Beccaria and M. Messier.' Mr. 
 Canton, soon after he had obtained electricity 
 from the clouds, offered a conjecture, that the 
 aurora is occasioned by the dashing of electric 
 fire positive towards negative clouds at a great 
 distance, through the upper part of the atmos- 
 phere, where the resistance is least ; and he sup- 
 poses that the aurora which happens at the time 
 when the magnetic needle is disturbed by the 
 heat of the earth, is the electricity of the heated 
 air above it : and this appears chiefly in the 
 northern regions, as tlie alteration in the heat of 
 the air of those parts is the greatest. Nor is this 
 hypothesis improbable, when it is considered, 
 that electricity is the cause of thunder and light- 
 ning ; that it has been extracted from the air at 
 the time of the aurora borealis ; that the inha- 
 bitants of the northern countries observe it re- 
 markably strong, when a sudden thaw succeeds 
 very cold severe weather ; and that the tourmalin 
 is known to emit and absorb the electric fluid 
 only by the increase or diminution of its heat. 
 Positive and negative electricity in the air, with 
 a proper quantity of moisture to serve as a con- 
 ductor, will account for this and other meteors, 
 sometimes seen in a serene sky. Mr. Canton 
 has since contrived to exhibit this meteor by 
 means of the Torricellian vacuum, in a glass 
 tube about three feet long, and sealed her- 
 metically. When one end of the tube is held 
 in the hand, and the other applied to the con- 
 ductor, the whole tube will be illuminated from 
 end to end, and will continue luminous without 
 interruption for a considerable time after it has 
 been removed from the conductor. If, after this, 
 it be drawn through the hand either way, the 
 light will be remarkably intense through the 
 whole length of the tube. And though a great 
 part of the electricity be discharged by this opera- 
 tion, it will still flash at intervals, when held 
 only at one extremity, and kept quite stiU; but 
 if, at the same time, it be grasped by the other 
 hand in a different place, strong flashes of light 
 will dart from one end to the other ; and these 
 will continue twenty-four hours or more, without 
 a fresh excitation. Sig. Baccaria conjectures that 
 there is a constant and regular circulation of the 
 electric fluid from north to south ; and he thinks 
 that the aurora borealis may be this electric mat- 
 ter performing its circulation in such a state of 
 the atmosphere as renders it visible, or approach- 
 ing nearer than usual to the earth ; though pro- 
 bably this is not the mode of its operation, as tlie 
 meteor is observed in tlie southern hemisphere, 
 with the same appearances as in the northern. 
 Dr. Franklin supposes, that the electric fire dis- 
 charged into the polar regions, from many leagues 
 of vaporised air raised from the ocean between 
 the tropics, accounts for the aurora borealis ; and 
 that it appears first where it is first in motion ; 
 namely, in the most northern parts ; and the ap- 
 pearances proceed southward, though the fire 
 really moves northward. Mr. Kirwan, in the 
 Transactions of the Koyal Irish Academy, anno 
 1788, has also some ingenious remarks on the 
 aurora borealis and australis. lie gives his 
 
 reasons for supposing the rarefaction of the at- 
 mosphere in the polar regions to proceed from 
 them, and these from a combustion of inflamma- 
 ble air caused by electricity. He observes, that 
 after an aurora borealis the barometer commonly 
 falls, and high winds from the south generally 
 follow. The only distinct history of this pheno- 
 menon is what we have from Dr. Ilalley, Philoso- 
 phical Transactions, No. 347. Mr. I'orster, who, 
 in his voyage round the world with Captain Cook, 
 assures us, that he observed them in the high 
 southern latitudes, though with phenomena some- 
 what diff'erent from those which are seen here. 
 On February 17th, 1773, as they were in the 
 fifty-eighth degree of south latitude, ' A beautiful 
 phenomenon,' says he, ' was observed during the 
 preceding night, which appeared again tliis and 
 several following nights. It consisted of long 
 columns of a clear white light, shooting up from 
 the horizon to the eastward, almost to the zenith, 
 and gradually spreading on the whole southern 
 part of the sky. These columns were sometimes 
 bent sideways at their upper extremities ; and 
 though in most respects similar to the northern 
 lights (aurorse boreales) of our hemisphere, yet 
 differed from them in being always of a whitish 
 color, whereas ours assume various tints, espe- 
 cially those of a fiery and purple hue. The sky 
 was generally clear when they appeared, and the 
 air sharp and cold, the thermometer standing at 
 the freezing point.' These are what Mr. Kirwau 
 denominates aurora australis. 
 
 M. Libes, in his Nouv. Diet, de Physique, has 
 suggested a new theory, which is adopted by 
 most of the northern philosophers. In his opi- 
 nion electrical light is not the cause of the auror<e 
 boreales ; nor has electricity itself any farther 
 influence upon their existence than as it fixes the 
 aeriform substances whose combinations occasion 
 the meteor. This philosopher's theory is founded 
 upon the following principles : — 1 . If we excite 
 the electric spark in a mixture of azotic and oxy- 
 gen gas, there will result nitric acid, nitrous acid, 
 or nitrous gas, according to the relation tliat sub- 
 sists between the gases which compose the mix- 
 ture. 2. Nitric acid, when exposed to the sun, 
 assumes more color and volatility. Scheele first 
 obser\ed this phenomenon. Libes placed a re- 
 ceiver over a salver containing nitric acid, and 
 exposed to the action of the solar rays. Some 
 minutes after, the acid appeared colored, and the 
 receiver filled with red and volatile vapors, which 
 were sustained in it a long while, and diff'used a 
 light similar to that of the aurora borealis. 3. 
 In flasks, which contain nitrous acid, a ruddy 
 and volatile vapor is always perceived above tlie 
 vapor. 4. Nitrous gas, in contact witli atmos- 
 pheric air, exhales ruddy vapors, which fly off 
 into the atmosphere. 5. The hydrogen, which 
 is disengaged from the surface of the globe, rises 
 till it occupies, in the higher regions of the at- 
 mosphere, a place determined by its specific 
 gravity. 6. The solar heat has very little activity 
 in the polar regions. 
 
 These principles rest upon observations and 
 experiments made with the greatest exactness, 
 and most of them too well known to need being 
 described here. Now it is manifest from a sim- 
 ple combination of these facts: — 1. That the
 
 AURORA BOREALIS. 
 
 291 
 
 l.rofluction of liydrogen must be almost notliing 
 in tliL' polar resjions. 2. That tiie higher reffions 
 of the jiolar atmosphere contain very little if any 
 hydrogen. 3. That whenever there is a re-estab- 
 lishment of equilibrium of the electric fluid in 
 the polar atmosphere, tins fluid can only find in 
 its passage a mixture of azot and oxygen. 4. 
 That the electric spark ought to fix and com- 
 bine these gaseous substances. 5. That from 
 this combination must result a production of 
 nitrous acid, of nitric acid, or of nitrous gas, 
 according to the relation subsisting between the 
 oxygen and azot that constitute the mixture. 6. 
 That the productions of either of these acids, or 
 of tlie gas, will give birth to red and volatile 
 vapors, whose elevation in the atmosphere will 
 form the meteor known under the name of the 
 aurora borealis. 
 
 After removing some general objections to 
 these preliminary notions, M. Libes applies them 
 to the phenomena below : 
 
 1st Phenomenon. — The auroras boreales are 
 sometimes accompanied by slight detonations. 
 
 In the polar regions, the productions of hy- 
 drogen is next to nothing, by reason of the little 
 activity of the solar heat. It is nevertheless true, 
 that in summer the long duration of the sun 
 above the horizon causes even there a heat suf- 
 ficiently considerable to produce the disengage- 
 ment of some small portion of hydrogen, which 
 will rise up to the higher regions of the atmo:;- 
 phere : whence it results, that if the re-establish- 
 ment of equilibrium of the electric fluid takes 
 place in the polar atmosphere, when its superior 
 strata contain this gaseous substance, the electric 
 spark must exert upon it a part of it.s activity, 
 and produce slight detonations. 
 
 2d Phenomenon. — The major part of auroree 
 boreales appear to move from the north towards 
 the south ; though some are seen whose motion 
 is directed towards the east and west. 
 
 The nitric acid, nitrous acid, and nitrous ga.s, 
 which gave birth to auroras boreales, have their 
 origin towards the poles. These substances 
 exhaJe ruddy vapors, which, as they rise in the 
 atmosphere, must direct their motion towards 
 the place where they meet with least resistance ; 
 wliich is, of course, towards the south, where 
 the air, always less dense than about the north, 
 oflers them a more free and easy passage. It 
 may also happen that at the same time these 
 ruddy vapors are formed, a northerly wind may 
 blow in the upper region of the atmosphere, 
 and thus give them a strong impulsion, which, 
 combined with the preceding general tendency 
 southward, may cause a resulting motion to be 
 sometimes southward, at others eastward, or 
 westward. 
 
 3d Phenomenon. — Tlie aurorae boreales some- 
 times exhibit themselves under the form of 
 luminous columns having diffierent figures and dif- 
 ferent directions. Some are cylindrical, others 
 pyramidal, others are curved in the shape of an 
 arc. When they are impelled with much activity, 
 they proceed to the zenith of the spectator. 
 Tliose whose motion is still more rapid, go on 
 beyond the zenith, sometimes even till they reach 
 the Gouthern horizon. They do not always rise 
 directly from the centre of t'le cloudy part to- 
 
 wards the zenith ; hut sometimes take a lateral 
 <lirection, especially when the cloud from whence 
 they spring is found suspended between the north 
 and the east or west. 
 
 When the re-establishment of equilibrium of 
 the electric fluid fixes and combines a great 
 quantity of azote and oxygen, the ruddy vapors 
 resulting from this combination must occupy a 
 large space in the atmosphere. These vapors 
 being of such considerable extent, and impelled 
 from north to south, must sometimes separate 
 from one another, the diff'erent portions receiv- 
 ing various directions ; thus they will be carried 
 sometimes perpendicularly, at others parallel to 
 the horizon ; at others parallel to the earth's 
 axis; whence it follows that the aurora borealis 
 must sometimes appear to the observer in the 
 form of columns, whose number, figure, and 
 direction, are determined by circumstance. It 
 may also sometimes happen that these luminous 
 columns remain for a lime immovable with respect 
 to the horizon. This ought to be the case when- 
 ever a wind impels the luminous cloud towards 
 any part whatever from the south, with the same 
 force as the exhalations are impelled towards it 
 by a contrary wind. 
 
 4th Phenomenon — The aurorae boreales do not 
 all shine with an equally vivid lustre ; some 
 have a mild and tranquil light, others shine with 
 a very resplendent brilliancy. 
 
 Tiie vapors which are disengaged from nitric 
 acid exposed to the solar rays, diffuse a mild 
 light of a clear red, verging towards yellow ; 
 those which are perceived above them from 
 nitrous acid, are of a deep red ; those exhaled 
 from the nitrous gas, in contact with the atmos- 
 pheric air, are at first of a pretty deep red, which 
 afterwards become more and more clear and 
 light, ;is these vapors extend themselve.s more 
 in the atmosphere. The luminous columns, 
 therefore, presented by the aurora borealis, have 
 different colors, according as the ruddy vapors 
 take their rise from the formation of the nitric 
 acid, of the nitrous acid, or of the nitrous gas. 
 Retrospect of Philosophic, Sec. Discoveries, No. 
 8. Our countryman, Mr. Dalton, is of opinion 
 that the aurora borealis is a magnetic phenome- 
 non, the beams being governed by the earth's 
 magnetism. See his Meteorological Essays, 
 and Gregory's Astronomical and Philosophical 
 Lessons. 
 
 Aurora Surgens, in alchemy, a phrase used 
 to express the multiplicative virtue of the philo- 
 sophers' stone. 
 
 AURUM, Latin, gold. See Gold, Chemis- 
 try, and Metallukgy. This metal was in- 
 troduced into medicine by the Arabians, who 
 esteemed it one of the greatest cordi ils and com- 
 forters of the nerves. From them Europe received 
 it without any diminution of its character ; in 
 foreign pharmacopoeias it is still retained, and 
 even mixed with the ingredients from which 
 simple waters are to be distilled. But no one, 
 it is presumed, at this time expects any singular 
 virtues from it, since it certainly is not alterable 
 in the human body. Former chemists endeavour- 
 ed, by many elaborate processes, to extract what 
 they call a sulphur anima, or spirit of gold ; but 
 no method is as yet known of separating the com- 
 
 J 2
 
 AUR 
 
 292 
 
 AUS 
 
 ponent parts of this metal : all the tinctures of it, 
 and aurura potabile, which have hitherto ap- 
 peared, are real solutions of H in aqua regia, 
 diluted with spirit of wine or other liquors, and 
 prove injurious to the body rather than benefi- 
 cial. A place, however, is now given in some of 
 the foreign pharmacopoeias to the aurum fulmi- 
 nans ; and it has been recommended as a remedy 
 in convulsiye diseases, particularly in the chorea 
 sancti viti. 
 
 Aurum FuLMiNANS is a dangerous preparation, 
 and should be used with great caution. A scru- 
 ple of this powder acts more forcibly than half a 
 pound of gunpowder : a single grain laid on the 
 point of a knife, and lighted at a candle, goes off 
 with a greater noise than a musket. Dr. Black 
 attributes the increase of weight, and the explo- 
 sive property of this powder, to adhering fixable 
 air. See Chemistry, Index. 
 
 Aurum Mosaicum, Aurum Musivium, a 
 preparation so called from its golden color, made 
 of mercury, tin, sal ammoniac, and flowers of 
 sulphur. It is recommended in most chronical 
 and nervous cases ; and particularly convulsions 
 of children. Its dose is from four grains to a 
 scruple. It is also used as a pigment, and for 
 mixing with glass, to imitate the spangles of the 
 lapis lazuli. Mosaic gold is composed of 100 tin 
 + 56-25 sulphur, by Dr. John Davy; and of 100 
 tin -}- 52"3 sulphur, by Proi"essor Berzelius ; the 
 mean of which, or 100 + 54-2 is probably cor- 
 rect. It will then consist of 1 prime of tin zz. 
 7-375 -f 2 sulphur =: 40. 
 
 Aurum Potabile, or tincture of gold; a me- 
 dicine formerly in great request, but at present 
 rarely used. It is prepared by mixing essential 
 oil of rosemary with a solution of gold in aqua 
 regia; and after shaking the vessel, the gold is 
 retained in the oil, swimming on the top. The 
 very name imposes on many people, and gives 
 an opportunity to empirics to cheat them ; for 
 they draw tinctures from ingredients whose colors 
 come near to that of gold, and sell them at an 
 exorbitant rate under this title. This sort of 
 deceit generally succeeds best ; for patients are 
 prepossessed in favor of such medicines as cost 
 much, carry .great names, and have a specious 
 appearance. It often happens that these tinctures 
 produce some good effects, because they can 
 make them with such spirituous menstrua, as 
 comfort the heart, and expel ill humors by per- 
 spiration ; then the effect is extolled for a miracle, 
 and attributed to the imaginary gold. 
 
 Aurum Regin^. See Queen-Gold. 
 
 Aurum Sopiiisticum, mimic gold, a chemical 
 preparation made as follows : take fine distilled 
 verdigris, eight ounces ; crude Alexandrian tutty, 
 four ounces ; borax, twelve ounces ; salt-petre, 
 one ounce and a half; pulverise and mix them 
 all together, tempering them with oil to the con- 
 sistence of a plaster ; then put a German crucible 
 into a wind furnace, heat it red hot, and putting 
 your mass into it, let it be covered, and the fur- 
 nace filled with coals over the crucible. When 
 the mass is melted, let it cool of itself, then 
 break the crucible, and you will find at the bot- 
 tom a fine reffulus, like gold, weighing about four 
 ounces, which being malleable may be wrought 
 into any form. 
 
 Aurum Vecetabii.e, Saffron. 
 
 AURUNCI, in ancient geography, a people of 
 Latium, towards Campania ; the same with the 
 Ausones, at least so intermixed as not to be 
 distinguishable, though Pliny makes a distinction. 
 
 AURUNGABAD, (so called from the Mogul 
 Emperor Aureng-zebe), a province of the Deccan, 
 Hindostan, principally divided between the 
 Mahrattas and the Nizan ; the former possessing 
 about three-fourths of its area, and strictly in- 
 cluding the islands of Salsette and Bombay, be- 
 longing to the British. It is bounded on the 
 north by Gujerat, Candesh, and Berar ; on the 
 east by Berar and Hyderabad ; south by Beja- 
 poor and Boeder ; and west by the ocean ; its 
 length being about 300 miles, and its average 
 breadth 160 miles. Although this province is 
 hilly throughout, it gives rise to no rivers of 
 consequence. The Beemah and Godavery, 
 which have their sources in the same neighbour- 
 hood (about thirty miles east of Poonah), are the 
 principal streams. On the banks of .the former 
 are reared the strongest Mahratta horses, called 
 the Beemarheddy breed, and the whole province 
 is fertile, particularly in rice. Its natural fast- 
 nesses have been in numerous places fortified by 
 art ; and under the warlike dominion of the 
 Mahrattas have been rendered at once the se- 
 curity and curse of the country. These fortresses 
 are principally occupied by independent chief- 
 tains, who pay a sort of feudal homage to the 
 Paishwa, but are in reality the lords of the soil. 
 The population is about six millions, consisting 
 mainly of Brahminical Hindoos. Ahmednuggar, 
 Aurungabad, Basseen, Damaura, Dowletabad, 
 and Jalnapoor, are the chief towns. In the article 
 AHMEDNUGGARitwill be seen that an independent 
 sovereignty of that name, which included the 
 greater part of this province,' was established here 
 at the close of the sixteenth century. A few years 
 afterwards (1601 to 1630), we find the province 
 called by the name of another principal town, 
 Dowletaiiad, the seat of the Nizam Shahee dy- 
 nasty, which being taken in 1634 by the Moguls, 
 the government was transferred to Gurka, the 
 former name of the city of Aurungabad. The 
 East India Company's forces at Bombay com- 
 mand the whole of the coast, which swarms with 
 native pirates. See Ahmednuggar. 
 
 Aurungabad, the capital of the above dis- 
 trict, was, under its original name of Gurka, the 
 chief town of the viceroyalty of the Deccan, and 
 the residence of the emperor Aureng-zebe, while 
 viceroy : a circumstance to which it owes, with 
 the province, its present name. It continued to 
 be the capital of a Mogul soubah until the 
 Nizams withdrew their allegiance from the court 
 of Delhi ; it was then for some years the capital 
 of the Nizam's dominions. At present, the capi- 
 tal having been transferred to llyderhabad, Au- 
 rungabad is on the decline ; but there is a noble 
 bazaar here for shawls and silks, and a fine ruin, 
 once the palace of Aureng-zebe. The Fakeer's 
 tomb is also admired. It is distant from Poonah 
 186 miles, and 204 from Bombay. Lat. 19° 46' 
 N., long. 76° 3' E. 
 
 AUSA, a town of Terraconensis, in the middle 
 ai::e called Ausona , now V'ich de Ossoua, a town 
 of Catolina in Spain.
 
 AUS 
 
 293 
 
 AUS 
 
 AUSCH. SeeAucH. 
 
 AUSCI, a people of Gaul, the ancient inhabi- 
 tants of Auch. See Augusta. 
 
 AUSCULTATOR, in ancient customs, a per- 
 son appointed in monasteries to hear the monks 
 read and sing, and to instruct them how to per- 
 form, before they were admitted to read or chant 
 publicly in the church. 
 
 AUSHOSEN, a town in the circle of Suabia, 
 belonging to the house of Austria. Long. 27° 16' 
 E., lat. 48° 15' N. 
 
 AUSI, or AusENSES, an ancient and very 
 savage people of Libya. Herodotus tells us that 
 they were unacquainted with marriage, and had 
 all their women in common. The children were 
 brought up by their mothers till they were -able 
 to walk ; after which they were introduced to an 
 assembly of the men, who met every three 
 months ; and the man to whom any child first 
 spoke, acknowledged himself its father. They 
 celebrated annually a feast in honor of Minerva, 
 in which the girls divided into two companies, 
 and fought with sticks and stones ; those who 
 died of their wounds were concluded not to have 
 been virgins. 
 
 AUSIMUM, or AuxiMUM, an ancient Roman 
 colony in the Picenum ; now Osimo or Osmo, in 
 Ancona. 
 
 AUSIT^, AisiT^, or iEsiT«, a tribe of an- 
 cient Arabs, supposed by Bochart to have in- 
 habited the land of Uz mentioned in Job. See 
 Arabia. 
 
 AUSKERRY, 1. a district in the island of 
 Stronsay, consisting of four holms ; 2. a small 
 pasture isle belonging to the parish, and three 
 miles fropi the island of Stronsay ; and on which 
 there are the ruins of an old chapel, and of a 
 bouse called the Monker, or Monk's house. 
 
 AUSONA, in ancient geography, a town of 
 tlie Ausones. 
 
 AUSON, a son of Ulysses and Calypso, from 
 %\hom the Ausones are descended. 
 
 ArS'ONES, or ArsoNii, a people who an- 
 ciently occupied all the Lower Italy, from the 
 f'romontorium Circaeum, down to the straits of 
 Sicily, but were afterwards reduced to a much 
 narrower compass ; viz. between the Montes 
 Circoei and Massici : nor did they occupy the 
 whole of this, but other people were intermixed. 
 
 AUSONIA, the ancient name of Italy, from 
 its earliest inhabitants the Ausones. 
 
 AUSONIUM Mare, in ancient geography, a 
 part of the Ionian sea, extending southwards 
 from the promontory Japygium, to Sicily, which 
 it washes on the east, as it does the Brutii and 
 Magna Grascia on the south and east. It is 
 separated from the Tuscan sea by the straits of 
 Messina. 
 
 AUSONIUS (Decius, or Decimus Magnus), 
 one of the best poets of the fourth century, was 
 the son of an eminent physician, and born at 
 Bourdeaux. Great care was taken of his edu- 
 cation, either because his genius was very pro- 
 mising, or that the scheme of his nativity, which 
 liad been cast by his grandfather, made them 
 imagine that he would rise to great honor. He 
 made an uncommon progress in classical learn- 
 ing; at the age of thirty he was chosen to teach 
 grammar at Bourdeaux ; and afterwaids pro- 
 
 moted to be professor of rhetoric ; in which office 
 he acquired so great a reputation, that he was 
 sent for to be preceptor to Gratian, the emperor 
 Valentinian's son. He was afterwards appointed 
 consul, by his pupil Gratian,thenen.peror, A.D. 
 379 ; and besides the dignity of questor, to 
 which he had been nominated by Valentinian, 
 he was made prefect of the Praetorium in Italy 
 and Gaul, after that prince's death. His speech, 
 returning thanks to Gratian on his promotion to 
 the consulship, is highly commended. He lived 
 to a great age. The emperor Theodosius had a 
 great esteem for him, and pressed him to publish 
 his poems. There is a great inequality in his 
 works, and in his style there is a harshness which 
 was perhaps rather the defect of the times he 
 lived in, than of his genius. According to Lem- 
 priere, he did not take proper time to correct his 
 poems, but hurried them to publication, which 
 may be the cause of many faults. One valuable 
 performance, the Consular Fasti, is now lost. 
 He is generally supposed to have been a Chris- 
 tian. The best edition of his poems is that of 
 Amsterdam, in 1671. They were printed at 
 Paris, with a French translation, in 1769. 
 
 AusPEx, a name originally given to those who 
 were afterwards denominated augurs. It is 
 formed from avis, a bird, and inspicere, to in- 
 spect ; auspices, q. d. avispices. Some will have 
 auspices only to denote those who foretold future 
 events from the flight of birds. 
 
 AUS'PICATE, V. & adj.-\ Lat. arwspeT, from 
 Aus'picE, / ai;js, a bird, the ob- 
 
 Aus'picY, Ssolete spicere, to 
 
 Aus'picious, i look ; to take fa- 
 
 Aus'piciousLY. J vorable omens from 
 
 birds ; but in a less formal and official manner 
 than by augury. To foretel good fortune, pros- 
 perity, &c. Auspicious is synonymous with fa- 
 vorable, prosperous. 
 
 Know tlias far forth j 
 By accident most strange, bountiful fortune 
 (Now my dear lady) hath mine enemies 
 ijrought to this shore , and by my prescience 
 I find my zenith doth depend upon 
 A most auspicious star ; whose influence 
 If now I court not, but omit, my fortunes 
 Will ever after droop. Shakspeare. Tempeit. 
 
 None of their kindred met ; the knot they ty 
 Silent ; content with Brutus auspicy. 
 
 May's Lucan, book ii. 
 'I'hus were their loves autpiciously begun. 
 And thus with secret care were carried on. 
 
 Dryden's Fables. 
 Skilled in the wing'd inhabitants of the air. 
 What auspices their notes and flight declare ; 
 O '. say — for all religious rites portend, 
 A happy voyage and a prosp'rous end. Dryden, 
 
 But so may he live long, that town to sway. 
 Which by his auspice they will nobler make. 
 As he will hatch their ashes by his stay. Id. 
 
 AuspiciuM, Auspicy, the same with Augury. 
 Servius, indeed, distinguishes between auspicy 
 and augury; making auspicy comprehend the 
 consideration of all things ; augury only of cer- 
 tain things. 
 
 AUSPITZ, a town of Moravia, in the circle 
 of Brunn, belonging to the prince of Lichten- 
 stein. Here are held large cattle markets which
 
 294 
 
 AUSTRALASIA. 
 
 are attended by a number of graziers from Hun- 
 gary. Population 2215. Forty-two miles S.S.W. 
 of Olmutz. 
 
 AUSTER, one of the four cardinal winds, as 
 Servius calls them, blowing from the south. 
 AUSTE'RE, -^ Lat. austerus; from avu, 
 luse harsh taste:} 
 Harsh, dis- 
 ;he moral taste, 
 rigorous, severe. 
 
 My unsoil'd name, th' amtereness of my life. 
 May vouch against you ; and my place i' th' state 
 Will so your accusation overweigh. Shahspeare. 
 
 Now, Marcus Cato, our new consul's spy. 
 What is your sour austerity sent t' explore ? 
 
 Ben Jonson. 
 What was that snaky-headed Gorgon shield 
 That wise Minei-va wore, unconquer'd virgin. 
 Wherewith she freez'd her foes to congeal'd stone. 
 But rigid looks of chaste austerity, 
 And noble grace, tl.at dash'd brute violence 
 With sudden adoration and blank awe ? Milton, 
 
 Th' austere and pond'rous juices they sublime 
 Make them ascend the porous soil, and climb 
 The orange tree, the citron, and the lime. 
 
 Blackinorc. 
 Compos'd in gait. 
 Austerely grave and thoughtful, on his shield 
 The democratic majesty he bore 
 Of Athens. Glover's Leonidas, book vii. 
 
 Austere implies also rough or astringent. 
 Thus an austere taste is such a one as constringes 
 the mouth or tongue ; as that of unripe fruits, 
 harsh wines, vitriol, alum, &c. Austere sub- 
 stances, says Mr. Chalmers, differ from acerb 
 ones, 'in that they constringe the mouth and 
 tongue less, and are void of acidity. 
 
 AUSTJ^RLITZ, or Slawkow, a small town 
 of Moravia, in the circle of Brunn, twelve miles 
 east of Brunn, belonging to the prince ofKaunitz 
 Rielberg. Population about 1620. This town 
 will be long, memorable in history for the great 
 battle fought near it on the 2d of December, 
 1803, the anniversary of Buonaparte's coronation, 
 between the French under him, and the united 
 forces of Austria and Russia, under their respec- 
 tive emperors. The armies it appears were 
 nearly equal, being about 70,000 men each. 
 Buonaparte, by feigning a retreat, drew the allies 
 to a spot which he had selected for giving battle ; 
 and he bivouacked on the field, after having 
 spent most of the night in giving orders. The 
 battle commenced with the da-wning light. After 
 a cannonade of several hours the allied right and 
 centre were routed ; and their left, which had 
 been more successful in the outset, was compel- 
 led to give way. The defeat was signal ; but 
 the approach of night prevented pursuit ; the state 
 of ^the roads compelled the allies to abundon 
 most of their artillery, and forty standards ; all 
 the baggage and ammunition of the allies, and 
 120 pieces of cannon, remained in the hands of 
 tht) French. The French are supposed to have 
 lost 13,000 men in killed and wounded; and 
 llie Austro-ltussians three times the number. 
 It is certain that so many wounded were left on 
 the field by the allies, that they could not all be 
 dressed until two days after the battle. Near 
 this place an interview'iminediately took place be- 
 tween the emperor of Austria and Buonaparte, in 
 
 a mill, and the preliminaries of an humiliating 
 peace were agreed to. But the emptror Alex- 
 ander refused to become a parly to it, and suc- 
 ceeded, though under every difficulty, in effecting 
 his retreat homeward. 
 
 AUSTIN (William), an English author, was a 
 barrister of Lincoln's Inn. He wrote a book en- 
 titled liffic Homo, or the Excellency of Women, 
 12mo. ; in which he seems to have borrowed 
 very freely from Agrippa's De Nobilitate at Prae- 
 cellentia Fceminei Sexus. He wrote also Medi- 
 tations on the principal Fasts and Feasts of the 
 Church, which were published in folio, 1637, 
 after his death. 
 
 Austin (St.) See Augustine, St. 
 
 AUSTRALASIA, or Australia, is a new 
 and fifth great division of the globe, originally 
 suggested by a learned foreigner, M. le President 
 de Brosses of Paris ; but whose principal parts 
 have been explored by Englishmen, and which 
 has been colonised solely from this country. It 
 comprehends a tract of ocean, bounded on the 
 north by the equator, east by a line drawn on 
 the 186th degree of east longitude, to the 55th 
 degree of south latitude, south by the 55th 
 parallel, and west by a line drawn from the 
 north-west Cape of Hapau, on the east of the 
 islands of Mysol, Timorlaut and Ceram, to the 
 65th degree of east longitude on the 55th 
 parallel ; making an irregular four-sided figure, 
 extending upwards of 5000 miles in average 
 breadth from east to west, and about 3200 miles 
 from north to south. 
 
 Australasia is, therefore, a maritime division of 
 the globe, in distinction from the older terrene 
 divisions of Europe, Asia, Africa, and America; 
 it is, altogether, a classification of islands, having 
 no one continent of this name, including, as the 
 other divisions of the world, various kingdoms 
 circumscribed by one shore ; so far it is an 
 anomaly in geographical classification. ' But in 
 this immense extent of regions, which are to 
 form the object of researches about to be de- 
 tailed,' says M. de_' Brosses (Histoire des Navi- 
 gations aux Terres Australes), ' how numerous 
 are the diff'erent countries, climates, manners, and 
 races of mankind ! The sight would be dazzled 
 and confounded if care were not taken to re- 
 lieve it, and fix its attention, by divisions irarked 
 from distance to distance.' On these grounds 
 he proposed, together with a classification of the 
 islands of the Pacific, under the name of Poly- 
 nesia, to include New Holland, New Guinea, 
 New Zealand, and the islands in tJaeir neigh- 
 bourhood, under the collective name of Aus- 
 tralasia, an arrangement that has been latterly 
 adopted by most respectable writers. Some 
 have preferred the term Australia, as more con- 
 sonant to the primitive appellation. Terra Aus- 
 tralis, or Southern Land. 
 
 The progress of tlie discovery of this immense 
 region may be correctly united, with the common 
 features of its various parts, under this collective 
 article. The history of particular settlements 
 will be found under Botany Bay, New Hci,- 
 
 LAND, NoiiroLK ISLAND, VaN DiEMEn's LaND, 
 
 &c. in their alphabetical positions in our work. 
 We present the reader with a Chronological 
 Table of the discovery of the islands of Australasia..
 
 AUSTRALASIA. 
 
 A Chronological Table of the discover!/ of the IsUmds of Amlralasia. 
 
 295 
 
 Papua or 
 Guinea. 
 
 New 
 
 WHEN 
 DISCOVERED. 
 
 2. New Holland, 
 
 I. Solomon's Islands 
 
 Of which the prin. 
 cipal are — 
 
 Buonavista, 
 
 Florida, 
 
 Galera, 
 
 Guadalcanar, 
 
 Santa Ysabel, 
 
 San Christoval, 
 
 San Catarina, 
 
 Santa Ana, 
 . New Hebrides, 
 According to Cook, 
 Tierra des Espiritu 
 
 Santo, 
 St. Bartholemew, 
 Mallicola, 
 Isle of Lepers, 
 Aurora, 
 Whitsuntide, 
 Amtrym, 
 Apee, 
 Paoom, 
 Three Hills, 
 Sandwich, 
 Montagu, 
 Hichinbrook, 
 Shepherd's Isles, 
 Erromango, 
 Tanna, 
 Inmer, 
 Annatom, 
 Erronan, 
 
 New Britain, New 
 Ireland, &c. ; a 
 group not fully 
 ascertained. To the 
 N. W. are the Ad- 
 niiralty Isles. 
 
 6. Van Diemen's Land 
 
 New Zealand, hav- 
 ing to the east Chat- 
 ham Island, 
 
 1526. 
 
 Supposed to 
 be uncertain 
 Marked in 
 Map in the Bri- 
 tishMuseumin 
 1542; first au- 
 thentic account 
 of its being 
 visited, dated 
 1606. 
 
 y 1567. 
 
 { 
 
 BY WHOM. 
 
 INHABITANTS. 
 
 The Portuguese, under Black Negroes ; much resem- 
 D. Forge de Meneses. bling those of Guinea. 
 
 The Dutch, in the Duy 
 xen yacht. About the 
 same time the Spani 
 ards visited it under 
 Torres, and F. deQui 
 ros. 
 
 The Spaniards, under 
 Alonso de Mandana. 
 Not again visited until 
 by Carteret, in 1717. 
 
 1606. 
 
 Ditto ; a remarkably barba- 
 rous race; — 'all of them of 
 the most unpleasant look, 
 and the worst features of 
 any people I ever saw 
 though I have seen a 
 variety of savages,' 
 Dampierre. 
 
 great 
 says 
 
 very 
 
 Inhabitants, cannibals 
 Many of the islands 
 fertile. Extend from S, 
 lat. 5° to 11°, E. long. 155"^ 
 to 162° 30'. 
 
 C 1616. 
 
 1642— 
 as an island 
 in 1798. 
 
 1642. 
 Chatham 
 
 I island 
 V1791. 
 
 The Spaniards, under F. 
 de Quiros, and L. V. 
 de Torres. — Explored 
 by Captain Cook in 
 1774, who gave them 
 their present name. 
 
 The Spaniards, under Le 
 Maire and Schouten. 
 
 The Dutch, under Abel 
 Jansen Tasman. — The 
 British, Capt. Flinders 
 and Mr. Bass. 
 
 The Dutch, under Abel 
 J. Tasman.— By Mr. 
 
 Broughton when with 
 
 \'aiicouver. 
 
 Inhabitants, more civilised, at 
 Tanna the negro character 
 disappears. The country 
 very fruitful and agreeable ; 
 and, in some of them laid 
 out in well fenced planta- 
 tions. The Terra del Es- 
 piritu Santo, the principal of 
 tlie group, lies in S. lat, 14° 
 30', E. long. 167° 30'. 
 
 Inhabitants of New Britain 
 and Ireland black negroes 
 Inhabitants of the Admiralty 
 Isles of a lighter color, and 
 approaching the Malay cha- 
 racter. All the islands fer 
 tile and well watered : lying 
 in a crescent, whose centre 
 lies in S. lat. 50°, E. long, 
 150°. 
 
 A similar race. Called after 
 the Dutch governor of the 
 East Indies, Anthony Van 
 Diemen. 
 
 Inhabitants remarkably strong, 
 active, and barbarous. Have 
 at the same time singular 
 traces of civilisation amongst 
 tl'em.
 
 296 AUSTRALASIA. 
 
 A Chronological Table of the Discovery of the Islands of Australasia — continued. 
 
 WHEN 
 DISCOVERED. 
 
 BY WHOM. 
 
 INHABITANTS. 
 
 St. Paul 
 sterdam . 
 
 and Am- 
 
 Kerguelen's Land, 
 or Island of Desola-l 
 tion 
 
 10. New Caledonia. 
 
 1696. 
 
 1772. 
 
 1774. 
 
 The Dutch, under Yla- 
 ming. 
 
 iThe French under M. de 
 Kerguelen. 
 
 iThe British, under Capt. 
 I Cook. 
 
 Uninhabited. Amsterdam a 
 volcanic production, if not 
 the crater of an immense 
 vol'cano, scarcely cool, and 
 abounding with hot water 
 springs. Seals are caught on 
 the shore in large quantities. 
 
 Uninhabited and barren. 
 
 Inhabitants, affable, honest, and 
 of light complexion. The 
 country comparatively barren, 
 occasionally laid out in plan- 
 tations. 
 
 We have thus exhibited the leading features 
 of this extensive division of the globe, in the 
 order in which they became known to Europe ; 
 but must not omit to notice the coral reefs and 
 islets with which the Australasian seas abound. 
 These are seen in every league of sea, and ac- 
 cording to Dalrymple, in 'all stages' of their 
 formation. Capt. Flinders, who was wrecked on 
 one of them, conjectures, ' that when the ani- 
 malculse, which form the coral at the bottom of 
 the ocean, cease to live, their structures adhere 
 to each other, by virtue either of the glutinous 
 rema-ining within, or of some property in salt 
 water ; and the interstices being gradually filled 
 up with sand and broken pieces of coral washed 
 by the sea, which also adhere, a mass of rock is 
 at length formed. Future races of these ani- 
 malculse erect their habitations upon the rising 
 bank, and die in their turn, to increase, but 
 principally to elevate, this monument of their 
 wonderful labors.' It is pretty well authenti- 
 cated that these submarine laborers uniformly 
 build the outer part of their erection perpen- 
 dicularly from the very bottom of the deepest 
 seas. As it rises to the surface, and out of the 
 ■water, salt plants, vegetable matter of various 
 descriptions, floating wreck and other accumula- 
 tions attach themselves to it ; ' we had w^heat- 
 sheafs, mushrooms, stag's horns, cabbage-leaves, 
 and a variety of other forms, glowing under 
 water,' says Capt. Flinders, ' with vivid tints of 
 every shade betwixt green, purple, brown, and 
 white.' The dung of birds and the various seeds 
 and other food they occasionally scatter, are 
 fruitful sources of the growth of these extraordi- 
 nary productions of the deep; some are seen 
 considerably below the water, others just ap- 
 pearing above its surface ; some as barren rocks 
 with no indications of soil ; others with a thin 
 layer of earth, or a few weeds on the highest 
 part ; and others, again, well clolned with soil 
 and even with timber. The recent navigator of 
 these seas, whom we have quoted, describes 
 himself as having to seek fourteen days, and 
 sail upwards of 500 miles amongst that range of 
 these reefs and islets which environs the eastern 
 coast of New Holland, before he could find a 
 passage through tliem to the open sea. 
 
 In no part of the globe can greater extremes 
 of barrenness and fertility occur than in the 
 various islands comprehended in Australasia. 
 On the shores of New Holland, its most pro- 
 minent feature, we find fruitful plains covered 
 with verdure eastward, and on the south and 
 south-western coast nothing but naked hillocks 
 of sand ; ' so uniform,' says M. D'Entiecasseaux, 
 ' that the most fruitful imagination could find 
 nothing to say of it.' This island, indeed, if 
 such it is to be called, almost equal in size to 
 the whole of continental Europe, presents of 
 itself an unequalled and almost unexplored field 
 for geological enquiry; the outline of the western 
 coast is not filled up ; and some recent journeys 
 into the interior, from our colony on the eastern 
 shore, have disclosed an extensive series of as 
 promising lands, watered by some noble rivers, 
 within 140 miles of Sidney, as are found in any 
 part of the world. See New Holland. 
 
 The natives of Australasia are for the major 
 part, of a decisively African or negro character ; 
 and nowhere is human nature formed in a more 
 degrading slate. An enormous head, flat coun- 
 tenance, and long, slender extremities, mark 
 their physical conformation, together with an 
 acuteness of sight and hearing ; but, often half- 
 starved, their strength is generally less than that 
 of the inhabitants of other climes. In no part 
 of these seas is the population great. Not more 
 than 20,000 inhabitants have been seen on 
 all the coasts of these islands taken together. 
 Of natural affections, little, of course, appears, 
 and of religion, absolutely nothing. Mothers 
 have scarcely the regard of the brute creation 
 for their offspring. They will commonly procure 
 abortion by violent means ; and sometimes adopt 
 the horrible expedient of burying their children 
 alive, to be freed of the trouble of them. An 
 inhabitant of New Holland knocks down the 
 woman of his choice with a club, in the pre- 
 sence of her friends, and takes her into the 
 woods, while in a state of insensibility. Here 
 the alliance is preserved as long as he finds it 
 convenient ; he then deserts her for a new wife, 
 who is similarly obtained. 
 
 No quadrupeds larger than the kangaroo are 
 found here, and none whatever in many of t^e
 
 AUSTRIA. 
 
 297 
 
 islands. This animal was first described by 
 Captain Cook, who found it while with a shooting 
 party on the coast of New South Wales in 1770. 
 It is peculiar to this part of the world, but has 
 been found to breed well in England. There is 
 also a small animal peculiar to Australasia, 
 called the wombat, of the bear tribe, but re- 
 markably tame. The most extraordinary animal, 
 however, of this, or perhaps of any other region, 
 is the omithoryneus paradoxus, or duck-bill ; a 
 quadruped with the beak of a duck. Dr. Shaw 
 was so astonished at this apparent mixture of bird 
 and quadruped in its formation, that when the 
 first specimen was exhibited to him at the Bri- 
 tish Museum, he suspected it to be an attempt 
 at imposition. ' Nor is it without a minute ex- 
 rimination,' says this distinguished naturalist, 
 ' that we can persuade ourselves of its being the 
 genuine snout of a quadruped. The body is de- 
 pressed, and has some resemblance to that of an 
 otter in miniature ; it is covered with a very 
 thick sort of beaver, like fur, and is of a mo- 
 derately dark brown color above, and of a sub- 
 ferruginoiis white beneath, with some variety as 
 to intensity of color in different animals. The 
 head is flattish, and rather small than large ; the 
 tail flat, furry, like the body, rather short and ob- 
 tuse, with an almost bifid termination ; it is broad 
 at the base, and gradually lessens to the tip. The 
 general length of the animal, from the tip of the 
 beak to the end of the tail, seems to be from 
 thirteen or fourteen, to eighteen inches. The legs 
 are very short, terminating in a broad web, and 
 claws which on the fore feet are five in number, 
 straight, strong, and pointed ; but on the hind 
 feet in the male, are six claws, the sixth or in- 
 terior one being seated much higher up than the 
 rest, and resembling a long sharp spur.' Dr. Shaw 
 first described this animal in his Naturalist's 
 Miscellany, under the title of Platypus animus. 
 
 Numerous tribes of beautiful birds are seen 
 here. The bird of Paradise, so long spoken of 
 in Europe as wanting feet ; paraquets, cocka- 
 toos, a singular species of cassowary, and 
 a black swan. Immense whales, seals, and dol- 
 phins, crowd upon the shores, where a large 
 cuttle fish is sometimes seen, having the ap- 
 pearance of a cask upon the water, and stretching 
 out its tentecula to the length of seven or eight 
 feet. The tribe of moUuscas is also singularly 
 rich. One species of marine fucus has been 
 found to reach from the bottom of the sea to the 
 surface, on a stem from 2,50 to 300 feet in length. 
 
 The botany of this region is as curious and 
 novel as any other of its features. Mr. Brown, 
 
 who accompanied Captain Flinders, and who 
 had the magnificent botanical collections of Sir 
 Joseph Banks under his charge, has arranged a 
 Flora Terra Australis, containmg 4.200 species 
 referable to 120 natural orders, eleven of those 
 orders containing about half the species. In 
 Van Dieman's Land, the gum-tree (of which 100 
 different species are found) not unfrequently at- 
 tains the height of 150 feet, with a girth near the 
 base of from twenty-five to forty feet. The gum 
 of this tree is medicinal, and that of one spe- 
 cies makes very good pitch. It also furnishes, 
 together with the sasuarina, excellent timber for 
 ship-building, agricultural implements, or do- 
 mestic furniture. 
 
 There can be no question that the supposed 
 existence of an immense contment in the Sou- 
 thern Ocean first invited the navigators of the 
 sixteenth and seventeenth centuries to explore 
 these important islands ; nor was the idea of its 
 existence wholly abandoned until the discoveries 
 of Captain Cook. The name of Terra Aus- 
 tralis Incognita was given to this feature of 
 science ; and upon no point were geographers 
 more agreed than respecting its existence, although 
 its limits were variously defined. Even in the 
 year 1770, ' the great southern continent' was 
 declared by INIr. Dalrymple, in his Historical 
 Collections, to be no longer a matter ' for dis- 
 covery ;' that 'it extended from 30° south, to 
 the pole ; and that the number of its inhabitants 
 was probably more than 50,000,000 ;' while ' the 
 countries intermediate' between the east and 
 west points, ' equal in extent all the civilisetl 
 part of Asia, from Turkey to China inclusive.' 
 Thus the supposed extension of the East Indies 
 round to the west, allured Columbus to the ar- 
 duous enterprize that resulted in the discovery 
 of tlie western world ; and thus some harmless 
 errors, pursued with humility, are kindly allowed 
 by providence to lead us to truth. 
 Australis Corona. See Coko.na Avstralis. 
 AtsTRALis Pisces, the Southern Fish, is a 
 constellation of the southern hemisphere, not 
 visible in our latitude : whose stars, in Ptolemy's 
 catalogue, are eii;hteen, and in the Britannic 
 catalogue, twenty-four. 
 
 AUSTKALIZE. From auster, the south. To 
 point towards the south. 
 
 Steel and good iron discover a verticity, or polar 
 faculty ; whereby they do septentriate at one extreme, 
 £Lnd amtralize at another. Brown's Vulgar Errourt. 
 AUSTRASIA, the ancient name of, I.Lor- 
 raine, in France; and, 2. of Westrick, in Ger- 
 many. 
 
 AUSTRIA. 
 
 AUSTRIA, in geography, a country of Ger- 
 many, the Upper Pannonia of the ancients, de- 
 riving its modern name from tlie French and 
 Italian pronunciation of (Esterich ; in High Ger- 
 man, (Esterreich; a name which sienifies the 
 eastern kingdom, alluding to the geographical 
 position of the province with respect to the more 
 western parts of Germany, and which w;ls 
 originally applied to the circle of Austria, the 
 patrimonial possession of the first grand dukes. 
 
 The Circle of Avstuta is the largest of the 
 ten circles or divisions of the German empire, 
 bounded on the east by Hungary, south by 
 Italy and Croatia, west by Switzerland, and 
 north by Suabia, Bohemia, and Moravia. ^ It 
 comprehends Austria Proper, Styria, Carintaia, 
 and Caniiola dutchies, the country of Tyrol, the 
 principalities of Buxen and Trent, part of Iriuli 
 and tiic Littonale, \oralberg, certain districts in 
 Suabia, and several domains belonging to the
 
 298 
 
 AUSTRIA. 
 
 Teutonic order ; tos;ether with Saltzburg and part 
 of Passau, which have been added since 1802. 
 Of this extensive circle, tlie four general divi- 
 sions of Upper Lower, Anterior, and Interior 
 -Austria liave been formed, corresponding wuth 
 their administration by the chancery at Vienna; 
 tlie whole including an area of 29,940 square 
 miles, and a population of nearly 5,000,000. 
 The Arcudvchy of Avstria, otherwise called 
 Austria Proper, or the Hereditary States of the 
 house of Austria, forms tlie upper and lower di- 
 visions of this circle, into which it is divided by 
 the flovvinij: of the river Ens. It is bounded on 
 the north by Bohemia and Moravia, on the east 
 by Hungary, on the south by Styria, and on 
 the west by Saltzburs: and Bavaria, compre- 
 hending an area of 12,092 square miles, and a 
 population of nearly two millions of inhabitants. 
 ( )f the two divisions of this archduchy, Lower 
 Austria is the most important, containing, on a 
 surface of 7788 square miles, thirty-eight cities, 
 241 towms, 4327 villages; and by the last census, 
 1,100,000 inhabitants. It is made to consist of 
 four subordinate divisions, lying upon the two 
 opposite banks of the Danube. On the south 
 bank the quarter ' above the forest of \'ienna,' 
 and * the quarter below the forest of Vienna.' 
 On the north bank the c[uarter 'above the 
 Mannhartsberg,' and ' the quarter below Mann- 
 hartsberg.' . Upper Austria, containing an area of 
 5104 square miles, and including fourteen cities, 
 ninety-two towns, 6411 villages; and, according 
 to the late census, 629,945 population; is also di- 
 vided into four subordinate territories, those of 
 
 theTraun, Hansruck, and Inn, on die south bank 
 of the Danube, and that of JNIuhl on the north. 
 The archdukes of Austria were originally ex- 
 empt from the jurisdiction of the high courts of 
 the empire, took precedency of princes of the 
 blood, and had the power of creating counts, 
 barons, and other nobility. According to the 
 Pragmatic sanction of 1713, the succession 
 to this archduchy is hereditary, females not ex- 
 cluded. The revenue is about 24,000,000 
 florins, 20,000,000 of which are contributed by 
 the country below the I'ns. The states, how- 
 ever, assemble but seldom, and have but a very 
 contracted influence in the management of na- 
 tional concerns. 
 
 The Empire of Austria, besides the pro- 
 vinces of the same name, including the arch- 
 duchy and other territories" described above, 
 comprehends many ancient kingdoms and states 
 w^hich were originally independent. It is situated 
 in the middle of eastern Europe, and is bounded 
 by Piedmont, Switzerland,- and Bavaria, on the 
 w est ; Bavaria, Silesia, and Poland on the liorth ; 
 Russia, Moldavia, and Wallachia, on the east; 
 Turkey, the Adriatic, and ^Middle Italy on the 
 south. The nortliern part of the empire stretches 
 into Bohemia, and the southern into the ter- 
 ritory of Caitano, in the region of Dalmatia. It 
 has received several augmentations of territory at 
 difl'erent periods, and includes a number of na- 
 tions, all differing in their lineage, customs, 
 languages, and habits, but forming one solid 
 and compact political body, and subsisting at 
 present under one general name. 
 
 The following table presents a view of its great component parts, as settled by the 
 last peace, or in 1816 : — 
 
 COUNTRIES. 
 
 Square Miles. 
 
 Inhabitants. 
 
 Computed Re- 
 venue in Ster- 
 ling Money. 
 
 Circle of A^ustria ......... 
 
 Saltzburg, Berchtolsgade, and Passau . . . 
 
 Bohemia 
 
 Moravia 
 
 Austrian Silesia 
 
 45,760 
 4,378 
 
 20,900 
 
 10,296 
 1,826 
 
 53,400 
 
 130,920 
 
 15,136 
 8,052 
 
 4,400 
 
 1,320 
 
 4,222,700 
 255,000 
 
 3,112,000 
 
 1,364,000 
 286,000 
 
 4,934,000 
 
 9,400,000 
 
 I 2,894,000 
 
 1,350,000 
 108,700 
 
 £4,000,000 
 140,000 
 
 2,000,000 
 700,000 
 150,000 
 
 1,600,000 
 
 1,800,000 
 
 1,500,000 
 
 400,000 
 20,000 
 
 Galicia, witli the Bukowine 
 
 Hungary, including Transylvania, Sclavonia, ^ 
 
 and Austrian Croatia S 
 
 Venetian territories, including Istria . . • 
 Dalmatia, vnth Cattaro, Ragusa, and the islands 
 Lombardy, viz. the territories of Milan and } 
 
 ■Mantua i 
 
 Lordships of Valteline, Bormio,and Chiavenne. 
 
 Tcital in round numbers 
 
 300,000 
 
 28,000,000 
 
 12,000,000 
 
 In 1318, Mr. I Jchtenstern states the extent of the 
 empire, exclusively of the dependent states, at 
 250,000 square; English miles; and the population 
 at 28,207,882. 
 
 The natural features of Austria are very 
 magnificent ; the southern parts highly romantic : 
 the scenes and landscapes of Carinthia, Carniola, 
 and Dalmati?!, have long been celebrated as 
 some of the m ost perfect in the Alpine regions ; 
 
 whilst detached hills and chains of mountains 
 bulge in irregular figures all over the northern dis- 
 tricts, uniting themselves with the great Carpathian 
 chain, the natural boundary of Hungary and 
 Transylvania. But the Tyrol stands pre-emi- 
 nent for its rich variety of picturesque scenery. 
 Bold mountains and defiles, lakes and glaciers, 
 cataracts and cascades, rivers, woods, and val- 
 leys, shaded with great beauty, bestovvcd in the
 
 AUSTRIA. 
 
 299 
 
 different grounds of the picture, irregularly 
 grouped and brought, unite in the same sweep of 
 praspect, and overwhelm the mind of the spec- 
 tator with unutterable emotions. 
 
 The highest mountains belong to the central 
 part of the empire; namely, to Styria, Carin- 
 thia, and Canriola, where they frequently reach 
 the height of 4000 feet. ITie snowy mountain, 
 in the hereditary states, is of vast altitude, and 
 may be seen from the ramparts of \'ienna every 
 clear day. The elevated ramifications of the 
 Alps and Carpathian mountains, witli the cir- 
 cular barrier of Bohemia and other ranges, 
 spread themselves over very extensive regions of 
 the Austrian empire, and under various names 
 and forms stretch from the borders of Switzer- 
 land to the confines of Russia. 
 
 The interior of Austria is - intersected by 
 noble rivers. The Danube is altogether, per- 
 haps, the most rapid and majestic. This 
 river, winding its course from the north-west to 
 the south-east, divides the whole empire into 
 two distinct parts. It receives into its bosom up- 
 wards of forty tributary streams before it enters 
 the Austrian dominions, and afienvards an acces- 
 sion of one hundred more before it enters the Eux- 
 ine Sea. The rivers that empty themselves into 
 this grand emporium of waters are many of them 
 of considerable magnitude, and chiefly take their 
 rise in the mountains already enumerated. The 
 Thesis originates in the eastern part of the Car- 
 pathian range, and is at first a fine, clear, and 
 rapid stream. It flows four degrees east longi- 
 tude, and then turning south, crosses Hungary, 
 receiving the Maros, Koros, and other tributary 
 accessions, and enters the Danube near the city 
 of Belgrade. The river Save is formed by nu- 
 merous mountain torrents descending from the 
 summits of Tyrol. It flows along the southern 
 border of the Austrian dominions, and enters 
 the Danube a little below the Thesis. The 
 Drave originates in the streams and cataracts of 
 the mountains of Carinthia, and receives the 
 Muhr at Legrad, which conveys the waters from 
 the northern summits of Styria. Crossing these 
 two beautiful provinces, and forming the sepa- 
 rating boundary between Croatia and Hungary, 
 it falls into the Danube below Esseck. The 
 Inn, rising in the elevated regions of the 
 Swedish Alps, and descending to the north-east 
 through the kingdom of Bavaria, forms the 
 western boundary of the empire, and enters the 
 Danube at Passau. The Kaab and LeyUia 
 rise in the western parts of Hungary, and fall 
 into the Save ; the former near Komora, and 
 the latter at Presburg. The Morava, or March, 
 from which Moravia derives its name, de- 
 scends from the northern extremity of that pro- 
 vince, and proceeding south, falls into the Da- 
 nube west of Presburg. The Mulda rises in 
 the southern regions of Bohemia, and taking a 
 northerly direction, flows into the Elbe. The 
 southern parts of Austria are watered by nu- 
 merous important streams and rivers, which 
 originate in the chain of mountains that encir- 
 cles the north of Italy, are cherished by the 
 overflowings of those lakes tliat lie upon its bosom, 
 and are poured over the summits of that lofty 
 range in falling torrents and beautiful cascades. 
 
 The Adige and the Po will be described in our 
 view of Italy. The Piave rises in the over- 
 flowings of the sub-alpine lakes, and descends 
 through the territory of Brixen and the province 
 of Treviso, into the Gulf of X'enice. The Tesino 
 rises in St. Gothard mountain, and forms the 
 south-western boundary of the Austrian ter- 
 ritory, flowing through the country of Gris- 
 sons, the lake of INIaggiore, and th.e Milanese 
 territory; it washes the walls of Pavia, and falls 
 into the Po. The Adda rises in Blount Braulis 
 in the country of the Grissons, and after flowing 
 through the valley of X'alteline, falls into the 
 lake of Como, and re-issuing from the south- 
 east arm of that basin, enters the Po near Cre- 
 mona. The Oglio rises in the bishopric of 
 Trent, and bending to the south, flows through 
 Venice and lake Isero to the duchy of Milan, 
 and then winding south-east, crosses the duchy 
 of 31antua, and falls into the Po a few miles 
 east of the Adda. The greater part of the Aus- 
 trian rivers are too rapid, and too much impeded 
 by rocks and waterfalls, to admit of any exten- 
 sive navigation ; much, however, has been ef- 
 fected by canals, and plans of the most gigantic 
 kind have been formed for connecting the great 
 rivers with each other, and thus opening a com- 
 munication between the interior of Austria and 
 all the maritime kingdoms of Europe. 
 
 The lakes of Austria are numerous, but are 
 inferior to those of Russia and Switzerland. 
 They chiefly lie upon the tops of mountains, 
 or pent up within the valleys, and intersections 
 formed by the bold ridges which characterise the 
 scenery. Those on the south side of the great 
 Alpine range are considered among the the finest 
 specimens ofpicturesquebeauty found in Europe. 
 I'hey form the distinguishing features of the land- 
 scape, and furnish that delightful charm which so 
 bewilders and astonishes the traveller. The chief 
 are Maggiore, or l.ucarno, Lugano, Como, 
 Lecca, Iseo, and Ganda. ^Nlaggiore is, from its 
 situation and figure, regarded as the most 
 beautiful. It lies embosomed in hills, adorned 
 with orchards, nurseries, and vineyards, and has 
 its summit shaded with dark thick forests of 
 chestnut-trees. The banks are spotted with co- 
 vered avenues in trellis-work, and are laid with 
 numerous small sheets of water, while the lake 
 itself presents a clear greenish surface, broken 
 by beautiful islands of different figures and di- 
 mensions, embellished with numerous temples 
 and gardens. Lake Como ^is almost equally 
 delightful. It lies among mountain scenery 
 perfctly romantic, and is celebrated for an in- 
 termitting spring near Tarno and the ancient 
 Caves of Verena. The lake Lago di Garda is 
 diversified with small islands, capes, promon- 
 tories, and peninsulas, and lies sunk in hills 
 richly adorned with vines, lemoo, orange, 
 olive, and other firuit-trees. On a peninsula o 
 that lake lies the ancient ruins of Sirmis, so 
 highly celebrated by Catullus. The small, but 
 beautiful Iseo, is less than the other lakes, but 
 lies amid the same alpine sifmmits, and partici- 
 pates of the same delightful scenery. 
 
 The climate of Austria is various, and in ge- 
 neral salubrious, except in the neighbourhood of 
 the plains and marshes where the miasma often
 
 300 
 
 AUSTRIA. 
 
 proves fatal. In the southern regions it is warm, 
 and produces the wines and fruits commonly 
 found in the upper regions of Italy ; but in the 
 northern parts, comprising Gallicia, part of 
 Hungary, Bohemia, and Moravia, with the whole 
 of Austrian Silesia, the cold is often severe. 
 
 The soil of Austria is also various, including 
 almost every species from the most barren to 
 the most fertile. Sandy plains are frequently 
 found, in which nothing can grow ; whilst the 
 banks of the Po and Danube are, in point of 
 luxuriance, scarcely to be equalled. Of the land 
 of Austria not less than 24,000,000 joch, each 
 about an English acre and a half, is occupied by 
 forests. Tiiese are in general of the finest timber 
 and of the greatest importance to the empire. 
 Tiiat of Belevar in Hungary, situated on the 
 Drave, consists for the most part of different 
 species of oak trees, thousands of which, at a 
 considerable distance above the root, are seven 
 feet in diameter, and continue nearly the same 
 size to the height of thirty, forty, and even fifty 
 feet, without throwing out a single branch. But 
 though Austria is wholly, from its situation, an 
 agricultural empire, that science is imperfectly 
 understood; and the late improvements are 
 scarcely known. Even endeavours for the more 
 extensive promotion of agriculture have been un- 
 successful, owing to the want of a better mode 
 of tenure and a better understanding between 
 the cultivators and the proprietors. The pro- 
 ductions of some parts of the empire are never- 
 theless numerous and excellent, embracmg all 
 that can administer to the necessaries and even 
 luxuries of life. Austria Proper yields corn, 
 ■wine, and fruits. Bohemia pulse, grain, hops, 
 &c. Hungary produces millet, maize, and rice. 
 The valleys of Carniola produce oil and excellent 
 wine, with fruits, millet, and flax; while the 
 sub-alpine regions yield all the productions of 
 southern climes, abounding in oranges, lemons, 
 vines, peaches, figs, and tobacco. Irom a re- 
 cent calculation by M. Blumenbach, it appears 
 that the present quantity of arable land in 
 Austria is about 43,582,000 acres ; of which, 
 allowing one-third for fallow, there remains 
 29,054,700 productive acres; and of grain alone 
 the annual produce has been calculated at 
 300,000,000 Winchester bushels, or about 12-4 
 for every acre. The land in Austria devoted 
 to the cultivation of wine is about 2,324,660 
 acres, and the produce about 493,109,565 gal- 
 lons, being about 212 gallons per acre; besides 
 which, the vineyards of Smyrmiam alone yield 
 70,000 eimers of spirit, distilled from the grapes, 
 after the wine has been drawn from them, each 
 eimer equal to fifteen English gallons; and the 
 same spirit is produced in the other provinces in 
 equal proportion. The whole value of the vege- 
 table production of his imperial majesty's domi- 
 nions has been estimated at the annual sum of 
 £68,500,000 sterling, and the waste lands have 
 been calculated at 25,271 English square 
 miles. 
 
 The domestic animals are chiefly horses, 
 cattle, buffaloes, sheep, swine, &c. Efforts have 
 been made to improve the breed of horses, by the 
 introduction of the Arabian and other species 
 amongst them, which have been commonly suc- 
 
 cessful. The emperor established a breeding- 
 stud at Mezohegyes in Hungary, about the year 
 1783. It occupies four commons, containing 
 63,000 English acres, employs 500 men, and 
 furnishes the army alone with 1000 horses an- 
 nually.- Attention has likewise been paid to the 
 improvement of sheep, and of the wool imported 
 to England, as Saxon, a great part is the produce 
 of the Hungarian flocks. The cattle are mostly 
 of a bluish slate-color ; they feed chiefly in the 
 forests, where they are protected from the heat 
 of the sun, and are a considerable source of 
 wealth to the inhabitants. The chief wild ani- 
 mals of Austria are those common on the Euro- 
 pean continent, consisting chiefly of wolves, 
 boars, lynxes, &c. The chamois and the marmot 
 are common. 
 
 Of the feathered tribes may be enumerated 
 bustards and pelicans, and some species of the 
 falcon. A few birds are also found upon the 
 mountains of Carniola, which are peculiar. 
 
 The mineral riches of Austria are considerable, 
 and are more varied and important than those 
 of most other states in Europe. Near Kremnitz, 
 in Hungary, are mines of gold and silver. Silver 
 mines are also found in Chemnitz, about twenty 
 miles south of the latter. Schmelnitz and Her- 
 rengund contain valuable mines of copper. An- 
 timony, coal, salt, and alum are also found in 
 different parts of the empire. The opal is a mi- 
 neral peculiar to Hungary, and as a gem is held in 
 high estimation throughout the east. It is found 
 in the mines of Kzerweriza, east of Kremnitz, in 
 all states and qualities, from the semi-opal to the 
 finest and most valuable. Gold ore is obtained 
 of several kinds. The gray gold ore is found in 
 the Najiag, north-east of Deva, and is peculiarly 
 rich. The white gold ore is found a few leagues 
 north of Harlsburg. To the west of the same 
 town are mines of the same metal, in the vicinity 
 of Zalantha. To the north of the province are 
 those of Kapnich, and in the southern parts 
 fresh gold mines are also said to have been re- 
 cently discovered. Bohemia contains ancient 
 mines of gold, silver, copper, and lead, in which 
 are found perhaps the finest garnets in the world. 
 Styria produces the finest steel ; and mercury is 
 said to be found in many parts of the empire. 
 Tl]e Austrian mines altogether employ more than 
 35,000 persons, and the annual produce has been 
 calculated at 2100 marks of gold, 93,000 of 
 silver, 6^,000 centvers of copper, 44,000 of iron, 
 and 23,000 of lead. Excellent marble, and also 
 miaieral springs, are common in many parts of 
 Austria. 
 
 Vienna, the capital, and centre of its commerce, 
 lies near the site of the ancient Vindobona, to- 
 wards the eastern confines of Germany, on ;a 
 plain where the Vien falls into the Danube. The 
 whole city approaches to the figure of a cone, of 
 which the apex is formed by St. Stephen's church, 
 and the circumference by the basis of the exter- 
 nal lines of the fortification. The church of St. 
 Stephen is the chief ornament of the city : it has 
 a beautiful spire covered with fretwork, and a 
 roof distinguished by the finest Mosaic tiling. 
 This edifice is closely connected with the history 
 of Austria ; and their chief princes, heroes, and 
 sages, sleep within its walls. The church of the
 
 AUSTRIA. 
 
 301 
 
 Augustines, and the imperial palaces, attract con- 
 siderable attention. 
 
 Prague is the second city in Austria, and the 
 capital of Bohemia, containing 80,000 inhabitants. 
 It derives its name from a bridge which crosses 
 the Mulda, 1800 feet long and thirty-five broad ; 
 on the battlements of which are thirty-two sta- 
 tues of saints, and at each end a high gothic 
 tower of exquisite architecture. Its buildings 
 and gardens are fine and numerous, although the 
 former are many of them in ruins. Its univer- 
 sity, which was founded by Charles IV. in 1347, 
 was long considered as the great depository of Ger- 
 man literature, and attended by 40,000 students, 
 but now can scarcely boast the attendance of 
 400 ragged boys. The other chief towns of 
 Austria are Presburgh, the capital of Hungary ; 
 Lemberg, the capital of Galicia or Austrian 
 Poland; Gratz, the capital of Styria; V^enice, the 
 capital of the Venetian territories; Olmutz, the 
 ancient capital of Moravia; Milan, the capi- 
 tal of the late kingdom of Italy; Mantua, 
 the capital of the Mantuan territories; Trent, 
 Brescia, Pavia, Padua, Verona, Trieste, Lintz, 
 Saltzburgh, Troppau, Clausenburgh, Carlstadt, 
 Hermannstadt, Tocplitz, and ffidenburg, Schem- 
 nitz, and Kremnitz, in the mining districts; 
 Brunn, the modern capital of Moravia and De- 
 bretzin ; Pesh, the Transacincum of the Romans ; 
 and Buda, sometimes called Offen-Buda, the last 
 two contiguous to each other, and only separated 
 by the Danube. They are often regarded as one 
 city, and considered by many geographers as the 
 capital of Hungary. There are several other 
 considerable towns, though of inferior impor- 
 tance. 
 
 The chief manufactures of Austria are cotton, 
 thread, linen, lace, silks, stuffs, stockings, spiritu- 
 ous liquors, brass, iron, and steel; agricultural 
 and kitchen utensils, glass, porcelain, and earthen- 
 ware. The manufacture of some of these is 
 confined to particular districts ; cotton is manu- 
 factured chiefly in Austria Proper, where the 
 British machinery and improvements have been 
 introduced, and no fewer than 360,000 persons 
 are constantly employed. Linen is manufactured 
 chiefly in Bohemia' and Moravia, although some of 
 the finest qualities are obtained from Austrian 
 Silesia, where upwards of 80,000 pieces are pro- 
 duced annually. The iron forges of Austria are 
 about 1000, and are chiefly in Bohemia, in the 
 country near the Enns, and in Styria. The last 
 «f these contains 200 of them, and produces 
 14,000 tons of wrought iron and steel annually. 
 The steel ware of Carisbadt is in high repute in 
 many parts of Europe. Glass and porcelain 
 manufactures are carried to a considerable ex- 
 tent in several parts of the empire ; of the former 
 there are no fewer than 170 works; nearly one 
 half of which are in Bohemia, where magnificent 
 services and beautiful highly finished lustres are 
 made. Plate glass is carried to great perfection 
 at Neuhaus. Leather, gunpowder, tobacco, 
 sugar, and cinnamon, receive considerable atten- 
 tion in several districts; and the jewellers of 
 Vienna are much renowned for polishing pre- 
 cious stones. 
 
 From a jealousy of foreign manufactures there is 
 no great fair held in the Austrian stutes, exci'pt at 
 
 Botzen, on the Italian frontier ;' but several mar- 
 kets have been instituted for the interchange 
 of domestic commodities. The rivers of Austria 
 in some parts, greatly facilitate and improve the 
 inland trade, whilst the great commercial roads 
 afford the means of supplying even the secluded 
 inhabitants of the Alps with all the comforts and 
 conveniences of life. The chief imports of 
 Austria consist of the raw materials, as wool, 
 cotton, raw silk, drugs, oil, rice, and spicss, 
 received chiefly from the Levant. They export 
 their own manufactures. Austrian consuls have 
 been placed about the Levant and other parts of 
 the Mediterranean, under the protection of Tri- 
 este and Constantinople, for the advantage of 
 commerce; and the Greek merchants, who trade 
 with them, are obliged, as a security to the sta:e, 
 to have a certain proportion of visible property 
 in tlie empire. 
 
 The established religion of Austria is llie 
 catholic, but since the time of Joseph II. fall 
 toleration has been granted to all religious pro- 
 fessions ; and in Hungary, Transylvania, and 
 Sclavonia, members of the Protestant and Greek 
 churches are numerous, and are settled in the 
 enjoyment of considerable privileges. The ec- 
 clesiastical establishment has nine archbishops, 
 viz. those of Vienna, Gran, Kolocza, Prague, 
 Lemberg, or Leopold, Olmutz, Layback, Udine, 
 and Milan. Under these there are above thirty 
 Catholic bishops, and six of the united Greek 
 church. The archbishop of the pure Greek 
 church has his seat at Carlowitz, in the eastern 
 part of Sclavonia, and has nine suff"ragans under 
 him. The archbishop of Gran is the netro- 
 politan of Hungary, and by virtue of his office is 
 lord lieutenant, primate, and chancellor of the 
 kingdom. He has power to create nobility within 
 his own' archi-episcopal dominions, and pos- 
 sesses an annual revenue of £36,000 sterling. 
 The emperor is considered as the head of the 
 church, and in Hungary is considered as pope. He 
 appoints bishops, regulates their incomes, esta- 
 blishes or suppresses monasteries at his pleasure, 
 and frequently applies their revenues to other 
 purposes. 
 
 In point of literature Austria is, at present, 
 greatly behind the other provinces of Germany, 
 owing to the unpolished state of the languages; 
 their want of connexion with the more refined 
 and classical tongues of Europe, together with the 
 restrictions of government. The influence of 
 bigotry, too, has often blasted the bud of genius, 
 and neutralized every effort to promote its deve- 
 lopment and perfection. There are, however, a 
 few names of eminence in various departments of 
 knowledge ; and the arts and sciences are now 
 said to be upon the advance in Austria, but in the 
 fine arts, it would be difficult to find an eminent 
 sculptor or a good painter. Architecture is so 
 little cultivated, that their best public buildings 
 are generally planned by foreigners. In the 
 mechanical arts they have evinced considerable 
 native genius; but like that of the Germans, gene- 
 rally, its efforts have seldom been directed to any 
 useful purpose. One mechanic has constructed 
 a machine that performs all the functions of 
 an expert chess plaver; another has made a head 
 capable of imitating all tiie varied sounds of the
 
 302 
 
 AUSTRIA. 
 
 human voice ; and a third has invented an instru- 
 ftent that emits, simultaneously, all the sounds 
 of music. In the latter science they have been 
 thought to excel, and the names of Hadyn and 
 IMozart, whose powers and taste were formed at 
 A ienna, have sufficiently established their na- 
 tional fame. In mathematics, astronomy, and 
 botany, they have also succeeded to a certain 
 eitent; and amongst the numerous professors of 
 these sciences, Burke, and the Abbe Treisnecker, 
 liive emmently distinguished themselves. But 
 education, and consequently general knowledge, 
 ir. Austria has been much neglected. The em- 
 press Maria Theresa, who patronised learning, 
 established schools in every part of the empire ; 
 which, with others that have since been added, 
 have in a measure relieved the intellectual gloom 
 which for so long a period shrouded the south of 
 Germany. Universities, lyceums, district acade- 
 m.es, gymnasiums, Latin schools, schools for 
 teaching their native tongue, schools for diffus- 
 ing the elements of religion, are now universal; 
 and are supported at the expense of government. 
 The young men are compelled to attend the line 
 of study marked out for them, under pain of 
 forfeiting all civil ofhces and employments. 
 
 In V'ienna, alone, are sixty schools for instruct- 
 ing the poor in readino-, writing, and arithmetic ; 
 one normal school, preparatory to the gymnasium ; 
 three gymnasia, in which the studies prescribed 
 by government are, mathematics, geography, his- 
 tory, natural history, arithmetic, composition, 
 classics, and religion ; the Theresian academy, for 
 the sens of the Catholic nobility and foreigners 
 of diitinction, under the care of a director, 
 twenty-one professors, ten masters of modern 
 languages, and several additional tutors ; and an 
 university, provided with forty-five professors, 
 €xtra teachers, &c. The school of surgery at 
 \'ienna, is considerable ; there are also imperial 
 medical academies, imperial military academies, 
 imperial polytechnic schools, for teaching the 
 scientific principles of all trades and manufac- 
 tures, and an imperial academy of oriental lan- 
 guages. Their universities, besides Vienna, are 
 Prague, Pesh, Erlau, Lemberg, Milan, Mantua, 
 Padua, and Pavia. To many of these public 
 institutions are attached extensive libraries. 
 That connected with the university of Vienna 
 contains 90,000 volumes, and the Imperial 
 librarj' upwards of 200,000. The doors of the 
 latter are regularly open several hours in the day 
 for the use of the citizens, who are permitted to 
 read any of the volumes in apartments provided 
 for that purpose. 
 
 The languages of Austria are several, of which 
 the Gothic or German is most prevalent. The 
 Sclavonic is common in part of Hungary, Ga- 
 licia, Bohemia, and Moravia. The proper Hun- 
 garian is a dialect of the Scythian. Latm is also 
 spoken in Hungary ; and on the borders of Tur- 
 key the \\ alachian language, which is a corrup- 
 tion of the Latin, is prevalent. The Italian is 
 the common language of the southern provinces, 
 and French is spoken by the higher classes. 
 
 The Austrians are, generally speaking, hand- 
 some and athletic, of German origin, mixed in- 
 sensibly with the native inhabitants of Italy, 
 Hungary, and Bohemia. The grand German 
 
 outline is still visible, accompanied with the 
 darker complexion, bolder features, blacker eyes, 
 and more animated expression, which distmguisli 
 the countenance of tlie Austrian from those of his 
 northern neighbours. They are a sensual people, 
 but sensuality never enervates them. Tiiey pos- 
 sess an instinctive indifference to what would 
 excite all the passions of an Englishman, and 
 would rush from the ball to the battle, from tlie 
 comic theatre to the field of blood, with apparent 
 indifference ; owing not to phlegmatic coldness, 
 but to a peculiar felicity of temperament, which 
 nature has conferred upon the constitution of the 
 Austrian, by which he possesses an astonisliing 
 power of forbearance and self-command. The 
 persons, manners, and accomplishments of the 
 Austrian females have considerably attracted the 
 attention of modern travellers, and have called 
 forth some very lively and pertinent remarks 
 from the pen of ]\Ir. Lemaistre. ' Tlie Austrian 
 ladies,' says he, ' are the handsomest women I 
 have seen on the continent ; their countenances 
 are expressive, and their complexions uncom- 
 monly fair. In beauty they are exceeded by no 
 females in Europe ; excepting only our own 
 country-women, whose unrivalled superiority I 
 believe is universally acknowledged. In man- 
 ner they are elegant, and in conversation lively 
 and well informed. INIuch greater attention 
 seems to have been paid to their education, than 
 is usual in other parts of the continent : all of 
 them speak French with as much fluency as 
 German, and some are proficients in English. 
 Tlie best works in these languages are familiar to 
 them. They are completely free from pedantry ; 
 and I have had frequent reason to admire tlie 
 taste and knowledge displayed in their remarks.' 
 But as Austria is composed of separate kingdoms 
 and states, whose manners and habits are many 
 of them peculiar, we defer further particular ob- 
 servations on this till we come to treat of those 
 states separately. 
 
 If we except Bohemia, Moravia, the northern 
 straits of Austria, and a part of Hungary, this 
 kingdom formed an integral part of the Roman 
 empire, and abounds in antiquities and curiosities 
 both natural and artificial. Castles, churches, 
 and monasteries are common everywhere, whilst 
 the southern parts, being near the centre of 
 Koman power, are proportionably rich in ancient 
 remains. The amphitheatre of Pola, about forty 
 miles south of Trieste, stands near the extremity 
 of a small peninsula, on the eastern shore of the 
 Adriatic. This ancient edifice is elliptical in its 
 figure, having three floors and rustic arcades, like 
 the outer wall of the amphitheatre at Verona. 
 Its length is 416 feet, and height ninety-seven 
 feet. This is die only one of the ancient Roman 
 elliptical precincts that now remains entire, those 
 of Rome and \'erona being much broken and 
 dilapidated. Some imagine it to have been a 
 theatre, and not an amphitheatre, because the 
 seats only occupy one side, and are formed on 
 the declivity of a hill. The amphitheatre at Ve- 
 rona is another building of the same description, 
 though not so large, as the Coliseum at Rome ; 
 only a small jiart of the wall is standing, and the 
 rest of the building scarcely rises above the sum- 
 mits of the .surrounding; houses. The seats
 
 AUSTRIA. 
 
 303 
 
 within, constructed of stone, were renewed in the 
 sixteenth century, and now form the surface of a 
 large hollow inverted cone, capable of accommo- 
 dating upwards of 23,000 persons. A part of 
 these seats are enclosed in a small wooden theatre, 
 in which plays are performed during the summer. 
 The structure exhibits a fine specimen of Roman 
 architecture, composed of squared masses of 
 marble from Sant. Ambrosio, about nine miles 
 distant. The soffit stones of the arcades are 
 nine feet long. Some parts of the building are 
 composed of large flat bricks, which have with- 
 stood the action of the sun and weather for 1700 
 years, and yet remain uninjured by time. The 
 precinct of this ancient amphitheatre is 522 feet 
 long, embellished by three tiers of rusticated ar- 
 cades, ninety-six feet high, and before the falling 
 of the fourth story of rectangular windows, pre- 
 .sented a grand and pleacing appearance. The 
 disposition of the seats, and of the stairs leading 
 to them, is better seen in this amphitheatre than 
 in any other Roman antiquities of the same kind ; 
 and the remains generally are in a better state of 
 preservation. See Amphitheatre. 
 
 The natural curiosities of Austria are nume- 
 rous and interesting. The various Alpine 
 scenery, glaciers, chasms, caves, curious depo- 
 sitions of stones, &c. have in all ages commanded 
 the admiration of the traveller, and the attention 
 of the antiquarian. Austria Proper contains a 
 singular assemblage of rocks, near Trautenau in 
 Bohemia, in the shape of flowers, reaching from 
 fifty to 100 feet in perpendicular altitude, and of 
 great extent ; supposed to be the remains of a 
 mountain, the intermediate parts of which have 
 been removed. Near Szadello, about thirty 
 miles north-west of Kaschau in Hungary, is a 
 celebrated cavern, which runs under the moun- 
 tains to the distance of several miles, and has 
 never been completely explored. It includes a 
 multiplicity of distinct caves and winding pas- 
 sages, separated by numerous impending stalac- 
 tites ; the whole forming so intricate a labyrinth, 
 that Dr. Townson, who visited this country a few 
 years ago, says, ' a man once lost in it, though he 
 had lights and food to last him a month, would 
 no* be able to find his way out.' A party of 
 curious travellers, it is said, once remained in it 
 for three days without being able to explore its 
 dimensions, or reach the opening. Near Szalitze, 
 in the Carpathian range, is another remarkable 
 cavern, within which is a small glacier ; and at 
 Demanovo is a curious cave, which contains the 
 bones of numerous wild animals. Various other 
 subterranean domes and caverns have also been 
 found in all parts of the calcareous mountains, 
 beneath the towering summits of the Alpine 
 regions. The lake of C'zirknitz, in tl.e Illyrian 
 provinces eastward of Trieste, is one of the most 
 singular natural curiosities of the Austrian ter- 
 ritories. It is about four English miles in length, 
 and nearly that measure in breadth, surrounded 
 with mountains on all sides, and of the depth of 
 five or six feet. Although there is no visible 
 place for the discharge of .therti, in June or July 
 the waters subside, and at length are seen to 
 retire into a number of caverns at the bottom of 
 the lake ; the herbage of the bed then begins to 
 grow rapidly, and produces considerable crops, 
 
 which arc cut and preserved ; after which the 
 ground is grazed by cattle. In November, when 
 the rains fall upon the adjacent hills, the waters 
 issue again from their caverns, swell by reason 
 of still gathering accessions, and spread into a 
 perfect lake as before. The lake of Jessero, in 
 the isle of Cherso, is classed among the natural 
 curiosities of Austria, and said to discharge its 
 waters but once in four or five years. In the 
 same island are several curious caverns, in which 
 have been found numerous fossil bones of oxen, 
 horses, sheep, and other animals ; amongst which 
 none have been recognised as human. The salt- 
 mines of Wieliczka, on the confines of Poland, 
 exceed description ; and those near Salzburg, on 
 the western border of Austria, present an ap- 
 pearance so magnificent and sublime, as to be 
 rated among the most stupendous and astonish- 
 ing phenomena of Europe. 
 
 The islands belonging to Austria are few and 
 unimportant, lying along the north-east shore of 
 the Adriatic, from the Gulf of Juarnero to the 
 southern point of Dalmatia. The principal are, 
 \"eglia, Osero, Grossa, Cherso, Lesina, Melida, 
 and Brazza. 
 
 Of the provinces which make up the grand 
 imperial dominions of Austria, many of them 
 have constitutions diff"erent from each other. 
 Hungary, as an hereditary and limited monarchy, 
 has been in the house of Austria ever since the 
 year 14.37, when the archduke, having married 'the 
 only daughter of king Sigismund, succeeded to the 
 crown. The nation, however, shares the legisla- 
 tive and executive power with the emperor, who 
 exercises his authority only through the medium 
 of the States, a kind of parliament assembling at 
 fixed periods for the transaction of public busi- 
 ness. The Hungarian nobility also possess great 
 power ; and they alone, in state language, are in- 
 cluded under the appellation of the Hungarian 
 people, the rest being regarded as an inferior 
 race of beings. Bohemia, Moravia, and the 
 Tyrolese, also have an influence in the general 
 government, and possess, to a certain degree, the 
 privileges of Hungary. But in most of the pro- 
 vincial diets, the authority of the crown is 90 
 great, that the representatives can determine little 
 else than the mode of raising taxes, so that the 
 emperor is in a considerable degree unlimited in 
 his sovereignty. In the ancient diet of the em- 
 pire, Austria, independent of her electoral vote 
 for Bohemia, had seven votes in the college of 
 princes for the seven states of Austria Pioper, 
 Carinthia, Styria, Brixen, Trent, Tyrol, and 
 Carniola. In the new diet, or ' confederation of 
 the sovereigns and free towns of (iermany,' 
 formed in 1815, Austria, without having any su- 
 periority over the other states in point of rank, 
 was declared by the Congress of \'ienna (act 
 fifty-seventh), to have the presidency with a vote. 
 In the general assembly Austria has now four 
 votes. The executive government consists of 
 four great departments, established at \'ienna, 
 organized originally by the counsels of jNIaria 
 Theresa. One of these regulates the internal 
 concerns of the empire, another its foreign affliirs, 
 a third its militarj' conduct, and the fourth the 
 government of Hungary. These diftcrent parts 
 of the administration are identified in numerous
 
 504 
 
 AUSTRIA. 
 
 boards, chanceries, councils, ministries, &c. The 
 laws and jurisprudence of his imperial and royal 
 apostolic Majesty's dominions, are in the general 
 very vague and complicated. Bohemia and Mo- 
 ravia are divided into circles, each under a sepa- 
 rate court of judicature from which lies a right of 
 appeal to the supreme tribunal in the provincial 
 capital. Every county in Hungary has its ruling 
 assembly and court of justice, subject to an ap- 
 peal to the district judicature, thence to the royal 
 tribunal at Buda, and thence to the king in per- 
 son. A new code of mild and salutary laws has 
 however been recently drawn up at the instance 
 of the government, and promulgated the criminal 
 part, in 1804, and the civil in 1812; which are 
 made the universal code of jurisprudence for the 
 the Austrian empire. 
 
 The entire revenue of Austria has been calcu- 
 lated at twenty-two millions, arising chiefly from 
 taxes on the land, and articles of internal con- 
 sumption. Joseph II. proposed a new land and 
 poll tax, which has since been lucrative. The 
 imperial domains, monopoly of tobacco, duties 
 on stamps, hair-powder, glass, china, starch, 
 wine, beer, brandy, carriages, legacy duties, fees 
 on titles of nobility, toleration tax on the Jews ; 
 together with the duties arising from the crown 
 lands, mines, coining, salt, tolls, fines, penalties, 
 passing the frontiers, incomes upon vacant bi- 
 shoprics, salaries, pensions, &c. of Hungary, 
 constitute a considerable part of the above sum. 
 Paper money has been frequently employed by 
 Austria in her distress ; and bank notes to 
 the amount of £100,000,000 were in circulation 
 as recently as 1810. The national debt, before 
 the French revolution, amounted to £'20,000,000, 
 in 1805, it had increased to £80,000,000, and is 
 at present £130,000,000. Of this two-thirds was 
 created by the issue of paper money, which, 
 however, is not deemed re-payable at its nominal 
 amount. 
 
 The military establishment of Austria under 
 Joseph II. rose into considerable importance; 
 and in 1784, though a season of peace, the Aus- 
 trians were able to muster more than 200,000 
 men ; and after the French revolution, at the 
 peace of 1797, they kept in pay an army of 
 nearly 300,000. There were lately in the Aus- 
 trian army no fewer than nine field-marshals, 
 twenty-one generals of artillery, thirteen generals 
 of cavalry 136 lieut.-generals, 258 major-generals. 
 Since 1805, however, the troops of Austria were 
 greatly reduced, till she readied her ebb in 1809, 
 having lost about one-eighth part of her popula- 
 tion, and one-tenth of her resources. Afterwards 
 her army amounted to 470,000 men ; and in the 
 campaign of 1813 and 1814, when she took the 
 field afresh against the common enemy, her 
 troops were more numerous than at any former 
 period. Austria at present, as one of the united 
 kingdoms, supplies 94,822 men to the military 
 establishments of the German Confederacy, 
 which is one in every hundred of her population in 
 (Jermany, and, allowing the same proportion for 
 ail the other parts of the empire, the standing 
 army of Austria will amount to 280,000 men. 
 The Bohemian army is, however, stated at 50,000 
 men, which is about one in every sixty-four of 
 the population. The Hungarian army is calcu- 
 
 lated at twelve regiments of infantry, and ten of 
 hussars, the former consisting each of 3837 men, 
 and the latter of 1698, forming an aggregate of 
 63,000 ; which, compared with seven millions 
 and a half, the present population of Hungary, 
 yields about the population of one to every hun- 
 dred and twenty. The Hungarian army con- 
 sists of three separate classes of individuals — the 
 nobles, who are called together at the pleasure 
 of the sovereign ; the standing army, kept up by 
 recruiting and conscription ; and those of the mi- 
 litary frontiers, where every man holds his pos- 
 sessions on condition of being ready to take up 
 arms when called upon. Austria has nothing 
 that deserves the name of a maritime force, but 
 provide? a few frigates and armed vessels for the 
 protection of trade. The vessels called tschaiken, 
 manned with about 1000 seamen and soldiers, 
 are placed on the Danube towards the Turkish 
 frontiers at the expense of government. There are 
 in the Austrian states the following orders, hav- 
 ing the emperor or empress at their head : the 
 Golden Fleece, Maria Theresa, St. Stephen, 
 Elizabeth, and the Star and Cross. 
 
 Of the political and historical memoirs of Aus- 
 tria, the reader will be able to form but a very 
 imperfect idea. To write the history of a king- 
 dom composed of kingdoms, with separate histo- 
 ries of their own ; kingdoms too, which have been 
 connected with other kingd'^ms, and those king- 
 doms, which have made a figure upon the earth, 
 have balanced for ages the crisis of European 
 power and politics, have given rise to governments, 
 laws, manners, and language, and to surrounding 
 nations, whose histories have also been embarked 
 upon the stream of time, and intermingled with 
 the politics of other states, is a work of no small 
 difficulty. The Austrian history, if not obscure, 
 is at least perplexed. The revolutions, alike in- 
 cident to all human governments, the fluctuations 
 of empire, the ebb and flow of territory, have 
 been so frequent and considerable, that the high 
 and low water mark of boundary at diff'erent 
 periods of history, during the spring and neap 
 tides of national influence and power, are only to 
 be sought successfully in larger geographical 
 treatises, and would require a distinct detail of 
 relation beyond what the limits of an encyclo- 
 poedia can possibly allow. 
 
 The original population of Austria was prin- 
 cipally Gothic and Sclavonic, and the descen- 
 dants of the former still constitute the principal 
 part of the inhabitants. Moravia and Bohemia 
 were stocked by the latter, whilst the southern 
 territories were inhabited by the descendants of 
 the cisalpine Gauls, and the Roman colonies, 
 which had been planted there. Only a small 
 part of the present imperial dominions belonged 
 originally to the house of Austria. T\\e vicissi- 
 tudes to which it has been subject from the period 
 of its origination, are what have chiefly contri- 
 buted to raise the empire to its present rank 
 among European sovereignties, and to trace 
 those vicissitudes down the variable narrative 
 of their political story, affords an interesting 
 topic in geographical speculation. 
 
 ITie princes of these houses are descended 
 from the ancient dukes of Alsace, and bore the 
 title of counts of Hapsburj', from the castle of
 
 AUSTRIA. 
 
 30^ 
 
 that name in the Aar in Switzerland, their pa- 
 trimonial residence, before their accession to the 
 imperial tiirone of Germany. In 1273 count 
 llodolph was elected king of the Romans, and 
 bestowed the duchy on his son Albert, with 
 whom, therefore, the house of Austria com- 
 mences. This duchy was formed of the ancient 
 margraviate, witli that part of Bavaria situated 
 above the river Enns ; and passed to the house of 
 Ilapsburg as a fief of the empire, on the extinc- 
 tion of the old ducal family. The counts of 
 Hapsburg at that time possessed a great part of 
 Oberland in Switzerland, and a considerable 
 portion of Suabia, to which, in 1284, were added 
 Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola. But Albert, 
 who was elected king of the Ilomans in 1298, 
 during the revolutionary troubles of Switzerland, 
 which happened about nine years after his ac- 
 cession, lost all his hereditary possessions in 
 that country. The acquisition of Tyrol in 
 1364 made some addition, and Albert II. the 
 next duke of Austria, was invested, in 1438, with 
 the imperial purple, which has, ever since that 
 period, been retained by his descendants in almost 
 uninterrupted succession. The emperor Max- 
 imilian, grandfather to Charles V. acquired the 
 territory of the low countries by marriage, and 
 in like manner his son Philip, espousing the 
 heiress of the Spanish crown, obtained the pos- 
 session of that kingdom, with the dominion of 
 the American colonies. At his decease the 
 united kingdoms of Austria, Spain, and Spanish 
 America, descended to his successor Charles V. 
 who, about the year 1527, added those of Hun- 
 gary, Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, and Lusatia, 
 when Austria appeared in the zenith of her 
 glory. In 1556 Charles V. made over the 
 Spanish dominions, and the Netherlands, to his 
 son Philip II. under whom they suffered con- 
 siderable diminution ; the seven united pro- 
 vinces of the Netherlands entirely throwing off 
 their allegiance. In 1648, at the conclusion of 
 the thirty years war, Austria was obliged to 
 relinquish the two provinces of Lusatia and Al- 
 sace, ceding the former to the elector of Saxony, 
 and the latter to the king of France ; but shortly 
 after the emperor Leopold, son of Ferdinand III. 
 added the whole of Transylvania, and con- 
 siderably enlarged the boundaries of Hungary, 
 after which few fluctuations occurred in the empire 
 till the reign of Charles VI. when the peace of 
 Utrecht in 1713, and the Barrier Treaty, two 
 years afterwards, added Belgium, the duchy of 
 Milan, the kingdom of Naples, and the island of 
 Sardinia, which last was six years afterwards 
 exchanged with the duke of Savoy, for the isle 
 of Sicily. By the peace of Bassarowitz, in 1718, 
 Charles VI. acquired the Banat of Teraeswar, 
 Belgrade, part of Servia, Bosnia, and Wala- 
 chia ; all of which, however, except Banat, were 
 restored to the Porte in 1739. In 1735, after an 
 unsuccessful opposition to France, the kingdom 
 of Naples, and the island of Sicily, were made 
 over to the infant Don Carlos of Spain, in ex- 
 change for the duchies of Parma and Placentia, 
 on the side of Hungary. At last, after various 
 changes, as well in the outline as in the inward 
 policy of the empire, Charles VI. died, in 1740, 
 Vol. III. 
 
 and with him ended the male succession of the 
 Hapsburg house of Austria. 
 
 Maria Theresa, eldest daughter and heiress of 
 the deceased emperor, was married, in 1736, to 
 Francis duke of Lorraine, afterwards grand duke 
 of Tuscany ; and immediately on her advance to 
 the sovereignty had to carry on a long and ex- 
 tensive war against Prussia, Saxony, Bavaria, 
 and Spain ; all of whom made pretensions to 
 some part or parts of her dominions. After a 
 powerful but unsuccessful struggle for empire, 
 Prussia, in the year 1742, obtained the greater 
 part of Silesia, and the country of Glatz ; and 
 Spain, about six years afterwards, took possession 
 of the duchies of Parma, Placentia, and Guas- 
 talla. The war of 1756 producing no remarkable 
 change of territories, the Austrian boundaries 
 continued the same, with little variation, till the 
 partial dismemberment of Poland, in 1773, when 
 she acquired Galicia and Ladomaria; and was still 
 further augmented, in 1777, by the addition of 
 the Bukowine; and in 1778, by the accession of 
 the Innviertel on the side of Bavaria. 
 
 The first emperor of the Lorraine branch was 
 Joseph II. who, after sharing the government 
 with his mother Maria Theresa for several years 
 anterior to her decease, was fully vested with 
 the sovereignty in 1780. His reforms in the 
 executive branches of government, .abolition of 
 sinecures, suppression of convents, modification 
 of the dependence of the clergy upon Rome, 
 and the perfect toleration of all dissenters, though 
 they have been censured as the extreme of im- 
 prudence, were decidedly promoted for the con- 
 solidation of his immense territories, the manu- 
 mission of his subjects from the civil disabilities 
 under which many of them labored, and the 
 establishment of a more worthy system of re- 
 gular administration. To whatever extent such 
 measures might have been neutralized by an ob- 
 vious precipitancy, and rashness in the mode 
 of execution, they show a great monarch, in- 
 fluenced by the best of principles, laboring in 
 the common cause of humanity, justice, and pa- 
 triotism ; directing all his eiforts towards the 
 happiness of his people, and the v;elfare of his 
 dominions. It is said that a visit which he re- 
 ceived from pope Piu:^ VI. two years after his 
 accession, effected no alteration in his designs. 
 After an active but variable reign, rendered re- 
 markable towards the close, by a new war with 
 the Turks, he died on the 20th of February, 
 in the year 1790, and was succeeded by his 
 brother Leopold II. who died at the commence- 
 ment of the revolutionary war, on the 1st of 
 March, 1792. The crown of Austria then de- 
 scended to his eldest son, Francis II. the present 
 emperor, and the sovereignty of the grand duchy 
 of Tuscany to his s.:-cond son Ferdinand. From 
 this time the empire of Austria began to de- 
 cline. 
 
 At this period the population of the empire was 
 estimated at 25,000,000, and was increased, in 
 1796, by the accession of a great part of Poland, 
 which was then finally dismembered and divided 
 between Austria, Russia, and Prussia: but it was 
 reduced to little more than its former amount the 
 following year by ceding to France, Lombiirdy, the
 
 306 
 
 A U S T R I A. 
 
 Netherlands, and ail the Austrian districts on tlie 
 left bank of the Rhine. The war of 1799 gave early- 
 hopes of success, but the withdrawment of Russia 
 from the coalition, and the fatal days of Marengo 
 and Uohenlinden, obliged Austria to conclude a 
 treaty with France in 1801; in which, although 
 she obtained Saltzburg and Berchtologaden, she 
 was deprived of nearly all her Venetian states. 
 The third war, in 1805, proved still shorter and 
 mere disastrous; and after the overthrow at 
 Ulm and Austerlitz, the remainder of the \'ene- 
 tian states, Tyrol and Suabian principalities, con- 
 taining a population of 3,000,000, were given as 
 the price of peace; a period was likewise put to 
 the Germanic constitution, and the title ot Em- 
 peror of Austria substituted for Emperor of Ger- 
 many and King of the Romans. In 1800 the 
 resistance of Spain to Buonaparte prompted Aus- 
 tria to enter upon a new war with France, Her 
 army was numerous and well disciplined, and a 
 large portion of the French was employed in tlie 
 peninsula; but the decided neutrality of Prussia, 
 and the circumstance of Russia and Bavaria, with 
 the states composing the confederation of the 
 Rhine, taking part against Austria, enabledBona- 
 parte to acquire a decided victory, and once more 
 to enter Vienna. This led to further losses, but 
 
 left the emperor no alternative but a treaty ; the 
 terms were the imion of the emperor's daughter 
 with Napoleon in marriage, and the sacrifice of 
 considerable territory and population; namely, 
 the provinces of Carniola, Trieste, Villach, the 
 greater part of Croatia, and Agram, West 
 Galicia, the circle of Zamose. a circle in East 
 Galicia, the greater half of Ilausruckviertel, the 
 Inuviertel, Berchtolsgaden, and Saltzburg, the 
 whole including 45,000 square miles and nearly 
 three millions and a half of inhabitants. Austria 
 remained overawed by France until the de- 
 struction of the French armies in Russia, when 
 she again asserted her independence ; and 
 the subsequent success of the allies reinstated 
 her in more than her former splendor. The 
 ninety-third act of the Congress of Vienna 
 restored nearly all that had been lost, while the 
 succeeding one annexed several others on the 
 side of Italy, which more than compensated for 
 the remaining deficiency. The dominions of the 
 Austrian empire, as fixed by this congress, have, 
 according to Blumenbach, been divided into 
 twenty-one provinces, or governments, besides 
 the four dependent states. To these he assigns 
 the following extent and population. 
 
 I.— AUSTRIAN EMPIRE. 
 
 Ger. sq. miles. 
 
 Inhabitants. 
 
 9. 
 10. 
 11. 
 
 12. 
 13. 
 14. 
 15. 
 16. 
 17. 
 18. 
 19. 
 20. 
 21. 
 
 The kingdom of Bohemia 
 
 The margraviate of Moravia 
 
 The dukedom of Silesia 
 
 Austria below the Enns 
 
 Gor. sq. miles, 
 r Austria above the Enns . • . 151-86 
 < Circle of the Inn and Ilansruck 59-92 
 CSaltzburgh 132-54 
 
 The duchy of Styria 
 
 The duchy of Cariilthia 
 
 5 lUyria 190-61 
 
 ^ Part of Croatia 60-34 
 
 The coast district ... 
 
 Tyrol and Voralberg 
 
 The Lombardo-Venetian kingdom .... 
 
 The government of Dalmatia 
 
 The kingdom of Galicia 
 
 Civil Hungary, Croatia and Sclavonia . . 
 
 Civil Transylvania 
 
 Transylvanian military frontiers 
 
 Bannat frontiers 
 
 Sclavonian frontiers 
 
 Warasdiner military government .... 
 
 Carlstadter military government .... 
 
 Bannat regiments 
 
 Inhabitants. 
 417,625) 
 197,537 S 
 141,699 3 
 
 358,831 i 
 108,205 5 
 
 II. — Dependent States. 
 
 Grand dukedom of Tuscany 
 
 Dukedom cf Modena 
 
 Dukedom of Massa and Carrara, with Garfagnana 
 Dukedom of Parma .... ... 
 
 956-80 
 417-64 i 
 86-85 5 
 363-65 
 
 344-32 
 
 398-98 
 190-90 
 
 250-95 
 
 176-18 
 520-44 
 867-50 
 274-94 
 1526-12 
 4097-06 
 
 1118-70 
 
 1S6-00 
 139-40 
 
 67-40 
 166-40 
 
 54-20 
 
 12,204-43 
 
 431-00 
 92-31 
 23-00 
 
 101-92 
 
 647-93 
 
 3,203,222 
 1,680,935 
 1,048,324 
 
 756,897 
 
 799,056 
 278,500 
 
 467,836 
 
 42-2,861 
 
 717,542 
 
 4,111,535 
 
 295,089 
 
 3,755,454 
 
 8,200,000 
 
 1,510,000 
 
 171,675 
 230,079 
 107,217 
 188,906 
 95,442 
 
 28,178,856 
 
 1,170,000 
 
 375,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 383,000 
 
 1,988,000 
 
 Austria, San Felippe de, a city of South 
 America, in the province and government of 
 Cimiana, forty-eight miles from Cumana, and 
 containing 250 families. Long. 63*^ 41' W., lat. 
 
 10° 31' N. There is another small place of the 
 same name, four leagues south-west of Cumana. 
 Alstriacis, in ornithology, a species of falco, 
 named by Latliam the Austrian kite. Gmelin.
 
 AUT 
 
 307 
 
 AUT 
 
 AUSTRO Africus, the S.S. W. wind. 
 
 AUSTROMANC Y, ArsxROMANxiA, properly 
 denotes soothsaying, or a vain method of pre- 
 dicting futurity, from oVjservations of the winds. 
 
 AUSTURCUS, or Osturcus, in ornitholojy, 
 a goshawk ; from whence we usually call a fal- 
 coner, who keeps that kind of hawks, an os- 
 tringer. In ancient deeds, there lias been re- 
 served, as a rent to the lord, unum austurcum. 
 
 AL'SURIANI, in Roman antiquity, a military 
 order, similar to that of hussars among tlie mo- 
 derns. 
 
 AUTENIGUA, the name given by the natives 
 to a region of southern Africa, on the east of the 
 Cape of (iood Hope; and signifying, in their 
 language, the land of honey. It now forms part 
 of the district of Zwellendam, and is represented 
 by V aillant as a delightful region, having a great 
 variety of surface and scenery, great fertility, and 
 abundance of honey. It was partially inha- 
 bited by Dutch colonists, whilst in possession of 
 that nation ; but it has been much improved 
 since it came under the authority of the English. 
 It abounds with all the wild animals common to 
 southern Africa. See Zwellendam. 
 
 AUTENOW, a town of Russia, in the govern- 
 ment of Kiow, eighteen miles W. S. W. of 
 Bialacerkier. 
 
 AUTER Droit, in law, is where persons sue, 
 or are sued, in another's right; as executors, ad- 
 ministrators, &c. 
 
 Alter Vie; in law, a person who holds an 
 estate by the life of another is usually called 
 tenant per auter vie. 
 
 AUTHENTICATE,^ 
 
 Al'then'tical, 
 
 Authen'tically, 
 
 Autuen'ticalness, 
 
 Authexti'city, 
 
 Authextick, 
 
 Authen'tickly, 
 
 AuTHEXTICK'.N ESS 
 
 to rely on information 
 
 Gr. avOivriKug, Lat. 
 cum auctoritate, with 
 authority. Certo auc- 
 tore, the author being 
 Well known; to make 
 known the author, to 
 give up the author, or 
 authority ; to refer to ; 
 to vouch for the truth of 
 a statement. Authentic seems to have been the 
 proper epithet for a physician regularly bred or 
 licensed. The diploma of a licentiate runs, ' Au- 
 thentice licentiatus.' 
 
 Tliirdly, it appeareth by regesters and recordes 
 iudicially and autentiquely made, yet preserued for 
 confir.iiation of the same. Hall. Henry VIII. 
 
 This point is dubious, and not yet authentically 
 decided. Brown's Vulgar Errours, 
 
 Of statutes made before time of memory, we have 
 no authentical records, but only transcripts. Hale. 
 
 Thou art wont his great authentick will 
 Interpreter through highest heaven to bring. 
 
 Milton. 
 She joy'd th' authentick news to hear. 
 Of what she guess'd before with jealous fear. 
 
 Cuieley. 
 
 Conscience never commands or forbids any thing 
 autherUicaUy , but there is some law of God which 
 commands or forbids it first. South 
 
 But censure's to oc understood 
 The autltentxcH mark of the elect. 
 The public suunp heav'n seU on all that's great and 
 good. 
 
 Nothing can be more pleasant tham to see virtuosos 
 about a cabinet of medals, descanting upon the value, 
 rarity, and autlienticalneu of the several pieces. 
 
 Addison. 
 
 The nations that, according to the best authenticated 
 
 bistQry, appear to have been first civilized, were those 
 
 that dwelt around the coast of the mediterranean sea. 
 
 Stnitli's Wealth of Nations. 
 
 AUTHENTICS, Altiiextic*, in the civil 
 law, is a name given to the Novels of .lustinian. 
 Thereasonofthe denomination is not well known. 
 Alciat will have it to have been first given them 
 by Accursius. These novels were originally com- 
 posed in Greek, and afterwards translated into 
 Latin by the patrician Julian, who reduced them 
 into less compass. And in the time of Bulgaiis, 
 there was a second version made, more exact and 
 literal, though not quite so elegant as the former. 
 This translation being preferred by Accursius, he 
 called it authentica, by way of preference to that 
 of Julian, as being more conformable to the ori- 
 ginal. They are hereby distinguished from some 
 other publications of later imperial constitutions, 
 which are not regarded as of much authority. 
 
 AUTIIIE, a river of France, which rises in the 
 Straits of Calais, and falls into the sea between 
 the Somme and Canche. 
 
 AUTIION (John d'), a French historian of 
 the sixteenth centuiy, abbot of Angle in Poitou. 
 He wrote the history of France from 1490 to 
 1508, which has never been all printed. He 
 died in 1523. 
 
 AUTHOR, V. 8c 72. ^ 
 
 Al'thoress, 
 
 Author'itative, 
 
 Althor'itatively, 
 
 Author'ity, 
 
 Authoriza'tion, 
 
 Au'thorize, 
 
 Au'thorless, 
 
 Au'thorship. 
 
 Some contend for the 
 Latin auctor, from au- 
 geo, auctum, to increase, 
 i. e. to carry on an un- 
 dertaking. It seems to 
 relate more to the ground 
 than to the form of the 
 work. Others refer its 
 J origin to avOivriKw^, or 
 the root which it represents. Whether this ety- 
 mology be admitted or not, the verb and its cor- 
 relatives convey the ideas of beginning, creation, 
 foundation, invention, countenance, support, and 
 power. 
 
 They consider the main consent of all the churches 
 in the whole world, witnessing the sacred authority of 
 Scripture, ever sithence the first publication thereof, 
 even till this present day and hour Hooker. 
 
 Isab. O but man, proud man, 
 Brest in a little brief authority. 
 Most ignorant of what he's most assured. 
 His glassy essence like an angry ape. 
 Plays such fantastick tricks before high heav'n. 
 As makes the angels weep. 
 
 Shakspeare. Measure for Measure. 
 Idle old man. 
 That still would manage those authorities 
 That he hath giv'n away ! % Id. King Lear. 
 That which is the strength of their amity, shall 
 prove the immediate autlior of their variance. 
 
 Shakspeare. 
 1 know, my lord. 
 If law, authority, and pow'r deny not. 
 It will go hard with poor Antonio. id. 
 
 But I sufler not a woman to teach, nor to usuqj 
 authority over the man, but to be in silence. 
 
 Paul. 
 War mends but few, but spoils multitudes ; it legi. 
 timates rapine, and authorises murther. 
 
 Jeremy Taylor, 
 
 X '2
 
 AUT 
 
 308 
 
 AUT 
 
 Although their intention bo sincere, yet doth it no- 
 toriously strengthen vulgar crrour, and authorize opi- 
 nions injurious unto truth. Brown's Vulgar Errours. 
 
 Now while the tortur'd savage turns around. 
 And flings about his foam, impatient of the wound ; 
 The wound's great author close at hand provokes 
 His rage. Dry den's Fables. 
 
 Yourself first made that title which I claim. 
 
 First bid me love, and authoriz'd my flame. 
 
 Dry den. 
 
 The obligation of laws arises not from their matter, 
 but from their admission and reception, and authori- 
 sation in this kingdom. Hale. 
 
 Power arising from strength, is always in those 
 that are governed, who are many : but authority aris- 
 ing from opinion, is in those that govern, who are 
 few. Temple. 
 
 The woods are fitter to give rules than cities, 
 where those that call themselves civil and rational, 
 go out of their way, by the authority of example. 
 
 Locke. 
 
 The faith or persuasion of a iJ'ivine revelation is a 
 
 Divine faith, not only with respect to the object of 
 
 it, but likewise in respect to the author of it, which is 
 
 the Divine spirit. Tillotsou. 
 
 From his loins 
 
 New authors of dissension spring ; from him 
 
 Two branches, that in hosting long contend 
 
 For sov'reign sway. Philips. 
 
 A more decisive proof cannot be given of the full 
 conviction of the British nation, that the principles 
 of the Revolution did not authorise them to elect 
 kings at pleasure, than their continuing to adopt a 
 plan of hereditary protestant succession in the old line. 
 
 Burke. 
 
 AUTOCABDALI, in antiquity, an order of 
 musicians, who wore an ivy crown or garland. 
 Scaliger seems to rank tliem in the number of 
 raimi. 
 
 AUTOCEPHALUS ; from avro^, ipse, and 
 KtcpaXi], head ; a person who has no one over 
 him. This denomination was given, by the 
 Greeks, to certain archbishops who were ex- 
 empted from the jurisdiction of patriarchs. There 
 were several other bishops in the east, who were 
 autocephali ; and in the west those of Ravenna 
 pretend to the same right. 
 
 AUTOCHTHONES, an appellation assumed 
 by some nations, importing that they sprung, or 
 were produced, from the same soil which they 
 still inhabited. In this sense autocthones amounts 
 to the same with aborigines. The Athenians va- 
 lued themselves on their being autochthones, 
 self-born, or yjjytvfic, earth-born ; see Attica, 
 it being the prevailing opinion among the 
 ancients that, in the beginning, the earth, by 
 some prolific power, produced men, as it still 
 does plants. 
 
 AUTO'CRAT, -\ Or. auroc, himself, and 
 
 Autoc'rasv, (kputoq, power; the pos- 
 
 Autocuat'ical, ^sessor of uncontrollable 
 
 Autocrator'ical.' power. The emperor of 
 Russia is styled the ' autocrat of all the Russias.' 
 
 The Divine will is absolute ; it is its own reason : 
 it is both the producer and the ground of all its acts. 
 It moves not by the external impulse or inclination 
 of objects, but determines itself by an absolute auto- 
 crasy. Souih's Sermons, x. 
 
 Tho Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, in respect of 
 tlie same divinity, have the same autocratorlcal 
 power, dominion, and authority. 
 
 Pearson on the Creed. 
 
 AUTOCRATOR; from avroc, himself, and 
 Kporoc, power ; a person vested with an absolute 
 independent power, by which he is rendered un- 
 accountable to any other for his actions. The 
 power of the Athenian generals, or commanders, 
 was usually limited : so that at the expiration of 
 their office, they were liable to render an account 
 of tlieir administration. But, on extraordinary oc- 
 casions, tliey were exempted from tliis restraint, 
 and sent with uncontrollable authority : in which 
 case fhey were styled AvroKoaroptc. The same 
 people also applied the name to some of their 
 ambassadors, who were vested with a full power 
 of determining matters according to tlieir own 
 discretion. These were denominated IJofff/Btic 
 Auroeparop£f, and resembled our plenipoten- 
 tiaries. 
 
 AUTO DA FE, or act of faith. See Act. 
 
 AUTODIDACTUS ; from uvtoq and Si^acKo, 
 to learn ; a person self-taught, or who has had 
 no master or assistant of his studies, 
 
 AUTOGENIAL ; from uvtoq and ptvyaw, to 
 beget; self-begotten. 
 
 AUTOGLYPHUS Lapis, a stone mentioned 
 by Plutarch, as having naturally impressed on it 
 the figure of Cybele. It is said to have been found 
 in Sagaris a river of Persia. Doubtless if any 
 such stone ever existed, the priests had it made 
 to deceive the people. 
 
 AUT'OGRAPH, avroQ., myself, and ypa^w, 
 I write. An original manuscript. 
 
 He did accurately describe and turn into Latin 
 from the original autographe in Cambridge public li- 
 brary. Wood's AthcBncB Oxoniensis. 
 
 AUTOLITHOTOMUS, one who cuts him- 
 self for the stone. ()i this we have a very extra- 
 ordinary instance given by Reiselius, in the 
 Ephemerides of the Academy Natura Curiosorum, 
 dec. 1, an. 3, obs. 192. 
 
 AUTOLOGIST ; from varoQ, self, and Xoyo^, 
 speech ; one who speaks much of himself. 
 
 AUTOLOGY, speaking of or to one's self. 
 
 AUTOLOL^'E, an ancient people of Maurita- 
 nia, descended from the Gatuli. They excelled 
 all their neighbours in running. 
 
 AUTOLYCUS, in fabulous history, a son of 
 INIercury by Chione, a daughter of Dxdalion. He 
 was one of the Argonauts, famous for his cun- 
 ning as a thief. After stealing the flocks of his 
 neighbours, he altered their marks, and mingled 
 them with his own. But Sisyphus, son of 
 jEoIus, discovered his craft ; and when Autolycus 
 stole his flocks, he picked out his own by a mark 
 which he had made imder their feet. The arti- 
 fice of Sisyphus pleased Autolycus so much, that 
 he directly formed an intimacy with him, and 
 even allowed him freely to enjoy tlie company 
 of his daughter Anticlea, who became pregnant 
 of Ulysses, and was soon after espoused to 
 Laertes. 
 
 Autolycus, a Greek mathematician and as- 
 tronomer of Pitane, in iEolia, who flourished 
 about 320 years before Ciirist. He was precep- 
 tor in mathematics to Arcesilaus, who was also a 
 disciple of Theophrastus, the successor of Aris- 
 totle. His works extant are, a Treatise on tlie 
 Movable Sphere, published by Dufypodius in 
 Greek and Latin, 8vo. at Strasburg, in 1758; 
 and in a Latin translation in the Synopsis Ma-
 
 AUTOMATON. 
 
 3U9 
 
 thetnatica of Mersenniis, published in 4to. at 
 Paris, in 1G44 ; and also a Tre;itise on tlie Kising 
 and Setting of the Stars, edited, with the former 
 work, by Dasypodius. Diog. Laert. \"it. Arccsii. 
 Fabr. P-id. Grxc. torn. ii. p. 89. Montucla, liist. 
 Mathein. t. i. p. 192. 
 
 Al TOMATE, called also Hif.ha, one of the 
 Cyclades, an island on tlie north of Crete, said 
 to have emerged out of tlie sea, between the 
 islands Thera andTherana, in the fifth year of the 
 etnperor Claudius ; in extent thirty stadia. 
 
 AUTOM'ATON,-^ Gr. Avrofiaroc. Ex. ju«- 
 Al'tom'atous, > TTiv, frustra, vel fiaofxai, ex- 
 Automa'tic. 3 citor. Sometiiing self- 
 moved ; derivinj^ its motion from internal ma- 
 chinery. 
 
 Clocks, or mitomatous organs, whereby we distin- 
 guish of time, have no mention in ancient writers. 
 
 Brown's Vulgar Errours. 
 
 For it is greater to understand the art whereby the 
 Almighty governs the motions of the great automaton, 
 than to have learned the intrigues of policy. 
 
 Glanville's Scepsis, 
 
 The panicular circumstances for which the automata 
 of this kind are most eminent, may be reduced to four. 
 
 Wilkins. 
 
 Automaton may be fiirther defined, a ma- 
 chine, so constructed by means of weights, 
 levers, springs, wheels, &c. as to move for a 
 considerable time, as if endued with animal life. 
 According to this definition, clocks, watches, 
 and all machines of that kind may be ranked as 
 a species of automata. But the word ig most 
 commonly applied to such machines as are made 
 in the form of men and other animals, at the 
 same time that tlicir internal machinery is so 
 contrived, that they seem voluntarily to act like 
 the animals they represent. It has fallen in tlie 
 way of the writer of this paper to have been 
 making a few collections on this sul)ject for some 
 years past ; and, observing that the whole direc- 
 tion of mechanical genius to tliese inventions 
 has at present terminated in amusing, rather 
 than any particularly useful machines, he has 
 often entertained himself with considering the 
 powers of man as a mere animal machine, in con- 
 trast with their inventions; the highest and best 
 of which imitate his motions. 
 
 Political economists have frequently amused 
 themselves and the public with the nicely-ba- 
 lanced powers of man as a propagating and 
 eating animal, and philosophers and divines 
 often assure us that he is, in other and higher 
 respects, but a machine of a superior descrip- 
 tion; in especial deference to the latter grave 
 authorities, we, therefore, take it for granted in 
 this paper, that man is a machine, and shall not 
 presume to arrogate for him any higher preten- 
 sions. We know nothing of his impulses as an 
 animal, nor of the duties or influences to which 
 he is subject as a rational being, if such he be ; 
 we only propose to introduce to our readers a 
 variety of claimants for the honor of having 
 made a part of liim — of imitating portions of his 
 organs, in their actual exercise — and isolated ac- 
 tions of his very mind. What wonder, if, in 
 the progress of these efforts, our artists should 
 
 occasionally have struck off a complete and 
 clever duck, a learned tly, or a royal eajjle! 
 
 Automata, have been favorite objects of me- 
 chanical contrivance from a very early period. 
 If the term, indeed, may be allowed to include 
 what some writers have considered under it, 
 their history would quickly swell into a volume. 
 The celebrated Glanville, for instance, speaks of 
 ' the art whereby the Almighty governs the mo- 
 tions of the great automaton' of the universe ! 
 Bishop A\'ilkins ranks the sphere of Archimedes 
 amongst tlie avroiiara aruTa, ' or such as 
 move only according to the contrivance of their 
 several parts, and not according to their v.hole 
 frame.' It was, in fact, an early orrery, accord- 
 ing to Claudiau : 
 
 Jupiter in parvo cum cemeret aethera vitro, 
 Risit, et ad superos talia dicta dedit ; 
 
 Huccinc mortalis progressa potcntia cur«? 
 Jam meus in fragili luditur orbe labor, &c. 
 
 T!iis learned prelate has even extended the 
 application of the term to machines moved, in 
 consequence of their peculiar construction, by 
 external forces or elements, as mills, ships, kc. 
 Its modern acceptation, however, and that to 
 wliich we shall restrict ourselves, will not in- 
 clude all machines that are self, or internally 
 moved. It is confined to the mechanical imita- 
 tions of the functions and actions of living ani- 
 mals, and particularly those of man. 
 
 The celebrated story of the statue of Memnon, 
 one of the wonders of Ancient Egypt, has some 
 pretensions to lead the way in this historical 
 sketch. We have positive testimony (Strabo, 
 lib. xvii.) to the circumstance of the most beau- 
 tiful sounds being emitted from this statue, at 
 the rising and setting of the sun ; and from the 
 pedestal, after the statue was overthrown. N\"hat 
 was the contrivance in this case, it may be vain 
 to conjecture; but automata are, by profession, 
 a puzzling race. If a certain disposition of 
 strings, exposed to the rarefaction of the air, or 
 to the morning and evening breezes, after the 
 manner of our /Eolian harps, produced these 
 sounds; or if any method of arranging the in- 
 ternal apertures so as to receive them from a 
 short distance, were the artifice, a considerable 
 acquaintance with the science of music, and 
 with accoustics generally, will be argued. Wil- 
 kins quotes a musical invention of Cornelius 
 Dreble, of similar pretensions, which ' being set 
 in the sunshine, would, of itself, render a soft 
 and pleasant harmony, but being removed into 
 the shade would presently become silent.' 
 
 The statues and the flight of I)a;dalus are 
 equally famous, and, perhaps, fabulous. Aris- 
 totle, however, speaks of the former in his 
 treatise De Anima, lib. i. c. 3. as successful 
 imitations of the human figure and human func- 
 tions in walking, running, &c. and attempts to 
 account for their motions by the concealment of 
 quicksilver. 
 
 Archytas' flying dove, originally mentioned in 
 Favorinus, is anoUier of the ancient automata. 
 The inventor is said to have flourished about 
 B. C. 400, and was a Pythagorean philosopher 
 at Tarentum. It was made of wood, and tlv* 
 principal circumstance of its history, which F?«
 
 310 
 
 AUTOMATON. 
 
 %orinus mentions, that is like some other birds 
 of too much wing, when it alighted on the ground, 
 it could not raise itself up again. Aulas Gel- 
 lius, in his Noctes Atticre, attempts to account 
 for its flight, by observing, ' Ita erat scilicet li- 
 bramentis suspensum, et aura spiritus inclusa 
 atque occulta consitum,' &c. that it was ' sus- 
 pended by balancing, and moved by a secretly 
 enclosed aura or spirit.' 
 
 Friar Bacon, we all know, made a brazen head 
 that could speak, and that seems to have assisted, 
 in no small degree, in proclaiming him a magician. 
 Albertus ]\Iagnus is also said to have devoted 
 thirty years of his life to the construction of an 
 automaton, which the celebrated Thomas Aquinas 
 broke purposely to pieces. Men, treated as 
 these were by the age in which they lived, had 
 no encouragement to hope that any details of 
 their labors would reach posterity. 
 
 Amongst the curiosities of his day, Walchius 
 mentions an iron spider of great ingenuity. In 
 size it did not exceed the ordinary inhabitants of 
 our houses, and could creep or climb with any 
 of them, wanting none of their powers, except, of 
 which nothing is said, the formation oT its web. 
 Various writers of credit, particularly Kircher, 
 Porta, and bishop Wilkins, relate that the cele- 
 brated Regiomontanus '(John MuUer) of Nu- 
 remberg, ventured a loflier flight of art. He is 
 said to have constructed a self-moved wooden 
 eagle, which descended toward the emperor 
 Maximilian, as he approached the gates of Nu- 
 remberg, saluted him, and hovered over his 
 person as he entered the town. This philosopher, 
 according to the same authorities, also produced 
 an iron fly, which would start from his hand at 
 table, and after flying round to each of the 
 guests, returned, as if wearied, to the protection 
 of his master. 
 
 An hydraulic clock, presented to the emperor 
 Charlemagne, by the caliph Haroun al Raschid, 
 merits record in the history of these inventions. 
 It excited the admiration of all Europe at the 
 period of its arrival. Twelve small doors di- 
 vided the dial into the twelve hours, and opened 
 successively as each hour arrived, when a ball 
 fell from the aperture on a brazen bell and 
 struck the time, the door remaining open. At 
 the conclusion of every twelve hours, twelve 
 mounted knights, handsomely caparisoned, came 
 out simultaneously from the dial, rode round the 
 plate, and closed the doors. Dr. Clarke, in his 
 last volume of Travels (part iii. Scandinavia, 
 sec. 1. 4to. 1819), mentions a similar contri- 
 vance in a clock at Lubeck, of the high antiquity 
 of 1405. Over the face is an image of Jesus 
 Christ, on either side of which are folding- 
 doors, which fly open every day as the clock 
 strikes twelve. A set of flgures, representing 
 the twelve apostles, then march forth on the left 
 hand, and, bowing to our Saviour's image as 
 they pass in succession, enter tlie door on the 
 right. On the termination of the procession the 
 doors close. This clock is also remarkably com- 
 plete, for the age, in its astronomical apparatus ; 
 representing the place of the sun and moon in 
 the ecliptic, the moon's age, &c. Similar ap- 
 pendages to clocks and time-pieces became too 
 common, at the bf^ginning of the last century, to 
 
 deserve particular notice. We should not, how- 
 ever, omit some of the productions of the Le 
 Droz family, of Neufchatel. About the middle 
 of the century, the elder Le Droz presented a 
 clock to the king of Spain, with a sheep and 
 dog attached to it. The bleating of the former 
 was admirably correct, as an imitation ; and the 
 dog was placed in custody of a basket of loose 
 fruit. If any one removed the fruit, he would 
 growl, snarl, gnash his teeth, and endeavour to 
 bite, until it was restored. 
 
 The son of this artist was the original mventor 
 of the musical boxes, which have of late been 
 imported into this country. Mr. Collinson, a 
 correspondent of Dr. Mutton's, thus clearly de- 
 scribes this fascinating toy in a letter to the 
 doctor, inserted in his Mathematical and Philo- 
 sophical Dictionary : — ' When at Geneva, I 
 called upon Droz, son of the original Droz, of La 
 Chaux de Fords, where I also went. He showed 
 me an oval gold snuff-box, about, if I recollect 
 right, four inches and a-half long, by three inches 
 broad, and about an inch and a-half thick. It was 
 double, having an horizontal partition ; so that it 
 may be considered as one box placed on another, 
 •with a lid, of course, to each box. One con- 
 tained snuff; in the other, as soon as the lid 
 was opened, there rose up a very small bird, of 
 green enamelled gold, sitting upon a gold stand. 
 Immediately this minute curiosity wagged its 
 tail, shook its wings, opened its bill of white 
 enamelled gold, and poured forth, minute as it 
 was (being only three-quarters of an inch from 
 the beak to the extremity of the tail) such a clear 
 and melodious song as would have filled a room 
 of twenty or thirty feet square with its harmony.' 
 
 In Ozanam's Mathematical Recreations, we 
 have an account, by the inventor, M. Camus, of 
 an elegant amusement of Louis XIV. when a boy. 
 It represented a lady proceeding to court, in a 
 small chariot drawn by two horses, and attended by 
 her coachman, footman, and page. When the ma- 
 chine was placed at the end of a ta'ble of proper 
 size, the coachman smacked his whip, the horses 
 started off with all the natural motions, and the 
 whole equipage drove on to the farther extremity 
 of the table ; it would now turn at right angles 
 in a regular way, and proceed to that part of 
 the table opposite to whi-ch the prince sat, when 
 the carriage stopped, the page aligiited to open 
 the door, and the lady came out with a petition, 
 which she presented with a courtesy to the bow- 
 ing young monarch. Tli« return was equally in 
 order. After appearing to await the pleasure of 
 the prince for a short time, the lady courtesied 
 again, and re-entered the chariot, the page 
 mounted behind, the coachman flourished his 
 whip, and the footman, after running a few steps, 
 resumed his place. 
 
 About the same period, M. \"aucanson, a 
 member of the Academy Royal of France, led 
 the way to the unquestionable superiority of 
 modern times, in tiiese contrivances, by the con- 
 struction of his automaton duck, a production, 
 it is said, so exactly resembling the living animal, 
 that not a bone of the body, and hardly a feather 
 of the win^s, seems to have escaped his imitation 
 and direction. The radius, the cubitus, and tlie 
 liuuurus liad each their exact offices. The auto-
 
 r//,/X /'/((V<'/\ 
 
 J 
 
 /■<m,/m,./;,hl,jtf,^,/f;rr/,«n,„jl Y^yy. 7:\ f ■/l,^lfyil,f<-.1l,vutty'.7S?
 
 AUTOMATON. 
 
 311 
 
 matoii ate, drank, and quacked in perfect liar- 
 inony with nature. It gobbled food brought 
 before if, with avidity, drank, a.id even muddled 
 the water after the manner of the hvin^ bird, 
 and ai)peared to evacuate its food ultimately in 
 a digested state. Ingenious contemporaries of 
 tlie inventor, who solved all the rest of his con- 
 trivances, could never wholly comprehend the 
 mechanism of this duck. A chemical solution 
 of the food was contrived to imitate the effect of 
 digestion. 
 
 This gentleman is also celebrated for having 
 exhibited at Paris, in 1738, an androides (from 
 avj/p, a man, and uSog, a form ; a term under 
 which some scientific works have classed all the 
 automata that have been made to imitate the 
 human person), a flute-player, whose powers 
 exceeded all his ancestry ; and for the liberality 
 and good sense with which he communicated to 
 the acr.demy, in the same year, an exact account 
 of its construction. The figure was nearly six 
 feet in height, and usually placed on a square 
 pedestal four feet and a-half high, and about 
 three feet and a-half broad. The air entered the 
 body by three separate pipes, into which it was 
 conveyed by nine pairs of bellows, which were 
 expanded and contracted at pleasure, by means 
 of an axis formed of metallic substances, and 
 which was turned by the aid of clock-work. 
 There was not even the slightest noise heard 
 during the operations of the bellows : which 
 might other\vise have discovered the process by 
 which the air was conveyed ad libitum into the 
 body of the machine. The tliree tubes, into 
 which the air was sent by means of the bellows, 
 passed again into three small reservoirs concealed 
 in the body of the automaton. After having 
 united in this place, and ascended towards the 
 throat, they formed the cavity of the mouth, 
 wiiich terminated in two small lips, adapted to 
 the performance of their respective functions. 
 A small movable tongue was enclosed within 
 this cavity, which admitted or intercepted the 
 passage of the air into the flute, according to the 
 tune that was executed, or the quantity of wind 
 that was requisite for the performance. A par- 
 ticular species of steel cylinder, which was 
 turned by means of clock-work, afforded the 
 proper movements to the fingers, lips, and tongue. 
 This cylinder was divided into fifteen equal 
 parts, which caused the ascension of the other 
 extremities, by the aid of pegs, which pressed 
 upon the ends of fifteen different levers. The 
 fingers of the automaton were directed in their 
 movements by seven of these lerers, which had 
 wires and chains attached to their ascending ex- 
 tremities ; these being fixed to tlie fingers, caused 
 their ascension in due proportion to the declen- 
 sion of the other extremity, by the motion of the 
 ( ylinder ; and thus, on the contrary, the ascent, 
 or descent, of one end of the lever, produced a si- 
 milar ascent, or descent, in the fingers that cor- 
 responded to the others; by which one of the 
 holes was opened or stopped agreeably to the 
 direction of tiie music. The entrance of the wind 
 was managed by three of the other levers, which 
 were so organized as to be capable of opening or 
 shutting, by means of the three reservoirs. By 
 a similar mechanical process, the lips were under 
 
 tlie direction of four levers ; one of which opened 
 them in order to give the air a freer passage; 
 the other contracted them ; the third drew them 
 back ; and the fourth pushed tliem in a forward 
 direction. The lips were placed on that part 
 of the flute which receives the air ; and, by the 
 different motions which have been already enu- 
 merated, regulated the tune in the requisite 
 manner for execution. The direction of the 
 tongue furnished employment for the remaining 
 lever, which it moved in order that it mif'ht be 
 enabled to shut or open the mouth of the flute. 
 The extremity of the axis of the cylinder was 
 terminated on the right side by an endless screw, 
 consisting of twelve threads, each of which was 
 placed at the distance of a line and a half from 
 the other. A piece of copper was fixed above 
 this screw ; and within it was a steel pivot, 
 which was inserted between the threads of the 
 screw, and obliged the cylinder above-mentioned, 
 to pursue the threads. Thus, instead of moving 
 in a direct turn, it was perpetually pushed to 
 one side; the successive elevation of the levers 
 displaying all the different movements of a pro- 
 fessed musician. 
 
 M. Vaucanson constructed another celebrated 
 androides, which played on the Provencal shep- 
 herd's pipe, and beat, at the same time, on an 
 instrument called the tambour de basque. This 
 was also a machine of the first order for inge- 
 nious and difficult contrivance. The shepherd 
 bore the flageolet in his left hand, and in the 
 riglit a stick, with which he beat the tabor, or 
 tambourine, in accompaniment. He was ca- 
 pable of playing about twenty different airs, 
 consisting of minuets, rigadoons, an:! country- 
 dances. The pipe, or flageolet, which he was 
 made to play, is a wind-instrument of great va- 
 riety, rapidity, and power of execution, when 
 the notes are well filled and properly articulated 
 by the tongue; but it consists only of three 
 holes; and the execution, therefore, mainly de- 
 pends upon the manner in which they are co- 
 vered, and the due variation of the force of the 
 wind that reaches them. To give the androides 
 power to sound the highest note, INI. Vaucanson 
 found it necessary to load the bellows, Avhich 
 supplied the air to this lone, with fifty-six 
 pounds weight, while that of one ounce supplied 
 the lowest tone. Nor was the same note always 
 to be executed by exactly the same force of air; 
 it was necessary to pay the most accurate atten- 
 tion to its place on the scale, and to so many 
 difficult circumstances of combination and ex- 
 pression, that the inventor declares himself to 
 have been frequently on the point of relin- 
 quishing his attempt in its progress. In the 
 tambourine accompaniment, too, tliere were nu- 
 merous obstacles to overcome ; the variation of 
 the strokes, and particularly the continued roll 
 of this instrument, was found to require no small 
 ingenuity of construction. 
 
 All other exhibitions of mechanical skill, in 
 imitation of the powers of human nature, were 
 destined, however, to give way, in 1769, to the 
 pretensions of the chess-player of M. Wolffgang 
 de Kempelin, a Hungarian gentleman, and aulic 
 counsellor of the royal chamber of the domains 
 of the emperor in Hungary. Called in that year
 
 312 
 
 AUTOMATON. 
 
 to Vienna, by the duties of his station, this gen- 
 tleman was present at some experiments in 
 magnetism, made before the empress Maria 
 Theresa, when he ventured to hint that he could 
 construct for her majesty a piece of mechanism 
 far superior to any of those which had been 
 exhibited. His manner of remarking this, ex- 
 cited the attention of the empress, who encouraged 
 him to make the effort, the automaton chess- 
 player, which has since been exhibited in all the 
 capitals of Europe, was, within six months after 
 this period, presented at the imperial court. It 
 is a presumption in favor of the pretensions of 
 this contrivance to be a master-piece of mere 
 mechanism, that the original artist, after having 
 gratified his exalted patroness and her court with 
 the exhibition of it, appeared for many years in- 
 different to its fame. He engaged himself in 
 other mechanical pursuits with equal ardor, 
 and is said to have so far neglected this, as to 
 have taken it partly to pieces, for the purpose of 
 making other experiments. But the visit of the 
 Russian grand duke Paul to the court of Joseph 
 II. again called our automaton to life. It was 
 repaired and put in order in a few weeks ; and, 
 from this period (17R5), has been exhibited at 
 intervals, through Germany, at Paris, and in 
 London, first by M. de Kempelin, and latterly by 
 a purchaser of the property from his son ; De 
 Kempelin having died in 1803. 
 
 Our chess-playing readers will be able to ap- 
 preciate the bold pretensions of tliis automaton. 
 The entire number of combinations which it is 
 possible to form with the pieces of a chess-board 
 has never, we believe, been ascertained. To 
 push forward a plan of our own steadily, and at 
 the same time to anticipate the designs of an 
 antagonist, requires a constant and acute discri- 
 mination, which long experience, and some con- 
 siderable strength of memory, have been required 
 to make availing in all other cases. But this 
 cunning infidel (for he assumes the figure of a 
 Turk) drives kings, and castles, and knights 
 before him with more than mortal sagacity, and 
 with his inferior hand : he never, we believe, has 
 been beaten; and except in a very few instances 
 of drawn games, has beat the most skilful chess- 
 players in Europe. Dr. Hutton, on the suppo- 
 sition of its being altogether a mechanical con- 
 trivance, calls it * the greatest master-piece of 
 mechanics that ever appeared in the world.' 
 We shall recount his pretensions in the words of 
 an Oxford graduate, who published Observations 
 on them, during his last visit in London, and 
 subjoin a statement of the best attempts that 
 have been made to account for his apparent 
 skill. 
 
 ' The room where the automaton chess-player 
 is at present ex'hibited, has an inner apartment, 
 within which appears the figure of a Turk as 
 large as life, dressed after 'the Turkish fasliion, 
 sitting behind a chest of three feet and a half in 
 length, two feet in breadth, and two feet and a 
 half in height, to which it is attached by the 
 wooden seat on which it sits. The chest is 
 placed upon four cantors, and, together with the 
 figure, may be easily moved to any part of the 
 room. On the plain surface formed by the top 
 of the chest, in the centre, is a raised immovable 
 liicss-board of handsome dimens''jns, upon which 
 
 the figure has its eyes fixed ; its right arm and 
 hand beinsf extended on the chest, and its left 
 arm somewhat raised, as if in the attitude of hold- 
 ing a Turkish pipe, which originally was placed 
 in its hand. The exhibiter begins by wheeling 
 the chest to the entrance of the apartment within 
 which it stands, and in face of the spectators. 
 He then opens certain doors contrived in the 
 chest, two in front and two at the back ; at the 
 same time pulling out a long shallow drawer 
 at the bottom of the chest, made to contain the 
 chess-men, a cushion for the arm of the figure to 
 rest upon, and some counters. Two lesser doors, 
 and a green cloth screen, contrived in tlie body 
 of tlie figure and its lower parts, are likewise 
 opened, and the Turkish robe which covers them 
 is raised ; so that the construction, both of the 
 figure and chest, internally, is displayed. In this 
 state the automaton is moved round for the e.xa- 
 mination of the spectators : and, to banish all 
 suspicion from the most sceptical mind, that any 
 living subject is concealed within any part of it, 
 the exhibitor introduces a lighted candle into the 
 body of the chest and figure, by which the inte- 
 rior of the chest is, in a great measure, rendered 
 transparent, and the most secret corner is shown. 
 Here it may be observed, that the same precau- 
 tion to remove suspicion is used, if requested, at 
 the close, as at the commencement, of a game of 
 chess with the automaton. The chest is divided, 
 by a partition, into two unequal chambers. That 
 to the right of the figure is the .narrowest, and 
 occupies scarcely one-third of the body of the 
 chest. It is filled with little wheels, levers, cy- 
 linders, and other machinery used in clock-work. 
 That to the left contains a few wheels, some 
 small barrels with springs, and two quarters of a 
 circle placed horizontally. The body and lower 
 parts of the figure contain certain tubes, which 
 seem to be conductors to the machinery. After 
 a sufficient time, during which each spectator 
 may satisfy his scruples and his curiosity, the 
 exhibitor recloses the doors of the chest and 
 figure, and the drawer at the bottom ; makes 
 some arrangements in the body of the figure, 
 winds up the works with a key inserted into a 
 small opening on the side of the chest, places a 
 cushion under the left arm of the figure, which 
 now rests upon it, and invites any individual 
 present to play a game of chess. At the com- 
 mencement of a game, the automaton moves its 
 head as if taking a view of the board; the same 
 motion occurs at the close of a, game. In mak- 
 ing a move, it slowly raises its left arm from the 
 cushion placed under it, and directs it towards 
 the square of the piece to be moved. Its hands 
 and fingers open on touching the piece, which it 
 takes up, and conveys to any proposed square. 
 The arm then returns with a natural motion to 
 the cushion upon which it usually rests. In tak- 
 ing a piece, the automaton makes the same mo- 
 tions of the arm and hand to lay hold of the piece, 
 which it conveys from the board, and then return- 
 ing to its own piece, it takes it up, and places it on 
 the vacant square. Observations, 4c. bi/ an Oxford 
 Graduate, 8vo, 1819. His motions have an air of 
 great dignity and composure. On giving check to 
 the king, he moves his head as a signal. When a 
 false move is made, as if to puzzle him, he taps 
 with his right hand on the chest, replaces the
 
 AUTOMATON. 
 
 313 
 
 piece wrongly moved, and proceeds to take the 
 due advantage of moving a piece of his own. At 
 other times he will tap on the chest for his ad- 
 versary to more ; and at the close of the game 
 he bows gracefully round to the company. It is 
 a remarkable, and somewhat suspicious circum- 
 stance, that neither the present proprietor of this 
 automaton (in a pamphlet circulated by him on 
 this subject), nor the Oxford graduate, from whose 
 observations we have abridged the above account 
 of his performances, takes any notice of the at- 
 tempted solution of them by Mr. Collinson, a 
 correspondent of Dr. llutton, to whom we have 
 before alluded. In the same letter in which this 
 gentleman describes the automaton inventions of 
 the Droz family, he speaks of a pamphlet pre- 
 sented to him at Dresden, which affirms the 
 whole phenomena to be produced by liuman 
 agency ; a conjecture which is confirmed by a 
 writer in the Edinburgh Encyclopedia. A well- 
 taught boy is said to be partly concealed in the 
 ample drapery of our automaton's lower limbs, 
 and partly in the commode on which the chess- 
 board is placed. lie cannot be seen when the 
 doors are opened, we are told, ' because his legs 
 and thighs are then concealed in two hollow cy- 
 linders, which appear designed to support the 
 wheels and levers, the rest of the body being at 
 that moment out of the commode, and hid in the 
 drapery of the automaton. When the doors of 
 the commode are shut, the clacks which are 
 heard by the turning of a rounce, permit the 
 dwarf to change his place, and re-enter the com- 
 mode without being heard; and while the ma- 
 chine is rolled about to different parts of the 
 room, to prove that it is perfectly detached, the 
 dwarf has an opportunity of shutting the trap 
 through which he has passed. The drapery of 
 the automaton is then lifted up, and the interior 
 part of the body is shown, to convince the spec- 
 tators that all is fair, and the whole terminates to 
 their great astonishment, and in the illusion that 
 an effect is produced by simple machinery, 
 which can only arise from a well-ordered head.' 
 This writer proceeds to conjecture, that the chess- 
 board is semi-transparent, so as at once to con- 
 ceal the party within, and afford him sufficient 
 light to perceive the moves of his antagonist, 
 which are met by an interior lever, governing the 
 arm of the automaton, on the principles of the 
 pantograph. 
 
 With these accounts of the chess-player very 
 distinctly in his mind, and an extract of the sup- 
 posed method of concealing the dwarf or boy, in 
 his pocket, the writer of this paper went with 
 some friends a short time ago, to visit, and, if possi- 
 ble, to play at chess with the automaton. His 
 engagements, however, were far too numerous 
 for the writer to obtain that honor on this occasion. 
 Some slight changes had taken place in the man- 
 ner of exhibiting the automaton (compared with 
 the account of the Oxford graduate) ; having, 
 therefore, avowed to the proprietor, that his object 
 •was to obtain a scientific knowledge of his pro- 
 ceedings, as far as it could be done with pro- 
 priety, the writer took memoranda of what 
 passed. 
 
 From a door in a canvass screen the automa- 
 ton and commode were wheeled out at the 
 
 time appointed, and the figure was made to face 
 the company. Then the inferior chamlier of the 
 commode (occupying about one-third of its di- 
 mensions), was opened before and behind, when 
 a taper was held by the proprietor in such a si- 
 tuation, as to throw a full light through the ma- 
 chinery that occupied this part of it. He now 
 closed and locked the doors of this chamber, 
 opened the drawer, and took out the men and 
 cushion, as described by the Oxford graduate ; 
 after which he opened the larger chamber of the 
 commode in front, and put the taper through the 
 front door within it. Perhaps one-sixth, or one- 
 eighth of this chamber was occupied by machi- 
 nery; the rest was a perfect cavity, lined with 
 green baize. He now shut and locked these 
 doors ; then wheeled the commode round, 
 opened and took up the drapery of the figure, 
 and exhibited the body, partly occupied by ma- 
 chinery, and partly left with imperfect imita- 
 tions of the prominent parts, to the shoulders. 
 The drapery was then carefully pulled down, and 
 the figure wheeled round, so as again to front the 
 spectators, before whom it played a masterly and 
 successful game. The conviction of the writer 
 and his friends (with the figure before them) was, 
 that the concealment of a small thin boy or dwarf 
 was barely possible. The larger chamber would 
 contain him, and that chamber never was opened 
 from behind, nor at the same time that the back 
 of the figure was exposed ; while it is observable 
 that the inferior chamber had the light of a taper 
 thrown through it. So that it appeared a practi- 
 cable contrivance that a boy should be concealed 
 in the drapery while the commode was opened, 
 and in the commode while the figure was ex- 
 posed. 
 
 Under these impressions, the writer addressed 
 a letter to the proprietor, in which he stated, that 
 having with his friends, been highly gratified by 
 the wonderful powers of the automaton chess- 
 player, and intending to communicate the result 
 of his investigation to the public, which must, if 
 satisfactory, prove extremely creditable to the 
 invention, — he requested leave to visit the exhi- 
 bition (accompanied by two or three scientific 
 friends, and probably in the presence of a mem- 
 ber of the Royal family), in order to see a game 
 played by the figure, with the doors of the com- 
 mode open ; his object being merely to ascertain 
 the impossibility of any human intervention, and 
 not in any degree to inspect the machinery ; but 
 to this application a polite negative was returned, 
 declining any othei than the ordinary public ex- 
 posure of the machine. 
 
 Since writing the above, we have seen 'An At- 
 tempt to analyse the Automaton Chess-player of 
 M. De Kempelin,' Lon. 1821. The anonymous 
 author is sanguine enough to add, * With an easy 
 method of imitating the movements of that cele- 
 brated Figure.' The solution of these movements 
 here offered to the public, is so far similar to our 
 own, as that the writer confidently ascribes them to 
 the concealed presence of a living agent. Five 
 lithographic plates illustrates his supposed mode of 
 operation. But this tract suggests, that the ope- 
 rator is introduced into the body of the automa- 
 ton; that he sees the chessboard, while playing, 
 ' through the waistcoat, as easily as through a
 
 314 
 
 AUTOMATON. 
 
 veil ; ' and tliat his left hand actually fills the 
 sleeve of the figure, moving the fingers 'with a 
 string.' (Surely, to make this sort of agency com- 
 plete, the chess-player might have been furnished 
 with gloves !) 
 
 The author ingeniously finds a space at the 
 back of the drawer, not heretofore noticed, which 
 would relieve the legs of a concealed person. He 
 also makes some pertinent remarks on the illu- 
 sion which is probably practised on the spectator 
 in the winding up of the machinery, the ticking 
 of clock-work that is heard, &c. We still ima- 
 gine, however, that the dimensions of tlie chest 
 would afford no room for the concealment of a fi- 
 gure that could thus direct the arm, and are certain 
 no such figure could rise out of it into that part of 
 the body supposed, as we saw it displayed in 
 London, A youth coiled up in the commode 
 would much more ' easily ' play the game. The 
 whole chest is but two feet and a half high, three 
 feet long, and two feet in breadth. On the whole, 
 we must leave the question of human agency still 
 imdecided, and pass on to the mention of another 
 of M. de Kempelin's ingenious inventions. 
 
 ' On what do you think M. de Kempelin is at 
 present employed ?' says M. de Wendisch, in a 
 letter to a friend on the pursuits of that gentle- 
 man, in 1783 — ' on a machine that talks ! ' Ac- 
 knowledge that he must be gifted with a creative 
 genius bold and invincible, to undertake a pro- 
 ject of this kind; and will it be believed that he 
 has every reason to hope for complete success ? 
 He has already succeeded so far as to prove the 
 possibility of such a machine, and to deserve on 
 the part of the learned, that they should dedicate 
 their attention to this nev^ and liitherto unknown 
 invention. His machine answers, clearly and 
 distinctly enough, several questions. The voice 
 is sweet and agreeable ; there is but the letter R 
 which it pronounces lispingly, and with a certain 
 harshness. When its answer is not understood, 
 it repeats it slower ; and if required to speak a 
 third time, it repeats it again, but in a tone of im- 
 patience and vexation. I have hoard it pronounce 
 in different languages, very well and very dis- 
 tinctly, the following words and phrases : — 
 'Papa,' ' Mama,' *My wife,' ' My husband,' 
 ' A-propos,' ' Marianne,' * Rome,' ' Madam,' 
 * The queen,' ' The king,' < At Paris,' * Come,' 
 ' Mama loves me,' ' My wife is my friend.' ' 
 This writer then speaks of the machine being at 
 that time nothing more than a square box, to 
 which was affixed a pair of organ-bellows ; and 
 that, at each answer of this non-descript speaker, 
 the inventor put his hand under a curtain that 
 covered it, to touch, apparently, the springs that 
 produced the articulation. It appears to have 
 been M. Kempelin's design to give to this auto- 
 maton the form of a child of five or six years of 
 age, as the voice which he produced was that of 
 this period of life. He, however, exhibited it in 
 an unfinished state ; and we have not been able 
 to learn to what figure it was finally adapted. 
 The narrative of his proceedings in accomplish- 
 ing what he did effect, and which we abridge 
 frour a curious treatise of his, ' On the Mecha- 
 nism of Speech,' appears to us to be amongst 
 tlie most interesting and useful of all the automa- 
 
 tical details. Our modern removers of impedi- 
 ments in speech may work wonders, perhaps, by 
 looking into his artificial jaws ! 
 
 The first object of M. Kempelin, though upon 
 what ground he reasoned we cannot imai^ine, was 
 the production of the vowel sounds, rather than 
 those of any of the consonant, which he hardly 
 expected to be able to combine with them. He 
 investigated the affinity between the sound of 
 various instruments and the human voice ; and 
 between the use of the artificial reed-stop, or 
 voce humana (which has sometimes been applied 
 to the natural organs), and the general functions 
 of the glottis. To the honor of our northern 
 countrymen, after exhausting his patience on 
 qualifying and combining bassoon, with clarionet 
 reeds, those of hautboys, &c. he found the reed 
 of the Highland bagpipe to furnish the best prac- 
 tical basis of his attempts, and sounds approxi- 
 mating the nearest to the harmony divine of 
 human speech ! He now conceived that the fun- 
 damental powers of tlie voice were in A, the 
 sound of which vowel he easily produced by 
 combining the reed with a tube and a pair of 
 organ-bellows ; but beyond this he could not 
 proceed, until it occurred to him that the organ 
 of developing the sounds desired, demanded his 
 principal attention. He divided, therefore, a 
 deep elliptical box into two parts, which shut 
 upon each other with a hinge, in tlie manner of 
 the human jaws, connecting his tube with the 
 back of it, and carefully varying their opening 
 and manner of action, until he could command 
 the sounds of O OU, and E. Year after year 
 was devoted to this instrument, we are told ; but 
 I, or the German U, refused to obey his call. 
 K, L, M, and P, however, rewarded his efforts ; 
 when he attempted to form the letters he had ob- 
 tained, into syllabic combinations and words. 
 Here an almost insuperable difficulty occurred; 
 the sounds of the letters would not flow into each 
 other without a clatter or pause. If too slowly 
 eimnciated, they would seem like a child repeat- 
 ing his alphabet, and have no resemblance to the 
 word intended ; and if the tube was too rapidly 
 supplied, it would produce a catching gust of 
 air in the mouth, which interrupted every letter 
 with tlie sound of K. An aspirating sound fol- 
 lowing that of the consonants, was also very 
 troublesome to overcome. In the beginning of 
 the third year of his labor, he could execute, 
 pretty accurately the words Papa, Mama, Aula, 
 Lama, RIulo. The sounds of most of the other 
 consonants were ultimately obtained. P, K, and 
 T, required the greatest quantity of air, we are 
 told ; and the whole machine about six ti.nies the 
 quantity of the human lungs. But the two lat- 
 ter consonants, with D and G, were always im- 
 perfectly articulated. Some of his best sentences 
 were, llomanorum Imperator semper Augustus. 
 Leopoldus Secundus. Vous tites mon ami. Je 
 vous aime de tout mon coeur. M. de Kempelin 
 finally perfected, 1. Nostrils, which he found of 
 great importance in articulation, and which con- 
 sisted of two tin tubes, communicating at bottom 
 with tlie mouth. 2. The mouth, made of elastic 
 gum, and of a bell form, so contrived tliat the 
 sounds of the reed issued immediately from it.
 
 AUTOMATON. 
 
 315 
 
 and connected with the air-chest by a tin tube, 
 which kept it always full of air. 3. The air- 
 chest, wl'.ich was of an oblong shape, and 
 received at one end the voice-pipe containing 
 the reed, and at the other the bellows-pipe, both 
 closed round with leather. In this chest were 
 contained two inferior ones, each having a valve 
 at the top closed by a spring, and a round aper- 
 ture adapted to receive through the side of the 
 larger chest a tin funnel, and a round wooden 
 tube, which produced tlie hissing sounds of C II, 
 J, S, and Z. The voice-pipe entered tlie larger 
 chest between the two smaller ones. 4. The bel- 
 lows, answering the purpose of lungs, and which 
 acted in the ordinary manner of those belonging 
 to an organ. 5. The reed, which was in imi- 
 tation of a bagpipe drone, the hollow portion 
 being square, and the tongue of it formed of thin 
 ivory, vibrating horizontally, to produce the 
 various sounds. The square end was inserted, 
 as we have noticed, in the air-chest. Along the 
 upper side of the tongue was a movable spring, 
 which slightly bent it inward ; and tiie part on 
 which it fell was covered with leather, to modu- 
 late the vibrations. The sounds were more acute 
 as the spring acted toward the outer extremity of 
 the tongue, which was then more rapid in its 
 motions ; as it was witlidrawn from this part, the 
 vibrations were slower, and the sounds more grave. 
 
 The name of M. INIaillardet, a Swiss artist, of 
 modern celebrity, is the only one that merits as- 
 sociation with that of De Kempelin. He has 
 executed two or three celebrated figures. One 
 of these is a lady at her piano-forte. She exe- 
 cutes eighteen tunes by the actual pressure of 
 her fingers on the keys ; and while all the natu- 
 ral notes are thus performed, her feet play the 
 flats and sharps by means of pedals. "The in- 
 strument, in fact, may be correctly called an 
 organ, as it is mainly moved by bellows ; to bring 
 which into proper action is the one important 
 object of the machinery. The whole is impelled 
 by six strong springs, acting on twenty-five com- 
 municating levers, and regulated and equalised 
 by a brass fly. The interior of the instrument is, 
 of course, very complicated and minute in its 
 mechanism, which requires to be wound up once 
 an hour. Before commencing a tune, the lady 
 bows her head to the auditors ; she is apparent- 
 ly agitated with an anxiety and diffidence, not 
 always felt in real life; iier eyes then seem intent 
 on the notes, her bosom heaves, and at a dis- 
 tance it is impossible to -discover any semblance 
 of a work of art. 
 
 A magician, that has sometimes accompanied 
 this musical lady, is also a considerable triumph 
 of mechanical skill, lie sits at the bottom of a 
 wall, with a long wand in his right hand, and a 
 book in his left. Questions inscribed on thin 
 oval counters, twenty in number, are put into 
 the spectator's hand, who is desired to enclose 
 one or more of them in a drawer, which shuts 
 ■with a spring. A medallion, for instance, lias 
 the question, What is tiie most universal pas- 
 sion ? which being put into the drawer, the figure 
 rises with a solemn gait, bows his head, draws a 
 circle or two witii his wand, consults his book, 
 and lifts it towards his face, is if in meditation. 
 He then strikes with his wand on the wall above 
 
 his hand, when two folding-doors open, and dis- 
 cover the inscription Love, as the reply. The 
 counters are remarkably thin, and similar in all 
 other respects but their inscriptions, which some 
 of them bear on both sides : certainly the mechan- 
 ism that can discriminate the one from the other, 
 must be exquisite ; and mechanism alone, we 
 have the highest authority for believing it is. 
 
 M. Maillardet's Writing-boy is hardly less 
 meritorious. He is exhibited kneeling on one 
 knee, and an attendant having dipped his pencil 
 and laid the paper before him, he executes draw- 
 ings, and French and English sentences, in wri- 
 ting, of a very superior description. Every 
 natural motion ai the fingers, elbow, eyes, &c. is 
 correctly imitated. The first of these figures the 
 artist stated to have cost him the sura of £1500 
 in its construction. 
 
 The last machine of this kind which we shall no- 
 tice is the engine invented by Mr. Babbage, capa- 
 ble of computing any table by the method of 
 differences, whether they are positive or nega- 
 tive, or of both kinds. The greater the number 
 of diff'erences, the more will this engine outstrip 
 the most rapid calculator ; and by the application 
 of certain parts of no great complexity, the roots 
 of equations, and consequently the roots of num- 
 bers may be extracted. 
 
 One machine of tliis kind this gentleman has 
 executed. Drawings and plans of a second have 
 been made by him to multiply any number of 
 figures by any other number ; of a third, to make 
 tables of prime numbers from to ten millions ; 
 and of a fourth, to construct tables which have 
 no order of differences constant. This last engine 
 will calculate tables governed by laws which 
 have not been hitherto siiown to be explicitly 
 determinable ; and will solve equations, for 
 which analytical methods of solution have not 
 yet been contrived. Thus one of tiie greatest 
 difficulties v/ith which calculators are beset, ari- 
 sing from the errors of copyists, and of tlie press, 
 is obviated. In Mr. Babbage's engine, the ma- 
 chine itself takes from several boxes, containing 
 types, the numbers which it calculates : thus 
 becoming at the same time computer and com- 
 positor ; and preventing all error both in copy- 
 ing and in printing. It is worked by the hand, 
 and it would be very easy, if any advantage 
 were to be gained by such a method, to apply 
 to it a self-moving power. 
 
 We have now placed before the reader as com- 
 plete an account of the most celebrated automata 
 as the limits of our publication will admit. We 
 believe no remarkable contrivance of this kind 
 has escaped our notice ; and is it too much to ask 
 him for one serious reflection, at the close, upon 
 the wisdom of that Almighty Architect, by whom 
 we are so fearfully, so wonderfully, so inimitably 
 made ? Without any speculation on the possible 
 powers of man, or the tendency of his habits and 
 impulses on a large and hypothetical scale, let 
 the entire muscular action of a single youtliful 
 arm, in striking a shuttlecock, be perfectly imi- 
 tated by him, and we could consent to resign to 
 the artist the government of our share of the 
 world ! 
 
 AUTOMENES, one of the Heraclida, kingot 
 Corinth. At his death, A. A. C. 779 annual ma-
 
 AUT 
 
 316 
 
 AUT 
 
 •j,istrates were chosen at Corinth, who were cal- 
 led Prj'tanes ; and by tlieni the Corinthians were 
 governed for ninety years, till Cypselus and Ins 
 son Periander assumed absohite power. 
 
 AUTOJNIEDON, in entomology, a species of 
 papilio. 
 
 AUTOMOLI, a nation of Ethiopia, mentioned 
 by Herodotus. 
 
 AUTOMOLITE, in mineralogy, a substance 
 which, from its crystalline form, once considered 
 to be a variety of spinelle, containing a portion 
 of oxide of zinc. But a later and more accurate 
 analysis has shown it to be an aluminate of zinc. 
 It lias hitherto been found only in Sweden, in 
 small octahedral crystals, imbedded in talc. 
 
 AUTONINE (Bernard), a French lawyer, was 
 advocate to the parliament of Bourdeaux. He 
 was author of, 1 . A Comparison of the French 
 and Roman Law; 2. A Commentary on the 
 Provincial Law of Bourdeaux; 3. Censura Gal- 
 lica in Jus Civile Romanum. 
 
 AUTONOE, in fabulous history, a daughter 
 of Cadmus, who married Aristeus, by whom she 
 liad Actfeon, frequently called Autoneius Heros. 
 Actseon became a famous huntsman, but happen- 
 ing to look at Diana and her attendants bathing 
 near Gargaphia, he was changed into a sta?. and 
 devoured by dogs ; which was so afflicting to 
 Autonoe, that she retired from Boeotia to INle- 
 gara, and soon after died. 
 
 AUTONO^NHA; from aurof, and vofioQ, \a.\v, 
 a power of being governed by our own laws and 
 magistrates. The liberty of the cities which lived 
 under the faith and protection of the Romans, 
 consisted in their autonomia, i. e. they were al- 
 lowed to make their own laws, and elect their 
 own magistrates ; by whom justice was to be 
 admini.stered, and not by Roman presidents or 
 judges, as was done in other places, which were 
 not indulged with the autonomia. 
 
 AUTOPHOROS; from avrog and 0£pai, to 
 bear, i. e. self-bearing; an epithet applied to a 
 thief taken in the act with the stolen goods upon 
 him. 
 
 AUTOPHOSPHORUS is, by some, used to 
 denote phosphorus, on account of its kindling of 
 itself. 
 
 AUTOPRACTI ; from avTog, and -Trpamo, I 
 exact ; in the civil law, persons indulged with 
 this privilege, that they should not be compelled 
 to pay taxes, but should be left to their own free 
 will. Of this number were men of distinguished 
 dignity, and those eminent for their probity and 
 honor. 
 
 AUTOPSY. From avroc and oipiQ, a man's 
 own right, as distinct from that of others. Not 
 m use. 
 
 In those that have forked tails, autopsy convinccth 
 us, that it hath this use. Ray un the Creation. 
 
 AUTOPYRITES, Autopyros ; from avroQ, 
 and TTvpof, wheat ; in the ancient diet a species 
 of bread, wherein the whole substance of the 
 wheat was retained, without retrenching any part 
 of the bran. Galen describes it otherwise, viz. 
 as bread where only the coarser bran was taken 
 out. And thus it was a medium between the 
 finest bread, called similagmeus, and tlie coarsest 
 called furfuraceus. This was also called the 
 syncomistus. 
 
 AUTOTHEISM, the doctrine of God's self- 
 existence. 
 
 AUTOUR, in natural history, a sort of bark 
 which resembles cinnamon, but is paler and 
 thicker ; it is the color of a broken nutmeg, and 
 full of spangles. It comes from the Levant, and 
 is an ingredient in the carmine dye. Also, in 
 ornitliology, the name under whicli Buftbn de- 
 scribes the goshawk, or falco palumbarius of 
 Linnaeus. 
 
 AUTREAU (James d'), a French poet and 
 painter, who died in great poverty, in the hospi- 
 tal of incurables in Paris, in 1 745. His drama- 
 tic works were published in 4 vols. 12mo. 1749. 
 He had little merit as a painter. 
 
 AUTRICUM, in ancient geography, 1. the 
 capital of the CarnutK, in Gallia Celtica ; after- 
 wards called Carnotena, Carnotenas, and Civitas 
 Carnotenum ; now Chartres ; and, 2. the an- 
 cient name of Auxerre. 
 
 AUTUMN, "^ Perhaps from aiigeo, 
 Autum'nal, > turn, from the augmented 
 Autum'nity. j of nature. 
 
 auc- 
 fruits 
 
 For I will board her though she chide as loud 
 As thunder, when the clouds in autumn crack. 
 
 Shakspeare. 
 Thy grandsire's words savour'd of thriftie leekes, 
 Or manly garlicke : but thy furnace veekes 
 Hote steams of wine ; and can aloofe descrie. 
 The drunken draughts of sweete autumnitie. 
 
 Bp. Hall's Satires, book iii. 
 Thou shalt not long 
 Rule in the clouds ; like an autumnal star. 
 Or lightning, thou shalt fall. Milton. 
 
 No soring or summer's beauty hath such grace. 
 As I have seen in one autumnal face. Donne. 
 
 Bind now up your autumnal flowers, to prevent 
 sudden gusts, which will prostrate all. Evelyn. 
 
 Not the fair fruit that on yon branches glows 
 With that ripe red th' autumnal sun bestows. Pope. 
 
 When men once reach their autumn, fickle joys 
 Fall off apace, as yellow leaves from trees ; 
 Till )eft quite naked of their happiness. 
 In the chill blasts of winter they expire. Young. 
 
 Autumn, nodding o'er the yellow plain. 
 Comes jovial on. Thomson. 
 
 I would not be over-confident, till he, hath passed 
 a spring or autumn. Wiseman's Surgery. 
 
 The starving brood. 
 Void of sufficient sustenance, will yield 
 A slender autumn. Philips. 
 
 The evening is an emblem of autumn, and autumn 
 of declining life. Idler. 
 
 Autumn begins when the sun enters Libra. 
 ^Vhen it ends, winter begins. Several nations 
 have computed their years by autumns ; the An- 
 glo-Saxons by winters. Tacitus tells us the Ger- 
 mans were acquainted with all the otlier seasons 
 of the year, but had no notion of autumn. The 
 ancient Jews began their civil year in autumn ; 
 reckoning that all the fruits of the eartli were in 
 perfection at the creation. The French, without 
 regarding the principle, adopted the practice in 
 their late revolutionary calendar; of which, the 
 first month, V'endemiare, commenced witii the 
 equinox. Thus faith and modern philosophy, in 
 one instance, produced tlie same eflect. Autumn 
 has been reputerl an unhealthy season. TertuUian 
 calls it * tentator valetudinum ;' and the satirist 
 speaks of it in the same light : 
 
 ' Autumnus Libitinse quiestus accrba;.'
 
 AUT 
 
 317 
 
 AVU 
 
 Autumn is commonly represented by painters 
 under the tigure of a female crowned with vine 
 branches, and bunches of grapes ; naked in that 
 part which respects summer, and clothed in that 
 which corresponds to winter. Ite jjarment is 
 covered with flowers, like that of Bacchus. 
 
 Autumn, in alchemy, the season when the 
 operation of the philosopher's stone is brought 
 to perfection. 
 
 Autumnal Equinox, the time when the sun 
 enters the autumnal point. 
 
 Autumnal Point is that part of the equinox 
 from which the sun begins to descend towards 
 the south pole. 
 
 Autumnal Signs, in astronomy, are the signs 
 Libra, Scorpio, and Sagittarius, through which 
 the sun passes during the autumn. 
 
 AUTUMNALIA, the fruits of the earth that 
 ripen in autumn. 
 
 AUTUMNALIS, in ornithology, a species of 
 psittacus, called also psittacus Americanus, and 
 crick a ti^te bleue, by Buffon. It is the lesser 
 green parrot of Edwards, and autumnal parrot of 
 Latham. It is distinguished by being of a green 
 color, with the front and spot on the quill-fea- 
 thers scarlet ; crown and primary quill-feathers, 
 blue. Of this kind there are two varieties. Also 
 a species of anas, or duck, that inhabits South 
 America. And a species of tringilla, called by 
 Latham the autumnal finch. 
 
 AUTUAINUS, in entomology, the name given 
 by Amrairal to the moth, or phalaena, called by 
 Gmelin P. fagana: which see. 
 
 AUTUN, an ancient city of France, in the de- 
 partment of the Saone and Loire, formerly the 
 capital of the Autunois district, and now of an 
 arrondissement, witli nine cantons, and 67,000 
 inhabitants. Before the revolution the intend- 
 ant of Burgundy resided here, and it was the see 
 of a bishop, suffragan of Lyons. The Arroux 
 washes its walls, whose ruins are so firm, and the 
 stones so closely united, that they seem almost to 
 be cut out of the solid rock. Among the anti- 
 quities of this city are the ruins of three ancient 
 temples, one of which was dedicated to Janus, 
 and another to Diana; two antique gates of con- 
 siderable beauty, with a theatre and a pyramid ; 
 which last is probably a tomb. In the church of 
 St. Martins is the tomb of the sanguinary Brune- 
 hault, who is said to have poisoned her son Chil- 
 debert, and to have procured the death of ten 
 kings ; and who met her death by being tied to 
 the tail of a wild mare, by order of her grandson. 
 Cloves II. The present bishop ranks under the 
 metropolitan of Besan^on, and exercises jurisdic- 
 tion over the departments of the Saone and Loire, 
 and the Nievre. Autun consists of the upper 
 town, the castle, and the lower town. It is to- 
 lerably well built, contained before the revolu- 
 tion nine parish churches, five abbeys, with five 
 other religious houses, and about 8000 inhabi- 
 tants. The natives manufacture delft wares, 
 carpets, coverlets, blankets, and tapestry. The 
 city lies at the foot of three great mountains, 
 sixteen leagues south-west of Dijon, and forty- 
 five south-east of Paris. 
 
 AUTUNOIS, a ci-devant district of France, 
 in Burgundy, now comprehended in the depart- 
 ment of Saone and Loire. See Autun. 
 
 AUTURA, or Audura, a river of Gallia Cel- 
 tica, now called Eure. It falls into the Seine, on 
 the south side. 
 
 AUVAIL, a town of Germany, in the circle 
 of Westphalia. 
 
 AU V'ERGNE, a ci-devant province of France, 
 about 100 miles in length, and seventy-five in 
 breadth; the capital of which was Clermont. 
 It was bounded on the north by the Bourbon- 
 nois ; on the east by Forez and \elay ; on the 
 west by Limosin, Quercy, and La Manche ; and 
 on the south by Ilovergne and the Cevennes : 
 and was divided into upper and lower; the 
 latter, otherwise called Limagne, being one of 
 the finest countries in the world. The moun- 
 tains of Upper Auvergne though not fruitftil, 
 afford good pasture, which feeds great numbers 
 of cattle, the chief riches of that country. It 
 now forms the two departments of Cantal and 
 Puy-de-Dome, except some small districts an- 
 nexed to those of Creuse AUier, and the Upper 
 Loire. Auvergne is conspicuous in the various 
 revolutions experienced by France, and anciently 
 maintained a pre-eminence among the indepen- 
 dent states of Gaul. Its inhabitants boasted a 
 singular trophy in the sword of Caesar, which he 
 lost before the walls of Gergovia. But they 
 maintained a faithful alliance with the Romans 
 after they became subject to them. 
 
 AUVERGJv'IE, a town of Switzerland, in 
 the canton of Neufchatel, three miles south of 
 that place. 
 
 AUVERS, a town of France, on the right 
 bank of the Oise, in the department of the Seine 
 and Oise, arrondissement of Pontoise. Also a 
 town in the west of France, in the arrondissement 
 of Le Mans, and department of the Sarthe. 
 
 AUVILLARS, or Avvillard, a town of 
 France, in Lower Armagnac, Gascony, in the 
 department of the Tarn and Garonne. It is the 
 head of a canton, and contains manufactures of 
 woollen stockings, and upwards of 2000 inha- 
 bitants. It stands on the Garonne, which here 
 forms a small harbour. Five leagues soutli of 
 Agen. 
 
 AUVERNAS, a very deep-colored heady 
 wine, made of black raisins, so called at Orleans; 
 but it is not fit to drink before it is above a year 
 old ; but if kept two or three years, it becomes 
 excellent. 
 
 AUV'IGNY (N. Castressd'), a French historian 
 of die eighteenth century. He was both a writer 
 and a soldier, and lost his life at the battle of 
 Dettingen, in 1743, at the age of thirty-one. 
 His writings are, 1. IMemoirs of Madam Bar- 
 neveldt, 2 vols. 12mo. 2. Histories of Rome 
 and France abridged for young persons. 3. His- 
 tory of Paris, 4 vols. r2mo. 4. Lives of illus- 
 trious Frenchmen, 8 vols. 12mo. 
 
 AVULS'ED, ) Avello, avulsum, I tear or 
 AvuLs'iON. i pu 1 away. Torn or pullen 
 away. 
 
 Spare not the little offsprings, if they grow 
 Redumlant ; but the thronging clusters thin 
 liy kind avulsion. Philipt. 
 
 The pressure of any ambient fluid can be no intel- 
 ligible cause of the cohesion of matter; though sucli 
 a pressure may hinder the avulsion of two polished 
 -supcrlicics one from another, in a line perpendicular 
 to them. Locke.
 
 AUX 
 
 318 
 
 AW 
 
 Ye towering minds I ye sublimated souls ! 
 Who scatter wealth, as though the radiant crop 
 Glitter'd on every bough ; and every bough. 
 Like that the Trojan gather'd, once avuh'd 
 Were by a splendid successor applied 
 Instant, spontaneous! listen to my lays. 
 
 Shenalone't Economy. 
 
 AUX, in astronomy, see Auges. Some use 
 aux to denote the arch of the ecliptic, intercep- 
 ted between the first point of Aries, and the 
 point wherein the sun, or a planet, is at its 
 greatest distance from the earth. 
 
 AUXENTIUS, bishop of IVIilan, in the fourth 
 century. He was a native of Cappadocia, and 
 of Arian principles. Constantius gave him the 
 bishopric of Milan; and though excommunicated 
 by a council held at Rome, in 368, he held his 
 see to his death, in 374. 
 
 AuxENTius, another of the Arian party, who 
 challenged St. Ambrose to a public disputation, 
 which was wisely declined by that great prelate. 
 
 AUXERRE, an ancient town of France, the 
 capital of the department of Yonne, formerly the 
 capital of the Auxerrois, in Burgundy. The 
 palace of the ci-devant bishop is one of the finest 
 in France, and the churches are very beautiful. 
 It is advantageously situated for trade with 
 Paris, on a hill on the banks of the river Yonne, 
 eleven leagues S. S. E. of Sins, and thirty-seven 
 south-east of Paris. Its principal trade is in 
 wood, and the excellent wares of the neighbour- 
 hood. Here is also a manufacture of woollen 
 stuffs. Population about 12,000. 
 
 AUXERROIS, a ci-devant territory of France, 
 in Burgundy, of which Auxerre was the capital. 
 It now forms the greater part of the arrondisse- 
 ment of Auxerre, in the department of the 
 Yonne. 
 
 AUXESIS, in mythology, a goddess worship- 
 ped by the inhabitants of Eglina, and mentioned 
 by Herodotus and Pausanias. 
 
 AUXILI'AR,- -^ Lat. auxilium, 
 
 Auxili'ary, n. &a(//. > strength ; one who 
 
 Auxili'atory. j gives or lends us addi- 
 
 tional strength. An aider, assister, or supporter. 
 The giant brood. 
 
 That fought at Thebes and Ilium on each side, 
 
 Mix'd with auxiliar gods. Milton's Paradite Lost. 
 
 Their tractates are little auxiliary unto ours, nor 
 afford us any light to detenebrate this truth. 
 
 Brotvn's Vulgar Errours. 
 
 There is not the smallest capillary vein but it is 
 present with, and auxiliary to it, according to its use. 
 Hale's Origin of Mankind. 
 Nor from his patrimonial heaven alone. 
 
 Is Jove content to pour his vengeance down. 
 
 Aid from his brother of the seas he craves 
 
 To help him with auxiliary waves. Dryden. Ovid. 
 
 They had both kept good company, rattled in cha- 
 riots, glittered in play-houses, and danced at court, 
 and were both expert in the games that were in their 
 times called in as auxiliaries against the intrusion of 
 thought. Rambler. 
 
 Auxiliary Verb. A verb that helps to con- 
 jugate other verbs. In almost all languages, 
 some of the commonest nouns and verbs have 
 many irregularities ; such are the common aux- 
 iliary verbs, to be, and to have, to do, and to be 
 done, &c. 
 
 Auxiliary Verbs, in grammar, are prefixed 
 to other verbs, to forrn their moods and tenses. 
 In the English language, the auxiliary verb am 
 supplies tlie want of passive verbs. All the 
 modern languages make use of auxiliary verbs, 
 because their verbs do not change their termina- 
 tions as those of t'ne l^atin and Greek, to denote 
 the different tenses or times of being, doing, 
 or suffering ; nor the different moods or man- 
 ners of their signifying : so that, to supply this 
 defect, recourse is had to different auxiliary 
 verbs. 
 
 AUXILIUM, in law. See Aid. 
 
 Auxilium, ad Filium Militem Faciendum, 
 vel filiam maritandam, was a writ directed to the 
 sheriff' of every county, where the king or other 
 lord had any tenants, to levy them reasonable 
 aid, towards the knighting of his eldest son, or 
 the marriage of his eldest daughter. 
 
 Auxilium Curl;e, signifies an order of court, 
 for the summoning of one party at the suit of 
 another. 
 
 AUXO, in mythology, the name of one of the 
 two graces worshipped by the Athenians. See 
 Hegemone. 
 
 AUXOIS, a small ci-devant territory of 
 France, in Burgundy, of which Semur was the 
 capital. It is now in the department of Cote 
 d'Or. 
 
 AUXON, a town of France, in Champagne, 
 department of the Aube, with 2340 inhabitants. 
 5^ leagues S. S. W. of Troyes. Also a town in 
 Upper Auvergne, department of the Uppej' 
 Loire, near the AUier, with 1500 inhabitants ; 
 and the title of barony. It carries on a traffic 
 in corn, wine, and cloth. 12^- leagues north- 
 west of Le Puy. 
 
 AUXONNE, the capital of a county of the 
 same name in France, in the province of Bur- 
 gundy, on the left bank of the Saone. It is re- 
 gularly fortified, and contains manufactures of 
 serge and other cloths. 
 
 AUXY, the French name of a species of 
 wool, spun in the neighbourhood of Abbeville, 
 by workmen, called houpiers. It is very fine 
 and beautiful, and used to make the finest stock- 
 ings. 
 
 AW, a river of Scotland, in Argyllshire. Also 
 a town of Germany in the electorate of Bavaria. 
 
 Aw, or LocH-Aw, a beautiful and extensive 
 lake in Argyllshire, in the parish of Glenorchy. 
 The whimsical tradition respecting the origin of 
 this lake is recorded by Ossian. The substance 
 of it is, that ' to Bera the aged, was committed 
 the charge of that awful spring, which was ap- 
 pointed by fate to destroy the inheritance and 
 race of her fathers. This event, she was to pre- 
 vent, or at least to protract, by covering the 
 spring before sun-set, with a stone, on which 
 the sacred and mysterious characters were en- 
 graved. One night this was forgot. The confined 
 waters of the mountain burst forth, and sweeping 
 all before them, covered that large expanse, now 
 known by the name of the Lake of Aw.' Mr. 
 Stewart, minister of StaChur, explains the fable 
 by the etymology of Bera ; Beir, in the Gaelic 
 signifying a thunderbolt. This lake is about 
 thirty miles long, but not above three quarters 
 broad upon an average, though in some places,
 
 AW A 
 
 319 
 
 AWA 
 
 it measures two miles. It abounds witli salmon, 
 trout, eeh. Sec. Tiie name is often spelt and 
 generally pronounced Loch-ovv. 
 
 A\\'A, a town of Persia, in the province of 
 Irak, eighty miles south of Casbin. 
 
 AwA, a town of Japan, and capital of a pro- 
 vince on the south coast of the island of Xicoco. 
 Also a town of Japan, and capital of a province 
 on the south coast of the island of Niphon, 
 eighty-five miles south of Jeddo. Long. 140° 
 4''K., lat. 34^ 24' N. — A town of Japan, in the 
 island of Ximo, sixty-two miles north of Nan- 
 gasaki. 
 
 AWAIIAZAllI, a town of Asiatic Turkey, 
 in Caramania, fifteen miles JV. N. W. of Ala- 
 nieh. 
 
 AWAIT, V. & n. -\ Dutch, waeken; Ancr.- 
 
 Await'er, n. ^Sax. Waeccean, to wake or 
 
 Await'ing. Swatch. To be watchful, 
 
 vigilant ; to keep upon the look out ; to be in 
 
 attendance, in expectation. 
 
 Even as the vrrctch condemn'd to lose his life, 
 Atcuits the falling of the murd ring knife. Fairfax. 
 And least mishap the most bliss alter may : 
 For thousand perils lie in close await. 
 About us daily, to work our decay. Spenser. 
 
 Advanc'd in view, they stand, a horrid front 
 Of dreadful length, and dazzling arms, in guise 
 Of warriors old witli order'd spear and shield. 
 Awaiting what command their mighty chief 
 Had to impose. Milton. Paradise Lost, book i. 
 
 Nor less resolv'd, Antenor's valiant heir. 
 Confronts Achilles, and awaits the war. Pope. 
 
 Man's feeble race what ills await! 
 Labor and penury, the racks of pain. 
 Disease, and sorrow's weeping train. 
 And death, sad refuge from the storm of fate. 
 
 Collins. 
 The boast of heraldry, the pomp of power. 
 And all that beauty, all that wealth e'er gave. 
 Await alike the inevitable hour. 
 The paths of glory, lead hut to the grave. Gray. 
 
 AWA'KE, V. &c adj.^ See Await. To rouse 
 Awa'ken, (^from inaction of any 
 
 Awa'kener, ^ kind ; from sleep; to 
 
 Awa'kexing. J make alive. 
 
 K. RlCH.'^I had forgot myself : am I not king? 
 Awake, thou coward majesty, thou sleepest; 
 Is not the king's name forty thousand names? 
 
 Shakspeare. King Richard II. 
 The cheerful lark, mounting from early bed. 
 With sweet salutes awakes the drowsy light. 
 The earth she left, and up to heaven is fled. 
 There chaunts her Maker's praises out of sight. 
 
 Fletcfier. 
 
 Covetous men need neither clock nor bell to awaken 
 thcra : their desires make them restless. 
 
 Hall's Contemplations. 
 'TIS night I the season when the happy take 
 Repos", and only wretches are awake ; 
 Now discontented ghosts begin their rounds, 
 ITaunt ruin'd buildings and unwholesome grounds. 
 
 Otway. 
 
 And see I 
 'Tis come I the glorious mom ! the second birth 
 Of heaven and earth I awakening nature hears 
 The new creating world, and starts to life. 
 In every heightened form, from pain and death 
 For ever free. Tliomton, 
 
 Sec Truth, Love, and Mercy, in triumph descending. 
 And nature all glowing in Eden's first bloom I 
 On the cold cheek of Death smiles and rost-s are 
 
 blending. 
 And Beauty immortal awakes from the tomb. 
 
 Beattie's Hermit. 
 
 AWAR'D, V. & n. J According to Tooke 
 
 Awar'der. ) from the French a gurde- 
 
 to keep ; witlt a verb preceding, understood as 
 to determine wlio is [to keep;J to adjudge. 
 
 A pound of tliat same merchant's flesh is thine ; 
 The court awards it, and the law doth give it 
 
 Shakspeare. 
 
 It advances that grand business, and according to 
 v.'hich their eternity hereafter will be awarded. 
 
 Decay of Piety. 
 
 A chuixh which allows salvation to none without 
 it, and awards damnation to almost any within it. 
 
 South. 
 
 Satisfaction for every aflTront cannot be awarded by 
 stated laws. Collier on Duelling. 
 
 Now hear th' award, and happy may it prove 
 
 To her, and him who best deserves her love. 
 
 Dryden. 
 
 AfFection bribes the judgment, and we cannot ex- 
 pect an equitable award, where the judge is made a 
 party, Glanville. 
 
 To urge the foe. 
 
 Prompted by blind revenge and wild despair. 
 
 Were to refuse th' awards of Providence. 
 
 Addison's Cato. 
 Th' unwise aioard to lodge it in the tow'rs. 
 
 An off 'ring sacred. Pope. Odyssey. 
 
 Award, in law, is t\\e arbitrator's final ad- 
 judication, of matters referred to him. Re- 
 ferences are sometime made spontaneously 
 by the parties themselves, to avoid the ex- 
 pense and delay of legal proceedings; and 
 sometimes by order of the court before which a 
 cause is pending. In the former case, the par- 
 ties enter into bonds to abide by the decision ; 
 in the latter an order or rule of the court is 
 made, that the matter in issue shall be deter- 
 mined by tliC award. Law as well as facts 
 are within the provmce of the arbitration. But 
 if in the award (which is in writing and under seal) 
 the arbitrator states the legal grounds on whicli 
 he has decided, and those grounds appear to the 
 court to be wrong, the award may be set aside. 
 If he merely makes his order without assigning 
 his reasons, the award must be abided by, though 
 he may have been mistaken in point of law. And 
 the courts will set aside an award, if the arbi- 
 trator can be shown to have made it from corrupt 
 motives. 
 
 A^VA'llE, r. & n. i Sax. waerd. Germ. 
 
 Awar'n'. S gewiurht, from wahren, to 
 
 see. To be on the look out, to be cautious, to 
 take care, to be prondent. 
 
 So warn'd he them aware themselves; and 
 
 Instant, without disturb, they took alarm. 
 
 Paradise Lost. 
 
 Ere I was aware, I had left myself nothing but the 
 name of a king. Sidney. 
 
 Ere sorrow was aware, they made his thoughts 
 bear away something else besides his own sorfow. 
 
 Id. Arcadia. 
 
 Temptations of prosperity insinuate themselves ; so 
 that we are but little aware of them, and less able 
 to withstand them. Atterbury. 
 
 The first steps in the breach of a man's integrity 
 are more important than men are aware of. Steele.
 
 ATT 
 
 320 
 
 ATT 
 
 AWASI, or AwAD^i, an island of Japan, near 
 the soutli coast of Niphon, about sixty miles in 
 circumference. Long. 133° 44' E., lat. 34° 30' 
 N. Also, a town of Japan, and capital of an 
 island of the same name. Long. 133° 43' E., 
 lat. 34° 30' N. 
 
 AWASIMA, a small island of Japan, seven 
 miles east of Sado. 
 
 AWATCIIA, in ornithology, a species of mo- 
 tacilla that inhabits Kamtschatka. It is of a 
 brown color ; the chin and breast white, spotted 
 with black ; middle of tlie belly and lores white ; 
 primary quill-feathers bordered with white ; tail- 
 feathers orange at the base. Art. Zool. — 
 Gmelin. 
 
 AWATSKA Bay, a harbour of Kamtschatka ; 
 which is said to be the safest and most extensive 
 vet discovered in that part of the world ; and the 
 only one that can admit vessels of large burden. 
 The entrance to it is in long. 158° 48' E., and lat. 
 52° 51' N. 
 
 AWAY', i Ang.-Sax. wagean, to wag 
 
 Away'ward. S or move; Ang.-Sax. weg, or 
 waeg ; Eng. way. Away is the imperative 
 mood, or past participle. 
 
 A man's life is not to be trifled away : it is to be 
 offered up and sacrificed to honourable services, 
 jmblic merits, good causes, and noble adventures. 
 
 Bacon's Essays. 
 I had my feather shot shacr away. 
 
 Beaum. Sf Fletch. Knight of the burning Pestle. 
 They could make 
 Love to your dress, although your face were away. 
 
 Ben Johnson's Catiline. 
 
 It is impossible to know properties that are so an- 
 nexed to it, that any of them being away, that essence 
 is not there. Locke. 
 
 So if by chance the eagle's noble offspring, 
 Ta'en in the nest, become's some peasant's prize, 
 Compell'd awhile to bear his cage and chains 
 And like a pris'ner with the clown remains 
 But when his plumes shoot forth and pinions swell 
 He quits the rustic and his homely cell ; 
 Breaks from his bonds, and in the face of day 
 Full in the sun's bright beams he soars away : 
 Delights thro' heav'n's wide pathless ways to go, 
 Plays with Jove's shafts and grasps his dreadful bow. 
 Rowe's Royal Convert, act iv. 
 
 But ah ! thou knows't not in what youthful play 
 Our nights beguil'd with pleasure swam away ; 
 Oay songs and cheerful tales deceived the time. 
 And circling goblets made a tuneful chime ; 
 Sweet was the draught, and sweet the blooming maid. 
 Who touch'd her lyre beneath the fragrant shade. 
 
 Sir W. Jones. 
 There seems a floating whisper on the hill. 
 
 But that is fancy, for the starlight dews. 
 
 All silently their tears of love instil. 
 
 Weeping themselves atvay, till they infuse 
 
 Deep into Nature's breast the spirit of her hues. 
 
 Lord Byron's Childe Harolde. 
 
 Awe', v. & n. 
 
 Awe'iil, 
 
 Awe'iully, 
 
 Awe'fulness, 
 
 Awe'less, 
 
 Awe'ful-eyed, 
 
 Awe-commanding, 
 
 Awe-struck. J 
 
 His coward lips did from their colour fly. 
 And that same eye, whose bend does awe the world. 
 Did lose its lustre. Shakspcare. 
 
 Goth, agyan, to fear, 
 or dread. To cause 
 "^fear, terror, or reve- 
 rence. 
 
 Know, then, that some of us are gentlemen. 
 Such as the fury of ungovern'd youth 
 Thrust from the company of awful men. Id, 
 
 So awful, that with honour thou may'st love 
 Thy mate ; who sees, when thou art seen least wise. 
 
 Milton. Par. Lost, 
 I approach thee thus, and gaze 
 
 Insatiate ; I thus single ; nor have fear'd 
 
 Thy atvful hroyc , more a«/i/Mhus rctir'd. 
 
 Fairest resemblance of thy Maker fair. LI. 
 
 A parish priest was of the pilgrim train, 
 
 An awful, reverend, and religious man. 
 
 His eyes diffused a venerable grace. 
 
 And charity ilself was in his face. Drydi'n. 
 
 Hail ! rev'rend priest ! To PhcEbus' awful doim 
 A suppliant I, from great Atrides come, 
 Unransom'd here receive the spotless fair. 
 Accept the hecatomb the Greeks prepare. Pope. 
 
 In those deep solitudes, and awful cells. 
 
 Where heav'nly-pensive contemplation dwells. 
 
 And ever-musing melancholy reigns. 
 
 Id. Eloisit to Ahelard. 
 
 In winter, awful thou ! with clouds and storms 
 Around thee thrown, tempest o'er tempest roU'd 
 Majestic darkness', on the whirlwind's wing. 
 Riding sublime, thou bidst the world adore 
 And humblest nature with thy northern blast. 
 
 Serene, though awful, on her brow the light 
 
 Of heavenly wisdom shone ; nor roved her eyes. 
 Save to the shadowy cliff's majestic height. 
 Or the blue concave of th' involving skies. 
 
 Beattie. 
 It were endless to enumerate all the passages, both 
 in the sacred and profane writers, which establish the 
 general sentiment of mankind concerning the insepa- 
 rable union of a sacred and reverential awe with our 
 ideas of the divinity. Burke. 
 
 Now, now my solitary way I bend 
 Where solemn groves in awful state impend. 
 
 Kirke White's Poems. 
 
 AWERI, or OvERO, a kingdom of Africa, de- 
 pendent on Benin, with a town of the same name 
 on the river Formosa. 
 
 AWE'ARY. On weary. See Weary. 
 
 Saf. Go thy waies, I begin to be awearie of thee; 
 and I tell thee so before j because I would not fall out 
 with thee. 
 
 Shakspeare. All's Well that End* Well. 
 
 AWIIA'PED. From Ang.-Sax. wafian, to 
 be amazed, or astonished, terrified, confounded. 
 
 Ah I my dear gossip, answer'd then the ape. 
 Deeply do your sad words my wits awhape. 
 Both for because your grief doth great appear. 
 And eke because myself am touched near. 
 
 Hubberd's Tale. 
 AWIIEELS. On Wheels. 
 And will they not cry then the world runs awlieels 
 
 Ben Jonson's Masques, f. 18. 
 AWHILE'. A time; Ang.-Sax. hwile (for 
 hwiol, a turn), walk a while, take a turn. See 
 While. 
 
 Stay, stay, I say : 
 And if you love me, as you say you do. 
 Let mc persuade you to forbear awhile. 
 
 Slialispeare, 
 Into this wild abyss the wary fiend 
 Stood on the brink of hell, and look'd awhile, 
 Pond'ring his voyage. Milton's Paradise Lost. 
 Here, lonely wandering, o'er the sylvan bower, 
 I come to pass the meditative hour ; 
 To bid awhile the strife of passion cease, 
 And woo the calms of solitude and peace. 
 
 Kirke White's Poem*.
 
 AWN 
 
 321 
 
 AWR 
 
 Hut thou, with spirit frail and lights 
 Will shine atchite and pass av.ay. 
 
 As glow-worms sparkls through the night. 
 But dare not stand the test of day. 
 
 Lord Byron. 
 
 AWIIIT'. A whit, or o whit, Ang.-Sax. hwit. 
 See WiiiT. 
 
 These farre cxceede the haggarde hauke 
 
 That stoppeth to na stale : 
 Nor forceth on the lure awhit. 
 But mounts with eu'ry gale ? 
 
 Turberville. Epitaphes, &c. 
 
 AWK', -\ Perhaps awk is a cor- 
 
 Awk'ly, J ruption of averricht. The 
 
 Awk'ward, V termination, ward, is from 
 
 Awk'vvardly, i keered, past participle of 
 Awk'wardness. ' keeren, Ang.-Sax. cyrran, 
 to turn. Deviating from the right patk or line, 
 indirect, clumsy, inelegant. 
 
 Proud Italy, 
 Whose manners still our tardy apish nation » 
 Limps after in base awkward imitation. 
 
 Shakspeare. 
 Their own language is worthy their care •, and they 
 are judged of by their handsome or awkward way of 
 expressing themselves in it. Locke. 
 
 An awkward shame, or fear of ill usage, has a share 
 in this conduct. Swift. 
 
 Slow to resolve, but in performance quick ; 
 So true, that he was awkward at a trick. Dryden. 
 It is an awkward thing for a man to print in de- 
 fence of his own work against a chima;ra : you know 
 not who or what you fight against. Pope. 
 
 What's a fine person, or a beauteous face, 
 Unless deportment gives them decent grace ? 
 Bless'd with all other requisites to please. 
 Some want the striking elegance of ease ; 
 The curious eye their awkward movement tires ; 
 They seem like puppets led about by wires. 
 
 Chur chili. 
 
 AWK, in ornithology. See Alca. 
 AWL'. Ger. ahl. A sharp pointed tool. In 
 the chroniclers used for a weapon of war. 
 His aule and lingell in a thong. 
 His tar-boxe on his broad belt hong. 
 His breech of coyntrie blew. 
 
 DraytoTi. 
 Thou art a cobler, art thou? 
 Truly, sir, all that I live bj- is the awle. 
 
 Shakspeare. Julius Caesar, fol. 109. 
 
 Awls, among shoemakers, are usually a little 
 flat and bended in the blade, and the point 
 ground to an acute angle. 
 
 AWLiVN, a small imperial town of Germany, 
 in the circle of Suabia, seated on the river Ko- 
 chen, fifteen miles west of Oeting and twelve 
 north of Ileidenlieim. 
 
 AWME, or AuME, a Dutch measure of ca- 
 pacity for liquids, containing eight steckans, or 
 twenty verges or verteels; answering to what m 
 Eui-land is called a tierce, or one-sixth of a ton 
 of France, or one-seventh of an English ton. 
 Arbuthnot. 
 
 AWN, in botany. See Arista. 
 
 Awn of wine, 360 pounds. 
 
 AWNING. A cover spread over a boat or 
 vessel, to keep off the weather. — Awningi are 
 made of canvas. The length of the main-deck 
 awning, says Mr. Gierke, is from the centre of 
 tlie fore-mast to tlie centre of the main-mast ; the 
 Vol. III. 
 
 widtii corresponds to the breadths of the ship, 
 taken at the main-mast, fore-mast, and at the 
 mid-way between. The length of the quarter- 
 deck awning is from the centre of the main-mast 
 to the centre of the mizen-mast; and the width 
 answers to the breadths of the ship, at the main- 
 mast, mizen-mast, and at the mid-way between. 
 The length of the poop, or after-awning, is from 
 the centre of the mizen-mast to the ensign-staff, 
 about seven feet above the deck ; and the width 
 is formed agreeably to the breadths of the ship, 
 taken at the mizen-mast, the taffarel, and at the 
 mid-way between. The canvas is cut to the 
 given breadths of the awning, allowing about 
 nine inches to hang down on each side, which is 
 sometimes scolloped and bound with green 
 baize, and is sewed together with an inch-seam, 
 and tabled all round with a two or three inch 
 tabling. Half the diameter of the masts is cut 
 out in the middle at each end, and lacing-holes 
 are made across the ends to connect one awning 
 to another. On the upper part, along the 
 middle and sides, is sewed a one-inch and half 
 or two-inch rope, to which the trucks are sewed 
 at about three-quarters of a yard asunder. A 
 thirnble is spliced in each end of the rope. 
 Sometimes curtains are made to hang to the 
 sides of the awnings, of the same length as the 
 awnings. Their depth is taken from the sides 
 of the awning to tlie gun-wale, supposing the 
 awning to be in its place. The seams and tab- 
 lings are the same as those of the awnings, and 
 lacing-holes are made along the upper tabling of 
 the curtain, and the side tabling of the awning. 
 Gierke's Elem. and Practice of Rigging, vol. i. 
 p. 140. 230. In the long-boat they make aa 
 awning, by bringing the sail over the yard and 
 stay, and booming it out with the boat-hook. 
 
 . , ' J In work. See Work. 
 
 AWORK INC. S 
 
 Long they thus trauail'd, yet ncuer met 
 Adventure, which might them aworking set. 
 
 Spevser. Mother Hubberd's Tale. 
 He first suborns a villain, that embrac'd 
 The nobler name of March-bom Mortimer, 
 Which, in the title of the house of York, 
 Might set the monstrous multitude awork, 
 
 Drayton. Miseries of Queen Margaret. 
 
 Who shoulde bee the makers of anye maner cloth, 
 
 if there lacked men of substaunce to set sudry sortes 
 
 a tvoorke. Sir Thonuis More's Workes. 
 
 AWRE'KE. Ang.-Sax. awrecan, to wreak. 
 See Wreak. 
 
 Than dame Prudence, whan that she saw how that 
 hire husbande shope him for to awreke him on his 
 foos, and to beginne werre, she in ful humble wise, 
 whan she saw hire time, sayde him these wordes. 
 
 Chaucer. The Tale of Melibeus. 
 
 AWRISH, a river in the county of Durham, 
 which runs into the Tees at Eggleton. 
 
 AWRY'. Past participle awrythed, of the 
 verb wrythan, to writhe. Writhed, crooked, 
 bended, distorted, askance. 
 When I look back, and iu myself behold 
 
 The wand'ring ways, tha' youth could not descry : 
 And see the fearful course that youth did hold, 
 
 And mete in mind each step I strayed awry. 
 
 Paradim (>/ Dainty Devices, 1600. 
 Y
 
 AXB 
 
 322 
 
 AXI 
 
 Preventing fate directs the lance awry. 
 Which glancing only inark'ii Achates' thigh. 
 
 Dryden. 
 AX', ) Ask. Asking. See Ask. These 
 Ax'yno. S words, which are now considered 
 vulgarisms, are the original Sax&n forms. 
 
 Eut Hobin may not wete of this, thy knave, 
 No eke thy maiden Gille I may not save ; 
 Axe not why •, for though thou axe me, 
 I wol not tell en goddes privetee. 
 
 Chaucer. The Milleres Tale, v. i. p. 140. 
 
 Ax, a town of France, the head of a canton, 
 in the department of the Arriege, arrondissement 
 of Foix. Here are warm baths whicli are much 
 frequented. It lies on the river Arriege. Five 
 leagues north-west of Tarascon. Population 
 1500. 
 
 Ax, or AxE, a river of England, which rises in 
 the county of Dorset, and entering Devonshire, 
 passes by Axminster, and afterwards falls into 
 the sea a little below Axmouth. 
 
 Ax, a river of England, which rises in Wokey- 
 Ilole, near Wells, in the county of Somerset, 
 and after passing Axbridge, falls into the Bristol 
 channel, about eight miles lower down 
 AX, Battle. See Axe. 
 AXAM, a district and towm of Tyrol, in the 
 lower valley of the Inn, to the south-west of In- 
 spruck. Here a great deal of flax is cultivated. 
 
 AX AMENTA, in antiquity, the verses or 
 songs of the salii, which they sung in honor of 
 all men. The word is formed, according to 
 some, from axare, to nominate. Others will 
 have the carmina saliaria to have been denomi- 
 nated axamenta, on account of their having been 
 written in axibus, or on wooden tables. The 
 axamenta were not composed by the salii. The 
 author of them was Numa Pompilius ; and, as 
 the style might not be altered, they grew in 
 time so obscure, that the salii themselves did 
 not understand them. Varro says they were 
 700 years old. 
 
 AxAME^'TA, or Assamexta, in ancient music, 
 hymns performed wholly with human voices. 
 
 AXARA, a town of Asiatic Turkey, in Na- 
 tolia, situated in a fertile district -of the same 
 name, fifty or sixty miles from Guzel-Hissar. 
 
 AXATI, a town of ancient Ba;tica, in the 
 Boetis ; now called Lora, a small city of Anda- 
 lusia, in Spain, seated on the Guadalquiver. 
 
 AX AYACATL, a species of fly, common about 
 the lakes of Mexico ; the eggs of which, being 
 deposited in immense quantities upon the rushes 
 and corn-flags, form large masses, which are 
 taken up by fishermen, and carried to market. 
 This caviare, called ahuauhtli, which has much 
 the .same taste with the caviare of fish, used to be 
 eaten by the Mexicans, and is now a common dish 
 among the Spaniards. The Mexicans eat not 
 only the eggs, but the flies themselves, made up 
 together into a mass, and prepared with saltpetre. 
 AXBRIDGE, a market town of Somerset- 
 sViire, anciently a borough, by prescription, send- 
 ing members to parliament during the reigns of 
 tlie first three Edwards, after which it was, at its 
 own desire, excused. The corporation consists 
 of a mayor, recorde-r, town-clerk, ten aldermen, 
 and twenty-two burgesses, out of whom a sheriff, 
 serjeant-at-mace, imd constables are chosen. 
 
 Knit hose is the only manufactory. The kings 
 of J'jigland formerly liad a hunting chase liere. 
 Market on Saturday. It is twenty-tliree miles 
 north-west of Somerton, and 131 west of London. 
 AXE'. Gr. Ayoj, aid). An adze or addice. 
 See Addice. 
 
 My mangled body shows. 
 My bldod, my want of strength, my sick heart shows 
 That I must yield my body to the earth. 
 And by my fall the conquest to my foe ; 
 Thus yields the cedar to the axe's edge. 
 Whose arms give shelter to the princely eagle. 
 
 Shakspeare. Third Part of Henry VI. act v. sc. 3. 
 Loud sounds the axe, redoubling strokes on strokes. 
 On all sides round the forest hurls her oaks 
 Headlong. Deep echoing groan the thickets brown. 
 Then rustling, crackling, crashing, thunder down- 
 
 Pope's Homer's //lorf, xxiii. 144. 
 Like crowded forest trees we stand. 
 
 And some are mark'd to fall ; 
 The axe will smite at God's command. 
 
 And soon will level all. Cowper, 
 
 Axe, a river in Somersetshire, which falls 
 into the Severn below Uphill. 
 
 Axe, or Ax, diflers from the hatchet, in that it 
 is made larger and heavier, to hew large stuff; 
 and its edge tapering into the middle of its 
 blade. It is furnished with a long handle, being 
 to be used with both hands. 
 
 AXEL, or Axil, a small fortified town, for- 
 merly of Flanders ; but now included in one of 
 the departments of France. It lies fourteen 
 miles north of Ghent. 
 
 AXELODUNUM, the ancient name of Hex- 
 ham, in Northumberland. JL 
 AXENUS, the ancient name of the Euxine ■' 
 Sea, the signification of which is, inhospitable ; 
 and is perfectly answerable to the disposition 
 and manners of the ancient inhabitants of the 
 east. 
 
 AXE-STONE, in mineralogy, a s-ub-species of 
 jade, but not of so light a green, and somewhat 
 of a slaty texture. The natives, of New Zealand 
 work it into hatchets. It is found in Corsica, 
 Switzej^land, Saxony, and on the banks of the 
 river Amazons, whence it has been called Ama- ^ 
 zonian stone. Its constituents are silica 50-5, " 
 magnesia 31, alumina 10, oxide of iron 5*5, 
 water 2'75, oxide of chromium 0'05. 
 
 AXEY, the principal town in the island of 
 Axholm. It is thinly inhabited. 
 
 AXHOLM, a river island in the north-west 
 part of Lincolnshire. It is formed by the rivers 
 Trent, Idel, and Dun ; and is about ten miles 
 long, five broad, and twenty in compass. It has 
 three villages, Crowle, Epworlh, and Hyrst ; 
 besides Axey, the chief town. The lower part 
 is marshy, but produces an odoriferous shrub, 
 called gall ; the middle is rich and fruitful, 
 yielding flax in great abundance. It also yiro- 
 duces an alabaster, which is used for making 
 lime. In the eighteenth century the body of a 
 woman, quite entire, and in a bent position, the 
 head and feet almost in contact, vvas found in a 
 morass, which, from the fashion of her sandals, 
 was conjectured to have lain there from the tira.e 
 of Edward 1. when there were two monasteries 
 here. 
 
 AXIACE, .an ancient town of Sarmatia Eu- 
 ropea; now Oczacow.
 
 AXI 
 
 323 
 
 AXI 
 
 AXIL. See Axel. 
 
 A.\11,LA, in anatomy, or Ala, the cavity 
 under the upper-part of the arm ; commonly 
 called the arm-pit. It is a diminutive of axis, 
 q. d. little axis. Abscesses in the axillae are 
 usually dangerous on account of tlte many blood- 
 vessels, lympliatics, nerves. Sec. thereabout, which 
 form several large plexuses. By the ancient 
 laws, criminals were to be hanged by the axillae 
 if they were under the age of puberty. 
 
 Axilla, in botany, is the space compreiiended 
 between thy stem's of plants and their leaves. 
 Hence we say, those tlovvers grow in the axillffi 
 of the leaves ; i. e. at the base of the leaves, or 
 just within the angles of their pedicles. 
 
 AXILLARY Artery is that part of the sub- 
 clavian branch of the ascending trunk of the aorta, 
 which passes under the arm-pits. 
 
 Axillary Glamjs are situated under the 
 arm-pits, enveloped in fat, and lie close by th* 
 axillary vessels. 
 
 Axillary Neuve, called also the auricular 
 nerve, arises from the last two cervical pairs ; runs 
 into the hollow of the axilla, behind the head of 
 the OS humeri, between the musculus teres major 
 and minor, &c. 
 
 Axillary V^ein, is one of the subclavian 
 veins; which, passing under the arm-pits, divides 
 itself into several branches; superior, inferior, 
 external, internal, &c. which are spread over the 
 arm. 
 
 Axillary Vertebra, the second vertebra of 
 the back, so called because it is nearest to the 
 arm-pits. 
 
 AXIM, a district of Africa, part of the fertile 
 territory of Ahanta, on the Gold Coast. It is 
 directly east of Apollonia, from which it is sepa- 
 ratfctl Ijy the river Ancobra. The Dutch have a 
 fort in Axim called Fort Anthony, situated on the 
 most western promontory of Cape Three Points. 
 It is compact, well situated for landing, and in 
 a commanding position. Ten leagues east of 
 Apollonia. 
 
 The climate is so excessively moist, that it is 
 proverbially said to rain eleven months and 
 twenty-nine days of the year. .This excessive 
 moisture renders it very unhealthy ; but it pro- 
 duces great quantities of rice, water-melonSj 
 lemons, oranges, Sec. Here are also produced 
 vast numl)€rs of black cattle, goats, sheep, 
 pigeons, &c. ' The whole country is filled with 
 beautiful and populous villages, and the inter- 
 mediate lands are well culti\ated. The natives 
 all go naked, but are very healthy; and there 
 is a constant traffic carried on with them by 
 the I'.uropeans for their gold. This canton is -a 
 kind of republic, the government being divided 
 between tlie Caboceroes or chief men, and Ma- 
 naceroes or young men. But in their courts, 
 whoever makes the most valuable present to the 
 judges is sure to gain his cause. The Portu- 
 guese founded the first settlement here, but were 
 driven from it by the Dutch in 1642. 
 
 AxiM, a river in the above canton, which runs 
 through the town of Axim. 
 
 AxiM, or Auchombone, the capital of Axim, 
 stands under the cannon of the Dutch fort .St. 
 Antonio. It is secured behind by a thick wood 
 that covers the whole declivity of a neighbouring 
 
 hill. Between the town and tiie sea runs an 
 even and spacious shore of beautiful white sand. 
 All the houses are separated by groves of cocoa, 
 and other fruit-trees, planted in parallel lines, 
 each of an equal width, and forming an elegant 
 vista. The coast is defended by a number of 
 small pointed rocks, which project from the 
 shore, and render all access to it dangerous. 
 
 AXINAE'E, Axin.t;.^, in natural history, a 
 genus of the MoUusca tribe (Testacea,) establish- 
 ed by Poli, in his history of the shells of the two 
 Sicilies. The character is taken from the form 
 of the animal ; the shell belongs to the Area 
 genus of the l.inna;an arrangement. 
 
 AXINITE, in mineralogy, a crystallised sub- 
 stance, found principally in Dauphiny, in France, 
 and latterly in the neighbourhood of St. Just, 
 Cornwall. The colors are a light violet brown. 
 The crystals resemble an axe in the form and 
 sharpness of their edges ; being flat rhomboidal 
 paraJlelopipeds, with two of the opposite edges 
 wanting, and a small face instead of each. They 
 become electric by heat. Lustre splendent. 
 Hard, but yields to the file, and easily broken. 
 Specific gravity 3-25. It froths like zeolite before 
 the blow-pipe, melting into a black enamel, or a 
 dark green glass. According to \'auquelin's 
 analysis, it contains forty-four silica, eighteen 
 alumina, nineteen lime, fourteen oxide of iron, 
 and four oxide of manganese. 
 
 AXIXOMANCY, AxiNOMANTiA ; from alivTj, 
 an axe, and fiavnia, divination ; an ancient spe- 
 cies of divination, or a method of foretelling 
 future events by means of an axe or hatchet. 
 This art was in considerable repute among the 
 ancients; and was performed, according to some, 
 by laying an agate stone on a red hot hatchet, 
 and also by fixing a hatchet on a round stake so 
 as to be exactly poised ; then the names of those 
 that were suspected were repeated, and he at 
 whose name the hatchet moved was pronounced 
 guilty. 
 
 AXTO]\I, I Or. A'£,u»>fia, from a^ioot, 
 
 Axiomat'ical. S to think worthy. A self- 
 evident proposition. 
 
 The universal axiom in which all complaisance is 
 included, is, that no man should give any preference 
 to himself. Johnson. 
 
 That a conjectural critick should often be mistaken, 
 cannot be wonderful, either to others or himself, if it 
 be considered that in his art there is no system, no 
 principal and axiomatical truth that regulates subor- 
 dinate positions. 
 
 Johnson's Preface to Shakspeare. 
 
 Axiom, in rhetoric, is used by Ilermogenes 
 to denote grandeur, dignity, and sublimity of 
 style. 
 
 Axioms, in logic. That the whole is greater 
 than a part; that a thing cannot be, and not be 
 at the same time; and that from nothing, notliing 
 can arise ; are axioms indisputable. Established 
 principles in arts and sciences are also stiled 
 axioms. Thus it is an axiom in physics, that 
 nature does nothing in vain ; that eflects are 
 proportional to their causes, Sec. It is an axiom 
 in geometry, that things equal to the same thing, 
 are also equal to one another; that if to equal 
 tilings you add equals, the sums will be equal. 
 Sec. It is an axiom in optics, that the angle of 
 
 Y2
 
 AX I 
 
 324 
 
 AXT 
 
 incidence is equal to the angle of reflection, &c. 
 
 AXION, the brother of Alphesibcea, ^vho mur- 
 dered AlcmsEon, his sister's husband, because he 
 wished to take back a golden necklace he had 
 given her. 
 
 AXIOPOLI, a town in Buloaria. Long. 34° 
 0' E., lat. 43° 40' N. It was formerly called 
 
 AXIOPOLIS; a town of the Triballi, in 
 MsEsia Interior. 
 
 AXIOS, a form of acclamation, anciently used 
 by tlie people in the election of bishops. When 
 they were all unanimous, they cried out a^iotrf 
 he is worthy ! or ava^ioff ! unworthy ! 
 
 AXIOSIS, aKioffiQ, in rhetoric, denotes the 
 third part of an exordium; sometimes called 
 aTTocoaig, and containing some new proposition 
 more nearly relating to the subject, than the 
 ■Trporaing. Thus in Cicero's oration, pro INlilone, 
 the protasis is, JNon possim non tiniere, judices, 
 visa hac nova judicii forma: the katascue, Nee 
 enim ea corona confessus vester cinctus est qua 
 solebat: the axiosis, Sed me recreat Pompei con- 
 silium, cujus sapientiiE non fuerit, quem senten- 
 tiis Judicium tradidit, telis militum dedere: the 
 basts, Quamobrera adeste animis judices, et tirao- 
 rem, si quam habetis, deponite. 
 
 AXIOTEA, or Axiothe.\, a female philoso- 
 pher of Greece, who lived in the time of Plato, 
 and attended his lectures, dressed in the habit of 
 a man. 
 
 AX'IS, "\ Lat. axis, Gr. a'^wv, from aytiv, 
 
 Axl'e, f to go round. Axis is a line 
 
 Ax'led, ^ drawn through the centre of 
 
 Ax'le-tree. J any body round which it re- 
 volves. 
 
 The line, that we deuise from thone to thother so. 
 As axell is ; upon which the heaven's about do go. 
 
 Wyait. 
 But mark me also, these mouinges of these seuen. 
 Vie not aboue the axeltree of the first mouing heauen. 
 
 Id. 
 Inferior ministers, for l\Iars repair 
 His broken axle-trees, and blunted war. 
 
 Dry den. Virgil's .^neid. viii. 
 And bade her spirits bear him far. 
 In Merlin's a;^ati'-a.r/ed car. 
 To her gret-n isle's enamelled steep. 
 Far in the navel of the deep. 
 
 T. Warton. The Grave of King Arthur. 
 
 Axis, in anatomy, the second vertebra of the 
 neck, thus called because the first vertebra with 
 the head, moves thereon, as on an axis. 
 
 Axis, in astronomy, is an imaginary right line 
 supposed to pass through the centre of the 
 heavenly bodies, about which they perform their 
 diurnal revolutions. 
 
 Axis, in botiiny, a taper cohmin placed in the 
 centre of some flowers or catkins, about which 
 the other parts are disposed. 
 
 Axis, in conic sections, a right line dividing 
 the section into two equal parts, and cutting all 
 its ordinatcs at right angles. 
 
 Axis, in geometry, the straight line in a plain 
 figure, about which it revolves, to produce or 
 generate a Kolid. Thus if a semicircle be moved 
 round its diameter at rest, it will generate .t 
 i'phere, the axis of which is that diameter. 
 
 Axis, in mechanics. The axis of a balance is 
 that line which it moves, or ratlier turns about. 
 
 Axis, in optics, is that particular ray of light 
 coming from any object which falls perpendicu- 
 larly on the eye. 
 
 Axis, common or mean, in optics, a right line 
 drawn from the point of concourse from the two 
 optic nerves, through the middle of the right line 
 which joins their extremity. 
 
 Axis, in peritrochio, one of the six mechanical 
 powers, consisting of a peritrocliium or wheel 
 concentric with the base of a cylinder, and move- 
 able together with it about its axis. 
 
 Axis, in zoology, a very remarkable animal, 
 of the deer kind in all respects, except that 
 neither the male nor female have horns; the tail 
 is considerably long, and the whole shape and 
 make are extremely like those of the fallow deer. 
 The female is smaller than the male, and both 
 are of a reddish tawny color, variegated with 
 spots of white; the belly is white. The voice is 
 much more loud and shrill than that of the deer. 
 It is plain that this creature is neither of the red 
 nor fallow deer kind, whence Bellonius, who saw 
 it at Cairo in Egypt, was induced to call it the 
 Axis. 
 
 Axis, determinate, in a hyperbola, a right 
 line which divides it into two equal parts, and at 
 right angles, an infinite' number of lines drawn 
 parallel to each other within the hyperbola. 
 
 Axis, Magnetic.\l, or Axis of a Magnet, 
 a line passing through the middle of a magnet, 
 lengthways, in such manner, as that however the 
 magnet be divided, provided the division be 
 made according to a plane wherein such line is 
 found, the load-stone will be made into two 
 load-stones. The extremities of such lines are 
 called the poles of the stone. 
 
 Axis of a Planet, is a line drawn through 
 the centre, about which the planet revolves. The 
 sun, moon, and all the planets, except Mercury 
 and Saturn, are known, by observation, to move 
 about their several axes ; and the like motion is 
 easily inferred from those two. 
 
 Axis of a Sphere, or Circle, is the same 
 as diameter. 
 
 Axis of a Vessel, is an imaginary right line 
 passing through the middle of it perpendicularly 
 to its base, and equally distant from its sides. 
 
 Axis of Incidence in dioptrics, a right line 
 drawn through the point of incidence perpendi- 
 cular to the refracting surface. 
 
 Axis of Oscillation, is a right line parallel 
 to the horizon, passing through the centre about 
 which a pendulum vibrates. 
 
 Axis of Refraction, is that which is made 
 by the ray of incidence directly prolonged on 
 the inside of the second medium by the ray of 
 refraction. 
 
 Axis of the Cylinder, is properly that qui- 
 escent right line, about which the parallelogram 
 turns, by whose revolution the cylinder is formed. 
 Though, both in right and oblique cylinders, the 
 right line joining the centres of the opposite 
 bases, is also called the axis of the cylinder. 
 
 Axis of the Earth, is a right line upon 
 which the earth performs its diurnal rotation from 
 west to east. 
 
 Axis OF THE Ionic Capital, is a line passing 
 perpendicularly through the middle of the eye of 
 the volute.
 
 AXT 
 
 32^ 
 
 AXY 
 
 Axis 01 THE ZoLiiAC, a line supposed tu puss 
 througli the earth and terminate in the poles. 
 
 Axis, Si'iral, is the axis of a twisted column 
 drawn spirally, in order to trace the circumvolu- 
 tions without. 
 
 AX.MINSTER, a town of Devonshire, situated 
 on the river Ax, in the great road between Lon- 
 don and Exeter, being twenty-five miles east of 
 the latter place. It was a place of some note in 
 the time of the Saxons, and now contains about 
 2500 inhabitants. It has a manufactory of broad 
 and narrow cloths, and an extensive one of 
 carpets, manufactured after the Turkish manner : 
 its carpets are often preferred to those from 
 Turkey. The petty sessions are holden here. 
 King /Ethelstan founded a minster here, for seven 
 priests, to pray for the souls of those who were 
 slain in a battle which he fought with the Danes 
 at Bremaldown. It has four fairs : on the 24th 
 of February, 25th of April, 24th of June, and 
 Wednesday after !\Iichaelmas, with a market on 
 Saturday. It is 147 miles west of London. 
 Long. .3° 8' W., lat. 50° 45' N. 
 
 AXOLOTI, in icthyology, a singular fish 
 found in the lakes of Mexico. It has four feet 
 like the lizard, no scales, a matrix like a woman, 
 and the menstrual flux. It has the taste of an 
 eel. See L.\certa. 
 
 AXONES; a^wvec; public laws of the an- 
 cient Greeks, particularly of the Athenians, so 
 named from tlieir mode of publication. 
 
 AXTEL (Daniel), a regicide, and colonel in 
 the service of the long parliament, was of a good 
 family, and had a tolerable education. .iVs he 
 was of a serious disposition, and had been very 
 early tinctured with puritanical principles, he 
 became a fervent follower of such ministers as 
 distinguished themselves by their zealous preach- 
 ing. His great attachment to these people, and 
 the natural warmth of his temper, were the cause 
 of his going into the army, in which he behaved 
 with so much zeal, courage, and conduct, that he 
 rose by degrees to the several commands of cap- 
 tain, major, and lieutenant-colonel, in a regi- 
 ment of foot. It was in this last capacity that 
 he acted with great vehemence against all endea- 
 vours for a reconciliation with the king. When 
 the kmg was brought before the high court of 
 justice, colonel Stubberd and Axtel had the com- 
 mand of the soldiers below stairs. The king de- 
 manded of sergeant Bradshaw, the president, by 
 what authority they brought him there ? and the 
 president appealing to the charge, which was in 
 the name of the Commons of I'.ngland, lady 
 I'aiifax and Mrs. Nelson are said to have cried 
 out, ' It is false ; not a half, not a quarter of the 
 people." Upon this colonel Axtel cried out, 
 
 'Down with the w ; shoot them!' After 
 
 the sentence, the king was carried through King- 
 street, in a sedan, by two porters, who, out of re- 
 verence, went bare-headed, till the soldiers under 
 Axtel's command beat them, and forced them to 
 put on their hats. After the kiii',''s death, when 
 Cromwell was sent into Irehin^l, liic regiiuenl in 
 which Axtel served w-as drawn out by lot for 
 that expedition, which occasioned his going over 
 into that kingdom, where he made a considerable 
 figure, was much esteemed, and raised by C'rom- 
 \>*'ll to the command of a regiment, and the go- 
 
 vernment of Kilkenny After the Protector'j 
 death Axtel endeavoured to conceal himself, sus- 
 pecting that he might be called to an account 
 for the share he had taken in the trial of the 
 king ; but before the close of the month he was 
 discovered and committed to prison. On the 
 10th of October the grand jury for Middlesex 
 found bills against twenty-eight persons, for 
 their concern in the king's death, of whom Axtel 
 was the last. liis trial, by the elaborate defence 
 he made, lasted upwards of three hours : but the 
 jury, without going from the bar, found him 
 guilty; and he was executed, on the 19th, at 
 Tyburn. 
 
 AXU3I, AxoMA, AxoMi«, or Aksum, in Abys- 
 sinia, the capital of a powerful state in the time 
 of the Ptolemies, and perhaps of all Abyssinia ; 
 still retaining monumi iits of its former splendor. 
 An ancient throne of granite, and two rows 
 of obelisks, struck Mr. Salt as amongst the most 
 beautiful ancient relics he had ever seen. But per- 
 haps the most curious of all is a long Greek in- 
 scription, which records the victories of one of the 
 Ptolemies and the extent of their empire. Fru- 
 mentius, the apostle of Ethiopia, was the first 
 bishop of Axum, and many churches had been 
 excavated from the surrounding mountains be- 
 fore the close of the fifth century. It carried 
 on a considerable trade with India and Arabia, 
 through the port of Adulis. It is the place 
 where the kings of Abyssinia are crowned. ^Ir. 
 Salt found it to be in lat. 14° G' 3G" IN'. Its 
 present population is about 3000. The inhabit- 
 ants are rude and inhospitable. They wear coarse 
 woollen clothes. The monks prepare the best 
 parchment in all Abyssinia. The church of 
 Axum appears to have been built in 1657, and 
 is considered by Mr. Salt, excepting that of 
 Chelicut, as the finest in the province of Tigre. 
 The town stands agreeably sheltered by hills, at 
 the corner of an extensive valley. It is de- 
 scribed by Bruce as containing 600 houses. 
 
 AXUXGIA, in a general sense, denotes old 
 lard, or the driest and hardest of any fat in the 
 bodies of animals ; but more properly it signifies 
 only hog's lard. 
 
 AxuxGMA LvN-t, an affected name given by 
 the German chemists to the terra goltbergensis, 
 from their imagining that it contains some par- 
 ticler, of silver, and owes to them its virtues in 
 medicine. 
 
 AxtNGiA SoLis is used for the terra silesiaca, 
 and said to be good against the plague, pestilen- 
 tial fevers, &c. 
 
 AxvNGiA \'iTRr, Sandiver, or salt of glass, 
 a kind of salt which separates from the glass 
 while it is in fusion. It is of an acrimonious 
 and biting taste. Tiie farriers use it for cleansing 
 the eyes of horses. It is also made use of for 
 cleansing the teeth ; and it is sometimes applied 
 to running ulcers, the herpes, or the itch, by 
 way of desiccative. 
 
 AXYLUS, an ancient hero of Arisba, cele- 
 brated by Homer for his hospitality, which 
 gained him the appellation of the Friend of Man- 
 kind. 
 
 AXYRIS, a genus of the triandria order, and 
 moncpcia class of plants, ranking in the natural 
 method under the twelfth order hcloracca. Tlie
 
 AYA 
 
 326 
 
 AYL 
 
 calyx of the male is tripartite ; it has no corolla. 
 The calyx of the female consists of two leaves ; 
 it has two styli and one seed. There are four 
 species, none of them natives of Britain. 
 
 AY. Sax. Ever. For ever. 
 A kyng jsat strines with hise, he may not wele spcde, 
 Where' so he testis or riues he lyues ay in drede. 
 
 R. Brunne. 
 
 And now in darksome dungeon, wretched thrall, 
 Remedyless for aye he dothe him holde. 
 
 Spenser's Faerie Qiieenc. 
 
 Either prepare to die, 
 Or on Diana's altar to protest 
 For aye, austerity and single life. 
 
 ShakspeM,re. 
 
 The soul, though made in time, survives for aye; 
 And, though it hath beginning, sees no end. 
 
 Sir J. Davios. 
 And join with thee calm peace, and quiet. 
 Spare fast, that oft with gods doth diet. 
 And hears the muses in a ring. 
 Ay round about Jove's altar sing. 
 
 3Iilton's II Penseroso. 
 O to thy [the cock's] cursed scream discordant still , 
 jjet harmony aye shut her gentle ear. 
 
 Beattie's Minstrel. 
 
 Ay, a town of France, in the department of 
 Marne, near the river Maine, remarkable for its 
 excellent wines. It lies twelve miles south of 
 Ilheiras, and one mile and a half north-east of 
 Epernay. Inhabitants 2600. 
 
 AY AG, or KAYACiir, one of the Andrea- 
 nofskie islands, in the eastern or Pacific Ocean, 
 about 150 versts in circumferencej and consisting 
 of several high and rocky mountains, the inter- 
 vals of vv^hich are bare heath and moor ground ; 
 but in the whole island there is not one forest- 
 tree. The productions resemble.those of Kamt- 
 schatka. 
 
 AYAMONTE, a sea-port town of Andalusia 
 in Spain, witli a strong castle built on a rock; 
 seated on the mouth of the Guadiana, eighty- 
 five miles north-west of Cadiz. It has a coi»- 
 modious harbour, a productive sardel fishery, 
 fruitful vineyards, and excellent wine. Popula- 
 tion about 5000. 
 
 AYAS, a town and castle of Caramania, in 
 the government of Adana, on the bay of Ayas, 
 near the Jypoo, and on the west side of the 
 Gulf of Scanderoon, or Iskenderoon, the ancient 
 Sinus Issicus. It is fortified all round; and here 
 are the remains of a fort and artificial pier. A 
 little to the westward is a round tower with an 
 Arabic inscription. Myriads of fish, numerous 
 fine turtle, and aquatic birds, abound on the 
 shore. This place is supposed to be the ancient 
 iEgce. Long. 35° 48'. E., lat. 36° 46' N. 
 
 AYASH, a village on the same coast, sur- 
 rounded by the ruins of a town that has occupied 
 a considerable space of ground, and containing 
 the remains of a theatre and many other edifices. 
 The most conspicuous of the whole is a temple, 
 . situated on a projecting emitience. Its columns 
 are of the composite order, fluted, and about 
 four feet in diameter. This is conjectured to 
 ' have been the ancient Sei)asta. 
 
 AYA'xTRI, a town of i.ima, in Peru, remark- 
 able for many stately tombs of the Peruvian no- 
 bility. 
 
 AYBAR, a town of Spain, in Navarre, on the 
 Arragon, famous for a battle fought here in the 
 year 1451, betwen John king of Castile, and his 
 son Don Carlos, in which the latter was defeated 
 and taken prisoner. Three miles south of San- 
 guesa. 
 
 AYDON Bridge, or Heydon Bridge, a 
 town in Northumberland, five miles west of Hex- 
 ham, so named from its bridge over the Tyne. 
 It has a market on Tuesday, and a fair on July 
 21st, 22d, 23d, and 24th. 
 
 AYE. Ai/ez. The imperative of the French 
 verb avoir, to have ; signifying have it, possess 
 it, enjoy it. The expression is similar in 
 Swedish, German, and Dutch. 
 
 Return you thither.' 
 Ay, madam, with the swiftest wing of speed. 
 
 Shalispeare. 
 What say'st thou ? wilt thou be of our consort ? 
 Say ay, and be the captain of us all. Id. 
 
 Sometimes in mutual sly disguise. 
 Let ayes seem tios, and nos seem ayes; 
 Ayes be in courts denials meant. 
 And nos in bishops give consent. 
 Thus aye proposed, and, for reply. 
 No for the first time answer'd aye. 
 They parted with a thousand kisses. 
 And fight e'er since for pay like Swisses. 
 
 Gay's Fables. Aye and No. 
 
 AYEK Je.maxi, a species of cornelian, much 
 valued by the Arabians. 
 
 AY EL, Fr. in law, a writ which lies where the i 
 grandfather was seized in his demesne on the ' 
 day he died, a stranger enters tlie same day and 
 dispossesses the heir. 
 
 f?N' i See Again. 
 Ay enst. ) 
 
 AYENIA, in botany, a genus of the pentan- 
 dria order and gynandria class of plants, nuiking 
 in the natural method under the thirty-seventh 
 order, columniferje. The calyx has two leaves ; 
 the petals are in the form of a star, with long 
 ungues ; and the capsule has five cells. There 
 are three species all natives of the West Indies. 
 
 AYERBE, or Ayerve, the capital of a ba- 
 rony, in the district of Huesca, Arragon, situ- 
 ated at the foot of the Pyrenees, thirty-two miles 
 north of Saragossa. 
 
 AYERSTOWN, a town of the United States, 
 in New Jersey, thirteen miles south-east from 
 Burlington. 
 
 AYESHA, the wife of Mahomet, and daugh- 
 ter of Abubeker. Tlie impostor had a greater 
 regard for her than for any of his wives, 
 though she had no children ; and his followers 
 highly respected her. She opposed All's suc- 
 cession and raised an army against him ; but 
 after a severe contest was made prisoner. The 
 conqueror, however, dismissed her with civility. 
 This turbulent woman died in 677, aged sixty- 
 seven. 
 
 AYGULA, in zoology, a species of simia or 
 ape. 
 
 AYGULUS, in entomology, a species of sca- 
 rabseus that inhabits India. 
 
 AYLESBURY (Sir Thomas), merits a i)lace 
 in a work of this kind, not only as a learned 
 man himself, but as the patron of men of letters. 
 He was born in London in 1576, was educated
 
 AYL 
 
 327 
 
 AYL 
 
 at Westminster, and studied at Oxford, where he 
 took his degree of A.M. in 160"). He became 
 secretary to Charles earl of Nottin^rham, lord 
 hifih admiral, and gave so many proofs of his 
 skill in mathematics, that he retained his secre- 
 taryship under the duke of Buckingham upon 
 his succeeding the earl. By the duke's influence 
 he was appointed master of requests, and master 
 of the mint, and created a baronet. The profits 
 of these lucrative offices he applied to the most 
 benevolent purposes. He not only made all 
 men of science welcome to his table and afforded 
 them his best countenance, but also gave regular 
 pensions to such of them as were in narrow cir- 
 cumstances. It is to be regretted that a man of 
 so benevolent a character should himself have 
 afterwards experienced adversity. In conse- 
 quence of his steady adherence to the king, he 
 was, in 1G42, stripped of his places and estate, 
 but he bore up cheerfully under his misfortunes, 
 and in 1G49 retired with his family to Brussels. 
 He died at Breda in 1G57, aged eighty-one. 
 
 Aylesbiry (William), the son of the baronet, 
 took his degree of A.M. at Christ Church, in 
 the sixteenth year of his age, and like his father, 
 was a sufferer by his adherence to the cause of 
 royalty. King Charles I. early appointed him 
 travelling preceptor to George Villiers duke of 
 Buckingham, and his brother, Lord Francis. 
 During their travels in Italy he was nearly killed 
 by an assassin. He returned to England during 
 the civil war, but after the king's death retired to 
 Antwerp. In 1650 he again returned to Eng- 
 land, where he experienced great difficulties, 
 being often in want of daily necessaries. At 
 last, in 1657, the protector having fitted out a 
 ileet for the West Indies, he was engaged as 
 secretary to the governor of Jamaica, the climate 
 of which soon cut him off. 
 
 Aylesislry. See Ailesbvry. 
 
 AYLESFORD. See AiLESfORc. 
 
 AYLETS, or Sea Swallows. In heraldry, 
 they are often called Cornish choughs, and are 
 painted sable, beaked, and legged gules. 
 
 AYLETT (Robert), an English author of the 
 seventeenth century. He was educated at Trinity 
 Hall, Cambridge, where he took the degree of 
 LL.D. in 1614, and afterwards became master 
 in Chancery. He wrote Susanna, or the Arraign- 
 ment of the Two Elders, a poem, 1622, 8vo. 
 besides several other poetical pieces. He is 
 thought by some to have been the author of the 
 Britannica Antiqua lUustrata, which is generally 
 attributed to his nephew, Aylett Sammes. 
 
 AYLIN (John), an Italian writer of the four- 
 teenth century. His chief work is a History of 
 Friuli, printed in Muratori's Antiquitates Italicse 
 medii /Evi, Milan, 1740. 
 
 AYLMEll (John), bishop of London in the 
 reign of Elizabeth, was born in 1521, at Aylmer- 
 hall, in Tilney, Norfolk. While a boy he was 
 distinguished for his quick parts, by the marquis 
 of Dorset, afterwards duke of Suflblk; who sent 
 him to Cambridge, made him his cliaplain, and 
 tutor to his children. One of these was the un- 
 fortunate Lady Jane Gray, who soon became 
 perfectly acquainted witli the Latin and Greek. 
 His first preferment was to the archdeaconry of 
 Stow, which gave him a seat in the convocation 
 
 held in the first year of queen Mary, where he 
 resolutely opposed the return to popery, to 
 which the generality of the clergy were inclined. 
 He was soon after obliged to take shelter among 
 the Protestants in Switzerland. On the acces- 
 sion of Elizabeth he returned to England. In 
 1562 he obtained the archdeaconry of Lincoln ; 
 and was a member of the famous synod of that 
 year, which reformed and settled the doctrine 
 and discipline of the church of England. In 
 1576 he was consecrated bishop of London. He 
 died in 1594, aged seventy-three; and was buried 
 in St. Paul's. He published An Harbrowe for 
 faithful and trewe Subjects against the late blowne 
 Blaste concerning the Government of Women, 
 &c. In answer to Knox, who published a book at 
 Geneva under this title. The first Blast against 
 the monstrous Regimen and Empire of Women. 
 Strype gives the following instance of his courtly 
 courage : — Queen Elizabeth being once tormented 
 with the tooth-ache, and yet afraid of having the 
 tooth drawn, bishop Aylmer being by, to encour- 
 age her majesty, sat down in a chair, and calling 
 to tlie operator, ' Come,' said he, ' though I am 
 an old man, and have but few teeth to spare, 
 draw me this;' which was done; and the queen 
 seeing him make so slight a matter of it, sat down 
 and had hers drawn also. 
 
 AYLOFFE (Sir Joseph), of Framfield in Sus- 
 sex, was descended from a Saxon family anciently 
 seated at Bocton Aylof, in Kent, in the reign of 
 Henry the Third. He was born about 1708; 
 received the early part of his education at 
 Westminster school ; admitted of Lincoln's Inn 
 1724 ; and in the same year was entered a gen- 
 tleman commoner at Oxford, which he quitted 
 about 1728; was elected F.A.S. Feb. 10, 1731 ; 
 one of the first council, under tlieir charter, in 
 1751 ; vice-president and F.Il.S. June 3, 1731. 
 He prevailed on Mr. Kirby, painter of Ipswich, 
 to make drawings of a great number of monu- 
 ments and buildings in Suflblk, of which twelve 
 were engraved, with a description, 1748 ; and 
 others remain unpublished. On the building of 
 Westminster-bridge he was appointed secretary 
 to the commissioners, 1736-7; and on the estab- 
 lishment of the Paper-Office on the respectable 
 footing it is at present, by the removal of the 
 State Papers from the old gate at Whitehall to 
 new apartments at the treasury, he was nomi- 
 nated the first in the commission for the eare 
 and preservation of them. In 1757 he circulated 
 proposals for printing by subscription, Encyclo- 
 paedia ; or, a rational Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, 
 and Trade. In 1772 he published in 4to. Ca- 
 lendars of the Ancient Charters, &c. and of the 
 Welsh and Scottish Rolls now remaining in tlie 
 Tower of London, &c. and in the introduction 
 gives a judicious and exact account of our Pub- 
 lic Records. He drew up tlie account of the 
 chapel of London-bridge, of which an engraving 
 was published by V'ertue in 1748, and again by 
 the Society of Antiquaries, 1777. His historica. 
 description of the interview between Henry \'III. 
 and Francis I. on the Champ de Drap d'O- 
 from an original pa'mting at Windsor, and hi, 
 account of the ])aintings of the same age at Cow- 
 dray, were inserted in the third volume of the 
 Arcliaologia, and printed separately to accom-
 
 AYR 
 
 328 
 
 AYS 
 
 pany engravings of two of these pictures by the 
 Society of Antiquaries, 1775. His account of 
 the body of Edward I. as it appeared on openini^ 
 his tomb, 1774, w-as printed in the same volume 
 p. 376. His intimate acquaintance with every 
 part of Westminster Abbey displayed itself in 
 his accurate description of five monuments in the 
 choir, engraved in 1779 by the same society. 
 He superintended the new edition of Leland's 
 Collectanea, in nine vols. 8vo. ; and also of the 
 Liber Niger Scaccarii, in two vols. 8vo. ; to each 
 of which he added a valuable appendix. He 
 also revised an edition of Hearne's Curious Dis- 
 courses, 1771, two vols. 8vo. ; and the Regis- 
 trum Roffense, published by Mr. Thorpe, in 
 1769, folio. At the beginning of the seventh 
 volume of Soraers's Tracts is advertised A Col- 
 lection of Debates in Parliament before the 
 Restoration, from MSS. by Sir Joseph Ayloffe, 
 bart. which is supposed never to have appeared. 
 Sir Joseph died at his house at Kennington-lane, 
 Lambeth, April 19, 1781, aged seventy-two. 
 
 AYMAR (James), a celebrated impostor, born 
 at Veran, in Dauphine. He became famous, and 
 acquired considerable wealth about the end of 
 the seventeenth century, by giving out that he 
 was in possession of a divining- rod for bringing 
 to light hidden treasure. The cheat was detect- 
 ed, and he was suffered to fall back into his 
 former obscurity ; but the noise he had raised 
 gave occasion to De Vallemont's learned book on 
 the powers of the divining rod. 
 
 AYMARES, a district of Peru, fo.'ty leagues 
 south-west of that city, abounding in sugar, cat- 
 tle, corn, and mines of gold and silver. 
 
 AYMOi^f (John), a Roman Catholic priest of 
 Piedmont, who took part with the Protestant 
 cause, and afterwards returned to the Catholic 
 faith. Cardinal de Naoilles gavehiraa pension, 
 and he wrote several books in opposition to the 
 Reformers. He likewise published the letters 
 of Cyril Lucar, Les Synodes nationaux des 
 Eglises reformees de France, 1710, 2 vols. 4to.; 
 and Tableau de la Cour de Rome, 1710, 12mo. 
 
 AYOQUANTOTOTL, or Avis Ayoquanto- 
 TOTL, in ornithology, the name under which the 
 oriolus xanthornus of Gmelin is described by 
 some old writers. 
 
 AYORA, a town of Spain, in Valencia. Long. 
 16° 40' E., lat. 39° 3' N. 
 
 AYR, or Air, in Scotland. See Am. 
 
 Ayr, or Air, a river of France, in the duchy 
 of Bar, which abounds in fish, and falls into the 
 Aisne, near Grandpre, in the department of the 
 Ardennes. 
 
 AYRES, an English penman of the seven- 
 teenth century. He was employed in the servidfe 
 of Sir William Ashhurst, in 1694, to whom he 
 dedicated a treatise, entitled Arithmetic made 
 Easy. In 1695 he pubbshed his Tutor to Pen- 
 manship, engraved by John Strut. He lodged 
 at the iiand-and-Pen, St. Paul's Church-yard, 
 where he probably kept a school. 
 
 AYRMIN, or Ayermin (William), a bishop 
 of Norwich in the reigns of Edward IL and HL 
 was descended of an ancient family at Osgodby 
 in Lincolnshire. He was a canon in the cathe- 
 dral of York, and afterwards in thiit of Wells ; 
 and was for some time keeper of tlie seal, and 
 
 vice-chancellor to king Edward II. under John, 
 bishop of Norwich. About A. D. 1319, a war 
 having broke out between England and Scotland, 
 Ayrmin was taken prisoner in a battle between 
 the Scotch and Yorkists. Recovering his liberty 
 he was made chancellor under Edward III. and 
 afterwards treasurer. Beins sent ambassador 
 to the court of Rome, he neglected the business 
 ef his embassy, and employed his time and in- 
 terest in obtaining the bishopric of Norwich, 
 which was then vacant; in which application 
 meeting with success, he returned to take pos- 
 session of that see : which the king hearing, and 
 being disgusted at his proceedings, sent soldiers 
 to Norwich to apprehend him ; but Ayrmin lay 
 hid in the cathedral church, till by the interpo- 
 sition of friends the king was reconciled to him, 
 and consented to his consecration. He died in 
 1337. 
 
 AYR-MOSS, a place iri the parish of Auchin- 
 leck in Ayrshire, memorable for a defeat of a 
 party of those friends of religion and liberty, 
 called Covenanters, during the turbulent and op- 
 pressive reign of Charles II. 
 
 AYRON, a river of Wales, in Cardiganshire. 
 
 AYR-SHIRE. See Air. 
 
 AYRTON (Edmund), was born at Ripon, 
 Yorkshire, in the year 1734, and died in 
 1808. At the age of thirty he became one 
 of the gentlemen of the Chapel Royal, St. 
 James's, and subsequently a vicar choral of St. 
 Paul's and Westminster Abbey. In 1784 he 
 took his degree of doctor of music in the univer- 
 sity of Cambridge, on which occasion he com- 
 posed a grand anthem for a full orchestra, after- 
 wards performed at St. Paul's Cathedral, on the 
 day appointed for the general thanks£;iving for 
 peace in 1784. Dr. Ayrton took a leading part 
 in the commemoration of Handel in Westminster 
 Abbey. 
 
 AYRY, or Eyery. Ey, Teutonic, an egg; 
 eyr, eggs ; the eyery, or eggery, where the eggs 
 are deposited. Used of hawks, or other birds. 
 
 Yon sun-Lred ayry, whose immortal birth 
 Bears you aloft beyond the sight of earth. 
 The heaven-touch'd feathers of whose sprightly wings 
 Skirts (from above) the palaces of kings. 
 
 Drayton. The Owl. 
 The eagle and the stort 
 On cliffs and cedar tops their eyries build. 
 
 Milton. Paradise Lost, book vii. 
 
 I should discourse on the brancher, the haggard, 
 and then treat of their several ayries. 
 
 Walton's Angler. 
 
 AYSCOUGH (George Edward), only son of 
 Dr. Ayscous:h, dean of Bristol, was a lieutenant 
 in the guards. He wrote Semiramis, a tragedy ; 
 and Letters from an officer in the guards to his 
 friend in Encrland ; containing some accounts of 
 France and Italy, 8vo. 1778. He died October, 
 1779. 
 
 AYSCUE (Sir George), a gallant English ad- 
 miral, descended from a cjood family in Lincoln- 
 shire. He was knighted by Charles I., which 
 however did not withhold him from adhering to 
 the parliament in the civil war : he was by them 
 constituted admiral of the Irish se;is, where he 
 did great service to the protestant interest, and 
 contributed much to the reduction of the island.
 
 AZA 
 
 329 
 
 AZE 
 
 In 16.51 he reduced Barbadoes and Virginia, 
 then held for the king, to the obedience of the 
 ])arliament ; and soon after the Restoration be- 
 haved with great honor in the war with the 
 Dutch. In the famous engagement in the be- 
 ginning of June 166G, when Sir George was ad- 
 miral of the white squadron, his ship, the Royal 
 Prince, ran upon the Gallopsand ; where, being 
 surrounded with enemies, his men obliged him 
 to strike. He went no more to sea after this, 
 but spent the rest of his days in retirement. 
 
 AYSEAUX, a castle and marquisate of the 
 Netherlands, in Hainault, on the Dender. 
 AYSERIL'S, or Asserius. See Asser. 
 AYTONIA, in botany, a genus of the mona- 
 delphia order, and the pentaiidriu class of plants; 
 the characters of which are : the calyx is qurn- 
 quepartite ; the corolla consists of four petals ; 
 the berry is dry, quadrangular, unilocular, and 
 many seeded. There is but one species, viz. 
 A. Capensis, a native of the Cape. 
 
 AYUTLA, a river of South America, in the 
 province of Guatimala, which flows into the 
 Pacific Ocean. Lat. 14° 55' N. 
 
 AZAB, a place on the coast of Abyssinia, in 
 lat. 13° N., where Bruce says 'he found the re- 
 mains of a very ancient aqueduct.' He supposes 
 it to be the Sabse of Strabo ; and the country of 
 the Saboii so famous for their myrrh and frankin- 
 cense. * Tliose gums,' he adds, ' are still pro- 
 duced in the neighbourhood.' Behind are pits 
 of rock salt, whence the pieces used as coin by 
 the Abyssinians are extracted. See Enu'e, tnal. i. 
 Strabo. xvi. Diod. iii. 
 
 AzAB, in the Turkish armies, a distinct body 
 of soldierj', who are great rivals of the Janissaries. 
 AZABE Kaberi ; from kaber, sepulchre, and 
 azab, torment ; denotes a temporary punishment, 
 which, as the Mahommedans say, the wicked 
 must sufl'er after death. Their crimes are hereby 
 expiated, and INIahomet opens the gate of Para- 
 dise to all who believe in him. 
 
 AZAI, or AzAV, a town of France, seated on 
 the Indre and Loire. It lies fifteen miles south- 
 west of Tours, and ten north-east of Chinon. 
 AZALUUS, in old law Latin, a sorry horse. 
 AZALEA, American cpright Honev- 
 SUCKLE, a genus of the monogynia order, and 
 pentandria class of plants ; ranking, in the natural 
 method, under the eighteenth order, bicornes. 
 The corolla is bell-shaped; the stamina are in- 
 serted into the receptacle ; and the capsule lu'S 
 five cells. There are six species, of which the 
 most remarkable are the following: 1. A. nudi- 
 flora, or red American upright honeysuckle, 
 grows taller than the viscosa, and in its native 
 country will sometimes arrive at tire height of 
 twelve feet, but in Britain never rises to above 
 half that height. It has several stems with ob- 
 long smooth leaves. 2. A. rubiiflora, a species 
 with bright red flowers, was found by Mr. Light- 
 foot upon the tops of many mountains in the 
 Highlands of Scotland. 3. A. vLscosa, with a 
 white flower, is a low shrub, arising with several 
 stems to the height of two or three feet. The 
 leaves come out in clusters without any order at 
 the end of the shoots, and their edges are set 
 with ver)' short teeth which are rough. The 
 flowers come out in clusters between the leaves, 
 
 have much the appearance of honeysuckle, and 
 are as well scented. 
 
 AZA^NIOR, a small sea-port town of the king- 
 dom of Morocco in Africa. It is situated on the river 
 Morbeya, in the province of Duquella, at some 
 considerable distance from its mouth. This town, 
 though formerly very considerable, is obstructed 
 in its maritime commerce by the dangerous en- 
 trance of the river. It was xnisuccessfully be- 
 sieged by the Portuguese in 1508; it was taken 
 however, in 1513, by the duke of Braganza, but 
 abandoned about the end of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury. Mr. Jackson calculates its population at 
 1000. It is eighty miles north of Morocco. 
 
 AZARADEO, a sea-port town of Brasil, in 
 the bay of Spiritu Santo. Long. 60° 10' W., 
 lat. 20° 1 8' S. 
 
 AZAR.iVKITES,asect of Mahommedan Arabs. 
 
 AZaRECAH, a sect of heretical 3Ius.sulmans, 
 who acknowledge no punishment, temporal or 
 spiritual. 
 
 AZARIAH ; from mj?, and n% i. e. the help 
 of the Lord ; kingof Judah. See Uzziah. Also 
 the name of various high priests and princes of 
 the Jews. 
 
 AZARIAS, a Jewish rabbi and historian of 
 the sixteenth century. In 1574 he published at 
 Mantua, in Hebrew, a book entitled The Light 
 of the Eyes. Many historical and miscellaneous 
 subjects are treated of in this work ; and it con- 
 tains a Hebrew version of the letter of Aristeas 
 on tiie Septuagint. 
 
 AZAIUST, a city of l\hieva, on the river Amo, 
 which v.- as visited by the English factors in 1741. 
 
 AZAROLA, ihe service tree. 
 
 AZARCM, a small, dry, blackish, stringy, 
 medicinal root, much used in France as a specific 
 for tiie farcy in horses. The azarum, called also 
 nardus sylvestris, grows in the Levant, Canada, 
 and about Lyons in France. The first is reputed 
 the best. It is given in powder, from the 
 quantity of one ounce to two. 
 
 AZAY, or AssAiE-LE-RiDEAU, a town of 
 France, in the department of the Indre and 
 Loire, situated on the Indre, the head of a can- 
 ton, with a castle, and 1700 inhabitants. It was 
 in former times a place of strength, and the seat 
 of a royal governor. Five leagues south-west of 
 Tours. 
 
 Azav-sur-Cuer, a town in France, situated 
 on the river Cher, and belonging to the arron- 
 dissement of Tours, in the department of the 
 indre and Loire. Number of houses above 230. 
 Two leagues and a half E. S. E. of Tours. INlany 
 other villages and hamlets in France bear this 
 name. 
 
 AZAZEL, a word relating to the institution 
 of the scape-goat, in the Jewish religion, respect- 
 ing which there are various opinions. St. Jerome 
 and Theodoret call the goat itself by this name. 
 Dr. Spencer says the scape-goat was to be sent 
 to Azazel, by which is meant the devil. M. le 
 Clerc translates it praecipitium, making it to be 
 that steep and inaccessible place to which the 
 goat was sent, and where it was supposed to 
 perish. 
 
 AZED, in the materia raedica, a name given 
 by the Arabian writers to a kind of camphor, 
 which they make the third in value, placing it
 
 AZE 
 
 330 
 
 AZI 
 
 after the alcansuri and abriagi. The first of these 
 was the finest of all the kinds of camphor, and 
 was collected tolerably pure from the tree, as it 
 t^rew in Cansur, tlie place whence it was named. 
 Tlie second was the same camphor, rendered yet 
 more pure by sublimation ; this was a discovery 
 of one of the kings of that country, and the cam- 
 phor was named from him. The third kind, or 
 azed, was the same with what we now receive 
 from the Indies, under the name of crude or 
 rough camphor. The word azed signifies only 
 large, and was used to express the camphor 
 formed into large cakes. Avicenna says this 
 camphor was gross, of a dusky color, and much 
 less bright and pellucid than the other kinds. 
 
 AZEDARACII, or Azeradach, in botany, 
 the bead-tree. 
 
 AZEEMABAD, the Mahommedan name of 
 Patxa, which see. 
 
 AZEITAO, a town in Portuguese Estrema- 
 dnra, south of the Tagus, with a manufacture of 
 cliintz, and various dye-houses. Population 2350. 
 Eive miles N.N.W. of Setuval. 
 
 AZEKAH, in ancient geography, a city of the 
 Amorites, in the lot of Judah ; situated between 
 Eleutheropolis and Aelia ; where the five kings of 
 the Amorites and their army were destroyed by hail. 
 
 AZELBUlKi, a town of Bavaria, formerly 
 called Augusta Acilia. 
 
 AZELFOGE, in astronomy, a fixed star of the 
 second magnitude, in the swan's tail. 
 
 AZEM, AsEM, Assam, or Acham, a country 
 of Asia, north of Ava. See Assam. 
 
 AZEMAFOR, in alchemy, red lead. 
 
 AZEMECH, the Arabian name for the star, 
 called the virgin's spike. 
 
 AZENAY, a town of France, in Poitou, de- 
 partment of the Vendee, arrondissement of 
 Sables d'Olonne. Population 3000. Five 
 leagues north of Sables d'Olonne. 
 
 AZERBIJAN, or Aderbeitzan, a province 
 of Persia, part of the ancient Media, bounded 
 by Ghilan and the Caspian sea on the east, and 
 on the west by Kurdistan and Armenia. It is 
 si'parated from the latter by theAraxes, and from 
 the ])rovince of Irak on the south, by Kizilozein, 
 or the Golden stream. The climate, which is 
 ordinarily temperate, is cold in winter, and se- 
 verely felt by the poorer inhabitants, from the 
 scarcity of fuel. The province is watered by tlie 
 two rivers already named, and by the Jungatty, 
 whicli is larger than either, and abounds in fish; 
 the Yezdian, Agi, and other lesser streams. On 
 tlie frontier also is the lake Urumea, which is 
 Salter than the sea. Its minerals are lead, cop- 
 ])er, saltpetre, and sulphur; here is also a kind of 
 beautiful transparent marble, or jasper, which 
 takes the highest polish, and is used in the build- 
 ings of Tabriz, Shiraz, and Ispahan, imder the 
 name of Tabriz marble. The cultivation of the 
 land, wliich consists of fine undulating eminences 
 and rich valleys, is here carried on cliiefly by ir- 
 rigation ; the oxen are used for tlie plough, and 
 the best soil yields from fifty to sixty fold. Most 
 of the villages are surrounded with orchards and 
 gardens, which produce fruit of almost every 
 description. A considerable quantity of wine 
 is made ; and provisions are cheap an.d abundant. 
 
 The nam.c of this province is said to signify the 
 country of fire, and is supposed to have been 
 derived from the number of fire temples of the. 
 Guebres. It is divided into twelve districts, 
 in which are several cities and towns of im- 
 portance, as Tabriz, or Tauris, the capital, con- 
 taining 30,000 inhabitants, Urumea, Shebuster, 
 and ^laragah. 
 
 AZERGUE, Bahr-el, or the Blue River, 
 the principal stream of Abyssinia, which, rising 
 in the kingdom of Gojam, passes through the 
 lake of Dembea, and, after a winding course 
 through Abyssinia and Sennaar, falls itito the 
 Nile above Gerri. Travellers described it as the 
 principal branch of the Nile, till D'Anville 
 showed that this distinction belonged to the 
 Bahr-el-Abiad. 
 
 AZE\"EDO (Ignatius), a Portuguese Jesuit, 
 born in 1527. lie was heir to a handsome for- 
 tune, but turned his back upon it for a religious 
 life, and went as a missionary to India. In 
 1570 he was going out a second time, when the 
 ship was taken by pirates, who killed all the 
 missionaries, about forty in number. 
 
 AZIMEN, in astrology, certain degrees in the 
 zodiac, which, when they are ascendant, persons 
 born under them are said to be afflicted with 
 lameness, or some other imperfection. 
 
 AZIMUTH, in astronomy, an arch of tlie 
 horizon, intercepted between the meridian of the 
 place and the azimuth, or vertical circle passing 
 tlirough the centre of the object, which is equal 
 to the angle of the zenith, formed by the meridian 
 and vtTtical circle. It is found by this propor- 
 tion : As the radius to the tangent of the latitude 
 of the place, so is the tangent of the sun's or 
 star's altitude, for instance, to the cosine of the 
 azimuth from the south, at the time of the 
 equinox. 
 
 AziMUTU Circles are represented by the 
 rhumbs on common sea charts, and on the globe 
 they are represented by the quadrant of altitude, 
 when screwed in the zenith. On these azimuths 
 is reckoned the height of the stars and of the sun 
 when not in the meridian. 
 
 Azimuth Compass, an instrument for finding 
 either the magnetical azimuth or amplitude of 
 an heavenly object. The learned Dr. Knight 
 invented some time ago a very accurate and 
 useful sea-compass, which is at present used 
 in the navy, and will be found described under 
 the article Compass. Tliis instrument, with the 
 following contrivance added by the ingenious Mr. 
 Smeaton, answers the purposes of an azimuth and 
 amplitude compass. The cover of the wooden 
 box being taken off, the compass is in a condition 
 to be made use of in the binnacle, when the wea- 
 ther is moderate ; but if the sea runs high, as the 
 inner box is hung very free upon its centre, the 
 better to answer its other purposes, it will be ne- 
 cessary to slacken the milled nut, placed upon one 
 of the axes that support the ring, and to lighten 
 the nut on the outside that corresponds to it. By 
 this means, the inner box and ring will be lifted 
 up from the edges upon which they rest when 
 free, and the friction will be increased, and that 
 to any degree necessary to prevent the too great 
 vibrations which otherwise would be occasioned
 
 AZI 
 
 331 
 
 AZO 
 
 \)y the motion of the ship. To make the com- 
 pass useful in taking the magnetic azimuth or am- 
 plitude of the sun and stars, as also the bearings 
 i>f headlands, ships, and other objects at a dis- 
 tance, the brass edge, designed at first to support 
 the card, and throw the weight thereof as near 
 the circumference as possible, is itself divided into 
 degrees and halves, which maybe easily estimated 
 into smaller parts if necessary. The divisions are 
 determined by means of a catgut line, stretched 
 perpendicularly with the box, as near the brass 
 e Ige as maybe, that the parallax, arising from a 
 different position of the observer, may be as little 
 ds possible. Underneath the card are two small 
 weights, sliding on two wires, placed at right an- 
 gles to each other; which being moved nearer to, 
 or farther from, the centre, counterbalance the 
 dipping of the card in different latitudes, or re- 
 store the equilibrium of it where it happens by 
 any other means to be too much out of level. 
 There is also added an index at the top of the in- 
 ner box, which maybe put on and taken off at 
 pleasure ; and serve for all altitudes of tiie object. 
 It consists of a bar, equal in length to the diame- 
 ter of the inner box, each end being furnished 
 with a perpendicular stile, with a slit parallel to 
 the sides thereof: one of the slits is narrow, to 
 which the eye is ap]>lied ; and the other is wider, 
 with a small catgut stretched up the middle of it, 
 and from thence to the top of the other. There is 
 also a line drawn along the upper surface of the 
 bar. These four, viz. the narrow slit, the horizon- 
 tal catgut thread, the perpendicular one, and the 
 line on the bar, are in the same plane which dis- 
 poses itself perpendicular to the horizon, when 
 the inner box is at rest and hangs free. This in- 
 dex does not move round, but is always placed 
 on so as to answer the same side of the box. 
 When the sun's azimuth is desired, and his rays 
 are strong enough to cast a shadow, turn about 
 the wooden box till the shadow of the horizontal 
 thread, or, if the sun be too low, till that of the 
 perpendicular thread, in one stile, or the light 
 through the slit on the other, falls upon the line 
 in the index bar, or vibrates to an equal distance 
 on each side of it, gently touching the box if it 
 vibrates too far : observe, at the same time, the 
 degree marked upon the brass edge by the catgut 
 line. In counting the degree for the azimuth, or 
 any other angle that is reckoned from the meri- 
 dian, make use of the outward circle of figures 
 upon the brass edge; and the situation of the index 
 bar, with regard to the card and needle, will al- 
 ways direct upon what quarter of the compass the 
 object is placed. But if the sun does not shine 
 out sufficiently strong, place the eye behind the 
 narrow slit in one of the stiles, and turn the wooden 
 box about, till some part of the horizontal or per- 
 pendicular thread appears to intersect the centre 
 of the sun, or vibrate to an equal distance on each 
 side of it, using smoked glass next the eye if the 
 sun's light is too strong. In this method another 
 observer will be generally necessary, to note the 
 degree cut by the nonius, at the same time that 
 the first gives notice that the thread appears to 
 split the object. The other observations will be 
 easily performed : only, in case of the sun's am- 
 plitude, take care to number the degree by the 
 help of the inner circle of figures on the card, 
 
 which are the complement of the outer to 90* ; 
 and, consequently, show the distance from east 
 to west. The azimuth of the stars may also be 
 observed by night ; a proper light serving equally 
 for one observer to see the thread, and the other 
 the degree upon the card. It may not be amiss 
 to remark farther, that in case the inner box 
 should lose its equilibrium, and consequently the 
 index be out of the plane of a vertical circle, an 
 accurate observation may still be made, provided 
 the sun's shadow is distinct ; for, by observing 
 first with one end of the index towards the sun, 
 and then the other, a mean of tlie two obser- 
 vations will be the truth. 
 
 Azimuth Dial, a dial whose gnomon is per- 
 pendicular to the plane of the horizon. 
 
 Azimuth, Magnftic.\l, an arch of the ho- 
 rizon intercepted between the azimuth, or ver- 
 tical circle, passing through the centre of any 
 heavenly body, and the magn(,tical meridian. 
 This is found by observing the object with an azi- 
 muth compass. 
 
 AZINCUURTjOrAciNcouRT. SeeAciNcouRT. 
 
 AZLEEL, the name of an angel mentioned 
 in the book ascribed to Enoch. 
 
 AZ^lUT, or AsMus, an ancient and large 
 town of Natolia, eighty-four miles south-east of 
 Scutari. It is inhabited by Greek christians. 
 
 AZO, a town of Asia in the East Indies, seated 
 on the frontiers of Azem, on the river Eaqui.i. 
 
 Azo I. and II. earls of Este in Italy, in the 
 tenth century. They claimed their descent from 
 the Accii, a patrician family of ancient liome 
 Their posterity settling afterwards in Germany, 
 gave rise to the illustrious house of lirunswick; 
 from which diat of Hanover and the present royal 
 family of Great Britain are lineally descended. 
 
 AZOE, or Azov, a tow^n and fortress of Rus- 
 sia, in the government of Yekatorinoslaw, at the 
 mouth of the 13on ; lat. 46° 53' N., long. 39° 14' 
 E. When Dr. Clarke saw it in 1800, it did not 
 contain more than fifty houses ; the garrison con- 
 sisted of a few worn-out invalids, and the works 
 were abandoned to decay. It is surrounded by a 
 swamp ; and the interior of the country is a barren 
 desert. It was anciently a considerable port; 
 but the waters of the bay have been diminishing 
 for many years. Tanais is mentioned by Strabo, 
 as a settlement of the Bosporani, but Dr. Clarke 
 could find no trace of the ancient town near the 
 site of Azov, and supposes it must have been at 
 the embouchere of the Danaetz or northern arm 
 of the Don. Its ancient history is very obscure ; 
 but it passed from the Polovtzes to the Geno- 
 ese, who called it la Tana ; was wrested from 
 them by Tamerlane in 1392 ; and possessed, 
 after his decease, by the khans of the Krim till 
 1471, when it fell into tlie hands of the Turks. 
 Peter the Great took it by assault, and laid out 
 large sums upon improving its fortifications, but 
 was obliged to give it up at the peace of 1711. 
 The fortifications were demolished, in compliance 
 with the terms made at the peace of Belgrade in 
 1739; but it was finally ceded to Russia in 
 1774. 
 
 The sea of Azof, named from the above town, 
 was the Palus Maeotis of the ancients, and the 
 Mar de Zabacchi of the middle ages. It is 210 
 niilco long, and about fifty broad ; though juo-
 
 332 
 
 AZORES. 
 
 perly only a bay of the Black sea, with which 
 it is united by the straits of Caffa (Keft'eh). Its 
 principal port is Taganrok. Its fisli are small, 
 but plentiful ; so that 60,000 are often taken at 
 one drauglit. Tins sea seems to be gradually 
 filling up with the alluvial earth brought down 
 by the Don ; and the water is sometimes driven 
 back so far by the violent east winds, that the 
 channel between Azof and Taganrok, an interval 
 of more than thirteen miles, can be passed dry- 
 shod. A new island, at some distance from the 
 shore, was thrown up on the 5th of September, 
 1799, with phenomena evidently volcanic. Du- 
 ring violent east winds, the waters of this sea are 
 driven so far back, where it is from thirteen to 
 fourteen miles broad, as to allow a passage over 
 the land from Jagan rock to the opposite coast. 
 But when the wind changes, t'le water flows 
 back with such rapidity, that many of those who 
 have attempted to cross this temporary route, 
 are overwhelmed by the returning tide. 
 
 AZOGA Ships, are those Spanish ships com- 
 monly called the quicksilver ships, from their 
 carrying quicksilver to the Spanish West Indies, 
 to extract the silver out of the mines of Mexico 
 and Peru. These ships are prohibited to carry 
 any goods except for the king of Spain. 
 
 AZOGUES, a town of Quito, South America, 
 ten miles north-east of Cuenza. 
 AZOLO. See Acelum. 
 
 AZONI ; from a privative, and ^oi/?j, country ; 
 in mythology, a term anciently applied to such 
 of the gods as were not the private divinities of 
 any particular corntry, but were acknowledged 
 in every country, and worshipped by every nation. 
 They were superior to the gods called zonaei, 
 who were supposed to inhabit particular parts of 
 the world, and never to stir out of the district or 
 zone that was assigned them. Such in Egypt 
 were Serapis, Osiris, and Bacchus ; and in 
 Greece, the Sun, Mars, the Moon and Pluto. 
 They were called by the Romans dii communes. 
 
 AZOOPHAGUS ; from a, ^ojov, animal, and 
 ipayu}, to eat; in natural history, a term used by 
 authors to express such insects or animals as feed 
 on herbs, never eating the fiesh of any living 
 creature. 
 
 AZORES, or Western Islands, a group of 
 islands in the Atlantic Ocean, situated between 
 the thirty-seventh and fortieth degrees of latitude, 
 and about 800 miles from the western shore of 
 Portugal. The name is said to have been given 
 to them on their first discovery by the Portu- 
 guese, from Acor, a falcon, on account of the 
 numerous goshawks which they found there. 
 Tiiey have also sometimes been called Terceras, 
 from the principal island. The Azores still be- 
 long to the crown of Portugal, and are considered 
 as forming three separate clusters. St. Mary 
 and St. Micliael lie at the eastern extremity ; the 
 five islands of Tercera, Graciosa, St. George, 
 Pico, and Fayal, form a central group ; while 
 Corvo and I'lores are more detached, and lie 
 farther north-west. The geographers of Arabia, 
 in the middle ages, appear to have had some 
 knowledge of these islands ; but they were not 
 known to I'.uropeans till towards the middle of the 
 fifteenth century, when V'ander Berg, a Flemish 
 mercliiint, benig driven by^ contrary winds on 
 
 these shores, and mtelligence of the event reach- 
 ing the court of Lisbon, an expedition was fitted 
 out to take possession of them. The Flemings 
 look possession of Fayal, where traces of them 
 are still visible. When Portugal became subject 
 to the Spanish yoke in 1580, these islands fell 
 under Spanish control till the duke of Braganza 
 was raised to the throne in 1640. They were 
 now for a long period much neglected by the home 
 government ; but their situation being in')st 
 salubrious, and highly favorable to commerce, 
 they encreased and prospered spontaneously. 
 Towns and cities were founded, and the popula- 
 tion rose to between 200,000 and 300,000. 
 
 The first Portuguese minister whose wisdom 
 was directed to the fostering of these islands was 
 Pombal ; ' he taught the Azoreans that they might 
 become a people, and Portugal that she might 
 cease to be a despot. During his mission, the 
 islands were improved by his autho»:ity, adorned 
 by his munificence, and extolled by his praise.' 
 But the liberal administration of Pombal was 
 succeeded by a sullen and bigoted ministry, com- 
 posed of the most furious churchmen. A cabinet 
 so formed, soon destroyed the foundations of the 
 rising prosperity which had been laid during the 
 former administration. The islands were inun- 
 dated with bigoted ecclesiastics ; a circumstance 
 which was attended by the destruction of com- 
 merce, the extinction of arts and sciences, and 
 the consequent introduction of indigence and 
 barbarity. 'All the islands,' says a late his- 
 torian, who had resided in the country, ' are 
 under the religious dominion of a sordid and 
 luxurious priesthood, and subject to the civil 
 control of a licentious military power; to a 
 government which condemns the country to a 
 perpetual state of ignorance and sloth, and which 
 confines the whole of its intercourse with the 
 civilised world to the banks of the Tagus, or the 
 port of Lisbon. For the last hundred and fifty 
 years, the peaceable islanders have had to with- 
 draw their eyes from the rest of the world, from 
 every general public care, and fix them steadily 
 and perpetually on the court of Portugal.' Such 
 is, and such has long been the gloomy and 
 miserable state of political degradation in which 
 the Azores are sunk. The spirit of the people 
 has been palsied by the arbitrary measures of the 
 government; yet they are described by those 
 who have been resident among them, as an 
 honest race, who prefer peace to conquest, and 
 who seek distinction in industry rather than in 
 arms ; as ' an innocent people, who are as emi- 
 nent in the humble vale of domestic life, as the 
 hero in the stormy regions of blood and warfare.' 
 Their whole happiness, however, consists in their 
 domestic and personal comforts, for country they 
 have none. They have no common principle of 
 union ; no common bond of action ; they form a 
 community not insensible to the ties ofkindred, 
 but uncemented by national feeling ; a political 
 blank in themselves, and comparatively useless 
 to the parent state.' See History of the Azores, 
 London, 1813. 
 
 In 1391 these islands were, for twelve succes- 
 sive days, shaken by violent concussions, and 
 the Villa Franca entirely destroyed. A similar 
 occurrence took place in 1757. There can
 
 AZO 
 
 333 
 
 Azr 
 
 indeed be little doubt of their volcanic origin, 
 and deep subterranean connexion with verj' 
 active volcanoes. New islands have frequently 
 been raised from the bottom of the sea, by the 
 power of volcanic action. In 1720 one of 
 these phenomena took place, on approaching 
 which, the next day, an English captain observes, 
 * vve made an island of fire and smoke ; the 
 ashes fell on our deck like hail and snow, the 
 fire and smoke roared like thunder Or great 
 guns.' Another instance of this kind happened in 
 1811, near the western extremity of St. ^lichael, 
 when flames were seen issuing from the sea, 
 accompanied by volumes of smoke and showers 
 of scoria and ashes. The rocks remained just 
 below the surface, with the waves dashing vio- 
 lently over them, and soundings of 80 fathoms, 
 were found almost close to the new island. The 
 presence of subterraneous fire is also indicated 
 by its effect on numerous springs throughout the 
 islands. Some of these are so hot, that they 
 burn the hand. These have of late been con- 
 siderably resorted to as warm baths, which they 
 answer the more conveniently, as a cold spring 
 is always at hand. In other places, boiling 
 fountains rise to a considerable height, and dis- 
 solve in vapor. 
 
 The Azores are discovered from a great dis- 
 tance, by a hish mountain called the Pico, or 
 peak, bearing a strong resemblance to the peak of 
 Tenerifle, and rising abont 7000 feet aliove the 
 level of the ocean. Their whole appearance is 
 mountainous, but many delightful and fertile 
 valleys separate the rounded and conical hills, of 
 of which the greater part of their surface is com- 
 posed. The islands are subject to violent winds, 
 and the fury of the waves is sometimes injurious 
 to the low grounds near the sea. Wheat, bar- 
 ley, Indian corn, and valuable woods are pro- 
 duced ; but their chief produce is wine and 
 fruits, both of whicli are exported in large 
 quantities. The wine has some resemblance to 
 Madeira, but is inferior in quality. The oranges 
 are much esteemed. 
 
 The best vmes are raised on the lofty sides of 
 the Pico, from which wine is made, and exported 
 through Fayal, by which name it is known. It 
 is decidedly inferior to Madeira, but being 50 
 per cent, cheaper, obtains a considerable sale. 
 
 Pico exports a fine species of wood, little in- 
 ferior to mahogany. The trade was formerly 
 cramped, by being carried on through the medium 
 of Portugal ; but, since the emigration of the 
 court, the inhabitants have begun to traffic di- 
 rectly with England and America ; a circumstance 
 that has much invigorated this commerce. 
 
 Angra, the chief town of Terceras, •« the seat 
 of uovernment : but Penta del Cada, or the city 
 of St. Michael, is the largest town of the islands, 
 and tlie seat of the bishop and principal eccle- 
 siastical authorities. 
 
 Azores is also the name of a small group of 
 islands of the Atlantic, north of St. Domingo. 
 
 AZORIUM, in old law Latm, azure. 
 
 AZOTE; from a, privative, and ^aw, I live; 
 a name given by the French chemists to a species 
 of air which is destructive of animal life ; not 
 fitted for res[iiration, it is also incapable of sup- 
 porting combustion. It is said to form about 
 
 foxir-fifths of our atmosphere ; but being there 
 mixed with the remaining fifth of another air, 
 having properties the reverse of its own, it be- 
 comes suited to our existence. See Gas Ni- 
 trogen. 
 
 AZOTH, in ancient chemistry, the first matter 
 of metals, or the mercury of a metal ; more par- 
 ticularly that which alchemists call the mercury 
 of philosophers which they pretended to draw from 
 all sorts of metallic bodies. 
 
 AzoTH is also a name given to the philosopher's 
 stone. ^^ lien tlie Arabs began to study che- 
 mistry, their metaphorical and hieroglyphical 
 manner of writing seems to have given rise to a 
 ])ractice of calling the means made use of for 
 bringing metals to perfection, by the name of 
 medicines, and imperfect metals by the name of 
 sick men, and gold by that of a sound and lively 
 person. Hence it was supposed, that these were 
 to be understood literally, especially upon find- 
 ing the impurities of the baser metals called 
 by the name of leprosies; and hence rose the 
 opinion, that the imperfect metals might be 
 turned into gold, and the bodies of such men 
 into sound ones, by the same preparation ! 
 
 AzoTii, AzoTt s, or Asiidod, one of the five 
 cities of the Philistines, and a celebrated sea-port 
 on tiie Mediterranean, situated about fourteen or 
 fifteen miles south of Ekron, between that and 
 Ascalon. It was in this city that the idol Dagon 
 fell down before the ark ; and so strong a place 
 was it, if we may believe Herodotus, that it sus- 
 tained a siege of twenty-nine years by Psammiti- 
 cus king of Egj'pt. It was, however, taken by 
 the Maccabees in a much shorter time ; who 
 burnt both city and temple, and with them about 
 8000 men. The town is now called by the Arabs 
 Hasaneyun. It is but thinly inhabited, though 
 the situation is very pleasant. With regard to the 
 houses, those that were built in the time of Chris- 
 tianity, and whicli are now inhabited by Mahom- 
 medans, still preserve some claim to admiration ; 
 but the modern buildings, though generally of 
 stone, have nothing in them which can attract the 
 notice of a traveller. The streets are pretty broad, 
 the inhabitants mostly Mahommedans, wiiha few 
 christians of the Greek communion, who have a 
 church under the jurisdiction of the archbishop of 
 Gaza. The town is about a mile and a half in 
 circumference ; and has in it a mosque, a public 
 bath, a market-place, and two inns. The num- 
 ber of the inhabitants is between iOOOand 3000. 
 The most remarkable things in tl.is place are an 
 old structure with fine marble pillars, which the 
 inhabitants say was the house that Sampson 
 pulled down ; and to the south-east, just out of 
 the town, the water in which the Ethiopian eu- 
 nuch was baptized by the evangelist Philip. 
 There are several ancient buildings with capitals 
 and pillars standing. 
 
 AZPEYTIA, a "town of Spain, in the pro- 
 vince of Biscay, canton of Guipuscoa, on the^ 
 river Urola. To this place belongs the village ef 
 Loyola, once the property of the celebrated 
 father Ignatius Loyola, founder of the order of 
 Jesuits. 
 
 AZPLICUETA (Martin), surnamed Natarre, 
 was born at \'erasoa, near Pampeluna, in Spain, 
 in 1494. He was profes.sor of law in several uni-
 
 AZU 
 
 334 
 
 AZY 
 
 versities, and died at Rome in ir)8G. His works 
 were printed at Lyons, in G vols, folio, 1597. 
 
 AZRAII-B1:N-AIIEN, a town of the Arabian 
 Irak, situated on the river Tigris, fifteen miles 
 N.N.W. of Korna. 
 
 AZUA, a small town on the south side of the 
 island of St. Domingo, seated on a deep bay. 
 
 AZUBAil, the daughter of Shilhi and mother 
 of king Jehoshaphat. 
 
 AZUELA, a large river of South America, in 
 the kingdom of Quito, which enters the-Ama- 
 zons. 
 
 AZUL, a river of Mexico, in the country of 
 the Appaches, which enters the Gila. 
 
 AzuL, Rio, or the Blue River, a river of 
 North America, in California. 
 
 AZUM, a port of Abyssinia on the Red Sea. 
 AZ'URE, ^ Fr. azur ; Ital. azurro ; from the 
 Az'uRED, > Arabic liuzul, tlie name of a stone 
 Az'uuN. 3 brilliantly blue, but not transpa- 
 rent; sky-colored blue. 
 
 And on his shield enuclopcd seuenfold. 
 He bore a crowned little crmilin. 
 
 That deckt the azure field with her faire pouldred skin. 
 Spenser's Faerie Qiieene, book iii. c. 2. 
 By whose aid 
 (Weak masters though ye be) I have bedimm'd 
 The noon-tide sun, call'd forth the mutinous winds. 
 And 'twixt the green sea and the asured vault 
 Set roaring war. Sliakspeare. Tempest. 
 
 His spear 
 He walkt with, to support uncasie steps 
 Over the burning marie, not like those steps 
 On heaven's azure. Milton. Paradise Lost. 
 
 By the rushy fringed bank. 
 Where grows the willow, and the osier dank. 
 
 My sliding chariot stays, 
 Thick set with agate, and the asiirn sheen 
 Of turkis blue, and emerald green. 
 
 That in the channel strays. Id. Cormis, 
 
 As when the moon, refulgent lamp of night. 
 O'er heaven's clear azure spreads her sacred light ; 
 When not a breath disturbs the deep serene. 
 And not a cloud o'ercasts the solemn scene : 
 Around her throne the vivid planets r'oll. 
 And stars unnumbered gild the glowing pole. 
 
 Pope. Homer's Iliad. 
 How many bright 
 And splendid lamps shine in heaven's temple high. 
 Day hath his golden sun, her moon the night. 
 Her fix'd and wand'ring stars the azure sky. 
 
 Fairfax's Trans. Tasso's Jerus. Deliv. 
 
 Azure Stone. Azure, among painters, which 
 at present signifies a fine blue color resembling 
 that of the sky, was formerly appropriated to lapis 
 lazuli ; which is thus defined : Eustre glistening : 
 fine grained, uneven fracture. It scratches glass, 
 but scarcely strikes fire with steel. Opacjue, or 
 translucent on the very edges. Easily broken. 
 Specific gravity 2'83. In a very strong heat it 
 intumesces, and melts into a yellowish black 
 mass. After calcination it forms a jelly with 
 acids. By a late and most interesting research 
 of MM. Clement and Desormes, it appears to be 
 composed of thirty-four silica, thirty-three alu- 
 mina, three sulphur, and twenty-two soda. (Ann. 
 de Chimie, torn. .')7.) In this analysis, however, 
 a loss of eight per cent, was experienced. Tiiese 
 chemists consider the above ingredients essential, 
 and the 2'4 of lime, and r.'> of iron, which they 
 have occasionally met with, as accidental. The 
 
 best specimens are from China, Persia, and 
 Great liucharia. They are made red-hot in the 
 fire, and thrown into water to render them pul- 
 verisable. They are then reduced to a fine pow- 
 der, and intimately combined with a varnish, 
 formed of resin, wax, and boiled linseed oil. 
 This pasty mixture is put into a linen cloth, and 
 repeatedly kneaded with hot water : the first wa- 
 ter, which is usually dirty, is thrown away ; the 
 second gives a blue of the first quality ; and the 
 third yields one of less value. The process is 
 founded on the property which the coloring 
 matter of azure-stone has of adhering less firmly 
 to the resinous cement, than the foreign matter 
 with which it is associated. When azure-stone 
 has its color altered by a moderate heat, it is 
 reckoned bad. MM. Clement and Desormes 
 consider the extraction of ultramarine as a spe- 
 cies of saponification. 
 
 Azure, in heraldry, the blue color in the 
 arms of any person below the rank of a baron. 
 In the escutcheon of a nobleman, it is called sap- 
 phire ; and in that of a sovereign prince, Jupi- 
 ter. In engraving, this color is expressed by 
 lines or strokes drawn horizontally. M. Upton 
 and his followers rank this color before gtdes. 
 This color may signify justice, perseverance, and 
 vigilance ; but according to G. Leigh, when it 
 is compounded with 
 
 "^ ['Cheerfulness. 
 I s.' Vigilance. 
 Readiness. 
 Enterprise. 
 Goodness. 
 Mournfulness. 
 
 Or 
 
 Arg, 
 Gul. ' 
 Ver. f 
 Pur. I 
 Sab. J 
 
 AZUREA, in entomology, a species of phry- 
 ganea, with black wings, violet behind. Linn. 
 The lower wings are obliquely violet. It inha- 
 bits the north of Europe. Also, in zoology, a 
 species of lacerta that inhabits Africa. 
 
 AZU REUS, in entomology, a species of cara- 
 bus, of an azure color, with red legs and anten- 
 nae. It inhabits Leipsic. Fabricius. 2. A spe- 
 cies of cimex, of a middle size ; dull green color ; 
 and yellowish mouth and legs. Inhabiting Guinen. 
 The abdomen is yellowish, with black dots in tiie 
 middle. 
 
 AZURIN, in ornithology, a name assigned by 
 Buffon, Hist. Ois. to the species of turdus, since 
 called specifically cyanurus by Gmelin. 
 
 AZURITE, in mineralogy, a blue substance, 
 which occurs principally in Styria. Its crystal- 
 line form, as well as some other of its other cha- 
 racters, distinguish it from lazulite, or, as it is 
 more commonly termed, lapis lazuli, of which at 
 its first discovery, it was regarded as a variety. 
 
 AZYGOS, in anatomy, a vein rising within the 
 thorax, on the right side, having no fellow on 
 the left ; whence it is called a^vyog, or vena sine 
 pari. See Anatomy. 
 
 AZYMA, or Azymes; from a negative, and 
 ^vjiti, ferment ; the feast of unleavened bread 
 among the Jews. 
 
 AZ YME. Gr. a'CvfwQ, without ferment ; a, the 
 privative, and ?w/i»;, ferment. 
 
 They had (they said, i. e. the translators of King 
 James's Bible), on the one side, avoided the scrupu- 
 losity of the puritaues, who left the old ecclesiastical
 
 B 
 
 335 
 
 BAA 
 
 words and betook ihem to otlinr, as when they put 
 washing for baptism, and conc;re<;at'on for churcli ; 
 and on the other hand, had shunned the obscuritio 
 of the papists in their asmes, lunikc, rational, liolo- 
 causts, prepuce, pasche, and a number of such like, 
 whereof their late translation was full, and that of 
 pur|)()se to darken the sense, that since they must 
 needs translate the Bible, yet by the language thereof 
 it might be kept from being understood. 
 
 Preface to King James's Bible. 
 AzYME, or AzYMus, a terra much used in 
 the controversies between the Greek and Roman 
 churcii ; the latter of whom contend, that the 
 bread in the mass ough.t to be azymus, unleaven- 
 ed, in imitation of the paschal bread of the .lews, 
 and of our Saviour, who instituted the sacra- 
 ment on the day of the passover. In tlie council 
 of Florence it was decreed, that the point lay at 
 the discretion of the churcli ; and tliat either 
 leavened or unleavened bread might be used. 
 Tlie Lutheran church uses unleavened bread to 
 this day ; and a respectable modern commenta- 
 tor says : — ' If any respect should be paid to the 
 primitive institution, in the celebration of this 
 divine ordinance, then unleavened, unyeasted, 
 bread should be used. In every sign or type, 
 the thing signifying or pointing out that which 
 is beyond itself, should either have certain pro- 
 perties, or be accompanied with certain circum- 
 stances, as expressive as possible, of the thing 
 signified. Bread, simply considered in itself, 
 may be an emblem apt enough of tlie body of 
 our Lord Jesus, which was given for us; but the 
 design of God was evidently that it should not 
 only point out this, but also tiie disposition re- 
 quired in those who should celebrate both the 
 antetype and the type ; and this the apostle ex- 
 plains to be sincerity and truth (1 Cor. v. 6 — 8), 
 the reverse of malice and wickedness. The very 
 
 taste of the bread was instructive ; it pointed out 
 to every communicant, that he who came to the 
 table of God with malice or ill-will against any 
 soul of man, or with wickedness, a proiligate or 
 sinful life, might expect to eat and drink judg- 
 ment to himself, as not discerning that the Lord's 
 body was sacrificed for tliis very purpose, tliat 
 all sin might be destroyed, and that sincerity, 
 f tXt/cpiwta, such purity as the clearest light can 
 discern no stain in, might be diffused through 
 the whole soul ; and that truth, the law of 
 righteousness and true holiness, might regulate 
 and guide all the actions of life'. — Dr. Adam 
 Clarke on the Neiu Testament. 
 
 AZYMITKS, in church history, christians 
 who administer the eucharist with unleavened 
 bread. This appellation is given to the Latin 
 churcli by the Greek, because the members of 
 the former use fermented bread in the celebra- 
 tion of the eucharist. They also call the Armi- 
 nians and Maronites by the same name, and for 
 the same reason. 
 
 AZYMOUS, something unfermented, or made 
 without leaven, as unleavened bread. Sea bis- 
 cuit is of this kind ; and therefore, according to 
 Galen, less wholesome than bread that has been 
 fermented. 
 
 AZZALUM, in the ancient physiology, a spe- 
 cies of iron, reputed the most excellent of all, 
 supposed to have been brought from India, 
 whence it was called Indicum ; but, In reality, 
 according to some, brought from China, 
 
 AZZ(J (Fortius), an Italian lawyer, was a na- 
 tive of Bologna, where he was chosen professor 
 of jurisprudence in 1190. He wrotn a work 
 held in great estimation, entitled, A Summary of 
 the Code and the Institutes. He died about 
 1220. 
 
 B. 
 
 B, the second letter of the English and most 
 other alphabets. It is the first consonant, and 
 first mute, and its pronunciation is supposed to 
 resemble tlie bleating of a sheep. 
 
 B is also one of those letters which the eastern 
 grammarians call labial, because the principal 
 oru^ans employed in its pronunciation are the lips. 
 It is pronounced by pressing the whole length 
 of them together, and forcing them open with 
 a strong breath. It has a near affinity with the 
 other labials P and V, and is often used for P, 
 both by the Armenians and otiier Orientals, as 
 in Bi'trus for Petrus, apsens for ahsens, Sec. ; and 
 by the Romans for V, a.samabit for amavit, berna 
 for vcrna 
 
 As a numeral, B was used by the Creeks and 
 Hebrews to denote 2 ; but among the Romans 
 for 300, and with a dash over it (thus u ) for 
 3000. 
 
 B, is also an abbreviation. See A.BiJRt:- 
 
 VIATION. 
 
 In music B stands for the tone abovn A ; as 
 B'', or ''B, does for B flat, or the semitone major 
 above. A B also stands for bass ; and B C for 
 basso conthiuo, or thorougii bass. 
 
 BA, a small sea-port town of Africa ou the Slave 
 coast, where the Dutch have a factory. 
 
 Ba, a river of Scotland, in Argylesbire. 
 
 BAA-BA, V. n. ^ Lat. balo, to cry like a 
 
 Baa. s. S sheep. The bleating of a 
 
 sheep. 
 
 Therefore thou art a sheep ; 
 
 Such another proof would make me cry baa. 
 
 Shakspeare. 
 
 Baadsted, or Batsted, a sea-port town in the 
 province of Schonen, Sweden, situated in a bay 
 of the Cattegat, ten miles north of Enuelholm, 
 sixteen south of Helmstadt. Long. 12° 45' E., 
 lat. 56° 28' N. 
 
 BAAGOE, two small islands in the Baltic be- 
 longing to the crown of Denmark, the one lying 
 "between the islands of Zealand, IMoen, and Pa!-
 
 BAA 
 
 336 
 
 BAA 
 
 ^ter. Long. 12'' 3' E., kit. .54° oG' N. And the 
 other in the Little Belt, Ion. 9° 49' E., lat. 55^ 
 19'. N. 
 
 BAAL, ["jpn, Lord, Syr.] Bel, or Belus ; 
 an idol of the Chaldeans, and Phoenician'?, or 
 Canaanites. The former worshipped INIars un- 
 der this name, according to Josephus : who, 
 speakini? of Thurus, the successor of Ninus,says, 
 ' To this iNIars, the Assyrians erected the first 
 statue, and worshipped him as a god, calling him 
 Baal.' It is probable from what is recorded, 
 2 Kings xxiii, 5, 11, that the Phoenicians wor- 
 shipped the sun under the name of Baal. The 
 temples consecrated to this god are called in 
 scripture Chamanim, which signifies places en- 
 closed with walls, in which was kept a perpetual 
 fire. Maundrel, in his journey from Aleppo to 
 Jerusalem, observed some traces of these enclo- 
 sures in Syria. As the word baal, in the Punic 
 language, signifies lord or master, it doubtless 
 meant the supreme Deity, the Lord and Master 
 of the universe. It is often joined with the name 
 of some false god, as Baal-berith, Baal-peor, 
 .Baal-zephon, &c. This deity passed from the 
 Phoenicians to the Carthaginians, who were a 
 colony of Phoenicians ; as appears from the Car- 
 thaginian names, Hannibal, Asdrubal, &c. accord- 
 ing to the custom of the east, where kings and 
 great men added to their own names those of 
 their gods. This deity is also frequently men- 
 tioned in Scripture in the plural number, B;ia- 
 lim : which may signify, either that the name 
 Baal was given to several different gods ; or that 
 there were many statues bearing different appel- 
 lations, consecrated to this idol. Arnobius tells 
 us, that Baal was of an uncertain sex ; and that 
 tiis votaries, when they called upon him, invoked 
 hi.Tfi thus ; ' Hear us, whether thou art a god or a 
 goddess.' Some learned men think that the Baal 
 of the Phoenicians is" the Saturn of the Greeks ; 
 which is probable from the conformity there is 
 between the human sacrifices offered to Saturn, 
 and those which the scripture tells us were offer- 
 ed to Baal. Others are of opinion, that Baal 
 was the Phoenician, or Tyrian Hercules ; a god 
 of great antiquity in Phoenicia. 
 
 Baal. See Baalath-beer. 
 
 BAALAH. 1. A city transferred from the tribe 
 of Judah to the Simeonites. 2. The original 
 name af Kirjath-jearim, in Judah. 
 
 BAALATH, a city in the tribe of Dan. 
 
 BAALATH-BEER, or Baal, a city of the 
 Simeonites, on the south-west border. 
 
 BAAL-BECK, or the X'alley of Baal, a fer- 
 tile country of Asia, between Lebanon and 
 Antilil)aiuis, about thirty miles from Damascus ; 
 where there was formerly a magnificent temple 
 of the sun, the ruins of which are still visible. 
 Some geographers make it a part, and others the 
 whole of Crelo Syria ; but all agree that it was 
 one of the most pleasant spots on the earth. The 
 ruins of the temple are still admired. See Balbec. 
 
 BAAL'BEIUTH, the god of the Shechemites. 
 Bochart conjectures that Berith is the same as 
 Beroe, the daughter of Venus and Adonis, who 
 was given in marriage to Bacchus ; and that she 
 gave her name to the city of Berith, in Phoenicia, 
 and became afterwards the goddess of it. Baal- 
 berith signifies Lord of the covenant, and may be 
 
 taken for the god who presides over alliances 
 and oaths, in like manner as the Greeks had their 
 ZtvaopKiog, and the Romans their Deus Fidius, 
 or Jupiter Pistius. The idolatrous Israelites 
 made Baal-berith their god. Judges viii. 33. 
 
 BAAL-GAD, Bagad, or Begad, in ancient 
 mythology, an idol of the Syrians, whose name 
 was composed of baal, lord, and gad, chance or 
 fortune ; the god of chance or fortune. After 
 the god of thunder, the god of chance was one 
 of the first worshipped bv mankind. 
 
 BAAL-HAMON, a place where Solomon had 
 a vineyard, and where probably he sacrificed to 
 Baal, in his dotage, to please his idolatrous wives. 
 
 BAAL-HANAN, the son of Achbor, and the 
 seventh king of the Edomites. From his name 
 it appears probable that the worship of Baal had 
 at that early period taken place among the de- 
 scendants of Esau. 
 
 BAAL-HAZOR, a city near Ephraim, about 
 eight miles north-east of Jerusalem, between • 
 Bethel and Jericho. In this city Absalom held 
 his treacherous festival for murdering his brother 
 Amnon. 
 
 BAAL-HERMON, a part of Mount Hermon. 
 
 BAALIM, in antiquity, inferior deities among 
 the Phoenicians. See Baal. 
 
 BAALIS, a king of the Ammonites, who sent 
 Ishmael, the son of Nethaniah, to murder the 
 brave Gedaliah, the viceroy appointed by Nebu- 
 chadnezzar over the remnant of the Jews, whom 
 he had left in Jerusalem. (Jer. xi. 17.) For this 
 he was justly punished by Nebuchadnezzar, who 
 soon after invaded his country, and reduced it 
 to a desert. 
 
 BAAL-MEON, Beon, orBETiiBAAL-MEON, a 
 city of Canaan, which was taken from the Amor- 
 ites and given to the Reubenites. (Num. xxxii. 
 38.) It was afterwards taken by the Moabites, 
 and at last destroyed by the Chaldeans. It had 
 been rebuilt, however, for it was inhabited in the 
 time of the Maccabees. 
 
 BAAL-PEOR, Baal-phegor, or Bel-phe- 
 GOR, an idol of the Moabites and Midianites. 
 We are told, that Israel joined himself to Baal- 
 peor, and that Solomon erected an altar to this 
 idol upon the Mount of Olives. Baal-peor has 
 been supposed a Priapus, and that the worship 
 of him consisted in the most obscene practices. 
 Others have thought that as Baal is a general 
 name signifying Lord, Peor may be the name of 
 some great prince deified after his death. Mede 
 supposes, that Peor being the name of a moun- 
 tain in the country of JNloab, on which the tem- 
 ple of Baal was built, Baal-peor may be only 
 another name of that deity, taken from the situ- 
 ation of his temple; as Jupiter is styled Olym- 
 pus, from his temjile built on Mount Olympus, 
 Seiden, who is of this opinion, conjectures like- 
 wise, that Baal-peor is the same with Piuto; 
 which he grounds upon these words of the 
 Psalmist, Psal. cvi. •• They joined themselves 
 unto Baal-peor, and eat the offeringsof the dead;* 
 though by the offerings of the dead, in this pas- 
 sage, may be only meant sacrifices made to idols, 
 who are very properly called the dead, in contra- 
 distinction to tlie true, who is justly and em- 
 phatically styled the living, God. 
 
 BAAL-PERAZIM, a place in the valley of
 
 BAA 
 
 337 
 
 BAB 
 
 Rpphaim, about three miles south-west of Jeru- 
 salem, where David routed the Philistines. 
 
 BAAL'S-BAY, and Baal's Riveh, a bay and 
 river in West Greenland, situated between Bear's 
 Sound and Delft's Point, opposite Hudson's 
 Strait. 
 
 BAAL-SHALISHA, a place belonging to Sa- 
 maria, probably nearGilgal, the birth place of a 
 prophet, whose name is not recorded, who, in a 
 time of famine, miraculously fed 100 men with 
 twenty barley loaves. See 2 Kings iv. 42, 44. 
 
 BAA.L-TAMAR, a place near Gibeah, where 
 the tribe of Benjamin was almost extirpated by 
 the other eleven tribes. See Judg. xx. 33. 
 
 BAALTIS, a goddess among the Phoenicians. 
 Some suppose that she was the same with the 
 Diana of the Greeks. 
 
 BAAL-ZEBUB, Beel-zebuc, or BrxzEBtB, 
 [DO^'^i'D, i.e. the lord of flies,] the idol, or god 
 of the Ekronites In Scripture he is called the 
 Prince of Devils. His name, the God-fly, some 
 think was a mock appellation bestowed on him 
 by the Jews. But this seems not very probable, 
 as his worshipper, Ahaziah, called him by this ' 
 name. Perhaps Beelzebub was characterised like 
 the god Achor, who was worshipped at Cyreixe, 
 as the preserver from flies. He had a famous 
 temple and oracle at Ekron. Ahaziah, king of 
 Israel, being dangerously hurt, sent to this deity 
 to enquire if he should be cured. The Jews 
 accuse our Saviour of driving out devils in the 
 name of Betlzebub, their prince. Scaliger derives 
 the name of this deity from Baalim-zebahim, 
 which signifies the lord of sacrifices. 
 
 BAAL-ZEPHON is mentioned in Exodus 
 xiv. 2, as opposite to Pihahiroth, during the 
 peregrinations of the Israelites in tlie wilderness ; 
 but whether it was a fortified place, built to 
 guard the frontier of Egypt, at the north point of 
 the Red Sea, or an idol erected in that station, 
 commentators are not agreed. Perhaps both 
 parties may be right. An idol of Baal might be 
 set up in the fort, which would naturally take its 
 name from the deity. 
 
 BaAN (John d'), a Dutch portrait painter, 
 born iu 1633, and died in 1702. He resided 
 some time in England, under the patronage of 
 Charles II. His son James, who died in 1700, 
 at the age of twenty-seven, was little inferior to 
 his father in portrait painting, and superior to 
 him in some other branches. 
 
 BAANITES, the followers of one Baanes, 
 who adopted and disseminated the ]\lanichean 
 notions in the early part of the ninth century. 
 
 BAAR, mountains in the duchy of Wirtem- 
 burgh, which are a part of diat long range called 
 Abenow, or Abnoba. 
 
 BAARAS, Baiiaras, or Bacharas, an ex- 
 traordinary kind of root, said to grow in the 
 valley of Baaras, near Mount Lebanon, whence 
 the name. By the account which Josephus gives, 
 it seems to be a sort of vegetable phosphorus ; 
 for he represents it as of a flame color, emitting 
 rays of light in the night, and disappearing by day. 
 
 BAARD, in old records, a transport ship. 
 
 BAART (Peter;, a Dutch poet of the 
 eighteentli century, author of 'Georgics,' descri- 
 bing the rural pleasures and occuptaions of his 
 Vol. III. 
 
 countrymen, and of a poem entitled the 'Triton 
 of Friesland.' 
 
 BAASIIA H'^V^, Heb. i.e. pressing together, 
 the son of Ahijali, and the third king of Israel, 
 after its separation from Judah ; one of the many 
 monarchs who have waded through blood to a 
 throne. I Kings xv. and xvi. Ho died A. M. 
 3013, in the twenty-fourth year of his reign. 
 
 BAAT, in the language of the Siamese, answer- 
 ing ' to tical in that of the Chinese, denotes a 
 weight and coin current in those kingdoms, and 
 weighs about half an ounce. 
 
 BABA, a town, district, and river of South 
 America, in the province of Guayaquil, and 
 kingdom of Quito. The district is twenty-two 
 leagues in extent; it abounds in cacoa; and its 
 population amounts to 4000 souls. 
 
 Baba, an impostor, who appeared among the 
 Turks in 1240. He maintained that there is but 
 one God, and that he was his messenger. He 
 drew considerable attention, and with a number 
 of followers overran Natolia. His success, how- 
 ever, was short-lived, for he was defeated, and 
 his sect sunk into obscurity. 
 
 BABA-DAGI, or Baba-tagh, see Babatagh. 
 
 BABAHOYO, a town, district, and river of 
 South America, in the province of Guayaquil, 
 and kingdom of Quito, in lat. 1° 47' S. There 
 is a custom-house and royal arsenal in the town, 
 which is a great mart for trade. The district is 
 extremely level and fertile, and abounds in cat- 
 tle. Cotton, rice, soap, tobacco, cocoa, and 
 fruits are the principal exports. 
 
 BABANON, or Balbanox, a town of the 
 kinu'dom of Cambodia, on the river Cambodia. 
 Long. 105° 10' E. lat., 12° 17' N. 
 
 BABA-TAGH, a large town in the district of 
 Silistria, in European Turkey, situated between 
 two mountains. It has a college, five mosques, 
 and 10,000 inhaTsitants. Here have generally 
 been the head quarters of the Grand \'izier's 
 arrny in the wars between Turkey and Russia. 
 Bayazid I. peopled it with a Tartarian colony, 
 and its name (Saint's Hill) is derived from the 
 tomb of Sari Saltic Bey, a celebrated Tartarian 
 saint, buried on one of the neighbouring moun- 
 tains. This mountain-pass was the Derfe (the 
 neck) of the Greeks. Ptolemy places it in lat. 
 11°. 
 
 BAB-BAIIA, one of t'ue richest districts of 
 Abyssinia, according to Mr. Bruce, about twelve 
 miles from the river Baha, and near the lake 
 Tzana. This on the south, and Woggora on the 
 north, arc the two granaries that supply the rest 
 of the kingdom. It contains a number of small 
 villages ; in which the queen and many of her 
 relations have their houses and possessions. 
 These are all surrounded with kolquall trees, as 
 large in the trunk as those of the province of 
 Tigrc, but less beautiful. 
 
 BAB'BLE, V. & n. s.-\ Germ, babbeku ; Fr. 
 
 Bab'ler, w. s. {bebiller. Probably re- 
 
 Bab'blixg, a. & n. ^ceives its origin from 
 
 Bab'blement. n. s. J the tower of Babel, 
 when the confusion of tongues took place, and 
 marks a superfluous and improper use of speech. 
 To talk without reflection and without meaning, 
 noisy repetition ; to betray secrets ; to talk much
 
 BAB 
 
 338 
 
 BAB 
 
 with unintelligible rapidity. Babblinsj, amonijc 
 banters, is wlicn the hounds are too busy after 
 they .have found a good scent. It is used figura- 
 tively to indicate mere senseless sounds. 
 
 He told me meryly, yt logicke he reckoned but bab- 
 lirwe musicke to serue for singers. 
 
 Sir Thomas More's Works. 
 
 John had conned over a catalogue of hard words ; 
 
 these he used to 6a66/e indifferently in all companies. 
 
 Arbtttfmot, 
 The apostle had no sooner proposed it to the mas- 
 ters at Athens, but he himself was ridiculed as a 
 babbler. Rogers. 
 
 This is mere moral babble. Milton. 
 
 Deluded all this while with ragged notions and 
 babblements, while the expected worthy and delightful 
 knowledge. Id. 
 
 With volleys of eternal babble 
 And clamour more unanswerable. Hudibras. 
 To stand up and babble to a crowd in an alehouse 
 till silence is commanded by the stroke of a hammer, 
 is as low an ambition as can taint the human mind. 
 
 Hawkesworth. 
 Utterers of secrets be from thence debarred 
 Babblers of folly. Faerie Queene. 
 
 We hold our time too precious, to be spent 
 With such a babbler. Shakspeare. 
 
 The babbling echo mocks the hounds. Id. 
 
 The bubbling echo had descried his face. 
 
 Addisan. 
 There at the foot of yonder nodding beech. 
 That wreathes its old fantastic root so high. 
 His listless length at noontide would he stretch, 
 And pore upon the brook that babbles by. Grai/. 
 
 BA'BE, 71. s. -^ Welsh W/om; Dutch bab- 
 B^ 
 
 \Dti,n.i. '\ \\ eisW oa/mn ; Uutcn bab- 
 <l'by, n.s. f iaerf/; Ital. bambino; an in- 
 i'bish, ««/. ^fant; a child of either sex in 
 l'bery. n. s. J its earliest stage of being. 
 Childish, belonging to infancy, applied to dolls 
 and images and playthings, the playthings of 
 children, and the finery tliat pleases them. 
 Who all that piteous storie which befell 
 About the woefull couple which were slaine. 
 And theire young bloodie babe to him gan tell 
 With whom whiles he did in the wood remaine 
 His horse purloyned was by subtille traine. 
 
 Faerie Queene. 
 Those that do teach your babes 
 Do it with gentle means, and easy tasks. 
 
 Shakspeare. 
 Come, poor babe : 
 I have heard, (but not believed, ) the spirits of the 
 
 dead. 
 May walk again : if such thing be, thy mother 
 Appear'd to me last night ; for ne'er was dream 
 So like awaking. Id. 
 
 Command my best obedience to the queen. 
 If she dares trust me with her little babe, 
 I'll show't the king. Id. 
 
 The baby beats the nurse, and quite athwart 
 Goes all decorum. Id. 
 
 Sweet babes ! who like the little playful fawns. 
 Were wont to trip along these verdant lawns. 
 
 Lyttleton. 
 
 The archduke saw that Perkin would prove a run- 
 
 nagate ; and it was the part of children to fall out 
 
 about babies. Bacon. 
 
 If he be bashful and will soon blush - 
 They call him a babish and ill brought up thing. 
 
 Ascham. 
 So have I seen trim books 
 With golden leaves and painted babery. 
 Of silly boys, please unacquainted sight, Sidney. 
 
 BABEL, a city and tower undertaken to be 
 built by the whole human race soon after the 
 flood, and remarkable for tlie miraculous frus- 
 tration of the attempt by die confusion of 
 languages. See Babylon. 
 
 Babel, a town of Egypt, on the Delta, sup- 
 posed by D'Anville to be the ancient Byblos. 
 It is forty miles north of Cairo. 
 
 Babel (St.), a small town of France, m Au- 
 vergne, department of the I'uy de Dome, eight 
 miles north-east of Issoire, thirteen east of 
 Brioude. 
 
 BAB-EL-MANDEB, or Babelmandel, li- 
 terally the gate of affliction, a promontory and 
 strait at the southern extremity of tiie Ked Sea, 
 about seven leagues broad; the strait forming the 
 communication between that sea and the Indian 
 Ocean. There is a mountain or island in the 
 middle of the strait, sometimes called El Mandel, 
 as well as Perim or Mehun, which divides the 
 strait into two parts, of which the eastern, 
 though narrowest, is most frequented, as it has 
 deep water, and is free from shoals. ' It is at 
 most three geographical miles in width,' says 
 Bruce, ' and has twenty or thirty fathoms water.' 
 lord Valentia and Niebuhr make the breadth of 
 the strait between Perim and the Asiatic shore 
 the same as Bruce; between it and the coast 
 there are from fifteen to twenty English miles. 
 His lordship observes, that ' Perim should be 
 kept close on the larboard side, in order to avoid 
 a deep bay to the eastward of the cape, which 
 has been sometimes mistaken for the strait.' 
 The wider or western channel is much ob- 
 structed by rocks and small islands. The Ara- 
 bian cape is in lat. 12° 40' N., long. 43° 33' E. 
 Niebuhr's Reisebeschreibung, i. 448. Bruce's 
 Travels, i. 361. Lord Valentia's Travels, ii. 13. 
 Vincent's Periplus, i. 111. The island is said to 
 be about five miles in circumference, barren and 
 scarcely inhabited. 
 
 BABEN, an island in the Indian Sea, about 
 eighteen miles long, by six in breadth, sur- 
 rounded by some smaller ones. Long. 130° 131' 
 E., lat. 7°'41' S. 
 
 BABENIIAUSEN, a market town in the 
 circle of the lUer, Bavaria, with two castles, a 
 Latin school, and 1600 inhabitants. It is six- 
 teen miles S. E. of Ulm, twenty-six W. S. W. of 
 Augsburg. 
 
 BABGAU'NI, a town of Ilindostan, in Dow- 
 latabad, twenty-two miles north of Poonah. 
 
 BABI, a small island near die west coast of 
 Ceram, in the Eastern Seas. Long. 128° 3' E., 
 lat. 3° 5' S. 
 
 BABIC, or Barabeg, a town of Persia, si- 
 tuated in a fertile, uncultivated plain, towards the 
 north-west of the province of Kerman. It has 
 formerly been a fine city, but is now falling into 
 decay. Here are, however, four gates, from 
 each of which long streets lead to the market- 
 place in the centre, and the dome over the 
 market-place, which is esteemed die largest in 
 Persia, is in complete preservation. Babic be- 
 ing at an equal distance from the cities of Ker- 
 man, Shiraz, and Yezd, was in former times a 
 great mart of commerce, die greater part of the 
 merchandise which was sent to the port of (Jom- 
 broon, on the Persian gulf, passing through it.
 
 BAB 
 
 339 
 
 BAB 
 
 A lieutenant-governor resides here,' under the 
 control of the prince j:;overninsf Jverman. The 
 iivenucs to the town are planted with fruit-trees, 
 and the gardens are said still to surpass those of 
 both Sliiraz and Ispahan in. beauty and taste. 
 Fruit of every kind is in such profusion as to have 
 given occasion to the saying, that ' if all Persia, 
 except this district, were a desert, Shuhre Babic 
 would supply it with fruit.' 
 
 BABILIUS, an astrologer in the time of 
 Nero, who advised the emperor to put all the 
 leadmg men of Rome to death, that lie might 
 avert the danger whicVi seemed to hang over his 
 head, from the appearance of a hairy comet. 
 Nero strictly followed this advice. 
 
 BABILLO, a river of South America, in the 
 kingdom of Ciranada, which falls into the Ma- 
 dalena. 
 
 BABINGIILF.Y, a village in the county of 
 Norfolk, two miles north-east from Castle Rising, 
 is only remarkable as being the place in which 
 the first Christian cluuxh in East Anglia was 
 erected. Some hills in the vicinity are said to 
 be called Christian hills from this event. 
 
 BABINGTON (Gervase), bishop of Wor- 
 cester, was bom in Nottinghamshire ; and sent 
 to Trinity College, Cambridge, of which he was 
 made fellow; and in 1578 was incorporated 
 A. M. at Oxford. .lie, however, made Cam- 
 bridge the place of his residence, where he be- 
 came an eminent preacher ; and being now D. D. 
 was n)ade domestic chaplain to Henry, earl of 
 Pembroke. In 1588 he was installed prebend 
 of Hereford, and in 1591 bishop of Landaff. In 
 1594 he was translated to the see of Exeter, and 
 thence to Worcester in 1597. About this time 
 he was made queen's counsel for the marshes of 
 Wales. He was a considerable benefactor to the 
 library of the cathedral of Worcester, where he 
 was buried in May 1610. Historians agree that 
 he was a learned and pious man, but his wri- 
 tings, like those of most of his contemporaries, 
 abound with puns and quaint expressions. His 
 works were printed botli in folio and quarto in 
 IGlSand 1637. 
 
 Babincton (Anthony), one of the sufferers in 
 the cause of the unfortunate Mary, queen of 
 Scotland. He was born of a good family in 
 Derbyshire, and inherited a plentiful fortune. 
 Having distinguished himself by his learning 
 and talents, he was recommended by the arch- 
 bishop of Glasgow to the queen ; and being na- 
 turally of an ardent temper, he resolved to 
 devote himself to her service. Accordingly, he 
 not only entered into tiie sciieme of an enthu- 
 siastic priest named Ballard, for dethroning 
 Elizabeth, but when one Savage undertook to 
 assassinate the English queen, he agreed in tlie 
 design, and engaged five other gentlemen as ac- 
 complices. But, after their desii^n was ripe for 
 execution, Polly, one of the associates, disco- 
 vered the whole to Walsingham, secretary of 
 state ; and they w ere arrested, condemned, and 
 executed, in 1586. 
 
 BABQilJF (Francis Noel), an active man in 
 the French revolution. From a footman he had 
 risen to a lawyer's clerk, and afterward.i became 
 iUtorney. Wlien the revolution commenced, he 
 
 assumed tlie name of Gracchus, and engrged in 
 conducting an incendiary journal, entitled The 
 Tril)une of the People; but his concern in a 
 conspiracy being discovered, he was condemned 
 to be guillotined, and the execution was only 
 prevented by his killing himself in prison, in 
 1797. 
 
 BABOLISA, called also Babolitzna Ca- 
 RETHNA, a town of Hungary, or rather of Scla- 
 vonia, seated near the river Drave. 
 
 BABOLSCA, or Babo^za, a market town of 
 Hungary, in the county of Shumeg and circle of 
 Canischa. It was formerly fortified, and from 
 the middle of the sixteenth to the end of the se- 
 venteenth century, alternately in the possession 
 of the Turks and Imperialists. Ii is now inha- 
 bited by Croats, and is twenty -two miles S.S.E. 
 of Canischa. 
 
 BABOON, in zoology, the name of that tribe 
 of apes (simia, Linnseus) which have short tails, 
 comprehending tlie species apedia, sphinx, mor- 
 mon, maimon, and porcaria. They have very 
 muscular bodies. In the English language 
 baboon has the same application as babouin in 
 the French, of which many accounts have been 
 given by Buffon, Sonnini, and others, Virey 
 observes, that they are a ferocious and very las- 
 civious kind of ape, found in many parts of the 
 old world, and especially in Africa. Their mur.zle, 
 he remarks, is a little lengthened in the same 
 manner as that of a dog, and on that account 
 they have sometimes been called synges cyanoce- 
 phales, and also maggots. They live on fruits, 
 seeds, roots, leaves, insects, &c. In a state of 
 captivity they are altogether untameable, are 
 fond of wine and spirituous liquors ; and the fe- 
 males, it is asserted, have an antipathy to the 
 fair sex, as the males have against men. See 
 
 SiMIA. 
 
 BABOUIN A MusiiAU de Chien, of Sonnini 
 (edit. Buffon), in zoology, the simia hymadryas, 
 Linnaeus ; and dog-faced ape. Pennant. 
 
 BABOUR (Sultan), the founder of the Mogul 
 dynasty in Hindostan, was descended from the 
 great Timor, or Tamerlane, and was sovereign of 
 Cabul. While engaged in an expedition against 
 Samarcand, he was deprived of his hereditary 
 dominions, and reduced to the utmost extremity 
 by the Usbecks. But on recovering his fortunes, 
 he invaded Hindostan, and in 1525 overthrew 
 and killed sultan Ibrahim, the last Hindoo em- 
 peror of the Patau or Afghan race, and firmly 
 established himself on the throne. He died in 
 1530. Ferishta, a Persian historian of Hin- 
 dostan, informs us, that this prince wrote an 
 elegant history of his own life, and is noted as 
 the first Indian sovereign who had the roads 
 he travelled measured after him. 
 
 BABRAHAM, fonuerly Badburuam, a small 
 place in the county of Cambridge, four miles 
 north-west of Linton. The manor of this place 
 was formerly in the possession of Sir Horatio 
 Pallavicini, collector of the Prpe's dues in the 
 reign of queen Mary ; and who, on Elizabeth's 
 accession, detained the money he iiad gathered. 
 Lord Orford, in his Anecdotes of Painting, cites 
 the following epitaph on him, from Sir John 
 Crew : — 
 
 l %
 
 340 
 
 BABYLON. 
 
 Here lies H-oratio Palavazeno, 
 
 Wlio robbed the Pope to lend the quecne. 
 
 He- was a thiefe — a thiefe ; thou lycst : 
 
 For what? he robbed but Antichrist. 
 
 Hym Death with besom swept from Bab'ram 
 
 Into the boiom of old Abraliam; 
 
 But then canio Herrules with his club 
 
 And struck him down to Bolzebub. 
 
 Sir Horatio was one of the commanders against 
 the Spanish Armada, and his portrait is pre- 
 served in tlie tapestry of the House of Lords. 
 The register of this parish records the marriage 
 of his widow with Sir Oliver Cromwell, the 
 Protector's uncle. 
 
 BABREA, a mountainous district in the 
 province of Gujrat, situated on the peninsula 
 between the Gidfs of Cambay and Cutch. It 
 contains many strong holds and various small 
 rivers, which flow into the Gulf of Cambay. 
 Here is tlte famous fortress of Chitpour and the 
 temple of Diu. It is subject to the Mahrattas. 
 
 BABU, a small island in the Gulf of Siam, 
 near Cambodia. Long. 103° 48' E., lat. 9° 42' N. 
 
 BABL^AN, a small island, said to be about 
 twenty-five miles in circumference, which is the 
 most northerly of therhilippines. Long. 122° E., 
 lat. 19°43'N. 
 
 BABUYANES Isles, a number of islands off 
 the north coast of Luzon, the principal Philip- 
 pine, between the nineteenth and twentieth de- 
 grees of north latitude. The lartrest are named 
 Babuan, Calayay, Dalupiri, Camiguen, and 
 Fuga, and are from twenty to thirty miles each 
 in circumference. Besides these, there are 
 many small rocky islets. Although so far north, 
 the Babuyanes isles are much infested by the 
 piratical cruisers of iMagindarao. Their pro- 
 ductions are wax, ebony, bananas, cocoas, and 
 plantains. 
 
 BABU'J--ALWAB. See Derbend. 
 
 BA'BU'L-BAWA'DI (Gates of the Deserts), 
 or IMahrah, a province on the south coast of 
 Arabia, so named from its being the southern 
 entrance to tlie great central deserts. See 
 Mahrah. 
 
 BABYLON. 
 
 BABYLON, Ileb. Babel, in ancient geogra- 
 phy, the capital of Babylonia or Chaldea, sup- 
 posed to have been situated in N. lat. 33°, E. long. 
 42° 46' 30" ; or, according to the observations of 
 M. Beauchamp (Mem. Ac. Sc. Paris, 1787), 
 N. lat. 32" 34', and E. long. 44° 12' 30" upon 
 the river Euphrates, and considered for many 
 ages the wonder of the world. The few vestiges 
 that yet remain of its ancient ruins are placed by 
 toast geographical writers, at a town called Hilla 
 nr Elugo, about fifteen leagues south-west ot 
 Bagdad. It was on or near the site of this city, 
 that the descendants of Noah, according to the 
 Hebrew text, 101 years after the flood; or 531, 
 according to the Septuagint, began to build a 
 city and tower, the top of which should reach to 
 heaven ; an impious attempt, which ended in the 
 confusion of their language, and their dispersion 
 over the face of the whole earth. See Genesis, 
 xi. 1 — 9. That before this period all mankind 
 spoke one language cannot be thought incredible, 
 or even improbable ; for since the family of 
 Noah, the only one in the world, are known to 
 have dwelt together, we cannot suppose that any 
 material change could have been effected in their 
 language during a single century, or even the 
 period assigned by the Septuagint calculation. 
 Besides which, numerous histories and traditions 
 still current in Asia, though dashed with super- 
 stition and fable, allude to the same events : all 
 tending to confirm, in the most unequivocal 
 manner, tlie main strokes and outlines of the 
 Mosaic narrative. Josephus ascribes the build- 
 ing of the tower to Nimrod (See Bochart's Pha- 
 leg. i. 10.), whose name is also affixed to some 
 of the remains of Babylon. Abydenus (as cjuoted 
 by Eusebius, I'raspar. Evangel, ix. 14.), observes, 
 that the first men, contemning the power and 
 authority of the gods, and relying on their own 
 extraordinary strength, built a lofty tower, which 
 nearly reached the sky, in the place where Babel 
 then stood. But the winds coming to the assist- 
 
 ance of the gods, overturned the whole mass 
 upon the heads of its builders, and from its ruins 
 Babylon was afterwards built. The gods also at 
 the same time caused mankind, who had before 
 all spoken the same language, to speak hencefor- 
 ward in different tongues. Plato also, (I'olit. 
 p. 272. ed Steph.), relates a similar tradition, 
 wherein he says, that in the golden age, one 
 connnon language was spoken botli by men and 
 beasts, but that Jupiter confounded their tongues 
 as a punishment for their insolence in claiming 
 eternal youth and immutability. After the confu- 
 sion of languages, the people ' left off to build the 
 city', says Moses ; but they must afterwards have 
 ■resumed it, for in the next verse he adds, that 
 the name of it was called Babel, which signifies 
 confusion, alluding to tlie confusion in the lan- 
 guages of its builders. It is afterwards mentioned 
 as the chief city of the kingdom of Nimrod, the 
 spn of Cush, from whicli period no further ac- 
 count is given of it in the sacred writings, till the 
 captivity of Israel under Nebuchadnezzar, 730 
 years before the commencement of the Christian 
 era, when it was so heightened and improved as 
 to be called ' great Babylon,' ' the glory of king- 
 doms,' ' the beauty of the Chaldees' excellency,' 
 ■• tiie golden city,' ' tlie lady of kingdoms.' See 
 the prophets Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Daniel. The 
 Greeks have nevertheless, supplied this 1515 
 years interval of silence, and have given a com- 
 plete history of the Assyrian and Babylonian em- 
 pires, together witii a magnificent sketch of their 
 renowned metropolis in the zenith of its glory 
 under Semiramis, Nebuchadnezzar, and others. 
 The learned Bochart connects the sacred and 
 profane histories togetlier, by supposing the city 
 of Babylon, and the tower of Belus, mentioned 
 by the Greek historians, to be the same as those 
 related by Moses. 
 
 Babylon, according to the concurrent testimony 
 of the ancients, was seated on a plain (the plain 
 of Shinar in Scripture), and surrounded by
 
 BABYLON. 
 
 341 
 
 water. The places about Babylon, as Abydenus 
 informs us, from Megasthenes, (Euseb. Pracp. 
 Evang. 1. ix. c. 41. p. 41. p. 457.), are said from 
 the beginning to have been overwhelmed with 
 waters, and therefore called the sea ; according 
 to the language of Isaiah, xxi. 1. ' the burden of 
 the desert of the sea.' Jeremiah calls the city 
 itself a mountain, li. 25, on account of the great 
 height of its walls, towers, palaces, and temples, 
 which, according to Berosus, as quoted by Jose- 
 phus (ubi infra), resembled mountains. The 
 founding of this metropolis is attributed by some 
 historians to Semiramis, by others to Belus, who 
 is thought by many to have been the same with 
 Nimrod already alluded to, but was indebted for 
 its chief improvements to Nebuchadnezzar, his 
 son Evilmerodach, and his widow Nitocris. 
 Nebuchadnezzar repaired, enlarged, and embel- 
 lished it to such a degree, that he may be said to 
 have built it, according to his own vain-glorious 
 boast, Dan. iv. 30. Nor is this asserted only 
 in Scripture, but likewise by heathen autliors, 
 Megasthenes, Berosus, and Abydenus. (See 
 Josephus, Antiq. 1. x. c. 11. sect. i. t. i. p. 536. 
 ed. Haverc.) Eusebius, (Prap. Evangel. 1. ix. c. 
 41. p. 457. ed. \'geri.) The chief works of Ba- 
 oylon, mentioned by historians, were the prodi- 
 gious walls of the city, the temple of Belus, Ne- 
 buchadnezzar's palace, the hanging gardens, the 
 bank of the river, the artificial lake, and the canals. 
 This city was surrounded with walls, in thick- 
 ness eighty-seven feet, in height 350, and in 
 compass 480 furlongs, or sixty of our miles ; 
 according to Herodotus, who was himself at Ba- 
 bylon ; and most writers give us the same dimen- 
 sions. Diodorous Siculus, however, diminishes 
 the circumference of these walls verj' considera- 
 bly, and takes somewhat from the height of them ; 
 though he seems to add to their breaudi, by say- 
 ing, that six chariots might drive abreast thereon ; 
 while Herodotus writes, that one chariot only 
 \wshl tum upon them ; but then he places build- 
 ings on each side of the top of these walls, which, 
 according to him, were but one story high ; which 
 may pretty well reconcile them together. Those, 
 who give the height of these walls but at fifty 
 cubits, speak of tliem only as they were after the 
 time of Darius Hystaspis, who had caused them 
 to be beaten down to that level. The ground 
 plan of these walls formed an exact square, each 
 side of which was 120 furlongs, or fifteen miles, 
 in length ; and they were all built of large 
 bricks cemented together with bitumen, which in 
 a short time grows harder than the brick and 
 stone which it cements. Without the walls, the 
 city was ^ncompassed with a vast ditch, filled 
 with vvater, and lined with bricks on both sides ; 
 and, as the earth that was dug out of it served to 
 make the bricks, we may judse of the depth and 
 largeness of the ditch from the height and thick- 
 ness of the walls. In the whole compas< of the 
 wall there were 100 gates, that is, twenty-five on 
 each of the four sides, all of solid brass. Between 
 every two of these gates, at proper distances, were 
 three towers; four more at the four corners of 
 this great square, and three between each of these 
 corners and the next gate on either side ; and 
 fach of these towers was ten feet higher than the 
 walls, in those parts where towers were needful 
 
 for defence. For some parts n( the walls, being 
 upon a morass, and inaccessible by an tnerav, 
 they stood in no need of towers. Thus the whole 
 number of these towers amounted to more than 
 250. I"rom the twenty-five gates in each side of 
 this square, there was a straight street, extending 
 to the corresponding gate in the opposite wall ; 
 whence the whole number of the streets must 
 have been but fifty ; but they were each about 
 fifteen miles long, twenty-five of them crossing 
 the other twenty-five exactly at right anicles. 
 Besides tJiese whole streets, we must reckon four 
 half streets, which were but rows of houses facing 
 the four inner sides of the walls. These four 
 half streets were properly the four sides of the 
 city within the walls, and were each of them 
 200 feet broad, the whole streets being about 
 150 of the same. By this intersection of the 
 fifty streets, the city was divided into 67G squares, 
 each of four furlongs and an half on each 
 side, or two miles and a quarter in compass. 
 Round these squares on ever>' side towards the 
 streets stood the houses, all three or four stories 
 in height, beautified with all manner of orna- 
 ments : and the space within each of these 
 squares was void, or taken up by gardens, &c. 
 A branch of the Euphrates divided the city into 
 two, running through the midst of it, from north 
 to south, over which, in the middle of the citv, 
 was a bridge, a furlong in length, or, as some say, 
 no less than five furlongs, though but thirty feet 
 broad. At eacli end of this bridge were two 
 palaces ; the old palace on the east side, the 
 new one on the west side of the river; the 
 former of which took up four of the squares, 
 and the latter nine. The temple of Belus, which 
 stood next to the old palace, took up another of 
 the squares. That part or half of the city on 
 the east side of the river was the old town, and 
 the other on the west was added by Nebuchad- 
 nezzar ; both being included within the vast 
 square bounded by the walls. It is supposed, 
 that Nebuchadnezzar, who had destroyed the old 
 seat of the Assyrian empire, Nineveh, proposed 
 that this new one should rather exceed it ; and 
 that it was in order to fill it with inhabitants 
 that he transported such numbers of the captives 
 from other countries hither. But notwithstanding 
 his great conquests it was never wholly inha- 
 bited ; for, Cyrus removing the seat of the 
 empire soon after to Shushan, Babylon fell by 
 degrees to decay. So far was it from being 
 finished according to its original design, that, 
 when Alexander came to Babylon, Q. Curtius 
 tells us, ' no more than ninety furlongs of it 
 were then built ;' which can only be understood 
 of so much in length ; and, if we allow the 
 breadth to be as much, no more than 8100 square 
 furlongs were then built upon ; but the whole 
 space within the walls contained 14,400 square 
 furlongs ; and therefore there must have been 
 6300 square furlonss remaining unbuilt, which, 
 Curtius tells us, were ploughed and sown. Be- 
 sides this, the houses were not contiguous, but 
 built with a void space on each side. 
 
 The next great work of Nebuchadnezzar was 
 the temple of Belus. Tlie wonderful tower, 
 however, that stood in tlie middle of it, was not 
 his work, but was built many ages before, being
 
 342 
 
 BABYLON. 
 
 tb.e famous tower of Babel, as is commonly sup- 
 posed. This is said to iiave been composed of 
 eight pyramidal ones raised above one another, 
 and is stated by Herodotus to have been a fur- 
 long in height ; but as there is an ambiguity in 
 his expression, it has been disputed whether 
 each of the towers, was a furlong in length, or 
 the whole of them taken together. Even on the 
 latter supposition, it must have exceeded the 
 highest of the Egyptian pyramids by 179 feet, 
 tliough it fell short of its breadth at the basis by 
 thirty-three. The way to go up was by stairs on 
 the outside round it ; whence it seems most likely 
 that the whole ascent was, by the benching in, 
 drawn by a sloping line from the bottom to the top 
 eight times roimd it ; and that this made the ap- 
 pearance of eight towers, one above the other. 
 In these different compartments or stories were 
 magnificent rooms, with arched roofs, supported 
 by pillars, forming parts of the temple when the 
 tower was consecrated, those of the uppermost 
 story being thought most sacred. Over the 
 entire top was an observatory. Diod. Sic. 1. ii. ; 
 and Calisthenes, the philosopher who accom- 
 panied Alexander in the conquest of Babylon, 
 found astronomical observations which carried up 
 the account as high as the 115th year after the 
 flood, or B.C. 2334, and fifteen years from the 
 building of the tower of Babel. Till the times 
 of Nebuchadnezzar, it is thought that this tower 
 constituted the whole of the temple of Belus; 
 but he made great additions, by vast edifices 
 round it, in a square of two furlongs on every 
 side, and a mile in circumference; thus exceeding 
 the square of the temple of Jerusalem by 1800 
 feet. On the outside of these buildings was a 
 wall, which enclosed the whole ; and, from the 
 regularity witli which the city was marked out, 
 it is supposed, that this wall was equal to die 
 square wherein it stood, and so is concluded to 
 have been two miles and an half in circum- 
 ference. In this wall were several gates leading 
 into the temple, all of solid brass. In the temple 
 were several images of massy gold, one of them 
 forty feet in height. The whole weight of its 
 statues and decorations, according to DiodorusSi- 
 culus, amounted to above 5000 talents in gold, 
 above twenty-one millions of our money : an 
 equal sum in treasure, utensils, and ornaments, 
 not mentioned, is allowed for. 
 
 Next to this temple, on the east side of the 
 river, stood the old palace of the kings of Baby- 
 lon, which was four miles in circumference, and 
 exactly opposite to it, on the other side of the 
 river, was the new one built by Nebuchadnezzar, 
 eight miles in circumference. The tower or 
 temple stood till the time of Xerxes. But that 
 prince, on 4iis return from the Grecian expe- 
 dition, having first plundered it of its immense 
 wealth, demolished the whole, and laid it in 
 ruins. Alexander, on his return to Babylon 
 from his Indian expedition, proposed to rebuild 
 it, and make it the seat of his em])ire, and 
 even employed 10,000 men to clear away the 
 rubbish. But his death happening soon after, a 
 stop was put to all further proceedings in that 
 design. 
 
 Nothing was more wonderful at Babylon than 
 the hanging gardens, which Nebuchadnezzar 
 
 made in compliment to his wife Amyitis ; who 
 being a Mede, and retaining a strong inclination 
 for the mountains and forests of her own country, 
 was desirous of having something like them at 
 Babylon. They are said to have contained a 
 square of four plethra, or 400 feet, on each side ; 
 and to have consisted of terraces one above 
 another, carried up to the height of the wall of 
 the city, the ascent from terrace to terrace being 
 by steps ten feet wide. The whole pile con- 
 sisted of substantial arches upon arclies, and was 
 strengthened by a wall surrounding it on every 
 side, twenty-two feet thick. The floors on each 
 of tiiem were laid in this order : first, on the 
 tops of the arches was a pavement of stones 
 sixteen feet long, and four feet broad ; over this 
 a layer of reeds, mixed with a great quantity of 
 bitumen; over this were two courses of brick, 
 closely cemented together with plaster ; and 
 over all tliese thick sheets of lead, and on these 
 the earth or mould of the garden. Upon 
 the uppermost of these terraces was a reservoir, 
 supplied with water from the river. The other 
 works attributed to Nebuchadnezzar by Bcrosus 
 and Abydenus, were the banks of the river, the 
 artificial canals, and the great artificial lake said 
 to have been sunk by Semiramis. The canals 
 were cut out on the east side of the Euphrates, 
 to convey its waters, when i^ overflowed its 
 banks, into the Tigris, before they reached Baby- 
 lon. The lake was on the west side of Babylon; 
 and, according to the lowest computation, forty 
 miles square, 160 in compass, and in depth tliirty- 
 five feet, as Herodotus, or seventy-five, as Megas- 
 thenes will have it ; the former, perhaps, mea- 
 sured from the surface of the sides, and the latter 
 from the tops of the banks that were cast up 
 upon them. This lake was dug to receive the 
 waters of the river, while the banks were building 
 on each side of it. But both the lake, and the 
 canal which led to it, were preserved after that 
 work was completed, being found of great use, 
 not only to prevent all overflowings, but to keep 
 water all the year, as a common reservoir, to be 
 let out, on proper occasions, by sluices, for the 
 improvement of the land. The banks were built 
 of brick and bitumen, on both sides of the river, 
 to keep it within its channel ; and extended on 
 each side throughout the whole length of the city, 
 and even farther, according to some writers. 
 Within the city tliey were built from the bottom 
 of the river, and of the same thickness with the 
 walls of the city itself. Opposite to each street, 
 on either side of the river, was a brazen gate in 
 the wall, with stairs leading down from it to the 
 river: these gates were open by day, and shut 
 by night. Berosus, Megasthenes, and Abydenus, 
 attribute all these works to Nebuchadnezzar ; 
 but Herodotus tells us, the bridge, the banks, 
 and the lake, were the work of t!ie queen Nito- 
 cris already alluded to, who may have finished 
 what Nebuchadnezzar left imperfect. Such is 
 the description ancient historians give of this 
 city ; which, if the accounts are not exaggerated, 
 must have exceeded every specimen of human 
 grandeur that has yet appeared. Many of the 
 moderns, however, are of opinion that these des- 
 criptions are exaggerated ; although it is certain 
 that few otlier arguments can be brought against
 
 BABYLON. 
 
 343 
 
 the reality of them, than t!lat■^^e do not now see 
 similar designs executed. 
 
 The taking of Babylon by Cyrus, as prophe- 
 cied in the scriptures, forms one of tlie most 
 striking and important events in the variable 
 ( p^ge of ancient history. War liad commenced 
 
 between the Medes and Persians, and Babylo- 
 nians, in the reign of Neriglissar, and had been 
 carried on with very bad success on the side of 
 the last named people. Cyrus, who commanded 
 tlie Median and Persian army, having subdued 
 the several nations inhabiting the great continent 
 from the ^Tigean sea to the Euphrates, bent his 
 march towards Babylon. Nabonadius, hearing 
 of it, immediately advanced against him. In the 
 engagement wliich ensued, the Babylonians were 
 defeated ; and the king, retreating to his metro- 
 polis, was blocked up and closely besieged by 
 Cyrus. But the reduction of the city was no com- 
 mon enterprise. Its walls and towers were well 
 manned, and the place stored with all provisions 
 for twenty years. Cyrus, despairing of being 
 able to take it by storm, caused a line of circum- 
 vallation to be drawn quite round it, with a large 
 and deep ditch; reckoning, that if all communi- 
 cation with the country were cut oft', the besieged 
 would be obliged to surrender through famine. 
 That his troops might not be too much fatigued, 
 he divided his army into twelve bodies, appoint- 
 ing each body its month to guard the trenches; 
 but the besieged, looking upon themselves to be 
 out of danger, insulted him from the ramparts, 
 and despised all his efforts. Cyrus having spent 
 two whole years before Babylon, without making 
 any progress in the siege, at last thought of tlie 
 following stratagem, which put him in possession 
 of it. He was informed that a great annual 
 solemnity was to be held at Babylon; and that 
 the inhabitants on that occasion were accustomed 
 to spend the whole night in revelry. On this 
 nigiit he accordingly sent a strong detachment to 
 the head of the canal leading to the great lake, 
 ■with orders at a certain time, to break down the 
 bank whicli was between the lake and tlie canal, 
 and to turn the whole current into the lake. At 
 the same time he appointed one body of troops 
 at the place where the river entered the city, and 
 another where it came out; ordering them 
 to march in by the bed of the river as soon as 
 they should find it fordable. Towards the even- 
 ing he open-ed the head of the trenches on both 
 sides of the river above the city, that the water 
 might discharge itself into them ; by which means, 
 and the breaking down of the great dam, the river 
 was soon drained. Then the two bodies of troops 
 entered the channel; the one commanded by 
 Gobryas and the other by Gadates: and finding 
 the gates left open, they penetrated into the 
 heart of the city without opposition. Those who 
 were in the palace opening the gates to know 
 the cause of this confusion, the Persians rushed 
 in, took the palace, and killed the king as became 
 out to meet them. Cyrus took possession of 
 Babylon, in the name of his uncle Cyaxares II. 
 called in scripture Darius the Mede : A. M. 3468. 
 The manner in which this city was taken is 
 remarkable, from its coincidence with the pro- 
 phecy of that event in Isa. xlv. 1,2. ' The 
 two-leaved gates' were literally oi)ened before 
 
 him, and the gates were 'not to be shut,' &c. On 
 these prophecies, see bishop Newton, bishop 
 Lowth on Isaiah, &c. 
 
 With Babylon fell the empire of Babylonia, 
 aecording to the striking language written on the 
 wall of the palace the same night in which the 
 city was taken, and interpreted by the prophet 
 Daniel ; ' Mene, God hath numbered thy king- 
 dom and finished it.' See Dan. ch. v. 
 
 The history of the ruins of this great city is all 
 which we have now to present to the reader. An 
 insurrection, under Darius Ilystaspes, B.C. 
 500, provoked that prince to overthrow the walls 
 and gates which had been left by Cyrus. We 
 also learn from a fragment of Diodorus Siculus, 
 produced by Valesius, and from him quoted by 
 Vitringa, Comment, in Jesaiam, ch. xiii. vol. 1, 
 p. 421, that one of the kings of Paithia sent 
 many of the Babylonians, under the most trivial 
 pretences, into slavery; burnt the forum, together 
 with some of the temples; and demolished the 
 best parts of the city, B. C. 130 years. Diodo- 
 rus Siculus, 1. ii. asserts, that in his time, B.C. 
 44, only a small part of it was inhabited, and 
 that the greater part of the space within the 
 ancient walls was tilled. Strabo, who wrote 
 fourteen years after him, in his 1. xvi. p. 1073, 
 applies to Babylon what a comic poet, said of 
 jMegalpolis in Arcadia : ' The great city is now 
 become a great desert,' Pliny, H. N. 1. 6. ch. 
 XXX., published A. D. 66, affirms that it was 
 reduced to solitude by the neighbourhood of 
 Seleucia. Pausanias, A. D. 153, says, Arcad. 
 ch. xxxiii. p. 668. ed. Kuhuii, 'that of Babylon, 
 the greatest city the sun ever saw, nothing re- 
 mained but the walls.' Maximus Tyrius, Diss. 
 6., and Lucian, Exiov, sine Contemplantes, 
 mention it as a neglected place; the latter inti- 
 mating that in a little time it would be sought 
 for and not be found, like Nineveh. Eusebius 
 has preserved an oration of Constantine the great, 
 in which that emperor states, that he himself was 
 upon the spot, and beheld the desolate and 
 miserable condition of the city. St. Jerome in- 
 forms us, tliat about the close of the fourth cen- 
 tury, it was converted in'o a chase to keep wild 
 beasts in, for the diversion of the Persian kings, 
 that all was in the utmost state of desolation, 
 except the brick walls, which were occasionally 
 repaired to prevent the animals from escaping; 
 a circumstance which literally fulfilled the pro- 
 phecy of Isaiah xiii. 21. Ilieron, Comment, on 
 Isa. ch. xiii. ch. xiv. vol. 3. p. 111. 115. ed. 
 Benedict. Benjamin of Teudela, who lived in 
 the twelfth century, affirms, Itin. p. 66, that some 
 ruins were still to be seen of Nebuchadnezzar's 
 palace, into which travellers were afraid to enter 
 on account of the serpents and scorpions that 
 inhabited the interior. Texeira, a Portuguese, is 
 cited by Bochart, and Prideaux, as giving a simi- 
 lar account of tiiis place; various other travellers 
 have further confirmed them. Tavernicr says, 
 that at the division of the Tigris, a short dis- 
 tance from Bagdad, is tiie foundation of a city 
 wliich, from its appearance, may have been a 
 league in compass; of which some of the wallj 
 yet standing occupy sufficient breadth to allow six 
 coaches to pass upon them abreast, and are com- 
 posed of burnt bricks ten feet square and tluee
 
 844 
 
 BABYLONIA. 
 
 feet thick. This place is represented by the 
 chronicles of the country as tlie seat of ancient 
 Babylon, llanway says, Trav. vol. 4. pt. 3. ch. 
 XX. p. 78, that tiie ruins of Babylon lie fifteen 
 leagues south of Bagdad, and are now so much 
 effiiced by time, that scarcely any vestiges of 
 them remain to point out the original situation 
 of the city. Niebuhr, who lived in the eighteenth 
 century, gave a description which has thrown a 
 light upon the question respecting the original 
 site of Babylon. But the most complete and 
 satisfactory account is given by ]\Ir. Rich, who 
 resided for some time at the court of the Pasha 
 of Bagdad, on the part of the East India Com- 
 pany, and possessed greater advantages for such 
 an inquiry than any of his predecessors. He 
 expected, he says, to have found on the site of 
 Babylon both more and less than he actually met 
 with; more, because he supposed he should have 
 been able to have identified some of the ancient 
 buildings, which was quite impossible ; ' less 
 because he could form no conception of the pro- 
 digious extent of the whole mass of ruins, their 
 size, solidity, and the perfect state of some of 
 their parts.' 
 
 The traces of the city begin to show themselves 
 near Mohaeril, a khan or inn, nine mi'es from 
 Hillah, and nearly thirteen leagues south of Bag- 
 dad ; the whole country round exhibiting here 
 and there, detached masses of bricks and bitu- 
 men. Three mounds attract particular attention 
 by reason of their extraordinary magnitude. 
 Hillah, in lat. 32° 28' N., stands east of the 
 Eupnrates, and on that side also, with the excep- 
 tion of two small elevations, and one very con- 
 siderable ruin, are all the remains of any anti- 
 quity. Two miles above Hillah commences a 
 mound or enclosure of circular appearance, 
 thought to have been the ancient boundary wall. 
 It 'ncludes an area of two miles and a half one 
 way, and one mile and one third the other. On 
 the east side two straight dykes or walls of earth 
 run from north to south, parallel with the 
 Euphrates, and forming, together with the river 
 and the ends of the enclosure above-mentioned, 
 an oblong area, containing three principal mounds 
 of rubbish, which rise more than 100 feet above 
 the level of the river. The largest mass of these 
 ruins, called by the Arabs Makallebah, pro- 
 nounced by the natives Majellibeh, in English 
 subverted, is what llennell and Petro della \ alle 
 thought to be the tower ^f Belus. The figure 
 
 is oblong, and the sides which face the cardinal 
 points measure as follows : the northern side 200 
 yards, the southern 219, the western 136, and the 
 eastern 192; the highest elevation is 141 feet. 
 On the south-east angle appeared something like 
 a turret, and in the rubbish were found whole 
 bricks, having on them inscriptions in Cuneatic 
 CHARACTERS, for whicli see. 
 
 The next important ruin is called by the Arabs 
 El Kair, the castle, a mile to the south of the for- 
 mer; consisting of walls and piers, eight feet in 
 thickness, facing, like the former, the cardinal 
 points. It is adorne-d with buttresses, pilasters, 
 and niches of fine burnt brick, laid in lime mor- 
 tar of extraordinary tenacity. Beneath this 
 building are subterranean caverns and passages, 
 which are still unexplored. In the neighbour- 
 hood is an atheleh, tamarix articuluta, considered 
 by the natives to have been coeval with the city. 
 Mr. Rich also found another curious ruin, west 
 of the river, and about six miles south-west of 
 Hillah, which he coincides with Niebuhr Reisse, 
 ii. 289, in considering as the celebrated tower of 
 Belus ; especially as the Arabs call it Birs Nem- 
 riid, the tower of Nimrod. (The word birs, 
 which embarrassed ]\Ir. Rich, being nothing else 
 than the Persian word borz, as Gesenius has 
 justlj expressed it.) Tiiis celebrated remain, 
 which the Jews denominate the prison of Nebu- 
 chadnezzar, forms a mound of fine burnt bricks, 
 with inscriptions on them ; it is of oblong figure, 
 762 yards in circumference, and on the east side 
 about sixty feet in height ; but rises on the west 
 in a conical form to the height of 198 feet, the 
 base occupying a breadth of 28. 
 
 No works of art yet discovered in these ruins 
 have been thought beautiful ; but bricks and 
 gems, with inscriptions and sculptures similar to 
 those brought from Persepolis, evince the early 
 connexion between the Babylonian and Persian 
 empires. The inscriptions on the lower side of 
 the bricks were buried in a substratum of mortar, 
 and not designed to be seen or read; whence it 
 has been inferred, that tliey are charms or ma- 
 gical formulae to protect the building from the 
 attack of demons and evil spirits. For a further 
 illustration of this subject we refer the reader to 
 Gesenius, in Ersch's Encyclo.; Rich's Memoir 
 on the Ruins of Babylon, 1818; JNIaurice's Ob- 
 servations on ditto, 1816; and tlie numerous 
 other works already quoted. 
 
 BABYLONIA. 
 
 BABYLONIA, or Ciialdea, a renowned 
 kingdom of Asia, said to have been the most 
 ancient in the world, lying between thirty and 
 thirty-five degrees of north latitude, and bounded, 
 according to Ptolemy, on the north by Mesopo- 
 tamia, on the east by the Tigris, on the west by 
 Arabia Deserta, and on the south by the Persian 
 Gulf and part of Arabia Felix. Babylonia was 
 founded by Nimrod, the grandson of Ham, who 
 is also said to have built Nineveh, the ancient 
 capital of Assyria. \ arious have been the con- 
 jectures of the learned respecting these two king- 
 
 doms ; some supposing them to have been the 
 same, others imagining that Babylonia was an 
 early province of Assyria, although it is plain 
 from the best authorities, tiiat they remained 
 perfectly distinct till the time of Ninus ; who 
 having conquered the former, reduced it to a 
 tributary depeiidance upon the latter; in which 
 state it continued till the efl'eminale reign of 
 Sardanapalus ; as did also iSIedia, Persia, Egypt, 
 and other kingdoms. At length Arbaces, gover- 
 nor of Media, taking advantage of that monarch's 
 indolence, threw ofl'his allegiance by the advice
 
 BABYLONIA. 
 
 34; 
 
 of Belesis, a Chaldean priest ; the Babylonians 
 followed the example, and with the assistance of 
 the I'ersians, and other allies to v<hom the 
 tyranny of their Assyrian lords was equally 
 odious, attacked the empire on all sides, and 
 after a determined and obstinate perseverance, 
 overt].:ew the Assyrian army, besieged Sardana- 
 Dalus in his capital, and made themselves mas- 
 ters of the empire, A. A. C. 821. 
 
 Tiie whole territory was then divided into 
 three kingdoms, viz. the Assyrian, ^ledian, and 
 Babylonian. Arbaces retaining the supreme 
 authority, fixed his imperial residence at Ecba- 
 tana, in Media ; nominated Belesis to the go- 
 vernment of Babylon, and Phul to that of As- 
 syria ; at the same time conferring upon them 
 the title of kings. Phul, who reigned durino- the 
 time of INIenahem, king of Judah, re-established 
 and greatly enlarged the Assyrian empire ; and 
 at his death bequeathed the kingdoms of Assyria 
 and Babylonia to his tsvo sons, the former to 
 Tiglath-Pileser, the latter to Nabonasser, in the 
 year B. C. 747. 
 
 From this period to the year 62.5, B. C. when 
 Nabopolassev began his reign, nothing remark- 
 able occurs in the history of Babylon, except 
 that Assaradinus, or Esarhaddon, brother and 
 successor of Senacherib, king of Assyria, took 
 ])Ossession of that kingdom, B. C. 680; and 
 that upon his death, B. C. 668, the kingdoms 
 were again separated. The Scripture mentions 
 only five Assyrian kings, viz. Pul, Tiglath-Pile- 
 ser, Shalmaneser, Sennacherib, and Esarhaddon. 
 In the twentieth year of Nabopolasser, B. C. 
 606, in the leign of Chynalidan, the Sardanapa- 
 lus of the Greeks, Nineveh was taken and de- 
 stroyed, by the united armies of the Medes and 
 Baljyionians, under Cyaxares and Nabopolasser, 
 when the seat of the empire was transferred to 
 Babylon. This Nabopolasser, called also Nebu- 
 chadnezzar, was the father of the celebrated 
 Nebuchadnezzar, whose history is so famous in 
 the sacred \Vritings, and who commenced his 
 reign 604 years B. C. two years after the con- 
 quest of Nineveh. Tliis prince raised the em- 
 pire of Babylon to its highest pitch of glory, and 
 spread his dominions over a wide extent of ter- 
 ritory, stretching from Media on the north-east, 
 beyond Egypt on the south-west, and compre- 
 hending the several kingdoms of Assyria, Persia, 
 Syria, Phanicia, Canaan, North Arabia, Idumea, 
 and Egypt. After Nebuchadnezzar, little is 
 known of Babylon, except the names of his suc- 
 cessors, Evil-Merodach and his queen Nitocris, 
 his son-in-law Neriglissar, Laborosoarchod, the 
 son of the latter, and Nabonadius, the son of 
 Evil-^Ierodach by Nitocris, Eabynitus of Hero- 
 dotus, and Belshazzar of Scripture, in whose 
 reign the city of Babylon was broken up, and 
 tiie empire extinguished by Cyrus the Persian, 
 .538 years B. C. See Anc. Un. Hist. vol. iii. 
 p. .'>67 — 437. RoUin's Anc. Hist. vol. ii. p. 1 — 
 153. 
 
 In the early ages of the world. Babylonia was 
 known by the names of Shivar, or Shivaar, which 
 appellation it seems to have retained in the time 
 of Daniel. In the days of Abraham, a king of 
 Shivar is mentioned called Amraphel, who under 
 Chedarlaomer, king of Elam, or I'ersia, made 
 
 war upon the Canaanites. The name of Baby- 
 lon is supposed to have been derived from the 
 tower of Babel, and that of Chaldaea from Chal- 
 daeans or Chasdim. .Joseph ^Vnt. 1. i. c. 7. 
 These names were not synonymous : Babylonia, 
 properly intending the country name immediately 
 in the neighbourhood of Babylon, and Chaldaea, 
 the territory lying south of the former, and reach- 
 ing downward as far as the Persian gulf. Both 
 nevertheless are commonly employed as general 
 names of the whole empire, and in that sense 
 are taken indifferently for each other, Chaldaea 
 being the name used in Scripture, and Babylonia 
 the most common in profane authors. Diodor. 
 Sic. I. ii. c. 11, 12. Strain), 1. xvi. sub. ivit. 
 
 Tlie chief cities of Babylonia were Babylon, 
 Vologsia or \'ologesocerta, built by Vologesis, 
 king of the Parthians, on the Euphrates, about the 
 time of \'espasian ; Barsita, thought to be the 
 Borsippa of Strabo, sacred to Diana and Apollo, 
 and called Borisippeni, from its being the habi- 
 tation of a certain sect of the Chaldsans ; Idic- 
 cara, on the Euphrates and the borders of Arabia 
 Deserta; Coche, in die island of ilesene, formed 
 by the Tisris, Saura, and Pombeditha, of which 
 the situation is very uncertain. 
 
 The air of this country was for the most part 
 salubrious and temperate, though occasionally 
 subject to hot pestilential winds. The rains 
 according to Herodotus, were seldom, the defi- 
 ciency of which the inhabitants supplied, by 
 inventing wheels and engines for watering the 
 land, and also by cutting numerous canals by 
 which the waters of the Euphrates and Tigris 
 were carried in different directions, and diffused 
 over the whole surface of the empire. The 
 southern parts of Babylonia between the rivers, 
 have been compared to the Delta of E<iypt, in 
 consequence of their natural and artificial islands, 
 and from their laying under the same parallel of 
 latitude. The region of Chalda:a between the 
 mountains of Babylon and the Euphrates, is also 
 well watered by lakes, rivers, and canals, which 
 greatly refresh every part of the surface, and its 
 produce, according: to Herodotus, 1. i. c. 193, is 
 by this means rendered equal to a third part of A.sia. 
 
 In short, it was one of the finest countries for 
 corn in the world ; and so luxuriant, that it 
 commonly yielded a hundred times more than 
 what was sown ; and, in good years, it yielded 
 tiiree hundred times more than it received. The 
 leaves of its wheat and barley were four inches 
 broad. ' Though I know,' says Herodotus, ' that 
 the millet and the sesame of that country grow 
 to the size of trees, I will not describe them par- 
 ticularly, lest those who have not been at Baby- 
 lonia should think my account fabulous.' They 
 had no oil but what they made from Indian corn. 
 For producing fig-trees, vines, and olives, it was 
 not famous, but the country abounded with palm- 
 trees, which grew spontaneously ; and most of 
 them bore fruit, of which the inhabitants made 
 bread, wine, and honey. Some of them, as of 
 other trees, the Greeks called luale ones. They 
 tied tlie fruit of the male to the trees which bore 
 dates ; that the mosquito, leaving the male, 
 might cause die date to ripen, by penetrating it ; 
 for without tliat assistance it came not to maturity. 
 Musquitoes breed iu the male palms as in the wild
 
 346 
 
 BABYLONIA. 
 
 tig-trees. The great fertility of the soil was owing, 
 in a great measure, to the inundations of the 
 Euphrates and Tigris, in the months of June, 
 July, and August, caused by the melting of the 
 snow upon the mountains of Armenia. From 
 the circumstance of its being low, flat, rmd well 
 watered, this country abounded with willows, 
 and was hence called the 'Valley of Willows,' as 
 Prideaux (Con. pt. i. b. i. p. 105,) after Bochart 
 corrects the text. Is. x. 5, 7. Israel, Ps. cxxxvii. 
 1, 2, sat down in their captivity by the rivers of 
 Babylon, and hung their harps upon the wil- 
 lows. 
 
 To facilitate the purposes of commerce the 
 Babylonians navigated the Euphrates, by means 
 of small boats, nearly round, constructed like 
 wicker baskets, which were covered with hides, 
 and guided by two oars, or paddles. These 
 boats had neither head nor stern ; but, being of 
 different sizes, were very useful for carrying their 
 goods to Babylon; whence they returned by 
 land, the strength of the current not allowing 
 them to return by water. 
 
 The inhabitants of this country were divided, 
 not only into two great tribes, Babylonians and 
 Chaldeans, properly so called, but into nume- 
 rous inferior sects and divisions, three of which 
 are said to have fed upon nothing but fish, dried 
 in the sun, formed into paste, and aftersvards 
 baked in rolls as a substitute for bread. 
 
 Physicians are said to have been unknown in 
 Babylonia, to supply the want of which they car- 
 ried their sick into the public forum, to consult 
 those who passed by on the nature and cure of 
 their diseases. Every one who saw a sick per- 
 son was obliged to go to him to inquire into his 
 distemper, and tell him if he ever had the same 
 himself, or if he knew any one that had, and how 
 he was cured ; together with such other inquiries 
 as the sick person might be induced to propose. 
 They embalmed their dead with honey ; and in 
 their mourning imitated the ILgyptians. 
 
 The laws of marriage among the Babylonians 
 were peculiar, and were celebrated by the an- 
 cient writers for their wisdom and utility. On 
 what ground the reader will determine. When 
 the girls were marriageable, they were ordered 
 to meet in a certain place, where the young men 
 likewise assembled. They were then sold by the 
 public crier ; but he first sold the most beautiful 
 one ; and then put up others to sale, according 
 to their degrees of beauty. The rich Babylonians 
 were emulous to carry off the finest women, who 
 were sold to the highest bidders. But as the 
 young men who were poor could not aspire to 
 have fine women, they were content to take the 
 more honiely, with the money which was given 
 with them, from the produce of the sale of the 
 finest women ! A father could not give his 
 daughter in marriage as he pleased ; nor was he 
 who bought her allowed to take her home, with- 
 out giving security that he would marry her. 
 But, after the sale, if the parties were not agree- 
 able to each other, the law enjoined that the 
 money should be restored. The inhabitauts of 
 any of their towns were permitted to marry wives 
 at these auctions. Such were the early customs of 
 the 'Babylonians. But they afterwards made a 
 law, which prohibited the inhabitants of different 
 
 towns to intermarry, and by which husbands were 
 punished for treating their wives ill. 
 
 Tlie Babylonians were not without consider- 
 able taste for the arts. Of their music and poetry 
 we have certain records. They also excelled in 
 architecture and sculpture ; also in the arts of 
 designing and casting metals. Their manufac- 
 tories of rich embroideries, sumptuous vestments, 
 magnificent carpets, and fine linen, were famous ; 
 and their purple constituted a considerable article 
 of eastern commerce. They were naturally a 
 commercial nation, for which their metropolis 
 afforded peculiar advantages ; seated, as it was, 
 in the midst of the world, and having, by means 
 of its two chief rivers, an easy access to the 
 northern and western parts ; and, by means of 
 the Persian Gulf, to tlie western. 
 
 At first, it is said, the Babylonians worshipped 
 only the sun and moon ; but they soon multi- 
 plied their divinities. They deified Baal, Bel, or 
 Belus, one of their kings, and Merodach-Bala- 
 dan. They also worshipped Venus under the 
 name of Myletta. She and Belus were the prin- 
 cipal deities of the Babylonians. The practice 
 of sacrificing human victims is said to have been 
 first introduced into the world by the Babyloni- 
 ans in the worship of these deities. They counted 
 their day from sun-rise to sun-rise. They 
 solemnised five days in the year with great mag- 
 nificence, and almost the same ceremonies with 
 which the Romans celebrated their Saturnalia; 
 and the Babylonians, generally speaking, were 
 very much addicted to judicial astrology. Their 
 priests, who openly professed that art, were 
 obliged to commit to writing all the events of 
 the lives of their illustrious men ; and on a 
 fancied connexion between those events and the 
 motions of the heavenly bodies, the principles 
 of their art were founded. They pretended that 
 some of their books, in which their historical 
 transactions and revolutions were accurately com- 
 pared with the courses of the stars, were 
 thousands of years old. • And although we may 
 dispute this assertion of their astrologers, it is, 
 nevertheless, true that they had made a long 
 system of observations; and that some of these 
 were extant in the days of Aristotle, which were 
 older than the Babylonish empire. See Astro- 
 nomy, Index. 
 
 The government of Babylon was despotic, and 
 the succession hereditary. Their potentates as- 
 sumed divine titles, and received divine honors, 
 which shows the spirit and force of the Scripture 
 comparison between Babylon and papal Rome. 
 The ofiicers by whom the affairs of government 
 were administered, were both civil and military, 
 and were divided into three classes. The first 
 had the charge of virgins, and of their disposal 
 in marriage. They were also to judge in cases 
 of adultery, and all matters connected with the 
 rights and institutes of matrimony. The second 
 took cognizance of thefts ; and the third of all 
 other crimes. The chief officers of the king's 
 household were the captains of the guard, who 
 executed the commands of the sovereign. The 
 prince of the eunuchs, who had the care of the 
 youth of the palace ; the prime minister, resem- 
 bling the Turkish vizier, who sat in the king's 
 gate to liear complaints and pass judgment;
 
 BAG 
 
 and a master of tlie magicians, whoso province it 
 ■was to satisfy the king on all subjects that re- 
 iaied to futurity. 
 
 Of tlie criminal laws of Babylon little is 
 known, except that their punishments were cruel 
 and capricious — as beheading, cutting- to pieces, 
 turning the house of the criminal into a dung- 
 \M, burning, &cc. Such is the account com- 
 
 347 
 
 BAG 
 
 monly given by historians of this renowned and 
 ancient monarchy, one of the four great empires 
 of the earth, so frequently employed in the hand 
 of Providence as a scourge to execute the divine 
 threatenings upon surrounding nations. This, 
 however, is but a general view, and for a more 
 detailed description, we refer the reader to the 
 authorities already quoted. 
 
 Babylon is a term employed in the Scriptures, 
 particularly in the first epistle of St. Peter, and 
 the book of Revelation, to designate a great ene- 
 my to the Christian faith ; and is generally ap- 
 plied, by Protestants, to the Roman Catholic 
 church; which, from her pride, oppressive and 
 persecuting spirit, but chiefly from her idolatry, 
 bears great resemblance to Babylon. Whoever 
 reads the sixth chapter of Baruch, and com- 
 pares it with the history of the papal apostacy, 
 will see the justice and force of the application. 
 See also Whitb^/'s Paraphrase, vol. ii. p. G61, 
 and 753. 
 
 Babyloxia Cura, in astrology, the art of 
 casting nativities. 
 
 BABYLONIAN, Babyloxius, is used, in 
 ancient writers, for an astrologer, or any thing 
 relating to astrolo£cv. 
 
 BABYLONICA. See Babyloxics. 
 
 Babyloxica Texta, a rich sort of weavings, 
 or hangings, denominated from the city of Baby- 
 lon, where their practice of interweaving divers 
 colors in the hangings first obtained. Hence 
 also Babylonic garments, Babylonic skins. Baby- 
 ionic carpets, housings, &c. 
 
 RABYLONICS, Babyloxica, in literary 
 history, a fragment of the ancient history of the 
 world, ending at 267 years before Christ; and 
 attributed to Berosus, a priest of Babylon, about 
 the time of Alexander. The Babylonics are 
 sometimes cited in ancient writers by the title of 
 Chaldaics. They are generally consonant with 
 Scripturf.', whence the author is usually supposed 
 to have consulted the Jewish writers. Berosus 
 speaks of an universal deluge, an ark, &c. lie 
 reckons ten generations between the first man 
 and the deluge ; and marks the duration of the 
 several generations by saroi, or periods of 223 
 lunar months ; which, reduced to years, differ 
 not much from the chronology of Moses. Only 
 a few imperfect extracts are now remaining of 
 the work; preserved chiefly by .Tosephus and 
 Syncellus. Annius of \'iterbo, to supply the 
 loss, forged a complete Berosus ! 
 
 BABYLOiS'II NuMEKi, Babylonican num- 
 bers, or the computation of astrologers. 
 
 BABYROUSSA, in zoology, a synonyme of a 
 species of sus. It is the horned hog of Grew ; 
 porcus indicus babyroussa dictus of Ray ; and 
 baby-roussa of Buflbn. In tlie arrangement of 
 the I'rench naturalists, it belongs to the genus 
 cochons and order pachydermes. See Srs. 
 
 BAC, or Ba< K, in brewing or distilling, a 
 large flat tub, or vessel, wherein the wort is put 
 to stand and cool. There is a branch of trade 
 called back-making, for furnishing these vessels. 
 
 Bac, in navigation, is used for a praam, or 
 ferry-boat. See Back. 
 
 BACA, an ancient valley in Palestine. Some 
 
 commentators suppose it to be the same with the 
 valley of Rephaim, where the Jews, in journey- 
 ing to their solemn festivals, stopped for refresli- 
 ment, as it abounded with springs, and was well 
 shaded with mulberry trees, which the name 
 Baca signifies. See Psalm Ixxxiv. 6, 
 
 Baca, or Baza, a town of Spain, in Granada, 
 situated in a valley called Hoya de Baza. It is 
 encompassed with old walls, has a ruined castle, 
 and a church, dedicated to the Virgin ]Mary. 
 The land about it is well cultivated, and is fer- 
 tile in wheat, wine, honey, hemp, and flax, being 
 watered by the (juadalana. It is thirty-five miles 
 north-west of Almeira. 
 
 BACACUM, a town of the Nervii in Gallia 
 Belgica ; now Bavay, in Ilainault. 
 
 BACAOI, or Bazaim, a sea-port town of 
 the Deccan of Ilindostan, on the Malal)ar 
 coast. 
 
 BACALAL, a lake of Mexico, in the pro- 
 vince of Yucatan, forty miles long, and sixteen 
 broad. It is thirty-six miles south-west of \ al- 
 ladolid. 
 
 BACANO, a lake of Italy, in the pope's terri- 
 tories, from which issues the river \'arca. 
 
 BACANORA, a town of North America, in 
 New Mexico, seated on the Iliagra. 
 
 BACANTIBI, in ecclesiastical history, wan- 
 dering clerks, who strolled from church to church. 
 The word seems formed by corruption from va- 
 cantivi. 
 
 BACASERAY, a considerable town in the 
 peninsula of Crim Tartary. It was taken from 
 the Turks by the Russians, in 1736. It is seventy 
 miles south of Precop. 
 
 BACBAKIRI, in ornithology, the name by 
 which le Merle a plastron noir de Ceylan of 
 Buffon, is known at the Cape of Good Hope, 
 leecause its note very clearly expresses the syl- 
 lables bac-ba-ki-ri. It is the green-pye from 
 Ceylon of Edwards ; Ceylon thrush of Latham ; 
 and turdus Zeylonusof Linnseus. 
 
 BACCA Beury, in botany, is used to signify 
 such fruits as consist of pericarpium full of juice 
 and seeds, without any valves. 
 
 BACC.E Bermudiexses, in the materia me- 
 dica, the berries of the sapjndus, or soap-berry 
 tree. 
 
 BACCALARIA, in middle age writers, a 
 kind of country farms, consisting of several 
 manses. 
 
 BaCCALARIA DOMIXICARIA, Baccalaria In- 
 DOMixicATA, were more particularly used for a 
 farm belonging to the lord, and kept in his own 
 hands. 
 
 BACCALAUREATE, Baccalavreatls, a 
 bachelor's degree ; the first degree in arts and 
 sciences in an university. See next article. 
 
 BACCALAUREUS; Latin, from bacca lau-
 
 BAG 
 
 348 
 
 BAG 
 
 rea, a bay berry ; a bachelor in an university, so 
 called because anciently their heads, at gradua- 
 tion, were adorned with a garland of bay berries. 
 BACCARACH, a town of Germany, in the 
 lower Palatinate ; formerly imperial and free, but 
 now subject to Prussia. It is famous for excel- 
 lent wine; and is situated on the east shore of 
 the Rhine, thirly-eight miles south of Coblentz, 
 and forty-eight north of Deux Fonts. This place 
 is mentioned by historians in the twelfth cen- 
 tury, and the customs formerly collected on the 
 Rhine here were so productive, that it received the 
 name of the golden toll. A spring, of an oily 
 consistence, rising in the middle of the river near 
 it, affects both the smell and color of the water 
 to a considerable distance. The island of lieil- 
 esen, just below it, contains a monument, to be 
 seen at low water, adorned with sculptures and 
 inscriptions. It appears to have been an ancient 
 altar of Bacchus ; is still termed Bacchi ara, and 
 is said to give the town its name. There are 
 large slate quarries in the neighbourhood, and 
 the town contains manufactures of powder and 
 starch. Population about 1200. The town suf- 
 fered much in the thirty years war. The count 
 palatine formerly resided in the castle of Sta- 
 lecke, near this town. 
 
 BACCA.ru M, in entomology, a species of 
 acarus, found on gooseberries, currants, and other 
 fmit-trees. Also a species of cimex, of a fulvous 
 color. Inhabits Eurooe. 
 
 BACCASERY. See Bacaser.4Y. 
 BA'CCATED, adj. Lat. baccatus, beset with 
 pearls ; having many berries. 
 
 Johnson from Did. 
 BACCATUS, in botany, berried, or soft, like 
 a berry ; an epithet for a capsule, a drupe, a si- 
 lique, and an aril, as Baccata capsula, a capsule 
 with a fleshy coat. Baccata drupa, a drupe with 
 a succulent coat, &c. 
 
 BACCILTi, in antiquity, 1 . the priestesses of 
 BacchuS; who celebrated the mysteries of that 
 god; 2. the ivy crowns or garlands worn by the 
 priests of Bacchus, in offering sacrifices to him. 
 BACCHANAL, n. s. ( EromLat. fcnc- 
 
 Bac'chaxaliax. ad. & n.s. S chanalia. The 
 feasts and revels of Bacchus, the god of wine ; a 
 worshipper of Bacchus, or, in modern usage, a 
 drunkard or riotous person. 
 
 Ha, my brave emperor! shall vre dance now the 
 Egyptian bacchanals, and celebrate our drink ? 
 
 Shakspeare. 
 What wild fury was there, in the heathen bac- 
 chanals, which we have not seen equalled ? 
 
 Decay of Piety. 
 Both extremes were banish'd fi'om their walls ; 
 Carthusian fasts, and fulsome bacchanals. Pope. 
 
 And now Childe Harolde was sore sick at heart, 
 And from his fellow bacchanals would flee. Byron. 
 BACCHANALIA, Bacchanals, reliuious 
 feasts in honor of Bacchus, were celebrated with 
 much solemnity among the ancients, particu- 
 larly the Athenians, who even computed dieir 
 years by them, till the commencement of the 
 Olympiads. Tliey are sometimes also called 
 orgia, from the Greek opyj;, fury; on account 
 of the madness and enthusiasm wherewith the 
 people appeared to be possessed at the time of 
 their celebration. They were held in autumn, 
 and took their rise from Egj-pt ; whence, accord- 
 
 ing to Diodorus, they were brought into Greece 
 by Melampus. The form of the solemnity de- 
 pended at Athens, on the archon, and was, at 
 first, exceedingly simple ; but, by degrees, it 
 became encumbered with a number of ridiculous 
 ceremonies, and attended with much dissolute- 
 ness and debauchery ; insomuch, that the Romans 
 grew ashamed of them, and suppressed them by 
 a decree of the senate throughout all Italy The 
 women had a great share in these solemnities, 
 which were said to have been instituted on their 
 account ; for a great number of them, according 
 to the tradition, attended Bacchus to the con- 
 quest of the Indies, carrying in their hands tlie 
 thyrsus (i. e. a little lance, covered with ivy and 
 vine leaves), and singing his victories and tri- 
 umphs. The ceremony was kept up after Bac- 
 chus's deification, under the title of Bacchanalia, 
 and the women were installed priestesses thereof, 
 under that of Bacchae, or Bacchantes. These 
 priestesses, at the time of the feast, ran through 
 the streets, and over the mountains, covered with 
 tiger's skins, their hair dishevelled, their thyrsus 
 in one hand, and torches in the other, howling 
 and sluiekinu', Evoi (Ta,3oi .' Evoi Baic^^j .' Iw 
 la^xi •' or Iw BaKys .' Of the men, some repre- 
 sented Pan, others Silenus, others satyrs. Men 
 and women met promiscuously at the feast, quite 
 nuked, except only that the vine leaves, and clus- 
 ters of grapes, bound their heads and loins ; here 
 they danced and jumped tumultuously, and, with 
 strange gesticulations, sung hymns to Bacchus, 
 till, being weary and giddy, they fell. Livy has 
 left us a particular account (xxxix. 8, &:c.) of 
 the enormities practised at these festivals, and 
 which led to tlieir suppression. There were two 
 principal Bacciianalia held annually, viz. 
 
 Bacchanalia Dionysia, or JNIajora, the 
 greater l>acchanalia, so called from one of Bac- 
 chus'snames (see Bacchus;, celebrated in the city 
 about spring time ; and 
 
 Bacchanalia LeN;Ea, or Minora, the lesser 
 festival, celebrated in the open fields about 
 autumn. 
 
 Bacchanalia signify also pictures, or basso 
 relievos, whereon the feast is represented con- 
 sisting chiefly of dancing, nudities, and the like. 
 There are antique Bacchanals, still seen on seve- 
 ral ancient friezes. Those painted by Poussin 
 are excellent. 
 
 BACCHANTES, priestesses to Bacciius. 
 
 BACCIIARACH Wim:, an excellent kind of 
 wine, by many mistaken for Rhenish ; but from 
 which Portzius observes it differs in color, taste, 
 flavor and strength. See Baccarach. 
 
 BACCHARIS, in botany, Ploughman's Spike- 
 nard: a genus of the polygamia superttua order, 
 and synger.esia class of plants ; ranking in the 
 natural method under the forty-ninth order, com- 
 posite discoides. The characters are : a naked 
 receptacle, and hairy pappus ; with a cylindrical 
 imbricated calyx, and feminine florets mixed with 
 the hermaphrodites. There are seven species, all 
 natives of warm climates ; of which the two 
 following chiefly meritnotice. 1. B. Halimifolia, 
 or Virginia groundsel tree, a native of Virginia 
 and other parts of North America. It grows 
 about seven or eight feet high, with a crooked 
 slirubbery stem ; and flowers in October. 2. B.
 
 B A C C II U S. 
 
 349 
 
 Ivsefolia, or African tree groundsel, a native of 
 the Cape of Good Hope, as well as of Peru and 
 other warm parts of America. 
 
 Baccharis, in pharmacy, a sweet ointment 
 used among the ancients, so called perhaps from 
 the above plant being a principal ingredient 
 in it. 
 
 BACCHI, in fabulous history, a kind of ma- 
 chines in the form of goats, said to have been used 
 by Jupiter in his wars against the giants. Iludbeck 
 describes two kinds of Bacchi, one made like the 
 battering ram, wherewith Jupiter demolished the 
 enemy's fortifications ; the other contrived to cast 
 fire, from whence the Greeks are conjectured to 
 have framed their idea of the chimera. 
 
 BACCHIC, something relating; to the ceremo- 
 nies of Bacchus. The celebrated intaglio, called 
 Michael Angelo's ring, is a representation of a 
 Bacchic feast. 
 
 Bacchic Song is sometimes used for achansor 
 a boire, or composition to inspire jollity. But 
 in a more proper sense, it is restrained to a dithy- 
 rambic ode or hymn. 
 
 BACCIITCA, in botany, Hedera, or i\-y. 
 
 BACCHINI Benedict;, a learned monk of 
 the seventeenth century, was a native of Parma, 
 and entered at the age of sixteen into the Bene- 
 dictine monastery of 3Iount Cassino. He after- 
 wards travelled as secretary to the abbot of Fer- 
 rara. At length he settled at Parma, and esta- 
 blished a periodical journal, which he conducted 
 for some years with learning and success : but 
 his criticisms created enemies, who procured his 
 banishment. He retreated to Modena, and re- 
 sumed his journal under the patronage of the 
 duke of ^lodena. He was also historiographer 
 and librarian to the duke. He subsequently be- 
 came abbot of a Benedictine monastery, and was 
 also chosen professor of ecclesiastical history at 
 Bologna, where h^ died in 1721, aged seventy. 
 Bacchini was one of the most learned men of his 
 time. His literary journal extends to nine vols. 
 4to. ; besides which, he published De Sistroruin 
 Figuris ac Differentia, Bononix, 1691, 4to. ; 
 De EcclesiasticEe Hierarchise Originibus, Mo- 
 denae, 1703, &c. Sec. 
 
 BACCHIS, or Balus, king of Corinth, suc- 
 ceeded his father Pruinnides, and reigned with 
 such moderation and equity, that to commemo- 
 rate him his successors were called Bacchidae. 
 The Bacchidoe afterwards becoming numerous, 
 they chose one as president, with regal authority. 
 This institution was, however, overturned by 
 Cypselus making himself absolute. 
 
 BACCHIUS, a follower of Aristoxenus, sup- 
 posed by Fabricius to have been tutor to the 
 emperor Marcus Antonius, and consequently to 
 have lived about A. D. 140. He wrote in Greek 
 a short introduction to music in dialogue, which 
 Meibomiushas published with a Latin Translation. 
 
 Bacciiius, in ancient poetry, a foot composed 
 of a short syllable and two long ones ; as egestas. 
 It takes its name from the god Bacchus, because 
 it frequently entered into the hymns composed in 
 his honor. The Romans called it likewise xno- 
 trius, tripodius, and saltans ; and the Greeks 
 T\apiafij3og- 
 
 Baccuius and Bmius, two renowned gladia- 
 tors of equal age and strength ; whence the pro- 
 
 verb, expressive of equality, Bithus contra Bac- 
 chium. 
 
 BACCHUS, in heathen mythology, the god 
 of wine. He is seldom named in modern times, 
 but as a sensual encourager of feast and jollity : 
 he was regarded in a more respectable light by 
 the ancients, who worshipped him in different 
 countries under the appellations : in Egypt, of 
 Osiris; in Mysia, Fanaces; in India, Dionysius; 
 Liber, throughout the Roman dominions ; Ado- 
 neus, in Arabia; and Pentheus, in Lucania. 
 Mythologists furnish reasons for all these diffe- 
 rent names. The Greeks and the Romans ascribed 
 to the Bacchus whom they worshipped, the 
 several actions and attributes of the many divi- 
 nities known by that name, and by other equiva- 
 lent denominations in different countries. How- 
 ever, antiquity chiefly distinguished two gods 
 under the title of Bacchus ; the one of Egypt, 
 the other of Thebes in Bceolia. 
 
 The Bacchus of Egypt was the son of Ammon, 
 and considered as the same with Osiris. He 
 was brought up at Nysa, a city of Arabia Felix, 
 whence he acquired the name of Dionysius, or 
 the god of Nysa ; and was the conqueror of India. 
 This Bacchus was one of the elder gods of Egypt, 
 although, according to Sir Isaac Newton, he 
 flourished but one generation before the Argo- 
 nautic expedition. Bacchus, says Ilermippus, 
 was potent at sea, conquered eastward as far as 
 India, returned in triumph, brought his army 
 over the Hellespont, conquered Thrace, and left 
 music, poetry, and dancing there. 
 
 Bacchts of Thebes was the son of Jupiter by 
 Semele, the daughter of Cadmus, and ranked as 
 the youngest of the Grecian deities. Diodorus 
 Siclilus tells us, that Orpheus first deified the 
 son of Semele by the name of Bacchus, and ap- 
 pointed his ceremonies in Greece, to render the 
 family of Cadmus, the grandfather of the Cireciaa 
 Bacchus, illustrious. According to this author, 
 it was the son of Semele who invented farces 
 and theatres, and wlio first established a musical 
 school, excepting from all military functions such 
 musicians as discovered great abilities in their 
 art : on which account, says the same author, 
 musicians formed into companies have since fre- 
 quently enjoyed great privile(;es. Pausanias, in 
 his Attics, speaks of a place at Athens conse- 
 crated to Bacchus the singer : whence it should 
 seem that Bacchus was regarded by the Athenians 
 not only as the god of wine, but of song ; and it 
 must be owned, that his followers, in their cups, 
 have not been uninclined to pay him service in 
 this way. Indeed it is clear, that in none of the 
 origies, processions, and festivals, instituted by 
 the ancients to the honor of this prince of bons- 
 vivans, music was forgotten. We find not only 
 that musicians, male and female, regaled him 
 with the lyre, the flute and the sonp ; but that 
 he was accompanied by fawns and satyrs, play- 
 ing upon timbrils, cymbals, bag-pipes, and horns; 
 these Suidas calls his minstrels, and Strabo gives 
 them the appellation of Bacchi, Sileni, Satyri, 
 Bacchse, Lena?, Thyse, &c. These representa- 
 tions have furnished subjects for the finest 
 remains of ancient sculpture ; and the most 
 voluptuous passages of ancient poetry are de- 
 scriptions of the orgies and festivals of Bacchu?.
 
 BAG 
 
 350 
 
 BAG 
 
 Bacchus, is represented on medals in tlie form where he stands under the shadow of a vine- 
 of a boy or youth, an old man, or a female, as in brancli, near an altar, at which the emperor 
 ligs. 1, 2, 3 ; he is mostly naked, as in fi;,'. 4, Commodus is offering him divine honors. 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 rig. 2. 
 
 Fie. 3. 
 
 Fig. 4 
 
 Bacchus, in entomology, a large species of 
 scarabtEus, that inhabits the Cape of Good Hope. 
 2. A species of curculio. 3. A species of 
 monoculus. 
 
 Bacchus, in ichthyologry, a name given by 
 some to the myxon, a fish of the mullet kind, 
 remarkable for the red color of its lips, and 
 the extremity of the covering of the gills. See 
 
 MUGIL. 
 
 BACCHUS-BOLE. See Botany. 
 
 BACCHYLIDES, a famous Greek poet, the 
 nephew of Simonides, and the contemporary and 
 rival of Pindar. Both sung the victories of 
 Hiero at the public games. Besides ;Odes to 
 athletic victors, he was the author of love verses, 
 prosodies, dithyrambics, hymns, paeans, par- 
 thenia, or songs to be sung by a chorus of 
 virgins at festivals, &c. The chronology of 
 Eusebius places the birth of Bacchylides in the 
 eighty-second Olympiad, about A. A. C. 450. 
 'BACCI'FEROUS. See Botany. 
 
 BACCINA, or Baccinlm, a basin to hold 
 water to wash the hands, The holding the 
 basin, or waiting at the basin, on the day of the 
 king's coronation, was an ancient tenure in ser- 
 jeantry. 
 
 BACCIO (Francisco Bartolomeo, or Barte- 
 lemi di S. Marco), a celebrated history and por- 
 trait painter, was born atSavignano near Florence, 
 in 1469, and was a disciple of Roselli ; but his 
 principal knowledge in the art was derived from 
 Da Vinci. He understood the true principles of 
 design better than most masters of his time, and 
 was also a considerable painter of perspective. 
 Raphael, after he had quitted the school of Pe- 
 rugino, studied the art of uniting colors under 
 him, as well as the rules of perspective. Some 
 years after the departure of Raphael, Baccio 
 visited Rome ; and by the observations he made 
 on the antiquities and the works of Raphael, 
 which, by that time, were universally admired, 
 he improved much, and manifested liis abilities 
 by a ]jicture of St. Sebastian, which he finished 
 at his return to Florence. This was so well de- 
 signed, so naturally colored, and had so strong 
 an expression of agony, that it was removed 
 from the convent- where it was exhibited, as it had 
 made too strong an impression on the imagina- 
 tions of many women. He is accounted tlie 
 first inventor of the machine called a layman by 
 the artists, and which is still in general use. 
 Upon that he placed his draperies, to observe, 
 with great exactness, their natural and their most 
 elegant folds. A capital picture of the ascen- 
 sion, by Baccio, is in the Florentine collection. 
 He died in 1.517. 
 
 Baccio, or Baccius (Andrew), a celebrated 
 physician of the sixteenth century, born at St. 
 Elpideo. He practised physic at Rome with 
 great reputation, and was first physician to pope 
 Sixtus W The most scarce and most valuable 
 of his works are, 1. De Thermis. 2. De Natu- 
 rali Vinorum Historia. 3. De Venenis et An- 
 tidotis. 4. De Gemmis ac Lapidibus pretiosis. 
 
 BACCI'V^OROUS, adj. From 6acca, a berry, 
 and voro, to devour, Lat. Devouring berries. 
 
 BACCOFOE, in botany, a fruit like tlie 
 banana, very common in Guinea, but whiter, 
 thicker and shorter. The taste and smell are 
 agreeable ; and some pretend that on cutting it 
 through transversely, there is the figure of a cru- 
 cifix on each side of it. Phil. Trans. No. 108. 
 
 BACCULL See Bacilli. 
 
 BACH, a town of Lower Hungary, in the 
 county of Tolu, seated on the Danube. 
 
 Bach fJohn Sebastian), a celebrated musician, 
 born at Eisnach in Germany in 1685. He was 
 patronised by the duke of Saxe Weimer, who 
 appointed him his musician in 1708; and at 
 Dresden he gained a victory over a famous 
 French organist, whose vanity led him to chal- 
 lenge all the German musicians. As an organist, 
 he was thought equal to Handel, and the excel- 
 lence of his compositions testify him to have been 
 among the foremost in the science. He died in 
 17.54. 
 
 Bach (Charles and John), sons of the above, 
 were both very eminent as performers and 
 composers of music. Charles lived at Ham- 
 burgh in 1773, and John was in England in 1763. 
 
 BACHA, a river of Asiatic Russia, which 
 joins the Jenesei on the right. 
 
 Bacha, in ornithology, a species ot falco, 
 figured in the fifteenth plate of Le \'aillant's work 
 on the birds of Africa. It is about the size of 
 the common buzzard, and naturally belongs to 
 that tribe of rapacious birds. 
 
 BACHAUjNIONT (Francois le Coigneux de), 
 a French poet. He was counsellor to the par- 
 liament, but his love of ease and pleasure made 
 him give up his post and renounce his profes- 
 sion. Contracting an intimacy with Chapelle, 
 he was joined with him in writing A Journey to 
 Rlontpelier, in which there is much vivacity dis- 
 played ; besides which he wrote several other 
 works, in a humorous style. He died at Paris 
 in 1702, aged seventy-eight. 
 
 Bacha I'MONT (Louis-Petit), a French writer, 
 born at Paris, was author of Secret Memoirs 
 towards a History of the Republic of Letters in 
 France, thirty-six volumes, 12mo. and other 
 works. He died in 1771.
 
 BACHELORS. 
 
 351 
 
 BACHELIER (Nicholas), an eminent French 
 sculptor and architect. He was a pupil of Mi- 
 chael Angelo, and ornamented the churches of 
 Toulouse, his native city. lie died about 1.554. 
 
 BACU'ELOR, 71. s. ) This is a word of 
 
 B.\CH'f.L0KSHii', n. s. S very uncertain etymo- 
 logy ; it not being well known what was its ori- 
 ginal sense. Junius derives it from fydKijXog, a 
 man of full stature but of effeminate and imma- 
 ture mind ; Menage, from bus chevalier, a knight 
 of the lowest rank ; Spelman, from baculus, a 
 staff; Cajas, from buccclla, an allowance of pro- 
 vision. The most probable derivation seems to 
 be, from bacca laurus, the berry of a laurel or 
 bay ; bachelors, being young, are of good hopes, 
 like laurels in the berry. Dr. Lawrence ob- 
 serves, that JMenage's etymology is much con- 
 firmed by the practice in our universities of call- 
 ing a baclielor. Sir. In Latin, baccalaureus. 
 The former of these words describes the person ; 
 the lattPr his condition. The more common ac- 
 ceptation is a man unmarried. Its secondary 
 meaning is one who takes his first degree at the 
 university in any profession ; and its last and 
 now obsolete sense, is a knight of the lowest 
 order. 
 
 Shall I never see a bachelor of threescore again? 
 
 Shakspeare. 
 
 When I said I would die a bachelor, I did not 
 think I should live till I were married. Id. 
 
 Her mother, living yet, can testify. 
 She was ths first fruit of my bachelorship. Id. 
 
 But he told the latter, that is to say, Mr. Spectator, 
 he told the bacfielors that their lives and actions had 
 been so peculiar that he knew not by what name to 
 call them. Spectator. 
 
 Being a boy, new bachelor of arts, I chanced to 
 speak against the pope. Aschatn. 
 
 I appear before your honour, in behalf of Martinus 
 ■Scriblerus, bachelor of physic. Mart. Scriblerus. 
 
 B.\CHEL0R, in ancient times, was a denomina- 
 tion given to those who had attained to knight- 
 hood, but had not a number of vassals sufficient 
 to have their banner carried before them in the 
 field of battle ; or if they were of the order of 
 bannerets were not of age to display their own 
 banner, but obliged to march to battle under 
 another's banner. It was also a title given to 
 young cavaliers who, having made their first 
 campaign, received the military girdle accord- 
 ingly. And it served to denominate him that 
 had overcome another in a tournament the first 
 time he ever engaged. 
 
 B.vcHELOR, in the six companies of merchants 
 at Paris, was a name given before the Revolu- 
 tion to the elders, and such as, having served 
 the offices, had a right to be called by the mas- 
 ters and wardens to be present with them, and 
 assist them in their functions. 
 
 Bachelors, in the livery companies of Lon- 
 don, are those who are not yet admitted to the 
 livery. These companies generally consist of a 
 master, two wardens, the livery, and the bache- 
 lors, who are yet but in expectation of dignity in 
 the company, and have their functions only in 
 attendance on the master and wardens. They 
 are also called yeomen. 
 
 Bachelors, in the university sense, are per- 
 sons who have attained to the baccalaureats, or 
 
 first degree in arts, divinity, law, or plivsic. 
 This degree in some universities has no exist- 
 ence. It was first introduced in the thirteenth 
 century by pope Gregory IX. The following 
 regulations are observed respecting it in Oxford 
 and Cambridge : In the university of Cam- 
 bridge, a bachelor of arts must reside the greater 
 part of twelve several terms, the first and last 
 excepted. The statutable exercises before ad- 
 mission, ad respondendum qua;stioni (a form in 
 which the father of the college asks each student 
 a question before his graduation), are two acts and 
 two opponencies. A bachelor of divinity must 
 be a master of arts of seven years standing : his 
 exercises are, one act, after the fourth year, two 
 opponencies, a concio ad clerum, and an Eng- 
 lish sermon. The ten-year men, who are candi- 
 dates for this degree, are tolerated by a statute 
 12 Eliz. They are persons who, being twenty- 
 four years of age and upwards, are admitted at 
 any college to take the degree of bachelor of di- 
 vinity after ten years. During tlie last two years 
 they must reside the greater part of three several 
 terms. Their exercises are the same as in the 
 regular course. A bachelor of laws must be of 
 six years standing complete, and mu5t keep the 
 greater part of nine several terms. The exercise 
 is one act. A bachelor of physic must keep the 
 greater part of nine several terms, and may be 
 admitted any time in his sixth year : the exercise 
 is one act and one opponency. A bachelor of 
 music must enter his name at some college, and 
 perform a solemn piece of music as an exercise 
 prior to his degree. 
 
 In the university of Oxford, a bachelor of arts 
 must keep sixteen terms, and appear once as a 
 respondent in the schools. A bachelor of divi- 
 nity must be master of arts of seven years stand- 
 ing : his exercises are one act, two opponencies, 
 and a concio ad clerum after the fifth year. A 
 bachelor of laws must be a master of arts of 
 three years standing : his exercises are one act 
 and two opponencies. A bachelor of medicine 
 must be a master of arts of one year standing : 
 his exercises are one act and one opponency. A 
 bachelor of music must produce a competent 
 testimonial that he has applied himself to that 
 science during seven years, and must perform a 
 piece of music of five parts publicly in the 
 music school. 
 
 Bachelors, Knights, the most ancient, but 
 the lowest order of knights in England ; known 
 by the name of knights only. They are styled 
 knights bachelors, either (according to some) as 
 denoting their degree, quasi bas chevaliers ; or, 
 according to others, because this title, like the 
 fortune of an unmarried man, does not descend 
 to their posterity. The custom of the ancient 
 Germans was to give their young men a shield 
 and a lance in the great council ; this was equi- 
 valent to the toga virilis of the Romans. Before 
 this they were not permitted to bear arms, but 
 were accounted as part of the father's household ; 
 after it, as part of tiie public. Hence some de- 
 rive the usage of knightintr, which has prevailed 
 all over the western world since its reduction by 
 colonies, from those northern heroes. Knights 
 are called in the Latin equites auniti; aurali, 
 from the gilt spurs tliey wore, and equites, be-
 
 BAG 
 
 352 
 
 BAG 
 
 cause they always served on horseback ; for it 
 is observable that ahnost all nations call their 
 knights by some appellation deriTed from a 
 horse. They are also called in our law milites, 
 because they formed a part, or indeed the whole of 
 the royal army, in virtue of their feudal tenures : 
 one condition of which was, that every one who 
 held a knight's fee (which in Henry II.'s time 
 amounted to twenty pounds per annum) was 
 obliged to be knighted, and attend the king in 
 his wars, or pay a fine for his non-compliance. 
 The exertion of this prerogative, as an expedient 
 to raise money in the reit;n of Charles t. gave 
 great offence, though warranted by law and the 
 recent example of queen Elizabeth. At the res- 
 toration it was, together with all other military 
 branches of the feudal law, abolished, and it now 
 only exists in an honorary title, conferred by the 
 king's lightly touching the person, who is then 
 kneeling, on the right shoulder with a drawn 
 sword, and saying, * rise, sir.' See Kxigiit and 
 Nobility. 
 
 On bachelors, or unmarried men, the Roman 
 censors frequently imposed fines. Dion Hali- 
 carnasseus mentions an old law by which all 
 persons of full age were obliged to marry. But 
 tlie most celebrated law ^of the kind was that 
 made under Augustus, called the lex Julia de 
 maritandis ordinibus ; by which bachelors were 
 made incapable of legacies or inheritances by 
 will, unless from their near relations. This 
 brought many to marry, according to Plutarch's 
 observation, not so much for the sake of raising 
 heirs to their own estate.-j, as to make themselves 
 capable of inheriting those of others. The rab- 
 bins maintain, that, by the laws of Moses, every 
 body, except a few particular persons, is obliged in 
 conscience to marjy at twenty years of age ; and 
 that this makes one of their 613 precepts. Hence 
 those maxims, so frequent among their casuists, 
 that he who does not take the necessary mea- 
 sures to leave heirs behind him, is not a man, but 
 ought ro be reputed a homicide. Lycurgus was 
 not more favorable to this state of life. By his 
 laws, bachelors are branded with infamy, ex- 
 cluded from all offices civil and military, and 
 even from the shows and public sports. vU 
 certain feasts they were forced to appear, to be 
 exposed to the public derision, and led round 
 the market-place. On one occasion, the women 
 led them in this condition to the altars, where 
 they were obliged to make amende honorable 
 to nature, accompanied with a number of blows 
 and lashes with a rod. To complete the aff'ront, 
 they forced them to sing certain songs com- 
 ])osed in their own derision. The Chris- 
 tian religion has been supposed to be more 
 indulgent to the bachelor state ; because the 
 apostle Paul has recommended it as prefer- 
 able (as it certainly was) during the early ages 
 of Christianity, when a man was in danger of suf- 
 fering, not only in his own person or property, 
 but in those of his nearest and dearest con- 
 nexions, for the sake of religion ; which rendered 
 such persecutions more dreadful and severe upon 
 the married than the unmarried. The ancient 
 church, overlooking this principle, upon which 
 the apostle's advice is evidently founded, recom- 
 mended the bachelor state, as well as that of 
 
 perpetual virginity in the other sex, as not only 
 more perfect than the; married state, but even as 
 highly meritorious : and thus gave birtii to the 
 absurd system of monasteries, nunneries, and the 
 celibacy of the clergy ; which for so many ages has 
 burdened Europe, with thousands of idle drones 
 of both sexes. In the canon law, we find in- 
 junctions on bachelors, when arrived at puberty, 
 either to marry or to turn monks and profess 
 chastity in earnest. In England there was a 
 tax on bachelors, after twenty-five years of age, 
 £12. 10s. for a duke; and a common person Is. 
 by 7 Wil. HI. 1695. They were also taxed by 
 Mr. Pitt in an extra-duty on their servants. 
 
 Bachelors of the Church, baccalarii eccle- 
 sia;, an inferior class of ecclesiastics, mentioned 
 in some old records, which speak of the bishop 
 with his canons and baccalarii. 
 
 Bachelor's Pear, in botany, a name some- 
 times given to the solanum maramosum. 
 
 BACHER, ' a lofty ridge of mountains in 
 Styria, circle of Cilly, near the Drave, about 
 sixty-five miles in circuit. 
 
 BACHIAN, or Batchiax, one of the Mo- 
 lucca islands in the eastern ocean, separated by 
 a narrow channel only, from the island of Gilolo. 
 It is about fifty miles long, and twenty in average 
 breadth, but much narrower in the middle than 
 towards each end. The native prince of this island 
 early formed an alliance with the Spaniards and 
 Portuguese, who were expelled by the Dutch in 
 1610. It is fertile in sago, and other fruits of 
 the climate ; and was formerly considered as 
 producing better cloves than any other island of 
 these seas. On this island the Dutch fixed their 
 principal settlement, before Amboyna attained 
 its present pre-eminence. Bachian, covered with 
 forests, contains a burning moimtain ; beds of 
 coral adorn its shores, and gold has been classed 
 among its products. It is under the government 
 of a sultan, the sovereign of Oby, Ceram, Coram, 
 and another contiguous islet. The inhabitants 
 are Malay Mahommedans, who are considered 
 as the most eastern disciples of the Arabian pro- 
 phet. Tlie chief town is Sabongo. Latitude 
 about 0° 48' S.; and long. 128^ 0' E. 
 
 BACHILERIA, in old law Latin, the com- 
 monality, as distinguished from the nobility. 
 
 BACHILLI. See Bacilli. 
 
 BACHMUTH, or Bakhmoud, the chief town 
 of a circle in the government of Ekaterinoslav, 
 in European Russia, situated on a river of that 
 name, which falls into the Donetz. It is well 
 fortified, and has a citadel for the protection of 
 its salt-works. It has belonged successively to the 
 governments of \'oronetz and New Russia, and 
 was erected into its present government in 1775. 
 The circle of Bachmuth borders on the govern- 
 ment of X'oronetz, and the country of the Don 
 Cossacs, and is one of the most fertile parts of 
 Little Russia. When a scarcity of water prevails 
 in the summer, the supplies are brought from ihe 
 Donetz. 104 miles N.N. W. of Azoph, and 112 
 cast of Ekaterinoslav. 
 
 BACIINEU, or Bonghu, a market town of 
 Transylvania, in the county of Kokelburg, on the 
 river Little Kokel. 
 
 BACIIU. See Baku. 
 
 BACILLARTA, in entomology, a genus of
 
 BACK. 
 
 
 the class vermes, and order infusiora : its body 
 consisting of cylindrical, straw-like filaments. 
 The only species is the B. paradoxa, sen vibrio 
 paxilifer. 
 
 BACILLI, or Baculi, in medicine (from 
 bacillus, Lat. a staff,) such compositions as are 
 made up in a cylindrical figure, like a stick. 
 
 BACILLl'M, in medicine, dim. of baculum, 
 a troche in the form of a stick. 
 
 Bacfllum, in chemistry, iron instruments in 
 the shape of a baculum, or staff. 
 
 BA.CK., n.s. v.a. ^ adv. } Sax. bac, baec; 
 
 Backed, adj. i Germ. back. The 
 
 noun signifies the hinder part of the body ; the 
 outer part of the hand opposed to the palm ; the 
 thick part of any tool opposed to the e'Sge. The 
 adverb denotes the situation of being, and the 
 direction of going. The adjective points out the 
 back as the adjunct of being; the simple cir- 
 cumstance of having a back ; and the verb is 
 used in various senses, intimately connected and 
 easily traced to one common source, the original 
 etymon, namely, to mount on the back of a horse ; 
 to break a horse ; to place upon the back ; to 
 maintain, to strengthen, to support, to defend, to 
 justify, and to second. 
 
 His back, or rather burthen, show'd 
 As if it stooped with its own load. Hudibroji. 
 
 Did they not swear, in express words. 
 To prop and back the house of lords ? 
 And after tum'd out the whole houseful. Jd. 
 
 Part following enter ; petrt remain without. 
 And mount on others backs, in hopes to share. 
 
 Drrjden. 
 
 The epistles being written from ladies forsaken by 
 
 their lovers, many thoughts came back upon us in 
 
 divers letters. Id. 
 
 Factious, and fav'ring this or t'other side. 
 
 Their wagers back their wishes. Id. 
 
 Methought love pitying me, when he saw this. 
 Gave me your hands, the backs and palms to kiss. 
 
 Donne. 
 Those who, by their ancestors, have been set free 
 from a constant drudgery to their backs and their 
 bellies, should bestow some time on their heads. 
 
 Locke. 
 He might conclude, that Walter would be upon 
 the king's back, as his majesty was upon his. 
 
 Clarendon. 
 
 As the voice goeih round, as well towards the back 
 
 as towards the front of him that speaketh, so does the 
 
 echo : for you have many back echoes to the place 
 
 where you stand. Bacon. 
 
 And all within it full of wyndingsis 
 And hidden ways that scarce an hound by smell 
 Can follow out those false footsteps of his 
 Ne none can backe retume that once are gone amis. 
 Spenser. Faerie Queene. 
 At the hour of death, all friendships of the world 
 bid him adieu, and the whole creation turns its back 
 upon him. South. 
 
 A great malice, backed with a great interest, can 
 have no advantage with a roan, but from his expec- 
 tations of something without himself. Id. 
 Back you shall not to the house, unless 
 You undertake that with me. Shakspeare. 
 
 That roan shall be my throne, 
 Well, I will back him strait. O Espcrance '. 
 Bid Butler lead him forth into the park. Id. 
 
 Vot. III. 
 
 He hath a garden circummur'd with brick. 
 Whose western side is with a vineyard backed. Id. 
 As I slept, methought 
 Great Jupiter, upon his eagle back'd, 
 Appear'd to me. ' Id. 
 
 Belike he means 
 Back'd by the pow'r of Warwick, that false peer, 
 T' aspire unto the crown. Id. 
 
 You are strait enough in the shoulders, you care 
 not who sees your back ; call you that backing of your 
 friends ? a plague upon such backing ! give me them 
 that will face me. Id. 
 
 He sent many to seek the ship Argo, threatening 
 that if they brought not back Medea, they should 
 suffer in her stead. Raleigh's History of tlie World. 
 Where they are, and why they came not back. 
 Is now the labour of my thoughts. Milton. 
 
 Back to thy native island might'st thou sail 
 And leave half-heard the melancholy tale. Pope. 
 
 So rag'd Tydides boundless in his ire. 
 Drove armies back and made all Troy retire. Id. 
 
 This Caesar found, and that ungrateful age. 
 With losing him went back to blood and rage. 
 
 Waller. 
 I've been surpris'd in an unguarded hour. 
 But must not now go back ; the love, that lay- 
 Half smother'd in my breast, has broke through all 
 Its weak restraints. Addison. 
 
 How shall we treat this bold aspiring man ? 
 Success still follows him, and backs his crimes. 
 
 Id. 
 To thee, Almighty God to thee. 
 Our childhood we resign ; 
 'Twill please us to look back and see. 
 That all our lives were thine. Watts. 
 
 First Fear his hand its skill to try. 
 Amid the chords bewildered laid. 
 And back recoil'd he knew not why. 
 E'en at the sounds himself had made. 
 
 Colliiis. 
 Direct us how to hack the winged horse ; 
 Favour his flight and moderate his course. 
 
 Roscommon. 
 
 These were seconded by certain demilaunccs, ami 
 
 both backed with men at arms. Sir J. Hayward. 
 
 The patrons of the ternary number of principles, 
 
 and those that would have five elements, endeavour 
 
 to back their experiments with a specious reason. 
 
 Boyle. 
 
 We have I know not how many adages to back the 
 
 reason of this moral. L'Estrange. 
 
 Back, in the menage, and among farriers. 
 A horse's back should be straight, not hollow, 
 which is called saddle-backed : horses of lliis 
 kind are generally light, and carry their heads 
 high, but want in strength and service. A horse 
 with a weak back is apt to stumble. In the 
 French riding-schools, to mount a horse a dos, is 
 to mount him bare-backed, without a saddle. 
 
 To Back an anclior, in maritime affairs, einpen- 
 neller une ancre, Fr. to carry out a small anchor, 
 as the stream or kedge, ahead of the large one, 
 by which the ship usually rides, in order to sup- 
 port it, and prevent it from loosening, or coming 
 home in bad ground. In this situation the latter 
 is confined by the former, in the same manner 
 that the ship is restrained by the latter. 
 
 To Back astern in rowing, icu;- a cuter, l-r. 
 is to manage the oars in a direction contrary to 
 the usual method, so as that the boat or vessel 
 impressed by their force, shall retreat or mcv« 
 with her stern foremost. 
 
 •2 A
 
 BAG 
 
 354 
 
 BAG 
 
 Back the starboard oars ! scie Iribord ! avecles 
 avirons, Fr. the command to confine the above 
 management to the oars on the right hand side of 
 the boat only, in order to turn her round more 
 speedily to that direction. 
 
 To Back and fill, coiffer et faire servir les voiles, 
 Fr. is an operation generally performed in nar- 
 row rivers, when a ship has the tide in her favor, 
 and the wind is against her. — Exam. ' We were 
 obliged to back and fill occasionally to get up 
 the Thames.' 
 
 To Back the sails, mettre a scier, Fr. is to ar- 
 range them in a situation that will occasion the 
 ship to retreat or move astern, in consequence of 
 the tide or current in her favor, and the wind 
 contrary, but light. This operation is particu- 
 larly necessary in narrow channels, when a ship 
 is carried along sideways by the strength of that 
 tide or current, and it becomes requisite to avoid 
 any object that may intercept her course, as 
 shoals, or vessels under sail, or at anchor : it is 
 also necessary, in a naval engagement, to bring a 
 ship back, so as to lie oppposite to her adversary, 
 when she is too far ad vanced in the line ; and 
 also in fleets under convoy, where ships are too 
 much crowded, by the above operation they may 
 be preserved from falling aboard each other. See 
 the article Aback. 
 
 Back the main-topsail! brasse le grand hunier 
 sur le mat ! Fr. the command to brace that sail 
 in such a manner that the wind may exert its 
 force against the fore-part of the sail, and by 
 thus laying it aback materially retard the ship's 
 course. 
 
 Back, or Dutchman's Cap, an islet of the 
 Hebrides. Long. 6° 27' W., lat. 56° 29' N. 
 
 BACKAR, or Behkur, a district and town of 
 Hindostan, in the province of iNIoultan. The 
 town is situated on an island formed by the In- 
 dus, near its junction with the Dommoody ; for- 
 merly it was called Munsoorah, and had a strong 
 fort. Long. 70° 2' E., lat. 28° 31' N. 
 
 BACK BAR, the bar in a chimney, for sus- 
 pending vessels over the fire. 
 
 BACK-BEAR, Back-berexr, Backeerond, 
 in old law, a criminal caught carrying off" some- 
 thing on his back. See Backcarry. 
 
 BACK'BITE, v. -% From back and bite. 
 
 Back'biter, 71. s. > A familiar term for the 
 
 Bacr'bitixgly, aiy. 3 calumny and calum- 
 niators which shun the presence of their victims. 
 To censure the absent ; the coward who defames 
 in the dark. 
 
 Use his men well Davy, for they are arrant knaves 
 and will backbite. S/takspeare, 
 
 Nobody is bound to look upon his backbiter, or his 
 undermine!-, his betrayer, or his oppressor, as his 
 friend. South. 
 
 BACK-BOARD, in maritime affairs, is of a 
 semi-circular figure, placed transversely in the 
 after^part of a boat, like the back of a chair, to 
 recline against while sitting in the stern sheets. 
 
 BACK-BOND, in Scots law, a bond granted 
 by him who receives a deed to declare the pur- 
 pose of it, and to bind the granter to perform 
 accordingly. 
 
 •BACK'BONE, n. s. from back and bone. 
 The boae of the back. 
 
 The backbone should be divided into many vertebrae 
 for commodious bending, and not to be one entire 
 rigid bone. Ray. 
 
 BACK'CARRY. Having on the back. 
 
 Manhood in his forest laws, noteth it for one of 
 the four circumstances or cases, wherein a forester 
 may arrest an offender against vert or venison in the 
 forest, ^'^z. stable-stand, dog-draw, backcarry, and 
 bloody hand. C-iwell. 
 
 BACK'DOOR, 71. s. From back and door. 
 The door behind the house ; pri\y passage. 
 
 The procession durst not return by the way it came ; 
 but, after the devotion of the monks, passed out at a 
 backdoor of the convent. Addison. 
 
 Popery, which is so far shut out as not to re-enter 
 openly, is stealing in by the backdoor of atheism. 
 
 Atterhury. 
 
 BACKER, or Bakker (Jacob), a painter of 
 portraits and history, was bom at Harlingen in 
 1609, but spent the greatest part of his life at 
 Amsterdam. lie was remarkable for an uncom- 
 mon readiness of hand and freedom of pencil. 
 His incredible expedition appeared in a portrait 
 of a lady fromllaerlem, whom he painted at half 
 length, and began and finished in one day ; 
 though he adorned the figure with rich drapery 
 and several ornamental jewels. He also painted 
 historical subjects with success ; and has left a 
 fine picture of Cimon and Iphigenia. In de- 
 signing academj figures, his expression was so 
 just, and his outline so correct, that he obtained 
 the prize from all his competitors ; and his works 
 are bought up at very high prices in the Low 
 Countries. 'The Carmelites church at Antwerp 
 has a capital picture of his of the Last Judgment. 
 He died in 1651. 
 
 Backer, or Bakker (Jacques, or James), also 
 a painter of history, was born at Antwerp in 
 1530, and learned the principles of painting from 
 his father, who was very knowing in his profes- 
 sion, though his works were in no great estima- 
 tion. After his death he lived with one Palermo, 
 a dealer in pictures, who avariciously took care 
 to keep him incessantly employed, and sent his 
 paintings to Paris to be disposed of, where they 
 were exceedingly admired. The judicious were 
 eager to purchase them ; and though the trans- 
 actor sold them at a great price, yet the artist was 
 not proportionably rewarded, but continued still 
 in the same depressed condition. His merit, 
 indeed was universally allowed, but his name, 
 and the narrowness of his circumstances, were as 
 universally unknown. He had a clean light 
 manner of penciling, and a tint of color that was 
 extremelv agreeable. He died in 1560. 
 
 BACKEREEL, or Bacquerelli (Willrara), 
 a painter of history, born at Antwerp, and a dis- 
 ciple of Rubens, at the same time with V'andyck. 
 When each of them quitted that master, and 
 commenced painters, Backereel was little infe- 
 rior to Vandyck, which may be seen in the works 
 of the former, in the church of the Augustin 
 monks at Antwerp. He had likewise a taste fc" 
 poetry ; but exercising that talent too freely in 
 writing satires against the Jesuits, they compelled 
 him to fly from Antvi'erp. Sandrart observes, 
 that in his time there were seven or eight eminent 
 paintersof this name in Italy and the Low Coun- 
 tries. 
 
 BACKERGUNGE, a district in the south-
 
 BACKGAMMON. 
 
 355 
 
 east part of Bengal, a eonsiderable portion of 
 which, called Bokla, situated near the sea-side, 
 was, in 1584, overwhelmed by the sea, and 
 scarcely has recovered from the inundation: 
 the other parts are, however, very productive, but 
 being subject to inundations, are very unhealthy. 
 But there are settled here a number of the 
 descendants of the Portuguese, who, in the year 
 1666, were invited by the nuwab, Shaista Khan, 
 to desert the raja of Arracan, and enter into his 
 service. Also a town in the province of Bengal, 
 capital of a district 120 miles east of Calcutta ; 
 it is the residence of the English magistrate, and 
 carries on a very considerable trade in rice, salt, 
 and cotton cloths. Long. 89° 20' E., lat. 22° 
 42' N. 
 
 BACK-FRAME Whkel, for laying cordage, 
 from a six-thread ratline, to a two-inch rope, is 
 about four or five feet in diameter, and is hung 
 between two uprisihts, fixed by tenons, on a 
 truck, and supported by a knee of wood. Over 
 its top is a semi-circular frame, called the head, 
 to contain three whi-rls (that run on the brasses), 
 with iron spindles, secured by a hasp and pin. 
 They are worked by means of a leather band en- 
 circling the whirls and wheel. Three of the 
 whirls are turned when hardening the strands, 
 and only one when closing the rope, the strands 
 beintc hung together on it. The truck, on which 
 the back-frame wheel is fixed, runs on four wheels, 
 and is made of three-inch oak plank, about nine 
 feet long, and thirteen inches broad at one end, 
 and eleven inches broad at the other. 
 
 BACK'FRIEND, n. s. From back and friend. 
 A friend backwards ; that is, an enemy in secret. 
 
 Set the restless importunities of talebearers and 
 hacUfriends against fair words and professions 
 
 L'Estrange. 
 
 Far is our church from encroaching upon the civil 
 power ; as some who are backfriends to both would 
 maliciously insinuate. South. 
 
 BACKGAM'MON, n. s. From bach gammon, 
 Welsh, a little battle ; a play or game at tables, 
 with box and dice. 
 
 Ti'l finding your old foe the hangman. 
 Was like to lurch you at backgammon. Hudibras. 
 In what esteem are you with the vicar of the pa- 
 rish? can you play with him at backgammon? Swift. 
 
 Backgammon, a game played with dice 
 and tables, to be learned only by observation 
 and practice. It is said to have been invented 
 in VV'ales, in the period preceding' the Conquest. 
 Gloss, ad Leges \VuUicas,u voc. Tawlbwrdd, cited 
 by Henry, vol. iv. p. 404. 8vo. 
 
 This game is played with dice, upon a table, 
 by two persons. The table is divided into two 
 paits, upon which there are twenty-four black 
 and while spaces, called points. Each adversary 
 has fifteen men, black and white, to distmguish 
 them ; and they are disposed of in the following 
 manner : Supposing the game to be played into 
 the right hand table, two are placed upon the 
 ace point in the adversary's table, five upon 
 the SiX point in the opjiosite table, iiref unon 
 the cinque point in ti.e hitheriiio-;t talle, an"^' 
 tive on the six point in the ntihi-iiind tdle. 
 Ihe gratid object in this game is for each player 
 
 to bring the men round into nis right hand table, 
 by throwing with a pair of dice those throws 
 that contribute towards it, and at the same time 
 prevent the adversary doing the like. The first 
 best throw upon the dice is esteemed aces, be- 
 cause it stops the six point in the outer table, and 
 secures the cinque in the thrower's table ;'whereby 
 the adversary's two men upon the thrower's ace 
 point cannot get out with either quartre, cinque, 
 or six. This throw is an advantage often given 
 to the antagonist by the superior player. When 
 he carries his men home in order to lose no 
 point, he is to carry the most distant man to his 
 adversary's bar point, that being the first stage 
 he is to place it on ; the next stage is six points 
 farther, viz. in the place where the adversary's 
 five men are first placed out of his tables. He 
 must go on in this method till all his men are 
 brought home, except two, when by losing a 
 point, he may often save the gammon, by tlirowing 
 two fours or two fives. When a hit is only 
 played for, he should endeavour to gain either his 
 own or adversary's cinque point : and if that 
 fails by his being hit by the adversary, and he 
 finds him forwarder than himself, in that case he 
 must throw more men into the adversary's tables; 
 v.bich is done in this manner : he must put a 
 man upon his cinque or bar point ; and if the 
 adversary fails to hit it, he may then gain a for- 
 ward game instead of a back game ; but if the 
 adversary hits him, he should play for a back 
 game : and then the greater number of men 
 which are taken up makes his game the better, 
 because by these means he will preserve his 
 game at home: and then he should endeavour to 
 gain both his adversary's ace and trois points, or 
 his ace and deuce points, and take care to keep 
 three men upon the adversary's ace point, that in 
 case he hits him from thence, that point may 
 remain still secure to himself. A back game 
 should not be played for at the beginning of a 
 set, because it would be a great disadvantage, 
 the player running the risk of a gammon to win 
 a single hit. 
 
 A variety of instructions with regard to 
 this curious game, are given by Mr. Hoyle, 
 who calculates the odds of the game with 
 great accuracy. The following particulars, 
 however, may be of use to the generality of 
 players. If a player has taken up two of the 
 adversary's men, and happens to have two, three, 
 or more "points made in his own tables, he shoulcj 
 spread his men, that h'emay eithertakea new point 
 in his tables, or lie ready to hit the man which the 
 adversary may happen to enter. If he finds, ufon 
 the adversary's entering, that the game is upon a 
 par, or that tiie advantage is on his own side, he 
 should take the adversary's man up whenever he 
 can, it being twenty-five to eleven that he is not 
 hit : except when he is playing for a single hit 
 only ; then if playing the throw otherwise gives 
 him a better chance for it, he ought to do it. 
 As It is five to one against his being hit with 
 double dice, he should never be deterred from 
 jnv c^" nan (' ve advers.r\'s. If 
 
 . nd 
 
 vn 
 2 A2 
 
 t;ikin.' up 
 
 '-du*'-S, ana »Cii.<;d lo
 
 356 BACKGAMMON. 
 
 he should endeavour to leave it upon doublets men to bear, he may be forced to make an ace 
 preferable to any other chance ; because the odds or a deuce twice before he can bear all his men, 
 are thirty-five to one, that he is not hit; whereas and consequently will require seven throws in 
 it is only seventeen to one but he is hit upon bearing them; so that, upon the whole, it is 
 any other chance. When the adversary is very about equal whether the adversary is gammoned 
 forward, a player should never move a man from or not. Suppose a player has three men upon 
 his own quartre, trois, or deuce points, thinking his adversary's ace point, and five points in his 
 to bear that man from the point where he put it, own tables, and that the adversary has all his 
 as nothing but high doublets can give him any men in his tables, three upon each of his five 
 ch-ance for the hit. Instead of playing an ace highest points. Has the player a probability of 
 or a deuce from any of those points, he should gammoning his adversary or not ? 
 play them from his own size or highest points. Points, 
 
 so that throwing two fives, or two fours, his size For bearing three m6n from his 6th point is 18 
 
 and cinque points being eased, would be a con- From his 5th point !.'> 
 
 siderable advantage to him ; whereas, had they From his 4th point ......... 13 
 
 been loaded, he must have been obliged to play From his 3rd point '.» 
 
 otherwise. It is the interest of the adversary to From his 2nd point t> 
 
 take up the player as soon as he enters. The — 
 
 blot should be left upon the adversary's lowest In all 60 
 
 point ; that is to say, upon his deuce point Bringing his three men from the adver- 
 rather than upon his trois point; or upon his trois sary's ace point to his size point in 
 point rather than upon his quatre point ; or upon his own tables, being eighteen points 
 his quatre point preferable to his cinque point, each, and making together 54 
 
 for a reason before mentioned : all the men the — 
 
 adversary plays upon his trois, or his deuce There must remain 6 
 
 points, are deemed lost, being greatly out of It is plain from this calculation, that the player 
 play ; so that those men not having it in their has much the best of the probability of the gam- 
 power to make his cinque point, and his game mon, exclusive of one or more blots which the 
 being crowded in one place and open in another, adversary is liable to make in bearing his men, 
 the adversary must be greatly annoyed by the supposing at the same time the throws to be 
 player. If the player has two of the adversary's upon an equality. Suppose two blots are left, 
 men in his tables, he has a better chance for a hit either of which cannot be hit but by double dice; 
 than if he had more, provided his game is for- one must be hit by throwing eight and the other 
 warder than that of his antagonist ; for if he had by throwing nine ; so that the adversary has 
 three or more of the adversary's men in his only one die to hit either of them. What are 
 tables, he would stand a worse chance to be hit. the odds of iiitting either of them ? The chances 
 When a player is running to save the gammon, of two dice being in all 36 
 
 if he should have two men upon his ace point, — 
 
 and several men abroad, although he should lose The chance to hit 6, are 6 and 2 twice 2 
 
 one point or two in putting his men into his 5 and 3 twice 2 
 
 tables, it is his interest to leave a man upon the 2 Deuces 1 
 
 adversary's ace point, because it will prevent his 2 Fours 1 
 
 adversary from bearing his men to the greatest The chances to hit 9 are 6 and 3 twice . 2 
 
 advantage, and at the same time the player will 5 and 4 twice 2 
 
 have a chance of the adversary's making a blot, 2 Trois . . . : 1 
 
 which he may chance to hit. However, if a — 
 
 player finds, upon a throw, that he has a proba- For hitting in all 11 
 
 bility of saving his gammon, he should never Chances for not hitting, remain ... 25 
 wait for a blot, as the odds are greatly against So that the odds are twenty-five to eleven 
 his hitting it, but should embrace that oppor- against hitting either of these blots, 
 
 tunity. This method may be taken to find out the 
 
 The following are directions for calculating the odds of hitting three, four, or five blots upon 
 odds of saving or winning the gammon. Sup- double dice ; or blots made upon double and 
 pose the adversary has so many men abroad as single dice at the same time. After knowing 
 requires three throws to put them into his tables, how many cliances there are to hit any of those 
 and at the same time that the player's tables are blots, they must be added altogether,, and then 
 made up, and that he has taken up one of the subtracted from the number thirty-six, which are 
 adversary's men ; in this case it is about an the chances of the two dices, and the question is 
 equal wager that the adversary is gammoned, solved. 
 
 For, in all probability, the player has borne two The laws of Backgammon are, 1. If a man 
 men before he opens his tables, and when he is taken from any point, it must be played ; if 
 bears the third man, he will be obliged to open two men are taken from it, they also must be 
 his size or cinque point. It is then probable played. 2. A man is not supposed to be played, 
 that the adversary is obliged to throw twice before till it is placed upon a point and quitted. 3. If 
 he enters his men in the player's tables, twice a player has only fourteen men in play, there is 
 more before he puts that man into his own no penalty inflicted, because by his playing 
 tables, and three throws more to put the men with a less number than he is entitled to, he 
 which are abroad into his own tables, in all plays to a disadvantage, for want of the deficient 
 seven throws. Now the player having twelve man to make up his tables. 4. If he bears any
 
 BAG 
 
 357 
 
 BAG 
 
 number of men before he has entered a man 
 taken up, and which of course he was obliged 
 to enter, such men so borne must be entered 
 again in the adversary's tables as well as ' the 
 man taken up. 5. If he has mistaken his throw 
 and played it, and his adversary has thrown, it 
 is not in the choice of either of the players to 
 alter it, unless they both agree so to do. 
 
 The probable method of prolonging a hit at 
 backgammon, affords a case of instruction, as 
 well as curiosity ; for there is a probability of 
 making the hit last by one of the players for 
 many hours, althougli they shall both play as 
 fast as usual. Suppose B to have borne thirteen 
 men, and that A has his fifteen men in B's 
 tables, viz. three men upon his size point, as 
 many upon his cinque, quatre, and trois points, 
 two upon his deuce point, and one upon his 
 ace point. A in this situation can prolong it 
 by bringing his fifteen men home, always se- 
 curing six close points till B has entered his two 
 men, and brought them upon any certain point ; 
 as soon as B has gained that point, A will open 
 an ace, deuce, or trois point, or all of them ; 
 which done, B hits one of them, and A, taking 
 care to have two or three men in B's tables, is 
 ready to hit that man ; and also he being certain 
 of taking up the other man, has it in his power 
 to prolong the hit almost to any length, provided 
 he takes care not to open such points as two 
 fours, two fives, or two si-xes, but always to 
 open the ace, deuce, or trois points, for B to hit 
 him. 
 
 We add the foMo-^ving two critical cases for a 
 back game : 1 . Suppose the fore game to be 
 played by A, and that all his men are placed as 
 usual ; B has fourteen of his men placed upon 
 his adversary's ace point, and one man upon his 
 adversary's deuce point, and B is to throw; 
 who has the best of the hit? Answer: A has 
 the best of it, gold to silver : because, if B does 
 not throw an ace to take his adversary's deuce 
 point, which is twenty-five to eleven against him, 
 A will take up B's men in his tables, either 
 singly or to make points ; and then if B secures 
 either A's deuce or trois point, A will put as 
 many men down as possible, in order to hit, and 
 thereby get a back game. It is evident that the 
 back game is very powerful ; consequently, who- 
 ever practises it must become a greater proficient 
 at the game than he could by any other means. 
 2. Suppose A to have five men placed upon his 
 size point, as many upon his quatre point, and 
 the same number upon his deuce point, all in his 
 own tables. At the same time let us suppose B 
 to have three men placed upon A's ace point, as 
 many upon A's tiois point, and the same number 
 upon A's cinque point, in his own tables, and 
 three men placed as usual out of his tables ; 
 Who has the best of the hit .' Answer : The game 
 is equal till B has gained his cinque and quatre 
 points in his own tables ; which, if he can effect, 
 and by playing two men from A's cii!<|ue point, 
 in order to force his adversary to blot by throw- 
 ing a f iiae, which, should B hit, he will have the 
 best of the hit. 
 
 BACK-HEAVER, a machine long used in 
 several parts jl England, particularly in Hamp- 
 shire, Wiltshire, and Sussex, for wmnowing corn. 
 
 An improved construction of this machine was 
 proposed by Dr. Hales in 1747, which not only 
 renders it fit for winnowing corn sooner and 
 better than by any other means hitherto used, 
 but also for clearing it of the very small corn, 
 seeds, smut-balls, &c. 
 
 BACK'HOUSF., n. s. From back and house. 
 The buildings behind the chief part of the house. 
 
 Their backhotises, of more necessary than cleanly 
 service, as kitchens, stables, are climbed up unto by 
 steps. Carew. 
 
 BACKHUYSEN (Ludolph), an eminent 
 painter, born at Embden, in 1631, wiio received 
 his earliest instruction from Albert \'an Ever- 
 dingen ; but acquired his principal knowledge 
 by frequenting the painting rooms of different 
 masters. One of these was Henry Dubbels, 
 whose skill in his art was great ; and he was 
 equally communicative of his knowledge to 
 others. From him Backhuysen obtained more 
 benefit than from all the painters of his time. 
 His subjects were sea-pieces, ships, and sea-ports. 
 He had not practised long when he became the 
 object of general admiration ; so that his draw- 
 ings were sought after, and several of them were 
 bought up at 100 florins. He studied nature at- 
 tentively in all her forms ; in gales, calms, storms, 
 clouds, rocks, skies, lights, and shadows ; and 
 expressed every subject with so sweet a pencil, 
 and such transparence and lustre, as placed him 
 above all the artists of his time, except the 
 younger V'andervelde. It was a frequent custom 
 with Backhuysen, whenever he co'jld procur.: 
 resolute mariners, to go to sea in a storm, to 
 store his mind with images directly copied from 
 nature ; and the moment he landed, impatiently 
 to run to his palletteto delineate those incidents of 
 which the traces might, by delay, be obliterated. 
 He perfectly understood the management of the 
 Chiaro-scuro, and, by his skill in that part of his 
 art, gave uncommon force and beauty to his ob- 
 jects. His works may easily be distinguished by 
 the freedom and neatness of his touch, the clear- 
 ness and natural agitation or quiescence of the 
 water, a peculiar tint in his clouds and skies, 
 and the exact proportions of his ships. He 
 painted, for the Burgomasters of Amsterdam, 
 a large view of the city, for which they gave him 
 1300 guilders, and afterwards presented it to the 
 king of France. No i)ainter was ever more 
 honored by the visits of kings and princes thai» 
 Backhuysen ; the king of Prussia was one of the 
 number ; and Peter the Great often endeavoured 
 to draw after vessels which he had designed. 
 He died in 1709. 
 
 BACKING. See Horsemanshu'. 
 Backing Warrants, in law, denotes tlie 
 signing of such as have been issued by a justice 
 of the peace in one county, by a justice of the 
 peace in anotlier, which is necessary before they 
 can be executed there. This practice is authorised 
 by statutes 23 Geo. II. c. 26. and 24 Geo. II. 
 c. 55. 
 
 BACKNANG, a town in the kingdom of Wir- 
 temberg, circle of Heilbroim, and district of the 
 Lower Neckar. It li' s oii the Murr, and con- 
 tains 3020 inhabitanls many of whom are 
 woollen-wea-vers and tanners. Elight miles east 
 of ]\I.trbah, and twelve norih-east of Slutgard.
 
 BAC 
 
 358 
 
 BAC 
 
 BACK-PAINTING, t!:e method of painting 
 rnezzotinto prints, pasted on glass, with oil-colors. 
 See Mezzotikto. It consists chiefly in laying 
 the print upon a piece of crown-glass, of such a 
 size as fits it. To do this, the print should be 
 laid in clean water for two days and nights, if 
 the print be on very strong, close, and hard 
 gummed paper ; but if upon an open, so^t, 
 spungy paper, two hours, or more, will some- 
 times suffice. The paper or picture having been 
 sufficiently soaked, take it out and lay it upon 
 two sheets of paper, and cover it with two more ; 
 and let it lie there a little to draw out the mois- 
 ture. In the mean time, take the glass the pic- 
 ture is to be put upon, and set it near the fire to 
 warm ; take Strasburg turpentine, warm it over 
 the fire till it is grown fluid, then, with a hog's- 
 hair brush, 'spread the turpentine very smoothly 
 and evenly on the glass. Then take the mezzo- 
 tinto print from between the papers, and lay it 
 upon the glass; beginning first at one end, rub- 
 bing it down gently till it lie close, and there be 
 no wind bladders between. After this rub or 
 roll off" the paper from the back of the print, till 
 it looks black, i. e. till nothing appears but the 
 print, like a thin film left upon the glass, and set 
 it aside to dry. Then varnish it over with some 
 white transparent varnish, that the print may be 
 seen through it; and it is then fit for painting. 
 The utmost care is necessary in rubbing or rolling 
 the paper off" the print so as not to tear it, es- 
 pecially in the light parts. Or the prints, instead 
 of being soaked, maybe rolled up and boiled for 
 about two hours, more or less, according to the 
 quality of the paper ; and that will render it as 
 fit for rubbing, rolling or peeling, as the other 
 method. This being done, and the oil-colors 
 prepared, ground very fine, and tempered up 
 very stiff", lay on the back of the transparent 
 prints such colors as each part requires ; letting 
 the master-lines of the print still guide the pen- 
 cil ; and thus each particular color will lie fair to 
 the eye on the other side of the glass, and almost 
 as well as a painted piece, if it be done neatly. 
 The shadows of the print are generally sufficient 
 for the shadow of every color ; but if it is wished 
 to give a shadow by the pencil, let the shadows 
 be laid on first, and the other colors afterwards. 
 In this kind of back-painting it is not necessary 
 to lay on the colors very smooth. As the chief 
 aim is to have the colors appear well on the fore- 
 side of the print, all that is necessary is to lay 
 the colors on thick enough, that its body may 
 strike the color of it plainly through the glass. 
 
 BACK'PIECE, 7J. s. From back and piece. 
 The piece of armour which covers the back. 
 
 The morning that he was to join battle, his ar- 
 mourer put on his backpiece before, and his breast- 
 plate behind. Camden. 
 
 BACK-QUADRANT, the same with Back- 
 staff. See Quadrant. 
 
 BACK RIVER, a river of Maryland, which 
 runs into the Chesapeake. 
 
 BACK'ROOM, 71. s. From back and room. 
 A room behind ; not in the front. 
 
 If you have a fair prospect backwards of gardens. 
 It may be convenient to make hackroums the larger. 
 Mox. Mech. Exercises, 
 
 BACKS, amofig dealers in leather, denote the 
 thickest and best tanned hides, used chiefly for 
 soles of shoes. 
 
 BACK'SIDE, n. s. From back and side. 
 The hinder part of any thing ; the hind part of 
 an animal ; the yard or ground behind a house. 
 
 If the quicksilver were rubbed from the backside of 
 the speculum, the glass would cause the same rings 
 of colours, but more faint ; the phaenomena depend 
 not upon the quicksilver, unless so far as it increases 
 the reflection of the backside of the glass. Newton. 
 
 A poor ant carries a grain of corn, climbing up a 
 wall with her head downwards and her backside up- 
 wards. Addison. 
 
 The wash of pastures, fields, commons, roads, 
 streets, or backsides, are of great advantage to all 
 sorts of land. 3Iortimer. 
 
 BACK-SINEWS of a Horse, the extensor 
 tendons of the foot, placed behind the fore-leg, 
 and very frequently injured by over-exertion. 
 The inflammation hereby produced is best re- 
 moved in the first instance by emollient and 
 astringent cataplasms. 
 
 BACK'SLIDE, u.n. "^ From back and slide. 
 Back'slider, n. s. >To retrograde in reli- 
 Back'sliding. J gion. Exclusively a 
 
 scriptural and theological term. Its precise 
 signification, as employed by divines, is not apos- 
 tacy as stated by Dr. Johnson, but a tendency 
 to it. It supposes a religious profession ad- 
 vanced to a state of spirituality and consistency, 
 and a receding from that state in a greater or 
 less degree in principle or practice : but it does 
 not amount to a total abandonment of either. 
 
 The backslider in his heart shall be filled with his 
 
 own ways. Solomon. 
 
 Tliy backsliding shall reprove thee. JeremiaJi. 
 
 Remember thy backslidings from me ; lament over 
 
 them': confess them before me ; and look to God to 
 
 ena .le thee to take thy steps with more firmness, and 
 
 to offer up thy prayers with more spirituality. Cecil. 
 
 BACK'STAFF, n. s. From back and staff"; 
 
 because in taking an observation, the observer's 
 
 back is turned toward the sun. An instrument 
 
 useful in taking the sun's altitude at sea. It 
 
 was sometimes called Davis's quadrant, from its 
 
 inventor, captain John Davis, a Welchman, and 
 
 a celebrated navigator, who produced it about 
 
 the year 1590. 
 
 This instrument consists of two concentric 
 arches of box-wood, and three vanes : the arch of 
 the longer radius is of 30^, and the other 60°, 
 making between them 90°, or a quadrant : also 
 the vane at the centre is called the horizon-vane, 
 that on the arch of 60° tlie shade-vane, and that 
 on the other arch the sight-vane. It is unneces- 
 sary to give a more minute description, since 
 more complete and accurate instruments have 
 entirely superseded the use of this. 
 
 BACK'STAIRS, n. s. From back and stairs. 
 The private stairs in the house. 
 
 I condemn the practice which hath lately crept into 
 the court at the backstairs, that some pricked for 
 sheriffs get out of the bill. Bacon. 
 
 BACK'STAYS, n. s. From back and stay- 
 Ropes or stays which keep the masts of a ship 
 from pitching forward or overboard. 
 
 The Backstays, Fr. galhaubans, are long 
 ropes extending from the top-mast-heads to 
 the starboard and larboard sides of the ,'ship, 
 where they are farther extended to the channels ;
 
 BAG 
 
 359 
 
 BAG 
 
 they are used lo second the efforts of the 
 shrouds, in supporting the masts, when strained 
 by a weight of sail in a fresh wind. 
 
 They are usually distinguished into breast- 
 backstays and after-backstays ; the intent of 
 the first being to sustain the mast when the ship 
 sails upon a wind ; or, in other terms, when the 
 wind acts upon the ship sideways; the second is 
 to enable her to carry sail when the wind is 
 further aft; and the tliird kind take their name 
 from being shifted or changed from one side to 
 the other, as occasion requires. There are also 
 backstays for the top-gallant-masts, in large 
 ships, which are fixed in the same manner with 
 those of the top-masts. 
 
 A pair of backstays is usually formed of one 
 rope, which is doubled in the middle, and fis- 
 tened there so as to form an eye, which passes 
 over the mast-head, from whence the two ends 
 hang do\\-n, and are stretched to the channels, 
 by dead-eyes and lanyards. See the article 
 Dead-eyes, &c. 
 
 Backstay Stool, a short piece of plank, 
 fitted for the security of the dead-eyes, and 
 chains for the backstays, though sometimes the 
 channels are left long enough at the after end, for 
 the backstays to be fitted thereto. 
 
 BA'CKSWORD, n. s. From back and sword. 
 A sword with one sharp edge. 
 
 Bull dreaded not old^Lewis at backsword. 
 
 Arhuthnot. 
 
 BACK Tack, in Scots law, a lease granted by 
 a wadsetter, or heritable creditor, who, instead 
 of possessing the wadset-lands, grants a tack 
 thereof to the reverser or heritable debtor, for 
 payment of a certain sura in name of tack duty. 
 
 BACK'WARD, n.s. adv. & adj.-\ From back. 
 
 Back' WARDS, (^and peafib, 
 
 Back'wardly, adv. i Sax. that is. 
 
 Backwardness, n.s. Jtowardsthe 
 
 back ; contrary to forward. Backward, as an 
 adverb, denotes simply the manner of going; 
 and is distinguished from back, thus : a person 
 stands back who does not wish to be in the way ; 
 he goes backward when he does not wish to turn 
 his back on an object. As an adjective, its mean- 
 ing is unwilling, or averse. And hence it is 
 often used in the sense of hesitating, dilatory. 
 Slow in apprehension, and in growth. The sub- 
 stantives take their literal and figurative meaning 
 from the adverb and the adjective. 
 
 They went backward, and their faces were back- 
 ward. Genesis. 
 All things are ready, if our minds be so : 
 
 Perish the man whose mind is backward now. 
 
 Sltakspeare. 
 
 It should seem then, that Dobbin's tail grows back- 
 ward. Id. 
 What seest thou else 
 
 In the dark backward or abysm of time ? Id. 
 
 The monstrous sight 
 
 Struck them with horror backward ; but far worse 
 
 Urg'd them behind. Milton. 
 
 Then darting fire from her malignant eyes. 
 
 She cast him backward as he strove to rise. 
 
 Dry den. 
 
 We are strangely backward to lay hold of this safe, 
 this only method of cure. Atterbury. 
 
 The thing by which we are apt to excuse our back- 
 wardness to good works, is tlie ill-success that hath 
 been observed to attend well-designing charities. Id. 
 Cities laid waste, they storm 'd the dens and caves ; 
 For wiser brutes are backward to he slaves. Pupe 
 
 Our mutability makes the friends of our natiun 
 backward to engage with us in alliances. Addison, 
 
 It often falls out that the backward learner makes 
 amends another way. .- South. 
 
 To prove the possibility of a thing, there is no ar- 
 gument to that which looks backwards ; for what has 
 been done or suffered may certainly be done or suffer- 
 ed again. . Id. 
 Like Numid lions by the hunters chas'd, 
 
 Though they do fly, yet backwardly do go 
 
 With proud aspect, disdaining greater haste. 
 
 Sidney. 
 
 The mind is backward to undergo the fatigue of 
 weighing every argument. Watts. 
 
 BACK-WORM. See Filanders. 
 
 BACO, a town of INIindoro, one of the Philip- 
 pines, the capital of the island, and residence o. 
 a Spanish judge. The environs are well watered 
 by springs from the mountains, which are covered 
 by sarsaparilla. Long. 121° 5' E., lat. 13" 18' N. 
 
 Baco, in old Latin, a fat hog. 
 
 BACOBA, in botany, a name by which some 
 authors call the banana tree, or musa fructu 
 breviori. 
 
 BACON (Anthony), the son of Sir Nicolas, and 
 elder brother to tlie celebrated lord chancellor, 
 was born in 1558, and educated at Cambridge. 
 He spent much of his time in travelling, and thus 
 became personally acquainted with most of the 
 literati of his age. In 1579, at the age of twenty- 
 one, he went to Paris, where he resided for some 
 time ; and thence to Bourges and Geneva, where 
 lie lodged at the house of the celebrated Theodore 
 Beza. From Geneva he successively removed 
 to Montpelier, Marseilles, Bourdeaux, and Mont- 
 aubon, tometimes communicating intelligence of 
 importance to England. In 1585 he visited 
 Henry, king of Navarre, afterwards the great 
 Henry IV. of France, who was then at Beam ; 
 and became acquainted with the learned Lam- 
 bert Danaus, who, as a mark of esteem, dedicated 
 several of his works to him. ■ His health failing, 
 he returned to England in February, 1591-2 ; 
 and in 1595 took up his residence at Essex house, 
 where he carried on a most extensive corres- 
 pondence with the foreign literati, and among 
 others with king Henry IV. The time and 
 place of his death is uncertain. 
 
 Bacox (Francis), lord high chancellor of 
 England, under king James I. was son of Sir 
 Nicholas Bacon, by Anne, daughter of Sir An- 
 thony Cook, eminent for her skill in Latin and 
 Greek. He was born in 1650; and showed such 
 marks of genius that he was taken notice of by 
 Queen Elizabeth when very young. He was 
 educated at Trinity college, Cambridge ; and 
 made such progress in his studies, that, before 
 he was sixteen, he had not only traversed the 
 whole circle of the liberal arts as tlien taught, 
 but began to perceive those imperfections in the 
 reigning philosophy which he afterwards so ef- 
 fectually exposed. On his leaving the univer- 
 sity his father sent him to France; where, before 
 he was nineteen years of age, he wrote a geneial 
 view of the state of Europe : but Sir Nicholas
 
 360 
 
 BACON. 
 
 dying, he was obliged suddenly to return to 
 England, when he applied himself to the study 
 of the common law, at Gray's-Inn. At this 
 period the famous Earl of Essex, who could dis- 
 tinguish merit, entered into intimate friendship 
 with him; zealously attempted, though without 
 success, to procure him the office of queen's 
 solicitor ; and, in order to comfort his friend under 
 the disappointment, conferred on him a present 
 of land to the value of £l800. Bacon, notwith- 
 standing the Earl's friendship, and even the early 
 
 several of his domestics were sitting, upon iheir 
 rising up to salute liim, he said, ' Sit down, my 
 masters ; your rise hath been my fall.' And we 
 are told by Rushworth, in his historical collec- 
 tions, ' that he treasured up nothing for himself 
 or family, but was over-indulgent to his servants, 
 and connived at their takings : they were profuse 
 and expensive, and had at their command what- 
 ever he was master of. Tlie gifts taken were for 
 the most part for interlocutory orders. His de- 
 crees being generally made with so much equity. 
 
 prepossession of her majesty in his favor, met that though gifts rendered him suspected of in 
 with many obstacles to his preferment during her justice, yet never any decree made by him was 
 
 reign. His enemies represented him as a specu- 
 lative man, whose head was filled with philo- 
 sophical notions, and therefore more likely to 
 perplex than forward public business. It was 
 with great difficulty that lord treasurer Burleigh 
 obtained for him the reversion of register to the 
 star chamber, worth about £l600 a-year, which 
 only fell to him about twenty years after. He 
 did ;not obtain any other preferments from 
 queen Elizabeth; though, if obedience to .l 
 sovereign in the most disagreeable of all offices, 
 viz. the casting reflections on a deceased friend, 
 entitled him, he might have claimed it. The 
 people were so clamorous, even against the queen 
 herself, on the death of Essex, that it was thought 
 necessary to vindicate the conduct of the adminis- 
 tration ; and to Bacon was assigned this disgrace- 
 ful task. Upon the accession of James he was 
 soon raised to considerable honors ; and wrote in 
 favor of the union of the two kingdoms of Scot- 
 land and England. In 1616 he was sworn of 
 the privy council. lie then applied himself to 
 the reducing and recomposing the laws of England. 
 
 reversed as unjust.' It was peculiar to this great 
 man (say the authors of the Biog. Brit.) to have 
 nothing narrow and selfish in his composition : 
 he gave away without concern whatever he pos- 
 sessed ; and believing other men of the same 
 mould, he received with as little consideration. 
 He retired, after a short imprisonment, from the 
 engagements of an active liCe, to the shade of a 
 contemplative one, which he had always loved. 
 The king remitted his fine, and he was sum- 
 moned to parliament in the first year of Ring 
 Charles I. In his recess he composed the greatest 
 part of his English and Latin works, and it ap- 
 pears from them that his thoughts were still free, 
 vigorous, and noble. The last three years of his 
 life he devoted wholly to his studies. He died 
 in 1626; and was buried in St. Michael's church 
 at St. Albans, where a monument of white mar- 
 ble was erected to him by Sir Thomas Meautvs', 
 formerly his secretary. A complete edition of 
 his works was published at London in 1740. 
 Addison has said of him, that he had the sound, 
 distinct, comprehensive, knowledge of Aristotle, 
 
 When attorney-general, he distinguished himself with all the beautiful light graces and embellisii- 
 
 ments of Cicero. Mr. Walpole calls him tlie 
 prophet of arts, which Newton was afterwards 
 to reveal ; and adds, that his genius and his 
 works will be universally admired as long as 
 science exists. We must add, from another 
 writer, with regret, * as long as ingratitude and 
 adulation are despicable, so long shall we lament 
 he was advanced to the dignity of the depravity of this great man's heart. Alas ! 
 
 that he, who could command immorUxl fame, 
 should have stooped to the little ambition of 
 power.' 
 
 If parts allui-e thee, think how Bacon shin'd ; 
 The Nvisest, brightest, meanest of mankind. Pope. 
 
 by his endeavours to restrain duelling, then very 
 frequent. In 161 7 he was appointed lord keeper 
 of the great seal; and, in 1618, lord chancellor 
 of England, and created Lord \'erulam. In the 
 midst of these honors, and the multiplicity of 
 business, he forgot not his philosophy, but in 
 1620 published his great work Novum Organum. 
 In 1621 
 
 Viscount St. Albans, and appeared with great 
 splendor at the opening of the session of parlia- 
 ment ; but soon after met with a severe reverse of 
 fortune. For about the twelfth of March, a com- 
 mittee of the house of commons being appointed 
 to inspect the abuses of courts of justice, the 
 chancellor was openly accused of corruption, and 
 the king is said to have positively enjoined him 
 to submit to his peers, promising to reward him 
 afterwards ! The chancellor, though he fore- 
 saw his approaching ruin if he did not plead for 
 himself, resolved to obey ; and the house of peers, 
 on the 3d of May, 1621, gave judgment against 
 him, ' that he should be fined £40,000, and re- 
 main prisoner in the tower during the king's 
 pleasure ; should for ever be incapable of any 
 office, place, or employment in the state, and 
 that he s'.iould never sit in parliament, or come 
 within the verge of the court.' The fault which, 
 next to his ingratitude to Essex, thus tarnislied 
 the glory of this illustrious man, is said to have 
 principally j)ioceeded from his indulgence to liis 
 servants, \vlio made a corrupt use of it. One day, 
 during Ids trial, passing through a room where 
 
 Bacon (Robert), a divine of the thirteenth 
 century, was born about 1168. He studied at 
 Oxford, where he distinguished himself by tlie 
 quickness of his parts. Thence, according to the 
 custom of that age, he removed to Paris, where 
 he perfected himself in all the branches of learn- 
 ing. After his return he settled at Oxford, and 
 read divinity lectures. In 12-33 he was made 
 treasurer of the cathedral church of Salisbury ; 
 and distinguished himself by a sermon before 
 king Henry III. at Oxford. In 1240 he lost his 
 great patron and intimate friend, Edmund, arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury, and possibly this circum- 
 stance, joined to his love of a retired life, might 
 induce Bacon, though very old, to enter into the 
 order of I'riars Preaciiers. In gratitude to the 
 archbishop, Bacon wrote his life, which was
 
 BACON. 
 
 361 
 
 highly esteemed. He wrote also many other 
 learned pieces, and died in 1248. 
 
 Bacon (Ilo^er), a Franciscan friar of surprising 
 genius and learning; bom near Uchester in Somer- 
 setshire, in 1214. He studied first at Oxford, and 
 afterwards at Paris, whicn, in those times, was 
 esteemed the centre of literature. Here lie made 
 so rapid a progress in the sciences, that he was 
 esteemed the glory of that university, and much 
 caressed by several of his countrymen, particu- 
 larly Robert Grouthead, afterwards bishop of 
 Lincoln, his friend and patron. About 1240 
 lie returned to Oxford, and, assuming the Fran- 
 ciscan habit, ])ro"secuted experimental philoso- 
 phy, with unremitting ardor. In this pursuit, 
 in experiments, instruments, and in scarce books, 
 he tells us, he spent, in the space of twenty years, 
 no less than £2000, which was given him by 
 some of the heads of the university. But such 
 extraordinary talents, and his astonishing progress 
 in sciences, which, in that ignorant age, were 
 totally unknown to the rest of mankind, wliilst 
 they raised the admiration of the more intelligent 
 few, could not fail to excite the envy and 
 malice of liis illiterate fraternity ; who found no 
 difficulty in propagating the notion of Bacon's 
 dealing with the devil. Under this pretence, he 
 was restrained from reading lectures ; his writings 
 were confined to his convent; and, in 1278, he 
 liimself was imprisoned in his cell. At this time 
 he was sixty-four years of age. Nevertheless, 
 being permitted the use of his books, he went on 
 in the rational pursuit of knowledge, corrected 
 his former labors, and wrote several curious 
 pieces. When he had been ten years in con- 
 finement, Jerome de Ascoli being elected pope, 
 Bacon solicited his holiness to be released ; and 
 towards the end of that pope's reign, obtained 
 his liberty. He spent tlie remainder of his life 
 in the college of his order, where he died in 
 1294, in the eightieth year of his age, and was 
 buried in the Franciscan church. Such are the 
 few particulars, which the most diligent re- 
 searches have been able to discover concerning 
 this very great man ; who, like a single bright 
 star in a dark hemispliere, shone forth in an age 
 of ignorance and superstition, the light and glory 
 of his country. His works are : 1. Epistola fra- 
 tris Rogeri Baconis, de Secretis Operibus Artis et 
 Natura:, et deNullitate Magia. Paris, 1542, 4to. 
 Basil, 1593, 8vo. 2. Opus Majus. Lond. 1733, 
 fol. published by Dr. Jebb. 3. Thesaurus Che- 
 micus. Francf. 1603, 1620. This was probably 
 the editor's title ; but it contains several of our 
 author's treatises on this subject. There are 
 said to remain in different libraries several ma- 
 nuscripts of his not yet published. 
 
 Bacon (Sir Nathaniel), K. B. and an excellent 
 painter, was a younger son of Sir Nicholas, and 
 iialf brother to the great Francis Bacon. He 
 studied painting in Italy ; but his manner and 
 colorinjj approaches nearer to the style of the 
 Flemish school. Mr. Walpole observes, that 
 at CuUord, where he lived, are preserved 
 some of his works; and at Gorhambury, his 
 father's seat, is a large picture by him in oil, 
 of a cook-maid wiili a dead fowl, admirably 
 painted. In the same house is a whole length 
 of him, by himself, drawn on paper, his sword 
 
 and pallet hung up, and a half length of his 
 mother by him. 
 
 Bacon (Sir Nicholas), lord keeper of the great 
 seal in the reign of (jueen Elizabeth, was born at 
 Chislehurst in Kent, 1510, and educated at Cam- 
 bridge; after which he travelled into France 
 and visited Paris. On his return, he settled in 
 Gray's Inn, and quickly distinguished himself so 
 much, that on the dissolution of the monastery 
 of St. Edmund's Bury, in Suffolk, he had a grant 
 from king Henry VIII. of several manors. Two 
 years after he was made attorney in the court 
 of Wards, a place both of honor and profit. In 
 this office he was continued by Edward \'I. and 
 in 1552 he was elected treasurer of Gray's Inn. 
 His great moderation and consunmiate prudence 
 preserved him through the dangerous reign of 
 queen Mary. In the very dawn of that of Eliza- 
 beth he was knighted; and in 1558, the great 
 seal of England being taken from archbishop 
 Heath, was delivered to him witli the title of 
 lord keeper, and he was made one of the queen's 
 privy council. He had a considerable share in 
 the settling of religion : as a statesman he was 
 remarkable for a clear head and deep counsels : 
 but his great parts and high preferment were far 
 from raising him in his own opinion, as appears 
 from the modest answer he gave queen Elizabeth 
 when she told him his house at Red-grave was 
 too little for him : 'Not so, madam,' returned he, 
 ' your majesty has made me too great for ray 
 house.' After having held the great seal more 
 than twenty years, tliis able statesman and faith- 
 ful counsellor met with his death by falling 
 asleep in his room with a window open, and the 
 current of fresh air blowing in upon him. He 
 awoke very ill, and was immediately removed 
 into his bed-chamber, where he died in a few 
 days, i. e. on the 26th of February, 1578-9. He 
 was buried in St. Paul's, where a monument was 
 erected to him, which was destroyed by the fire 
 in 1666. Sir Nicholas was the first lord keeper 
 that ranked as lord chancellor. He was twice 
 married ; by his first wife he had three sons and 
 three daughters ; and hy his second, two sons, 
 Anthony and Francis. Sir Nicholas left several 
 manuscripts, which have never been printed. 
 
 Bacon (John), an ingenious sculptor, bom in 
 Southwark in 1740. He very early manifested 
 an inclination for drawing, which was encou- 
 raged by binding him as an apprentice to a 
 manufacturer of china, at Lambeth, when about 
 fifteen years of age. Here a considerable part of 
 his employment was to paint on porcelain, in 
 which he improved himself so much, in forming 
 small ornamental pieces, that within two years 
 all tlie models of the manufactory were committed 
 to him. This situation also afforded him an 
 opportunity of seeing various models executed 
 by other artists, which were sent to a neighbour- 
 ing potter)' to be burnt. In 1758 he obtained a 
 premium from the society for the encouragement 
 of the arts, for a small figure of Peace, after the 
 manner of the antique ; and eight different pre- 
 miums afterwards for other figures. Before his 
 apprenticeship was out, he formed a design of 
 making statues in artificial stone, which he 
 afterwards perfected, ;md \\hich is still carried 
 on in a manufactory in the New Road, with sue-
 
 362 
 
 BACON. 
 
 cess. He first began to work in marble about 
 1763, and soon invented an instrument for 
 ^transferring the form of the model to the marble 
 (getting out the points as artists call it), which 
 other sculptors have since adopted. In 1769 he 
 received the first gold medal bestowed by the 
 Royal Society, and next year was chosen an 
 associate. The exhibition of his statue of ^lars 
 greatly increased his reputation ; and Dr. Mark- 
 faam, since archbishop of York, employed him to 
 make a bust of the king^ to be placed in the hall 
 of Christ Church College, Oxford. While he 
 was modelling this bust, his majesty asked him 
 ' if he had ever been out of the kingdom;' and 
 receiving an answer in the negative, said, ' I am 
 glad of it, you will be the greater honor to it.' 
 By the execution of this work he obtained the 
 royal patronage, and was employed to form 
 another for the University of Gottingen. In 1777 
 he was engaged in preparing a model of a moau- 
 ment, to be erected in Guy's hospital to the me- 
 mory of the founder, which he executed in such 
 a manner, as recommended him to that of Lord 
 Chatham, at Guildhall. In 1778 he became a 
 royal academician, and finished a handsome mo- 
 nument to the memory of Mrs. Draper, which is 
 in Bristol cathedral. From this period, his works 
 are so numerous, that we can only mention a 
 few of the principal : — Two groups for the top 
 of Somerset-house ; a statue of Judge Blackstone, 
 for All Soul's College, Oxford ; another of Henry 
 VI. for Eton College ; Lord Chatham's monu- 
 ment in Westminster Abbey ; and Dr. Johnson's 
 and Mr. Howard's in St. Paul's cathedral. He 
 died of an inflammation in his bowels, in 1799, and 
 left a widow and eight children. He was a man 
 of most excellent character, and of his religious 
 principles, let the inscription which he ordered 
 to be placed over his grave testify : ' What I was 
 as an artist, seemed to me of some importance 
 while I lived; but what I really was, as a be- 
 liever in Christ Jesus is the only thing of import- 
 ance to me now.' Mr. Bacon also possessed 
 respectable literary talents. 
 
 Ba con, n. s. probably from baken, that is, 
 dried flesh. The flesh of a hog salted and 
 dried. 
 
 No wine ne drank she, neyther -white ne red. 
 Hire bord was served most with white and black 
 Milk, and brown bred, in which she fond no lack, 
 Seinde bacon, and sometime an ey or twey ; 
 For she was as it were a manner dey ! 
 
 When it had stabbed or broke a head. 
 It would scrape trenchers or chip bread ; 
 Toast cheese or bacon, tho' it were 
 To bait a mouse-trap it would not care. 
 
 Hudibras. 
 High o'er the hearth a chine of bacon hung. 
 Good old Philemon seized it with a prong. 
 Then cut a slice. Dryden. 
 
 Bacon, the flesh of swine, salted, diied, 
 and generally, in this country, smoked. It is 
 considerable article of commerce : we shall de- 
 scribe the most approved methods of preserving 
 it ; viz. that adopted in Somersetshire. The last 
 three months of the year are selected as best 
 adapted for curing bacon here. When a hog is 
 killed for bacon, the sides are laid in large 
 wooden troughs, and sprinkled all over with bay 
 salt; thus they are left for twenty-four hours, to 
 
 drain away the blood and the superfluous juices. 
 After this first preparation, they should be taken 
 out, wiped very dry, and the drainings thrown 
 away. Next some .fresh bay-salt, well heated in 
 a large iron frying-pan, is to be rubbed over the 
 meat, until it has absorbed a sufficient quantity, 
 and this friction repeated four successive days, 
 while the meat is turned only every other day. 
 If large hogs are killed, the flitches should be 
 kept in brine for tliree weeks, and, during that 
 period, turned ten times, then taken out, and 
 thoroughly dried in the usual manner; for, unless 
 they be thus managed, it is impossible to pre- 
 serve tliem in a sweet state, nor will their flavor 
 be equal to those properly cured. 
 
 As the preservation of the salt used in this 
 process, when carried on to a great extent, may 
 be an object of economy, the following method 
 may be adopted for recovering the saline matter 
 contained in these drainings, or in any other 
 brine ; it was commimicated by a person who 
 had seen it practised on the continent, where 
 culinary salt is sold at a considerable price. He 
 first added such a quantity of boiling-water, to 
 the brine or drainings, as was sufficient to dis- 
 solve all the particles of the salt. This solution 
 he then placed in either an iron or earthen ves- 
 sel, over a fire, wliich, by boiling, forced all the 
 feculent animal particles to the top, so that they 
 were carefully removed by a perforated ladle. 
 After the liquid Iiad become clear, it was set 
 aside for twenty-four hours, in a cool place, that 
 the coloring matter might subside. But, as the 
 combination it had formed with the boiled liquor 
 was very tenacious, he contrived two different 
 ways of separating it : 1. A solution of alum in 
 water, one pint to an ounce of that substance 
 was gradually dropt into the cold liquor, in the 
 proportion of a table-spoonful of the former to 
 every gallon of the latter; and the whole allowed 
 to stand for several hours ; or, 2. If time and 
 circumstances would permit, he filtered the liquor 
 by means of long flannel slips, cut longitudinally 
 by the web, but previously soaked in another 
 strong and perfectly clear solution of salt ; these 
 slips were so immersed into the colored fluid 
 that the projecting external end reached another 
 vessel, which had been placed much lower than 
 that containing the brine, or dramings. When 
 these particulars were properly attended to, the 
 absorbed liquor became almost colorless, and 
 pellucid. Having thus procured a clear liquid 
 solution, nothing more was required than to 
 evaporate it to dryness, in order to reproduce 
 the salt in its original granulated form. This 
 process may be imitated without any difficulty, 
 and at very little expense. Dr. M illich, from 
 whose Domestic Encyclopaedia we now quote, 
 says, the second method of discharging the color 
 is preferable ; as by this no alum will be re- 
 quired, which only contaminates the salt. 
 
 Bacon, the service oe the, a custom, men- 
 tioned by our old historians and law-writers ; as 
 well as in the Spectator, as held in the manor of 
 Whichenacre in Staffordshire, and in the priory 
 of Dunnow in Essex. In the former of these 
 places, by an ancient grant of the lord, a flitcli 
 of bacon, with half a quarter of wheat, was to be 
 given to every married couple who could swear 
 tliat, having been married a year and a day, they
 
 BAG 
 
 363 
 
 BAO 
 
 would never within tliat time have once ex- 
 chanrjed their mate for any other person on 
 earth, however richer, fairer, or the like. But 
 they were to bring two of their neighbours with 
 them to attest that they swore the truth. On this 
 the lord of another neighbouring manor of Rud- 
 low, was to find a horse, saddled, and a sack to 
 carry the bounty in, with drums and trumpets, 
 as far as a day's journey out of the manor; all 
 the servants being summoned to attend, and pay 
 ser\ice to the bacon. The bacon of Duimiow, 
 first erected under Henry III. was on much the 
 same footing ; but the tenor of the oath was only 
 that the parties had never once repented their 
 connexion, or wished themselves unmarried 
 again. 
 
 Bacon, a town of Persia, in the province of 
 Seistan, eighty miles N. N. E. of Zareng. 
 
 Bacon, a town on the east coast of the island 
 of Luf on. 
 
 Bacon's Island, a small island in the Chi- 
 nese Sea. Long. 113° 5' E., lat. 11° 13' N. 
 
 BACON-FOSSIL, in modern chemistry, a 
 singular fossil discovered in the parish of Cruwj-s- 
 Morchard, Devon, a few years since, in the fol- 
 lowing manner : — Some workmen, in sinking a 
 pond, had arrived at a depth of ten ft^et from the 
 surface, when they struck upon a spongy sub- 
 stance, which appeared to be a very thick cuticle 
 of a brown color : they soon found pieces of 
 bone and solid fat of the same hue. At length 
 the entire body of a hog was extricated, reduced 
 to the color and substance of an Egyptian 
 mummy : the flesh was six inches thick, and tlie 
 hair upon it very long and elastic. On proceed- 
 ing in the work, a considerable number of hogs, 
 of various sizes, were found in different posi- 
 tions ; in some places two or three together, in 
 others singly ; the bodies, when exposed to the 
 air, still retained their consistency, and the 
 stratum, continued for twelve feet; after which 
 the pond, being sufficiently deep, was filled with 
 water. The ground was never known to have 
 been broken up before; but here had formerly 
 been a monastery of Augustine friars. The fa- 
 mily which preceded the present possessor has 
 a journal of all remarkable events which have 
 occurred in the parish during three centuries; 
 but there was no entry which could lead to a so- 
 lution of the phenomenon. The Rev. Mr. Pol- 
 whele, wbo obtained a specimen, mentions, in 
 his History of Devon, that the bed in which the 
 fossils lay was of stiff clay. He describes the 
 piece in his possession to be very light, some- 
 what spongy^, mottled like mottled soap, and 
 evidently of a sebaceous nature. On a slight 
 chemical analysis, it was mostly soluble in 
 spirit of wine, while hot; but separated into 
 white flakes on cooling, in which it resembles 
 spermaceti ; but it was easily convertible into 
 soap on being Ijoiled in a fixed alkaline lixivium. 
 ' It is certainly,' he says, ' an animal substance; 
 and, if I may form any judgment from a large 
 specimen which I immediately procured, I think 
 I may safely pronounce it to have been originally 
 hog's-flesh.' 
 
 BACONGEN, a town on the west coast of 
 the island of Sumatra. Long. 96° 58' E., lat. 
 2" 52' N. 
 
 BACONO, a river of the Caraccas, South 
 America. It runs in the mountains near Trux- 
 illo, and serves as a line of demarcation to the 
 provinces of Varinas and Venezuela. Thence 
 passing through the plains, it enters tiie Oua- 
 nare, which discharges its waters into the Por- 
 tugueza. There is a settlement of the same name 
 near its source. 
 
 BACONTHORPE, or Bacondorp (John\ 
 styled the resolute doctor, a learned monk, boi n 
 in the thirteenth century at Baconsthorp, in 
 Norfolk. He spent the early part of his life in 
 the convent of Blackney, near Walsingham; 
 whence he removed to Oxford, and thence to 
 Paris ; where he obtained degrees in divinity and 
 law, and was esteemed the principal of the Aver- 
 roists. In 1329. he returned to England, and 
 was chosen twelfth provincial of the English 
 Carmelites. In 1333 he was sent for to Rome; 
 where, we are told, he first maintained the pope's 
 sovereign authority in cases of divorce, but that 
 he aftei-wards retracted his opinion. He died in 
 London in 134G, with the character of a monk of 
 genius and learning. He wrote, 1. Commenta- 
 ria seu Qutestiones super QuatuorLibrosSenten- 
 tiarum; and 2. Compendium Legis Christi, et 
 quodlibeta: both which underwent several edi- 
 tions at Paris, Milan, and Cremona. Leland, 
 Bale, and Pits, mention a number of his works 
 never published. 
 
 BACOPA, in botany, a genus of plants of the 
 class pentandria, and order monogj'nia. Its ge- 
 neric characters are cal. perianth, one-leaved : 
 con. one-petalled : stam. filaments, five; an- 
 therae, sagittate : pist. germ, ovate; style short; 
 stigma, headed : per. capsule, one-celled ; seeds, 
 very many. The only species is the B. aquatica, 
 native of Cayenne. Linn. Spec. Plant. 
 
 BACOUE (Leo), a French divine of the se- 
 venteenth century. He was fi^st of the Protest- 
 ant persuasion, but afterwards changed to the 
 Roman Catholic faith, turned Franciscan, and 
 was made bishop of Pamiers. He v. as author of 
 a Latin poem on the education of a prince. He 
 died in 1694, in his ninety-fourth year. 
 
 BACRAG, the same with Baccharach wine. 
 BACRAS, a town of Sennaar, in Africa, 
 twenty-five miles east of Sennaar. 
 
 BACRE, a small town in the territory of 
 Sierra Leone. Long. 12" 11' W., lat. 8° 40' N. 
 BACTISHUA (George Ebn), a Christian 
 pliysician at the court of the caliph Almonsor, 
 who sent him as a present 3000 dinars, widi 
 three beautiful girls to supply the place of his 
 wife, who was old : Bactishua sent tliem back, 
 observing that his religion forbad him to have 
 more than one woman for his wife. 
 
 BACTRIA, or Bactriana, now Chorassan, or 
 Khorasan , an ancient kingdom of Asia, bounded 
 on the west by Margiana,on the north by theOxus, 
 on the south by Mount Paropismus, and on the 
 east by the Asiatic Scythia and the country of 
 the Massageta?. It was a large, fruitful, and 
 well-peopled country ; containing, according to 
 Ammianus Marcellinus, 1000 cities, though of 
 these only a few are particularly mentioned ; of 
 which, that formerly called Maracanda, now Sa- 
 marcand, is the most considerable. Of llie his- 
 tory of this country we know but little. Autliors
 
 BAG 
 
 364 
 
 BAG 
 
 agree that it was subdued first by the Assyrians, or gate, made hke a pit-fall with a counterpoise 
 afterwards by Cyrus, and then by Alexander the and supported by two great stakes. It is usually 
 Great. Afterwards it remained subject to Se- made before the corps du guard, near the gate of 
 leucus Nicator and his successors, till the time of a place. 
 Antiochus Theos; when Theodotus, from go- BACULI. See Bacilli. ,^ „ , 
 
 Baculi bxi. rAULi, batoons of St. Paul, a 
 kind of figured stones, of the same substance 
 with those resembling the bristles of some Ame- 
 rican echini, called by Dr. Plott, lapides Ju- 
 
 BACULO'METIIY, n. s. From baculus, Lat. 
 and iitTpov. The art of measuring distances by 
 one or more staves. 
 
 Baculometrv. See Geometry. 
 
 BACULOSUS EccLESiASTicus, in some an- 
 cient laws, is used for a bishop, or abbot, dig- 
 nified with the pastoral staff, or crozier. 
 
 BACULUS JDiviNATORiLs, or Virgula Di- 
 viNA. See Baguette Devinatoire. 
 
 vernor of that province, became king, and 
 strengthened himself so effectually in his king- 
 dom, while Antiochus was engaged in a war with 
 Ptolemy Philadelphus, king of Egypt, that he 
 could never afterwards dispossess him of his ac- 
 quisitions. His posterity enjoyed the kingdom 
 for some time, till they were driven out by the 
 Scythians, who possessed Bactria during the 
 reigns of Adrian, Antoninus Pius, &c. The 
 Scythians were in their turn driven out by the 
 Huns and Turks, and these often conquered by 
 tlie Saracens and Tartars; although they were in 
 possession of this country, in the time of Ladis- 
 laus IV. king of Hungary. 
 
 BACTRIANS, the inhabitants of Bactria. In 
 ancient times they differed little in their manners 
 from the Nomades; and being near neighbours 
 of tlie Scythians, who were a very warlike 
 people, the Bactrian soldiers were reckoned the 
 best in the world. Their appearance was very 
 savage; they being of an enormous stature, having 
 rough beards, and long hair hanging down their 
 shoulders. Some authors assert that they kept 
 dogs on purpose to devour such as arrived at ex- 
 treme old ase, or who were exhausted by long 
 sickness. They add, that for all their fierceness, 
 
 the Bactrian husbands were such dupes to their . , j , ■ , i- 
 
 wives that they durst not complain of them even worst. Bad respects moral and physical quali- 
 for coniugal infidelity, to which it seems the ties indiscrimmately ; whatever offends the taste 
 latter were very much addicted. and sentiments of a rational being, is bad ; food 
 
 BACTPtlANUS, in zoology, a species of the is bad when it disagrees with the constitution; 
 
 , the air is bad which has any thing in it disagree- 
 
 *^^B\CTRIS in botany, a genus of plants of able to the senses or hurtful to the body; books 
 
 the class moncEcia, order hexandria. Its ge- a;e bad which only inflame the imagmation and 
 
 BACURIUS, or Baturius, king of the Ibe- 
 rians, a people on the side of the Caspian sea. 
 One day being hunting, he lost sight of his com- 
 pany, through a great storm and sudden darkness; 
 upon which he vowed to the God of his christian 
 slave, that if he were delirered, he would wor- 
 ship him alone : the day breaking up imme- 
 diately, he is said to have made good his promise, 
 and became the apostle of his country. 
 
 BAD', adj. ^ Quoad, Dut. ; Sax. baed ; 
 
 Bad'ly, adv. > Ger. bos ; probably connected 
 
 Bad'ness, n.s. J with the I^Rt. pejus, worse, and 
 the Ileb. boach. Comparative worse ; superlative 
 
 iieric characters are cal, spathe universal, one- 
 leaved : COR. one-petalled : stam. filaments, six; 
 antherae, oblong: pist. germ, ovate; style, very 
 short; stigma, headed: per. drupe, coriaceous, 
 seed-nut, roundish. The species are, 1. B. 
 minor fructibus, &c. seu cocos (quincensis) acu- 
 leata, &c. a shrub, native of South America. 2. 
 B. major fructu, &c. seu fructus exoticus, a 
 shrub, native of South America. 
 
 Bactris, in entomology, a species of bruchus. 
 
 BACTR0PERAT7E, from (SaKrpov, a staff, 
 and Trrjpa, a bag ; an ancient appellation given 
 
 the passions. In one word, bad is equally 
 descriptive of mental, moral, and corporeal dis- 
 ease, and implies misfortune or delinquency, 
 only from its application. Badly means in the 
 manner of bad. It is always annexed to the 
 action ; but never to the quality of things. 
 
 'Tis good ; though music oft hath such a charm. 
 To make bad good, and good provoke to harm. 
 
 Shalupeare. 
 How goes the day with us ? O tell me, Hubert. 
 Badly, I fear. How fares your majesty ? Id. 
 
 It was not your brother's evil disposition made him 
 
 to philosophers by way of contempt, denoting a seek his death ; but a provoking merit, set a work by 
 man with a staff' and a budget. It seems to be a rcprovcable baanets in himself. Id. 
 
 of this sect that : Pauchasius Radbertus speaks. 
 
 under the corrupt names of Baccoperitse, or Bac- 
 chionita;, whom he describes as philosophers 
 who, by way of contempt for earthly tilings, kept 
 nothing but a dish to drink out of; and that one 
 of this order seeing a peasant scooping up the 
 water in his hand, threw away his cup as a su- 
 perfluity. 
 
 BACULARES, a sect of Anabaptists, so 
 called, as holding it unlawful to bear a sword, or 
 any other arms, besides a staff. 
 
 BACULARIUS, in writers of the middle 
 age, an ecclesiatical apparitor or verger: who 
 carries a staff, baculus, in his hand, as an ensign 
 of his oflice. 
 
 BACULE, in fortification, a kind of portcullis, 
 
 Thou may'st repent. 
 And one bad act, with many deeds well done, 
 Ma/st cover. Milton. 
 
 Tlius will tlie latter, as the former, world 
 Still tend from bad to worse. Id. 
 
 Our unhappy fates 
 Mi.<c thee amongst the bad, or make thee run 
 Too near the paths which virtue bids thee shun. 
 
 Prior, 
 
 Daughter of Jove, relentless power, 
 'I'hou tamer of the human breast. 
 Whose iron scourge, and tort 'ring hour. 
 The bud affright — afflict the best. Grai/. 
 
 The sun his annual course obliquely made. 
 Good days contracted, and enlarg'd the bad. 
 
 Dryden.
 
 BAD 
 
 366 
 
 BAD 
 
 Reading was bad for his eyes, writing made his 
 head ache. Addison. 
 
 I did not see how the badness of the weather could 
 be the king's fault. Id. 
 
 There is one convenience in the city, which makes 
 some amends for the badness of the pavement. 
 
 Id. on Italif. 
 
 BAD', I rpj^g preterite of bid. 
 Bade . S ^ 
 
 S 
 
 Our council was not longc for to seche. 
 
 Us thought it was not worth to make it wist, 
 
 And granted withouten more avise, 
 
 And bad \\m\ say his verdict as him leste. Chaucer. 
 
 And for an earnest of greater honour. 
 He bade me, from him, call thee Thane of Cawder. 
 
 Sliakspeare. 
 She thank'd me. 
 And bade me, if I had a friend that lov'd her, 
 I should but teach him how to tell my story. 
 And that would woo her. Id. 
 
 Thus God and nature link'd the general frame. 
 
 And bade self-love and social be the same. Poge. 
 
 But thou, O hope, with eyes so fair. 
 What was thy delighted measure ? 
 Stirt it whisper'd promis'd pleasure. 
 And bade the lovely scenes at distance hail 1 Collins. 
 
 BADAGIS, a town of Persia, in the province 
 of Khorassan, forty miles north of Fusheng. 
 
 BADAJOZ, or Badajox, a large and strong 
 town, the capital of Estremadura, in Spain. It 
 is seated on an eminence on the south side of the 
 Guadiana, over which there is a bridge of twenty- 
 eight arches, and nearly 1900 feet in length, said 
 to have been founded by the Romans. On this 
 bridge the Portuguese were defeated in 1661, by 
 Don .Fohn of Austria. Here are also five ancient 
 gates, but the public buildings, with the exception 
 of the cathedral, merit no notice : the only ma- 
 nufactf.re is hats. Population 14,300. The 
 Roman Pax Augusta, of which Badajoz is sup- 
 posed to be a corruption, stood on much higher 
 ground. Badajoz has always been regarded as 
 an important barrier against Portugal; from 
 the frontiers of which it is little more tlian four 
 miles. The Goths cajjlured it in the fifth cen- 
 tury; the Moors in the eiglith, and Alphonso, of 
 Castile reconquered it in 1230. Lord Welling- 
 ton invested Badajoz on the I8th of March, 
 1812; and breaches having been made on the 
 6th of April, it was assaulted on the same night. 
 General Picton established himself in the castle ; 
 but after repeated attempts upon the town itself, 
 the British troops were obliged to retire: the 
 possession of the castle, however, so far com- 
 manded the works, that the French comman- 
 dant thought it advisable to surrender: 1200 
 men out of a garrison of 5000, were killed or 
 wounded during the siege, and of the besiegers, 
 British and Portuguese, upwards of 4000. But 
 the possession of Badajoz, in conjunction with 
 Ciudad Rodrigo, secured the defence of Por- 
 tugal, and was thought well worth tlie price paid 
 for it. The bishop of Badajoz, suffragan to the 
 archbishop of St. Jago, lias under his inspection 
 a cathedral chapter, an archdeaconry, and fifty 
 parishes. The chapter is composed of seven 
 dignitaries, twelve canons, four prebendaries, 
 and six subprebendarics. Tliere are besides in' 
 the town five parish churches, seven monas- 
 
 teries, five nunneries, and five hospitals. It i.fl 
 the residence of the ca])tain-genrral and intend- 
 ant of Spanish F,stri:rna(lura, a civil and military 
 governor, u royal lieutenant, an alcade major, 
 and a contador. It has fourteen companies of 
 militia, a garrison, two forts (Cristobal and las 
 Pardaleras), and ax> arsenal. It is eighty-two 
 miles N.N. W. of Seville, forty-nine S. of Al- 
 cantara. . Long. 6° 47' W., lat. 38° 49' N. 
 
 BADALONA, or Baoelona, a sea-port town 
 of Spain, in Catalonia, with a citadel. I'^arl 
 Peterborough landed here with the arch-duke 
 Charles in 1704. Four miles north-east of Bar- 
 celona. Long. 2° 7' E., lat. 41° 25' N. 
 
 BADANACOUPY, a town of the Mysore, 
 Ilindostan, twenty-eight miles south of Serin- 
 gapatam. 
 
 BAD All, a town of Hindostan, in the pro- 
 vince of Bejapour, on the south side of the 
 Krishna, thirty miles south of Mirjee. Long. 
 75° 32' E., lat. 16° 40' N. 
 
 BADASKY, a town of Siberia, in the go- 
 vernment of Irkutzk, on the river Angara, eighty 
 miles N.N.VV. of Irkutzk. 
 
 BADCOCK (Samuel), the son of a reputable 
 butcher, was bom at St. Molton, Devonshire, ia 
 1747, and bred a dissenting clergyman. He was 
 first pastor at Beer-Regis in Dorsetshire, and 
 afterwards at Barnstaple, for about ten years. 
 Here meeting with some of Dr. Priestley's publi- 
 cations, he paid the Dr. a visit, and established 
 a correspondence with him. Upon investigation 
 of the subject, however, he found it impossible 
 to embrace Unitarianism. In 1777 he removed 
 to his birth-place, and in 1780, engaged as a 
 writer in the Monthly Review, llie controversy 
 then agitated by Dr. Priestly, Price, and others, 
 respecting the materiality of the soul, led him to 
 publish his thoughts upon the subject, in a 
 pamplilct entitled, A Slight Sketch of the Con- 
 troversy between Dr. Priestly and his Oppo- 
 nents ; which was repeatedly quotctl with great 
 approbation. In 1781 he wrote a poem, entitled 
 the Hermitage, and reviewed Madan's Thelyp- 
 thora, greatly to the satisfaction of the public. 
 In the controversy concerning the authenticity 
 of Rowley's Poems, he took the negative side, 
 and displayed his usual ingenuity. In the 
 Montlily Review for 1785, he attached Dr. 
 Priestly's History of the Early Opinions rela- 
 tive to Jesus Christ, with such strength of rea- 
 soning, that the doctor, without knowing his 
 antagonist, corriplimented him in his Reply, 
 as a formidable and respectable antaironist.' 
 Being applied to by Dr. N\ hitc, to assist liim in 
 completing his Bampton lectures, he wrote the 
 greater part of the first, third, fourth, fifth, seventh 
 and eighth; with part of the notes subjoined to 
 them. In 1787, having expressed an intention of 
 conforming to the established church, he was 
 ordained in Exeter cathedral by his friend bishop 
 Ross ; who gave him tlie order of deacon and priest, 
 on two succeeding Sundays. He died May 19th, 
 1788, at the house of his friend Sir .lohn Chiches- 
 ter, bart. in May-fair. His disposition was gen- 
 tle, humane, and lively ; his judgment acute and 
 comprehensive; and his literary attainments 
 great and various. He was ctiually emment ;is a 
 preacher and a writer.
 
 366 
 
 BADEN. 
 
 BADDAMMY, a town of Hindostan, in the 
 province of Bejapour, in the territories of the 
 Mahrattas. It is a place of some strength. 
 Eighty miles south-east of Merritch. Long. 74^^ 
 54' E., lat. 16° 6' N. 
 
 BADDERLOCKS, in natural history, a Scot- 
 tish name given to the fucus esculentus, or 
 eatable sea-weed. It is about four feet long, 
 and seven or eight inches wide, but varies in 
 lengtli from three yards to a foot, and in breadth, 
 from a foot to two inches ; the substance is thin, 
 membranaceous, and pellucid ; the color, green 
 or olive. This fucus is eaten in the north of 
 Scotland both by men and cajtle, and is in its 
 greate.st perfection in September; that which is 
 eaten by the common people about Edinburgh 
 is the F. Palmatus, Dulse, or Dils, which see. 
 
 BADEAUT, Loch, or, as it is erroneously 
 spelt in some maps, B a dwell, a good harbour 
 of Scotland, on the coast of Sutherland, in the 
 parish of Edderachylis; where shipping of all 
 sizes can enter, and moor close to the land, in 
 perfect safety. 
 
 BADEN, in geography, formerly a margra- 
 vate of Germany, in the circle of Suabia, stretch- 
 ing along the east bank of the Rhine, and forming, 
 at present, tlie most important part of a grand 
 duchy of the same name. It consisted of two 
 divisions, viz. Baden-Baden, and Baden-Dur- 
 lach ; of which the former, and part of the latter, 
 formed a compact territory, surrounded by Spire, 
 Wirtemberg, the bishopric of Strasburg, and 
 the Rhine. The country is for the most part 
 level, but intersected on the east by branches of 
 the hilly Schwartzwald, or Black Forest. The 
 most considerable part of Baden-Durlach lay 
 disjointed and insulated towards the south ; and 
 that part in the upper margraviate lying in the 
 direction of Bale, was covered with mountains, 
 except in the immediate vicinity of the Rhine. 
 These divisions, taken together with the county 
 of Eberstein, include a space of 1186 square 
 miles, and a population of more than 180,000 
 inhabitants, independent of the military. VVitliin 
 the limits of this margravate were seventeen 
 towns, fourteen boroughs, and upwards of five 
 hundred villages and hamlets ; the whole yield- 
 ing an annual revenue of nearly £150,000 ster- 
 ling. The country abounds with wood, wine, 
 iron, cobalt, and silver. The Rhine which flows 
 over the whole surface, from north to south, sup- 
 plies abundance of excellent salmon. Whilst 
 the flax, hemp, linen, and fiuits, which are found 
 in considerable quantities, not only supply the 
 aggregate home consumption of the inhabitants, 
 but form important articles of e.-^portation. Silk 
 has also been cultivated here ; but not with any 
 great advantage. The principal manufactures 
 are of cloth, stuffs, stockings, jewellery, &c. 
 There is also one of steel, at Pfortzheim, and 
 one of beautiful earthenware at Durlach. 
 
 The house of Baden is descended from Her- 
 man, second son of Berthold I. duke of Zahrin- 
 gen, who died A. D. 1074. About the middle 
 of the sixteenth century it split into tlie two lines 
 of Baden-Baden, and Baden-Durlach, in which 
 state it continued for some time; but, on the ex- 
 tinction of the former, in 1771, the latter suc- 
 ceeded to the whole inheritance. At the diet of 
 the empire, the margrave of Baden had three 
 
 votes in the council of princes, and one in the 
 bench of counts, in virtue of his title as count of 
 Eberstein. Before the memorable revolution in 
 France, this prince possessed the following terri- 
 tories: his patrimonial lands, different territories 
 in Suabia and Bohemia, portions of the county 
 of Sponheim-Graftenstein, together with the 
 bailiwic of Roth on the French side of the Rhine, 
 the lordships of Rodemachern and Hespringen, 
 in Luxemberg, and several' estates in Alsace; 
 but when the possessions on the left bank of the 
 Rhine were ceded to France by the peace of 
 Luneville, concluded on the 9th of February, 
 1801, the German princes were indemnified for 
 their losses by the secularisation of ecclesiastical 
 possessions ; the reduction of the imperial cities, 
 and other alterations on the right bank of the 
 Rhine, and the margrave of Baden on that occa- 
 sion acquired the bishopric of Constance, part 
 of Bale-Strasburg, and Spire, several bailiwics 
 of the Lower Palatinate, and in Hesse, the lord- 
 ship of Lahr, a number of secularised abbeys, and 
 several imperial towns, together with the title of 
 elector, and three additional votes at the diet. 
 His augmented possessions at this time contained 
 a territory of 2770 English square miles, and a 
 population of 410,000 'inhabitants, yielding an 
 annual revenue £372,000 sterling; and, in the 
 year 1803 were separated into three divisions, 
 viz. the margraviate, the palatinate, imd the upper 
 principality. 
 
 When the coalition was formed against France 
 in 1805, Bavaria, Wirtemberg, and Baden, were 
 the allies of Buonaparte ; and after the defeat of 
 the confederated powers at Austerlitz had led to 
 the peace of Presburg. and the subsequent form- 
 ation of the Rhenish confederation in 1806, these 
 states participated in the ceded possessions. 
 Baden was erected into a grand duchy, and in 
 exchange for the towns and territory of Biberach, 
 which had been reduced from its imperial dig- 
 nity, and assigned to Baden, in 1802, and now 
 ceded by that government to Wirtemberg, she 
 received the following accessions, the towns aad 
 territories of Billiugen and Baeuniin^'en, the 
 greater part of the Brisgau, the principality of 
 Heitersheim, the county of Bondorf, the district 
 of Ortenau, the commandery of Bengen, and the 
 possessions of the provincial nobility; also the 
 sovereignty over a great part of Furstenbere, 
 Salm-Krautheim, and Loevenstein-Werheim, as 
 well as over the whole of the Clettgau and 
 Thengen. The county of Nellenburg was shortly 
 aftewards added, together with several adjacent 
 territories, and by means of new acquisitions and 
 interchanges, the detached districts on the lake 
 of Constance were rendered contiguous to the 
 other dominions. These acquisitions raised the 
 importance of Baden, and were all guaranteed 
 to the grand duke, in 1815, by the Congress at 
 Vienna. 
 
 Baden, in its present state, therefore, remains 
 to be considered as a grand duchy of Germany, 
 including the territories already described. Its 
 division into a landgraviate, a margraviate, and 
 a palatinate, or the provinces of the L pper. 
 Middle, and Lower Rhine, was superseded in 
 1809, two years after its commencement, by the 
 following distribution into nine circles, thus 
 peopled, according to Mr. Hassel's statistics :
 
 BADEN. 
 
 367 
 
 No. 
 
 Circles. 
 
 Population. 
 
 89,604 
 
 72,735 
 116,954 
 125,867 
 117,640 
 
 85,112 
 131,518 
 166,018 
 
 95,382 
 
 No. 
 
 1 
 2 
 3 
 4 
 5 
 6 
 7 
 8 
 9 
 
 Chief Towns. 
 
 Population. 
 
 1 
 2 
 3 
 4 
 5 
 6 
 7 
 8 
 9 
 
 The Lake (Seekreis) . . 
 
 The Danube 
 
 The Weisen 
 
 The Treisam 
 
 The Kinzig 
 
 The Murg 
 
 The Pfinz and Enz . . . 
 
 The Neckar 
 
 The Maine and Tauber 
 
 Constance . ... 
 
 V^illingen 
 
 Lorrach 
 
 Freyburg 
 
 Offenburg 
 
 Rastadt 
 
 Durlach 
 
 Manheim 
 
 Wertheira 
 
 4.503 
 3,316 
 1,906 
 
 10,108 
 2,888 
 4,204 
 3,916 
 
 18,213 
 3,227 
 
 1,001,630 
 
 52,281 
 
 For the general superintendance of the circles 
 are established two divisions of the civil govern- 
 ment, at Manheim and Freyburgh, besides which 
 each of the circles individually has a director and 
 two counsellors of its own. For the adminis- 
 tration of justice there are inferior courts, and 
 above them three courts of appeal at Freyburg, 
 Rastadt, and Manheim, together with an upper 
 court at the town last mentioned, analagous to 
 what is called in France the ' Court of Cassation.' 
 The French code, also commonly called the code 
 of Napoleon, was introduced during the usur- 
 pation of Buonaparte, and is still in force, with a 
 few modifications. The seat of the government 
 is held at Carlsruhe, where the Grand Duke re- 
 sides, under the designation of Royal Highness. 
 There are four ministers connected with the exe- 
 cutive part of government, viz. those of the 
 interior, finance, justice, and war. The legis- 
 lative part is conducted by the Baden cabinet, 
 called the ministerial conference, of which the 
 Grand Duke, hereditary duke, or, failing both, 
 the oldest minister is president. The government 
 has of late manifested considerable solicitude for 
 the welfare of the people, by the formation of 
 roads, the abolition of feudal vassalage, the 
 establishment of an excellent system of forest 
 laws, and above all, by the erection and endow- 
 ment of schools, academies, and public libraries. 
 The principal of these are at Heidelberg, Man-, 
 heim, Baden, and Carlsruhe, Heberlingen, 
 Offenburg, Rastadt, Bruchsal, &c. Religious 
 toleration is also universally granted, although 
 the religion of the Grand Duke and national 
 establishment is Lutheranism. 
 
 M. Hassel thus enumerates the different re- 
 ligions : — 
 
 Roman Catliolics .... 620,000 
 
 Lutherans 305,000 
 
 Calvinists 61,000 
 
 Jews 15,080 
 
 Mennonites 1,290 
 
 The surface of Baden is beautifully diversified 
 by every variety of landscape, hil'l and dale, 
 plain, and mountain, breaking on the sight in 
 regular succession. The climate is agreeable, 
 and the soil, generally speaking, fertile; the only 
 part incapable ef cultivation being a portion of 
 the Black Forest, in Brisgau. The country is 
 intersected by the INIaine and the Neckar, and 
 bounded on the west by the Rhine ; tributary to 
 these are numerous smaller rivers and streams, 
 
 from several of which the circles derive their 
 names. The country bordering upon Switzer- 
 land is mountainous, and a chain runs from the 
 confines of that division through the southern 
 part of Baden into the kingdom of Wirtemberg. 
 It afterwards forms a part of the separatinc; boun- 
 dary between them, and is joined by another 
 chain stretching from east to west, over the 
 whole breadth of the southern region. 
 
 Perhaps one of the most beautiful portions of 
 this grand duchy is the country lying round 
 Heidelberg and its suburbs. The town itself ex- 
 hibits a romantic site, mild air, delightful pros- 
 pects, curious and extensive subterranean walks, 
 which have been lately closed, an ancient elec- 
 torial palace; but the- environs, if possible, are 
 still more beautiful. Manheim is also well situ- 
 ated, and forms a delightful appearance at the 
 confluence of the Neckar and the Rhine. At 
 the commencement of the seventeenth century, 
 it was only a pleasant village, but being shortly 
 after fixed upon as the residence of the elector, 
 and seat of the court, it became a flourishing 
 place, although when the court was removed, in 
 1777, the town considerably declined. The 
 palace of the Grand Duke, the tower of the ob- 
 servatory, the custom house, churches, and other 
 public buildings, together with the gallery of 
 paintings, cabinet of antiquities, kc. are objects 
 worthy of notice ; as are also the bridge of boats 
 over the Neckar, and the flying bridge over the 
 Rhine. The horses of Baden are an excellent 
 breed. In other respects the domestic and wild 
 animals resemble those of the other states of 
 Germany. 
 
 Baden, a town of Germany, in the grand 
 duchy of the same name, formerly the capital of 
 the upper margraviate, but included, since the 
 the year 1810, in the circle of the Murg. The 
 town is seated among hills, on rocky and uneven 
 ground, which renders the streets inconvenient 
 and crooked. It derives its name from its baths, 
 the word bad, in German, signifying bath. These 
 baths were known to the Romans before the 
 Christian era, and are supplied by upwards of 
 300 mineral springs, the waters of which are 
 strongly impregnated with sulphur, salt, and 
 alum. Some of these springs are hot, and are 
 accounted good in nervous cases. Baden con- 
 tains a population of 2000 inhabitants, and is 
 now the head of an upper bailiwic. It has a 
 lyceum, with several flourishing manufactures 
 of earthenware, potash, candles, soap, and 
 leather. The ancient castle, now in ruins, stand-
 
 368 
 
 BADEN. 
 
 jng on a neighbouring eminence, overlooks the 
 river Oelbach, commanding the pleasing and 
 txtensive prospects of a beautiful wine country. 
 The town is twenty-two miles N. E. of Strasburg, 
 and forty S. S.W. of Ileidelburg. Long. 8° IS' 
 E., lat. 48° 46' N. 
 
 Baden, a small town of Lower Austria, 
 •seated on the rivulet of Schwocha, in a plain not 
 far from a ridge of hills which runs out from the 
 mountain Cetius. It is much frequented by the 
 people of Vienna, and the neighbouring region, 
 on account of its warm baths, which are said to 
 be twelve in number, and beneficial in disorders 
 of the head, as also for the gout, dropsy, and 
 most chronic distempers. It contains three 
 churches, 250 houses, and 1500 population, 
 is surrounded by walls, and is twelve miles S.S. 
 W. of Vienna. Long. 16° 14' E., lat. 48" 2' N. 
 
 Baden, a district of Switzerland, in the can- 
 ton of Aargau, bounded by Suabia on the north, 
 Zudch on the east, Lucerne on the South, and 
 Aargau proper on the west. It is thirty miles in 
 length, and from eight to twelve in breadth, in- 
 cluding a territory of 176 square miles ; and, 
 according to an enumeration made in 1 80*3, con- 
 tained nearly 47,000 inhabitants, which have 
 since increased considerably. This country is 
 one of the finest in Switzerland, and is watered 
 by three navigable rivers, the Limmet, the Russ, 
 and the Are. It is divided into three parts and 
 eight bailiwics, producing great abundance of 
 corn, fruit, and wine. Before the peace of 1712, 
 this district formed a separate canton, but when 
 the articles of treaty were concluded between 
 Zurich and Berne, it was divided among these 
 cantons and that of Claris. The two first seizing 
 upon seven-eighths, and the last the one-eighth 
 then remaining. In the constitution of 1798 it 
 was restored to its original independence, but in 
 the re-organization of the cantons by the emperor 
 Napoleon, in 1 803, it was united to that of Aar- 
 gau, in connexion with which it has ever since 
 remained. 
 
 Baden, the capital of the above district, is a 
 small town containing about 1700 inhabitants, 
 and carrying on a considerable trade. It is seat- 
 ed on the side of the Limmet, in a plain flanked 
 by two hills, between which the river runs. This 
 city owes its rise to its baths, which were famous 
 before tlie Christian era, and known to the Ro- 
 mans by the name of Thermas Helveticae. Seve- 
 ral monuments of antiquity have been found 
 here, particularly in 1420; when the inhabi- 
 tants, on opening the large spring of the baths, 
 found statues of several heathen gods, made of 
 alabaster, Roman coins, of Augustus, Vespasian, 
 Decius, 8cc. made of bronze, and several medals 
 of the Roman emperors, of gold, silver, copper, 
 and bronze. There are two churches in Baden ; 
 one of which is collegiate, and makes a good ap- 
 pearance, and the other a monastery of the 
 Capuchins, near the town-house. The inhabi- 
 tants are rigid Roman Catholics, and formerly 
 behaved in a most insolent manner to the Pro- 
 testants, but they are now obliged by their mas- 
 ters to be moie submissive. In this town were 
 held formerly the general assemblies of the can- 
 ton, who met in a handsome room, fitted up for 
 their reception within tlie Capuchin's monastery ; 
 
 here, too, the negociations for peace between 
 France and the empire, which had been opened 
 at Rastadt, were brought to a close, on the seventh 
 of September, 1714. The town at present 
 chooses its own magistrates; and enjoys other 
 privileges. The governor resides in a fine castle 
 on the other side the Limmet, erected after the 
 destruction of the old edifice in 1712; a hand- 
 some wooden bridge hangs over the river, form- 
 ing a beautiful entrance to the castle, and in front 
 of this magnificent residence is a stone pillar 
 erected in honor of Trajan, who paved a road 
 in this country, eighty-five Italian miles in 
 length. The baths, which are on each side the 
 river, are a quarter of a league from the city. 
 .Toining to the small baths there is a village, and 
 to the village a town, which may pass for a 
 second Baden. It is seated on a hill, of which 
 the ascent is steep. There the baths are brought 
 into inns and private houses, by means of pipes, 
 which are about sixty in all. There are also 
 public baths in the middle of the town, from 
 a spring which rises in the street, where the poor 
 bathe gratis, but they are exposed quite naked 
 to all that pass by. All the baths are hot, and 
 one to so great a degree as to scald the hand. 
 The springs, which originate in a place called 
 Ort-Zum-Baden, are eight in number, and are 
 impregnated with a great deal of sulphur, accom- 
 panied with a little alum and nitre. The waters 
 are used for drinking, as well as bathing, and 
 are said to cure all diseases from a cold cause, 
 head-aches, vertigos, &c. They strengthen the 
 senses, cure diseases of the breast and bowels, 
 asthmas, and obstructions, and are peculiarly 
 excellent for diseases of women. Baden is about 
 fourteen miles N. W. of Zurich, twenty-seven 
 S. E. of Basle. Long. 8° 12' E., lat. 47°-24' N. 
 
 Baden, a parochial village of Switzerland, 
 in the Valais, jurisdiction of Leuck. Here is 
 the celebrated bath commonly called the bath of 
 Leuck, or Valais, which is of heat sufficient to 
 boil an egg, and the water of which is used by 
 the inhabitants both for the purposes of bathing 
 and drinking. 
 
 BAD ENOCH, a large district of Inverness- 
 shire, of which it is the most easterly part, 
 bounded by Inverness . on the north, Moray on 
 the east, Athol on the south, and Lochaber on 
 the west. It extends about thirty-three miles in 
 length from east to west, and twenty-seven from 
 north-east to south-west, where it is broadest. It 
 has no considerable town, and is very barren 
 and hilly, but abounds with deer and other kinds 
 of game. 
 
 BADENS (Francis), a historical and portrait 
 painter, was born at Antwerp in 1751, and fir.st 
 initiated in the art by his father. Having visited 
 Rome, he formed an excellent taste for design, 
 and a manner exceedingly pleasing. On his re- 
 turn, he was usually distinguished by the name 
 of the Italian painter. His touch was light and 
 spirited, and nis coloring warm ; and he was 
 the first who introduced a good taste in coloring 
 among his countrymen. While his acknowledged 
 merit was rewarded with every public testimony 
 of esteem, he received an account of the death of 
 his brother, who had been assas'sinated on a 
 journey ; and the intelligence affected him so
 
 BADGER. 
 
 369 
 
 violently, that it occasioned his own death sud- 
 denly, in 1003. 
 
 liAUEJlALLY, a town of llindostan, 'in the 
 province of Bejapour, seventeen miles south-west 
 of]{aibaug. 
 
 BADEVV (Richard de), the original founder of 
 Clare-hall, Cambridge. He was born at Badow, 
 in Essex; and in 1326 was chancellor of Cam- 
 bridge, when he laid the foundation of a building 
 to which he gave the name of University-hall. 
 This being afterwards burnt down, was rebuilt 
 by a daughter of Sir Gilbert de Clare, earl of 
 Gloucester, and named Clare-hall. 
 
 BADEY, a town of Persia, in the province of 
 Khorassan, 140 miles north-west of 'ilerat. 
 
 BADGE, V. a. &, n. s. A word of uncertain 
 etymology ; derived by Junius from bode or 
 bade, a messenger, and supposed to be cor- 
 rupted from badage, the credential of a mes- 
 senger; but taken by Skinner and Minshew 
 from bagghc. But. a jewel, or bague, Fr. a ring. 
 It seems to come from bujulo, Lat. to carry, 
 The substantive denotes a mark ; or ornament 
 worn to show the relation of the wearer to any 
 person or cause. It also signifies a token of 
 rank or character. An outward and visible dis- 
 tinction, either honorable or disgraceful. 
 
 But on his brnast a bloody cross he bore. 
 The dear resemblance of his dying lord ; 
 For whose sweet sake that glorious badge he wore. 
 
 A savage tigress on her helmet lies ; 
 The famous badge Clarinda us'd to bear. Fairfax, 
 Mark the badge of these men, then say if they be 
 true. S/uikspeare. 
 
 Might I but know thee by thy household badge. Id. 
 Sweet mercy is nobility's true badge. Id. 
 
 Your royal father's murdered 
 
 • Oh, by whom ? 
 
 Those of his chamber, as it seem'd had done 't ; 
 Their hands and faces were all badg'd with blood. 
 So were their daggers. Id, 
 
 Let him not bear the badges of a wreck. 
 Nor beg with a blue table on his back. Drijden. 
 The outward splendour of his office is the badge and 
 the token of that sacred character which he inwardly 
 bears. Atterbury. 
 
 Badge, in naval architecture, a sort of orna- 
 ment placed on the outside of small ships, very 
 near the stern, containing either a windosv for the 
 convenience of the cabin, or a representation of 
 it. It is commonly decorated with marine figures, 
 martial instruments, or such like emblems. 
 
 BADGE'LESS, adj. From badge and less. 
 Having no badge. 
 
 Whiles his light heels their fearful flight can take. 
 
 To get some badgeless blue upon his back. 
 
 Bishup Hall's Satires. 
 
 BA'DGER, n. s. Perhaps from the Lat. bujulus, 
 a carrier ; but by Junius derived from the badger, 
 a creature who stows up his provision. One 
 that buys corn and victuals in one place, and 
 carries it unto another.' — Coivel. 
 
 Ba'dger, n. s. From bedour, Fr. mclis, Lat. 
 An animal that earths in the ground, and used 
 to be hunted. 
 
 That a brock, or badger, hath legs of one side 
 
 shorter than the other, is received not only by theorists 
 
 and unexperienced believers, but most who behold 
 
 them daily. Brown. 
 
 Vol. III. 
 
 BADGER, in zoology, the I'nglish name of 
 a species of ursus. See Ursl's. 
 
 Badgeu-baitixg, or Badgf.ii-iiunting. The 
 badger has suffered more perhaps from vulgar 
 prejudices than any other animal. He ha.s been 
 accused of destroying lambs and rabbits: the 
 first unquestionaiily without foundation, and it 
 is uncertain whether the last charge be better 
 supported; for many naturalists maintain tliat 
 his sole food consists of roots, fruits, grass, in- 
 sects, and frogs. From fthis general and double 
 accusation, however, the harmless badger has 
 been selected to make sport, as it is called, for 
 the vulgar, in both hunting and baiting. 
 
 Hunting the badger is^in general only perform- 
 ed by moonlight : the badger, from his natuial 
 habits, being never to be found above-ground by 
 day. In this sport the hunters are obliged to 
 oppose art to cunning, and obtain by stratagem 
 what they cannot effect by strength. At a late 
 hour in the evening, when the badger is natu- 
 rally concluded to have left his kennel or his 
 castle in search of food, some of the party, as 
 previously adjusted, proceed to place a sack at 
 length within the burrow, so constructed that the 
 mouth of the sack directly corresponds with the 
 mouth of the earth, and is secured in that posi- 
 tion by means of a willow hoop, which, from its 
 pliability, readily submits to the form required. 
 This part of the business being completed, the 
 parties withdrawn, and the signal whistle given, 
 their distant companions lay on the dogs, either 
 hounds, terriers, lurchers, or spaniels, encourag- 
 ing them through the neighbouring woods, cop- 
 pices, and hedge-rows ; which the badgers abroad 
 no sooner find, than being alarmed, and well 
 knowing their inability to continue a state of 
 warfare so much out of their own element, in- 
 stantly make to the eartit for shelter; where, for 
 want of an alternative, and oppressed with fear, 
 they rush into certain destruction, by entering 
 the sack : being entangled in which, they are 
 soon secured by those who are fixed near the 
 spot for that purpose. If the badger escape by 
 the ill-construction or accidental falling of the 
 sack, and safely enter the earth, digging him out 
 is not only a very laborious but very precarious 
 attempt; for the badger, from instinctive inge- 
 nuity, will be generally found to have formed his 
 retreat before he can be reached : to render 
 which the more easy, he usually constructs his 
 kennel among the roots of some old pollard, in 
 the ,banks of moors, or underneath some hol- 
 low tree ; from the spreading root branches of 
 wliich the burrows run in such various and per- 
 plexing directions, that his assailants are often 
 compelled, after tiring themselves by digging 
 fifteen or twenty feet, to relinquish the pursuit ; 
 corroborating the opmion of the common people, 
 that in a loose and sandy soil badgers can make 
 a way as fast as their hunters can pursue them ^ 
 whence drawn-battles in such situations are very" 
 common results. 
 
 Badger-baiting is a different sport, and if pos- 
 sibleofa lower description. It consists in attacking 
 the animal at a distance from his burrow, with 
 dogs of almost any kind ; but most successfully 
 with the terrier. The badger is so rapid in his 
 motions, that the dogs are often desperately 
 
 '.' B
 
 BAD 
 
 370 
 
 BAD 
 
 womiJed, and compolled to e:ive up the contest, 
 'flie loosfness and tliickness of llie hadj^jer's skin 
 :ire admirably contriveil for liis advanta^je ; in 
 lonsequence of the latter, and especially in con- 
 jvniction with the coarseness and toughness of 
 his hair, it is difficult for the dogs to lay hold of 
 him ; and in consequence of thp former, h.p finds 
 great facility of escaping" from their grasp when 
 they have succeeded. These sports have given 
 rise to a very expressive proverb of 'badgering a 
 man with a request' for payment of debts ^vc. 
 
 Ba'dger-leggep. From badger and le-jged. 
 Having legs of an unequal length, as the badger 
 is supposed to have. 
 
 His body crooked all over, big-bellied, badger-legged, 
 and his complexion swarthy. L'Esirunge. 
 
 Badgum, a town of Ilindostan in Dowlatabad, 
 six miles S. S. W. of Oudighir. 
 
 BADHUNTOUL; Gael, a den of refuge ; a 
 place in the parish of Fordice, in Banffshire, in 
 former times used as a place of refuge from th^ 
 ])anish invasions. 
 
 BADIA, in concholoey, 1. A species of cyprea 
 having an oblong gibbous shell. — Gmelin. 2. 
 A species of helix, called by Born, helix ungu- 
 lina; and, 3. A s;>ecies of patella. 
 
 Bai)!a (D.), a Spaniard, who devoted himself, 
 in 1803, and four or five following years, to the 
 j)rofession of Mahommedanism, as a means of 
 (exploring INIahommedan countries. He assumed 
 the name of Ali Bey el Abassi, and submitted, 
 it is said, to the most distinguishing rite of Is- 
 lamism, the better to pursue his plans. ]Mr. 
 Burckhardt writes thus, respecting him, from 
 Aleppo : * He called himself Ali Bey, and pro- 
 fessed to be born of Tunisian parents in Spain, 
 and to have received his education in that 
 country. Spanish appears to be his native lan- 
 guage, besides which he spoke Frencii, a little 
 Italian, and the Moggraheyan dialect of Arabic, 
 but badly. He came to Aleppo by the way of 
 Cairo, Yaffa, and Damascus, with the strongest 
 letters of recommendation from the Spanish go- 
 vernment to all its agents, and an open credit 
 upon them. He seemed to be a particular friend 
 of the Prince of Peace, for whom he was col- 
 lecting antiques : and from the manner in which 
 it was known that he was afterwards received by 
 the Spanish ambassador, at his arrival at.Con- 
 stMutinople, he must have been a man of dis- 
 tinction. The description of his figure, and 
 what is related of his travels, called to my re- 
 collection the Spaniard Badia, and his miniature 
 in your library. He was a man of middling 
 size, long thin head, black eyes, large nose, long 
 black beard, and feet that indicated the former 
 wearing of tight shoes. He professed to have 
 travelled in Barbary, to have crossed the Lybian 
 desert, between Barbary and Egypt, and from 
 Cairo to have gone to Mecca and back. He 
 travelled with eastern magnificence, but here he 
 was rather shy of showin.^' himself out of doors : 
 iie never walked out but on Fridays, to the 
 jirayers of noon in the grent mosque. One of 
 the before-mentioned dervises told me that there 
 had been a great deal of talking about this Ali 
 Bey, at Damascus and Hamar: they suspected 
 him of being a Christian, but his great liberality 
 and t!io pressiu'.r h iters which he brought to all 
 
 people of consequence, stopped all furdier in- 
 ([uiry. He was busily employed in arranging 
 and putting in order his journal during the two 
 months of his stay at Aleppo.' His travels were 
 published at London and in Paris, in 1814, in 
 2 vols. 8vo. under his assumed name. He is 
 now known to have been an agent of Godoy, 
 the Prince of the Peace, employed at the insti- 
 gation of Napoleon. He died in Spain shortly 
 after his return to Europe. 
 
 Badia, La, a town of Italy, on the Adigetto, 
 at the place where it branches from Uie Adige. 
 It is small and open, but well-built, populous 
 and wealthy ; and was formerly called Castello 
 Piazzone, having two castles. The Adige is here 
 crossed by a handsome bridge five miles from 
 Lecnano, and fifteen W. S. W. of Rovigo. 
 
 BADIAGA, in the materia medica, the name of 
 a sort of spongy plant, common in the shops of 
 Moscow and some other northern kingdoms. It 
 i.s used to take away the livid marks, occasioned 
 by blows and bruises, which the powder is said 
 to do in a night's time. We owe the know- 
 ledge of this medicine, and its history, to Bux- 
 baum. He observes, that the plant is always found 
 under water, and is of a very peculiar nature. 
 It somewhat resembles the alcyonium, and some- 
 what tl'.e sponge, but differs from both, it being 
 full of small round granules, resembling seeds. 
 It is of a loose, light, and spongj' structure ; is 
 made up of a number of fibres of an herbaceous 
 matter, and is dry, rigid, and friable between the 
 fingers. Such is the generic character of the 
 badiaga, of which this accurate observer has found 
 three difl'erent species. Linmeus makes it a 
 species of sponge. 
 
 BADIANA, Badiane, or Bandiax, the seed 
 of a tree which grows in China, and smells like 
 anise seed. The Chinese, and the Dutch in 
 imitation of them, sometimes use the badiana to 
 give their tea an aromatic taste. 
 
 BADIGEON, in joiner work, saw-dust mixed 
 with strong glue, wherewith they fill up the chaps 
 and other defects in the wood after it is 
 wrought. 
 
 Badigeon, in statuary, a mixture of plaster M 
 and free-stone well ground together, and sifted ; I 
 used by statuaries to fill up the little holes, and 
 repair the defects in stones, whereof they make 
 their statues and other work. 
 
 BADILE (Antonio), history and portrait 
 painter, born at \'ienna in 1480, was an eminent 
 artist : but derived greater honor from having two 
 such disciples as Paolo \'eronese and Baptista 
 Zelotti. He died in 1560. His coloring, 
 especially of his carnations, was beautiful ; and 
 his portraits preserved ,the perfect resemblance 
 of real life. 
 
 BADINAGE, foolery, buffoonery. 
 
 BADIS, a fortress of Livonia, subject to 
 Russia, twenty miles east of Revel. 
 
 BADITES, in botany, the NymphcEa, or clava 
 Herculis : the root of which, according to Mar- 
 celaus Empiricus, bruised and eaten with vine- 
 gar for ten days by a boy, makes him an eunuch 
 widiout excision. 
 
 BADKIS, or Pasix, a town of Persia in the 
 province of Khorassan, thirty-six miles north of 
 Herat. Long. 60^ 27' E. lat. 3j^ 30. N.
 
 BAE 
 
 371 
 
 BJE 
 
 BADONG, a district of tlte island of Balli, 
 where the Dutcli had a small settlement, after- 
 wards taken by the British. 
 
 HADOO, two towns in tlie kingdom of 
 ^Voolli, in Africa. They both united their 
 strength in enforcing the payment of custom 
 from Mr. Park. 
 
 iiADOLX'E, in natural history, the East 
 Indian name of a fruit, very common in tiiat 
 part of the world. It is round, and of the size 
 of one of our common apples ; yellow on the 
 outside, and white within. It resembles tire 
 manc];oustan ; but its pulp is more transparent; 
 its taste is very agreeable, and has some resera- 
 blance'to that of our gooselierrie.s. 
 
 BADRACIIILLU.M, or the Sacui:!) Moun- 
 tain, a town of llindostan, in Golconda, on the 
 north-ea.st side of the river Godavery, consisting 
 of 100 huts. Here is a pagoda of great celebrity. 
 Distant seventy-two miles NAV. of Rajamun- 
 dry, 150 east of Ilydrabatl, and 134 from 
 \ izasapatam. 
 
 B.VDROWLY, a town of llindostan, inGuze- 
 r.it, sixteen miles east of Surat. 
 
 BAI)RVCAZRAM,an extensive mountainous 
 district on tiie northern borders of llindostan, 
 between the thirty-first and thirty-thipd degrees of 
 northern latitude; very unproductive and thinly 
 inliabiled. 
 
 BADSUIIT Bay; a bay on the coa^st of Pa- 
 tagonia, in the straits of Magellan. Long. 74° 
 24' W. lat. 53^ 35' S. 
 
 BADUEL (Claude), a French protestant di- 
 vine, born at Nismes. lie went to Switzerland 
 in 1557, vvheie he taught philosophy and mathe- 
 matics, and exercised his ministry till his death 
 in 13G1. 
 
 B.\DULAT(^, a town and territorj' of Xaples, 
 in Calabria Ultni, extremely productive in wine, 
 od, honey, turpentine, cotton and silk, lourteen 
 miles S.S. 1'^. of SquUlace. 
 
 BADULE, a town of Ceylon, fifiy-four miles 
 S. E. of Candy. 
 
 BADY, a large town of Africa, in die kingdom 
 of NN'ooUi, governed by an independent ciiief, 
 under the appellatioa of FarLmba. 
 
 BAEA, in botany, a genus of plants, of the 
 class diandria, and order monoj^ynia. Its ge- 
 neric character is coii. rincrent, the tube very short, 
 upper lip flat, tridentate; lower lip Hat, bilobate: 
 caps bilocular, quadrivahular, contorted: cal. 
 quinquepartite, equal. 
 
 BAECKEA, in botany, a genus of the octan- 
 dria order, and mono<xynia class of plants, 
 named after Abraham Baecka, a friend of Lin- 
 nseus. The calyx is a permanent perianthium, 
 consisting of a single funnel-shaped leaf, cut 
 into five fragments at the brim; the corolla con- 
 sists of five roundish petals inserted into the 
 calyx; the pericarpium is a globose capsule, 
 made up of four valves, and containing four celb, 
 in whicii are a few roundish angular seeds. The 
 species are shrubs. 
 
 BAEDOO, an extensive kingdom of central 
 Africa, south of Tombuctoo, and east of Bam- 
 barra, to which latter countr)' it is tributary. It 
 is traversed l)y a river called the Ba Nimma, des- 
 cending from the mountains of Cong. The inte- 
 rior is little known. 
 
 BAEL.\MA, in zoology, the Arabian nanw, 
 according; to Forskal, of a species of clupea. 
 
 BAEN'A, or V'ai-.na, a town of Spain, in the 
 Aiidalusian province of Coniov;v, surruundod 
 with walls, and containing ibur ])iTish cliuiches, 
 five religious houses, and 4800 inhabitants. 
 Here are some excellent salt works. It is 
 eighteen miles E. S. R. of Cordova. 
 
 BAEGBOTRYS, in botany, a genus of plants, 
 of the class, pentandria, and order mono'.rynia. 
 Its generic character are cor. tubulose, quinque- 
 fidj: CAL. double,.superior; exterior of two leaves ; 
 inferior companulate quinquedentate. Berry 
 unilocular, many-seeded. \Villdeix)w describes 
 two species; one, a native of Arabia, is figured 
 by Mart. \ahl. Symbola Botanica, tab. 6. 
 
 BAERSUIS, or Vekexstil (Henry), a printer 
 and mathematician of the sixteenth century. He 
 settled in Louvain, where he published Tables of 
 the Eongitudes and Latitudes of the Planets, 
 in 1528. 
 
 B.\EllWALDE, or Barwaidk, a town of 
 New M;H-k of BrandenbuTij, in the Prussian 
 states, circle of Konigsburgh, population loOO. 
 Here Gnst;ivus Adoiphus entered into- a secret 
 treaty with France in 1631. It is t'jirleen miles 
 N.N.iW. of Gastrin, and forty-two E. N. E. of 
 Be';lin. 
 
 B.ETERILL, an ancient towr> of tlie Terto- 
 sages in Gallia Narbonensis, on the east bank of 
 t'.ie Obris. It is now called Besier&v 
 
 B ETICA, a province of ancient Spain, so 
 called from the river Baetis. It was bounded on 
 the west by Ln-;it ir-i i ; on the south by the Meii- 
 terranean. and Sinus Gadilanos; on tlie north 4jy 
 the Cantftbric sea, now the l-'ay of Biscay. On 
 the east and north e;ist its limits cann*jt be sn 
 well ascertained, as they are known to have beoii 
 in a continual state of fluctuation, each petty 
 monarch having had an opportunity of encioaeli- 
 ing upon his neighbour. The province v,:w 
 divided into two by tlie river Btetis, on t!ie side 
 of whicli, towards tlie Anas, were situated the 
 Turdctani, from wheoce tlie kiu'.:dom was some- 
 times called Turdetania, thou2;!i mo^e generally 
 Baturia.. Gn the other side, ajoag the Mediter- 
 ranean, were situated the BiistvJi, Bastetani, and 
 Contestani. The whole prwince of Ba;tica, 
 according to the most probable account, is con- 
 tained in what is now called Andalusia, part of 
 the kingdom of Grenad;i. 
 
 B.ETIS, a famous river of ancient Spain, afiey- 
 wards called Tarlessus, and now GuadaUiiUvor, 
 or the (ireat River. 
 
 B.ETOLO, a town of ancient Spain, in tlie 
 Tcrracont>nsis ; now Badelona, ii\ Catalonia. 
 
 BETCIUA. See Bktica. 
 
 B.ETl'S, in ichUiyology, a name vriven by 
 Aristotle, and others of tlie ancient (Jreeks, ») 
 the fish, called by the Latin writers cottns; par- 
 ticularly to that species called by us liie bull- 
 head, or miller's tlijimb. 
 
 B.ETV El A, anointed stones, wosshippcfl by 
 the Phanicians, by the Greeks before llie tiiiiC i>f 
 Cecrops, and by other kirbarous natioiiSs They 
 were commonly of a bbxk color, and con- 
 secrated to soine gc<l, as Satiuni, .1 n niter, t!ip 
 Sun, &c. — Some are o;' opinion tlial the oriani 
 of this practice is to be derived from the pilUr of 
 ' 2 B 2
 
 BAF 
 
 372 
 
 BAG 
 
 stone whicli Jacob erected, and near which he 
 worshipped, at Bethel. These baetylia were much 
 the object of tlie veneration of the ancient hea- 
 thens. iMany of their idols were no other. In 
 reality, no sort of idol was more common in the 
 eastern countries, than that of oblong stones 
 erected, and hence termed by the Greeks, KiovtCt 
 pillars. In some parts of Egypt they were planted 
 on both sides of the highways. In the temple of 
 Ileliogabalus in Syria, there was one pretended 
 to have fallen from heaven. There was also a 
 famous black stone in Phrygia, said to have fallen 
 from heaven. The Romans sent for it, and the 
 priests belonging to it, with much ceremony, 
 Scipio Nasica being at die head of the embassy. 
 The priests of Cybele carried a bstylion on their 
 breasts representing the mother of the gods. 
 
 B/ETYLOS, the same with B.etylion ; plural, 
 B.i:tyi.ia. See last article. 
 
 BAEZA, or Baeca, a town of Spain, in the 
 province of Jaen, Andalusia. Its streets and 
 squares are handsome, and it was in former times 
 a place of considerable importance, the residence 
 of a Moorish king. It was subsequently a 
 bishop's see, and the seat of a university. At 
 present it is fallen into decay, but has still two 
 chapters, several parish churches and cloisters, a 
 corregidor, a society under the title of economi- 
 cal, several good tanneries, and a population of 
 15,000. It is seventy miles N. N. E. of Cordova. 
 Long. 3° 35' W., lat. 38'^ 4' N. 
 
 Baeza, a ciiy of the province and government 
 of Quixos and Macas, in the kingdom of Quito. 
 It was formerly rich and populous, but has been 
 wasted by the Indians. Lat. 26° S. 
 
 BAFFA, or Boro, a sea-port on the Grain 
 Coast of Africa, which carries on a considerable 
 trade in pepper. Long. 8° 52' W., lat. 5'' 10' N. 
 
 Baffa, a sea-port town on the west coast of 
 the island of Cyprus, the ancient Paphos, situated 
 on a rocky eminence close to the sea. Its har- 
 bour is choked up with sand, and is generally 
 avoided by mariners, because of its dangerous 
 approach, and from its having no shelter from 
 the violence of the winds. The Turks have built 
 a castle on the point of a rock to the south-west, 
 which is defended by artillery ; and it is the resi- 
 dence of a Turkish aga. Of several Christian 
 churches only one remains, in which the Greeks 
 officiate ; who still have a bishop here, suffragan 
 of the archbishop of Nicosia. Pieces of fine rock 
 crystal are sold here under the name of Baffa 
 diamonds : amianthus also, of superior quality, is 
 found in the neighbourhood. It is called cotton 
 stone by the natives. Various ruins and some 
 antiquities are scattered over the vicinity of 
 Baffa, among whicli are many highly polished 
 blackish marble columns, traditionally supposed 
 by the inhabitants to have been the materials of 
 the palace of Aphroditis. Further east, others of 
 a large size denote the site of a temple. There 
 is also cut out of the rock a subterraneous church, 
 dedicated to the seven sleepers, and a large exca- 
 vation, conjectured to have been a cistern. 
 Long. 32" 18' K., lat. 34° 48' N. 
 
 Baffa, Cape, a cape on the south-west coast 
 of the island of Cyprus. Long. 32° 18' E., lat. 
 34° 57' N. 
 
 BAFFETAS, or Baftas, a clotli made of 
 
 coarse white cotton thread, which comes from 
 the East Indies. That of Surat is the best. 
 
 BAFFIN'S BAY; a large gulf or bay of 
 North America, lies between seventy and eighty 
 degrees of north latitude. It opens into the 
 Atlantic ocean through Baffin's and Davis's 
 straits, between Cape Chidley, on the Labrador 
 coast, and Cape Farewell on that of West Green- 
 land; both of which are in about the sixtieth 
 degree of north latitude; and abounds with 
 whales and walrusses. On the south-west side 
 of Davis's straits it has a communication with 
 Hudson's bay, through a cluster [of islands, in 
 lat. 74° 20' ; it communicates with Sir James 
 Lancaster's sound, through which Captain Parry 
 passed triumphantly, and discovered Barrow's 
 straits. Prince Regent's Inlet, &c. 
 
 BAF'FLE, V. a. k, n. s.'~% In Fr. hefler, from 
 
 Baf'fler, n. s. > buffle, an ox, and 
 
 Baf'fled, adv. j signifies to lead by 
 
 the nose as an ox ; that is, to amuse or disap- 
 point ; to perplex by a feint. Its general accep- 
 tation is eluding the schemes of others by dex- 
 trous management. It is sometimes explained 
 by the words to defeat, to disconcert, and con- 
 found. Dr. Johnson employs these terms in his 
 definition of it. But Crabbe has well distin- 
 guished them, and given them different shades 
 of meaning in their application. Baffle expresses 
 less than defeat ; defeat less than confound ; and 
 disconcert less tha."> all. Obstinacy, persever- 
 ance, skill, or art, baffles ; force or violence de- 
 feats; awkward circumstances disconcert; the 
 visitation of God confounds. 
 
 Where thou wilt, lad, I'll make one ; an I do not, 
 call me villain, and baffle me. Shakspeare. 
 
 Go, baffled coward, lest I run upon thee. Milton. 
 
 They made a shift to think themselves guiltless, in 
 spite of all their sins ; to break the precept, and at the 
 same time to baffle the curse. South. 
 
 He hath deserved to have the grace withdrawn, 
 which he hath so long baffled and defied, Atterbiiry. 
 
 Experience, that great baffler of speculation, assures 
 us the thing is too possible, and brings, in all ages, 
 matter of fact to confute our suppositions. 
 
 Government of the Tongue. 
 Etruria lost. 
 
 He brings to Tumus' aid his baffled host. Dryden 
 
 When the mind has brought itself to close thinking, 
 it may go on roundly. Every abstruse problem, every 
 intricate question, will not baffle, discourage, or break 
 it. Locke. 
 
 Now shepherds! to your helpless charge be kind. 
 Baffle the raging year, and till their pens 
 With food at will. Thomson. 
 
 BAG', V. a. & n. A sack, pouch, or purse 
 Either artificially constructed, or the work of 
 nature. 
 
 Cousin, away for Eugland ; haste before. 
 And, ere our coming, see thou shake the bagt 
 Of hoarding abbots ; their imprison'd angels 
 
 Set thou at liberty. Shakspeare. 
 
 Sing on, sing on, for I can ne'er he cloy'd ; 
 
 So may thy cows their burden'd bags distend. 
 
 Dryden. 
 
 Two kids that in the valley stray'd 
 I found by chance, and to my fold convey'd : 
 They drain two bagging udders every day. Id, 
 
 Like a bee, bagg d with his honey'd venom. 
 
 He biings it to your hive. Id. Doti Sebastia't,
 
 BAGDAD. 
 
 373 
 
 Once, vre confess, beneath tho patriot's cloak, 
 ■ From the crack'd baf/ the dropping guinea spoke. 
 
 Pope. 
 We saw a young fellow riding towards us full gal- 
 lop, with a bob wig and black silken bag tied to it. 
 
 Addison. 
 
 Bag, in commerce, a term signifying a certain 
 quantity of some particular commodity ; a bag of 
 almonds, for instance, is about 300 weight ; of 
 anise seeds, from 300 to 400 ; of pepper, from 
 H to 300; of cotton yarn, from 2^ to 4J, &c. 
 Bags are used in most countries to put several 
 sorts of coin in, either of gold, silver, brass, or 
 copper. Bankers, and others, who deal much in 
 current cash, label their bags of money, by tying 
 a ticket or note at the mouth of the bag, signify- 
 ing the coin contained, the sum total, its weight, 
 and of whom it was received. Tare is allowed 
 for the bag. 
 
 Bag, in farriery, is when, in order to retrieve 
 a horse's lost appetite, they put in an ounce of 
 assafoetida, and as much powder of savin, into a 
 bag, to be tied to the bit, keeping him bridled for 
 two hours several times a-day ; as soon as the 
 bag is taken off, he will fall to eating. The same 
 bag will serve a long time. 
 
 Bag, in medicine and pharmacy, a kind of 
 fomentation, prepared of proper ingredients, en- 
 closed m a bag, to be applied externally to a part 
 diseased, for present relief. Dispensatory writers 
 describe cordial bags, used in deliquiums ; bags 
 for the side, for the stomach, in weaknesses of the 
 stomach ; anodyne bags to ease pain in any part. 
 Wines and ale are frequently medicated by put- 
 ting into tliem bags full of proper ingredients. 
 Sweet bags, are composed of perfumes, scented 
 powders, and the like, enclosed in bags, to give 
 a fragrancy to clothes, &c. 
 
 BAGA. See Rutta Bag a. 
 
 BAGADAT, or Bagalin, a name by which 
 some call the carrier pigeon, the columba tabel- 
 laria of Moore. The name is probably a cor- 
 ruption of the word Bagdat, the city from whence 
 they are sometimes brought to Europe ; being 
 originally brought thither from Bazora. 
 
 BAGALAEN, or Bugelen, a district in the 
 south of Java, nearly about the centre of the 
 island, from east to west. The dialects of Scindo 
 and of this district, are said to be very distinct 
 from the .Javanese Proper. From the Bugelen 
 dialect the Sooloo language is supposed to be 
 derived. 
 
 BAGAIVIADER, or Bagamf.dri, a province 
 of Abyssinia in Africa : so named from the great 
 number of sheep bred in it ; meder signifying 
 land or earth, and bag a sheep. Its length is 
 estimated about sixty leagues, and its breadth 
 twenty, but formerly it was much more exten- 
 sive ; several of its provinces having been dis- 
 membered from it, and joined to that of Tigre. 
 A great part of it, especially towards the east, is 
 inhabited by wandering Gallas and Caffres. 
 
 BA'GATELLE, n. s. Bagatelle, Fr. A trifle ; 
 a thing of no importance. 
 
 Heaps of hair rings and cypher'd seals ; 
 
 Rich trifles, serious bagatelles. Prior. 
 
 BAGAUD.E, or Bacaud.i:, a faction of pea- 
 sants, or malcontents, who ravaged Gaul about 
 
 A. D. 290, and assumed the name Bagauda;» 
 which, according to some authors, signified, in 
 the Gaelic language, forced rebels; according to 
 others, robbers. After seven months' siege they 
 stormed the city of Autun. Villages and open 
 towns were everywhere abandoned to their ra- 
 vages ; and they shook off the yoke of slavery 
 only to show their incompetency for freedom, by 
 a perpetration of the most cruel barbarities. 
 Two of their most daring leaders, TElianus and 
 Amandus, had the boldness to assume the title 
 and decorations of the Ca-sars ; and the cabinets 
 of the curious still contain medals which they 
 coined. Maximian, when associated with Dio- 
 clesian in the imperial government, devoted him- 
 self to the reduction of the 'Bagaudae. It has 
 been said that they were Christians ; but even 
 Mr. Gibbon (ii. 123) rejects this fact. 
 
 BAGAUZE, the name given, in the Antilles, 
 to the sugar-canes, after they have passed through 
 the mill ; they are dried, and used for boiling 
 the sugar. 
 
 BAGDAD, or Bagdat, a celebrated city and 
 pachalic of Asia, in Arabian Irak, seated on the 
 eastern banks of the Tigris, which is here up- 
 wards of 600 feet wide. It is 300 miles N.N.VV. 
 of Bassora, 210 south of Mosul, and 1350 east 
 of Constantinople. This city is of an oblong 
 figure, about 1500 paces in length, by 800 in 
 breadth, environed with a high but ruined wall, 
 and a deep ditch. It has six gates surmounted 
 with cannon, a castle, and an armoury ; but the 
 whole of its defences are in a very feeble and 
 contemptible state. Here are some handsome 
 houses ; the markets are well supplied, and the 
 bazaars are magnificent, containing from 1200 to 
 1500 ships, loaded with every description of east- 
 ern merchandise. Bagdad, in fact, is the great 
 link of communication between Asia Minor, 
 Syria, and even Europe and the East. The 
 chief imports from India are, gold brocade, 
 cloths, sugar, pepper, tin, sandal-wood, iron, 
 china-ware, spice, cutlery, arms, and broad-clotli ; 
 in return for which they send bullion, copper, 
 gall-nuts, tamarisk, leather, and otto of roses. 
 From Aleppo are imported European silk-stuffs, 
 broad-cloth, steel, cochineal, gold thread, and 
 several other European articles, which are 
 brought in Greek vessels to Scanderoon. The 
 imports from Persia are, shawls, carpels, silk, 
 cotton, white cloth, leather, and saffron : and 
 those from Constantinople are, bullion, furs, 
 gold and silver thread, jewels, brocade, velvets, 
 and otto of roses. Its principal manufactures 
 are red [and yellow leather (which is much es- 
 teemed), silk, cotton, and woollen stuffs ; and 
 latterly a foundry of cannon has been erected. 
 
 Bagdad exhibits the ruins of a number of 
 antique buildings. On the west side of the 
 river is a suburb connected with the city by a 
 bridge of boats, upon which the Biib jisri, 
 (Bridge gate) opens. The great extent of this 
 city anciently on the west, as well as on the east 
 side of the river, appears from the ruins all 
 round this suburb. Here are the tombs of many 
 Mahommedan saints ; among others, those of the 
 Imams Abii Hanifak and Hanbel, founders of 
 two of the orthodox sects ; and of .M.isa Kazim, 
 one of the twelve Imams, the successors of Ail,
 
 •374 
 
 B A G DAD. 
 
 •so tTiuch vcrterated by \\\e Persians. To tlie 
 literary traveller it oHcrs many other objects of 
 interest; such as the tomhs otllaruun Al llaschid, 
 and his con«;ort Zoljeidaii, so often mentioned in 
 the Arabian Kii;hts; and the remains of some 
 fine mos(nies and coUetjes, monuments of the 
 most brilliant period of Arabian histoiy. But 
 even the wrecks of many palaces and public 
 buildings, celebrated by eastern writers, have 
 not entirely disapi)eared. 
 
 Bagdad was fomxled by the caliph Abu Jafur 
 Almansor in 70(5, and completed in four years. 
 In the ibllowiRt: cenfury the celebrated llaroun 
 Al Uaschid reigned here, and under the auspices 
 of Zobeida, his queen, and the vizier .lafter Bar- 
 iTiakeed, it rose into great splendor and impor- 
 ta^nee ; but was almost totally destroyed by the 
 Turks, 100 years later; aiid i'li the thirteenth 
 century was stornred 1 y the T-artar prince IIo- 
 ]akn, the grandson of Jeughis Khan, who put 
 the sovereign to <le»th, and abolished the cali- 
 pliate. Tumeric lie seized upon Bagdad in the 
 year 1416, and Kara Vusef in 1436. Shah Is- 
 mael, the iirst of the royal Persian house of Sefi, 
 rendered himself master of it in the following 
 century, since which time, it has been an object 
 of constant contention between the Turks and 
 Bersian.^. 
 
 Bigdad sustained a memordde srege by the 
 Turkish emperor Amurath [V. who, with an 
 army of 300,000 men, reduced it to great extre- 
 mities : it surrendered in 1633, on the promise 
 of indemnity; but the savage victor, having 
 gained possessio'.i of the place, put a great pro- 
 p;jilion of the i'niiabitants to tbe sword. During 
 the following century, Nadir Shah endeavoured 
 iu vam to wrest it from the Turks, and was 
 obliged to retire witli disgrace ; and in the course 
 of later years its safety 1ms been frequently me- 
 naced by the \N ahabees. In ir.50 the inhabi- 
 tants prevailed upon the Pm-te to appoint the 
 pasha whom they cliose to name ; and they have 
 e'.'Ci- since maintained this species of virtual in- 
 depeF.dence. 
 
 The commerce of Bagdad was once very ex- 
 tensive and nourishing ; but, from the improvi- 
 dent oppression of its rulers, it has now greatly 
 declined. It ic however, a place of great resort; 
 the residenoe of a pasha ; and a constant resort 
 of pilgrims. Taverni^n- rated the population in 
 his lime at 15,000, and ihcy probably do not 
 amount to 50,000 at present. This population 
 consists of Arabs, Persians, Turks, .lews, Ar- 
 menians, and other eastern Christians, who are 
 v-cpresented as generally courteous to strangers, 
 Bind of an independent spirit. The truth is, that 
 the pas;has are sensible of the advantage of their 
 dielance from Constantinople, and obey or dis- 
 obey the orders of the sultan, according to their 
 own t^onvellience. 
 
 Great extremes of heat and cold are felt berc : 
 in summer, especially when the summ-yeli, or 
 poisonous wind, blows, the inhabitants are 
 obliged to take rtiuge in the well ventilated 
 ofillars with which most of t!ie houses are pro- 
 vided: and in winter the cold is sufiicient to 
 produce ice half an inch thick. This is con- 
 sidered as intolerable ; and many of the natives 
 are said to j)eriili by it. The aiatives are like- 
 
 wise subject to a cutaneous disorder, for which 
 no cure has yet been discovered : it appears in 
 tl^e form of a pimple, then degenerates into an 
 ulcer, and at the end of eight or ten months 
 dries up of itself, leaving a prominent mark. 
 The inhabitants of Aleppo, and other towns in 
 Syria, are also subject to this disease. 
 
 The pachalic, or vice-royalty, of which Bagdad 
 is the capital, is one of the largest in the Turkish 
 dominions. It contains eighteen sanjaks, or 
 military divisions, and two districts of Kurdistan. 
 According to the present distribution of the em- 
 pire, it comprehends all its south-eastern angle ; 
 having Diyar-boer and iNIount Sinjah on the 
 north ; Persia on the east ; the Persian gulf on 
 the south ; and the Euphrates on the west. It 
 therefore very nearly corresponds with the Me- 
 sopotamia of the ancients. Its area is about 
 178,100 square miles. The pacha is commander- 
 in-chief of the troops stationed in his pachalic ; 
 next to him are the aghas of the janissaries and 
 sipahis. Their whole number amounts to 30,000 ; 
 infantry and cavalry in nearly equal proportions. 
 A corps of 500 men^ trained in the European 
 manner, which was raised a few years ago, is 
 still kept up. 
 
 This province has some very fertile spots : but 
 is too much exposed to the depredations of ban- 
 ditti to be cultivated in any proportion to its ca- 
 pabilities. It includes many celebrated cities 
 and towns, such as Bagdad, Bassora, JMosul, 
 and Merdin. 
 
 The revenue derived from the customs, a ca- 
 pitation-tax, occasional contributions of the 
 towns and cities, and the tribute levied on the 
 Arab tribes, does not exceed 7,300,000 piastres, 
 or £.375,000. 
 
 BAGDAGSIIAN, a yery ancient city and dis- 
 trict of Bokharia, in the province of Balkh, 
 situated at the foot of the mountains which se- 
 parate Ilindostan from Great Tartary. The city- 
 is not large, but exceedingly strong by its situa- 
 tion ; and belongs to the khan of Proper Buk- 
 haria, who uses it as a kind of state prison, it 
 is well built and very populous. It stands un 
 the north side of the river Anva, about 100 mik'S 
 from its scKirce ; and is a great thoroughfare for 
 the caravans designed for little Bukharia. The 
 inhabitants are enriched by mines of gold, silver, 
 and rubies, which are in the neighbourhood ; 
 and those who live at the foot of the mountains 
 gather gold and silver dust, brought down in the 
 spring by torrents occasioned by the melting of 
 the snow on the top. It is 150 miles east of 
 Balkh. 
 
 BAGE (Robert), a novel-writer of the last 
 century, was the son of a paj^er-maker at Derby, 
 and born in 1728. lie was brought up to the 
 same occupation as his father, but having a taste 
 for literature, he gained a knowledge of ma- 
 thematics, and of the I'lench and Italian lan- 
 guages. He wrote Mount llennedi,2 vols. 17B1 ; 
 BuWiam Downs ; The lair Syrian; .lames Wal- 
 lace; Kan as he is ; and Ilermsprong, or Man 
 as he "s not. The last two, which appeared, 
 when the author was nearly seventy years of age, 
 were decidedly sujjerior to the preceding. He 
 tlied at Tamwort'.i in 1801. Thiee of the earlier 
 novels of this writer have been republished in
 
 JUG 
 
 375 
 
 BAC 
 
 the niulli volume of Ballantyne's Novelist's i.i- 
 brary, edited, with biographical prefaces, by Sir 
 Walter Scott. 
 
 BAOrcjIU) (John), an antiquary, and great 
 collector of old i-lnglish books, prints, &c. was 
 born in London. lie had been, in liis youni^er 
 days, a shoemaker ;"afterwards, a bookseller; and 
 lastly, for the many curiosities wherewith he en- 
 riched the famous library of Dr. John INIoore, 
 bishop of Ely, his lordship got him admitted into 
 tiie Charter-house. lie was several times in 
 Holland, and on the Continent, where he pro- 
 cured many valuable old books, prints, ^c. some 
 of which he disposed of to die late earl of Oxford, 
 who purchased his collections, papers, &c. forliis 
 library. Jn 1707 were published, in the Philo- 
 sophical Transactions, his Proposalsfor a Cieneral 
 History of I'rinting. He died at Islington, May 
 15, 1716, aged Of) ; and was buried in the ceme- 
 tery of the Charter-house. 
 
 BAG'GACE, 11. s. From hug; bagfiage ; Fr. 
 and from bagascia, Ital. The furniture and 
 utensils of an army ; or any goods that are move- 
 able. It is likewise employed to designate a 
 dissolute woman of the baser sort, because 
 such usually follow camps. 
 
 No barricado for the belly ; it will let in and out the 
 enemy bag and baggage, Shaksj>earc. 
 
 They were probably always in readiness, and carried 
 among the baggage of the army. Addisun on Italt/. 
 
 Dolabella designed, when his affairs grew desperate 
 in Egypt, to pack up bag and baggage, and sail for 
 Italy. Arhuthnof. 
 
 A spark of indignation did rise in her, not to suffer 
 such a baggage to win away any thing of hers. Sidney. 
 
 When this baggage meets with a man who |ha9 
 vanity to credit relations, she turns him to account. 
 
 Bagoa«je, in antiquity," was distinguished 
 by the Romans into two sorts ; a greater and less. 
 The lesser was carried by the soldier on his back, 
 and called sarcina ; consisting of the things most 
 necessary to life, and which he could not do 
 without. Hence coUigere sarcinas, packing up 
 the baggage, is used for decamping, castra mo- 
 vere. The greater and heavier was carried on 
 horses and in vehicles, and called onera. Hence 
 onera vehiculorum, sarcin-je hominura. The 
 baggage horses were denominated sagraentarii 
 equi. The Roman soldiers in their marches were 
 heavily laden, in so much that they were called, 
 by way of jest, niuli mariani, and aerumno.-. They 
 had four sorts of luggage, which they never went 
 without, viz, buccellatum, or corn, utensils, valli, 
 and arms. Cicero observes, that they used to 
 carry with them above half a month's provisions ; 
 and we have instances in Livy, where they carried 
 provisions for a whole month. Their utensils 
 com])rehended those proper for gathering fuel, 
 dressing tlieir meat, and even for fortification or 
 entrenchment; and what is more, a chain for 
 binding captives. For arms, the foot carried a 
 spear, shield, saw, b;isket,rutrum, hatchet, lorum, 
 falx, &c. Also stakes or pales, valli, for the 
 sudden fortifying a camp; sometimes seven, or 
 even twelve of these pales were carried by each 
 man, though generally, as PoUybius tells us, only 
 three or foui. On the Trajan column we see 
 
 soldiers represented with this sanlie of corn, 
 utensils, pales. i<vc. gathered into a bundle and 
 laid on their slioulders. Thus inured to labour, 
 they grew strong, and able to undergo any fatiuue 
 in battle ; the greatest heat of which never liiXMl 
 them, nor put them out of breath. In after times, 
 when discipline grew slack, this lugtjage was 
 thrown on carriages and porters' shoulders. The 
 Macedonians were not less inured to hardship 
 tiian the Romans; wlien Philip first formed an 
 army, he forbad all use of carriages ; yet, with 
 all their load, tliey would march, in a summer's 
 day, twenty miles, in military rank. 
 
 Baogagi:, in modern military affairs, denotes 
 the clothes, tents, utensils of divers sorts, provi- 
 sions, and other necessaries belonging to* t'.m 
 army. Before a march, the waggons with the 
 baggage, are marshalled according to the ran!, 
 which the several regiments bear in the army ; 
 being sometimes ordered to follow the respective 
 columns of the army, sometimes to follow the ar- 
 tillery, and sometimes form a column by then-- 
 selves. The general's baggage marches first; and 
 each waggon has a flag, showing the regiment to 
 which it belongs. 
 
 1L\.(;LA1 I'.CHTE, in ornithology, the name 
 of Gmelin's loxia philippina, var, /3, in Buffon's 
 history- of birds. 
 
 BAGLANA, or Bhagei.ana, a large district 
 in the Mahratta territories, in the province of 
 Aurungabad, situated principally betwixt the 
 20th and 21st degrees 'of north latitude. -It is 
 exceedingly mountainous, but contains many 
 fertile plains ; and its natural strength is aug- 
 mented by a number of strong fortresses, erected 
 on the summits of the mountains. The rivers 
 are small, and the only towns of any note an; 
 Chandere, Tarabad, and Ingauw. 
 
 BAGLl\T ((ieorge, M. D.) an illustrious 
 physici:m of Italy, born in Apulia, about 166;^. 
 He graduated at P.idua, and afterwards weut to 
 Rome, where he was c!iosen professor of anatoiny. 
 His works were printed first in 17 10, in 4lo. Th'.- 
 i'raxis Medica, and De Fibra Matricis are his 
 principal pieces. He wrote a Dissertation upon 
 the Anatomy, Bite, and Efi'ects of the Tarantula, 
 and gave a particular account of the earthquake 
 at Rome and the adjacent cities in 1703. His 
 works are all in Latin. 
 
 BAGNA Di Aqca, a town of It;ily, in Tus- 
 cany. It is divided into the upper and lowor 
 towns, the former of which is called Petnj:!, and 
 the latter Pcrlascio. It has long been celebrated 
 for its warm baths, and is fifteen miles easl of 
 Leghorn. 
 
 BACJ.N'AGAR, a town of Asia, in the domi- 
 nions of the ( Jreat Mogul, once the capital of Gol- 
 conda. Its suljurbs were three in;!is lonj', and 
 cliiefiy remarkable for a magnificent reservoir of 
 water, 220 miles north-west of Fort St. George, 
 and as many cast of Goa. 
 
 BA(;N.UA, a small town of the ecclcsiaslical 
 states, one mile south of N'iterbo, w!icrj is held 
 yearly a great cattle m;irket. llie Dominicans 
 have here a large monastery, with an elegant 
 church. 
 
 BAGNALS, PiNTA Di, a point on the north 
 coast of the island of Barbadots, between Indian 
 river and tlie bay of Carlisle.
 
 376 
 
 BAGPIPE. 
 
 BAGNARA, a town of Naples, in Calabria 
 Ultra, witli the title of ducliy, and 5000 inhabi- 
 tants. It was destroyed by an earthquake in 1783, 
 but has recovered from the calamity, and carries 
 on a trade in wood, pitch, and excellent Musca- 
 del wine. It is fourteen miles west of Oppido. 
 
 BAGNAREA, a town of Italy, in the states of 
 the Church ; the see of a bishop, and stands on 
 a little hill. Five miles south of Orvieto, and 
 twelve north of Viterbo. Long 12° 10' E., lat. 
 42'' 38' N. 
 
 BAGNERES de Campin, or En Bi- 
 GORRE, a town of France, in Gascony ; the ca- 
 pital of an arrondissement, in the department of 
 the Upper Pyrenees. It contains about .-6000 
 inhabitants, who are employed in tillage and 
 pasturage. It is famed for its hot springs, of 
 which there are no less than thirty-two ; tliey 
 were known in the time of the Romans. Tlie 
 accommodations for visitors are respectable. It is 
 eleven miles south of Tarbes, and 450 S. S.W. 
 of Paris. 
 
 BAG'NIO, 71. s. Bagno, Ital. balneum, Lat. 
 bath. A house for bathing, and other less inno- 
 cent purposes. 
 
 I have known two instances of malignant fevers 
 produced by the hot air of a bagnio. 
 
 Arhuthnot on Air. 
 
 When I see a young profligate squandering his for- 
 tune in bagnios, or at a gaming-table, I cannot help 
 looking on him as hastening his own death, and in a 
 manner digging his own grave. Connoiseur. 
 
 Bagnios. The word is metaphorically ap- 
 plied to houses of bad fame. In Turkey it is 
 become a general name for the prison where the 
 slaves are enclosed, it being usual in those pri- 
 sons to have baths. 
 
 BAGNOLS, a town of France, in Languedoc, 
 the head of a canton in the department of the 
 Gard, arrondissement of Usez. It stands on a 
 
 BAGOLINO, a town of Venice, on the river 
 Caferro, which runs into the lake of Idro. It has 
 many iron-works, and contains 3600 inhabitants. 
 Twenty-four miles north of Brescia. 
 
 BAGONES, a river of Brasil, in the province 
 of Rio Janeiro. It runs S. S. E., and enters the 
 sea near Cape Frio, in lat. 22° 5' S. 
 
 BAGONGUENOU, two of the Laccadive 
 islands, in the Indian ocean, and in the vicinity 
 of each other. Long. 71° 56' E., lat. 11° N. 
 
 BAGOPIIANES, a governor of- Babylon, 
 who, when Alexander approached the city, 
 strewed all the streets and burned incense on the 
 altars, Sec. 2 Curt. 5. 1. 
 
 BAGOT (Lewis), an English prelate, son of 
 Sir Walter Bagot, laart. and brother to the first 
 Lord Bagot, was born in 1740. He was edu- 
 cated at Westminster, and chosen thence student 
 of Christ Church, Oxford, took his degrees of 
 A. M. and L.L.D. in 1764 and 1772 ; was made 
 canon of Christ Church in 1771, installed dean 
 in 1777 ; promoted to the see of Bristol in 1782 ; 
 translated to Norwich the year following, and 
 thence to St. Asapli in 1790, where he died in 
 1802. In this latter diocese he rebuilt the epis- 
 copal palace. He wrote, 1 . A Defence of Sub- 
 scription to the Thirty-nine Articles, as it is 
 required in the University of Oxford, 1772, 
 which was an anonymous answer to an anony- 
 mous pamphlet, entitled Reflections on the 
 Impropriety and Inexpediency of Lay Subscrip- 
 tion in the University of Oxford. 2. Twelve 
 Discourses on the Prophecies, preached at the 
 Warburtonian lecture in Lincoln's-inn Chapel. 
 
 BAG'PIPE, n. s. } From bag and pipe. A 
 
 Bag'piper, 11. s. J musical instrument, con- 
 sisting of a leathern bag, which blows up like a 
 foot-ball, by means of a port-vent or little tube 
 fixed to it, and stopped by a valve and three 
 pipes or flutes ; the first called the great pipe or 
 drone, and the second the little one, which pass 
 
 rock, lias a manufactory of various kinds of silk, ' ^j^^ ^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^ the bottom ; the third has a 
 
 and contains 4800 inliabitants. An expensive 
 road has been cut through a hill, four miles in 
 length, leading from this place to the Pont du 
 Gard and Nismes. The sands of the neighbour- 
 ing river Ceze yield gold occasionally. It is 
 twenty-one miles east of Nismes. 
 
 BAGNOLENSES, or Bagnoliaxs, in church 
 history, a sect of heretics, who in reality were 
 IVlanichees, though they disguised their errors. 
 They rejected the Old Testament and part of the 
 New ; held the world to be eternal ; affirmed that 
 God did not create tl>e soul, when he infused it 
 into the body; and denied his prescience. 
 
 BAGOAS, a Persian (name for the king's 
 eunuch, employed in history to denote Bagoas, 
 an Egyptian, who governed for along time under 
 Artaxerxes Othus. He poisoned his master, and 
 then put to death Arses, whom he had set up as 
 his successor, but was at length killed by Darius, 
 against whose life he conspired. This eunuch 
 answers to the Bagoas mentioned in Judith. — 
 
 ])iodor.\.\7; Joseph. Antiq. 1. 11. c. 7. 2. A 
 
 eunuch who was in great favor with Alexander 
 
 the Great, &c. 
 
 BAGCJI, among the ancient Persians, were the 
 
 same M'ith those called by the Latins spadones, 
 
 viz. a species of eunuchs. 
 
 reed, and is played on by compressing the bag 
 under tlie arm, when full ; and opening or stop- 
 ping the holes, which are eight, with the fingers. 
 The bagpipe takes in the compass of three 
 octaves . — Chu7n bers . 
 
 Wei coude he stolen come and toUen thries. 
 And yet he had a thomb of gold parde, 
 A white cote and a blew hode wered he 
 A baggepipe wel coude he blow and soune. 
 And therewithall be brought us out of toune. 
 
 Chaucer. 
 No banners but shirts, with some bad bagpipes, in- 
 stead of drum and fife. Sidney. 
 Yea, or the drone of a Lincolnshire bagpipe. 
 
 Sluikspeare. 
 Some that will evermore peep thro' their eyes. 
 And laugh like parrots, at a bagpiper. Id. 
 
 This light inspires and plays upon. 
 The nose of saint-like bagpipe Arone, 
 And speaks through hollow empty soul. 
 As through a trunk or whispering hole. 
 
 Hudibras. 
 
 Bagpipe. The peculiarity of the bagpipe, 
 and from which it takes its name, is, that the air 
 which blows it, is collected into a leathern bag, 
 from whence it is pressed out by the arm into 
 the pipes. These pipes consist of a bass and
 
 BAGPIPE. 
 
 377 
 
 tenor, or rather treble ; and are different accord- 
 ing to the species of the pipe. Tlie bass part is 
 called the drone, and the tenor or treble part the 
 chanter. Bagpipes are chiefly used in Scotland 
 and Ireland. In all the species, the bass never 
 varies from its uniform note, and therefore very 
 deser%'edly gets the name of drone ; and the com- 
 pass of the chanter is likewise very limited. 
 There is a considerable difference between the 
 Highland and Lowland bagpipe of Scotland; 
 the former being blown with tiie mouth, and the 
 latter with a small pair of bellows : though this 
 differnce is not essential, every species of bagpipe 
 being capable, by a proper construction of the 
 reeds, of producing music either with the mouth 
 or bellows. 
 
 The Highland RAcriPE consists of a chanter 
 and two short drones, which sound in unison 
 with the lowest note of the chanter, except one. 
 This is exceedingly loud, and almost deafening, 
 if played in a room ; and is therefore mostly 
 used in the fields, for marches, Sec. It requires 
 a prodigious blast to sound it ; so that those 
 vmaccustomed to it cannot imagine how High- 
 land pipers can continue to play for hours 
 together, as they are often known to do. For 
 the same reason, those who use the instrument 
 are obliged either to stand on their feet, or walk 
 when they play. The instrument has but nine 
 notes ; its scale, however, has not yet been re- 
 duced to a regular standard, by comparing it 
 with that of other instruments. Those who are 
 best acquainted with it, affirm that it plays only 
 the natural notes, without being capable of varia- 
 tion by flats or sharps. 
 
 The Irish Bagpipe is the softest, and in some 
 respects the most melodious of any, so that music 
 books have been published with directions 
 how to play on it. The chanter, like that of all 
 the rest, has eight holes like the English flute, 
 and is played on by opening and shutting the 
 holes as occasion requires ; the bass consists of 
 two short drones, and a long one. The lowest 
 note of the chanter is D on the German flute, 
 being the open note on the counter string of a 
 violin ; the small drone (one of them commonly 
 being stopped up) is tuned in unison with the 
 note above this, and the large one to an octave 
 below ; so that great length is required in order 
 to produce such a low note, on which account 
 the drone has sometimes two or three turns. 
 The instrument is tuned by lengthening or short- 
 ening the drone till it sounds the note desired. 
 
 The Scots Lowland Bagpipe is also a very 
 loud instrument, though less so than the former. 
 It is blown with bellows, and has a bass like the 
 Irish pipe. This species is different from all the 
 rest, as it cannot play the natural notes, but has 
 V and C shaq). The lowest note of a good bag- 
 pipe of this kind is in unison with C sharp on 
 the tenor of a violin, tuned concert pilch ; and 
 as it has but nine notes, the highest is D in alt. 
 Troin this peculiar construction, the Highland 
 and I>owland bagpipes play two species of music 
 essentially different from one another, as each 
 of them also is from every other species of mu- 
 sic in die world. This kind of bagpipe was 
 formerly very much used in Scotland at wed- 
 dings and other festivals; being extremely well 
 
 calculated for playing that peculiar species of Scots 
 music called reels. Hut it has been often a mat- 
 ter of surprise how this was possible, as the 
 instrument has only a compass of nine or ten 
 notes at the utmost, which cannot be varied as 
 in other instruments. In this respect, however, 
 it has a very great compass, and will play an 
 inconceivable variety of tunes. Its notes are natu- 
 rally so high, there is scarce any one tune but 
 what is transposed by it, so that what would be 
 a flat note on the key proper for the violin, may 
 be a sharp one on the bagpipe ; and though the 
 latter cannot play any flute note, it may in this 
 manner play tunes which on other instruments 
 would be flat. 
 
 The small Bagpipe has the chanter not ex- 
 ceeding eight inches in length ; for which reason 
 the holes are so near each other, that it is with 
 difficulty they can be closed. It has only eight 
 notes, the lower end of the chanter being com- 
 monly stopped. The reason of this is to prevent 
 the slurring of all the notes, which is unavoid- 
 able in the other species ; this, by having the 
 lower hole closed, and also by the peculiar way 
 in which the notes are expressed, plays all its 
 tunes in the way called by the Italians staccato, 
 and cannot slur at all. It has no species of 
 music peculiar to itself; and can play nothing 
 which cannot be much better done upon other 
 instruments ; though it is surprising what volu- 
 bility some performers on this instrument will 
 display, and how much they will overcome the 
 natural disadvantages of it. Some of this species, 
 instead of having drones like the others, have 
 their bass parts, consisting of a winding cavity in 
 a kind of short case, and are tuned by opening 
 them to a certain degree, by means of sliding 
 covers ; from which contrivance they are called 
 shuttle-pipes. 
 
 The bagpipe appears to liave been an instru- 
 ment of great antiquity in Ireland, though it is 
 uncertain whence they derived it. Mr. Pennant, 
 by means of an antique found at Richborough, 
 in Kent, has determined that the bagpipe was 
 introduced at a very early period into Britain ; 
 whence it is probable that both the Irish and 
 Danes might borrow the instrument from the 
 Caledonians. But that writer observes, ' W'e must 
 still go further, and deprive even that ancient race 
 of the credit; and derive its origin from the 
 mild climate of Italy, perhaps from Greece. 
 There is now in Rome a most beautiful bas re- 
 lievo, a Grecian sculpture of the highest antiquity, 
 of a bagpiper playing on his instrument, exactly 
 like a modem Ilighlander. The (ireeks had 
 their AaKavXrjc, or instrument, composed of a 
 pipe and blown-up skin ; the Romans in all 
 probability borrowed it from them, and intro- 
 duced it among their swains, wlio still use it 
 under the names of piva and cornu-musa. That 
 miister of music, Nero, used one ; and had not 
 the empire been so suddenly deprived of that 
 great artist, he would (as he graciously declared 
 his intention) have treated the people with a 
 concert, and, among other curious instruments, 
 would have introduced the utricularius, or bag- 
 pipe. Nero perished ; but the fiizure of the 
 instrument is preserved on one of his coins, 
 highly improved by that great master : it has the
 
 378 
 
 B A II A M A. 
 
 bag and two of tlie vulgar pipes ; hut was blown 
 with a bellows like an organ, and iiad on one 
 side a row of nine unequal pipes, resembling the 
 syrinx of the god Pan. The bagpipe, in the un- 
 improved state, is also represented in an ancient 
 sculpture ; and appears to have had two long 
 pipes or drones, and a single short pipe for the 
 fingers. Tradition says, that the kind played on 
 by the moutli was introduced by the Danes : as 
 theirs was wind music, we will admit that they 
 have made improvements, but more we cannot 
 allow ; they were skilled in the use of the trum- 
 pet; the Highlanders in the piohb, or bagpipe.' 
 
 Aristides Quintilianus informs us, that it pre- 
 vailed in the Highlands in very early ages; and 
 indeed the genius of the people seems to render 
 the opinion highly probable. The attachment of 
 that people to their music called pilirachs is 
 almost incredible, and on some occasions is said 
 to have produced effects little less marvellous 
 tiian those ascribed to the ancient music. At 
 the battle of Quebec, 1760, while the British 
 troops were retreating in great disorder, the gen- 
 eral complained to a field-officer in Trazer's 
 regiment, of the bad behaviour of his corps. 
 ' Sir (said he, with some warmth), you did very 
 wrong in forbidding the pipers to play this 
 morning: nothing encourages tlie Highlanders 
 so much in the day of action. Nay, even now, 
 they would be of use.' — ' Let them blow like the 
 devil, then (replies the general), if it will bring 
 back the men.' The pipers were now ordered 
 to play a favorite martial air; and the Highland- 
 €irs, the moment they heard the music, returned 
 and formed with alacrity in the rear. In the 
 iate war in India, Sir Eyre Coote, sensible of the 
 attachment of the Highlanders to their favorite 
 instrument, gave them £50 to buy a pair of 
 bagpipes. 
 
 There was once a kind of college in the island 
 of Sky, where the Highland bagpipe was taught; 
 the teachers making use of pins stuck into the 
 ground instead of musical notes. This, however, 
 was for some time entirely dissolved, and the use 
 of the Highland pipe became much less general 
 thau before. At last a society of gentlemen, 
 thinkiflg it perhaps impolitic to allow the ancient 
 martial music of the country to decline, resolved 
 to revive it by giving an annual prize to the best 
 performers on the instrument. These compe- 
 titions were held at Falkirk. The Lowland bag- 
 pipe was reformed, and the music improved by 
 George Mackie, who is said to have attended 
 the college of Sky seven years. He had before 
 been the best performer on that instrument in 
 that part of the country where he lived ; but, 
 while attending the college at Sky, adapted the 
 graces of the Highland music to the Lowland 
 pipe. Upon his return, he was heard with 
 astonishment and admiration ; but unluckily, 
 was not able to commit his improvements to 
 writing, and indeed the nature of the instrument 
 scarcely admits of it. 
 
 BA(jRE, in ichtliyology, a small bearded fish, 
 of the anguilliform kind, of which there are seve- 
 ral species. It has no scales, but is covered over 
 the whole body with a soft mucous skin of a sil- 
 very whiteness, and the beard, the head, and 
 \.-v fins are all _^of tiie same color; the eyes are 
 
 large, the moulh small, and without teeth. It is 
 caught in the American seas, and is eaten ; but 
 if any body is wounded by its thorns, it gives 
 great pain, and is difficult to cure. In the Lin- 
 nnsan system it is classed as a species of 
 silurus. 
 
 BAGRE De Kio, a name by which some 
 call the fish more frequently known by the name 
 of nhaiaidia. 
 
 BAG-REEF, in maritime affairs, a fourth 
 or lower reef, sometimes used in the royal 
 navy. 
 
 BAGSIIAW, a romantic little town in the 
 High Peak of Derbyshire. 
 
 BAGSHOT, or liAOSiioT, a small town in 
 Surry, two miles and a half south-west from 
 Staines, and twenty-six fronr J,ondon. This 
 place is famous for its excellent mutton, brought 
 hither from the Hampshire downs. It was form- 
 erly called Holy Hall, and our kings had an- 
 ciently a house and ]iark here. The church was 
 rebuilt in 167G, having been destroyed by light- 
 ning. Bagshot-heath, which surrounds the town, 
 is mostly uncultivated, but upon its borders are 
 some handsome seats, and one is the residence 
 of his royal highness the duke of Gloucester. 
 
 BA'GUETTE, n. x. Fr. a term of architec- 
 ture. A little round moulding, less than an 
 astragal ; sometimes carved and enriched. 
 
 Bagiette Di-.viNATOiiiE, the divining-rod, 
 generally regarded as a piece of philosophical 
 quackery. It is nothing else than a forked piece 
 of hazle, the two branches of which are often from 
 fifteen to eighteen inches in length, and form an 
 angle of thirty or forty degrees. They are held 
 in the hands in a certain manner, so that the 
 trunk or middle is turned towards the heavens. 
 Some persons, it is said, are endowed with such 
 a property, that if they hold this rod as above de- 
 scribed, it tends by a violent effort to turn its 
 trunk downwards, when in the proximity of a 
 spring, or of precious metals concealed in the 
 bowels of the earth, or stolen money, Ike. Nay, 
 some have even asserted that it has pointed out, 
 in this manner, the traces of criminals, robbers, 
 or assassins. (See Hutton's Translation of Mon- 
 tucla's Ozanam, vol. iv. p. 260). A lady of rank, 
 on reading his account of the divining-rod, wrote 
 several letters to Dr. Hutton on the subject, de- 
 scribing the wiiy in which she discovered that 
 she possessed t!ie faculty of finding water by 
 such an instrument ; and relating that she ac- 
 tually found water, by means of the hazle, in the 
 duke of Manchester's park, at Kimbolton, Hunt- 
 ingdonshire, about thirty years ago. The same 
 lady also exhibited successfully iier method of 
 discovering water, at Woolwicli Common, to Dr. 
 Hutton and his friends. See Divining Rod. 
 
 BAG^'ON, or Bogendorf, a market town of 
 Transylvania, in tlie county of Kolosch, not far 
 from tlie rdarosch, with tliui\hes of the L'allioliv, 
 Jveformed, and I'nitarian creeds. 
 
 BAHALATOHS, a small island in the eastern 
 seas, near the east coast of Borneo. Long. 118° 
 21' E., lat. 5" 45' N. 
 
 BAHAMA, or Lucayas Islands, the east 
 ernmost of the Antilles are situated in the 
 Atlantic Ocean, to tlie south of Carolina, be- 
 tween 21^ and 28^ N. lat. and 71° and 81° W.
 
 B A 11 A M A. 
 
 379 
 
 long. Tlipy extend along Ihe coast of Florida 
 down to the isle of Cuba ; are said to he 300, or, 
 according to olliers, oOO in number, some of 
 them only mere rocks; but twelve or fourteen of 
 them are large and fertile, and differing but little 
 from the soil of (Carolina. I'roceeding from the 
 southern to the northern extremity of the chain, 
 the group may ])e thus enumerated : — 
 
 1. Turk's islands, 
 
 2. The Caucus, or Caicos, 
 
 3. The Heneagas, 
 
 4. Mayaguana, 
 
 5. Crooked island Group, 
 
 6. Long island, 
 
 7. Watlings, 
 
 8. The Kxumas, 
 
 9. San Salvado, 
 
 10. Eleuthera, or Ilabour Island, 
 
 1 1. Providence, 
 
 12. Andros, 
 
 13. Lucayo, or Abaco, 
 
 14. Bahama. 
 
 In addition to the islands included in this 
 3'1'oup, two extensive sand-banks, called the 
 great and little Bahama banks, occupy a wide 
 s]iace of sea, the boundaries of wliicli are in<li- 
 cated by a vast number of keys and islets. The 
 jX)pttlation of the whole cluster is stated at 16,G00. 
 These islands were the first fruits of Columbus's 
 discoveries, and the feelings with which they 
 inspired that great commander are expressed in 
 the name of San Salvador, which he gave to the 
 islai<id on which he landed. It was called Gua- 
 nahani by the natives, and was first seen on the 
 11th of October, 1492, being the earliest authen- 
 ticated discovery of the western hemisphere. 
 These islands are said to have been at this time 
 inhabited by a peaceable race of Indians, whom 
 the Spaniards transported to work in the mines 
 of St. Domingo. They were not known to 
 the English till 1667, when captain Seyle, being 
 driven among them in his passage to Carolina, 
 first gave his own name to one of them ; but 
 being a second time driven upon it, he gave it 
 the name of Providence. The English govern- 
 ment observing the advantageous situation of 
 these islands, as a check on the French and Spa- 
 niards, attempted to settle in them in the reign of 
 Charles 11.; but they were little more tlian har- 
 bours for the buccaneers, until, in 1718, captain 
 Woodes Rogers was sent out with a fleet to dis- 
 lodge the pirates and make a settlement. A fort 
 was now erected and an independent com])any 
 stationed on the island. Ever since these islands 
 have been slowly improving. In 1781 tiieywere 
 s«rrendered to the Spaniards, but restored to the 
 British by treaty at tlic end of the war. At t'lis 
 period, also, many of the British loyalists and 
 planters repaired to the Bahamas, chieily i'mm 
 the southern states of North Americ;'^ ; from 
 which period the ])rinci])al islands have been re- 
 gularly selllo<l. In 177:5 the number of whites 
 was 2U.")2, and the blacks about 2241. Previously 
 to May 1803 lands were granted by the crown, 
 in the whole of l!ie Bahamas, to the amount of 
 205,381 acres, for tlie purpose of cultivation. 
 At tliat time thi population amounted to about 
 I4,.)18, including 11,3',»5 blacks and people of 
 color; .uid it appears, by a reiui:: lo the llousj 
 
 of Commons in 180), that the number of slave'^ 
 imported for two years previously to the year 
 1803 amounted to 2.523, of whom 2230 were 
 exported, leaving only 293 for the use of the 
 colony. The physical characteristics of the whole 
 of this group are very similar : the surface of the 
 whole is flat, the soil fertile, and the climate 
 serene, but they are all thinly inhabited, and by 
 persons who subsist chiefly by su])])lying necfs- 
 saries to the crews of vessels driven on the coast. 
 The thermometer generally varies from 80° to 90° 
 during summer, and from 60^^ to 65° in winter; 
 but the southern isles experience the influence! of 
 the trade-winds through the greater part of the 
 year. The soil in a few places is ricli : the chief 
 cultivated product is cotton, besides which tiiey 
 yield mahogany and some kinds of dye wood>, 
 salt, turtle, and several species of fish. Cattle 
 and sheep also thrive well, and great numbers cf 
 birds are met with, generally of the same kinds 
 as those of the West India islands. 
 
 New Providence, being the seat of govern- 
 ment, absorbs nearly the whole trade of the 
 group, which is chiefly with England, the West 
 Indies, and North America. Nassau is the ])rin- 
 cipal town, and the seat of government for all 
 the islands. This is founded upon that of the 
 mother country, and resembles those of her otlier 
 colonies in preserving the legislative, executive, 
 and judicial powers distinct : the governor is the 
 representative of the crown ; and in him the 
 executive power is vested. He is commander-in- 
 chief of the military, convenes and prorogues the 
 national assembly, and has power to annul their 
 proceedings, subject to a reference to the king in 
 council. By his judicial character he presides 
 in all the courts. The council consists of twelve 
 persons, appointed by the king, who form the 
 upper house of the legislature, and participate 
 with the governor in his judicial authority. The 
 house of assembly consists of twenty-six mem- 
 bers, who are elected by the respective districts. 
 See Edwards's History of the ^^ est Indies ; and 
 M'Kinnen's Account of the Bahama islands. 
 
 Bahama, Grf.at, Islano 01, one of the Ba- 
 hama's, sixty-three miles long and about nine 
 broad, situated on the south side of the Little 
 Bahama bank, and exlening from the Florida 
 .stream almost to the island of Abaco. The soil 
 is fertile, the air serene, and the island well 
 watered. It formeily produced guaiacum, sar- 
 saparilla, and red wood ; all which the Spaniards 
 are said to have destroyed. This islan' is 
 fifty-seven miles from the coast of east Honda. 
 Long. 78° 10' to 80^ 2-1' W., lat. 20'^ 40' to 27^ 
 5' N. 
 
 Bahama Ciianm i-, the narrow sea between 
 the coast of America and the Bahama islands, 
 about forty-five leagues in lenuth, and sixteen in 
 breadth. ' It is sometimes called the (Jiilf of 
 Florida. Here t!ie current flows with that rapi- 
 dity which renders the p;i3sage extremely dan- 
 gerous, except under favorable circumstances. 
 
 Bahama Bank, Giuat, a sand-bank, ex- 
 tending nearly from the island of Cuba to 
 the shores of" the Bahama group. It com- 
 mences about 22° 20', and stretches to 26^ 15' 
 of north latitude. A smaller bank of the same 
 kind and iiauK' occupies a considerable s\mcii on 
 the uortli of the inland of B.ihama.
 
 380 
 
 B A H A R. 
 
 BAHAR, from the Sanscrit Vihar, a Buddish 
 monastery, a large and populous province of 
 Hindostan, formerly called Magadlia, and once 
 an independent kingdom. It lies between the 
 twenty-second and twenty-seventh degrees of 
 north latitude, is separated from the Nepaul do- 
 minions by an extensive range of hills, rising 
 upon the northern frontier. On the east it has 
 the province of Bengal, on the south the ancient 
 Hindoo province of Gundwana, and on the 
 west a part of the latter, Allahabad and Oude. 
 It was anciently separated from the Benares 
 territories by the river Caramnassa. This pro- 
 vince at present is one of the most fertile and 
 highly cultivated territories of Hindostan. Its 
 included area of arable ground is computed at 
 26,000 square miles, and separated north and 
 south into two equal divisions by the river Gan- 
 ges, wich flows from west to east in a course of 
 200 miles. 
 
 The northern division stretches a distance of 
 seventy miles from the forests of Nepaul and 
 Morung to the borders of the above river. It is 
 separated on the east from Purveah in Bengal by 
 the Cosa or Cosi, and on the west from Gonac- 
 poor in Oude, by the Gunduck, and a crooked 
 line between that river and the Dewah, or Gog- 
 grah. The whole included area is one unbroken 
 plain, and was subdivided by the emperor Acber 
 into four districts, namely, Hajypoor, Tirhoot, 
 Sarun, and Chumparun, or Bettiah including 
 four pergunnahs from Monghyr. 
 
 The central division extends from the Ganges 
 south, as far as the Vindhya-chil range of hills, a 
 distance of sixty miles. It is separated from 
 Bengal on the east by a branch of the above 
 southern hills, extending to the Tilliaghury pass, 
 on the confines of Rajemal; from Chunar, in Al- 
 lahabad on the west, by the river Charamnassa. 
 The district Bahar, which lies in the centre of 
 this division, occupies one half of the inclusive 
 level area ; the plains of INIonghyr one sixth more, 
 and the rest is mountainous. The district of 
 Rotas lies to the south-west, chiefly between the 
 rivers Soane and Caramnassa, and that of Sha- 
 habad stretches along the southern side of the 
 Ganges. This central division is usually con- 
 sidered the most important and fertile of the 
 whole province, abounding in opium, and 
 yielding nearly two thirds of the whole pro- 
 duce. 
 
 Independent of the above divisions there is a 
 straggling hilly country of 8000 square miles, 
 which is almost barren, and still further to the 
 south, a third elevated region of barren rugged 
 land, to the extent of 18,000 square miles. This 
 lofty territory, including the modern subdivisions 
 of Chuta Nagpoor, Ramghur, and Palamow, is 
 bounded on the west by the Soubah of Allahabad, 
 on the south by Orissu, and on the east by Ben- 
 gal. Amongst geographers it is termed the 
 Three Bellads or Cantons, and is sometimes 
 described under the appellation of Kokerah, but 
 is more commonly called Nagpoor, from the sup- 
 posed wealth of its diamond mines. 
 
 The extent of tliis province may easily be 
 perceived from the following Uible in square 
 miles : — 
 
 Assessed lands of eight districts . . 26,287 
 Hilly territories in Ilhotas, Monghyr, 
 
 &c 7,133 
 
 Content of lands belonging to Pala- 
 
 mour, Ramgheir and Nagpoor. . 18,553 
 
 Total content of the province. . 51,973 
 
 The following extract from the celebrated in- 
 stitutes of Acber, compiled by Abul Fazel, A.D. 
 1582, may not be unacceptable to the geogra- 
 phical reader. 
 
 ' The length of Bahar from Gurher to Rotas 
 is 120 coss, and the breadth from Terhoot to 
 the northern mountains includes 110 coss. It 
 is bounded on the east by Bengal, has Alla- 
 habad, and Oude to the west ; and on the north 
 and south are large mountains. The principal 
 rivers of this Soubah are the Ganges and the 
 Soane. The river Gunduck comes from the 
 north, and empties itself into the Ganges near 
 Hadjypoor. The summer months are here very 
 hot, but the winter is temperate. The rains 
 continue for six months. In the district of Mon- 
 ghyr is raised a stone wall extending from the 
 Ganges to the mountains, and this wall is con- 
 sidered to be the boundary between Bengal and 
 Bahar. The Soubah contains seven districts, 
 viz. Bahar, Monghyr, Chumparum, Hajypoor, 
 Sarum, Tirhoot, and Rotas. These are sub- 
 divided into 199 pergunnahs. The gross amount 
 of the revenue is 55,47,985 sicca rupees.] It 
 furnishes 11,415 cavalry, 499,350 infantry, and 
 100 boats.' 
 
 The natural features of Bahar are by no means 
 uninteresting. It possesses all the advantages of a 
 rich soil, a temperate climate, and a centrical 
 geographical situation, shaded by mountains and 
 watered by rivers and small streams. Of these 
 the Ganges, the Soane, the Gunduck, the Dura- 
 moodah, Caramnassa, and the Dewali are the 
 most remarkable. 
 
 In Bahar and the contiguous districts aparching 
 wind from the westward prevails during a portion 
 of the hot season, and blows with great strength 
 during the day, but at night it is succeeded by a 
 cool breeze in the opposite direction. Both oc- 
 casionally cease for days, and even weeks 
 together, giving way to easterly gales ; and 
 during the cold season a blighting frost fre- 
 quently occurs in both the provinces of Bahar 
 and Benares. 
 
 Agriculture, manufactures, and commerce have 
 always flourished in this province, owing perhaps 
 in a great measure to its natural advantages. The 
 chief productions are opium, saltpetre, grain, su- 
 gar, betel-leaf, indigo, oils, essences, &c. together 
 with fine timber for boat-building. Cotton cloths, 
 for exportation, are manufactured all over the 
 districts, and the hills are supposed to contain 
 coal, sulphur, iron and other metals. The nu- 
 merous productions of Bahar, together with its
 
 B A H A R. 
 
 381 
 
 internal, means of communication serving as a 
 thoroughfare for the commerce of Bengal and 
 foreign maritime countries with the province of 
 Ilindostan, raised this territory |into a state of 
 prosperity, soon after the Patan conquest, and 
 this continued under the Mogul dynasty. Opium 
 may be considered as the staple commodity of 
 the province, although saltpetre is a great article 
 of exportation. The latter is produced in consider- 
 able quantities, in the districts of Ilajypoor and 
 Sarun, where it is manufactured for exportation. 
 The production of this article is always greatest 
 during the prevalence of the hot winds, which 
 are perhaps essential to its formation. These 
 winds did not formerly extend their influence 
 beyond the eastern confines of Bahar; but by 
 the change of seasons which have been remarked 
 within the last thirty years, they have reached 
 to Bengal Proper, where it is now said saltpetre 
 might be manufactured with nearly the same 
 success as in Bahar. The opium that is pro- 
 duced in this and the neighbouring provinces is 
 monopolized by government, and sold in Cal- 
 cutta by public sale. The common produce is 
 eight pound of opium for every beegah, which 
 measures about one-third of an acre, besides 
 which the cultivator reaps about fourteen pounds 
 of seed. The preparation of the raw opium is 
 under the immediate superintendance of the com- 
 pany's agent, and is as follows : The watery par- 
 ticles are first evaporated by the sun, and re- 
 placed by oil of poppy-seed to prevent the 
 drying of the resin ; after which the opium 
 is formed into cakes, covered with the petals of 
 the poppy, and when sufficiently dried is packed 
 up in chests with the fragments of the capsules, 
 from which the poppy-seeds have been thrashed 
 out. The opium is frequently adulterated by 
 intermixing an extract obtained from the stalk 
 and leaves of the poppy, and sometimes the gum 
 of the mimosa ; but the adulteration is difficult 
 of discovery. 
 
 Bahar was, in common with the greater part 
 of Hindostan, anciently supplied with salt from 
 the lake of Sambher, in the province of Ajmeer ; 
 but its supplies of that article are now brought 
 from Bengal and Coromandel, and imported 
 under the protection of government. 
 
 Although an intimate connexion has always ex- 
 isted between this province and Bengal, and their 
 histories have been blended, there are, in the na- 
 ture of landed property, several important distinc- 
 tions; of which the following are worthy of notice. 
 In Bengal the zemindaries are very extensive, 
 but in Bahar they are comparatively small; 
 hence the Bengalese zemindars assume a degree 
 of power and influence which those of Bahar are 
 not able to maintain. Those of the latter also 
 from their comparative distance having been 
 placed under a provincial administration, have 
 been precluded from that information which the 
 zemindars of Bengal have derived from their 
 access to the offices of government. Though the 
 lands of Bahar have been let to farm, from time 
 immemorial, yet no general settlement had been 
 concluded between government and the pro- 
 prietors of the soil from the ac«iuisition of the 
 Dewanny until the final and perpetual assessment 
 in 1792 ; from which circumstance the cultivator 
 
 was placed under great disadvantages. There 
 are, at present, few instances of jaghires in Ben- 
 gal ; but in Bahar they are common. The custom 
 of dividing the produce of the land in certain 
 proportions between the cultivator and the 
 government was almost universal in Bahar, but 
 in Bengal it was very partial and limited; so 
 that compared with those of the latter province, 
 the land-proprietors of Bahar, generally speak- 
 ing, were in a degraded condition. There are 
 now in this province three principal zemindars, 
 viz. tlie rajahs of Tirhoot, Shahabad, and Sun- 
 note Tekaroy; and it has been observed, that the 
 permanent fixing of the revenue system, which 
 was supposed to be fraught with so much mis- 
 chief, has not been found so injurious in practice 
 as it appeared in theory : the actual cultivators 
 of the earth being now in a much better con- 
 dition than they were before the adoption of that 
 measure. 
 
 It appears from the geographical chapters of the 
 Puranas, the only documents of their ancient 
 geography which the llindoosj possess, that 
 Bahar was originally the seat of two indepen- 
 dent sovereignties, viz. that of Magadha or south 
 Bahar, and that of Mithila (Tirhoot) or north 
 Bahar. Different dialects were anciently used, 
 and even now prevail,'in those countries ; namely, 
 that of Mithila, or Tirhoot, which both in the 
 terms and form of its character has considerable 
 affinity to the Bengale; and that of Magadha, in 
 which the resemblance to that language is still 
 more characteristic and striking. 
 
 Of the general population of the province, at 
 least one-fourth 'are MahommedansJ; Bahar having 
 been conquered by that people at an early period, 
 and afterwards retained in subjection ; so that the 
 Brahmins have acquired an unusual degree of in- 
 fluence. Gaya, the birth-place of the great pro- 
 phet and legislator Buddha, is a place of pil- 
 grimage, and the central resort of sectaries of 
 that persuasion ; but among the resident inliabi- 
 tants few Buddhists are to be found, owing to 
 the intolerance and cruelty of the Brahmins, 
 together with the Mahommedans\mode of propa- 
 gating and confirming their faith. 
 
 The chief towns are I'atna, ]\Ionghyr, Buxa, 
 Rotas, Gayah, Uinapoor, and Boglipoor. The 
 revenue is considerable, amounting in 1815 to 
 6,701,538 rupees, or nearly .£837,944 sterling. 
 The inhabitants visibly improve, and appear to 
 be of a different race from the Bengalese, whom 
 they excel both in strength and stature. 
 
 The province of Bahar is at present divided 
 into the following districts; which, with their 
 natural features and local peculiarities, we shall 
 subjoin for the satisfaction of the reader. 
 
 1. Boo I.I POOR, south-east of Bahar, and com- 
 prehending a part of the Motrul province of Ben- 
 gal, is bounded on the north by Tirhoot and 
 Piirinijah, on the east by the latter and Mur- 
 shid-abad ; on the south by Birb'hum and Hara- 
 garih, and on the west by that district and Bahar. 
 It extends 133 miles one way, and eighty the 
 other, forming a total area of about 8225 square 
 miles, and, according to Ayeen Akberry, ii . 25. 1 97, 
 was known anciently by the name of the sercar 
 of Monger. The hills are imperfectly cultivated. 
 The winds shift twice a year, blowing almost
 
 382 
 
 B A H A R. 
 
 invariably from east to west, between the months 
 of June and February; after which they chan.ie 
 from west to east. The heats are frequently 
 oppressive, and the cold season comparatively 
 mild. The soil is in many places rich, and fit 
 for agriculture ; but in otiiers, rocky and barren. 
 Hot springs are frequently found in tliis district; 
 in some of which, particularly at B'hinebaud, 
 the thermometer rises to 144° Fahrenheit. The 
 general character of the population is respectable, 
 but the mountaineers are wild and uncivilised : 
 some of them have been lately brought, under 
 the guidance of the lirahmins, who teach them, 
 to worship Durea before a bil-tree. 
 
 The most remarkable places in the district are 
 as follow : B'hiiiral-pur, tlie capital, situated in 
 lat. 25° 13' N., long. 86° 58' E. ; 1 10 miles north- 
 west of IMurshid-abiid. It is a mean-looking 
 town, in the midst of a beautiful country ; and 
 contains a population of more tlian 30,000 inha- 
 bitants, chiefly Mahommedans. Champanager, in 
 lat. i.)"^ 14' iV., long. 65° 55' V.., three miles 
 west of B'hu'zal-pur, contains, together with 
 Lacshmi-gani, a population of 9000. A Mahom- 
 medan saint, nine cubits high, is said to hare 
 been buried here, whose tomb is still a place of 
 pilgiimaje. G'hidd'hor, or Gliiddhore, lat. 24° 
 52'' N., long. 86° 10' S. S. W. of Monger, is 
 remarkable for the ruins of a castle, said to- have 
 been built by the Aflghan Shir Sliah, A. D. 1544; 
 the massive walls of which are still remainins'. 
 
 Mon'/er, Monghyr, (Mudtja or Mncti-giri), in 
 lat. 25° 23' N. long. 86° 26' Vv., on the south 
 bank of the Ganges. Its fort, surrounded by a 
 deep ditch, has been a place of note from remote 
 antiquity. The tov.n is formed by the assem- 
 blage of sixteen distinct iiamlets, provided with 
 only two regular streets, which lie near the 
 eastern and southern gates of the fort. The po- 
 pulation is about 30,000. Its most remarkable 
 curiosity, the shrine of Per Shah Koseln Lohauni, 
 is most venerated, both by Mussulmans and Hin- 
 dus. About five miles distant from the above 
 town is the celebrated hot spring called Sita- 
 ctind, or the pool of Sita ; in oriental mythology, 
 the wife of Rama the Indian Bacchus. The 
 waters are received into a brick cistern, about 
 eighteen feet square, from which air-bubbles are 
 constantly emitted, although the nature of the 
 gas has not been ascertained. The heat of this 
 spring is different at diH'erent times, varying 
 from 92° to 132° of Fahrenheit's thermometer. 
 
 Muti j'harna, or Mootyjerna (the pearl drop- 
 ing stream) lies about eigiit miles inland from 
 the Ganges; is a remarkable cascade, formed by 
 two fine waterfalls, together measuring 105 feet 
 perpendicular. Tiie waters sweeping over the 
 summit of the rocks, and falling from that lofty 
 altitude, are received into a basin below, which 
 has been conjectured, not upon slight grounds, 
 to be the original crater of an extinct volcano. 
 A view of this magnificent cascade is given 
 in Ilodges's Travels in India. Cohl-gaiig, 
 (spelt glini^i, and pronounced lifuuig), a small 
 town, in lat. 25° 14' N., long. 87° 1.5' K., on a 
 peaked hill, ten common cos south-east of Bog- 
 lipoor. Tcliy'agar'hi, or Telliaghurry, is a small 
 town twenty-tiiree miles north-west of Uaja- 
 inahal; hit, "25° 15' N., long. 87° 37' K. It" is 
 
 remarkable for an old castle, built by the Sijltan 
 Shujaa, in the seventeenth century. The \'ind'- 
 hva hills here, come down close to the river, arvl 
 form the line of boundary between the provinces 
 of Bahar and Bcng-al, in the Mogul division. 
 
 2. Baiiau isalarge district lying in the centre, 
 the boundaries of which are ill defined, but 
 generally traced to the Ganges, on the north, to 
 Ramgur and Monghyr on the south, to the lat- 
 ter, with the river Soane on the east, and the 
 district of Rotas on the west ; including a terri- 
 tory of 6680 square miles. The level land is 
 highly cultivated, but interspersed with naked 
 and barren hills, which are entirely isolated. 
 Some of these rise in clusters, exhibiting a 
 rugged irregular appearance, of which the most 
 remarkable are, the Beraber pahar, west of the 
 Phalgii ; the Raja-griha, or Raj-mahal, hills on 
 its eastern side ; and a long narrow ranc;e con- 
 tiguous to Sliaikh piirah. The southern hills 
 form a part of tlie \ ind'iiyan chain, continued 
 with little or no interruption for a great extent, 
 and, in the opinion of some, even to Cape 
 Comoriu. These hills no where approach the 
 river, and the country, though generally lofty, 
 exhibits the immense stretch of one continoed 
 plain. The winds commonly blow east and 
 west, shiffing twice in the year. The soil is 
 highly fertile, and the climate warm ; producing 
 nt)t only the comforts, but even luxuries of life. 
 The rivers and streams which water the country 
 are numerous. The (7rinj:es rolls along its mag- 
 niticent stream to the width of an English raito- 
 The Sonar, almost equal in the width of it's 
 channel, is navigable in the rainy seasi n, and is 
 celebrated for its handsome pebbles and fins 
 fish. The Phalgii, held in religious veneration 
 by the Hindns, is tremendously deep and rapid, 
 and is formed by the union of two immense 
 torrents above the city Gaya, where it spreaJs 
 to the breadth of 500 yards. The Punpuai, 
 Muraha, Dard'ha, Sacri, and Panchane, are ail 
 rivers of cotisi lerable importance. Ttie popuLi- 
 tion of this district is overflo^'ing. In 1811 it 
 amoanted to 2,755,150 souls, and the increase 
 has been almost incredible. The revenue in 
 1814 was equal to 1,748,006 rupees, or £218,500 
 sterling. In point of religion, Mahommedanism 
 is widely extended, aUhough idolatry is the most 
 prevalent. There are six great Hindoo shrines, 
 visited by '^lilgrims, and two belonging to the 
 Jain in the division of Nawada. 
 
 The principal towns of this district are, Patna, 
 (in Sanscrit, Padmarati, the lotus-bearing) the 
 capital of the province of Bahar, in lat. 25° 37''N, 
 long. 85° 15' E., on the south side of the Ganges, 
 which is here five miles wide in the rainy season. 
 Including the suburbs, it covers an area of 
 twenty sql^are miles, and contains 312,000 po- 
 pulation. The public buildinus are paltry ; the 
 fortifications are in ruins ; and even the hand- 
 somest mosque is now let as a warehouse. Patna 
 is a ])lace of considerable trade. It has a court 
 of ap])eal and cinnit; a judge and magistrate; 
 collector, commercial-resident, and opium agent; 
 is garrisoned by a provincial battalion, but has 
 few European houses or inhabitants. Patna lies 
 400 miles from Calcutta, by Murshed-abad. 
 
 Dana-pur, in lat. 25° 37' iV. long. 85° 5' E.,tcn
 
 B A H A R 
 
 383 
 
 miles west of Patna, is one of tlio principal sta- 
 tions of the European troops, and, accordingly, 
 has magnificent [barracks, fiood roads, elesrant 
 villas, and is, in sliort, compared with Patna, a 
 perfect paradise. Its population is between 
 20,000 and 30,000. 
 
 Gavii, in lat. 24'' 49' N., lonsr. So"* E., is the 
 capital of the district of Bahar, and consists of 
 1. Gaya Proper, tlie residence of the Brahmins; 
 and 2. Sabibganj, the residence of the re- 
 maining inhabitants, both contuning a popula- 
 tion of nearly 40,000. This place is celebrated 
 by the Budd'hists as the birth-place of their great 
 legislator, and by the Hindoos as the scene of 
 one of Vishnu's victories over an unmanageable 
 asur or giant. Pilgrims wit!:Out number crowd 
 from all parts, and their amount is rapidly 
 increasing; since from 31,000 who visited it 
 in 1811, 200,000 at present are said to arrive 
 annually. These pious visitants are taxed by 
 tlie Hritisli government according to the number 
 of holy places they visit. The utmost sum is 
 14J rupees, or £l \2s. sterling. We have only 
 to add, that the crimes arising from so great an 
 influx of strangers, too evidently shows the de- 
 plorable tendency of the Hindoo superstition. 
 The ruins of Budd'ha-gaya, and the number of 
 images scattered round them for fifteen or twenty 
 miles, are astonishing, and render it probable 
 tliat this was once the centre of Budd'hism, and 
 the residence of some powerful monarch profess- 
 ing that faith. 
 
 3. The third district of the province, viz. TiR- 
 HOOT, or Tirhiit, is on the north-west of the pro- 
 vince, bounded on the south by tlie Changes, on 
 the west by Saren, or Sarun district, on the north 
 by the Saptari woods of Nepal, and on the east by 
 Purneyah in Bengal. The district is liigh, healthy, 
 and well-watered, producing, besides the com- 
 modities above-mentioned, turmeric, ginger, and 
 several other valuable articles. Its chief rivers 
 are the Gaud'aclii, B'hagmati, and Gagari. The 
 whole area in 1784, before the alteration, was 
 upwards of 5000 square miles ; tlie revenue, as 
 late as 1814, amounted to 1,274,717 rupees, or 
 £159,339 sterling; and the population in 1801 
 was 2,000,000. It was anciently a part of the 
 province, or rather kingdom, of Mit'hila, which 
 comprehended the greater part of the three dis- 
 tricts, Tirhiit, Puriniga, Saren, together with 
 part of the Nepalese territory; and was bounded 
 by the Gandac, Cosa, and Ganees, together with 
 the mountains of ISepal on the north. It was 
 subdued by the ^Moguls in the fourteenth cen- 
 tury, and became part of the British empire in 1765. 
 This district has been recently selected by govern- 
 ment for improving the breed of horses, the soil 
 and climate appearing favorable to that purpose ; 
 accordingly many of the first quality are reared 
 in the Zilat, or division of Haji-pur. 
 
 The most remarkable mountain feature is the 
 towering peak of U'hola-giri in the Himalaya 
 chain, near which the Gaud'achi, or Sulagrami 
 river, suposed to be the Condoehates of Arrian, 
 t ikes its rise in lat. 2U^ 30' N., and long. 83^ 45' E., 
 or nearly. The summit of this mountain was 
 calculated by ]Mr. Colebioke to reach nearly 
 27,000 feet above the level of the sea. An. Res. 
 xii. 376. In its bed are found schistose stones, 
 
 or salgnims, contaming remains of the cornu 
 ammonis, v.hich are thence dispersed, are olijects 
 of adoration all over India. From which circum- 
 stance the mountain is called Siilgrami in Nepal. 
 The spiral lines are supposed to be traces of 
 Vishnu, and some of tliese stones sell for 2000 
 rupees, or £225. sterling. 
 
 Within the limits of Tirhac, or Tirhoot, is the 
 town liajypoor, or Haji-pur, with a district of 
 the same name, including an area of 2782 square 
 miles, whence the company obtain most of their 
 saltpetre. The town lies nearly opposite Patna, 
 at the confluence of the Ganges and Gaud'achi 
 rivers, in lat. 25° 41' N., and long. 85° 21' E. 
 It is celebrated for its horse-fair, held every 
 November, to which, in 1807, no fewer than 
 6000 horses were brought, two of which sold for 
 4000 rupees, or £450 each. Durbliauga, in hit. 
 26° 9' N., long. 86° 20' E., was a considerable 
 place in the time of Acbar ; and near Sing'hia, 
 east of the Gaud'achi, lat. 25° 52' N., long. 85"^ 
 15', are some very curious ruins. 
 
 4. The fourth district is Sarex (the Asylum), 
 comprehending Bettia or Champaran, formerly a 
 separate district, and is bounded on the north by 
 Macwan-pur and G6nac'h-pur, on the south by 
 the Ganges, on the west by the Dewa or G'hara 
 river, and on the east by 'firhoot, including, in 
 178,4 an area of 5106 square miles. The whole 
 of Saren suffered extremely from the fli.mine in 
 1770, by which nearly half the inhabitants 
 perished ; but is in general a well cultivated and 
 highly fertile country, and greatly improved since 
 the decennial settlement by Lord Cornwallis. 
 There are only two Mahommedan zemindars in 
 the whole district, and the revenue, in 1814, was 
 1,233,385 rupees, or £138,756. The popu- 
 lation is considerable, amounting, in 1801, to 
 1,QOOOOO, of whom one tenth were Mahom- 
 medans. 
 
 Teryani, or Turyaui (the country of boats) 
 lies at the foot of the northern hills and the lower 
 lands, where t'oe rivers become navigable. The 
 base of the mountains is covered with wood, and 
 the intervening lands between it and the culti- 
 vated districts are covered with grass, intersected 
 by streams and rivers, wliich in the rainy season 
 are navigable. The confined air, stagnant water 
 and putrified vegetable matter, in this district 
 render the climate unwholesome in the wet 
 months, especially in the low-lands. The forests 
 are inhabited by elephants, bears, tigers, rhi- 
 noceroses, wild boars, jackals, foxes, hares, and 
 hog-deer. The palas (erythrina monosperma) 
 and simul (bombax heptaphyllum) are found 
 on the Nepalese confines. Of this district Clia- 
 prah is the capital, lying in lat. 25° 46' N., long. 
 84° 46' E., and extending nearly a mile along 
 the northern bank of the Ganges. The popula- 
 tion of this town, in 1817, imiounted to 43,700, 
 and is now greatly increased. The Patna bearers 
 of Calcutta, or the original C'harwa tribe, are 
 settled near the borders of tiiis town, although 
 they emigrated originally from Chota Nag-pur, 
 lying in the southern part of the province. 
 
 5. SuAH-ABA» (the royal residence , is an ex 
 tremely fertile and populous district, bounded 
 on the north by the Ganges, on the east and 
 south by the Son, and on the west by Chunar,
 
 384 
 
 B A H A R. 
 
 in the provinceof AUah-abiid ; and including, in 
 1784, an area of 1869 square miles, since which 
 it has been materially augmented. The popula- 
 tion is about 2,000,000, and the revenue, in 1814, 
 amounted to 1,177,462 rupees, or £l32,465 
 sterling. 
 
 Arrah, the capital of this district, lat. 25° 35' 
 S., and long. 84° 40', is extensive and populous. 
 Bagsar, or Bacsar, south of the Ganges, in lat. 
 25° 35' N., long. 83° 57' E., is the place of the 
 celebrated engagement in 1764, when sir Hector 
 Munro, with 6215 Sipakis and 856 Europeans, 
 defeated the combined armies of Shujau'd dau- 
 lah and Kasim All Khan, amounting to 40,000 
 men. Here also is a police station, at which all 
 travellers are obliged to exhibit their passports. 
 Sasram, Sesraun^j, Sahasram, or Sahasraung, ly- 
 ing in lat. 24° 58' N., long. 83° 58' E., is cele- 
 brated for the splendid mausoleum of Shir 
 Khan the Afghan, built in the midst of a great 
 reservoir or tank, upwards of a mile in circumfer- 
 ence. Rohtas is the chief town of the westerly par- 
 gauah of this district, bounded by the Caramnasa, 
 which joins the Ganges at Bacsar, and contained, 
 in 1784, as many as 3680 square miles. The 
 fortress Rohtas gar'h, on the level summit of a 
 mountain, in lat. 24° 38' N. and long. 83° 50' E. , 
 was thought impregnable till taken from Rajah 
 Chintamen in 1542, by Shir Shah, the cele- 
 brated Afghan. After this it was again sur- 
 prised, and in 1 764, when Kasim Ali evacuated 
 the ■ province, came into possession of the 
 English. 
 
 6. Ram-g'har (the house of Rama), the sixth 
 division of the province, is a hilly and moun- 
 tainous district in the south, bounded on the 
 north by Bahar proper, on the east by Barda- 
 hwaii and B'hal-pur, on the west by Bilaunja, 
 Serauja and Jeshpur, and by that district, Gang- 
 and Sing'h-b'hum on the south. A great part 
 of this district belonged to the ancient province 
 of Gondwana; but now, in addition to its own 
 peculiar territory, it comprehends Palamb, Pa- 
 
 chct, and Chdta Nag-pur. The population has 
 been estimatetl at half a million, who, though 
 improving, are at present uncivilised. The 
 woods, wild beasts, and savage inhabitants, ren- 
 der this district a perilous residence; whilst 
 superstition, rapine, and murder, are to be seen ■ 
 in all directions. The extent of the Ram-g'har 
 territories in 1784 was 21,732 square miles, of 
 which two-thirds was waste land. Iron is found 
 in many of the hills. The INIahvvap tree, or 
 Bassia longifolia, grows abundantly among the 
 rocks, and furnishes a farinaceous pulp which is 
 a substitute for bread, and a nutricious infusion 
 which is used as tea. The chief rivers are Bara- 
 car and Damodar ; and the largest towns are 
 Alacaud-gauj, Chitra, and Ramgar'h. Ramgar'h, 
 on the Damodar, is now a second-rate town, in 
 lat. 23° 39' N., long. 95° 43' E. Palamo, or 
 Palamau, the residence of a powerful rajah, is 
 a hilly and woody territory on the Mahratta fron- 
 tier. Berwa, in lat. 53° 20' N., long. 84° 46' E., 
 lies contiguous to Nazari Bagh, the head quar- 
 ters of the corps stationed in Ramgar'h. Pach^t, 
 a zemindarl of uncivilised population, contains 
 2779 square miles. The town is in lat. 23° 36' 
 N., and long. 86° 50' E. Ch'hota Nag-pur is a 
 high, woody, and unhealthy zemindari, at the 
 southern extremity of this province, bordered on 
 three sides by Gondwana, and never completely 
 subdued by the Mahommedans. The Chatauri, 
 Cieri, and D'hangar tribes, have never embraced 
 the religion of the Brahmins ; but have a reli- 
 gion and language of their own. The productions 
 are similar to those found in the other parts of 
 tlie district. Iron is commonly met with, but is 
 not manufactured, because that metal can be pro- 
 cured at a smaller expense from the European 
 markets. 
 
 For a further illustration of the general features 
 and economy of this province we refer the reader 
 to Hamilton's Hindostan ; Asiatic Researches ; 
 Bernouilli's Hindostan, i. and ii.; Rennell's Me- 
 moir, Ayeen Akberry, &:c. 
 
 Bahau, a town in the province of Bahar, 
 district of Bahar, 35 miles S, E. from Patna. 
 Lat. 25° 13' N., long. 85° 37' E. 
 
 Bahar, or Baure, in commerce, weights 
 used in several places in the Ea^t Indies. They 
 have been distinguished as the great bahar, with 
 •which they weigh pepper, cloves, nutmegs, gin- 
 ger, See. and the little bahar, with which they 
 weigh quicksilver, vermillion, ivory, silk, &c. 
 But this weight varies much in different parts of 
 the East. The bahar of Acheen, in Sumatra, 
 consists of 100 caltees, and is equal to 490lbs. 
 avoirdupois. The bahar of (Betlefackee, in Ara- 
 bia, consisting of forty farcels, is := 815^1bs. 
 avoirdupois. The bahar of Bencoolen = 560 
 lbs. avoirdupois. The bahar of Junkseylon of 
 eight capins = 485lbs. 5oz. 5Jdr. The bahar 
 of Molacca, of three peculs = 405lbs. avoirdu- 
 pois. The bahar of Mocha, of fifteen franks = 
 445lbs. avoirdupois. 
 
 BAHAREN, or Bauurein, a cluster of 
 islands in the Persian Gulf, chiefly remarkable 
 for the pearl fishery of the neighbourhood. They 
 
 have often changed masters. With Ormus they 
 came under the dominion of the Portuguese, 
 were again restored to Persia by Thomas Khouli 
 Khan ; and after his death, the confusion into 
 which his empire was thrown, gave an opportu- 
 nity to an enterprising and ambitious Arab of 
 taking possession of them. But he was soon 
 compelled to relinquish them once more to the 
 Persians; who have lately been, in their t\irn, 
 driven from them by the rising sect of the Wa- 
 habees. Baharen, or Awal the principal island, 
 was famous for its pearl fishery even when pearls 
 were found at Ormus, Kareke, Kashy, and other 
 places in the Persian Gulf : but became of much 
 greater consequence when the other banks were 
 exhausted. It lies about fifteen miles from the 
 coast, and ninety W. N. W. of Bushire; and is 
 covered with villages and date gardens. The 
 capital, Medina, containing 800 or 900 houses, 
 and a strong fort, which was 'some time ago gar- 
 risoned by 300 Persians. The town is (destitute 
 of water ; but here is a harbour which will admit 
 vessels of 200 tons burden, and a strong castle.
 
 BAH 
 
 385 
 
 BAH 
 
 It lies about three miles from tlie coast. Tlie 
 I'ersians are said to resort liitlier liabitually for 
 the study of Arabic, under the Shuats, tlie dis- 
 ciples of Ali. Another of these islands is Arad, 
 divided by an isthmus into two parts, the princi- 
 pal of which is called Samoki, and has a small 
 town, Mahared. A third island, sometimes no- 
 ticed in the Eastern maps, is Gutter Sahari, 
 called by the English, Meritan liock. The 
 earliest time of fishing is in April, and the latest 
 in October. The pearls taken at Eaharen, 
 though not so white as those of Ceylon or Japan, 
 are much larger than those of the former place, 
 and more regularly shaped than those of the 
 latter. They have a yellowish color ; but have 
 also this good quality, that they preserve their 
 golden hue, whereas the whiter kind lose much 
 of their lustre by keeping, especially in hot 
 countries. Those of deeper color are generally 
 bought by the IMahrattas, and the paler are 
 transported through Bassora and Bagdad all 
 over Asia. It is said to be on the whole the 
 richest and most productive pearl fishery in the 
 world ; and to average a profit to the individuals 
 who farm it of £iOO,000 per annum. The 
 oyster banks, lying fifteen or twenty feet below 
 the surface, stretch from about 25° to 26° 40' N. 
 lat., and the shells from two to ten inches in dia- 
 meter, are considered valuable, as w-ell as the 
 pearls. It is a practice with those who are em- 
 ployed in opening the shells, to put the finer 
 pearls into their mouths, believing that this adds 
 to their brilliancy ; and the fishermen always an- 
 ticipate success after copious rains. Latterly 
 the produce of the fishery has in some measure 
 declined, in consequence of the JLnglish markets 
 for the Ceylon fishery being transferred to the 
 straits of Manaar; and the pearls are chiefly 
 sent to Surat. 
 
 BAIIARY, a town of Sennaar, fifteen miles 
 south-east of that place. 
 
 BAHAS, a town of Arabia, in the kingdom of 
 Yemen, near the Red Sea, sixteen miles N.N.W. 
 of Loheia. Lat. 15° 59' N. 
 
 BAHATRICALLY, a town of Cochin, with 
 a pagoda, twenty-three miles S. S. E. of Cochin. 
 
 BAIIBEIT, Baleeit, or Bhabeit, a ruined 
 place in the Delta of Egypt, where there are the 
 remains of a magnificent marble temple. Po- 
 cocke supposes it to have been a temple of Isis ; 
 but this is disputed by D' Anville and Savary. 
 The figures on the basso relievo are beautiful, 
 but ill drawn. Pococke supposes Bahbeit to be 
 the ancient Busiris. Seven miles S. S. W. of 
 Mansora. 
 
 BAHBELGONGE, a town of Ilindostan, in 
 the country of Baglana, situated on the river 
 Godavery, sixty miles east of Nassuck, sixty-five 
 west of Aurungabad. Long. 74'^ 52' E., lat. 
 19° 43' N. 
 
 BAHHREIN, or Ar'dv'l Bahrein (the 
 Land of the two Seas), is the name of a pro- 
 vince of Arabia, between Oman and Basrah. 
 It is called also Hajar and Lahsa, or El-Alisa. 
 This district is bounded by the Arabian desert 
 on the north ; by Nejed on the west; by the sea 
 on the east ; and by Oman on the south. It ap.- 
 pears to be in a flourishing condition ; and is 
 governed by the Arabs of the tribe of Ben'i Kh;i- 
 
 VOL. III. 
 
 lid. The principal towns are on the coast, viz. 
 1. Lahsii, or Hajar, the residence of the sheik, 
 or head of the tril)e. 2. Katif, a sea-port, about 
 twenty miles from the islands of Al Bahrein- 
 It is inhabited by people employed in the pearl- 
 fishery. 3. Coweit, or Korein (iireen), sixty or 
 seventy miles from Zobeirch, Old Basrah. It is 
 populous, and maintained, like other places on 
 this coast, by the pearl-fishery. 
 
 BAIIIA DE ToDOs LOS Saxctos, a province 
 and captainship of Brasil, extending to a consi- 
 derable distance along the coast ; being bounded 
 on the north by the St. Francisco, which runs 
 into the sea in lat. 11° S., and on the soutli by 
 the province of Minas (^eraes, including the dis- 
 trict of Ilheos, forming a separate province. The 
 climate is always warm, but is refreshed by the 
 sea-breeze. The soil is peculiar, and those parts 
 between the mountains and the sea are esteemed 
 the best in Brasil for the growth of the sugar- 
 cane. It is also well adapted for tobacco and 
 cotton. Coffee is grown in great quantities, but 
 the quality is inferior. 
 
 Bahia, or St. Salvador, the capital of the 
 above province, is populous and opulent ; and 
 the second city in Brasil. It is strong by nature 
 and well fortified ; and was, for two centuries, 
 the residence of the governor-general of Brasil. 
 It is still an archiepiscopal city ; and, including 
 its suburbs, is about four miles long. The upper 
 town is situated upon an eminence, and the 
 lower, which consists principally of a single 
 street, parallel to the beach, at its western base. 
 Here is the chief seat of its commerce, a dock- 
 yard, and a marine arsenal. The streets of the 
 upper town are so steep that carriages can rarely 
 be used. The churches, chapels, and convents, 
 of Bahia are splendid structures ; and with the 
 archbishop's palace, the mint, and the governor's 
 residence, are the first and most conspicuous 
 objects that meet the eye of a stranger. The 
 grand church, formerly belonging to the Jesuits, 
 is by far the most supurb structure in this city. 
 It is entirely composed of European marble, im- 
 ported at an immense expense. Tiie wood-work 
 of the altar is inlaid with tortoise-shell, and co- 
 vered with paintincrs, gilding, and a profusion of 
 ornaments. The chief commerce of Bahia is in 
 linen, and other kinds of cloth, hats, silk and 
 thread, stockings, grain, rice^ flour, biscuit, wine, 
 oil, slaves, butter, cheese, bacon, and "household 
 furniture ; for w hich gold, sugar, tobacco, skins, 
 liides, Brasil wood, balsam, and several kinds of 
 drugs, are exported. The population, including 
 the suburbs, has been lately estimated at 100,000, 
 about 30,000 of whom are whites, and the rest 
 mulattoes and negroes. It stands in 12° 59' S. 
 lat., and longitude 37'^ 23' W. 
 
 Bahia, a province of the island of Luzon, one 
 of the Philippine islands, so called from a lake 
 in the neighbourhood, which is said to be ninety 
 miles in circumference. 
 
 Bahia de Chetumel, or Hanover Bay, a bay 
 on the east coast of the peninsula of Yutucan, 
 ill the bay of Honduras. 
 
 Bahia, Honda, a large, well sheltered har- 
 bour of the island of Cuba, on the north side, 
 which has fifteen and ten fathoms of water in the 
 bay, eight at the entrance into the liarbonr, and 
 
 2 C
 
 BAH 
 
 386 
 
 BA.I 
 
 ancliorage in four and five fathoms. Long. 
 83^ 6' W., lat. 22° 58' N. 
 
 BAHIE, or Bahei, an island on the coast of 
 Arabia, in the Ifed Sea. Also a small town op- 
 posite to it on the .shore. 
 
 BAIIIOUDA, an extensive desert district to 
 the north of Sennaar, between that country and 
 Dongola. 
 
 BAHIR, a Hebrew term, signifying famous or 
 illustrious, but particularly applied to a book of 
 the Jews, the most ancient of the Rabbinical 
 works, and which treats of the profound mysteries 
 of the Cabbala. 
 
 BAHIRA, Bahri, or Rif, or the maritime 
 province, a name given by the Arabian geogra- 
 phers to the Delta of Egypt, and the districts 
 immediately adjoining it east and west. It con- 
 tains Alexandria, Rosetta, Damietta, Menuf, and 
 Mansoura. 
 
 Bahiiia, among the ancient Arabs, a name 
 given to one of the four kinds of camels or sheep, 
 which, according to their religion, were turned 
 out at liberty with an ear mark, no longer to be 
 used for service like other cattle. The bahira, 
 with the sabahi, wasita, and hami, were abolished 
 by iNIahomet. 
 
 ' BAHLINGEN, a large and well built village 
 in tlie grand duchy of Baden, circle of the 
 Treisam, upper bailiwic of Hochberg. It con- 
 tains 1620 inhabitants, who cultivate the vine to 
 a great extent. 
 
 Baiix, a town of the Prussian states, in Further 
 Pomerania, and circle of (ireifenhagen. It con- 
 tains about 1300 inhabitants, who derive their 
 subsistence chiefly from tillage, the neighbouring 
 country being very fertile ; straw hats are also 
 manufactured here. Twenty miles S.S.W. of 
 Stargard, thirty -two north of Custrin. 
 
 Bahooan, a small island in the Sooloo archi- 
 pelago. Long. 120° 58' E., lat. 6° 9' N. 
 
 BAHOUACHE, Diak, the title of the sove- 
 reign of Anossi. See Anossi. 
 
 BAIIRABAD, a town of Persia, in the pro- 
 vince of Khorassan, ten miles north of Sebsvar. 
 
 BAHR Belame, or river without water, a deep 
 valley in the west of Egypt, supposed to have 
 anciently formed a canal of communication be- 
 tween Lake Moeris (Eaioum), and the Lake 
 Mareotis. See Barrai. 
 
 BAURDT (Charles Frederick), a German 
 writer, born at Bischosswerda, in 1741. He 
 studied at Leipsic, where his father was profes- 
 sor of divinity, took the degree of A.M., and 
 was appointed his father's deputy. In conse- 
 quence of an amour he was obliged to leave 
 Leip'sic ; and settled at Erfurt, as professor of 
 Biblical antiquities. Here in 1769 he published 
 An Essay towards a system of the Doctrines con- 
 tained in the Bible, in which several heterodox 
 opinions were broached. He soon after left 
 Erfurt, and went to Giessen in Hesse, where he 
 published a number of theological tracts, abound- 
 ing with extravagancies, confidently maintained. 
 From Giessen he removed to Durkheim, in 177,4, 
 and here count Von Leiningen Dachsburg ap- 
 pointed him his preacher, and gave him a 
 house for a seminary of education, designated 
 the Philanthropiuin, which was opened in 1777. 
 To oVjtain pupils. Bahrdt travelled to Holland 
 
 and England ; but on his return, finding a prose- 
 cution had been commenced against him at 
 Vienna, he fled to Prussia. Some time after he 
 settled at Halle, where he became an avowed 
 deist, and commenced tavern-keeper, and farmer. 
 At Halle he instituted a new society of free- 
 masons, on account of which he lay twelve 
 months in prison, but afterwards continued his 
 business as a landlord. He died in 1792. 
 
 Bahr el Abiad, or the White River, a name 
 given to the real Nile, near its first origin ; the 
 sources of which in the African Alps of Kumri 
 remain to be explored. 
 
 Bahr el Azrek, Blue River, or Abyssinian 
 Nile, has its chief spring in a small hillock, 
 situated in a marsh, and joins the Bahr el Abiad, 
 or true Nile, about lat. 16° N. 
 
 Bahr el Accaba, an arm of the upper ex- 
 tremity of the Red Sea, penetrating into Arabia. 
 
 Bahr el Sowda, a name said to be given to 
 the lake of Antioch. 
 
 BAHRY, a town of Ilindostan, in the do- 
 minions of the rajah of Dhoulpore, 10 miles 
 north of the river Chumbul. 
 
 BAHURIM, a city of the Benjamites, about 
 a mile or two north-east of Jerusalem. Ahimaz 
 and Jonathan hid themselves in a well in this 
 town, when pursued by Absalom's messengers. 
 
 BAJA, or Bai^, an ancient village of Cam- 
 pania, in Italy, between the promontory of Mi- 
 senum and Puteoli, on the Sinus Baianus ; fa- 
 mous for its natural hot-baths, which served the 
 wealthier Romans for the purposes of medicine 
 and pleasure. The variety of these baths, the 
 softness of its climate, and the beauty of its 
 landscape, captivated the minds of opulent no- 
 bles, whose passion for bathing was unbounded. 
 The wearing of linen, and the disuse of ointments, 
 render the practice less necessary in modern life ; 
 but the ancients performed no exercise, and en- 
 gaged in no study, without previous ablutions, 
 which at Rome required an enormous expense 
 in aqueducts, stoves, and attendants : a place, 
 therefore, where waters naturally heated to every 
 degree of warmth bubbled spontaneously out of 
 the ground, in the pleasantest of all situations, 
 was such a treasure, as could not be overlooked. 
 Baisc possessed these in the highest perfection ; 
 its easy communication with Rome was also a 
 point of great weight. Hither at first retired 
 for a temporary relaxation the mighty rulers of 
 the world, to string anew their nerves and revive 
 their spirits, fatigued with bloody campaigns and 
 civil contests. 'Fheir habitations were small and 
 modest ; but soon increasing luxury added palace 
 to palace, till ground was wanting for the vast de- 
 mand; enterprising architects,' supported by im- 
 mense wealth, now, therefore, carried their foun- 
 dations into the sea, and drove that element back 
 from its ancient limits. It has since taken ample 
 revenge, and recovered much more than it ever 
 lost. From being a place of resort for a season, 
 Baiae grew up to a permanent city : whoever 
 found himself disqualified by age, or infirmity, 
 for sustaining any longer an active part on the 
 political theatre, or from an indolent disposition, 
 sought a place where the pleasures of a town 
 were combined with the sweets of a rural life ; 
 whoever wished to withdraw from the dangerous
 
 BAJ 
 
 38: 
 
 BAJ 
 
 neighbourhood of a court, or the baneful eye of 
 informers, flocked thither, to enjoy life untainted 
 with fear and trouble. The affluence of wealthy 
 inhabitants rendered Raise, therefore, as much a 
 miracle of art as it was before of nature : its 
 splendor may be inferred from its innumerable 
 ruins, heaps of marbles, mosaics, stucco, and 
 other precious fragments of taste. It flourished 
 in full glory down to the days of Theodoric, the 
 Goth ; but the destruction of its enchanted pa- 
 laces followed quickly upon the irruption of the 
 northern conquerors, who sacked and burnt all 
 before them, and destroyed or dispersed the 
 whole race of lloman nobility. Moles and but- 
 tresses were now torn asunder and washed away ; 
 promontories, wnth the proud towers that once 
 crowned their brows, undermined and tumbled 
 headlong into tl^e deep, where, many feet below 
 the surface, pavements of streets, foundations of 
 houses, and masses of walls are still to be de- 
 scried. Internal commotions of the earth contri- 
 buted also largely to this general devastation : 
 and mephetic vapors and stagnated waters have 
 converted this favorite seat of health into the 
 abode of pestilence, at least during the estival 
 heats. Yet Baiae in its ruined state, and stripped 
 of all its ornaments, presents many beautiful and 
 striking subjects for the pencil. It lies in the 
 Terra di Lavoro, twelve miles west of Naples, 
 and two from Puzzuolo. Don Pedro, the vice- 
 roy of Charles V. erected a castle on a neigh- 
 bouring eminence to defend the harbour ; and 
 about a century ago, another was built on an 
 island adjacent, which communicates to the 
 shore by a bridge. 
 
 Baja, Baia, Bavjah, or Begia, a town of 
 the kingdom of Tunis in Africa, supposed to be 
 the ancient \'acca of Sallust, and Oppidum ^'ag- 
 genese of Pliny. The Tunisians say that if there 
 was in the kingdom such another tov.n as this for 
 plenty of corn, it would become as cheap as sand. 
 It has a great annual fair, to which the most dis- 
 tant Arabian tribes resort with their families and 
 flocks. Notwithstanding this, the inhabitants 
 are very poor, and great part of the land about 
 the town remains uncultivated. The town stands 
 on the declivity of a hill, on the road to Constan- 
 tina, about ten leagues from the northern coast, 
 and thirty-six south-west of Tunis. On the 
 highest part is a citadel that commands the place, 
 but is of no creat strength. The walls were 
 raised out of the ruins of the ancient Vacca, and 
 have some ancient inscriptions. 
 
 Baja, or Bava, a populous market town of 
 Hungary, on the Danube, thirty-five miles north- 
 west of Esseck. It has a Catholic and Greek 
 parish church. 
 
 Baja, in entomolo'j^y, a species of phalaena, 
 (noctua), of the middle size, that inhabits Eujope. 
 It feeds on the deadly night shade. 
 
 Baia de Rama, a town of European Turkey, 
 in \\'alachia, district of Mehedinza, situated on 
 the river of the same name. 
 
 BAIABAD, a town of Asiatic Turkey, in Na- 
 tolia, twenty-eight miles south-east of Kastamoni. 
 
 BAIAC, a town of Asiatic Turkey, in Na- 
 tolia, thirty miles south-east of Kutayeh. 
 
 BAJ AD, in zoology, a species of silurus. 
 
 BAJADOR, Cape, a cape on the west coast 
 
 of the island of Luzon, being its extremity- 
 Long. 120° 40' E., lat. 18° 40' N. 
 
 BAJADOUR, in old records, a carrier or 
 porter. 
 
 BAJANA, in conchology, a species of venus 
 found on the shores of Brasil. 
 
 BAIANUS Lacus, a lake, or bay, mentioned 
 by Tacitus, which some suppose to be the lake 
 Lucrinus, and others the bay of Bai.^. 
 
 Baianus Sinus, or Baiarum Poutus, a bay 
 of Naples, so called. from Baia-, which was en- 
 larged by Augustus, by giving entrance to the 
 sea into the Lacus I>ucrinus and Averni. He 
 ordered it to be called Portus Julius apud Baias. 
 The modern name is Golfo di Pozzuolo. See 
 
 POZZUOLO. 
 
 BAJAPOUR, a town of Baglana, Hindostan, 
 on the river Godavery, twenty miles east of 
 Bahbelgong. 
 
 BAIAS, or Bal^, a town of Syria, at the 
 north-east extremity of the bay of Alexandretta, 
 supposed to be the ancient Issus. On the hills 
 fronting it, are the ruins of a triumphal arch, or 
 of some other structure of gray marble. It is 
 sixteen miles from Alexandretta, and the fine 
 gardens round the town supply Aleppo with 
 oranges and lemons. In a small bay, to the 
 north of the town, are seen the ruins of an 
 ancient port, which is now much exposed to the 
 south-west winds, which are very dangerous here. 
 On the south side there is a mountain torrent, 
 the bed of which is conjectured to have been the 
 boundary between Syria and Cilicia. 
 
 BAJAZET I. emperor of the Turks, succeeded 
 Amurath I., A. D. 1373. He was a renowned 
 warrior, but a tyrant. In the beginning of his 
 reign he was very successful. In 1393 he had 
 conquered all Thrace, Macedonia, Thessaly, and 
 the screater part of Mysia and Bulgaria ; and in 
 1 396 he brought an army of 300,000 men against 
 Emanuel II. emperor of Constantinople, whom 
 he defeated, and slew 20,000 of the Christians, 
 but not without considerable loss on his own 
 side. But in 1397 Tamerlane, or Timour Beg, 
 the celebrated prince of the Tartars, brought an 
 army against him of 400,000 horse and 600,000 
 foot; and having overcome him in a pitched 
 battle, wherein 200,000 Turks were slain, took 
 Bajazet himself prisoner, and exposed him, it has 
 been said, in an iron cage, the fate he had des- 
 tined for his adversary, if he had been the victor. 
 This story, however, has been rejected as a fable 
 by many modern writers. Mr. Gibbon has 
 given the following narrative of this memorable 
 transaction : ' No sooner was Timour informed 
 that the captive Ottoman was at the door of his 
 tent, than he graciously stepped forward to re- 
 ceive him, seated him by his side, and mingled 
 with just reproaches a soothing pity for his rank 
 and misfortunes. ' Alas !' said the emperor, ' the 
 decree of fate is now accomplished by your own 
 fault : it is the web which you have woven ; the 
 thoms of the tree which yourself have planted. 
 I wished to spare, and even to assist, the cham- 
 pion of Moslems : you braved our threats, you 
 despised our friendship ; you forced us to enter 
 your kingdom with our invincible armies. Behold 
 the event. Had you vanquished, I am not igno- 
 rant of the fate which you reserved for myself 
 
 2 C 2
 
 BAI 
 
 388 
 
 BAI 
 
 and my troops. But 1 disdain to retaliate : your 
 life and honor are secured; and I shall express 
 my gratitude to God by my clemency to man.' 
 The royal captive showed some signs of repent- 
 ance, accepted the humiliation of a robe of honor, 
 and embraced with tears his son INIousa, who, at 
 his request, was sought and found among the 
 captives of the field. The Ottoman princes were 
 lodged in a spleadid pavilion; and the respect 
 of the guards could be surpassed only by their 
 vigilance. On the arrival of the haram from 
 Boursa, Timour restored the queen Despina and 
 daughter to their father and husband; but he 
 piously required that the Servan princes who 
 had hitherto been indulged in the profession of 
 Christianity, should embrace without delay the 
 religion of the prophet. In tlie feast of victory, 
 to which Bajazet was invited, the Mogul em- 
 peror placed a crown on his head and a sceptre 
 in his hand, with a solemn assurance of re- 
 storing him with an increase of glory to the 
 throne of his ancestors. But the effect of this 
 promise was disappointed by tlie sultan's un- 
 timely death : he died of apoplexy at Akshehr, 
 the Antioch of Pisidia, about nine months after 
 his defeat. The victor dropped a tear over his 
 grave. His body, with royal pomp, was conveyed 
 to the mausoleum which he had erected at 
 Boursa; and his son Mousa, after receiving a 
 rich present of gold and jewels, of horses and 
 arms, was invested, by a patent in red ink, with 
 the kingdom of Anatolia. Such (continues the 
 historian) is the portrait of a generous conqueror, 
 which has been extracted from his own memo- 
 rials, and dedicated to his son and grandson 
 nineteen years after his decease ; and at a time 
 when the truth was remembered by thousands : 
 a manifest falsehood would have implied a sa- 
 tire on his real conduct. On the other hand, of 
 the harsh and ignominious treatment of Bajazet 
 there is also a variety of evidence. The Turkish 
 annals, in particular, which have been con- 
 sulted or transcribed by I.eunclavius, Pococke, 
 and Cantemir, unanimously deplore the capti- 
 vity of the iron cage; and some credit may be 
 allowed to national historians who cannot stig- 
 matise the Tartar without uncovering the shame 
 of their king and country.' 
 
 Bajazet II. emperor of the Turks, the 
 youngest son of Mahomet II. who took Constan- 
 tinople, succeeded his father, A. U. 1480. Like 
 him too he was a great conqueror. In 1484, he 
 laid waste Wallachia: in 1486, he subdued the 
 Getae : in 1491, he took Epidamnum in Scla- 
 vonia: in 1493, he defeated the Christians in 
 Croatia, in an obstinate and bloody battle, 
 wherein he lost 10,000 of his own troops : in 
 1498, he over-ran Russia and Dalmatia, with 
 70,000 men; and, in 1500, he took Modon, in 
 the Morea, from the Venetians. He died in 
 1612. 
 
 BAICIIA, two rivers of Siberia, flowing into 
 the Turuchan, thirty-two and fifty-six miles 
 north-west of Turuchansk. 
 
 BAIDEAH, a valley in the great road from 
 Cairo to Suez, at the northern extremity of which 
 Suez stands. 
 
 BAIOHA, a town of Arabia, in the province 
 of lledjas, tliirty miles north-west of X'adilkova. 
 
 BAIDYNATH, a small town of Hindostan, 
 in the Kemaon hills, celebrated for an ancient 
 temple, dedicated to the Hindoo god of medi- 
 cine,^and much frequented by pilgrims. 
 
 BAIEU, in zoology, the name of the cervus 
 Mexicanus, or Mexican stag, in Bancroft's 
 Guiana, &c. 
 
 BA'IGNE, V. a. Bagner, Fr. To drench ; to 
 soak : a word out of use. 
 
 The women forslow not to baigne them, tinlcss they 
 plead their heels, with a worse perfume than Jugurth 
 found in the dungeon. Careiv's Survey of Cornwall. 
 
 BAJITH, a city of Moab, mentioned in Isaiah 
 XV, 2. whither the king went to bewail the state 
 of his nation, and supplicate aid from his idols. 
 
 BAIKAL, a large lake of Siberia, lying be- 
 tween 52° and 55° lat. N. It is reckoned to be 
 550 versts, or 318 German miles in length; but 
 only about thirty versts broad, and in some 
 places not above fifteen. It is environed 
 on all sides by high mountains. In one part of 
 it, which lies near the mouth of the 'river Bar- 
 guzin, it throws up an inflammable sulphureous 
 liquid called naptha, which the people of the ad- 
 jacent country burn in their lamps. There are 
 likewise several sulphureous springs near this 
 lake. Its water at a distance appears of a sea- 
 green color : it is fresh ; and so clear that objects 
 may be seen'in it several fathoms deep. It does not 
 begin to freeze till near the end of December, and 
 thaws again about the beginning of May ; fro in 
 which time till September, a ship is seldom 
 known to be wrecked on it ; but by the high 
 winds which then blow, many shipwrecks 
 happen. The fishery on the shores begin in 
 May ; and the southern shore is divided into 
 districts, and farmed out by the government. 
 This lake is called by the Russians Swsetoie 
 More, or the Holy Lake ; and Dalai Nor by the 
 Tartars. When it is frozen over, people travel 
 upon it in the road to China ; camels have for 
 this purpose a particular kind of shoes, sharp at 
 the bottom, and the oxen have sharp irons driven 
 through their hoofs, without which it would be 
 impossible for them to pass. The shores and 
 islands, consisting of granite rocks, called the 
 Yablonian and Tunkinski chain, running from 
 east to south-west, are well wooded, and form, 
 by their frequent projections into the lake, bays 
 and promontories, but with little good ancho- 
 rage. The high road from Irkutsk to Kiaekhta, 
 passes along its southern shores. On the western 
 shore copper has been found. Its depth, where 
 greatest, is from eighty to 490 fathoms, but in 
 some places it is unfathomable, and so variable 
 that it has been conjectured with great probabi- 
 lity to hare arisen from a deep rent in the moun- 
 tains, occasioned by an earthquake. Under the 
 waters of this lake, grows a peculiar species of 
 sponge, called by the Russians morskaya suba, 
 or sea-sponge, the spongia raicalensis of Pallas. 
 It is used for giving the first polish to metals. 
 The common seal (phoca vitulina) seldom found 
 in fresh water, or at a distance from the ocean, 
 is taken here in April, basking on the ice, and 
 the sale of their skins is a source of considerable 
 profit. It yields a sort of blubber, so rank that 
 even ravens will not touch its carcase ; yet it 
 oil is highly esteemed and purchased by the Chi
 
 BAIL. 
 
 389 
 
 nese. The baikalensis, a species of callionymus 
 that inhabits the deep parts of the lake, is about 
 nine inches long, soft, slender, and rather com- 
 pressed ; and has ventral fins ; of carp, tench, 
 sturgeon, devil's lampreys, (salmo oxyrrynchus), 
 lenki (salmo salvelinus), there is abundance; 
 the most important fish is the omul, or 
 migratory salmon, somewhat resembling the 
 herring. They are taken in October, and being 
 dried by the frost, can be conveyed fresh almost 
 to any distance. The climate around this lake 
 is extremely severe ; in the midst of summer 
 frosty nights being common ; and snow, as early 
 as August, falling on the neighbouring moun- 
 tains. The vegetable productions are principally 
 the pinus cembra, empetrum nigrum, and pyrola 
 uniflora, the silky knotgrass (polygonum seri- 
 ceum), a beautiful plant, and the triticum lito- 
 rale, which the peasants call dikaya koch, wild 
 barley. Rivers flowing into the lake Baikal are, 
 on the north side, in lat. 55° 51' the Upper An- 
 gara, on the east the Barguzin, in latitude 54°. 
 At its mouth is the Cape, called the Holy Pro- 
 montory ; and on the west, the Tunga, Selenga, 
 and Buguldeika, the last of which discharges 
 itself by three mouths. The only outlet is the 
 Lower, or Greater, Angara, which rushes from 
 the lake, in lat. 50° 54' N. and long. 1 05° E. with 
 great impetuosity, and joins the Yenisei near 
 list Tungurskoye in north lat. 58°. The channel 
 through which it quits the lake is more than a 
 mile broad. 
 
 BAIKALITE, in mineralogy, a variety of py- 
 roxene, found near the lake Baikal in Siberia. 
 See Pyroxene. 
 
 BAIKALENSIS. See Baikal. 
 
 BAIL', n. s. & V. a. \ Of this word the ety- 
 
 Bail'able, adj. S mologists give many de- 
 rivations ; [it seems to come from the French 
 builler, to put into the hand ; to deliver up, as a 
 man delivers himself up in surety. ' Bail is the 
 freeing or setting at liberty one arrested or im- 
 prisoned upon action either civil or criminal, 
 under security taken for his appearance. There 
 is both common and special bail ; common bail is 
 in actions of small prejudice, or slight proof, 
 called common, because any sureties in that case 
 are taken; whereas, upon causes of greater 
 weight, or apparent speciality, xpecial bail or 
 surety must be taken. There is a diiference be- 
 tween bail and mainprise ; for he that is main- 
 prised is at large, until the day of his appear- 
 ance : but where a man is bailed, he is always 
 accounted by the law to be in their ward and 
 custody for the time ; and they may, if they will, 
 keep him in ward, or in prison at that time, or 
 otherwise at their will.' — Cowell. A bail is 
 therefore a surety or bondsman ; one who gives 
 surety for another. Bailable relates to the less 
 atrocious offences, where security for the appear- 
 ance of the offender may be legally offered and 
 accepted. To give or to admit to bail, is to ren- 
 der or to accept the security which the law pre- 
 scribes in a bailable case. In Spenser tlie word 
 is figuratively used to signify power or jurisdic- 
 tion. 
 
 So did Diana, and her maydens all. 
 Use silly Fauuus now within their baile. Spenser. 
 
 Let mc be their hail. 
 
 They shall be ready at your highness' will. 
 
 To answer these suspicions. 
 
 Thou shalt not bail them. Shakspeare. 
 
 They are not bailable. 
 They stand committed without bail or mainprize. 
 
 B. Jonson. 
 Worry'd with debts, and past all hopes of bail, 
 The unpity'd wretch lies rotting in a jail. 
 
 Rose07nmon. 
 And bribe with presents, or, when presents fail, 
 They send their prostituted wives for bail. 
 
 Dri/den. 
 
 Bail, is originally derived from the Greek, 
 (iaWtiv, to deliver, and so called because by 
 means of it, the party restrained is delivered into 
 the hands of those that bind themselves for his 
 forthcoming, in order to a safe keeping or pro- 
 tection from prison ; and the end of the Ijail is to 
 satisfy the condemnation and costs, or render the 
 defendant to prison. The commitment of a per- 
 son being only for safe custody, wherever bail 
 will answer the same intention, it ought to be 
 taken ; as in most of the inferior crimes : but in 
 felonies, and other offences of a capital nature, 
 no bail can be a security equivalent to the actual 
 custody of the person. For what is there that a 
 man may not be induced to forfeit, to save his 
 own life ! or what satisfaction or indemnity is it 
 to the 'public, to seize the effects of them who 
 have bailed a murder, if the murderer himself be 
 suffered to escape with impunity ? Upon a si- 
 milar principle, the Athenian magistrates, when 
 they took a solemn oath never to keep a citizen in 
 bonds that could give three sureties of the same 
 quality with himself, did it with an exception to 
 such as had embezzled the public money, or had 
 been guilty of treasonable practices. 
 
 Bail may be taken either in court, or, in some 
 particular cases, by the sheriff or other magis- 
 trate ; but most usually by the justices of the 
 peace. To refuse or delay to bail any person 
 bailable, is an offence against the liberty of the 
 subject, in any magistrate, by the common law ; 
 as well as by the statute Westm. 1. 3 Edward I, 
 c. 15, and the habeas corpus act, 31. Car. II. c. 
 2. And, lest the intention of the law should be 
 frustrated by the justices requiring bail to a 
 greater amount than the nature of the case de- 
 mands, it is expressly declared by statute 1. W. 
 and M. st. 2. c. 1. that excessive bail ought not 
 to be required ; thougii what bail shall be called 
 excessive, must be left to the courts, on consider- 
 ing the circumstances of the case, to determine. 
 And on the other hand, if the magistrate takes in- 
 sufficient bail, he is liable to be fined, if the cri- 
 minal does not appear. 
 
 In civil cases, every defendant is bailable. 
 But it is otherwise in criminal matters. Regu- 
 larly, all offences either against the common law 
 or act of parliament, that are below felony, the 
 offender ought to be admitted to bail, unless it 
 be prohibited by some special act of parliament. 
 By the ancient common law, before and since the 
 Conquest, all felonies were bailable, till murder 
 was excepted by statute : so that persons might 
 be then admitted to bail almost in every case. 
 But the statute W. 1. 3 Ed. I. c. 15. takes away 
 the power of bailing in treason, and in divers in- 
 stances of felony. The statutes 23 Hen. VI. c. 9.
 
 390 
 
 BAIL. 
 
 and 1 & 2 Ph. & Mar. c. 13. gave farther regula- 
 tions in this matter: and upon thewhole we may 
 collect, that no justices of the peace can bail, 1. 
 Upon an accusation of treason : nor, 2. Of mur- 
 der: nor, 3. In case of manslaughter, if the pri- 
 soner be clearly the slayer, and not barely sus- 
 pected to be so ; or if any indictment be found 
 against him : nor, 4. Such as, being committed 
 for felony, have broken prison ; because it not 
 only carries a presumption of guilt, but is also 
 superadding one felony to another : 5. Persons 
 outlawed ; 6. Such as have abjured the realm : 
 7. Persons taken with the mainmour, or in the 
 act of felony: 8. Persons charged ^vith arson : 9. 
 Excommunicated persons, taken by writ de ex- 
 communicato capiendo ; all which are clearly not 
 admissible to bail by the justices. Others are of 
 a dubious nature, as, 10. Thieves openly de- 
 famed and known : 1 1 . Persons charged with 
 other felonies, or manifest and enormous offences, 
 not being of good fame : and, 12. Accessaries to 
 felony, that labor under the same want of repu- 
 tation. These seem to be in the discretion of the 
 justices, whether bailable or not. The last class 
 are such as must be bailed upon offering suffi- 
 cient surety; as, 13. Persons of good fame, 
 charged with a bare suspicion of manslaughter, 
 or other infamous homicide; 14. Such persons 
 being charged with petit larceny or any felony, 
 not before specified : or, 15. With being acces- 
 saiy to any felony. Lastly, it is agreed, that the 
 court of king's bench (or any judge thereof in 
 time of vacation) may bail for any crime whatso- 
 ever, be it treason, murder, or any other offence, 
 according to the circumstances of the case. And 
 herein the wisdom of the law is very manifest. 
 To allow bail to be taken commonly for such 
 enormous crimes, would greatly tend to elude 
 the public justice ; and yet there are cases, though 
 they rarely happen, in which it would be hard 
 and unjust to confine a man in prison, though 
 accused even of the greatest offence. The law 
 has therefore provided one court, and only one, 
 which has a discretionary power of bailing in any 
 case ; excepting only even to this high jurisdic- 
 tion, and of course to all inferior ones, such per- 
 sons as are committed by either house of parlia- 
 ment, so long as the session lasts'; or such as are 
 committed for contempts by any of the king's 
 superior courts of justice. 
 
 In civil processes, in which an actual arrest and 
 imprisonment is not now allowed, such as suits for 
 the recovery of sums of less amount than £l5, or of 
 damages, the precise amount of which cannot be 
 shown before the jury shall have estimated them 
 (as in actions of trespa.^s, or for any injuries, 
 either personal or pecuniary, but to an unascer- 
 tained amount), no arrest can be made, and, 
 consequently, no bail need be demanded. But 
 inasmuch as the writ, which now forms the com- 
 mencement of all civil actions, v/ns formerly a 
 process issued against a defendant, who had neg- 
 lected to comply with certain anterior summonses, 
 and who was thereby liable to imprisonment, in or- 
 der to secure his appearance in court on the day 
 whereon the sheriff was to make his return of the 
 writ, as having by his previous contempt of le- 
 gal authority, shown himself not to be trusted at 
 large ; it was a consequence that he could not 
 
 avoid imprisonment, but by giving bail. And, 
 as by the tenor of the writ, and by fiction of 
 law, a defendant in all cases is now held to be 
 in the same circumstances, it is necessary that he 
 should put in common bail : which is a mere 
 formal entering of the names of two fictitious 
 persons, John Doe and Richard Roe, as his 
 sureties. 
 
 In actions for a sum certain, if the plaintiff 
 make affidavit that that sum is fifteen pounds, 
 or upwards, the defendant must give what, tech- 
 nically, in distinction from the fictitious laail of 
 which we have just spoken, is called special bail : 
 that is, in order to avoid imprisonment, he must 
 find two real and responsible persons to be 
 sureties for him. As soon as an arrest^ has been 
 effected, these sureties give a bond to the sheriff, 
 for the defendant's appearance on the day of the 
 return of the writ, and this is called bail to the 
 sheriff, or bail below. On that day, or within 
 four, or in some cases, six or eight days after, 
 they enter into recognizances, that if judgment be 
 given against tlie defendant, he shall pay the da- 
 mages and costs, or surrender his person. This 
 is called giving bail above, or bail to the action. 
 If the plaintiff requires it, they must justify, as it 
 is termed, or perfect the bail ; that is, they must 
 swear (if in London or iVIiddlesex, before a 
 judge ; or, in the country, before commissioners 
 appointed for that purpose), that they have the 
 requisite qualifications : which are, the being 
 housekeepers, and worth, each of them, the full 
 sum for which they become bail, after payment 
 of all their debts. Thus securing the plaintiff 
 the person or property of his defendant, if the 
 latter is insufficient to discharge the claim, the 
 bail are entitled to apprehend him by warrant, 
 or in any other way, to surrender his person. 
 
 When a defendant has failed to put in bail 
 above, and the sheriff is unable to produce his 
 body, that officer is answerable to the plaintiff 
 for the sura for which the bail below was given : 
 and he has his own remedy against the bail, by 
 action upon their bond. But, as a simpler plan, 
 the sheriff usually assigns the bond to the plaiur 
 tiff, and he proceeds upon it. It is, however, 
 optional with the plaintiff to accept or refuse the 
 assignment. 
 
 Bail-Bond, an obligation entered into by one 
 or more sureties, upon giving bail, insuring the 
 defendant's appearance at the time appointed by 
 the court. 
 
 BAILEMENT. See Bailment. 
 BAILEY (Nathan), an English lexicographer, 
 who kept a school at Stepney, where he died 
 June 27, 1742. He published Dictionarum 
 Domesticum, or a Household Dictionary, 8vo ; 
 The Antiquities of London and Westminster, 
 12mo; and several school books: but his princi- 
 pal work was an Etymological English Dictionary, 
 which first appeared in octavo, andbeing'enlarged 
 into a folio, volume became the basis of Dr. 
 Johnson's dictionary. 
 
 BAILIE, in Scots law, a judge anciently ap- 
 pointed by the king over such lands, not erected 
 into a regality, as happened to fall to the crown 
 by forfeiture or otiierwise : now abolished. It is 
 still the title of one or more magistrates in royal 
 boroughs, and of the judge appointed by a baron
 
 BAI 
 
 391 
 
 BAI 
 
 ovL'i- lauds erected into a barony. There are four 
 bailies in the town council of Edinburgh, three in 
 those of Glasgow^^berdeen, Perth, &c. See Law. 
 
 BAI'LIFF, Ji. s. "^ Borrowed from the Fr. 
 
 Bmi.'iv,[ck, 71. s.>haillie. In our old voca- 
 
 Baily, n. s. J bularies written baily, and 
 
 so a steward is still called in many places. 
 Bailiff is the person who sustains the office ; 
 bailiwick is the place of his jurisdiction ; and 
 baily is the office or jurisdiction itself. 
 
 Every beggarly corporation affords the state a 
 mayor or two bailiffs yearly. B. Jonson. 
 
 Bailiff, Ballivis, from the French word 
 bailli or bailiff, that is, praefectus provincise : and 
 as the name, so the office itself was answerable 
 to that of France, before the revolution ; where 
 there were eight parliaments, which were high 
 courts, from whence there lay no appeal ; and 
 within the precincts of the several parts of that 
 kingdom, which belonged to each parliament, 
 there were several provinces to which justice was 
 administered by certain officers called bailiffs. — 
 In England there are several counties in which 
 justice has been administered to the inhabitants, 
 by the officer now called sheriff or viscount (one 
 of which names descended from the Saxons, the 
 other from the Normans) ; and though the sheriff" 
 is not called bailiff, yet it is probable that was 
 one of his titles, because the county is often called 
 balliva. And in Magna Cliarta,, cap. 28. and 
 14 \A. 3. c. 9. the word bailiff seems to comprise 
 both sheriffs and bailiffs of hundreds. As the 
 realm is divided into counties, so every county 
 is divided into hundreds ; within which, in an- 
 cient times, the people liad justice administered 
 to them by the officers of every hundred. But 
 now the hundred courts, except certain franchises, 
 are swallowed in the county courts ; and the bai- 
 liff's name and office is grown into contempt, 
 they being generally officers to serve writs, &c. 
 within their liberties. In other respects, however, 
 the title is still in esteem : for the chief maffis- 
 trates in divers towns are called bailiffs, or bai- 
 lies ; and sometimes the persons, to whom the 
 king's castles are committed, are termed bailiffs, 
 as the bailiff of Dover Castle, &c. Of the ordi- 
 nary bailiffs there are several sorts. 
 
 Bailiffs Errant, or Bailiffs Itinerant, 
 are those whom the sheriff appoints to go up and 
 down the country to serve writs and warrants, 
 to summon county courts, sessions, assizes, &c. 
 The .sheriff being answerable for the misdemeanor 
 of these bailiffs, they are usually bound in an 
 obligation for the due execution of their office, 
 and thence called bound bailiffs, which is vul- 
 garly corrupted into a much more homely appel- 
 lation. 
 
 Bailiffs of Boroughs, were magistrates an- 
 ciently in cities and towns, answering, in some 
 measure, to what, in later times were called 
 portgrave, mayor, &c. Canterbury was a bailiff 
 town 500 years before it was made a mayor town. 
 Westminster, Southwark, Scarborough, &c. are 
 still governed by bailiffs. 
 
 Bailiffs of Forests and Manors, direct 
 husbandry, fell trees, gather rents, pay quit- 
 rents, &c. 
 
 Bailiffs of France, under the monarchy, 
 were appointed over the provinces originally be- 
 longing to the crown. 
 
 Bailiffs of Franchises, or Bailiffs of 
 Liberties, in F'ngland, are those bailiffs wlio 
 are appointed by every lord within his liberty, 
 to execute process and do such offices therein 
 as the bailiff errant doth at large in the county. 
 
 Bailiffs of the Empire, were anciently 
 vicars or regents of the empire; as appears from 
 a letter of Henry of Flanders to pope Innocent 
 III. wherein he says, the princes, barons, and 
 knights have elected me ballivum imperii. 
 
 Bailiffs, Provincial, among the French, 
 under the old despotism, were officers appointed 
 in certain provinces or counties, with an autho- 
 rity somewhat like that of justices of assize, in- 
 stituted by the dukes and counts in their several 
 territories, after they had procured the inherit- 
 ance of them. These acted in the name, and by 
 the authority, not of the king as justiciaries, but 
 of the dukes or counts who appointed them, and 
 whose deputies they were. 
 
 Bailiffs, Royal, in France, were appointed 
 by the king over provinces annexed to the 
 crown. 
 
 Bailiffs, Sheriff's, in England, or sheriff's 
 officers, are either, 1. bailiffs of hundreds, or 
 2. special bailiffs, and appointed over their res- 
 pective districts, to collect fines; summon juries; 
 attend the judges and justices at the assizes and 
 quarter sessions ; and to execute writs and pro- 
 cesses in the several hundreds. 
 
 Bailiffs, Water, officers appointed in all 
 port-towns, for the searching of ships, gathering 
 the toll for anchorage, &c. and arresting persons 
 for debt, &c. on the water. 
 
 BAILII (David), painter of perspective views 
 and portraits, the son of Peter Bailii, an artist 
 of some note, was bom at Ley den in 1584. 
 Having acquired the rudiments of the art under 
 his father, he improved under Verburg, and still 
 more under \'andervoort, with whom he spent 
 above six years. While with him, he copied a 
 perspective view of the inside of a church, by 
 Stenwyck, with such accuracy, that even Sten- 
 wyck himself could scarcely determine which was 
 the original. He travelled through several parts 
 of Italy to see the works of masters, and for a few 
 years resided at Rome. The correctness of his 
 drawing, and the delicate finishing of his pic- 
 tures, have been much admired. He died in 1638. 
 BAILIWIC, Bailywick, or Bayliwick, 
 balliva, in law, the jurisdiction of a bailiff over 
 that liberty which is exempted from the sheriff of 
 the county. Stat. 27th Eliz., ch. 12. Wood's 
 Just. 206. 
 
 BAILLET (Adrian), a very learned French 
 writer and critic, born in 1649, at Neu\^lle near 
 Beauvais. His parents being poor, he obtained his 
 education by favor of the bishop of Beauvais 
 who afterwards presented him with a small vica- 
 rage. In 1680 he was appointed librarian to M. 
 de Lamoignon, advocate general to the parlia- 
 ment of Paris, of whose library he made a copi- 
 ous index, in thirty-five volumes folio. He died 
 in 1706. His principal works are, A History of 
 Holland, from 1609, to the peace of Nimiguen 
 in 1679, 4 vols. 12mo. Lives of the Saints, 
 3 vols, folio, which he professed to have purged 
 from fables. Jugemens des Savans, 9 vols. 12mo. 
 and the Life of Des Cartes, 2 vols. 4to. which he 
 also abridged to 1 vol. 12ino.
 
 392 
 
 B A I L L Y. 
 
 BAILLEUL, a town of France, in the depart- 
 ment of the North, formerly very strong. It has 
 been several times burnt by accident. It lies 
 nine miles S.W. of Ypres. 
 
 BAILLIAGE, the office of a bailiff, or the 
 place where he keeps his seat, and the territory 
 subject to his jurisdiction; which last is also de- 
 nominated Eailiwic. 
 
 Baili.iack, Water, an ancient duty received 
 by the city of London, upon all goods and mer- 
 chandises brouglii in or carried out of port. 
 
 BAILLIE (Robert), M. A. a presbyterian 
 
 BAILIA' (John Sylvian), a celebrated philoso- 
 pher and astronomer, born at Paris in 1703. His 
 family had been respectable as painters for several 
 generations, and he had commenced his studies 
 in the same profession ; but he was too much 
 bent on the pursuit of literature, to apply himself 
 successfully. His early acquaintance with La 
 Caille the celebrated geometrican, determined the 
 science which was in future to engross his atten- 
 tion. The calculation of the comet which ap- 
 peared in 17.59, was his first labor. In 1763 
 he became a member of the Academy of Sciences ; 
 
 divine of Scotland, was born at Glasgow in 1.599, and in the course of the same year, published a 
 
 and studied at that city ; having received orders reduction of La Caille's observations on the 
 
 from Abp. Law, in 1622 he w;is chosen, regent zodiacal stars in 1760 and 1761. He vv;is next 
 
 of piiilosophy at Glasgow, and some time after employed in considerinij; the theory of Jupiter's 
 
 was presented to the church of Kilwinning, by satellites ; and in 1766 published the results of 
 
 the earl of Eglinton. In 1633, he declined the 
 offer of a church at Edinburgh, but in 1638 was 
 chosen a member of the famous assembly at 
 Glasgow, which was a prelude to the civil war, 
 and was a member of all the succeeding assem- 
 
 his investigation, with the history of that part of 
 astronomy. In 1771 he gave the world a very 
 valuable memoir on the light of the satellites, 
 marking their eclipses in a very precise and accu- 
 rate manner. The genius of Bailly was not 
 
 blies, excepting those which sat while he was confined to abstract science, or profound physical 
 at Westminster. In 1640 he was sent to London speculations; it was equally brilliant in those 
 
 by the Covenanting Lords, to draw up an accu 
 sation against Apb. Laud. In 1642 he was 
 appointed joint professor of Divinity in the Uni- 
 versity of Glasgow, with Mr. Dickson; which he 
 preferred to similar offers from the odier three 
 universities. In 1643 he was one of the com- 
 missioners to the celebrated assembly of Divines 
 at Westminster, and returned in 1646. When 
 after the execution of Charles I. his son was pro- 
 claimed in Scotland, he was appointed by the 
 assembly to wait on Charles II. at the Hague, 
 
 departments of literature where the nicest dis- 
 crimination of character and the most powerful 
 eloquence is requisite. His eulogies ■ upon 
 Charles V^ Corneille, Leibnitz, Moliere, Cook, La 
 Caille, and Gresset, raised universal admiration. 
 In 1775, he published at Paris the first volume 
 of the History of Ancient Astronomy ; and in 
 1778 the second. Thellistoiy of Ancient Astro- 
 nomy, from the foundation of the Alexandrian 
 school to the present age, followed in 1779. 
 He next published Letters on the origin of the 
 
 and after the restoration was made principal of Sciences, and of the people of Asia ; to which 
 
 the university of Glasgow. He died in 1662, he added a series of Letters on the Atlantis of 
 
 aged sixty-three. Plato and the ancient History of Asia ; which he 
 
 Baillie (Matthew), M. D. a celebrated ana- addressed to Voltaire. He was also very inti- 
 
 lomist. He was the son of the Rev. James mate with Buffon, till he opposed the election of 
 
 Baillie, professor of divinity at Glasgow, by the the Abbe Maury into the French academy ; to 
 
 sister of Dr. William Hunter. He studied at 
 Glasgow and Baliol College, Oxford, and after- 
 wards became the pupil of his uncle. Being 
 made physician to St. George's hospital, he suc- 
 ceeded Dr. Hunter as lecturer on anatomy, in 
 conjunction with JSlr. Cruickshank. He conti- 
 nued a public lecturer till 1799. Dr. Baillie 
 was one of the physicians in ordinary to Geo. Ill 
 
 which Bailly had been chosen secretary in 1784. 
 This year he was named one of the commission 
 to investigate the nature of the animal magnetism 
 of INIesmer, practised by Deflon. His report, 
 which was presented to the Academy of Sciences, 
 and has been since translated into English, con- 
 tains the most satisfactory and decisive evidence 
 upon die subject. It is highly valuable in 
 
 and Geo. IV. and long stood in the first rank developing the physical effects produced by 
 
 among his medical contemporaries. He published 
 The Morbid Anatomy of the most important parts 
 of the Human Body, Bvo. 1793, subsequently 
 enlarged and improved ; a Series of Engravings 
 tending to illustrate INlorbid Anatomy ; also a 
 
 moral causes. In 1785 he was admitted into the 
 Academy of Inscriptions and Belles Lettres ; 
 and thus was at the same time a member of all 
 the three academies of Paris, which none had 
 been since Fontenelle. We must now leave the 
 
 Description of Gravid Uterus ; and contributed peaceable haunts of philosophy, and follow 
 
 many important papers to the Philosophical 
 Transactions and medical collections of his day. 
 Dr. Baillie formed a valuable nmseum of anato- 
 mical specimens which he presented to the Col- 
 lege of Physicians. He died in 1823, in the 
 sixty-third year of his age ; leaving by his wife, 
 daughter of Dr. Denman, a son and a daughter. 
 BAILLIEBOROUGH, a town of Ireland, in 
 
 the county of Cavan, forty-three miles from 
 
 Dublin. _ 
 
 BAILLO'NE, in heraldry, a charge in coats 
 
 of arms, representing a lion rampant, holding 
 
 a staff in his mouth. 
 
 Bailly to the revolutionary stage, on which he 
 acted a principal part. Here, though we behold 
 him struggling with opposite interests in the 
 midst of a lawless mob ; zealous for freedom, 
 and contending in its cause with enthusiasm, we 
 hear not a charge of selfish motives, or want of 
 integrity, brought against him by any party ; yet 
 he fell a sacrifice to that violence which nothing 
 could control. In 1789 he was appointed de- 
 puty to die Tiers Etat, and was soon after 
 elected president ; a station which he held when 
 the national assembly was constituted, and when 
 the king issued his proclamation for dispersing
 
 BAI 
 
 393 
 
 BAI 
 
 them. In the contest between the popular 
 assemblies and the conrt, Bailly w;is zealous to 
 maintain the rights of the ])('ople ; and the fa- 
 mous oath to the members of the Tiers Etat, 
 To resist tyrants and tyranny, and never to se- 
 parate till they should obtain a free constitu- 
 tion, was dictated by him. Next day, the I4th 
 of July, memorable for the taking of the Bastile, 
 he was chosen mayor of Paris ; and thou'j;h in 
 this higli office he S'^^'iit'y promoted the different 
 measures by whicli the popular party became 
 victorious over the court, yet he is allowed to 
 have discharged the arduous duties of it, at this 
 trying juncture, with integrity, moderation, and 
 firmness. The public mind was now, however, 
 become liki; the ocean in a tempest : a people 
 ever fond of novelty, free from tiie fetters of des- 
 potism, with enthusiastic and erroneous ideas of 
 liberty, were every day more eager for a change, 
 and could suHer no restraint. The disposition 
 of the people to anarchy was evident, and Bailly, 
 still anxious that the laws should be respected, 
 imagined that, by the vigorous execution of 
 them, tranquillity might be maintained. Depu- 
 ties from the military insurgents at Nancy were 
 arrested by his orders, and he firmly opposed 
 iNlarat and Hubert in their proceedings. He 
 entered into a society more select than that of 
 the Jacobins' club ; and used every argument 
 that the king and the royal family might be al- 
 lowed to go to St. Cloud. Thus he lost the 
 confidence of the ])eople ; and being called by 
 the national assembly to dismiss the tumultuous 
 meeting, demanding the abolition of monarchy, 
 on the 17lh July, 1791, he ordered the soldiers 
 to fire, which rendered him completely obnoxious 
 to them. In the end of the same year, when the 
 constituent assembly was dissolved, he therefore 
 resigned his office, and retired to his philosophical 
 studies. Yet a bloody proscription reached him ; 
 as an enemy to the republic he was seized, impri- 
 soned, araigned before a savage tribunal, summa- 
 rily condemned, and executed in the fifty-seventh 
 year of his age. lie bore his sufi'erings with 
 great magnanimity, though they were purposely 
 lengthened out. To mark him as a conspirator, 
 he was dressed in a red shirt, placed in a cart, 
 with his hands tied behind his back ; and though 
 the rain poured incessantly on his head, tlie mob 
 threw mud at him wiiile he passed to the place 
 of execution, and insulted him in the cruellest 
 manner. As he ascended the platform, a person 
 near him cried out in a sneering m.anner, ' Bailly 
 you tremble.' ' Yes (answered he) but not with 
 fear.' His person was tall, his countenance se- 
 date, but striking. Scarcely any philosopher has 
 appeared more eminent in the difi'erent branches 
 of science and literature. While he filled the 
 magisterial office, he gave away no inconsiderable 
 ])art of his fortune to relieve the necessities of 
 the poor. He left a wife whom he had married 
 in 1787. 
 
 BAIL'.MENT, n.s. The delivery of goods; 
 or their consiginnent from one person to another, 
 for the benefit of a third party. Sometimes also 
 to be delivered back to the bailor, that is to him 
 that so delivered them : sometimes to the use of 
 the bailee, that is of him to whom they are de- 
 livered. 
 
 Bailment, in law, is a delivery of goods in 
 trust, upon a contract, expressed or ini])lied, that 
 the trust shall be faithfully executed on the part 
 of the bailee. Thus if cloth be delivered, or (in 
 our legal dialect), bailed to a taylor to make a 
 suit of clothes, he has it upon an implied contract 
 to render it again, when made, and that in a 
 workmanly mamier. If money or goods be 
 delivered to a carrier, to convey from Oxford to 
 London, or from Glasgow to Edinburgh, &c. he 
 is under a contract in law to pay, or carry them 
 to the person appointed. If a horse or other 
 goods be delivered to an inn-keeper or his ser- 
 vants, he is bound to keep them safely, and 
 restore them when his guest leaves the house. 
 If a man takes in a horse, or other cattle, to 
 graze and pasture in his grounds, which the law 
 calls agistment, he takes them upon an implied 
 contract to return them on demand to the owner. 
 If a pawnbroker receives plate or jewels, as a 
 pledge or security for the repayment of money 
 lent thereon, at a certain day, he has them upon 
 an express condition to restore them, if the 
 pledger performs his part, by redeeming them in 
 due time ; for the due execution of which contract, 
 many useful regulations are made by statute 30 
 Geo. II. ch. 24. If a landlord distrains goods for 
 rent, or a parish officer for taxes, these for a time 
 are only a pledge in the hands of the distrainers ; 
 and they are bound by an implied contract in 
 law to restore them on payment of the debt, duty, 
 and expenses, before the time of sale, or when 
 sold, to render back the overplus, Sec. Sir Wil- 
 liam Jones, in his learned work on the law of 
 bailments, distinguishes five species of tliis con- 
 tract. 1. Depositum, or deposit, which is a bail- 
 ment of goods to be kept for the bailor without 
 reward. 2. Mandatum, or commission; a bail- 
 ment of goods to be carried from place to place, 
 or to have some act performed about them, with- 
 out reward. 3. Commodatum, or loan for use ; 
 a bailment of a thing for a certain time, to be 
 used by the borrower without paying for it. 4. 
 Pignori acceptum, or pawn; a bailment of goods 
 by a debtor to a creditor, in pledge as a security 
 for the debt. 5. Locatum, or letting to hire; of 
 which there are three subdivisions distinct enough 
 to demand enumeration. (1.) Locatio rei, or bail- 
 ment of a thing, to be used by the hirer for a 
 reward. (2.) Locatio operis faciendi, or letting 
 out of work and labor to be done, or care and 
 attention to be bestowed, by the bailee, on the 
 goods bailed for a reward. (3.) Locatio operis 
 merciura vehendarum, or letting of care and pains 
 in carrying die things bailed from place to place 
 for a reward. 
 
 If a bailee refuse to return the things bailed 
 upon a lawful demand, he becomes answerable 
 for even tlie slightest neglect. If a guest be 
 robbed by the servants or inmates of an inn, the 
 inkeeper is responsible. And, if goods bailed to 
 a common carrier be lost by any means, except 
 by the act of Ciod, orof the kings enemies, the car 
 rier is bound to idemnify tlie owner. 
 
 BAILO, or Balio, a title formerly given at 
 Constantinople, to the ambassador of \'enice 
 residing at the Porte. The \'enetian consuls at 
 Aleppo, Alexandria, Smyrna, and other parts of 
 the Levant, are also denominated bailo.
 
 15AI 
 
 394 
 
 r,Ai 
 
 BA11.0(ill', in commerce, or BALi.oijrE, a 
 French name for the ostrich feathers tliat are used 
 as ornaments without dyeing. 
 
 BAIL-PIECE, the parchment containing the 
 recognisance entered into hy those who give bail 
 for the appearance of another. 
 
 BAILS, in sea-language, the hoops that bear 
 up tlie tilt of the boat. 
 
 Bails, Clkrk of the, is an officer belonging 
 to the court of King's Bench : he files the bail- 
 pieces taken in that court, and attends for that 
 purpose. 
 
 BAILYBOROUGII, a market town of Cavan, 
 Ireland, twenty-five miles from Dublin. Between 
 this place and King's Court, is a pool on the sum- 
 mit of a mountain, much frequented for its anti- 
 scorbutic virtues. Many bathe in the lake, and 
 even rub the affected parts with the mud, which 
 is of a greasy substance like tar. It has not been 
 known to be frozen even in the severest winter. 
 
 BAIMALPOUR, a town of Bejapour, Hin- 
 dostan, fourteen miles east of Satarah. 
 
 BAIN, a town of Brittany, in France, with 
 3450 inhabitants, and woollen manufactures; the 
 head of a canton in the department of the lUe 
 Vilaine, arrondissement of Kedon, sixteen miles 
 south of Rennes, and twenty-four south-west of 
 Vitre. 
 
 BAINA, a market town of Hungary, in the 
 county of Gran. It was formerly a considerable 
 place. 
 
 BAINBRIDGE, a township of England, in 
 the North Riding of Yorkshire, distant two 
 miles from Askrigg, near the Ure, conjectured 
 to have been a Roman station. 
 
 Bainbridce, Port, an inlet on the west coast 
 of North America, extending about twenty miles 
 northward. Long, of its west point, 212'^ 9^' E. 
 lat. 59" 55' N. 
 
 Bain BRIDGE (Dr. John), an eminent physician 
 and astronomer, born at Ashby-de-la-Zouch, in 
 1582. He taught a grammar school for some 
 years, and practised physic, employing his leisure 
 liours in astronomy. At length he removed to 
 London, was admitted a fellow of the college of 
 physicians, and raised his character by his 
 description of the comet in 1618. The next 
 year Sir Henry Saville appointed [him professor 
 of astronomy at Oxford ; and the masters and 
 fellows of Merton college made him first junior, 
 and then superior reader of Limere's lecture. 
 He died in 1643, leaving valuable MSS. pre- 
 served in the library of Trinity College, Dublin. 
 
 BAIOCCO, a copper coin current at Rome, 
 equivalent to a tenth part of the julio, or a hun- 
 dredth part of the ducat. It is worth about nine 
 deniers, French money. 
 
 BAIRAM, or Beiram, a Turkish word which 
 signifies a solemn feast. The Mahommedans have 
 two Bairams, the threat and the little. 
 
 Bairam, the Great, is properly that held 
 by the pilgrims at Mecca, commencing on the 
 tenth of Dliu Ihajie, when the victims are slain, 
 and lasting three days. This is called by the 
 Arabs, Id al adha, that is, the feast of sacrifice, 
 as being celebrated in memory of the sacrifice of 
 Abraham, whose son, (iod redeemed with a great 
 victim. By European writers it is called the 
 Lesser Bairam, as being less taken notice of by 
 
 the generality of the people, who are not struck 
 with it, because the ceremonies with which it is 
 observed are performed at Mecca, the only scene 
 of the solemnity. On this feast, after throwing 
 little stones, one after another, into the valley of 
 Mina, they usually kill one or more sheep, some 
 a goat, bullock, or even a camel ; and after giving 
 a part thereof to the poor, eat the rest with their 
 friends. After this, they shave themselves. The 
 second day is a day of rest. On the third, they 
 set out on their return home. 
 
 Bairam, the Little, is properly that held 
 at the close of the fast Ramazan, beginning with 
 the first full moon in the) following month Sha- 
 wal. This is called, in Arabic, Idal Fetz, or the 
 Feast of breaking the Fast ; by European writers, 
 the Turkisli Easter, because it succeeds Ramazan, 
 which is tneir Lent, more usually the Great 
 Bairam, because observed with great ceremony 
 and rejoicing at Constantinople, and through 
 Turkey, for the common people, to make amends 
 for the mortification of the preceding month. 
 The feast commencing with the new moon, the 
 Mahommedans are very scrupulous in observing 
 the time when the new moon commences; to 
 which purpose, observers are sent to the tops of 
 the highest mountains, who, the moment they 
 spy the appearance of a new moon, run to the 
 city, and proclaim Muzhdaluk ! welcome news! 
 as it is the signal for beginning the festivity. 
 
 BAIRDSTOWN, a post town of the United 
 States, the capital of Nelson county, in tiie state 
 of Kentucky. It is seated on the east side of 
 Beech-Fork ; thirty-five miles from Frankfort. 
 
 BAIR-MAN, or Bare Man, an old law term 
 for an insolvent debtor, who was obliged to swear 
 that he was not worth more than 5s. 5d. 
 
 BAIRNS PART Of GEAR, in the Scots law, i.e. 
 the children's share of effects, is that portion 
 which by the law falls to the children of a mar- 
 riage, on the death of either of their parents; viz. 
 two thirds when the father, and one third when 
 the mother, dies first. 
 
 BAIROUT, or Bagreuth, formerly Berytus, 
 a sea-port town of Syria situated on a plain in 
 the pachalic of Saide, or Acre. There was for- 
 merly a harbour here, which is now choked up, 
 nothing being seen of it l)ut a pier, apparently of 
 ancient construction, which will shelter a few 
 boats. The town is surrounded by a wall, built 
 by the famous Djezzar Pacha, after the place 
 was bombarded by the Russians. With the same 
 view he pulled down and rebuilt a high tower to 
 the north-east. The streets of Bairout are nar- 
 row and irregular, and the suburbs nearly as 
 large as the town. The environs are extremely 
 agreeable, and they are laid out in gardens and 
 plantations full of fine trees, especially mulber- 
 ries. A stream descending from Mount Lebanon 
 winds to the sea through the country. The po- 
 pulation amounts to 7000 or 8000. It is the re- 
 sidence of a Greek, and a ]\Iaronite bishop; and 
 there is a monastery of Capuchins. The staple 
 commodity of commerce is raw silk, which is 
 carried to Cairo, Aleppo, Dama.scus, and 
 Europe. Earthen jars and jugs of a particular 
 kind are also manufactured here; and are much 
 esteemed from the nature of the clay. The 
 cotton cloth is manufactured by the inhabitants
 
 BAJ 
 
 395 
 
 BAJ 
 
 of the adjacent mountains, and exported in con- 
 siderable quantity. The trade to Europe is 
 chiefly managed by French and Italian mer- 
 chants ; but the place is the emporium to which 
 the Druses and Maronites send their products, 
 and in return receive rice, tobacco, coflee, and 
 specie. It is, indeed, considered the chief town 
 of the Druses. Agrippa, the grandson of Herod 
 the Great, constructed a theatre and amphitheatre 
 here, as well as baths, and no expense was 
 spared in embellishing them. Four magnificent 
 granite columns, of which three are within the 
 precincts of the town, with other ancient buildings, 
 attest its former grandeur. Bairout long remained 
 in the sole possession of the Druses, and has 
 only of late been united to the pachalic of Acre. 
 BAIT', I', a. & «. 8c n. s. batan. Sax. baitzen, 
 Germ, battre, Fr. perhaps froiii buita, Goth. 
 According to these different derivations, the 
 meaning of this word varies. As derived from 
 the Saxon and German it means to put meat 
 upon a hook to tempt fish or other animals ; or 
 to supply food to one's self or horses. Johnson 
 intimates that in this latter sense it is a corrup- 
 tion of bate, to abate speed on a journey. As 
 derived from the French and Gothic it assumes a 
 very different signification, namely to invite, to 
 stir up, to attack with violence, to harass by the 
 help of others, as we bait a boar with mastiffs, 
 but a bull with bull-dogs. In hawking, the 
 hawk is said to bait when she flutters or claps 
 her wings, as if preparing to fly. 
 
 The kinges lawe wol no man deme 
 
 Anger liche withouten answere. 
 
 But if any man these misqu'eme 
 
 He shall be baighted as a here. 
 
 And yet wel worse they wol him tere. 
 
 And in prison woUen him pende. 
 
 In gines and in other gere, 
 
 Whea that God woll, it may amende. Chaucer. 
 
 On mony a sorj'mele now may she baite. 
 
 After here dethe ful often may she waite. 
 
 Or that the wild waves wol hire drive. 
 
 Unto the place ther as she shal arive. Id. 
 
 Like a wilde bull that being at a bay. 
 
 Is hayted of a mastiffe and a hound. 
 
 And a curre dog that doe him sharpe assay. 
 
 On every side and beat about him round. 
 
 Faerie Queene. 
 What so strong. 
 But, wanting rest, will also want of might ; 
 The sun, that measures heaven all day long. 
 At night doth bait his steeds the ocean waves among. 
 
 Spenser. 
 The pleasant'st angling is to see the fish 
 Cut with her golden oars the silver stream. 
 And greedily devour the treach'rous bait. 
 
 ShaJispeare. 
 She steals love's sweet bait from fearful hooks. Id. 
 Are these thy bears? We'll bait thy bears to death. 
 
 All plum'd like estridges, that with the wind 
 
 Baited like eagles having lately bath'd ; 
 
 Glittering in golden coats like images. Id. 
 
 A grove hard by, sprung up with this their change. 
 His will who reigns above, to aggravate 
 Their penance, laden with fair fruit like that 
 Which grew in Paradise the bait of Eve, 
 Us'd by the tempter. Milton. 
 
 Many sorts of tishes feed upon insects, as is well 
 known to anglers, who bait their hooks with them. 
 
 Ray. 
 
 BAIT. See A^-GL:^G. 
 
 Bait, White, in ichthyology, a small fish, 
 which is caught in great plenty, from August 1. 
 to October 1. by stat. 30. Geo. II. ch. 21, in the 
 river Thames, near Blackwall, and is esteemed 
 very delicious. They are the fry of some fish, 
 and have been attributed to the shad, the sprat, 
 the smelt, and the bleak-fish. Pennant observes, 
 that it belongs to the genus of cyprinus, because 
 it has only three branchiostegous rays, and one 
 dorsal fin; its body is compressed like that of 
 the beak; its usual length is two inches; the 
 under jaw is the longest; the irides are silvery, 
 and the pupil black ; the dorsal fin consists of 
 about fourteen rays;' the side line is straight; the 
 tail forked, and the tips black. 
 
 To Bait, in falconry, the action of a hawk 
 when slie^claps her wings, or stoops to catch her 
 prey. 
 
 BAITHOSUS, a Jew who, with Sadoc his 
 fellow disciple, founded the sect of the Saddu- 
 cees, denying a future state and resurrection. 
 From Baithosus, they were for some time called 
 Baithosffii as well as Sadducees, but are now 
 only known by the latter denomination. 
 
 BAITING, the act of smaller or weaker beasts 
 attacking and harassing greater and stronger; 
 as the baiting of bulls or bears by mastiffs, or 
 bull-dogs with short noses, that they may take 
 the better hold. Utility has been pleaded in 
 justification of bull-baiting; the chaffing and 
 exercise of the animals making the flesh tenderer 
 and more digestible. But a spirit of barbarism 
 has the gTeatest share in supporting the sport : 
 bulls are kept on purpose, and exhibited as 
 standing spectacles for the public entertainment. 
 It is a very popular amusement in .Spain. In 
 this sport, the chief aim of the dog is to catch the 
 bull by the nose, and hold him down; to which 
 end he will creep on his belly : the bull's aim, on 
 the contrary, is, with equal industry, to defend 
 his nose; in order to whicli he thrusts it close 
 to the ground, where his horns are also in readi- 
 ness to toss the dog. Bull-baiting was first 
 introduced into England as an amusement in the 
 reign of king John, about 1209. 
 
 BAJULUS, an ancient officer ;n the court of 
 the Greek emperors. There were several degrees 
 of bajuli; as, the grand bajulus, who was precep- 
 tor to the emperor; and the simple bajuli, who 
 were sub-preceptors. The word is derived from 
 the Latin verb bajulare, to carry or bear a thing 
 on the arms or on the shoulders; and the origin 
 of the office is thus traced by antiquaries. Chil- 
 dren, and especially those of condition, had 
 anciently, besides their nurse, a woman called 
 gerula, as appears from several passages of Ter- 
 tuUian; when weaned, or ready to be weaned, 
 they had men to carry them about and take care 
 of them, who were called geruli and bajuli, a 
 gerendo et bajulando. Hence it is, that gover- 
 nors of princes and great lords, were still deno- 
 minated bajuli, and their charge or government 
 bajulatio, even after their pupils were grown too 
 big to be carried about. The word passed in the 
 same sense into Greece. 
 
 Bajllu.s is also used by Ealin writers in the 
 several senses wherein we use bailiff. 
 
 Bajulus was likewise the title of a conventual
 
 396 
 
 BAKING. 
 
 officer in the ancient monasteries, to whom 
 belonged the charge of gathering and distributing 
 the money and legacies left for masses and obits ; 
 whence he was also denominated bajulus obituum 
 novorum. 
 
 Eajulus, in entomology, a species of cerambyx 
 (callidium) that is found in the trunks of trees in 
 the northern parts of Europe. The thorax is 
 villous, with two tubercles ; body brown. Fabri- 
 cius. This is the cerambyx caudatus of Degeer; 
 and leptura bajula of Scopoli. — Gmelin. Obs. 
 a variety of tliis species (/3) is described by Lin- 
 ntEUs; the color of which is testaceous: thorax 
 cinereous, and villous, with two little glabrous 
 lines ; in the Fabrician mantissa. Another variety 
 (y) is noticed, a native of Saxony, and only half 
 the size of the former. 
 
 BAIZE', n. s. ' A kind of coarse open cloth 
 stuff, having a long nap ; sometimes frizzed on 
 one side, and sometimes not frizzed. This stuff 
 is without wale, being wrought on a loom with 
 two treddles, like flannel.' — Chambers, 
 
 BAKE', V. a. & 7i.~\ Baecan, Sax. becken, 
 Ba'kex, part. I Ger. supposed by Wach- 
 Ba'ked, adjec. >ter to come from bee, 
 Ba'ker, n.s. i which, in the Phrygian 
 
 Bake'house, n. s. J language, signified bread. 
 Bread, and the process of preparing it, are very 
 naturally identified, as the one always suggests 
 the other. It signifies to heat or to harden by 
 tire, and is of a more general application than to 
 the staff of life; though the substantives have no 
 other reference, unless they have an affix, sugar- 
 baker, &c. To bake, is then to heat or to har- 
 den any thing in the fire, in a furnace, an oven, 
 or in the sun ; or to do the work of baking. 
 Baking denotes the progress towards the com- 
 pletion of this work. Baker is the agent by 
 whom it is accomplished. Baked describes the 
 quality of these substances which have gone 
 through the entire process, as baked meats, con- 
 tra-distinguished from viands of a different de- 
 scription ; and bakehouse is a place appropriated 
 to the business of baking. 
 
 He -will take thereof, and warm himself; yea, he 
 
 kindleth it, and baketh bread. Isaiah. 
 
 There was a cake haken on the coals, and a cruse 
 
 of water, at his head. 2 Kings. 
 
 He could roste and sethe, and broile and frie^ 
 Maken mortrewes and wel hake a pie. 
 But gret harm was it as it thoughte me. 
 That on his shinne a mormal hadde he. Chaucer. 
 
 His bredc, his ale, was alway after on, 
 A belter en^'^•'d man was no where non ; 
 Withouten baken mete never was his house. 
 Of fish and flesh, and that so plenteous 
 It snewed in his hous of mete and drinke. 
 Of all the deinties that men coud of thinke. Id, 
 
 Loke of Egipt the king Dan Pharao, 
 His baher and his hoteler also, — 
 Wheder they ne fcltcn non effect in drcmcs. Id 
 1 keep his house, and I wash, wring, brew, hake, 
 scour, dress meat, and make the beds, and do all my- 
 self. Shakspeare. 
 
 The sun with flaming arrows pierc'd the flood. 
 And, darting to the bottom, bah'd the mud. Dryden. 
 
 The work of the fire is a kind of baking ; and what- 
 soever the fire baketh, time doth, in some degree, dis- 
 solve. Bacon. 
 
 There be some houses wherein sweetmeats will re- 
 lent, and baked meats will mould, more than others. 
 
 Id. 
 With vehement suns 
 When dusty summer bakes the crumbling clods. 
 How pleasant is 't, beneath the twisted arch. 
 To ply the sweet carouse ! Philips. 
 
 In life and health, every man must proceed upon 
 trust, there being no knowing the intention of the 
 cook or baker. South. 
 
 Baking, as a term of art, though applicable 
 to the drj'ing of any moist substance by heat, 
 has been used more particularly to describe the 
 art of preparing bread, or of reducing meal 
 of any kind, whether simple or compound, into 
 bread. We read, indeed, as in Chaucer, (Pro- 
 logue V. 436) of ' bake mete, of fish, and flesh ;' 
 and some of our modern inventions in the way of 
 cooking apparatus seem destined to extend the 
 triumphs of this art, and to bake a whole Lord 
 Mayor's dinner in less time than even his wor- 
 shipful guests consume in eating it. But the 
 ' baker,' historically and legally, has been the 
 baker of bread. In an Anglo-Saxon colloquy, 
 preserved in the Cotton Library (jNIS. Tib. A. 3.) 
 and presenting a lively picture of the manners of 
 our ancestors, a sort of dialogue occurs with the 
 baker (bfecere) : — ' Of what use is your art ? 
 We can live long without you.' He replies, 
 ' You may live through some space without my 
 art, but not long, nor well. Without my craft 
 every table would seem empty ; and without 
 bread (hlafe) all meat would seem nauseous.' 
 
 We have therefore only here to remark, gene- 
 rally, that the art of baking, of the highest anti- 
 quity, is, in regard to its origin, involved in en- 
 tire obscurity : traces of it being found in the 
 history of all ancient nations. Abraham and 
 Lot, in the patriarchal ages, evinced their hospi- 
 tality by providing baked cakes or unleavened 
 bread for their guests ; and shortly after (Exod. 
 xii. 15.) the prohibition of leavened bread to the 
 Israelites proves tbat the art of making it was 
 well known and ordinarily practised. In Egypt 
 it is highly probable the Jews became acquainted 
 with this art : though the Chaldeans are said to 
 have practised it as early as any people. The 
 Greeks ascribe the invention of it to Pan, who 
 Diodorus informs us, was originally an Egyptian 
 deity, and that Thebes was built to his honor, 
 (lib. i.) The Romans were long reproached as a 
 pulse-eating people. Until .580 years after the 
 founding of their metropolis it contained no pro- 
 fessed bakers. They first settled in it, we are told 
 by Pliny (Hist. Nat. -xviii. 11), during the war 
 with Perseus, king of IMacedon : we find, how- 
 ever, before this time families baking their own 
 bread. 
 
 Bakers, as we have seen, were esteemed im- 
 portant members of society by our ancestors. 
 The incorporation of a London company with 
 this title took place in the early part of the 
 fourteenth century (1307), and by a statute, 
 22 Hen. VIII. cap. 13., ^their trade was ex- 
 empted from being reckoned as handicraft. Until 
 a late act o( parliament abolished their control 
 of the price, called the assize of bread, this con- 
 stituted an important portion of the duties of 
 the London magistracy.
 
 BAKER 
 
 397 
 
 Under the word Bread, we propose to treat of 
 the entire manufacture of that important article : 
 under Cookery and Dressing of Meats, of the 
 late inventions above alluded to ; and under 
 Oven, of those which may be thus specifically 
 classed. 
 
 Baker (David Erskine), son of Henry 
 Baker, was a young man of genius and learning. 
 Having been adopted by an uncle, who was a 
 silk throwster in Spitalfields, he succeeded him 
 in the business ; but wanted the prudence and 
 attention necessary to secure prosperity in trade. 
 Like his father, he was both a philosopher and a 
 poet ; and wrote several occasional poems, some 
 of which were much admired at the time. His 
 principal publication was. The Companion to the 
 Play-house, in two volumes, 1764, 12mo; a 
 work, which though imperfect, has considerable 
 merit. 
 
 Baker (Henry), an ingenious and diligent 
 naturalist, was born in Fleet-street, London, about 
 the end of the seventeenth, or beginning of the 
 eighteenth century. He was brought up under 
 an eminent bookseller, who preceded the elder 
 Dodsley, but being of a philosophical turn, and 
 having studied the methods practicable in the 
 cure of deaf and dumb persons, he made this the 
 employment of his life. In the prosecution of so 
 valuable and difficult an undertaking he was very 
 successful. He married Sophia, youngest daugh- 
 ter of the famous Daniel Defoe, who brought 
 him two sons, both of whom he survived. In 
 January, 1704, he was elected a fellow of the 
 Society of Antiquaries ; and, on the twelfth of 
 March following, the same honor was conferred 
 upon him by the Royal Society. In 1744 Sir 
 Godfrey Copley's gold medal was bestowed upon 
 him, for discoveries in the chrystallisation and 
 configurations of saline particles. Having led a 
 very useful and honorable life, hcj died in the 
 Strand in 1774, aged above seventy. Mr. Baker 
 was a very constant and useful attendant at the 
 meetings of the Royal and Antiquarian Societies, 
 and in both was frequently chosen of the council. 
 Several of his communications are printed in the 
 Philosophical Transactions ; and he was the 
 means, by his extensive correspondence, of con- 
 veying to the Society the intelligence and obser- 
 vations of many other inquisitive and philosophi- 
 cal men, at home and abroad. The society for 
 the encouragement of arts, manufactures, and 
 commerce, is under singular obligations to him. 
 Being one of its earliest memliers, he contributed 
 greatly to its rise and establishment, and at its 
 first institution officiated for some time gratis as 
 secretary. He drew up a short account of its 
 origin, which was read before the society of anti- 
 quaries. Mr. Baker was a poetical writer in. the 
 early part of his life. His Invocation of Health 
 was printed without his knowledge; but re- 
 printed by himself in his Original Poems, serious 
 and humorous, part I. 8vo. 1725. Part II. came 
 out in 1726. Among these poems are some 
 tales as witty, and as loose as Prior's. He w;is 
 the author likewise of the Universe, a poem, 
 which has been several times reprinted. His 
 account of the water polype, originally published 
 in the Philosophical Transactions, was afterwards 
 enlarged into a separate treatise, and has gone 
 
 through several editions. But his principal pub- 
 lications are. The ^Microscope made Easy, and 
 Employment for the Microscope. 
 
 Baker (Sir Richard), author of the Chronicle 
 of the Kings of England, was bom at Sissing- 
 herst, in Kent, about the year 1568. After 
 completing his studies at Oxford, he travelled, 
 and upon his return was created A. M. In 1603 
 he was knighted by king James I. and in 1620, 
 high sheriff" of Oxfordshire ; but engaging to pay 
 some of the debts of his wife's family, he was 
 reduced to poverty, and obliged to retire for 
 shelter to the Fleet prison. His works are, 1. 
 Meditations and Disquisitions on the Lord's 
 Prayer. 2. INIeditations, &c. on several Psalms. 
 3. ileditations and Prayers upon the Seven Days 
 of the Week. 4. Cato \'ariescatus, or Cato's 
 ]Moral Distiches varied, &c. — Mr. Granger ob- 
 serves. ' That his Chronicle of the Kings of Eng- 
 land was more esteemed by readers of the lower 
 class, than by such as had a critical knowledge 
 of history. The language of it was called polite : 
 and it long maintained its reputation, especially 
 among country gentlemen. The author seems 
 to have been sometimes more studious to please 
 than to inform, and with that view to have sacri- 
 ficed even chronology itself to method.' In 
 1658 Edward Philips, nephew to Milton, pub- 
 lished a third edition of this work, with the 
 addition of the reign of Charles I. It has been 
 several times reprinted, and is now carried as 
 low as the reign of George I. Sir Richard also 
 translated several works from the French and 
 Italian. He died in the Fleet, very poor, in 1645. 
 
 Baker (Thomas), an eminent mathematician, 
 was born at Ilton, in Somersetshire, about 1625, 
 and entered at Magdalane-hall, Oxon, 1640 ; 
 after which he was vicar of Bishop's Nymmet, in 
 Devonshire, where he wrote The Geometrical 
 Key, or the Gate of Equations unlocked, by 
 which he gained a considerable reputation. A 
 little before his death, the members of the Royal 
 Society sent him some mathematical queries, to 
 which he returned such satisfactory answers, that 
 they presented him a medal. He died at Bishop's 
 Nymmet, in 1690. 
 
 Baker (Thomas), a very ingenious and learned 
 antiquary, descended from an ancient family, 
 was born at Crook, in 1656 ; educated at the free 
 school at Durham, and thence removed to Cam- 
 bridge in 1674. He proceeded B.A. inl677; 
 M. A. 1681 ; was elected fellow, March, 1679-80: 
 ordained deacon by Bishop Compton, Dec. 20th, 
 
 1685, and priest by Bishop Barlow, Dec. 19th, 
 
 1686. Being chaplain to Lord Crew, bishop of 
 Durham, his Lordship collated him to the rec- 
 tory of Long-Newton, June, 1687 ; and intended 
 to have given him tlmt of Sedgefield, worth about 
 £700 a year, with a golden prebend, had he not 
 incurred his displeasure for refusing to read King 
 James II. 's declaration for liberty of conscience. 
 Mr. Baker resigned Long-Xewton, August 1st. 
 1690, refusing to take the oaths; and retired to 
 his fellowship at St. John's, in which he was 
 protected till Jan. 20th, 1716-17, when he was 
 dispossessed of it, in consequence of scrupling 
 to take the oaths required on the accession of 
 George I. but he retained his chambers at St. John's 
 college, where he was highly esteemed, land INIr.
 
 BAK 
 
 398 
 
 BAK 
 
 Prior, the celebrated poet, gave the profits of his 
 own fellowship to Baker, in order to sujiply the 
 loss of income which he had suffered. lie is said 
 to have retained a lively resentment of his depri- 
 vations ; and designated himself in his books, as 
 well as in those which he gave to the college 
 library, socius ejectus, and in some, ejectus rec- 
 tor. He continued to reside in the college as 
 commoner master till his death, July '2d, 1740. 
 Mr. Baker's correspondence with men of learn- 
 ing was extensive ; and he was liberal in his 
 literary communications to those who solicited 
 information ; particularly to bishop Burnet, 
 who was indebted to him for several remarks and 
 corrections relating to his History of the Refor- 
 mation. Of his extensive collections, he left 
 twenty-three volumes in folio, written by his own 
 hand, to Lord Oxford, and they now compose 
 part of the Harleian collection in the British 
 museum. He also bequeathed fifteen volumes 
 folio, of a like kind, to the public library at Cam- 
 bridge, together with other ^ISS. and printed 
 books. Biog. Brit. ' Mr. Baker,' says the Earl 
 of Orford, was ' perhaps the sole instance of a man 
 who bequeathed his worldly goods to a society • 
 tliat ejected him, and to the ministers of a church 
 in which he had lost preferment.' The only 
 works he printed were, 1. Reflections on Learn- 
 ing, showing the insufficiency thereof in its 
 several particulars, in order to evince the useful- 
 ness and necessity of Revelation, Lond. 1709-10 ; 
 and 2. The Preface to bishop Fisher's funeral 
 sermon for Margaret, Countess of Richmond and 
 Derby, 1708 ; both without his name. Dr. 
 Knight styles him ' the greatest master of the an- 
 tiquities of this our university ;' and Hearne 
 pays him a similar compliment ; expressing his 
 wish that his collections were published. INIr. 
 Baker intended something like an Athenre Can- 
 tabrigienses, on the plan of the Athense Oxoni- 
 enses. 
 
 Baker (Sir George), M. D. was the son of a 
 Devonshire clergyman, born in 1722, and edu- 
 cated at Eton and Cambridge. He commenced 
 practice at Stamford, whence he soon removed 
 to London, and soon attained considerable repu- 
 tation, being appointed physician in ordinary to 
 the king, and physician to the queen : he was 
 also chosen fellow of the Royal and Antiquarian 
 Societies. In 1776 he was created a baronet, and 
 in 1 797 was placed at the head of his profession, 
 being elected president of tlie (College of Physi- 
 cians. He died June 15th, 1809. Sir George 
 Baker had the reputation of being an elegant 
 classical scholar and critic. His published works 
 are, An I'.ssay on the Cause of the Endemical 
 Colic of Devonshire, (about 1767), which gave 
 rise to a controversy relative to the origin of that 
 malady, which he attributed to the use of cyder, 
 much impregnated with lead. Preface to a late 
 edition of the Pharmacopoeia of the Medical Col- 
 lege, with numerous Essays in the Medical and 
 Philosophical Journals of his time. 
 
 BAKERS' CoMPAXv; there are two com- 
 panies of this name, the White and the Brown 
 Bakers. The White Bakers are of great anti- 
 quity, having been a company as early as Edward 
 IL Their arms are (fig. 1.) ' gules, ihree garbs, 
 or on a chief; an arm issuing out of a cloud. 
 
 proper, holding a pair of scales, or, between 
 three garbs of the first.' 
 
 Fiff. 1. 
 
 FiR. 2. 
 
 The Brown Bakers were incorporated the 19th 
 of James I. Their arms (fig. 2) are 'gules, a 
 hand issuing out of the clouds, ^^ro/jf?-, holding 
 a pair of scales ; an anchor in a chief, barry 
 wavy, or and azure, on a chevron, gw/cs between 
 three garbes. 
 
 BAKEWELL (Robert), a famous grazier, 
 born in 1726, on his father's estate of Dishley, in 
 Leicestershire. For some years before his 
 father's death, he had the management of the 
 farm, and his attention was much taken up in im- 
 proving the breed of his cattle. In pursuit of 
 this object, he travelled over England into Ire- 
 land and Holland ; and such was his success, 
 that in a short time the Dishley sheep were 
 prized so much above others, that he could let 
 one of his rams for no less than 400 guineas ! 
 and for one in particular, he drew the enormous 
 sum of 800 guineas, besides the ewes from his 
 own stock, which, by the same calculation, makes 
 a total of 1200 guineas ! Dishley sheep are dis- 
 tinguished by the fineness of their bone and 
 flesh, the lightness of the offal, and quiet dispo- 
 sition, which makes them fatten with less food 
 than other sheep equally heavy. Mr. Bakewell 
 also greatly improved his black cattle ; and 
 could let his bulls at fifty guineas a season each. 
 He died in 1795. On the other hand, it has 
 been stated that he failed in business more than 
 once ; and, with regard to the effect of his im- 
 provements, it has been sarcastically remarked, 
 that they enabled him to make meat too fat 
 for any body to eat, and too dear for any body 
 to purchase. 
 
 Bakewell, a market town and parish in 
 the hundred of High-Peak, Derby, eleven miles 
 west from Chesterfield, and 152 north from 
 London ; on the river Wye, near its influx with 
 the Derwent, and containing 1000 inhabitants. 
 It is supposed to have been a Roman town. 
 The church is elegant, with a lofty spire, and the 
 place is much resorted to by anglers; the Wye 
 producing plenty of trout, grayling, &c. There 
 are several good quarries of stone, and lead and 
 zinc mines in the neighbourhood, with a plentiful 
 supply of coal; here is also a large cotton manu- 
 factory. Three miles distant is Chatsworth tlie 
 seat of the duke of Devonshire, and first built by 
 Sir William Cavendish, of SuflTolk, and finished 
 by his lady, on her marriage with Sir William St. 
 Loe, captain of the guard to queen Elizabeth. 
 Fronting the house westward runs the River 
 Derwent, over which is a stately stone bridge, 
 on which ^is an old tower, and on an island in 
 the river stands an ancient castle. On the east 
 side, not far distant, is a high mountain, on the 
 top of whicli millstones are dug. Here begins a
 
 BAK 
 
 399 
 
 BAL 
 
 vastly extended moor, wliich, for sixteen miles, 
 has neither house, hedge, nor tree, and over 
 which it is impossible to pass without a guide. 
 In ('hatsworth-house, Mary, queen of Scots, was 
 some time a prisoner. The living of Bakewell is 
 in the gift of the dean and chapter of Litchfield ; 
 and the parish is exempt from episcopal juris- 
 diction. Market on Monday. Its fairs are on 
 Easter-monday, Whit-monday, the IMonday after 
 October 19th, and the Monday after November 
 22d. At a short distance from Bakewell is Ash- 
 ford, where are some marble works, that were the 
 first of the kind established in England. Great 
 quantities of black and gray marble are sawed 
 and polished by machinery kept in motion by 
 water. One part called the sweeping mill from 
 its circular motion, will work upon, and level a 
 set of marble slabs of eighty superficial feet. 
 
 BAKHISHISARAI,'^or simply Bacca-Serai, 
 * the summer-house,' a large town of European 
 Russia, in the Crimea, government of Taurida, 
 formerly the residence of the khans, situated be- 
 tween two hills, and containing from 10,000 to 
 12,000 inhabitants. Here are manufactures of 
 Turkey leather, saddles, silk stuffs, and cutlery. 
 Fifty miles north of Caffa. Long. 33'^ 52' E., 
 lat. 45^ 10' N. 
 
 BAKOONGAR, one of the Sooloo islands. 
 It is high and rocky, and has some inhabitants. 
 
 BAKOS, a river of Great Bukharia, from 
 which and others the Harrat is formed. 
 
 BAKOU, or Baku, a town of Persia, in the 
 province of Shirvan, situated at the extremity of 
 the Gulf of Chilan, occupying the peninsula of 
 Abasharon, on the west coast of the Caspian. It 
 is esteemed the most commodious haven in that 
 sea, as vessels may ride securely at anchor in 
 seven fathoms of water, within eighty yards of 
 the shore ; but the number of shoals, islands, 
 and sand banks, render the entrance, in some 
 places, difficult and dangerous. The town is of an 
 obtuse triangular form ; it occupies a strong and 
 fine situation, and is defended by a strong wall 
 and deep ditch. Good cotton is yielded in the 
 neighbourhood, together with opium, rice, silk, 
 wine, salt, and naptha. In the latter article is 
 the principal trade of Bakou, 1000 or 1500 
 pounds of it being yielded by the wells in this 
 district daily. The country around is highly 
 volcanic, abounding with inflammable gases, 
 which, being collected in leather flasks, will 
 ignite at a distance. Hence, the town and its 
 environs abound in monuments of the supersti- 
 tion of the Guebres, Parsies, and other fire wor- 
 shippers, some of whom yet frequent a spot called 
 Ateschjah. Various temples built of stone ap- 
 pear; in one of which a blue lambent flame 
 isssued from a large hollow cane near the altar. 
 The jurisdiction of Baku extends over thirty-two 
 villages. It was ceded to Russia in the year 
 1723, and restored to Persia in 1735; but re- 
 taken by the Russians in 1801, who have ever 
 since kept possession of it. 
 
 BAKTEGAN, or Bakt>:ghian, a salt lake in 
 the province of Ears, Persia, about seventy-five 
 miles in circuit. It is nearly dry in summer, 
 when a quantity of fine salt, left by evaporation, 
 IS collected from the bottom. Distant ten miles 
 south-east of Sliiraz. 
 
 BAKTSCHISARI, an open town on the west 
 side of the Crimea, near the sea, seated between 
 two mountains. It is one of the places of resi- 
 dence of the cham of Tartary. 
 
 BAKU. See Bakou. 
 
 BAL, a Gaelic word, used in the composition 
 of the names of many places, particularly in Scot- 
 land and Ireland, and signifying a town, village, 
 or place of residence. 
 
 BALA, a market town of Merionethshire, in 
 North Wales, and a borough by prescription, but 
 sending no member to parliament. It is 202 miles 
 north-west of London, and 26 from Welshpool. 
 Population 1163. The assizes for the county are 
 held here alternately with Dolgelly. There are 
 vestiges of three Roman camps in the neighbour- 
 hood, and adjacent to the town is a large artificial 
 mount, called Tommen y Bala, supposed to be 
 of Roman origin. Its manufactures are woollen 
 gloves, stockings, and the caps called Welsh wigs. 
 
 Pemble Mere, Llyn Tegid, or Bala lake, lies a 
 few miles to the south of the town, and is the 
 largest sheet of water in Wales, being four miles 
 in length, and about three quarters of a mile in 
 breadth. Its depth of water is about forty feet ; 
 but it sometimes rises above its usual level, over- 
 flowing the beautiful vale of Eidernion. It 
 abounds in fish, and the tradition of the country 
 states that the rive Dee, like the Rhone at Ge- 
 neva, passes through without mixing its waters 
 with those of the lake. 
 
 BALAAM; from ibs, without, and C2i\ 
 people ; the son of Beor, a prophet and diviner 
 of Pethor, upon the Euphrates, whose practices 
 with Balak, king of the Moabites, are recorded 
 in Numbers xxii. — xxiv. as well as his involuntary 
 prophecies of the prosperity of Israel. Jewish 
 writers are generally of opniion that he was a 
 pretending astrologer, who observing when men 
 were under a bad aspect of the stars, pronounced 
 a curse upon them ; which sometimes coming 
 to pass, gained him reputation. Several ancient 
 fathers suppose him to have been a common 
 sootlisayer, who undertook to tell future events, 
 and discover secrets, by no very justifiable arts. 
 Origen will have it, thait he was one of the 
 devil's sorcerers, and that of him he went to en- 
 quire ; but that God prevented him, and put 
 what answers he pleased into his mouth. It 
 cannot be denied, however, that the Scriptures 
 expressly call him a prophet, 2 Pet. ii. 16, and 
 therefore some later writers have imagined that 
 he had once been a good man, till loving the 
 wages of iniquity, and prostituting the honour 
 of his office to covetousness, he apostatised from 
 God, and devoted himself to idolatrous prac- 
 tices. Philo, in his Life of Moses, passes over 
 the miracle of his ass speaking to the prophet in 
 silence ; and Maimonides pretends that it hap- 
 pened to Balaam in a prophetic vision only. 
 St. Peter, however, assuredly speaks of the fact 
 as literal and certain. We must own, says 
 Calmet, that this is a miraculous fact related by 
 an inspired writer, whose authority we ouglit not 
 to call in question in the least particular ; but 
 we should study such ways of explaining it as 
 are most conformable to reason, and most proper 
 to solve the difficulties of it, without attacking 
 the trvuh of the history. The miracle, says
 
 40( 
 
 B A L ^ N A 
 
 bishop Newton, was not unnecessary. ' It evi- 
 denced, that the same divine power, which 
 caused the ass to speak, compelled Balaam to 
 utter blessings contrary to his inclination. And 
 accordingly he was overruled to bless the people, 
 though he came prepared and disposed to curse 
 them; which, according to Bochart, was the 
 greater miracle of the two, for the ass was merely 
 pursued, but Balaam resisted the good motions 
 of GoA: 
 
 BALAAMITES, a sect in the first ages of 
 Christianity, of the same import in the Hebrew 
 languasje with Nicolaitans in the Greek. 
 
 BALABAC, an island of the eastern seas, off 
 the south extremity of Palawan. Long. 117° 10' 
 E., lat. 8° N. 
 
 BAIABEA, an island of the South Pacific 
 Ocean, off New Caledonia. Long. 164° 22' E., 
 lat. 20° 7' S. 
 
 BALABOLA, one of the Society Islands in the 
 South Sea, visited by Captain Cook. It is only 
 eight leagues in circumference, but has a very 
 capacious harbour on the west side. 
 
 BALACHNA, or Balakhan, a town of Eu- 
 ropean Russia, in the government of Nishnei- 
 Novgorod, on the right bank of the Wolga. The 
 salt springs here were closed in 1755. The in- 
 habitants, engaged partly in agriculture and 
 partly in trade, amount to 5000. It is eighteen 
 miles W. N.W. of Nishnei-Novgorod, and 120 
 E. S. E. of Petersburg. 
 
 BALADAN, the scripture name for a king of 
 Babylon, Isa. xxxix. 1. 2 Kings xx. 12, called 
 by profane authors Belesus or Belesis, Nabonassar 
 or Nanybrus. He at first was no more than 
 governor of Babylon; but entering into a confe- 
 deracy with Arbaces, governor of Media, and re- 
 bellingagainstSardanapalus, king of Assyria, these 
 two generals marched against him with an army 
 of 400,000 men, and were beat in three different 
 battles. But the Bactrians deserting the king, 
 and coming over to Baladan and Arbaces, the re- 
 bels attacked the enemy in the night, and made 
 themselves masters of his camp. After this mis- 
 fortune, Sardanapalus retreated to Nineveh, and 
 left the command of his army to his brother-in- 
 law Salamenes. The conspirators attacked Sala- 
 menes, and defeated him in two great battles; 
 after which ihey laid siege to Nineveh. Sardana- 
 palus sustained the siege for three years ; but the 
 Tigris, in the third year, overflowing its banks, 
 beat down twenty furlongs of the walls : where- 
 upon the conspirators entered the city and took 
 possession of it, after Sardanapalus had burnt 
 himself and all his most valuable effects upon a 
 funeral pile, erected for that purpose in his palace. 
 Baladan was thereupon acknowledged king of 
 Babylon, as Arbaces was of Media. Sir Isaac 
 Newton supposes Baladan to have been the son 
 of Pul, king of Assyria, and to have had Babylon 
 for his portion. 
 
 BAL.ENA, the whale, in zoology, from 
 /3aXXw, to cast up, because it throws up water, 
 a genus of the mammalia class, belonging to the 
 order of cete. The characters of this genus are, 
 the balaeup, in place of teeth, has a horny plate 
 on the upper jaw, and a double fistula or pipe 
 for throwing out water. There are five princijial 
 species; viz. 1. B. bo-ops, the pike-headed 
 
 whale, has a double pipe in its snout, three fins 
 and a hard horny ridge on its back. The belly 
 is full of longitudinal folds or rugae. It fre- 
 quents the northern ocean. The lengtl\^of that 
 taken on the coast of Scotland, as remarked by 
 Sir Robert Sibbald, was forty-six feet, and its 
 greatest circumference twenty. This species takes 
 its name from the shape of its nose, which is 
 narrower and sharper pointed than that of other 
 whales. 2. B. Musculus, has a double pipe in 
 its front, and three fins ; the under jaw is much 
 wider than the upper one. It frequents the 
 Scotch coast, and feeds upon herrings. 3. B. 
 mysticetus, the common whale, which has many 
 turnings and windings in its nostrils, and no fin 
 on the back. This is the largest of all animals ; 
 it is commonly found at from fifty to sixty feet; 
 but some have been taken in modern times, in the 
 northern seas ninety feet in length. But as Mr. 
 Scoresby observes, ' there is every probability of 
 an error having been committed two or three cen- 
 turies back (from which period some of our di- 
 mensions have been derived), when we know 
 that whales were usually viewed with super- 
 stitious dread, and their magnitude and powers 
 in consequence highly exaggerated. Of 322 
 individuals, in the capture of which I have been 
 personally concerned, no one, I believe, exceeded 
 sixty feet in length, and the largest I ever mea- 
 sured was fifty-eight feet from one extremity to 
 the other, being one of the longest to appearance 
 I ever saw. From fifty to sixty feet therefore 
 may be considered the average length of the 
 Greenland whale.' The head is very much 
 disproportioned to the size of the body, being 
 one third of the size of the fish, and the under 
 lip is much broader than the upper. The 
 tongue is composed of a very soft spongy fat, ca- 
 pable of yielding five or six barrels of oil. The 
 gullet is very small, not exceeding four inches 
 in width. In the middle of the head are two 
 orifices through which it spouts water to a vast 
 height, and with a great noise, especially when 
 disturbed or wounded. The eyes are not larger 
 than those of an ox, and when the chrystalline 
 humor is dried, it does not appear larger than 
 a pea. They are placed towards the back of 
 the head, being the most convenient situation for 
 enabling them to see both before and behind ; as 
 also to see over them, where their food is prin- 
 cipally found. They are guarded by eye-lids 
 and eye-lashes, as in quadrupeds ; and they 
 seem to be very sharp sighted. Nor is their 
 sense of hearing in less perfection ; for they are 
 warned at a great distance of any danger pre- 
 paring against them. It would seem as if nature 
 had designedly given them these advantages, as 
 they multiply little, in order to continue their 
 kind. It is true, indeed, that the external organ 
 of hearing is scarcely perceptible, for this might 
 only embarrass them in their natural element ; 
 but as soon as the thin scarf-skin after mentioned 
 is removed, a black spot is discovered behind the 
 eye, and under that is the auditory canal, that 
 leads to a regular apparatus for hearing. In 
 short, the animal hears the smallest sounds at 
 very great distances, and at all times, except 
 when it is spouting water ; which is the time 
 that the fishers approach to strike it.
 
 B A L ^ N A. 
 
 401 
 
 What is known by the name of whalebone, 
 adheres to the upper jaw of the whale ; and is 
 formed of thin parallel laminae, some of the 
 longest four yards in length ; of these there are 
 commonly 350 on each side, but in very old fisli 
 more ; about 500 of them are of a length fit for 
 use, the others being too short. They are sur- 
 rounded with long strong hair, not only that they 
 may not hurt the tongue, but as strainers to pre- 
 vent the return of their food when they dis- 
 charge the water out of their mouths. The real 
 bones of the whale are hard, porous, and full of 
 marrow. Two great strong bones sustain the 
 upper lip, lying against each other in the shape 
 of an half moon. The tail is broad and semi- 
 lunar; and when the fish lies on one side, its 
 blow is tremendous. The tail alone it makes 
 use of, to advance itself forward in the water; 
 and it is surprising to see with what force and 
 celerity its enormous bulk cuts through the 
 ocean. The tail occupies a surface of eighty or 
 100 square feet, it is only five or six feet long, but 
 from eighteen to twenty-four or twenty-six feet 
 in breadth, and is placed horizontally : its 
 motions are rapid and universal. The fins are 
 only made use of for turning in the water, and 
 giving a direction to the velocity impressed by 
 the tail : they are from seven to nine feet long, 
 and four to five broad, being capable of motion 
 in any direction ; but they are prevented from 
 being raised above the horizontal position by 
 the tension of the skin and flesh below ; the ac- 
 count therefore of whales supporting their young 
 on their back by means of their fins, must be 
 fabulous. The whale varies in color ; the back 
 of some being red, the belly generally white. 
 Others are black, some mottled, others quite 
 white. Their colors in the water are extremely 
 beautiful, and their skin is very smooth and 
 slippery. The outward or scarf skin of the 
 whale is no thicker than parchment ; but this 
 removed, the real skin appears, of about an inch 
 thick, and covering the fat or blubber that lies 
 beneath : this is from eight to twelve inches in 
 thickness ; and is, when the fish is in health, of 
 a beautiful yellow. The muscles lie beneatli ; 
 and tiiese, like the flesh of quadrupeds, are very 
 red and tough. The teats in the female are in 
 the lower part of the belly. The fidelity of the 
 male and female to each other exceeds whatever 
 we are told even of the constancy of birds. 
 Some fishers, Anderson informs us, having struck 
 one of two whales, a male and a female, that 
 were in company together, the wounded fish 
 made a long and terrible resistance : it struck 
 down a boat with three men in it, with a single 
 blow of its tail, by which all went to the bottom. 
 The other still attended its companion, and lent 
 it every assistance ; till, at last, the fish that was 
 struck, sunk under the number of its wounds ; 
 while Its faithful associate, disdaining to survne 
 the loss, with great bellowing, stretched itself 
 upon the dead fish, and shared his fate. The 
 whale goes with young nine or ten months, and 
 generally produces one young one, and never 
 above two. When she suckles her young, she 
 throws herself on one side on the surface of the 
 sea, and the young one attaches itself to the teat. 
 iVothing can exceed the tenderness of thj female 
 Vol. III.— P.vrt II. 
 
 for her offspring ; she carries it with her where- 
 
 ever she goes, and when hardest pursued, even 
 when wounded, she still clasps her young one ; 
 and when she plunges to avoid danger, takes it 
 to the bottom ; but rises sooner than usual, to 
 dive it breath again. In June 1811, says .Mr. 
 Scoresby, one of my harpooners struck a sucker, 
 with the hope that it would lead to the capture 
 of the mother. Presently she arose close by the 
 ' fast boat,' and seizing the young one, dragged 
 about a hundred fathoms of line out of the boat 
 with remarkable force and velocity. Again she 
 arose to the surface ; darted furiously to and fro ; 
 frequently stopped short, or suddenly changed 
 her direction, and gave every possible intimation 
 of extreme ag-ony. For a length of time she 
 continued thus to act, though closely pursued by 
 the boats ; and, inspired with courage and resolu- 
 tion by her concern for her offspring, seemed re- 
 gardless of the dansjer which surrounded her. 
 At length, one of the boats approached so near, 
 that a harpoon was hove at her. It hit, but did 
 not attach itself. A second harpoon was struck ; 
 this also failed to penetrate ; but a third was 
 more effectual, and held. Still she did not at- 
 tempt to escape, but allowed other boats to ap- 
 proach ; so that in a few minutes three more 
 harpoons were fastened ; and in the course of an 
 hour afterwards she was killed. The young 
 ones continue at the breast for a year ; during 
 which time, they are called by the sailors, short- 
 heads. They are then extremely fat, and yield 
 above fifty barrels of blubber. The mother at 
 the same time is equally lean and emaciated. At 
 the age of two years they are called stunts, as 
 they do not thrive much immediately upon quit- 
 ting the breast : they then yield scarcely above 
 twenty or twenty-four barrels of blubber : after 
 this they are called skull-fish, and their age is 
 wholly unknown. 4. B. physalus, or fin-fish, is 
 distinguished from the common whale by a fin 
 on the back, placed very low and near the tail. 
 The length is greater than that of the common 
 kind, being often 100 feet; but much more 
 slender. It is furnished with whalebone in the 
 upper jaw, mixed with hairs, but short and 
 knotty, and of little value. The blubber also on 
 the body of this kind is very inconsiderable. 
 These circumstances, added to its extreme fierce- 
 ness and agility, which render the capture very 
 dangerous, cause the fishers to neglect it. The 
 natives of Greenland, however, hold it in great 
 esteem, as it affords a great quantity of flesh, 
 which to their palate is very agreeable. The 
 lips are brown, and like a twisted rope: the 
 spout hole is as it were split in the top of its 
 head, through which it blows water with much 
 more violence, and to a greater height, than the 
 common whale. The fishers are not very fond 
 of seeing it, for on its appearance the others 
 retire out of those seas. Some writers conjecture 
 this species to have been tlie 6vffa\oQ, and phy- 
 seter, or blowing whale of Oppian, .Elian, and 
 Pliny : but, since those writers have not left the 
 least description of it, it is impossible to judge 
 which kind they meant; for in respect to the 
 faculty of spouting out water, or blowing, it is 
 not peculiar to any one species, but common to 
 all the whale kind. The physalus inhabits the 
 
 2 D
 
 402 
 
 B A L iE N A. 
 
 European and American Oceans : it feeds upon 
 herrings and other fish. 5. B. rostrata, beaked 
 whale: rostrata uiysticete. The nose of tliis 
 species is elongated to a beak, and the dorsal fin 
 fat. It inhabits tlie Norway seas, is rarely seen 
 near England, is very black, much resembling 
 the boops, swims rapidly, and is about twenty- 
 five feet long. 
 
 Each species of whale propagates only its 
 own kind, and does not at all mingle with the 
 rest : however, they are generally seen in shoals, 
 of different kinds together, and make their mi- 
 grations in large companies. They are grega- 
 rious animals ; which implies their want of 
 mutual defence against the invasions of smaller 
 but more powerful fishes. It seems astonishing, 
 therefore, how a shoal of these enormous ani- 
 mals find subsistence together. To increase our 
 wonder, we not only see them herding together, 
 but usually find them fatter than any other ani- 
 mals of wliatsoever element. We likewise know 
 that they cannot swallow large fishes, as their 
 throats are so narrow that an animal larger than 
 a herring could not enter. How then do they 
 subsist, and grow so fat ? A certain sort of small 
 snail, or, as Linnaeus tells us, the medusa, or sea- 
 blubber, is sufficient for this supply. (See Me- 
 dusa.) They float in vast abundance in the north- 
 em seas. Content with tliis simple food, it pur- 
 sues no otiier animal, leads an inoffensive life in 
 its element, and is harmless in proportion to its 
 strength to do mischief. But Martens says he has 
 found a barrel or more of herrings at a time in 
 the belly of the whale. Inoffensive in itself, how- 
 ever, it has many enemies ready to take advan- 
 tage of its disposition, and of its unfitness for com- 
 bat. There is a small animal of the shell-fish kind, 
 called the whale-louse, that sticks to its body as 
 we see shells sticking to the foul bottom of a ship. 
 This insinuates itself chiefly under the fins ; and 
 whatever efforts the great animal makes, it still 
 keeps its hold, and lives upon the fat, which it is 
 provided with instruments to arrive at. The 
 sword-fish, however, is the whale's most terrible 
 enemy. See Xiphias. ' At the sight of this little 
 animal,' says Anderson, * the whale seems agi- 
 tated in an extraordinary manner; leaping from 
 the water as if with affright: wherever it appears, 
 the whale perceives it at a distance, and flees from 
 it in the opposite direction. I have been myself,' 
 continues he, ' a spectator of their terrible en- 
 counter. The whale has no instrument of defence 
 except the tail ; with that it endeavours to strike 
 the enemy ; and a smgle blow taking place would 
 effectually destroy its adversary ; but the sword- 
 fish is as active as the other is strong, and easily 
 avoids the stroke ; then bounding into the air, it 
 falls upon its great subjacent enemy, and en- 
 deavours, not to pierce it with its pointed beak, 
 but to cut it with its toothid edges. The sea all 
 about is seen dyed with blood, proceeding- from 
 the wounds of the whale; while the enormous 
 animal vainly endeavours to reach its invader, and 
 strikes with its tail against the surface of the water, 
 making a report at each blow louder than the 
 noise of a cannon.' In calm weather, the fisher- 
 men lie upon their oars as spectators of this scene, 
 until they perceive the whale at an extremity : 
 then they row towards him ; and his enemy re- 
 
 tiring at their approach, they enjoy the fruits of 
 the victory. Seamen report, tiiat a fish called 
 the thresher, a species of squalus, is in league 
 with the sword-fish ; and that the former keeps 
 on the back of the whale, while the latter wounds 
 it underneath in the belly. The grampus, and 
 other large fishes of the cetaceous order, are at- 
 tacked and destroyed by the same enemies in a 
 similar manner. The whale has other desperate 
 enemies in sharks of diflferent sizes, from one to 
 three fathoms ; and it generally avoids the seas 
 where sharks abound. But among all the ene- 
 mies of this harmless animal, man may be ranked 
 as the greatest. 
 
 \'iewing the whale in a commercial light, we 
 must observe, that the English were late before 
 they engaged in this fishery. It appears by a set 
 of queries, proposed by a merchant, in 157.5, in 
 order to get information in the business, that we 
 were at that time totally ignorant of it, being 
 obliged to send to ' Biskaie for men skilful in the 
 catching of the whale and ordering of the oil, 
 and one cooper skilful to set up the staved cask.' 
 This seems strange : for by the account Octher 
 gives of his travels, to king Alfred, near 700 years 
 before that period, it is evident that he made 
 that monarch acquainted with the Norwegians 
 practising the whale fishery ; it seems therefore 
 that all memory of that gainful employment, as 
 well as of the able voyager Octlier and his im- 
 portant discoveries, was lost for nearly seven cen- 
 turies. The earliest notice we find of this article 
 in our commerce is by Hackluyt, who^ says it 
 was brought from the Bay of St. Laurence by an 
 English ship that ' went there for the barbes and 
 fynnes of whales and train oil, A. D. 1594, and 
 found there 700 or 800 whale fynnes, part of the 
 cargo of two great Biskaine ships, that had been 
 wrecked three years before.' About 1598, the 
 town of Hull had the honor of first seriou-sly at- 
 tempting this profitable branch of trade ; which 
 has largely contributed to its aggrandizement. 
 
 We will resume the history and description of it, 
 however, under Fisheries, which see. Linnaeus 
 makes the physeter and delphinus, which are 
 ranked among the whales by some writers, two 
 distinct genera. See Puyseter and Deli'hinus. 
 
 BALAGHAR, a district of Persia, in the 
 principality of Baku, including some villages, 
 near which are twenty-five wells of black naphtha. 
 There is also one of a very inflammable white 
 naphtha : this remains lighted on the surface of 
 water ; whence it is a common amusement 
 among the inhabitants to throw pieces of it, du- 
 ring calms, into the sea. It is subject to Russia. 
 BALAGIIAUT, orBALAGATE,the upper passes 
 of a chain of mountains which divides the coast 
 of Malabar from that of Coromandel, running 
 almost the whole length of the peninsula on 
 this side the ( Ganges. Some parts of them are 
 covered with fine red earth, which is blown by 
 the strong west winds as far as Ceylon ; and 
 when the rays of the sun are reflected from these 
 mountains, they seem to be on fire. They make 
 surprising alterations in the seasons; for on the 
 north side of the cape Comorin, it is winter in 
 May, June, July, August, and September, in 
 which months it is summer on the south side : 
 on one side there are continual tempests, thunder
 
 BALANCE. 
 
 40o 
 
 and lightning, while the other enjoys a constant 
 serenity. \Vhen black clouds are gathered about 
 the mountains, they are followed by sudden rain, 
 which causes the overflowing of the rivers, and 
 chokes them up with sand, insomuch that they 
 are unnavigable for some time afterwards. The 
 buildings and clothes of the inhabitants of this 
 region are scarcely sufficient to defend them 
 from the weather. They live upon rice, milk, 
 roots, and herbs, with very little meat ; they have 
 likewise a sort of small arrac, but ttiey are not 
 given to drunkenness. These mountains are also 
 called the Ghauts. 
 
 BALAGUEU, a town of Spain, in Catalonia, 
 situated on the Segre, at the foot of a steep hill, 
 in a tract of uocomraon fertility. It contains 
 four convents, a castle, and 3700 inhabitants. 
 The neighbourhood is very fertile. In 1709 Ba- 
 laguer was taken by Stahremberg, for Charles 
 III. and in 1710 by the duke de \'endome, for 
 Philip V'. It is the capital of a district, and lies 
 sixty-three miles north-west of Barcelona, and 
 219 north-east of Madrid. Long. 0° 40' E., lat. 
 41°55'N. 
 
 BALAK; pSs, Ileb. i. e. a destroyer; the 
 son of Zippor, a king of the Moabites, who, 
 alarmed at the success of the Israelites, and 
 jealous of their prosperity, sent for Balaam, and 
 bribed liim to curse them. Num. xxiii. and xxiv. 
 The divinations of Balaam, however, and the 
 still more powerful enchantments of the fair 
 Moabitesses, appear to have been the only 
 weapons employed by Balak against the pros- 
 perity of Israel ; for we tind Jephthah urges it as 
 an argument, in his manifesto against the king of 
 the Ammonites (Judges xi. 25.), that Balak 
 never actually fought au^ainst them. 
 
 BALAKLMA, or B.^lachra, a town of Rus- 
 sia, in the province of Nizney Novgorod, on the 
 Volga, twenty miles north of the city of Nizney 
 Novgorod. Long. 44° 0' E., lat. 56^ 30' N. 
 
 BALALUAN, a volcano in the island of Su- 
 matra, situated in the northern part of the island, 
 near Acheen. 
 
 BALAMATTA, a town on the east coast of 
 the island of Bouro. Long. 126° 17' E., lat. 3° 
 12' S. 
 
 BAL.\]\IBANGAN, a fertile island in the 
 Eastern seas, between Borneo and Magindanao. 
 It is about fourteen mdes in length from south- 
 east to north-west, and three to six in breadth, 
 and has two harbours. Being ceded by the king 
 of Sooloo to the Englisli East India Company, a 
 settlement was established upon it in 1773 ; but 
 the Sooloo surprised it in 1775, and seized the 
 effects of the company, to the value of above 
 £200,000 sterling. A new establishment was 
 formed in 1803, which proving expensive, was 
 withdrawn. Previous to 1774 it was nearly un- 
 inhabited. Distant fifteen miles from tlie north- 
 ern extremity of Borneo. Long 117° 5' E., lat. 
 7° 15' N. 
 
 BALAMBL'AN, or Ballaxbouaxg, or Pa- 
 LAMBUAX, a district and town in the south-east 
 of the island of Java, along the shore of the 
 straits of Bally ; formerly governed by an inde- 
 pendent sovereign. A range of mountains, in- 
 tersecting the island longitudinally, commences 
 here. Considerable trade in pepper was once 
 
 carried on here; but the European resident 
 having removed to Bagnouangay, it has been 
 transferred thither. Tlie town stands on a river 
 of the same name, and is protected by a fort. 
 
 Balamblax, or Pai.ambuan, a strong trading 
 town of Asia, in the East Indies, on the east end 
 of the island of Java, and capital of a territory 
 of the same name. 
 
 BALAMIO (Ferdinand), of Sicily, was phy, 
 sician to pope Leo X. who greatly regarded 
 him. He was no less skilled in the belles 
 lettres than in medicine ; and he cultivated 
 poetry and the Greek learning with much suc- 
 cess. He translated from the Greek into Latin 
 several pieces of Galen, which were first printed 
 separately, and afterwards inserted in the works 
 of that ancient physician, published at Venice, 
 1586, in folio. He flourished at Rome about the 
 year 1555. 
 
 BALAM-PULLI, in botany, a name used by 
 some authors for the tree whose fruit is the tama- 
 rind of the shops. 
 
 BAL'ANCE, w. s. r. a. & ?j. -^ Fr. balance; 
 
 Bal'ancing, > L3it. bis laiix. One 
 
 Bal'ancer. j of the six simple 
 
 powers in mechanics, used principally for de- 
 termining the difference of weight in heavy bo- 
 dies ; and consequently their masses or quantities 
 of matter. For further definition and description, 
 see Clock-making and Mechanics. The me- 
 taphorical applications of the different parts of 
 this word are various. To balance in the mind 
 is to compare one thing with another. Tlie act 
 of comparing two things together is called a ba- 
 lance ; it also is used to signify fluctuation be- 
 tween equal motives : as applied to accounts, it 
 means that which is wanting to make two parts 
 even, and the payment of what is deficient, to 
 produce equality in the debtor and creditor state- 
 ments. In general to keep in a state of just pro- 
 portion, in equilibno. Balance of trade is the 
 equal importing of foreign commodities with the 
 exporting of the native. Balance of power is 
 the exact equipoise of strength and resources 
 between rival nations, formed by alliances and 
 treaties with neighbouring states, in order to keep 
 each other in check, to preserve peace, and to 
 promote the advantage of all. In astronomy, 
 the balances are one of the twelve signs of the 
 zodiac, commonly called Libra. 
 
 Ten thousend mark and mo, that now er in balance. 
 And I betraised of alle, bi God, that all may auance, 
 I salle bring him to stalie, but he make acquitunce. 
 R. Brunne, p, 156. 
 
 If the balance of our lives had not one scale of 
 reason to poise another of sensuality, the blood and 
 baseness of our nature would conduct us to most pre- 
 posterous conclusions. Shakspcare. 
 
 I have in equal balance justly weigh'd 
 What wrong our arms may do, what wrongs we suffer : 
 Griefs heavier than our offences. IcL Henry VI. 
 
 Comfort arises not from others being miserable, 
 but from this inference upon the balance, that we 
 suffer only the lot of nature. L' Estrange. 
 
 Upon a fair balance of the advantages on either 
 side, it w^ill appear, that the rules of the gospel are 
 more powerful means of conviction than such message. 
 
 Atterbury, 
 2 D2
 
 404 
 
 BALANCE. 
 
 Since there is notliing that can offeud, I see not 
 why you should balance a moment ahout printing it. 
 ' Jd. to Pope. 
 
 Little that is truly noble can be expected from one 
 who is ever poring on his cash book, or balancing his 
 accounts. Spectator. 
 
 Though I am very well satisfied, that it is not in 
 my power to balance accounts with my Maker, I am 
 resolved, however, to turn all my endeavours that 
 way. Addison. Id. 
 
 They pass the planets sev'n, and pass the fix'd 
 And that crystalline sphere whose balance weighs 
 The trepidation talk'd, and that first mov'd. Milton. 
 
 Were the satisfaction of lust, and the joys of hea- 
 ven, offered to any one's present possession, he would 
 not balance, or err, in the determination of his choice. 
 
 Locke. 
 
 Judging is balancing at account, and determining 
 on which side the odds lie. Id. 
 
 Care being taken, that the exportation exceed in 
 value the importation ; and then the balance of trade 
 uiiist of necessity be returned in coin or bullion. 
 
 Bacon's Advice to Villiers. 
 
 Heav'n that hath plac'd this island to give law, 
 To balance Europe, and her states to awe. Waller 
 
 A balance of power, either without or within a state, 
 is best conceived by considering what the nature of a 
 balance is. It supposes three things ; first, the part 
 which is held, together with the hand that holds it ; 
 and then the two scales, with whatever is weighed 
 therein. Swtft. 
 
 Give him leave 
 To balance the account of Blenheim's day. Prior. 
 
 Balance, the ancient or Roman, called 
 also the Statera Romana, or steel-yard, consists, 
 as is well known, of a lever or beam, move- 
 able on a centre, and suspended near one of its 
 extremities : tlie bodies to be weighed are applied 
 on one side of the centre; and their weight is 
 shown by the division marked on the beam, where 
 the weight, which is moveable along the lever, 
 keeps the steel-yard in equilibrio. This balance 
 is still often used in weighing heavy bodies. 
 
 Balance, Deceitful, or that which cheats 
 by the inequality of its brachia, is founded on the 
 same principle as the steel-yard. Let there be, 
 for example, a balance so constructed, that both 
 the brachia with their scales shall equiponderate, 
 but that the length of the one arm shall be to that 
 of the other as ten to nine. In this case a weight 
 of nine pounds put into the scale of the longest 
 arm, will counterpoise one of ten pounds put into 
 that of the shorter one : but the cheat is immedi- 
 ately discovered by shifting the weight from one 
 scale to the other : in which case, the balance will 
 no longer remain in equilibrio. The true weight 
 is a geometrical mean proportion between the two 
 false weights. 
 
 Balance, Assay, is a very nice balance used 
 in decimastical operations, to determine exactly 
 the weight of minute bodies; see plate Balance, 
 fig. 1. This sliould be made of the best steel, and 
 of the hardest kind; because that metal is not so 
 easily spoiled with rust as iron; and it is more 
 apt than any other to take a perfect polish, which 
 at the same time prevents llie rust. The structure 
 of the assayer's scale is little diflerent from tliat 
 of common scales, excepting in nicety and small- 
 ness. The longer the beam of it is, the more 
 
 exactly may the weight of a body be found ; how- 
 ever, ten or twelve inciies are a sufficient 
 length. Let the thickness of it be so little, tliat 
 two drams may hardly be hung at either of its 
 extremities without its bending; for the largest 
 weight put upon it seldom exceeds one dram. 
 The whole surface of this beam must be altogether 
 without ornaments, which only increase the 
 weight and gather dust, &c. We give in the 
 plate, one made by Fontin of Paris, so delicate, 
 that when charged with a weight of a thousand 
 grammes in each scale, it will turn with the 
 addition of one gramme. LL' is the beam of the 
 balance, made of the finest steel, and of sufficient 
 dimensions to prevent any sensible deflection in 
 it, with the greatest weights it is proposed to 
 charge it with ; the arms are of course of equal 
 length and figure, and the whole is balanced on 
 a knife-edge suspension at C, the plate G being 
 also of polished steel, and rendered as hard as 
 possible, to prevent the action of the knife-edge 
 upon it. In order to relieve the suspension of 
 the balance when the instrument is not in use, 
 the two crotches F F are brought up by the screws 
 shown in the figure, so as just to take off the 
 pressure from the point of support. When the 
 equilibrium is nicely supported, the needle, or 
 index, CS, corresponds very accurately with 
 zero on the graduated arc attached to the top or 
 bottom of the principal stem, and which former, 
 being fixed to the beam, will be displaced by, 
 and indicate any want of due equipoise. The 
 whole apparatus is, when used for nice experi- 
 ments, enclosed in a case or frame, with glass 
 faces, and which are only opened sufficiently to 
 introduce the weights and body to be weighed. 
 An instrument in its case, with the index 
 pointing downwards, to save room, is shown in 
 the figure. 
 
 The method of weighing a body is this : — 
 Place the body, which we may denote B, in one 
 of the scales of the balance ; as, for example, in 
 the scale A, to be put in equilibrio, by placing 
 in the other scale A', bodies of any weight, such 
 as grains of lead, small pieces of copper, or the 
 like; and lastly, small pieces of leaf copper, or 
 paper, till the needle, or index, ])oints exactly 
 to zero on the graduated arc; the beam is then in 
 equilibrio, and the weight in the two scales 
 equal, or very nearly so. Take out now the 
 body B, and replace it by different known 
 weights, till the equilibrium is again obtained ; 
 and these weights together, will express the pre- 
 cise weight of the body. This method, it is 
 obvious, is independent of the length of the arms, 
 and even of the quantity of friction on the axis, 
 because the body B, and its equal weights, are 
 placed precisely in like circumstances, which is 
 not the case in the common method of weigliing. 
 One thing, however, is here very essential, and 
 must be attended to ; viz. not to sliake or disturb 
 the apparatus in removing the body from the 
 scale, as this may change a little the point of 
 support, and alter the degree of friction. To 
 prevent this, the crotches F, F', are brought up 
 to the beam, witliout removing it from its sup- 
 port ; then before the body Bis removed, another 
 body, of aliout half its weight, is added. The 
 former body B is now taken out, and weights, as
 
 JBAJL^ViTrM. 
 
 Hjnjrostatif Balaut-e. 
 
 As 8 ay TJalanr e . 
 
 /, an'fon,M,i/ijiArr/ /,r r/i^n,„s T'lftf. 7;\r*r„p3iifr,. fii/y./^'/fKtt. 
 
 .l.ShnrySc.
 
 BALANCE. 
 
 405 
 
 nearly as can be judged equal to it, are put in 
 the scale ; the other body is then removed, the 
 crotches let down, and the balance left on its 
 point of support as at first; and successive small 
 weights added, till the equipoise is perfect. 
 
 Balance, the Bent Lever, is represented 
 in fig. 7. Here ABC is a bent lever supported 
 on its axis B in the pillar III. At A is sus- 
 pended the scale E, and at C is affixed a 
 weight or a heavy knob. Draw the horizontal 
 line K B G through B, the centre of motion, on 
 which from A and C let fall tlie perpendiculars 
 AK, CD; then if BK and BD are reciprocally 
 in proportion to the weights at A and C, they 
 will be in equilibrio; but if not, the weight C 
 will move one way or other along the arc FG, 
 till that ratio be obtained. If the lever be so 
 bent that when A coincides with the line GK, 
 C coincides with the vertical line BH, then as C 
 moves along from F to (j, its momentum will 
 increase; whilst that of a weight in the scale E 
 will decrease; hence, the weights in E corres- 
 ponding to different positions of the balance, 
 may be expressed on the graduated arc of the 
 plate F G, the whole being used in the manner 
 of the steel-yard. 
 
 Balance, the Chinese, is a steel-yard some- 
 what different in its form and application: it is 
 much used by the eastern merchants in weighing 
 gems and precious metals. The beam is a small 
 rod of wood or ivory, about a foot in length : 
 upon this are three lines of measure made of 
 fine silver studded work, beginning from the 
 end of the beam, whence the first is extended 
 eight inches, the second six and a half, and the 
 third eight and a half. The first is European 
 weight, the other two Chinese. At the other end 
 of the beam hangs a round scale ; and at three 
 several distances from this end are fastened so 
 many fine strings at different points of suspen- 
 sion. The first distance makes 13 or | of an inch; 
 the second 3J or double the former; and the 
 third, 4^, or triple the same. When the instru- 
 ment is used, it is held up by some one of the 
 strings, and a sealed weight, of about an ounce 
 and a quarter, troy, is hung upon some one of the 
 divisions of the rule, so as to produce an equi- 
 librium, the weight of the body being indicated 
 by the graduated scale above referred to. 
 
 Balance, the Danish, is a kind of balance 
 or steel-yard, in common use upon various parts 
 of the continent of Europe. It consists of a bat- 
 ten of hard wood, having a heavy lump or knob 
 at one end, and a swivel hook at the other. The 
 goods to be weighed are suspended on the hook, 
 and the whole is carried in a loop of whip-cord, 
 in which it is slidden to and fro (when placed 
 horizontally), till the goods suspended from the 
 hook at one end are balanced by the knob at the 
 other. The weight of the goods is estimated by 
 the contact of the loop with a scale of divisions 
 in harmonic progression. 
 
 Balance, 13rad\'s, or Weighing Apparatus. 
 One of the best modern inventions of the kmd is 
 represented in fig. 6. It unites the properties of 
 the bent lever balance and the steel-yard. ABC 
 is a frame of cast iron, having a great part of its 
 weight towards A, where it is thicker than in its 
 uther parts : F is a fixed fulcrum, and E a move- 
 
 able suspender, having a scale and hook at \U 
 lower extremity; K, E, G, are three distinct 
 places to which the suspender E II may be 
 applied; and to wliich belong respectively, the 
 three graduated scales of division, or weights, 
 fC, ccl, ab. When the scale and suspender 
 are applied at G, the apparatus is in equilibrio, 
 with tlie edge A B horizontal, and the suspender 
 cuts the zero on the scale ab ; now a weight 
 being applied, the wiiole apparatus turns about 
 F, and the part towards B descends, till theequi- 
 liljrium is again established ; when the weight of 
 the body is read off from the scale at, which 
 registers to ounces, and extends to two pounds. 
 If the weight of the body exceeds two pounds, 
 and be less than eleven pounds, the suspender is 
 placed at E, and when the upper edge of the 
 balance is horizontal, the weight or number 2, is 
 found a little to the right of the index of the sus- 
 pender; if now weights exceeding two pounds be 
 placed in the scale, the whole again turns about 
 Y, and the weight of the body is shown on the 
 graduated arc cd, which extends to eleven pounds, 
 and registers to every two ounces. 
 
 If the weight of the body exceeds eleven pounds, 
 the suspender is hung on at K, and the weights 
 are ascertained in the same manner on the scale 
 /'C to thirty pounds, the subdivisions being on 
 this scale quarters of pounds. The same princi- 
 ples would obviously apply to weights greater 
 or less than the above. To prevent mistake, the 
 three points of support, G, E, K, are numbered 
 1, 2, 3; and the corresponding arcs are respec- 
 tively numbered in the same manner. When the 
 hook is used instead of the scale, the latter is turned 
 upwards, there being a joint at m for that purpose. 
 Balance, Hydrostatic, an instrument con- 
 trived to determine accurately the specific gravity 
 of both solid and fluid bodies. It is constructed 
 in various forms. We shall describe that which 
 appears to be the most accurate. — V C G, fig. 2, 
 is the stand or pillar of this hydrostatic balance, 
 which is to be fixed in a table. F'rom the top A, 
 hangs, by two silk strings, the horizontal bar 
 B.B, from which is suspended by a ring i, tlie 
 fine beam of a balance b ; which is prevented 
 from descending too low on either side by the 
 gently springing piece t x y z, fixed on the sup- 
 port AI. The harness is annulated at o, to show 
 distinctly the perpendicular position of the exa- 
 men, by the small pointed index fixed above it. 
 The strings by which the balance is suspended, 
 passing over two pullies, one on each side the 
 piece at A, go down to the bottom on the other 
 side, and are hung over the hook at v ; whicli 
 hook, by means of a screw P, is moveable about 
 one inch and a quarter backward and forward, 
 and therefore the balance may be raised or de- 
 pressed so much. But if a greater elevation or 
 depression be required, the sliding piece S, which 
 carries the screw P, is readily moved to any part 
 of the square brass rod V K, and fixed by means 
 of a screw. The motion of the balance being 
 thus adjusted, the rest of the apparatus is as fol- 
 lows: — H H is a small board, fixed upon the 
 piece D, under the scales d and c, and is move- 
 able up and down in a low slit in the pillar 
 above C, and fastened at any part by a screw 
 behind. From the point in the middle of the
 
 406 
 
 BALANCE. 
 
 bottom of each scale hangs, by a fine hook, a 
 brass wire a d and a e. These pass through two 
 holes m m in fhe table. To the wire a rf is sus- 
 pended a curious cylindric wire, r s, perforated 
 at each end for that purpose : this wire r s is 
 covered with paper, graduated by equal divisions, 
 and is above five inches long. In the corner of 
 the board at E, is fixed a brass tube, on which 
 a round wire A / is so adapted as to move neither 
 too tight nor too free, by its flat head I. Upon 
 the lower part of this moves another tube Q, 
 which has sufficient frictiori to make it remain in 
 any position required : to this is fixed an index 
 T, moving horizontally when the wire A / is 
 turned about, and therefore may be easily set to 
 the graduated wire r s. To the lower end of the 
 wire r s hangs a weight L ; and to that a wire p n, 
 with a small brass ball g, about one-fourth of 
 an inch in dian eter. On the other side, to the 
 wire a c, hangs a large glass bubble R, by a 
 horse-hair. Let us first suppose the weight L 
 taken away, and the wire p n suspended from 
 S : and, on the other side, let the bubble R be 
 taken away, and the wire F suspended at c, in 
 its room. This weight F we suppose to be suf- 
 ficient to keep the several parts hanging to the 
 other scale in equilibrium ; at the same time that 
 the middle point of the wire /} n is at the surface 
 of the water in the vessel O. The wire /j n is to 
 be of such a size, that the length of one inch 
 shall weigh four grains. Now it is evident, since 
 brass is eight times heavier tlian water, that for 
 every inch tlie wire sinks in the water, it will 
 become half a grain lighter, and half a grain 
 heavier for every inch it rises out of the water: 
 consequently, by sinking two inches below the 
 middle point, or rising two inches above it, the 
 wire will become one grain lighter or heavier. 
 Therefore, if, when the middle point is at the 
 surface of the water in equilibrium, the index T 
 be set to the middle point a of the graduated 
 wire r s, and the distance on each side a r and a s 
 contains 100 equal parts; then, if in weighing 
 bodies the weight is required to the 100th part 
 of a grain, it may be easily had by proceeding in 
 the following manner : Let the body to be 
 weighed be placed in the scale d. Put a weight 
 in the scale e, and let this be so determined that 
 one grain more shall be too mucli, and one grain 
 less too little. Then the balance being moved 
 gently up or down, by the screw P, the equili- 
 brium will be nicely shown at a ; if the index T 
 be at the middle point a of the wire r s, it shows 
 that the weights put into the scale e are just equal 
 to the weight of the body. By this method we 
 find the absolute weight of the body : the rela- 
 tive weight is found by weighing it hydrostati- 
 cally in water, as follows : Instead of putting the 
 body into the scale e, as before, let it bans? with 
 the weight F, at the hook c, by a horse hair, as 
 at R, supposing the vessel of water were 
 away. The equilibrium being then made, the 
 index T standing between a and r, at the thirty- 
 sixth division, shows the weight of the body put 
 in to be 109,536 grains. As it thus hangs, let it 
 be immersed in the water of the vessel (.), and it 
 will become much lighter ; the scale c will de- 
 scend till the beam of the balance rests on the 
 support i. Then suppose 100 grains put into 
 
 the scale d restore the equilibrium precisely, so 
 that the index T stands at the thirty-sixth division 
 above a ; it is evident that the weight of an equal 
 bulk of water would, in this case, be exactly 100 
 grains. In a similar manner this balance may 
 be applied to find the specific gravity of liquids, 
 as is easy to conceive. 
 
 Llkin's Hydrostatic Balance, an Ame- 
 rican invention, has the recommendation of 
 simplicity, and is said in the Report of the 
 Committee of the Academy of Sciences at Phi- 
 ladelphia, to be a very accurate instrument. It 
 acts on the principle of the steel-yard ; the 
 arms being at equipoise, when unloaded ; see fig. 
 III. C is the body whose specific gravity is to 
 be weighed, and it is suspended to the short 
 arm of the instrument. On the longer arm A, 
 the movable weight D indicates its weight in 
 air or water. When greater accuracy is required, 
 a second weight may be added on the long arm, 
 which ought to be some determinate portion of 
 D. Then, the division marked by the larger 
 weight, will be units, and that of the smaller 
 tenths, or lOOths as it maybe contrived. 
 
 CoATEs's Hydrostatic Balance is also an 
 instrument of American invention, upon the same 
 principles, but differing in the mode of gradu- 
 ation : this being adapted to the purposes cf find- 
 ing the specific gravity of minerals ; and therefore, 
 instead of pointing out the actual and relative 
 weights, it shows at once their specific gravity. 
 The instrument is accurately balanced when un- 
 loaded, by making the shorter arm much larger 
 than the longer one; and the latter is^graduated 
 and marked with numbers, which everywhere 
 show the quotient of the entire length of the 
 longer arm, divided by the distance of the mark 
 from the end : thus, at half the length, is marked 
 the number 2 ; at one-third the number 3, and 
 so on ; which numbers extend on the scale to 
 rather more than twenty, in order to extend the 
 use of the instrument to heavy minerals. 
 
 In usmg it, a weight is suspended by a hook 
 at A, and the body under examination is to be 
 hung by a horse-hair on the shorter arm, and slid 
 along:, as on the steel-yard, till an equipoise is ob- 
 tained, say at D. Then, without altering its 
 situation on the beam, the body is to be immersed 
 in water, and balanced a second time, by sliding 
 the weight C along the graduated arm, till the 
 instrument is found again in equilibrio. The 
 hook of this latter will then at once indicate, by 
 its situation on the scale, the actual specific gra- 
 vity of the body, water being considered as unity. 
 The instrument being supposed in equilibrio, 
 and B D and the weight of the counterpoise 
 being constant, the weight of the body varies as 
 the distance of the counterpoise from B, by the 
 common principle of the lever. 
 
 The Balance of Torsion, fig. V. was in- 
 vented by M. Coulomb, to estimate minute 
 attracting and repelling forces in electricity, mag- 
 netism, Sec. It consists of a vertical metallic 
 thread, the upper end of which is attached to a 
 point A, its lower end carrying a small weight w, 
 and a little above it a light horizontal needle, 
 n, n. To ascertain very small forces they are 
 made to act on the extremity of this needle, and 
 their intensity is appreciated by the angle of de-
 
 BALANCE. 
 
 407 
 
 viation which they cause in it, so that the forces 
 are balanced by the torsion of tlie wire, and hence 
 the denomination. The needle is enclosed in a 
 glass cylinder, to protect it from the action of the 
 air, and the thread is enclosed in a smaller cylin- 
 der fixed into the brass cover thereof. On the 
 upper part of the small cylinder is placed a di- 
 
 knife, and the other two dishes, or scales, at its 
 extremities, are hung upon edges of the same kind, 
 which are lirst made sharp, and then rounded 
 with a fine bone, or a piece of buff leather. (Jr 
 the regular formation of this part, the excellence 
 of the instrument essentially depends. When the 
 lever, or beam of the balance, is considered as a 
 
 vided dial-plate, which, with very little friction, mere line, the two outer edges are called points 
 
 turns about the cylinder. The lever which carries of suspension, and the inner the fulcrum. The 
 
 the thread that suspends the horizontal needle, points of suspension are supposed to be at equal 
 
 traverses this dial, and serves as an indicator, distances from the fulcrum, and to be pressed 
 
 wlien it is requisite to have the torsion equal to with equal weights when loaded, 
 
 a certain number of degrees. A circular division And now, observe, 1. If the fulcrum be placed 
 
 applied horizontally about the glass cylinder, in the centre of gravity of the beam, and the 
 
 opposite to the needle, measures the deviations three edges be all in the same right line, the beam 
 
 of the latter when under excitation. Mr. Caven- of the balance will have no tendency to one po- 
 
 dish determined the mean density of the earth sition more than another, but will" rest in any 
 
 by estimating with this instrument the action of 
 two leaden bails of known dimensions and spe- 
 cific gravity ; and comparing the effect with that 
 of terrestrial gravity. S>eeP/iil. IVa?j.s. anno. 1798. 
 T/ie Balance, Common, or Modef.x, gene- 
 rally used, consists of a lever or beam suspended 
 exactly in the middle, having scales or basins 
 
 position in which it may be placed, whether the 
 scales be on or off, empty or loaded. 2. If the 
 centre of gravity of the beam, when level, be 
 immediately above the fulcrum, it will overset 
 by the smallest action ; that is, the end which is 
 lowest will descend ; and it will do this with the 
 greater velocity, in proportion as the centre of 
 
 hung to each extremity. The lever is called the gravity is higher, and tlie points of suspension 
 
 jugum or beam ; and the two moieties thereof, are less loaded. 3. But if the centre of gravity 
 
 on each side the axis, the brachia or arms. The of the beam be immediately below the fulcrum", 
 
 line on which the beam turns, or which divides the beam will not rest in any position but when 
 
 its brachia, is called the axis ; and, when consi- level ; and, if disturbed from that position, and 
 
 dered with regard to tlie length of the brachia, is then left at liberty, it will vibrate, and at last 
 
 esteemed a point only, and called the centre of come to rest in an horizontal position. Its vi- 
 
 the balance: the handle whereby it is held, or by brations will be quicker, and its horizontal ten- 
 
 which the whole apparatus is suspended, is called dency stronger, Uie lower the centre of gravity. 
 
 trutina; and the 
 slender part per- 
 pendicular to the 
 beam, whereby 
 either the equili- 
 brium or prepon- 
 derancy of bodies 
 is indicated, is 
 called the tongue 
 of the balance. — 
 Thus, in the dia- 
 gram annexed, ab is the beam, divided into 
 two equal brachia, or arms, by the white spot 
 
 and the less the weight upon the points of sus- 
 pension. 4. If the fulcrum be below the line 
 joining the points of suspension, and these be 
 loaded, the beam will overset, unless prevented 
 by the weight of the beam tending to produce 
 an horizontal position, as in the third case. In 
 this case small weights will equilibrate, as in 
 the former ; a certain exact weight will rest in 
 any position of the beam, as in the first case ; and 
 all greater weights will cause the beam to over- 
 set, as in the second. Money scales are often 
 made this way, and will overset with any con- 
 siderable load. 5. If the fulcrum be above 
 
 jn the centre, which is the axis or centre of theline joining the points of suspension, the beam 
 •'the balance, and c is the tongue. The tru- will come to the horizontal position, unless pre- 
 
 tina, on which the axis is suspended, is not re- 
 presented in this figure, in order to render the 
 other parts more conspicuous. It follows from 
 what has been obser\'ed, that in the Roman ba- 
 
 vented by its own weight, as in the second case. 
 If the centre of gravity be nearly in the fidcrum, 
 all the vibrations of the loaded beam will be 
 made in times nearly equal, unless the weights 
 
 iance. or steel-yard, the weight used for a coun- be very small, when they will be slower. The 
 
 terpoise is the same, but the point of application vibrations of balances are quicker, and the 
 
 varies ; in the common balance tlie counterpoise horizontal tendency stronger, the higher the ful- 
 
 is various, and the point of application the same. crum. Finally, in the proper construction of the 
 
 The principle on which each is founded, may be common balance, observe, that the points of sus- 
 
 very easily understood from the general proper- pension must be exactly in the same line as the 
 
 ties of the lever. See Lever. The team is a centre of the balance ; that they must be pre- 
 
 iever of the first kind; but instead of resting on cisely equidistant from that centre orn either side; 
 
 a fulcrum, is suspended by something fastened and that the brachia must be as long as conve- 
 
 to its centre of motion : consequently the me- niently they may, in relation to their thickness. 
 
 chanism of the balance depends on the same theo 
 rems as the lever. Hence as the quantity of 
 matter in known weight is to its distance from 
 the centre of motion, so is the distance of the un- 
 known weight to its quantity of matter. The 
 common balance is properly a lever, whose axis 
 of motion is formed with an edge like that of a 
 
 and the weight which they are intended to sup- 
 port; that there must be as little friction as pos- 
 sible in the motion of the beam and scales ; and, 
 lastly, that the centre of gravity of the beam must 
 be placed a little below the centre of motion. 
 
 The equality of the arras of a balance is of use, 
 in scientific pursuits, says Dr. Ure, chiefly in
 
 408 
 
 B A L A N C E. 
 
 making weights by bisection. A balance with 
 unequal arms will weigh as accurately as another 
 of the same workmanship with equal arms, pro- 
 vided the standard weight itself be first counter- 
 poised, then taken out of the scale, and the thing 
 to be weighed be put into the scale and adjusted 
 against the counterpoise ; or when proportional 
 quantities only are considered, as in chemical 
 and in other philosophical experiments, the bo- 
 dies and products under examination may be 
 weighed against the weights, taking care always 
 to put the weights into the same scale. For then, 
 though the bodies may not be really equal to the 
 weig^its, yet their proportions among each other 
 may be the same as if they had been accurately 
 so. But though the equality of the arras may be 
 well dispensed with, yet it is indispensably ne- 
 cessary that their relative lengths, whatever they 
 may be, should continue invariable. For this 
 purpose, it is necessary, either that the three 
 edges be all truly parallel, or that the points of 
 suspension and support should be always in the 
 same part of the edge. This last requisite is tlie 
 most easily obtained. The balances made in 
 London are usually constructed in such a man- 
 ner, that the bearing parts form notches in the 
 other parts of the edges ; so that the scales being 
 set to vibrate, all the parts naturally fall into the 
 same bearing. The balances made in the coun- 
 try have the fulcrum end straight, and confined 
 to one constant bearing by two side plates. But 
 the points of suspension are referred to notches 
 in the edges, like the London balances. 
 
 \'ery delicate balances (continues this able 
 writer) are not only useful in nice experiments, 
 but are likewise much more expeditious than 
 others in common weighing. If a pair of scales 
 with a certain load be barely sensible to one-tenth 
 of a grain, it will require a considerable time to 
 ascertain the weight to that degree of accuracy, 
 because the turn must be observed several times 
 over, and is very small. But if no greater accu- 
 racy were required, and scales were used which 
 would turn with the hundredth of a grain, a tenth 
 of a grain, more or less, would make so great a 
 dift'erence in the turn, that it would be seen im- 
 mediately. 
 
 If a balance be found to turn with a certain 
 addition, and is not moved by any smaller weight, 
 a greater sensibility may be given to tliat balance, 
 by producing a tremulous motion in its parts. 
 Thus, if the edge of a blunt saw, a file, or other 
 similar instrument, be drawn along any part of 
 the case or support of a balance, it will produce 
 a jarring, which will diminish the friction on the 
 moving parts so much, that the turn will be evi- 
 dent with one-third or one-fourth of the addition 
 that would else have been required. In this way, 
 a beam which would barely turn by the addition 
 of one-tenth of a grain, will turn witli one-thirtieth 
 or fortieth of a grain. 
 
 Muschenbroek, in his Cours de Physique, 
 (French translation, Paris, 1769) tom. ii. p. 247, 
 says, he used an ocular balance of great accuracy, 
 which turned (trebuchoit) with l-40th of a grain. 
 The substances he weighed were between 200 
 and 300 grains. His balance, therefore, weighe-d 
 
 to the-j^^ part of the whole ; and would 
 
 ascertain such weights truly to four places of 
 figures. 
 
 In the Philosophical Transactions, vol. Ixvi. 
 p. 509, mention is made of two accurate balances 
 of Mr. Bolton ; and it is said that one would 
 weigh a pound, and turn with one-tenth of a 
 grain. This, if the pound be avoirdupois, is 
 
 of the weight; and shows that the ba- 
 
 70000 ° ' 
 
 lance could be well depended on to four places 
 
 of figures, and probably to five. The other 
 
 weighed half an ounce, and turned with — — of 
 
 a gi-ain. This is - - of the weight. 
 
 24000 
 
 In the same volume, p. .511, a balance of JNIr. 
 Read's is mentioned, which readily turned with 
 less than one pennyweight when, loaded with 
 fifty-five pounds, before the Royal Society; but 
 very distinctly turned with four grains, when 
 
 tried more patiently. This is about 
 
 part of the weight; and therefore this balance 
 may be depended on to five places of figures. 
 
 Also, page 576, a balance of Mr. Whitehurst's 
 weighs one pennyweight, and is sensibly affected 
 
 ^'^'^ "2^°^^ grain. This is-^ part of 
 
 the weight. 
 
 A balance belonging to ]\Ir. Alchorne of the 
 iVIint in London, is mentioned, vol. Ixxvii. p. 
 205 of the Philosophical Transactions. It is 
 true to three grains with 15lb. an end. If these 
 were avoirdupois pounds, the weight is known to 
 
 ~ — -- part, or to four places of figures, or 
 
 barely five. 
 
 A balance (made by Ramsden, and turning 
 on points instead of edges,) in the possession of 
 Dr. George Fordyce, is mentioned in the seventy- 
 fifth volume of the Philosophical Transactions. 
 \\ ith a load of four or five ounces, a difference 
 
 of one division in the index was made by 
 
 ^ 1600 
 
 part of the weight. 
 
 of a grain. This is 
 
 ^ 384000 
 
 and consequently this beam will ascertain such 
 weights to five places of figures, beside an esti- 
 mate figure. 
 
 The Royal Society's balance, which was lately 
 made by Ramsden, turns on steel edges, upon 
 planes of polished crystal. ' I was assured,' says 
 Dr. Ure, 'that it ascertained a weight to the 
 seven-millionth part. I was not present at this 
 trial, which must have required great care and 
 patience, as the point of suspension could not 
 have moved over much more than the 2-1 00th of 
 an inch in the first half minute ; but, from some 
 trials which I saw, I think it probable that it 
 may be used in general practice to determine 
 weights to five places and better. 
 
 Balance, in ichthyolog)', or the balance fish. 
 See Squalus. 
 
 Balance, in the woollen manufacture, is a 
 machine invented by the Rev. \V. Ludlam. The 
 thread is made into skeins of the same length ; 
 and the fineness of it is denominated from the
 
 BALANCE. 
 
 409 
 
 number of skeins which go to a pound ; the 
 coarsest being about twelve to the pound, and 
 the finest nearly sixty. This machine is designed 
 for weighing skeins, in order to determine their 
 respective fineness. It resembles the beam of a 
 common pair of scales ; at one end of it is fixed 
 a weight, called the counterpoise, and at the other 
 end a hook ; in sorting, the skein to be examined 
 is put upon the hook, and sinks down more or 
 less, according to its weight, till the counterpoise, 
 by risinij, balances it : and then the index or 
 cock of the beam, points out on a gradual arch, 
 the number of skeins of that sort which go to 
 the pound. 
 
 The Balance of a Clock, or Watch, is that 
 part which regulates the beats. The circular part 
 of the balance is called the rim, and its spindle 
 the verge ; there belong to it also two pallets or 
 nuts, that play in the fangs of the crown-wheel : 
 in pocket watches, that strong stud in which the 
 lower pivot of the verge plays, and in the middle 
 of which one pivot of the crown-wheel runs, is 
 called the potence : the wrought piece which 
 covers the balance, and in which the upper pivot 
 of the balance plays, is the cock; and the small 
 spring in the new pocket watches is called the 
 regulator. The motion of a balance, as well as 
 that of a pendulum, being alternate, while the 
 pressure of the wheels is constantly in one di- 
 rection, it is obvious that some art must be used 
 to accommodate the one to the other. When the 
 tooth of the wheel has given the balance a motion 
 in one direction, it must quit it, that it may <iet 
 an impulsion in the opposite direction. The ba- 
 lance or pendulum thus escaping from the tooth 
 of the wheel, or the tooth escaping from the ba- 
 lance, has given to the general construction 
 the name of scapement. 
 
 Before the invention of the pendulum, clocks 
 were regulated by an horizontal balance, having 
 a vertical axis, that passed through two holes, 
 with liberty to play up and down ; and that sus- 
 pended by means of a string passed through a 
 hole m the axis and fastened at both ends, so as 
 to form equal angles with the axis itself. Con- 
 sequently, when the balance revolved in one di- 
 rection, the string was wound upon the verge, 
 and bemg thus shortened, raised it up until the 
 weight of the balance had overcome the force of 
 rotation : after which it revolved the contrary 
 way, and descended to perform a similar ascent 
 by winding the string the opposite way. 
 
 A supposed Balance of Power, in the poli- 
 tical system, originates from, and is maintained 
 by, the alliances of difi'erent nations, as their cir- 
 cumstances and interest may require. The pre- 
 servation of the balance of power has generally 
 implied the maintaining of such a degree of equa- 
 lity among the powers of Europe, in general, as 
 may prevent any enormous accumulation of 
 power, or any attempt at universal monarchy, 
 on the part of any one of them. To preserve this 
 balance, much blood has been shed, and money 
 spent, since the revolution of 1688; but the re- 
 volution of France, and the wars arising out of 
 it, have hopelessly deranged all former theorems 
 and calculations upon this subject. Robertson 
 and other historians have said, that the principle 
 of the balance of power was a discovery of the 
 
 fifteenth century, made by the Italian politicians 
 on the invasion of Charles VIII. Against such 
 statements we might adduce the arguments of 
 Hume and others, who have traced in ancient 
 times vastly more refined notions of policy than 
 any that dictated the Italian defensive league. 
 It was not, in truth, to any such single event that 
 the balancing system owed either its origin, or 
 its refinement ; but to the progress of society, 
 which placed the whole states of Europe in the 
 same relative situation in which die states of 
 Italy were at that period ; and taught them not 
 to wait for an actual invasion, but to see a 
 Charles at all times in every prince or common- 
 wealth that should manifest the least desire of 
 change. See Edinburgh Review, vol. I. p. 354. 
 
 Balance of Trade. That which is com- 
 monly meant by the balance of trade, is the re- 
 lative quantity of foreign commodities compared 
 with the exportation of home productions or 
 manufactures. And it has been reckoned that 
 the nation which exports most of its own com- 
 modities, has the advantage of the balance of 
 trade. The reason is, that, if its own commodi- 
 ties be of a greater value than are imported, the 
 balance of that account must be made up in bul- 
 lion or money; and the nation gi-ows so much 
 richer, as the balance of that account amounts to. 
 But this reasoning admits of many qualifications. 
 See Commerce and Economy, Political. 
 
 BALANCERS, otPoizers, in entomology, (in 
 French, balanciers, and the halteres of Linnaeus), 
 denoting those little filamentous bodies which 
 terminate in a round, truncated, or oval capitu- 
 lum, or knob ; and of which one is placed on 
 each side of all the dipterous or two-winged in- 
 sects, under a small scale below the wing. In 
 different genera these vary a little in respect of 
 situation, and are also of larger or smaller size, 
 in proportion to the other parts of the insect, in 
 different kinds. 
 
 BALANCIER, a machine used in the striking 
 of coins, medals, counters, and the like. See 
 Coinage. 
 
 BALANCING, among seamen, the contract- 
 ing a sail into a narrower compass, in a storm, by 
 retrenching or folding up a part of it at one cor- 
 ner : this method is used in contradistinction to 
 reefing, which is common to all the principal 
 sails ; whereas balancing is peculiar to few, such 
 as the mizen of a ship, and the main-sail of those 
 vessels wherein it is extended by a boom. See 
 Boom and Reef. The balance of the mizen is 
 tlius performed : the mizen yard is lowered a 
 little, then a small portion of sail is rolled up at 
 the peek or upper corner, and fastened to the 
 yard about one-fifth inward from the outer end or 
 yard-arm, toward the mast. See 3Iizen. A boom 
 main-sail is balanced, after all its reefs are taken 
 in, by rolling up a similar portion of the hind- 
 most or aftmost lower corner, called the clue, and 
 fastening it strongly to the boom, having previ- 
 ously wrapped a piece of old canvass round the 
 part (which is done in both cases) to prevent the 
 sail from being fretted by the cord which fastens it. 
 
 BALANITES, in natural history, a name given 
 by the ancients to a stone, seeming to have been 
 of the semipellucid gems. Tiiey describe two 
 species of it; the one yellow, and the otlier
 
 410 
 
 B A L B E C. 
 
 trreen, but each having veins of a flame color. 
 Their descriptions are too short for us to ascertain 
 what stone, among those known at this time, 
 they meant. Some suppose it to have been the 
 lapis judaicus, on account of its acorn-like figure 
 and size. 
 
 BALANOIDES, in conchology, a species of 
 lepas, with a conic truncated smooth shell, and 
 obtuse operculum. Linn. Fn. Suec. Donov. 
 &C. Tins is balanus parvus \'ulgaris of Petivcr ; 
 and a variety of it with a long tubular stalk is 
 described by Da Costa, Pennant, and Donov. 
 Brit. Shells, Dr. Leach includes the whole of this 
 species, with additional ones, in his class corrhi- 
 pedes. 
 
 BALANT.'S, paXavog, in anatomy, is used for 
 the glans penis, and sometimes for the clitoris. 
 
 B.iL.iNus Myrepsica, in the materia medica, 
 the oily acorn. The whole nut is of a purging 
 quality ; and the dry pressing or powder, after 
 the oil is taken out is of a cleansing and dryino; 
 nature. 
 
 BALAO, a river of the province of Guayaquil, 
 in the kingdom of Quito, which runs into the 
 sea, in the ^ulf of that name. 
 
 BALASFALVA, or Blasenburg, a town of 
 Transylvania, in the county of Kockelburg, at 
 the conflux of the Great and Little Kockel, hav- 
 ing a castle, and being the residence of a bishop 
 of the united Greek church of Wallachians. 
 
 BALASORE, a sea-port of Asia, on the north- 
 west of the bay of Bengal, four miles from the 
 sea by land, but twenty by the windings of its 
 river, the Booree Bellaun, which produces plenty 
 offish. It is navigable for vessels of 100 tons. 
 Here the pilot of Calcutta waits the arrival of 
 vessels : and the English, Dutch, and Portuguese 
 all had factories here in the seventeenth century ; 
 it was ceded to the Mahrattas in 1751, but in 
 ' 803 given up by the Nagpore Rajah to the 
 English. Balasore is in the province of Orissa, 
 110 miles south-west from Calcutta. 
 
 BALATITI, in natural history, a name given 
 by the people of the Philippine islands to a spe- 
 cies of birds, by the flight of w^hich they divine 
 the event of things. 
 
 BALATDN, a lake of Hungary, between the 
 counties of Szalad, Wesprim, and Schumeg, five 
 miles south of Stuhl-Weissenburg. It is nearly 
 40 miles long, and from one to four broad, formed 
 ori-ginally by the river Szala, and augmented by 
 a number of other streams. The water, it is said, 
 may be preserved for nearly two years without 
 putrefaction. It contains some fish as well as 
 birds of rare occurrence, wliich are bought up 
 for exportation. The Austrian government have 
 lately projected an union between this lake and 
 the Danube, by a canal, but the works proceed 
 slowly. 
 
 BAI-ATOV, or Balaschev, the capital of 
 a circle in the government of Saratov, in Eu- 
 ropean Russia. To the north are extensive fo- 
 rests, and to the south almost interminable heaths, 
 or steppes. It is situated on the Kiioper, which 
 fails into the Don. Ninety miles west of Saratov, 
 and 634 south-east of St. Petersburgh. 
 
 BAi.AUSTIA, orBALAiSTiNEs; from j3a\ii>v- 
 <?«ov, in pharmacy, the flowers of the wild pome- 
 granate, which are very rough to the tongue and 
 
 palate, and very astringent ; on that account they 
 are frequently used in diarrhoeas, hernias, &c. 
 
 Balaustines in botany. SeePuxccA. 
 
 BALAYAN, a province of Manilla, next to the 
 city of Manilla, and extending along the coast on 
 the east side of the island, a little beyond the 
 bay of Batangas. There were formerly gold 
 mines in it, but they have been long since aban- 
 doned. 
 
 BALBASTRO, a town of Arragon, in Spain, 
 near the junction of the Vero and Cinca, having 
 a population of 5000, and a dependent jurisdic- 
 tion of 170 parishes. Tanning is the chief pur- 
 suit here. Thirty miles E. N.E. of Saragossa, and 
 47 north-west of Barcelona. 
 
 BALBEC, or Baalbeck, a city of Asia, in 
 Syria, anciently Heliopolis, and called by the 
 Arabians, The Wonder of Syria. It is situated 
 at the foot of Anti-Libanus, on the ground 
 where the mountain terminates in the plain, 
 thirty-seven miles north of Damascus. In tra- 
 velling to it from the south, it is seen only at the 
 distance of a league and a half, behind a hedge 
 of walnut-trees, over the verdant tops of which 
 appears a white edging of domes and minarets. 
 It has a ruined wall, flanked with square towers, 
 which ascends the declivity to tlie right. This 
 low wall permits a view oT those void spaces 
 and heaps of ruins which are the invariable ap- 
 pendages of every Turkish city ; but what prin- 
 cipally attracts attention is a large edifice on the 
 left, whose lofty w alls and rich columns designate 
 it as having been amongst the most splendid of 
 ancient temples. The apparent length of this 
 edifice was about 900 feet, and its width 450. 
 The entrance to the pronaos, or portico, was by 
 a row of twelve columns, flanked by wings or- 
 namented with pilasters. It was approached by 
 a magnificent flight of steps, of which there are 
 but few remains. The interior of the portico is 
 choked up with heaps of ruins, but these, when 
 surmounted, lead to an hexagonal court of 180 
 feet diameter, strewed w-ith broken shafts of co- 
 lumns, mutilated capitals, wrecks of pilasters, 
 bases, and other architectural and sculptural 
 fragments. The buildings in this and the ad- 
 joining court appear to have been appropriated 
 for academies and lodgings for the priests. 
 Through an opening at the end of this court is a 
 vast perspective of ruins, which are best viewed 
 from the top of a slope that was formerly a stair- 
 case, which communicates with a rectangular 
 court, 350 feet long and 346 wide. At the end 
 of the court are six enormous columns; and to 
 the left is another row of columns which formea 
 the peristyle to the body of the temple. The 
 buildings to the right and left form a sort of gal- 
 lery, which is divided into seven parts, to each 
 of the great wings or lateral buildings. At the 
 extremity of this court is the cell or body of the 
 temple itself, where are the before-mentioned six 
 colossal columns. Their shafts measure twenty- 
 two feet in circumference, and fifly-eiglit in 
 height ; and the whole height of the order (the 
 Corinthian) nearly seventy-two feet. On ex- 
 amining the circumjacent site, a row of bases 
 was discovered, arranged in a parallelogram- 
 matic form of 270 feet in length, and 150 in 
 width. This belt of columns encompassed the
 
 B A L B E C, 
 
 411 
 
 cell or body of the temple, which was decastyle 
 (ten columned) in front, with nineteen columns 
 in flank, and of the fourth or peripteral order of 
 temples; but its intercolumniations do not ac- 
 cord with any of the five species described in 
 the system of \ itruvius. These buildings are all 
 of the Corinthian order, with the exception of 
 some pilastral elevations, which are of the Com- 
 posite. A second temple is situated near the 
 southmost part of the city, upon an irregular 
 site. It is pseudodipteral, and does not appear 
 to have been surrounded by a peristyle and court 
 like the former. It is, however, in a better stale of 
 preservation, having very lately eight columns in 
 front, and thirteen in flank, of the Corinthian 
 order. Their shafts are about sixteen feet in cir- 
 cumference, and forty-four in height. 
 
 Balbec also possesses, in the southern part 
 of the city, a circular temple, differing in every re- 
 spect from the precepts of Vitruvius : its lower 
 story is used for a Creek church. Its plan is 
 extremely whimsical, and all its details present a 
 mass of architectural anomalies. 
 
 Few architectural remains of the ancient 
 world are more rich in decoration than those of 
 Balbec. The soffites and ceilings of the pe- 
 ristyle are panelled in lozenge forms, with repre- 
 sentations of Jupiter and his eagle, Leda and 
 the swan, Diana with her bow and crescent, and 
 various busts in the costume of emperors and 
 empresses. All the members of the interior en- 
 tablatures are loaded with a profusion of orna- 
 ments. The archivolts, the heads of the niches, 
 the frieze of the principal order, are covered 
 with the most sumptuous embellishments of 
 sculpture. The interior columns are all tinted, 
 and those of the exterior plain. Dr. Pococke 
 conceives that nothing can be finer than the en- 
 trance to the great temple. Almost all the mem- 
 bers are enriched with sculptural representations 
 of flowers and fruit, and the frieze with ears of 
 corn, of admirable execution. According to 
 A'olney, the walls of the smaller temple suffered 
 much from the earthquake of 1759; which is 
 confirmed by our countryman, who, in 1784, 
 found but six columns of the great temple stand- 
 ing out of the nine, which were erect in 1751; 
 and twenty only out of twenty-nine belonging to 
 the smaller temple. The rapacity of the Turks 
 has also contributed to their destruction, from 
 their desire of possessing the iron pins and 
 cramps with which the huge blocks of masonry 
 are joined. 
 
 The massiveness, indeed, of the stones and 
 blocks of marble is not the least remarkable fea- 
 ture of these ruins. ISo modern mechanical 
 contrivance, it is said, could convey such masses 
 from any distance into their present positions. 
 Stones, from twenty-eight to thirty-five feet long, 
 and nine in depth, form the second layer of the 
 great temple. One is even fifty-nine feet long 
 and twelve deep. 
 
 The period of the erection of these edifices 
 seems to be a question lost in entire obscurity. 
 The age of Aurelian, from the similarity of their 
 style with that of the Palmyra edifices, would 
 seem to be the most probable. Here is the same 
 compound of Crecian forms with Asiatic adorn- 
 ment and luxuriant display, the same fantas- 
 
 tical ornaments, united with occasional grandeur 
 of design and boldness of execution. 
 
 The town now inhabited is small and mean, 
 but about four miles in circuit. The population 
 has been for a long period gradually decreasing : 
 the town was computed, in 1751, to contain 5000, 
 and in 1784, to contain only 1200 poor and in- 
 dolent inhabitants, cultivating a little cotton, 
 maize, and water-melons, for their subsistence. 
 History has preserved but few traces of this 
 place. About, 140 years before the time of An- 
 toninus Pius, it was garrisoned by Roman troops. 
 Some writers state that he erected the principal 
 part of the present edifice on the site of one more 
 ancient. Under Constantine it was neglected, and 
 the great temple soon after converted into a church: 
 thus it was appropriated until the irruption of the 
 Arabs, when it fell rapidly into decay. After a 
 vigorous defence, the town was taken by that 
 nation, under Abu Obeidah, a commander of the 
 caliph Omar. In 1401 it was taken by Tamer- 
 lane. All earthquake, in 1759, nearly com- 
 pleted its destruction. Distant forty miles 
 N.N.W. of Damascus, and 110 S. of Aleppo. 
 
 BALBINUS, Decimus Ccelius, emperor of 
 Rome, was elected by the senate, A. D. 237, but 
 massacred, along with his colleague, Maximus, 
 soldiers. 
 
 BALBO (Vasco Nunes de), a Castilian; a 
 celebrated navigator, and one of the first disco- 
 verers of South America. He was beheaded by 
 the Spanish govenor of St Mary, through jealousy 
 of his growing reputation, in 1517, aged forty- 
 two. 
 
 BALBU'CINATE, v. n. From Lat. balhutio, 
 to stammer in speaking. Diet. 
 
 BALBUL, in ornithology, a species of Anas, 
 or duck having a black beak, and spot on the wing, 
 above obliquely green, beneath obliquely black. 
 Forsk. Fn. Arab. 
 
 BALBUS (Lucius Cornelius Theophanes), 
 was born at Cadiz, and distinguished himself by 
 his valor in the war carried on by the Romans in 
 Spain against Sertorius and the Lusitanians, on 
 which account Pompey gave him the privileges 
 of a Roman citizen. He was consul in the 714th 
 year of Rome, and was the first foreigner on 
 whom that dignity was conferred. He was the 
 friend of Pompey, Caesar, Crassus, and Cicero. 
 
 BALBUSARDUS, in ornitholog}-, the name 
 used by authors, for the bird called in English 
 the bald buzzard. It is of the long-winged 
 hawk kind, and has been described by Aldrovan- 
 dus and some other authors, iinder the name 
 of the Hahaetus and Morphnus, two species of 
 the eagle. It frequents the shores of ponds and 
 rivers, and sometimes of the sea, where it preys 
 on fish. It builds on the ground among reeds, 
 and lays three or four large white eggs, nearly 
 as big as hens' eggs. 
 
 BALBU'TLATE, v. n. The same with halbu- 
 cinate. 
 
 BALCAIRN, a place in Perthshire, in the 
 parish of Clunie, which some antiquarians sup- 
 pose to have been the scene of the decisive battle 
 between Agricola and Galgacus. 
 
 BALCANQUAL (Walter), an eminent Scot- 
 tish divine, who attended James 1. to England, 
 and at Oxford took the degree of D.D. He
 
 BAL 
 
 412 
 
 BAL 
 
 became his majesty's chaplain, master of the Sa- 
 voy, and representative of the church of Scotland, 
 at the synod of Dort. He was appointed dean of 
 Rochester in 1625, and of Durham in 1639. 
 During the rebellion lie underwent many hard- 
 ships, being obliged to fly from place to place. 
 He died on Christmas day, 1645, at Chirk castle 
 in Denbighshire ; he wrote, Epistles concerning the 
 Synod of Dort, and the Declaration of King 
 Charles I. concerningthe late tumults in Scotland, 
 folio, 1630. 
 
 BALCARRA, a town of Ireland, in the 
 county of Mayo, 115 miles from Dublin. 
 
 BALCARRY, a free port on the west coast of 
 Scotland, in the Stewartry of Galloway, and 
 parish of Rerwick. It is naturally a safe and 
 commodious harbour. 
 
 BALCHRISTIE; Gael. i. e. the town of 
 Christian ; a village of Fifeshire, in the parish of 
 Newburn, anciently given to the Culdees, by king 
 iNIalcolm HI. and his queen St. Margaret. Tra- 
 dition reports that the first Christian church in 
 Scotland was built in this village. 
 
 BALCK, a town of Usbeck Tartary, on the 
 frontiers of Persia, 200 miles south of Bokhara. 
 
 BALCLUITHA, a settlement in the south 
 part of Kentucky, on the west side of Big Sandy 
 river. 
 
 BALCO'NY, n. s. Fr. balcon; Ital. balcone, 
 a frame of iron, wood, or stone, before the win- 
 dow of a room. 
 
 Then pleasure came, who, liking not the fashion. 
 Began to make balconies, terraces. 
 Till she had weaken'd all by alteration. Herbert. 
 
 When dirty waters from balconies drop, 
 
 And dext'rous damsels twirl the sprinkling mop. 
 
 Gay. 
 
 Balcony in a ship, denotes a gallery either 
 covered or open, made abaft, either for orna- 
 ment or convenience of the captain's cabin. 
 
 BALD', adj. "^ Welch bal, wanting hair. 
 
 Bald'ly, adv. S-A bare surface which is 
 
 Bald'ness, 7j. s. J usually covered or fledged 
 by nature. In the human species this is usually 
 the effect of time, vexation, fever, or cutaneous 
 disease of the parts, or, as some say, the dryness 
 of the brain. It is figuratively employed to de- 
 note whatever is inelegant and meagre of thought, 
 in literar)' composition or verbal discourse ; what- 
 ever is mean, undignified and valueless, in cha- 
 racter and disposition. 
 
 Come hither goodman bald pate. Do you know me ? 
 
 Shakspeare. 
 
 Why you bald pated lying rascal, you must be 
 hooded must you ! Id. 
 
 Under an oak, whose boughs were moss'd with age, 
 And high top bald with dry antiquity. Id. 
 
 This bald unjointcd chat of his, my lord, 
 
 I answered indirectly. Id. 
 
 What should the people do with these bald tribunes ? 
 On whom depending, their obedience fails 
 To th' greater bench. Id. 
 
 He should imitate Ca-sar, who, because his head 
 was bald, covered that defect with laarels. Addison 
 
 Hobbes, in the preface to his own hald translation, 
 bf-gins the praise of Homer where he should have 
 ended it. Dryden's Fables, Preface. 
 
 And that, though labour'd, line, must bald appear. 
 That brings ungrateful musick to the ear. Creech. 
 
 Baldness occurs chiefly on the sinciput. It 
 differs from alopecia, acea, ophiasis, and tinea, 
 as these all arise from some vices in the nutritious 
 humor ; baldness, from the defect of it. When 
 the eye-lids shed their hair, it is called a ptilosis. 
 Among the causes of baldness, immoderate venery 
 is reputed one of the chief: old age usually brings 
 it on of course ; and it frequently results from 
 violent fevers. Eunuchs and women are almost 
 always free from it, and Aristotle says that it 
 never can precede the age of puberty. Herodotus, 
 iii. 12, says the Egyptians seldom went bald, 
 because they shaved their heads from childhood, 
 and thus hardened them in the sun 1 Calvus 
 (bald), among the Romans, was a term of re- 
 proach. Thus Juvenal calls Domitian, calvus 
 Nero. The later Romans, however, seem to 
 have been reconciled to baldness ; for we find 
 among them a kind of officers, or servants, called 
 glabratores or glabrari, whose business was to 
 take off the hair from all parts, even from the 
 head. In an ancient inscription there is mention 
 made of one Diophantus, TI. CtESARIS or- 
 NATOR GLABR. that is, Omator Glabrarius. We 
 have seen it somewhere observed that the ma- 
 jority of Englishmen, above forty, are more or 
 less bald. Buffon observes that the crown of the 
 head, and the space immediately above the tem- 
 ples, are the parts which first become bald ; but 
 that the hair below the temples, and on the in- 
 ferior part of the back of the head, seldom falls 
 off. He also adds, that baldness is peculiar to 
 men. In its early stages nutritives, particularly 
 a tea made of abrotonum, southernwood, have 
 been advised to be applied to the roots of the 
 hair. 
 
 BALDACANIFER, or Balcanifer, a stand- 
 ard-bearer ; chiefly in the ancient order of knights 
 Templars. 
 
 BAL'DACHIN, n. s. Ital. baldachtno, a piece 
 of architecture, in form of a canopy, supported 
 with columns, and serving as a covering to an 
 altar. It properly signifies a rich silk, Du Cange, 
 and was a canopy carried over the host. 
 
 Baldachin, Baldakin, Baldekin, or 
 Bauldekin, in middle-age writers, a rich kind 
 of cloth made of gold warp and silk woof, vari- 
 ously figured. It took the denomination from its 
 being formerly brought into these countries from 
 Baldacio, or Babylon. 
 
 Bald-Buzzard, in ornithology, the name 
 given by Willoughby and others to the Falco 
 Haliaetos, or Osprey. It is the balbuzzard of 
 Buflbn. See Balbusardus. 
 
 Bald Eagle, or Sinking-Spring Valley, lies 
 upon the frontiers of Bedford county, in Penn- 
 sylvania, about 2uO miles west of Philadelphia. 
 It is bounded on the east by a chain of high 
 rugged mountains, called the Canoe ridge ; and 
 on the west by the Bald Eagle, or Warrior 
 mountains, and is a pleasant vale, having a lime- 
 stone bottom, about five miles wide ; its vicinity 
 abounds with lead-ore, and shows signs of pit 
 coal. The curiosity of this place is the swallows, 
 which absorb several of the largest streams of 
 the valley, and after conveying them several miles 
 under ground, return them again to the surface. 
 Hence its name of Sinking-Spring Valley. The 
 most remarkable of these is called the Arch
 
 BAL 
 
 413 
 
 BAL 
 
 Springs, which run close upon the road from the 
 town to the fort ; being a deep hollow formed in 
 tlie lime-stone rock, about thirty feet wide, covered 
 with a stony arch, and giving passage to a fine 
 stream of water, which enters tiie mouth of a 
 spacious cave, whose exterior aperture is sufficient 
 to admit a shallop with her sails full spread. 
 In the midst of this cave, from eighteen to twenty 
 feet wide, are timber, bodies and branches of 
 trees, &c. which, being lodged up to the roof of 
 the passage, show that the water rises to the top 
 during freshes. The cave, extending about forty 
 yards, widens into a large kind of room, at the 
 bottom of which is a vortex, where the water 
 forms a whirlpool, and absorbs pieces of float- 
 ing timber, which are instantly conveyed out 
 of sight. From the top of the Bald-eagle 
 mountains is a fine prospect of those of the 
 Alleghany. 
 
 Bald Eagle, a river of the United States 
 which runs forty-four miles north-west, and falls 
 into the Susquehanna. 
 
 Bald Eagle Creek, a head water of the 
 Huron. 
 
 BAL'DERDASH, n.s.k.v.a. Probably of 
 Sax. bait), bold, and dash, to mingle; any thing 
 jumbled together without judgment; rude mix- 
 ture ; a confused discourse. The verb is derived 
 from the noun, and signifies to mix or adulterate 
 any liquor. Balderdash, in its primary sense, 
 probably signified the froth or foam made by 
 barbers in dashing their balls backwards and 
 forwards in hot water. 
 
 They would no more live under the yoke of the 
 sea, or have their heads washed with his bubbly 
 spume or barbers balderdash. Nashe, Lenten atuffe. 
 
 It is against my freehold, my inheritance. 
 To drink such balderdash, or bonny clabber ! 
 
 Ben Jonson. 
 Mine is such a drench of balderdash. 
 
 Beaumont and Fletcher. 
 
 Bald Head, an island at the mouth of Cape 
 Fear river, North Carolina. A light-house was 
 erected here in December 1794; four miles 
 N. N. W. of Cape Fear. 
 
 Bald Head, the south-west part of West Bay, 
 in the district of Maine. 
 
 Bald Head, a point on the north-western shore 
 of America, in Norton sound. Long. 198° 18' 
 E., lat. 64° 43' N. 
 
 Bald Head, a promontory of New Holland, 
 about 400 feet high, on the south-west coast, at 
 the mouth of King George's sound. Branches 
 of coral appearing through the surface of the top, 
 have given rise to a conjecture that this promon- 
 tory emerged from the sea. Long. 118° E., 
 lat. 35° 5' S. 
 
 BALDl (Bernard), an Italian mathematician 
 and poet, born at Urbino in 1553. He studied 
 at Padua and afterwards became mathematician 
 to the duke of Guastalla. He wrote several 
 excellent poems in the Italian language, and 
 translated the works of various ancient mathe- 
 maticians into that language. He died in 1617. 
 His Lives of Mathematicians were printed in 
 1707. 
 
 BALDINI (John Anthony), an Italian noble- 
 man, born at Placentia, in 1654. He wjs a man 
 
 of great learning, and employed as ambassador 
 at different courts of Europe. He was also at 
 the congress of Utrecht. He made a large co41ec- 
 tion of curiosities and books ; a catalogue of 
 which was printed in the Italian Literary Journal. 
 He died in 17-25. 
 
 BALDLXUCCI (Philip), of Florence ; a con- 
 noisseur in the polite arts, and the continuator 
 of Vasari's lives of the painters. He died in 
 1696, aged seventy-two. 
 
 Bald Island, an island off Mount Gardner, 
 on the south-west coast of New Holland, about 
 two miles long. Long. 18° 29' E., lat 34° 
 55' S. 
 
 BALDIVIA, or Valdivia, a sea-port town 
 of Chili in South America. It is situated be- 
 tween the rivers CallacuUes and Portero, where 
 they fall into the South Sea, and was built in 
 1551 by the Spanish general Valdivia, from whom 
 it takes its name. In 1643 it was taken by the 
 Dutch, who would probably have maintained 
 their conquest against all the power of the Spanish 
 viceroy, had they not been obliged to relinquish 
 it through sickness and famine. 
 
 BALD'MON Y, n. s. Gentian ; a plant. 
 
 BALDO ^loNTE, a mountain of Italy, the 
 highest in the Veronese. It is situated at the 
 head of lake Garda, and is famous for its rare 
 plants. Sea shells are found upon the top of it. 
 
 BALDOCK, a market-town and parish of 
 Herts, eight miles south from Biggleswade, and 
 thirty-seven north from London ; containing 1600 
 inhabitants. It is a neat, pleasant place, originally 
 built by the knights-templars, in the reign of 
 Stephen, and stands on the old Roman road, 
 Ikening street, and the present great north road. 
 The church is large and handsome, vvith three 
 chancels. There is a well-endowed alms-house, 
 and several excellent charities in this parish. 
 Market on Thursday. The chief articles of trade 
 are corn and malt. 
 
 Baldock (Ralph de), bishop of London under 
 Edward I. and II., was educated at Mertons 
 college in Oxford; became dean of St. Paul's; 
 was afterwards promoted to the see of London ; 
 and at last was made lord high chancellor of 
 England. He had a very amiable character both 
 for morals and learning ; and wrote Ilistoria 
 Anglica, or an history of the British affairs, down 
 to his own time, and a Collection of the Statutes 
 and Constitutions of the church of St. Paul. He 
 died at Stepney, July 24, 1313. 
 
 Bald-Pate, in zoology, a name given by Ray 
 to the columba leucocephala. 
 
 BALDRED ; Sax. from bald, bold, and rede, 
 counsel ; the last king of Kent. 
 
 BALD'RICK, n. s. It was formerly written 
 baudrick, and signified a belt of leather, from the 
 old French baudrier, derived from the verb bau- 
 droytr, to dress skins. It is now used to signify 
 a girdle, a bracelet, and has been applied to the 
 zodiac. 
 
 Athwart his breast a haldrick braue he ware. 
 That shin'd like twinkling stars, with stones most 
 precious rare. Spenser. 
 
 That like the twins of Jove, the}- seem'd in sight. 
 Which deck the baldrick of the heavens bright. Id, 
 
 That a woman conceived me, I thank her ; that 
 she brought me up, I likewise give her most humble
 
 BAL 
 
 414 
 
 BAL 
 
 thanks : but that I will have a rechcat winded in my 
 forehead, or hang my bugle in an invisible baldrick, 
 all women shall pardon me. Slmkspeare. 
 
 A radiant baldrick o'er his shoulders ty'd, 
 
 Suslain'd the sword that glitter'd at his side. Pope. 
 
 Baldrick. was a belt worn by the Saxons, 
 hano-ing from the shoulder across the breast, on 
 which the sword was hung. 
 
 BALDWIN, archbisliop of Canterbury, was 
 born of obscure parents at Exeter, where, in the 
 early part of his life, lie taught a grammar school; 
 after which he took orders and %vas made arch- 
 deacon of Exeter ; but resigned and became a 
 Cistertian monk in the monastery of Ford in 
 Devonshire, of which in a few years he was made 
 abbot. In 1180 he was consecrated bishop of 
 Worcester. In 1184 he was promoted to the see 
 of Canterbury by pope Lucius III., and by his 
 successor Urban III. was appointed legate. In 
 1189 he crowned king Richard I. at Westminster; 
 and soon after followed that prince to the lioly 
 land, where lie died at the siege of Ptolemais. 
 He wrote various tracts on religious subjects, 
 which were collected and published by Bertrand 
 Tissier in 1662. 
 
 Baldwin- I. earl of Flanders, was proclaimed 
 emperor of Constantinople, A. D. 1204, in op- 
 position to Theodore Lascaris, but enjoyed his 
 new dignity little more than a year. He was 
 succeeded by his brother Henry, who took Con- 
 stantinople in 1206. 
 
 Baldwin II., emperor of Constantinople, suc- 
 ceeded Robert the fourth Latin emperor, A. D. 
 1229, and reigned thirty-three years; but was 
 expelled by Michael V'lIL, who recovered Con- 
 stantinople, and thus put an end to the empire of 
 the Latins in the east, A. D. 1261. 
 
 Baldwin (Francis), a learned civilian, born at 
 Arras, in 1520. He is said to have changed his 
 religion four different times, from the Protestant 
 to the Catholic faith, and vice versa. He how- 
 ever obtained successively the patronage of the 
 emperor Charles V. Anthony king of Navarre, 
 and Henry III. king of Poland ; the latter of 
 whom having invited him to his court, he was 
 making preparations for his journey, when he 
 was seized with a fever, of wiiich he died in 
 1372. He wrote Leges de Rustica ; Novella Con- 
 stitutio prima; de Haeredibus et Lege Flacidia; 
 and other works. 
 
 Baldwin I. king of Jerusalem, was the son 
 of Eustace, count of Boulogne. Having ac- 
 companied liis brother Godfrey into Palestine, 
 he there obtained the country of Edessa. He 
 ascended the throne of Jerusalem as his brother's 
 successorin 1100, and next year took Antipatris, 
 Cesarea, and Azotus ; and Acre, after a long siege, 
 in 1104. He died in 1118, and was interred on 
 Mount Calvary. He was an active and enter- 
 prising prince. 
 
 Baldwin II. son of Hugh, count of Rethel, 
 succeeded to the throne in 1118, after Eustace, 
 the brother of Baldwin I. had given up all claim 
 to it. In 1120 he gained a great victory over 
 the Saracens, but was made prisoner by thein in 
 1124; and gave up the city of Tyre to obtain his 
 liberty. He died in 1131. 
 
 Baldwin III. IV. and V". were also kings of 
 Jerusalem in the latter part of the twelfth cen- 
 
 tury ; the last of this name being poisoned, it was 
 thought, by his mother, in 1186. 
 
 BA'LE, 71. s. V. n. 8c v. a. Fr. emballur ; 
 Ital. imhallare, a bundle or parcel packed up for 
 carriage ; a pair of dice. To make up into a 
 parcel. As used by sailors, it is distinguished 
 from pumping, and signifies to lave out water 
 from hand to hand ; from the French haiUer. 
 
 One hired an ass in the dog-days, to carry certain 
 bales of goods to such a town. L' Estrange. 
 
 It is part of the bales in which bohea tea was 
 brought over from China. Woodward. 
 
 It is a false dice of the same bale, but not the same 
 cut. Overbury. Charac. sign. Q. 2. 
 
 For exercise of arms a bale of dice. 
 
 Ben Jonson, New Inn. 
 
 BALE', ?i. s. "^ Sax. bsl; Dan. bale; 
 
 Bale'ful, flt?/. ^ Icelandic 6aZ, hoi; Cimb. 
 Bale'fully, adv.j haul; Sax. bealopull. Mi- 
 sery, calamity, mischief, poison, its genuine 
 meaning. 
 
 And I salle telle that tale, or I ferrer go. 
 Now falsnes brewes bale with him, and many mo. 
 
 R. Brunne, p. 55. 
 She look'd about, and seeing one in mail 
 Armed to point, sought back to turn again; 
 For light she hated as the deadly bale. 
 
 Faerie Queene. 
 But when he saw his threat'ning was but vain. 
 He turn'd about, and search'd his baleful books again. 
 
 Id. 
 Thenceforth they playne, and make full piteous 
 mone 
 Unto the author of their balefull bane. Spenser. 
 
 Such stormie stoures do breed my balefull smart. 
 As if my yeare were wast and woxen old. Id. 
 
 Boiling choler chokes. 
 By sight of these, our baleful enemies. 
 
 Shakspeare. 
 Round he throws his baleful eyes. 
 That witness'd huge affliction and dismay, 
 Mix'd with obdurate pride and stedfi.st hate. 
 
 Milton, 
 Unseen, unfelt, the fiery serpent skims 
 Betwixt her linen and her naked limbs. 
 His baleful breath inspiring as he glides. 
 
 Dryden. 
 Happy lerne, whose most wholesome air 
 Poisons cnvenom'd spiders, and forbids 
 The baleful toad and vipers from her shore. 
 
 Philips. 
 Bale, in commerce, is particularly applied to 
 a quantity of packed up merchandise, well se- 
 cured for carriage or voyages. To sell goods in 
 the bale is to sell them in the lump, on showing 
 a specimen, without unpacking or taking off the 
 cordage. Thus the East India Company and 
 others sell their goods. In the East India trade, 
 the bulky goods are salt-petre, pepper, red earth, 
 tea, &c. Bale goods stand opposed to piece 
 goods. 
 
 A Bale of camlet, at Smyrna, is called a table, 
 on account of its flat square. 
 
 A Bale of cotton yarn is from 300 to 400 
 weight. 
 
 A Bale of dice denotes a little packet, or 
 paper, containing some dozens of dice. 
 
 A Bale of dowlas, or of lockram, consists of 
 either three, three and a half, or four pieces. 
 
 A Bale of paper denotes a certain, or rather 
 uncertain number of reams packed together in
 
 BAL 
 
 415 
 
 BAL 
 
 a bundle. Those sent from Marseilles to Con- 
 stantinople usually contain twelve reams. A 
 bale or ballon of crown paper, manufactured in the 
 departments of the Var, the Lower Alps, and the 
 mouths of the Rhone, consists of fourteen reams. 
 
 A Bale of raw silk contains from 100 to 
 400 weight. 
 
 Bale (John), bishop of Ossorj- in Ireland, 
 was born at Cove, in Suffolk, in 1495. At 
 twelve years of age he was entered in the mo- 
 nastery of the Carmelites, Norwich. He was 
 educated a Roman Catholic; but, being converted 
 to the Protestant religion by Thomas Lord Went- 
 worth, on the death of Lord Cromwell, who pro- 
 tected him from the Romish clergy, he was 
 obliged to retire into the Low Countries, where 
 he continued eight years. Soon after the acces- 
 sion of Edward VL he was recalled; and being 
 first presented to the living of Bishop's Stoke 
 in Hampshire, in 15.52, was nominated to the 
 see of (Jssory. During his residence in Ireland 
 he was remarkably assiduous in propagating the 
 protestant doctrines; but frequently at the hazard 
 of his life. Once five of his domestics were 
 murdered, as he would probably have been, had 
 not the sovereign of Kilkenny come to his as- 
 sistance with 100 horse and 300 foot. On the 
 accession of queen ^lary, the tide of opposition 
 became so powerful, that he embarked for Hol- 
 land, but was very unfortunate in his escape. 
 First he was taken by a Dutch man of war, and 
 robbed of all his effects. Then, being forced by 
 stress of weather into St. Ive's in Cornwall, he 
 was confined on suspicion of treason. Being re- 
 leased after a few days confinement, the ship 
 anchored in Dover road, where he was again 
 seized on a false accusation. After his arrival in 
 Holland he was kept prisoner for three weeks, 
 and at length obtained his liberty on paying £'30. 
 From Holland he travelled to Basil in Switzer- 
 land, where he continued till queen Elizabeth 
 ascended the throne. After his return to 
 England he was, in 1560, made prebendary of 
 Canterbury, not choosing to return to his former 
 flock of wolves. He died in November 1563, at 
 Canterbury, aged sixty-eight. He was so severe 
 a writer against the church of Rome, that his 
 books are particularly prohibited in the expurga- 
 tory index, published at Madrid in 1667. Most 
 of his writings are attacks upon the religion he 
 had abandoned. His Brief Chronicle concerning 
 Sir John Oldcastle was republished in 1729; 
 and he is also the author of many strange pro- 
 ductions in English metre, among which are 
 several plays on sacred subjects, a specimen of 
 which may be seen in the Harleian Miscellany. 
 To modern readers they would appear strange 
 burlesques ; but, as the author himself informs 
 us, they were gravely and piously represented in 
 his own days by young men at the market-cross 
 of Kilkenny. The principal work of bishop 
 Bale is his Scriptorum lUustrium ^lajoris Bri- 
 tanniae Catalogus ; or, An Account of the Lives 
 of eminent Writers of Britain ; which, according 
 to the title, commences with Japhet the son of 
 Noah, and reaches to the year 1557 ! It formed 
 the foundation of all the large subsequent com- 
 pilations of this kind. 
 
 Bale, Basle or Basil. See Basle. 
 
 BALEARES Insul.^, or Balearic Islands, 
 islands in the Mediterranean, so called from BaX- 
 Xtiv, because the inhabitants were excellent 
 slingers. But Bochart makes the name of Punic 
 or Phcenician original, as were the people : 
 Baal-jare, signifying a master, or skilful at throw- 
 ing ; the Phoenicians and Hebrews being dexte- 
 rous at the use of the sling. The Greeks called 
 these islands Gymnasia, because, in summer, the 
 inhabitants went naked, or rather because they 
 were only armed with a sling in war. There are 
 two principal ones called Major and Minor; and 
 hence the modern names Majorca and iNIinorca. 
 The Major is distant from the Minor thirty miles 
 to the we3t ; in lenj;th 40 miles, and in circuit 
 150. They were subdued by Quintus ^letel- 
 lus, A. A. C. 120. The Baleares, together with 
 the adjacent islands, were a part of the Pro- 
 vincia Citerior orTarraconensis.and of the resort 
 of the Coventus Carthaginiensis, or New Car- 
 thage. These islands are called Cheorades, by 
 Apollonius, and Choeradades, by Strabo, i. e. 
 rocky. See Majorca and Minorca. 
 
 BALEARICUS, a surname obtained by Me- 
 tellus upon his conquest of the Baleares. 
 
 BALECHOU (John Joseph), a celebrated 
 French engraver, born at Aries, in 1719. He 
 died at Avignon, in 1765. This extraordinary 
 artist wrought entirely with the graver, of which 
 he was fully master. The clearness of his strokes, 
 and the depth of color which he produced, are 
 far beyond any production prior to his own. His 
 two large plates from \'emet, the one represent- 
 ing a storm, the other a calm, must ever be con- 
 sidered as astonishing exertions. They are too 
 well known, and too much admired, to need any 
 further eulogium : and were never equalled, 
 until they were perhaps surpassed by our coun- 
 tryman Woollet. 
 
 BALEN (Hendrick Van), history and por- 
 trait painter, was bom at Antwerp, in 1560; was 
 a disciple of Adam Van Oort, and resided at 
 Rome a considerable time. He copied the 
 antiques ; and at his return to his own country, 
 the visible improvement of his taste procured 
 him the esteem of the ablest judges. He gave 
 to his figures so much truth, roundness, and 
 correctness of outline, that few of his contempo- 
 raries could enter into competition with him. 
 Several fine portraits of his remain. He died in 
 1632. 
 
 Balex (John Van), painter of histor)', land- 
 scapes, and boys, was born at Antwerp, in 1611 ; 
 and derived his knowledge of the art, and his 
 fine taste of drawing and design, from his father 
 Hendrick ; but, as soon as he had made a com- 
 petent progress, he travelled to Rome, and lived 
 for several years in that and other cities of Italy. 
 There he acquired a good gusto of design, though 
 he was sometimes incorrect. His particular 
 merit was m his figures of naked boys, cupids, 
 and nymphs bathing or hunting, of which sub- 
 jects he painted a considerable number ; and he 
 procured both praise and riches by his land- 
 scapes and histories. The carnations of his 
 figures were clear and fresh ; his coloring in 
 general transparent ; the airs of his heads were 
 in the manner of Albano. 
 
 BALENGARIA, Balenger, in writers of the
 
 416 
 
 BALESSAN. 
 
 middle age, a kind of vessel of war, but of what 
 particular construction seems not well known. 
 Blount says, that by the stat. 28 Hen. VI. cap. 5, 
 balenger seems to have been a kind of barge. 
 
 BALES (Peter), a famous master in the art 
 of penmanship, or fair writing ; and one of the 
 first inventors of short hand. He was born in 
 1547, and is styled, by Anthony Wood, ' a most 
 dexterous person in his profession.' Wood adds, 
 that ' he spent several years in sciences among 
 the Oxonians, particularly in Gloucester-hall ; 
 but that study, wliich he used for a diversion only, 
 proved at leni^th an employment of profit.' He 
 is mentioned in HoUinshed's Chronicle, A. D. 
 1 525 ; and Mr. Evelyn has celebrated his deli- 
 cate execution of a piece of writing, containing 
 the Lord's Prayer, the Creed, Decalogue, with 
 two short prayers in Latin, his own name, motto, 
 day of the month, year of the Lord, and reign of 
 the Queen (Elizabeth), to whom he presented it 
 at Hampton Court, all ' written within the circle 
 of a single penny, inchased in a ring and borders 
 of gold ; and covered with a crystal, so accurately 
 wrought as to be very plainly legible, to the 
 great admiration of her JNIajesty, the whole Privy 
 Council, and several ambassadors then at Court ?' 
 He was also dexterous in imitating hand-writing, 
 and, about 1586, was employed by Secretary 
 Walsingham in certain political manoeuvres. 
 In 1590, we find him at the head of a school, 
 near the Old Bailey, London ; in which year he 
 published his Writing Schoolmaster, in three 
 parts : the first teaching swift writing, the second 
 true writing, the third fair writing. In 1595, he 
 had a great trial of skill in Blackfriars with one 
 Daniel Johnson, for a golden pen of £20 value, 
 and won it. He had also the arms of Calligraphy 
 given him, which are Azure, a Pen, Or, as a 
 prize, at a trial of skill in this art among the 
 best penmen in London. In 1597, he repub- 
 lished his Writing Schoolmaster, which was in 
 such high reputation, that no less than eighteen 
 copies of commendatory verses, composed by 
 learned men of that time, were printed before it. 
 Wood says, that he was engaged in Essex's trea- 
 sons in 1600; but he was only engaged, and 
 very innocently so, in serving the treacherous 
 purposes of one of that Earl's mercenary de- 
 pendents. 
 
 BALESSAN, the eastern name for that spe- 
 cies of the Amyris which produces the celebrated 
 balsam of Mecca, the ancient balm of Gilead. 
 This plant grows to the height of fourteen feet, 
 flourishing in a hot climate, and in a stony bar- 
 ren soil. In general it is lower, and Mr. Bruce 
 describes a specimen five feet and a half in 
 height, and five inches across the stem where 
 thickest. The wood is white, light, and of open 
 texture, covered with a smooth bark, reddish or 
 of bluish white, resembling that of a healthy 
 standard cherry-tree, green within, and emitting 
 a very fragrant odor. That of the branches, 
 which are very flexible and resinous, is equally 
 agreeable. The leaves, which are evergreen and 
 scanty, bear some resemblance to those of rue ; 
 and the flowers, which are leguminous and of a 
 purplish color, resemble those of the acacia. 
 The fruit consists of small pointed ovoidal berries, 
 
 containing a yellowish fluid similar to honey, of 
 a bitterish taste, and exhaling a pleasing perfume, 
 approaching the odor of balm. 
 
 It has been in modern times maintained that 
 the plants producing the balsam of Mecca are 
 restricted to a plantation of a little more than 
 thirty acres, at Beder Hunein, a station for pil- 
 grims in Arabia, between Mecca and Medina. 
 Yet it cannot be positively aflirmed if this be one 
 species, that Abyssinia, the country ascribed to 
 the other, is deprived of it ; or that the balm of 
 Gilead grows in Abyssinia exclusively. These 
 are facts which require elucidation from future 
 botanical research. The plantation belongs to a 
 noble family of Arabs, of the tribe Beni K'oreish, 
 from which Mahomet originated, unless the Wa- 
 habees, who interrupted the wonted pilgrimages, 
 have dispossessed them of their inheritance. The 
 balsam is a resinous matter, exuding, like ordi- 
 nary resin from incisions in the bark, in July, 
 August, and September. It is received in an 
 earthen bottle, and the most productive trees do 
 not yield more than sixty drops a day, we are 
 told. At this time it emits a very strong and 
 pungent odor, and is of a rough, acrid taste, a 
 pale yellow turbid color, and it dissolves in 
 oils readily. Afterwards it acquires a deeper 
 color, as well as greater consistency and clear- 
 ness, and is not unlike honey in its appearance. 
 It sinks in clear water to the bottom, and, if 
 dropped on hot iron, collects itself into a glo- 
 bule. It is said to be frequently adulterated 
 with honey, wax, and oil. The best kind is called 
 opobalsamum ; there are two other kinds, the 
 carpobalsamum, and xylobalsamum ; they are 
 obtained from an expression of the fruit of the 
 amyris, the other from a decoction of the twigs. 
 Prosper Alpinus ascribes many properties to 
 the balsam of Mecca, esteemed the most precious 
 of all that bear the appellation of balsam, and 
 which, in ordinary description, we must consider 
 synonymous with the balm of Gilead ; and the 
 modern Arabs, Turks, and Egyptians, entertain 
 great confidence in its efficacy. It is a powerful 
 vulnerary : Mahomet affirmed, that a grove of 
 the trees sprung up from the blood of his own 
 tribe killed in battle, the juice of which cured the 
 wounds of the faithful, however deadly, nay, that 
 it recovered some of them from death itself. It 
 is also taken for complaints in the breast, in fe- 
 vers, and rheumatism. Ilasselquist says, it is 
 useful as a stomachic in doses of three grains. 
 Its repute as an antiseptic is very great; and it is 
 esteemed so effectual an antidote against the 
 plague, that wlien this distemper makes its appear- 
 ance, the Egyptians take a certain cjuantity daily. 
 Its principal use, however, is as a cosmetic by 
 tlie eastern females of rank: after being kept in a 
 very warm batli, the face and breast are anointed 
 with it, and the same process is continued every 
 third day for a month. Oil of almonds and other 
 cosmetics are then rubbed over the parts, where- 
 by the skin and complexion are beautifully reno- 
 vated. Lady J\Iary Wortley Montague relates, 
 that she was induced to try the experiment, by 
 wliich her face became swelled and red for three 
 days, during which she suffered much pain ; but 
 her complexion was greatly improved. She adds.
 
 BAL 
 
 417 
 
 BAL 
 
 that the ladies of Constantinople, by whom it is 
 used, have the finest bloom, As yielding the 
 virtues of the balm of Gilead. tliis plant has 
 been celebrated from very remote antiquity. 
 When Joseph was confined by his brethren in a 
 pit, it is said, ' they sat down to eat bread ; and 
 they lifted up their eyes and looked, and behold 
 a company of Ishmaelites came from Gilead, 
 with their camels bearing spicerj', and balm, and 
 myrrh, going to carry it down to Egypt.' Jere- 
 miah particularly alludes to its virtues ; and 
 Josephus states, the queen of Sheba, or Saba, 
 •who was inquisitive into philosophy, and on 
 that and other accounts was also to be admired,' 
 brought the balm of Gilead as a present to Solo- 
 mon, on her visit to Jerusalem. 
 
 'They say also,' he adds, ' that we possess the 
 root of this balsam, which our country still bears, 
 from that woman's gift.' It appears from the 
 writings of the ancients, nearly contemporary 
 with Josephus, that Judea was generally be- 
 lieved to be possessed of it exclusively. Pliny 
 says, 'To all other odors whatsoever is to be 
 preferred that balsam, which is produced in no 
 other part of the world than the land of Judea, 
 and there in two gardens only, both belonging 
 to the king, one not exceeding twenty acres in 
 size, and the second still smaller.' Strabo partly 
 confirms the above accounts, ascribing it to that 
 countr)', over or near to which the queen of She- 
 ba reigned. ' Near to this,' he says, ' is the most 
 favored land of the Sabeans, a very great people. 
 Frankincense, myrrh, and cinnamon, grow amon,' 
 them, and in the coast that is about Saba, the 
 balsam also.' Whence Bruce observes, that 
 ' among the myrrh-trees behind Asab, all along 
 the coast to the Straits of Babelmandel, is its 
 native country. It grows to a tree about four- 
 teen feet high spontaneously, and without culture, 
 like the myrrh, the coffee, and frankincense-tree ; 
 they are all equally the wood of the country, and 
 occasionally cut down for fuel.' Diodorus Si- 
 culus affirms that this balsam grew in a valley of 
 Arabia Felix. Ali Bey says, that there is no 
 balsam made now at Mecca : that, on the con- 
 trary, it is very scarce, and is obtained princi- 
 pally in the territory of Medina ; as also that it 
 was called belsan, for whose history see our arti- 
 cle Badia. 
 
 Galen travelled into Syria and Palestine, pur- 
 posely to obtain a knowledge of this substance : 
 in 1516 we find the emperor Selim levying a tax 
 of three pounds weight of it annually on Arabia 
 and Egypt ; which is said to be levied to this day. 
 
 Part of the governor of Cairo^s appointments 
 include a right to receive a pound of balsam ; the 
 like quantity is due to an officer who conducts 
 the caravan of pilgrims to Mecca; and half a 
 pound to the pacha of Damascus. 
 
 BALESTRA (Antonio), an excellent historical 
 painter, born at Verona in 1666. At the age of 
 twenty-one he went to Venice, where he con- 
 tinued for three years, under the direction of 
 Ant. Bellucci. lie next visited Bologna and 
 Kome, and at the latter became the disciple of 
 Maratti. Under him he exerted himself in de- 
 signing after Raphael, Corregio, Annibal Caracci, 
 &c. by which he so effectually confirmed his 
 Vol. III. 
 
 taste, that he obtained tlie prize of merit in the 
 academy of St. Luke, in 1694, when he was only 
 twenty-eight. From that time his reputation 
 was established, and he was engaged to woik for 
 most of the churches and the nobility, and his 
 paintings were universally admired. Ilis style 
 is like that of Maratti ; and his works have a 
 certain mixture of the manners of Raphael, Cor- 
 regio, and Caracci. He died in 1740. In the 
 church of Santa Maria Mater Domini, at Venice, 
 there is one of his most capital performances, 
 representing the nativity of our Saviour. In a 
 chapel belonging to the church of S. Geminiano, 
 in the same city, there is another capital picture 
 of his, representing our Saviour dead, in the 
 arms of the virgin. 
 
 Balestra, in ichthyology, a name by which 
 Sylvian and others have called tlie fish more 
 usually known by the name of Capriscus. 
 
 BALETCHENCK, a town of Turkey in 
 Asia, on the Kurasir, twenty-one miles from 
 Hazahan, and twenty-seven miles from Kati- 
 bounou. It consists of 260 houses, and carries 
 on a considerable traffic in horses, cattle, and 
 goats' hair, made into bags. 
 
 BALEY (Walter), the son of Henry Baley of 
 Warnwell in Dorsetshire, was born at Portsham, 
 and educated at Winchester. From thence he 
 was sent to Oxford; and, after two years proba- 
 tion, was admitted perpetual fellow of New Col- 
 lege, in 1550. Having taken his degree of 
 M. A. he practised physic, and in 1558 was 
 proctor of the university. About this time he 
 obtained the prebend of Wells, which he resigned 
 in 1559. In 1561 he was appointed queen's 
 professor of physic, in 1563 proceeded M. D. 
 and afterwards became one of her majesty's phy- 
 sicians in ordinary. He was thought skilful in 
 his profession, and had considerable practice. 
 He died in 1592, aged sixty-three; and was 
 buried in the inner chapel of New College. His 
 works are, 1. A Discourse of three kinds of Pep- 
 per in common use, 1588, 8vo. 2. Brief Treatise 
 of the Preservation of the Eye-sight ; first printed 
 at Oxford in 1616 and 1645, Bvo. 3. Directions 
 for Health, natural and artificial ; with medicines 
 for all diseases of the eyes, 1626, 4to. 4. Expli- 
 catio Galeni de potu Convalescentium et Senum, 
 &c. !MS. formerly in Lord Aylesbury's library. 
 
 BALFROSH, a town of Persia, in the pro- 
 vince of Mazendaran, consisting of one principal 
 street, occupied almost wliolly by a bazaar, and 
 divided into seventeen wards. Here are eight 
 caravansaries, three of which are devoted to the 
 use of the Russians and Armenians. It is the 
 second town of the province, distant twenty 
 miles west ef Fehrabad. 
 
 BALGA, a bailiwic, castle, and town of Bran- 
 denberg, in East Prussia, opposite Pillau, and 
 twenty-four miles south-west of Konigsberg. 
 The celebrated fortress of Storeda is in this 
 vicinity. 
 
 BALGAVIES, a lake of Scotland, in the parish 
 of Aberlemno, in Angusshire, through which 
 the Lunan runs. It furnishes much marl for 
 manuring the adjacent grounds. 
 
 BALGILLO, a hill of Scotland, in the parish 
 of Monyfeith in Angusshire, about half a mile 
 
 2 ]•:
 
 418 
 
 BALI. 
 
 north of Broughty Castle ; on which there are 
 still to be seen remains of those fortifications 
 that were erected by the English, under Henry 
 VIII. when they ravaged Dundee and most of 
 the county during the regency of the earl of 
 Arran, in 1548. 
 
 BALGONIE, a district in Fifeshire, the 
 property of the Earl of Leven, and from which 
 his eldest son takes his title. It produces ex- 
 cellent coals, and is said to have been wrought 
 for that mineral upwards of 300, some say 500, 
 years ago. 
 
 BALGONIE Castle, one of the earl of 
 Leven's seats, in the parish ofMarkinch, in Fife- 
 shire, a fabric of great antiquity, supposed to 
 have been built in the twelfth century. 
 
 BALGUY (John), an eminent divine of the 
 church of England, was born in 1686, at Shef- 
 field, and studied at Cambridge, where he took 
 the degrees of A. B. and M. A. In 1T08 he was 
 appointed tutor to Joseph Banks, esq. grand- 
 father to the celebrated Sir Joseph. In 1710 he 
 was ordained a deacon, and in 1711 a priest, 
 when Sir H. Liddel bestowed on him the dona- 
 tive of Lamesly and Tanfield. In this small 
 cure he composed a new sermon every week, 250 
 of which he afterwards burnt, that his son, Dr. 
 Thomas Balguy, archdeacon of ^^■incheBte^, 
 might exercise his own genius, instead of trust- 
 ing to his father's labors. In 1727 he was col- 
 lated by bishop Hoadly to a prebend in Salisbury, 
 with the right of presenting to four livings ; of 
 which he gave one to his son, and another to his 
 brother-in-law, Sir. Robinson. He published 
 
 1. Silvius's Examination of certain Doctrines 
 taught by the Reverend Mr. Stebbing, in 1718; 
 
 2. Silvius's Letter to the Rev. Dr. Sherlock, in 
 1719 ; both anonymously, in vindication of Bp. 
 Hoadly. Mr. Stebbing having replied to these 
 works, I\lr. Balguy published, 3. Silvius's De- 
 fence of a dialogue between a Papist and a Pro- 
 testant, in answer to the Rev. Mr. Stebbing ; 
 with remarks on that author's manner of writing; 
 4. A Letter to a Deist concerning the Beauty 
 and Excellence of Moral \'irtue, and the support 
 which it receives from the Christian Revelation, 
 in 1726. In this treatise he attacked Lord 
 Shaftesbury 's principles, with equal politeness 
 and strength of reasoning. 5. The Foundation 
 of INIoral Goodness, or an Enquiry into the Ori- 
 ginal of our Ideas of Virtue ; in two parts, in 
 1728. 6. Divine Rectitude, or a brief Enquiry 
 concerning the Moral Perfections of the Deity, 
 &c. 7. A second Letter to a Deist. 8. The 
 Law of Truth. 9. Essay on Redemption : and, 
 10. A Volume of Sermons. He died in 1748, 
 aged sixty-three. 
 
 BALI, or Bally, sometimes called also Little 
 Java, one of the Sunda or Sumatran islands, 
 separated from the eastern extremity of Java by 
 the straits of Bali, about five or six leagues wide 
 and of very intricate navigation. Its length 
 according to Sir T. S. Raffles, to whom we are 
 indebted for the greater part of our information 
 respecting these islands, is about eighty miles, 
 and in its breadth nearly equal, the whole sur- 
 face containing about 6400 square miles. He 
 thinks the population may be estimated at a little 
 more than sixty persons to each square mile, 
 which would give about 400,000 for the number 
 
 of its inhabitants. The country is mountainous, 
 rising into the interior ; the ravines and beds of 
 rivers are deep, and the rivers rapid. 
 
 Bali is well cultivated and thickly planted 
 with cocoa-nut and other fruit-trees : the uncul- 
 tivated parts are crowned with deep forests. 
 
 Its productions consist chiefly of rice, maize, 
 yams, and sweet potatoes ; rice yields from thirty 
 to forty fold, and the maize often more than a 
 hundred. The Balinese also grow co'ton on the 
 dry land, of a superior kind ; some opium, nut- 
 megs, dyeing drugs and tobacco, are also objects 
 of culture. On the whole, the Balinese may be 
 considered, we are told, as the most civilised 
 islanders in this archipelago, not excepting even 
 the Javanese. The women manufacture a con- 
 siderable quantity of cotton cloth for exportation; 
 and are not so much in the field as those of Java ; 
 the men manufacture their own fire-arms. On 
 the eastern coast at a place called Pejan a gold 
 mine has been opened. They import chintz and 
 other piece goods, iron, and china ware. Iron, 
 in particular, is in great request. The religion 
 is that of Budh, but not divided into castes ; and 
 the priesthood, at least in general, is hereditary. 
 The priests live secluded in separate societies, 
 among the mountains, having lands assigned 
 for the support of themselves and their temples. 
 Justice is administered by distinct civil magis- 
 trates, who very intelligently expound the law 
 from written authorities, which is a decided 
 proof that civilisation has had a powerful in- 
 fluence even upon the body of the people. 
 
 Bali is governed by seven native and inde- 
 pendent princes, each absolute in his own do- 
 minion ; though their despotism appears to be of 
 a much milder character than among the native 
 government-s of Java. A right of private pro- 
 perty in the soil is said to be established, and 
 the claims of the government to be confined to 
 a regular tax in kind on the rice. The language 
 presents the singular distinction of one class of 
 words to be used by the privileged orders, and 
 another for the people in general. A sort of 
 feudal service in war is maintained ; slavery, w-e 
 regret to add, though unknown among them, is 
 encouraged by the sale of their prisoners of war 
 to other nations. They are also said to use poi- 
 soned arrows in war. 
 
 Historically it seems only to be known that 
 this island was visited by Sir Francis Drake in 
 1597, and that the conversion of the natives to 
 Budhism took place about 1750 years since. 
 The east peak of the island is in lat. 8° 24' long. 
 115° 24' E. 
 
 Their language is written in the same character 
 as that of Java, and the Javan is said to be spoken 
 at the courts of their princes, but it is considered 
 as a foreign tongue. The Kawi, the learned 
 language of all these islands, is well understood 
 at Bali. The Balinese are represented as mild 
 and inoffensive in their manners ; they readily 
 associate with strangers, and are altogether di- 
 vested of those bigoted prejudices of caste, nation 
 and religion, with which the people of continen- 
 tal Asia are generally imbued. On the other 
 hand they are said to be the only people of this 
 archipelago who possess either courage or tracta- 
 bility for receiving the regular discipline of 
 European troops. Their food consists princi-
 
 BAL 
 
 419 
 
 BAL 
 
 pally of the flesh of hogs and buffaloes, with 
 which ships touching here are readily and rea- 
 sonably supplied. Nor is the use of spirituous 
 liquors or opium unknown, both of which have 
 been introduced by Europeans. Their houses, 
 like those of Java, are built upon the ground, and 
 not raised upon posts as amongst the Malays. 
 They are generally clothed in cotton of their 
 own manufacture, and of a good fabric. Until 
 they are married, indeed, the females go nearly 
 naked, then the bridegroom wraps a selendang 
 or cloth round the bosom of his chosen fair. 
 There is said to be great general prudence and 
 fidelity in their marriages. 
 BALIO. See Bailo. 
 
 BALIOL, Balliol, or Bailliol (John), king 
 of Scotland. On the death of queen INIargaret, 
 in her passage from Norway, being at the head of 
 the English interest in Scotland, he claimed the 
 vacant throne, by virtue of his descent from 
 David earl of Huntingdon, brother to William 
 the Lion, king of Scotland. Robert Bruce op- 
 posed Baliol, but having submitted to the arbi- 
 tration of Edward I. it was decided in favor of 
 Baliol, who did homage to him for the kingdom 
 on the 12th of November, 1292. Baliol, "how- 
 ever, did not long enjoy the crown, for having 
 remonstrated against the power which Edward 
 assumed over Scotland, he summoned him to 
 his tribunal as a vassal. Irritated at this, Baliol 
 concluded a treaty with France, on which a war 
 with England immediately commenced ; and after 
 the battle of Dunbar he surrendered his crown 
 into the hands of the English monarch, who sent 
 him and his son to London to be imprisoned in 
 the Tower. The pope interceded for them, and 
 they were liberated, and committed to his legate 
 in 1297. Baliol retired to his estate in France, 
 where he died in 1314. 
 
 Baliol (Edward), the son of John Baliol, 
 king of Scotland. Notwithstanding the manner 
 in which his father was degraded, and obliged to 
 give up his crown, he laid claim to the kingdom 
 of Scotland, and, assisted by France, invaded 
 and recovered it ; but it was soon again wrested 
 from him ; and djing afterwards without issue 
 the family became extinct. 
 
 Baliol, or Balliol (Sir John de), founder of 
 Baliol college, in Oxford, was son of Hugh 
 Baliol, of Bernard's castle in the diocese of 
 Durham, and eminent for his power and riches. 
 He was appointed governor of Carlisle in 1248 ; 
 and when Margaret, daughter of Henrj- IIL, was 
 married to Alexander IIL, king of Scotland, the 
 guardianship of the royal pair, and also of the 
 kingdom, was committed to him and another 
 lord ; but in about three years they were charged 
 with abusing their trust, and the English mo- 
 narch marched towards Scotland, on purpose to 
 punish them. Baliol, however, pacified him by 
 advancing a sum of money. During the wars 
 between Henry III. and the barons he adhered 
 to the king, on which account the barons seized 
 his lands. In 1263 he began the foundation and 
 endowment of Baliol college, which was after- 
 wards completed by his widow. He died in 
 1269. 
 
 BALISTES, in icthyologj', a genus of fishes 
 belonging to the order of amphibia nantes. The 
 
 character: are, the head is flat; eight teeth in 
 each side, the two anterior ones are longest ; in 
 the place of gills an aperture immediately above 
 the pectoral fins ; the body flat ; the scales joined 
 together by the skin, and the belly keeled. There 
 are eight species of this genus : — viz. B. acu- 
 leatus, with a triradiated back fin, and the spines 
 of the tail lean upon each other. It is a native 
 of India. 2. B. hispidus with the head-fin uni- 
 radiated, and a round black spot in the tail-fin ; 
 the body rough, and bristly towards the tail ; 
 the spine or horn situated between the eyes ; the 
 snout subulated, and instead of a belly-fin a 
 jagged sharp spine. This is a native of Carolina. 
 3. B. monoceros, whose head-fin consists of but 
 one ray, and the tail-rays carinated. It is called 
 the unicorn-fish by Catesby. This fish has been 
 accounted poisonous. They mostly frequent 
 those seas, amongst the Bahama islands, where 
 the corals are in great plenty. 4. B. papillosus, 
 with a biradiated back-fin, and a papillous body. 
 5. B. ringens, with a triradiated back-fin ; three 
 folds in each side of the head, and the tail-fin 
 forked. It is found at Ascension island. 6. B. 
 tomentosus, whose head-fin is biradiated, and the 
 body of it, towards the hind part, hairy. It is a. 
 native of America. 7. B. verrucosus, has a tri- 
 radiated back-fin, and the tail full of little warts. 
 In the place of a belly-fin this species has a large, 
 thick, warty ray, and twenty-five small reversed 
 sharp spines at the side of the tail, disposed in 
 four rows. It is a native of India. 8. B. ve- 
 tula, or old wife, with a triradiated back-fin ; the 
 belly-fin longitudinal and somewhat carinated; 
 and the tail-fin forked. It is found at Ascension 
 island. 
 
 The fishes of this genus are remarkable for 
 their splendid colors. The species mentioned by 
 Linnaeus and Gmelin are the following : — mono- 
 ceros, scriptus /3, hispidus, tomentosus, papillo- 
 sus, verrucosus, biaculeatus, aculeatus, vetula, 
 maculatus, ringens, sinensis, assassi, capriscus, 
 forcipatus, punclatus, Kleinii, curassavicus, and 
 Americanus. Lacepede has described twenty- 
 four species of balistes, in his work on fishes, 
 and which he divides into four sections : — Le 
 baliste mamelonne, le baiiste pralin, le baliste 
 verdatre, le baliste Mungo-Parck (Park); le ba- 
 liste metallique, &c. are new or interesting spe- 
 cies described by Lacepede. 
 
 BALTSTER, n. s. Lat. balista ; Fr. balesta, 
 a cross bow. 
 
 A spindle full of raw thread to make a false string 
 for the king's halister or cross bow. 
 
 Blount's Tenures, p. 92. 
 BALIZE, a river in the peninsula of Yucatan, 
 South America, which falls into the bay of Hon- 
 duras, in lat. 14° 59' N. On its banks, and to 
 the extent of 200 miles up the stream, the Eng- 
 lish cut mahogany, and by the treaty of 1733 
 a right was guaranteed to British subjects of cut- 
 ting and carrj'ing away logwood, in the district 
 between this river and the Rio Hondo. Beyond 
 the scene of their operation the Balize is very 
 imperfectly known. 
 
 Balize, a sea-port town of Yucatan, South 
 America, is an establishment chiefly composed 
 of English settlers, at the mouth of the above 
 river The houses are mostly built of the wood 
 
 2 E 2
 
 420 
 
 BALL. 
 
 of the neif-hbourhood, amonojst which the grace- 
 ful raaliogany frequently furnishes pillars of 
 eight or ten feet higii, on which they stand, sur- 
 rounded bv piazzas. The cocoa tree and tamarind, 
 largely interspersed among the buildings, which 
 are also frequently thatched with leaves of the 
 palmetto, give the whole place a very picturesque 
 appearance. But the belter sort of houses have 
 of late been shingled. The neighbourhood is 
 low and swampy. ^ 
 
 B\LK, n. s. V. a. & v. n. Dutcn and Germ. 
 balk ; Sax. and Wech bale, derived by Skinner 
 from'ltal. valicare, to pass over. A great beam 
 such as is used in building ; a rafter over an out- 
 house or barn ; a ridge of land left unploughed, 
 ■bstween the furrows, or at the end of tlie field ; 
 land over which the plough slips without turning 
 it up ; figuratively any thing overpassed, untouch- 
 ed. A disappointment; to frustrate, to elude, to 
 omit, or refuse any thing ; to heap together ; to 
 turn aside, to deal in cross purposes ; to speak 
 differently from the intention. The two last 
 meanings are arbitrary, and rest on the authority 
 of Spenser only. 
 
 His owns bond than made he ladders three 
 To climben by the ringes and the stalkes 
 Unto the tubhes hanging in the balkes. Chaueer. 
 
 Another thing in the grammar schools I see no use 
 of, unless it be to balk young lads in learning lan- 
 guages. . ^ocke. 
 Every one has a desire to keep up the vigour of 
 bis faculties, and not to balk his understanding by 
 what is too hard for it. I^- 
 But one may balk his good inten'. 
 And take things otherwise than mtant. Prior. 
 The prices must have been high ; for a people so 
 rich would not halh their fancy. Arbuthnot, 
 Balk'd of his prey, the yelling monster flies. 
 And fills the city with his hideous cries. Pope. 
 The most effectual way to balk 
 Their malice, is to let them talk. Churchill. 
 
 By grisly Pluto he doth swear. 
 He rent his clothes, and tore his hair ; 
 And as he runneth here and there. 
 
 An acorn cup he greeteth ; 
 Which soon he taketh by the stalk. 
 About his head he lets it walk. 
 Nor doth he any creature balk. 
 But lays on all he meeteth. 
 
 Drayton's Nimphid. 
 This was looked for at your hand, and this was balkt. 
 
 Shakspeare. 
 When-as the ape him heard so much to talke 
 Of labour, that did from his liking balke. 
 He would have slipt the collar handsomely. Spenser. 
 But to occasion him to further talke 
 To fpfd her humour with his pleasing style. 
 Her list in stryfull termes with him to balke, 
 And thus replyde. Id. 
 
 BALK'ERS. In fishery. Men who stand on 
 a clifl', or high place on the shore, and give a sign 
 to the men in the fishing boats, which way the 
 ])assage or shoal of herrings is. — Cuwcll. 
 
 The pilchards are pursued by a bigger fish, called a 
 plusher, who leapcth above water, and bewraycth 
 them to the balher. Carew's Sur. of Corn. 
 
 BALKII, a province of Turkistan, bounded 
 on tlie north by the Amu, on the east by Badak- 
 shin, on the south by the Ilindu-cusli, and on 
 the west by the deserts of Khwarezm, tlie ancient 
 Bactria. Its present extent is about 250 miles 
 
 from east to west, and about 110 fiom north to 
 south. The southern and eastern districts are 
 comparatively cool for the climate, and the val- 
 leys towards the Amu are well watered and fer- 
 tile. The rivers from the Ilindu-cush, we learn 
 from Mr. Elphinstone, flow in a direction almost 
 due north, into the Amii : the Koksha, or Ba- 
 dakhshan, is the easternmost; next comes the 
 Ak-serai ; and the last and most westerly, the 
 llehas, loses itself in the sands before it reaches 
 Balkh. Balkh is divided into the districts of 
 Maimench, Andekhud, Shilburkan, or Shibberg- 
 han, Balkh Proper, Kulum, Hazeret Imam, 
 Kundus Khost, Inderab, and Talikan. The 
 three first border on the deserts, and are occupied 
 by wandering hordes of Uzbegs and Turcomans. 
 Balkh, a city of Turkistan, the capital of the 
 above province, stands in lat. 36° 43' N., long. 
 65° 20' E. ; it is now in ruins ; but is surrounded 
 by 360 fertile villages. The districts Kulum 
 and Hazeret Imam are barren, but those on the 
 north side of the Hindu-cush, are productive 
 and well peopled. The population of the whole 
 province amounts probably to a million. Balkh 
 was originally built by Kayiimaras, and was the 
 favorite residence of the Persian kings of the 
 Caianian dynasty. It was once esteemed the 
 chief Mussulman city in the north, and called 
 Kubbatu'l islam, (the holy shrine of Islamism). 
 Jengiz Khan took it in 1221, and the last of his 
 family was driven out of it by Tamerlane. In 
 the beginning of the sixteenth century the house 
 of Taimur was expelled by the Uzbegs, who have 
 ever since maintained a precarious dominion 
 over these provinces. Kilij Ali Bey was the 
 reigning prince when Mr. Elphinstone visited 
 Afghanistan, nominally acknowledging the autho- 
 rity of the king of C^bul ; but in all the niternal 
 government entirely independent. 
 
 BALKY, a large decayed old town of Hin- 
 dostan, in the province of Beeder, surrounded by 
 a wall. It is distant fifteen miles W.N. W. of 
 Beeder, and forty-five north-east of Kalbergah. 
 Long. 77° 29' E., lat. 17° 49' N. 
 
 BALL, a small place in the county of 
 Mayo, 107 miles from Dublin. Here is a 
 celebrated holy well and a round tower ; also at 
 Moat in the neighbourhood the ruins of an ancient 
 abbey. In the course of the festival held here it 
 it is said that 300 sheep are sometimes con- 
 sumed. 
 
 Ball (John), a puritan divine, born in Ox- 
 fordshire in 1585. He had a curacy of £20 per 
 annum in Staffordshire, and kept a school. He 
 wrote strongly against such as separated from the 
 church, as disapproving of the ceremonies and 
 government, though he was far from being satis- 
 fied with these in some respects himself. He 
 died in 1640. 
 
 BALL'. Germ, and Dutch hollen^bol, to roll, 
 turn, round ; any thing round, or roundly, as a 
 cricket ball, a billiard ball, the eye ball, the globe, 
 any thing globular. 
 
 ' Bal, diminutively Bclin, the sun, or Apollo, 
 of the Celta;, was called by the ancient Gauls 
 Abcllio. Whatever was round, and in particular 
 the head, was called by the ancients either Bal, or 
 jBe/,andlikewiseI}u/and Bui. Amongthe modern 
 Persians, the head is called Fole ; and the 1 lem-
 
 BALL. 
 
 421 
 
 ings do still call the liead Boile. UoXoq is the 
 head or poll ; and ttoXhv is to turn. EoXoc like- 
 wise signifies a round ball, whence bowl, and 
 hell, and bull, which the Welsh term 6t7. By the 
 Scotch also the head is named bhel ; whence the 
 English bill is derived, signifying the beak of a 
 bird. Figuratively, the Phrygians and Thurians 
 by [iaWijv understood a king. Hence also, in 
 the Syriac dialects, /3aa\, /3?jX, and likewise 
 /3wX, signifies lord, and by this name also the 
 sun ; and in some dialects, HX and IX, whence 
 IXoc and HXioe, rjjXioc and Bj;Xioe, and also, in 
 the Celtic diminutive way of expression, EXivoq, 
 FtXevog, and BtXfvog, signified the sun ; and EXtvrj, 
 riXevri, and BtXevi}, the moon. Among the Teu- 
 tonics, hoi and heil have the same meaning ; 
 whence the adjective holig, or liellig, is derived, 
 and signifies divine or holy ; and the aspiration 
 being changed into s, the Romans form their Sol.' 
 
 Baxter. 
 For where as God hath shewed unto us certain 
 tokes of his Godhed, in the heavenly balles and cir- 
 cles above, and on the yearthe beneth, in the sea, 
 and in all lyuing creatures on the yearthe, yet hath 
 he wrought in none of thym more wonderfully than 
 in manne. Udall. Acts, ch. xvii. 
 
 The palme play, where despoiled for the game. 
 With dased eyes oft we by gleams of love 
 Have missed the ball, and got sight of our dame. 
 To bait her eyes which kept the leads above. 
 
 Earl of Surrey. 
 Be subject to no sight bat mine ; invisible 
 To every eye-hall else. Shakspeare. 
 
 Balls to the stars, and thralls to fortune reigu, 
 Tum'd from themselves, infected with their cage. 
 Where death is fear'd, and life is held with pain. 
 
 Sidney. 
 Those I have seen play at ball, grow extremely ear- 
 nest who should have the ball. Id. 
 What, though in solemn silence, all 
 Move round the dark terrestrial ball! 
 What tho' nor real voice nor sound 
 Amid their radiant orbs be found 1 
 In reason's ear they all rejoice. 
 And utter forth a glorious voice ; 
 For ever singing, as they shine, 
 ' The hand that made us is divine.' 
 
 ATidrew Marvell. 
 *»* This, with the other sublime and beautiful 
 hymns in the Spectator, were meanly with- 
 held from their genuine author, and falsely 
 ascribed to Addison and Tickell. 
 Nor arms they wear, nor swords and bucklers wield. 
 But whirl from leathern strings huge balls of lead. 
 
 Dryden, 
 Thus nothing to her genius was deny'cl ; 
 
 But, like a ball of fire, the further thrown. 
 Still with a greater blaze she shone; 
 
 And her bright soul broke out on ev'ry side^ Id. 
 
 Like a hall of snow tumbling down a hill, he 
 
 gathered strength as he passed. Howell. 
 
 Ye gods, what justice rules the hall? 
 
 Freedom and arts together fall. Pope. 
 
 Tis but a hall bandied to and fro, and every man 
 
 carries a racket about him to strike it from himself 
 
 among the rest of the company. Swift. 
 
 Ball', n. s. Fr. bul, from balare, low Lat. 
 from fiuX\ii,Hv. To throw or cast about the legs 
 and feet, from jSaXXw, to throw. An entertain- 
 ment of dancing ; a fashionable amusement, 
 either public or private ; in the former case it is 
 
 conducted and controlled by a master of the 
 ceremonies ; and in the latter it is given by in- 
 dividuals, and is select, because none are ad- 
 mitted but persons specially invited. At public 
 balls, or dancing assemblies, the expenses are 
 defrayed by the company; at private entertain- 
 ments of this description, the guests are gratui- 
 tous participants. 
 
 He would make no extraordinary figure at a 6a//; 
 but I can assure the ladies, for their consolation, that 
 he has written better verses on the sex than any man, 
 
 Sbvift, 
 Have you not been in pain even at a ball, because 
 another has been taken out to dance before you. 
 
 Tatler, No. 253. 
 There's nothing in the world like etiquette ; 
 In kingly chambers, or imperial halls. 
 As also at the race and county balls. Byron. 
 
 Ball, among Cornish miners, a tin mine. 
 
 Ball, in antiquity, a species of game frequent 
 among the ancients. The Romans had four 
 kinds of pilse, or balls ; the first called trigon or 
 trigonalis, because the three gamesters were 
 placed in a triangle : these caught and tossed the 
 ball, taking great care not to let it fall to the 
 ground. The second and third, called follis, 
 made of leather, blown up like our foot-balls: 
 the largest sort of these were struck with the arm, 
 the smaller with the fist : the former seem to have 
 been distinguished by the appellation, paganica, 
 as being much used in country villages : the fourth 
 was the harpast, a kind of small ball, so called be- 
 cause the gamesters endeavoured to snatch it from 
 each other. Galen has an entire treatise on the 
 exercise of tiie lesser ball. 
 
 Ball, Hero's, pila Heronis, a kind of artificial 
 fountain, wherein the water is made to spout out 
 of a hollow ball or globe ; so named from the 
 inventor, Hero of Alexandria, who has left the 
 description of it in his Spiritalia. 
 
 The Ball of a Dog's Foot is the prominent 
 part of the middle of the foot, called by Latin 
 writers of the middle age, pelota. 
 
 Ball of a Pendulum, the weight at the bot- 
 tom. In shorter pendulums, it is called the 
 bob. 
 
 Ball Puff, iu botany, the English name of 
 the lycoperdon. See Lycoperdon. 
 
 Ball Vein, in mineralogy, a name sometimes 
 given by miners to a sort of iron ore, common in 
 Suffolk, and wrought to a considerable advan- 
 tage. It yields not any great quantity of metal, 
 but what it has runs freely in the fire, and is 
 usually found in loose masses, covered with one 
 or more crusts. It contains some sparkling par- 
 ticles ; and is usually of a circular form in tiie 
 perfect masses, thickest in the middle, and gradu- 
 ally diinner as it approaches the sides. 
 
 Ball, French, balle, in the military art, com- 
 prehends all sorts of bullets for fire-arms, from 
 the cannon to the pistol ; also a composition of 
 divers ing^redients, generally of the combustible 
 kinds, serving to burn, give light, smoke, stench, 
 or the like ; as fire-balls, light-balls, smoke-balls, 
 stink-balls, land-balls, &c. Cannon-balls are 
 made of iron, musket-balls, pistol-balls, fee. are 
 of lead. The experiment has been tried of iron 
 bails for pistols and fusees, but they are justly 
 rejected, not only on account of their lightness.
 
 422 
 
 BALLS. 
 
 which prevents them from flying straight, but 
 because tliey are apt to furrow the barrel of the 
 pistol, &c. 
 
 Cannon-balls are distinguished by their respec- 
 tive calibres : dius 
 
 6-10 
 5-54 
 5-04 
 
 nnnnrl Vinll flip l 4-40 ^ 
 
 4-00 f 
 
 3-49 
 
 2-77 
 
 2-42 
 
 1-92 
 
 For a 
 
 r42^ 
 
 32 
 
 24 
 
 18 
 
 i 12 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 pound ball the 
 diameter is 
 
 -^ 
 
 A new description of inflammable balls, ap- 
 plicable for besieging a town, and peculiar for 
 its small weight, by which means it may be 
 thrown to a great distance, and takes fire on a 
 very curious plan, has been invented by Captain 
 Thomas Dundas, of the royal navy. It spreads 
 a flame in three distinct openings, which is so 
 strong that the fire extends a full yard in length 
 from the ball itself, and is so powerful that any 
 thing under, over, or near, cannot escape its 
 eff'ects. See the article Shot. 
 
 Balls, Anchor, are made in the same way as 
 the light-balls, hereafter described, and filled with 
 the same composition, only with this addition, 
 that these are made with an iron bar two-thirds 
 of the ball's diameter in length, and three or 
 four inches square. One-half is fixed within the 
 ball, and the other half remains without; the 
 exterior end is made with a grapple hook. An- 
 chor-balls are very useful to set fire to wooden 
 bridges, or any thing made of wood, or even 
 the rigging of ships, &c. for the pile end being 
 the heaviest, flies foremost, and wherever it 
 touches, fastens, and sets all on fire about it. 
 ■" Balls, Chain, are two balls linked together 
 by a chain of eight or ten inches long, and some 
 have been made with a chain of three or four 
 feet long ; they are used to destroy the palisa- 
 does, wooden bridges, and chevaux-de-frizes of 
 a fortification. They are also very destructive to 
 the rigging of a ship. 
 
 Balls, Fire and Light; the Greeks had 
 various kinds of fire-balls, or UvpopoXoi \i9oi ; 
 one kind called, more particularly, (yKvraXia, or 
 ffKVToKiBtQ, made of wood, sometimes a foot, or 
 even a cubit long ; their head armed with spikes 
 of iron, beneath which were hemp, pitch, and 
 other combustibles, which being set on fire, they 
 were cast among the enemy. Also composed of 
 mealed powder two, saltpetre one and a half, 
 sulphur one, resin one, turpentine two and a 
 half parts. Sometimes they are made of an iron 
 shell, sometimes a stone, filled and covered with 
 various coats of the above composition, till it 
 conglomerates to a proper size, the last coat 
 being of grained powder. But the best method 
 of making them is to take thick brown paper, 
 make a shell the size of the mortar, and fill it 
 with a composition of an equal quantity of sul- 
 phur, pitch, resin, and mealed powder ; which 
 being well mixed, and put in warm, will give a 
 clear fire, and burn a considerable time. When 
 they are intended to fire magazines, buildings, 
 
 h.c. the composition must be mealed powder, ten, 
 saltpetre two, sulphur four, and resin one ; or 
 ratiier mealed powder forty-eight, saltpetre thirty- 
 two, sulphur sixteen, resin four, steel or iron 
 filings two, fir tree saw-dust boiled in saltpetre ley, 
 two, birch-wood charcoal one, well rammed into 
 a shell for that purpose, having various holes 
 filled with small barrels, loaded with musket- 
 balls ; and lastly, the whole immerged in melted 
 pitch, resin, and turpentine oil. 
 
 Balls, Poisoned; the Indian and African 
 nations have always been ingenious at poisoning 
 several sorts of warlike stores and instruments. 
 Their composition is generally mealed powder 
 four, pitch six, resin three, sulphur five, assa- 
 foetida eight, extract of toads' poison twelve, 
 other poisonous substances twelve, made into 
 balls as above directed. At the commencement 
 of the French revolution, poisoned balls were 
 exhibited to the people, pretended to have been 
 fired by the Austrians, particularly at the siege of 
 Lisle. Major James says he has seen some of 
 this sort. They contained glass, small pieces of 
 iron, &c. and were said to be concocted together 
 by means of a greasy composition, which was 
 impregnated with poisonous matter. In 1792 
 they were deposited in the archives of Paris, 
 
 Balls, Red-hot, are heated red-hot upon a 
 large coal fire in a square hole made in the 
 ground, six feet every way, and four or five feet 
 deep. Some make the fire under an iron grate, 
 on which the shell or ball is laid ; but the best 
 method is to put the ball into the middle of a 
 clear burning fire, and when red-hot, all the fiery 
 particles must be swept off". Whatever machine 
 you use to throw the red-hot ball out of, it must 
 be elevated according to the distance you intend 
 it shall range, and the charge of powder must be 
 put into a flannel cartridge, and a good wad 
 upon that ; then a piece of wood of the exact 
 diameter of the piece, and about three inches 
 and a half thick, to prevent the ball from setting 
 fire to the powder ; then place the ball on the 
 edge of the mortar, &c. with an instrument for 
 that purpose, and let it roll of itself against the 
 wood, and instantly fire it off. Should there be 
 a ditch or parallel before such a battery, with 
 soldiers, the wood must not be used, as the blast 
 of powder will break it to pieces, and its own 
 elasticity prevent it from flying far ; it would in 
 that case either kill or wound your own people. 
 On this account the wad must be double, the 
 second being damp. If the gun lies at a de- 
 pression, there must be a wad over the shot, 
 which may be rammed home. 
 
 Balls, Smoke, are prepared similarly to 
 other fire-balls, and they contain five to one of 
 pitch, resin, and saw-dust. This composition 
 is put into shells made for that purpose, having 
 four holes to let out the smoke. Smoke-balls 
 are thrown out of mortars, and continue to smoke 
 from twenty-five to thirty minutes- 
 
 Balls, Stang, are generally termed bar-shot, 
 and by some called balls of two-heads ; they 
 are sometimes made of two half-balls, joined 
 together by a bar of iron from eight to fourteen 
 inches long : they are likewise made of two en- 
 tire balls ; they answer the same purpose as the 
 before-mentioned .
 
 BALLS. 
 
 423 
 
 Balls, Stuck, ore prepared by a composition 
 of mealed powder, resin, saltpetre, pitch, sul- 
 phur, rasped horses and asses hoofs, burnt in the 
 fire, assa-foetida, seraphim gum or ferula, and 
 bug or stinking herbs, made up into balls, as 
 mentioned in light-balls, agreeable to the size of 
 the mortar out of which they are to be thrown. 
 
 Balls, in electricity, are two pieces of cork, or 
 pith of elder, nicely turned in a lathe to the size 
 of a small pea, and suspended by fine linen 
 threads ; intended as electrometers, and of excel- 
 lent use to discover small degrees of electricity, 
 to observe the changes of it from positive to 
 negative, and vice versa ; and to estimate the 
 force of a shock before the discharge, so that the 
 operator should always.be able to tell very nearly 
 before the discharge, by knowing how high he 
 has charged his jars, what the explosion will be. 
 
 Balls, in heraldry. See Ballets. 
 
 Balls, Crystallixe. There are two sorts of 
 fossil bodies mentioned in authors by this name, 
 and distinguished into the echinated, and con- 
 cave. The first are roundish nodules of stony 
 matter, covered over with points of crystal ; and 
 the other flints, and other stones, having cavities 
 in their middles, which are lined, or crusted over 
 with these crystals. 
 
 Balls, Horse, among farriers. Horses have 
 a very nice taste ; it is therefore proper to give 
 the most disagreeable drugs, in the form of balls, 
 and to make drenches of the more palatable. 
 Balls should be of an oval shape, not exceeding 
 the size of a pullet's egg; and should be dipped 
 in sweet oil to make them slip down the easier. 
 Some horses have a strait gullet, which makes 
 them very averse to a ball being thrust down 
 their throats; such horses had better have drenches 
 given them, or their medicines may be mixed 
 with bran, or in their mashes. See Farriery, 
 Index. 
 
 Balls, Mercurial, in pharmacy, are an 
 amalgam of mercury and tin, sufficiently solid 
 to be moulded, and to preserve a given form. 
 The method of making them is by adding mer- 
 cury to melted tin, and pouring the fluid mass 
 into a round hollow mould. These balls are 
 sometimes employed to purify water, in which 
 they are boiled. 
 
 Balls of Fire, in meteorology, a kind of 
 luminous bodies, commonly appearing at a great 
 height above the earth, with a splendor surpass- 
 ing that of the moon ; and even occasionally 
 equalling her apparent size. They generally 
 proceed with great velocity in this hemisphere, 
 from north to south, frequently breaking into 
 several smaller ones, sometimes vanishing with a 
 report, and sometimes not. These luminous 
 appearances no doubt constitute one branch of 
 the ancient prodigies, or blazing stars. They 
 sometnues resemble comets, in being attended 
 with a train, but frequently they appear with a 
 round and well defined disk. The first of which 
 we have any accurate account, was observed by 
 Dr. Halley and otiiers at different places, in 1719. 
 From the slight observations they could take of 
 its course among the stars, its perpendicular height 
 was computed at about seventy miles from the 
 surface of the earth. The height of others has 
 also been computed, and found to be various; 
 
 though in general it is supposed to be beyond the 
 limits assigned to our atmosphere, or where it 
 loses its refractive power. The most remarkable 
 on record appeared on the 18th of Au;^nist 1783, 
 about nine o'clock in the evening. It was seen 
 to the northward of Shetland, and took a south- 
 erly direction for an immense space, being obser- 
 ved as far as the southern provinces of France 
 and Rome. During its course it appears fre- 
 quently to have changed its shape, sometimes 
 appearing in the form of one ball, sometimes two 
 or more ; sometimes with a train, sometimes 
 without one. It passed over Edinburgh nearly 
 in the zenith, and had then the appearance of a 
 well defined, round body, extremely luminous, 
 and of a greenish color ; the light which it 
 diffused on the ground giving likewise a greenish 
 cast to objects. After passing the zenith, it was 
 attended by a train of considerable length, which 
 continually augmenting, at last obliterated the 
 head entirely, so that it looked like a wedge, flying 
 with the obtuse end foremost. The motion was 
 not apparently swift, by reason of its great height ; 
 though in reality it must have moved with great 
 rapidity, on account of the vast space it travelled 
 over in a short time. In other places its appear- 
 ance was very diff'erent. At Greenwich, we are 
 told, that two bright balls parallel to each other 
 led the way, the diameter of which appeared to 
 be about two feet ; and were followed by an ex- 
 pulsion of eight others, not elliptical, seeming 
 gradually to mutilate, for the last was small. 
 Between each two balls a luminous serrated body 
 extended, and at the last a blaze issued which 
 terminated in a point. Minute particles dilated 
 from the whole. The balls were tinted first by 
 a pure bright light, then follow^ed by a delicate 
 yellow, mixed with azure, red, green, &c. which, 
 with a coalition of bolder tints, and a reflection 
 from the other balls, gave the most beautiful 
 rotundity and variation of colors that the human 
 eye could be charmed with. The sudden illumi- 
 nation of the atmosphere, and the form and 
 singular transition of this bright luminary, tend- 
 ed much to make it awful : nevertheless the 
 amazing vivid appearance of the diff'erent balls, 
 and other rich connective parts not very easy to 
 delineate, gave an effect equal to the rainbow in 
 the zenith of its glory. Dr. Blagden, in ii paper 
 on this subject in the seventy-fourth volume of 
 the Philosophical Transactions, has not only given 
 a particular account of this and other meteors of 
 the kind, but added several conjectures relating to 
 the probable causes of them. The opinion which 
 he finally adopts, as the most probable, is, that 
 these fire-balls are great bodies of electric matter 
 moving from one part of the heavens, w'here to 
 our conception it is superabundant, to another 
 where it is deficient. 
 
 Other fireballs have appeared much smaller 
 and nearer the surface of the earth, and some- 
 times rolling or falling upon it, and exploding 
 with violence; as is the case with those wliich 
 appear in the time of thunder, and frequently 
 produce mischievous effects. One of these is 
 mentioned by some authors as falling in a serene 
 evening in the island of Jamaica; exploding as 
 soon as it touched the surface of the ground, and 
 making a considerable hole in it. Another is
 
 424 
 
 BALLAD. 
 
 mentioned by Dr. Priestley, as rolling along the 
 surface of the sea, then rising and striking the 
 top-mast of a man of war, exploding and 
 damaging the ship. In like manner we hear of 
 an electrified cloud at Java, whence, without any 
 thunder storm, there issued a vast number of 
 fireballs which did incredible mischief. All these 
 point out the true origin of balls of this kind, 
 viz. an extensive accumulation of electricity 
 bursting from one part of the atmosphere to 
 another. 
 
 This is confirmed by an experiment related at 
 the end of Dr. Priestley's fifth volume on air. 
 He states that a gentleman having charged with 
 a very powerful machine, a jar, which had- the 
 wire supporting the nob of a considerable length, 
 and passed through a glass tube, a globe of fire 
 was seen to issue out of it. Tliis globe gradually 
 ascended up the glass tube till it came to the top 
 of the knob, where it settled, turning swiftly on 
 its axis and appearing like a red-hot iron ball of 
 three quarters of an inch diameter. On con- 
 tinuing to turn the machine, it gradually descended 
 into the jar, which it had no sooner done, than 
 there ensued a most violent explosion and flash, 
 the jar being discharged and broken at the same 
 time. We may yet gather from these experi- 
 ments, that a fireball ^\•ill be the consequence of 
 a very violent electrification of any substance, 
 provided at the same time that the air be in a 
 very non-conducting state, so that the electricity 
 may not evaporate into it as fast as it is collected ; 
 for this would produce only lucid streams and 
 flashes, as in the common experiments with the 
 Leyden phial, and it is probably an inattention 
 to this circumstance which has hithezto prevented 
 the repetition of the experiment above mentioned. 
 The case is the same in thunder-storms, where 
 an excessive accumulation of electric matter 
 always produces fireballs, tlie most mischievous 
 kind of lightning. A philosopher of the last 
 century, it is well known, met his death from a 
 ball of this description in attempting to draw the 
 electric fluid from the clouds. 
 
 Balls of Hair and other substances, in 
 natural history, covered over with a smooth, 
 shining coat, or shell, are mentioned by zoolo- 
 gists, as sometimes found in the stomachs of 
 several animals ; they occur most frequently in 
 those quadrupeds which lick the surface of their 
 bodies, in which case they are composed of the 
 hair that has been removed by the tongue ; the 
 hair, partly by the operation of licking, and still 
 more by the motion of the stomach, becomes 
 mixed and interwoven in a such a manner, that it 
 resembles the texture of a hat, and when moulded 
 into a round figure, receives a smooth, shining 
 coat, or calculous incrustation. These are the 
 sort of balls usually met with in the cow, sheep, 
 and goat kind, especially the chamois. Every 
 indigestible substance that is swallowed is liable, 
 however, to give origin to these balls, or to form 
 a nucleus for calculous concretion ; hence we 
 meet with them composed of the reedy fibres of 
 vegetables, husks of seeds, feathers, and different 
 animal and vegetable exuvia:. Wlien such sub- 
 stances, as stones of fruit, nuts, or inorganic 
 substances, as pebbles, coins, &c. arc long de- 
 tained, and have been covered with a deep in- 
 
 crustation, they constitute the bezoardic stones. 
 See Bezoar and TEgagropila. 
 
 According to some writers the human subject 
 is liable to the formation of balls in the intes- 
 tines, in consequence of indigestible matters not 
 being regularly expelled. Cases have been re- 
 lated of death ensuing from accumulations of 
 gooseberry seeds, which had been rolled into a 
 solid ball in the stomach ; and Sir Hans Sloane 
 gives the history of a ball found in the intestines 
 of a man, much afflicted with the colic, six inches 
 in circumference, of a spongy substance, and 
 which, when viewed with a microscope, appeared 
 made up of small transparent hairs or fibres, 
 wrought together like the tophus bovinus ; in the 
 middle was a common plumb stone, wliich made, 
 as it were, the core or nucleus upon which tlie 
 fibrous matter had collected, stratum super stra- 
 tum. Phil. Trans. No. 309, p. 2387. Sloane, 
 in Phil. Trans. No. 282, p. 1282. 
 
 Balls of Silk Worms, or Balls of Spiders, 
 are little cases or cones of silk, wherein those 
 insects deposit their eggs. Spiders are extremely 
 tender in their balls, which they carry about with 
 them, adhering to the papillte about their anus. 
 Grew mentions balls or bags of a species of silk- 
 worms in Virginia, as big as hen's eggs, and 
 containing each four aurelias. 
 
 Balls, Vegetable, in botany a particular 
 plant of a deep green color, of an irregular sphe- 
 rical shape, hollow within, and of different sizes, 
 from an inch and a half to three inches in di- 
 ameter. It probably belongs to the conserva 
 genus, in the class of mosses ; though Dr. Ray 
 has ranged a similar plant under the genus of 
 alcyonium. 
 
 BAL'LAD, V. & n.'^ Fr. balade, Ital. ballata. 
 Bal'lader, a song. It once signi- 
 
 Bal'ladry, [ fied a solemn and sacred 
 
 Bal'lated, I song : the Song of Solo- 
 
 Bal'latry, mon was called the hal- 
 
 Bal'lett. J let of ballets. It is now 
 
 generally employed to designate those popular 
 compositions which are sung in simple melodies 
 by all classes of the community ; and which, 
 while true to nature, illustrate the manners, cus- 
 toms, and opinions, of the age and country to 
 which they belong. In composition, this word 
 is used as 6a//a(f -monger, 6«//((J-singer, &c. 
 At certaine timis gan repaire 
 
 Smale bird is doune from the aire. 
 
 And on the shipis bounds aboute, 
 
 Ysate and song v.-ith voyce full out. 
 
 Ballades and layes right ioyously. Chaucer 
 
 And also I have ofte assaide 
 
 Roundel, balades, and vercloie 
 
 For her, on whom myn hert laie. 
 
 To make. Gou-er. 
 
 Alas ! I make but repetition. 
 Of what is ordinary and ryalto talk, 
 And balleted, and would be plaid o' the stage. 
 But that vice many times finds such loved friends, 
 Tliat preachers are charm'd silent. Webster 
 
 And otherwhyles with amourous delights. 
 And pleasing toys he would her entertaiue ; 
 Kow singing sweetly to surprize her sprights j 
 ■Now making lays of love, and lover's paine, 
 Bransles, ballads, virclaycs, and verses vainc j 
 Ott purposes, oft riddles he de\'ys'd, 
 A:r.l lliou'sands like which fiov/ed in his braine.
 
 BALLADS. 
 
 425 
 
 With wliiche he led her fancy, and entys'J 
 
 To take to his new love, and l^ave her old despys'd. 
 
 Spenser's Faerie (Jueene. 
 Is there not a ballad, boy, of the king and the beggar 1 
 
 Shakspeare. 
 
 The world was very guilty of such ballads some 
 three ages since. Id. 
 
 I had rather be a kitten, and cry mew. 
 Than one of these same metre 6a//ad-monger3. /(/. 
 The ballatry and the gamut of every municipal fiddln. 
 
 Milton. 
 
 More solid things do not shew tlie complexion of 
 the times so well as ballads and libels. Selden. 
 
 No sooner 'gan he raise his tuneful song. 
 But lads and lasses round about him throng, 
 Not 6a//a(i-singer, plac'd above the crowd. 
 Sings with a note so shrilling, sweet, and loud. Gay. 
 
 Thither no more the peasant shall repair. 
 To sweet oblivion of his daily care ; 
 No more the farmer's news, the barber's tale. 
 No more the woodman's ballad shall prevail. 
 
 Goldsmith. 
 
 Ballads are ordinarily amongst the first 
 efforts of a semi-barbarous people in poetry ; 
 and a collection of the best and most popular 
 compositions of this kind will throw great light 
 on the manners of a people in any stage of theit 
 civilisation. We can only attempt a slight sketch 
 of the history of this kind of poetry in our own 
 country. ' That our ancestors,' says ^Ir. Turner, 
 (Anglo-Saxons, p. 287, c. ii.) ' had popular songs 
 on the actions of their great or favorite characters, 
 or on such other subjects as interested the vul- 
 gar mind, is proved by many instances, which 
 may be traced in the ancient writers. Alfred 
 says, in his manual, that no one had ever ap- 
 peared before Aldhelm, so competent in English 
 poetry; none had been able to compose so much, 
 or to sing and recite it so appositely. The king 
 mentions a popular ballad* of Aldhelm's, which 
 was in his time, (that is, nearly two centuries 
 afterwards) sung in the streets, ilalmsbury adds, 
 that Aldhelm, anxious to instruct his countrymen, 
 then semi-barbarous, and inattentive to their 
 religious duties, took his station on the public 
 bridge, as if a singer by profession, and, by mix- 
 ing sacred with lighter topics, won tlieir atten- 
 tion, and ameliorated their minds. Bede mentions 
 that in a festive company the harp was sent 
 round, that those might sing who could. It was 
 a book of Saxon poems, says the above historian, 
 wliich first allured Alfred to learn to read ; and 
 the fact that he had his children taught to read 
 the Saxon poems, and that he himself visited the 
 Danish camp as a harper, which, in the reign of 
 his grandson, Anlaf imitated, prove the existence 
 of popular songs which instructed both the child 
 and the rude warrior. 
 
 The connexion of these compositions with the 
 foundations of our history is clear. When 
 ^Nlalmsbury, after narrating the reign of Athel- 
 stan, proceeds to describe his origin from Ed- 
 ward's amour with a shepherd's daughter, he says. 
 The foUowmg facts I have taken rather from the 
 songs (cantilenio) worn out by the course of time, 
 than from books composed for the instruction of 
 posterity. 
 
 A curious fragment of a ballad, composed by 
 Canute the Great, says Mr. Turner, has survived 
 
 to us. As this prince was sailing by the abbey, 
 in the isle of Ely, he lieard the monks chanting 
 tlieir psalms and anthems, and was so struck 
 with the interesting melody, that lie composed a 
 little Saxon ballad on the occasion, which began 
 thus ; — 
 
 ODep.e j-un^en i5e munechef uinnen Gly, 
 
 Tha Dnur chinj pevSep. by 
 
 Rope^ Dnitey-, noep ■<5e lan'D 
 
 Ano hepe pe iSep munechep r^"3- 
 
 Merry sang the monks in Ely 
 When Canute the king was sailing by ; 
 Row, ye knights, near the land. 
 And let us hear those monks' song. 
 
 In Domesday-book, the Joculator Regis, who 
 was evidently a minstrel, is mentioned as having 
 lands assigned for his maintenance in Gloucester- 
 shire, Du Cange, iii. 1-543 ; and in the battle of 
 Hastings, Tarblessen orTaillefer, an esquire in the 
 conqueror's army, obtained permission, as a sort 
 of forlorn hope, to lead the van, and threw him- 
 self upon the English spears, singing the popular 
 ballad. Chanson de Ptoland, Id. iv. 769. Sub- 
 sequent to the conquest we meet with many 
 genuine English songs : Horn Child : the .Squire 
 of lowe Degree : and a Lytele geste of Robin 
 Iloode, have been pointed out as tales without 
 foreign admixture. Richard Cceur de Lion w;is 
 at once the hero of chivalry and the patron of 
 song : his well known deliverance from captivity 
 in Germany is connected by history with our 
 subject ; and the celebrated Scotch novelist has 
 well availed himself of all the romantic truths 
 of the story, Edward IV. incorporated the 
 Minstrels by charter, and they were protected 
 by a corporation under the government of a 
 marslial and two wardens. This charter was 
 renewed by Henry VIII. But by statute 39 
 Eliz. the profession was visited witli the last dis- 
 grace, and minstrels were included and made 
 punishable among * rogues, vagabonds, and sturdy 
 beggars.' 
 
 Our older ballads are all in the northern dia- 
 lect : but singularly enough, on the accession of 
 the Stuarts, we find the whole spirit of these com- 
 positions evaporate ; and English minstrelsy be- 
 came extinct. See Percy's Reliques of English 
 Poetry : also Dr. Burney's History of Music : Sir 
 Walter Scott's Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border ; 
 and Warton's History. 
 
 BALLADUK, a town in the desert of Syria, 
 140 miles E.N.E. from Damascus. 
 
 BALLAGHAN Point, at the south-west en- 
 trance of Carlingford Bay, a cape on the east 
 coast of Ireland. Eleven miles S.E. of Newry. 
 Long. 6° 4' W., lat. 53"" 58' N. 
 
 BALLAGHAN, or Ballaghy, a town of 
 Ireland, in the county of Sligo, and province of 
 Connaught. Twenty miles south of Sligo, and 105 
 from Dublin. Long. 9° 50' W., lat. 53° 48' N. 
 
 BALLAGHNEED, a village of Ireland, in 
 Tyrone, with a good inn, seventy-eight miles 
 from Dublin. 
 
 BALLAGHY, three towns in Ireland, viz. 1 
 in Londonderry, ninety-two miles from Dublin. 
 •2. in the county of Mayo, ninety-seven miles 
 from Dublin. And 3. in Sligo. See Bal-
 
 426 
 
 BALLAST. 
 
 BALLAMONO, a village in the Isle of Man, 
 near Castletown. 
 
 B ALLAN, a town of France, in the depart- 
 ment of the Sarte, seated on the Orne. Long. 
 20'E.,lat. 48° 10' N. 
 
 BALLANDEN. See Ballexdex. 
 
 BALLANI, a species of shell-fish, about a 
 fino-er's length, which abound in the harbour of 
 An°ona, and lodge among the stones. They are 
 much valued at Rome, whither great quantities 
 are sent. 
 
 BALLANTRAE, a small post-town and pa- 
 rish of Scotland, in the county of Ayr. The 
 village stands at the mouth of the Stinchar. 
 It carries on a salmon-fishing and some cotton 
 manufactures. Distanttwenty-eightmilesS. S.W. 
 of Ayr. 
 
 BALLAPATTY, a town of the Carnatic, 
 in Hindostan, twelve miles west of Vencatigherry. 
 
 BALLAPILLY, a town of Hindostan, in the 
 ceded Balaghaut district of Commim. Long. 
 78° 38' E., lat. 15° N. 
 
 BAL'LARAG, v. a. A ludicrous and low 
 word, purporting to overpower by word or act ; 
 to bully ; to threaten. It is still used in the 
 north, and pronounced hullyrug. 
 
 On Mindcn's plains, ye meek mounseera ; 
 Remember Kingsley's grenadiers. 
 You vainly thought to ballyrag us. 
 With your fine squadron off Cape Lagos. Warton. 
 
 BALLARD (George), one of those occa- 
 sional geniuses in lower life which shoot up 
 without culture, was born at Campden, in Glou- 
 cestershire. Being of a weakly constitution, his 
 parents put him to a habit-maker; and in this 
 situation he mastered the Saxon language. The 
 time he employed in learning it was stolen from 
 sleep, after the labor of tlie day was over. Lord 
 Chedworth, and the gentlemen of his hunt, who 
 used to spend about a month of the season at 
 Campden, heard of his fame, and generously of- 
 fered him an annuity of £lOO, but he modestly 
 told them that £60 was fully sufficient to satisfy 
 both his wants and hi'^ wishes. Upon this he 
 retired to Oxford, for the benefit of the Bodleian 
 library ; and Dr. Jenner, president, made him 
 one of the eight clerks of Magdalen College. 
 He was afterwards one of the University bea- 
 dles, but died in June, 1755, rather young; 
 which is supposed to have been owing to too in- 
 tense appHcation. He left large collections be- 
 hind him, but published only Memoirs of Bri- 
 tish Ladies, who have been celebrated for their 
 Writings or Skill in the learned Languages, 
 Arts, and Sciences, 1752. 4to. He drew up an 
 account of Campden church, which was read at 
 the Society of Antiquaries, November 21, 1771. 
 Ballard, ^Cape, a cape of Newfoundland. 
 Long. 52° 26' W., lat. 46° 55' N'. 
 
 Ballard's-Poixt, a cape on the west coast 
 of Ireland, in the county of Clare. Longitude 
 9° 32' Vv., lat. 52' 42' N. 
 
 BALLARE, in middle-age authors, to dance. 
 BALLARINA, in ornithology, a name under 
 which Olina describes the white-wagtail, mota- 
 cilla alba. 
 
 BALLAS, a trading place on the left bank of 
 the Nile, Upper Egypt, where a great quantity 
 
 of earthen pots of a peculiar kind are manufac- 
 tured Ten miles south of Dendera. 
 
 BALLASSA-GYAR?tIATII, a considerable 
 market-town and castle of Hungary, in the 
 county of Neograd. It suffered dreadfully by a 
 confliigration in 1800; when no less than 568 
 houses were destroyed, and only fifty, with the 
 town-house, left standing. 
 
 BALLAS EDERE, a town of Ireland, in the 
 county of Sligo, 100 miles from Dublin, near a 
 water-fall. 
 
 BAL'LAST, u. & n. ( Ang.-Sax. hlsestan. 
 Bal'lastury. S be-hlaestan, to lade, 
 
 load, or fraught a ship. Past participle hloested, 
 be-hlffisted, loaded or laden. Dut. and Get 
 ballast. It is applied to that lading or loading 
 which is used to steady a vessel in the water, or 
 to steady any thing in its motion or action. See 
 Navigation, for the nautical illustration of the 
 term. 
 
 'Mongst friends ? 
 If brothers : — Would it had been so, that they 
 Had been my father's sons ! then had my prize 
 Been less ; and so more equal ballasting 
 To thee, Posthumus. Shakspeare. 
 
 There must be middle 'counsellors to keep things 
 steady ; for, without that ballast, the ship will roll too 
 much. Bacon. 
 
 While thus to ballast love I thought, 
 And so more steadily t' have gone, 
 I saw I had love's pinnace overfraught. Donne. 
 Now you have given me virtue for my guide. 
 And with true honour ballasted my pride. 
 
 Dryden. 
 
 Why should he sink where nothing seem'd to preis ? 
 
 His lading ilttle, and his ballast less. Swift. 
 
 Those men have not ballast enough of humility and 
 
 fear. Hammond's Sermons. 
 
 Ballast, in navigation. .The principal ob- 
 ject is to make a vessel sink to a proper depth in 
 the water, that she may steadily carry a suffi- 
 cient quantity of sail. "There is often great dif- 
 ference in the proportion of ballast required to 
 prepare ships of equal burthen for a voyage ; 
 the quantity being more or less according to the 
 sharpness or flatness of the ship's bottom, which 
 seamen call the floor. 
 
 The properly ballasting of a ship is amongst 
 the most important duties of the skilful mariner; 
 for, although it is known that ships in general 
 will not carry a sufficient quantity of sail, till 
 they are laden so deep that the surface of the 
 water will nearly glance on the extreme breadth 
 amidships, yet there is more than this general 
 knowledge required ; since, if she has a great 
 weight of heavy ballast, as lead, iron, &c. in the 
 bottom, it will place the centre of gravity too 
 low in the hold; and, although this will enable 
 her to carry a great sail, she will nevertheless 
 sail heavily, and run, in rolling, the risk of being 
 dismasted. 
 
 The ballast, therefore, should be so disposed 
 that she may be duly poised, and maintain a 
 proper equilibrium on the water, so as neither 
 to be too :>tiff" nor too crank : in the first, al- 
 though the ship may be fitted to carry a great 
 sail, her velocity will not be proportionably in- 
 creased ; whilst her masts are endanged by her 
 sudden jerks and laboring : and, in the last, she
 
 BALLAST. 
 
 427 
 
 will be incapable of carrying sail without the 
 risk of upsetting. The former is occasioned by 
 disposing too great a quantity of heavy ballast in 
 the bottom, -which brings the centre of gravity 
 near the keel ; and, that being the centre about 
 which the vibrations are made, the lower it is 
 placed, the more violent will be the motion of 
 rolling. Crankness, on the other hand, is occa- 
 sioned by disposing the ship's lading so as to 
 raise the centre of gravity too high, which endan- 
 gers the mast in carrying sail when it blows 
 hard : for when the masts lose their perpendi- 
 cular, they strain in the nature of a lever on the 
 shrouds, which increases as the sine of their 
 obliquity. 
 
 As a general principle, it may, therefore, be 
 observed, that ballast should be placed round 
 and near the centre of gravity of the ship, because 
 it will prevent the pitching being so violent as it 
 
 would be if it were carried much fore or aft of 
 that point. When a vessel is passing over a 
 wave, slie will be at one time supported below 
 the centre of gravity; and immediately after, 
 her head will incline downwards, or, as it is 
 termed, she will pitch ; when it is evident, that 
 the nearer the weight is to the point over which 
 thie vessel is supported, the less violent will the 
 motion be. But this rule stands in need of fre- 
 quent modifications : for which reason, a large 
 quantity of shifting ballast is allowed in the Royal 
 navy. Indeed, throughout the whole practice, 
 as we are finding a remedy for one fault, we are 
 in danger of running into another; and much of 
 the final distribution of ballast depends upon 
 knowing well the peculiarities of the vessel, and 
 observing experimentally, how different winds 
 and calms affect her. 
 
 The 
 
 following 
 
 was, until 
 
 lately, the Ballast allowed to our Men oi 
 
 7>^ar : 
 
 
 
 
 Shingle 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Shingle 
 
 Guns, 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Iron Tons. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Guns. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Iron Tons. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 110 
 
 2290 
 
 180 
 
 370 
 
 36 
 
 870 
 
 65 
 
 160 
 
 100 
 
 2090 
 
 180 
 
 370 
 
 32 
 
 700 
 
 65 
 
 140 
 
 98 
 
 2110 
 
 160 
 
 350 
 
 28 
 
 600 
 
 60 
 
 100 
 
 90 
 
 1870 
 
 160 
 
 350 
 
 24 
 
 500 
 
 50 
 
 80 
 
 80 
 
 1620 
 
 140 
 
 300 
 
 22 
 
 450 
 
 50 
 
 70 
 
 74 
 
 1700 
 
 80 
 
 270 
 
 20 
 
 400 
 
 50 
 
 60 
 
 1 64 
 
 1370 
 
 70 
 
 ^60 
 
 Sloop. 
 
 300 
 
 50 
 
 40 
 
 1 50 
 
 1100 
 
 65 
 
 170 
 
 Erigf 
 
 IGO 
 
 30 
 
 15 
 
 44 
 
 900 
 
 65 
 
 160 
 
 Cutter. 
 
 
 20 
 
 .Seldom 
 
 38 
 
 930 
 
 70 
 
 170 
 
 Sloop, 
 
 
 15 
 
 any. 
 
 The general practice then was, first, to stow 
 the iron ballast fore and aft, from bulkhead to 
 bulkhead, in the main hold, next to fir cants, 
 nailed on the limber strakes, on each side of the 
 kelson, five or more inches clear of the limber 
 boards ; and winged up three or four piga above 
 the floor-heads in the midships, or bearing part 
 of the ship, with two tiers of pigs in the wake 
 of the main hatchway, &c. The shingle ballast 
 was spread and levelled over the iron ballast, on 
 which was stowed the lower tier of water-casks, 
 with the bungs up, and the bilge clear of the 
 sides. The midship tiers were first laid, and 
 the casks sunk about one quarter of their dia- 
 meter into the shingle ; the sides being filled in 
 with small casks, as half-hogsheads, &c. 
 
 Since the introduction of iron tanks, shingle 
 ballast has been altogether laid aside, and iron 
 ballast only employed, the present proportion 
 of which, according to the practice of the navy, 
 is as follows : — 
 
 Table of the proportion of Iron Ballast at present 
 allowed in the navy, in propcrrtion to their ton- 
 nage. 
 
 To all three-deckers, Jth of computed ton- 
 nage. 
 
 To two-deckers and oak frigates -^xXi ditto. 
 To fir frigates ^^ths of ditto. 
 To 22-gun ships and sloops, ^th ditto. 
 To brigs, sloops, Sec. ^th ditto. 
 
 Smaller vessels are not submitted to these 
 rules ; but are ballasted as circumstances may 
 require, according to the judgment of their offi- 
 cers. In ships of the line, sixteen ton of the 
 above, called shingle ballast, is moveable as 
 circumstances require, and half that quantity to 
 frigates. 
 
 Additional ballast, to the amount of one-third, 
 and even one-half, of the original quantity is 
 sometimes, however, demanded : and the table 
 only exhibits the official and ordinary allowance. 
 
 In the merchant-service, the stowage consists, 
 besides the other ballast, of casks, cases, bales, 
 boxes, &c. all carefully wedged off" from the 
 bottom, sides, pump-well, &:c. and great atten- 
 tion is paid that the most weighty materials are 
 stowed nearest to the centre of gravity, or bear- 
 ing of the ship; and higher or lower in the hold 
 agreeably to the form of the vessel. A full low- 
 built vessel requires them to be stowed high up, 
 that the centre of gravity may be raised, to keep 
 her from rolling away her masts, and from being 
 too stiff" and laborsome ; as, on the contrary, a 
 narrow high-built vessel requires the most 
 weighty materials to be stowed low down, near- 
 est the kelson, that the centre of gravity may be 
 kept low, to enable her to carry more sail. To 
 yachts and other small vessels, both in the navy 
 ;ind merchant-service, the ballast is sometimes 
 lead, worked between the timbers. 
 
 By the 19 Geo. II. it is enacted, that if any
 
 BAL 
 
 428 
 
 BAL 
 
 ■naster or owner, or any person acting as master 
 of any ship or other vessel whatsoever, shall cast, 
 throw out, or unlade, or if there shall be thrown 
 out, &c. of any vessel, being within any haven, 
 port, road, channel, or navigable river within 
 England, any ballast, rubbish, gravel, earth, 
 stone, wreck, or filth, but only upon the land, 
 where the tide and water never flow s or runs ; 
 any one or more justices for the county or place 
 where, or near which the offence shall be com- 
 mitted, upon the information thereof, shall sum- 
 mon or issue his warrant for bringing the master 
 or owner of the vessel, or other person acting as 
 such, before him; and, upon appearance or de- 
 fault, shall proceed to examine the matter, and 
 upon proof made thereof, either by confession of 
 the party, or on view of the justice, or upon the 
 oath of one or more creditable witnesses, he shall 
 convict the said master, &c. and fine him at his 
 discretion for every such offence, any sum not 
 exceeding £5, nor under 50s. &c.; and for want 
 of sufficient distress, the justice is to commit the 
 master, or person acting as such, and convicted 
 as aforesaid, to the common jail or house of cor- 
 rection, for the space of two months, or until 
 payment of the penalties. 
 
 Besides the above general act, there are the 
 6 Geo. II. c. 29, and the 32 Geo. II. which re- 
 gulate the ballasting of merchant-vessels in the 
 river Thames, placing it under the direction of 
 the corporation of the Trinity-house. 
 
 To trench the ballast, denotes, to divide the 
 ballast into two several parts or more, in the 
 ship's hold, commonly done to find a leak in the 
 bottom of a ship, or to undock her. 
 
 Shooting of the ballast is when it runs over 
 from the one side to the other. Hence, it is that 
 com, and all kinds of grain, is dangerous lading, 
 for that is apt to shoot. To prevent which, they 
 make poucles ; that is, bulkheads of boards, 
 to secure it from moving about. 
 
 BALLATAR Crag, a rocky hill in Aber- 
 deenshire, whose tremendous impending rocks 
 seem to threaten the astonished traveller svith in- 
 stant destruction. 
 
 BALLATIONES, in middle age writers, dan- 
 cings. 
 
 BALLATOONS, large heavy luggage-boats, 
 used for carrying wood by the river from Astra- 
 khan and the Caspian Sea from Moscow. They 
 will carrj' from 100 to 200 tons, and have from 
 100 to 120 men employed to row and tow them 
 along. 
 
 BALLANTYNE (John), was a native of 
 Kelso, in Iloxburgshiie; and at an early age en- 
 tered into business as a printer. He, with his 
 brother, distinguished himself by the great im- 
 provement of the art, evinced in the extensive 
 publications which have of late years issued from 
 their press. He was at one time a proprietor of 
 the Kelso INIail ; and subsequently ushered into 
 the world the publications known tis the Wa- 
 verly novels. He was possessed of sufficient 
 literary talents to be tliought at one time to be 
 their author. He died in 1821. 
 
 BALLEBHODAN, the original name of the 
 parish of Ardchattan, Argylesliire. 
 
 BALLENA, Punta de la, a point of land on 
 the east coast of tlie island of Mar^raritta; 
 
 another in Chili, on the coast of the province ot 
 Quillota : another in the kingdom of Quito, and 
 on the shore of the South Sea. 
 
 Ballena, a river of Florida, which falls into 
 the Atlantic. 
 
 BALLENDEN (Sir John), a Scottish poet, in 
 the reign of James V., descended from an an- 
 cient family in that kingdom. His father, Mr. 
 Thomas Ballenden, of Auchinoul, was director 
 to the chancery in 1540, and clerk register in 
 1541. From one of his poems we learn, that in 
 his youth he had some employment at the court 
 to king James V. and that he was in great favor 
 with that prince. Having taken orders, and been 
 created D.D. at the Sorbonne, he was made 
 canon of Ross, archdeacon of Moray, and clerk 
 register; but was afterwards deprived of that 
 employment by the factions of the times. How- 
 ever, in the reign of Marj^, he recovered that 
 office, and was one of the lords of session. Be- 
 ing a zealous papist, he, in conjunction with Dr. 
 Laing, was extremely assiduous in retarding the 
 progress of the reformation ; till at last, finding 
 the opposition too powerful, he quitted Scot 
 land, and went to Rome, where he died in 1550. 
 He is generally esteemed one of the best Scot- 
 tish poets of that age. His works are, 1. Tiie 
 History and Chronicles of Scotland of Hector 
 Boies (Boethius), translated by Mr. John Bal- 
 lenden, Edinb. 1536. 2. Cosmography to the 
 History of Scotland, with a Poetical Proem. 3. 
 A Description of Albany. 4. Translation of 
 Boethius's Description of Scotland. 5. Epistles 
 to king James V. — Bale says he had seen thesa 
 letters. 6. Several poems in Carmichael's Col- 
 lection. 7. Virtue and Vyce, a poem addressed 
 10 king James V. ' 
 
 BALLENGARY, a town of Ireland, in the 
 county of Kerry, on the mouth of the Sliannon, 
 near Ardfert. 
 
 BALLENSTEDT, an ancient county and 
 castle in the principality of Anhalt-Bernburg, 
 Germany, on the confines of Quedlingburg. It 
 is the ordinary residence of the prince of Anhalt, 
 and contains a riding-house, a theatre, and 
 beautiful gardens. At the foot of a hill on the 
 rivulet of Getel. Population 2500. Eighteen 
 miles south-west of Bernburg, twenty-seven 
 north-east of Nordhausen. Long. 11° 25' E., 
 lat. 51° 45' N. 
 
 BALLERINI (Peter and Jerome), two bro- 
 thers, Italian priests, natives of Verona. Peter 
 was born in 1698, and Jerome in 1702. They 
 wrote in conjunction, several learned and in- 
 genious poems, and published various editions of 
 ecclesiastical authors. 
 
 BALLEROY, a town and castle of France, 
 in Normandy, with 1180 inhabitants, and several 
 iron mines, and forges. It stands ontheDrorame, 
 and is the head of a canton, in the department 
 of Calvados, arrondissement of Bayeux. Seven 
 miles S.S.W. of Bayeux, eighteen south of Caen. 
 
 BALLERUS, in ichthyology, a species o 
 fresh water fish of the leather mouthed kind, 
 which appears to be the same with the carcassius, 
 or carcassi tertium genus. 
 
 Ballerus is also a name given by Aris- 
 totle to that species of cyprinus called blicca, 
 and pleysta, and pallerus, by modem writers.
 
 BAL 
 
 429 
 
 BAL 
 
 BALLET, a dramatic fable represented by 
 action, music and dancing. Tlie origin of the 
 ballet is to be traced to the meretricious taste of 
 the Italian courts, and succeeded the more 
 dangerous but more manly amusement of the 
 tournament. The interview between our Henry 
 VIIL and Francis I. of France, in the field of 
 the cloth of gold, presents us with an early speci- 
 men of these entertainments. In the next cen- 
 tury they reached the summit of their glory in 
 the splendid pomps of the courts of Tuscany 
 and Lorraine. The genius of Ben Jonson, and 
 even that of Shakspeare, was matured amidst the 
 scenery connected with the Italian ballet : but it 
 found its most zealous patron in Louis XIV. ; 
 and probably the most magnificent ballet ever 
 performed, was that whic!i this prince comman- 
 ded and bore a part in, in the year 1664. In 
 honor of this memorable fite , the name of the 
 Carousel has been given to the spot of its cele- 
 bration ; and the theatres of England, France, 
 and Italy, have been always striving since in 
 amicable warfare, to sustain the public par- 
 tiality for these spectacles. 
 
 B.iVLLETS, or Balls, in heraldry, make a fre- 
 quent bearing in coats of arms, though never 
 so called ; for, according to their several colors 
 they have different names ; as besants, when the 
 color is or; plates when argent; hurts when 
 azure; toneaux when gules; poraies when vert; 
 pellets or agresses when sable ; golpes when 
 purple ; orenges when tanne ; and guzes when 
 sanguine. 
 
 BAL'LETTE, n. s. Fr. bdlette. A dance 
 in which some history is represented. 
 
 BALLEXARD i N.), a citizen of Geneva, born 
 in 1726. He wrote a treatise on the physical 
 education of children, which gained the prize 
 from a society in Holland ; and a dissertation on 
 the question, what are the principal causes of the 
 deadis of children ? He died at Geneva in 
 1774. 
 
 BALLI (Joseph), a scholastic divine, born at 
 t'alermo in Sicily. He was a canon of Bari, in 
 the kingdom of Naples ; and author of De I'ae- 
 cunditate Dei, and De INIorte Corporum Natura- 
 lium. He died at Padua in 1640. " 
 
 BALLI ACE, in ancient geography, a town of 
 lUyria, in the vicinity of Apollonia. 
 
 BAL'LIAGE, a duty payable to the city of 
 London, for the goods and merchandise of aliens, 
 according to the charter 16 Car. 11. 
 
 BALLIANI (John Baptist), a native of Ge- 
 noa, born in 1586. He rose to be a member of 
 the senate, and wrote a treatise on the Natural 
 Motion of Heavy Bodies, 1646. He died in 
 1666. 
 
 BAL'LIARDS, n. s. From ball and yard, or 
 stick to push it with. A play at which a ball is 
 driven by the end of a stick ; now corruptly 
 called billiards, Dr. Johnson says ; but billianls 
 is not a corruption, being the Fr. hillurd, from 
 bilk, the term for the ball used in playing. 
 
 With dice, with cards, with halliards far unlit. 
 With shuttle-cocks misseeming manly wit. 
 
 Spenser. 
 
 CLEo. Let it alone ; let is to billiards ; 
 Come, Charmian. 
 
 SJialispeare. Antony and Cleopatra. 
 
 BALLIBAY, a market-town of Ireland, in the 
 county of Cavan, fifty-three miles from Dublin. 
 
 BALLICORA, a borough town of Ireland, in 
 the county of Cork. 
 
 BALLblORE, a town of Ireland, in the 
 county of Westmeath. It was taken in 1691 by 
 General Gingle ; and burnt by the military, in 
 the rebellion of 1798. Distant from Athlone ten 
 miles north, and fifty from Dublin. 
 
 BALLIN (Claude), a celebrated French artist, 
 born in 1615. His father was a goldsmith, and 
 under him he learned that business. When 
 about nineteen years of age, he displayed un- 
 common genius, by making four silver basins, 
 on which were represented the four ases of the 
 world. These were purchased by Cardinal Ri- 
 chelieu, and he was employed to make four vases, 
 after the antique, to match them. He afterwards 
 executed handsome pieces for Louis XI'W and 
 after the death of Varin, he succeeded as director 
 of the mint, for casts and medals. He died in 
 1678. 
 
 BALLIXA, or Belleek, a town of Ireland, 
 in the county of Mayo ; fourteen m.iles north of 
 Castlebar, and 120 from Dublin. It has a con- 
 siderable salmon fisherj' ; and in 1798 was 
 taken by the French troops who landed in Ireland 
 under General Humbert. 
 
 BALLINACARGY, a town of Ireland, in 
 West Meath, about forty-six miles from Dublin. 
 
 BALLINACHORA, a town of Ireland, near 
 Middletown, in Cork. 
 
 BALLINACOURTY, Point, a cape on the 
 south coast of Ireland, in the county of Water- 
 ford, on the north side of Dungarvan Bay. Dis- 
 tant four miles east of Dungarvan. 
 
 BALLIXAGAR, a town of Ireland, in King's 
 county, Leinster, forty-one miles from Dublin. 
 
 BALLIXAKIL, a market town of Ireland, in 
 Queen's county ; a borough previously to the 
 Union. Here are woollen manufactures, and the 
 ruins of a castle, fourteen miles west of Carlow, 
 fifty-eight from Dublin. 
 
 BALLiNAKILL Harbocr is on the west 
 coast of Ireland. Forty miles north-west of Gal- 
 way. Long. 9° 58' W., lat. 53" 34' N. 
 
 BALLINALACK, a town in West Meath, 
 Ireland, about forty-eight miles from Dublin. 
 
 BALLINAMORE, a town of Ireland, in 
 the county of Galway, eighty-four miles from 
 Dublin. 
 
 BALLINANAGHT, a town of Ireland, in the 
 county of Cavan, fifty-four miles from Dul^lin. 
 
 BALLINASLOE, a town of Ireland, in the 
 county of Roscommon, seventy-two miles from 
 Dublin. It is noted for its great fairs of cattle, 
 wool, &c. Of sheep there will sometimes 
 80,000, or 90,000, be seen tosrether here. 
 
 BALLINAVAR, a town of Ireland, in Cork. 
 
 BALLINDAGGIN, a towTi of Ireland, in the 
 county of Mayo, nearly 100 miles from Dublin. 
 
 BALLINEKIL, a borough town of Ireland, 
 m Queen's county. 
 
 BALLINGARRY, a town of Ireland, in the 
 county of Limerick, 122 miles from Dublin. 
 
 BALLINROBE, a town of Ireland, in Mayo, 
 where the assizes are sometimes held. It is 
 112 miles from Dublin. Long. 9° 10' W,, lat. 
 53'' 40' N.
 
 BAL 
 
 430 
 
 BAL 
 
 BALLINTOGHER, a town of Sligo, Ireland. 
 
 BALLINTOY, a town of Ireland, on the 
 coast of Antrim. It produces coals. -It has 
 a tolerable good harbour, which has been im- 
 proved by a parliamentary grant. A short dis- 
 tance to the eastward is the small island of 
 Carrick-a-rede, separated from the land by a 
 chasm of sixty feet, of a frightful depth, which is 
 passed by means of two cables stretched across. 
 
 BALLINTRY, a village and parish of Ireland, 
 on the coast of Antrim. Several ancient fortifi- 
 cations are within its precincts, and there is a 
 cromlech near the village. Other antiquities are 
 also found here. It is twenty miles north of 
 Ballymena, and 150 from Dublin. 
 
 BALLISTA, Lat. from (3a\\iii', to shoot, a 
 machine used by the ancients for shooting darts ; 
 it resembled in some measure our cross bow. V^e- 
 getius informs us, that the ballista discharged 
 darts with such rapidity and violence, that nothing 
 could resist their force : and Athenteus adds, that 
 Agistratus made one of little more than two feet 
 in lengtli, which shot darts 500 paces. See Ar- 
 tillery. 
 
 Ballista, in practical geometry, the geomet- 
 rical cross, called also Jacob's staff. See Cross 
 Staff. 
 
 Ballista, or Os Ballist.^:, is a name given 
 by some anatomists to the first bone of the tar- 
 sus, otherwise called talus and astragalus. 
 
 BALLISTARII, or Ballistrarii, in anti- 
 quity, slingeis or soldiers who fought with the 
 bollistffi. Theie are two kinds of ballistarii ; the 
 one, called also manuballistarii, or manuballistae, 
 cast stones and other missive weapons, with the 
 hand. The others, called also carroballistarii, 
 or carroballistffi, made use of a machine. The 
 ballistarii were scarcely heard of before the age of 
 Constantine. 
 
 BALLISTARIUS is also used, in writers of 
 the middle age, for a cross bowman, or arbaletier. 
 
 BAL'LISTER. See Balluster. 
 
 BALLISTEUM,orBALLiSTR«A ;from/3aXXw, 
 to toss, to throw, or to shoot ; in antiquity, a mi- 
 litary song or dance used on occasions of victory. 
 Vopiscus has preserved the ballisteum sung in 
 honor of Aurelian, who, in the Sarmatian war, 
 was said to have killed forty-eight of the enemy 
 in one day with his own hand. The ballistea 
 were a kind of popular ballads, composed by 
 poets of the lower class, without much regard to 
 the laws of metre. 
 
 BALLISTICA, or Ballistics the art of 
 throwing heavy bodies. F. Mersennus has 
 publislied a treatise on the projection of bodies, 
 under this title. 
 
 BALLIUM, old law Latin, bail. 
 
 Ballium, in archseologia, the court of a forti- 
 fied castle. The outer ballium was immediately 
 within the gates, separated by a wall from the 
 inner ballitim, which contained the apartments 
 for the garrison and the keeper. St. Peter, in the 
 Bailey at Oxford, stands in the outer ballium of 
 the castle. The Old Bailey and New Bailey in 
 London were in similar positions in regard to the 
 walls of that city; and hence are their names. 
 
 BALLIVUS. See Bailiff. 
 
 BALLOCH, a lake of Perthshire, ip the 
 
 parish of INIuthil, about half a mile in circum- 
 ference. 
 
 BAL'LON, ) Fr. baton, a little ball or pack ; 
 
 Bal'loox. ] also a foot-ball. Dut. balloen, 
 Germ, balluyn. Span, halo?!, Ital. hallone. A 
 name given to a certain game played with a 
 ball filled with wind. 
 
 Many other sports and recreations there be much 
 in use, as foot-ball, hallowne, quintan, &c. and many 
 such, which are the common recreations of the country 
 folks. Burton') Anatomy of Melancholy. 
 
 Sir Pet. Faith, I was so entertained in the pro- 
 gress with one count Epernoun, a Welsh knight : we 
 had a match at haloon, too, with my lord Wr.chum, 
 
 for five crowns. O, sweet lady, 'tis a strong game 
 
 with tiie arm. Eastward Hoe. 
 
 Ballon, or Ballone, an ancient castle, 
 seated on the sea-coast, in the parish of Tarbat, 
 in Ross-shire ; which exhibits a monument of the 
 taste and grandeur of former ages. 
 
 Ballon, a town in the province of Maine, 
 France, on the Orne, with 3560 inhabitants. It 
 is the chief place of a canton in the department 
 of the Sarthe, arrondissement of Le Mans ; and 
 has manufactures of stamine and other linen 
 cloths. Ten miles north-east of Le Mans, six- 
 teen south of Alencon. Also a town of France, 
 in the department of the Lower Charente, arron- 
 dissement of Rochefort; nine miles south-east of 
 La Rochelle. 
 
 Bal'loon, n. s. In chemistry, a large globu- 
 lar glass flask, with a short neck, generally used 
 as a receiver in distillations. 
 
 In architecture, a ball or globe placed on 
 the top of a pillar. 
 
 In fire-works, a ball of pasteboard stuffed with 
 combustible matter, which, when fired, mounts 
 to a considerable height in the air, and then 
 bursts into bright sparks resembling stars. 
 
 In aerology, a hollow vessel of silk, which is 
 filled with inflammable air, and ascends with 
 considerable weight annexed to it, into the atmos- 
 phere. Though of modern introduction, by the 
 following citation it looks as if the existence of 
 such a machine had been known 150 years since : 
 ' Like halloones full of wind, the more they are 
 pressed down, the higher they rise.' — Hewi/t' 
 Sermons (1658) p. 115. See Aeronautics. 
 
 Balloon, in a general sense, signifies any 
 spherical hollow body, of whatever matter it 
 be composed, or for whatever purposes it be 
 designed. 
 
 Balloon, in the French paper trade, is a 
 term for a quantity of paper, containing twenty 
 four reams. 
 
 Balloon likewise denotes a kind of game 
 something resembling tennis. The ballon is 
 played in the open field, with a great round ball 
 of double leather blown up with wind, and thus 
 driven to and fro with the strength of a man'a 
 arm, fortified with a brace of wood. 
 
 Balloon, or Balloen, is particularly used 
 among voyagers for the state barges of Siam. 
 These balloons are a kind of brigantines, managed 
 with oars, of very odd figures, as serpents, sea- 
 liorses, &c. ; but, by their sharpness and number 
 of oars, of incredible swiftness. They are said
 
 BAL 
 
 431 
 
 BAL 
 
 to be made of a single piece of timber, of uncom- 
 mon length; they" are raised liigh, and much 
 decorated with carving at head and stern : some 
 are gilt over, and carry 1-20 or 150 rowers on 
 «ach side. The oars are either plated over with 
 silver, gilt, or radiated with gold ; and the dome 
 •or canopy in the middle, where the company is 
 placed, is ornamented with some rich stuff, and 
 furnished with a ballustrade of ivory, or other 
 costly matter, enriched with gilding. The edges 
 of tlie balloon just touch the water, but the 
 extremities rise with a sweep to a great height. 
 Some are adorned with a variety of figures, made 
 of pieces of mother of pearl inlaid : the richer 
 sort, instead of a dome, carr\' a kind of steeple in 
 the middle: so that, considering the slenderness of 
 the vessel, which is usually 100 or 120 feet long, 
 and scarcely six broad, the height of two ends, 
 and of the steeple, with the load of decorations, 
 it is a kind of miracle that they are not overset. 
 Balloon, or Ballot, in the French glass 
 trade, signifies a certain quantity of glass plates, 
 smaller or greater according to their quality. 
 The balloon of white glass contains twenty-five 
 bundles, of six plates per bundle; but the balloon 
 of colored glass is only twelve bundles and a 
 half, and of three plates to a bundle. 
 
 Balloon, Air. See A£roxactics, &c. 
 BAL'LOT, V. & 7^.■^ Fr. ballotter, Ital. hal- 
 Ballota'nt, i^htare, from Gr. (iaXku), 
 
 Ballot'ation, i from ball, Skinner. A 
 Ballot'in. J particular mode of elec- 
 
 tion. This is managed by putting little balls or 
 tickets of different colors, black and white, pri- 
 vately into a box, which has two compartments ; 
 by counting the balls it is known what is the re- 
 sult of the poll, without any discovery of the 
 respective voters. 
 
 The greatest of the parliament men hated this de- 
 sign of rotation and balloting, as being against their 
 power. Wuod^s AtltenicB Oxoniensis. 
 
 Whereupon eight hallotins, or pages, take eight of 
 the boxes, and go four on the one side, and four on 
 the other side of the house ; and every magistrate and 
 senator holds up a little pellet of linen as the box 
 passes, between his finger and his thumb, that they 
 laay sao he has but one, and then puts it into the 
 same. Harrington's Oceana. 
 
 Xo competition arriving to a sufficient number of 
 balls, they fell to ballot some others. Wotton. 
 
 The election of the duke of Venice is intricate and 
 curious, consisting of ten several hallotaiiong. Id. 
 
 Giving their votes by hallotting, they lie under no 
 awe. Swift. 
 
 BALLOTA, White IIorehocxd: in botany; 
 a genus of the gymnospermia order, and didy- 
 namia class of plants; ranking, in the natural 
 method, under the forty-second order, verticillatse. 
 The calyx has five teeth, with ten striae; and the 
 upper lip of the corolla is crenated. It is a com- 
 mon weed growing on the sides of banks in most 
 parts of England, as also in walks near towns 
 and villages in Scotland; so is seldom admitted 
 into gardens. The flowers are in whorls, upon 
 branched peduncles, and lean on one side of the 
 stalk; they are commonly of a dull red color, but 
 sometimes white. It was formerly used in hys- 
 
 teric cases, but is now fallen hito disuse. The 
 Swedes reckon it an almost universal remedy m 
 the diseases of their cattle. Horses, cows, sheep, 
 and goats, refuse to eat it. 
 
 BALLOTADE. See BALOTAnE. 
 BALLRIENAN, a pleasant peninsula of Ire- 
 land, in the county of Louth; in which there are 
 relics of a Druid's Grove; supposed to have been 
 the chief seat of the Arch-Druid. 
 
 ball's Bay, a bay on the east coast of Nor- 
 folk island, in the South Pacific. 
 
 Balls, a river of West Greenland, which 
 runs into the sea, in long. 50° 10' W., lat. 64° 
 30' N. 
 
 Ball's Pyramid, a small island in the South 
 Pacific, discovered by lieutenant Ball in 1788. 
 Lons. 159° E., lat. 310 35' S. 
 
 BALLSTOWN, a thriving town of the state 
 of New York, situated in Saratoga county, thirty 
 miles north of Albany. 
 
 Also a town of North America, in Lincoln 
 county, district of Maine, 195 miles north-east 
 of Boston. 
 
 BALLUNTEE, a town of Hindostan, in Orissa, 
 thirteen miles south-east of Cuttack. 
 BALLUSTER. See BaiLlster. 
 BALLUSTRADE. See Balustrade, and 
 ArciiitectcrEj Index. 
 
 BALLY, a small island in the Eastern seas, 
 separated from the west coast of Bachian by a 
 channel about five miles wide. Lat. 0"^ 30' S. 
 
 Bally, a large town on the east coast of the 
 island of Lombhook, about fifteen miles from the 
 entrance of the strait of Alass. The inhabitants 
 trade principally for rice with the Dutch settle- 
 ments. Long. 116° 28' E., lat 8" 31' S. 
 
 Bally, a Gaelic word, analagous to Bal, 
 which makes part of the names of above 100 
 places, mostly small towns, or villages, in Ire- 
 land ; of which we can only notice a few of the 
 principal. The word seems to be a corruption 
 of the term Ballibetagh, anciently used to express 
 a town land able to maintain hospitality. 
 
 Bally castle, a sea-port of Antrim, about 
 thirty miles north of Carrickfergus, and 113 
 from Dublin: noted for its chalybeate spring 
 and collieries. 
 
 Ballyconnel, a town of Cavan, in Ulster, 
 sixty-seven miles from Dublin, and eleven north- 
 east of Cavan. 
 
 Ballycottox Bay', a bay on the north-west 
 coast of Ballycotton island. 
 
 Ballycotton Island, an island or St. 
 George's channel, on the south-west coast of Ire- 
 land, four miles off Cloyne. Long. 7° 59' W., 
 lat. 51° 50' N. It is a great resort of sea-fowl, 
 and porpoises frequently come ashore here. 
 
 Ballydovilin Bay, a bay on the south-west 
 coast of Ireland. Long. 9° 32' W., lat. 51° 
 27' N. 
 
 Ballyela Bay, a bay on the west coast of 
 Ireland, 128 miles east of the south Arran islands. 
 Ballygamboox, in Kerry, Munster; noted for 
 producing great quantities of cyder. 
 
 Ballygilly Head, a cape on the east coast 
 of Ireland. 
 
 Bally HAYS, a market town of Ireland, county 
 of Cavan, fifty-seven miles from Dublin, and once 
 a considerable place.
 
 BAL 
 
 432 
 
 BAL 
 
 Ballyiiolm Bay, on tlie coast of Down, 
 between Carrickfergus and Copland islands. 
 
 Ballykooly, in Cork, seated on the Black- 
 water, in a woody country; 111 miles from 
 Dublin. 
 
 Bally LFSS Bay, a harbour on the north- 
 west coast of Ireland, due west from Sligo B;iy, 
 and east from Broad-haven. Dunsinehead is 
 its eastern limit. 
 
 Ballymahox, a town in Longford, fifty-two 
 miles from Dublin. Long. 7° 56' W., lat. 52" 
 31' N. 
 
 Ballymexa, a market town of Antrim, on the 
 river Maine, Ireland. It has a town-house, in 
 which the quarter-sessions are held ; and a linen 
 manufacture is carried on here. Twenty miles 
 north-west of Belfast, and ninety-three north of 
 Dublin. 
 
 Ballyxahixch, a market town of Down, in 
 Ireland, seventy-six miles from Dublin. In its 
 neighbourhood is a chalybeate spring. Here, in 
 1798, the rebels were defeated after a bloody 
 engagement on Lord Moira's estate, and the 
 greater part of the town was at that time destroyed. 
 
 Ballyquixton Point, a cape of Ireland, 
 seven miles east of Down-patrick. 
 
 Ballyraghan Bay, a bay on the west coast 
 of Ireland, in the north part of the county of 
 Clare. Long. 9° 6' W , lat. 53° 7' N. 
 
 Ballyshaxnon, a town oflreland, in the county 
 of Donegal, situated on a bay at the mouth of a 
 river flowing from Lough Erne, which is here 
 crossed by a bridge of fourteen arches. Here are 
 two fisheries of eels and salmon. Fish and grain 
 are the chief exports. The imports, timber, rock 
 salt, iron, earthenware, and other commodities in 
 small quantities. Distant forty miles south-west 
 of Londonderry, and 100 from Dublin. 
 
 Ballytore, a beautiful village, on the river 
 Oris, in Kildare, twenty-eight miles from Dublin. 
 
 Ballyvogy Head, a cape in Cork, opposite 
 to Mizen Head, between which there is a large 
 bay. 
 
 BAL'M, I'. & n. ) Gr. (iaXaafiov, Lat. bal- 
 
 Balm'y, S sainum, Fr. bakarme, hauline, 
 
 Ital. huhamo, Goth, halsan, Ang.-Sax. baldsame, 
 balzame. Germ, and Swed. balsam, Dut. balsem. 
 Applied to a fragrant shrub, as balm-mint ; the 
 sap of a shrub, as balm of Gilead ; to fragrant 
 ointment; to any thing fragrant, sweet-smelling, 
 soothing, lenifying, lulling, mitigating, either 
 literally or metaphorically. To balm, is to wash 
 with balm, or any thing softening, fragrant, and 
 antiseptick. See Embalm. Of balm-mmt, the 
 species are 1. garden balm ; 2. garden balm, with 
 yellow variegated flowers ; 3. stinking Roman 
 balu), with soft hairy leaves.' — Miller. ' Balm 
 of Gilead is the juice drawn from the balsam- 
 tree, by making incisions in its bark. Its color 
 IS first white, soon after green ; but when it comes 
 to be old it is of the color of honey. The smell 
 of it is agreeable, and very penetrating ; the taste 
 of it bitter, sharp, and astringent. As little 
 issues from the plant by incision, the balm sold 
 by the merchants is made of the wood and green 
 branches of the tree, distilled by fire, which is 
 generally adulterated with turpentine.' — Calmet. 
 ' It seems to me tliat the zori of Gilead, which 
 we render in our Bible by the word balm, was 
 not the same with the balsam of INIecca, but only 
 
 a better sort of turpentine, then in use for tlie 
 cure of wounds and other diseases.' — Prideaux's 
 Connex. 
 
 In May that mother is of monethes glade. 
 That the freshe flouris all, blew, white, and rede, 
 Ben quicke ayen, that winter ded had made. 
 And full of baume, is fleting euery mede. 
 
 Clumcer. 
 But forbeare to speake 
 Of baths, or balming, or of beauty now. 
 
 Chapman. Homer's Odyssey. 
 
 We saw thee in thy balmy-ncst. 
 
 Bright dawn of our eternal day; 
 "We saw thine eyes break from the cast. 
 And chase the trembling shades away. 
 
 Crashaw. 
 Upon an hill a bright flame I did see. 
 Waving aloft with triple point to sky. 
 Which like incense of precious cedar tree, 
 With balmy odours fill'd th' ayre farre and nie. 
 
 Spenser, 
 
 Where many groomcs and squyres ready were. 
 To take him from his steed full tenderly. 
 And eke the fayrest Alma mett him there, 
 With balm and wine, and costly spicery. 
 To comfort him in his infirmity. Id. 
 
 This is most strange ; 
 That she, that even but now was your best object. 
 The argument of j'our praise, balm of your age. 
 Most best, most dearest, should, in this trice of time. 
 Commit a thing so monstrous, to dismantle 
 So many folds of favour. Shakspeare. Lear. 
 
 As bees 
 In spring time, when the sun with Taurus rides. 
 Pour forth their populous youth about the hive 
 In clusters ; they among fresh dews and flowers 
 Fly to and fro, or on the smoothed plank. 
 The suburb of their straw-built citadel. 
 New rubb'd with balm, expatiate and confer 
 Their state-affairs. MiUon. 
 
 Now gentle gales 
 Fanning their odoriferous wings dispense 
 Native perfumes, and whisper whence they stole 
 Those balmy spoils. Id. 
 
 Publicola, with healing hands shall pour 
 Balm in their wounds, and shall their life restore ; 
 Greek arts, and Roman arms, in her conjoin'd. 
 Shall England raise, relieve oppress'd mankind. 
 
 MlarcelL 
 
 So weak are human kind by nature made. 
 Or to such weaknes by their vice betrayed 
 Almighty vanity ! to thee they owe 
 Their zest of pleasure and their halm of woe. 
 
 Young. 
 O smile, ye heavens, serene ; ye mildews wan. 
 Ye blighting whirlwinds spare his balmy prime, 
 Nor lessen of his life the little span. Beaitie. 
 
 Balm, in botany. See Melissa. 
 
 Balm, or Balsam. See Balsam. 
 
 Balm mint. See Balm. 
 
 Balm of Gilead, the English name of the 
 dracocephalum canariense, or canary dragon's 
 liead. 
 
 Balm of sclphuu. See Sulphur. 
 
 BALMURvEUM, the name given by Leslie to 
 the ancient abbey of Balmerino, which was 
 founded A. D. 1229, by king Alexander II. and 
 his mother Emergarda, widow of William the 
 Lion. That princess lies interred in the abbey 
 church. See Baljierino. 
 
 BALMURENACII, the original name of Bal- 
 merino.
 
 BALOOCHISTAN 
 
 433 
 
 BALNAGOWN, a small river of Scotland, in 
 Ross-shire, which bounds the parish of Kilmuir 
 Easter, on the east. 
 
 BALNAHUAICH, one of the western isles of 
 Scotland, on the coast of Argyllshire, and in the 
 parish of Jura, on the north end of that island. 
 Mr. Stewart, minister of Jura and Colonsay, in 
 his statistical report of these parishes to Sir J. 
 Sinclair, states the population of this island in 
 1793 at 28 families, and 132 souls. It abounds 
 with excellent slates. 
 
 BALNA\''ES (Henry), a Scottish protestant 
 divine, born in Fife, in the reign of James \"., 
 and educated at St. Andrew's. He went to 
 France to finish his studies ; and returning to 
 Scotland, was admitted into the family of the 
 earl of Arran, then regent; but in 1.542 the earl 
 dismissed him for having embraced the protes- 
 tant relieion. In 1554 he joined, says Mackenzie, 
 the murderers of cardinal Beaton ; for which he 
 was declared a traitor, and excommunicated. 
 While that party were besieged in the castle of 
 St. Andrew's, they sent Balnaves to England, 
 who returned with a considerable supply of pro- 
 visions and money ; but being at last obliged to 
 surrender to the French, he was sent with the 
 rest of the garrison to France. He returned to 
 Scotland about 1559; and having joined the con- 
 gregation, he was appointed one of the commis- 
 sioners to treat with the duke of Norfolk on the 
 part of queen Elizabeth. In 15G3 he was made 
 one of the lords of session, and appointed by the 
 general assembly, with other learned men, to re- 
 vise the Book of Discipline. Knox, his fellow- 
 laborer, gives him the character of a very 
 learned and pious divine. He died at Edinburgh 
 in 1579. He wrote, 1. A Treatise concerning 
 Justification, Edinburgh, 1530, 8vo. 2. A Cate- 
 chism, or Confession of Faith, 1584, 8vo. 
 
 BALNEAL', ad. ~\ These, with hain and 
 Bal'neary, n. s. ( bagnio, are derived from 
 Baln'eation, Ahe Lat. balneum, which 
 Balxe'atory, ad. J signifies a bath. To wet, 
 to wash, to bathe. 
 
 Others attribute this balneal heat to the sun, whose 
 all-scorching beames penetrating the pores of the 
 earth, do heat the waters. H&well's Letters. 
 
 The halneariet and bathing-places he exposeth unto 
 the summer setting. Browns Vulgar Errourt. 
 
 As the head may be disturbed by the skin, it may 
 the same way be relieved, as is observable in balnea- 
 tiuns, and fomentations of that part. Id. 
 
 BALNEARII Servi, in antiquity, servants 
 or attendants belonging to the baths. Some were 
 appointed to heat them, called fornicatores ; 
 others were denominated capsarii, who kept the 
 clothes of those that went into them ; others 
 aliptse, whose care it was to p\dl off the hair ; 
 others unctuarii, who anointed and perfumed the 
 body. 
 
 BALNEARIUS Flr, or Balnearivm Fur, 
 in antiquity, a kind of thief who practised steal- 
 ing the clothes of ])ersons in the baths. This 
 crime was reckoned a kind of sacrilege ; for the 
 hot baths were sacred; hence they were more 
 severely punished than common thieves, who 
 stole out of private houses. The latter were ac- 
 quitted with paying double the value of the thing 
 Vol. III. 
 
 stolen ; whereas the former were punished with 
 death. 
 
 BALNEGLERA, a town of Ireland, in the 
 county of Armagh. 
 
 BALNE'UM, n. a vessel used in chemistry. 
 
 Balneum, a term used by chemists to sig- 
 nify a vessel filled with some matter, as sand, 
 water, or the like, in which another is placed 
 that requires a more gentle heat than the naked 
 fire. See Chemistry, Index. 
 
 Balneum Arenosum, a sand bath. 
 
 Balneum Foeni, a hay bath, is when a body 
 IS laid to digest in moist hay, whose heat is like- 
 wise directed by the application of water. 
 
 Balneum Marle is by some so called, as 
 being supposed to have been first invented by 
 the blessed Virgin ; but by others, with more 
 propriety, it is called 
 
 Balneum Maris, or sea bath, in regard tiie 
 vessel here floats as it were in a sea. Here the 
 cucurbit is placed in hot water, which warms the 
 matter contained, and disperses it for exhalation. 
 
 Balneum Minerale, or mineral bath, is 
 used by some chemists for aqua regia. 
 
 Balneum Roris, or Roritum, is a furnace 
 where the cucurbit, or distilling vessel, is only 
 suspended over the vapor of water, and not in 
 contact with the water itself. 
 
 Balneum Siccum, or Arenosum, a dry or 
 sand heat. 
 
 Balneum Vaporarium, or the vapor bath; 
 the same with Balneum roris. 
 
 BALDLY, a town of Hindostan, in the dis- 
 trict of Dowlatabad, thirty-five miles E.N.E. of 
 Oudighir. 
 
 BALONGO, three islands in the bay of Ben- 
 gal, near the coast of Arracan. Long. 93° to 93° 
 20' E., lat. 19° 50' to 20° 5' N. 
 
 BALONICH, in the ancient materia medica, 
 a name givenby Avicena, Averrhoes, and others, 
 to a kind of camphor, which they describe as 
 coarse, brown, and of less value than the other 
 sorts. This is probably the same with our rough 
 camphor, as brought over to us from the East 
 Indies. 
 
 BALOOCHISTAN, Balochasthan, or, ac- 
 cording to some, Belujistan, a large province 
 west of the Indus, bounded on the north by 
 Seistan in Persia and Candahar, on the south by 
 the sea, on the east by the province of Sinde and 
 Shekarpoor, and on the west by Mekran in 
 Persia. It comprehends all that space of terri- 
 tory lying between the 25^ and 30° of north la- 
 titude, and the 62° and 69° of east longitude. 
 The political limits are, however, difficult to de- 
 fine with accuracy, from the perpetual fluctua- 
 tions to which they are subject. Ihe province is 
 extremely mountainous, peopled by warlike serai- 
 barbarous tribes, and was scarcely known to 
 Europeans till the years 1809 and 1810, when it 
 was visited by Mr. Pottinger and a few otiier 
 officers in the East India Company's service. At 
 that time the whole country of Baloochistan was 
 divided into the following provinces: — 1. Those 
 of J'halawan and Sarawan, and districts of 
 Kelat. 2. Macran and Les. 3. Kohistan, the 
 mountainous region west of the desert. 4. The 
 desert. 5. Cach Gandavah and the district of 
 Herrend Dajel. 6. The province of Sind'h. 
 
 2 F
 
 434 
 
 13 A L O O C H I S T A N. 
 
 The principal provinces at present are Jala- 
 wan, Sarawan, Zukree, ^Nlekran, Lus and Mutch, 
 although this includes territories not properly 
 subject to INlahmood Khan, the present Ameer of 
 Kelat, the capital. 
 
 To the south Baloochistan Proper commences 
 at Kohinee, twenty-five miles N. E. from Bayla, 
 in lat. 26° 35' N., and extends to Nooshky, 
 seventy-nine miles N. W. from Kelat, in lat. 30" 
 N. The country is described generally as a con- 
 fused heap of mountains, through which the 
 roads lead for the most part in water-courses, 
 and the beds of small rivers. 
 
 Tlie principal mountainous range, called by 
 Mr. Pottinger Brahiilc, from the Brahuls who in- 
 habit it, rises abmptly out of the sea to a 
 considerable heisht at cape !Mowari, the Monze 
 of the Maps, in lat. 25° N., and long. 66° 58' E. 
 whence it runs in a north-east direction, after- 
 wards to the north, and at last resuming its ori- 
 ginal course sinks into moderate hills and unites 
 with the lowest ridges of the chain that traverses 
 Afghanistan. Anciently this chain formed the 
 separating boundary between Persia and India. 
 Near the Indian Ocean it is not more than thirty 
 miles in breadth ; but about the same distance 
 from the shore it breaks into a variety of branches, 
 and stretches over the whole country, west and 
 north, in which direction it unites itself with the 
 Persian ranges, ending abruptly in tlie sea, or 
 sinking in the sandy region which divides the 
 cultivable territory from the ocean. The general 
 inclination of the boldest ridges is from the 
 north-east to the south-west, whence it becomes 
 highly probable that the Brahuic range is a pro- 
 longation of the Hindii Cush, the Emodus of the 
 ancients, in which the Ilezarah range or Paropa- 
 misus, extending as far as the Caspian, has its 
 origin. With this latter chain the western ex- 
 tremity of the Brahuic mountains, extending 
 north beyond the main body of highlands, is 
 thought to be united ; a branch which lying be- 
 tween Seistan and Kirman forms the eastern 
 boundary of the Persian empire. Another di- 
 vision of this range extends from their soutli- 
 vvestern angle, and, running nearly parallel with 
 the main heights in that direction, forms at last 
 a junction with -the mountains of Laristan, in 
 Persia, and sends out many collateral ramifica- 
 tions terminating in headlands on the coast of 
 Macran. In tlie western parts of that province 
 the mountains recoil on the principal body, and 
 form a complete mass of mountains, irregularly 
 crowded, wliich the natives denominate Kohistan, 
 or the highlands. The length of this range is 
 stated at 350 miles, and the breadth of the 
 loftiest ridge at nearly 200. The town of Kelat 
 stands upon the highest level; the extraordinary 
 elevation of which is supposed to exceed by one- 
 eighth the highest peaks of the Pyrenees ; a fact 
 which is confirmed by tlie severity of its winters, 
 and by the great height of the bold defiles bend- 
 ing down to the nortliern desert. 
 
 In this mountainous country, filled probably 
 with primitive rocks, the soil is generally barren ; 
 but in the upper provinces rich grain crops are 
 gatheied in from fields which to the sight exhibit 
 .scarcely any thing but pebbles. The lowlands 
 of Cach Gandavah, formed by the alluvions of 
 
 the Indus, are extremely fertile, producing grain, 
 cotton, indigo, and oil. The valleys of Wudd, 
 Khozdar, and Sohrab, are capable of cultivation. 
 Tile precious metals, together with lead, iron, 
 copper, tin, and antimony, abound in many 
 parts of the country; as also rock-salt, nitre, and 
 several medicinal minerals of great value. 
 
 The whole of this region, though mountainous, 
 is remarkably destitute of water. It has not a 
 single river that is navigable ; but on the northern 
 side the hills are a few brooks and mountain tor- 
 rents ; but these, with the exception of the Budar, 
 are frequently dried up by the intense avidity of 
 the lowland climate. The stream, known by 
 difl!'erent names in different parts of its course, 
 ag Budar, Mulidani, B'hagwar, Desti, &c., is 
 supposed to have been formerly much larger and 
 more important than at present; its source is in 
 the district of Garmsail, near the banks of the 
 Helraind, or Hindmind ; but has never been 
 traced by Europeans beyond the parallel of 29° 
 from the ocean. At the distance of a hundred 
 yards from the beach it is not more than twenty 
 inches deep ; more remote from the shore, how- 
 ever, its magnitude increases ; and in the district 
 of Penj-giir it has a copious and perpetual stream. 
 
 The climate, and consequently the seasons, 
 are very diff"erent in diff'erent parts of the coun- 
 try. In the loftiest regions they resemble those 
 of the southern and middle parts of Europe, 
 whilst, in the maritime provinces and deserts, 
 they approximate to that of the tropics, and are 
 subject only to three changes, introducing the 
 hot, the cold, and the rainy periods. In J'iialawan 
 and Sarawan the spring commences towards the 
 end of February; the summer at the beginning 
 of ]\Iay ; the autumn succeeds and continues 
 tlirough August and September, after which a 
 severe winter concludes the year. The rains in 
 the level sands of Macran continue through 
 February and March, and afterwards return in 
 June and July, the latter being occasioned by a 
 south-west monsoon. Tlie hot season lasts from 
 March till October, including the second rains, 
 afcer which the cold succeeds and continues from 
 November till February. The aridity and drought 
 in ]\Iacran are so extreme in the summer as to 
 render the country scarcely habitable. Kohistan 
 has a climate of medium temperature ; and Cach 
 Gandavah, where the heat is so intolerable in the 
 summer, has scarcely any winter at all. 
 
 So great a variety of climate is capable of pro- 
 ducing a great variety of vegetation ; and after 
 Nadir Shah, in 1739, granted the whole of this 
 territory to Nasir Khan, that prince endeavoured 
 to inspire his subjects with the love of agricul- 
 ture, and gardening. With this view, he not 
 only introduced various fruits from Cabul, 
 but almost all the productions of temperate and 
 tropical climes, numerous kinds of which are 
 still to be found in some part or other of these 
 dominions. All the difl'erent kinds of European 
 grain, madder, cotton, indigo, esculent vege- 
 tables, &;c. are produced in great abundance ; 
 wheat is sown in August and reaped the follow- 
 ing June ; barley is sown in September, and 
 reaped in May. Madder, after lying in the 
 ground three years, is brought to great perfec- 
 tion. Ushpusht, or camel-grass, a large species
 
 BALOOCHISTAN. 
 
 436 
 
 of clover (perhaps lucern), produces two crops 
 m a month, and lasts for six or seven years. The 
 provinces of Macran and Les, or Las, yield a 
 crop of grass in each of the rainy seasons. The 
 palms throughout the whole region give a large 
 quantity of dates, and, the impregnation of the 
 female blossoms being carefully attended to, the 
 varieties are almost innumerable. Rice is also 
 plentiful, and forms a great part of the food of 
 the inhabitants ; besides which, they have bajri 
 (holcus spicatus) ; jowari, (holcus rosghum) ; 
 mung, (phaseolus mungoj; mayz, dal, urad, and 
 malar, ( leguminous vegetables) ; channa, (cicer 
 arietinum) ; and til, (sesamum). Among the 
 timber trees of Baloochistan may be enume- 
 rated, the Babal, (mimosa famesiana) ; lai, (ta- 
 marix) ; mulberry, nim, (melia azad lirachta) ; 
 pipal, (ficus religiosa) ; sisir, (dalbergia sissooj ; 
 chinar, (oriental plane); mango, walnut, and 
 sycamore. The common European forest trees 
 are wanting. The apurs, a species of the zizy- 
 phus, resembles the jujube, and tamarind. The 
 wood of the former has much the appearance ot 
 teak, and both are remarkably hard and durable 
 
 The birds and animals are of numerous species, 
 from the great diversity of climate. Most of our 
 domestic fowls are common, with the exception 
 of ducks, geese, and turkies. The magpye, a 
 bird unknown in India, is not uncommon about 
 Kelat. Flamingoes and floricans (otis houbara) 
 are found in the lower districts. Poisonous rep- 
 tiles are less frequent than in India. Fresh- 
 water fish are exceedingly scarce. The horses 
 of Baloochistan are strong, but very vicious ; 
 their sheep are broad tailed, of the description 
 of the Persian dunbah. Camels and dromeda- 
 ries are the most common beasts of burthen, the 
 latter of which, with only one hump on its back, 
 is remarkable for its strength, swiftness, and 
 power of abstinence. \\ ild and veiy fierce dogs 
 are found in the woods ; and the breed of those 
 that are tame, especially the shepherd's dog and 
 the greyhound, is an object of particular atten- 
 tion. 
 
 The inhabitants have been divided into four 
 classes: — 1. The Baloochees ; 2. the Brahooees ; 
 3. the Dehwars ; 4. the Hindoos. The two first 
 of these, speaking different languages, are evi- 
 dently distinct races, forming together the ma- 
 jority of the inhabitants. Mr. Pottinger thinks the 
 upper and inhospitable regions of J'hilaw^n and 
 Sariwiin were first peopled by the Hindoos, who, 
 in the early part of the eighth century, fled from 
 the victorious armies of ^Nlahmud Sabuctagin and 
 his son Masuud. The two prmcipal tribes above- 
 named are divided into many different kheils, or 
 tomuns, but their actual number has never been 
 ascertained. 
 
 2. The Balooches, called Nharroe, or Ruk- 
 shani, inhabit that part of the country lying west 
 of the desert, and are a tribe containing 1000 
 fighting men ; by whom the judgalls or culti- 
 vators have been nearly exterminated out of 
 Northern Mekran. Mr. Pottinger thinks they 
 are descendants of the Turcuman soldiers, who 
 served in the armies of the Seljuk dynasties, and 
 were dispersed when those dynasties were over- 
 turned ; on which supposition, the first establish- 
 ment of tlie Balooches in the mountainous resions 
 
 east of Persia, must be referred to the fifth 
 century of the Hegirah, answering to the eleventh 
 of tlie Christian era, when they begin to be 
 named by the Asiatic historians. But the Lord's 
 prayer in their language, published by the baptist 
 missionaries at Serampor, affords us evidence of 
 its having been derived from a Tartarian dialect ; 
 also, we may observe, that the Beluchiki, or 
 Beluch, commonly spoken, is evidently a cor- 
 rupt dialect of the Persian, approaching to that 
 of the Curds, on the western side of Persia, as 
 the Brahuiki, or Brahu, does to the Hinduwe 
 spoken in the Penj-ab. 
 
 Whatever be their origin they are found in the 
 greatest numbers in the northern and eastern 
 provinces, and are divided into three leading 
 tribes, — the Nhaiiiis, Rinds, and Maghsis, of 
 which the first and last are most important; the 
 former on the western side of Baloochistan ; the 
 latter on the low lands of Cuch Gundava, at the 
 eastern foot of the mountains. These tribes are 
 again subdivided, and those of Rind and jNIu- 
 gree, who formerly emigrated from Mekran, and 
 live in villages, retain the appellation of Too- 
 rauns. 
 
 The Balooches are generally tall and hand- 
 some, but not athletic ; patient, and full of 
 courage. They delight in predatory excursions 
 called chapaos, greatly resembling the forays of 
 our northern borders in the sixteenth century. 
 On these occasions they are mounted on drome- 
 daries, provided with dates, bread, sour cheese, 
 and water, and march without halting to the 
 place they mean to attack ; here they conceal 
 themselves in a wood till night, and when the 
 inhabitants are asleep, hasten forwards, burning, 
 destroying, and carrying off whatever comes in 
 their way. These diversions occasion frequent 
 warfare ; but hospitality is nevertheless general, 
 and pilfering despised. Their domestic habits 
 are pastoral, and their subjection to the chiefs 
 voluntary. They reside in tents, or ghedans of 
 black felt, or coarse blanket, stretched over a 
 frame of wicker-work, formed of twigs of the gaz, 
 or tamarisk ; an assemblage of which light habi- 
 tations forms a tuman or village, and its inhabi- 
 tants a kheil or family. Tlie men are indolent, 
 and great lovers of opium, though not accustomed 
 to any other species of intoxication. They are 
 less jealous of their wives than jNIussulmans ge- 
 nerally ; of which, though their religion allows 
 a plurality, they commonly have only one. Tiieir 
 regard to the sanctity of marriage is exemplary, 
 and many of their customs appear to origi- 
 nate in the law of Moses. A widow must be 
 married by her husband's next brother : adultery 
 is punishable by the death of both parties ; in- 
 continence before marriage authorises divorce 
 afterwards, the sang or promise of marriage is 
 inviolable ; and a betrothed virgin is considered 
 as having nearly the same rights as a married 
 woman. 
 
 Their clothing consists of a long shirt, and 
 trowsers of blue and white calico, together with 
 a quilted cap, round which, when they are in 
 full dress, a shawl is twisted ; in winter thick 
 warm surtouts are worn by all classes. The 
 women when young tress their hair, and twist it 
 round their heads, forming the ends into a knot 
 
 2 F 2
 
 436 B A L O O C 
 
 on the crown, so as to give it tlie appearance of 
 a cap. Their dress in other respects resembles 
 that of the men, but exposes the bosom as mucli 
 as the tunic worn by the females of Persia. 
 \Vhen out of doors they are completely veiled. 
 
 The soldiers, although awkwardly accoutred, 
 are excellent marksmen ; to kill a lark or spar- 
 row with a single ball at the distance of fifty or 
 sixty yards is not considered by them as any 
 proof of dexterity; and the nezah-bazi, or spear 
 play, their fiivorite diversion, evinces not only 
 considerable skill, but superior muscular strength. 
 It consists in the rider piercing a wooden stake, 
 driven into the ground, widi the point of his 
 spear while his horse is at full speed ; and re- 
 quires the most critical management of both 
 liorse and spear at the same instant of time. On 
 the whole, the similarity between the manners 
 of this people and those of the Curds and wan- 
 dering Turcumans, the Yariik of the Turks, found 
 in every part of Anatolia, render the above con- 
 jecture as to their origin highly probable. 
 
 2. The Brahooees, or Brahuis, are a strong 
 hardy race of men, with uncommonly short and 
 thick bones. Their cast of countenance is dif- 
 ferent from the Balooches and Asiatics, generally 
 exhibiting a roundness of face, and bluntness of 
 features, somewhat resembling Europeans. They 
 are divided into separate tribes, the principal of 
 which are tlie following : 
 
 Men. 
 The Kumburanee, or the tribe of the chief 
 
 Mahmood Khan, estimated at . . . 1,000 
 
 The tribe of Mengul , - 12,000 
 
 Zukree 6,000 
 
 Pandurani 6,000 
 
 Nahari 6,000 
 
 Imaum Hosseing 4,000 
 
 Beguugje 1,000 
 
 They are hard-working people, of voracious 
 appetites, devouring their animal food almost 
 raw. When they cure their meat, it is effected 
 by drying it in the sun, and smoking it over a 
 fire ; after which it will keep for several months, 
 and in flavor very much resembles rein-deer's 
 tongue. The people generally are less ferocious 
 than their neighbours, for which reason the 
 government of their chiefs asssumes a more des- 
 potic character. They are disinterested, placa- 
 ble, and humane ; the very reverse of the 
 Baloochees, and the uncouthness of their manners 
 is to be attributed solely to their want of civi- 
 lisation. All the Baloochees are excellent work- 
 men, but none are equal to the Brahooees in 
 strength and courage. Broad sword exercise, 
 and shooting at a mark, are their common diver- 
 sions ; in both of which they are said to excel. 
 Their breed of shepherds' dogs is excellent ; 
 greyhounds are also trained amongst them with 
 great care, and a single one is frequently ex- 
 changed for two camels, or sold for 400 rupees. 
 Their breed of horses is large and hardy, equally 
 accustomed to the heat of Gundava and the cold 
 of Kelat, but they are often vicious. 
 
 The Brahooees, in religion, are strict observers 
 of the SunnahjOr the traditional law of the Mussul- 
 mans, in which respect they approach nearer to the 
 Turks than the Persians. They are not jealous 
 
 H I S T A N. 
 
 of the women, who sometimes assist in out-door 
 work, and are seldom secluded from the society 
 of the men. The common dress used in this 
 part of the province is an under coat, which fits 
 close to the body apd is worn over the pyrahun 
 or shirt : their trowsers are gathered up at the 
 ankle, and a small round flat-topped cap of felt 
 silk is the only covering of the head. The shep- 
 herds wear a white felt garment above the shirt 
 in winter, with cloth trowsers and a felt cap. 
 The females wear a kind of stays which lace be- 
 hind, and give them an appearance similar to 
 that of the peasants in Switzerland. It has also 
 been observed that with the exception of the 
 shepherds, the Brahooees never increase their 
 clothing in the severest weather. The common 
 language is the Koorgalee. 
 
 3. The Dehwars, or Dehkans, i. e. villagers, 
 are exclusively employed in agriculture, and hold 
 their lands by a sort of feudal tenure, being bound 
 to provide the khan's guests with water, fuel, 
 provender. Sec. ; to attend him in his hunting 
 excursions, and to supply him with couriers 
 when required, in consideration of which tliey 
 arc exempted from all military duties ; they are 
 tacit, harmless, and submissive to tlie other 
 tribes. They differ considerably from all the 
 other inhabitants of the province, being uncomely 
 in appearance, low in stature, coarse in features, 
 with high cheek bones, but possessing a more 
 artless, good humored and honest expression of 
 countenance. They never migrate, and their lan- 
 guage is pure Persian. Mr. Pottinger from this 
 latter circumstance concluded that they sprang 
 from the Gebrs, or followers of Zoroaster, who 
 fled before the victorious arms of the Mussul- 
 mans, but, against this opinion, their dispersion 
 through other parts of Asia, their correspondence 
 with the tajies of Afghanistan, together with 
 their zealous observance of the Sunnah, power- 
 fully militate. 
 
 4. The Hindoos are few in number and carry 
 on the miserable traflSc of the country, acting as 
 money-changers and agents to the native chiefs. 
 Many of them are not so indigenous as they have 
 been generally represented, but are merchants 
 from Multan. The Hindoos are supposed to 
 have been the first settlers in these mountains, 
 and were long tolerated by their Rlussulman con- 
 querors, who, according to current traditions, 
 were first admitted into their impregnable retreats 
 as traders, where being indulged with too much 
 lenience, they finally subverted the government. 
 Numerous Hindoo occupiers, however, still re- 
 mained in the country, till within the last two 
 centuries, when the barbarity of the Mahomme- 
 dan tribes increased to such a degree that no 
 medium could be observed, and the native Hin- 
 doos, with the exception of a few merchants, un- 
 derwent compulsory conversion, or fled the 
 country. The remaining few have however con- 
 siderably degenerated from the laws of the Shas- 
 ter ; they eat animal food, use leathern bags, and 
 in many other respects violate their religious 
 tenets, and perhaps it is this partial conformity 
 which constitutes die true principle of their tole- 
 ration. 
 
 Of the divisions of Baloochistan generally, 
 Jhalawan and Siir.'iv*ran, with the intermediate
 
 BALOOCHISTAN. 
 
 437 
 
 district, extending to the north and north-east, 
 and bounded by that part of the Brahui'c moun- 
 tains which is beyond the twenty-sixth degree of 
 north latitude, come first under our considera- 
 tion. Jh^ilawiin is the most southerly, contain- 
 ing six t'liacs or districts, each governed by a 
 different chief. Zehri, the largest town, is sur- 
 rounded by a mud wall, and contains 2000 
 houses. There are no streams in the whole pro- 
 vince more than ten inches deep in the dry sea- 
 son, and water can be obtained only by digging 
 in the beds of torrents. Kelat properly belongs 
 to Sarawfin, but the usurpations of the khan have 
 rendered it nearly a distinct province. To the 
 north of it, bounded by the Afghan hills and the 
 desert east of Kandahar, lies Sar4vvan, divided 
 into inferior districts, and occupied by migra- 
 tory tribes of the Brahdics. The province is 
 mountainous, not possessing a single level of 
 more than a few miles in circumference, except 
 a naked plain of about thirty miles in extent, 
 called the Deshti-be-daulat, or Pennyless Desert, 
 forming a remarkable gap in the northern front 
 of the great chain. The southern province is 
 fertile, having frequent rains, but the least popu- 
 lous ; Kelat is considered the capital of Baloo- 
 chistan generally. 
 
 Nooshky is a small tract of about thirty-six 
 square miles, lying at the base of the Kelat 
 mountains. It is an arid tract, the sand hills of 
 which shift with the winds. A few patches of 
 cultivable land are nevertheless met with occa- 
 sionally ; and a small stream, called the Xysur, 
 issuing from the hills, irrigates the portion of 
 country immediately contiguous. The inhabi- 
 tants dwell under black felts stretched over a 
 frame of wickerwork made of the guz plant, by 
 which they are sheltered from the heat of the 
 sun. The soil being sandy, the heat is excessive 
 in the summer ; the stream fails in the valley, 
 and the inhabitants migrate to the mountains for 
 cool air and water. 
 
 The fine valley of Sohrab extends north and 
 south about fifty miles in length by twelve in 
 breadth. The water from the hills runs through 
 its centre, and around it are scattered a few vil- 
 lages. 
 
 The two provinces of Les and Macran are in- 
 cluded between the higher ridges of the Brahiiic 
 chain and the Indian Ocean, and are varied by 
 intersections of such branches of these hills as 
 diverge towards the sea. On the north lie the 
 regions of . I 'halawan, Sarawin, and Kelat, toge- 
 ther with Kehistan and the desert; and on the 
 west the Persian Laristan. Lus or Les, signifying 
 in the Jedgali language a valley or plain, pre- 
 sents a perfectly level surface for about ninety 
 miles by fifty, enclosed on three sides by lofty 
 mountains passable by only five lekhs, or defiles, 
 two in the eastern and western, and one in the 
 northern branch of this great chain. This is a 
 fertile province, watered by two small rivers, 
 llabb and Purali (the Arabis of the ancients), 
 and togetiier with Maccan formed a part of tlie 
 Persian empire. The sovereignty is at present 
 held on a feudal tenure under the khan of Kelat. 
 Bela, the capital, stands on a rocky eminence 
 on the northern bank of the Purali. Many of 
 the inhabitants are merchants from Multan and 
 
 Shicarpur, west of the Indus, and their immuni- 
 ties are considerable. 
 
 The population of Lus is about 25,000, who 
 are of the same tribe, though distinguished by 
 the different names of Jedgil, Jok'hya, Jet'h, 
 and Numrl. They are an indolent and curious 
 people ; the men athletic and middle-sized, tlie 
 women plain, and dirty. Their manners, appear- 
 ance, and language, prove that they must have 
 been derived originally from Hindostan ; and 
 the latter called Jedgali or Jet'hgali has a close 
 affinity with that of Sind'h. They are fond of 
 intoxicating drugs, and nearly one third part of 
 them are migratory. 
 
 ( )f Makran there are fourteen districts, several 
 of which are uninhabited. Water is extremely 
 scarce throughout the whole territory, a great 
 part of which consists of barren mountains with 
 here and there a fertile valley, or an island of 
 palms emerging from the waste, similar to those 
 found in the vast deserts of Africa. Many of the 
 streams of this region, now trifling brooks, were 
 formerly navigable. In one of these, namely, 
 Ag'hon Nadi, is a celebrated well called Anilca 
 Cund, or Fathomless Abyss, the depth of which 
 is not known. The Hindoos attribute the dig- 
 ging of it to C41i, whose shrine at Hinglatz or 
 Hing-l^j, just above it, is the resort of numerous 
 pilgrims. The river Dest waters the district of 
 Kedge, or Kej, which receives its name from the 
 capital of the province. This ancient town car- 
 ried on formerly a considerable trade with Kan- 
 dahar and the north of India, but has gone to 
 decay since its governors threw off their alle- 
 giance to the khan of Kelat. It has many ad- 
 vantages of site, and covers three sides of the base 
 of a hill, on the summit of which is a castle 
 deemed impregnable. 
 
 Kohistan is sul-rounded on the east, north, and 
 west, by sandy deserts, with the exception of a 
 narrow range of hills which connect it on tlie 
 north-west with the Paropamisus of the ancients, 
 and on the south it is bounded by the Brahiiic 
 chain, of which it forms one of the extremities. 
 It is divided into two districts, the MaidAni or 
 plain, and the Chopaki or hilly country. Water 
 is extremely scarce and the population scanty, 
 consisting chiefly of Beluches. It abounds with 
 salt and chalybeate springs, with numerous mi- 
 neral productions, and its hills occasionally be- 
 tray a volcanic ori'^in. . 
 
 The desert, 300 miles long and 200 broad, 
 is traversed by the Ilelmind or Hermend, the 
 natural boundary of Baloochistan, and separated 
 on the west by a narrow range of hills from the 
 deserts of Kirman. Its utmost extent including 
 the latter is about 600 miles diagonally from east 
 to west, and 500 miles from north to south, and 
 is bounded on the north and east by the moun- 
 tains of Afghanistan. 
 
 This vast ocean of sand is composed of par- 
 ticles so light that when taken up into the hand 
 they are little more than palpable, and when 
 agitated by the winds are thrown into an irre- 
 gular mass of waves running east and west. 
 Most of these banks rise perpendicularly from 
 ten to twenty feet on the leeward side ; and, from 
 the redness of their appearance, might be taken 
 for brick walls, whilst the windward side slopes
 
 438 
 
 BALOOCHISTAN. 
 
 off with a gradual declivity to the base of the 
 next bank or wave. The camels are with diffi- 
 calty driven up the perpendicular or leeward 
 sides of these sandy hdls ; but on the shelving 
 sides they ascend with laborious perseverance, 
 and, having reached the summit of a wave, drop 
 most expertly on their knees and slide down with 
 the sand to the bottom of the next hollow. 
 These mountains of sand are observed to be 
 succeeded by hard black gravel, without the least 
 appearance of vegetation, and bare stony hills 
 lying at the base of the mountains, are the first 
 ascent towards higher and less barren regions. 
 Throughout the whole desert the sands are ex- 
 tremely hot, and the fine particles, raised by the 
 wind, getting into the eyes, nostrils, and mouth 
 of the traveller, cause an extreme degree of 
 paiuful irritation and thirst. 
 
 The Regency of Sind'h and also Cach Gan- 
 davah, east of the Brahuic chain of mountains, 
 between India and Persia, though commonly in- 
 cluded in the kingdom of Baloochistan, belong 
 more properly to Hindostan. 
 
 With respect to the history of Baloochistan 
 antiquity is almost silent. The mountainous tract, 
 which forms the central and most important part 
 of this territory, appears to have been unknown 
 to the ancients, and was perhaps uninhabited up 
 to tlie period of the Mahommedan conquests in 
 the seventh and eighth centuries of the christian 
 era. Alexander marched from Pattala, (T'hatt 
 'hah or Tattah) on the Indus, through the ter- 
 ritory of the Arabitffi, still indicated by the cape 
 called Arabia by the natives, the Arabah of the 
 maps, thence he advanced into the country of 
 the Oreitse in his way to Gedrosia or Macran, 
 where the greater part of his troops are said to 
 have perished from thirst, famine and fatigue. 
 Craterus who commanded, with another part of 
 his army, passed by a circuitous route through 
 Arachosia and Drangiana, the Kandahar and 
 Seistin of modern geography ; countries placed 
 in a higher latitude, south of the extreme deserts 
 which separate the Beluches from Persia and 
 Afghanistan. The ]Mahommedan invaders fol- 
 lowed the track of Alexander, whilst the Sultans 
 of Ghaznah, who made themselves masters of the 
 level country to the mouth of the Indus, and 
 the coast as far as the confines of Persia, never 
 descended the hills. The Persian historians say 
 the idolatrous Hindoos were driven into these 
 retreats ; but, since the present occupiers betray 
 no affinity with the natives of India in customs, 
 features, or language, the origin already as- 
 signed is more probable. They themselves 
 affirm that they are the original natives of the 
 liills, and tliat their name Br^hu6 is derived from 
 Baroiii mountains, whilst the inhabitants of the 
 plain are called N'harius or Narohis, Lowlauders. 
 The most ancient traditions do not carry the 
 origin of the Mussulman government further 
 back tlian seven generations. 
 
 About two centuries ago the city of Kelat 
 witli the surrounding country was possessed by 
 Sewah Rajah a Hindoo, and the Balooches 
 tended flocks of sheep in the moxmtains. To 
 protect the inhabitants from, the depredations of 
 a people residing in the low country between 
 Kel£lt, Sinde, and Shekirpoor, the rajah sent 
 
 for Kumber a Baloochy chief, and took him into 
 his service, allowing him five bundles of grass and 
 wood per day for each man. This auxiliary 
 shortly after seized the government, and raised 
 the tribute to a hundred bundles, besides a con- 
 tribution of horses, camels, and footrunners. 
 This tribute is still occasionally exacted by the 
 Khan of Kelat, and paid by the detmars or pea- 
 sants in the immediate vicinity. 
 
 Kumber the first usurper was succeeded by his 
 son Sumbar, the father of the next prince, Ma- 
 hommed Khan, who in his turn was succeeded 
 by his son AbduUa Khan. This prince conquered 
 a considerable part of Cach Gandivah, till then 
 subject to the Nawwibs of Sind'h, About that 
 time the celebrated Nadir Sh4h carried his vic- 
 torious arms into India ; and while at Kandah4r 
 sent an army into the mountains of the Beluches. 
 Abdu'Uah sent his two sons as hostages to the 
 conqueror's camp ; after which he was allowed 
 to continue in his government as a feudatory of 
 Persia. Upon the death of Abdu'Uah, Nasir 
 Khan his younger son, by the advice of NAdir 
 Shah, put to death his elder brother, who had 
 succeeded to the sovereignty, and took possession 
 of the Gad'hi or throne ; and having performed 
 some important services to his patron, was re- 
 warded by tlie donation of several provinces, 
 and, being a man of considerable abilities, greatly 
 enlarged his dominions, so that at his death, in 
 1795, the territories descended to his son and 
 successor Mahmood Khan in a very flourishing 
 and prosperous state. This prince is now about 
 twenty-nine years of age ; but his talents being 
 very inferior to those of his father, the dominions 
 of Keltit have been greatly curtailed by the 
 Ameers of Sinde and other neighbouring pro- 
 vinces. His brother ]\Iustapha Khan, who is 
 about one year younger than the sovereign, is, 
 however, of an active martial disposition, and 
 bids fair on his accession to restore the empire 
 and improve the hereditary dominions. The 
 territory at present subject to Mahmood Khan, 
 comprises the high hilly country of Sewistan, 
 and the low lands of Cutch Gundava and 
 Amund, Dajil to the eastward ; bounded on 
 the north by Khorassan ; on the south by Lus 
 and Sinde; on the west by Mekran ; and on the 
 east by Sinde. His clear revenue is about three 
 lacks of rupees, and is collected from Amund 
 Dajil, Cutch Gundava, and the bazaar tolls of 
 Kelat. The Khans of Baloochistan acknowledge 
 the paramount authority of the Cabul sovereigns, 
 to whom they are feudatories ; but their obedi- 
 ence is in proportion to the talents of the reigning 
 prince, and the political circumstances of the 
 Cabul government. The present territories of 
 Malimood Khan are supposed capable of raising 
 an army, infantry and cavalry, of 23,000 men, 
 although formerly the sovereign could raise 
 60,000. See Christie, Kinueir, Sfc. 
 
 It was probably without intention that Nasir 
 Khan laid the foundation of the present govern- 
 ment, which is rather a military republic than an 
 absolute monarchy. The Serdars or chiefs hold 
 their lands on feudal tenure, each tribe chooses 
 its own Scrd;ir,in whose family the office becomes 
 hereditary. The general administration is, how- 
 ever, still vested in the Khan of Kelikt. Each
 
 BAL 
 
 439 
 
 BAL 
 
 Serd4r in time of war attends with his quota of 
 troops, and is bound to obey the orders of the 
 sovereign ; but if to his own detriment, receives 
 compensation. 
 
 A new code of laws was established by Nasir, 
 of wliich the Koran is the standard, accompanied 
 however by the following in.iprovenjents. In 
 cases of murder where the deceased is a fo- 
 reigner, every one concerned in the crime is im- 
 mediately executed without commutation. Bur- 
 glaries and night robberies are punished with 
 death. Adultery may be avenged by the hus- 
 band ; but the clearest testimonials of guilt are 
 required ; and if he fails of producing these he 
 is liable to severe punishment. Minor offences 
 are cognizable by the Serdar of the Kheil, or 
 fiimily, with an appeal lying to the Serdar of the 
 whole tribe, and ultimately to the Khkn himself, 
 who commonly consults the heads of his family 
 before he decides on any intricate cause. No 
 execution can take place without an order from 
 the sovereign, except in case of the murder of a 
 traveller on his road, when, as a speedy execution 
 is necessaiy, the nearest chief is empowered to 
 enforce the penalty of the law. 
 
 BALOR, a town on the east coast of the island 
 of Luzon. Long. 122° 5' E., lat. 15° 13' N. 
 
 BAL'OTADE, n. s. The leap of an horse, so 
 that when his fore-feet are in the air, he sliows 
 nothing but the shoes of his hinder feet, without 
 yerking out. A balotade differs from a capriole ; 
 for when a horse works at caprioles, he yerks 
 out his hinder legs with all his force. — Farrier's 
 Dictionary. 
 
 BALOTE, a town on the east coast of the 
 island of Mindoro. Long. 121° 15' E., lat. 
 13° 3' N. 
 
 BALOU, a to^vn of Armenia, twenty-five miles 
 north-west of Khars. 
 
 BALREMIT Bay, a bay on the east coast 
 of the island of Colonsay, one of the Hebrides. 
 Long. 6° 7' W., lat. 56° 6' N. 
 
 BALRIE Castle, a very ancient fort, now in 
 ruins, situated on an eminence at the west end 
 of the moss of that name, Angusshire, Scotland. 
 It was destroyed by the marquis of Argyll in 
 1640. The walls are eight feet thick. This 
 castle and the adjacent lands were the property 
 of the last viscount Fenton. 
 
 BALROTHERY, or Balruddeky, a town of 
 Ireland, in the county of Dublin, fourteen miles 
 from the city and one from the sea. 
 
 BALSA, an ancient town of Liisitania in the 
 Ager-Cunaeus ; now called Tavira, in Algarva. 
 
 Balsam, or Native Balsam, an oily, resinous, 
 liquid substance, flowing either spontaneously, 
 or by means of incision, from certain plants. 
 There are a great variety of balsams, particularly 
 distinguished by the names of the substances 
 from which they aie obtained ; and which will 
 be found explained under their names as they 
 occur. 
 
 BAL'SAM, -n- Of the same deri- 
 
 Balsam'ation, / vation as balm, but 
 
 Balsam'ical, \more limited in its 
 
 Balsam'ick, n. & adj\ application. It is al- 
 
 Balsam'ous. j most exclusively used 
 
 o designate an unctuous or oily mixture, gene- 
 rally attended with fragrance. 
 
 Should I sigh out my days in grief. 
 And, as my beads, count miseries ; 
 My mind would meet with no relief. 
 For all the balsam of my eyes. Stevensutt. 
 
 Brave spirits are a balsam to themselves. 
 There is a nobleness of mind that heals 
 Wounds beyond salves. Cartwriyht. 
 
 Is this the balsam that the usuring senate 
 Pours into captains' wounds? Ha! banishment? 
 It comes not ill •, I hate not to be banish'd ; 
 It is a cause worthy my spleen and fury. 
 That I may strike at Athens. Shakspeare. 
 
 Christ's blood our balsam ; if that cure us here. 
 Him, when our judge, we shall not find severe. 
 
 Denham, 
 That this herb [ros-solis] is the cause thereof, shep- 
 herds affirm and deny; whether it hath a cordial vir- 
 tue by sudden 'refection, sensible experiment doth 
 hardly confirm ; but that it may have a bahamical and 
 resumptive virtue, whereby it becomes a good medi- 
 cine in catarrhes and consumptive dispositions, prac- 
 tice and reason conclude. Brown's Vulgar Errourt. 
 The Britons squeeze the works 
 Of sedulous bees, and mixing odorous herbs. 
 Prepare balsamic cups, to wheezing lungs 
 Medicinal, and short-breath'd ancient sires. 
 
 J. Philips, 
 Now the radical moisture is not the tallow or fat 
 of animals, but an oily and halsamous substance ; for 
 the fat or tallow, as also the phlegm or watery parts, 
 are cold ; whereas the oily and halsamous parts are of 
 a livelj' heat and spirit. Sterne. 
 
 Balsam Apple. Lat. momordica. An annual 
 Indian plant. 
 
 Balsam Tree. This is a shrub which scarce 
 grows taller than the pomegranate-tree ; the blos- 
 soms are like small stars, very fragrant ; whence 
 spring out little pointed pods, enclosing a fruit 
 like an almond, called carpobalsamum, as the 
 wood is called xylobalsamum, and the juice opo- 
 balsamum. 
 
 BALSAMATION is used by some writers for 
 the art or act of embalming dead bodies. Dr. 
 Hook speaks of an universal balsamation, or 
 method of preserving all kinds of bodies from 
 corruption, invented by Dr. Elshot. 
 
 BALSAMELiEON, in the materia medica, 
 a name given by some to the balm of Gilead. 
 
 BALSAMELiEUM, in ecclesiastical writers, 
 the sacred chrysm. 
 
 BALSAMINA Scandens, a name given to the 
 large fruited white briony of Ceylon. 
 
 BALSAMINE, Female, in botany, the name 
 given by Toumefort to a genus of plants, callec 
 by Linnaeus, impatiens, and belonging to the clasr 
 of syngenesia raonogamia. 
 
 BALSAMITA, a species of tansy. 
 
 BALSAMICA. See Balsamics. 
 
 BALSAMICS, Balsamica, Latin, i. e. miti- 
 gating; this term includes medicines of very 
 different qualities, as emollients, detergents, re- 
 storatives, &c. ; but in all these kinds there are 
 these requisites, that they be soft, yielding, and 
 adhesive ; and by tlieir smallness they have a 
 ready disposition to motion. Medicines of this 
 tribe are generally required for complaints whose 
 seat is in the viscera ; and as they cannot be con- 
 veyed there but by the common road of the cir- 
 culation, it follows that no great effects can be ex- 
 pected from them but by their long continuation.
 
 440 
 
 BALTIC SEA. 
 
 Hoffman calls by the name of balsamics those 
 medicines which are hot and acrid, also the 
 natural balsams, gums, &c. by which the vital 
 heat is increased. 
 
 BALSAMITA, in botany, a genus of plants, 
 of the class syngenesia, and order polygamia 
 aequalis. Its generic character, is receptacle 
 naked, pappus none, calyx imbricate. It con- 
 tains four species, of which the only one re- 
 quiring notice is the B. vulgaris (tanacetum balsa- 
 mita of Linnaeus) common costmary, or alecost. 
 Its stem is herbaceous, leaves oval, dentate ; in- 
 ferior petiolate ; superior sessile, auriculate at 
 the base, flowers corymbose. It is a perennial 
 plant, native of the south of France and Italy ; 
 'and was formerly prescribed in the pharmacopoeias 
 as a carminative. 
 
 BALSAS, a town of Peru, in the province of 
 Chachapuyas, on the east shore of the Amazons, 
 forty miles north of Caxamarca. Lat. 6° 16' S. 
 
 BALSEY Clift, ahigh land on the east coast 
 of England, between Orford and Harwich. 
 
 BALSO, a river of Quito, which, after wind- 
 ing through forests, enters the Bobonasa. 
 
 BALSTAL, a well-built market town of Swit- 
 zerland, in the canton of Solothurn. The inha- 
 bitants carry on a great trade between Bale and 
 Solothurn. Ten miles north-east of Solothurn. 
 
 BALSAMON (Theodore), patriarch of Anti- 
 och in the twelfth century. He wrote a number 
 of works on the canon law, which were printed 
 at Paris, in folio, in 1620. 
 
 BALSHAM, or Belesale (Hugh de), the 
 tenth bishop of Ely, in the thirteenth century, was 
 first a monk, and afterwards subprior of the Be- 
 nedictine monastery at Ely. In 1247 he was 
 chosen bishop by the convent. But king Henry 
 III. who had recommended his chancellor Henry 
 de Wengham, refused to confirm his election ; 
 whereupon Balsham went to Rome to be con- 
 firmed by the pope ; which, however, was not 
 done for ten years, when at last his holiness con- 
 firmed his election in 1257. Bishop Balsham 
 then executed what he had long intended ; by 
 laying the foundation of St. Peter's College, Cam- 
 bridge, the first in that University, which has 
 immortalised his name as the patron of literature. 
 He was also very charitable to the poor. He 
 died in 1286, and was buried in the cathedral of 
 Ely. 
 
 BALTA, or Balto, a town of European Rus- 
 sia, the capital of a circle in the government of 
 Podolia, situated on the Kadyma, a tributary 
 stream of the Bog. Before the annexation of 
 this part of Poland to Russia, one half of Balta 
 belonged to the palatinate of Braclaw, and the 
 other toTartary. In 1767, in the war which broke 
 out between the Russians and Turks, the town of 
 Balta was laid in ashes by the former. Sixty- 
 five miles N.N. E. of Bender. 
 
 Balta, one of the smaller Shetland islands, 
 near the east coast of Unst. Long. 4° 2' W., 
 lat. 61° 7' N. 
 
 BALTAGI, among the Turks, porters, and 
 hewers of wood, in the court of tlie grand seig- 
 nior ; who also mount on horseback when the 
 emperor rides out. Part of them, who, for that 
 purpose, must be castrated, keep watch at the 
 gates of the first and second courts of the ser- 
 
 aglio. These last are called capigi, and their 
 commander capigi pacha. 
 
 BALTCHUTZKO, a town of Asiatic Russia, 
 in the government of Kolhy van. 
 
 BALTEATUS, in entomology, a species of 
 cimex, inhabiting South America. 2. A species 
 of elater, of a black color ; anterior half of 
 the wing cases rufous. Linn. Fn. Suec. A native 
 of Europe. 
 
 BALTEUS, in entomology, a species of cer- 
 ambyx, that inhabits Lusitania. The thorax 
 spinous ; body ferruginous ; abdomen ovate ; 
 wing cases with a blackish band. Linnaeus. 
 
 BALTHASAR (Christopher) a learned French 
 author of the seventeenth century. He followed 
 the profession of an advocate ; but having em- 
 braced the protestant religion, from pleading at 
 the bar, he became a champion for the reformed 
 churches; and in 1659 a pension was settled 
 upon him by the national synod at Loudun, in 
 consideration of his services. He displayed 
 great abilities in combating Baronius. 
 
 BALTHAZARINI, an Italian musician of 
 the sixteenth centurj', who was a great favorite 
 at the French court in the reign of Henry III. 
 He composed a ballet, which he called Ceres and 
 her Nymphs, in 1531, designed for the marriage 
 of the duke de Joyeuse with Mademoiselle de 
 Vaudemont, the queen's sister ; and this is 
 thought to have been the origin of the ballet he- 
 roique, in France. 
 
 BALTHEUS Orionis, the belt of Orion, in 
 astronomy, a part of the constellation of Orion, 
 consisting of tliree bright stars of the second 
 magnitude, placed nearly in a right line in 
 Orion's girdle. 
 
 BALTHICA, in conchology, a species of tel- 
 lina that inhabits the Baltic Sea; the shell 
 roundish, smooth outside, carnation color. Linn. 
 Fn. Suec. About the size of a horse-bean, and 
 very rarely larger ; extremely thin, pellucid, 
 brittle, and white within. Chemnitz, &c. 
 
 Balthica, a species of helix, found on the 
 shores of the Baltic ; the shell imperforated, 
 ovate, and pointed ; with elevated wrinkles; aper- 
 ture ovate, and very ample. Linn. Fn. Suec. 
 This animal is black, with two tentacula; shell 
 pellucid, and with four whorls. 
 
 BALTHICUS, a species of nautilus, of the 
 smaller kind, that is found adhering to the roots 
 of fuci. This shell is sometimes opaque, some- 
 times glossy, frequently pellucid ; and the wreaths 
 either smooth, striated, ribbed, or tuberculated. 
 It is specifically distinguished by being white, 
 convex, aperture linear, and the first wreath 
 much larger than the others. Schroeb. 
 
 BALTIA, an island in the Baltic Sea which 
 gives name to it. 
 
 BALTIC Sea. A large gulf of the German 
 Ocean, penetrating tlie upper part of Europe, 
 and surrounded by the coasts of Denmark, 
 Sweden, Russia, Germany, and Prussia. It is 
 600 miles in length ; from eighty to 150 miles in 
 breadth, commencing at the Danish islands of 
 Funen and Zealand ; it stretches beyond the 
 sixty-fifth degree of latitude, including an area 
 of surface equal to 10,000 square leagues. The 
 two extreme divisions of this sea are the Gulfs 
 of Bothnia and Finland ; the former running
 
 BALTIC SEA. 
 
 441 
 
 east to the vicinity of Petersburg, the latter ex- 
 tending north till it penetrates the arctic regions. 
 
 Its access is through a narrow winding chan- 
 nel, or strait, on the west of the European con- 
 tinent, the northern part of which, communi- 
 cating with the ocean on the south-west, is called 
 the Scaggerack ; the middle consists of the 
 Great and Little Belts, and the southern part 
 of the Cattegat. This entrance to the Baltic is 
 sometimes called the sound. It is also connected 
 near Pillau and Memel by narrow passages with 
 two large lakes called the Frische Haff and 
 Curische Haff. 
 
 The proximity of the coasts and islands, the 
 shallowness of the waters, the flatness of the 
 Prussian shore, the ruggedness of that of Sweden, 
 the frequent and sudden changes of the winds, 
 and the violent storms with which they are at- 
 tended, render this sea very dangerous for navi- 
 gators, although the breakers are much less for- 
 midable than those in the German Ocean. The 
 general depth of the Baltic is from fifteen to 
 twenty fathoms, although in some places it is 
 much less, and in others much more. Like other 
 inland seas the Baltic has no tides, or, if it has, 
 they are scarcely perceptible ; but a strong cur- 
 rent generally sets towards the ocean, which, 
 when cliecked by a west wind forcing the waters 
 in a contrary direction through the straits, causes 
 the Baltic to rise much above its ordinary level. 
 The waters of this sea are colder and less salt 
 than those of the Northern Ocean ; from which 
 circumstance, together with the deficiency of 
 tides, it is usually for about three months of the 
 year so completely frozen as to admit in many 
 places of a passage over the ice. Tiie ice in the 
 southern part begins to break up in April, al- 
 though the two gulfs are not generally cleared 
 before the middle of May. 
 
 Numerous rivers, of different degrees of im- 
 portance, empty themselves into this sea, which 
 greatly contribute to the freshness of its waters, 
 and, together with the diminished evaporation of 
 the northern regions, occasion the current to 
 which we have already 'referred. The chief of 
 them are the Warnow, the Oder, the Peene, the 
 Persante, the Wipper, the \'istula, the Pregel, 
 the Alemel or the Niemen, the Dwina, the 
 Aura-Jocki, the Cano, the Torneo, the Skel- 
 leftea, the Pitea, the Lulea, the Umea, the An- 
 germany, the Motala, the Luisna, and the Dal. 
 The earthy particles conveyed into the bed of 
 the Baltic by means of streams, rivers. Sec. are 
 said to cause the depth of this sea to diminish at 
 the rate of four feet in a century ; and i\Ir. Von 
 Buck, in his Travels in Sweden and Lapland, 
 observes with respect to the Bothnian Gulf, that 
 the sea-bays have become marshes by the conti- 
 nual decrease of the gulf waters ; and that we 
 may soon expect to see the site of that aquatic 
 region covered with fields and cottages. 
 
 The islands of the Baltic are numerous, one 
 chain of which, reaching from Finland to Swe- 
 den, divides the southern part of the sea from 
 the northern, commonly called the Gulf of Both- 
 .lia. The chief of the Danish islands forming 
 the immediate seat of the governmnent are Zea- 
 land and Funen. Near the shores of Livonia 
 are the islands Dago and Oesel. Gothland and 
 
 Oeland belong to Sweden ; Rugen to Pomerania ; 
 and Moen, Bornholm, Falster, Alsen, Laaland, 
 together with several others, are subject to the 
 Danes. 
 
 Considerable fisheries are formed on some 
 of the coasts of the Baltic, and Mr. Fischer, a 
 naturalist of Livonia, enumerates nearly fifty dif- 
 ferent species of fish in the waters of that pro- 
 vince; the principal of which known as articles of 
 commerceare salmon, pike, streamlings, and lam- 
 preys. The fishes most common in the Gulf of 
 Finland are salmon, sterlets, and carp. Stur- 
 geon is found in the Gulf of Cronstadt, and 
 smaller fish are taken from the gulfs and bays on 
 the eastern parts of this sea. The herring and 
 pilchard fisheries are considerable. Amber is- 
 also a production of this sea. It is thrown by 
 the frequent storms on the coasts of Prussia and 
 Courland, and is found in beds near Pillau at the 
 depth of ninety or a hundred feet. 
 
 The general commerce of the Baltic is very 
 considerable, since it washes the shores of Den- 
 mark, Sweden, Russia, Prussia, and part of 
 Germany; it has a communication with the Cas- 
 pian Sea, by means of the canals of Ladoga, 
 Vyschnei-Volotschok, and Maria, thus opening 
 facilties for conveying the commodities of nor- 
 thern Europe into the interior of Asia. 
 
 All vessels that pass in or out of the Baltic pay 
 a certain duty to the Danish government, for the 
 maintaining of light-houses, &c. This toll is 
 received at Elsinore, where the vessels are regu- 
 larly entered in the national register, a view of 
 which for the years 1816 and 1817, will enable 
 the reader to form some idea of the comparative 
 importance of the Baltic commerce. 
 
 In 1816 were registered the following vessels: — 
 
 
 From the 
 
 From the 
 
 
 North Sea. 
 
 Baltic. 
 
 America 
 
 83 
 
 85 
 
 Bremen . . 
 
 55 
 
 56 
 
 Danish . . 
 
 408 
 
 379 
 
 Dutch . . 
 
 473 
 
 403 
 
 English . . 
 
 942 
 
 906 
 
 French . . 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 Hamburgh . 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 Hanover . . 
 
 113 
 
 111 
 
 Lubeck . . 
 
 23 
 
 22 
 
 Mecklenburg 
 
 126 
 
 127 
 
 Norwegian . 
 
 396 
 
 398 
 
 Oldenburg . 
 
 16 
 
 13 
 
 Pappenburg 
 
 22 
 
 17 
 
 Portuguese . 
 
 25 
 
 23 
 
 Prussian . . 
 
 595 
 
 489 
 
 Rostock . . 
 
 65 
 
 68 
 
 Russian . 
 
 208 
 
 191 
 
 Spanish . . 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 Swedish . 
 
 1097 
 
 945 
 
 4608 
 
 4263 
 
 Total number th 
 
 
 4608 
 
 at passed tlie ^ 
 
 8871 ' 
 
 Sound in 1 
 
 316 .. i 

 
 442 BALTIC SEA 
 
 In \B\7 were registered the following vessels : — 
 
 America 
 
 Bremea 
 
 Danish . 
 
 Dutch 
 
 English 
 
 French 
 
 Hamburgh 
 
 Hanover ....,• 
 
 Mecklenburgh 
 
 Norwegian ...... 
 
 Prussian 
 
 Russian 
 
 Swedish 
 
 Other nations 
 
 Total number of vessels frona ) 
 tlie North Sea . . . S 
 From the Baltic the same year 
 
 Total number of ships that ^ 
 passed the Sound in 1817 i 
 
 From the 
 North Sea. 
 
 68 
 
 11 
 
 463 
 
 695 
 
 2088 
 
 22 
 
 42 
 
 212 
 
 169 
 
 470 
 
 917 
 
 197 
 
 1044 
 
 360 
 
 6758 
 6390 
 
 13,148 
 
 The winds are extremely variable in the Baltic ; 
 but they blow most commonly from the east in the 
 spring, and from the west in autumn; calms are 
 seldom experienced except in the middle of the 
 summer. The irregular variations of tlie level of 
 the Baltic somewhat resemble tides, and occur 
 generally in autumn, when the weather threatens 
 rain. These sensible swells frequently last for 
 weeks toj:et!ier, and their maxmium rise being 
 three feet and a-half, all the low lands are inun- 
 dated. On these occasions, the fresh-water lakes 
 which communicate with the sea are rendered 
 brackish. In the Gulf of Bothnia, the fall of the 
 water is usually succeeded by north winds, 
 whereas, at Stockholm, these winds follow the 
 elevation. j\I. Kraft, who was professor of ex- 
 perimental philosophy in the imperial academy 
 at Petersburo;h, published a treatise on the inun- 
 dations of tlie Neva at the autumnal equinox, in 
 which he observes, that three or four days before 
 or after the full or new moon, a violent north-west 
 wind drives the waters of the Nortliern Ocean, dur- 
 ing the influx of the tide, into the Baltic, and is im- 
 mediately succeeded by a south wind in that sea 
 and the Gulf of Finland, to the concurrent eff'ect 
 of which he attributes the phenomena in ques- 
 tion ; but Schultens, a learned Swede, who had 
 closely studied the physical geography of the 
 Baltic, attributed all the irregular elevations of 
 this sea to the unequal pressure of the atmos- 
 phere on difl"erent portions of the water, de- 
 ranging, in his opinion, their common level. He 
 was led to this conclusion by having observed 
 repeatedly, that when the waters were about to 
 rise, the barometer fell, and that when the waters 
 were about to fall the barometer rose. 
 
 The waters of the Baltic are of different de- 
 grees of saltness in different places, and in the 
 same pla-ces at different seasons, and during dif- 
 ferent winds. The waves are short and broken, 
 
 in consequence of sudden changes of wind, ir- 
 regular depths, and strong currents, many of 
 which, especially towards the north, rise thnce 
 in the course of a year. The superior and infe- 
 rior currents of the Sound are remarkable. 
 These were discovered first by some of our own 
 countrymen, who, being in a boat in the middle 
 of the channel, found that they drifted towards 
 the Cattegat; but upon letting down a loaded 
 bucket to the depth of four or five fathoms 
 found that their boat became stationary, and 
 upon sinking the bucket still deeper, the boat 
 drifted in a direction diametrically opposite to 
 the superficial current. 
 
 By the transfer of Swedish Pomerania to 
 Pnissia, of Swedish Finland to Russia, and of 
 Norway to Sweden, the commerce and resources 
 of the Baltic nations have undergone a consider- 
 able change. 
 
 The following is a sketch of the staple articles 
 of their commerce at the beginning of the pre- 
 sent century. 
 
 Danish vessels visit the ports of Mecklenburgh 
 and Pomerania, with horses, bullocks, butter, 
 cheese, fish, fish-oil, colonial produce, kc; and 
 receive in return, thread, linen, brandy, wool, 
 hardware, paper, &c. To Petersburgh, Riga, 
 and Alemel, the Danes send herrings and dried 
 fish, woollen manufactures, salt of France, Spain, 
 and Portugal, India and China goods, oysters, 
 and dog-skin gloves ; for which they receive 
 potash, planks, fire-wood, flax and hemp, cor- 
 dage, iron, copper, linens, and corn. To Hol- 
 land, Denmark exports rape-seed, salted and 
 dried fish, and timber ; and receives spices, 
 drugs, corn, pipes, and paper. To England, 
 hides, bar-iron, kelp, furs, tar, timber, &c. 
 The returns are, hardware goods, woollens, cot- 
 tons, hats, and colonial produce. From the 
 official account of the real value of the imports 
 into Denmark from Great Britain, from the 5th 
 January 1798, to the 5th January 1808, laid 
 before Parliament, in consequence of the attack 
 on Copenhagen, it appears, that from 1798 lo 
 1803, they are rated about half a million; and 
 that from 1803 to 1808, they varied from two to 
 six millions. France receives from Denmark, 
 horses, butter, cheese, fish, &c. ; and returns salt, 
 wines, brandy, fruits, silks, &c. The exports to 
 Spain and Portugal are nearly the same as to 
 France ; the imports also are the same, with the 
 addition of wool and American produce. To 
 the Mediterranean, Denmark sends fish, salted 
 provisions, butter, iron, &c.; and receives wines, 
 brandy, oils, fruit, and salt. The Danes derive 
 great profit from hiring their vessels to the ]iort5 
 of Italy, as their flag is generally respected by 
 the Barbary States. The exports to the Faroe 
 Islands are wheat, flour, brandy, tea, coflee, 
 sugar, linens, &c.; the imports are dried and 
 salted fish, fish-oil, feathers, hides, tallow, and 
 worsted stockings. The exports to, and imports 
 from, Iceland, are nearly the same ; the imports 
 from Greenland are whale-oil and bone, seal-oil 
 and skins, eider down ; the exports nearly the 
 same as to the Faroe and Iceland Islands. Den- 
 mark has also a trifling trade to the East and 
 West Indies. 
 
 In 1807 the Danish fleet consisted of twenty-
 
 BAL 443 BAL 
 
 six sail of the line ; sixteen frigates ; nine sloops, twenty or thirty tons are employed in loading 
 and thirty gun-vessels. and discharging these vessels at Cronstadt, that 
 The foreign commerce of Sweden is confined cannot enter the Neva. At the close of 1807 
 to what are called staple towns, which alone the Russian Baltic fleet consisted of twenty sail 
 have custom-houses ; they are Stockholm, Got- of the line, fourteen frigates, six brigs and cutters 
 tenburgh, Warberg, Halmstad, Nordkoeping, and nineteen small craft ; and the Baltic flotilla' 
 Landscrona, Carlscrona, Christianstad, Carl- of twenty galleys, twenty-five floating batteries' 
 shanun, Calmar, Westervic, Uddervalla, Mar- eighty-one gun-boats, and sixteen yauls. 
 strand, Gefle ; and Abo and Wasa in Finland, Baltic Port (formerly llogerwick, from the 
 now given up to Russia. The foreign commerce island of Roog, on which it is built), a sea-port of 
 is supposed to be divided among these cities, European Russia, in Esthonia, now the govern- 
 as follows : . ment of Revel, at the influx of the rivulet of Pa- 
 Stockholm -j^ths of exports, and J of imports. dis into the Baltic. The fortifications were begun 
 Gotenburgh ^ths i by Peter I. but discontinued by Catherine ""ll. 
 The other ports -^ths ^ Were they completed, few harbours would equal 
 To the foreign parts of the Baltic, Sweden ex- it in size, depth, or security. Thirty-eight miles 
 ports iron, steel, copper, lime, alum, and her- west of Revel, 150 north of Riga, and "220 west 
 rings, and receives corn, hemp, tallow, and by south of St. Petersburgh. 
 hides. To Holland, iron ; and receives spices, BALTIMORA, in botany, a genus of the po- 
 tobacco, prepared colors and papers. To Eng- lygamia necessaria order, and syngenesia class of 
 land, she exports iron, timber, pitch, tar, potash, plants. The receptaculum is chaffy ; there is no 
 and herrings ; her imports are lead, tin, leather, pappus ; the calyx is cylindrical and polyphyl- 
 bear, butter and cheese; and every kind of ma- lous; and the ray of the corolla is quinqueflo- 
 nufacture and colonial produce. In France, rous. There is but one species, viz. B. recta, a 
 Spain, and Portugal, the exports are iron, steel, native of Maryland. It is allied to ^Nlilleria. 
 copper and brass, and wines, brandy, fruits ; oil BALTIMORE, a large, populous, and well 
 and silks are the returns. To Italy and the cultivated county of the western shore of Mary- 
 Levant she exports all her territorial produc- land, is bounded on the east by Harford county 
 tions; and receives salts, spices, fruits, and cot- and the Chesapeak, north by York county, Penn- 
 ton. There are from four to six ships of 600 to sylvania, south by Anne-Arundel county, south- 
 1000 tons burden in the East India trade. In '"'est by a small point of Montgomery-, "and west 
 1800 she had above 2000 merchant vessels of by Frederick. It is thirty-six miles from north 
 twenty tons and upwards ; but the rupture with to south, and forty-five from east to west, and 
 England and cession of Finland reduced them, contained in 1820, 24,580 white, and 33,463 
 in 1810, to 1500. In 1809 her navy was re- total population, exclusive of the city of Balti- 
 duced, in consequence of her wars with Russia, more. In this county are found vast quantities 
 to thirteen sail of the line, nine or ten frigates, o^ iron ore of the best quality, and it is watered 
 and about 150 vessels of the flotilla. by numerous rivers. 
 
 The Prussian ports, including Dantzic, export Baltimore, the largest city in Maryland, the 
 almost the whole of the commercial productions third in population, and the fourth iii commer- 
 of Poland, consisting of com, fir planks and ^"'^1 importance in the United States, is built 
 rafters, masts, hemp, tar, pitch, potash, hides "pon a bay, which opens from the north side of 
 and tallow, leather, honey and wax ; besides Patapsco river, and affords a spacious and conve- 
 Pomeranian oak, brandy, woollens, linens, ca- "ient harbour. The strait which connects this 
 viar, and amber. The imports are wines, coffee, bay with the river is scarcely a pistol-shot across, 
 sugar, tobacco, spices, salt, iron, copper, Spanish ^P^i is well defended by fort M'llenry. A small 
 wool, herrings, and flax seed from Livonia and river, called Jones's Falls, empties into the north 
 Courland. Towards the close of the last cen- side of the harbour, and divides the city into two 
 tury, the merchant marine of the Prussian ports parts, called the Town and Fell's Point, con- 
 on the Baltic, consisted of between 900 and nected by bridges. At Fell's Point the water is 
 1000 ships. Salted and smoked meat, hides, ^^^P enough for vessels of 500 or 600 tons, but 
 wool, butter, cheese, corn, and fruits, are the "O'^e larger than 200 tons can go up to the city, 
 exports of that part of Pomerania which belono-ed Baltimore is well situated for commerce. It 
 to Sweden and Mecklenburgh ; the corn of Ihe supplies Maryland, and large portions of Penn- 
 latter is principally taken off by England ; that sylvania and the western states with foreign goods, 
 of Pomerania, as well as the fruits, used to go to ^^'^ is supposed to contain nearly 70,000 iuha- 
 Sweden. bitants. Its rapid growth maybe thus exhibited: 
 The export and imports of Russia, in the In 1765 the population was 300 
 
 Jialtic, m the beginning of this century, were 1790 . . . . 13 503 
 
 Exports. Imports. 1810 46,555 
 
 Rubles. Rubles. 1820 62,627 
 
 In 1802 - 47,000,000 33,000,000 Tr, 1 7on fV, . e u- ■ a- i 
 
 1804 - 45,000,000 27 000 000 ^° *"^ *°"^ °^ shipping trading here 
 
 1805 - 52,000,000 29'oOo'oOO ''^eje 13,564. In 1816, 101,960, in 533 foreign 
 rp, u r u , ' ' ^"^^ ^'^^ coasting vessels Baltimore cannot be 
 
 • » ^r"? u- I merchant-vessels that na- considered on the whole a very healthy place, al- 
 
 vigate the Baltic and the Ocean, do not exceed though the atmosphere is said to have become 
 
 fifty; perhaps 100 smaller vessels canyon the less humid of late: in auUiran, the most unfa- 
 
 coasting-trade here; and about 100 craft of vorable season, the opulent portion of the in-
 
 BAL 
 
 444 
 
 BAL 
 
 habitants generally retire to their country seats in 
 the neighbourhood. It is in general well built, 
 most of the houses being of brick, and many 
 lately erected displaying considerable taste. Its 
 general plan is similar to that of I'hiladelphia, 
 the streets crossing each other at right angles. 
 Some of these are spacious, one in particular is 
 about a mile long, and eighty feet wide, running 
 east and west, nearly parallel to the water. The 
 ground on the north and east of the city rises to 
 a considerable elevation, and with the number of 
 ships in the harbour forms a scene very interest- 
 ing. The principal public buildings are a court- 
 house, penitentiary, jail, almshouse, hospital, 
 theatre, exchange, museum, a gallery of paint- 
 ings, and a public libiarj', possessing about 
 10,000 volumes. Besides these there are ten 
 banks, and thirty-one places for public worship, 
 belonging to nearly all the denominations of reli- 
 gious professors to be found in the United States. 
 The exchange is a vast pile of building, very 
 lately erected, 366 feet in length by 140 in 
 breadth, comprising four wings. The Roman 
 Catholic cathedral, the Unitarian church, St. 
 Paul's church, the Court-house, and the Union 
 bank, are all spacious and elegant structures. 
 The Washington monument is another ornament 
 to this citv. It stands in an elevated situation, 
 at a short distance above the compact part of the 
 town. The base is fifty feet square, and twenty- 
 three high, on which is placed another square of 
 about half the same size and elevation. Upon 
 this stands a column of twenty feet diameter at 
 the bottom, and fourteen at the top, on which 
 the statue of Washington is placed, 163 feet from 
 the ground. Its literary and scientific institutions 
 are very respectable. St. Mary's college was 
 incorporated as a university in 1806, and is well 
 endowed. It has a good library with a philoso- 
 phical and chemical apparatus ; and is under the 
 direction of a president, a professor of divinity, 
 one of moral, and one of natural, philosophy, ono 
 of the belles lettres, four of languages and ma- 
 thematics, besides eight assistant tutors. The 
 number of students is generally about 140 ; but 
 they are admitted at a much earlier age than in 
 the universities of England. The medical college 
 was founded in 1807. It received a new charter 
 in 1812, when it was denominated the university 
 of Maryland, and was authorised to annex tlie 
 other faculties of languages, arts and sciences, law 
 and divinity, to that of physic; out the medical 
 department was the only one lately in operation. 
 The building is spacious and elegant, and the 
 instruction is under the direction of a provost 
 and six professors of anatomy, &c. There is ano- 
 ther literary institution, called the Baltimore 
 college. Four daily newspapers are published 
 here. A great number of flour mills, forges, &c. 
 are placed on the stream, within a few miles of 
 the town, and add greatly to its trade. In 1814 
 an attack was made on this city by the British 
 troops under General Ross, but they were re- 
 pulsed and their commander slain : a stone struc- 
 ture, called the Battle monument, has been erected 
 to commemorate this circumstance. Lat. 39° 17', 
 long. 76® 36'. 
 
 Baltimore, a town of Ireland in the county 
 
 of Cork, on a head land, running into the sea, 
 five miles north-east of Cape Clear. 
 
 Baltimore Bird. See Oriolus. 
 
 BALTINGLASS, a town of Ireland in the 
 county of Wicklow, where are manufactures of 
 woollen, linen, and diaper. It is situated on the 
 Slaney, twenty-nine miles south of Dublin. 
 
 BALTUS (.fohn Francis), a French Jesuit, 
 born at Mentz in 1627, was librarian at Rheims, 
 and wrote an Answer to Fontenelle's History 
 (if Oracles, printed at Strasburg, 8vo. 
 
 BALTZAR (Thomas), an eminent musical 
 composer, and the finest performer on the violin 
 of his time, born in Lubec. He came into Eng- 
 land in 1658, and lived about two years with Sir 
 Anthony Cope, of Hanwel, in Oxfordshire. He 
 was the great competitor of Davis Mell, who, 
 though a clockmaker, was, till Baltzar came 
 hitlier, allowed to be the finest performer on the 
 violin in England ; and after his arrival he divided 
 with him the public applause, it being agreed 
 that Mell excelled in the fineness of his tone and 
 the sweetness of his manner, but Baltzar in the 
 power of execution and command of the instru- 
 ment. It is said of the latter that he first taught 
 the English the practice of shifting, and the use 
 of the upper part of the finger-board. Baltzar 
 shortened his days by excessive drinking, and was 
 buried in Westminster abbey, in 1663. 
 
 BAL\'AG, a river of Perthshire, which runs 
 through and connects the lakes, Lochdoine, Loch- 
 voil and Loch-Lubnaig, in the parish of Bal- 
 quhidder. It abounds in trout of different species, 
 cliar, &c. and has occasionally a few salmon. 
 
 BALVAIRD, a district of Perthshire, in the 
 parish of Abernethy, memorable for one of those 
 monuments of ancient ingenuity and superstition, 
 called rocking stones. It is mentioned by Bu- 
 chanan, but has long ago lost its motion ; being 
 choked up with earth and gravel. There is 
 another, still movable in the parish of Dron. 
 
 Balvaird Castle, an ancient edifice in 
 Perthshire, among the hills, in the south-west 
 corner of tlie parish of Abernethy ; which be- 
 longed originally to the Murrays of Balvaird, and 
 is now, along with the estate, the property of the 
 earl of iNIansfieid. 
 
 BALUE (John), a native of France, born 
 about 1420. His parents were in low circum- 
 stances, but by art and servility he obtained se- 
 veral rich preferments, and at last was made 
 bishop of Angers, when his old patron of that 
 see was deposed. He afterwards got a cardinal's 
 hat from Paul II. But a correspondence which 
 he had engaged in with the dukes of Burgundy 
 and Bern, to the disadvantage of Louis, being 
 discovered, he was seized and confined in an iron 
 cage eleven years. .After his liberation he went 
 to Rome, from whence he was sent as legate by 
 Sixtus V. to France. He died in 1491. 
 
 BALVENIE, or Balveny, a mountainous 
 district of Scotland, in the county of Bamff, on 
 the western side, watered by the Spey, where 
 there is a noted rock, which ]iroduces hones and 
 whet-stones sufficient to sujiply the whole island. 
 Here are also veins of alum-stone, and springs of 
 alum water. 
 
 Balveny Castle, an ancient fort ; and
 
 BAL 
 
 445 
 
 BAL 
 
 Balveny Crag, a remarkable hill or rock, in 
 the parish of Mortlach in Banffshire, exhibiting, 
 witli the adjacent grounds, a great deal of pictu- 
 resque rural scenery, and a pleasing mixture of 
 the sweet and the wild. 
 
 BALUSTER, n. s. "^ Fr. ballustre, Span. 
 
 Balus'tradf., n. s. ^balauster, Ital. ha- 
 
 BALUs'TERED,/)ar?. & adj. j laiistrio,Gv.pa\av- 
 ^»ov, the flower in blossom of the pomegranate. 
 Dr. Jolmson, however, derives it from the Italian 
 balestriera, a spike-hole, or loop-hole, to shoot 
 out at. Baluster is sometimes corruptly written 
 banister. A small column or pilaster from an 
 inch and three quarters to four inches square, or 
 diameter : their dimensions and forms are various. 
 They are frequently adorned with mouldings ; 
 they are placed with rails on stairs, and in the 
 fronts of galleries in churches. Balusters, when 
 continued form a balustrade. 
 
 This should first have been planched over, and 
 
 railed about with bahulers. Carew. 
 
 The terraces and balustrades built along the river, are 
 
 now overgrown with roses. Swinburne's Travels. 
 
 Here is a vista, there the doors unfold. 
 
 Balconies here are baluttred with gold. 
 
 Dry den's Art of Poetry. 
 
 Balustrade, n. s. ; from baluster ; an as- 
 semblage of one or more rows of little turned 
 pillars, called ballusters, fixed upon a terrace, or 
 the top of a building, for separating one part 
 from another. 
 
 BALUZE, (Stephen) a French writer, born in 
 1641, and educated at Toulouse, where he was 
 patronised by the archbishop, after whose death 
 he was appointed librarian to I\I. Colbert. In 
 1693 the king made him professor of canon law, 
 and gave him a pension, with the post of direc- 
 tor of the royal college, for writing the lives of 
 the ^ooes of Avignon ; both of which advantages 
 he soon lost in the fluctuation of court parties ; 
 having inserted some offensive notes in his Ge- 
 nealogical History of the house of Auvergne. He 
 is much more famed for collecting ancient ^ISS. 
 and illustrating them with notes, than for his own 
 compositions. He died in 1718. 
 
 BALYUR, or Balilr, a sea-port of Africa, 
 in the kingdom of Dancali, about fourteen hours 
 journey west from Babel-Mandel. It is remark- 
 able only for being the landing place of the Abys- 
 sinian patriarch, Alphonsus Mendez, with his 
 Jesuits and Portuguese, April 3d, 1724. 
 
 BALZAC (John Lewis Guez de), born at An- 
 goulfeme in 1595. Voltaire allows him the merit 
 of having given numbers and harmony to the 
 French prose, but censures his style as bombastic. 
 Cardinal Richelieu gave him a pension of 2000 
 livres, with the titles of counsellor of state and 
 historiographer of France. He died in 1654; 
 and was buried in the hospital of Notre Dame 
 des Anges, at AngoulCme to which he bequeathed 
 12,000 livres. Besides his Letters, he wrote a 
 work called (Euvres Diverses, i. e. on various 
 subjects ; The Prince ; The Christian Socrates, 
 &c. ; and many otlier pieces, which have been 
 published in two volumes folio. 
 
 BAM, Beam, being initials in the name of 
 any place, usually imply it to have been woody ; 
 from the Sax. beam, which we use in the same 
 sense to this day. — Gibson. 
 
 BAMAH, a high place in Jerusalem^ where 
 there was an idol temple. 
 
 BAMBA, the largest province of the kingdom 
 of Congo, in Africa. It is situated between the 
 rivers Ambriz and Csanza; the last of which parts 
 it from Pemba on the east, as the Ambriz does from 
 the province of Sogno on the north. Along the sea 
 coasts it extends on the north to the river Lelunda ; 
 and on the south to the Danda, which parts it 
 from the kingdom of Angola. The governors of 
 this province bear the title of dukes, and are al- 
 most independent of the king. The soil is very 
 fertile, and would produce all the necessaries of 
 life in great plenty, were the inhabitants indus- 
 trix)us in its cultivation. The sea coasts produce 
 a vast quantity of salt, which could be purifieri 
 with little trouble. The fishery of the zimbis, or 
 little sea-snail, is here carried on, whose shell is 
 the current coin, not only in this and the neigh- 
 bouring kingdom, but also in the most distant 
 parts of Africa. Here are also said to be mines 
 of gold, silver, quicksilver, copper, tin, and iron, 
 but the iron mines alone are allowed to be 
 worked. Bamba, the capital, is thirty leagues 
 inland. The other chief towns are, Panza or 
 Penga, in a plain between the rivers Ambriz and 
 Loze, and MosuUa or Marsoula. 
 
 BA^NIBARAH. an ancient city of Sinde, in 
 Hindostan, supposed to have been the ancient 
 Braminabad, a city which, in the tenth century, 
 was the residence of a dynasty of Hindoo princes, 
 ■when it had regular bastions (and corresponding 
 defences), to the number of 1400, seventy yards 
 distance. 
 
 BA^NIBARRA, one of the largest and most 
 powerful kingdoms of central Africa, boimded 
 on the west by Kaarta and Manding, on the 
 south by Ludamar and Beeroo, on the east by 
 Tombuctoo and Baedoo, and on the south by 
 Kong and Mamana. It is generally placed be- 
 tween 1-2° & 18° N. lat. and about 20" W. long. 
 The country, though in some parts desert, is in 
 general very fertile, and often reminded Mr. 
 Park, he tells us, of the finest parts of England. 
 Besides the usual productions of this part of 
 Africa, it yields the shea tree, the kernel of which 
 forms a species of vegetable butter. The Niger 
 traverses it from west to east, and is navigable by 
 canoes through the whole extent of Bambarra. 
 The inhabitants tan sheep and g >at skins, smelt 
 iron, are pretty good smitiis, and make a tolera- 
 ble sort of beer of durrah, (sorghum vulgare), 
 and the lotus-berries, (zyzyphus lotus). The 
 land about Kabba was so well cultivated, as to 
 remind Mr. Park of England. Their language 
 is a dialect of the Mandingo. Their canoes are 
 large, formed of two trunks of trees joined to- 
 gether, but have neither sails nor masts. Mr. 
 Park, in travelling, passed through many popu- 
 lous towns. Sego, the capital, he supposed to 
 have 30,000, Sansanding, 10,000 or 11,000, and 
 Jenne probably more inhabitants. Baedoo is 
 tributary to the king of Bambarra, and some 
 accounts represent Tombuctoo also to have fallen 
 under his dominion. The inhabitants consist of 
 a mixture of Moors and Negroes; and though 
 the sovereign is a Negro, the administration of 
 many of the towns is in the hands of the Moors. 
 That people are the most intelligent, active, and
 
 446 
 
 BAMBOO. 
 
 commercial of the two ; but their character is 
 narsh, severe, and intolerant ; whereas the Ne- 
 groes are gentle and kind, the influence of which 
 Mr. Park frequently experienced. The slaves 
 broufrht from Bambarra are the most valued of 
 any, both on the coast, and in Barbary. The 
 trade with the coast is carried on by slateas, or tra- 
 velling merchants ; that with Barbary by the 
 INIoors from across the desert, either directly into 
 Bambarra, or through the channel of Tombuc- 
 too ; and although Bambarra itself does not pro- 
 duce gold, it is the medium through which that 
 of Manding, Kong, and Bambouk, is trans- 
 mitted to many other parts of the continent. jNIr. 
 Park could form no satisfactory conjecture of the 
 number of the inhabitants altoc^ether. The name of 
 this country was hardly known a few years ago. 
 Its only traces in history are, that Mouette, in his 
 History of Meuly Archy, (Mdlai Rashid,) tells 
 us, when Sidi Ali, the Morabit, who had reigned 
 at Sus, was obliged to fly into Nigritia, he took 
 refuge with the king of Bambarra, and raised an 
 army of negroes, whom he led into the empire of 
 Morocco. This enabled Mula i Ismail, the suc- 
 cessor of Rashid (Archy) to make the conquest 
 of Tombuktu. Thence arose the influence of the 
 jVIoors over the Negro countries. Their conver- 
 sion to ]\Iahommedanism is probably of more 
 modern date. Mungo Park's kind reception here, 
 together with the treatment Mr. Docherd expe- 
 rienced, during a residence of several months on 
 the banks of the Joliba, inspires the hope that 
 we miirht establish a friendly intercourse between 
 Sego and the coast. Mr. O'Beirne was sent, in 
 ]\Iarch 1820, by the governor of Sierra Leone on 
 a mission to the Almami (Imam) of Timbo, and 
 found there an envoy from Dhaa, king of Sego, 
 sent to apologize to the governor for the deten- 
 tion of Mr. Docherd. Lieutenant Lang of the 
 second West India regiment, offered to accom- 
 pany this envoy back to Sego ; and the envoy 
 quitted Sierra Leone for Futah Jallon, in July 
 1821 ; but the final result of these measures we 
 have not learned. 
 
 BAMBERG, a large handsome town and bi- 
 shopric of Franconia in Germany, now forms 
 part of the circle of the Maine and of Ileizat, in 
 Bavaria. It was formerly imperial, and the 
 bishop was director of the circle of Franconia. 
 He enjoyed the privileges of an archbishop, im- 
 mediately under the pope, and wag the fourth 
 among the spiritual princes of the empire. In 
 1007 the emperor Henry II. created his chan- 
 cellor the first bishop ofBamberg, and tlie succes- 
 sion was regular until it was secularised and as- 
 signed to Bavaria in 1803. The diocese included 
 1430 square miles, and more than 200,000 inha- 
 bitants. The number of towns was nineteen. 
 The bailiwics exceeded fifty, and the villages and 
 hamlets were estimated at 1200. The whole of 
 Bamberg, including the secularised convents, is 
 supposed to yield about £150,000 a year to the 
 crown of Bavaria. The country produces plenty 
 of corn, fruits, and liquorice, and the manufac- 
 tures of chintz and iron are flourishing. The 
 town has an university, founded in 1147; and is 
 situated at the confluence of the rivers Maine and 
 Reidnitz It is in part surrounded by walls and 
 ditches The cathedral, with its four towers and 
 
 rich treasury, the abbey of St. Michaelsberg, the 
 ten monasteries and nunneries (now mostly sup- 
 pressed), the sixteen churches, the fifteen chapels, 
 the new episcopal residence of Petersburgh, built 
 by bisliop Lotharius in 1702, the tombs of the 
 emperor Henry II. and his wife, of Conrade III. 
 and pope Clement II., are all worthy of regard, 
 A Carmelite monastery, which is now secularised, 
 contained a library of 14,000 volumes, besides 
 many curious manuscripts ; and valuable collec- 
 tions of books exist in the cathedral church and 
 in the abbey of St. Michaelsberg. This last esta- 
 blishment stands on a hill, and commands a de- 
 lightful prospect. The university was converted 
 into a lyceum in 1802. This place is noted for 
 its abundant vegetable markets; not less than 
 400 market-gardeners being resident here. It has 
 been laid under several contributions by the Rus- 
 sians and the French. It is supposed to contain 
 20,000 inhabitants. 
 
 Bamberg, a town of Bohemia, situated at the 
 foot of a mountain, in long. 16° 50' E., lat. 49° 
 53' N. 
 
 BAMBELE, in zoology. See Rutilus. 
 BAMBO, in commerce, an East Indian mea- 
 sure, containing five English pints. 
 
 BAMBOCCIO, a celebrated painter of con- 
 versations, landscapes, cattle, &c. was born at 
 Laeren, near Naarden, in 1613. His name was 
 Peter Van Laer ; but in Italy they gave him the 
 name of Bamboccio, on account of the uncommon 
 shape of his body, the lower part being one-tliird 
 part longer tlian the upper, and his neck so short 
 that it was buried between his shoulders. He 
 had, however, an ample amends for the unseem- 
 liness of his limbs, in tlie superior beauties of his 
 mind ; he was endowed with an extensive genius ; 
 and, indeed, he had an universal taste for every 
 part of painting. See Vax Laer. 
 
 BAMBOO, an Indian plant of the reed kind. 
 It has several slioots much larger than our ordi- 
 nary reeds, which are knotty, and separated 
 from space to space by joints. The importance 
 of this plant to vast regions of the East, may well 
 excuse our dwelling on some modes of its culture, 
 and its peculiarities. 
 
 Botanists have generally ranked it with other 
 reeds. Linnaeus, in the Systema Naturae, describes 
 two species, under the genus bambusa, which is 
 characterised by scales three, covering the spike- 
 lets, whicli are about five flowered ; calyx none ; 
 corolla, a two valved glume ; style bifid ; seed 
 one. But Loureiro, who saw it in its own cli- 
 mate, characterises it as having flowers with six 
 stamina ; panicle difl'used, with imbricate spike- 
 lets ; branches of the culm spiny ; calyx one 
 flowered. We shall not discuss its minute bota- 
 nical characters, as it is the practical cultivation 
 and great utility of the plant to which we would 
 engage the reader's attention. 
 
 A native of the warmer climates only, though 
 often growing luxuriously beyond the tropics, the 
 bamboo rises to the height of forty, sixty, or even 
 eighty feet, with a slender, hollow, shining, stem. 
 Many, however, are only twelve or fifteen feet 
 high ; and those which attain the greatest height 
 here mentioned are rather to be viewed as over- 
 grown. The stem is extremely slender, some- 
 times not exceeding the thickness of five inches
 
 BAMBOO. 
 
 447 
 
 in them which are fifty feet high, and in others, 
 being fifteen or eighteen in diameter; the whole 
 divided into joints separated by knots or inter- 
 nodes, between which are distances varying from 
 a few inches to several feet. Alternate branches 
 spring from the base to the top ; which, with the 
 pointed leaves of the knots, give the whole tree 
 a most elegant appearance. 
 
 It will sometimes vegetate three or four inches 
 in a single day, and it has been seen to rise 
 twenty feet, and as thick as a man's wrist, in five 
 or six weeks. Its full dimensions are frequently, 
 therefore, attained in a year ; and the only change 
 afterwards, is greater thickness and induration of 
 the wood. Towards the root it is solid and com- 
 pact ; and the cells of the stem become wider 
 in proportion as they ascend. In Malabar it is 
 said to bear fruit when fifteen years old, and that 
 it then dies. 
 
 There seem to be several species which have 
 not yet been recognised by systematic botanists. 
 An observer of the bamboos of China, in general, 
 considers that there are nine species or varieties, 
 and an observer of those in Cochin-China, admits 
 of eight. The former judges the difference to 
 consist, first, in the size and height, for there is 
 here the greatest disparity in those that are full 
 grown ; and it has been supposed that some, if 
 not all species, originally spring of their ultimate 
 diameter, which receives no accession. Secondly, 
 the distance of the knots, or length of joint, 
 which, in certain species of full-grown bamboo, is 
 only four inches, while, in others long and slen- 
 der, they are nine or ten feet asunder. Thirdly, 
 in the color of the wood, which is whitish, yel- 
 low, brown, pale blue, or speckled. Fourthly, 
 in the size and form of the knots, some swelling 
 out from the stem above and below ; some en- 
 circling it like a cord ; and those of the most sin- 
 gular kind, which do not penetrate within to 
 interrupt the tubular part of tlie bamboo. Fifthly, 
 by the surface and figure of the internodes being 
 channelled or covered with tubercles ; and a kind 
 is said to exist, called the square bamboo. The 
 varnished surface is also of different quality. 
 Sixthly, the substance and thickness of the wood, 
 which, varying without any relation to the dimen- 
 sions of the plant, afford sufficient characteristics 
 for constituting a species. The wood is either soft 
 and tender, or very hard and of great strength ; 
 and the stem is either very thin and hollow, or 
 almost totally filled up and solid, like other trees. 
 But elsewhere, in Bangalore for example, this 
 solidity is not ascribed to the difference of spe- 
 cies, but to the tardiness of its growth in stony- 
 places. Seventhly, it is said that there are bam- 
 boos entirely devoid of branches, however old 
 they may be; while others protrude as they 
 spring from the earth. Eighthly, there is a 
 great difference both in the hue and figure of the 
 leaves, as also in their size ; they are bluish, ash- 
 color, reddish, or mottled. Some are so large 
 as to make good fans. Ninthly, the roots, though 
 knotty, are found in one species to penetrate 
 into the earth like a tuft of filaments. 
 
 This ])lant is to be found growing wild in most 
 parts of the east, and is resorted to as occasion 
 requires. It is regularly cultivated in plantations 
 in the more genial climates, and preserved in 
 
 others in green-houses, &c. It succeeds best in 
 low sheltered spongy grounds, but the immediate 
 contact of the root with water is said to be fatal 
 to it. They propagate it by shoots, deposited in 
 pits at the close of autumn or commencement of 
 winter, eighteen inches or two feet deep ; and if 
 it be designed to obtain bamboos of considerable 
 size, the scyons are cut over as they spring up. 
 It flourishes but in large plantations, as the plants 
 yield considerable shelter to each other in tlieir 
 progress. As they run from the ground they are 
 propped up and trained with rods of a proper 
 height; and if complete plants, are cut over, in 
 order to obtain suitalsle shoots, which are chiefly 
 sought after. This, also, makes the root strike out 
 and take a secure hold of the ground. Tlie planta- 
 tion, in rainy seasons, is generally drained by a 
 ditch, as it decays very fast in too damp groimds. 
 To obtain good Bamboos, it is not uncommon to 
 take a vigorous root with firm wood, and transplant 
 it, leaving only four or five inches above the joint 
 next the ground. The cavity is then filled with a 
 mixture of horse-litter and sulphur. Sometimes 
 the shoots are destroyed at an early stage during 
 three successive years; and those springing in the 
 fourth are then said to resemble the parent tree. 
 
 The earliest shoots of this plant are edible, 
 and arc ser\'ed up at table in autumn like aspa- 
 ragus; in a similar manner with that vegeta- 
 ble, also, they are earthed over to keep them : 
 they are also salted and eaten with rice. A 
 fluid of grateful taste and odour is yielded from 
 the hollow joints as the plant grows up, afford- 
 ing an agreeable beverage. In its further 
 progress this becomes a concrete substance 
 called tabaxir or tabascheer, highly valued 
 for its medicinal properties, and apparently a 
 species of siliceous earth. It resists the impres- 
 sion of acids, is indestructible by fire, and with 
 alkalies forms a transparent glass. A decoction 
 of the leaves of the bamboo is recommended in the 
 east for coughs and sore-throat; the bark for fever 
 and vomiting; the buds as a diuretic ; and a com- 
 pound of the root with tobacco-leaves, betel-nut, 
 and oil, forms an efficacious ointment. ]\Iany 
 of the poorer classes in the most populous 
 countries subsist entirely upon it in times of 
 scarcity. The Hindoos eat its seeds roasted, 
 mixed with honey as a delicacy, equal quantities 
 of each being put into a hollow joint, coated 
 externally with clay. 
 
 From the copious draught which a joint of the 
 bamboo naturally yields, mankind are taught its 
 use as a vessel for carrj'ing water, and iu some 
 places no other bucket is employed. Many 
 eastern nations build their houses solely of the 
 bamboo-wood; entire, it forms their posts or 
 columns; split up, it serves for floors or rafters; 
 or, interwoven in lattice-work, it is employed 
 for the sides of rooms, admitting light and air. 
 The roof is sometimes, also, of bamboo, for 
 which two of its species are described to be 
 specially adapted; and when split, which is 
 accomplished with the greatest ease, it can be 
 formed into lath or planks. Vessels of all kinds 
 are framed out of it likewise, and fitted for sea. 
 The hull is taken from the stem; and some of the 
 strongest plants are selected for masts of boats. 
 In Bengal, a boat of four or five tons may be
 
 BAM 
 
 448 
 
 BAM 
 
 furnished with both mast and yard from the same 
 bamboo, at the cost of threepence ; and the masts 
 of larger vessels are sometimes formed by the 
 union of several bamboos built up and joined. 
 Those of considerable dimensions are used in the 
 higher yards of larger ships, for which, by their 
 great strength and lightness, they are well 
 adapted. 
 
 This important plant is also employed in the 
 construction of agricultural and domestic imple- 
 ments; and in all materials and implements 
 required in fishery, with die exception of hooks 
 and nets. In Thibet bows are made of it, by the 
 union of two pieces with many bands; and in the 
 same country also, it is employed for pipes, in 
 transmitting water, for several miles, to reservoirs 
 or gardens. A single joint is sufficiently capacious 
 to serve as a bucket; and in some places, no 
 other is used. In thesoulh-westof Asia, a species 
 of slender growth supplies writing-pens or reeds. 
 Baskets, cages, hats, and various ornamental 
 articles, are to be added to the catalogue of its 
 extensive uses. By a particular process in 
 bruising and steeping the wood or bark, also, 
 a paste is procured that is made into paper. In 
 short, as it has justly been observed, from its 
 very origin until its decay, it never ceases to pro- 
 duce something beneficial — all that composes a 
 bamboo is profitable, of whatever species it may 
 be. The artists of China have each made their 
 choice, and in the works they produce, show the 
 advantage they have derived from it. Its uses 
 are so numerous, so various, and so beneficial, 
 that it is impossible to conceive how China 
 could now dispense with this precious reed. It 
 is no exaggeration to affirm, that the mines of 
 this vast empire are of less importance to it than 
 the possession of the bamboo. 
 
 Bamboo, in botany, the trivial name of a spe- 
 cies of arundo. See Arundo. 
 
 Bamboo Habit, a Chinese contrivance by 
 which a person who does not know how to swim 
 may easily keep himself above water. The fol- 
 lowing account of it is taken from a letter to the 
 author of the Seaman's Preservative. ' In the 
 year 1730 I was passenger in a ship from Bata- 
 via to China, burden about 400 tons, called the 
 Pridae, Francisco Xavier, commander, freighted 
 by the English, Chinese, and Portuguese. Near 
 the coast of China, we met with one of those 
 storms called atuff'oon (tau son<',), or a great wind, 
 which carried away all our masts, bowsprit and 
 rudder ; and in our hold we had six feet of water, 
 expecting every moment the ship would founder. 
 We consequently were consulting our preserva- 
 tion ; the English and Portuguese stood in their 
 shirts only, ready to be thrown off; but the Chi- 
 nese merchants came upon deck, not in a jacket, 
 but I will call it a bamboo habit, which had lain 
 ready in their chests against such dangers ; and 
 it wtis thus constructed ; four bamboos two before 
 and two behind their bodies, were placed hori- 
 zontally, and projected about twenty-eight 
 inclies. These were crossed on each side by two 
 others, and the whole properly secured, leaving a 
 space for their liody ; so tliat tiiey had only to put 
 it over their heads, and tie tiie same securely 
 which was done in two minutes, and we were sa 
 tisfied they could not possibly sink.' 
 
 BAMBO'OZLE, v.-\ a cant word not used, 
 Bambo'ozler, n. >says Johnson, in pure, 
 Bambo'ozlixg. J or grave writings. To 
 
 delude, to mislead, to cheat, to cozen, to deceive, 
 
 to beguile. Synonymous with another cant term, 
 
 to humbug, or to take in. 
 
 After Nic had bamboozled John awhile, John called 
 
 for counters. Swift, 
 
 There are a set of fellows they call hanterers and 
 
 bambooxlers, that play such tricks. Arbuthnot. 
 
 But, says I, sir, I perceive this is to you all bam- 
 
 booxling ; why you look as if you were Don Diego to 
 
 the tune of a thousand pounds. Tatler, No. 31. 
 
 BAMBRIDGE, or Bainbridge (Christo- 
 pher), L.L.D. archbishop of York, and cardinal, 
 was born at Hilton in Westmoreland, and edu- 
 cated at Oxford. He rose gradually from being 
 rector of Aller, prebendary of Salisbury, dean of 
 York and Windsor, &c. to one of the highest dig- 
 nities of the church. In 1495 he was elected 
 provost of Queen's college. In 1507 he was 
 appointed bishop of Windsor, and next year 
 archbishop of York. He was employed in dif- 
 ferent embassies to foreign princes ; particularly 
 to the emperor Maximilian I., Charles VHI. king 
 of France, &c. But he chiefly distinguished 
 himself in the embassy from Henry \TII. to pope 
 Julius II. who created him a cardinal, with the 
 title of St. Praxede, in 1511, and appointed him 
 legate of the ecclesiastical army, then besieging 
 Bastia. In return, our new cardinal prevailed 
 upon Hei^ry VIII. to take part with the pope 
 against the king of France. There are extant in 
 Rymer's Fcedera, two letters ; the one from car- 
 dinal Bambridge to king Flenry VIII. respecting 
 the pope's bull, giving him the title of Defender 
 of the Faith ; and the other from cardinal Sini- 
 galli, to that monarch, acquainting him he had 
 delivered the instrument to cardinal Bambridge. 
 He died at Rome in 1514, being poisoned by a 
 domestic, in revenge for his having struck him. 
 
 BAMBOROUGH, or Bambrough, a parish 
 and castle of Northumberland, on the sea coast, 
 five miles east from Belford, and 329 north 
 from London. It was once a royal borough, and 
 sent two members to parliament. The castle 
 stands upon a rock, almost perpendicularly to 
 the sea. and 150 feet above its level. It is acces- 
 sible only on the south-east side. On this spot, 
 according to historians, stood a palace of the 
 Northumbrian kings, built by Ina in 559. In 
 the reign of queen Elizabeth, Sir John Forster, 
 warden of the marches, was made governor of it 
 after the battle of Musselburgh ; and subsequently, 
 to his great credit, his relative, Crew, bishop of 
 Durham, purchased and bequeathed it to cha- 
 ritable uses. In 1 757 the trustees of this charity re- 
 paired the great tower, and formed the upper build- 
 ings into granaries, for the sale of corn to the 
 poor, at a cheap rate. A constant watch on the 
 top of the tower is said to be kept, whence signals 
 are made when any vessel is discovered in dis- 
 tress, and boats are able to put off from Holy 
 Island when none from the land can pass the 
 breakers. During a storm horsemen patrol the 
 coast, to the extent of eight miles, from sun-set 
 to sun-rise, to give notice in case of shipwrecks 
 to the castle, and wnere the unfortunate mariner 
 finds an hospitable asylum. Upwards of thirty
 
 BAM 
 
 449 
 
 BAM 
 
 toats are always in readiness for tliis good work. 
 At the expense of this fund, the last offices are 
 also performed over the bodies of such persons 
 as may be cast on shore. Within the castle 
 walls are to be found a school, a valuable library, 
 an infirmary, which receives more than 1000 
 patients yearly, and a dispensary. 
 
 BAiVIBOUClI, or BAMincH, called also Ma- 
 gog and Ilierapolis, an ancient city of Syria, not 
 far from tlie Sejour, and fifty miles distant from 
 Aleppo. It is situated in a valley, watered by a 
 stream conveyed by aqueducts to the town from a 
 hill twelve miles south, and in some parts by a 
 cliannel twenty feet under the earth. Tlie an- 
 cient town was surrounded by walls above thirty 
 feet high, and nine feet thick, strengthened by 
 towers at the distance of fifty paces from each 
 other ; it was entered by four gates fifteen feet 
 wide, defended by a tower on each side, cased, 
 as they still appear, both externally and inter- 
 nally, by hewn stone ; the top was gained by a 
 flight of steps built on arches. Various remains 
 of the structures and sculptures of different 
 nations and dates appear here. 
 
 BAMBOUIv, or Bambuc, a country of Africa, 
 whicli the Ablje Raynal states to be situated in 
 the interior, under the twelfth or thirteenth de- 
 gree of north latitude. It is not subject to a parti- 
 cular king ; but governed by village lords, called 
 farims. These hereditary and independent chiefs 
 are obliged to unite for the defence of the state, 
 when it is either attacked as a community or 
 only in one of its branches. The territory of 
 this aristocratieal state is dry and barren. It 
 produces neither maize, rice, nor pulse. The 
 insupportable heat it is subject to, proceeds in 
 part from its being surrounded by high moun- 
 tains, which prevent the wind from refreshing the 
 air. The climate is as unwholesome as it is dis- 
 agreeable ; vapors, which continually issue from 
 the bowels of a soil replete with minerals, render- 
 ing it unfit to live in, especially to strangers. Its 
 gold has made it an object worthy of notice ; 
 gold, which in the eyes of the covetous man 
 seems to compensate for all the evils of nature, 
 though in reality it increases them Sensible 
 and judicious merchants, adds this author, have 
 chosen to limit themselves to a commerce much 
 more important, which is that of slaves. 
 
 Almost all that is known of this state is de- 
 rived from a Frenchman named Compagnon, 
 ^vho passed a year and a half there in the begin- 
 ning of the last century. Labat, Afrique Occi- 
 dentale, iv. 5. He describes it as divided into 
 three provinces, Bambouk Proper, Kincodon, 
 and Satddore, each of which abounds with gold, 
 but the first most particularly. The principal 
 repositories are at Rakkon, Semayla, Hambia, 
 and Ilombadyria, at each of which appears a 
 conical hill of moderate elevation, every part of 
 which contains gold, combined with earth, sand- 
 .stone, lapis lazuli, &c. They obtain the metal 
 ^y digging deep pits, and delivering the earth to 
 the women, who cary it to the streams, and sepa- 
 rate the gold by the simple process of agitation 
 in water, after the manner described in i\lr. 
 Park's second journey. When the other sub- 
 stances are hard, tlie whole is previously pounded. 
 Those pits being only six feet square often fall 
 Vol. III. 
 
 in, and bury the workmen. Bambouk appears to 
 be the main source of that large quantity of gold 
 which is on one side conveyed down the Gambia 
 and Senegal, and traverses the desert on the other 
 into Barbary. The population is almost entirely 
 of the Mandingo race. It is remarkable, how- 
 ever, that although they profess Mahommedanism, 
 no m-.irabout or priest is suffered to reside amongst 
 them : it is said they were all expelled some years 
 since, being detected in a conspiracy to seize the 
 government. It is also said that they are very 
 jealous of European visitors ; and that the Por- 
 tuguese and P'rench have each in vain endeavoured 
 to establish themselves here. 
 
 BAMBYCE, an ancient city of Parthia, called 
 also Ilierapolis : famous for the rich and mag- 
 nificent temple of Atergatis, which was plundered 
 by Crassus. 
 
 BAMEENY, Vamani, an island lying off the 
 coast of Chittagong, in the province of Bengal, 
 formed by the sediment deposited by the great 
 River Megna. It is twelve miles long by about 
 five broad. The East India company have here 
 an extensive establishment for the manufacture of 
 salt, of which they retain the monopoly. 
 
 BAMFF, or Banff, a county of Scotland, com- 
 prehending Strathdovern, Boyn, Enzie, Strath- 
 aven, Balvenie, and part of Buchan, extends 
 fifty miles from east to west, and thirty in breadth 
 from north to south. On the south it is separated 
 from part of Buchan by the river Ugie ; on the 
 east it is bounded by the Deveron and the Ger- 
 man Ocean ; on the west by the Spey and the 
 county of Moray ; on the south-west by Badenoch 
 and the Braes of Mar; and on the north by the 
 Moray Frith. The face of the country is agree- 
 ably diversified with hills and dales, woods and 
 rivers ; and exhibits many seats and plantations. 
 The air is pure, the climate healthy, and the soil 
 fertile, producing plentiful crops of corn. The 
 pasture grounds feed sheep, cattle, and horses ; 
 the arable lands produce plenty of corn ; while 
 the rivers and sea supply great quantities of fish. 
 The manufactures of this county never were 
 considerable ; and those of yarn and cloth, as well 
 as the cotton manufacture, have declined of late. 
 Coarse woollen stufts are made for the us-e of 
 private families and tan-works; breweries, rops 
 works, &c. have been established on a smill 
 scale. The principal exports of Bam-ff are grain, 
 fish, butter, cheese, yarn, and linen ; while the 
 imports are flax, hemp, leather, iron, coals, wood, 
 and wine. Various minerals have been found in 
 different parts of the shire ; and a piece of amber, 
 as large as a horse, was once cast ashore on the 
 beach. Gordon castle, and several otlier seats of 
 the duke of Gordon are situated in this county. 
 It sends a member to parliament. Here are nu- 
 merous remains of antiquity, consisting of cairns 
 and tumuli, exhibiting the triumphs of our an- 
 cestors over the Danes, whose sculls they have 
 built into the solid walls of churches. Also the 
 ruins of several forts, castles, and monasteries. 
 Tiie valued rent of the county is £79,200 Scots ; 
 and in 1811, according to the assessment of the 
 property tax, the real gross rent of the lands was 
 £79,396 3s. 4d., and of the houses £5514. 2s. 
 sterling. 
 
 Bamf F, the capital of the countv, is pleasantly 
 
 2G
 
 BAM 
 
 450 
 
 BAM 
 
 s!Uiat2d on the south side of a hill, at the mouth 
 of the Deveron. A fine bridge of seven arches 
 crosses the river. It has several good streets ; 
 of which that with the town-house in it, adorned 
 with a new spire, is very handsome. This place 
 was erected into a borough by a charter from 
 llobert II. dated October 7tli, 1372, endowing it 
 with the same privileges, and putting it on 
 the same footing with tlie burgh of Aberdeen ; 
 but tradition says it was founded in the reign of 
 Malcolm III. The harbour is bad, as the en- 
 trance at the mouth of the Deveron is very un- 
 certain, being often stopped by the sands, which 
 are continually shifting in great storms ; the pier 
 is therefore placed on the outside, and defended 
 by a half-moon battery of eight guns. Manu- 
 factories of thread, cotton, and stockings, are 
 carried on to a considerable extent, and great 
 quantities of salmon are annually exported. About 
 Troop-head some kelp is made ; and the adven- 
 turers pay the lord of the manor £50 yearly for 
 the liberty of collecting the materials. Near the 
 town is a magnificent seat of the earl of Fife. It 
 lies in a beautiful plain washed by the Deveron, 
 the lofty banks of which, clotlied with wood on 
 the opposite side, afford a delightful contrast to 
 the soft vale beneath. 
 
 Bam.flP has two fairs, on the first Tuesday in 
 February, and the third Tuesday in December, 
 both old style. Long. 2° 15' W., lat. 57° 35' N. 
 The parish is about six miles in length, and two 
 in breadth. The sea coast is bold and rocky. A 
 great part of the parish, though it might be easily 
 converted into arable land, is occupied in pas- 
 turage. Population about 3000. 
 
 BAMIAN, an ancient city and province of Asia, 
 to the north-west of Cabul, ten days journey 
 from Balkh. It is remarkable alike for having 
 been once the metropolis of Buddhism, and for 
 its dreadful catastrophe, when taken by Jenghiz 
 Khan in 1221. • At that time it belonged to Sul- 
 tan .lalallodm, the last of the famous Mahmud 
 of Gazni's race. Jenghiz was about to attack 
 (iazna, that prince's capital, but was stopped by 
 the garrison of this place, which he had hoped 
 ■would give him no trouble. In this, however, 
 he was disappointed. The people had for a long 
 time expected an attack, and had therefore ruined 
 the country for five or six leagues round, while 
 the peasants had carried away the stones, and 
 every thing that could be of use to the besiegers. 
 Accordingly Jenghiz Khan having erected wooden 
 towers, and planted his engines upon them, was 
 obliged to suspend his operations, till millstones 
 and other materials could be brought from a great 
 distance. The walls of the city were very strong, 
 so that the engines of the Moguls made little im- 
 
 f)ression , and the garrison, making frequent and 
 urious sallies, cut off whole squadrons of his 
 troops, and frequently overthrew his towers and 
 engines. This so exceedingly chagrined Jenghiz 
 that he swore to be revenged. To exasperate 
 him yet farther a young prince, his grandson, 
 was accidentally slain in the siege. At last, there- 
 fore, by the numberless multitude of the Moguls, 
 who continued their attack without intermission, 
 the city was taken, its walls had been ruined in 
 many places, and the bravest soldiers and officers 
 of the garrison slain in its defence. The 
 mother of the young prince, who had been killed, 
 
 entered with the troops, and caused the throats of 
 every one of the inhabitants to be cut, we are 
 told, without exception, and even gave orders to 
 destroy the women with child, that not an infant 
 might be left alive ! Further, to gratify the rage 
 of this inhuman monster, the buildings were all 
 levelled with the ground ; the cattle, and every 
 living creature, destroyed ; insomuch tliat the 
 hardened Moguls themselves gave this place the 
 name of iVIaubalig, or the unfortunate city. A 
 castle has since been built out of its ruins. 
 
 The place now appears surrounded with groi- 
 toes, or caverns (several of which are inhabited), 
 excavated from an insolated mountain. Many 
 of these abound with carved work and sculptures, 
 and the remains of ancient paintings. Mr. Wil- 
 ford (As. Res. vi. 462), says ' it was formerly 
 called Budd'h Vamiyan, ' the most beautiful and 
 excellent,' (a name still frequently given it by 
 the followers of Buddiia), and maliciously cor- 
 rupted by the Mussulmans into But-Bamiyan, 
 'idolatrous Bamiyan.' It has been called by 
 historians the Thebes of the east ; and here are 
 two colossal statues, seventy-five feet high, hewn 
 out of the rock, standing in alto relievo against 
 the wall of the niches in which they are enshrined. 
 A third, of less colossal dimensions, being only 
 fifteen cubits high, stands at a small distance. 
 The orthodox say they represent B'hima and his 
 family ; the Budd'histi maintain that they are 
 Shahama and his disciples Salsala ; while the 
 Mussulmans affirm that they are no other than 
 Adam and Eve, in the shape of Cayumans, and 
 his consort. Between these opinions it would 
 be presumptuous for us to decide. A door, be- 
 tween the legs of the largest, opens into a temple 
 still served by a few Brahmins. The province 
 contains several villages, and decent towns. 
 
 BAMIER, a plant common in Egypt. It pro- 
 duces a pyramidal husk, with several compart- 
 ments, of the color of alemon, and filled with 
 musky seeds. The husk dressed with meat is a 
 wholesome food, and of a very agreeable flavor. 
 The Egpytians make great use of it in their 
 ragouts. 
 
 BAMMAKOO, a considerable town of Bam- 
 barra, in Africa, situated on the Niger, at the 
 point where the navigation higher upwards is 
 interrupted by cataracts. It carries on a great 
 trade in salt. It is 180 miles south-west of Sego. 
 Long. 5° 48' \V., lat. 12° 50' N. 
 
 BAMOO, a province on the north-east frontier 
 of the kingdom of Ava. Also a town situated 
 on the river Irrawaddy, 170 miles N.N.E. of 
 Ummerapora, where a considerable trade is car- 
 ried on with the Chinese. 
 
 BAMOIII, a village in Northern Hindostan, 
 where an annual fair is held, to exchange the 
 productions of the mountaineers and the inha- 
 bitants of the low countries. 
 
 BAMOTH-BAAL, one of the towns of the 
 tribe of Reuben, which seems to have had a tem- 
 ple of Baal on an eminence; lying eastward, 
 near the river Arnon, and the territory of Moab. 
 Jerome calls it Bamoth, a city of the Amorites, 
 beyond Jordan, in the possession of the sons of 
 Reuben. Whether it was the same with that 
 mentioned in Numbers xxi. is doubtful, but it 
 appears to have been the place of encampment 
 of the Israelites, and of Balaam's first station
 
 B A N x\ R E S. 
 
 451 
 
 where he had the first view of tiie rear of the 
 ])eopIe. 
 
 BAMPFYLDE (Sir Charles Warwick), a 
 baronet of one of the oldest and moit distin- 
 guished families in Devonshire. He sat in seven 
 parliaments' for the city of Exeter, was well 
 known upon the turf, and moved in the first cir- 
 cles of fasliion. lie received his death from an 
 assassin named Morland, whose wife had lived 
 in his service. The shockinaj act was perpe- 
 trated almost at his own door in Montague 
 Square, where the murderer waited his approach, 
 and after a short conversation, first discharged a 
 pistol at his victim, and with a second blew out 
 his own brains. April 19tli, 1822. 
 
 BAMPLASOY, a town of Lower Siam, on 
 the Gulf of Siam. Long. 101° 36' E., lat. 3^ 
 35' N. 
 
 BAMPTON, or Bampton in the Blsh, a 
 market town and parish of the county of Oxford, 
 situated on the river Isis. It has a spacious 
 church, a charity school for twenty children, and 
 the remains of an ancient castle. Trade and 
 manufacture are carried on here in leather articles 
 to a considerable extent. Population 1232. 
 Distant ten miles from Oxford, and sixty-nine 
 and a half W.N.W. from London. 
 
 Bampton, a market town and parish of Eng- 
 land, in Devonshire, situated on a branch of the 
 Exe called Bathara, or Batherm, where the Ro- 
 mans are sup])osed to have had artificial hot- 
 baths, and there is still a chalybeate spring in the 
 vicinity. It carries on a small manufacture of 
 serge and pottery. John de Bampton, a Carme- 
 lite monk, who first read Aristotle at Cambridge, 
 and died in 1361, was a native of this tow^n. A 
 battle was fought here in 614 or 620, between the 
 West Saxons and the Britons, wherein the latter 
 suflered great loss. Population 1452. Distant 
 from Tiverton five miles north, and 164 west of 
 London. 
 
 BAN, v.k. n. ^ Germ, hanncn, hann. A word 
 
 Ban'mng. S exceedingly various in its appli- 
 cations. Its primary meaning seems to be that 
 of a public proclamation ; whether the matter in- 
 volved were agreeable or otherwise. It generally 
 signifies, however, proclamation with authority ; 
 to command, or to forbid ; to excommunicate, 
 and to curse. 
 
 I bar it in the interest of my wife ; 
 'Tis she is subcontracted to this lord. 
 And I her husband contradict your bans. 
 
 Shakupeare. 
 
 Ah, Glo'ster, hide thee from their hateful looks ; 
 And in thy closet pent up, rue my shame, 
 And ban thine enemies, both mine and thine. Id, 
 
 Bold deed to eye 
 The sacred fruit, sacred to abstinence, 
 Much more to taste it, under ban to touch. 
 
 To draw her neck into the bans. 
 
 Milton. 
 Hudibras. 
 
 Shall we think that it baneth the work which they 
 leave behind them, or taketh away the use thereof? 
 
 Hooker. 
 
 Before these Moors went a 'Numidian priest bellow- 
 ing out charms, and casting scrowls of paper on each 
 tide, wherein ho cursed and banned the Christians 
 
 Knolles. 
 
 He proceeded so far by treaty, that he was proffer- 
 ed to have the imperial ban taken off Altapinus, upon 
 subTuission. Huwell. 
 
 Ban Of THE Empire, a public censure, by 
 which the privileges of any German prince are 
 suspended. 
 
 Ban, in commerce, a sort of smooth fine mus- 
 lin, whicli the English import from the Last 
 Indies. The piece is almost a yard broad, and 
 runs about twenty yards and a half. 
 
 Banns of Marriage. The instrument which 
 publishes the bands or obligations of matrimony 
 into which the parties enter, to the end tliat if 
 any man can say against the intention of the 
 parties, either in respect of kindred or otherwise, 
 they may take their exception in time. And, in 
 the canon law, <banna sunt proclamationes sponsi 
 et sponsa: in ecclesiis fieri solitac.' Among the 
 variety of applications, says a writer in the Ency- 
 clopcedia Metropolitana, all deducible from its 
 primary meaning, ban signified a solemn assem- 
 bly of tlie nobility, to attend the king in arms, 
 summoned by proclamation. To be put under 
 the ban of the empire, in the ancient German 
 constitution, was to be interdicted from all inter- 
 course with society. The imperial ban was di- 
 rected against cities, as well as persons, and de 
 prived those who incurred it of all their dignities 
 and privileges. 
 
 BANAGIIER, a town of Ireland, in King's 
 County, seated on the Shannon, over which it has 
 two bridges. It is about fifteen miles south of 
 Athlone, and sixty-six from Dublin. 
 
 BAN AG ROTH, a town of Ireland, in King's 
 County, Leinster. 
 
 BANANA TREE. See Musa. 
 
 BANARES, or Benares (Varanasi), a large 
 district or zemindary in the province of Allaha- 
 bad, situated principally between the twenty- 
 fourth and twenty-sixth degrees of north latitude. 
 When ceded by Asoph ud Dowlah, the Nabob 
 of Oude, in 1775, it was divided into six and a 
 half pergunnahs, containing an aggregate of 
 12,000 square miles, of which 10,000 are a fer- 
 tile and richly cultivated flat, on both sides oi 
 the Ganges. The chief districts are Benares, 
 Gazypoor, Jionpoor, and Chunar. In the Insti- 
 tutes of Acber, A. D. 1582, Abul Fazel describe? 
 it as follows : ' Sircar Benares, containing eight 
 mahals, measurement 136,663 beegahs, revenue 
 8,169,318 dams.— Seyurghal 338,184 dams. 
 This Sircar furnishes 830 cavalr}^, and 8400 
 infantry.' The gross revenue in 1813 amounted 
 to 4,562,707 rupees; £570,338. 7.';. Qd. of our 
 money. At Chunar-gur'h, Mirz4-pur, and Gliazi- 
 pur, are large stone quarries ; at which, on pay- 
 ing a moderate duty, any one may work ; and 
 the receipt for such licenses in 1816 amounted to 
 37,086 rupees, or £4635. 15a. 
 
 The atmosphere of this province is severe, and 
 in winter renders fires indispensable ; but for 
 three months after March, becomes so heated by 
 the setting in of the hot winds, as to destroy all 
 verdure, and would probably prove destructive 
 to all European artificial grasses, were the culti- 
 vation of them introduced. Garden-stuff of dif- 
 ferent kinds for Europeans, flax for oil, grains, 
 and sugar, are nevertheless produced by the na- 
 tives during the cold season. The use of flax a-s 
 
 2 G 2
 
 452 
 
 B A N A R E S. 
 
 an article of clotliinij is not here understood. 
 Every Held of hurley contains a mixture of grain 
 or peas ; and at tiie distance of six or ten feet 
 is planted a heautiful yellow flowering shruh, 
 used in dyeing. 
 
 The principal manufactures are plain and 
 flowered muslins, chiefly made in the northern, 
 baftas in the western, and sanaes in the eastern 
 parts of the province. Tissues, brocades, and 
 ornamented gauzes, are articles of general manu- 
 fr'.cture, from the Ganges and Goomty to the Ca- 
 ramnassa and Soane. The apparatus for the sugar 
 manufactory is extremely simple ; a stone mortar 
 and wooden pistern, turned by two bullocks, 
 constitute the most expensive part of the opera- 
 tion; the boiling pots are of common earthen- 
 ware ; the whole, in value, not exceeding twelve 
 rupees. Salt is manufactured at Banares. In- 
 digo and opium are annually raised and exported 
 from many parts of the province. 
 
 The country is well supplied with water, and 
 washed by several noble rivers and streams ; of 
 which the Ganges, tlie Goomty, the Caramnassa, 
 and the Soane, are the most important ; the two 
 latter forming the natural boundaries of the pro- 
 vince. The space from Patna to Buxar, Gazy- 
 poor, Banares, and Mirzapoor, presents a beau- 
 tiful and highly fertile country, adorned with 
 numerous clumps of mango-trees, which give the 
 whole region the appearance of a forest, affording 
 a shady retreat for cattle. The territory on both 
 sides of the river, above Mirzapoor, formerly 
 belonged to the Nabob of Oude, and exhibited a 
 strong contrast to the flourishing state of the 
 Banares districts, which in point of prosperity, 
 perhaps excel all others in India, with the ex- 
 ception of Burdwan in Bengal. 
 
 The population of the province, according to 
 the census taken in 1801, under the direction of 
 the Marquis Wellesley, at that time governor- 
 general, amounted to three millions, in the pro- 
 portion of one Mahommedan to five Hindoos. 
 The code of regulations for Bengal has, with 
 very little alteration, been extended to Banares. 
 The Brahmins, however, from the great venera- 
 tion in which they are held by the people, are 
 indulged with some peculiar privileges. The 
 punishment of death in capital oflTences is com- 
 muted for transportation, and the process against 
 them in criminal charges is somewhat different 
 from that of Hindoos of a lower caste. Several 
 evil practices of the Brahmins were, nevertheless, 
 at the same time suppressed ; as, the holding out 
 the threat of obtaining spiritual vengeance on 
 their adversaries by suicide ; the exposure of the 
 life, or actual sacrifice, of their own children, or 
 near relations ; occurrences which are now sub- 
 ject to the usual course of criminal law. One 
 tribe of Hindoos, residing in the province, called 
 Rajcoomars, were accustomed to destroy their 
 female infants, from the difiiculty experienced in 
 getting them suitably married. Mr. Duncan, 
 the resident, prevailed on them to desist from 
 this practice ; and the observance of it subjects 
 the offender to the ordinary punidjment of murder. 
 
 The most remarkable events iji the history of 
 this province are the following : — Musuram, the 
 grandfather of Cheit Singh, possessed originally 
 but lidlf the village of Gungapoor; by additions 
 
 to which, he laid the foundation of tlie zemindary, 
 or lordship, of Banares. At his death, in 174C, 
 his son and successor Bulwant Singh ascended 
 the throne; and after a reign of thirty years, in- 
 creased the provincial territories to their present 
 dimensions. Cheit Singh Raja received the 
 zemindary in 1780 ; but from his refractory 
 conduct, was expelled tlie province by Mr. 
 Hastings, within one year after his accession. 
 He lived at Gwaliyar till 1810, and his lands 
 are still held by a collateral branch of the same 
 family, with an annual profit exceeding ten per 
 cent, on the revenue, derived from them by the 
 government. Tennant, J. Grant, Colehrookc, 
 Jij'th Report, Hamilton, SjC. 
 
 The chief towns in the Banares zemindary, are 
 Banares, in Sanscrit, Vara Nashi, from the two 
 streams, Vara and Nashi. It lies in lat. 25° 30' 
 N. and long. 83° E., on the northern bank of the 
 Ganges, which here forms a fine sweep of about 
 four miles in length. Its elevation above the 
 water is evident from the G'hats, or landing 
 places, composed of large stones, to the height of 
 thirty feet, and are supposed to have been 
 erected by pious Hindoos, as acts of public 
 charity. The town rises like an amphitheatre 
 from this basis on the external curve of the river, 
 and may be seen at once fi'om the opposite shore, 
 which forms an extensive level. 
 
 The great narrowness of the streets gives it 
 the usual appearance of an Asiatic town, and the 
 houses, which are six stories liigh, close to each 
 other have terraces on their summits, and ex- 
 tremely small windows, to keep them cool and 
 prevent inspection. The opposite sides of the 
 streets in some places approach to each other so 
 closely as to be united by galleries. The number 
 of houses built of stone and brick, are stated at 
 12,000, those of mud at 16,000. The inhabitants 
 are more than 600,000, of whom one tenth are 
 Mahommedans ; and during the great Hindoo 
 festivals, the concourse is immense. Casi, or 
 Cashi, the splendid, as the Indians commonly 
 call it, is one of the most sacred places in the 
 whole of India ; the country for ten miles round 
 is thought holy land, and the famous lingam, sup- 
 posed to be Siva, or Maha-Deo himself, in a state 
 of petrifaction, attracts the veneration and alms of 
 myriads. The representatives of this invaluable 
 relic in different parts of the city are said to be 
 at least a million, and one pilgrim is reported to 
 have travelled sixteen times from Banares, an- 
 ciently Casi, to Rameswara or Ramisseran, op- 
 posite Ceylon. IJevout Hindoos come to end 
 their days at Banares, the same as pious Jews go 
 to die at Jerusalem : and so great is the holy 
 sanctity of the place, that to die there is suffi- 
 cient to preserve even beef-eating Englishmen 
 from the black realms of the Indian Pluto, 
 the Hindoo Patah'i. One Englishman the Brah- 
 mins say did get to heaven by departing this 
 life at Banares, and his meritorious decease is 
 said to have been still further sanctified by the 
 bequest of a large sum of money for the erection 
 of a temple under the direction of his spiritual 
 solicitor. So holy is this celebrated city that 
 many foreign Hindoo Rajahs have vakeels or 
 delegates residing here, who perform for tl>ein 
 the requisite sacrifices and ablutions.
 
 BAIN^ 
 
 453 
 
 BAN 
 
 Casi, the ancient name of this city, is still re- 
 tained in preference to its modern name Banares, 
 although there are no notices concerninis^ it in the 
 works of ancient geographers. It is remarkable 
 that they should omit this celebrated city, and at 
 the same time specify INIathura or Metliora and 
 Clisobara, wliich are near the Jumna. 
 
 Banares is regarded as the ancient seat of 
 Brahminical learning ; and within the last cen- 
 tury the moon beams of science have in some 
 measure relieved the intellectual gloom which 
 lowered upon the dark hemispliere of the inha- 
 bitants. .laya-Sing'ha, Raja of Amb'hcr, at the 
 close of the seventeenth century erected an ob- 
 servatory in this city. (Piiilosophical Transac- 
 tions, vol. Ixvii ; and Asiatic Researches.) A 
 college has also been erected by the British 
 government, for the instruction of Hindoos 
 in their own literature ; but the influence and 
 prejudices of the Brahmins have prevented any 
 considerable diffusion of learning among the 
 natives. Reading and writing are however taught 
 here, upon a plan strongly resembling that of 
 some modern institutions in our own counti-y. 
 The boys are collected on a smooth flat of sand, 
 on which, with the finger or a small reed, they 
 trace the letters in the sand, and learn to pro- 
 nounce them at the same time. 
 
 The number of pious foundations in Banares 
 is very great. Hindoo temples are scattered all 
 over the city and the surrounding plain. The 
 principal one is called Visweswar or Bisesar, 
 and is dedicated to Siva, whose sacred relics 
 it contains. Aurengzebe, to mortify the Hindoos, 
 built a splendid mosque on the highest ground 
 of the city, and what was worse than all, on the 
 sacred ruins of a Hindoo temple, which was 
 destroyed to make room for it. The minarets of 
 thi? edifice command an extensive view of the 
 city, and open some of the finest prospects of the 
 surrounding country. 
 
 The handsome houses of the English exhibit 
 an unusual nakedness from the want of trees ; 
 but this in India is absolutely necessary, from the 
 swarms of mosquitoes to which they afford a 
 favorite resort. The Rajah resides at Ramna- 
 gTir on the opposite side of the river, five miles 
 from Banares. In this city are upwards of 8000 
 houses occupied by mendicant Brahmins, who 
 have nevertheless considerable property of their 
 own. Europeans in this place are few, con- 
 sisting chieHy of a judge, collector, and registrar, 
 a few other civil servants connected with the 
 company's establishment, together with a few 
 private merchants and planters. 
 
 Banares is the chief mart for gems and 
 diamonds, which are brought principally from the 
 Bundelcund country. Merchants and bankers 
 are numerous and wealthy, arising from the great 
 traffic of winch this city is the site. The land is 
 extremely high priced, and law suits respecting 
 it are unceasing. The division of the court of 
 circuit comprehends the following districts. 
 1. Mirzapoor. 2. Allahabad. 3. Bundelcund. 
 4. Juanpoor. 5. Gooracpoor. 6. City of Ba- 
 nares. 
 
 Cast does not appear to have been known to the 
 Greeks, and was probably subject to the Hindoo 
 sovereignty of Canoj. In the year 1017 Sultan 
 Mahraood of Ghiziii took possession of it, to- 
 
 gether with the town of Casum or Casuma, now 
 Patna, and went as far as the country of Ouga- 
 nam or Unja, west of the Cossimbazar river. 
 The following year he overran these countries a 
 second time, and penetrated as far as Kisraji, 
 Cach'iia Raja, or Cooch Bahar, from which 
 period the Hindoos in this part of India remained 
 unmolested by the Mahommedans till the close 
 of the twelfth century, when it was finally in- 
 cluded within the Mogul empire. In 1775 
 Banares was ceded by the Nabob of Aud'h or 
 Oude, since which for tlie most part it has en- 
 joyed uninterrupted tranquillity ; and the inha- 
 bitants aie fully sensible of the advantages they 
 derive from living under the British government, 
 with respect to the security of their persons and 
 property. 
 
 On the 14th of January, Mr. Cherry the resi- 
 dent, and three other English gentlemen, were 
 treacherously murdered by Vizier Ali, the de- 
 posed Nabob of Oude, and spurious son of the 
 late Asoph ud Dowiah. Mr. Davis would also 
 have fallen a sacrifice had he not, from the top of 
 a narrow winding stair-case, on the flat roof of 
 the house, defended himself and family with a 
 short spear till assistance could be procured. 
 
 The travelling distance from Banares to Cal- 
 cutta by Birbhoom is 460 miles, by Moorsheda- 
 bad 565, from Buxar seventy, Allahabad eighty- 
 three, Calpy 239, Kanoge 259, Bareily 345 
 miles. See Lord Valentia, third Register, Wil- 
 Jord, and Rennel. 
 
 BANBURY, a borough and market town in 
 the hundred of that name, (Jxon, seventy-one 
 miles from London; containing 3400 inhabitants. 
 It stands on the river Charwell, on the road from 
 Buckingham to Bridgenorth, and was first made 
 a borough by queen Mary. Its privileges were 
 afterwards confirmed and enlarged by James I. 
 and George I. It is now governed by a mayor, 
 high steward, recorder, six burgesses, and thirty 
 assistants; has a town-clerk, and two serjeants- 
 at-mace, and returns one member to parliament. 
 The land in tliis neighbourhood is particularly 
 fine pasture, and tlie town was noted, in Cam- 
 den's time, for the excellence of its cheese, as it 
 is now for cakes and ale. When Holland was 
 employed in translating the Britannia, Camden 
 visited the printing-office, and found that to his 
 own observation, lliat Banbury was famous for 
 cheese, the translator had added cakes and ale. 
 Tiiinking this remark too trifling, he changed 
 the last word into zeal ; and this gave much un- 
 intentional offence. In his MS. supplement to 
 the Britannia, in the Bodleian library, is the fol- 
 lowing note : ' Put out the word zeale in Ban- 
 bury, where some think it a disgrace, when as 
 zeale with knowledge is the greatest grace among 
 good Christians.' In the adjacent fields Roman 
 coins have often been discovered, and the pyrites 
 aureus, or golden fire-stone. A castle was built 
 here in 1125, which was entirely destroyed in 
 the civil wars of Charles I. Plush is manufac- 
 tured here, and the trade of the town is greatly 
 enhanced by the proximity of the Thames and 
 Severn canal. Here are held, annually, seven 
 fairs : those for hiring servants are called mop 
 fairs. The church, having been of late re- 
 built, is large though not handsome. The 
 market on Thursday is reckoned the best in tiie
 
 BAN 
 
 454 
 
 BAN 
 
 county for com, cattle, and all kinds of pro- 
 visions, 
 
 BANC, or BcNCA, in law, a tribunal, or judg- 
 ment-seat : Hence, 
 
 Banc, Common, means the Court of Common 
 Pleas ; and 
 
 Banc. King's, the Court of King's Bench. 
 
 BANC A, an island of the Indian Ocean, be- 
 tween Sumatra and Borneo; from the first of 
 which it is separated only by a narrow channel. 
 It is celebrated for its tin mines, the annual profit 
 of which to the Dutch is estimated at £150,000. 
 It is mountainous and woody. There are seven 
 mines, which give employment to 25,000 men, 
 originally a Chinese colony, and nominally un- 
 der the direction of the sultan of Palembang, but 
 in reality workmg for the profit of the Dutch 
 East India company. The metallic sand is said 
 to yield 70 per cent. Very little is sent to Eu- 
 rope ; the Chinese are very skilful in adulterating 
 it. This island, which had been captured by 
 our forces during the late war, with the rest of 
 the Dutch possessions in the East Indies, was 
 civen up at the peace of 1814. It had been 
 formally ceded to us by Najmu'ddin, sultan of 
 I'alembans, in 1812, on condition of his being 
 placed under our protection, but this stipulation 
 was disregarded by the Dutch authorities in Java 
 in 1818; and they have since that period been 
 at war with the sultan. The straits of Banca 
 afford a safe passage with a favorable monsoon ; 
 but as shoal water sometimes occurs, and there 
 are occasionally coral reefs, they require great 
 care and attention in navigating them. The 
 Banca islands in 2° 22' S. lat., and lOS"" 41' E. 
 long., afford shelter from S. W. by S. to N.W. 
 with a good supply of water and fuel. 
 
 Banca, a small island of a cluster still smaller, 
 lying oft' the north-east extremity of the island of 
 Celebes, which are much frequented by the Ma- 
 lay pirates. ]"ish, turtle, and fruits, are plentiful. 
 Long. 125° E., lat. 1° 50' N. 
 
 BANCAL, an East Indian weight, containing 
 16t^ drams Avoirdupois. 
 
 BANCALI A, old law,Lat.cushions for benches. 
 
 BANCALIS, a sea-port town on the east coast 
 of Sumatra, where the Dutch have a settlement. 
 It lies 130 miles west of Malacca. 
 
 BANCHI (Seraphin), archbishop of Angou- 
 l^me. He was at first a priest of the Dominican 
 order at Florence; but in 1593 one Peter Bar- 
 nere, a hot-headed fanatic, having communicated 
 to him his purpose of murdering the king, Bon- 
 chi prudently revealed the matter to a nobleman, 
 by which the horrid design was prevented from 
 being executed. He was rewarded with the 
 archbishopric of Angoul^me. He afterwards re- 
 signed his charge, and retired to St. James's mo- 
 nastery at Paris, where he continued till his death. 
 
 BANCIIO, or Banqiho, thane of Lochaber, 
 the grandfather of Waller, the first lord high 
 steward of Scotland, and the progenitor of the 
 royal house of Stewart. He gamed several great 
 victories over the Highlanders and Danes, in the 
 reign of Donald VII. but his glory was tarnished 
 by joining Macbeth in the conspiracy against 
 that monarch ; and he was murdered by the ty- 
 rant Macbeth about A. D. 1046. 
 
 BANCI Jus, the privilege of having a bench 
 
 was anciently allowed to the king's judges, qui 
 summam administrant justitiam. Inferior courts, 
 as courts baron, hundred courts, &c. were not 
 allowed tliat prerogative ; and even at this day 
 the hundred court at I'reebridge, in Norfolk, ia 
 held under an oak at Gey-wood ; and that of 
 Woolfry, in Herefordshire, under an oak near 
 Ashton, in that county, called Hundred oak. 
 
 BANCK (Peter Vander), an engraver of con- 
 siderable repute, born at Paris, and bred under 
 the celebrated Francis de Poilly. He came over 
 into England with Gascar, the painter, about 
 
 1674; and married the sister of Forester, 
 
 Esq. He was a laborious artist : but the pay he 
 received for his plates being by no means ade- 
 quate to the time he bestowed upon them, he 
 was reduced to want ; and, retiring from busi- 
 ness, sought an asylum in the house of his brother- 
 in-law. He died at Bradfield, and was buried 
 in the church in 1674; leaving his widow in 
 possession of the chief part of his plates, which 
 she disposed of to Brown, a print-seller, to great 
 advantage, and left an easy fortune. His chief 
 employment was engraving portraits; and accord- 
 ing to Virtue's account of him, published by 
 Vv'alpole, he was the first in England who en- 
 graved them on so large a scale. Like many of 
 Poilly's disciples, his great merit consists in the 
 neat management of the mechanical part of 
 the art. 
 
 BANCO, an Italian word, which signifies 
 bank, and commonly used to signify the bank of 
 Venice. 
 
 BANCOOK, a town in the kingdom of Siam, 
 in Asia, with a fort, which was once in the pos- 
 session of the French, but they were driven from 
 it in 1688. The houses are made of canes, cover- 
 ed with palm leaves, and the inhabitants go 
 almost naked. It is forty miles south of the city 
 of Siam. 
 
 BANCROFT (Richard), archbishop of Can- 
 terbury, was born at Farnworth, in Lancashire, 
 in 1544, and studied at Cambridge,where he took 
 his degrees of B. A. M.A. and D. D. After 
 passing successively through several gradations in 
 the church, he was, in 1597, appointed bishop of 
 London. In 1600 he was sent by queen illiza- 
 beth to settle some dift'erence between the Eng- 
 lish and the Danes. He also interposed in the 
 disputes between the secular priests and the 
 Jesuits, and furnished arguments to the former. 
 In 1603 he was at the conference at Hampton 
 Court, between the bishops and the Presbyterian 
 ministers, and was appointed a commissioner for 
 regulating church aft'airs. In 1604 he was ap- 
 pointed president of the convocation, and soon 
 after elected archbishop of Canterbury, which 
 was confirmed by king James I. His last pro- 
 motion was in 1610, to be chancellor of the uni- 
 versity of Oxford, which he did not long enjoy, 
 for he died in 1612, of the stone, at Lambeth. 
 
 Bancroft (John), bishop of Oxford, a nephew 
 of the above, born in Oxfordshire. In 1592 he 
 was ^admitted of Christ Church, in Oxford. In 
 1609 he was chosen master of University College, 
 where he continued above twenty years; during 
 which time he was at a great deal of labor as 
 well as expense to recover the ancient lands be- 
 longing to that foundation. He was made bishop
 
 BAN 
 
 455 BAN 
 
 cl,> lllieueu 111 llic l,iiuj*,ii ui v^uuucauc 
 
 BAND', V. & n.-\ Dut. bende, S; 
 Ijaxd'age, f Gotli. bandi, Celt. 
 
 Band'or, ^tie. The noun up 
 
 Band'er. ' the verb to band i 
 
 of Oxford in 1622, and he built the palace of 
 Cuddesden for that see. He died in 1640, and 
 was interred in the church of Cuddesden. 
 
 BAND', V. & n.'\ Dut. bende. Sax. band, 
 
 ban. A 
 
 ipon which 
 
 is formed, 
 
 is the past participle of the verb to bind. To tie, 
 fasten, unite, join, yoke together ; mutual engage- 
 ment ; promise ; to be in bonds or bondage; to 
 confederate for one common purpose. Band, in 
 our old writers, is frequently written bende. 
 
 With a bend of gold tassilcxi. 
 And knoppes fine of gold amiled. Chaucer. 
 
 The botilcr is not my friend, 
 Whiche hathc the key by the bende. 
 
 Gower, 
 
 Then -wrong it were, that any other twaine 
 Should in love's gentle band combyncd bee. 
 But those whom heaven did at first ordains. 
 And made out of one mould the more t' agree. 
 
 Sjjenser. 
 
 And when it was d'.y, certain of the Jews banded 
 together, and bound themselves under a curse, that 
 they would neither eat nor drink till they had killed 
 Paul. Bible. Acts ch. xxiii. ver. 12. 
 
 Yorke and his banders proudly pi-cssed in, 
 
 Mirrurfor Iihiyistrutcs. 
 Men's hearts are growne so false, that most are loath 
 
 To trust each other's words, or hands, or oath j 
 For though we had in every part an eye. 
 We could not search out all hypocrisy. 
 
 George Wither. 
 Like Maia's son he stood. 
 And shook his plumes, that heav'nly fragrance fill'd 
 The circuit wide, strait knew him all the bands 
 Of angels under watch ; and to his state. 
 And to his message, high in honour rise. MiUon. 
 
 What multitudes 
 Were banded to oppose his high decree. Id. 
 
 Now strike the golden lyre again, 
 A louder yet, and yet a louder strain, 
 Break his bands of sleep asunder. 
 And rouse him like a rattling peal of thunder. 
 
 Dryden. 
 
 The queen, in white array, before her band, 
 
 Saluting took her rival by the hand. Id, 
 
 On a sudden, methought, this select band sprang 
 
 forward, with a resolution to climb the ascent, and 
 
 follow the call of that heavenly musick. Tatler. 
 
 Strait the three bands prepare in arms to join. 
 Each band the number of the sacred Nine. Pope 
 
 Tie took his lodging at the mansion-house of a 
 taylor's widow, who washes, and can clear-starch his 
 bands. Addison, 
 
 Zeal, too, had a place among the rest, with a hati' 
 dage over her eyes ; though one would not have ex- 
 pected to have seen her represented in snow. Id. 
 
 Cords were fastened by hooks to my bandages, which 
 the workmen had girt round my neck. Suift. 
 
 Pride in their port, defiance in their eye, 
 I see the lords of human kind pass by ; 
 Intent on high designs, a thoughtful band. 
 By forms unfasliioned, fresh from nature's hand. 
 Fierce in their native hardiness of soul. 
 True to imagin'd right, above control ; 
 While e'en the peasant boasts these rights to scan. 
 And learns to venerate himself a? man. 
 
 Coldtmiih's Traveller. 
 
 While her snowj' hands 
 From her fair brow, her golden hair unbind. 
 And of her zone unloose the silken bands. 
 More passing bright unveil'd her beauty stands. 
 
 Mrs. Tighs. 
 
 Pirate, thou know'st me not — but I am one 
 Grateful for deeds thou hast too rarely done j 
 Look on me — and remember her thy hand 
 Snatch'd from the fiames, and thy more fearful hand. 
 
 Byrun. 
 
 Band', in architecture, a low flat moulding, 
 otherwise called a face, {vomfaHcia. 
 
 Band is also the denomination of a military or- 
 der in Spain, instituted by Alphonsus XI. king of 
 Castile, for the youn<j;er sons of the nobility, who, 
 before their admission, must serve ten years at 
 least, either in the army or at court; and are 
 bound to take up arms for the catholic faith 
 against the infidels. 
 
 Band of Pensioners, a company of 120 
 gentlemen, who r3ceive a yearly allowance of 
 £100 for attending on his majesty on solemn 
 occasions. 
 
 Bands of a Saddle are two pieces of iron 
 nailed upon the bows of the saddle, to hold 
 the bows in the right situation. 
 
 BANDA Islands, a sroup of islands in the 
 Eastern ocean, about 130 miles E. S. E. from 
 Amboyna. They strictly include ten sepa- 
 rate isles, Eanda Neira, BandaLantoir, Pulo Ay, 
 Pulo Rondo, Pulo Pisang, Rosingen, Craka, 
 Capella^ Souan'j:)', and Gonong Apee, the last 
 being a volcanic islet, rising 2000 feet above the 
 level of the sea. They are all small; Banda 
 Proper, or Lantoir, one of the largest, is only 
 about eight miles long, and not more than three 
 broad ; Xeira, another of the most considerable, 
 does not contain much more than two or tb.ree 
 square miles. Their rich black soil makes tliem 
 generally fertile in tropical fruits ; but their chief 
 and well known produce is nutmegs, for the cul- 
 tivation of which Neira, Lantoir, Pulo Ay, and 
 Pulo Rondo, are laid out in parks or plantations. 
 The plant attains the size of a pear-tree, with a 
 leaf resembling tliat of the laurel, and the fruit, 
 enveloped in a membranaceous covering of mace, 
 is contained in a husk. It is of the shape of a 
 pear when ripe, and approaches the size of an 
 apricot : it is then pulled and put into a drying- 
 house or kiln, where it is exposed during three 
 months to a slow fire : the husk or shell is now 
 broke, and the nutmeg instandy placed among 
 lime, to prevent the attack of insects. It is after- 
 wards made up into packages of 200 pounds 
 each, for exportation. Each tree produces about 
 ten pounds yearly, and an oil is extracted from 
 the unripe and damaged fruit. Nutmeg-trees 
 require incessant care ; a great proportion of 
 them are barren, a defect which cannot be dis- 
 covered before the twelfth or fourteenth year. 
 From this period they continue bearing until the 
 age of twenty, four years after which they perish. 
 The total quantity produced in the four islands 
 the Dutch would never suffer to be ascertained. 
 When they were captured in 1796, a half year's 
 crop was found to amount to 81,618 pounds of 
 nutmeg, and 23,885 pounds of mace. Formerly 
 the average sales were estimated at 350,000 
 pounds of nutmeg annually, and iOO.OOO pounds
 
 BAN 
 
 456 
 
 BAN 
 
 of mace. For many of the necessaries of life 
 lliese islands depend upon Java. The Dutch 
 having subjected the original inhabitants, were 
 the first European occupiers of the Banda islands. 
 And their most extraordinary policy was to cul- 
 
 Bandel d' A&oa, a sea-port on the east 
 coast of Africa, supposed by Dr. Vincent to be 
 the Zergifa of Ptolemy. Long. 49° E., lat. 8 
 20' N. 
 
 Bandel Caus, a sea-port on the east coast 
 
 tivate a portion, and carefulfy extirpate the trees of Africa, supposed by Vincent to be the Opone 
 in all the other islands. Tliis was obviously a of Ptolemy. Lat. 8° la N. 
 
 check upon tlie population. By a census taken 
 in 1796, they were found to be 5763 ; in 1814 
 they were estimated at little more than 4000 ; 
 about three-fourths of whom were slaves. The 
 accounts therefore which formerly stated them at 
 15,000 whites, were most likely exaggerated. 
 
 The seat of government is Neira, where there 
 is a good harbour, and two fortresses, public ma- 
 gazines and storehouses, for the produce of the 
 nutmeg plantations. Garrisons have always been 
 
 Bandel Velho, or Old Port, on the coast 
 of Ajan, supposed by Vincent to be situated 
 on what the Periplus calls the Little Coast. 
 Gosselin imagines it to be the Rhapta of Ptolemy 
 and the Periplus. Fifty miles N. N. E. of JMag- 
 dasho. 
 
 BANDEN, a hill of Scotland, in Fifeshire, 
 which commands an extensive view of the Strath 
 of Eden, from Kinross to St. Andrew's Bay. 
 The remains of an ancient rampart and circum- 
 vallation, 200 yards in diameter, and of a circu- 
 
 maintained in these fortresses; but they were taken 
 
 possession of by Admiral Rainier in 1796, with lar form are to be seen upon n 
 little opposition. .Being restored to the Dutch BANDER-ABASSL See Gombron. 
 by the peace of Amiens, they were agam taken BANDERAS, a large bay m the Pacific 
 by the English in 1810; and reverted to their Ocean, on the west coast of Mexico, between 
 former masters at the general peace of 1814. Cape Corientes and Tmtoque Point. Lat. 20° 
 ^ - - - ~ ' 30' N. 
 
 BANDER-CONGO, a small sea-port town in 
 Asia, seated on the east side of the Persian 
 Gnlf; eighty miles west of Gombrcm ; and 190 
 of Bander- Abassi. 
 
 BANDERET, a general, or one of the com- 
 manders in chief of the forces. This appellation 
 is given to the principal commanders of the troops 
 of the canton of Berne, in Switzerland, where 
 there are four banderets, who command all the 
 forces of that canton. 
 
 BANDEROLE, a little flag, in form of a gui- 
 don, extended more in length than in breadth, 
 used to be hung out on the masts of vessels, &c. 
 Band Fish, in zoology, the English name of 
 the cepola rubescens. 
 BANDL See Angola. 
 BANDINELLI (Baccio), a celebrated sculp- 
 tor and painter of Florence, born in 1487. 
 Tliough he distinguished himself by his skill in 
 both lines, he chiefly excelled in sculpture ; and 
 his group of the Lacoon is much admired. He 
 died in 1559. 
 
 BAND'IT. n. "i Ital. ban and ditto. It 
 
 Tlie latitude of these islands is between 4° and 
 5° S. and the longitude about 130° E. 
 
 BANDALEER, or Bandeleer, in military 
 affairs, a large leathern belt, thrown over the 
 right shoulder, and hanging under the left arm ; 
 worn by the ancient musqueteers, both for the 
 sustaining of their fire-arms, and for the carriage 
 of their musket-charges, which being put up in 
 litde wooden cases, coated with leather, were 
 hung, to the number of twelve, to each ban- 
 daleer. 
 
 BANDALUSAN, a small island in the East- 
 ern Indian sea, near the south coast of Mindanao. 
 Long. 122° 58' E. lat. 7° 12' N. 
 
 BANDARRA (Gonzales), a Portuguese fana- 
 tic of the sixteenth century, who, pretending to 
 be a prophet, raised some disturbance, and in 
 1541, made a narrow escape from being burnt for 
 heresy, by the inquisition. He died in 1556. 
 
 BAND'BOX, n. s. From band and box. A 
 slight box used for bands, and other things of 
 small weight. 
 
 My friends are surprised to find two bandboxes 
 among my books, till I let them see that they are 
 lined with deep erudition. Addison. 
 
 With empty bandbox she delights to range. 
 And feigns a distant errand from the 'Change. 
 
 Ga'j's Trivia. 
 
 BAND'ELET, n. s. Fr. bandelet. In archi- 
 tecture, any little band, flat moulding, or fillet. 
 
 BANDELLO (Matthew), bishop of Agen, was 
 born at Castelnovo, in the Milanese, about the 
 end of the fifteenth century. He was first a Do- 
 minican monk, and distinguished himself by 
 writing novels in the manner of Boccacis. When 
 his country was invaded by the Spaniards he 
 went to France, and there, in 1550, obtained the 
 bishopric of Agen, but resigned it in 1555. He 
 died in 1.561. The best edition of his novels is 
 that printed at London, in four volumes, 4to. 
 1740. 
 
 BANDEL, a sea-port of Japan, on the north- 
 xvest coast of the island of Nipiion. Long. 131° 
 45' E., lat. 34° 46' N. 
 
 Band'itto, 72. > is the past participle of 
 
 Band'itti (plural), j dicere, united to ban, ex- 
 communicated or banished ; and thus signifies 
 one declared to be banished. An exile or out- 
 law. Banditti are not only outlaws, but robbers, 
 who commit their depredations in concert. Men 
 who place themselves without the pale of society, 
 that they may commit aggressions upon its peace 
 and property. 
 
 A Roman sworder, and handitto slave, 
 Murdcr'd sweet Tully. Skaktpeare. 
 
 Xo savage fierce, bandit, or mountaineer. 
 Will dare to soil her virgin purity. Milton. 
 
 Just as much fidelity might be expected from them 
 in a common cause, as there is amonw a troop of 
 honest, murdering, and ravishing bandits. Dryderi. 
 
 No bandit fierce, no tyrant mad with pride. 
 No cavcrn'd licrmit, rests self-satisfy'd. Pope. 
 
 Who are they who can be said to he govern'd by 
 laws of their own making ? I know of no such per- 
 sons ; I never heard or read of any such, except, per- 
 haps, among pirates, and other banditti, who, trampling
 
 BAN 
 
 457 
 
 BAN 
 
 on all laws, {H\'ine and human, refuse to be governed 
 in any other way than by their own licentious regu- 
 lations. Beattie. 
 Banditti. Brydone, in his Tour through 
 Sicily, informs us, that in the eastern part, called 
 Vul Demoni, from the devils that are supposed to 
 inhabit Mount Etna, it was in his time found 
 altogether impracticable to extirpate the banditti; 
 there being numberless caverns and subterrane- 
 ous passages round that mountain, where no 
 troops could possibly pursue them : besides they 
 were known to be perfectly determined and reso- 
 lute, never failing to take a dreadful revenge on 
 all who offended them. Hence, the prince of V^illa 
 Franca embraced it, as the safest, wisest, and 
 most political scheme, to become their declared 
 patron and protector. Such of them as thought 
 proper to leave their mountains and forests, 
 though perhaps only for a time, met with en- 
 couragement, and a certain protection in his 
 service, where they enjoyed his confidence, whicli 
 in no instance were they found to abuse. They 
 were clothed in the prince's livery, and wore a 
 badge of their order, which entitled them to uni- 
 versal fear and respect from the people. The 
 persons of those whom they accompanied were 
 ever held sacred. For this reason travellers 
 chose to hire a couple of them from town to town ; 
 and many thus travelled over the whole island 
 with them in safety. 
 
 Banditti Island, an island on the east- 
 ern Indian sea, at the south entrance of the 
 straits of Lombhook, about twenty miles in cir- 
 cuit. Long. 115° 35' E., lat %^ bO' N. 
 
 Ban Dog. In zoology, a name of the canis 
 molossus, or mastiff. But Dr. Johnson observes, 
 that the original of this word is very doubtful. 
 Caius, De Canibus Britannicis, derives it from 
 hand, that is, a dog chained up. Skinner inclines 
 to deduce it from lana, a murderers May it not 
 come from hun, a curse, as we say a curst cur ; or 
 rather from haiind, swelled or large, a Danish 
 word ; from whence, in some counties, they call 
 a great nut a 6an-nut. A kind of large dog. 
 
 Or privy, or pert, if any bin. 
 We have great bandogs will tear their skin. 
 
 Spenser. 
 
 The time of night when Troy was set on fire. 
 The time m hen screech-owls cry, and bandogs howl. 
 
 Shakspeare. Henry VI. 
 
 Then, Somerset says, set the bandog on the bull. 
 
 Drayton. 
 
 BANDON, or Baxdon-bridge, a considerable 
 borough town of Cork, in Ireland, situated on a 
 river of the same name. It is called by the Irish, 
 Drohed (the bridge), and was founded by the 
 first earl of Cork in 1610. The walls were de- 
 molished by the Irish, in 1689, and, in conse- 
 quence of this violence, papists were long pro- 
 hibited from residing in the town. Bandon 
 principally belongs to the duke of Devonshire 
 and the earl of Bandon. It returns one mem- 
 ber to the imperial parliament. The cotton 
 manufactory used to flourish here, and great 
 numbers of vvorkmen are still employed on linens, 
 camlets, and woollens, llie population is 10,179; 
 distance from Cork thirteen miles ; from Dub- 
 lin, 113. 
 
 BANDORA, a town of the island of Sal- 
 
 sette, on the west coast of the peninsula on this 
 
 side the (janges. 
 
 B ANDO 11 E, a musical instrument with strings, 
 resembli[ig a lute, said to have been invented in 
 the fourth year of queen Elizabeth, by John 
 Rose, a citizen of London. 
 
 BANDROL, banderol, Fr. A little flag, 
 or streamer ; the little fringed silk flag that hangs 
 on a trumpet. 
 
 BANDUM, or Band, is used, in middle age 
 writers, for a flag or banner. 
 
 BANDURI (Anselmj, a learned Benedictine, 
 born at Ragusa, in Dalmatia. He studied in 
 France, and applied himself principally to anti- 
 quities. He published. The Antiquities of Con- 
 stantinople, two volumes, folio ; and Numismata 
 Imperatorum Romanorum, a Trajano Decio ad 
 Paleologos Augustos, 1718. He died at Paris in 
 1743. 
 
 BAN'DY, v., n.s., & adj. Fr. bander, to make 
 crooked. A club turned round at bottom for 
 striking a ball at play ; hence to bandy is to beat 
 to and fro from one to another, to agitate, to toss 
 about, to give and take reciprocally, to contend 
 as at some game, in which eacii strives to drive 
 the ball his own way. 
 
 The shooting stars, 
 Which, in an eye-bright evening, seem'd to fall. 
 Are nothing but the balls they lose at bandy. 
 
 Brewer's Lingua, ii. 6. 
 They do cunningly, from one hand to another, 
 bandy the sers'ice like a tennis-ball. Spenser. 
 
 Do you bandy looks with me, you rascal ? 
 
 Shakspeare. 
 No simple man that sees 
 This factious bandying of their favourites. 
 But that he doth presage some ill event. Id. 
 
 Had she affections and warm youthful blood. 
 She would be as swift in motion as a ball. 
 My words would bandy her to my sweet love. 
 And his to me. Id. 
 
 Could set up grandee against grandee. 
 To squander time away and bandy ; 
 Made lords and commoners lay sieges. 
 To one another's privileges. Hiidibras. 
 
 They now begun 
 To spur their living engines on ; 
 For as whipp'd tops, and bandy'd balls. 
 The learn'd hold, are animals ; 
 So horses they affirm to be. 
 
 Mere engines made by geometry. Id 
 
 And like a ball, bandy'd 'twixt pride and wit. 
 Rather than yield, both sides the prize will quit. 
 
 Denham. 
 This hath been so bandied amongst us, that one can 
 hardly miss books of this kind. Locke. 
 
 Ever since men have been united into governments, 
 the endeavours after universal monarchy have been 
 bandied among them. Swift. 
 
 He that is employed, has no leisure to move in the 
 little disputes and quarrels which trouble the peace 
 of the mind, and which are chiefly kept up and ban- 
 died to and fro by those who have nothing else to do. 
 
 A iterbury. 
 What vigorous arm, what repercussive blow. 
 Bandies the mighty globe still to and fro. 
 
 Blackmore . 
 She calls it witty to be rude. 
 And placing raillery in railing. 
 Will tell aloud your greatest failing; 
 Nor make a scruple to expose 
 Your Jiantfy-leg, or crooked nose. Swifi.
 
 BAN 
 
 458 
 
 BAN 
 
 The Ethiopians had a one-eyeil bandy-legged prince ; 
 such a person would have made but an odd figure. 
 
 Collier. 
 
 Bandy Legs, are legs distorted, turning 
 either inward or outward on either side ; arising 
 from some defect in the birth, or imprudence in 
 the nurse, endeavouring to make a cliild stand or 
 walk before his legs were strong enough to sus- 
 tain the weight of liis body. See Valgus. 
 BANE', r. & 7i. ") Sax. bana, a murderer, 
 Bane'ful, ^according to Dr. Johnson; 
 
 Bane'fulxess. j but it may be referred to the 
 Goth, banjos, ulcers, sores, wounds, or to bane, 
 destruction, death. To poison, to render poi- 
 sonous, to destroy ; to cause destruction or ruin. 
 For in his hunting hathe he swiche delite. 
 That it is alle his jnye and appetite. 
 To ben himself the grate hart's bane. Chaucer. 
 Help me, ye banefull byrds ! whose shrieking sound 
 Is srigne of dreary death, my deadly cries 
 Most ruthfully to tune. Spenser. 
 
 Another righteous doom I saw of greedy gain. 
 With busy cares such treasures oft preserved, 
 Are to their bane. Eirl uf Surrei/. 
 
 The country people use kitchen physick, and common 
 experience tells us, that they live freest from all 
 manner of infirmities that make least use of apothe- 
 caries' physick. Many are overthrown by preposte- 
 rous use of it, and thereby get their bune, that might 
 otherwise have escaped. 
 
 Burton's Anatomij of Melancholi/. 
 Lest Rome herself be bane unto herself, 
 And she whom mighty kingdoms court'sy to. 
 Like a forlorn and desperate cast away. 
 Do shameful execution on herself, Shakspeare. 
 
 Begone, or else let me. 'Tis bane to draw the same 
 air with thee. Ben Jonsan. 
 
 All good to me becomes 
 Bane ; but in heav'n much worse would be my state. 
 
 Mliilon. 
 They with speed 
 Their course through thickest constellations held. 
 Spreading their bane. Id. 
 
 Insolency must be repressed, or it will be the bane 
 of tlie Christian religion. Hooker. 
 
 Who can omit the Gracchi, who declare 
 The Scipios' worth, those thunderbolts of war. 
 The double bane of Carthage ? Drt/den. 
 
 False religion is, in its nature, the greatest bane 
 and destruction to government in the world. South. 
 For voyaging to learn the direful art. 
 To taint with deadly drugs the barbed dart ; 
 Observant of the gods, and sternly just, 
 Ilus refus'd t' impart the baneful trust. Pope. 
 
 Thus am I doubly arm'd ; my death and life. 
 My bane and antidote, are both before me, 
 Tliis in a moment brings me to my end ; 
 But that informs me I shall never die. Addison. 
 
 Thy sins are of so baneful a nature, that they poison 
 even the blood of Christ unto thee. 
 
 Hopkins's Sermons. 
 Then would'st thou steer, where fortune spreads 
 the sails ? 
 Go flatter vice, for seldom flattery fails. 
 Soft through the ear the pleasing bane distils j 
 Delicious poison ! in perfumes it kills ! Broome. 
 
 O bane of good, seducing cheat. 
 Can man, weak man, thy power defeat? Oaj/. 
 
 Beneath the gloomy covert of a yew. 
 That taints the grass with sickly sweats of dew ; 
 No verdant beauty entertains the sight. 
 But baneful hemlock, and cold aconite. Garth, 
 
 When it is now clear beyond all dispute, that the 
 criminal is no longer fit to live upon the earth, but 
 is to be exterminated as a monster, and a buTie to 
 human society, the law sets a note of infamy upon 
 him, and puts him out of its protection. Blacbstone. 
 So gentle life's descent. 
 
 We shut our eyes, and think it is a ])lain ; 
 
 We take fair days in winter for the spring ; 
 
 And turn our blessings into bane. Young, 
 
 But quiet to quick bosoms is a hell. 
 And there hath been thy bane. Byron, 
 
 Bane Berries, a name given to the acta-a 
 spicata, or herb Christopher. 
 
 Banewort, n. s. From bane and wort. A 
 plant, the same with deadly nightshade. 
 
 BANG', V. & 71. Dut. bengeler, to beat with 
 sticks, clubs, &c. Swed. baiia, to strike. A 
 northern provincialism, to beat. To beat, or 
 strike, to hit hard ; to give repeated heavy blows. 
 Figuratively applied to speech ; thus to tongue- 
 bung, is to scold, and overpower others by viru- 
 lent noisy abuse. 
 
 The desperate tempest hath so bang'd the Turks, 
 
 That their designment halts. Shakspeare. 
 
 You should accost her with jests fire-new from 
 the mint; you should have banged the youth into 
 dumbness. Id. 
 
 I am a bachelor. — That's to say, they are fools that 
 marry ; you'll bear me a bang for that. la. 
 
 With many a stiff twack, many a bang. 
 Hard crab-tree and old iron rang. Hudibras^ 
 
 I heard several bangs or buffets, as I thought, given 
 to the eagle that held the ring of my box in his beak. 
 
 Swift's Gulliver. 
 
 He having got some iron out of the earth, put it 
 into his servant's hands to fence with, and bang one 
 another. Locke. 
 
 Formerly I was to be banged because I was too 
 strong, and now, because I am too weak, to resist ; I 
 am to be brought down when too rich, and oppressed 
 when too poor. Arbiithnot. 
 
 But, dear Mr. Bickerstaff, convince 'em that as 
 harsh and irregular sound is not harmony ; so neither 
 is banging a cushion, oratory. Tatler. 
 
 BANGALOOR, or Bangalore, a fortress in 
 the peninsula of Hindostan, seventy-four miles 
 from Seringapatam, the capital of the Mysore. 
 Hyder Ali constructed the fort there, which Tippoo 
 Saib destroyed, as useless against Europeans. 
 Here, however, he built a palace, and laid out 
 extensive gardens. It is a good place for trade, 
 especially in the betel-nut, black-pepper, and 
 sandal wood. Woollen cloths, &c., and a kind 
 of strong silken stuff, are manufactured here. 
 Bangaloor was annexed to the Mysore in 1787, 
 was taken by assault, under lord Cornwallis, and 
 plundered by the army. 
 
 BANGASSI, a large fortified town of Foola- 
 doo, in Africa. Long. 6° 45' W., lat. 13° 10' N. 
 
 BANGERMOW, a considerable town of Flin- 
 dostan, in the province of Oude. Long. 80° 
 23' E., lat. 26° 48' N. 
 
 BANGEY, a cluster of small islands in the 
 jNIolucca passage. Long. 124° 15' E., lat. 
 1° 4.5'. 
 
 BANGIUS (Peter), a Swedish divine, born at 
 Ilelsingborg in 1633. lie became professor of 
 theology at Abo, where he continued thirty-two 
 years; and in 1682, obtained the bishopric of
 
 BAN 
 
 459 
 
 BAN 
 
 Wyborg;. He died in 1G96, leaving, besides 
 other works, an Ecclesiastical History of Swe- 
 den ; and a Treatise on Sacred Chronology. 
 
 Bangius (Thomas), a Danish divine, born in 
 1660, he was professor of divinity, philosophy, 
 and Hebrew, at Copenhagen ; and distinguished 
 himself as an elegant Latin writer, on the orig-in 
 of languages, and other subjects. He also pub- 
 lished a Hebrew lexicon. He died in 1661. 
 
 BxVN'GLE, V. a. To waste by little and little ; 
 to squander carelessly ; a word now used only in 
 conversation. 
 
 Betwixt hope and fear — betwixt falling in, falling 
 out, &c. we bangle away our best days, befool out our 
 times. Burton's Anatom.!/ of Melancholy. 
 
 If we bangle away the legacy of peace left us by 
 Christ, it is a sign of our want of regard for him. 
 
 Duty of Man. 
 
 Bangle Ears, an imperfection in a horse, re- 
 medied in the following manner : — Place his ears 
 in such a manner as you would have them stand ; 
 bind them with two little boards so fast that they 
 cannot stir, and then clip away all the empty 
 wrinkled skin close by the head. 
 
 BANGLOR, a town in the Mysore territory, 
 twenty miles south-east from Bangaloor. 
 
 BANGOR, an episcopal city of Caernarvon- 
 shire in North Wales. In ancient times it was 
 so consideral)le, that it was called Bangor the 
 Great, and defended by a strong castle ; but it is 
 now a small place ; the principal buildings be- 
 ing the cathedral, the bishop's palace, and a 
 free school. The see is of great antiquity. The 
 church is dedicated to St. Daniel, who was bishop 
 about A. D. 516; but for near 580 years after- 
 wards, there is no certainty of the name of his 
 successors. Owen Glendower greatly defaced 
 the cathedral church ; but bishop Dean repaired 
 it again. This see met with a still more avari- 
 cious ravager than Owen Glendower, in the per- 
 son of Bishop Bulkeley ; who not only alienated 
 many of the lands belonging to it ; but even 
 sold, it is said, the bells of the church. This 
 diocese contains the whole of Caernarvonshire, 
 except five parishes, the whole of Anglesey, and 
 part of the shires of Denbigh, Merionetli, and 
 Montgomery ; in which are 107 parishes, whereof 
 thirty-six are impropriated. It has tliree arch- 
 deaconries, viz. Bangor, Anglesey, and Merionetli; 
 of which the two first are commonly annexed to 
 the bishopric for its better support. The pre- 
 late is a suffragan to the metropolitan see of Can- 
 terbuiy. The present cathedral was built during 
 various parts of the sixteenth century, and com- 
 prises a choir, nave, transepts, two aisles, and a 
 quadrangular tower at the west end. The ex- 
 treme length from east to west is 214 feet. 
 
 The town of Bangor is in a narrow valley 
 between ridges of rock. It has a fine opening 
 to the Menai, and consists of one well-built 
 street. A chain-bridge has lately been opened 
 over the [Menai strait, which connects the main 
 land with Anglesey. The population in 1821 
 was 3579. The new harbour was made by the 
 late Dr. \\ arrcn, bishop of Bangor; the en- 
 trance of the strait is difficult for ships of bur- 
 den, except at high water. Bangor has a market 
 on Wednesday, and tliree fairs, 5th April, 25lh 
 June, and 2'5th October. Lat. 53° 20'., long. 
 
 4° 10' W. 236 miles nortii-west from London, 
 by Oswestry, and 244 by Aberconway. 
 
 Bangor, a town of Ireland, in the county of 
 Down, on the south shore of Carrickfergus 
 Bay. Before the Union, it sent members to 
 parliament. 
 
 Baxgor, Iscoed, a parish in the hundred of 
 Maylor, Flint, eleven miles west from Whit- 
 church, Salop, where formerly stood one of the 
 most ancient and extensive monasteries in Eng- 
 land, in which 1200 monks were destroyed by 
 Ethelfrid. No traces of the structure remain; 
 but here is an elegant ancient bridge of five 
 arches. The meadows in the neighbourhood are 
 so rich in pasture, that they have been let for 
 eight or nine pounds per acre, per annum. 
 
 Bangor, a township of the United States, in 
 Hancock county, district of Maine, on the west 
 side of the Penobscot, 280 miles north-east of 
 Boston. 
 
 BANGORI, a town of the peninsula of Ma- 
 lacca. 
 
 BANGORIAN Controversy, so called from 
 Dr. Hoadly, bishop of Bangor. It arose from a 
 sermon preached by him before his majesty king 
 George I. at the royal chapel, St. James's, on 
 Sunday, March 31, 1717. Mr. Belsham, in his 
 Memoirs, vol. i. p. 174, gives the following ac- 
 count of this controversy. ' As the foundation 
 of this famous discourse, the bishop chose the 
 declaration of Christ to Pilate : My kingdom is 
 not of this world : and the direct and undis- 
 guised object of it was to prove that the king- 
 dom of Christ, and the sanctions by which it is 
 supported, were of a nature wholly intellectual 
 and spiritual ; that the church, taking the term in 
 its most unlimited signification, did not, and 
 could not, possess the slightest degree of authority 
 under any commission, or pretended commission, 
 derived from man; that the church of England, 
 and all other national churches, were merely civil 
 or human institutions, established for the pur- 
 pose of diffusing and perpetuating the knowledge 
 and belief of Christianity, which contained a 
 system of truths, not in their nature differing 
 from other tniths, except by their superior weight 
 and importance, and wliich were to be inculcated 
 in a manner analogous to other truths ; demand- 
 ing only from their more interesting import, 
 proportionably higher degrees of care, attention, 
 and assiduity in the promulgation of them. It 
 is scarcely to be imagined, in these times, with 
 what degree of false and malignant rancor, these 
 plain, simple, and rational principles were at- 
 tacked by the zealots and champions of the 
 cimrch. See Hoadly. On the meeting of 
 the convocation, a committee was appointed to 
 examine this famous publication, and a repre- 
 sentation was quickly drawn up, in which a most 
 heavy charge was passed upon it, as tending to 
 subvert all government and discipline in the 
 church of Christ ; to reduce this kingdom to a 
 state of anarchy and confusion ; to impugn and 
 impeach the royal supremacy in m.atters eccle- 
 siastical, and the authority of the legislature to 
 enforce obedience in matters of religion, by se- 
 vere sanction. A sudden stop, however, was 
 put to these disgraceful proceedings, by royal 
 prorogation ; and from that period the convoca-
 
 BAN 
 
 460 
 
 BAN 
 
 tion has never been convened, but as a matter of 
 mere form, and for the purpose of being again 
 prorogued. The controversy which then com- 
 menced was carried on for several years, with 
 great abiUty and animation on the part of the 
 bishop, aided by various excellent pens, though 
 opposed by men whose learning and talents 
 gave an artificial lustre to bigotry and absurdity. 
 No controversy, however, upon the whole, ever 
 more fully and completely answered the purpose 
 intended by it. The obscurity in which this 
 subject had been long involved, was dissipated ; 
 the public mind was enlightened and convinced ; 
 churcli authority, the chimera vomiting flames, 
 was destroyed ; and the name of Hoadly will 
 be transmitted from generation to generation, with 
 increase of honor, of esteem, and grateful vene- 
 ration.' 
 
 BANGUE, a species of opiate, much used 
 throughout the east, for drowning cares and in- 
 spiring joy. By the Persians it is called beng; 
 by the Arabs, esscar, corruptly asseral, and as- 
 sarth; by the Turks, bengitie, and vulgarly mas- 
 tack : by European naturalists, bangue or bange. 
 It is the leaf of a kind of wild liemp, growing in 
 the countries of the Levant, and differs little, 
 eitlier as to the leaf or seed, from our hemp, ex- 
 cept in size. Some have mistaken it for a spe- 
 cies of Althaea. There are various manners of 
 preparing it; Olearius describes the method 
 used in Persia. Mr. Sale tells us, that, among 
 the Arabs, the leaf is made into pills or con- 
 serves. But the most distinct account is given 
 by Alexander Maurocordato, counsellor and phy- 
 sician of the Ottoman Porte, in a letter to We- 
 delius. According to this author, bangue is made 
 of the leaves of wild hemp, dried in the shade, 
 then ground to powder ; put into a pot wherein 
 butter has been kept; set in an oven till it begins 
 to torrify ; then taken out and pulverised again ; 
 thus to be used occasionally, as much at a time 
 as will lie on the point of a knife. Such is the 
 Turkish bangue. Bangue in reality, is a succe- 
 daneum to wine, and is therefore much used in 
 those countries where Mahommedanism is esta- 
 blished. 
 
 BANGUEY, an island in the eastern seas, 
 lying off the north coast of Borneo, and separated 
 by a channel, three miles wide, from the island 
 of Balambangan. It is about twenty-three miles 
 in length, by eleven in breadth, and its shores 
 are frequented by abundance of turtle. Long 
 117° 25' E., lat. 7° 1.5' N. 
 
 BANIAK, an island in the eastern seas, off the 
 west coast of Sumatra, opposite to the mouth of 
 the Sinkell. It is one of a cluster, and is about 
 seventeen miles in length, by seven in average 
 breadth. It is known by a peaked hill, resembling 
 a sugar-loaf. Sea slug, or biche-de-mar is ob- 
 tained here. The inhabitants are of the Maruwi 
 race, but speak a language peculiar to them- 
 selves. Long. 9G° 48' E., lat. 2° 10' N. 
 
 BANIALUCII, or Banjai.uka, a city of 
 European Turkey, the capital of Bosnia, upon 
 the frontier of Croatia, on the river V'erbas. 
 The houses, which amoiint to 3000, are meanly 
 built, and the suburbs are chiefly inhabited by 
 Greeks. Long. 18° 20' E., lat. 44" 20' N. 
 
 BANIAN Davs, in marine language, a term 
 
 amonsr sailors, for those days in which they have 
 no flesh meat. It seems to be derived from the 
 practice of the people mentioned in tlie next 
 article. 
 
 Banians is sometimes taken as a name for a 
 religious sect in the empire of the Mogul, and 
 sometimes extended to all the idolaters of India, 
 as contradistinguished from the Mahommedans : 
 in which sense. Banians include the Brahmins 
 and other castes. At other times it is restrained 
 to a peculiar caste or tribe of Indians, whose 
 office or profession is trade and merchandise ; 
 in which sense Banians, signifying bankers, 
 stand contradistinguished from Brahmins, Cut- 
 tery, and Wyse, the three other castes into which 
 the Indians are divided. The four castes are ab- 
 solutely separate as to occupation, relation, mar- 
 riage, &c. though all of the same religion; which 
 is more properly denominated the religion of the 
 Brahmins, who make the ecclesiastical tribe, than 
 of the Banians, who make the mercantile. The 
 proper Banians are called, in the Shaster, or 
 book of their law, by the name of Shuddery; 
 under which are comprehended all who live 
 after the manner of merchants, or that deal and 
 transact for others, as brokers ; exclusive of the 
 mechanics or artificers, who make another caste. 
 These Banians have no peculiar sect or religion, 
 unless it be, that two of the eight general pie- 
 cepts given by their legislator, Bremaw, to the 
 Indian nation, are, on account of the profession 
 of the Banians, supposed more immediately to 
 relate to them, viz. those which enjoin veracity in 
 their words and dealings, and avoiding all prac- 
 tices of circumvention in buying and selling. 
 Some of the Banians, quitting their profession, 
 and retiring from the world, commence religious, 
 assume a peculiar habit, and devote themselves 
 more immediately to God, under the denomina- 
 tion of V'ertea. These, though they do not 
 hereby change their caste, are commonly reckoned 
 as Brahmins of a more devout kind ; as monks in 
 the Romish church, though frequently not in 
 orders, are reputed as a more sacred order than 
 the regular clergy. Gemelli Carreri divides the 
 Banians into twenty-two tribes, all distinct, and 
 not allowed to marry with each other. Lord 
 assures us they are divided into eighty-two castes 
 or tribes, correspondent to the castes or divisions 
 of the Brahmins or priests, under whose discipline 
 they are, as to religious matters, though the 
 generality of the Banians choose to be under the 
 direction of the two Brahmin tribes, the Visalna- 
 granaugers and Vulnagranaugers. The Banians 
 are represented as great factors, by whom most 
 of the trade of India is managed; in this respect 
 equal to the Jews and Armenians, and not be- 
 hind either, in point of skill and experience, in 
 whatever relates to commerce. Nothing is 
 bought but by their mediation. They seem to 
 claim a kind of jusdivinum to the administration 
 of the traffic of the nation, grounded on their 
 sacred books, as the Brahmins do to that of reli- 
 gion. They are dispersed, for this purpose, 
 through all parts of Asia, and abound in Persia, 
 particularly at Ispahan and Gombroon, where 
 many of them are extremely rich, yet never 
 above acting as brokers. But it has been justly 
 said by a late writer, that the name Banian was
 
 BAN 
 
 461 
 
 BAN 
 
 originally given by Europeans to almost all 
 i lindens; and that generally what we read of 
 their peculiar tenets, their abhorrence for meat, 
 &c. is, in fact, the practise of all conscientious 
 Hindoos. 
 
 Banian Tree. See Ficus. 
 
 BANICA, a town in the island of Ilispaniola, 
 forty miles soutii-east of Cape Francois. Also 
 the name of a small river in the same island. 
 
 BANJAR Massin, or Bagnar Messin, a 
 town and district of Borneo, on a river of the 
 same name, wiiich falls into the sea near the 
 southern extremity of the island. The district 
 produces diamonds, gold dust, iron, canes, and 
 pepper, the last of which is its staple commo- 
 dity. Gold is obtained here in bars, and the 
 country is celebrated for the quality of its steel. 
 The imports are slaves, birds' nests, nutmegs, and 
 tortoise shells, which are all re-exported from 
 Borneo. The rajah, or sovereign, formerly re- 
 sided at a place called Cagu-Tangie, or Cota- 
 Tengah, but he directed a city to be built at 
 INIartapura, whither lie transferred his abode in 
 1 77 1 , changing the name of 3Iartapura to Bunire 
 Kintjana. Ills power is considerable. A Dutch 
 commercial establishment on tlie banks of the 
 river, at the end of the village of Banjar Massin, 
 called Tatas, consists of an octagonal fort, sur- 
 rounded by palisades, with bastions towards the 
 river side ; it was built in 1709. They had, by a 
 previous treaty in 1648, compelled the king to 
 relinquish for their benefit the whole pepper 
 trade. The king has, in return, been protected 
 by the Dutch from the unsettled predatory tribes 
 in his neigiibourhood. In the beginning of the 
 seventeenth century, an establishment was at- 
 tempted here by the English East India Com- 
 pany, but the settlers were resolved to abandon 
 the place. During the late war, however, the 
 Dutch fort was occupied by the British. The 
 town of Banjar Massin formerly stood eighteen 
 miles up the river, but has been transferred six 
 miles lower down. It consists of about 300 
 houses. Long. 114° 55' E., lat. 3° S. 
 
 BANIAS.S, or Panaas, anciently Csesarea 
 Philippi, a village of Syria, near the source of a 
 river, which has been commonly supposed to be 
 the Jordan. This stream rises near a remarkable 
 grotto in a rock, on the declivity of which are 
 seen some ancient Greek inscriptions to Pan and 
 the nymphs of the fountain. The vestiges of a 
 flourishing city are still to be seen; but there are 
 no remains of the temple which lierod the Great 
 erected in honor of Augustus. The fort of 
 Baniass, built in the time of the caliphs, stands 
 on tiie summit of a lofty mountain. Around is 
 an agreeable country, but pantiiers, bears, wolves, 
 and hyanas, are numerous. There is also great 
 abundance of game. Distant two leagues west 
 of the lake Phiala, or Birkel-el-llam. 
 
 BANIEIl (Anthony), licentiate in laws, mem- 
 ber of the academy of inscriptions and belles 
 lettres, and ecclesiastic of the diocese of Cler- 
 mont, in Auvergne ; died in November 1741, 
 aged 09. He is principally celebrated for his 
 translation of the ^letamorphoses of Ovid, with 
 remarks and explanations, which was published 
 in 1732, at Amsterdam, in folio, ornamented with 
 copper-plates, by Picart; and reprinted at Paris, 
 
 17r)<3, in 2 vols. 4to; and for his Mythology 
 explained by History, a work full of the most 
 important information, and printed at London in 
 1741, in 4 vols. 8vo. 
 
 BANILLIA, in the materia medica, a name 
 used by some for tlie vanillia, or vanilloes, used 
 in making the scented chocolate. 
 
 BANISERLIE, the capital of Dentila, in 
 western Africa. It is a Mahommedan town. 
 BANISH, -\ See Ban. Hhx. J'orba^nedy 
 Banish'er, ' a banished nan. In Fr. ban- 
 Baxish'ment, (nir, Germ, bunnen, to put out 
 Ban'nition. J of a community by a ban or 
 c\\-\\ interdict, which was formerly eitlier eccle- 
 siastical or civil. Banishment, exile, and expul- 
 sion, all include the idea of exclusion or coercive 
 removal, but in otiier respects they differ. Ba- 
 niskment follows from a decree of justice; exile, 
 either by the necessity of circumstances or an 
 order of authority ; bunishment is a disgraceful 
 punishment inflicted by tribunals upon delin- 
 quents ; exile is a disgrace incurred without dis- 
 honor; exile removes us from our country; 
 banishment drives us from it ignominiously. 
 Banishment and expulsion, both mark a disgrace- 
 ful and coercive exclusion. But banishment is 
 authoritative, the public act of government; 
 expulsion is the act of a private individual, or a 
 small community. Banishment always supposes 
 a removal to a distant spot, to another land ; ex- 
 pulsion never reaches beyond a particular house 
 or society. Banishment and expulsion are like- 
 wise used in a figurative sense, althougli exile is 
 not : in this sense banishment marks a distant and 
 entire removal ; expulsion a violent removal ; we 
 banish that which it is not prudent to retain ; we 
 expel that which is noxious. Hopes are banished 
 from the mind when every prospect of success 
 has disappeared ; fears are banished when they 
 are altogether groundless ; envy, hatred, and 
 every evil passion should be expelled from the 
 mind as disturbers of its peace ; harmony and 
 good-humor are best promoted by banishing from 
 conversation all subjects of difference in religion 
 and politics ; good morals require that every un- 
 seemly word should be expelled. 
 
 This is thy mortal fo'', this is Arcite, 
 That fro thy lond is banished on his hcd. 
 For which he hath deserved to be ded. 
 
 Chaucer. 
 
 Plato made it a great signs of an intemperate and 
 corrupt commonwealth, where lawyers and physicians 
 did abound ; and the Romans distasted them so much 
 that they were banished out of their city, as Pliny Jind 
 Celsus relate, and for 600 years not admitted. 
 
 Burtini's Anatomy of Melancholy . 
 
 Oh, fare thee well I 
 Those evils thou repeat'st upon thyself 
 Have banish'd me from Scotland. Shfikspeare. 
 Marius then fetching a deep sigh from his heart, 
 gave him- this answer, ' Thou shalt tell Sextilius, that 
 thou hast seen Caius Marius, banished out of his coun- 
 try, sitting amongst the ruins of the city of Carthage.' 
 
 North. Plutarch. 
 
 They refused to do it (take the oaths), and were 
 upon that condemned to perpetual banishment , as men 
 that denied allegiance to the king, and by this an 
 engine was found out to banish as many as they 
 pleased. Bishop Burnet's Own J'iinei.
 
 462 
 
 BANK. 
 
 As I have your express orders not to restore any 
 pei-son who has been sentenced to banuthment, either 
 by myself or others; so I have no directions with 
 respect to those, who having hoen banished by some 
 of my predecessors in this government, have by them 
 also been restored. Mdnwth's Plini/ 
 
 Every professor do continue in his office during 
 life, unless in case of such misbehaviour as shall 
 amount to bannitwn by the university statutes. 
 
 lilackstone 's Commentaries. 
 Thus I alone, where all my freedom screw. 
 In prison pine, with boadagc and restraint ; 
 And, with remembrance of the greater grief. 
 To banish the less, I find my chief relief. 
 
 Earl of Surrey. 
 Then came the autumne, all in yellow clad. 
 As thouijh he joyed in his plentious store, 
 Laden with fruits that made him laugh, full glad 
 That he had banisht hunger, which to fore 
 Had by the belly oft him pinched sore ; 
 Upon his head a wreath that was enrol'd 
 With ears of corne of every sort he bore. 
 And in his hand a sickle he did holde. 
 To reap the ripen'd fruit the which the earth had yold. 
 Spenser's Faerie Queene. 
 If sweet content is banish'd from my soul. 
 Life grows a burthen and a weight of woe. 
 
 Gentleman. 
 Joy to that happy pair. 
 Whose hopes united banish our despair. 
 
 Marvell. 
 Banish business, banish sorrow. 
 To the gods belongs to-morrow. Coiclei/. 
 
 It is for wicked men only to dread God, and to en- 
 deavour to banish the thoughts of him out of their 
 minds. TiUotson. 
 
 Successless all her soft caresses prove. 
 To banish from his breast his country's love. 
 
 Pope. 
 
 BANISTER (,!ohn), a physician and surgeon 
 in the reign of queen I'.lizabetli, was educated at 
 Oxford, where, says Anthony Wood, lie studied , 
 logic for a time ; but afterwards applied himself 
 solely to physic and surgery. In 1573 he took 
 the degree of M. B. and, obtaining a licence from 
 the university to practise, settled at Nottingham, 
 where he lived many years in great repute, and 
 wrote several medical treatises. His works were 
 collected and published in 1633, 4to. 
 
 Banister, the same with Baluster. 
 
 BANISTERIA, in botany, a genus of the 
 trigynia order, and decandria class of plants, 
 ranking in the natural method under the twenty- 
 third order, trihilats. The calyx is quinque- 
 partite, with nectarious pores on the outside of 
 the base ; the petals are roundish and ungulated ; 
 the seeds are three, with membranaceous wings. 
 There are seven species, all natives of warm 
 countries, but possessing no remarkable pro- 
 perties. An American and West Indian genus, 
 containing twenty-four species, has been figured 
 and described in Cavanilles, ' MonadelphiEe 
 classis dissertation es decem.' 
 
 BANK. 
 
 BANK', V. &, n. Junius derives this word 
 firora the Dutch bancke, which signifies to beat, 
 to strike, as the waves perpetually strike against 
 the shores of the sea, and the current of the river 
 presses against its sides. Skinner is content, as is 
 Johnson, with the Ang.-Sax. banc, tumulus. 
 Wachterhas banc, a hill, mound, heap, and any 
 eminence, or rising place. It is transferred, he 
 adds, to all eminent or rising places for sitting 
 or lying, as banks of oars were not on the same 
 level in ancient ships, but seats raised above one 
 another. It may thus be applied to any thing 
 raised to confine a current of water; to any 
 mound or elevation designed as a barrier to pro- 
 tect or defend from the incursions of warriors ; 
 or to facilitate the subjugation of forts and cities ; 
 and to the raised table or counter of merchants, 
 traders, or money-changers. To bank is to con- 
 fine or surround with banks; to throw up em- 
 bankments. (Jn the authority of Steevens, the 
 commentator on Shakspeare, it has been suggest- 
 ed, that to bank may mean to sail along the 
 banks. 
 
 They besieged him in Abel of Bethmaachah, and 
 they cast up a bank against the city ; and it stood in 
 the trench. Samjiel. 
 
 When it was day they knewe not the lande, but 
 
 they spyed a certayne haucn with a banke, into which 
 
 they were minded (if it were possible) to thrust in 
 
 the ship. Bible, 1551. 
 
 Have I not heard these islanders shout out 
 
 ' Vive le roy,' as I have bank'd their towns ? 
 
 Shakspeare. 
 
 Have you not made an universal shout. 
 That Tyber trembled underneath his bank ? Id. 
 
 Richmond, in Devonshire, sent out a boat 
 Unto the shore, to ask those on the banks. 
 If they were his assistants. W. 
 
 How sweet the moon-light slscps upon ih'ubank! 
 Here will we sit, and let the sounds of musick 
 Creep in our ears ; soft stillness, and the night. 
 Become the touches of sweet harmony. Id. 
 
 That strain again, it had a dying fall ; 
 O, it came o'er my ear like the sweet south 
 That breathes upon a bank of violets ; 
 Stealing and giving odour. Id, 
 
 Plac'd on their banks the lusty Trojsms sweep 
 Neptune's smooth face, and cleave the yielding deep. 
 
 Waller. 
 
 Mean time the king with gifts a vessel stores. 
 
 Supplies the banks with twenty chosen oars. 
 
 Dryden. 
 
 That banks of oars were not in the same plane, but 
 raised above one another, is evident from descriptions 
 ef ancient ships. Arbuthnut. 
 
 A brook whose stream so great, so good. 
 Was lov'd, was honour'd as a tlood j 
 Whose banks the Muses dwelt upon. Crashaw. 
 'Tis happy when our streams of knowledge flow 
 To fill their banks, but not to overthrow. Denham. 
 
 O early lost', what tears the river shed. 
 When the sad pomp along his banks was led ! 
 
 Pope. 
 
 .\mid the cliffs 
 And burning sands, that bank the shrubby vales.
 
 BANK. 
 
 463 
 
 My hankj they are furnished with bees. 
 Whose murmur invites one to sleep. 
 My grottos are shaded with trees. 
 
 And my hills are white over with sheep. 
 I seldom have met with a loss. 
 
 Such health do my fountains bestow. 
 My fountains all bordered with moss. 
 Where the hare-bells and violets grow. 
 
 S/ienstone. 
 An intercourse of commerce and language was gra- 
 dually established between the opposite banks of the 
 Danube, and after Dacia became an independent 
 state, it often proved the firmest barrier of the empire 
 against the invasions of the savages of the north. 
 
 Gibbon. 
 On every bank, and under every shade, 
 A thousand youths, a thousand damsels play'd j 
 Some wantonly were tripping in a ring. 
 On the soft border of a gushing spring. 
 
 Sir William Jones. 
 Is it owing to Christianity, or to the want of it, that 
 the banks of the Nile, whose constantly renewed fer- 
 tility is not to be impaired by neglect, or destroyed 
 by the ravages of war, serve only for the scene of a 
 ferocious anarchj', or for the supply of unceasing hos- 
 tilities ? Paley. 
 
 Bank', v. & jj. ^ "^ commercial 
 
 Bank'er, # application of the 
 
 Bank'rlpt, v., n. s., & adj. \ former word. In 
 Bank'ruptcy, i tliis sense, bank 
 
 Bank'erout, v. & 7j. ^ is a receptacle for 
 
 money, and to bank is to deposit money in such 
 receptacle. Bankrupt is of more general appli- 
 cation, extending to persons who are dealers in 
 any commodity, or who carry on any trade or 
 business. It is derived from the Fr. bunqueroute, 
 or the Ital. bancorotto. It si^nilies one whose 
 bench or table has been broken ; that is, whose 
 debts exceed his means of payment. The Bank- 
 rupt laws accurately define this species of offence 
 or misfortune. 
 
 But natheless I toke unto our dame. 
 Your wif at home, the same gold again 
 Upon your benche, she wote it wel certain. 
 By certain tokenes that I can hire tell. Chaucer. 
 He hadde openly preached in the temple, he had 
 overthrown the banker's tables, and drieven oute of the 
 temple too. Sir Thomas More's Works. 
 
 Perkin gathered together a power, neither in num- 
 ber nor in hardiness contemptible ; 1 ut in their for- 
 tunes, to be feared, being bankrupts, and many of 
 them felons. Bacon. 
 
 Wherefore do you look 
 Upon that poor and broken bank'rupt there ? 
 
 Shakspeare. As you Like it. 
 Ross. The earl of Wiltshire hath the realm in 
 farm. 
 WiLLOUGHBY. The king's grown bankrupt, like a 
 broken man. Id. Richard II. 
 
 Dainty bits 
 Make rich the ribs, but bankerout the wits. Id. 
 Unless we had rather think both moral and judi- 
 cial, full of malice and deadly purpose, conspired to 
 let the debtor Israelite, the seed of Abraham, run on 
 upon a bankrout score, flattered with insufficient and 
 ensnaring discharges. 
 
 Milton. Doctrine, 4'c. of Divorce. 
 This done, he pens a proclamation stout. 
 In rescue of the banker's bankerout. Marvell. 
 
 The money of widows and orphans employ'd. 
 And the bankers quite broke. Id, 
 
 GoNZ. There's the quintessence. 
 The soul and arrand elixir of my wit. 
 For he (according to his noble nature) 
 Will not be known to want, though he do want. 
 And will be bankrupted so much the sooner. 
 And make the subject of our scorn and laughter. 
 
 Beaumont and Fletcher. 
 By powerful charms of gold and silver led. 
 
 The Lombard bankers, and the 'change to waste, 
 
 Dri/den. 
 
 Whole droves of lenders crowd the banker'i doors. 
 To call in money. I J, 
 
 In vain at court the bankrupt pleads his cause. 
 
 His thankless country leaves him to her laws. 
 
 Pope, 
 Or at some banker's desk, liKe many more. 
 
 Content to tell that two and two make four. 
 
 His name had stood in city annals fair. 
 
 And prudent dullness mark'd him for a may'r. 
 
 Churchill. 
 
 Here is again discovered the inhabitant of Cheap- 
 side, whose head cannot keep his poetry unmingled 
 with trade. To hinder that intellectual bankruptcy, 
 which he affects to fear, he will erect a bank for wit. 
 Johnson's Life of Blackmore. 
 
 By an act of insolvency all persons who are in too 
 low a way of dealing to be bankrupts, or not in a mer- 
 cantile state of life, are discharged from all suits and 
 imprisonments, by delivering up all their estate and 
 effects. Blackstone. 
 
 That bankruptcy , the very apprehension of which 
 is one of the causes tissigned for the fall of the mo- 
 narchy, was the capital on which the French republic 
 opened her traffic with the world. Burke. 
 
 Had every particular banking company always un- 
 derstood, and attended to its own particular interest, 
 the circulation never could have been overstocked 
 with paper money. Smith's Wealth uf Sations. 
 
 1. BANK, Bankers, Baxkixg. The term 
 bank has two distinct significations; one in refer- 
 ence to commerce, implying a place of deposit or 
 store-house; the other relating to geography and 
 rural economy, implying an elevation of the earth, 
 either natural or artificial ; and either below or 
 above the surface of the water, in rivers as well 
 as in the ocean. It is further a technical terra 
 in law; the judges of the supreme court of law, 
 when sitting in judgment collectively, are said to 
 sit in bank, banque, or banco. See Jurispru- 
 dence. It is also a military term, denoting 
 an elevation of earth within the parapet of a for- 
 tification, generally between two and three feet 
 high, or more, according to the height of the 
 parapet; being about four feet and a half lower 
 than the top of the parapet, three feet broad, 
 ascended at inter\-als by steps, by which tlie gar- 
 rison get up to fire on, or to observe the proceed- 
 ings of, the besiegers. 
 
 2. We will now proceed in the endeavour to 
 illustrate the term bank, in conjunction with 
 bankers and banking, as referable to commerce, by 
 showing, 1st, the probable origin or derivation of 
 the term; 2nd, the origin or rise, and nature of 
 banking institutions ; 3rd, their progress, practice, 
 and present state, throughout the commercial 
 world; and 4th, their influence and efTect on the 
 social and moral relations, and condition of 
 mankind. 
 
 3. Bank, in its present application as a com- 
 mercial term, appears to have l;ad its origin in
 
 464 
 
 BANK. 
 
 Italy, where, in the infancy of European com- 
 merce, the Jews were wont to assemble in the 
 market-places of the principal cities and towns, 
 seated on benches, ready to lend money ; first on 
 the reputation and written bond or acknowledg- 
 ment, singly or jointly, of borrowers; but (as 
 will be more fully shown hereafter), as there is in 
 the lending and borrowing of money an immuta- 
 ble tendency to demoralise and derange society, 
 confidence and reputation soon became mere bye- 
 words ; and, instead of bonds and written obliga- 
 tions, money was only lent upon the security of 
 commodity or produce, by which localised 
 places of deposit or storing became necessary; 
 and hence, banking, in its origin, bore an ana- 
 logy to our present system of pawnbroking; 
 while the term bank is supposed to have been 
 derived from the benches and tables in the mar- 
 ket-places, at which the money-lenders used to 
 transact their business; the Italian word banco, 
 signifying a bench, derived probably from the 
 Greek word T^airt^a, signifying both a bench 
 and a table, as does also the Spanish word 
 banco; in reference to which the money-lenders 
 obtained the name of benchers or bankers; the 
 Jews of Lombardy being among the first people 
 in Western Europe who carried into practice the 
 principle of lending money on the security of 
 commodity ; their repositories partially obtained 
 the name of Lombard-houses. 
 
 4. The Lombards were a Scandinavian tribe, 
 who first figure in history about the year 378 ; but 
 it was not till 568 that they established themselves 
 in Italy; at which period they made Pavia the 
 capital of their kingdom. It must have been, 
 therefore, subsequent to this period that bank- 
 ing institutions assumed any thing like a perma- 
 nent character. Lending and borrowing, how- 
 ever, appear to have prevailed in all ages, or long 
 before the intervention of money, to facilitate the 
 interchange of commodities; and in all ages, as in 
 the present day, appears to have been productive 
 of extortion and social derangement : see the 
 Mosaic code, Exodus, ch. xxii. v. 14 and 22, 
 and Deuteronomy, ch. xxiv, v. 6 and 10, and by 
 the narrative of St. Matthew, ch. xxi, v. 12, it 
 will be seen that tables in the market or public 
 places were in use in his day, for the accommoda- 
 tion of money-lenders. 
 
 5. The restless disposition of the Lombards 
 tended to excite aspirit of activity and enterprise 
 throughout all the Italian states; by which the 
 people of those countries became the merchants 
 or distributors of the products of Asia over all 
 the western and northern parts of Europe. It 
 was towards the close of the seventh century, after 
 the Mahommedans had obtained possession of 
 Egypt, that the chief depot of the products of 
 the east was transferred from Alexandria to Con- 
 stantinople, and afterwards to Venice, that com- 
 merce began to resolve itself mto a more regu- 
 lar system than had ever before been practised, and 
 a methodical and demonstrative order of keeping 
 accounts was devised and adopted. See Book- 
 keeping. This, in the progress of time, elicited 
 new ideas on the economy of payment; and 
 •about the middle of the twelfth century the 
 bank of X'enice, so long celebrated throughout 
 the commercial world, and which may be regard- 
 
 ed as the foundation of the present system of 
 banking, was established ; and had the operations 
 of the bank of Venice been confined to the legi- 
 timate object of facilitating commercial inter- 
 change, its socialising capabilities would have 
 rendered it worthy of the celebrity it so long 
 enjoyed; but, whilst the principles of its eco- 
 nomy are entitled to the highest admiration, 
 it seems to have been established in tyranny, 
 with a view to political aggrandisement, and 
 throughout the whole course of its career to have 
 been perverted to the worst of purposes. 
 
 6. It was the desolating system of the cru- 
 sades, and not the socialising principle of facili- 
 tating commercial interchange, which gave rise to 
 the bank of Venice. The first crusade embarked 
 from the shores of the Adriatic, under the auspi- 
 ces of Pope Urban the Second, in 1095; and 
 from the ascendancy and influence which the 
 Venetians, by their extensive commercial inter- 
 course, had then acquired over every part of 
 Western Asia and Europe, they became the 
 principal agents of the crusaders, as well for the 
 wealthy individuals who embarked in those chi- 
 valrous exploits as for the several governments 
 to which they respectively belonged. The fruits 
 of extortion, so likely to result from such a sys- 
 tem, excited the cupidity and avarice of the 
 Venetian senate, which led, in 1176, some say in 
 1157, to the establishment of the bank, under 
 the authority and pretended guarantee of the 
 state, the crusading agency previously having 
 rested exclusively with individuals. 
 
 7. The original subscription fund of the bank of 
 Venice was 2,000,000 Venetian ducats, equal to 
 £433,333 ; but, by a solemn edict of the senate, 
 the whole trading community of the republic 
 were compelled to deposit their money in the 
 bank, with which a credit was opened equal to the 
 deposit made, which could only be made avail- 
 able for transfer, so that not only the subscribed 
 capital but also the aggregate amount of the depo- 
 sits resolved themselves into a national debt. The 
 whole amount of the intrinsic money, subscribed 
 and deposited, having been applied by the se- 
 nate towards aiding the views of the crusaders, 
 and other external purposes, an ideal capital, 
 or mere denomination of amount was thus 
 created to adjust the operations of commercial 
 interchange. 
 
 8. Whether the transfers at the bank in the 
 early period of its establishment required per- 
 sonal attendance, as is the case in transferring 
 the national debt-stock at the bank of England 
 in the present day ; or whether effected, on 
 written orders corresponding to the checks in the 
 present Engbsh practice of banking; does not 
 appear : but, be that as it might, derangements 
 in the social economy of the state soon ensued ; 
 the agio or difference between the current money, 
 and transferable amounts at the bank, attained 
 the rate of thirty per cent. Yet such was the 
 insidious and illusive nature of the bank system, 
 that the bank increased in popularity in propor- 
 tion to the extent of the derangement which 
 ensued ; the inconvenience frequently occasioned 
 in the minor transactions of commerce, as well 
 as on occasions of citizens or stramrers requiring 
 money to defray the expenses of foreign journeys,
 
 BANK. 
 
 465 
 
 led in the course of time to tlie bank paying out 
 money. Yet such was the influx of money, 
 which the crusading armaments brought from all 
 parts of western Europe, that after the system 
 of makinf^ payments in money was practised, 
 the deposits always exceeded the demands. 
 
 9. At a later period, when the \'enetians them- 
 selves turned crusaders against the Turks, the 
 subscription-fund of the bank was increased to 
 5,000,000 of ducats; the whole of which was 
 made use of by the senate, to aid them in their 
 operations of warfare ; and, as previously stated, 
 throughout the whole period of its career, it was 
 made an instrument of aggression in aid of poli- 
 lical aggrandisement : yet such was the fortuity 
 of circumstances, and, for several centuries having 
 no rivalr}-, its integrity does not appear ever to 
 have been questioned ; the derangements occa- 
 sioned by the fluctuation of the agio led ulti- 
 mately to an edict of the senate, fixing it at 
 twenty per cent., at which rate it continued up 
 to the period of the extinction of the republic in 
 1797, see Venice. 
 
 10. In the fourteenth century the Genoese 
 began to rival the Venetians in their commerce, 
 and in 1345 a bank was established at Genoa; 
 but the more favorable local position of Venice 
 retained for it an undiminished political impor- 
 tance, and although the Genoese were very 
 successful in their commercial career, their bank, 
 relatively to that of Venice, was an insignificant 
 establishment ; it nevertheless was enabled, in the 
 fifteenth century, to advance considerable sums 
 to Spain, and other governments; but in 1751 it 
 was deemed insolvent to a very considerable 
 amount, and in 1798 the establishment was finally 
 dissolved and broken up by Buonaparte. 
 
 11. No further progress appears to have been 
 made in the formation of banking institutions, 
 until after the discovery by the Portuguese, in 
 1497, of the passage to Asia by the Cape of Good 
 Hope ; and even then, more than a century 
 elapsed before another bank was established. 
 It was at the commencement of the seventeenth 
 century, when Amsterdam had become the chief 
 mart of European commerce, that a bank was 
 established in that city in 1609; and, as the cir- 
 cumstances which led to, and the conduct which 
 dictated, the formation of this bank, appear to 
 have been purely commercial and social, void of 
 all speculative and political influence, and its 
 economy essentially diff'erent from either those 
 of Venice or London, it merits the most ample 
 elucidation of the details of its system on our 
 part, and the utmost attention on the part of the 
 enquiring reader. 
 
 12. Banking, in its economy, resolves itself 
 into three distinct orders of practice, viz. 1. of 
 deposit, transfer, and agency; 2. of discount, 
 simply; and, 3. of discount and circulation: a 
 banking establishment may, therefore, be formed 
 for carrying on either any one of these orders of 
 practice separately, or two, or all collectively ; 
 and either, and all of them are liable to be made 
 instruments of oppression by partial application, 
 or by perversion to impolitic and bad purposes : 
 a more ample elucidation of the details of each 
 order of practice will appear hereafter (see 
 section 14.), the analysis being exhibited in thi.s 
 
 Vol. III. 
 
 place, that the distinctive character of the bank 
 of Amsterdam may be the better understood. 
 
 13. The circumstances which gave rise to the 
 establishing of the bank of Amsterdam, were the 
 great variety of clipped and debased coins which 
 its extensive commerce, at the close of the six- 
 teenth and commencement of the seventeentli 
 century, brought into that city. The constant 
 variations of value of these coins occasioned con- 
 tinual disputes and inconveniences in the adjust- 
 ment of payments, more especially so in the 
 payment of foreign bills of exchange ; to obviate 
 these disputes and inconveniences, it was, that 
 the bank was established in 1607, on the legiti- 
 mate and social principle of deposit, transfer, and 
 agency ; the security of the deposits being gua- 
 ranteed by the corporation of the city, by whom 
 its managers were appointed, and wlio thereby 
 constituted themselves the agents of the establish- 
 ment; the expenses of which, and its manage- 
 ment, being defrayed by fees on opening of 
 accounts, transfers, &c. This system or practice 
 of banking, it will be seen, requires no sub- 
 scribed or fixed capital. 
 
 14. The bank of Amsterdam received coiivs of 
 all descriptions at a fixed value, according to 
 their weight and fineness, deducting an amount 
 equal to the expense of coinage into the standard 
 coin of Holland ; not that the various coins so 
 paid in should be converted into standard coins, 
 but that a credit should be placed on the bank 
 books to such an amount, after the seignorage 
 and fees had been deducted ; the amount so 
 credited then constituted bank-money. It was 
 in the next place enacted, that all payments of 
 600 guilders, = to £52. 10s., in amount, and 
 upwards, whether on internal or foreign account, 
 should be made in bank money ; and as these 
 regulations immediately occasioned an agio or 
 difference of value between bank-money and 
 current money, it as immediately became com- 
 pulsory on the part of every man of business 
 either to open an account at the bank, or to sub- 
 ject himself to the caprice of a fluctuating agio, 
 to enable him to make his payment through the 
 medium of those who had an account. 
 
 15. The distinction between the practice of 
 the bank of Amsterdam and the bank of \'enice, 
 is this, viz. That the bank of Venice appropriated 
 its subscribed capital, as well as part of its de- 
 posits, to external purposes, and created an ideal 
 sum by means of transfers to a corresponding 
 amount, whereby to adjust the internal payments 
 of the public ; whilst the bank of Amsterdam 
 retains its deposits within the walls of its own 
 establishment ; and when we come to treat of the 
 practice of the bank of England, that will be 
 found to present additional features of practice 
 deserving the utmost possible attention, as well 
 in reference to a comparison with the practice of 
 the banks of \'enice and of Amsterdam, as for the 
 influence and effects of its own operations upon 
 the general interests of the country at large. 
 
 16. In addition to the transactions of die bank 
 of Amsterdam, as detailed in sect. 14, the bank 
 also gives credit on its books upon deposits of 
 gold and silver bullion, at the rate of five per 
 cent, below the mint price of the bullion. In 
 making these deposits, which are made more for 
 
 2 H
 
 466 
 
 BANK. 
 
 safe keeping, and tlie view of reserving them for 
 articles of merchandise, than for conversion 
 into coin, the bank grants a recipice, receipt, or 
 ■warrant, entitling the holder to take out the bul- 
 lion again at any time within six months, upon 
 transferring to the bank an amount of bank mo- 
 ney equal to that for wliich credit had been 
 given in its books when the deposit was made, 
 and upon paying one-fourth per cent, for the 
 keeping, if tlie deposit was in silver, and one- 
 half per cent, if it was in go'd ; the recipice ex- 
 pressing, that in default of such payment, upon 
 the expiration of the term of six months, the be- 
 nefit of the recipice becomes forfeited to the 
 bank, while the amount credited against the de- 
 posit resolves into bank-money ; leaving a profit 
 to the bank proportionate to the difference be- 
 tween five per cent, below the mint price, and the 
 value of the bullion in the market. 
 
 17. This species of deposits are, in the first 
 instance, more generally made when the mercan- 
 tile price of bullion is so far below the mint 
 price as to become an article of speculation, and 
 the profits to the bank upon this branch of its 
 business are considerable, by the forfeiture of 
 some of the recipices ; but more particularly so 
 from the frequent renewals. The creditors of the 
 bank, in bank-money, and the holders of reci- 
 pices, are regarded by the bank as two distinct 
 classes of creditors : hence the creditor in bank- 
 money, having no recipice, cannot draw out bul- 
 lion without first going to market to buy a recipice, 
 nor can the holder of a recipice draw out his 
 bullion, in the event of his having sold the bank- 
 money assigned to him on making the deposit, 
 without first going into the market to repurchase 
 bank money, and reassigning the same to the bank. 
 
 18. In a city of extensive and complicated 
 commercial interchange, like Amsterdam, these 
 regulations of the bank necessarily occasion con- 
 tinued demands for both bank-money and bullion, 
 and gave rise to a system of jobbing and trick, 
 precisely similar to the jobbing and tricking in 
 time bargains upon the stock exchange in 
 London ; and at one period the agio was wont 
 to fluctuate from eight to ten per cent. To keep it 
 within certain boimds, however, the- bank of 
 Amsterdam resolved at all times to grant 100 of 
 bank for 105 of current money ; or rather to sell 
 bank-money at an agio of 5 per cent. In conse- 
 quence of this resolution, the agio was prevented 
 ever exceeding that rate; and the fluctuation now 
 seldom exceeds 2 J per cent, between 1^ and 4. 
 
 19. In addition to the seignorage deducted on 
 first opening an account with tlie bank in money, 
 see sect. 14, a fee of ten guilders, rz to 17s. 6d., 
 is also charged; and for every renewed account, 
 3 guilders 3 stivers; for every transfer, 5 sti- 
 vers, ziz 2d. -^ of a penny, and in order to dis- 
 courage a multiplicity of small transactions, if 
 the transfer is for less than 300 guilders, the 
 charge is six stivers; for neglecting to balance ac- 
 counts regularly twice a-year, a fine of twenty- 
 five guilders is exacted; and in case of attempting 
 to overdraw an account, a fine of 3 per cent, on 
 the sum so attempted to be overdrawn is also 
 levied, in addition to setting aside the order. 
 These several fees, fines, and deductions for 
 seignorage, together with the profits which occa- 
 sionally arise by the sale of bank-money, to 
 
 maintain an equilibrium in the agio, and the for- 
 feiture of bullion recipices, produce a considera- 
 ble revenue to the city, over and above what 
 suffices to defray the expenses of the establish- 
 ment. Public utility, however, and not revenue, 
 was the original, and up to this time, has continued 
 the ruling object of the establishment, and the re- 
 venue derived from it is the natural result of its 
 invariable rule of practice, vhich, wiiether the 
 best that can be devised or r ot, its certainty and 
 impartiality has obtained for it the sanction and 
 confidence of all who have been concerned in it. 
 
 20. How far the system or practice of the 
 bank of Amsterdam approximates to perfection 
 or utility will more fully appear as we proceed 
 to illustrate the various practices of banking in 
 England, and in other parts of the world. The 
 direction of the bank of Amsterdam is vested in 
 four reigning burgo-masters (aldermen), who are 
 changed every year. Each new set of burgo- 
 masters, on induction to their charge, are con- 
 ducted to the bank, inspect the deposits, com- 
 par.e them with the books, and acknowledge the 
 same upon oath, delivering it over at the end 
 of the year with the same formal solemnity to the 
 set which succeeds ; and highly to the credit of 
 the corporate body of the city of Amsterdam, 
 both in its collective, and in its individual capa- 
 city, in reference to the direction of the bank, 
 not only has no malversation been proved, but 
 no imputation ever brought against them ; nor 
 have the political convulsions, by which Holland 
 has at times been surrounded, and in which it 
 has been involved, ever induced the bank to 
 swerve from the strict rule of its established regu- 
 lations ; and such has ever been the confidence 
 in the integrity of its director, that it has at 
 times been the depositary of the money treasure 
 of the opulent individuals of surrounding states. 
 
 21. Of the extent of the deposits of the bank 
 of Amsterdam at different periods, the informa- 
 tion is very imperfect ; it may, at times, probably, 
 have amounted to a sum equal to five, six, or 
 seven millions sterling, and probably more, but 
 on an average they probably have not, at past 
 periods, nor do not at the present time, exceed 
 three to four millions, or from forty to fifty 
 millions of guilders. 
 
 22. As commerce extended itself over the 
 north of Europe, banking institutions were es- 
 tablished in different parts of Germany, but there 
 were none that obtained any great celebrity, 
 except those of Hamburgh and Nuremburg. 
 That of Hamburgh was established in 1619, on 
 principles, and for objects, not very dissimilar 
 to those of Amsterdam, viz. those of deposit, 
 transfer-agency and public utility. Instead of 
 coin the deposits are made in silver bullion of a 
 given fineness, against which credits are opened, 
 either for transfer, or for withdrawing the bullion 
 at pleasure, subject only to a trifling charge for 
 deposit, or safe-keeping. The general practice 
 of the bank of Hamburg is less formal, and more 
 simple, than that of Amsterdam ; and has been 
 productive of great advantage to the city, and 
 has maintained an unsullied integrity. The ex- 
 penses of its management have been, and still 
 continue to be, defrayed by fees, or transfers, &c. 
 similar to those of Amsterdam. It was plundered 
 of a considerable portion of its deposits by the
 
 BANK. 
 
 467 
 
 French general, Davoust, in 1813, a part of 
 which were restored by the Bourbon government 
 at the peace of 1815. 
 
 23. In 1635 the bank of Rotterdam was 
 established, under ref:fulations somewhat different 
 in detail from those of either Amsterdam or Ham- 
 burg, but upon the principle of deposits, transfer, 
 and agency. 
 
 24. About the sixth or seventh decenary of the 
 seventeenth century, an individual of the name of 
 Palmshut, in Stockholm, established a bank for 
 the purposes of exchange, discount, and circula- 
 tion; that is, he bought and sold bills of exchange, 
 lent money at interest, and issued notes, which 
 became a circulating medium, or token of inter- 
 change, for the amount they represented; na- 
 turally enough, although Palmshut originally 
 possessed, relativelv, great resources, derange- 
 ment and embarrassment soon overtook him, but 
 inflated v^ith his notions of ideal wealth, he ap- 
 plied to the king, Charles XL, whom he induced 
 to become his patron in the formation of a royal 
 bank, which, under Palmshut's directions, soon 
 obtained a general confidence; and, in 1688, 
 the direction was transferred to the assembly of 
 the states of the kingdom, the king declaring 
 himself, and his successors, protectors of the 
 bank, but renouncing all interference in the dis- 
 posal of the money. The states being thus 
 declared guarantees, proprietors, and directors, 
 under the regulations which they established, the 
 bank became a bank of deposit, discount, and 
 circulation. Depositors were allowed interest at 
 the rate of 6 per cent. ; and the deposits, together 
 with notes of circulation, appropriated to dis- 
 counts, on collat«ral securities, at the rate of 8 
 per cent. The king's revenues were also depo- 
 sited at the bank free of interest. The institution 
 immediately became popular, and all who had 
 surplus money, in every part of the kingdom, 
 poured it into the bank, so that, by the close of 
 the century, the interest on deposits had been 
 progressively reduced from 6 to 2 per cent., and 
 on discounts from 8 to 3 per cent. 
 
 25. Like all institutions founded on specula- 
 tive principles, the bank of Stockholm was soon 
 destined to experience a reverse of fortune, and 
 to become an instrument of political perversion. 
 The chivalrous exploits of Charles XIL led to 
 such a drain of the intrinsic resources of the 
 bank, during the four years, 1714 — 1717, the 
 period of the king's residence in Turkey, after 
 the battle of Pultowa, and when the corrupt 
 and profligate Goertz was minister of finance, 
 that the revenues usually deposited with the 
 bank, were unequal to discharge even the in- 
 terest, much less contribute towards any repay- 
 ments. This dilapidation of the resources, and 
 credit of the bank, led to the mortgaging of other 
 revenues of the crown, and a declaration on the 
 part of the king, that no further drain should be 
 made upon the bank until its resources and credit 
 were fully restored : these measures produced a 
 partial reaction in favor of the credit of the 
 bank ; but it proved only temporary, until an 
 expedient of the minister Goertz unexpectedly 
 diverted all the disposable wealth of the kingdom 
 into the bank. 
 
 26. Whilst the declaration and resolve of the 
 
 king to restore the resources and credit of the 
 bank were adhered to, it deprived Goertz of the 
 adequate funds to carry on his political in- 
 trigues, and to supply the king with sufficient 
 means to maintain his regal importance ; under 
 these circumstances, lie resorted first to fines and 
 penalties, and ultimately to a species of confis- 
 cation, by demanding all the plate, jewels, and 
 coin in the kingdom to be placed at his disposal, 
 for which he gave copper tokens, representing 
 ninety-six times the intrinsic value of the metal, 
 (paper money in effect.) This measure led all 
 those who possessed such disposable means to 
 confide in the royal pledge, rather than yield to 
 the exaction of Goertz. And they consequently 
 in secret conveyed all their treasure to the bank. 
 Goertz, chagrined at being thus disappointed, ap- 
 plied to the king and advised him to seize all the 
 treasure deposited in the bank ; but the king 
 refused to comply, and prohibited Goertz from 
 even making any proposal on the subject, con- 
 trary to the pledge which he had solemnly 
 made. 
 
 27. This decision of the king reinstated con- 
 fidence in, and fully re-established, the resources 
 and credit of the bank, so that on the declaration 
 of war against Russia, in 1 741 , the bank presented 
 the king with a donation of 100,000 Swedish 
 silver dollars, equal to about 7600, and sup- 
 plied another 300,000 dollars, as a loan without 
 interest, and subsequently to that period it fre- 
 quently advanced considerable sums to the 
 crown, and to the board of manufactures under 
 the guarantee of the states. 
 
 28. The resources and credit of the bank 
 being thus re-established, it was divided into 
 two departments, lane and wexel, or loan, and 
 exchange banks ; the former corresponding in 
 its practice with the practice originally estab- 
 lished in Lombardy, (see sect. 3.) and precisely 
 similar in principle to the practice of pawn- 
 broking in England at the present day. Whilst 
 the practice of the wexel or exchange bank, is 
 that of deposit, discount, and circulation. The 
 loan bank lends money on gold and silver bul- 
 lion, copper, and its own stock, to their full 
 value, at the rate of three per cent, and on three- 
 fourths of the value of iron, at the same rate of 
 interest ; and on lands and houses at the rate of 
 six per cent, four for interest, and two as a 
 sinking fund, until the whole sum advanced is 
 repaid. Jewels were at one time advanced 
 upon, but the bank having once been defrauded to 
 a considerable extent by them, resolved never 
 again to make advances on those articles. 
 
 29. The wexel or exchange bank receives 
 money on deposit, for which it allows two per 
 cent, and issues notes, with which, together with 
 its deposits, it discounts bills of exchange ; this 
 practice, which is the one originally pursued by 
 Palmshut, (see sect. 24.) involves risk, and leads 
 to certain loss ; the issuing of notes, having no 
 intrinsic value, sustains the loss as long as the 
 notes retain confidence ; but when that fails, de 
 rangement necessarily ensues, all this befell the 
 wexel or exchange bank of Stockholm, within 
 the short space of twenty-five years ; and in 1 766 
 the bank was on the verge of bankruptcy and 
 final dissolution, when, by the interference of the 
 
 2 H2
 
 468 
 
 BANK. 
 
 states, a loan of three millions ot rix dollars, 
 equal to abovit £700,000, was raised to liquidate 
 the excess of notes in circulation ; since the 
 period of 1766 successive regulations have been 
 resorted to, to preserve the credit of the bank, 
 and a committee, composed of a certain number 
 of persons from each of the three states of the 
 kingdom, viz. the nobles, clergy and burghers, 
 has been appointed, to inspect triennial ly the 
 general state of the bank and its accounts. 
 
 30. Under the guardianship of the States, the 
 wcxel bank of Stockholm retains its place among 
 the other institutions of the kingdom, but it has 
 no importance externally, nor does the extent of 
 its operations equal the operations of several pri- 
 vate banking establishments in some of the pro- 
 vincial towns in England ; it is the various kinds 
 of practice of banking, however, and not the 
 extent of the operations, which most demand 
 attention ; and on that ground it is, that the bank 
 of Stockholm has here been enlarged upon, much 
 beyond what the extent of its operations would 
 otherwise have rendered necessary. 
 
 31. Bank of Engl.\nd. — We now come, in 
 order of time, to treat of the bank of England ; 
 an establishment, whether considered with respect 
 to the magnitude of its operations, or its influence 
 upon the social relations of mankind, without 
 a parallel in history ; and from the period of its 
 foundation, but more especially since the period 
 of 1793, it has become so interwoven with the 
 government, and the collective interests of the 
 nation, as to render it difficult to treat of one, 
 without entering largely into the details of the 
 other. We will endeavour, however, to confine 
 our elucidation of the bank, as far as it is con- 
 nected with the government and the nation, as 
 much as possible within the limits of those cir- 
 cumstances of the nation, in which the character 
 and interests of the bank have been more imme- 
 diately involved. 
 
 32. Although by its peculiar constitution, and 
 terms of its charter, as well as in all the details 
 of its practice, the bank of England appears to be 
 an independent trading company, and although 
 its operations combine all the various kinds of 
 practice in banking (except the original one, of 
 lending money on pledges,) viz. exchange, de- 
 posit, transfer, discount, agency, and circulation, 
 and each and all of tliese, on a more extended 
 scale than ever was, or perhaps ever will bo, 
 practised in any otner establishment, it is, and 
 ever has been, from its foundation, materially 
 connected with all the financial operations ot 
 the government, and partakes therefore far more 
 of a political than of a commercial character. This 
 indeed has been considered by some writers 
 .",nd financiers an alarming excrescence on both 
 our commercial and political systems. But we 
 proceed to illustrate the progress of its career. 
 
 33. It appears to the writer of this paper 
 that instead of desirableness and necessity 
 dictating its origin, and instead of being founded 
 like the bank of Amsterdam (see sect. 11) on 
 the broad and social basis of public convenience 
 and public utility, the origin of the bank of 
 England was a mere project, which fortuitous 
 circumstances alone have hitherto protected 
 in an unexpected manner The original 
 
 projector of this memorable institution was a 
 Mr.W. Paterson, who, after numerous applications 
 on the subject to the privy council, at length 
 succeeded in the the year 1693, in obtaining 
 its consent to the project, and an act, 5th and 
 t3th William and Mary, c. 20, for granting to 
 their Majesties severa. rates and duties upon 
 tonnage of ships and vessels, and upon beer, ale, 
 and other liquors, for securing certain recom- 
 pences and advantages in the said act, mentioned 
 to such persons as shall voluntarily advance the 
 sum of £1,500,000 towards carrying on the war 
 against France! Section 19th of the said act, 
 enacts that ' Their Majesties may make commis- 
 sioners take subscriptions for £1,200,000. The 
 sum of £100,000 to be annually appropriated to 
 the subscribers ;' and by section 20th it was fur- 
 ther enacted that, 'Their Majesties may appoint 
 rules for transferring, and make the subscribers a 
 corporation by the name of * The governor and 
 company of the bank of England." 
 
 34. Under the authority of the aforesaid act, 
 subscriptions were immediately entered into, and 
 before the 1st of Jan. 1694, the whole sum was 
 subscribed, and on the 27th of July, in that 
 year, the charter of incorporation was executed, 
 its duration being limited to eleven years, viz. 
 from the 1st of August, 1694, to the 1st of August, 
 1 705, after which date the corporation was deter- 
 minable upon twelve months notice, and repay- 
 ment of the £1,200,000 advanced. At this time 
 (1694), tlie rate of interest was 6 per cent, per 
 annum ; but by the terms of the contract for the 
 above £1,200,000, the corporation were to receive 
 8 per cent, per annum, and £4000 per annum for 
 management, or trouble of transferring and ap- 
 portioning the interest among the numerous 
 subscribers. 
 
 35. Such were the circumstances, and such 
 the origin of the bank of England, neither of 
 which it will be seen bear any analogy to the 
 circumstances and origin of the banks of Venice, 
 Amsterdam, Hamburgh, or Stockholm ; but before 
 we proceed further in exiiibiting the progress of 
 the bank of England, it may be well to show 
 what the state and practice of banking in Eng- 
 land was, prior to the formation of that establish- 
 ment ; and when the circulating medium of the 
 country was exclusively metallic. At an early 
 period of England carrj'ing on an external com- 
 merce, when she received from Holland and 
 Germany almost every species of manufacture in 
 exchange for grain and wool, and other produc- 
 tions of the soil and mines, England tlien had 
 her loan banks, or Eombard houses, for lending 
 money on pledges (see sect. 3), hence the etymo- 
 logy of Lombard-street, in the vicinity of the 
 Royal Exchange, in London. At a more recent 
 period tiie goldsmiths became the bankers, first, 
 merely as places of dejiosit or safe keeping, and 
 afterwards for discount ; and for more than a 
 century prior to the establishment of the bank of 
 England, and circulation of paper money, the 
 goldsmiths held the same rank and importance 
 in commerce, and exercised similar functions, as 
 the private bankers do at the present day. But 
 the establishment of the bank of England did not 
 merely divert tlu; transactions of private deposit 
 and discount into new channels, but it will be
 
 BANK. 
 
 469 
 
 seen, as we proceed, that it had the effect of 
 changing the whole social economy of the 
 state. 
 
 36. The Bank of England being established, 
 the charter directed that its management should 
 be vested in a governor, deputy governor, and 
 twenty-four directors, to be elected by the holders 
 of the stock, a clear possession of £500 of which 
 for six months constitutes a qualification to vote, 
 the qualification of a director being the possession 
 of £2000 of the stock, of a deputy governor, 
 £3000 of do. and of a governor £4000 of do. 
 So far as we have here described the transactions 
 of the Bank of England, it seems confined to the 
 mere raising of a loan of £1,200,000, for the use 
 of government, at 8 per cent, per annum, and 
 which was in fact, the foundation of the Funding 
 System, or National Debt; to prevent enlarging 
 upon which here, see each of those subjects under 
 their respective heads, and in conjunction with 
 them see also Circulating Medium, Exchange, 
 Bills OF, Exchequer Bills, Money, Pater 
 Money, and Tallies. Of the nature and ex- 
 tent of the practice of the Bank of England, 
 in deposit, transfer, discount, and circulation, 
 during the early period of its establishment, but 
 little seems to be known ; and, indeed, for 
 some time, its transactions seem to have been 
 very much confined to trading in the government 
 securities, and notes of its ovra circulation. At 
 the Exchequer, then, as is still the case, accounts 
 were kept by tallies, similar to accounts of bakers 
 in those parts of the country where the weight of 
 the loaf varies, and the money price remains 
 fixed ; notches are cut in a piece of stick, to de- 
 note so many loaves of bread, the stick is split, 
 the buyer holding one part and the seller the 
 other, so with the accounts of money at the 
 Exchequer of enlightened England, at the period 
 of establishing the Bank of England, and so the 
 practice continued in 1826. 
 
 37. The first and second years after the 
 establishment of the Bank, these Tallies were a 
 trading and speculating commodity, as stock and 
 exchequer bills are at the present day, and such 
 was the state of the credit of the nation at that 
 time that the tallies were at a discount of 20 to 40 
 per cent, against the sealed notes of the Bank, 
 and the notes of the bank at a discount of 20 
 per cent, against the standard coin of the realm. 
 With the view of equalising these disparities of 
 value between the bank and national securities, 
 and the standard coin of the realm, an act was 
 passed in 1697, 8 and 9 Will. 3 cap. 20, empower- 
 ing the Bank to receive subscriptions for the 
 enlargement of their stock, four-fifths in tallies, 
 and the remaining fifth in Bank notes. The 
 amount of tallies ingrafted under this act was 
 £1,001, 17 1.10s. subject, like the original subscrip- 
 tion to an interest of 8 per cent, per annum, and 
 the charter was extended to the 1st of Aug. 1710. 
 In 1 708, another act was passed, 7 Ann. cap. 7, 
 under which the bank further lent the govern- 
 ment the sum of £400,000 without interest ; 
 thereby reducing the interest on £1,600.000 to 
 6 per cent. The Bank at this time held Exche- 
 quer bills to the amount of £1,500,000, which, 
 with an arrear of interest of £275,027. 17s. lOJrf., 
 were cancelled (funded) at the rate of 6 per 
 
 cent, per annum. For these acts of condescension, 
 the charter of the Bank was extended to Aug. 1 
 1732, and the company authorised to take in 
 subscriptions, to double their capital. In 
 1709 a call of 15, and in 1710 a further call of 
 10 per cent, was made, and in 1713 another act 
 was passed, 12 Ann. cap. 11, extending the char- 
 ter to Aug. 1, 1742, then, as before, determinable 
 after twelve months notice, and repayment by 
 the government, of all sums borrowed. 
 
 38. In 1717 another act was passed, 3 Geo. I. 
 ch. 8, authorising the funding of a fiirther amount 
 of exchequer bills of £2,000,000, at five per cent, 
 per annum; to which rate the interest on 
 £1,775,027 was also reduced after midsummer 
 1718. In 1722, by another act, 8 Geo. I, cap. 21, 
 the bank was authorised to purchase stock of the 
 South Sea Company to theamount of £4,000,000, 
 which stock bore an interest of five per cent, per 
 an. but was reduced to four per cent, after mid- 
 summer 1729. To effect this purchase the capi- 
 tal was increased £3,400,000; and in 1727, pur- 
 suant to the act of 1 Geo. II, cap. 8, £1,000,000 
 of the £1,775,027. 17s. lOid, funded in 1708, 
 at six per cent, was paid off, and the interest 
 on the £2,000,000, funded in 1717, reduced 
 from five to four per cent, and under the autho- 
 rity of the same act; in 1728, £1,750,000 was 
 further advanced to government at an interest of 
 4 per cent.; and, in the following year, pursuant 
 to the act of 2 Geo. II, cap. 3, the remainder of 
 the £1,775,027. 17s. lO'd. funded in 1708, 
 together with £500,000 of the amount funded 
 in 1717, was paid off by the government; who 
 borrowed, under the authority of the said act, 
 the sum of £1,250,000, at an interest of 4 per 
 cent, per annum from midsummer 1729. 
 
 39. In 1738 another act was passed, 11 Geo. 
 II, cap. 27, authorising the paying off a further 
 portion of the bills funded in 1717, to the amount 
 of £1,000,000; and in 1742, by the act of 15 
 Geo. II, cap. 13, £1,600,000 was advanced to 
 government without interest, on condition of the 
 bank being authorised to increase their capital 
 stock, and the charter being extended to Aug. 1, 
 1764. The capital stock was accordingly in- 
 creased £840,004. 5s. 4d. The pretension set 
 up in reference to this £1,600,000, was the reduc- 
 tion of the rate of interest on the original 
 £1,200,000, and the £400,000 advanced in 
 1708; by the receipt of which latter sum the 
 interest on the £1,600,000 was reduced to 6 per 
 cent. ; and, by the receipt of a corresponding sum 
 without interest, it made the interest on the 
 £3,200,000 equivalent to 3 per cent. But this 
 seeming reduction in the rate of interest is a delu- 
 sion; for, however anomalous it may at first seem, 
 as the rate of interest progressively became 
 reduced from 8 to 3 per cent, the pressure of the 
 exaction on the people, as will clearly appear 
 hereafter, progressively and virtually increased. 
 So far, therefore, from the £1,600,000 being 
 entitled to be regarded as a boon to the public, 
 it appears to us as neither more nor less than a 
 bribe to reconcile an unsuspecting people to an 
 extension of the charter. 
 
 40. in 1746 another act was passed, 19 Geo. 
 11, cap. 6, authorising the funding of exchequer 
 bills, issued in anticipation of the tax on licenses
 
 470 
 
 BANK 
 
 for retailing spirituous liquors, to the amount of 
 £986,800, at the rate of 4 per cent, per annum, 
 and for authorising the bank to increase their 
 capital stock 10 per cent, which was done in 
 pursuance thereof. The total sum advanced by 
 the bank to the government, now amounted to 
 £11,686,800, and the capital on which the stock- 
 holders divided was £10,780,000. Of the amount 
 advanced to government £3,200,000, (see preced- 
 ing section) was at an interest of 3 per cent. ; part 
 of the bills funded in 1717 remained at 5 per cent, 
 and the remainder at 4 per cent. ; in reference to 
 which, in 1749 an act was passed, 28 Geo. II, 
 cap. 1, determining that from Christmas 1750 tlie 
 interest on the whole £8,486,800 should be re- 
 duced to 3i per cent., and from Christmas 1757 
 it should further be reduced to the same rate as 
 the £3,200,000, viz. 3 per cent. Fifteen years 
 now elapsed without any change in the terms of 
 the charter, or accounts with the government, 
 when in 1764, pursuant to the act of 4 Geo. Ill, 
 cap. 25, the bank advanced £1,000,000 for two 
 years without interest, and gave bonus to the 
 
 exchequer of £l 10,000, for the extension of their 
 charter to the 1st of August 1786. 
 
 41 . In 1781, pursuant to an act passed that year, 
 the charter was further extended to the 1st of 
 August 1812, and £862,400 more added to the 
 capital stock, in return for the loan of £2,000,000 
 for three years at 3 per cent. ; and in 1800, pur- 
 suant to an act of 48 Geo. Ill, the charter was fur- 
 ther extended to the 1st of August, 1833, on con- 
 dition of advancing £3,000,000, for the service of 
 the year 1 800, on exchequer bills, to be discharged 
 without interest in 1806. Such was the state of 
 the bank of lEngland in 1800 in reference to its 
 permanent advances to the government and ex- 
 tent of its permanent capital, which we will here 
 briefly recapitulate. In the session of parliament, 
 1822, an account of the total amount of debt due 
 to the bank of England, distinguishing funded 
 from unfunded, the periods when contracted for, 
 &c. &c. was laid before the house (paper No. 
 190), which, up to the period of 1746, will be 
 seen to correspond with the amounts previously 
 enumerated, viz: 
 
 Anno. 
 
 1738 
 
 Acts. 
 
 5\V.&M. c. 20 
 8&9 Wm.c. 19 
 7 Anne, c. 7 
 
 3 Geo. I. c. 8 
 
 8 c. 21 
 
 1 Geo. II. c. 8 
 
 2 c. 3 
 
 15- c. 13 
 
 19 c. 6 
 
 Original Subscription .... 
 
 Ingrafted Tallies 
 
 Exchequer-Bills cancelled . . . 
 Advanced without interest . . 
 Exchequer-Bills cancelled . . . 
 Transfer from South-Sea Company 
 
 Advanced 
 
 Ditto 
 
 Ditto 
 
 Exchequer-Bills cancelled . . . 
 Total Sura advanced . . . 
 
 Ingrafted Tallies 
 
 Part of £1,775,028 
 
 Remainder of ditto 
 
 And part of £2,000,000 of 1717 
 
 Further part of £2,000,000 of 1717 
 
 Nett amount of permanent Debt in 1746, and as ) 
 it stood up to 1816 i 
 
 Amount. 
 
 £1,200,000 
 1,001,171 
 1,775,028 
 400,000 
 2,000,000 
 4,000,000 
 1,750,000 
 1,250,000 
 1,600,000 
 986,800 
 
 £1,001,171 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 775,028 
 
 500,000 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 £15,962,990 
 
 4,276,199 
 
 £11,686,800 
 
 42. In 1816 a further advance was made of 
 £3,000,000; and in 1823 a contract was entered 
 into for the bank to advance the government the 
 sum of £13,089,419, in thirteen irregular instal- 
 ments, between the 4th of April, 1823, and the 
 6th of July, 1828, in consideration of an annuity of 
 £585,740 for 44 years, from the 10th of Oct. 1823. 
 The first of these transactions resolves itself into 
 a bonus to tlie bank equivalent to from £7,000,000 
 to £8,000,000 ; the latter being to a certain ex- 
 tent a contingent transaction, may prove disad- 
 vantageous to the public to the extent of from 
 five to ten or fifteen millions, and under any 
 circumstances that can possibly occur is equiva- 
 lent to another bonus to the bank of at leasf 
 
 £2,000,000. The first transaction is simple and 
 conclusive, and will be seen to involve moral as 
 well as pecuniary features, demanding the very 
 serious consideration of the public. The other 
 is one of tlie most complex and equivocal 
 transactions which the whole history of British 
 financiering, with all its profligacy and tortuosity, 
 exhibits since the commencement of war in 
 1793. A more circumstantial account of the 
 nature of both transactions will be found in their 
 order of time further on. 
 
 In the mean time, the following is a reca- 
 pitulation of the augmentations of capital, on 
 wiiich dividends were made to the proprietors 
 of stock, viz.
 
 BANK. 
 
 471 
 
 Anno. 
 
 1694 
 1697 
 1708 
 1709 
 1710 
 1722 
 1742 
 1746 
 1781 
 
 Original Subscription 
 Ingrafted Tallies . . 
 Doubled .... 
 Call of 15 per cent. . 
 Ditto of 10 per cent. 
 Additional Subscriptions 
 Ditto Ditto . 
 
 Call of 10 per Cent. 
 Auemented . . . 
 
 Augmentation. 
 
 Aggregate. 
 
 £1,200,000 
 
 1,001,171 
 
 2,201,172 
 
 656,204 
 
 501,449 
 
 3,400,000 
 
 840,004 
 
 980,000 
 
 862,400 
 
 £1,200,000 
 2,201,171 
 4,402,343 
 5,058,547 
 5,559,996 
 8,959,996 
 9,800,000 
 10,780,000 
 11,642,400 
 
 43. Aad the following shows the rate and amount of dividends, per annum, at different periods, 
 
 up to 1807, viz. 
 
 Anno. 
 
 Rate per cent. 
 
 
 Amount annually 
 divided. 
 
 1694—1696 
 1697—1707 
 1708—1729 
 1 1730—1741 
 1742—1746 
 1747—1752 
 17*1? 
 
 3 years 8 
 
 11 9 
 
 22 9 to 5^ 
 
 12 6 & 51 
 
 5 6 & 5^ 
 
 6 ■ 5 
 
 1 4i & 5 
 
 10 4J 
 
 3 5 
 
 14 5^ 
 
 7 6 
 
 19 7 
 
 9 10 
 
 8 
 
 3 8 
 
 (actual) 
 
 (estimated) 
 (actual) 
 
 £96,000 
 198,105 
 450,000 
 520,200 
 563,000 
 539,000 
 512,050 
 485,100 
 539,000 
 592,900 
 698,544 
 814,968 
 1,164,240 
 1,455,300 
 1,164,240 
 
 1754—1763 
 1764—1766 
 1767—1780 
 1781—1787 
 1788—1806 
 1807—1815 
 1816—1823 
 1824—1826 
 
 44. Thus, as stated in sect. 39, it is seen, that 
 whilst the bank affects to lend the public its 
 money at 3 "per cent, per annum, the public, 
 since 1807, have virtually been taxed at the rate 
 of 10 per cent, to the extent of £1,164,240 per 
 annum ; nor is this all, for, by a return made to 
 parliameiit in the session of 1819 (Paper, No. 
 
 347), in addition to the above exorbitant exac- 
 tion, resulting from the illusive and peculiarly 
 involved nature of the transactions of the govern- 
 ment with the bank, it appears that the foUowiag 
 sums were divided among the stock-holders as 
 bonuses, viz. 
 
 Anno. 
 
 1 Amount. 
 
 June, 1799 
 May, 1801 
 Nov. 1802 
 Oct. 1804 
 
 1805 
 
 1806 
 
 10 per cent, on the £11,642,400 . . . 
 
 5 • ■ on ditto .... 
 
 2^ on ditto .... 
 
 5 on ditto .... 
 
 5 on ditto .... 
 
 5 on ditto .... 
 
 £1,164,240 
 582,120 
 291,060 
 582,120 
 582,120 
 582,120 
 
 
 Total as Bonus . . . 
 
 £3,783,780 
 
 And profuse as all this may seem in favor of the 
 holders of bank-stock, and oppressive as it must 
 be to the public, it sinks into comparative insig- 
 nificant" when compared with the transactions 
 of 1816 and 1823, the nature of which shall be 
 elucidated by and by; it seeming first desirable 
 to take a retrospective view of the transactions 
 of the bank, independent of its permanent ad- 
 vances and augmentation of its permanent ca- 
 pital. 
 
 45. By the stat. of 6 Anne, cap. 22, it was 
 
 enacted, * for securing the credit of the Bank of 
 
 England, that no other banking company in 
 England should consist of more than six per- 
 sons, empowered to issue bills or notes payable 
 on demand, or for any time less than six months.' 
 And the act of 15 Geo. II. cap. 13, which ex- 
 tended the privileges of the charter to 1764, also 
 enacted, that the acts of 7 and 12 Anne, and all 
 all other acts for determining the corporation, 
 should be void ; and that the governor and com- 
 pany of the bank should remain a body corpo-
 
 472 
 
 BANK. 
 
 rate and politic for ever, subject to such restric- 
 tions and regulations as were contained in tlie 
 acts and charters then in force, and by the same 
 statute it was also further enacted, * that persons 
 forging, counterfeiting, or altering, any bank- 
 note, bill of exchange, dividend, warrant, or any 
 bond or obligation, under the company's seal, 
 or any indorsement upon it, or knowingly utter- 
 ing the same, shall suffer death, without benefit 
 of clergy ;' and further, * that the company's 
 servants breaking their trust to the company, sliall 
 also suffer death, as a felon, without benefit of 
 clergy.' The same statute also further enacts, 
 * that when at a court of directors of the bank, 
 neither the governor nor deputy shall attend in 
 two hours after the time appointed for business, 
 then any thirteen or more of the directors may 
 choose a chairman for the time for the despatch 
 of business, and that such court shall be as valid 
 as if either the governor or deputy-governor had 
 duly attended.' 
 
 46. As stated in sect. 36, the information is 
 imperfect as to the extent of the transactions of 
 
 the Bark of England in deposit, transfer, dis- 
 count, and circulation, during the earlier period 
 of its establishment; nor does it appear that the 
 notes of the bank were ever at a discount against 
 the standard coin of the realm after 1697, until 
 1798. In addition to the monies permanently 
 advanced to the government, it was the practice 
 of the bank to advance money in anticipation of 
 the land and malt taxes; and to make other 
 temporary advances on exchequer-bills and other 
 floating securities ; we have not been able to ob- 
 tain any circumstantial account of the extent of 
 these advances at an earlier dale than 1777; 
 from which period an account of advances by 
 the bank to government on land, malt, exche- 
 quer-bills, and other securities, on the 25th of 
 February on each of the twenty years preceding 
 the 25th of February, 1797, was laid before par- 
 liament, vide Appendix, second Report of the 
 Select Committee on the lixpediency of the Bank 
 resuming Cash Payments, 1819. Commons re- 
 print, fol. 315, of which the following is a copy, 
 
 On the 
 
 
 
 
 
 25th Feb. 
 
 Land and Malt. 
 
 Exchequer-Bills. 
 
 Treasury-Bills. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1777 
 
 £4,912,000 
 
 £2,500,000 
 
 
 £7,412,000 
 
 
 1778 
 
 5,251,000 
 
 2,500,000 
 
 £2760 
 
 7,753,760 
 
 1779 
 
 5,682,000 
 
 2,769,000 
 
 15,664 
 
 8,466,664 
 
 1780 
 
 5,613,000 
 
 3,104,400 
 
 33,582 
 
 8,750,982 
 
 1781 
 
 5,517,000 
 
 262,230 
 
 49,541 
 
 8,188,841 
 
 1782 
 
 5,659,000 
 
 4,289,050 
 
 43,628 
 
 9,991,678 
 
 1783 
 
 4,962,000 
 
 4,662,200 
 
 4871 
 
 9,629,071 
 
 1784 
 
 3,901,000 
 
 3,641,000 
 
 23,853 
 
 7,565,853 
 
 1785 
 
 3,102,000 
 
 3,900,000 
 
 28,200 
 
 7,030,200 
 
 1786 
 
 2,307,000 
 
 4,303,200 
 
 24,672 
 
 6,634,872 
 
 1787 
 
 2,809,000 
 
 4,334,200 
 
 1696 
 
 7,144,896 
 
 1788 
 
 2,636,000 
 
 4,707,400 
 
 4299 
 
 7,347,699 
 
 1789 
 
 2,928,000 
 
 5,000,200 
 
 20,235 
 
 7,948,435 
 
 1790 
 
 2,882,000 
 
 5,006,500 
 
 20,468 
 
 7,908,968 
 
 1791 
 
 3,334,000 
 
 6,247,100 
 
 22,878 
 
 9,603,978 
 
 1792 
 
 2,802,000 
 
 6,636,600 
 
 26,999 
 
 *9,839,338 
 
 1793 
 
 2,698,000 
 
 5,939,600 
 
 52,359 
 
 9,066,698 
 
 1794 
 
 2,915,000 
 
 4,777,600 
 
 717,175 
 
 8,786,514 
 
 1795 
 
 4,291,000 
 
 4,329,000 
 
 2,117,491 
 
 11,114,230 
 
 1796 
 
 5,536,000 
 
 5,265,000 
 
 540,991 
 
 11,718,730 
 
 The totals in each of the five last years include £376,739 lent out of the unclaimed dividends, without 
 
 interest. 
 
 47. The earliest account of the amount of 
 bank-notes in circulation which we have been 
 able to obtain is the following, Avhich was deli- 
 vered to tlie House of Commons on the 18th of 
 March, 1797, and exhibits the amount of notes 
 in circulation on the 25th of February, in each 
 of the ten years, 1787 — 1796, viz. 
 
 1787 £8,688,570 
 
 1788 9,370,350 
 
 1789 9,905,240 
 
 1790 10,217,360 
 
 1791 11,699,140 
 
 1792 11,349,810 
 
 1793 11,493,125 
 
 1794 10,699,520 
 
 1795 13,539,160 
 
 1796 11,030,110 
 
 As we are now approaching a most important 
 period in the history of the transactions of the 
 Bank of F.ngland, it will be well for the earnest 
 enquirer after truth to bear in mind, that the 
 notes in circulation up to the period of 1797, 
 were convertible into gold on demand, at the 
 rate of 77s. \0^d. per oz.; and when the above 
 statement is compared with the preceding one, of 
 the amount of the temporary advances to the 
 government, and the following one, of the 
 amount of cash and bullion in hand, and bills
 
 BANK. 
 
 47J 
 
 discounted, it will be seen that the issue of notes 
 appears to have been regulated more in reference 
 to the amount of the temporary advances to the 
 government, than to the means of paying them 
 in gold on demand, as will be seen by the follow- 
 ing statement of the amount of cash and bullion 
 
 on hand, notes in circulation, bills discounted, 
 and advances to government, on an averaire in 
 the months of March, June, September, and 
 December, in each of the five years, 1793 — ■ 
 1796, viz. 
 
 
 Cash and Bullion 
 
 Bills Discounted. 
 
 Average of Notes 
 
 Average of Advancs 
 
 
 on hand. 
 
 
 in Circulation. 
 
 to Government. 
 
 1793 
 
 
 
 
 
 March . . 
 
 £3,508,000 
 
 £4,817,000 
 
 £11,963,820 
 
 £8,735,200 
 
 June . . . 
 
 4,412,000 
 
 5,128,000 
 
 12,100,650 
 
 9,434,000 
 
 September . . 
 
 6,836,000 
 
 2,065,000 
 
 10,938,620 
 
 9,455,700 
 
 December 
 
 7,720,000 
 
 1,976,000 
 
 10,967,310 
 
 8,887,500 
 
 1794 
 
 
 
 
 
 March . . . 
 
 8,608,000 
 
 2,908,000 
 
 11,159,720 
 
 8,494,100 
 
 June . • . 
 
 8,208,000 
 
 3,263,000 
 
 10,366,450 
 
 7,735,800 
 
 September 
 
 8,096,000 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 10,343,940 
 
 6,779,800 
 
 December 
 
 7,768,000 
 
 1,887,000 
 
 10,927,970 
 
 7,545,100 
 
 1795 
 
 
 
 
 
 March . . . 
 
 7,940,000 
 
 2,287,000 
 
 12,432,240 
 
 9,773,700 
 
 June . . . 
 
 7,356,000 
 
 3,485,000 
 
 10,912,280 
 
 10,879,700 
 
 September 
 
 5,792,000 
 
 1,887,000 
 
 11,034,790 
 
 10,197,600 
 
 December 
 
 4,000,000 
 
 3,109,000 
 
 11,608,670 
 
 10,683,100 
 
 1796 
 
 
 
 
 
 March . . . 
 
 2,972,000 
 
 2,820,000 
 
 10,824,150 
 
 11,351,000 
 
 June . . . 
 
 2,582,000 
 
 3,730,000 
 
 10,770,200 
 
 11,269,700 
 
 September 
 
 2,532,000 
 
 3,352,000 
 
 9,720,440 
 
 9,901,100 
 
 December 
 
 2,508,000 
 
 3,796,000 
 
 9,645,710 
 
 9,511,400 
 
 1797 
 
 
 
 
 
 February 26 . 
 
 1,272,000 
 
 2,905,000 
 
 8,640,250 
 
 10,672,490 
 
 48. By the above statement, it is seen, that 
 with £8,640,250 of notes in circulation on the 
 25th of February, 1797, £1,272,000 value of 
 gold only remained in the bank, whilst the de- 
 mand for gold continued daily to increase ; 
 under which circumstances, on the 22d of Fe- 
 bruary, a committee was appointed by the privy 
 council to investigate the affairs of the bank, 
 which committee, on the 26th of the same 
 month, reported, that the total assets of the bank, 
 exclusive of the £11,686,800 permanent debt of 
 the government (see sect. 40, 4 1), was £l 7,597,298, 
 whilst the whole of the demands upon the bank 
 amounted to only £13,770,390, leaving a clear 
 balance in its favor of £3,826,903, exclusive of 
 the permanent debt due from the government. 
 Upon this report, the privy council instantly is- 
 sued an order prohibiting the directors of the 
 bank from issuing any more cash (specie) in 
 paymeiat, until the sense of parliament on the 
 subject was obtained. From the statement of 
 £13,770,390 being the amount of demands upon 
 the bank, and £8,640,250 being the amount of 
 notes in circulation, as per statement in the pre- 
 ceding section, it appears that the demands of 
 depositors and otlier creditors mv^t have 
 amounted to £5,130,140; and in like manner, 
 £17,597,298 being the whole of the assets, and 
 £10,672,490 thereof consisting of claims on the 
 government, £2,905,000 in bills discounted, and 
 £1,272,000 in specie, it leaves £2,727,808 to be 
 assigned to some specified items; including, no 
 doubt the bank premises and probably some 
 
 other property in fief, in houses or lands, &c. &c. 
 The transactions and state of the Bank of Eng- 
 land, as detailed in this section, bring its his- 
 tory down to that eventful and important period 
 when the peculiar nature of its connexion with 
 the government first openly developes itself. To 
 obtain a more comprehensive and distinct view 
 of the subject, the reader will do well to refer to 
 the journals and proceedings of parliament for the 
 year 1797, and to examine the subject attentively, 
 in relation to the nature and amount of the 
 loans, and extent of the revenue and expenditure 
 of the government at that period, as exhibited in 
 Mr. Marshall's Statistical Illustrations of the 
 Finances, Revenues, &c. &c. of the British Em- 
 pire. See also the articles Funding, Loans, 
 Sinking Fund, and Revenue, in the subsequent 
 parts of this work. 
 
 49. It was on a Sunday evening that the order 
 of the privy council, adverted to in the preced- 
 ing section, was transmitted to the bank, and 
 on Monday morning the following notice was 
 published by the directors of that establishment, 
 viz. 
 
 ' Bank of England, February 27, 1797. 
 
 ' In consequence of an order of his majesty's 
 privy council, notified to the bank last night, a 
 copy of which is hereunto annexed, 
 
 ' The governor, deputy-governor, and directors 
 of the Bank of England, think it their duty to 
 inform the proprietors of tlie bank-stock, as well 
 as the public at large, that the general concerns 
 of the bank are in the most affluent and flourish-
 
 474 
 
 BANK. 
 
 ing situation, and such as to preclude every 
 doubt as to the security of its notes. 
 
 'The directors mean to continue their \isual 
 discount for the accommodation of the commer- 
 cial interest, paying the amount in bank notes ; 
 and the dividend warrants will be paid in tlie 
 same manner. 
 
 (Signed) 'Francis Martin, Sec' 
 
 50. The consternation of the public at this notifi- 
 cation was extreme, but as a proof of the secret 
 workings and illusive nature of the system, a 
 meeting was held the same day at the mansion 
 house, at which the lord mayor (Watson), presi- 
 ded, when the following resolution was unani- 
 mously agreed to, viz. 'That we the undersigned, 
 being" highly sensible how necessary the preser- 
 vation of public credit is at this time, do most 
 readily hereby declare, that we will not refuse to 
 receive bank notes in payment of any sum of 
 money to be paid to us ; and we will use our 
 utmost endeavours to make all our payments in the 
 same manner.' This singular specimen of sub- 
 serviency to speculative expediency was signed 
 by the lord mayor and all present, and ultimately 
 obtained upwards of 3000 signatures. We will 
 not here enquire what portion of their names 
 have since been exhibited on the bankrupt or 
 other lists of insolvency ; but we must regard the 
 conseqences to have been the degradation of an 
 alarming portion of the total population of the 
 kingdom to the rank of paupers, with all the 
 consecutive concomitants of demoralisation and 
 crime. 
 
 51. On the same day (27th Feb.), a message 
 was delivered from the king to both houses of 
 parliament, to the following effect, viz. ' That an 
 unusual demand of specie having been made 
 from different parts of the country, on the metro- 
 polis, it had been found necessary to make an 
 order of council to the directors of the bank, pro- 
 hibitino; the issuing of any cash in payment, till 
 the sense of parliament could be taken on the 
 subject.' In the upper house, Lord Grenville, 
 who was then secretary' of state for the foreign 
 department, moved, 'That the communication 
 from his ^Majesty should be taken into consider- 
 ation the following day,' when in pursuance of 
 the motion, after much circumlocution, Lord 
 Grenville stated that he had two motions to sub- 
 mit to the consideration of their Lordships, first, 
 'That a humble address be presented to his 
 Majesty, to return thanks for his gracious com- 
 munication, and to assure his Majesty that he 
 might rely with the utmost confidence on the 
 wisdom of parliament, to call forth, in case of 
 necessity, the extensive resources of the king- 
 dom.' This was agreed to, nemine contradicente. 
 The other motion was for ' The appointment of a 
 select committee of nine lords, to examine and 
 report on the outstanding debts against the bank, 
 the state of the funds for discharging the same; 
 the cause that rendered the order of council 
 necessary, and which might justify the members 
 of that house for taking the proper steps for the 
 confirmation and continuance of that measure.' 
 This motion gave rise to considerable discussion, 
 in wliich the Duke of Bedford moved as an 
 amendment, 'To leave out all that part which 
 
 related to the committee reporting their opinion 
 on the continuance of the measure.' In support 
 of which amendment, the Marquis of Lansdowne 
 said, ' That noble Lords vv'ould do him the jus- 
 tice to recollect, that not one session had passed 
 over, since the fatal commencement of the war in 
 179.3, in which he had not, to use a vulgar but 
 strong expression, bored their Lordships with his 
 prophetic admonitions, and proceeded to illus- 
 trate the nature of public credit, by saying, that 
 it was to the people of Great Britain, what the 
 soul of man was to his body. It was pure soul : 
 it was immaterial in itself, and yet it was that 
 which gave to substance its functions. It was not 
 property, for no branch of the body could call it 
 its own. It was not the king's credit, nor was it 
 the credit of parliament ; it was public credit, 
 which did not look to security alone as its basis, 
 but which always connected security with 
 punctuality.' 
 
 52. The shock which had been given to public 
 credit, the noble marquis stated, proceeded from 
 deep, progressive, and accumulated causes; 
 causes which all thinking, all honest men, had 
 long deplored, and which had grown to a head 
 under the unhappy and ill-requited confidence 
 which had so fatally been placed in the king's 
 ministers. In endeavouring to ascertain the 
 causes that had brought on the dilemma, one 
 cause was manifest; the inordinate increase of 
 expenses, of places, and establishments, in every 
 comer of the empire, which had grown to a 
 height beyond every thing that the mind could 
 previously have conceived ; it was, said the noble 
 marquis, incredible and scandalous ; the increase 
 of fees, of salaries, of places and pensions, of 
 new boards of commission, and new appoint- 
 ments of all kinds, had not only served to open 
 all the gates of waste and profusion, but to beat 
 down and destroy all the checks of control, and 
 all the means of correction. Waste and extrava- 
 gance had been systematised ; one scene of abuse 
 countenanced and protected another, and all the 
 comers of the earth were witnesses to the ruinous 
 waste of the treasures of the British people. In 
 this strain, with unabated ardor, did the noble 
 marquis continue to depict the fatal consequences 
 which must inevitably ensue from the continu- 
 ance of such a system, and concluded a most pa- 
 triotic appeal to the British parliament, by call- 
 ing upon his compeers to mark his prophecy, and 
 not to disdain his counsel, while yet in time, for 
 said his Lordship, if you attempt to make bank 
 notes a legal tender, then credit will perish. They 
 may go on for a time, but their end is certain 
 ruin. The earnestness and force of this appeal 
 drew the Lord Chancellor from his seat, to state, 
 'That he had deprecated the idea of forcing bank 
 paper into circulation, by making it a legal ten- 
 der, and he would take upon himself to say, that 
 it then had never been conceived, that it would 
 be wise or prudent to make bank notes a legal 
 tender. After which, their lordships divided on the 
 amendment of the duke of Bedford ; twelve for, 
 and seventy-eight against it. After which the 
 original motion for a committee of enquiry was 
 carried without a division, 
 
 53. Similar proceedings took place in the 
 commons on the same day, where, in reply to
 
 BANK. 
 
 476 
 
 sotBe observations by Mr. Fox, Mr. Pitt stated 
 that perceiving some suspicions were entertained 
 that the measure adopted for succouring public 
 credit, was designed to be permanent, he assured 
 the house, 'That nothing could be farther from his 
 intention.* An amendment similar to that of the 
 duke of Bedford, in the lords, was moved in the 
 commons by Mr. Sheridaij, which was rejected 
 by 244 against eighty-six, when the original mo- 
 tion for a committee was carried without a 
 division. On the 6th of March the lords' com- 
 mittee reported to the house that it was necessary 
 to ' continue and confirnri the measures already 
 taken, for such time, and under such limitations 
 and restrictions, and with such power of discon- 
 tinuing the same, as to the wisdom of parliament 
 might seem expedient.' And thus a system of 
 paper money, without reference to any standard, 
 either of value or quantity, was established, the 
 duration and progress of which will appear, as 
 the elucidation of the transactions of the bank 
 is here further proceeded in. 
 
 54. On the re-assembling of parliament in 
 November of the same year (1797), the commit- 
 tee of secresy, appointed to enquire into the 
 expediency of continuing the restriction on the 
 bank, reported, that the total assets of the bank, 
 exclusive of the £11,686,800 of permanent debt 
 due from the government on the 11th of Novem- 
 ber, was £21,418,640 (see sect. 48 for the amount 
 on the 25th February preceding), and that the 
 total amount of outstanding demands was 
 £17,578,910, leaving a balance on that date in 
 
 favor of the bank of £3,839,730. The report 
 further stated that the advances of government 
 had been reduced to £4,258,140, and that the 
 cash and bullion in the bank had increased to 
 nearly £6,500,000 or upwards, or five times its 
 amount on the February preceding; all this be- 
 ing true, it will be seen that the discounts of 
 commercial bills must have been increased in 
 the proportion of about £8,000,000 against 
 £2,905,000, the amount in February, but it will 
 seem, on reflection, and on comparison with the 
 advances to the government, as exhibited in the 
 appendix at the conclusion of this article, that 
 the whole report was a s?hgular misrepresenta- 
 tion of the facts of the case, to answer the 
 purposes of the moment; at all events, it will be 
 seen that both the temporary advances to the 
 government, and issue of notes, progressively 
 increased from the close of the year 1797 
 up to the peace of Amiens in 1802-3, and 
 the following statement exhibits the progress and 
 duration of that restriction, which the Lord 
 Chancellor in the Lords, and the finance minis- 
 ter in the Commons, so solemnly declared was 
 to be only temporary. 
 
 55. The first act passed, relating to the subject 
 was dated the 3d March, 1797, 37 Geo. Ill, cap. 
 28, authorising the issuing of notes for £l and 
 £2 each ; the amount of such notes in circulation 
 on the 26th August of that year was £934,015; 
 for the progressive increase of their circulation 
 see appendix. 
 
 ACTS RELATING TO RESTRICTION. 
 
 Year of Reign. 
 
 Date of Act. 
 
 Purport and Duration. . 
 
 37 Geo. III. cap. 45. 
 — — — 91. 
 
 38 — — 1. 
 
 42 — — 40. 
 
 43 _ _ 18. 
 
 44 — — 1. 
 
 3d May, 1797. J 
 22d June, } 
 
 30th Nov. S 
 
 30th April, 1802. 
 28th Feb. 1803. |. 
 
 15th Dec. 1 
 
 Indemnity for order in council, and to continue 
 during the following month of June. 
 
 Extended to one month after the meeting of the 
 next session of parliament. 
 
 Further extended to one month after the ratifi- 
 cation of a definitive treaty of peace, whicli 
 took place on the 25th ]ilarch, 1802. 
 
 Further extended to 1st March, 1803. 
 
 Still further, to six weeks after the meeting of the 
 next session of parliament. 
 
 Again, to six months after the ratification of a 
 definitive treaty of peace. j 
 
 This brings the history of the restriction down 
 to a most interesting and important period of its 
 operation ; so far, it is important to understand, 
 that notwithstanding the introduction of paper as 
 a circulating medium, gold at the rate of 77s. 
 lO^d. per ounce continued to be the legal stand- 
 ard of value, and such was the incongruity of 
 British legislation at this period, that whilst 
 landlords and other creditors were authorised by 
 law to enforce payment in gold, the acts previ- 
 ously enumerated precluded the gold from being 
 had, wherewith either to pay rents, or make any 
 other payments ; such however was the insidious 
 working of the system, that up to the period of 
 1809 no derangement in the social economy of 
 the state, resulting from such incongruity of le- 
 gislation was perceptible. 
 
 56. In 1800 foreign gold coin, commanded 
 about 5s. to 7s. per ounce more than its equiva- 
 lent value to British coin ; but the short peace of 
 1801-2 occasioned a cessation of demand, and the 
 price again became merely nominal. From 
 March, 1804, to October, 1805, standard gold 
 sold at £4 per ounce; and from October, 1805, 
 to February, 1809, no price was quoted ; in the 
 meantime, however, all the gold coin of the 
 realm had gradually disappeared (for the quan- 
 tity coined in each year since the restoration of 
 Charles II. in 1663, see Statistical Illustrations, 
 folio 47, and the article Mint in a subsequent 
 part of this work), partly for internal purposes of 
 manufacture and ornament, and partly in aid of 
 the external purposes of the war; not directly 
 and openly for that purpose, but the excess of
 
 476 
 
 BANK. 
 
 bills drawn by the commissariat and other agents 
 of the government, on account of the expenses of 
 the war in different parts of the world, occasioned 
 the bills to be drawn at a discount of 10 to 
 15 or 20 per cent, and at such depreciation, in- 
 stead of being left to operate as mere extraneous 
 equivalents of commercial exchange, they became 
 an object of speculation against bullion, in refer- 
 ence to tlie standard price of gold in England. 
 
 57. To render the circumstances of this very 
 interesting and important period of the bank 
 restriction act somewhat more intelligible to such 
 readers as are not practically familiar with the 
 complicated involutions of exchanges, it may not 
 be irrelevant to state (taking the mint of France 
 as the means of illustration), that according to the 
 mint regulations of England and France, twenty- 
 five francs, twenty centimes in France are equal 
 to £l in England ; but, in consequence of the 
 excess of bills above adverted to, in May, 1809, 
 the £l English in France would not obtain more 
 than twenty francs ; consequently, as long as gold 
 could be obtained in England at the mint price 
 of 77s. lO^d. per ounce, it yielded a profit in 
 France of upwards of 20 per cent, against that 
 rate of exchange, but such a disparity of value, as 
 might naturally be expected, excited a spirit of 
 speculation and competition, which raised the 
 price of gold to a premium equal to the discount 
 on the bills. So that in May, 1809, gold com- 
 manded £4. lis. per ounce; this disparity be- 
 tween the mint and trading price of gold excited 
 an imiversal hubbub in every part of the country, 
 and in February, 1810, a committee of parlia- 
 ment was appointed to enquire into the cause of 
 the high price of bullion, and to take into con- 
 sideration the state of the circulating medium, 
 and of the exchanges between Great Britain and 
 foreign parts. This committee sat from the 22d 
 of February to the 25th of May, during which 
 time it took the opinions of thirty different per- 
 sons, whose trading transactions and influence 
 were thought to be such as qualified them to 
 throw much light on the subject; but whether 
 ignorant of the combination of causes that did in 
 reality produce the disparity of value, or whether 
 selfish motives led them to conceal their better 
 judgment, certain it is, that although much in- 
 teresting matter-of-fact information is here and 
 there interspersed through different parts of the 
 evidence, as a whole, it is completely destitute 
 of every thing like a solution to the question 
 proposed. In proof of this conclusion see article 
 Exchange, in a subsequent part of this work ; 
 and in proof of the futility of the labors of the 
 committee, and of the frivolousness of the evi- 
 dence in a general sense, bullion continued 
 gradually to advance, and the exchanges pro- 
 gressively to depreciate, until on the 18lh Sep- 
 tember, 1812, gold commanded £5. lis. per 
 ounce. 
 
 58. Such an extreme disparity of value had 
 previously excited every species of contrivance 
 to collect gold, and was beginning to lead to 
 such general derangements in the internal econo- 
 my of the state, in selfish and avaricious indivi- 
 duals availing themselves of the point of law, which 
 authorised them to demand and enforce payment 
 in gold, in cases where by the nature of the obli- 
 
 gation, payment in current money only was 
 implied, that on the 24th July, 1811, an act was 
 passed, 51 Geo. IIL cap. 127, to make the bank 
 of England notes a legal tender in all payments, 
 which by the act of the 38 Geo. III. cap. 1 . (30th 
 Nov. 1797), were only so in private transactions, 
 after having been accepted as such, but which 
 were ordered to be received as cash by all the 
 collectors of taxes and duties. The title of the 
 act for making the bank of England notes a legal 
 tender, in conjunction with a consideration of 
 the circumstances which led to it, is curious, and 
 deserves attention. It is as follows, viz. ' For 
 making a more effectual provision for preventing 
 the current gold coin of the realm from being 
 paid or accepted for a greater value than the 
 current value of such coin; and for preventing 
 any note or bill of the governor and company of 
 the bank of England from being received for any 
 smaller sum than the sum therein specified ; and 
 for staying proceedings upon any distress by 
 tender of such notes.' To continue in force till 
 the 25th of March, 1812, and no longer. 
 
 59. By another act in the following session, 
 52 Geo. III. cap. 50. dated 5th May, 1812, the 
 preceding act was extended to three months after 
 the commencement of the next session of parlia- 
 ment, and no longer; and by 53 Geo. III. cap. 
 5, 22d Dec. 1812, further extended to 25th 
 March, 1814 ; and by 54 Geo. III. cap. 52, 4th 
 May, 1814, to as long as restriction continues; 
 54 Geo. III. cap. 19, 18th July, 1814, restric- 
 tion extended to 25th March, 1815; 55 Geo. III. 
 cap. 28, 23d March, 1815, further extended to 
 5th of July, 1816; 56 Geo. III. cap. 40, 21st 
 May, 1816, still further to 5th of July, 1818; 
 
 58 Geo. III. cap. 37, 28th JNIay, 1818, again to 
 .5th of July, 1819; 59 Gee. III. cap. 23, 6th 
 April, 1819, restriction extended indefinitely; 
 
 59 Geo. III. cap. 49, 2d July, 1819, re.striction 
 limited to 1st of May, 1823 ; and in the interim 
 the bank empowered to exchange bullion in 
 quantities of not less than sixty ounces for their 
 notes, between the 1st of February and 1st of 
 October, 1820, at any rate between 81s. and 79s. 
 6d. per ounce ; and from the 1st of October, 
 1820, to the 1st of May, 1821, at any rate be- 
 tween 79s. 6d. and 77s. lO^d. per ounce; and 
 from the 1st of May, 1821, to 1st of May, 1823, 
 at 77s. 10|d. per ounce; when gold coin again 
 became a general circulating medium, and, as 
 will be seen by the statement at the conclusion 
 of this article, the £l and £2 notes of the 
 bank of England were withdrawn from circu- 
 lation, and to meet this change in the circulating 
 medium in the years 1821 and 1822, gold to the 
 amount of £14,877,547 was coined at the mint. 
 Such is the history of the bank restriction act, 
 which in February, 1797, was in both houses of 
 parliament so solemnly declared to be only a 
 temporary measure, but which continued through 
 a period of twenty-six years. 
 
 60, Preparatory to returning again to a gold 
 circulating medium, a committee was appointed 
 in each house of parliament, in 1819, to enquire 
 into the state and affairs of the bank, with refer- 
 ence to the expediency of the resumption of cash 
 payments, when, after taking the opinion of about 
 thirty persons, the act of 2d July, 1819, 59 Geo-
 
 BANK. 
 
 477 
 
 III. cap. 49. was resolved upon, and in tlie 
 course of the enquiry on the 31st of March, 
 1819, the bank exhibited the following account 
 of the state of their affairs, viz. 'That the whole 
 of the claims upon them on that date amounted 
 to £.33,948,560, of which £24,710,770 was notes 
 in circulation, and £9,237,790 in deposits and 
 other debts, against which their assets in cash 
 and bullion, bills discounted, and government 
 securities, amounted to £39,179,750, leaving a 
 balance in favor of the bank to the amount of 
 £5,231,190, exclusive of the £11,686,800, per- 
 manent debt of the government, as exhibited in 
 sect. 41, and £3,000,000 added in 1816.' Flat- 
 tering as all this may seem on a superficial view 
 of the subject, and confident as opinion generally 
 was, of the country having escaped the peril, so 
 earnestly warned of by Lord Lansdowne, in sect. 
 51, a short period only elapsed before the effects 
 of the system, spectre-like, returned in a more ter- 
 rific form than ever. Preparatory to the return 
 to cash payments in 1823, through the years 
 1821 and 1822, the bank had progressively 
 diminished the issue of its notes from an average 
 of £22,550,000 in December, 1820, to an aver- 
 age of £16,393,000 in December, 1822 ; a depres- 
 sion in the money value of all the products of 
 industiy, without any parallel since the com- 
 mencement of the war in 1793, followed this 
 diminution of circulating medium. But the 
 ordeal of the experiment of paying gold on de- 
 mand havi'ng been got over, the cupidity of 
 avarice again began to operate, and notwith- 
 standing the accession to the circulating medium 
 of the £14,877,547 of gold coined in the years 
 1821 .and 1822, the bank again showed a dispo- 
 sition to force its notes into circulation, so far, 
 that instead of gold supplying the place of paper 
 for six weeks preceding the 5th of January, 1825, 
 the bank of England notes in circulation again 
 exceeded an average of £20,000,000 ; and those 
 of counti-y bankers had increased from £4,293,1 64 
 in 1822, to £6,724,069 in 1824, and £8,755,307 
 in 1825. 
 
 61. The facility of raising money among indi- 
 viduals, which this redundancy of circulating 
 medium aff"orded, gave rise to an extent of spe- 
 culation, far, very far, exceeding the notable 
 South Sea and other adventures at the commence- 
 ment of the preceding century. (See the article 
 Company, in a subsequent part of this work, for 
 an elucidation of the extent and consequences of 
 the folly at both periods.) Towards the month 
 of September, however, the speculations generally 
 began to be considered equivocal in their results; 
 the first perceptible shock to what is technically 
 termed credit, was experienced on the 24th of 
 October, in the suspension of payment of one of 
 the most eminent commercial establishments in 
 London, or the commercial world (Mr. S. Wil- 
 liams, an American). After this, a month passed 
 away in gloomy suspense, till on the 25th of 
 November an extensive banking establishment at 
 Plymouth (Sir VV. Elford, Bart, and Co.) was 
 the next evidence of the unsoundness and im- 
 policy of the paper money system. Tliis failure 
 strengthened the doubts of the stability of others, 
 and suspicion falling on all the banking establish- 
 
 ments in the west of England, it produced in 
 London such a demand for gold, as excited ap- 
 prehensions for the consequences to which it 
 might lead ; in the meantime the bank of Eng- 
 land had been progressively narrowing its issues, 
 till the amount at the end of November was 
 reduced again to £17,500,000. On the 9th of 
 December the suspension of payment was 
 announced of an extensive banking establishment 
 at York (Messrs. Wentworth, Chaloner and Co.), 
 having branches at three or four other towns in 
 the county, and their own house of agency in 
 London; consternation now became general, and 
 the directors of the bank of England, who had, 
 as we contend, contributed to bring on the de- 
 rangement, by the facility which they afforded to 
 get their notes into circulation, in discounting 
 three and four months bills at 4 per cent, per 
 annum, now as suddenly took steps which acce- 
 lerated the derangement. On the 13th of Decem- 
 ber the following notice was issued, viz. : — 
 Bank of England. 
 
 'Resolved — ^That from and after tl;e 13th 
 instant, no bills or notes will be discounted 
 under 5 per cent, per annum.' 
 
 62. This notification added considerably to the 
 consternation : an extensive private banking 
 establishment, deemed one of the most reputable 
 in London, had previously suspended its pay- 
 ments, and on the following morning two others 
 were reduced to the same alternative ; it would 
 be difficult, and at all events it would exceed due 
 limits here, to describe the dismay and confusion 
 that now prevailed ; and with the view of endea- 
 vouring to allay the ferment, a public meeting 
 at the Mansion House, as on the memorable 27th 
 of February, 1797, took place on the 13th of 
 December, 1825, when about 700 signatures 
 were obtained to the following resolutions : viz. 
 
 ' 1. That the unprecedented embarrassments 
 and difficulties under which the circulation of 
 the countrj' at present labors are mainly to be 
 attributed to a general panic, for whicli there 
 are no reasonable grounds ; that this meeting 
 has the fullest confidence in the means and sub- 
 stance of the banking establishments of tlie 
 capital and the country, and they believe that 
 the acting generally upon that confidence would 
 relieve all those symptoms of distress which now 
 show themselves in a shape so alarming to the 
 timid, and so fatal to those who are forced to 
 sacrifice their property to meet sudden demands 
 upon them, which it is no imputation upon their 
 judgment and prudence not to have expected. 
 
 ' 2. Tliat it having been suited to this meeting, 
 that the directors of the bank of England are 
 occupied with the remedy for a state of things so 
 extraordinary, this meeting will refrain from any 
 interference with the measures of the directors of 
 the bank, who, they are satisfied, will do their 
 duty towards the public. 
 
 ' 3. That having the firmest confidence in the 
 stability of the public credit of the country, we 
 declare our determination to support it to the 
 utmost of our power. 
 
 * 4. That it is the opinion of the meeting that 
 declarations of a similar description with the
 
 478 
 
 BANK. 
 
 present, in the country towns, where the banking 
 establishments may appear to deserve them, may 
 be productive of much benefit in restoring gene- 
 ral confidence.' 
 
 63. Although it was generally believed that 
 the bank of England liad been drained of nearly 
 the whole of its stock of gold, during the memo- 
 rable week between the 10th and 18th of Decem- 
 ber; yet on an average of the five weeks between 
 the latter date and the 22d of January, 1826, the 
 issue of bank of England notes had been in- 
 creased to £25,310,000.; and that this lavish ex- 
 perimental issue did not lead to the necessity of 
 again resorting to a restriction Act, was owmg 
 entirely to circumstances not at all contemplated 
 in the deliberations which led to the increased 
 issue of notes, and which, in fact, seem to have 
 been issued with very little calculation on the 
 consequences to which they might lead. 
 
 64. Notwithstanding the declaration at the 
 Mansion House, on the 13th of December, that 
 the embarrassments and difficulties under which 
 the circulation of the country then labored, were 
 mainly to be attributed to a general panic, for 
 which there were no reasonable grounds ; accord- 
 ing to a return laid before the House of Com- 
 mons on the 27th of February, 1826; in the 
 interval of the end of October, 1825, and that 
 date, fifty-nine banking establishments, com- 
 prising 144 partners, had been declared bank- 
 rupt, about twenty others insolvent, and every 
 succeeding week continued to add from seventy 
 to 100 merchants, manufacturers, and traders, to 
 the bankrupt list, and thousands to the lists of 
 insolvency ; whilst half a million of families in 
 the several manufacturing districts were driven 
 to the verge of starvation, in consequence of the 
 destruction of confidence, and suspension of 
 commercial operations, which the uncertain issue 
 and uncertain value of the circulating medium 
 in great part occasioned. 
 
 65. Having now brought the history of the 
 bank of England from the time of its foundation 
 down to the period of this sheet going to press, 
 in May, 1826, in reference to its circulation, we 
 will now proceed to bring down its history from 
 sect. 44, in reference to its agency and connexion 
 wiih the government. Sect. 34 shows that it 
 originated in the raising of a loan of £1,200,000 
 for the use of .the government, at an interest of 
 8 per cent, per annum, and £4000 per annum 
 for agency; and that that transaction was, in 
 fact, the foundation of the funding system, which 
 has led to an extent and pressure of taxation 
 without any. parallel in the history of society, 
 and which the bank of England has been the 
 main instrument in occasioning. Sect. 42 shows 
 (he progress of the advances made by the bank 
 to the government up to 1781 ; which advances, 
 in addition to the interest, were all subject to a 
 charge for agency ; as was also all other sums 
 raised by lottery, or borrowed by the govern- 
 ment from individuals during the war, from 
 1702 to 1713, the total sum then amounting to 
 £52,145,363. The terms of agency up to 1726 
 liad varied according to circumstances, at which 
 time it was fixed at £360 per million, afterwards 
 increased to £562. 10s. per million; after the 
 peace of Versailles in 1782, when the total sum 
 
 amounted to £249,000,000, the terms were re- 
 duced to £450 ])er million, at which rate it con- 
 tinued up to 1807, when it was reduced to £340 
 per million, on £600,000,000., and £300 for 
 every million above that sum; during the exac- 
 tion of the property tax, the bank received at the 
 rate of .£l250 per million, on such portions of 
 the tax as were paid in to the bank direct, and 
 £805. 15s. 10 J. per million on about £600,000,000 
 paid in on account of loans between the 1st of 
 February, 1793, and the 5th of January, 1823; 
 these several charges (including £4000 to £6000 
 per annum for management of lotteries), and 
 most of which charges are likely to continue, at 
 all events up to the period of the continuance of 
 the charter in 1833, since the commencement of 
 the present century, have averaged about £275,000 
 per annum. 
 
 66. Independently of the above species of 
 agency, subject to specific charges, the whole re- 
 ceipt of taxes of Great Britain passes through 
 the Bank of England, which, since 1803, have 
 averaged upwards of £50,000,000 per annum ; 
 upon this branch of its agency the bank makes 
 no direct charge, but as each separate depart- 
 ment, paymaster, or accountant of the govern- 
 ment, upwards of fifty in number, has its se- 
 parate account at the bank, and each holding a 
 provision for the progress of its payments, it 
 leaves a permanent balance in the hands of the 
 bank of from four to seven millions per annum, 
 and during several of the last years of the war 
 from ten to fifteen millions per annum. The 
 following is a statement of the amount in each of 
 the eight years 1818 — 1825 according to returns 
 made annually to parliament, viz. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Maximum. 
 
 Minimum. 
 
 Average of 
 the Year. 
 
 1818 
 1820 
 1 
 2 
 3 
 4 
 5 
 
 8,852,078 
 5,861,631 
 7,096,874 
 7,690,046 
 8,305,174 
 10,359,773 
 9,239,024 
 
 5,709,487 
 2,246,598 
 2,302,591 
 2,867,851 
 3,698,764 
 5,000,12/ 
 3,197,190 
 
 7,019,071 
 3,713,442 
 3,920,157 
 4,107,853 
 5,526,635 
 7,222,187 
 5,347,314 
 
 67. By means of these balances, deposits of 
 individuals, and the circulation of its notes (and 
 the circulation of its notes, be it remembered, 
 creates the means of the balances and depo- 
 sits), the bank discounts the bills of indi- 
 viduals, makes the temporary advances to go- 
 vernment on interest, and buys exchequer bills 
 and other government securities, bearing interest ; 
 all these it is, in addition to the specific charge 
 of £275,000 per annum specified in sect. 65, and 
 3 per cent, on the £14,686,800 specified in 
 sect. 41, that enables the directors of the bank tc 
 divide the enormous amount of £1,455,300 per 
 annum among the holders o.f the £14,553,000 of 
 stock, as specified in sect.43. This profuse di- 
 vidend occasions the nominal £100 of stock on 
 the bank books, to be saleable for transfer pro- 
 portionate to the current rate of interest, be it 
 3, 4, or 5 per cent, per annum. Henoe, on the
 
 BANK. 
 
 479 
 
 lOth of May, 1816, £100 of stock commanded 
 £262, and this leads us to an elucidation of the 
 transaction adverted to in sect. 42. In 1816 the 
 directors of the bank offered to lend the govern- 
 ment a furtlier sum of £3,000,000 during the 
 continuance of their charter, at the moderate 
 rate of interest of 3 per cent, per annum, the 
 current rate then being about £4. 5$. per 
 cent. ; and such was the blindness, as the writer 
 of this ])aper regards it, of the government at 
 that time, tiiatthe Chancellor of the Exchequer 
 actually held it up in parliament as one of the 
 most disinterested acts of kindness and genero- 
 sity of a pnblic body that he had ever known : 
 but the r(;ader should mark the sequel. 
 
 68. There was another proposition connected 
 with the transaction on tlie part of the directors 
 of the bank, to the following purport, viz. That 
 they should be empowered to add 25 per cent, 
 to their then permanent capital of £11,453,330. 
 This being complied with, what did the trans- 
 action amount to ? Certainly to empower the 
 then holders of bank stock to levy a contribu- 
 tion of from £7,000,000 to £8,000,000 O" the 
 public for their own exclusive benefit, bei^ause 
 no new subscription was called for, nor was the 
 £3,000,000 purported to be lent, the property 
 of the bank, but simply a reduction of the ba- 
 lances of the public money, which the bank held 
 as the agent of the public ; which by this act 
 they were empowered to convert either into a 
 marketable commodity at from £262 to £220 for 
 every £lOO, or to retain it as a permanent ac- 
 cession of capital equivalent thereto. 
 
 6'}. Another transaction between the bank and 
 the government, equally disadvantageous to the 
 public, took place in 1823, act of 4 Geo. IV. 
 cap. 22. This act, which, under the title of Mili- 
 tary and Naval Pension Bill, was virtually an 
 act to raise money for the purpose of sustaining 
 a sinking fund, granted an annuity to the bank 
 
 of £585,740 for forty-four years, from the 5th of 
 April, 1823, in consideration of the bank paying 
 to the government the sum of £13,039,419 in 
 thirteen irregular instalments between the 5th of 
 April, 1823, and the 5th of July, 1828. As the 
 actual result of this transaction depends upon 
 the rate or terms at which the £13,089,419 or 
 a corresponding sum, may be expended in die 
 purchase of 3 per cent, stock, prior to the pay- 
 ment of the last instalment, we-are of course (in 
 May, 1826) precluded from stating with accuracy 
 the precise extent of its disadvantage to the 
 public. But, according to one (the eighteenth) 
 of a series of resolutions on the state of the 
 nation, submitted to the consideration of par- 
 liament, by Mr. Hume, on the 4th of May, 1826, 
 it appears that £6,917,569 of the amount re- 
 ceived up to the 6th of January, 1826, had been 
 expended at a rate equivalent to £7,858,188 of 
 3 per cent, stock, whilst the equivalent of 3 per 
 cent, stock given for that portion of the amount 
 was £9,476,110, consequently a bonus to the 
 bank equal to £1,617,922 of 3 per cent, stock; 
 but, by mathematically correct working of the 
 transaction in 1824, when the 3 per cent, stock 
 was at 95, and assuming that rate for the ex- 
 penditure of the remainder of the instalments 
 then to be paid, the result would have been on 
 the 10th of October, 1828, a cancelling of per- 
 petual annuity to the amount of £365,880, leaving 
 an excess of £219,852 per annum, payable for 
 38^ years, equivalent to an annuity in perpetuity 
 of £146,962; and supposing from the date of 
 the last instalment in 1828, 3 per cent, stock 
 should recede to 60, or the rate of interest become 
 permanent at 5 per cent, per annum, the excess 
 of the annuity of £219,852 for 38J years, would, 
 at the expiration of that period, be equal to 
 £29,381,900 of 3 per cent, stock, or an annuity 
 in perpetuity of £881,457, consequently a dis- 
 advantage to the public to that extent for ever. 
 
 70. The following is a Statement of the Income of the Bank at the period of this article going 
 
 to press. 
 
 Interest on the £14,686,800 permanent Debt of the Government, at 3 per cent. 
 
 Annuity for 44 years, from 5th of April, 1823 . • 
 
 Charge for transfer of the Pui)lic Funds, and Payment of the Annuities, about 
 Interest on Notes in circulation, say £20,000,000, at an average of 4 per cent. 
 
 Total 
 
 From which the folloAving charges and liabilities must be deducted, viz. 
 
 £250,000 
 50,000 
 20,000 
 50,000 
 50,000 
 20,000 
 
 Salaries f»f about 1000 Clerks 
 
 Stationary, Coals, Candles, and House Expenses 
 
 Repair of Buildings, Taxes, &c 
 
 Composition for Stamps 
 
 Loss on Bills Discounted 
 
 Law Expenses, Gratuities, &c. ....... 
 
 Net In com:: 
 
 £440,604 
 585,740 
 275,000 
 800,000 
 
 £2,101,344 
 
 440,000 
 £1,661,344
 
 480 
 
 BANK. 
 
 Being upwards of 11 per cent, on the amount of 
 stock constituting the permanent capital annually 
 divided upon, against which, however, £5,000,000 
 of the loan of 1823, for which the annuity of 
 £383,740 was ohtained, remains to be paid up ; 
 but, if the resources of the bank have hitherto 
 been such as to enable it to advance the 
 £8,000,000 without entrenching more than 2 
 per cent upon its profuse income, but little 
 doubt remains that it will be able to fulfil tlie 
 contract without any further entrencliraent, and 
 if so, the whole annuity then remains clear income 
 for the remainder of the period^ viz. 38J years. 
 The amounts deducted from tlie gross income are 
 entirely assumed, there being no authentic data 
 before the public on the subject, they probably 
 exceed the actual expenses. 
 
 71 . In the preceding view of tlie total income 
 of the bank, no notice is taken of interest on the 
 temporary advances to the government, nor of 
 profits by discounting, nor of interest tiiat may 
 be derived from the balances held by the bank, 
 due as well to depositors as to the government ; 
 because the first, tliat is, the temporary advances 
 
 to the government wholly, and the others par- 
 tially, merge in the aggregate amount of interest 
 derived from die circulation of its notes. 
 
 72. In addition to the Bank of England there 
 are about seventy private banking establishments 
 in London, for the purposes of deposit, transfer, 
 and discount only ; and about 700 others, spread 
 over the several counties of England and Wales, 
 and thirty-two in Scotland ; the greater portion 
 of which circulate their own notes, in addition 
 to acting as banks of discount, deposit, and 
 transfer. But as, at the period of this article 
 going to press, proceedings are pending in par- 
 liament which threaten a change in the banking 
 system, calculated to change these arrange- 
 ments entirely, we refer tiie reader to the 
 article Circulating Medium, in a subse-' 
 quent part of this work, for a continuation of 
 the history and practice of banking in England, 
 Scotland, and Ireland, as well as in France, 
 America, British India, New South Wales, and 
 tlie Cape of Good Hope. See also Savings' 
 Bank, under the head Savings. 
 
 73. STATEMENT. 
 
 Years. 
 
 1792 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 1800 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 G 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 1810 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 1820 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 26 
 
 Bank Notes and Bank Post Bills in circu- 
 lation on the 25th or 26th February. 
 
 BankNotes 
 of £5 and 
 upwards. 
 
 10,394,106 
 10,780,643 
 10,079,163 
 12,968,707 
 10,266,561 
 8,167,949 
 10,856,188 
 10,576,510 
 13,106,368 
 12,975,006 
 12,038,970 
 11,796,424 
 12,054,943 
 11,403,290 
 11,994,350 
 12,274,629 
 13,746,598 
 12,730,999 
 13,650,592 
 15,110,688 
 14,523,049 
 14,567,267 
 13,632,-250 
 16,394,359 
 15,307,228 
 17,538,656 
 19,077,951 
 16,549,270 
 15,393,770 
 15,766,270 
 15,178,490 
 15,749,980 
 17,469,210 
 
 Batik 
 Post Bills, 
 
 753,703 
 
 647,738 
 
 618,739 
 
 570,456 
 
 643,133 
 
 474,615 
 
 551,549 
 
 607,907 
 
 723,600 
 
 954,982 
 
 803,499 
 
 820,039 
 
 848,894 
 
 1,029,580 
 
 723,736 
 
 724,485 
 
 742,671 
 
 944,727 
 
 907,620 
 
 1,133,419 
 
 1,039,834 
 
 1,034,882 
 
 1,091,242 
 
 1,184,459 
 
 1,336,467 
 
 1,376,416 
 
 1,838,600 
 
 1,602,390 
 
 1,401,200 
 
 1,606,820 
 
 1,609,620 
 
 1,747,160 
 
 2,246,040 
 
 
 ^x3n: 
 
 ^ .HiO CO 
 
 Total. 
 
 1,442,348 
 1,451,728 
 1,406,708 
 2,647,526 
 2,616,407 
 2,960,469 
 4,673,515 
 4,801,596 
 4,428,360 
 4,206,230 
 4,103,785 
 4,338,951 
 5,871,069 
 7,140,726 
 7,415,294 
 7,705,322 
 8,371,923 
 9,094,552 
 9,036,374 
 8,143,506 
 7,362,492 
 7,276,590 
 6,689,130 
 6,451,520 
 1,384,360 
 692,110 
 491,370 
 
 1,559,756 
 
 11,149,809 
 11,428,381 
 10,697,924 
 13,539,163 
 10,909,694 
 8,601,964 
 12,850,085 
 12,636,145 
 15,236,676 
 16,577,514 
 15,458,876 
 15,376,932 
 17,577,352 
 17,234,466 
 17,148,446 
 17,205,344 
 18,593,034 
 18,014,677 
 20,429,281 
 23,384,833 
 22,998,197 
 23,307,471 
 23,093,413 
 26,673,370 
 23,680,069 
 27,038,578 
 28,279,043 
 25,947,637 
 23,484,100 
 23,824,610 
 18,172,470 
 18,189,450 
 19,736,986 
 21,060,145 
 23,673,737 
 
 Total on 
 
 the 25th or 
 
 26th of 
 
 August. 
 
 11,006,969 
 10,838,214 
 10,628,220 
 11,458,382 
 9,531,335 
 10,568,216 
 12,191,025 
 13,259,873 
 14,735,378 
 14,970,321 
 16,887,113 
 17,035,959 
 17,323,994 
 16,296,178 
 19,072,893 
 20,034,112 
 17,365,266 
 19,357,241 
 24,446,175 
 23,793,115 
 23,482,910 
 24,024,869 
 28,979,876 
 27,024,049 
 27,075,834 
 30,099,908 
 26,602,837 
 25,637,610 
 24,533,160 
 20,327,753 
 18,142,700 
 19,582,348 
 20,293,326 
 19,290,570 
 
 Amount of Debt due to 
 Bank fromGo vernment. 
 
 On 23th 
 or 26th of 
 February. 
 
 10,968,306 
 10,529,828 
 10,816,867 
 13,118,013 
 12,717,239 
 10,181,862 
 
 9,807,814 
 10,082,739 
 13,201,639 
 15,289,439 
 14,284,239 
 
 9,595,939 
 11,715,239 
 17,202,739 
 14,663,339 
 13,763,539 
 14,364,939 
 15,400,139 
 15,017,839 
 18,068,439 
 22,551,739 
 25,893,939 
 24,484,039 
 28,032,739 
 19,865,039 
 26,373,570 
 28,035,523 
 23,727,720 
 23,005,204 
 16,641,620 
 14,188,200 
 14,969,554 
 15,600,780 
 19,679,288 
 18,724,246 
 
 On 25th 
 
 or 26th of 
 
 August. 
 
 11,684,484 
 11,851,388 
 8,737,806 
 13,460,144 
 10,454,614 
 7,145,134 
 9,444,976 
 8,986,439 
 12,899,239 
 11,948,339 
 13,352,339 
 13,635,239 
 15,304,439 
 11,745,339 
 14,445,339 
 13,665,339 
 15,677,539 
 16,009,339 
 17,689,739 
 22,696,239 
 21,957,639 
 25,731,239 
 25,814,539 
 24,955,839 
 27,22-2,845 
 28,300,309 
 28,087,860 
 25,546,230 
 20,826,447 
 17,214,325 
 15,450,938 
 13,319,316 
 15,884,468 
 18,261,100
 
 BANKRUPTS. 
 
 481 
 
 BANILA.FALET, a game of cards played thus : 
 after cutting the cards into as many parts as there 
 are players, every man lays what money he chooses 
 on his card ; and according to the value of his 
 card, above or below those of the other game- 
 sters, the dealer wins or loses. The ace of dia- 
 monds is the best card ; the ace of hearts next ; 
 the ace of clubs after it ; then the ace of spades ; 
 and so of the rest of these suits in order, accord- 
 ing to their rank. The cheat depends on secu- 
 ring an ace, or such other sure winning card; 
 which are known to the sharper by some secret 
 mark. 
 
 Bankers, in antiquity, were called argentarii, 
 and nummularii ; by the Greeks rpaviZiTai, ko\- 
 \vj3iTai, and apyt)pajuoi/3oi. Their chief business 
 was to put out the money of private persons to in- 
 terest : they had tlieir boards and benches for 
 this purpose in all the markets and public places, 
 where they took in tlie money from some, to lend 
 it to others. The Romans had two kinds of 
 bankers, though their office was much more ex- 
 tensive than that of the bankers among us, theirs 
 being that of public officers, in whom were united 
 the functions of a broker, agent, banker, and no- 
 tary ; managing the exchange, taking in money, 
 assisting in buying and selling, and drawing the 
 writings necessary on all these occasions. 
 
 Bajskers, in bricklaying, pieces of timber 
 whereon bricks are cut. The banker is six feet 
 long or more, according to the number of men 
 to work at it, and nine or ten inches square; it 
 is to be laid on two piers of timber, three feet 
 high from the floor. 
 
 Bankers, in the court of Rome, are persons 
 authorised, exclusively, to solicit and procure by 
 their correspondents at Rome, all bulls, dispen- 
 sations, and other acts despatched at the papal 
 datary, or in the legateship of Avignon. They 
 were common in all the cities of France that had 
 a parliament, or a presidial before the revolution ; 
 and were erected into a regular and hereditary 
 office, by an edict in 1673. They owed their 
 origin to the Guelphs, who took shelter at Avig- 
 non, and in other cities within the jurisdiction of 
 the pope, in the time of the civil wars of Italy. 
 But the heavy extortions they practised towards 
 their clients, soon rendered them odious, and oc- 
 casioned several denominations of reproach, as 
 coarcini, caturcini, caursini, corcini, &c. from the 
 city Cahors, the native place of pope John XXII. 
 in whose pontificate they were in their highest 
 power. 
 
 Bankers, in seamens' language, vessels em- 
 ployed in the cod-fishery on the banks of New- 
 foundland. 
 
 Banking, in architecture, the making of 
 banks to oppose the force of the sea, rivers, or tlie 
 like, and secure the land from being overflowed 
 thereby. With respect to the water whicli is to 
 be kept out, this is called banking ; with respect 
 to the land, which is thereby to be defended, em- 
 bankins;. 
 
 BANKALA, an island in the eastern seas, off 
 the coast of Celebes, about twenty miles in cir- 
 cumference. Long. 122"^ 51' E., lat. 2°30*S. 
 
 BANKAPOUR^ or Bancapour, a fortress of 
 Hindostan, in the Mysore, now dismantled. 
 Vol. III. 
 
 Distant 108 miles N. W. of Seringapatam, and 
 sixty S. W. of Bednore. 
 
 BANKINSKOI, a town of Siberia, in the envi- 
 rons of Lake Baikal. Long. 117° 14' E., lat. 
 51° 11' N. 
 
 BANKMORE, a sand bank in the Irish Sea, 
 one mile south of Pontaferry harbour, in tlie 
 county of Down. 
 
 BANKODANG, a small island in the Eastern 
 Indian sea. Long. 118° 2' E., lat. 5° 12' S. 
 
 BANKOSSEI, a town of Lower Siam, on the 
 west side of the gulf. Distant seventy miles south 
 of Juthia. Long. 100° 38' E., lat. 13° 12' N. 
 
 Bankrupts, Laws respecting. The title of 
 the first English statute on this subject, 34 Henry 
 VIII. cap. 4, which is said to be ' a'jainst such 
 persons as do makebankrupt,' is a literal translation 
 of the French idiom, qui font banque route. The 
 3d of Elizabeth followed, all of the provisions 
 of which were incorporated in 1 Jac. I. 
 
 A bankrupt, according to these statutes, was con- 
 sidered as a criminal or offender, 1. Jac. I.e. 15. 
 sect. 17 ; but at present the laws of bankruptcy 
 are regarded as calculated for the general benefit 
 of trade, and being founded on broader views of 
 humanity and justice, confer some privileges not 
 only on the creditors, but also on the bankrupt 
 himself: on the creditors, by compelling the bank- 
 rupt to give up all his effects to their use, without 
 any concealment; — and on the debtor, by ex- 
 empting him from the rigor of other parts of the 
 law, whereby his person might be confined at the 
 discretion of his creditor, though in reality he has 
 nothing to satisfy the debt; and, together with 
 the liberty of his person, affording him, on cer- 
 tain conditions, some pecuniary provision for his 
 future maintenance. In this respect our legisla- 
 tures seems to have attended to the example of 
 the Roman law. We mean not the terrible law 
 of the XII tables ; whereby creditors might cut 
 the debtor's body into pieces, and each of them 
 take his proportionable share : if indeed that 
 law, de debitore in partes secando, is to be un- 
 derstood in so barbarous a light; nor do we mean 
 those less inhuman laws (if they may be called 
 so, as their meaning is indisputably certain), of 
 imprisoning the debtor's person in chains, subject- 
 ing him to stripes and hard labor at the mercy 
 of his creditor ; and sometimes selling him, his 
 wife, and children, to perpetual foreign slavery 
 trans Tiberim ; an oppressionwhich produced so 
 many popular insurrections, and secessions to the 
 mons sacer. Laws equally barbarous are quoted by 
 Blackstone, as existing in Peeru, and the adjacent 
 countries ofthe East, where the creditor is entitled 
 to dispose of the debtor himself, and likewise of, 
 or appropriate, his wife and children : though in- 
 deed by doing so, the debt is understood to be 
 discharged. But we mean the law of cession in- 
 troduced by the Christian emperors; whereby, 
 if a debtor ceded or yielded up all his fortune to 
 his creditors, he was secured from imprisonment, 
 ' omni quoque corporal! cruciatu semoto.' For, 
 as the emperor justly observes, ' inhumanum 
 erat spoliatum fortunis suis in solidum damnari.' 
 Thus far was just and reasonable ; but, as the de- 
 parting from one extreme is apt to produce its 
 opposite, we find it afterwards enacted, that if the 
 
 21
 
 482 
 
 BANKRUPT. 
 
 debtor, by any unforeseen accident, was reduced 
 to low circumstances, and would swear that he 
 had not sufficient left to pay his debts, he sliould 
 not be compelled to cede or give up even that 
 which he had in his possession; a law which, 
 under a false notion of humanity, seems to be 
 fertile of perjury, absurdity, and injustice. The 
 laws of England, more wisely, have steered be- 
 tween these extremes : providing at once against 
 the inhumanity of the creditor, who is not suf- 
 fered to confine an honest bankrupt after his 
 effects are delivered up ; and at the same time 
 taking care that all his just debts shall be paid, 
 so far as the effects will extend. But still they 
 are cautious of encouraging prodigality and ex- 
 travagance by this indulgence to debtors : and 
 therefore they allow the benefit of the laws of 
 bankruptcy to none but actual traders ; since that 
 set of men are, generally speaking, the only per- 
 sons liable to accidental losses, and to an inabi- 
 lity of paying their debts, without any fault of 
 their own. If persons in other situations of life 
 run in debt without the power of payment, they 
 must take the consequences of their own indis- 
 cretion, even though they meet with sudden ac- 
 cidents that may reduce their fortunes ; for the 
 law holds it to be an unjustifiable practice, for any 
 person but a trader to encumber himself with 
 debts of any considerable value. If a gentleman, 
 or one in a liberal profession, at the time of con- 
 tracting his debts, has a sufficient fund to pay 
 them, the delay of payment is a species of dis- 
 honesty, and a temporary injustice to his creditor ; 
 and if, at such a time, he has not sufficient fund, 
 the dishonesty and injustice is the greater. He 
 cannot, tlierefore, murmur, if he suffer the pu- 
 nishment which he has voluntarily drawn upon 
 himself. But in mercantile transactions, the 
 case is far otherwise. Trade cannot be carried 
 on without mutual credit on both sides ; the con- 
 tracting of debts is therefore here not only justi- 
 fiable but necessary. And if by accidental 
 calamities, as by the loss of a ship in a tempest, 
 the failure of brother traders, or by the non-pay- 
 ment of persons out of trade, a merchant or 
 trader becomes incapable of discharging his own 
 debts, it is his misfortune and not his fault. Such 
 is the spirit cif our law : which has been rendered 
 more simple in the mode of its execution of late 
 by the comprehensive statute 6 Geo. IV. cap. 16. 
 which, repealing the greater part of the former 
 statutes on this subject, dictates a line of practice 
 which may be conveniently considered under, 1 . 
 Who may become bankrupts. 2. What is an 
 act of bankruptcy. 3. Proceedings thereon up 
 to, and inclusive of the meetings of creditors. 4. 
 Effects to the bankrupt and his creditors. 
 
 I. Persons who may become bankrupts are de- 
 fined to be, all bankers, brokers, and persons 
 using the trade or profession of a scrivener, re- 
 ceiving other men's monies or estates into their 
 trust or custody, and persons insuring ships or 
 their freight, or other matters, against perils of 
 the sea, warehousemen, wharfingers, packers, 
 builders, carpenters, shipwrights, victuallers, 
 keepers of inns, taverns, hotels, or coffee-houses, 
 dyers, printers, bleachers, fullers, calenderers, 
 cattle or sheep salesmen, and all persons using 
 the trade of merchandise by way of bargaining, 
 
 exchange, bartermg, commission, consignment, 
 or otherwise, in gross or by retail ; and all per- 
 sons who, either for themselves or as agents or 
 factors for others, seek their living by buying 
 and selling, or by buying and letting for hire, or 
 by the workmanship of goods or commodities, 
 shall be deemed traders liable to become bank- 
 rupt : Provided that no farmer, grazier, common 
 laborer, or workman for hire, receiver-general of the 
 taxes, or member of or subscriber to any incorpo- 
 rated commercial or trading companies, establish- 
 ed by charter or act of parliament, shall be deemed, 
 as such a trader, liable to become bankrupt. 
 
 II. An act of bankruptcy is committed. 1. 
 * If any trader shall depart this realm, or being 
 out of this realm shall remain abroad, or de- 
 part from his dwelling-house, or otherwise ab- 
 sent himself, or begin to keep his house, or suffer 
 himself to be arrested for any debt not due, or 
 yield himself to prison, or suffer himself to be 
 outlawed, or procure himself to be arrested, or 
 his goods, money, or chattels, to be attached, se- 
 questered, or taken in execution, or make or 
 cause to be made, either within this realm or 
 elsewhere, any fraudulent grant or conveyance 
 of any of his lands, tenements, goods, or chattels, 
 or make or cause to be made any fraudulent 
 surrender of any of his copyhold lands or tene- 
 ments, or make or cause to be made any fraudu- 
 lent gift, delivery, or transfer of any of his goods, 
 or chattels ; every such trader doing, suffering, 
 procuring, executing, permitting, making, or 
 causing to be made any of the acts, deeds, or 
 matters aforesaid, with intent to defeat or delay 
 his creditors, shall be deemed to have thereby 
 committed an act of bankruptcy. 
 
 2. But where any trader shall execute any 
 conveyance or assignment, by deed, to a trustee 
 or trustees, of all his estate and effects for the 
 benefit of all the creditors of such trader, tlie 
 execution of such deed shall not be deemed an 
 act of bankruptcy, unless a commission issue 
 against such trader within six calender months 
 from the execution thereof, provided that such 
 deed shall be executed by every such trustee 
 within fifteen days after the execution thereof by 
 the said trader; and that the execution by such 
 trader and by every such trustee be attested by 
 an attorney or solicitor ; and that notice be 
 given within two months after the execution 
 thereof by such trader in the London Gazette, 
 and two London daily newspapers ; or in case 
 the trader does not reside within forty miles of 
 London, in the London Gazette and in one Lon- 
 don daily newspaper and one provincial news- 
 paper, published near to such trader's residence ; 
 such notice containing the date and execution of 
 such deed, and the name and place of abode 
 respectively of every such trustee, and of such 
 attorney or solicitor. 
 
 3. Other acts of bankruptcy are lying in prison 
 for debt twenty-one days ; escaping out of prison 
 or custody; or, which is the most novel and im- 
 portant feature of this act, — If any trader shall 
 file in the office of the Lord Chancellor's secretary 
 of bankrupts, a declaration in writing, attested by 
 an attorney or solicitor, that he is insolvent, or 
 unable to meet his engagements, the secretary of 
 bankrupts or his deputy is then to sign a memo-
 
 BANKRUPT. 
 
 483 
 
 randum that such declaration hath been filed, 
 which is authority for the printer of the London 
 Gazette to insert an advertisement of such decla- 
 ration therein ; and every such declaration shall, 
 after the advertisement inserted, become an act 
 of bankruptcy committed by such trader at the 
 time when such declaration was filed : but no 
 commission can issue thereupon, unless it be 
 sued out within two calender months next after 
 its insertion, nor unless such advertisement shall 
 have been inserted in the London Gazette within 
 eight days after such declaration was filed ; and 
 no docket can be struck upon such act of 
 bankmptcy before the expiration of four days 
 next after insertion of such advertisement, in 
 case such commission is to be executed in Lon- 
 don, or before the expiration of eight days next 
 after such insertion, in case such commission is 
 to be executed in the country. 
 
 A further provision upon this point, and which 
 seems designed to encourage a settlement of in- 
 solvents' aflairs in this way is, That no commis- 
 sion under which the adjudication shall be 
 grounded on the act of bankruptcy being the 
 filing of such declaration, shall be deemed in- 
 valid by reason of such declaration having been 
 concerted or agreed upon between the bankrupt 
 and any creditor or other person. 
 
 If any trader having privilege of parliament 
 shall commit any act of bankruptcy, a commis- 
 sion of bankrupt may issue against him, and the 
 commissioners and all other persons acting under 
 such commission, may proceed thereon in like 
 manner as against other bankrupts, only such 
 person shall not be subject to be arrested or im- 
 prisoned during his privilege, except in cases 
 made felony by this act. 
 
 IIL Proceedijigs hereupon. 1. The Lord 
 Chancellor has power upon petition stating to 
 him in writing that any trader has committed 
 any act of bankruptcy, by any creditor or 
 creditors of such trader ; if one being a credi- 
 tor for £100, if two for £l50, and if three 
 being creditors for £200 ; by commission under 
 the great seal, to appoint such persons as to 
 hinr shall seem fit, to have full power and 
 authority to take such order and direction, with 
 the body of the bankrupt, as herein after men- 
 tioned, as also with all his lands, tenements, and 
 hereditaments, both within the realm and abroad, 
 which he shall have in his own right before he 
 became bankrupt, as also with all such interest 
 in any such lands, tenements, and hereditaments 
 as such bankrupt may lawfully depart with all, 
 and with all his money, fees, offices, annuities, 
 goods, chattels, wares, merchandise, and debts,, 
 wheresoever they may be found or known, and 
 to make sale thereof, &c. for satisfaction and 
 payment of the creditors. 
 
 The petitioning creditor must prosecute a 
 commission at Ins own costs, until the choice 
 of assignees ; or the commissioners may appoint 
 temporary assignees. Any creditor or creditors 
 whose debt or debts is or are sufiicient to entitle 
 him or them to petition for a commission against 
 all the partners of any firm, may petition for a 
 commission against one or more partners of such 
 firm, and every commission issued upon such 
 petition shall be valid although it does not in- 
 
 clude all the partners of the firm, and in every 
 commission against two or more persons it shall 
 ■be lawful for -the Lord Chancellor to supersede 
 such commission as to one or more of sucii per- 
 sons, and the validity of such commission shall 
 not be thereby affected as to any person as to 
 whom such commission is not ordered to be su- 
 perseded, nor shall any such person's certificate 
 be thereby affected. Auxiliary commissions for 
 the proof of debts or examination of witnesses 
 may also be issued by the chancellor. But the 
 examinations are to be annexed to the original 
 commission. 
 
 2. The commissioners take oath impartially 
 and honestly to execute iheir office; and they 
 take a f«e of twenty shillings for evGry meeting and 
 for the signature of every deed and conveyance, 
 and the bankrupt's certificate. The first duty is, 
 upon proof made before them of the petitioning 
 creditor's debt or debts, and of the trading and 
 act or acts of bankruptcy of the person or per- 
 sons against whom such commission is issued, 
 to adjudge such person or persons bankrupt. 
 Then the commissioners ' shall forthwith cause 
 notice of such adjudication to be given in the 
 London Gazette, and shall there'by appoint 
 three public meetings for the bankrupt to sur- 
 render and conform, the last of which meetings 
 shall be on the forty-second day hereby limited 
 for such surrender.' No commission shall abate 
 by reason of a demise of the crown, and (if by 
 reason of the death of commissioners, or for any 
 other cause, it becomes necessary) any commis- 
 sion may be renewed, but only half the fees 
 usually paid upon obtaining commissions shall 
 be paid for the same ; and if any bankrupt shall 
 die after adjudication, the commissioners may 
 proceed in the commission as they might have 
 done if he were living. 
 
 3. The messenger of the commissioners may 
 break open the bankrupt's doors, &c. and seize 
 upon his body or property ; and if the bankrupt 
 be in prison or in custody, it shall be lawful for 
 the person so appointed as aforesaid to seize any 
 property (his necessary wearing apparel only ex- 
 cepted; in the custody or possession of such 
 bankrupt, or of any other person, in any prison 
 or place where such bankrupt is in custody. 
 But, in ordinary cases, the messenger proceeds 
 quietly to enter on the bankrupt's premises, and 
 take possession of his goods. The commissioners 
 are empowered to summon persons suspected of 
 having bankrupt's property in their hands, &c. ; 
 and compel them to produce books. Sec. under 
 pain of being committed to prison without bail. 
 They may even summon the bankrupt's wife. 
 And the concealment of his effects subjects other 
 parties to a fine of £lOO. 
 
 4. At the three several meetings appointed by 
 the commissioners, and at every other meeting by 
 tiiem appointed for proof of debts (whereof, and 
 of the purport whereof, ten days notice shall 
 have been given in the London Gazette), every 
 creditor of the bankrupt may prove his debt by 
 his own oatli ; and all bodies politic and public 
 companies incorporated or audiorised to sue or 
 bring actions, either by charter or act of par- 
 liament, may prove by an agent, provided such 
 agent shall in his deposition swear that he is such 
 
 2 1 2
 
 484 
 
 BANKRUPT. 
 
 a<Tent, and that he is authorised to make sucli 
 proof; and if any creditor shall live remote from 
 the place of the meeting of the commissioners, 
 be may prove by affidavit, sworn before a master 
 in chancery, ordmary or extraordinary ; or if such 
 creditor shall live out of England, by affidavit 
 sworn before a magistrate where such creditor 
 shall be residing, and attested by a notary public, 
 British minister, or consul : and no creditor shall 
 pay any contribution on account of any such 
 debt; provided, that it shall be lawful for the 
 said commissioners to examine upon oath, either 
 by word of mouth orby interrogatories in writing, 
 every person claiming to prove a debt under the 
 said'commission, or to require such further proof, 
 and to examine such other persons in relation 
 thereto, as they shall think fit. Bona fide credi- 
 tors are admitted to prove a debt notwithstanding 
 anv secret act of bankruptcy, before it was con- 
 tracted and, as special debts, the commissioners 
 may order six months wages of servants or clerks 
 to be paid in full ; but of more than six months' 
 wages, the residue must be proved as an ordinary 
 debt; and debts not payable at the time of the 
 bankruptcy may be proved, deducting rebate of 
 interest ; and the actual interest due on bills of 
 exchano-e. Sec. at the date of the commission. 
 Sureties and persons liable for the debts of bank- 
 rupts can only prove, after having paid such 
 debts. The value of annuities, however, may 
 be calculated and proved ; but other debts con- 
 tingent at the time of the bankruptcy, are pro- 
 vable after the happening of the contingency. 
 The commissioners may convey the personal 
 estate, debts due to the bankrupt, and all his 
 property to the assignees. 
 
 5. At the second meeting appointed by the 
 commissioners, or any adjournment thereof, the 
 assignees of the bankrupt's estate and effects are 
 chosen ; and all creditors who have proved debts 
 under the commission to the amount of ten 
 pounds and upwards entitled to vote in such 
 choice ; and also any person authorised by letter 
 of attorney from any creditor or creditors, upon 
 proof of the execution thereof, either by affidavit 
 sworn before a master in chancery, ordinary or 
 extraordinary, or by oath before the commission- 
 ers viva voce ; and that the commissioners havmg 
 power to reject any person so chosen who shall 
 appear to them unfit to be such assignee, and 
 upon such rejection a new choice of anotlier as- 
 signee or assignees shall be made. And a joint 
 creditor is entitled to prove under a separate 
 commission, for the purpose of voting in the 
 choice of assignees. 
 
 6. If any person against whom any commis- 
 sion has been issued, or shall hereafter be issued, 
 whereupon such person hath been or shall be 
 declared bankrupt, shall not, before three of the 
 clock upon the forty-second day after notice 
 thereof m writing to be left at the usual place of 
 ;i' ode of sucli person, or personal notice in case 
 such person be then in prison, and notice given 
 in the London Gazette of the issuing of the com- 
 mission, and of the meetings of the commis- 
 sioners, surrender himself to them, and sign or 
 subscribe sucl> surrender, and submit to be exa- 
 mined before them, from time to time, upon 
 oath, or, being a Quaker,^ upon solemn affirma- 
 
 tion ; or if any such bankrupt upon such exami- 
 nation shall not discover all his real or personal 
 estate, and how and to whom, upon what consi- 
 deration, and when he disposed of, assigned, ui 
 transferred any of such estate, and all books, 
 papers, and writings relating tliereunto (except 
 such part as shall have been really and bona fide 
 before sold or disposed of in the way of his trade, 
 or laid out in the ordinary expense of his family) ; 
 or if any such bankrupt shall not upon such ex- 
 amination deliver up to the commissioners all 
 such part of such estate, and all books, papers, 
 and writings relating thereunto, as be in his pos 
 session, custody, or power, (except the necessary 
 wearing apparel of himself, his wife and chil- 
 dren) ; or if any such bankrupt shall remove, 
 conceal, or embezzle any part of such estate, to 
 the value of £lO or upwards, or any books of 
 account, papers, or writings relating thereto, 
 with intent to defraud his creditors, every such 
 bankrupt shall be deemed guilty of felony, and 
 be liable to be transported for -life, or for such 
 term, not less than seven years, as the court be- 
 fore which he shall be convicted shall adjudge, 
 or shall be liable to be imprisoned only, or im- 
 prisoned and kept to hard labor in any common 
 gaol, penitentiary house, or house of correction, 
 for any term not exceeding seven years. But 
 the lord chancellor, or the commissioners have 
 power, as often as they shall think fit, from time 
 to time, to enlarge the time for the bankrupt sur- 
 rendering himself, so as every such order be 
 made six days at least before the day on which 
 such bankrupt was to surrender himself; and an 
 allowance is to be" made to the bankrupt for his 
 maintenance, out of his estate, until he shall have 
 passed his examination. The bankrupt shall also 
 be free from arrest or imprisonment by any cre- 
 ditor in coming to surrender; and after such 
 surrender during the said forty-two days, and 
 such fui flier time as shall be allowed him for 
 finishing his examination, provided he was not in 
 custody at the time of such surrender; and if 
 such bankrupt shall be arrested for debt, or on 
 any escape warrant in coming to surrender, or 
 shall after his surrender be so arrested within the 
 time aforesaid, he shall, on producing the sum- 
 mons under the hands of the commissioners to 
 the officer who shall arrest him, and giving such 
 officer a copy thereof, be immediately discharged ; 
 and if any officer shall detain any such bankrupt 
 after he shall have shown his summons^ to him, 
 so signed as aforesaid, such officer sliall forfeit 
 to such bankrupt, for his own use the sum of £5. 
 for every day he shall detain such bankrupt, to 
 be recovered by action of debt in any court of 
 record at Westminster, in the name of such bank- 
 rupt, with full costs of suit. 
 
 IV. The effects of these provisions with regard 
 to the bankrupt and his creditors are, 1. All pre- 
 vious conveyances of property, made while he 
 was insolvent, become void (except upon mar- 
 riage of his children or for some valuable consi- 
 deration). 
 
 2. He is no longer entitled to leasers, or agree- 
 ments for leases, nor liable for rents or cove- 
 nants ; but his assignees may elect to abide by 
 or abandon a lease or agreement, and execute 
 all powers previously vested in bankrupts. But
 
 BANKRUPT. 
 
 485 
 
 all conveyances by, and all contracts and other 
 dealinsTs and transactions by and with any bank- 
 rupt, bona fide made and entered into more than 
 two calendar months before the date and issuing 
 of the commission against him, and all execu- 
 tions and attachments against the lands and tene- 
 ments or goods and chattels of such bankrupt, 
 bona fide executed or levied more than two ca- 
 lendar months before the issuing of such commis- 
 sion, shall be valid, notwithstanding any prior 
 act of bankruptcy by him committed ; provided 
 the person or persons so dealing with such bank- 
 rupt, or at whose suit or on whose account such 
 execution or attachment shall have issued, had 
 not at the time of such conveyance, contract, 
 dealing, or transaction, or at the time of execut- 
 ing or levying such execution or attachment, no- 
 tice of any prior act of bankruptcy by him com- 
 mitted : payments made l)y and to the banknipt 
 without notice, are valid, notwithstanding an act 
 of bankruptcy. And no person or body corpo- 
 rate, or public company, having in his or their 
 possession or custody any money, goods, wares, 
 merchandises, or effects belonging to any bank- 
 rupt shall be endangered by reason of the pay- 
 ment or delivery thereof to the bankrupt or his 
 order; provided such person or company had 
 not at the time of such delivery or payment, no- 
 tice that such bankrupt had committed an act of 
 bankruptcy. 
 
 3. Every bankrupt who shall have duly sur- 
 rendered and conformed himself to the laws in 
 ibrce concerning bankrupts at the time of issuing 
 the commission against him, shall be discharged 
 from all debts due by him when he became bank- 
 rupt, and from all claims and demands provable 
 under the commission, in case he shall obtain a 
 certificate of such conformity, so signed and al- 
 lowed, and subject to such provisions as herein- 
 after directed ; but no such certificate shall 
 release or discharge any person who was partner 
 with such bankrupt at the time of his bankruptcy, 
 or who was then jointly bound, or had made any 
 joint contract with such bankrupt. Such certifi- 
 cate shall be signed by four-fifths in number and 
 value of the creditors of the bankrupt, who shall 
 have proved debts under the commission to the 
 amount of twenty pounds or upwards, or after 
 six calendar months from the last examination of 
 the bankrupt, then either by three-fifths in imm- 
 ber and value of such creditors, or by nine- 
 tenths in number of such creditors, who shall 
 thereby testify their consent to the said bank- 
 rupt's discharge as aforesaid ; and no such cer- 
 tificate shall be such discharge, unless the 
 commissioners shall in writing, under their 
 hands and seals, certify to the Lord Chancellor 
 tliat such bankrupt has made a full discovery of 
 his estate and effects, and in all things conformed 
 as aforesaid, and that there does not appear any 
 reason to doubt the truth or fulness of such dis- 
 covery, and also that the creditors have signed in 
 manner hereby directed, and unless the bankrupt 
 make oath in writing that such certificate and 
 consent were obtained without fraud, and unless 
 such certificate shall, after such oath, be allowed 
 by the Lord Chancellor, against which allowance 
 any of the creditors of the bankrupt may be heard 
 before the Lord Chancellor. But the commis- 
 
 sioners shall not sign any certificate unless they 
 shall have proof, by affidavit in writing, of the 
 signature of the creditors thereto, or of any per- 
 son thereto authorised by any creditor, and of 
 the authority by which such person shall have 
 so signed the same ; and if any creditor reside 
 abroad, the authority of such creditor shall be 
 attested by a notary public, British minister, or 
 consul ; and every such affidavit, authority, and 
 attestation, shall be laid before the Lord Chan- 
 cellor, with the certificate, previous to the allow- 
 ance thereof. 
 
 Any contract or security made or given by 
 any bankrupt or other person unto or in trust for 
 any creditor, or for securing the payment of any 
 money due by such bankrupt at his bankruptcy, 
 as a consideration or with intent to persuade such 
 creditor to consent to, or sign such certificate, 
 shall be void, and the money thereby secured or 
 agreed to be paid shall not be recoverable, and 
 the party sued on such contract or security may 
 plead the general issue, and give this act and the 
 special matter in evidence. And, finally, any 
 bankrupt who shall, after this certificate shall 
 have been allowed, be arrested, or have any ac- 
 tion brought against him for any debt, claim, or 
 demand, hereby made provable under the com- 
 mission against such bankrupt, shall be dis- 
 charged upon common bail, and may plead in 
 general that the cause of action accrued before 
 he became bankrupt, and may give this act and 
 the special matter in evidence, and such bank- 
 rupt's certificate, and the allowance thereof, shall 
 be sufficient evidence of the trading, bankruptcy, 
 commission, and other proceedings precedent to 
 the obtaining such certificate ; and if any such 
 bankrupt shall be taken in execution, or detained 
 in prison for such debt, claim, or demand, where 
 judgment has been obtained taefore the allowance 
 of his certificate, it shall be lawful for any judge 
 of the court wherein judgment has been so ob- 
 tained, on such bankrupt's producing his certifi- 
 cate, to order any officer who shall have such 
 bankrupt in custody by virtue of such execution, 
 to discharge such bankrupt without exacting any 
 fee, and such officer shall be hereby indemnified 
 for so doing. 
 
 It is nevertheless provided that if any person 
 who shall have been so discharged by such certifi- 
 cate as aforesaid, or who shall have compounded 
 with his creditors, or who shall have been dis- 
 charged by any insolvent act, siiall be or become 
 bankrupt, and have obtained or shall hereafter 
 obtain such certificate as aforesaid, unless his 
 estate shall produce (after all charges) sufficient 
 to pay every creditor under the commission fif- 
 teen shillings in the pound, such certificate shall 
 only protect his person from arrest and nnprison- 
 ment, but his future estate and effects (except his 
 tools of trade and necessary household furniture, 
 and the wearing a]jparel of himself, his wife and 
 children), shall vest in the assignees under the 
 commission. 
 
 A scale of allowance on the other hand is 
 made for every bankrupt who shall have ob- 
 tained his certificate, if the net produce of his 
 estate shall pay the creditors who have proved 
 under the commission ten shillings in the pound; 
 in which case he shall be allowed five per cenU
 
 486 
 
 BANKRUPT. 
 
 out of such produce, to be paid him by the as- 
 signees, provided such allowance shall not exceed 
 four hundred pounds ; and every bankrupt, if 
 such produce shall pay such creditors twelve 
 shillings and sixpence in the pound, shall be al- 
 lowed and paid as aforesaid seven pounds ten 
 shillings per cent., provided such allowance shall 
 not exceed five hundred pounds ; and every bank- 
 rupt, if such produce shall pay such creditors 
 fifteen shillings in the pound or upwards, shall 
 be allowed and paid as aforesaid ten pounds per 
 cent., provided such allowance shall not exceed 
 six hundred pounds; but if such produce shall 
 not pay such creditors ten shillings in the pound, 
 such bankrupt shall only be allowed and paid so 
 much as the assignees and commissioners shall 
 think fit, not exceeding three pounds per cent, 
 and three hundred pounds. 
 
 As to the important point of making dividends, 
 the commissioners shall, not sooner than four 
 nor later than twelve calendar months from the 
 issuing the commission, appoint a public meeting 
 (whereof, and of the purport whereof, they shall 
 give twenty-one days notice in the London 
 Gazette), to make a dividend of the bankrupt's 
 estate, at w^iich meeting all creditors who have 
 not proved their debts shall be entitled to prove 
 the same ; and the said commissioners at such 
 meeting shall order such part of the net produce 
 of the bankrupt's estate in the hands of the as- 
 signees, as they shall think fit, to be forthwith 
 divided amongst such creditors as have proved 
 debts under the commission, in proportion to 
 their respective debts, and shall make an order 
 for a dividend in writing under their hands, and 
 shall cause one part of such order to be filed 
 amongst the proceedings under the commission, 
 and shall deliver another part thereof to the as- 
 signees, which order shall contain an account of 
 the time and place of making such order, of the 
 amount of the debts proved, of the money re- 
 maining in the hands of the assignees to be di- 
 vided, of how much in the pound is then ordered 
 to be paid to every creditor, and of the money 
 allowed by the commissioners to be retained by 
 the assignees, with their reasons for allowing the 
 same to be so retained ; and the assignees, in 
 pursuance of such order (and without any deed 
 of distribution made for that purpose), shall forth- 
 with make such dividend, and shall take receipts 
 in a book to be kept for that purpose from each 
 creditor, for the dividend received by such credi- 
 tor ; and sucli order and receipt shall be a dis- 
 charge to every such assignee for so much as he 
 shall pay pursuant to such order ; and no divi- 
 dend shall be declared, unless the accounts of 
 the assignees shall have been first so audited as 
 aforesaid, and such statement delivered by them 
 upon oath as aforesaid. 
 
 No creditor having security for his debt, or 
 having made any attachment in London, or any 
 other place, by virtue of any custom tliere used, 
 of the goods and chattels of the bankrupt, shall 
 receive upon any such security or attachment 
 more than a rateable part of such debt, except in 
 respect of any execution or extent served and 
 levied, by seizure upon, or any mortgage of or 
 lien upon any part of the property of such bank- 
 rupt before the bankruptcy; provided that no 
 
 creditor, though for a valuable consideration, 
 who shall sue out execution upon any judgment 
 obtained by default, confession, or nil dicit, shall 
 avail himself of such execution to the prejudice 
 of other fair creditors, but shall be paid rateable 
 with such creditors. 
 
 If the bankrupt's estate shall not have been 
 wholly divided upon the first dividend, the com- 
 missioners shall, within eighteen calendar months 
 after the issuing of the commission, appoint a 
 public meeting (whereof, and of the purport 
 whereof, they shall give twenty-one days notice 
 in the London Gazette), to make a second divi- 
 dend of the bankrupt's estate, when all creditors 
 who have not proved their debts may prove the 
 same ; and the commissioners at such meeting, 
 after taking such audit as herein-before directed, 
 shall order the balance in the hands of the as- 
 signees to be forthwith divided amongst such of 
 the creditors as shall have proved their debts ; 
 and such second dividend shall be final, unless 
 any action at law or suit in equity be depending, 
 or any part of the estate be standing out, not sold 
 or disposed of, or unless some other estate or 
 effects of the bankrupt shall afterwards come to 
 the assignees, in which case they shall, as soon 
 as may be, convert such estate and effects into 
 money, and within two calendar months after the 
 same .shall be so converted, divide the same ia 
 manner aforesaid. 
 
 Lastly, if any assignee, under any commission 
 of bankrupt, shall have, either in his own hands 
 or at any banker's, or otherwise subject to his 
 order or disposition, or to his knowledge in the 
 hands of, or in the order and disposition of him- 
 self and any co-assignee or co-assignees, or of 
 any or either of them, any unclaimed dividend 
 or dividends, amounting in the whole to the sum 
 of fifty pounds, and shall not within six months 
 after this act shall have taken effect, or two 
 calendar months after the expiration of one year 
 after the declaration and order of payment of 
 such dividend or dividends made by the com- 
 missioners, either pay to the creditor or creditors 
 entitled thereto, or cause a certificate thereof to 
 be filed in the office of the Lord Chancellor's 
 secretary of bankrupts, containing a full and true 
 account of the name or names of the creditor or 
 creditors to whom such unclaimed dividend or 
 dividends is or are respectively due, and of the 
 amount of such dividend or dividends respec- 
 tively (such account being signed by the assignee 
 or assignees rendering the same, and attested by 
 the solicitor to the commission, or the solicitor 
 to the assignee or assignees signing the same), 
 such assignee or assignees shall be charged, in 
 account with the estate of the bankrupt, interest 
 upon such unclaimed dividend or dividends, to 
 be computed from the time that such certificate 
 is hereby directed to be filed, at the rate of five 
 pounds per centum per annum, for such time as 
 he shall thenceforth retain the same, and also 
 such further sum as the commissioners shall 
 think fit, not exceeding in the whole twenty 
 pounds per centum per annum ; and the Lord 
 Chancellor, or the said commissioners, may order 
 the investment of any unclaimed dividends in 
 the public funds, or in any government security, 
 for or on account of the creditors entitled, and
 
 BANK S. 
 
 487 
 
 subject to such order as the Lord Chancellor 
 may think fit to make respec'.ing the same, who, 
 if he shall think fit, may, after the same shall 
 have remained unclaimed for the space of three 
 years from the declaration of such dividends by 
 the commissioners, order the same to be divided 
 amongst and paid to the other creditors, and the 
 proof of the creditors to whom such dividends 
 were allotted shall from thenceforth be considered 
 as void as to the same, but renewable as to any 
 future dividends, to place them pari passu with 
 the other creditors, but not to disturb any divi- 
 dends which shall have been previously made. 
 
 We have thus fully stated the general pro- 
 visions of the late act, as useful to all persons 
 connected with trade ; more minute provisions 
 will of course engage the attention and require 
 the aid of professional men. 
 
 BANKS, Cape, the north-east point of Bo- 
 tany Bay, on the east coast of New Holland. 
 
 Banks' Island, an island of New Zealand, 
 off the north-east coast of Tavai Poenammoo. 
 It is about sixty miles in circumference, and suf- 
 ficiently high to be visible at the distance of 
 twelve or fifteen leagues. It is barren but inha- 
 bited. Distant fifteen miles from Tavai Poe- 
 nammoo. The south point lies in long. 186° 30' 
 VV., latitude 43° 32' S. Also, an island in the 
 North Pacific, near the west coast of North 
 America, about sixty miles long, and five broad. 
 Long. 129° 4.5' to 130° 10' W., lat. 50° 30' N. 
 
 Banks' Port, a harbour on the north-west 
 coast of America, south-east from Cape Edge- 
 cumbe, and north-west from Sea Otter Sound. 
 
 Banks (Sir John), Lord Chief Justice of the 
 Common Pleas, in the reign of Charles I., was 
 born at Keswick, in Cumberland, in 1589. He 
 studied at Oxford, but took no degree : applying 
 to the law, his extraordinary reputation in that 
 profession soon recommended him to the king, 
 who made him attorney to the prince in 1629 ; 
 knighted him, and appointed him attorney- 
 general in 1634 ; lord chief justice in 1640; and 
 a member of the privy council in 1642. In 
 these perilous times, he discharged the duties of 
 his important and arduous offices with very ge- 
 neral approbation. But at last lost his popu- 
 larity, by declaring from the bench, in the sum- 
 mer circuit, tliat the actions of Essex, Man- 
 chester, and Waller, were treasonable ; and the 
 Commons voted him a traitor. Meantime his 
 lady, being with her family at his seat at Corfe 
 Castle, in the isle of Purbeck, was sumraoned to 
 surrender hy the friends of the parliament; but 
 refused, though she had then only five men in 
 the castle, and sustained a siege, by William 
 Earl, with not more than forty men. At last lady 
 Banks was relieved by the arrival of lord Caernar- 
 von with a body of horse. Sir John continued 
 with the king at Oxford till 1644, when he died. 
 
 Banks (John), an English author, born at 
 Sunning, in Berkshire in 1709. He was bred 
 a weaver at Reading, but gave up that business 
 and went to London, where he became a book- 
 seller. Not succeeding in this, he published 
 various tracts, particularly a Critical Review of 
 the Life of Oliver Cromwell, which met with 
 it favorable reception. He died in 1751. 
 
 Banks (Thomas), an eminent English sculptor, 
 
 was bom in 1735, and was son of Mr. William 
 Banks, steward of the duke of Beaufort. He 
 was educated with Kent, the well-known archi- 
 tect of that period ; but afterwards, showino- a 
 preference for sculpture, studied it at the Royal 
 Academy with great success, and was elected to 
 be sent as one of its students to Italy. Here he 
 executed several good pieces, particularly a 
 basso-relievo of Caractacus, in the possession of 
 the duke of Buckingham; and a Cupid catching 
 a butterfly, which was afterwards purchased by 
 the empress Catharine. He went from Italy to 
 Russia, where he staid two years, and returned to 
 his own country to acquire both fame and for- 
 tune. Among his works are a colossal statue 
 exhibiting Achilles mourning the loss of Briseis, 
 in the hall of the British Institution ; and the 
 monument of Sir Eyre Coote, in Westminster 
 Abbey. Mr. Banks was elected a member of 
 the Royal Academy not long after his return 
 from Russia, and finished his useful life in 
 February 1805. 
 
 Banks (Sir Joseph), the late celebrated natu- 
 ralist, was the son of William Banks, Esq. of 
 Revesby Abbey, Lincolnshire, where he was 
 born in 1743. He received his education at 
 Eton and Oxford, where he continued till the 
 death of his father. In 1765 he made a voyage 
 to Newfoundland and Labrador, for the purpose 
 of making researches relative to natural history; 
 and in 1763 embarked with his friend, Dr. So- 
 lander, in the first voyage round the world made 
 by the great captain Cook. In the course of 
 this expedition Mr. Banks, in traversing the 
 rocks of Terra del Fuego, narrowly escaped pe- 
 rishing from intense cold. In consequence of a 
 misunderstanding with captain Cook, he did not 
 join, as he intended, in the expedition of 1772; 
 but the same year undertook a voyage to the 
 Western Isles of Scotland and to Iceland, in the 
 course of which he made important additions to our 
 knowledge of those regions. About this time he 
 received the compliment of a diploma of LL. D. 
 from his alma mater. In 1778 he was made a 
 baronet and elected president of the Royal So- 
 ciety. Some unpleasant dissentions, which 
 arose in the society not long after, were almost 
 the only circumstances which occurred to inter- 
 rupt his tranquillity. These, however, subsided, 
 and the remainder of his life was passed amongst 
 scientific associates, and the prosecution of re- 
 se?.rche3 connected with natural history. His 
 house was always open to the learned world. 
 He died June 19, 1820, at his seat at Spring 
 Grove, Middlesex. The published writings of 
 Sir Joseph Banks are neither numerous nor im- 
 portant. They consist of papers in the Philoso- 
 phical Transactions, the Archa;ologia, the Trans- 
 actions of the Horticultural Society, and other 
 periodical works ; and a small tract, entitled A 
 Short Account of the Causes of the Diseases in 
 Corn, called by Farmers the Blight, the Jlildew, 
 and the Rust, with plates. Loudon, 1803, 4to. 
 This impression was only for private distribution ; 
 but an edition in 8vo. was published in 1805. 
 Sir Joseph possessed a noble librarj' of works on 
 natural history, of which an admirable catalogue, 
 in five vols. 8vo. was compiled by his librarian^ 
 Mr. Dryander.
 
 BAN 
 
 488 
 
 BAN 
 
 Banks-Bkae, a hill of Scotland, in Renfrew- 
 shire, on the south-west border of the parish of 
 Kilbarchan, beautifully adorned with plantations. 
 
 BANKSIA, in entomology, a species of pa- 
 pilio, (nymph), with angulated wings; brown 
 above, with a yellowish disk. Fabricius. It is a 
 native of New Holland, and the papilio ismene 
 of Cramer. 
 
 Banksia, in botany, a genus of the monosy- 
 nia order, and tetandria class of plants. The 
 amentum is scaly, the corolla consists of four 
 petals. The antherae are in the cavity of the 
 folds and sessile; the capsule is bivalvular; and 
 the seed is solitary, and bipartite. There are 
 four principal species, viz. 1. B. dentata; 2. B. 
 ericjefolia; 3. B. integrifolia ; 4. B. serrata; all 
 natives of New Holland. See Mr. Brown's 
 Transactions of the Linnsean Society, vol. x. 
 p. 202; and Commentaries to the Hortus Kew- 
 ensis, vol. i. p. 213. 
 
 Bakksia AiiYssiNiCA, a bcautiful Abyssinian 
 tree, so named by Bruce. 
 
 BANKSII, a species of scarabaeus melontha; 
 described by Fabricius, from a specimen in the 
 museum of Sir Joseph Banks. The head and 
 thorax are black ; wing-cases villose, and legs 
 testaceous ; abdomen short and retuse. 
 
 Baxksii, a species of cimex (reduvius), that 
 inhabits India. It is rufous above, with black 
 wings; abdomen deep black; border rufous. 
 
 Baxksii, a species of chrysomela that inha- 
 bits Calabria. It is brassy above, beneath tes- 
 taceous. 
 
 Baxksii, a species of cerambyx (lamia), that 
 is found at the Cape of Good Hope. It is of a 
 grayish color ; thorax slightly spined ; wing-cases 
 speckled with ferruginous, and marked with two 
 cinereous bands. 
 
 BANLEUGA, Bamleu, or Banxileuga, in 
 writers of the middle age, the territory within 
 which the jurisdiction of municipal magistrates, 
 or ordinary judges of a city, town, or the like, 
 is confined : so called, because within this tract 
 they make their proclamations, prohibitions, and 
 other acts of justice and policy, comprised under 
 the name of ban or bannum. 
 
 BANiMORE, Eilan Nan, Gael. i.e. the 
 island of great women; the ancient name of the 
 island of Eigg. 
 
 BANN, fromi the Brit, ban, i.e. clamor, a 
 proclamation, public notice, command, or prohi- 
 bition. 
 
 Bann, in ancient jurisprudence, denoted 
 proscription or banishment for a crime proved ; 
 because anciently published by sound of trumpet; 
 or, as Vossius thinks, because those who did not 
 appear at the above-mentioned summons, were 
 punished by proscription. Hence, to put a 
 prince under the bann of the empire, is to de- 
 clare him divested of all his dignities. The 
 sentence denotes an interdict of all intercourse 
 and offices of humanity with the offender; the 
 form of which seems taken from that of the Ro- 
 mans, who banished persons by forbidding them 
 the use of fire and water. Sometimes also ci- 
 ties were put under the imperial bann ; that 
 is, stripped of their rights and privileges. The 
 word also denotes a pecuniary mulct, or penalty, 
 
 laid on a delinquent for offending against a bann. 
 
 Bann, in military affairs, a proclamation 
 made in the army by beat of drum, sound of 
 trumpet, &.c. requiring the strict observance of 
 discipline, either for the declaring a new officer, 
 or punishing an offender. 
 
 Bann, a river of Ireland, descending from 
 tlie north of the mountains of Mourne, and flow- 
 ing north-west into the Lough Neagh : again is- 
 suing from the north side of that lake, it passes 
 Coleraine, and enters the sea a few miles east of 
 Lough Foyle. Its course, including the lough, 
 is about seventy miles; and, with the canal of 
 Newry, which joins it to the Irish sea, it makes 
 the north-east portion of Ireland a peninsula. 
 
 Bann, or Bannus, a title anciently given to 
 the governor or viceroy of Croatia, Dalmatia, 
 and Sclavonia. 
 
 Bann, Episcopal, bannus episcopalis, a 
 mulct paid to the bishop by those guilty of sa- 
 crilege and other crimes. 
 
 Bann of Harvest, or Vintage, &c. in the 
 ci-devant French customs, imported a prohibition 
 to reap, or gather the grapes, without the leave of 
 the lord. 
 
 Banns of Marriage are solemn notices of 
 matrimonial contracts, made in the parish-church 
 before marriage; that if there be any objections 
 to either party as to prior engagements, &c. 
 there may be an opportunity of making them. 
 
 The publication of banns, popularly called 
 asking in the church, was intended to prevent 
 clandestine marriages : but a licence may be ob- 
 tained for the marriage, and then this ceremony 
 is omitted : but ministers are not to celebrate 
 matrimony between any persons without a li- 
 cence, except the banns have been first pub- 
 lished three several times, upon pain of suspen- 
 sion, &c. The use of matrimonial banns is said 
 to have been first introduced in the Galilean 
 church, though something like it obtained even 
 in the primitive times: and it is this that Ter- 
 tullian is supposed to mean by trinundina pro- 
 mulgatio. The council of Lateran first extended 
 and made the usage general. By the ordinance 
 of Blois, no person could validly contract mar- 
 riage, without a preceding proclamation of three 
 banns; nor could any person whatever be ex- 
 empt except for the two last. 
 
 Banns, Papal, solemn anathemas, or excom- 
 munications, attended with curses, &c. 
 
 BANNAGIiER, or Banagher, a town of Ire- 
 land, in King's county, Leinster, on the Shan- 
 non, fifteen miles south of Athione. 
 
 BANN ALEC, a town of Brittany, France, 
 department of Finisterre, arrondissement of 
 Quimperle, the head of a canton ; has 4700 in- 
 habitants. It is four miles from Rosrporden 
 and six from Quimperle. 
 
 BANNALIS MoLA, or Bannal Mill, a kind 
 of feudal service, whereby the tenants of a dis- 
 trict are obliged to carry their corn to be ground 
 at a certain mill, or to be baked at a certain 
 oven, for the benefit of the lord. This in Scot- 
 land is called thirlage. 
 
 BANN EC, an island in the English channel, 
 near the coast of France. Long. 4" 56, N\ ., lat. 
 43^ 25' N.
 
 BAN 
 
 489 
 
 BAN 
 
 Ban'nered, fdiera, Ger. banner, Swed. baner, 
 
 Ban'neret, I'Dut.baniere. In old Sax. ban- 
 
 Ban'nerol. 3 se^n is the ensign or banner, 
 rrom bundvo, signian ; bandvjan, significare. 
 Bannerol, or more properly banderol, is derived 
 from banderolle, Fr. Spenser writes it bannerall ; 
 and the old Fr. is banneralle. The banner, 
 handrail, or bansegn, is probably the sign of 
 union, which fastened to a pole, may be furled 
 and unfurled at pleasure, like a roll of canvass 
 or silk ; and which armies and other bodies of 
 men elevate as a standard, which distinguishes 
 the party and cause which they have espoused, 
 or the common purpose to which they have 
 bound themselves. ' We find (say the writers 
 in the Encyclopaedia Britannica), a multiplicity 
 of opinions concerning the etymology of the word 
 banner ; some deriving it from the Latin bandum, 
 a band or flag ; others from the word bunn, to 
 summon the vassals to appear in arms ; others 
 again from the German ban, a field or tenement, 
 because landed men alone were allowed a ban- 
 ner ; and finally, there are some who think it is a 
 corruption of panniere, from pannus, cloth ; be- 
 cause banners were originally made of cloth. 
 
 Lift ye up a banner upon the high mountains. 
 
 Isaiah 
 Then lo tryumphe ! great beautie's queen. 
 Advance the banner of thy conquest hie. 
 
 Spenser. 
 
 From France there comes a power who already 
 Have secret spies in some of our best ports. 
 And are at point to shew their open banner. 
 
 Shakspeare. 
 
 All in a moment through the gloom were seen 
 Ten thousand banners rise into the air. 
 With orient colours waving. Milton. 
 
 A gentleman told Henry, that Sir Richard Croftes, 
 made banneret at Stoke, was a wise man ; the king 
 answered, he doubted not that, but marvelled how a 
 fool could know. Camden. 
 
 King Oswald had a bannerol of gold and purple set 
 over his tomb. Id. 
 
 Philip Augustus, and Richard the First, are the 
 only kings of France and England who have fought 
 under the same banners. Gibbon. 
 
 Banner, in heraldry, such a 
 flag is borne as a charge, in 
 coats of arms, and when open 
 and flying is called ' the banner 
 disveloped,' as 'the field is Ju- 
 piter, three banners disveloped, 
 in bend Sol,' which are said to 
 have been the arms of the king- 
 dom of Baldachia. 
 
 Banner of Denmark, or the Danish 
 Banner, was a famous magical standard, taken 
 from the Danes by Alfred the Great, in spite of 
 its miraculous powers and properties, which are 
 thus described by Sir John Spelman. ' It was 
 a batmer with the image of a raven magically 
 wrought by the three sisters of Ilungar and 
 Hubba, on purpose for their expedition, in re- 
 venge of tlieir father Lodebroch's murder, made, 
 they say, almost in an instant, being by them at 
 once begun and finished in a noontide; and be- 
 lieved by the Danes to have carried great fa- 
 tality with it, for which it was highly esteemed 
 by them. It is pretended, that being carried in 
 
 battle, towards good success it would always 
 seem to clap its wings, and make as if it would 
 fly ; but towards the approach of mishap, it 
 would hang down and not move !' 
 
 The Banner of France was the largest and 
 richest of all tlie flags borne by the ancient 
 kings in their military expeditions. St. Mar- 
 tin's cap was in use 600 years as the banner of 
 France ; it was made of taffety, painted with the 
 image of that saint, and laid one or two days on 
 his tomb to prepare it for use. This was suc- 
 ceeded by the famous auriflamma, or oriflamme. 
 About the year 1100 was introduced a more 
 pompous apparatus; the mode of which was 
 borrowed from Italy. The banner-royal was 
 fastened to the top of a mast, or some small tree 
 planted on a scaffold, borne on a chariot drawn 
 by oxen, covered with velvet housings, decorated 
 with devices, or cyphers of the reigning prince. 
 At the foot of the tree was a priest, who said 
 mass early every morning. Ten kniglits mounted 
 guard on the scaffold night and day, and as 
 many trumpets at the foot of the tree never 
 ceased flourishing to animate the troops. This 
 cumbrous machine continued in use about 130 
 years. Its post was in the centre of the army. 
 And here the chief feats were performed to carry 
 off and defend the royal banner: for there was 
 no victory without it; nor was an army reputed 
 vanquished till they had lost this banner. 
 
 Banneret, from banner. A knight made in 
 the field, with the ceremony of cutting off the 
 point of his standard, and making it a banner. 
 They are next to barons in dignity; and were 
 anciently called by summons to parliament. It 
 is also the name of an officer or magistrite of 
 Rome towards the close of the fourteenth cen- 
 tury. The people of that city, and througliout 
 the territory of the church, during the disputes of 
 the antipopes, had formed a kind of republican 
 government, where the whole power was lodged 
 in the hands of a magistrate, called senator, and 
 twelve heads of quarters called bannerets,by rea- 
 son of the banners which each raised in his district. 
 
 Bannerets, an ancient order of knights, or 
 feudal lords ; who, possessing several large fees, 
 led their vassals to battle under their own fla'^- or 
 banner, when summoned thereto by the king. 
 They are also called in ancient writers milites, 
 vexilliferi, and vexillarii, bannerarii, bannarii, 
 banderisii, &c. There are two kinds of knights, 
 great and little ; the first whereof were called 
 bannerets, the second bachelors ; the first com- 
 posed the upper, the second the middle nobility. 
 Tiic banneret was a dignitary allowed to march 
 under his own flag, whereas the bachelarius eques 
 followed that of another. To be qualified for a 
 banneret, one must be a gentleman of family, and 
 must have a power to raise a certain number of 
 armed men, with estate enough to subsist at least 
 twenty-eight to thirty men. This must hare 
 been very considerable in those days ; because 
 each man, besides his servant, had two horsemen 
 to wait on him armed, the one with a crossbow, 
 the other with a bow and hatchet. As he was 
 not allowed to be a baron who had not abo*e 
 thirteen knights' fees, so he was not admitted to be a 
 banneret if he had less than ten. The order of ban- 
 neret, according to Spelman, was a middle one,, 
 between a baron and a simple knight ; called
 
 490 
 
 B A N N O C K - B U R N. 
 
 sometimes also vexillarius minor, to distinguish 
 liim from tlie greater, that is from the baron, to 
 whom alone properly belonged tiie jus vexilli, or 
 privilege of the square flag. Hence the banneret 
 was also called banneretus, quasi baro minor ; a 
 word frequently used by English writers in the 
 same sense as banneret was by the French, though 
 neither of them occur before the time of Edward 
 II. Some will have bannerets to have originally 
 been prisons who had some portion of a barony 
 assigned them ; and enjoyed it under the title of 
 baro proximus, and that with the same preroga- 
 tives as the baron himself. Some again find the 
 origin of bannerets in France, others in Brittany, 
 others in England. These last attribute the insti- 
 tution of bannerets to Conan, lieutenant of Max- 
 imus, who commanded the Roman legions in 
 England under the empire of Gratian in 383. 
 This general, say they, revolting, divided England 
 into forty cantons, and in these cantons distri- 
 buted forty knights, to whom he gave a power 
 of assembling, on occasion, under their several 
 banners, as many of the eflective men as were 
 found in their respective districts : whence they 
 are called bannerets. However this be, it appears 
 from Froissard, &c. that anciently such of the 
 military men as were rich enough to raise and 
 subsist a company of armed men, and had a right 
 to do so, weie called bannerets. Not, however, 
 that these qualifications rendered them knights, 
 but only bannerets ; the appellation of knight 
 being only added thereto, because they were sim- 
 ple knights before. Bannerets were second to 
 none but knights of the garter. They were repu- 
 ted the next degree below the nobility, taking 
 precedence next to the knights of the bath, and 
 were allowed to bear arms with supporters, which 
 none else may under the degree of a baron. In 
 France, it is said, the dignity was hereditary, but 
 in England it died with the person who gained 
 it. The order dwindled on the institution of 
 baronets by king James I., Sir John Smith 
 made so after Edgehill-fight, for rescuing the 
 standard of King Charles I., being the last 
 batmeret, until the late Sir William Erskine, 
 on his return from the continent in 1764, was 
 made a knight-banneret in Hyde Park by 
 his late Majesty, in consequence of his dis- 
 tinguished conduct at the battle of Emsdorff. 
 But he was not acknowledged as such in this 
 country, although he was invested with the order 
 between th.e two standards of the fifteenth regiment 
 of light dragoons, because the ceremony did not 
 take place where the engagement happened. 
 Captain Trollope of the Royal Navy was another 
 knight-banneret, created by Geo. III., after lord 
 Duncan's victory at Camperdown, but as this 
 involved some heraldic difficulties on points of 
 precedency, and there was some apprehension 
 of jealousy on the part of baronets, the practice 
 was discontinued. In Switzerland the banneret 
 was a civil officer like the Gonfalonier in some 
 of the Italian republics ; and at Lausanne the 
 title was conferred on those magistrates who had 
 tlie privilege of carrying the baimer of that city 
 at the confederation of the cantons. 
 
 Tlie form of creating bannerets was on a day of 
 battle; the candidate presented his flag to the king 
 or general, wlio cutting off" the train or skirt 
 
 thereof, and making it a square, returned it again, 
 the proper banner of bannerets, who are hence 
 sometimes called knights of the square flag. 
 There seems to have been bannerets created 
 either in a different manner, or by others than 
 the sovereign ; since King James, in the patent 
 of baronets, gives them precedence to all knights 
 bannerets, except such as are created by the 
 king himself in the field ; which implies, either 
 that there are some of this order created out of 
 the field, or by inferior persons. 
 
 Baxxerol, more properly Banderol, from 
 banderole, Fr. a little flag or streamer. 
 
 BAN'NIAN, rz. s. 1. A man's undress, or 
 morning gown, such as is worn by the Bannians 
 in the East Indies. 2. A native of India ; now 
 usually applied to a Gentoo servant employed in 
 managing the commercial affairs for Englishmen. 
 
 Bannian-Day, in common parlance, a day 
 of self-denial ; of shifts and expedients ; derived 
 probably from sacred or fast-day. 
 
 Bannian-Tree. A sacred fig-tree, growing in 
 India, called by our old herbalists ' the arched 
 Indian fig-tree ;' from the various branches of 
 which grow little sprigs downwards, till they 
 reach the ground, take root, as Milton has 
 observed. 
 
 And daughters grow 
 About the mother tree, a pillar'd shade. 
 High o'er-arch'd, and echoing walks between. 
 Paradise Lost 
 
 BANNIANS. See Banians. 
 
 BANNIER (John), a Swedish general, born 
 in 1601. He served under Gustavus Adolphus^ 
 and on his death became commander-in-chief. 
 After gaining many victories, and taking several 
 important places, fortune favored the Imperial- 
 ists, and they at last drove him out of Bohemia. 
 He died in 1641, on his retreat from the German 
 dominions. 
 
 BANNIMUS, q. d. we banish, from the obso- 
 lete verb bannio, the form of expulsion of any 
 member from the University of Oxford, by affix- 
 ing the sentence up in some public place, as a 
 promulgation of it. 
 
 BANNITUS, an exile or outlaw. 
 
 BAN'NOCK, n. s. A kind of oaten or peas- 
 meal cake, mixed with water, and baked upon 
 an iron plate over the fire ; used in the northern 
 counties, and in Scotland. 
 
 Bannocks differ from cakes, in being 
 thicker and softer ; and their taste is thought to 
 be improved by being baked in the embers, or on 
 a stone placed before the fire, or a slate above it. 
 
 Bannock-burn, a village of Scotland, in Stir- 
 lingshire, seated on the Bannock, from whence 
 it is named, famous for the decisive battle fought 
 near it between king Robert Bruce of Scotland, 
 and Edward II. of England. A.D. 1314. 
 
 It is to be regretted that to poetical narratives 
 only (that of the Scottish poet Barbour particu- 
 larly) we must look for the existing detail of 
 the events of this memorable day. They, how- 
 ever, were so important, and have since been so 
 frequently alluded to by poets and historians, 
 that we cannot omit to furnish the reader with 
 the best account we can digest. On Saturday 
 the 22d of June, Bruce having received intelli- 
 gence that the English had reached Edinburgh,
 
 BANNOCK-BURN. 
 
 491 
 
 drew his army out of liis encampment to take up 
 a position in the neighbourhood of Stirlin;^. 
 Here he occupied a wood, extending on the 
 right towards the church of St. Ninian, and on 
 tlie left nearly, it is supposed, in the direction of 
 the road from Edinburgh to Stirling; directing 
 a number of small pits to be dug knee-deep, and 
 covered with turf, which concealed at the bottom 
 a kind of spikes called calthrops, designed for 
 the destruction of the enemy's cavalry. The po- 
 sition was besides protected by a neighbouring 
 morass. On Sunday, the 23d, an alarm being 
 given of the approach of the enemy, Bruce pre- 
 pared to receive them. His army heard mass : 
 and in answer to a proclamation that whoever 
 would, might retire, all unanimously declared 
 their resolution to conquer with him or die. His 
 right wing was commanded by his brother Ed- 
 ward, the left by lord Douglas and the younger 
 Stewart, and the centre by his nephew, Randolph, 
 earl of Murray, while he himself commanded a 
 reserve posted on a rising ground. The English 
 army meanwhile had sent a squadron of 800 
 horse for the purpose of gaining Stirling castle 
 by a circuitous route, which the king perceiving, 
 reproached the earl of Murray with leaving the 
 place exposed, and the latter hastened with 500 
 spearmen to turn the enemy, an object which he 
 with difficulty accomplished. The van of the 
 English army soon after appeared in sight. 
 Henry de Bohun, a knight of the Hereford fa- 
 mily, advancing a bow-shot before his comrades, 
 now distinguished * the Bruce' from a crown sur- 
 mounting his helmet, and the manner in which 
 he disposed his troops, he himself being in ad- 
 vance of his front. The Englishman advanced 
 upon him, but his spear missing tlie king, the 
 latter, rising in his stirrups, cleft his opponent's 
 helmet with a single blow of his battle-axe, and 
 Bohun fell : this was the only memorable event the 
 first day. At the succeeding dawn Bruce reminded 
 his troops of the past conduct of the enemy be- 
 fore ihem, their usurpation of the government of 
 tlie country, and their barbarous treatment of 
 those that had fallen into their hands, that they 
 therefore were now to fight for all they held dear, 
 t!:eir own liberty, and the comfort and existence 
 of their families. He showed them his excellent 
 position, urged the necessity for order, and to 
 preserve their line unbroken, while he promised 
 the amplest rewards to all who exerted them- 
 selves, and to their heirs if they fell. At day- 
 break Maurice, Abbot of Inchafi'ray, celebrated 
 mass in front of the army, and exhorted the sol- 
 diers, bearing a crucifix in his hand. The troops 
 now breakfasted on the ground, and Bruce cre- 
 ated some of the most distinguished of his fol- 
 lowers knights. Edward also in person com- 
 manded the English army, attended by a body- 
 guard of .500 cavalry : am.ong his troops were 
 52,000 archers. He likewise was confident of 
 victory, but the same unanimity did not subsist 
 a.s among his foes ; and the Scottish host having 
 knelt to utter a prayer and receive benediction, 
 he exclaimed to those around him, ' Behold, 
 they kneel for mercy !' But they quickly unde- 
 ceived him ; — the armies approached, and a 
 contest ensued, unexampled in the annuls of 
 British history. The English van, composed of 
 
 cavalry, charged the right wing of the Scots in 
 full gallop. Here Edward Bnice commanded, 
 and received them with intrepidity. While this 
 wing was engaged, Randolph advanced to meet 
 the main body of the enemy ; and the left wing 
 also hastened into the conflict. Repeated charges 
 of cavalry in vain attempted to break the Scottish 
 line — it was impenetrable ; everywhere they 
 were resisted and driven back. At this time the 
 battle became general. The Scots were annoyed 
 by the English archers; but they fought despe- 
 rately with their spears, swords, and knives, and 
 also with iron clubs or maces, and found the ad- 
 vantage of acting in a com.pact body, while the 
 English forces were too unwieldy to be concen- 
 trated. The Scots were also protected by their 
 light armour, which at the same time did not 
 restrain their movements. Edward, the king's 
 brother, was hard pressed by the English cavalry, 
 and Murray, making a movement to his support, 
 was almost overwhelmed by the multitude of 
 the enemy, who presented a vast and extensive 
 front. The Scottish king now directed Sir Ro- 
 bert Keith to take the archers in flank with 500 
 horse, and their impetuosity proved irresistible. 
 The enemy were overthrown, and fled with pre- 
 cipitation. The earl of Gloucester, endeavour- 
 ing to rally the fugitives, was unhorsed and 
 slain. The numbers of the English finally proved 
 their destruction : for those who recoiled threw 
 the rest into disorder, and those who fell were 
 trampled to death. The battle, notwithstanding, 
 continued to rage, and victory was long and fu- 
 riously contested. But, at length, the reUiiners 
 of the Scottish camp, who had previously been 
 sent to a valley in the rear, suddenly appeared 
 on a neighbouring height, and the enemy, be- 
 lieving it a strong reinforcement, took at once to 
 flight. Edward, with 500 horse, sought shelter 
 in Stirling castle, but the governor found means 
 to dissuade him from remaining there. The rout 
 of his army became complete. Some sought re- 
 fuge among the rocks of the castle, others hur- 
 ried to the river Forth, and they were drowned ; 
 but the most terrific carnage was in the valley of 
 the Bannock, for the ascent towards the east 
 being diflacult, and probably impeded by wood, 
 the fugitives were exposed to inevitable destruc- 
 tion. Scarcely any who took that direction es- 
 caped ; and the course of the river is said to have 
 been completely dammed up by the English 
 who were slain. Edward, hotly pursued, con- 
 tinued his flight, followed by sixty horse, to 
 ^^ inchburgh, twenty miles from the field of 
 battle, where, again mounting, the pursuit was 
 continued to Dunbar castle, whence he was 
 ultimately conveyed by a vessel to England. 
 The loss on both sides in this memorable battle 
 was immense. Barbour a.sserts that the English 
 had 30,000 men and 200 knights killed : but the 
 truth of this calculation is questionable, as it is 
 said elsewhere that only forty-two knights were 
 slain, and sixty made prisoners. Barbour also 
 affirms that only two Scotsmen of note fell on 
 the occasion, Sir William Vipont and Sir AN'alter 
 Ross. The earl of Gloucester's fate, who was 
 the near relative to Edward, w;is much la- 
 mented ; and historians state that had the Scots 
 known him he would not have fallen. His body
 
 BAN 
 
 492 
 
 BAN 
 
 ^vis carried to St. Ninian's church, and sent 
 \vith that of lord Clifford to England. ' O day 
 of vengeance and fatality,' one of our historians 
 exclaims, ' hateful accursed day, to be blotted 
 from the circle of the year; a day which tar- 
 nished the glory of England, despoiled our na- 
 tion, and enriched its enemies to the amount of 
 £200,000. How many valiant youths and il- 
 lustrious nobles, how many excellent horses and 
 beautiful arms, how many precious vestments 
 and golden vessels, were lost in that single unfor- 
 tunate day.' The privy seal of Edward was 
 amons the spoils, and afterwards restored by 
 Robert. He is said, indeed to have acted upon 
 this victory with that clemency and moderation 
 which lias rarely been equalled. 
 
 The consequences of this great battle were the 
 surrender of the fortresses of Scotland to Bruce, 
 the liberation of the inhabitants from a foreign 
 yoke, and the firm establishment of that prince 
 upon the throne. Memorials of it are said still 
 to remain near the spot, where armour and 
 weapons are frequently dug up ; and at an inter- 
 val of 500 years the inhabitants of the vicinity 
 met on the 24th of June 1814, to celebrate the 
 triumph of their ancestors. Sir Walter Scott 
 has commemorated it with enthusiasm in his 
 Lord of the Isles. 
 
 BANNOW, a town of Ireland, ten miles 
 south-west of Wexford. 
 
 BANNU^I, in law, the utmost bounds of a 
 manor or town ; bannum capitis was a mulct paid 
 in cattle. 
 
 BANNUS Dei, the bann of God, an expres- 
 sion used by writers of the middle age, for 
 excommunication. 
 
 BaxNxus Regis, a proclamation of silence 
 anciently made by the court, before the encounter 
 of the ^champions in a combat. 
 
 BANOLAS, a town of Spain, in Catalonia, 
 district of Gerona, with 3000 inhabitants, and a 
 considerable trade in linen. 
 
 BANGS, a town of Leon, Spain, thirty miles 
 from Plasencia, in Estremadura. The number 
 of families is about 300, who are employed prin- 
 cipally in the manufacture of linen. It takes 
 its name from the hot sulphureous baths to the 
 north-east of the town. Here are to be seen the 
 remains of a Roman mound or dyke. The 
 territory is covered with olives, chestnuts, and 
 vines ; the last produces annually 15,000 arobas 
 of wine. 
 
 BANGY, the name given by the people of the 
 Philippine Islands, to a species of hawk, some- 
 what larger than our sparrow-liawk, of a yellowish 
 color on the back and wings, and white under 
 the belly. It is the most common species of 
 hawk in that part of the world, and is very 
 voracious. 
 
 BAN'QUET, t;. & n. -\ Fr. banquet, Ital. 
 
 Ban'quetant, (banclietto, Span, bcm- 
 
 Banquet'er, lquete,vanqueto; Germ. 
 
 Ban'queting. 'and Dut. bancket. 
 
 Derived from bank, a bench or table, around 
 which messmates or companions sit to eat or 
 feast together. It now signifies a luxurious and 
 .sumptuous entertainment. W hether the feast, or 
 the dessert which succeeds it, or both. 
 
 Shall the companions make a banquet of him ? — 
 Shall they part him among the merchants ? Job. 
 
 In which how many wonders doe they reede, 
 To their conceipt that others ne"er see 1 
 Now of iier smiles with which their soules they feede. 
 Like gods with nectar in their bankets free. Spenser, 
 
 The mind shall banquet, tho' the body pine : 
 Fat paunches make lean pates, and dainty bits 
 Make rich the ribs, but bankerout the wits. 
 
 Shakspeare, 
 Welcome his friends. 
 Visit his countrymen, and banquet them. Id. 
 
 In his commendations I am fed ; 
 It is a banquet to me. Id. 
 
 You cannot have a perfect palace, except you have 
 two sides ; a side for the banquet, and a side for the 
 household ; the one for feasts and triumphs, and the 
 other for dwelling. Bacon. 
 
 They were banqueted by the way, and the nearer 
 they approached, the more increased the nobility. 
 
 Sir J. Hayward, 
 In a banqueting-ho\i%t, among certain pleasant trees, 
 the table was set near to an excellent water-work. 
 
 Sidney. 
 Home then, my lambs ; the falling drops eschew : 
 To-morrow shall ye feast in pastures new. 
 And with the rising sun, banquet on pearled dew. 
 
 Fletcher's Purple Island. 
 When Venus was born all the gods were invited to 
 a banquet. Burton's Anatomy of Melanclioly. 
 
 If a fasting-day come, he hath on that day a bati- 
 quet to make. Hooker. 
 
 At that tasted fruit. 
 The sun, as from Thyestan banquet, turn'd 
 His course intended. Milton, 
 
 So long as his innocence is his repast, he feasts 
 and banqttets upon bread and water. South. 
 
 That dares prefer the toils of Hercules, 
 To dalliance, banquets, aud ignoble ease. 
 
 Dry den. 
 At the walk's end behold, how rais'd on high, 
 A hanquet-hoM^e salutes the southern sky. Id, 
 
 I purpos'd to unbend the evening hours. 
 And banquet private in the women's bow'rs. 
 
 Prior. 
 With royal banquets feasts my longing soul. 
 And seals his truth with sacramental wine. 
 
 Mrs. Rows. 
 
 Baxquetixg-House, Banqueting Room. 
 The ancient Romans supped in the atrium, or 
 vestibule of their houses ; but, in after-times, 
 magnificent saloons, or banqueting rooms, were 
 built for the more commodious and splendid 
 entertainment of their guests. Lucullus had 
 several of these, each distinguished by the name 
 of some god ; and there was a particular rate of 
 expense appropriated to each. Plutarch relates 
 with what magnificence lie entertained Cicero 
 and Pompey, who went with design to surprise 
 him, by telling only a slave who waited, that the 
 clotii should be laid in the Apollo. The emperor 
 Claudius, among others, had a splendid banquet- 
 ing room named Mercury. But every thing of 
 this kind was outdone by the lustre of that cele- 
 brated banqueting house of Nero, called domus 
 aurea; which, by the circular motion of its 
 partitions and ceilings, imitated the revolution 
 of the heavens, and represented the difl'erent sea- 
 sons of the year, wiiich changed at every service, 
 and showered down flowers, essences and per- 
 fumes, on the guests. See Saloon. 
 
 BAiN'QUETTE, n. s. Fr. in fortification, a 
 small bank at the foot of the parajiet, for the 
 soldiers to mount upon when they fire.
 
 BAN 
 
 493 
 
 BAN 
 
 BANSTICKLE, in ichthyology. See Gas- 
 
 TEROSTF.VS. 
 
 BAN'STICKLE, n. s. A small fish, called 
 stickleback. 
 
 BANTAM, a large town of the island of Java, 
 in the East Indies, once the capital of an indepen- 
 dent state. But its harbour has been gradually 
 choked up with soil from the surroundina: hills: 
 and the air is so unhealthy that its inhabitants 
 have been compelled to desert the place almost 
 entirely. In 1595 the kin^ of Bantam called 
 in the assistance of tlie Dutch of Java, against 
 the Portuguese, and as a return for their aid 
 allowed them to build a factory here, where also 
 the English, under Captain Lancaster, established 
 one in 1603. At this time the sovereign had a 
 commercial navy of his own, and until the latter end 
 of the seventeenth century, when he sent an 
 embassy to England, to request assistance against 
 the Dutch. In the following year the latter took 
 his capital, and in 1683, they entirely dispossessed 
 him of the government ; the English factory 
 withdrawing to Surat. 
 
 The Dutch East India Company now keep a 
 garrison here, nominally to defend the king, but 
 in fact to have him always in their own power. 
 The chief authority on the part of the Dutch East 
 India Company was vested in a senior merchant, 
 with the title of Commandant, who had the 
 management of the trade, which consisted chiefly 
 in pepper and some cotton yarn. To the com- 
 mandery at Bantam belonged the residencies of 
 Lampons, Toulang, Baunang, and Lampong 
 Samanca, situated on the southern part of Suma- 
 tra. The sovereicrns possess the power of life 
 and death over their subjects, but pay an annual 
 tribute of six million pounds of pepper to the 
 Dutch. 
 
 The climate of Bantam, says Mr. Hamilton, is 
 still more pestilential than that of Batavia, of 
 which a remarkable instance is mentioned. On 
 the night of the 18th March 1804, the king of 
 Bantam was murdered by one of his grand 
 nephews, who had concealed himself under his 
 bed, and who was afterwards discovered and put 
 to death. An embassy was sent from Batavia, to 
 elect and instal the new king in the name of the 
 Dutch Company, part of w hich ceremony consists 
 in having him weighed in a pair of scales at the 
 palace gate, after iiavin2- feasted for fifteen days. 
 This deputation was composed of a counsellor of 
 India, four senior merchants, a major, lieutenant, 
 Serjeant, two corporals, eighteen trench and 
 eighteen Dutch grenadiers. Tlie external forms 
 occupied fifteen days ; at the end of which time, 
 or soon after their return, the whole of the Euro- 
 pean grenadiers and subalterns died, except two 
 or three of the French who escaped. The coun- 
 sellor, his wife who had accompanied him, the 
 major and four merchants, all returned with putrid 
 fevers, which brought them to the brink of the 
 grave, and the secretary died. In 1811, after the 
 conquest of Batavia, the town and district of 
 Bantam surrendered to the British arms -without 
 resistance. Bantam was restored to the Dutch 
 by the peace of 1814. Long. 106° 31' E., lat. 6° 
 14' S. 
 
 Bantam, or dwarf cock, in zoology, a well 
 known variety of the species phasianus gallus. 
 See Phasianus. 
 
 Bantam Work, a kind of painted or carved 
 work, resembling that of Japan, only more gaudy. 
 Some are flat, lying even with the black, and 
 others highly embossed, as we find in many lartre 
 screens. The Japan artists work chiefly in gold 
 and other metals ; and those of Bantam generally 
 in colors, with a small sprinkling of gold here 
 and there : for the flat Bantam work is done in 
 colors mixed with gum- water, proper for the 
 thing designed to be imitated. 
 
 BAN'TER,7;.&7t. ^ The derivation unknown. 
 
 Ban'terer, > Perhaps from 6a(ii«er, Fr. 
 
 Ban'tering. jh signifies to mock with 
 
 ridicule. A lighter kind of raillery. Playing; 
 upon the fretfulness of the testy, the simplicity 
 of the ignorant, the self-importance of the proud, 
 and the conceitedness of the vain. It is some- 
 times employed a'j;ainst the infirmities of the 
 good and the virtuous. A species of humor 
 that is more allied to malignity than kindness, 
 and which sometimes meets with its reward. 
 
 'Tis thus, malicious deity. 
 That thou hast banter'd wretched me ; 
 Thus made me vainly lose my time. 
 Thus fool away my youthful prime. 
 
 Walsh. On loving une I never saw. 
 
 The magistrate took it that he bantered him, and 
 
 bade an officer take him into custody. L' Estrange. 
 
 It is no new thing for innocent simplicity to be the 
 
 subject of bantering drolls. Id. 
 
 This humour, let it look never so silly, as it passes 
 
 many times for frolic and banter, is one of the most 
 
 pernicious snares in human life. Id. 
 
 What opinion have these religious banferers of the 
 
 divine power ? Or what have they to say for their 
 
 njockery and contempt? Id.. 
 
 And the grave affairs of state have been treated 
 
 with an air of irony and banter. Shaftethury . 
 
 Could Alcinous' guests withhold 
 From scorn or rage ? Shall we, cries one, permit 
 His lewd romances, and his bant'ring wit? Tate. 
 
 Metaphysicks are so necessary to a distinct concep- 
 tion, solid judgment, and just reasouing on many sub- 
 jects, that those who ridicule it, will be supposed to 
 make their wit and banter a refuge and excuse for 
 their own laziness. Watts. 
 
 BANTIUS (L), a spirited youth of Nola, 
 whom Hannibal found almost dead among those 
 who had fallen m the battle of Cannae. Havmg 
 been kindly treated, and sent home with great 
 generosity, he took it mto bis head to betray his 
 country to such a humane enemy; but Marcellus, 
 the Roman general, being informed of it, repri- 
 manded Bantius, and he afterwards continued 
 steady in the Roman interest. 
 
 Bantling, 71. $ if it has any etymology, 
 it is perhaps corrupted from the old word buim, 
 bairnling, a little child. A low word ; so says 
 Johnson. But it is usually applied to a child 
 born, or at least begotten, before marriage. 
 If the object of their love 
 Chance by Lucina's aid to prove. 
 They seldom let the bantling roar 
 In basket at a neighbour's door. Prior. 
 
 BANTRY Bay, called also Beerhavf.n, a 
 capacious bay of Ireland, on the coast of Cork, 
 capable of containing all the shipping of Europe. 
 It is twenty-six miles long, three broad, and 
 forty fathoms deep in the middle, where are two 
 small islands, Bear and Whiddy. Coral is
 
 BAO 
 
 494 
 
 BAP 
 
 dredged from the bottom of the hay, and used as 
 manure in the neighbourhood. Fish were for- 
 merly very plentiful here ; but of late the business 
 has declined. In May, 1689, a French fleet, 
 which had brought succours of arms, ammuni- 
 tion, and money, to the adherents of king .James, 
 was attacked in this bay by Admiral Herbert; 
 and in December, 1796, another French fleet, 
 consisting of seven sail of the line, tv»ro frigates 
 armed en flute, and seventeen transports, an- 
 chored here for a few days, and landed an 
 officer and eight men in a boat, who were taken 
 priso;iers. 
 
 Bantry, a large barren barony of Ireland, in 
 the county of Cork. 
 
 Bantry, a sea-port town of Ireland, in the 
 county of Cork, and province of Munster, seated 
 on the bay, about thirty miles west of Cork, and 
 164 south-west of Dublin. 
 
 BANYAN Tree, in botany, a name sometimes 
 given to the ficus Indica. 
 
 BANYOUWANGY, a Dutch settlement of 
 Java, containing the residence of a" native chief. 
 The Dutch garrison the fort to protect tliemselves 
 and commerce from the numerous pirates of the 
 straits of Bali. 
 
 BANZA, a town of Congo Proper, on the 
 river Zaire. 
 
 BAOBAB, the name given by Prosper Albi- 
 nus to the African calabash. See Adansonia. 
 This is the largest vegetable production known : 
 althou<rh the trunk is not above twelve or fifteen 
 feet high, it is from sixty to eighty-five feet round, 
 and the lower branches extend almost horizon- 
 tally about sixty feet. Their own weight bending 
 these extremities to the ground, they form an 
 hemispherical mass of verdure about 120, and 
 sometimes 150, feet in diameter. The flowers 
 of this plant are in proportion to the size of the 
 tree, and are followed by a fruit pointed at both 
 ends, about ten inches long and five or six broad, 
 covered with a kind of green down, under which 
 is a hard, black, radiated, rind. The fruit hangs 
 to the tree by a pedicle two feel long. It con- 
 tains a whitish, spongy, juicy, substance of an 
 acid taste, and seeds of a brown color, of the 
 shape of a kidney bean, which are called goui 
 \V hen dry, the pulp by which the seeds are sur- 
 rounded, is powdered, and brought into Europe 
 under the name of terra sigillata lemnia. The 
 kernel contains a large proportion of alkali, 
 when burnt, and the negroes mix it with palm 
 oil to make soap. The bark is called lalo; the 
 negroes dry and powder it ; after which it is pre- 
 served in little cotton bags, and two or three 
 pinches are put into their food : it is mucilagi- 
 nous and supposed to check perspiration. This 
 
 tree is a native of the west coast c*' Africa, from 
 the Niger to the kingdom of Benin. 
 
 BAOL, a small kingdom of western Africa, 
 between the Senegal and Gambia. It lies south 
 of Cayor, by which it has recently been con- 
 quered. It has a capital of the same name. 
 
 BAPAUME, a strong town of France, in the 
 ci-devant French Netherlands, -lOW included in 
 the department of the Straits of Calais. Fine 
 thread and lawn are made here. De V^ille and 
 \'auban fortified it in 1641, and France obtained 
 the cession of it in 1659. Situate eighteen miles 
 south-east of Arras. 
 
 BAPIIE, in the writings of the ancients, a 
 word used to express that fine red color with 
 which they illuminated the capital letters in ma- 
 nuscripts, at the beginning of chapters. It is 
 also called by some encaustam sacra, and by 
 others coccus and cinnabaris. It was a very ele- 
 gant color, and said to have been prepared of the 
 purple taken from the murex, and some other 
 ingredients. It was called encaustum, from its 
 resembling the fine bright red used in enamels. 
 
 BAPTiE, in antiquity, an effeminate volup- 
 tuous kind of priests of the goddess Cotytto, at 
 Athens ; so called from their stated dippings and 
 washings, by way of purification; their rites were 
 performed in the night, and consisted chiefly of 
 lascivious dances. Eupolis having composed a 
 comedy to expose them, entitled /SaTrrof, they 
 threw him into the sea, to be revenged ; and the 
 same fate is also said to have befallen Cratinus, 
 another Athenian poet, who had written a comedy 
 against the Bapta;, under the same title. Otliers 
 deduce the denomination Baptae from the prac- 
 tice of dyeing and painting their bodies, especi- 
 ally their eyebrows, and ofliciating at the service 
 of their deity, with the parade and demureness 
 of women. Juvenal describes them in this light. 
 Stat. ii. ver. 91. 
 
 BAPTES, in natural history, a name given 
 by the ancients to a fossile, substance used in 
 medicine ; they have left us but very short de- 
 scriptions of it. Pliny only tells us, that it was 
 soft and of an agreeable smell. Hence Agricola 
 judges, that it was probably one of the bitumens. 
 
 BAPTISECULA, in botany, a name given by 
 some authors to the blue corn-flower, called the 
 cyanus or blue-bottle. 
 
 BaPTISIA, in botany, a genus of plants, 
 class, decandria ; order, monogynia. The gen- 
 eric character is : cal. semi four-fivefid, bilabi- 
 ate : COR. papilionaceous, petals nearly equal in 
 length: vexillum reflected laterally: stam. de- 
 ciduous; legume ventricose, pedicellate, many- 
 seeded. — Hort. Kew. It is a genus closely allied 
 to podalyria, and containing four species.
 
 495 
 
 A P T I S M. 
 
 BAPTISM, ^ Derived from the Gr./3a7r7-w 
 Bap'tize, v. and /SaTrrtJw. Thg primary 
 Bapti'zf.r, n. \ meaning; is to dip, to plunge, 
 Bap'tism/iL, j^toimmerge. Protestant Chris- 
 Bapt'ist, f tians use it strictly in its pri- 
 
 Bap'tistery, mary sense, or with greater 
 Baptist'ical, I latitudo of meaning, accord- 
 Bapti'zatiox. J inj to their respective tenets, 
 on the subject of the rite of baptism, as an ordi- 
 nance of Christianity. It is sometimes employed 
 figuratively, to express overwhelming sorrows ; 
 the covering of the earth by the dews of heaven ; 
 and the sacred influences of the spirit of God in 
 cleansing the heart. 
 
 I have a baptism to be baptized with, and how am 
 I straitened till it be acromplished. Luke. 
 
 Certes, if he be baptised without penitence of his old 
 gilt, he receiveth the inaik of baptisme, but not the 
 grace, ne the remission of his sinnes, til he have 
 veray repentance. Chaucer. The Personea Tale. 
 
 Speak, my Lord ; 
 And we will hear, note, and believe in heart. 
 That what j-ou speak is in your conscience wash'd 
 As pure as sin with baptism. Shakspeare. 
 
 His baptisme gives virtue to ours. His last action 
 (or rather passion) was his baptizing with blood; his 
 first was his baptization with water : both of them 
 wash the world from their sins. 
 
 Hall's Contemplations. 
 Baptism is given by water, and that prescript form 
 of words which the church of Christ doth use. 
 
 Hooker. 
 He to them shall leave in charire, 
 To teach all nations what of him they leam'd. 
 And his salvation ; them who shall believe, 
 Baptizinr) in the profluent stream, the sign 
 Of washing them from guilt of sin to life. 
 Pure, and in mind prepar'd, if so befal. 
 For death, like that which the Redeemer died. 
 
 Milim. 
 Let us reflect that we are Christians : that we are 
 called by the name of the Son of God, and baptized 
 into an irreconcileable enmity with sin, the world, and 
 the devil. Rogers. 
 
 The sacrament of baptism was supposed to contain 
 a full and absolute expiation of sin ; and the soul was 
 instantly restored to its original purity, and entitled 
 to the promise of eternal salvation. Gibbon. 
 
 Philosophy, baptiz'd 
 In the pure fountain of eternal love. 
 Has eyes, indeed ; and, viewing all she sees 
 As meant to indicate a God to man. 
 Gives him his praise, and forfeits not her own. 
 
 Cowper's Task. 
 Pass not unblest the genius of the place I 
 
 If through the air, a zephyr more serene. 
 Winnow the brow, 'tis his ; and if ye trace 
 Along his margin a more eloquent green. 
 If on the heart the freshness of tlie scene 
 
 Sprinkle its coolness, and from the dry dust 
 Of weary life a moment lave it clean 
 
 With nature's baptism, — 'tis to him ye must 
 Pay orisons for this suspension of disgust. 
 
 Byron. Childe Harold. 
 Baptism has been defined, a New Testament 
 ordmance, appointed by our Lord Jesus Christ, 
 as the first or mitiatory sacrament of the Gospel 
 dispensation, whereby its subjects are admitted as 
 visible members of that spiritual society of 
 
 believers, whicli is scripturally denominated the 
 * Church of Christ,' and entitled to all the privi- 
 leges of church communion. The derivation of 
 the word is from tb.e Greek /3a7rrii,'w, which lite- 
 rally signifies dipping or immersion, but is often 
 used in a lower sense to express the legal ablu- 
 tions and washings of the ceremonial law. See Heb. 
 ix. 10. and Mark vii.8. Baptism is denojninated 
 or described by various ecclesiastical writers, in 
 other ways; it is sometimes called palingenesia, 
 the laver of regeneration, salus, salvation ; ff(pim- 
 7»C, signaculum Domini, or signacuium fidei, the 
 seal of faith ; mysterium, mystery; sacramentum 
 fidei, the sacrament of faith, &c. Sometimes it 
 was called viaticum, from its being administered 
 to departing persons ; sometimes sacerdotium 
 laici, the lay priesthood, because allowed incases 
 of necessity to be conferred by laymen ; some- 
 times the great circumcision, because it suc- 
 ceeded in the room of circumcision, and was to 
 be a seal of the Christian covenant, as lliat was 
 the seal of the covenant made with Abraham. As 
 it had Christ for its author, it was anciently styled 
 Atopov and ;^api(T/ia Kvpiov, the gift of the Lord ; 
 sometimes simply Smpov, by way of eminence. 
 And as it made men members of the church, it 
 had the title of TtXenomc, and TtXeirj, the conse- 
 cration, and consummation ; because it gave 
 men the perfection of Christians, and a right to 
 partake of the To TeXeiov, which was the 
 Lord's Supper. It was also entitled p,vri(nQ and 
 jiv^ayoyia, the initiation, as it admitted men to 
 all the sacred rites of the Christian religion. 
 
 Purification by water seems so natural an em- 
 blem to express mental purification, that the use 
 of it has prevailed amongst nations who were 
 never enlightened by revelation ; water was used 
 in the religious ceremonies both of the Egyptians 
 and Greeks; and Grotius is of opinion that it 
 originated at the time of the deluge. According 
 to Clemens, Alexandrinus, and Tertullian, puri- 
 fication, by water, was the first ceremony per- 
 formed at initiation into the Eleusinian myste- 
 ries, which were derived from Egypt ; and Hesy- 
 chius renders tlie word vcpavoc, or the waterer, by 
 ayvi'^TTjg twv EXevaiviuiv, the priest whose 
 office at the Eleusinian mysteries was that of pu- 
 rifying. 
 
 The Jews are said by many writers, to have 
 used Baptism together with circumcision and sa- 
 crifice in the admission of male proselytes : all 
 these ceremonies, according to the same authors, 
 having been observed in their own admission into 
 covenant with the Deity at Sinai, when they 
 washed their clothes, and sanctified themselves. 
 See Exod. xix. 10.— 14. The female proselyte 
 was admitted by baptism and sacrifice, and in 
 cases where the proselyte had children, they 
 both circumcised and baptised, or baptised them 
 only, according to their sex. The baptism of a 
 proselyte was what they called metonymically 
 his regeneration, or ' new birth.' 
 
 The connexion, or rather the similitude be- 
 tween Jewish and Christian baptism has been 
 thus exhibited by Dr. Wall's celebrated treatise 
 upon the latter institution .
 
 496 
 
 BAPTISM. 
 
 1. Tlie Jews required of proselytes a renun- 
 ciation of idolatry, and to believe in Jehovah. 
 
 2. The Jews interrogated the proselyte while 
 standing in the water. 
 
 3. The Jews baptised the infant children of 
 proselytes. 
 
 4. The Jews required for an infant proselyte 
 that either his father, or the church of the place, 
 or three grave persons should answer for the 
 child. 
 
 5. A Jewish proselyte was said to be born 
 again, when baptised. 
 
 6. The Jews told the proselyte that he was 
 now clean and holy. 
 
 7. The Jews declared the baptised to be under 
 the wings of the Divine Majesty, or Shechinah. 
 
 8. At the paschal season, the Jews baptised 
 proselytes, that they might eat the passover. 
 
 9. The Jews had their proselytes of the gate. 
 
 The above statements are ingeniously drawn 
 from the writings of Maimonides and the Baby- 
 lonian Talmud, which was completed at the close 
 of the fifth century, and of course affords an his- 
 torical testimony of facts existing and believed in 
 at that time. Spencer, who is fond of deriving the 
 rites of the Jewish religion from the ceremonies 
 of the Pagans, lays it down as a probable sup- 
 position, tiiat the Jews received the baptism of 
 proselytes from the neighbouring nations, who 
 were wont to prepare candidates for the more 
 sacred functions of their religion by a solemn 
 ablution ; that, by this affinity of sacred rites, 
 they might draw the Gentiles to embrace their 
 religion, and that the proselytes (in gaining of 
 whom they were extremely diligent) might the 
 more easily comply with the transition from 
 Gentilism to Judaism. In confirmation of this 
 opinion he observes, first, thai there is no divine 
 precept for the baptism of proselytes, God 
 having enjoined only the rite of circumcision 
 for the admission of strangers into the Jewish re- 
 ligion. Secondly, that, among foreign nations, 
 the^ Egyptians, Persians, Greeks, Komans, and 
 others, it was customaiy that those who were to 
 be initiated into their mysteries, or sacred rites, 
 should be first purified by dipping their whole 
 body in water. That learned writer adds, as a 
 farther confirmation of liis opinion, that the cup 
 of blessing likewise, added to the paschal supper, 
 seems plainly to have been derived from a pagan 
 original : for the Greeks, at their feasts, had one 
 cup, called TroTTjpiov aya(pov ^aifiovoQ, the cup of 
 the good demon or god, wliich they drank at 
 the conclusion of their entertainment, when the 
 table was removed. Since, then, a rite of Gen- 
 tile origin was added to one of the Jewish sacra- 
 ments, viz. the passover, there can be no absurdity 
 in supposing, that baptism, which was added to 
 the other sacrament, namely, circumcision, might 
 be derived from the same source. In tlie last 
 place, he observes, that Christ, in the institution 
 
 1. The Christians required to renounce the 
 devil, and all his works, and to believe in the 
 Trinity. 
 
 2. The Christians put interrogatories as the 
 catechumen was about to enter the water, when 
 he had before answered in tlie congregation. 
 
 3. The Christians baptised infants. 
 
 4. The Christians observed a similar custom. 
 
 5. Our Saviour and the Apostles call baptism 
 regeneration, or being born again. 
 
 6. The same term is used in the New Testa- 
 ment : the baptised Christians are called the 
 saints, the holy, the sanctified — sanctified with 
 the washing of water. 
 
 7. Among Christians this was shown by the 
 gifts of the Holy Ghost: to this end the lay- 
 ing on of hands was used, a custom, probably 
 taken from the Jewish church. 
 
 8. The Christians at Easter administered bap 
 tism in a solemn manner. 
 
 9. The Christians had their catechumens, or 
 competentes. 
 
 of his sacraments, paid a peculiar regard to those 
 rites wliich were borrowed from the Gentiles ; 
 for, rejecting circumcision and the paschal supper, 
 he adopted into his religion baptism and the 
 sacred cup ; thus preparing the way for the 
 conversion and reception of the Gentiles into his 
 church. 
 
 Some able critics, however, who oppose 
 the general conclusions of the Baptists upon 
 this subject, agree with them in discarding 
 these alleged proofs of the connexion between 
 the Christian institute and Jewish proselyte 
 baptism. The learned Owen says : — 'The opi- 
 nion of some learned men, abou| the transferring 
 of a Jewish baptismal rite (which, in reality, did 
 not then exist), by the Lord Jesus for the use of 
 his disciples, is destitute of all probability.' And 
 in his exercitations on the epistle to the He- 
 brews, Exercitat. xiv. ' From this latter tem- 
 porary institution (the washing of their clothes 
 commanded upon the Israelites at Sinai) such a9 
 they had many granted to them in the wilder- 
 ness, before the giving of the law,, the Rabbins 
 have formed a baptism for those that enter into 
 their synagogue ; a fancy too greedily embraced 
 by some Christian writers, who would have the 
 holy ordinance of the Church's baptism to be 
 derived from thence. But this washing of their 
 clothes, not of their bodies, was temporary,, 
 never repeated ; neither is there any thing of any 
 such baptism or washing required in any prose- 
 lyte, either man or woman, where the laws of 
 their admission are strictly laid down. Nor are 
 there the least footsteps of any such usage among 
 the Jews until after the days of John the Baptist, 
 of whom it was first taken up by some ante- 
 mishnical llabbins.' Jennings, in his Jewish 
 Antiquities, (vol. I. p. 134, 8.) a work recom- 
 mended by the bishop of Lincoln, and placed in 
 the first class of those which every clergyman 
 ought to possess ; says it is more likely the Jews 
 took the hint of proselyte-baptism from the
 
 BAPTISM. 
 
 497 
 
 Christians after our Saviour's time, than that he 
 borrowed his baptism from their's ; which, when- 
 ever it came into practice, was one of those addi- 
 tions to the law of God, which he severely cen- 
 sures. There wants more evidence of its being 
 as ancient as our Saviour's time, than I appre- 
 hend can be produced, to ground any argument 
 upon it in relation to Christian baptism. We 
 therefore dismiss this form of the admission of 
 proselytes, as uncertain.' And Dr. Lardner, 
 works, vol. V. p. 501, 2. : ' I pay no regard to 
 what the later Jewish Rabbins say of the method 
 of initiating proselytes, by circumcision, bap- 
 tism, and sacrifice ; who have made void not only 
 the moral (with which our Lord often charged 
 them, as Matth. xv. 1 — 9, Mark vii. 1 — 13, and 
 other places), but also the ritual part of the law 
 of God. Indeed, they had corrupted the Mosaic 
 ritual by numberless additions, before the coming 
 of our Saviour. As appears from the text of St. 
 Mark just referred to. Nor have they ceased to 
 do the like since. 
 
 ' I think, as before said, that women were first 
 baptised under the evangelical dispensation. I 
 am also of opinion, that our blessed Lord's fore- 
 runner first made use of baptism as an initiating 
 ordinance ; and therefore he was called the 
 Baptist, O Ba7rr((Tr»jc. Matth. iii. 1, and in many 
 other pjaces. Nor am I singular in this opinion.' 
 
 From this alleged Jewish ordinance, as Jen- 
 nings has observed, some sects infer, that under 
 the Christian dispensation baptism is only to be 
 administered to converts from Judaism, Mahom- 
 medanism, paganism, or some other religion, and 
 to their descendants born before tlieir conversion 
 and baptism, but to none born after. Mr. Emlyn, 
 in particular, (Previous Question to several 
 Questions, or Valid and Invalid Baptism), in- 
 sists upon tliis argument against the constant and 
 universal obligation of infant baptism. And 
 the Society of Friends ground on tliis their prin- 
 cipal argument for rejecting baptism with water 
 as a ' carnal washing.' See ]\Ir. Gurney's late 
 defertce of the ' Peculiarities of Friends,' p. 67, 
 &c. 
 
 The baptism of John naturally presses upon 
 our consideration at the commencement of every 
 enquiry upon this subject. Its divine original is 
 expressly taught, John 1 and 33, and its object 
 was to prepare the way for the Messiah by call- 
 ing a general attention to him and preaching the 
 necessitv of repentance. The Jews seem to have 
 expected a general baptism at the coming of the 
 Messiah, and accordingly express little surprise 
 at the fact of the baptism itself, but rather ques- 
 tion the authority of John to administer it. 
 * Why baptisest thou then if thou be not Christ, 
 neither Klias, nor the prophet?' John uniformly 
 bore testimony to the more glorious person and 
 office of the Messiah; ' I indeed,' said he, ' bap- 
 tise you with water; but there standcth one 
 among you whom ye know not, ho shall bap- 
 tise you with tlie Holy Ghost and with fire:' 
 and, agreeably to the nature of his mission, he 
 taught them that his baptism was of no more 
 force after the entrance of the latter upon liis 
 public ministry; * He must increase, but I must 
 decrease;' ' I know him not but that he should 
 be made manifest to Israel; therefore am I come 
 Vol. 111. 
 
 baptising with water';' and the whole of his 
 ministry received a perfect accomplishment, 
 when, amidst the admiring multitudes, assembled 
 on occasion of his baptising his great successor, 
 there came a voice from heaven, saying, ' this is 
 my beloved son, in whom I am well pleased, 
 hear ye him.' The cause of Christian baptism 
 has frequently been advocated, and, as some 
 have thought, illustrated, from the baptism of 
 John; but John, according to the scriptures, is 
 to be considered as a member of tiie Old Testa- 
 ment church, agreeably to our Lord's language, 
 * the least in the kingdom of heaven is greater 
 than he.' The nature and obligation of baptism, 
 as a Christian ordinance, is to be placed on dif- 
 ferent and on better grounds. 
 
 1. The first thing to be considered is the origi- 
 nal institution of this sacrament by our Lord 
 himself, as a means of admission into his church. 
 He gave the universal commission to the dis- 
 ciples after his resurrection from the dead, ' Go 
 ye and teach all nations, baptising them in the 
 name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the 
 Holy Ghost. He that believeth and is baptised 
 shall be saved, he that believeth not shall be 
 damned,' Mark, xvi, 15, 16. As a sacrament of 
 initiation, baptism, according to the majority of 
 writers on this subject, corresponds with circum- 
 cision in the Jewish establishment, being the 
 badge of distinction between the church and the 
 woild. The analogy between these two ordi- 
 nances appeared so forcible to the church in the 
 time of St. Cyprian, that his opinion was request- 
 ed upon the point, whether baptism ought not to 
 be delayed till the eighth day after the birth 
 of a child, hi order that the resemblance between 
 the Jewish and Christian sacraments might be 
 more perfectly exhibited. Gregory Nazianzen 
 was an advocate for the eighth day. Cir- 
 cumcision has been considered, from a very 
 remote period, as a type of baptism, and those 
 arguments in behalf of infant baptism have been 
 deemed valid, which are drawn from the prac- 
 tice of circumcision under the ceremonial law. 
 St. Paul himself appears to teach the analogy 
 of the two ordinances in the following language, 
 found in Col. ii. 11. ' In whom ye are circum- 
 cised with the circumcision made without hands, 
 in putting off the body of the sins of the flesh by 
 the circumcision of Christ (or Christian baptism), 
 buried with him in baptism.' 
 
 That baptism must be received by all believers, 
 is evident from the very language of the original 
 institute, ' he that believeth and is baptised shall 
 be saved,' and so strongly did the early fathers 
 feel the necessity of it, that they frequently ex- 
 pressed their doubts as to the safety of infants 
 who died in an unbaptised state. Whether it be 
 possible for a man to be saved in an unbaptised 
 condition the cliurch of England nowhere 
 decides ; but the scriptures have been thought to 
 lean to the side of absolute necessity, in our 
 Lord's words to Nicodemus, John, iii, 5, 
 ' X'erily, verily, I say unto thee, except a man 
 be born again of water and of the spirit, he can- 
 not enter into the kingdom of- God.' The fathers 
 generally supposed this intended to express the 
 absolute necessity of baptism : the former part of 
 the verse evidently alluding to the outward form 
 
 2 K
 
 498 
 
 BAPTISM. 
 
 of administi-ationby water; the latter, to the sub- 
 sistance of an inward grace by the spirit of (tocI ; 
 constituting, in reality, that regeneration of the 
 mind of which the outward regenerative rite is 
 an imperfect representation. Hooker's language 
 upon the necessity of the exterior ordinance is, 
 ' If Christ himself, which giveth salvation, do 
 require baptism it is not for us, that look for sal- 
 vation, to sound and examine him whether 
 unbaptised men may be saved, but seriously to 
 do what is required, and religiously to fear the 
 danger which may grow by the want thereof.' 
 
 2. The second thing worthy of consideration 
 is the proper subjects to whom baptism may 
 be administered. 
 
 The church of England admits, equally, to the 
 sacrament persons of both sexes, adults or chil- 
 dren. Considerable opposition of opinion, never- 
 theless, prevails at present, with respect to the 
 validity of infant baptism and its benefits ; for 
 an historical sketch of the ceremony, see P^f^DO- 
 BAPTiST. It may be sufficient to our present 
 enquiry to observe, that there is no church in 
 the world, the Baptist excepted, that does not 
 admit of infant baptism, and that the question 
 was never agitated upon any considerable scale un- 
 til the period of the reformation. The service found 
 in the Common Prayer for the baptism of such 
 as are of riper years, was added at the review on 
 the restoration of Charles II. in consequence of 
 the growtli of Anabaptists, who had become so 
 numerous in the preceding century, that it was 
 necessary to have a form fitted for their service. 
 Clinical Baptism, which was used in the 
 first centuries of the christian era, was baptism 
 administered to a person on his death-bed; of 
 which custom, mention is made by Cyprian and 
 Eusebius, by Epiphanius in Heres. Cerinth, and 
 by other writers of the fourth and fifth centuries. 
 In a case where a heathen in his last sickness, 
 was converted to the Christian religion, such a 
 baptism became necessary. But, in consequence 
 of the superstitious notion that baptism alone 
 washed away all the sins of the past life, many 
 persons delayed the consideration of Christianity 
 till their last moments, intending just at that cri- 
 sis to make use of baptism, and thus die in the 
 hope of heaven. Gregory Nyssen, Chrysostom, 
 Nazianzen, and other fathers of the church, 
 inveighed against this delusion in the most 
 powerful language. The two most remarkable 
 instance's of the superstition alluded to, are 
 found in the emperor Constantine and his son 
 Constantius, who were both baptised on their 
 death-beds. But, since in all cases the sincerity 
 of death-bed religion is, to say the least, doubtful, 
 it was decreed by the council of Neocesarea, 
 A. D. 350, and of Laodicea, 363, that no clinic 
 should ever be admitted to the order of presbyter. 
 3. The third enquiry on this subject respects 
 the persons in whom is vested the office of ad- 
 ministering this sacrament. The right of bap- 
 tising has generally been committed to the 
 clergy of all communions. It belongs to bishops 
 and presbyters as a part of their office, although, 
 from t!ie example of Philip, it appears that dea- 
 cons have a divine authority for performing it, 
 perhaps equal to either of the two former. In 
 our established church deacons are empowered 
 
 to baptise only in the absence of the priest, a 
 limitation which is intended out of respect to the 
 higher orders of the clergy. Different opinions 
 ap])eai to have been held by the fathers upon the 
 subject of lay-baptism. Tertullian admits laymen 
 to administer it in cases of urgent necessity : the 
 same sentiment was expressed by St. Jerome, 
 and by the council of Eliberis, A. D. 305. Cal- 
 vin also confesses the antiquity of the opinion. — 
 Inst. 1. iv. c. XV. sec. 20. Basil however held 
 the contrary notion, and the a])ostolic. Const. 
 c. X. 1. iv., forbids laymen to baptise. It is how- 
 ever one thing to dispute the right of a layman 
 to baptise, and another thing to deny the spiritual 
 validity of a sacrament so administered, especially 
 since several of the ancient fathers allowed the 
 validity of the ordinance even when administered 
 by women. Baptism by laymen is at present 
 unknown in our national church, it may never- 
 theless be interesting to our readers to notice 
 some of the ancient canons upon the subject, 
 made in England by the Pope's delegates, during 
 the thirteenth century. In the constitution of 
 Edmund, archbishop of Canterbury, A. D. 1-236, 
 26 Hen. III., there is this direction: — 'Item in- 
 terroget sacerdos laicum diligentur, cum in neces- 
 sitate baptizaveret puerum ; quid dixerit, etiam, 
 quid fecerit. Et si diligenti praecedente inqui- 
 sitione facta sibi fide plena, invenirit laicum dis- 
 tinctfe et in forma ecclesis baptizasse, sive in 
 Latino, sive in Gallico, sive in Anglico, approbet 
 factum. Si vero baptizatus fuerit puer a laico, 
 precedentia et subsequentia mersionem explean- 
 tur vel suppleantur a sacerdote.' ' When a lay- 
 man has, upon urgent necessity, baptised a child, 
 the priest shall enquire diligently with what words 
 and acts it was performed, and if upon diligent 
 enquiry he find, and is well persuaded, that the 
 layman did distinctly, and according to the 
 forms of the church, whether in Latin, French, 
 or English, baptise the child, he shall confirm 
 the proceeding : but in this case the rites preced- 
 ing and following the immersion shall be supplied 
 by a priest.' By another constitution of the 
 same archbishop, order was given, that in cases 
 of child-birth the attendants should have water 
 ready at hand to baptise the child if necessity 
 required. The legantine constitutions of Otho 
 the year following gave order that laymen should 
 be instructed how to baptize ; which was again 
 enforced by the constitution of Otobon, another 
 legate, in 1260. It would perhaps, under all 
 circumstances, be difficult to decide the point, 
 whether this earnest solicitude to prevent any 
 child dying unbaptised was the effect of a de- 
 plorable superstition, or a profound policy on 
 the part of the clergy, but evidently the compli- 
 ance arose from ignorance on the part of the 
 people. It is also certain, that in consequence 
 of these institutions baptism became very pre- 
 valent, for we find a constitution of archbishop 
 Peccham, in a provincial synod held at Reading 
 in 1279, enjoining that baptism by laymen should 
 not be repeated ; and, in cases where it appeared 
 doubtful, whether the child had been baptised or 
 not that the form should be used, which is still 
 preserved in our liturgy. 'If thou art not already 
 Ijaptised, I baptise thee &c.' In the liturgy of 
 Edward \'i. there is internal evidence that the
 
 BAPTISM. 
 
 499 
 
 form of private baptism was intended for the use 
 of the laity, ar well as the cleri^^y, at least in caseS 
 of extreme danger. In the articles drawn up by 
 the convocation, A.D. I.'i7.'», the twelfth takes 
 notice of a doubt which had frequently arisen ; 
 namely, whether the form of private baptism 
 might be administered by laymen or no. The 
 convocation decided in the negative ; but this 
 article, though existing in the MS., was never 
 printed, and the question still remained till the 
 conference at Hampton Court, which took place 
 in the first year of the reign of James I., 
 when the form itself was so altered as to ex- 
 clude lay baptism altogether. Upon the whole, 
 then, it appears ' that lay baptism is now ex- 
 cluded from the church of England, there exist- 
 ing no necessity for it, but tliat the church does 
 not say that lay baptism is no baptism.' 
 
 4. Tile fourth enquiry is, what facts go to con- 
 stitute baptism. These, with reference to the 
 outward administration of it, are two ; namely, 
 the application of water, and the using of the 
 original words of institution — ' I baptise thee in 
 the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of 
 the Holy Ghost.' 
 
 The Baptists consider that it is an essential 
 part of baptism that the subject should be ap- 
 plied to the water and immersed in it, for which 
 reason many of them abstain from Christian com- 
 munion with members of other churches, consider- 
 ing them as unbaptised persons. It is certain that 
 the literal meaning of the word baptism is im- 
 mersion, which is further confirmed by the prac- 
 tice of the ancient church ; but whether immersion 
 be essential to the constitution of the ordinance, 
 is in our opinion a separate enquiry. The 
 practice of sprinkling in some cases was adopted, 
 and even justified by all the parties, as in the 
 baptism of sick persons and weak children. It 
 follows that baptism is valid where immersion is 
 not used, and therefore that immersion is no 
 essential part of it; besides which, there is a 
 strong probability that in the baptism of the 
 jailor. Acts xvi. 33, immersion was not resorted 
 to. With respect to the practice of our estab- 
 lished church, dipping appears to have been the 
 regular and establi.shed mode, and was general at 
 the Reformation ; but, in 1644, wlien the Presby- 
 terians had the ascendancy, the original practice 
 of the church began to decline, and, after several 
 centuries had elapsed, the present mode became 
 universal. It contributed not a litde to the 
 cause of sprinkling, that during the bloody reign 
 of queen JNIary, many of our Protestant divines, 
 flying into Germany and Switzerland, and re- 
 turning when queen Elizabeth came to the crown, 
 brought l)ack with them a great zeal for the pro- 
 testant churches beyond sea, where they had 
 been sheltered and received; and having ob- 
 served, that at Geneva and some other places, 
 baptism was administered by sprinkling, they 
 introduced the same practice into the churches 
 of England. 
 
 The next point essential to a valid baptism, is 
 that it be administered ' in the name of the Fa- 
 ther, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost.' A 
 baptism not thus administered, or administered 
 without water, the church of England considers 
 no baptism, and would insist on a proper sub- 
 
 mission to the sacrament. But sundry passages 
 occur in the new testament which relate to the 
 administering of baptism in the name of Christ 
 alone, as Acts ii. 38; viii. 16; xx. 48; xix. 5; 
 Rom. vi. 3; (jal. iii. 27; accordingly in St. 
 Basil's time, the question was agitated, and some 
 contended that baptism ought to be thus adminis- 
 tered. But being baptised in the name of Christ 
 implies being baptised ' in the name of the Father, 
 5cc.' because these were points in which all cate- 
 chumens were instructed, and in which every bap- 
 tised Christian was supposed to lie established. 
 
 The following illustration of this subject, taken 
 from Dr. Lightfoot's Harmony of the New Tes- 
 tament, Acts ii., is worthy the attention of the 
 reader. 'Three thousand converted are baptised 
 in the name of the Lord Jesus,' verse 38, which 
 no whit disagreeth. from the command, ' Baptise 
 in the name of the Father, and of the Son, &c. 
 Matt, xxviii. 19. For the form of baptism in 
 these first days of the gospel, of which the New 
 Testament giveth the story, may be considered 
 under a threefold condition. 1 . John the Bap- 
 tist baptised in the name of Messias, or Christ 
 that was then ready to come, but that Jesus of 
 Nazareth was he, he himself knew not till he had 
 run a good part of his course, John, i. 31, 32. 
 The disciples baptising the Jews, baptised them 
 in tlie name of Jesus, upon this reason, because 
 the great point of controversy then in the nation 
 about Messias was, whether Jesus of Nazareth 
 were he or no. All the nations acknowledged 
 a Messias, but the most of them abominated that 
 Jesus of Nazareth should be thought to be he, 
 therefore those that by the preaching of the gos- 
 pel came to acknowledge him to be Messias, 
 were now baptised in his name as the critical 
 badge of their embracing the true Messias. But 
 3d, where the question was not on foot, they 
 baptised in the name of the Father, and of the 
 Son, and of the Holy Ghost. And so that bap- 
 tising in the name of Jesus was for a season for 
 the settling of the evidence of his being Messias, 
 and when that was thoroughly established, then 
 it was used no more ; but baptism was in the 
 name of the Father, and of the Son, &c. Of the 
 same cognizance were those extraordinary gifts 
 of the spirit evidences of Jesus his being the 
 Messias, and means of conveying the gospel 
 through the world, and when both these were 
 well established, then those gifts ceased for ever.' 
 See also his sermon on Matt, xxviii. 19, where it 
 is proved that John baptized in the name of Mes- 
 sias novv' coming. 
 
 According to the general sentiment among 
 Christians this sacrament can be received but once, 
 thus expressed in the Nicene creed, ' I believe in 
 one baptism for the remission of sins.' The cases 
 mentioned in ecclesiastical history to tlie con- 
 trary, are derived from the re-baptising of per- 
 sons who had been baptised by heretics, the 
 validity of which the orthodox, or party baptising, 
 denied and said that it was no baptism. The 
 subject was therefore in those cases considered 
 as an unbaptised person. 
 
 5. Our next object will be to illustrate the 
 time, place, and manner of baptism. In the 
 earliest ages of the church, there was no stated 
 time or place for the reception of baptism. After- 
 
 2 K 2
 
 jOO 
 
 BAPTISM. 
 
 wares Easter,\\hitsuntide,and Epiphany, became 
 t^olemn seasons, out of which baptism was not 
 administered, except in cases of necessity. The 
 catechumens, who were to receive it at these 
 times, were called competentes ; and to these it 
 is that St. Cyril addresses his catechises. In the 
 apostolical age, and some time after, before 
 churches and baptisteries were generally erected, 
 they baptised in any place where they had con- 
 venience ; as John baptised in Jordan, and Phibp 
 baptised the eunuch in the wilderness, and Paul 
 the jailor, in his own house. But in after ages, 
 baptisteries were built adjoining to the church ; 
 and then rules were made, that baptism should 
 ordinarily be administered nowhere but in those 
 buildings. Justinian refers to ancient laws, ap- 
 pointing that none of the sacred mysteries of the 
 church should be celebrated in private houses. 
 Men might have private oratories for prayer ia 
 their own houses ; but they were not to adminis- 
 ter baptism or the eucharist in them, unless by a 
 particular license from the bishop of the place. 
 Such baptisms were frequently condemned in the 
 ancient councils, under the name Trapa^a-n-na- 
 fiara, baptisms in private conventicles. As to 
 the attendant ceremonies and manner of baptism 
 in the ancient church : The person to be bap- 
 tised, if an adult, was first examined by the 
 bishop or officiating priest, who put some ques- 
 tions to him ; as, first. Whether he abjured the 
 devil and all his works ? secondly, Whether he 
 gave a firm assent to all the articles of the Chris- 
 tian faith ? to both which he answered in the 
 affirinative. If the person to be baptised was an 
 infant, he answered by his sponsors or god- 
 fathers. After the questions and answers fol- 
 lowed the exorcism : The miaistef laid his hands 
 on the person's head, and breathed in his face, 
 to expel the devil from him, and prepare him for 
 baptism, by which the holy spirit was to be con- 
 ferred upon him. After exorcism, the minister, 
 by prayer, consecrated the water. The person 
 was then baptised ' in the name of the Father, 
 and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost.' In 
 performing the ceremony, the usual custom (ex- 
 cept in clinical cases, or where there was scarcity 
 of water), was to immerse and dip the whole 
 body. Thus St. Barnabas, describing a baptised 
 person, says, ' We go down into the water full of 
 sin and filth, but we ascend bearing fruit in our 
 hearts.' And this practice was so general that 
 we find no exceptions made in respect either to 
 the tenderness of infants, or the bashfulness of 
 the other sex, unless in case of sickness or other 
 disability. But to prevent any indecency, men 
 and women were baptised apart; and either the 
 baptisteries were divided into two apartments, 
 one for the men, the other for the women, as 
 Bingham has observed ; or the men were bap- 
 tised at one time, and tlie women at another, as 
 is shown by \'ossius, from the (Jrdo llomanus, 
 Gregory's Sacramentarium, &:c. There was also 
 an order of deaconesses, one part of whose busi- 
 ness was to assist at the baptism of women. 
 These precautions, however, rati>er indicate a 
 scrupulous attention to delicacy, than imply any 
 indecency in the circumstance of immersion it- 
 self. From the candidates being immersed, there 
 is no reason to infer that tliey were naked : The 
 
 present baptists never baptise naked, thougli 
 they always immerse. After immersion, followed 
 the unction ; by which (says St. Cyril) was sig- 
 nified, that they were now cut off from the wild 
 olive, and were ingrafted into Christ, the true 
 vine ; or else to show that they were now to be 
 champions for the gospel, and were anointed 
 thereto, as the old athletae were against their 
 solemn games. VVith the anointing was joined 
 the sign of the cross, made upon the forehead of 
 the person baptised ; which being done, he had 
 a white garment given him, to denote his being 
 washed from the defilements of sin. From this 
 custom the feast of Pentecost, which was one of 
 tlie annual seasons of baptism, came to be called 
 Whit-sunday, i.e. White Sunday. This garment 
 was afterwards laid up in the church, that it 
 might be an evidence against such persons as 
 violated or denied that faith which they had 
 owned in baptism. The person baptised was 
 then, according to Justin IVIartyr, 'received into 
 the number of the faithful, who sent up their pub- 
 lic prayers to God, for all men, for themselves, 
 and for those who had been baptised.' 
 
 The Form of Baptism in the church of Rome 
 is as follows : — When a child is to be baptised, 
 the persons who bring it, wait for the priest at the 
 door of the church, who comes thither in his sur- 
 plice and purple stole, attended by his clerks. 
 He begins with questioning the godfather, whe- 
 ther they promise, in the child's name, to live and 
 die in the true catholic and apostolic faith, and 
 what name they would give the child. Then fol- 
 lows an exhortation to the sponsors : after which 
 the priest calling the child by its name, asks it, 
 What dost thou demand of tlie church? The 
 godfather snswers, eternal life. The priest goes 
 on : If you are desirous of obtaining eternal life, 
 keep God's commandments, thou shalt love the 
 lord thy God, &c. After which he breathes three 
 times in the child's face, saying. Come out of this 
 child, thou evil spirit, and make room for the 
 Holy Ghost ! This said, he makes the sign of 
 the cross on the child's forehead and breast, say- 
 ing. Receive the sign of the cross on thy forehead^ 
 and in thy heart. Then taking off his cap, he 
 repeats a short prayer; and laying his hand softly 
 on the child's head, repeats a second prayer: 
 which ended, he blesses some salt, and putting a 
 little of it into the child's mouth, pronounces 
 these words. Receive the salt of wisdom. All 
 this is performed at the church door. The priest, 
 with the godfatliers and godmothers, coming 
 into the church, and advancing towards the font, 
 repeat the apostle's creed and the Lord's prayer. 
 Being come to the font, the priest exorcises the 
 evil spirit again ; and taking a little of his own 
 spittle, with the thumb of his right hand, rubs it 
 on the child's ears and nostrils, repeating, as he 
 touches the right ear, the same word (Ephatha be 
 thou opened), which our Saviour made use of to 
 the man born deaf and dumb. Lastly, they pull 
 off its swaddling-clothes, or strip it below the 
 shoulders, during which the priest prepares the 
 oils, &c. The sponsors then hold the child 
 directly over the font, observing to turn it due 
 east and west : whereupoii the priest asks tho 
 child. Whether he renounces the devil and all hi.; 
 works ? and the godfather having answered in
 
 BAPTISM. 
 
 501 
 
 the affirmative, the priest anoints the child be- 
 tween the shoulders in the form of a cross. Then 
 taking some of the consecrated water, he pours 
 part of it thrice on the child's head, at each per- 
 fusion calling on one of the persons of the Holy 
 Trinity. The priest concludes the ceremony of 
 baptism with an exhortation. The Romish church 
 allows midwives, in cases of danger, to baptise a 
 child before it is come entirely out of its mother's 
 womb : where, it is to be observed, that some 
 part of the body of the child must appear before 
 it can be baptised, and tliat it is baptised on that 
 part which first appears : if it be the head, it is 
 not necessary to re-baptise the child ; but if only 
 a foot or hand appears, it is necessary to repeat 
 baptism. A still-born child, thus baptised, may 
 be buried in consecrated ground! The Greek 
 church differs from the Romish, as to the rite of 
 baptism, chiefly, in performing it by complete 
 immersion. 
 
 Forms of Baptism in the Church of England. 
 The forms of administering baptism among us 
 being too well known to require a particular de- 
 scription, we shall only mention one or two of the 
 more material differences between the form, as it 
 stood in the liturgy of king Edward, and that 
 in the English Common Prayer Book at present. 
 The form of consecrating the water did not make 
 a part of the office in king Edward's liturgy, as 
 it does in the present, because the water in the 
 font was changed, and consecrated but once a 
 month. Tlie form likewise itself was something 
 different from that now used ; and was introduced 
 with a short prayer ; that Jesus Christ, upon 
 whom (when he was baptised), the Holy Ghost 
 came down in the likeness of a dove, would send 
 down the same Holy Spirit, to sanctify the foun- 
 tain of baptism ; which prayer was afterwards 
 left out at the second review. — By king Edward's 
 first book, the minister is to dip the child in tl e 
 water thrice ; 1st, dipping the right side; 2dly, 
 the left ; the 3d time, dipping the face toward the 
 font. This trine immersion was a very ancient 
 practice in the Christian church, and used in 
 honor of the Holy Trinity ; though some later 
 writers say, it was done to represent the death, 
 burial, and resurrection of Christ, together with 
 his three days continuance in the grave. After- 
 wards, the Arians, persuading the people that it 
 was used to denote that the three persons in the 
 Trinity were three different substances, the or- 
 thodox left it off, and used only one single immer- 
 sion. By the first common prayer of king 
 Edward, after the child was baptised, the god- 
 fathers and godmothers were to lay their hands 
 upon it, and the minister was to put on him the 
 white vestment commonly called the chrysome, 
 and to say, ' Take this white vesture, as a token 
 of the innocency, which by God's grace, in the 
 holy sacrament of baptism, is given unto thee; 
 and for a sign, whereby thou art admonished, so 
 long as thou livest, to give thyself to innocence 
 of living, that after this transitory life tliou may- 
 est be parUiker of the life everlasting. Amen.' 
 As soon as he had pronounced these words, he 
 was to anoint the infant on the head, saying, 
 * Almighty God, the father of our Lord Jesus 
 (^^hrist, who hath regenerated thee by water and 
 Jhe Holy Ghost, and hath given unto thee remis- 
 
 sion of all thy sins ; may he vouchsafe to anomt 
 thee with the unction of his Holy Spirit, and bring 
 thee to the inheritance of everlasting life. Amen.' 
 This was manifestly done in imitation of the 
 practice of the primitive church. 
 
 The only human institutions connected with 
 baptism in our established church, at present, are 
 two, namely, sponsors and signing with thp 
 cross. Sponsors, or godfathers, called in ancient 
 ecclesiastical writings, patrini, and avdcoxoi, or 
 susceptores, are mentioned as early as TertuUian. 
 Cyril of Alexandria, A. U. 412, mentions the 
 susceptor as saying Amen for the child baptised. 
 It is also evident that in the second century there 
 were attendants upon the children to be baptised, 
 whose distinct office was to receive them from 
 the priest, and who, it is highly probable, an- 
 swered for them at the font ; but that the prac- 
 tice was not used in the days of the apostles is 
 evident, since it is not mentioned by Justin 
 Martyr- The sign of the cross is a ceremony 
 against which much censure has been levelled. 
 It was used as early as the third century, and, 
 although many efforts were made at the reforma- 
 tion to abolish it, has been carefully preserved. 
 
 Other customs, however, have by different 
 churches, and in different ages, been introduced 
 into the celebration of this sacrament, which are 
 now totally disused, or retained only in the 
 church of Rome. They may be enumerated in 
 the following order : 1. Trme immersion, already 
 alluded to, the practice of which commenced 
 about the opening of the fourth century. Al.. 
 though prescribed in the English church by the 
 prayer-book, 2 of Edward VT., this form was 
 afterwards omitted. 2. Chrism, or unction, as 
 mentioned by TertuUian, Cyprian, Cyril, and 
 Chrysostom. It was performed with plain oil 
 before baptism, and with unguent afterwards. 
 3. TertuUian mentions the practice of giving 
 milk and honey to persons after baptism. Tliis 
 ceremony, which after a few centuries was dis- 
 continued, has been derived by some learned 
 men from the Jewish customs at proselyte bap- 
 tism. 4. Exorcism, or putting the baptised per- 
 son upon his oath, and declaring to him his 
 obligation to renounce sin, was used in the 
 fourth century. This ceremony abounds with 
 corruption in the church of Rome. 5. Candles 
 lighted after baptism, and placed in the hands of 
 the person baptised, as an emblem of the illumi- 
 nation of the spirit, was a ceremony used as 
 early as the fourth century. 6. The chrisom, so 
 called in the English church, was a white gar- 
 ment or surplice, put on immediately after bap- 
 tism. 7. Easter and Pentecost were considered 
 solemn times for the administration of baptism, 
 as early as the second and third centuries. 
 8. Salt was not given to the baptised till the 
 eighth century ; nor, 9. The ears touched with 
 spittle till the ninth. 
 
 6. Our sixth object wUl be to exhibit some of 
 the most popular heresies which have prevailed 
 at different periods respecting baptism. These 
 arose chiefly in the second and three following 
 centuries. 1. In the second century Marcion 
 permitted women to baptise ; affirmed that none 
 but virgins, widows, or celibates, were fit sub- 
 jects for baptism ; and allowed baptism to be
 
 502 
 
 B A P T I S M. 
 
 repeated thrice. The Montanists baptised the 
 dead. The Valentinians, instead of baptising in 
 the name of the Father, &c. used a mysticid form 
 in the name of the Unknown Father of all things, 
 in the Truth the Mother of all things, in him 
 that came down on Jesus, in the union and re- 
 demption and communion of powers. Instead 
 of using water they poured a mixture of oil and 
 water on the head, after which they anointed tlie 
 persons so baptised. 2. In the third century 
 arose the heresy of the Manichees, who affirmed 
 that baptism by water was not necessary to sal- 
 vation, and accordingly neglected it. 3. The 
 fourth century w^as remarkable for the heresy of 
 Arius, who baptised in the name of the Son only. 
 4. Pelagius, in the fifth century, affirmed that 
 infants were baptised for other reasons, and not 
 because of original sin. 
 
 7. Several laws have passed in different ages 
 for enforcing and restricting baptism. In the 
 ancient church, baptism was frequently con- 
 ferred on Jews by violence ; but the church 
 never seems to have allowed of force on this 
 occasion. By a canon of the fourth council of 
 Toledo, it is expressly forbidden to baptise any 
 against their wills. That which looks most like 
 force in this case, allowed by law, were two 
 orders of Justinian ; one of which appoints the 
 heathens, and the other Samaritans, to be bap- 
 tised, widi their wives and children and servants, 
 under pain of confiscation. By the ancient lav.s, 
 baptism was not to be conferred on image-makers, 
 stage-players, gladiators, auriga or public drivers, 
 magicians, or even strolling beggars, till they 
 quitted such professions. Slaves were not al- 
 lowed the privilege of baptism without the tes- 
 timony and consent of their master?7 «.xcepting 
 the slaves of Jews, heathens, and heretics, who 
 were not only admitted to baptism, but, in con- 
 sequence thereof, had their freedom. Vossius 
 has a learned and elaborate work, I)e Baptismo, 
 wherein he accurately discusses all die questions 
 concerning baptism according to the doctrine of 
 the ancients. 
 
 8. Baptism for the Dead was a sort of vica- 
 rious baptism, formerly in use, where a person 
 dying without baptism, another was baptised in 
 his stead. St. Chrysostom tells us, this was 
 practised among the JNlarcionites with a great 
 deal of ridiculous ceremony. After any catechu- 
 men was dead, they hid a living man under the 
 bed of the deceased ; then coming to the dead 
 man, they asked him, whether he would receive 
 baptism ? and he making no answer^ the other 
 answered for him, and said, he would be bap- 
 tised in his stead ; and so they baptised the 
 living for the dead. Epiphanius assures us, the 
 like was also practised among the Corinthians. 
 This practice tiiey pretend to be founded on the 
 apostle's authority ; alleging that text for it, If 
 the dead rise not at all, what shall they do who 
 a-e baptised for the dead .' This text, indeed, 
 has given occasion to a great variety of different 
 systems and explications. Bosius enumerates no 
 less than nine different opinions among divines 
 concerning the sense of die phrase. St. Ambrose 
 and W alafred Strabo seem clearly of opinion, 
 that the apostle had respect to such a custom 
 theu in being ; and several moderns are of the 
 
 same opinion, as Baronius, Jos. Scaliger, Jus- 
 tellus, and Grotius. But Bellarmin, Salmeron, 
 Menochius, and several other Roman catholics, 
 understand it of the baptism of tears, and pe- 
 nance, and prayers, which the living undergo for 
 the dead ; and thus allege it as a proof of the 
 belief of purgatory in St. Paul's days. Some 
 protestant divines read the passage, baptised 
 into death ; and illustrate it by the context ; par- 
 ticularly the words ' being buried with Christ by 
 baptism into death.' Paul, they say, is proving 
 the resurrection by that of our Saviour, and the 
 strength of his argument is, (1 Cor. xv. 16, 17, 
 29.) ' If Christ be not raised, and if the dead 
 rise not, what shall they do who are baptised 
 into his death V This appears the most probable 
 interpretation of tlie text. 
 
 Baptism of the Dead was a custom which 
 anciently prevailed among some people in Africa. 
 The third council of Carthage speaks of it as a 
 thing that ignorant Christians were fond of. 
 Gregory Nazianzen also takes notice of the same 
 superstitious opinion prevailing among some 
 who delayed to be baptised. In his address to 
 this kind of men, he asks whether they staid to 
 be baptised after death ? Philastrins also notes 
 it as the general error of the Montanists or Cata- 
 phrygians, that they baptised men after death. 
 The practice seems to be grounded on a vain 
 opinion, that, when men had neglected to receive 
 baptism in tlieir life-time, some compensation 
 might be made for this omission by receiving it 
 after death. 
 
 Baptism of Bells, a superstitious custom 
 practised in the church of Rome, whereby the 
 bell was supposed to be rendered capable of 
 driving away tempests and devils. It is first 
 taken notice of in the capitulars of Charles the 
 Cireat. Baronius carries its antiquity no higher 
 than the year 968, when the greatest bell of the 
 church of Lateran was christened by pope John 
 III. In 1581 it was- complained of in the cen- 
 tum gravamina of the German nation, drawn up 
 in the pul)lic diet at Nuremberg. In this cere- 
 mony the bell v.as provided with godfathers, who 
 made responses, and gave it a name ; after which 
 they clothed it widi a new garment, as Christians 
 used to be clothed on coming out of the water. 
 
 Baptism, Fire, spoken of by St. John the 
 the Baptist, has occasioned much conjecture. 
 Some of th.e fathers held that believers, before 
 they enter paradise, are to pass through a cer- 
 tain fire, which is to purify them from all re- 
 maining pollutions. Others, with St. Basil, 
 understood it of the fire of hell ; odiers of that 
 of tribulation and temptation. Others, with St. 
 Chrysostom, will have it to denote an abundance 
 of graces. Others suppose it to mean the descent 
 of the Holy Ghost on the apostles, in tiie form of 
 fiery tongues. Lastly, odiers maintain that the 
 words ' with fire' are an interpolation. Some 
 MS. copies of St. Matthew, indeed, want these 
 words ; but still they are to be found in St. Mark 
 and St. Luke. The ancient Seleucians and Iler- 
 minians, understanding it literally, maintained 
 that material fire was necessary in the adminis- 
 tration of baptism. But we do not find how, or 
 to what part of the body, they applied it, or 
 whether they were satisfied with obliging the
 
 BAPTISTS. 
 
 503 
 
 person l>aptised to pass through the fire. Valen- 
 tinus, according to Tertullian, rebaptized all who 
 had received water baptism, and conferred on 
 them the baptism of fire. Ileracleon, cited by 
 Clemens Alexandrinus, says that some applied a 
 red hot iron to the ears of the person baptised, 
 as if to impress some mark upon him ! If many 
 of the plainest texts of Scripture had not been 
 misconstrued by ignorance, and darkened by 
 knavery, one would be surprised that ever this 
 text should have occasioned the smallest contro- 
 versy. The context suggests one good interpre- 
 tation. The Baptist spoke to a mixed multitude, 
 many of whom were or would be believers, and 
 manyof wliom never did believe the gospel. He 
 tlierefore tells them that One, mightier than he, 
 should baptise them (the one class) with the 
 Holy tJhost, and (the other) ' with fire ;' that he 
 will thoroughly purge his floor and gather his 
 wheat into his garner; but he will burn up the 
 chaff", &c. Other passages of the New Testament 
 speak of a ' fiery trial,' which is to try all faithful 
 believers, as no ' strange thing,' 1 Pet. iv. 12 ; and 
 Jesus Christ, alluding to his own sufferings, as- 
 sured his immediate followers ' that they should 
 be baptised with the baptism wherewith he was 
 baptised.' Probably therefore we unite the best 
 interpretations of the passage by considering it 
 to refer to the baptism of the day of I'entecost 
 literally, and symbolically to the Christian's 
 siiare of afflictions in this suffering and vain 
 world. 
 
 BAPTISTS, a general name by which those 
 Christians are distinguished who deny the validity 
 of infant baptism, and restrict the administration 
 of that sacrament to persons capable of believing 
 , and understanding the religion into which they 
 are thus initiated. They also maintain generally 
 that immersion is necessary to constitute a scrip- 
 tural baptism. Like all other denominations of 
 Christians, they call in the evidence of antiquity; 
 and their pretensions, if founded on fact, as will 
 be seen hereafter, are considerable. They affirm 
 that infant baptism was unknown before the third 
 century, was established in tlie fourth and fifth, 
 and prevailed generally till the Reformation ; that 
 even in the dark ages some. traces of pure bap- 
 tism are discernible ; that the ancient British 
 church, before the arrival of St. Austin, did not 
 baptise infants ; that Bruno and Berengarius in 
 the eleventh century, the Waldenses, the Lol- 
 lards, and the Wickliffites, opposed infant bap- 
 tism, together with William Sawtre, the first 
 Lollard martyr in England, who was burnt A. D. 
 1401, in the reign of Henry IV. This is certain, 
 with respect to their antiquity, that at an early 
 period of the Reformation disputations were held 
 at Zurich, Bale, and Berne, upon infant baptism. 
 
 To the class of Baptists belong the ancient Ko- 
 vatians, CaUiphrygians, the Donatists, the Ana- 
 baptists and Mennonites of Germany, and others, 
 who, though they differed widely in their opinions 
 upon other subjects, held the same general views 
 with respect to the initiatory sacrament. 
 
 Although the term Anabaptist has been pro- 
 miscuously used as a general name by which to 
 distinguish Baptists or re-baptisers, still we must 
 distinguish between the Baptists in general and 
 the Anabaptists of Germany, for which see article 
 
 Anabaptist. It would be equally uncandid 
 and unjust to confound, with the latter enthu- 
 siasts, so respectable and consistent a body of 
 Christians as the Baptists are, merely from a coin- 
 cidence of opinion on the subject of baptism, 
 especially since the wild doctrines of the latte"- 
 on the subject of civil government have always 
 been disclaimed by the former, although it must 
 be confessed a difficulty to distinguish them for 
 some years after the Reformation. 
 
 The Baptists in England separate from the es- 
 tablishment for the same reasons as their brethren 
 of the other denominations do; and from the ad- 
 ditional motives derived from their particular 
 tenets respecting baptism. The constitution of 
 their churches, and their modes of worship, are 
 congregational or independent ; in the exercise 
 of which they are protected in common with 
 other dissenters, by the act of toleration. Before 
 this act they were liable to pains and penalties as 
 nonconformists, and often for their peculiar sen- 
 timents as Baptists. A proclamation was issued 
 out against ttiem, and some of them were burnt 
 in Smithfield in 1538. Many of them were per- 
 secuted as Anabaptists in the reign of Elizabeth, 
 charged with holding opinions which tended to 
 anarchy. Indeed, during the latter part of Eliza- 
 beth's reign, the powers of the Star Chamber, and 
 the High Commission, lad almost destroyed dis- 
 sent ; the Baptists fled the country, and settled 
 principally in Holland. Mr. Smyth, a beneficed 
 clergyman who had seceded from the establish- 
 ment, founded a Baptist church of English refu- 
 gees at Amsterdam. He appears to have been 
 an Arminian in point of sentiment; but in his 
 settlement over this people we have the earliest 
 evidence of the existence of regular Baptist 
 churches. Mr. Smyth died in 1610, and was 
 succeeded in his ministry by Thomas Helwisse, 
 who shortly after returned with his congregation 
 to England, and settled in London. The severi- 
 ties exercised by king James I. at this time 
 against the Puritans and Baptists, called forth 
 some able writings in explanation and defence of 
 their principles. A petition was presented to 
 parliament in 1620, after which the Baptists were 
 legally acknowledged as a body distinct from the 
 Anabaptists, although considerable prejudice 
 existed against them, even to the time when 
 bishop Taylor wrote his Liberty of Propiiecying. 
 It was particularly unhappy for their cause that 
 the fifth monarchy men, of Cromwell's time, 
 were chiefly Baptists. The year 1633 affords us 
 the earliest records remaining of a particular 
 baptist church in London, formed under a Mr. 
 Spilsburj'. The persons who formed this con- 
 gregation had separated from one of the inde- 
 pendent persuasion ; and, conceiving the right of 
 administering baptism to descend in uninter- 
 rupted succession, sent one of their members 
 over to Holland to receive that ordinance, ard 
 bring it over to them. 
 
 Tliey might, it is true, have received baptism 
 from some member of 31 r. Spilsbury's congrega- 
 tion ; but that body being Particular or Cal- 
 vinistic Baptists would not liave any connexion 
 with the Arminian or General Baptists. Be- 
 tween thes^ two denominations there never wa.« 
 much intercourse, nor is there at the presen*
 
 304 
 
 BAPTISTS. 
 
 day. After the murder of Charles I. bot!i the 
 Baptists and Independents suHered much from 
 the intolerant spirit of the Presbyterians ; but in 
 the short parliament of Cromwell, commonly 
 called ' Praise God Barebone's parliament,' from 
 the circumstance of Mr. Barebone, a Baptist mi- 
 nister, havincf made himself conspicuous in it, 
 the Baptists appear to have had some influence. 
 Great suspicion, nevertheless, rested upon them 
 generally; especially as amongst the Baptists at 
 hat period were found some who opposed the 
 Protector's government, and advocated republi- 
 can principles, and others who believed the near 
 approach of Christ to reign upon the earth, and 
 were ever ready to promote by the sword the 
 establishment of what was called by way of con- 
 tempt the fifth monarchy. A conspiracy of tiie 
 fifth monarchy was defeated by Cromwell, in 
 1650, and Harrison, the regicide, at their head, 
 was imprisoned for life ; but upon the restora- 
 tion the Baptists publicly disclaimed Anabap- 
 tist principles, and presented the king with a 
 confession of their faith. A second conspiracy 
 of the same deluded class took place in 1661, 
 after which the Baptists repeated their disavowal 
 of Anabaptist principles, and, with the excep- 
 tion of their sufferings in common with their dis- 
 senting brethren during the period between the 
 Restoration and the Revolution in 1688, from the 
 rigorous measures employed to compel them to 
 conform, neither the general nor particular Bap- 
 tists have since that period suffered any consi- 
 derable molestation. The particular Baptists, at 
 a general assembly held in London in the year 
 1689, professed their belief in the distinguishing 
 doctrines of Calvinism, which are still the general 
 sentiments of all their churches. As a body they 
 are highly respectable, and rising in importance. 
 They have several academies for the education of 
 students for the ministry in their congregations, 
 the oldest of which is at Bristol ; and also two 
 exhibitions for students to be educated at one of 
 the universities in Scotland, given them by Dr. 
 "Ward of Gresham college. 
 
 Both the particular and the general (or Armi- 
 nian) Baptists have a form of church government 
 under bishops, whom they term messengers, 
 priests, whom they term elders, and ministering 
 brethren, or deacons. Their churches are not 
 parochial, or confined to certain districts, but 
 congregational and independent, every congrega- 
 tion being empowered to prescribe its own rulers, 
 independent of the general assembly. The 
 meetings of the messengers and members of the 
 different congregations are not for die general 
 government of tlie body, but for mutual advice 
 and encouragement. 
 
 A considerable controversy has of late agitated 
 both the above denominations of Baptists, on the 
 question of open commiuiiun, namely, whether 
 persons who have been baptised in infancy may 
 oe admitted without any further baptism to the 
 other sacrament when they arrive at years of dis- 
 cretion, provided in other respects they are 
 thought proper persons. On this particular the 
 teachers of both denominations are much divided 
 in opinion, and frequent pamphlets have been 
 written on both sides. 
 
 SCOTCH Baptists, a denomination of 
 
 Christians in Scotland, who profess to deduce 
 their original from the apostolic age. Their views 
 of the initiatory sacrament, and arguments 
 against the validity of infant baptism, are the 
 same as those held by Baptists generally, but 
 their collateral opinions, especially on the sub- 
 ject of church government, are peculiar. They 
 stand in no particular connexion with any other 
 class of Baptists, either abroad or in England, 
 although they ha\e churches and brethren in 
 their own communion in London and other 
 places. It was not known till lately that a so- 
 ciety of Baptists had existed in Scotland before 
 1765, but now the fact is ascertained that such a 
 society did really exist, and usually met bo*h in 
 Leith and Edinburgh as far back as the middle 
 of the last century. At the period already al- 
 luded to, the Baptist profession publicly revived, 
 first in Edinburgh and afterwards in other places, 
 so tliat now there are disciples and brethren in 
 all parts of the kingdom. 
 
 Tliey are generally remarked for their unity 
 and love to each other, to which is superadded a 
 firmness in maintaining their religious opinions. 
 
 I. They hold, from the New Testament, that 
 each church planted by the apostles was a single 
 congregation, and met together in one place. 
 Acts ii^ I. 46; iv. 31; and v. 12; 1 Cor. xi. 
 18. 20; so that it was composed of visible be- 
 lievers ; 1 Cor. i. 2 ; Philip i. 1 ; Col. i. 2 ; 
 that it had a plurality of elders, or bishops, to 
 rule and labor in the word and doctrine; (Acts 
 xiv. 23; XX. 17; Phdip i. 1 ; Titus i. 5; 1 Tim. 
 
 V. 17; also a plurality of deacons to minister 
 in t!ie proper application of the church's bounty ; 
 Acts vi. 1 — 17; Philip i. 1; and that both 
 were cliosen not by their academical abilities,. ■ 
 but by their characters laid down in 1 Tim. iii. 
 
 1 — 16 ; Tit. i. 5 — 10 ; and set apart by the laying 
 on of hands; Acts vi. 6; 1 Tim. iv. 14; v. 22. 
 
 II. They aim at the faithful and impartial exer- 
 cise of discipline, according to the several rules 
 laid down in the New Testament; Matt.xvii. 15 — 
 17; 1 Cor. v.; 2 Thess. iii. 6— 15 ; 2 Tim. iii. 5. 
 Tit. iii. 10, 18. Gal. vi. 1 Jude 22, 23. Such 
 discipline, they say, is essential to the very being 
 of a christian churcli ; bftt altogether impracti- 
 cable in any otlier society. III. They receive 
 none into clmrch-fellowship but such as make a 
 scriptural profession of their faith in Christ, and 
 show their readiness to observe whatsoever he 
 enjoins ; and they retain none in their com- 
 munion who visibly depart, in any instance, from 
 the faith and obedience of the gospel, and are 
 proof against all the instituted means of recovery. 
 IV^. Tiiey hold that the rule of forbearance is 
 divine revelation, making all due allowance for 
 differences in natural tempers, capacities, growth 
 in grace, &c. and exercising all long-suffering, 
 lowliness, and meekness, in their endeavours to 
 reclaim an erring brother. \'. Th.ey consider it 
 their duty to be all of one mind, in every thing 
 that regards their faith and practice as a body. 
 Acts iv. 32. 1 Cor. i. 10. 2 Cor. xiii. 11. Philip, 
 i. 27. ii. 2. 1 Pet. iii. 8. Nothing is decided 
 among them by human influence or policy, or 
 by majority of votes, but by the unanimous con- 
 sent and explicit agreement of every member. 
 
 VI. They meet every first day of the week for
 
 BAPTISTS. 
 
 505 
 
 reasons and ends given in Matt, xxvii. 1 — 7. 
 Luke XXIV. John xx. 19, 26. Acts ii. 1. xx. 7. 
 1 Cor. xi. 18. 20. xvi. 2. Rev. i. 10. When 
 they observe the following institutions of divine 
 worship: 1. The public rf;ading of tlie scrip- 
 tures of the Old and New Testaments, from what 
 is written. Acts xv. 20, 21. Col. iv. IG. 1 Thess. 
 V. 27. 1 Tim. iv. 13. 2. The mutual exhorta- 
 tion of the brethren, which is attended to on the 
 mornin^of Lord's day, immediately after the read- 
 ing of the scriptures. Col. iii. 16. 1 Thess. iv. 18. 
 lleb. iii. 13.; x. 24, 25. 3. Preaching and ex- 
 pounding the word, which is done by the elders 
 and pastors. 1 Pet. v. 2. 1 Tim. v. 17. Acts v. 
 42. XX. 20. 2 Tim. iv. 2. 4. The public prayers, 
 not only of the elders, but also of the brethren, 
 as was exemplified in the first churches. Rom. 
 xii. 12. 1 Cor. xi. 4. xiv. 14. Eph. vi. 18. 
 
 1 Tim. ii. 1, 2. .las. v. 16. Jude 20. To these 
 prayers and thanksgivings, the whole church say 
 Amen. 1 Cor. xiv. 16. 5. The singing of 
 praise. INIatt. xxvi. 30. 1 Cor. xiv. 15. In 
 doing which they use the Psalms of David, and 
 other spiritual songs. Eph. v. 19. Col. iii. 16. 
 
 6. The fellowship, contribution, communication, 
 distribution, or well doing, as in Rom. xvi. 26. 
 
 2 Cor. ix. 13. Philip, iv. 14, 15. 1 Tim. vi. 
 18. Ileb. xiii. 16. i. e. the collection for the 
 support of the poor saints, and other necessary 
 uses. See Acts ii. 41. and 1 Cor. xvi. 1, 2. 
 
 7. The breaking of bread, or the Lord's supper : 
 this they observe every Lord's day without any 
 regard to preparation and thanks<:iving days, as 
 the church at Troas came together chiefiy for 
 that end on the first day of the week. Acts xx. 7. 
 
 8. In the interval of public worship, they have 
 the feast of charity, in an appropriate place, and 
 generally contiguous to the ordinary place of 
 meeting for worship, where every member may 
 attend. Its nature is to promote love, pleasure, har- 
 mony, and mutual edification among tlie brethren, 
 also for disengaging the minds of the members, 
 from the time and care spent in preparing a diet 
 at their own houses on that day ; for refreshing 
 those who come from a distance, and for affording 
 a moderate repast to the poorer members. These 
 love feasts they deduce from the apostolic 
 churches. Acts ii. 46. xx. 11. 1 Cor. xi. 20, 
 21, 22. Jude 12. 2 Pet. ii. 13. VII. They 
 consider it their duty to join fasting with prayer, 
 on particular occasions. Matt. ix. 25. Acts xiii. 
 2. compare Isaiah Iviii. 5. with James iv. 8 — 10. 
 \ III. They use the kiss of charity on various 
 occasions ; such as, the reception of a new mem- 
 ber, the forgiveness of offences, the reconciliation 
 of differences, the setting apart of oHice-bearers, 
 the departure or return of brethren, &.c. Rom. 
 xvi. 16. 1 Cor. xvi. 20. 2 Cor. xiii. 12. 1 Thess. 
 V. 26. 1 Pet. v. 14. IX. They wash the saints' 
 feet, even literally, and that not as a ceremony, 
 but whenever it can be of real service to a bro- 
 ther ; the men perform that service to those of 
 their own sex, and the women to their's only. 
 John xiii. 14, 15. X. They abstain from eating 
 of blood and strangled, or ' flesh with the blood 
 tiiereof ;' because these were not only forbidden 
 to Noah and his posterity. Gen. ix. 3, 4 ; but 
 also under the gospel. See Acts xv. 28, 29. xvi. 
 4. and xxi. 25. Rex. ii. 20. 24. and ver. 52. 
 
 XI. They do not find themselves at liberty fo 
 eat a common meal with persons excommuivi- 
 cated from their fellowship ; but they do not set 
 aside any natural or relative duty. Matt, xviii. 
 17. Luke XV. 2. Acts x. 28. 1 Cor. v. 9, 10, 
 11. And XII. They consider themselves subject 
 to the powers that be in all lawful civil matters, 
 Rom. xiii. 1 — 6. 1 Pet. ii. 13 — 16. to honor 
 them, ver. 17. pray for them, 1 Tim. ii. 2. pay 
 them tribute, Rom. xiii. 6, 7. and rather to suffer 
 patiently for a good conscience, than in any case 
 to resist them by force. Acts v. 29. 1 Pet. ii. 
 19 — 24. Therefore they can have no fellowship 
 with any who are known to be disaffected to 
 government; Prov. xxiv. 21. 
 
 BAPTISTERY, in ecclesiastical writers, was. 
 one of the exedra:', or buildings distinct from the 
 church itself ; and consisted of a porch or anti- 
 room, where the persons to be baptised made 
 their confession of faith, and an inner room, 
 where the ceremony of baptism was performed. 
 Thus it continued till the sixth century, when the 
 bajitisteries began to be taken into the church 
 porcii, and afterwards into the church itself. The 
 ancient baptisteries were commonly called ^o- 
 TiTT]pia, pholisteria, q.d. places of illumination; 
 either because that name was sometimes given to 
 baptism, or because they were the places of 
 an illumination, or instruction, ^preceding bap- 
 tism ; where the catechumens were taught the 
 first rudiments of the Christian faith. 
 
 Baptisteries in general are either octagonal or 
 circular, surmounted with a dome, and as the 
 font is usually placed at the entrance of the 
 church to represent the initiation of the new 
 christian, so the baptistery is situated at the 
 approach to the western or principal gate. These 
 edifices are of very high antiquity, since one 
 was prepared for the ceremonial of the baptism 
 of Clovis; and, as the times of baptising returned 
 but seldom, they have been usually very ca- 
 pacious. In Italy, although the churches were' 
 numerous, in some of the most considerable cities 
 there was only one general baptistery, to which 
 they all resorted. This was dedicated to John 
 the Baptist, and the church to which it was at- 
 tached, assumed the pre-eminence connected 
 with the church of Santa Sophia. At Constanti- 
 nople was a spacious baptistery, in which we read 
 of ancient councils assembling. Of the baptis- 
 teries of Rome, the Lateran is the most ancient, 
 in which some antiquaries are said to have disco- 
 vered the remains of the Thermae, anciently within 
 the precincts of the imperial palace. The bap- 
 tistery of Pisa, both externally and internally, 
 presents a fine display of tlie most exquisite 
 workmanship, and accordingly has greatly excited 
 the admiration of modern travellers, among whom 
 we may distinguish the celebrated Joseph Ad- 
 dison. The baptistery of I'lorence is remarkable 
 for the beauty of its gates. Here also are to 
 be seen the bas reliefs, of which Michael Angelo 
 was so enamoured, that he exclaimed tliey de- 
 served to be portals of paradise. The Italian 
 baptistery in appearance is -not very dissimilar 
 to the octagon in Ely cathedral at the intersection 
 of the transepts and nave ; but it does not ap- 
 pear from history that any building especially 
 devoted to the purpose of baptism, was ever
 
 506 
 
 BAPTIST MISSION. 
 
 erected in England. Many of the fonts in our 
 churches are nevertheless highly interesting to 
 the antiquarian, that of Bridekirk in Cumberland 
 is of Danish origin, and that which was removed 
 from the church of St. Peter in the east, 0.xford, 
 exhibited proofs of an antiquity almost as early. 
 See Font. 
 
 Upon fonts and baptisteries in general, the 
 following curious inscription is frequently found, 
 especially upon those wliich are ancient: 
 'NI^ON ANOAIHMATA MH MONAN O^IN.' 
 The pious monks often exercised their 'gifts in 
 forming acrostics and chronograms ; but this line 
 exhibits the happiest instance of the amphisbsena; 
 the words being exactly the same whether we 
 read the line backwards or forwards. 
 
 Baptist Mission. — While the Missionary 
 Societies of various denominations have an ul- 
 terior object in view, too high and sacred for 
 much discussion in books of Imman science, 
 there are collateral benefits to mankind, which 
 gradually accompany their march, that fall strictly 
 within our sphere to record. The bearing of 
 these societies, on our acquaintance with the 
 physical and political geography of the globe, 
 and on the study of its languages, ancient and 
 modern, is obvious : while the very object al- 
 luded to, and a missionary ardor for its accom- 
 plisliment, has armed, and will arm, the traveller 
 and the scholar (when a missionary), with a 
 patient and persevering zeal, to be imbibed, per- 
 haps, in no other school. It will be principally 
 to the literary and scientific aspect of these in- 
 stitutions that we shall, in this work, direct the 
 attention of the reader ; but we purpose, in so 
 doing, to insert a slight sketch of the rise and 
 progress of all the reputable societies of this kind. 
 
 Among Protestants, it may be said, that in 
 1732 the L'nitas Fratrum, or Moravian brethren, 
 led the way in these benevolent enterprises. 
 Tiiey became deeply impressed with tiie fact that 
 so many millions of the human race were sitting 
 in darkness, and held in bondage by idolatry and 
 vice ; and they formed themselves into a small 
 society for endeavouring to convey the benefits of 
 Christianity to heathen nations. At first their 
 beginnings were very small, but they now possess 
 between forty and fifty settlements, employing 
 from 160 to 180 missionaries. For sixty years 
 this society pursued its way, in the most unos- 
 tentatious and silent manner, before any others of 
 a like nature were formed. 
 
 Oct. 2, 1792, a few Baptist ministers meeting 
 at Kettering, Nortliamptonshire, entered into a 
 scries of resolutions for the formation of a so- 
 ciety, to be called The Particular (or Calvinis- 
 tic) Baptist Society for propagating the Gospel 
 among the Heathen. ' But so far,' say they, 
 ' were we from having in view the exclusive pro- 
 motion of our own peculiar principles as Bap- 
 tists, that we were determined from the beginning, 
 if no opportunity appeared for sending out Mis- 
 sionaries of our own, that we would assist other 
 societies already in being amongst the Presby- 
 terians and the Moravians.' The names of the 
 firstcommittee were John Ryland, Reynold Hogg, 
 William Carey, John Sutcliff, and Andrew Ful- 
 ler. Reynold Hogg was chosen Treasurer, and 
 Andrew Fuller, Secretary. 
 
 Nov. 13. — The committee meeting again at 
 Northampton, learned that a Mr. John Thomas, 
 a surgeon, who had been several years in Ben- 
 gal, and during that period had occasionally 
 preached tlie gospel to the natives, was then in 
 London. He was said to be endeavouring to 
 establish a fund for a mission to that country, 
 and to be desirous of engaging a companion to 
 return with him. Enquiry was made concerning 
 Mr. Thomas, as to his character, principles, &c. ; 
 and the accounts wliich were received proving 
 satisfactory, the committee resolved to invite him 
 to go out as one of tlieir missionaries, and to en- 
 deavour to furnish him with a colleague. Mr. 
 Carey, on being asked if he were willing to 
 accompany Mr. Thomas, answered readily in the 
 affirmative. And thus was furnished to the so- 
 ciety one of the most useful laborers in the 
 missionary field, and ultimately one of the most 
 profound of oriental scholars, from the humble 
 station of an uneducated provincial dissenting 
 minister. 
 
 The next step was to calculate the expense of 
 sending them out, and to obtain the means of 
 defraying it. The expense was estimated at 
 £500, which sum required to be raised in about 
 three or four months. To accomplish this the 
 committee frankly stated to the religious public 
 their plan, requesting that so far as it appeared 
 to be deserving of encouragement, they would 
 encourage it. Letters also were addressed to the 
 most active ministers of the denomination through- 
 out the kingdom, requesting their concurrence 
 and assistance. The result was, that more than 
 twice the sum which had been asked for was 
 collected ; yet, when the work was finished, the 
 actual expense had so far exceeded the estimate, 
 that there were only a few pounds to spare. A 
 principal cause of this was, that the wliole of the 
 new missionary's family were induced to ac- 
 company him. 
 
 The first laborers in this mission sailed on 
 June 13, 1793, on board the Princessa Maria, 
 a Danish Indiaman ; but no tidings of their pro- 
 ceedings arrived in this country until July of the 
 following year. For the first three or four months, 
 it seems, Mr. Carey found himself in consider- 
 able pecuniary difficulties. The investment 
 which was taken out for their immediate sup- 
 port, was sunk ; and he, witli his wife and family 
 in a foreign land, were utterly destitute of the 
 means of subsistence. He now, therefore, en- 
 quired for secular occupation ; and early in 
 March, 1795, received an invitation from Malda,to 
 take the superintendance of an indigo factory. His 
 colleague also, Mr. Thomas, who had stopped at 
 Calcutta, under an idea of supporting himself by 
 his profession, received, a little before, a similar 
 invitation. 
 
 Mr. Carey accepted the superintendence of an 
 indigo factory at Mudnabatty, and Mr. Thomas 
 of another at Moypauldiggy, both in the neigh- 
 bourhood of I\Ialda. Here they considered them- 
 selves capable of watcliing the best opportunity 
 for proceeding wit!i their noble undertaking in 
 coming out ; and letters were sent to England, 
 expressing their great pleasure in being able to 
 decline, at present, any further assistance from 
 the Society's funds.
 
 BAPTIST MISSION. 
 
 507 
 
 At home, about this time, two young men, 
 Mr. Jacob Grigg, and Mr. James Rodway, had 
 offered themselves as missionaries, and being 
 considered suitable persons, the committee re- 
 solved on another mission, i. e. to Africa, in the 
 neighbourhood of Sierra Leone. In the autumn 
 of 1795, the missionaries left England; but 
 through the indiscretion of one of them, and the 
 ill health of the other, the undertaking failed. 
 In the spring of 1796, a Mr. J. Fountain offer- 
 ing himself as a missionary, was accepted, and 
 sent out to join his brethren in India. 
 
 During the first year of his residence, Mr. 
 Carey had repeated attacks of an intermittent 
 fever with a dysentery. Mrs. Carey also, and 
 tlieir eldest son, were much afflicted ; and their 
 third son, Peter, died at five years of age. As 
 soon as they were able to apply themselves to 
 the work, they set up schools at their respective 
 factories ; preached every Sunday, and frequently 
 on week days ; and Mr. Thomas being particu- 
 larly attentive to the poor, in administering me- 
 dicines, &c. to them ; many people, besides the 
 workmen, attended their preaching. Two 
 Englishmen, a Mr. Long and a Mr. Powell, who 
 had settled in Bengal, joining in the views of this 
 little band, on Nov. 1, 1795, they, with the mis- 
 sionaries, formed a church, and commemorated 
 the sacrament of the Lord's Supper. Mr. Long 
 was afterwards excluded for improper conduct ; 
 but Mr. Powell contirmed an useful character till 
 his death, which was at Dinagepore, on Sept. 
 25, 1802. An European or two were joined to 
 this body, from 179G to 1800 ; a spirit of enquiry 
 was awoke among the natives, and a school 
 erected at Dinagepore ; but no native converts 
 manifested, as yet, sufficient boldness to shake 
 off caste for the benefit of the new faith. 
 
 The missionaries, however, were not easily dis- 
 couraged. They requested nev helpers from 
 home, and particularly some one who should 
 understand the printing business. Accordingly, 
 in the spring of 1799, Mr. and Mrs. Marshman, 
 Mr. and Mrs. Grant, I\Ir. and Mrs. Brunsdon, 
 Mr. William Ward, and JNIiss Tidd, embarked 
 for India. Mr. Ward being a printer, and Mr. 
 and jNIrs. Marshman having kept a school. 
 Tlieir instructions were, to ' beware, both from 
 a principle of conscience, and from a regard to 
 their own interest, and that of the mission, of 
 intermeddling with any political concerns — to be 
 obedient to the laws in all civil affairs — to re- 
 spect magistrates, both supreme and subordinate, 
 and teach the same things to others — in fine, to 
 apply themselves wholly to the all-important 
 concerns of that evangelical service to which 
 they had so solemnly dedicated themselves.' 
 Moreover, that ' however gross might be the 
 idolatries, and heathenish superstitions that 
 might fall under their notice, they should se- 
 dulously avoid all rudeness, insult, or interrup- 
 tion, during the observance of such superstitions, 
 observing no methods but those of Christ and his 
 apostles, namely, the persevering use of scriptui-e, 
 reason, prayer, meekness, and love.' 
 
 Mr. Carey was anxious that the new mission- 
 aries and their wives might be permitted to pro- 
 ceed and settle in the neighbourhood of Mal^a. 
 He had taken a small place at Kidderpore, about 
 
 twelve miles distant, where he mtended to carry- 
 on a little business, and to erect some dwellings 
 for them. The relinquishing of this undertak- 
 ing would be a loss of £500. But the British 
 authorities were inflexible in their opposition to 
 his plan of increasing his establishment. Mr. 
 Carey, therefore, determined to remove to the 
 Danish settlement of Serampore, where his bre- 
 thren had arrived. 
 
 This important step was accomplished January 
 10, 1800, and the next day he was introdi'ced to 
 the governor, who received him in a very friend- 
 ly manner. The first object of attention was to 
 settle a plan of internal government. All the 
 missionaries determined to consider themselves 
 as one family ; they were to preach and pray in 
 turn; one to superintend the affairs of the family 
 for a month, and then another. Mr. Carey was 
 appointed treasurer and keeper of the medicine 
 chest; Mr. Fountain librarian. Saturday even- 
 ing was devoted to adjusting any differences 
 wliich might arise during the week, and" pledg- 
 ing themselves to love one another ; finally, it 
 was resolved that no one should engage in any 
 private trade ; but that whatever was done by 
 any member of the family, should be done for 
 the benefit of the mission. 
 
 The first sheet of the Bengalee New Testament 
 was printed May 16. They worked off 2000 
 copies, besides 500 of the gospel by Matthew, 
 for immediate distribution. Early in June they 
 opened a Bengalee school, in which the children 
 of those natives who chose to send them, were 
 taug'at gratis ; and by the 20th of July they had 
 forty pupils. A native, named Gokool, also ap- 
 peared exceedingly attentive to their ministry. 
 On the 22d of December, Gokool, and a man 
 named Kristno, came and ate in public with the 
 missionaries, by which act they threw off their 
 caste. All who witnessed it were surprised ; it 
 was so universally said, No one would lose 
 caste for the Gospel. 
 
 ' Thus the door of faith is opened to these Gen- 
 tiles — who shall shut it?' said Mr. (now Dr.) 
 Marshman. ' The chain of the caste is broken, 
 who shall mend it?' The same evening Gokool, 
 without his family, and Kristno with his, came 
 and offered tliemselves willingly to the church, 
 each making a solemn profession of faith in 
 Christ, and of obedience to his commands. It 
 was soon noised abroad that these people had 
 lost caste ; and now a time of trial drew near. 
 The next day a great company of people assem- 
 bled, two thousand or thereabouts, pouring out 
 their execrations upon them. Taking them by 
 force, they first dragged them before the Danish 
 magistrate ; but he, instead of censuring, com- 
 mended them for what they had done. Being 
 dismissed, they came a second time with Kristno 
 with a new charge, accusing him of refusing to 
 deliver up his daughter to a man wiio had con- 
 tracted for her in marriage. Tlie magistrate, 
 however, defended Kristno, and assured the 
 girl that she should not be compelled to marry 
 the man against her consent. The governor also 
 promised the missionaries that they should not 
 be interrupted in baptising. The hubbub that 
 had thus been raised, did not shake the resolution 
 of Kristno ; but his family, and Gokool, were in-
 
 508 
 
 BAPTIST MISSION. 
 
 timidated by it. On the 27th they sent to the 
 mission-house, saying, ' they wished to put off 
 their baptism for a few weeks.' The next day 
 (the 28th) was the time appointed for baptising. 
 Kristno came forward, and with Felix Carey, was 
 baptised in the Hoogly. A considerable num- 
 ber of Europeans and natives attended; many 
 of whom appeared to be struck with the so- 
 lemnity of the ordinance. Shortly after, a Mr. 
 Fern:uidez, and Joymooni (Kristnoo's wife's 
 sister), were baptised, and joined the church. 
 At a meeting on the 22d, she said, ' She had 
 found a treasure in Christ greater than every 
 thing else in this world.' Krislnoo said his 
 chief ' thoughts now were about the salvation of 
 others.' 
 
 The effect of these baptisings was, that all the 
 children of the Bengalee school were taken 
 away by their parents, lest they should be made 
 Christians ; and the only children left for instruc- 
 tion were those of Kristno, to whom the mis- 
 sionaries now paid the greater attention, and 
 amongst whom there were some hopeful ap- 
 pearances. The baptised Hindoos appeared to 
 improve much in knowledge and affection. 
 Their manner of speaking was singular and 
 impressire. ' Christ (said one) is my joy, my 
 hope, my all. If worldly things draw my mind 
 from him, I say, mind, why dost thou leave 
 Christ? There is no other Saviour. If thou 
 leave him, thou fallest into hell.' ' I was for- 
 merly,' said another, 'in prison; the light of 
 the Gospel came to the prison door, and I got 
 out !' 
 
 About this time Mr. Carey was appointed by 
 Marquis Wellesley to a professorship in the 
 New College of Fort William. When an appli- 
 cation was made to him on the subject, he had 
 some hesitation as to complying with it, lest it 
 should interfere with his proper work as a mis- 
 sionary. Nor did he accede to the appointment 
 till he had consulted with his brethren, who 
 thought that it might promote rather than ob- 
 struct the great objects of the mission. Every 
 temporal advantage that might arise from it 
 would, on the ground of their established rules, 
 be only so much added to the missionary stock. 
 And here let us add, that steadily, and when 
 these advantages have risen to several thousands 
 per annum, has this good man added them to 
 that stock. 
 
 On the morning of May 8th, during our short 
 war with the Danes, the British flag was hoisted 
 at Serampore. At ten o'clock the missionaries 
 were ordered to appear at tlie government house. 
 On presenting themselves, they were treated with 
 the utmost civility, both by the late Danish 
 governor, and the English commander, and told 
 to go on with their school, preaching, &c. in the 
 same peaceable way as before. — On the 29th, 
 Gokool, who had fainted at the outset, came for- 
 ward again, and on June 7th, he was Imptised. 
 Kristn-o was now in the habit of talking to his 
 neighbours who came to him at his work, in some 
 such strain as this : — ' In all your worship there 
 is no fruit. None of the debtas died for sinners; 
 but Jesus Christ came into the world for this. 
 This is the greatest love I ever heard of. At 
 the bouse of the missionunes I have seen such 
 
 love as I never saw before. When a man 
 believes in Christ he gets a new mind. This is 
 the fruit of becoming a Christian, &c. Sec' 
 The missionaries from such specimens hoped 
 that he would soon be able to preach Christ to 
 his countrymen. 
 
 During this month, Mr. Ward and Kristno 
 visited certain parts of the country from whence 
 persons had come for religious instruction, preach- 
 ing and distributing papers as they proceeded; 
 and some of the women went to visit their female 
 relations up the country, where they also con- 
 versed about the gospel. Mr. Ward in his ex- 
 cursion was detained by a police officer, on the 
 ground ' that the company had given no orders 
 for the natives to lose caste.' Mr. W. assured 
 him that the papers were entirely religious; and 
 on his offering to sign them with his own name, 
 the officer released him. The papers thus signed 
 were sent to Calcutta, and examined. Some 
 alleged, that it was improper to attack the reli- 
 gion of the natives ; but others answered that 
 there was nothing more in the papers than had 
 been always tolerated in the Roman Catholics 
 in the company's territories. Nothing therefore 
 came of it ; and during the administration of 
 Marquis Wellesley, no more was heard of the 
 subject. 
 
 In the course of this year, colonel Bie trans- 
 mitted to his government an account of the set- 
 tlement of the missionaries at Serampore, in con- 
 sequence of which his Danish majesty directed 
 the Royal College of Commerce at Copenhagen 
 to signify his pleasure to the governor of Seram- 
 pore, that the society of missionaries be con- 
 sidered as under his majesty's protection and 
 patronage, which they accordingly signified by a 
 letter, bearing date Sept. 5, 1801. The gover- 
 nor-general also of British India was pleased to 
 assure one of the missionaries, that he * was per- 
 fectly acquainted with all the concerns and opera- 
 tions at Serampore, and felt great satisfaction at 
 their affairs being attended with a degree of 
 success'. 
 
 In the beginning of 1802 the mission had bap- 
 tised seven natives. 
 
 On the 4th of April, a native who had previ- 
 ously lost caste, of the name of Syam Dass, was 
 baptised. lie proved to be a simple-hearted 
 good man, and was instrumental to the conver- 
 sion of one of his neighbours, Bharut; but died, 
 or was murdered on a journey in the autumn ot 
 the same year, about five -months after his bap- 
 tism. About this time a-brahmin came to Seram- 
 pore, who lived with Dulol, a famous leader of a 
 Hindoo sect. They are a kind of Deists, setting 
 light by the superstitions of the country, and by 
 the caste; but making light also of sin, and a 
 future state. He said that Dulol sent him to 
 get baptised first, and that he himself would fol- 
 low, and bring with him an hundred thousand 
 disciples! The missionaries had no faith in 
 this tale; but thought it right to pay him a visit. 
 Mr. Carey, Mr. Marshman, and Kristno (who 
 had formerly been one of his disciples) therefore^ 
 set off for Ghospura, the place of his residence. 
 They perceived him to be what they expected,, 
 a designing man, living in state only upon the 
 credulity of his followers.
 
 BAPTIST MISSION. 
 
 509 
 
 On May 10th, Mr. Ward and Mrs. Fountain 
 were married. Heretofore the marriages had 
 been performed by an English clergyman; but 
 the missionaries having been advised to marry 
 their own people, they, with the concurrence of 
 the civil authorities, drew up a simple form for 
 the purpose; and the business was conducted to 
 the satisfaction of all present. In June or .luly 
 five more natives were baptised at Serampore. 
 Towards the end of this last month, a Mussul- 
 man, whose name was Moorad, came from Ponche- 
 taluckphool, or as they usually call it by way of 
 contraction, Luckphool, with an invitation from 
 a considerable number of people in that part of 
 the country to go and preach the gospel to them. 
 Mr. Marshman, accordingly, set out on the 10th 
 of August, taking Petumber Mittre and Bharut 
 with him. At Luckphool, they halted under a 
 large tree, which was the appointed place for 
 hearing; the people came together and received 
 them sitting down on the grass, and after having 
 heard with much earnestness for about half an 
 hour, entreated the preacher to rest, and take 
 refreshment. He did so, and then renewed his 
 subject. They spent the evening, sitting round 
 him, and asking questions on Christ, the resur- 
 rection, a future state &c. 
 
 These people, amounting to some hundreds, 
 had, for the last fourteen years, begun to dislike 
 the idolatry of the country; and attaching them- 
 selves to a grave elderly man, as their goroo or 
 teacher, had from that time been enquiring after 
 the right way. Neelo, for that was the old man's 
 name, had taught them that there was one God, 
 whom he called father, who alone was to be 
 worshipped; that sin was to be forsaken; and 
 that a farther revelation was to be expected. It 
 was in consequence of his having heard of the 
 missionaries that Moorad was sent to Seram- 
 pore, to request them to come and visit them. 
 After the worship, as above related, the old man 
 took Mr. Marshman aside for private conversa- 
 tion, and appeared to be very averse to Brahmin- 
 ism, and friendly to the gospel as opposed to it; 
 recommending it also to his people, as being the 
 revelation which he had given them to expect. 
 In returning home, Mr. M. called on another 
 goroo, who had nearly 20,000 followers. His 
 name was Seeb Ram Dass, and his residence at 
 Juggerdandakatty. There was much less pomp 
 and artifice in him than in Dulol; and less con- 
 viction and affection than in Neelo, and his 
 people at Luckphool. The general impression 
 was, that these people were loosened from the 
 Hindoo and Mahommedan systems, which marked 
 the hand of providence, and might be introduc- 
 tory to the gospel. 
 
 During this year Mr. and Mrs. Chamberlain 
 were sent out by the committee to assist in the 
 labors of the India mission. About the same 
 time, the missionaries purchased the house and 
 premises adjoining their own. The garden and 
 out-buildings contained more than four acres of 
 land. By this addition they had room not only 
 for the schools, and for the printing and bindmg 
 business, but also for any new missionaries that 
 might arrive. They made themselves trustees 
 for the society, as they had done in the first pur- 
 chase. Towards the end of January, 1803, be- 
 
 sides the New Testament, the first volume of 
 tiie Old, the Psalms, and a part of Isaiah, were 
 finished, and began to be a good deal read in 
 different places. A new fount of Naggree types- 
 was nearly completed ; and a house was taken 
 in Calcutta for preaching to both Europeans and 
 natives. 
 
 In Eebruaiy they speak of ' the affairs of the 
 mission growing more and more weighty.' Se- 
 veral new enquirers arrived ; amongst whom wa.» 
 Sheetaram, a sooder, from Bishoohurry; in Jes- 
 sore, and who on the 27th was baptised. The 
 zeal, the simplicity, and the good conduct of this 
 man proved, as will be seen, a great blessing to 
 several of his relations and neighbours. 
 
 In April two of the native converts intermar- 
 ried. "The ceremony was conducted much in the 
 same way as Mr. \\ ard's had been. Mr. Carey, 
 after explaining the nature and ends of marriage, 
 and noticing the impropriety of the Hindoo cus- 
 toms, read certain portions of scripture, and 
 after them the marriage agreement. The parties 
 then joined hands, promised love, faithfulness, 
 obedience, &c. ; then signed the agreement, to 
 which others added their names as witnesses. A 
 prayer for a divine blessing followed, and the whole 
 was concluded with a temperate and cheerful repast 
 of raisins, plantains, &c. Tlie day following they 
 had a supper at the house of Kristno, the bride's 
 father, where all sat down together without dis- 
 tinction of color or country. This to the spec- 
 tators was quite a new thing. During this month 
 several of the native brethren, as Kristno, Pre- 
 saud, Ram Roteen, &c. went into the villages to 
 talk with the people about Christ. Tliey were 
 treated with abuse, but bore it with Christian 
 meekness, telling their abusers, that they * only 
 did what every sect did, who, v.hether Hindoos 
 or Mussulmans, were allowed to perform their 
 poorjahs in the streets ; and that insults, stripes, 
 and even death were good for them, so that God 
 by them did but turn their hearts.' 
 
 Frequent additions were now made to the 
 Baptist flock here ; nor did the diligence of the 
 missionaries slacken in their noble work of trans- 
 lating the scriptures. 
 
 In August, a new and improved edition of the 
 Bengalee New Testament was begun, as only 
 600 copies remained of the first impression. In 
 September, the convert, Gokool, seemed to be 
 drawing near his end. But his mind was 
 steadily fixed in the faith of Christ, and on the 
 7th of October he died. * About two hours be- 
 fore his death,' says Mr. Marshman, * he called 
 the native brethren round him to sing and pray. 
 He was perfectly sensible, resigned, and tranquil. 
 Some of the neighbours had been trying to per- 
 suade him to employ a native doctor ; but as 
 all their medicines are accompanied with hea- 
 then incantations, he refused them, saying, he 
 would have no physician but Jesus Christ. 
 ' How is it,' 'said they, 'that you, who have 
 turned to Christ, should be thus afflicted ?" My 
 affliction, replied he, is on account of my sins: 
 my Lord does all things well. Observing Koma'. 
 to weep (who was a most affectionate wife) he 
 said. Why do you weep for me? His tranquil 
 and happy end made a deep impression on 
 all around. They said one to another, May my
 
 510 
 
 BAPTIST MISSION. 
 
 mind be as Gokool's was.' Ilis funeral, in the 
 European manner, made also a considerable im- 
 pression on the n-itiv(;s. On the 23d, a brahmin 
 from Assam was baptised. 
 
 During this year, the society presented a copy 
 of the Benjialee New Testament, and of the penta- 
 teuch, to his majesty, Geo. III. by the hands of 
 Robert Bowyer, Esq. His majesty was pleased 
 graciously to accept of them, and to direct that his 
 thanks should be given to the society. During 
 this year also a plan was laid for translatinij the 
 scriptures into various other eastern languages. 
 
 In February, 180-1, these worthy laborers had 
 the happiness of devolving a portion of their 
 work upon two native teachers, and ordained 
 Kristno and Petumber Shingo to the work of the 
 ministry, with prayer and the imposition of 
 hands. In the course of the year, fourteen more 
 natives were baptised. 
 
 About four years previously, Mr. Ward being, on 
 a visit at Calcutta, went with Kristno to a village 
 called Ramkreeshnopore, on the other side of the 
 river, opposite Calcutta. Here they left a num- 
 ber of small tracts, and a New Testament. Till 
 now the effects were unknown. Kristno, on re- 
 visiting the village, meets with a byraggee, who 
 tells him that the books have been read, and that 
 several persons are convinced by them. 
 
 In November and December twenty-one per- 
 sons were baptised, seven of whom came from 
 Kristnopore, and were the fruits of the New 
 Testament and tracts which were left at that vil- 
 lage. One of them, named Kristnoo Dass, re- 
 ferring to Mr. Ward's having declared that ' it 
 was for the use of the whole village, and that he 
 who could read the best should keep it, and 
 read it to all who wished to hear it,' said, ' he 
 had got it, and that the reading of it had changed 
 his ideas, and made him leave off idolatry, and 
 put his trust in Christ.' The Testament was 
 produced, and was nearly worn out by reading. 
 Ten out of the twenty-one were baptised on No- 
 vember 3d. 'A solemn seriousness,' says Mr. 
 Biss, ' pervaded the company. Some who 
 seemed to know nothing of the power of religion, 
 nevertheless shed tears.' At the Lord's supper 
 there was great joy tlirough the whole church, 
 singing, and making melody in our hearts to the 
 Lord.' 
 
 In the autumn of this year, captain Wickes 
 being in London, the committee sent by him 
 1000 guineas, whicli had l)een collected in Eng- 
 land, Scotland, and Ireland, towards the transla- 
 tion of the Scriptures into the eastern languages. 
 On the captain's arrival in America, he expressed 
 a wish in the public papers, that the friends of 
 religion in his country would add something to 
 it. The result was, that by the generous exer- 
 tions of the different denominations, the original 
 sum was considerably more than doubled, and 
 sent in dollars to Serampore. 
 
 We have been followmgthis band of brethren 
 to the period of their cause taking that deep and 
 well grounded root in India, from which it will 
 not quickly be removed. But their steps were 
 not everywhere encouraged. Both at home and 
 in India, British authority and influence were oc- 
 sionally arrayed against them. When, on the 
 23d of August, Messrs. Chatcr and Robinson 
 
 arrived, a demur was made as to their being per- 
 mitted to proceed to Serampore. Next day, Mr. 
 Carey was told by the magistrates that they had 
 a message for him, ' that as government did not 
 interfere with the prejudices of the natives, it 
 was the governor-general's request that Mr. 
 Carey and his colleagues would not.' As ex- 
 plained by the ma2:istrates, this request was said 
 to be a kind of order. 'They were not to preach 
 to the natives, nor suffer the native converts to 
 preach; they were not to distribute religious 
 tracts, nor suffer the people to distribute tliem ; 
 they were not to send forth converted natives, 
 nor take any steps, by conversation or otherwise, 
 for persuading the natives to embrace Chris- 
 tianity. Mr. Carey enquired whether they had 
 any written communication with the governor- 
 general ; and being answered in the negative, 
 took leave. This, however, it was afterwards 
 said was not meant • to prohibit Mr. Carey or 
 his brethren from preaching at Serampore, or in 
 their own house at Calcutta ; only they must not 
 preach at the loll bazaar. Nor was it intended to 
 prevent their circulating the scriptures, but 
 merely the tracts abusing the Hindoo religion : 
 or to forbid the native Christians conversing with 
 their countrymen on Christianity, only they must 
 not go out under the sanction of the mission- 
 aries.' 
 
 In a conversation that took place between the 
 magistrates and a friend of the missionaries, they 
 acknowledged themselves 'well satisfied with 
 their character and deportment.' Messrs. Chater 
 and Robinson, however, were commanded to 
 return to Europe. 
 
 A tract, about this time, was translated and 
 sent to England, in which the missionaries were 
 represented as calling the natives ' barbarians,' 
 and their shasters ' barbarian shasters,' when in 
 the original they had only intreated them not to 
 reject the bible as being the shaster of the bar- 
 barians, or ' M'leeches,' a name by which they 
 designate all who are not of the caste. After 
 this a pamphlet appeared by Mr. Twining, 
 and was followed by several more, written by 
 major Scott Waring, and others: some openly 
 espousing the cause of idolatry, and most of 
 them filled with unfounded statements, and inef- 
 fectual endeavours to trace the Vellore mutiny 
 to the attempts at christianising the natives. 
 The charges produced in these pamphlets were 
 answered by the friends of the mission. Not 
 long after, a tract which had been printed in 
 Bengalee, and which in that language contained 
 nothing offensive, was put into the hands of a 
 native to be translated into Persic. The transla- 
 tion being finished, it was, through the pressure 
 of business, inadvertently printed off without be- 
 ing first inspected by the missionaries ; and the 
 translator having introduced various strong epi- 
 thets, calling Mahomet a tyrant, &c. which it 
 was alleged would irritate his followers, the Bri- 
 tish authorities took it up in a serious manner. 
 Mr. Carey being sent for, readily acknowledged 
 the impropriety of the epithets, and promised to 
 enquire into the affair. Had the object of the 
 party been merely to prevent the disturbance 
 of the public tranquillity, things would have is- 
 sued here. But proceedings were commenced
 
 BAPTIST MISSION. 511 
 
 which threatened ruin to the mission. In con- In the month of iNIarcli, 1809, they finislted the 
 
 sequence, however, of an explanation, and a Orissa New Testament. Towards the close of 
 
 respectful memorial presented to the governor- this year an improved paper manufacture was 
 
 general, the most serious part of the proceedings established in Serampore. The Benevolent In- 
 
 was revoked; and when two of the missionaries stitution had increased to nearly ninety children, 
 
 waited on his lordship to thank him for his and a humane medical gentleman prescribed and 
 
 candour in regard to their memorial, he replied, furnished medicines for it and the family gratis, 
 
 that nothing more was necessary than a mere Access was allowed, and the gospel freely 
 
 examination of the subject, on which every thing preached amongst the soldiers and their wives in 
 
 appeared in a clear and favorable light. The the fort. In all the stations 106 were bantized 
 
 missionaries however, were required, in future, during the year. 
 
 not to print any tracts without first submitting From the commencement of the following year, 
 them to the inspection of government. the missionaries speak of themselves no longer 
 In 1807 new rules were formed suited to the as a single mission, but as divided into live mis- 
 present state of the mission, every station being sions, according to the different lanpruages of the 
 independent of the other, but all united as a ge- country, and which they designate, the United 
 neral body. A considerable advance was made jNIissions in India. These are the Bengal, the 
 in ten of the translations: two new founts of Burman, the Orissa, the Bootan, and the Ilin- 
 type completed, viz. the Orissa and the Mahratta, doost'han. The Bengal contains five stations, 
 and two others begun, viz. the Burmah and Chi- the Hindoost'han two, and the rest one eacli. 
 nese; a new and improved fount of Nagree also In March the New Testament in the llindee 
 begrm. With respect to printing, an impression and Mahratta languages, the Pentateuch in Sung- 
 of 1500 copies of the fourth volume of the Ben- scrit, and the Prophetic books in Orissa, were 
 galee Old Testament, containing all the prophets, finished at press; and considerable numbers of 
 was completed ; the third volume, comprising them were sent and distributed in the respective 
 the historical books, being in the press ; an edi- countries, from whence they afterwards received 
 tion of 10,000 copies of Luke, the Acts, and intelligence of their being read and understood, 
 the epistle to the Romans was completed ; the In April the plan suggested by Dr. Bell and 
 New Testament in the Sungscrit and Orissa improved by Mr. Lancaster was introduced by 
 considerably advanced; and the Ilindostanee, Mr. Marshman into the scliool at Calcutta, by 
 Mahratta, and Guzuratee, put to press. which the number of children could be greatly 
 January 28, 1808, Serampore was taken by increased, and the expense contracted. Ground 
 the English, but without making any difference was purchased, and a new school-house erected, 
 in the situation of the missionaries. Mr. F. near the chapel, ninety feet by seventy, which 
 Carey, having studied medicine at Calcutta, in- would contain 800 children. Among the chil- 
 troduced the vaccine inoculation at Rangoon, dren in this school was a INIalay boy, bought by 
 After having inoculated about fifty in the city Captain W. out of the hands of persons who 
 with success, he was sent for by the governor to were fattening hirn for sale to the Batta can- 
 perform the operation on his children. This nibals ! 
 
 circumstance proved favorable to their settling On the 11th of March, 1812, occurred a me- 
 ns missionaries. morable calamity for the mission, the spacious 
 During this year the Danish clergyman at printing-office at Serampore was consumed by 
 Serampore being dead, a question was moved fire, with all the types, many valuable MSS. 
 among the inhabitants who should succeed him? and a large quantity of paper; the whole 
 The majority expressed their wish, that the mis- amounting to a loss of nearly £I0,000. The 
 sionaries might be permitted to do so. A peti- missionaries, though much aftected, were not 
 tion was accordingly presented to the governor- greatly disheartened, nor in any degree induced 
 general for the purpose, w^hich being granted, to relax their efforts. New founts of type, in all 
 the parish church has from that time, about Sep- the eastern languages, were cast, as soon as pos- 
 tember, been occupied by some of the Baptist sible, from the melted metal recovered from the 
 brethren. They accept of no pecuniary reward ruins; and the printing of the Scriptures was 
 for their services. resumed, as fast as they could be prepared. 
 
 Towards the latter end of September there was On the 19th of February the following year, 
 a second examination of the lads engaged in the the Tamul New Testament was finished at the 
 study of the Chinese langtxage, held at Seram- press, and on the 20th was laid before the Ca!- 
 pore ; at which were present the vice-president cutta Auxiliary Bible Society, at their anniver- 
 of the Asiatic Society, with several other Euro- versary. This edition, consisting of 5000 copies, 
 pean gentlemen, who expressed their satisfaction was begun in April 1812, and completed in ra- 
 in very strong terms. The missionaries now oc- ther more than ten months, 
 cupy the ten following stations, viz. The progress of the translations, during this 
 Bootan, Missionary, Robinson. year, cannot be better described than in an ex- 
 
 Dinagepore, F'ernandez. tract from a letter of Dr. Carey, dated Decem- 
 
 Saddamahl, VVm. Carey. ber 14. — ' We are, at this time, engaged in 
 
 Goamalty, Mardon. translating the Bible into twenty-one languages, 
 
 Miniary, INIoore. ' including the Bengalee, which is finished. This 
 
 Cutwa, Chamberlain. week, we obtained a person to assist in tlie trans- 
 
 Jessore, . Carapeit Chater. lation of the Scriptures into the Kassai language. 
 
 Serampore, Carey, &c. About a fortnight ago we obtained help for the 
 
 Calcutta, Carey, &c. Sindh and Wuch. I believe we have now all 
 
 Rangoon, Chater and F. Carev. the languages in that part, except that of Kutciij
 
 .12 
 
 BAPTIST MISSION. 
 
 which, I hope, will soon be brouaht within our 
 reach. We have not yet been able to secure the 
 languages of Nepala, Bootan, Munipoora, and 
 Siam, and about live or six tribes of moun- 
 taineers : besides these, I am not acquainted 
 with any language on the continent of India, 
 into which tlie word of God is not under trans- 
 lation.' 
 
 At the public disputation of the students of 
 the college of Fort William, held before Lord 
 ^linto as visitor of the college, on September 
 20th, his lordship, after enumerating their recent 
 labors, concludes thus : ' I profess a very sincere 
 pleasure in bringing the literary merits of j\Ir. 
 3Iarsliman and the other Reverend Members of 
 the Serampore Mission to the notice of the pub- 
 lic, and in bearing my testimony to the great and 
 extraordinary labors which constancy and energy 
 i-n their numerous and various occupations have 
 enabled this modest and respectable community 
 to accomplish. I am not less gratified by the 
 opportunity which their literary achievements 
 afford, of expressing my regard for the exemplary 
 worth of their lives, and the beneficent principle 
 which distinguishes and presides in the various 
 useful establishments which they have formed, 
 and which are conducted by themselves.' The 
 stations occupied by the mission in 1814 had 
 increased to twenty-four. 
 
 In 1815 the society had to sustain one of its 
 greatest losses at home in the death of their 
 secretary, the Rev. Andrew Fuller, who expired 
 at Kettering, after a short illness, on May 7th. 
 He had sustained this arduous and important 
 office ever since the commencement of the society 
 in 1 792 ; and at length fell a sacrifice to its ac- 
 cumulated cares and labors. At the next meeting 
 of the committee, Dr. Ryland, of Bristol, was re- 
 quested to undertake the office, pro tempore ; and, 
 at the annual meeting, held at Northampton, in 
 October, this appointment was confirmed, and 
 Mr. Ilinton, of Oxford, associated with the Doc- 
 tor, as joint-secretary. November 27th the mis- 
 sion premises were visited by the Right Hon. 
 Earl Moira, the bishop of Calcutta, and other 
 distinguished personages, who expressed their 
 high gratification with what they saw. On 
 December 15th the settlement was restored to 
 the Danisli government. 
 
 January, 1818, say the missionaries, ' In the 
 Bengalee we have commenced a new edition, of 
 5000 copies, of the whole Scriptures, in a new 
 and much-reduced type, reduced by brother 
 Lawson, when he resided at Serampore. By 
 means of this alteration we shall be able to com- 
 prise the whole Bible in one large octavo volume 
 of 850 pages ; which has hitherto occupied five 
 volumes, of 800 pages each. The brethren in- 
 tend to print 5000 additional Testaments, form- 
 ing a thin volume, of about 180 pages. In the 
 Sungscrit, the Latin of the east, and intelligible 
 to almost all the learned men throughout Hin- 
 doostan, the Historical Books have been com- 
 pleted, and the printing advanced to the middle 
 of Jeremiah. We therefore expect to complete 
 this volume within the next three months, and 
 shall then have printed the whole of the Scriptures 
 in that language. The Hindee Bible is still 
 further advanced; and we fully expect that 
 
 within a month the last part will be ready for 
 distribution. We sliall then have printed the 
 first edition of the whole Scriptures, with a second 
 edition of the New Testament. In the Mahratta 
 the historical books have been printed off, since 
 the last Memoir, and the Ilagiographa advanced 
 to the middle of Proverbs. In the Sikh, the 
 Pentateuch is just completed, and the historical 
 books begun. In the Chinese we have just com- 
 pleted the Pentateuch, and are now proceeding 
 with a second edition of the New Testament. In 
 the Telinga the New Testament is printed as fur 
 as the Tiiessalonians ; and we hope to have 
 finished the volume ere this reaches you. In the 
 Pushtoo Testament the printing is advanced as 
 far as the first of Peter; and in the Assam and 
 Wuch, to the Romans : while, in the Bruj Bhassa, 
 although a delay has arisen in consequence of 
 the distance of brother Chamberlain's station, 
 who was superintending the version, we are pre- 
 paring to proceed with the version as before. In 
 the Kurnata we have finished Mark, and are pro- 
 ceeding with Luke: while in the Kunkuna, the 
 Mooltanee, the Sindhee, the Kashmere, the 
 Bikaneer, the Nepal, the Ooduypore, the Mar- 
 war, the Juypore, and the Khassee, not much 
 progress in printing has been made since the 
 last Report. As soon, however, as the Hindee 
 and Sungscrit versions are completed, it is in- 
 tended to proceed with them. These translations 
 were never advancing more rapidly than at 
 present. The office now furnishes our venerable 
 editor, Dr. Carey (independently of the Chinese 
 proofs it forwards to Dr. Marshman) with twelve 
 proofs per week, on an average. To which may 
 be added, that opportunities of distributing the 
 Scriptures, when printed, are becoming more 
 extensive.' 
 
 Copies of the New Testament, in various lan- 
 guages, as printed and published at Serampore, 
 were presented by Mr. Ward at the Annual 
 Meeting of the British and Foreign Bible Society, 
 in 1820; and two years after, the Chinese Bible 
 complete, the result of sixteen years labor on die 
 part of Dr. Marshman, was presented on a simi- 
 lar occasion, by his eldest son, then in England. 
 At that time, 1822, the New Testament had been 
 printed and published in twenty-one different 
 languages, and the work was proceeding in ten 
 others. Four versions, after having been carried 
 to a certain point, had been resigned to other 
 individuals, whose local residence afforded 
 greater facilities for completing them ; and ten 
 besides were suspended, jjrincipally because the 
 requisite pecuniary means were wanting. 
 
 In 1819 a new station was formed in tlie island 
 of Ceylon, at a place called liangwell, about 
 fourteen miles from Colombo. Mr. Siers re- 
 moved hither, and a small church was subse- 
 quently formed under his direction. The trans- 
 lation of the whole Bible into Cingalese, by the 
 united efforts of Messrs. Chater, Armour, and 
 Clough, was completed about the end of 1822. 
 
 No part of the missionary undertakings of this 
 society has succeeded more satisfactorily than the 
 Jamaica mission. In 1819 two gentlemtii left 
 England for Kingston and Spanish town ; a 
 spacious chapel has been built at the former 
 place.
 
 BAPTIST 
 
 In the year 1822 the number of members in 
 the church exceeded 2,000 : Mr. Knibb arrived 
 this year to take charge of a free school, estab- 
 lished and maintained by the congregation ; and 
 Mr. Tinson to commence a new station in a dis- 
 tant part of the island. A station has been also 
 formed in tlie north-west part of the island, on an 
 estate in the parish of St. James's; the owners 
 of which had long been favorable to the instruc- 
 tion of their negroes. 
 
 In consequence of facilities afforded by some 
 pious gentlemen, in the habit of trading to that 
 quarter, the committee were induced, in 1822, 
 to turn their attention further westward still, and 
 to send out Mr. James Bourne as a missionary to 
 the bay of Honduras, South America. 
 
 At home, the business of the society having 
 become far more extensive than formerly, some 
 alterations were made in the manner of con- 
 ducting it. At the General Meeting held at 
 Cambridge, October, 1819, it was resolved that 
 a central committee should be formed out of the 
 general committee, who should meet monthly, 
 in London, for the transaction of business ; and 
 from that time the Annual Meeting of the society 
 has been held also in the Metropolis, in the 
 month of June. Mr. Hinton, of Oxford, incon- 
 sequence of his other numerous and important 
 engagements, had resigned the office of joint 
 secretary, in October, 1817, on vyhich Mr. Dyer, 
 then of Reading, nov*^ of Battersea, was chosen 
 assistant secretary to Dr. Ryland, and, in the 
 following year, requested to devote himself ex- 
 clusively to the service of the mission, as joint 
 secretary. In 1820 premises were engaged for 
 the society in London, and at length a suitable 
 house purchased, at No. 6, Fen Court, Fenchurch 
 Street, where its still increasing business is now 
 carried on. 
 
 Exclusive of the Chinese, the New Testament 
 is published and sent into circulation in twenty 
 of the languages of India. They are : 
 
 Finished 
 Commenced. at press. 
 1. The Bengalee, 6th ^ ^^^^ ^g^^ 
 
 edition m the press > 
 TheHmdee,2dedi-^ ^g^^ ^^-^i 
 
 tion in the press S 
 The Sungscrit, 2d ) 
 edition in the press S 
 The Orissa, 2d edi- ^ 
 tion in the press J 
 5. The Mahratta, 2d } 
 edition in the press i 
 The Telinga . . . 
 The Sikh .... 
 The Gujuratee . 
 The Kunkuna 
 10. The Kurnata . . . 
 The I'ushtoo or Aff- } 
 ghan S 
 
 The Assamee . 
 The Wutch or Mu\- j 
 tanee S 
 
 The Bikaneer . . . 
 15. The Kashmeer . . 
 The Bhugulkhund . 
 The Marttwar . 
 Vol. in. 
 
 1803 
 
 1803 
 
 1804 
 
 1810 
 
 1811 
 
 1811 
 
 1805 1818 
 
 1807 1815 
 
 1807 1820 
 18.08 1819 
 
 1808 1822 
 
 1811 1819 
 
 1811 1819 
 
 1812 1819 
 
 1813 1820 
 1810 1820 
 
 1814 1821 
 1814 1821 
 
 MISSION. 513 
 
 The Nepalee . . . 1812 1821 
 
 The Ilarotee . . 1815 1822 
 
 20. The Kanojft ... 1815 1822 
 The Chinese, 2d edi- ^ 
 
 tion of the gospels > 1806 1817 
 
 printed J 
 
 From this view of the translations, and of the 
 time whem they were respectively begun and 
 fiuished at press, it will be evident that none of 
 them have been brought hastily through the press. 
 Seven years have formed tlie shortest period 
 which has been occupied, even by those in which 
 the terminations were the nearest akin to those 
 in the neighbouring dialects : we have before us 
 the most honorable and competent eastern tes- 
 timony to the corrrectness of these versions. 
 
 The following list exhibits ten other versions 
 now or recently in the Serampore press, with the 
 period of their commencement, and the stale of 
 their progress. 
 
 Begun. Printed to. 
 
 The Jumboo .... 1814 Phil. iii. 9 
 
 The JNhmipoor . . . 1814 2 Cor. xiii. 4 
 
 The Me^gudh .... 1814 Rom. xiii. 4 
 
 The Khasee .... 1814 Acts xix. 29 
 
 The Oojjuyunee. . . . 1815 Phil. i. 10 
 
 The Bruj 1815 2 Cor. ii. 9 
 
 The Kzimaoun . . . 1815 Luke x. 23 
 
 The Bhwtneer .... 1816 Rom. xiv. 13 
 The Sree-nugar, or Gur- 
 
 wal 1816 Luke xi. 21 
 
 The Palpa 1817 Matt, xxvii.8 
 
 To these we may add the Kythee edition, which 
 is the Hindee in the current Naguree character, 
 chiefly used by the mercantile and trading classes, 
 and in which at the earnest request of the late 
 Mr. Chamberlain, they prepared a fount of types 
 for the sake of printing the New Testament. 
 We are able further to submit to the reader a brief 
 view of what have been done by this society re- 
 lative to the Old Testament, as well as the New. 
 
 State of the VersioTis of the Old Testavicnt. 
 The Bengalee, second edition advanced to 1 Sam- 
 
 XX. 
 
 The Stingscrjt, second edition advanced to Exod. 
 
 xxxi. 
 The Orissa, first edition finished at press in 
 
 1819. 
 The Mahratta, first edition printed off in 1820. 
 The Chinese, finished at press April 1822. 
 The Sikh, Pentateuch, and Historical Books, 
 
 printed ; Prophetic printed to Jer. xiii. 
 The Assamee, Pentateuch finished, Historical 
 
 Books begun. 
 The Pushtoo or Affghan, Pentateuch advanced 
 
 to Deut. XXX. 
 The Kashmeer, Pentateuch advanced to Gen. 
 
 XXX vi. 
 The Tehnga, Pentateuch printed ; and the ver- 
 sion resigned to the ISIadras Bible Society. 
 The Old Testament now printed off in Chi- 
 nese, forms the sixth version completed here of 
 the whole Scriptures in the different Indian lan- 
 guages. This was finished at press in April this 
 vear ; after sixteen years of unremitting labor. 
 
 2 L
 
 BAP 
 
 ;i4 
 
 BAR 
 
 We close with a fac-simile of a printed passage, in thirteen of those eastern languages, in which 
 the Scriptures have been published in the whole, or in part, by this Society. 
 
 Text. — 'The people which sat in darkness saw great light/ &c. — Matt. iv. 16. 
 
 No. 1. The Bengalee. 
 
 2. The Orissa. 
 
 3. The Hindoostanec 
 
 4. The Sungskrit. 
 
 5. The Telinga. 
 
 6. The Kurnata. 
 
 7. The Affghan. 
 
 8. The Burman. 
 
 9. The Tamul. 
 
 10. The Singalese. 
 
 11. The Malay. 
 
 12. The Chinese. 
 
 13. The Multanee. 
 
 7^0<3d3S A^si^oo i>^^(S^^ ^agr^vs 
 
 Battiste (John Monoyer), an artist, born in 
 Lisle in 1635, who received his education at 
 Antwerp, and in his first years was intended for 
 a painter of history ; but his genius more strongly 
 inclining him to the representation of flowers he 
 applied his talents to those subjects, and became 
 in that style one of the greatest masters. The 
 disposition of his objects is elegant and beautiful ; 
 and his compositions are easily known in that 
 respect. The duke of Montague employed him 
 in conjunction with La Fosse and Rousseau, to 
 embellish his house, now the British Museum ; 
 where are some of the finest performances of 
 Baptist. A celebrated work of his is a looking- 
 glass in the royal palace at Kensington, which 
 he decorated with a garland of flowers for Queen 
 Mary IL who sat by him during the greatest 
 part of the time he was painting it. Baptist 
 died in 1699, leaving a son, Anthony, who 
 painted flowers in his father's style. 
 
 Bai'tiste (John Caspars), born at Antwerp, 
 was the disciple of lioschaert. During the civil 
 war he came to England, and entered into the 
 service of General Lambert; but after the resto- 
 ration was engaged by Sir Peter Lely to paint 
 the postures and draperies of his portraits; and 
 he lias been called Lely's Baptist. Kneller also, 
 and Riley, employed him for the same purpose. 
 In the hall of St. Bartholemew's hospital is a 
 portrait of King Charles IL painted by this ar- 
 tist, who died in 1691. 
 
 BAPTISTIN (John Baptiste Stuk), an Italian 
 musician, was a native of Florence. lie was a 
 good composer, but is chiefly famed as having 
 first brought the violincello into fashion in 
 France. He died about 1 740. 
 
 BAR', V. & n., \ From the Ang.-Sax. bairgan, 
 Bar'ful. jbeorgan, birgan, byrgan, lite- 
 
 rally to prevent, to keep out, or obstruct, to 
 guard, to secure, to fortify, to prohibit. Chaucer 
 once uses it in a metaphorical sense, ' covered 
 with precious cloth and rich, barred (that is striped 
 and crossed in the form of bars) and plated of 
 gold and silver.' — The Persones Tale. But we 
 meet with it in other parts of his writings, era- 
 ployed according to the common acceptation. 
 
 He rode but homely in a medlee cote. 
 Girt with a seint of silke, with barres small. 
 
 Chaueer. 
 
 He was short shuldered, brode, a thikke gnarre, 
 Ther 'nas no dore that he 'nolde heve of harre. 
 Or breke it at a renning with his hede. Id. 
 
 He breake the barres, and through the timber pearst 
 So large a hole, wherby they might disccrne 
 The house, the court, the secret chambers eke 
 Of Priamus, and auncient kings of Troy. Surrey. 
 
 Deep in the bottom of an huge great rocke 
 The dungeon was, in which her bound he leftc. 
 That neither yron harrcs, nor brasen lockc. 
 Did need to guard from force or secret theft. 
 
 SpenicT,
 
 B A R. 
 
 .16 
 
 Hath he set bounds between their love and me ? 
 I am their mother, who shall bar them from me ? 
 
 Shakspeare. 
 My dvity cannot suffer 
 T' obey in all your daughter's hard commands j 
 Though their injunction be to bar my doors. 
 And let this tyrannous night take hold upon you. 
 
 Id. 
 AVTien law can oo no right. 
 Let it be lawful, that law bar no wrong. Id. 
 
 Viola. I'll do my best 
 To woo your lady ; yet, a harrefull strife. 
 Whoe'er I woo, myself would be his wife. 
 
 Id. Twelfth Night. 
 Ye sit like pris'ners, barr'd with doors and chaines. 
 And yet no care perpetual care restvaincs. 
 
 Beaumont. Of True Liberty. 
 Hard, thou know'sl it, to exclude 
 Spiritual substance with corporeal bar. Milton. 
 
 These iurs enclose that wider den. 
 Of those wild creatures called men. Marvell. 
 
 Our hope of Italy, not only lost. 
 But shut from ev'ry shore, and barr'd from cv'ry coast. 
 
 Dryden. 
 When you bar the window shutters of your lady's 
 bed-chamber at nights, leave open the sashes, to let in 
 *ir. Swift. 
 
 What is a greater pedant than a, mere man of the 
 town ? Bar him the playhouses, and you strike him 
 dumb. Addison. 
 
 With emulation fir'd. 
 They strain to lead the field, top the barr'd gate. 
 O'er the deeo ditch exulting bound, and brush 
 The thorny-twining hed;e. Somerville. The Chace. 
 
 Fis. 1. 
 
 5'!?l!;i w 
 
 
 Fig. 
 
 2. 
 
 
 , 1 
 
 Ifi 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 
 The folded ^ates would bar my progress now. 
 But that the lord of this cnclos'd demesne. 
 Communicative of the good he owns. 
 Admits me to a share ; tlie guiltless eye 
 Commits no wrong, nor wastes what it enjoys. 
 
 Cowper's Tatk. 
 
 Bar, in law, is a peremptory exception against 
 a demand or plea brought by the defendant in an 
 action, tliat destroys the action of the plaintiff for 
 ever. It is divided hito a bar to common intent, 
 and a bar special ; a bar to common intent is 
 an ordinary or general bar, that disables the de- 
 claration or plea of the plaintiff; a bar special, 
 is that which is more than ordinary, and falls out 
 in the case in hand, upon some special circum- 
 stance of the fact. 
 
 Bar, in heraldry, one of the honorable ordi- 
 naries, consisting of two horizontal lines drawn 
 across the escutcheon, as in tig. 1 . The bar dif- 
 fers from the fesse in three particulars, namely, 
 that it occupies a fifth part of the field instead of 
 a third; it is not limited to any part of the 
 escutcheon, and is never borne single. It has 
 two diminutives, namely, the closet (fig. 2), which 
 is half the bar, and the harrute (fig. 3), which is 
 half the closet. Of the closet there may be five 
 in one field ; but the barmlet can be borne only 
 in couples. Bars-gemclles are so called when 
 they stand in couples, as in fig. 4. * The field is 
 argent, a fesse between two bars, gemelles gules, 
 by the name of Badlemere.' 
 
 Fis. 3. 
 
 Fi-. 4. 
 
 Bar, in African traffic, is used for a denomi- 
 nation of price : payment being formerly made 
 by the negroes almost wholly in iron bars. 
 
 Bar, in courts of justice, is an enclosure 
 made with a strong partition of timber, where 
 the council are placed to plead causes. It is 
 also applied to the benches where the lawyers 
 or advocates are seated, because anciently, there 
 was a bar to separate the pleaders from the at- 
 torneys and others. Hence our lawyers, who are 
 called to the bar, or licensed to plead, are termed 
 barristers, an appellation equivalent to licentiate 
 in other countries. 
 
 Bar of gold or silver, is a lump or wedge from 
 mines, melted down into a sort of mould, and 
 never wrought. 
 
 Bars of a horse, are the upper part of the 
 gums between the tusks and grinders, which 
 bear no teeth, and to which the bit is applied, 
 and by its friction the horse is governed. 
 
 Bars, in music, are strokes drawn perpendi- 
 cularly across the lines of a piece of music ; used 
 to regulate the beating or measure of musical 
 time. Tiie use of bars in music is a modern in- 
 vention. They cannot be traced higher than the 
 year 1574, and seem not to be in general use till 
 about the middle of the seventeenth century. It 
 is not easy to imagine how music in many parts 
 could be composed without bars, or how the 
 
 maxima, or large, equal to eight semibreves? 
 could be divided into bars of one or two semi- 
 breves in each. See Battitta, and Time-table. 
 A double bar implies the end of a strain. When 
 double bars are dotted on both sides, thus, 
 the dots imply a repetition of 
 each strain ; but if dotted only on 
 one side, that strain only which 
 precedes or follows the dots, is to 
 be repeated. 
 
 Bar, in geography, (Gael, a hill or brae), the 
 name of several places in different parts of Eu- 
 rope : such as. 
 
 Bar, a ci-devant duchy of France, bounded 
 on the east by Lorraine, on the north by Luxem- 
 bourg, on the west by Champagne, on the south 
 by part of the same country and by Tranche 
 Comte ; it is crossed by the Meuse from south 
 to north, and watered by several other rivers, 
 which render it very fertile. It was divided into 
 four bailiages, viz. Bassigni, Bar, St. Michael, 
 and Clermont. The chief towns are Bar-le-Duc, 
 Clermont, St. Michael, Longwy, Pont-a-Mous- 
 son, and Stenay. In 1736 it was given to Sta- 
 nislaus, then king of Poland. 
 
 Bar, a city of Poland, in Podolia, seated on 
 the river Kiov, and strongly fortified ; forty-eight 
 miles north-west of Braclaw, and sixty-five 
 north-east of Kaminieck. 
 
 2 L2
 
 BAR 
 
 516 
 
 BAR 
 
 Bar, a town in the province of Bahar, in the 
 district of the same name, thirty-five miles E.S. E. 
 of I'atna. Long. 86° 46' E., lat. 25° 28' N. 
 
 Bar, a liill of Scotland, in Renfrewshire, in 
 the parish of Kilbarchan, on the top of which 
 are the remains of an old encampment, consist- 
 ing of a semicircular parapet of loose stones to- 
 wards the south, and defended on the north by 
 perpendicular basaltic rocks. Tradition says it 
 was an encampment of the celebrated Sir William 
 Wallace ; and the people show a pinnacle of rock 
 where they say he sat, while he enticed the Eng- 
 lish forces into a bog at the bottom of it, where 
 they perished. But Mr. Maxwell, the minister 
 of the parish, concludes it to be Danish from its 
 form, and from the silence of historians respect- 
 ing this anecdote of the Scots patriot. Mv. 
 Maxwell also mentions it as a singular fact in 
 natural history, by no means consonant to the 
 prevailmg theories, that these perpendicular ba- 
 saltes are incumbent upon coal, formerly wrought 
 to a great extent. 
 
 Bar, or Barr, a small but thriving town of 
 France, in the department of the Lower Rhine, 
 sixteen miles south-west from Strasburg. It has 
 a population of 4100 souls. 
 
 Bar-le-Mont, a town of France, in the ci- 
 devant French Netherlands, now in the depart- 
 ment of the North ; fifteen miles south of Mons, 
 situated on the Sambre. 
 
 Bar sur Aube, an ancient town of France, in 
 the department of Aube, and ci-devant province 
 of Champagne, twenty-six miles east of Troyes, 
 famous for its excellent wines. The manufac- 
 tures are soap, linen, serge, and leather. Here 
 are also some good iron-works. It is the capital 
 of an arrondissement, containing 44,000 inhabi- 
 tants. 
 
 Bar sur Ornain, or Bar-le-Duc, a town of 
 France, in the department of Meuse, and the ci- 
 devant capital of the duchy of Bar. It is seated 
 on the declivity of a hill, and divided into the 
 higher and lower town ; the lower town is 
 watered by the rivulet Ornain, which abounds 
 with excellent trout. The population nearly 
 10,000. Here are manufactures of calicoes, 
 woollen stuffs, stockings, hats, and leather ; also 
 a good trade in grain, wood, brandy, win?, and 
 hemp. Forty-two miles west of Nancy, and 133 
 east of Paris. Long. 52° 15' E., lat. 48° 47' N. 
 
 Bar-sur-Seine, a town of France, in Bur- 
 gundy, on the Seine ; formerly the capital of a 
 county of the same nan.e, now of an arrondisse- 
 ment in the department of the Aube. In it are 
 460 houses, and 2270 inhabitants, with manufac- 
 tures of knives, leather, and woollen caps, and 
 a trade in wine, grain, and paper. Eighteen 
 miles south-east of Troyes, and 110 south-east of 
 Paris. Long. 4° 27' E., lat. 48° 7' N. 
 
 Bars-gemel, or bars-geraelles, are diminu- 
 tives of the bar, and are placed in pairs, or two 
 and two on a shield. They derive their name 
 from the Latin gemelli, twins. 
 
 BARA,. a festival celebrated with much mag- 
 nificence at Messina, and representing the as- 
 sumption of the Virgin. Tiie bara, though used 
 as the general denomination of this festival, sig- 
 nifies more particularly a vast machine fifty feet 
 high, at the top of which a young girl of four- 
 
 teen, representing theX'irgin, stands upon the hand 
 of an image of Jesus Christ. Round him turn 
 vertically, in a circle, twelve little chddren, 
 which represent the seraphim; below them, in 
 another circle, which turns horizontally, are 
 twelve more representing the cherubim; beiiow 
 these a sun turns vertically, with a child at the 
 extremity of each of the four principal radii oi 
 his circle, who ascend and descend with his ro- 
 tation, yet still stand upright. Below the sun is 
 the lowest circle, about seven feet from the 
 ground, in which twelve boys turn horizontally 
 without interruption : these are intended for the 
 twelve apostles, who are supposed to surround 
 the tomb of the \'irgin at the moment when she 
 ascends into heaven. This description of such a 
 complication of superstitious whirligigs may 
 nearly turn the stomachs of our delicate readers ; 
 but think of the poor little cherubim, seraphim, 
 and apostles, who are twirled about in this pro- 
 cession! 'For,' says M. Houel, in his Travels 
 through Sicily, ' some of them fall asleep, many 
 of them vomit, and several do still worse :' but 
 these unseemly effusions are no drawback upon 
 the edification of the people; and nodiing is 
 more common than to see fathers and mothers 
 soliciting with ardor for their boys and girb 
 the pious distinction of puking at the bara. 
 This machine is not drawn by asses or mules, 
 but by a multitude of robust monks ! 
 
 Bara, in ancient geography, 1 . a small islaud 
 in the Adriatic, opposite to Brundusium ; the 
 Pharos of Mela : 2. A Frith, or arm of the sea of 
 Britannia, supposed to be the Murray frith. 
 
 Bara, or Barray, one of the Western Islands 
 of Scotland, eight computed miles in length, and 
 from two to four in breadth. 
 
 BARABAIAN Desert. See Barabinzians. 
 
 BARABBAS, from p, a son, and N3N, a fa- 
 ther, a notorious robber and murderer, whom 
 Pilate, wishing to save Jesus, offered for execu- 
 tion to the Jews; but they, instigated by their 
 rulers, saved the murderer, and murdered the 
 Saviour of mankind. 
 
 BARABINZIANS, a tribe of Tartars, who 
 live on both sides the river Irtisch. They seem to 
 derive their name from the Barabaian desert, 
 whose lakes supply them abundantly with fish, 
 on which, and their cattle, they chiefly subsist. 
 
 BARABRAS, a people of Lower Nubia, con- 
 tiguous to Egypt. They are a distinct race from 
 their neighbours, and of unknown origin. 
 
 BARACHAN, a creek on the western coast of 
 Scotland, on the Ross side of the Sound of Eye, 
 where vessels of considerable burden may an- 
 chor in safety. 
 
 BARACOA, a sea-port on the north-east coast 
 of the island of Cuba, fifty miles north-east of St. 
 Jago. 
 
 BARADjEUS , Jacob, or Jacob Z anzalvs, a 
 monk of the sixth century. He was a Syrian by 
 birth, and a disciple of Eutyches and Dioscorus. 
 He maintained that there is but one nature ii. 
 Christ; and his doctrines spread so much in 
 Asia and Africa that tlie Eutychians were swal- 
 lowed up by tiiat of the Jacobites, which also 
 comprehended all the ISlonophysites of the east. 
 His party made liiin bishop of Edessa. He 
 died in 588.
 
 BAR 
 
 517 
 
 BAR 
 
 BARAK, pna, i.e. lightning; the son of 
 Abinoam, of Kedesh Napthali, one of the deli- 
 verers of Israel from the oppression of the Ca- 
 naanites. See Judges iv. 
 
 BAHAKAN, or Parkan, a town of Hungary, 
 formerly fortified, in the farther circle of the 
 Danube, where the Turks were defeated, and 
 the town recovered by the Imperialists, who took 
 it by storm in 1684. It is opposite to Gran, of 
 which it is reckoned a part. 
 
 BAllALIPTON, among logicians, a term de- 
 noting the first indirect mode of the first figure 
 of syllogism. A syllogism in baralipton, is 
 when the two first propositions are general, and 
 the third particular, the middle term being the 
 subject in the first proposition, and the predi- 
 cate in the second. The following is of this 
 kind : 
 
 Ba. Every evil ought to be feared ; 
 K A. Every violent passion is an evil ; 
 LIP. Therefore something that ought to be 
 feared is a violent passion. 
 
 BARALLOTS, in church history, a sect of 
 heretics at Bologna, in Italy, who had all things 
 in common, even their wives and children ! 
 Their facility in complying with all manner of 
 debauchery made them get the name of obe- 
 dientes, or ccmplicrs. 
 
 BARAN, a river rising in the Hindoo Kho 
 mountains, and flowing through the north-east of 
 Cabul. 
 
 BARANCA DE Malambo, a town of Terra 
 Firma in America, with a bishop's see and a 
 good haven. It is a place of great trade, seated 
 on the river Magdalena, seventy-five miles 
 north of Carthagena. 
 
 BARANGI, oflScers among the Greeks of the 
 lower empire, who kept the keys of the city 
 gates where the emperor resided. Codinus 
 says, they stood guard at the door of the em- 
 peror's bed-chamber and dining-room. Codinus 
 ■and Curopalata observe, that the name is English, 
 formed from bar, to shut ; and that the barangi 
 were Englishmen by country ; Anglo-Danes, 
 who, being driven out of England, were received 
 into the service of the emperor of Constantinople, 
 and made guards or protectors of his person. 
 Whence they are called in Latin (Cujaccius), 
 protectords ; by others, securigeri, as being 
 armed with securis, a battle-axe. Codinus adds, 
 that they still spoke the English tongue. Anna 
 Comnena says, the barangi came from the island 
 Tlmle ; by which is doubtless meant our island. 
 Yet Nicetas makes them Germans ; a mistake 
 easy to be made at that distance, considering the 
 relation the Anglo-Saxons bore to Germany. 
 There were barangi as early as tlie emperor Mi- 
 chael Paphlagonius, in 1035, as appears from 
 Cedrenus; but they were then only common 
 soldiers, not a life-guard. Their commander was 
 called oKoXoOoQ, importing a person wiio always 
 followed the emperor. 
 
 BARANTA, a West Indian balsam. 
 BARANYAT, a county of Lower Hungary, 
 bounded by the Danube, Sclavonia, and the 
 counties of Tolna and Schumeg. It abounds in 
 grain, fruit, wine, cattle, and gama. Its capital 
 is Funf kirchen, and it has a population of 140,000 
 persons. 
 
 BARANZANO (Redemptus), a Barnabite 
 monk, born in Piedmont in 1.'j90. He became 
 professor of philosophy and mathematics at 
 Anneci, and was highly esteemed by lord Bacon, 
 who corresponded with him. He died at Mon- 
 targis in 1622. He wrote, I, Uranoscopia, seu 
 Universa Doctrinade Coelo, fol. 1617; 2. Cam- 
 pus Philosophicus, 8vo. 1620; 3. De Novis 
 Opinionibus Physicis, 8vo. 1617. 
 
 BARA-PicKLET, bread made of fine flour 
 kneaded with barm, which makes it very light 
 and spongy : bara being the Welch for bread. 
 
 BARATHIER(Barthelemy),an Italian lawyer 
 of the fifteenth century. He was born at Pla- 
 centia, and became professor at Pavia and Fer- 
 rara. He published a New Digest of the Feudal 
 Law, at Paris, in 1611. 
 
 BARATHRA, a name of the Serbonian bog. 
 
 BARATHRO, a glutton. See Barathrum. 
 
 BARATHRON, solemn games held at Thes- 
 protia. 
 
 BARATHRUM, (3a()a9pov, in antiquity, a 
 deep dark pit at Athens, into which condemned 
 persons were cast headlong. It had sharp spikes 
 at the top that no man might escape out ; and others 
 at the bottom, to pierce and torment such as 
 were cast in. Its depth and capaciousness made 
 it to be applied proverbially to a covetous per- 
 son, a glutton, called barathro by the Romans, 
 and a common prostitute. 
 
 Barathrvm, in physiology, a baleful cavern, 
 inaccessible on account of its foetid, or poisonous 
 fumes ; styled by others fossa charonia. 
 
 BARATIER (Philip), a most extraordinary 
 instance of early and rapid exertion of mental 
 faculties. This surprising genius was the son of 
 Francis Baratier, minister of the French church 
 at Schwabach, near Nuremberg, where he was 
 born January 10, 1721. The French was his 
 mother-tongue, and High Dutch the language of 
 the place; but his father talking Latin to him, 
 that language became as familiar to him as the 
 rest: so that without knowing the rules of 
 grammar, he, at four years of ase, talked Fretich 
 to his mother, Latin to his father, and High 
 Dutch to the maid, or neighbouring children ; 
 and all this without mixing or confounding the 
 respective languages. About the middle of his 
 fifth year he acquired Greek in like manner; so 
 that in fifteen months he perfectly understood all 
 the Greek books in the Old and New Testament, 
 which he readily translated into Latin. When 
 he was five years and eight months old, he en- 
 tered upon Hebrew ; and in three years was so 
 expert in the Hebrew text, that from a bible 
 without points, he could give the sense of the 
 original in Latin or F"rench ; or translate extem- 
 pore the Latin or French versions into Hebrew, 
 almost word for word ; and had all the Hebrew 
 psalms by heart. He composed, at this time, a dic- 
 tionan,- of rare and difficult Hebrew words, with 
 critical remarks and philosophical observations, in 
 about 400 pages in 4to; and, about his tenth 
 year, amused himself for twelve months with the 
 rabbinical writers. With these he intermixed a 
 knowledge of the Chaldaic, Syriac, and Arabic ; 
 and acquired a taste for divinity and ecclesiastical 
 antiquity, by studying the Greek fithers and 
 councils of the first four ages of the church. In 
 the midst of tliese occupations, a pair of globes
 
 BAR 
 
 518 
 
 BAR 
 
 coming into his possession, he could, in ten days 
 time, resolve all the problems on them ; and in 
 about three months (in January, 1735), devised 
 his project for the discovery of the longitude, 
 whicii he communicated to the Royal Society at 
 London and the Royal Academy of Sciences at 
 Berlin. In June, 1731, he was matriculated in 
 the university of Altorf; and at the close of 
 1732, he was presented by his father at the meet- 
 ing of the reformed churches of tlie circle of 
 rranconia; who, astonished at his wonderful 
 talents, admitted liim to assist in the deliberations 
 of tlie synod ; and to preserve the memory of so 
 singular an event, it was ordered to be registered 
 in their acts. In 1734 the margrave of Bran- 
 denburgh Anspach granted this young scholar 
 tlie use of whatever books he wanted from the 
 Anspach librarj', together with a pension of fifty 
 florins, which he enjoyed three years; and his 
 father receiving a call to the French church at 
 Stettin, in Poraerania, young Baratier was, on 
 the journey, admitted M.A. with universal ap- 
 plause at the university of Halle ; at Berlin he 
 was lionored with several conversations with the 
 king of Prussia, and was received into the royal 
 academy. Towards the close of his life he ac- 
 quired a taste for medals, inscriptions, and anti- 
 quities: metaphysical enquiries, and experimental 
 philosophy, intervening occasionally between 
 these studies. He wrote several essays and dis- 
 sertations ; made astronomical remarks and labo- 
 rious calculations; and took great pains towards 
 a history of the heresies of the anti-trinitarians, 
 and of the thirty years' war in Germany. His 
 last publication, which appeared in 1740, was on 
 the succession of the bishops of Rome. The final 
 work he was engaged in, and for which he had 
 collected many materials, was Enquiries concern- 
 ing the Egyptian Antiquities. But the sub- 
 stance of this blazing meteor was now nearly 
 exhausted ; he was always weak and sickly, and 
 died October 5, 1740, aged nineteen years, eight 
 months, and sixteen days. He published eleven 
 different pieces, and left twenty-six INISS. on 
 various subjects, the contents of which may be 
 seen in his life, written by M. Formey, professor 
 of philosophy at Berlin. 
 
 BARATOR, or Barretor, in law. Lambert 
 derives the word from the Latin balatro, a vile 
 knave ; but the proper derivation is from the 
 French barrateur, i. e. a deceive! : and this agrees 
 witli the description of a common barretor in 
 lord Coke's report, viz. that he is a common 
 mover and maintainer of suits in disturbance of 
 the peace, and in taking and detaining the pos- 
 session of houses and lands, or goods, by false 
 inventions, &c. And, therefore, it was adjudged 
 that the indictment against him ought to be in 
 these words, viz. that he is communis malefactor, 
 calumniator et seminator litium et discordiarum 
 inter vicinos suos, c;t pacis regis perturbator, &c. 
 It is said that a common barretor is tlie most 
 dangerous oppressor in the law, for he oppresseth 
 the innocent by color of law, wliich was made 
 to protect them from oppression. 
 
 Baratry, or Barratry, in a shipmaster, 
 is his cheating the owners. If goods delivered 
 on ship-board are embezzled, all the mariners 
 ought by the maritime law, to contribute to the sa- 
 
 tisfaction of the party that lost his goods, and the 
 cause is to be tried in the admiralty. In a case 
 where a ship was insured against the baratry 
 of the master, &c. and the jury found that the 
 ship was lost by the fraud and negligence of the 
 master, the court agreed, that the fraud was 
 baratry, though not named in the covenant ; but 
 that negligence was not. 
 
 Baratry, or Barrf.try, from baraterie, Fr. 
 fraud ; in law, is the oti'ence of frequently stirring 
 up suits and quarrels between his majesty's sub- 
 jects, either at law or otherwise. The punish- 
 ment for this offence, in a common person, is by 
 fine and imprisonment : but if the offender, as 
 is too frequently the case, belongs to the profes- 
 sion of the law, the barator who is thus able as 
 well as willing to do mischief, ought always to 
 be disabled for practising for the future. And, 
 indeed, it is enacted by statute 12 Geo. I. c. 29, 
 that if any one having been convicted of forgery, 
 perjury, subornation of perjury, or common bar- 
 retry, shall practice as an attorney, solicitor, or 
 agent in any suit, the court, upon complaint, 
 shall examine it in a summary way ; and if 
 proved, shall direct the offender to be transported ■ 
 for seven years. Hereunto also may be referred 
 another offence of equal malignity and audacious-^ 
 ness, that of suing another in the name of a fic- 
 titious plaintiff, either one not in being at all, or 
 one who is ignorant of the suit. This offence, if 
 committed in any of the king's superior courts, 
 is left, as a high contempt, to be punished at 
 their discretion : but in courts of a lower degree, 
 where the crime is equally pernicious, but the 
 authority of the judges not equally extensive, it 
 is directed by statute 8 Eliz. c. 2, to be punished 
 by six months imprisonment, and treble damages 
 to the party injured. 
 
 Baratry is also used for bribery or corrup- 
 tion in a judge, giving a false sentence for money. 
 Baratry is also used, in middle age writers, 
 for fraud or deceit in making of contracts, sales, 
 or the like. 
 
 BARATZ, Turkish, letters-patent granted by 
 the Turkish emperors to the Greek patriarchs, 
 bishops, &c. for the exercise of their ecclesias- 
 tical functions. This baratz gives the bishops 
 full power and authority to establish and depose 
 the inferior clergy, and all other religious per- 
 sons ; to grant licenses for marriages, and issue 
 out divorces ; to collect the revenues belonging 
 to the churches ; to receive the pious legacies 
 bequeatlied to them ; in short, to enjoy all the 
 privileges and advantages belonging to their 
 high station: and all this (as it is expressed in 
 the baratz itself), * according to the vain and 
 idle ceremonies of the Christians.' 
 
 BARB', V. Si. n. -n \'Y.barbia;Dui.barbeeren, 
 Barb'ated, i Lat. barba. Theetymology 
 
 Barb'ep, '.doubtful. It signifies a 
 
 Barb'er, v. h n. i beard ; hence it has grown 
 Barb'et. J to mean a covering and 
 
 protection ; as armour and trappings for horses, 
 a hood or muffler for the head and lower part of 
 the face and shoulders. It has also been ex- 
 tended in Its application to the jags or reversed 
 points of an arrow or hook. To barb, is to cut, 
 to shave, or to dress out the beard. Barb, con- 
 tracted from Barbary, signifies a Barbary horse
 
 BAR 
 
 519 
 
 BAR 
 
 For of a sucrtio the duke strake the kyng on the 
 'tow, right under the defence of the hedpece, on the 
 very coyffe scull or bassenet pece, whereunto the bar- 
 bet for power and defence is charneld. 
 
 Halt. King Henry VIII. fol. 133. 
 But let be this, and tell me how you fare. 
 Do way your barhe, and shew your face bare. 
 Do way your bokc, rise up and let us dance. 
 And let vs done to May some observaunce. 
 
 Chaucer. Troilus and Creseide. 
 Two manner of arrows heades sayth Pollux, was 
 used in olde time. The one he calleth tyxio;, de- 
 scribinge it thus, having two points or barbes, looking 
 backwarde to the stele and the feathers, which surely 
 we call in Englishe, a brode arrowe head or a swalowe 
 tayle. Roger Ascham. Toxopkilus. 
 
 Thanked they were from the senate, and presents 
 were sent unto them, to wit, a chaine of gold weigh- 
 ing two pounds ; certain golden cups of foure pounde 
 weight; a brave courser barbed and trapp'd, and an 
 hoi-seman's armour. Holland. Livim. 
 
 Shave the head, and tie the beard, and say it was 
 the desire of the penitent to be so barbed before his 
 death. Shakspeare, 
 
 Grira-visag'd war hath smooth'd his wrinkled front ; 
 And now — instead of mounting barbed steeds. 
 To fright the soul of fearful adversaries. 
 He capers nimbly in a lady's chamber, 
 To the lascivious pleasing of a lute. Id. 
 
 Their horses were naked, without any barbt ; for 
 albeit many brought barhi, few regarded to put them 
 on. Hayward. 
 
 The stooping scythe-man, that doth barb the field. 
 Thou mak'st wink-sure ; in night all creatures sleep. 
 Marston. Malcontent^ 
 No drizzling show'r. 
 But rattling storm of arrows, barb'd with fire. 
 
 3Iilton. 
 Thy boisterous looks 
 No worthy match for valour to assail. 
 But by the barber's razor best subdued. Id. 
 
 A warriour train 
 That like a deluge pour'd upon the plain ; 
 On barbed steeds they rode, in proud array. 
 Thick as the college of the bees in May. 
 
 Dryden'i Fables, 
 Nor less the Spartan fear'd before he found 
 The shining barb appear above the wound. Pope. 
 
 M'^atermen brawl, coblers sing ; but why must a 
 barber be for ever a politician, a musician, an anato- 
 mist, a poet, and a physician ? Talter, No. 34. 
 I cannot lay so much stress on a plate and descrip- 
 tion, given by Plot, of a dart uncommonly barbated. 
 
 Warton. 
 To make a fine gentlemen several trades are re- 
 quired, but chiefly a barber. You have undoubtedly 
 heard of the Jewish champion, whose strength lay in 
 his hair ; one would think the English were for 
 placing all wisdom there j to appear wise nothing is 
 more requisite here than for a man to borrow hair 
 from the heads of all his neighbours, and clap it like 
 a bush on his own. 
 
 Goldsmith. Citizen of the World. 
 Straight as above the surface of the flood. 
 They wanton rise, or urg'd by hunger leap. 
 Then fix, with gentle twitch, the barbed hook. 
 
 Thomson. 
 Horses brought from Barbary are commonly of a 
 light slender si/c, and very dear, usually chosen from 
 stallions. Barbs, it is said, may die, but never grow 
 old ; the vigour and mettle of barbs never cease but 
 ■xith their life. Farrier's Dictionary. 
 
 They are ill-built, 
 Pin-buttock'd like your dainty barbaries. 
 And weak i' the pasterns. 
 
 Beaumont and Fletch-^r, 
 
 But why should you who still succeed. 
 Whether with graceful act you lead 
 The fiery barb, or with as graceful motion tread 
 In shining balls, where all agree 
 To give the highest praise to thee. 
 
 Verses to Lantdowne. 
 Barb is also used for tae Barbary pigeon, called 
 by Moore the coluinba numidica. This bird is 
 but a small ])igeon, and has a very short beak 
 like a bullfinch, with a small water, and a naked 
 circle of tuberose red flesh round the eyes ; the 
 iris of the eye is of a pearl color, and the broader 
 and redder this circle round them is, the more 
 the pigeon is valued ; but this is always narrow 
 while they are young, and does not arrive at its 
 full breadth till they are four years old. Som^ 
 of this species have a tuft of feathers behind 
 their head, and others not. The red circle round 
 their eyes grows pale and whitish if they become 
 sick, but always recovers its redness as they 
 grow well. Their proper color is black or dun. 
 There are likewise pied ones ; but they are of a 
 mixed breed and not so valuable. 
 
 BARBA, in botany, a species of pubes, or 
 down, with which the surface of some plants is 
 covered. The term was invented by Linnaeus, 
 and by its application in the Species Plantarum, 
 seems to signify a tuft or bunch of strong hairs 
 terminating the leaves. The mesembryanthemum 
 barbatum, a species of marygold, furnishes an ex- 
 ample. The word is also often used in composi- 
 tion to form the trivial names of several plants. 
 
 Barba Aron, in botany, a name given by 
 some authors to the common great house-leek. 
 
 Barba Capr.-e, in botany. See Spzr.ia. Of 
 this genus Mr. Tournefort allows only one spe- 
 cies, the common barba caprae, or, as it is called 
 by some, drymopogon. 
 
 Barba Jovis, in botany, a species of anthyllis. 
 Barba (Alvarez Alonzo), curate of St. Ber- 
 nard de Potosi, in the seventeenth century. He 
 was author of a curious book on metallurg)', 
 published at Madrid in 1620, quarto, and again 
 in 1730, abridged in French, 12mo. 
 
 BAR'BACAN, n. s. Fr. barbacane. Span, bar- 
 bacana. A fortification placed before the walls of 
 a town. A fortress at the end of a bridge. An 
 opening in the wall through which the guns are 
 levelled. 
 
 Wiihin the barbacan a porter sate. 
 
 Day and night duly keeping watch and ward : 
 Nor wight nor word mote pass out of the gate. 
 But in good order, and with due regard. 
 
 Faerie Queene. 
 Barbacan, or Barbican. See Castle. 
 BARBADENSIS, in conchology, a species of 
 voluta, inhabiting tlie American seas. The shell 
 is an inch and a half long, tapering; color red- 
 dish, with very fine transverse strije. 
 
 Barbadensis, in ornithology, a species of 
 psittacus, the ash-fronted parrot of Latham. This 
 bird is green; about the size of a pigeon, and 
 inhabits Barbadoes. 
 
 BARBADILLO (Alphonsus Jerom de Salas), 
 a Spanish dramatic writer, born at Madrid. He
 
 520 
 
 BARBADOES. 
 
 was author of several comedies, and of the Ad- 
 ventures of Don Du-go de Noche, 1624, 8vo. 
 
 BARBADINO, a learned Portutjuese. lie 
 wrote and publislied at Paris, in 1746, a book 
 in his native lau^uage, On the present state of 
 Literature in Portugal. This work was attacked 
 ■^vith great severity by a Portuguese Jesuit, and 
 defended by Don Joseph de Maymo. 
 
 BARBADO, a district in the island of Arbe, 
 which produces excellent wines. See Arbe. 
 
 BARBADOES, the most easterly of all the 
 Carribee Islands, subject to Great Britain, and, 
 according to the best geographers, lying between 
 59° 50' and 62° 2' W. long., and between 12° 
 56' and 13° 16' N. lat. It is seventy miles from 
 St. Vincent's. Its extent is not certainly known ; 
 but, according to Edwards, the length of the 
 island is twenty-one miles, and its breadth four- 
 teen. From the returns to parliament in 1811, 
 at appears that the population of its different pa- 
 rishes was at that time as follows : — viz. 
 
 Parishes. 
 
 Whites. 
 
 Free color. 
 
 Slaves. 
 
 St. Michael . 
 
 5405 
 
 1551 
 
 12,198 
 
 Christ Church 
 
 1570 
 
 66 
 
 9234 
 
 St. Philip . 
 
 1510 
 
 212 
 
 9682 
 
 St. John . . 
 
 1148 
 
 887 
 
 58 
 
 St. Joseph . 
 
 1066 
 
 77 
 
 3104 
 
 St. Andrew . 
 
 571 
 
 165 
 
 3249 
 
 St. Lucy . 
 
 1043 
 
 34 
 
 5282 
 
 St. Peter . . 
 
 1356 
 
 223 
 
 5725 
 
 St. James 
 
 708 
 
 33 
 
 4295 
 
 St. Thomas . 
 
 773 
 
 31 
 
 4003 
 
 St. George . 
 
 1139 
 
 113 
 
 5428 
 
 16,289 
 
 3392 
 
 62,258 
 
 The whole population of the island, therefore, 
 was 81,939; and from this statement it appears 
 that the number of slaves had been nearly sta- 
 tionary during a period of thirty years, i. e. from 
 1781 to 1811 ; for it was affirmed by INIr. Wil- 
 berforce, in the House of Commons, in the 
 course of the debates on the slave trade, that in 
 the former of these years there were 63,248 
 .slaves on the island; in 1786 the number was 
 62,115; and in 1811 they were, as we see, 
 62,258. Barbadoes is supposed to have attained 
 the summit of prosperity more than a century 
 ago; and between the great planters and the 
 people of color here there is a numerous and 
 remarkable class of inhabitants, descended from 
 the original settlers, who have no precise know- 
 ledge when their ancestors arrived at the island. 
 These, consequently, consider it as their coun- 
 try, and do not look back, therefore, like the 
 planters or the negroes, to early associations or 
 other scenes as their home. At a distance, Bar- 
 badoes presents a brown and nearly uniform 
 surface , and the West Indians generally think 
 it a very flat country ; but on a nearer approach 
 the prospect improves, and the scenery becomes 
 more diversified. The ground rises in singular 
 and almost regular ridges from the shore. 
 Rugged acclivities of about 100 feet each are 
 separated by plains or terraces, nearly half a 
 
 mile broad, and these, highly cultivated, form 
 a strong contrast witli the black rocky precipices 
 and bold promontories, projecting over deep 
 ravines covered with dark foliage, by which they 
 are surrounded. 
 
 When Barbadoes was first settled by tlie 
 English, in 1605, few or no quadrupeds were 
 found upon it except hogs, whicli had been left 
 there by the Portuguese. For convenience of 
 carriage to the sea-side, some of the planters 
 at first procured camels, which undoubtedly 
 would, in all respects, have been preferable to 
 horses for their sugar and other works; but the 
 nature of the climate disagreeing with that ani- 
 mal, it was found impossible to preserve the 
 breed. Some gentlemen of small fortune in 
 England resolved at this time to become adven- 
 turers thither. The trees were large, and of a 
 wood so hard and stubborn that it was with 
 great difficulty they could clear as much ground 
 as was necessary for their subsistence ; but by 
 unremitting perseverance they brought it to yield 
 them a tolerable support. They found that 
 cotton and indigo agreed well with the soil ; and 
 that tobacco, vvliich was beginning to come into 
 rep\!te in England, answered tolerably welL 
 These prospects, together with the storm be- 
 tween the king and pailiamjent, which was be- 
 ginning to break out in England, induced many 
 to transport themselves into this island : and so 
 great was tlie increase of people in Barbadoes, 
 within twenty-five years after its first settlement, 
 that in 1650 it contained more than 50,000 
 whites, and a much greater number of negro and 
 Indian slaves. They now applied for horses to 
 Old and New England : from the former they 
 had those that were fit for show and draught; 
 from the latter those that were proper for mount- 
 ing their militia, and for the saddle. They had 
 likewise some of an inferior breed from Curassao, 
 and other settlements. They are reported to 
 have had their first breed of black cattle from 
 Bonavista and the Isle of May ; they now breed 
 upon the island, and often do the work of horses. 
 The sugar, which soon after this was cultivated, 
 rendered them extremely wealthy. Tlie number 
 of slaves, therefore, was still augmented ; and in 
 1676 it is supposed that they amounted to 100,000, 
 which, together with 50,000 whites, made 1.00,000 
 on this small spot : a degree of population un- 
 known in Holland, in China, or any other part of 
 the world most renowned for numbers. At this 
 time Barbadoes employed 400 sail of ships, one 
 with another 150 tons, in their trade. Their an- 
 nual exports in sugar, indigo, ginger, cotton, 
 and citron-water, were above .£'350,000 ; and 
 their circulating cash at home was £200,000. 
 Such was the increase of population, trade, and 
 wealth, in the course of fifty years. The asses here 
 are very serviceable in carrying burdens to and 
 from the plantations. The hogs of Barbadoes are 
 finer eating than those of Britain, but the few 
 sheep they have are not near so good. They 
 likewise have goats, which when young are ex- 
 cellent food. Racoons and monkeys are also 
 found here in great abundance. A variety of 
 birds are produced on Barbadoes, of which the 
 humming-bird is the most remarkable. Wild fowl 
 do not often frequent this island ; but sometimes
 
 BARBADOES. 
 
 521 
 
 toal are found near their ponds. A bird which 
 tliey call the man of war, is said to meet ships 
 at twenty leagues from land, and their rtturn is 
 to the inhabitants a sure sign of the arrival of 
 these ships. When the wind blows from the 
 south and south-west they have flocks of cur- 
 lews, plovers, snipes, wild pigeons, and wild 
 ducks. The wild pigeons are very fat and plen- 
 tiful at such seasons, and rather larger than those 
 of England. The tame pigeons, pullets, ducks, 
 and poultry of all kinds, that are bred at Barba- 
 does have also a fine flavor, and are accounted 
 more delicious them those of Europe. Their 
 rabbits are scarce ; they have no hares ; and the 
 few deer they have are kept as curiosities. The 
 insects of Barbadoes are not venomous, nor do 
 either their snakes or scorpions ever sting. The 
 mosquitoes are troublesome, and bite ; hut are 
 more tolerable in Barbadoes than on the conti- 
 nent. Various other insects are found on the 
 island, some of which are troublesome, but in no 
 greater degree than those that are produced by 
 every warm summer in England. Oranges and 
 lemons grow in Barbadoes in great plenty, and 
 in their utmost perfection. The lemon juice 
 here has a peculiar fragrancy. The citrons of 
 Barbadoes afford tlie best drams and sweetmeats 
 of any in the world, the Barbadoes ladies excel- 
 ling in the art of preserving the rind of the fruit. 
 The pine-apple is also a native of Barbadoes, 
 and grows there to much greater perfection than 
 it can be made to do in Europe. A vast num- 
 ber of different trees, peculiar to the climate, are 
 also found to flourish in Barbadoes in great per- 
 fection, such as the aloe, mangrove, calabash, 
 cedar, cotton, ginger, plantains, guavas, mastic, 
 &c. Here likewise are produced some sensitive 
 plants, with a good deal of garden stuff. Bar- 
 badoes is well supplied with fish ; and some 
 caught in the sea surrounding it are almost pe- 
 culiar to itself, such as the parrot-fish, snappers, 
 gray cavallos, terbums, and coney-fish. The 
 mullets, lobsters, and crabs, caught here are ex- 
 cellent ; and the green turtle is perhaps the 
 greatest delicacy that ancient or modern luxury 
 can boast of. At Barbadoes this delicious shell- 
 fisli seldom sells for less than a shilling a pound, 
 and often for more. There is found in this 
 island a kind of land-crab which eats herbs 
 whereever it can find them, and shelters itself in 
 houses and hollows of trees. According to re- 
 port they are a shell-fish of passage ; for in INIarch 
 they travel to the seain great numbers. See Cancer. 
 Barbadoes is considered by some writers as 
 having its fertility diminished by long cultiva- 
 tion ; and its produce is, therefore, thought to 
 be little in proportion to the quantity of land. 
 The soil chiefly rests upon a basis of calcareous 
 rock, formed of madripores and other marine 
 concretions. In some places it is composed of a 
 deep black mould ; red earth, of the same kind 
 as in Jamaica, is also found, and sometimes the 
 surface consists of a species of light white earth, 
 which is chiefly indurated argil, bleached by ex- 
 posure. Barbadoes on the whole must be con- 
 sidered as an important possession : its situation 
 renders it the key to the West Indies ; and its 
 fine bay affords an excellent rendezvous for ship- 
 ping, while, the salubrity of its climate exceeds 
 
 that of most of the other West India islands. 
 But it has been thought to decline considerably 
 since tlie year 1787, a circumstance ascribed to 
 the dreidful succession of hurricanes with which 
 it has been visited. The capital of the island 
 was scarcely risen from tlie ashes to which it had 
 been reduced by fire, when it was torn from its 
 foundations, and the whole country made a scene 
 of desolation by the storm of the 10th of October, 
 1 780. Above 4000 of tlie inhabitants miserably 
 perished, and the damage of property was com- 
 puted at above one .million sterling. Indepen- 
 dent of those sudden calamities, arising from the 
 fury of tlie elements, its inhabitants are also sub- 
 ject to a distressing malady, in the form of an 
 elephantiasis, so peculiar to this island that it 
 has obtained the appellation of the Barbadoes 
 disease. Dr. Pinckard, however, describes the heat 
 as less inconvenient than he expected. In the 
 harbour, and placed in the shade, the thermo- 
 meter seldom rose higher than 84°, and never 
 exceeded 86°. The inhabitants may be consi- 
 dered in three classes, viz. the masters, white 
 servants, and blacks. The former are either 
 English, Scots, or Irish ; but the great encou- 
 ragement given by government to the peopling 
 this and other West India islands, induced some 
 Dutch, French, Portuguese, and Jews, to settle 
 among tliem with their estates ; by which, after 
 a certain time, they acquire the rights of natura- 
 lization in Great Britain. Tiie white servants, 
 whether by covenant or purchase, are said to 
 live more easy lives than the day-laborers in 
 England ; and when they come to be overseers, 
 their wages and other allowances are consider- 
 able. The earliest planters of Barbadoes were 
 reproached with cruelly forcing into slavery the 
 Indians of the neighbouring continent; and the 
 history of Inkle and Yarico, which Mr. Addison, 
 in his Spectator, has recorded for the detestation 
 of mankind, took its rise in this island. For the 
 treatment of the negro slaves in this and otlier 
 islands, see Negro, Slave, and West Indies. 
 St. Vincent may be seen from Barbadoes in a 
 clear day. It is twenty-five miles only from St. 
 Lucia; t^venty-eight south-east from Martinico ; 
 sixty north-east from Trinidad ; and 100 south- 
 east from St. Christopher. 
 
 Barbadoes, Flower-I'ekce. See Poinciana. 
 
 Barbadoes Tar; a bituminous substance, 
 difi'ering little from the petroleum floating on 
 several springs in England and Scotland. It 
 is a mineral fluid of the nature of the thicker 
 fluid bitumens, of a nauseous bitterish taste, 
 very strong and disagreeable smell, found in 
 many parts of America, trickling down the sides 
 of the mountains, and sometimes floating on the 
 surface of the waters. It has been greatly recom- 
 mended in coughs, and other disorders of the 
 breast and lungs. 
 
 BAIIBANA, a district and village of the late 
 maritime Austria, in the province of Istria, seated 
 on the Arza, with two forts. 
 
 BARBARA, in logic, the first mode of the 
 first figure of the syllogisms. A syllogism in bar- 
 bara is that whereof all the propositions are uni- 
 versal and afllirmative; the middle terra being the 
 subject in the first proposition, and attribute or 
 predicate in the second. — Example:
 
 BAR 
 
 522 
 
 BAR 
 
 BAR Whoever suffers a man to starve, whom 
 he is able to sustain, is a murderer : 
 
 BA Whoever is rich, and rehiseth to give 
 alms, suffers those to starve, -whom 
 he is able to sustain : 
 
 RA Therefore, whoever is rich, and refuses 
 to give alms, is a murderer. 
 
 Barbara, sister and successor of Zingha, 
 queen of Angola. 
 
 Barbara, St. an island on the coast of Brasil. 
 
 Barbara, St. the capital of New Biscay. 
 
 BARBARANO, a district of maritime Austria, 
 in the Vicentino,on the banks of theBacchiglione, 
 among the Berean hills, containing one town, of 
 the same name, &c., and fifteen populous villages. 
 
 BARBARIAN!. See Bakbelicot^. 
 
 BARBARICARII, in antiquity, 1. artists, 
 who, with threads of divers colors, expressed the 
 figures of men, animals, &c. or, whose business 
 was to gild and decorate shields and helmets 
 with gold and silver. They were so called, 
 because they learned these arts from the Phry- 
 gians, who were particularly denominated bar- 
 barians, in regard of their opposition to the 
 Greeks. The name is sometimes also written 
 branbaricarri. 2. Soldiers, or officers, who wore 
 masks and vizards thus adorned with gold and 
 silver. 
 
 BARBARICUM, in ancient writers, 1. A 
 military shout raised by the soldiers on point of 
 engagement; so called from the barbarians, in 
 whose armies this method much prevailed: 2. A 
 war or expedition undertaken against the bar- 
 barians; Quousque ad ipsum tempusquo barba- 
 ricum exortem est inter nos et vos : 3. An 
 armory, or magazine, wherein the Greek em- 
 perors kept the spoils taken from the barbarians. 
 
 Barbaricum, m botany, an appellation given 
 by the modern Greeks to rhubarb; so called from 
 the sinus barbaricus, by the way of which this 
 root was first brought to them. 
 
 BARBARICUS, in entomology, a species of 
 cimex (reduvius) of a black color; thorax and 
 wing-cases obscure ferruginous, and a little 
 white line on the middle of the scutellum. A 
 native of Barbary. Gmelin. 
 
 Barbaricus, in ornithology, a species of ral- 
 lus that inhabits Barbary; the Barbary rail of 
 Latham ; and, 2. A species of turd us, of a green 
 color, with the breast spotted with white; rump 
 and tip of the tail yellow. It is the grive bas- 
 sette de Barbarie of Buffon, and the Barbary 
 thrush of Linnaeus. 
 
 BARBARIES, that rudeness of mind where- 
 in the understanding is neither furnished with 
 useful principles^ nor the will with good inclina- 
 tions. 
 
 ~^ Gr. /3ap/3apof, Lat. 
 j fcar6«ri/s, of uncertain 
 
 BARBARIZE, 
 
 Bar'barism, 
 Barba'rity, 
 
 etymology, applied 
 
 Barba'riax, n. & adj. [ to any nation, person, 
 
 Barba'rick, n. Si, adj. 
 
 Bar'barols, 
 
 Bar'barously, 
 
 Bar'barocsness. ^ 
 
 lisation. It seems to have signified at first only 
 foreign or a foreigner. The Greeks applied it to 
 all nations but themselves, and conveyed by it 
 an idea of disparagement and contempt. It is 
 
 'or thing, which indi- 
 cates a want of cul- 
 ture. It is opposed 
 in all respects to civi- 
 
 now applied to every species of wildness, fierce- 
 ness, and cruelty ; to untaught savages ; to mon- 
 sters without pity; to ignorance of arts and 
 want of learning ; to inaccuracies, vulgarisms, 
 impurities of speech and language ; and to inci- 
 vility of manners. Bruce has sliown, that bar- 
 burick, barbarine, and barberin, are names derived 
 from Berber or Barbar, the native name of the 
 coast of the troglodytae, ichthyophagi, and shep- 
 herds. It goes down the whole western coast of 
 tlie Red Sea. The Egyptians hated and feared 
 them. It was therefore in Egypt a term both of 
 dread and contumely ; in which sense it passed 
 to the Greeks, and from them to the Romans. 
 To barbarize, is to reduce to a state of barbarism ; 
 to make, or cause to be made, fierce, cruel, and 
 uncivilised. 
 
 Nor were the Corinthians proude only by reason 
 of their welthe, but also because they were learned in 
 the Grecians' philosophy, and therefore despised they 
 suche as were not learned therein as rude and bar- 
 barous. Vdaii. 
 
 What need I say more to you ? What ear is so 
 barbaruus, but hath heard of Amphialus? Sidney. 
 
 The doubtful damsel dare not yet commit 
 Her single person to their barbarous truth. 
 
 Spenser. Faerie Qtieene. 
 
 I have for barbarism spoke more 
 Than for that angel knowledge you can say. 
 
 Shukspcare. 
 Thou art a Roman ; be not barbarous. Id. 
 
 "No joyful tongue gave him his welcome home ; 
 But dust was thrown upon his sacred head ; 
 Which with such gentle sorrow he shook off. 
 His face still combating with tears and smiles. 
 The badges of his grief and patience. 
 That had not God for some strong purpose steel 'd 
 The hearts of men, they must perforce have melted. 
 And barbarism itself have pitied him. Id. 
 
 I would they were barbarians, as they are, 
 Though in Rome littered. Id. Coriolanus. 
 
 IModeration ought to be had in tempering and ma- 
 naging the Irish, to bring them from their delight of 
 licentious barbarism unto the love of goodness and 
 civilitj'. Spenser's Ireland. 
 
 Divers great monarchies have risen from barbarism 
 to civility, and fallen again into ruin. 
 
 Davies on Ireland. 
 
 A barbarous country must be broken by war, before 
 it be capable of government; and when subdued, if it 
 be not well planted, it will eftsoons return to bar- 
 barism. Id. 
 
 He left governor, Philip, for his country a Phry- 
 gian, and for manners more barbarous than he that set 
 him there. Mace. 
 
 Our groaning country bled at every vein. 
 
 When murders, rapes, and massacres prevail'd. 
 
 When churches, palaces, and cities blaz'd. 
 
 When insolence Lud barbarism triumph'd. 
 
 And swept away distinction. Rowe. 
 
 By their barbarous usage, he died within a few 
 days, to the grief of all that knew him. Clarendon. 
 
 And they did treat him with all the rudeness, re- 
 proach, and barbarity, imaginable. Id. 
 
 The barbarousness of the trial, and the persuasives 
 of the clergy, prevailed to antiquate it. 
 
 Hale's Common Lavo. 
 
 The gorgeous East, with richest hand, 
 Show'rs on her kings barbarick pearl and gold. 
 
 Paradise Lost.
 
 BAR 
 
 623 
 
 BAR 
 
 Next Petrarch follow'd, and in him we see 
 What rhyme, improvM in all its height, can be; 
 At best a pleasing sound, and sweet barbarity. 
 
 Dryden. 
 They who restored painting in Germany, not hav- 
 ing those reliqucs of antiquity, retained that barbarous 
 manner. Id. 
 
 Latin expresses that in one word, which either the 
 barbarity or narrowness of modern tongues cannot sup- 
 ply in more. Id. 
 The genius of Raphael having succeeded to the 
 times of barbarism and ignorance, the knowledge of 
 painting is now arrived to perfection. 
 
 Id. Dufreinoy, Preface. 
 The language is as near approaching to it, as our 
 modern barbaritm will allow ; which is all that can be 
 expected from any now extant. 
 
 Id. Juvenal, Dedication. 
 The eastern front was glorious to behold. 
 With diamond flaming, and barbarick gold. 
 
 Pope. 
 Some felt the silent stroke of mould'ring age. 
 Barbarian blindness. Id. 
 
 We barbarously call them blest. 
 While swelling coffers break their owner's rest. 
 
 Stepney. 
 Excellencies of musick and poetry are grown to be 
 little more, but the one fiddling, and the other 
 rhiming ; and are indeed very worthy of the igno- 
 rance of the friar, and the barbarousnest of the Goths. 
 
 Temple. 
 Proud Greece all nations else barbarians held, 
 Poasting her learning all the world excell'd. 
 
 Denluim. 
 
 There were not different gods among the Greeks 
 
 and barbarians. Stillingjieet. 
 
 But with descending show'rs of brimstone fir'd. 
 
 The wild barbarian in the storm expir'd. Addison. 
 
 She wishes it may prosper ; but her mother used 
 
 one of her nieces very barbarously. Spectator. 
 
 Thou fell barbarian. 
 
 What had he done ? What could provoke thy 
 
 madness 
 To assassind;"" so great, so brave a man ? 
 
 A. Phillips. 
 This moon, which rose last night, round as my 
 shield. 
 Had not yet fill'd her horns, when by her light, 
 A band of fierce barbarians, from the hills, 
 Rush'd like a torrent down upon the vale. 
 Sweeping our flocks and herds. Home. 
 
 The barbarians of Germany, still faithful to the 
 maxims of their ancestors, abhorred the confinement 
 of walls, to which they applied the odious names of 
 prisons and sepulchres ; and fixing their independent 
 habitations on the banks of rivers, the Rhine, the 
 Moselle, and the JMeuse, they secured themselves 
 against the danger of a surprise, by a rude and hasty 
 fortification of large trees, which were felled and 
 thrown across the roads. Gibbon. 
 
 We shall be barbarized on both sides of the water, 
 if we do not see one another now and then, we shall 
 sink into surly brutish Johns, and you will degene- 
 rate into wild Irish. 
 
 Burke. Letter to Sir C. Bingham. 
 That saddening hour when bad men hotlicr press. 
 
 But these did shelter him beneath their roof. 
 When less barbarians would have cheer'd him less. 
 
 And fellow-countrj'men have stood aloof — 
 In aught that tries the heart, how few withstand 
 the proof. Byron. Childe Harold. 
 
 We retain from a preceding work of this kind 
 an illustration of this subject; not the most glar- 
 ing, perhaps, which has happened in the same 
 
 quarter of the world ; as it displays at once the 
 savage cruelty of a man bred among Christians, 
 and the noble disinterested friendship and true 
 greatness of soul, in those too often considered 
 barbarians. A planter in Virginia, who was 
 owner of a considerable number uf slaves, instead 
 of regarding them as human creatures, and of 
 the same species with himself, used them with 
 the utmost cruelty, whipping and torturing them 
 for the slightest faults. One of these, thinking 
 any change preferable to slavery under such a 
 barbarian, attempted to make his escape among 
 the mountain Indians; but unfortunately was 
 taken and brought back to his master. Poor 
 Arthur (this was his name) was immediately 
 ordered to receive 300 lashes. These were to 
 be given him by his fellow slaves, among whom 
 there happened to be a negro whom the planter 
 had purchased on the preceding day. This slave, 
 the moment he saw the unhappy wretch destined 
 to the lashes, rushed forward, clasped him in 
 his arms, and embraced him with the greatest 
 tenderness : the other returned his transports, 
 and nothing could be more moving than their 
 mutual bemoaning each other's misfortunes. 
 Their master was soon given to understand that 
 they were countrymen and intimate friends; and 
 that Arthur had formerly, in a battle with a 
 neighbouring nation, saved the life of his friend 
 at the expense of his own. The newly purchased 
 negro tlirew himself at the planter's feet, with 
 tears, beseeching him, in the most moving man- 
 ner, to spare his friend, or at least to permit 
 him to undergo the punishment in his stead, 
 protesting he would rather die ten thousand 
 deaths than lift his hand against him. But the 
 haughty planter, looking on this as an affront to 
 the absolute power he pretended over him, 
 ordered Arthur to be immediately tied to a 
 tree, and his friend to give him the laslies; tell- 
 ing him that for every lash not well laid on, he 
 should himself receive a score. The negro, 
 amazed at a barbarity so unbecoming a human 
 creature, with a generous disdain refused to 
 obey him, at the same time upbraidin,' him with 
 his cruelty ; upon which, the planter turning all 
 his rage on him, ordered him to be immediately 
 stripped, and commanded Arthur, to whom he 
 promised forgiveness, to give his countryman 
 the lashes which he himself had been destined to 
 receive. This proposal was heard with scorn, 
 each protesting he would rather suffer the most 
 dreadful torture than injure his friend. This 
 generous conflict, which mus* have raised the 
 strongest feelings in a breast susceptible of pity, 
 did but the more inflame the monster, who now 
 determined they should both be made examples 
 of, and, to satiate his revenge, was preparing to 
 begin with Arthur, when the negro drew a knife 
 from his pocket, stabbed the planter to the heart, 
 and, at the same time struck it to his own, 
 rejoicing with his last breatli, that he had 
 avenged his friend, and rid the world of such 
 a monster. — Enct/clo. Perthensis. 
 
 BAliB.\RISM, a name applied by St. Epi- 
 phanius, to the most ancient of the four primitive 
 religions; that which worshipped hills, trees, 
 and fountains. 
 
 BAllBAROLOGIA,barbarolog)', a word used
 
 524 
 
 B A R B A R O S S A. 
 
 by Isidore, to express that species of writing, 
 wherein foreign words are adopted, or as he rlyles 
 it, intruded into the Latin language. 
 
 BARBAROSSA (Aruch), and his brother 
 TIayradin, were famous corsairs, the sons of a 
 potter in the isle of Lesbos ; who being of a rest- 
 less and enterprising spirit, left their father's em- 
 ployment, and joined a crew of pirates. They 
 soon distinguished themselves by their zeal and ac- 
 tivity, and, becoming masters of a small brigan- 
 tine, they carried on their depredations with such 
 success and conduct, that they were soon pos- 
 sessed of twelve galleys, besides smaller vessels. 
 Of this fleet Aruch, the elder brother, was ad- 
 miral, and Hayradin the second in command ; 
 they called themselves the friends of the sea, and 
 the enemies of all who sailed upon it ; and their 
 names became terrible, from the straits of the 
 Dardanelles to those of Gibraltar. With such a 
 power they wanted an establishment; and the 
 opportunity of settling themselves offered in 
 1416, by the inconsiderate application of Eutemi, 
 king of Algiers, to them for assistance against the 
 Spaniards. The active corsair gladly accepted 
 the invitation, and, leaving his brother Hayradin 
 with the fleet, marched at the head of 5000 men 
 to Algiers, where he was received as their de- 
 liverer. Such a force gave him the command of 
 the town ; and observing that the Moors neither 
 suspected him of any bad intentions, nor were 
 capable, with their light-armed troops, of oppos- 
 ing his disciplined veterans, he secretly murdered 
 the monarch he came to assist, and caused him- 
 self to be proclaimed king in his stead. The 
 authority thus boldly usurped, he endeavoured to 
 establish by arts suited to the genius of the 
 people he had to govern ; by liberality without 
 bounds to those who favored his promotion ; and 
 by cruelty no less unbounded, towards all whom 
 he had any reason to distrust. See Algiers. 
 The Arabians, alarmed at his success, implored 
 the assistance of Hamidel Abdes, king of Tunis, 
 to drive the Turks out of Algiers. That prince 
 readily undertook to do what was in his power 
 for this purpose, and, upon their agreeing to 
 settle the kingdom on himself and his descen- 
 dants, set out at the head of 10,000 Moors. 
 Upon his entering the Algerine dominions, he 
 was joined by all the Arabians in the country. 
 Barbarossa engaged him, with only 1000 Turkish 
 musqueteers and 500 Granada Moors ; totally 
 defeated his numerous army ; pursued him to the 
 very gates of his capital, which he easily made 
 himself master of; and, having given it up to be 
 plundered by his Turks, obliged the inhabitants 
 to acknowledge him sovereign. This victory, 
 (which was chiefly owing to his fire-arms), was 
 followed by an embassy from the inhabitants of 
 Tremecen, inviting him to come to their assistance 
 against their prince, with whom they were dissa- 
 tisfied on account of his having dethronpd his 
 nephew, and offering him even the sovereignty, in 
 case he accepted of their proposal. The king of 
 Tremecen, not suspecting the treachery of his 
 subjects, met the tyrant with an army of GOOO 
 horse and 3000 foot; but IJarbarossa's artillery 
 gave him such an advantage, that tlie king was 
 at lengiii forced to retire into the capital; which 
 he liad no sooner entered, than his head was cut 
 
 off", and sent to Barbarossa, with a fresh invitation 
 to take possession of the kingdom. On his ap- 
 proach lie was met by the inhabitants, whom ho 
 received with great complaisance, and many fair 
 promises ; but beginning to tyrannise as usual, 
 nis new subjects soon convinced him that they 
 were not so passive as the inhabitants of Algiers. 
 He therefore entered into an alliance with the 
 king of Fez ; after which he secured the rest of 
 the cities in his new kingdom, by garrisoning 
 them with his own troops. Some of these, how- 
 ever, revolted soon after ; upon which he sent one 
 of his corsairs, named Escander, a man no less 
 cruel than himself, to reduce them. The Treme- 
 cenians now began to repent of their having in- 
 vited such a tyrant to their assistance ; and con- 
 sulted how to bring back their lawful prince Abu- 
 chen-Men : but their cabals being discovered, a 
 great number of the conspirators were massa- 
 cred in the most cruel manner. The prince 
 escaped to Oran, and was taken under tlie pro- 
 tection of the marquis of Gomarez, who sent 
 immediate advice of it to Charles V. then lately 
 arrived in Spain, with a powerful fleet and army 
 That monarch immediately ordered the young 
 king a succour of 10,000 men, under the com- 
 mand of the governor of Oran ; who, under the 
 guidance of Abuchen-Men, began his march to- 
 wards Tremecen ; and in their way were joined 
 by prince Selim, with a great number of Arabs and 
 Moors. The first thing they resolved upon was 
 to attack the important fortress of Calau, situated 
 between Tremecen and Algiers,and commanded by 
 Escander at the head of about 300 Turks. They 
 invested it closely, in hopes that Barbarossa would 
 come out of Tremecen to its relief, which would 
 give the Tremecenians an opportunity of keeping 
 him out. That tyrant, however, kept close in 
 his capital, being embarassed by his fears of a 
 revolt, and the delays of the king of Fez, who had 
 not sent the auxiliaries he promised. The gar- 
 rison of Calau, in the mean time, made a brave 
 defence; and, in a sally, cut oflT near 300 Spa- 
 niards. This encouraged them to venture a se- 
 cond time ; but they were now repulsed with a 
 great loss, and Escander himself wounded : soon 
 after which, they surrendered, but were all mas- 
 sacred by the Arabians, except sixteen, who 
 clung close to the stirrups of the king, and of the 
 Spanish general. Barbarossa being now in- 
 formed that Abuchen-lNIcn, with his Arabs, ac- 
 companied by the Spaniards, were in full march 
 to lay siege to Tremecen, came out at the head 
 of 1500 Turks, and 5000 Moorish horse, in order 
 to break his way through the enemy ; but he had 
 not proceeded far, before his council advised him 
 to return and fortify himself. This advice was 
 now too late; the inhabitants being resolved to 
 keep him out, and open their gates to their own 
 lawfid prince as soon as he appeared. In this 
 distress Barbarossa saw no way left but to retire 
 to the citadel, and there defend himself till he 
 could find an opportunity of stealing out with 
 his men and all his treasure; bet, iiis provisions 
 failing, he took advantage of a suhterraneous 
 back way, and, taking his immense treasure with 
 him, stole away as secretly as he could. His 
 fl.ight, however, w;i3 soon discovered ; and he 
 was so closely pursued, tliat to amuse, as he
 
 BAR 525 
 
 hoped, the enemy, lie caused a great deal of his 
 money, plate, jewels, &c. to be scattered all the 
 way, thinking they would not fail to stop their 
 pursuit to gather it up. This stratagem, how- 
 ever, failed, through the vigilance of the Spanish 
 commander, who being at the head of the pur- 
 suers, obliged them to march on, till he was come 
 up close to him on the banks of the Iluexda, 
 about eight leagues from Tremecen. Barbarossa 
 had just crossed the river with his vanguard, 
 when the Spaniards came up with his rear on 
 the other side, and cut them all off; and then 
 crossing the water, overtook him at a small dis- 
 tance from it. Here a bloody engagement en- 
 sued, in which the Turks fought like lions ; but 
 being at length overpowered by numbers, they 
 were all cut to pieces, and Barbarossa among t!ie 
 rest, in the forty-fourth year of his age, and four 
 years after he had raised himself to the royal 
 title of Jigel of the adjacent country; two years 
 after he had accomplished the reduction of Treme- 
 cen. His head was carried to Tremecen, on 
 the point of a spear; and Abuchen-i\Ien pro- 
 claimed kins:, to the joy of all the inhabitants. 
 A few days after, the king of Fez appeared at the 
 head of 20,000 horse, near the field of battle ; 
 but hearing of Barbarossa's defeat and death, 
 marched off with all possible speed. 
 
 Barbarossa CHayradin), upon his brother's 
 death, assumed the sceptre at Algiers with equal 
 abilities, but with better fortune; for the Spa- 
 niards, sufficiently employed in Europe, giving 
 him no disturbance, he regulated the interior po- 
 lice of his kingdom with great prudence, carried 
 on his naval operations with vigor, and extended 
 his conquests on the continent of Africa. But 
 perceiving that the Moors and Arabs submitted 
 to his government with the utmost impatience, 
 and being afraid that his continual depredations 
 would one day draw upon him the arms of the 
 Christians, he put his dominions under the pro- 
 tection of the Grand Seignior, and received from 
 him a body of Turkish soldiers, sufficient for his 
 security against his domestic, as well as his fo- 
 reign enemies. At last the fame of his exploits 
 daily increasing, Solyman, the Turkish emperor, 
 offered him the command of his fleet, as the only 
 person whose valor and skill entitled him to 
 command against the famous Andrew Doria. 
 Proud of this distinction, Barbarossa repaired to 
 Constantinople ; and with a wonderful versatility 
 of mind, mingling the arts of a courtier with the 
 boldness of a corsair, gained the entire confi- 
 dence both of the sultan and his vizier. To them 
 he communicated a scheme he had formed of 
 making himself master of Tunis, the most flourish- 
 ing kingdom at that time on the coast of Africa; 
 which being approved of, they gave him what- 
 ever he demanded for carrj'ing it into execution. 
 He obtained it in a manner similar to that by 
 which his brother gained Algiers ; Vjut was driven 
 from it by Charles \^ in 1536. After this he 
 ravaged several parts of Italy, and reduced Ye- 
 Men, in Arabia Felix, to the Turkish go%'emment. 
 He died in 1547, aged 80. See Algiers. 
 
 Barbaro>sa was also a title or surname of 
 Frederick I. emperor of Germany, one of the 
 first sovereigns in Europe who ventured to speak 
 freely of the papal hierarchy, and the pride of 
 
 BAR 
 
 the popes. Of tlie cardinals he said, Cardina- 
 lis non esse praedicatores sed praedatores ; — the 
 cardinals were not preachers, but plunderers. 
 This was so early as A. D. 1155. See Ger- 
 many. 
 
 Barbarossa, in entomolosry, a species of 
 scarabaius, a native of New Holland. The an- 
 terior part of the thorax is scabrous ; horns of 
 the head recurved and short. 
 
 BARBAROUX (Charles), a French republi- 
 can, and a sufferer by the guillotine. He was a 
 native of Marseilles, and became a member of 
 the national assembly. He was a great adver- 
 sary to Robespierre and Tallien, against whom 
 he brought many charges. He likewise proposed 
 the trial of the king and the royal family. On 
 the overthrow of the Girondist partj^, he was 
 arrested, but found means to escape. Some 
 time after, however, he was seized, and brought 
 to the guillotine at Bourdeaux, on the 25th of 
 June, 1794. 
 
 BARBARUS (Daniel), a noble Venetian, pa- 
 triarch of Aquileia, and famous for his learning, 
 was ambassador from \ enice to England ; and 
 one of the fathers of the council of Trent, where 
 he acted with great zeal for the interest of the 
 pope. He wrote, 1. A Commentary upon ^'i- 
 truvius. 2. Catena Gra;corum Patrum in quin- 
 quagiuta Psalmos Latine versa. 3. La Pratica 
 della Perspectiva. He died in 1569, aged 41. 
 
 Barbarus (Francis), a noble Venetian, of the 
 same family widi Daniel. He was born in 1398, 
 and gained great fame in the fifteenth century, 
 not only for his learning, but for a skilful address 
 in the management of public affairs. He wrote 
 a book De Re Uxoria, on the Choice of a Wife 
 and the Duties of Women ; and translated 
 some of Plutarch's Lives. He died in 1454. 
 His book, De Re Uxoria was printed at Paris in 
 1515, and his Letters in 1743. 
 
 Barbarus, (Hermolaus), grandson of Fran- 
 cis, one of the most learned men of the fif- 
 teenth century. The public employments he 
 was entrusted with early, did not prevent 'nim 
 from cultivating letters. He understood the 
 most difficult authors ; ^vrote a celebrated para- 
 phrase upon Aristotle ; and corrected and trans- 
 lated Dioscorides, and added a commentarj'. 
 But of all his works none gained him so much 
 reputation as his commentary upon Pliny ; 
 wherein he corrected above 5000 passages, and 
 oecasionally restored 300 in Pomponius Mela. 
 Pope Innocent VIII. to whom he was ambas- 
 sador, conferred upon him the patriarchate of 
 Aquileia. He imprudently accepted it without 
 waiting for the consent of his superiors ; though 
 the republic of Venice had made laws forbidding 
 the ministers they sent to the court of Rome to 
 accept any benefice. The haughty aristocrats 
 were inflexible ; and not being able to gain any 
 thing upon them either by flattery or his father's 
 interest, the father died of grief, and the son soon 
 followed him. 
 
 Barbarus (Hermolaus), was a nephew of 
 Francis, and distinguished himself by his know- 
 ledge of the Greek language. At the age of 
 twelve years he translated some of ^Esop's Fables 
 into Latin. He was successively bishop of Tre- 
 visa and of Verona, and died at the latter in 1470.
 
 526 
 
 B A R B A R Y. 
 
 Barbarus, in entomology, 1. A species of 
 papilio ; the wings without tails, and blueisli. 
 '2. A species of tenebrio, of a black color, and 
 very glossy. 3. A species of cryptocephalus 
 that inhabits Barbary. 
 
 Barbaris, in ichthyology, a species of syng- 
 nathas, found in European seas. 
 
 Barbarus, in ornithology, a species of brown 
 Tulture that inhabits Barbary, and some other 
 parts of Africa. The vulturbarbatus, Briss. Orn. 
 and bearded vulture of Edwards and Latham. 
 Also a species of Falco, called by the English 
 writers Barbary falcon. 
 
 BARBARY, a part of Africa, including the 
 states of Fez, Algiers, Morocco, Tripoli, and 
 Tunis. This country contains almost the whole 
 of what the Romans possessed of the conti- 
 nent of Africa, excepting Egypt. It stretches 
 in length, from east to west, from Egypt to the 
 straits of Gibraltar, full 35° of longitude; and 
 from thence to Santa Cruz, the utmost western 
 edge of it, about six more, in all 41°. On the 
 south, indeed, it is confined within much narrower 
 bounds, extending no further than from 27° to 
 35^° N. lat. In this view of it Barbary begins 
 on the west of the famed mount Atlas, called by 
 the Arabs Al Duacal, enclosing the ancient king- 
 doms of Suez and Dela, now provinces of Mo- 
 rocco ; thence stretching along the Atlantic to the 
 pillars of Hercules at cape Finisterre, then along 
 the coast of the Mediterranean, it is at last 
 bounded by the city of Alexandria in Egypt. ■ In 
 the ancient world this comparative desert was 
 rendered interesting by being the seat of the 
 Carthaginian empire ; and portions of it were 
 then so fruitful, that Northern Africa was some- 
 times denominated the granary of Italy. 
 
 Concerning the origin of the name there are 
 many conjectures. According to some, the Ro- 
 mans, after they had conquered this large tract of 
 country, gave it the name of Barbary, out of dis- 
 like to the manners of the natives, according to 
 their custom of calling all other people but them- 
 selves and the Greeks, Barbarians. JNIarmol, on 
 the contrary, derives the word Barbary from Ber- 
 ber, a name which the Arabs gave to its ancient 
 inhabitants, on account of the barrenness of the 
 country, and which they retain to this day in 
 many parts of it, especially along the great ridge 
 of the mountains of Atlas. According to Leo 
 Africanus, the name of Barbary was given by the 
 Arabs on account of the strange language of the 
 natives, which appeared to them more like the 
 grumbling of brutes than articulate sounds. 
 Others derive it from the Arabic word bar, signi- 
 fying a desert, which was given by one Africus, 
 a king of Arabia, from whom the whole continent 
 of Africa is said to have taken its name ; and 
 who being driven out of his own dominions, and 
 closely pursued by his enemies, some of his retinue 
 called out to him Bar-bar ; that is, To the desert, 
 to the desert ; from which the country was after- 
 wards called Barbary. 
 
 Gibbon (Decline and Fall Rom. Emp. v. ix.) 
 says that the history of the word Bar-bar is divi- 
 sible into four periods. 1. In the time of Homer, 
 when the Greeks and Asiatics might probably 
 use a common idiom, the imitative sound of Bar- 
 bar, was applied to the ruder tribes, whose pro- 
 
 nunciation was most harsh, whose grammar was 
 most defective. Kajjtc Bap/Sapo^wi/ot (Iliad, ii. 
 867. with the Oxford Scholiast, Clarke's Annota- 
 tions and Henry Stephens's Greek Thesaurus, torn. 
 1. p. 720.) 2. From the time, at least, of Herodo- 
 tus, it was extended to all nations who were 
 strangers to the language and manners of the 
 Greeks. 3. In the age of Plautus, the Romans 
 submitted to the insult (Pompeius Festus, 1. ii. 
 p. 48. ed. Dacier), and freely gave themselves the 
 name of Barbarians. They insensibly claimed an 
 exemption for Italy, and her subject provinces, 
 and at length removed the disgraceful appellation 
 to the savage or hostile nations beyond the pale 
 of the empire. 4. In every sense it was due to 
 the Moors ; the familiar word was borrowed from 
 the Latin provincials by the Arabian conquerors, 
 and has justly settled as a local denomination^ 
 (Barbary) alon? the northern coast of Africa. 
 
 By the Romans, this country was divided into 
 the provinces of Mauritania, Africa Propria, Sec, 
 and they continued absolute masters of it from 
 the time of Julius Cssar till A. D. 428. At that 
 time Bonifacius, the Roman governor of these pro- 
 vinces, having through the treachery of iEtius 
 been forced to revolt, called to his assistance 
 Genseric king of the Vandals, who had been some 
 time settled in Spain. The terms offered, accor- 
 ding to Procopius were, that Genseric should have 
 two thirds, and Bonifacius one third, of Africa, 
 provided they could maintain themselves against 
 the Roman power ; and to accomplish this they 
 were to assist each other to the utmost. This 
 proposal was instantly complied with ; and Gen- 
 seric set out from Spain in May 428, with an army 
 of 80,000 men, according to some, or only 24,000 
 according to others, together with their wives, 
 children, and all their effects. In the mean time 
 the Empress Placidia, having discovered the true 
 cause of Bonifacius's revolt, wrote a most oblig- 
 ing letter to him, in which she assured him of 
 her favor and protection for the future, exhorting 
 him to return to his duty, and exert his usual 
 zeal for the welfare of the empire ; by driving out 
 the Barbarians, whom the malice of his enemies ^ 
 had obliged him to call in for his own safety and y 
 preservation. Bonifacius readily complied, and 
 offered the \'andals considerable sums if they 
 would return to Spain. But Genseric, already 
 master of the greatest part of the country, return- 
 ing a scornful answer, and fallinir unexpectedly 
 on him, cut most of his men in pieces, and 
 obliged Bonifacius himself to fly to Hippo, which 
 he invested in May 430. The siege lasted till 
 July 431, when the Vandals were forced, by a fa- 
 mine that began to rage in their camp, to drop 
 the enterprise, and to retire. Soon after, Boni- 
 facius having received two reinforcements, one 
 from Rome, and the other, under the celebrated 
 Aspar, from Constantinople, a resolution was 
 taken by the Roman generals to offer the enemy 
 battle. A bloody engagement ensued, in which 
 the Romans were utterly defeated, a prodigious 
 number of them taken, and the rest obliged to 
 shelter themselves among the rocks and mountains. 
 Aspar, who commanded the eastern troops, 
 escaped with difficulty to Constantinople, and 
 Bonifacius was recalled to Italy. Upon their de- 
 parture, the \andals overran all Africa, committing
 
 B A R B A R Y. 
 
 527 
 
 everj'where the most terrible ravages, which 
 stnick tlie inhabitants of Hippo with such terror, 
 that they abandoned the city, which was first 
 plundered, and then set on fire by the victorious 
 enemy ; so that Cirtha and Carthage were now 
 the only strong places possessed by the Romans. 
 In 435, Genseric, afraid of an attack by the united 
 forces of the eastern and western empires, con- 
 cluded a peace with the Romans, who yielded to 
 him part of Numidia, the province of Procon- 
 sularis, and PJyzacene, for which, according to 
 Prosper, he was to pay a yearly tribute to the 
 emperor of the east. Genseric delivered up his 
 son llunneric by way of hostage ; but so great 
 was the confidence which the Romans placed in 
 that barbarian, that some time after they sent him 
 back his son. Of this they soon had reason to 
 repent ; for in 439, the Romans being engaged in 
 a war with the Goths in Gaul, Genseric laid hold 
 of that opportunity to seize upon the city of Car- 
 thage ; by which he considerably enlarged his 
 African dominions. Valentinian, however, re- 
 tained as long as he lived, the two Mauritanias 
 with Tripolitana, Tingitana, and that part of 
 Numidia where Cirtha stood. On taking Car- 
 thage, Genseric made it the seat of his empire; 
 and in 440 ravaged the island of Sicily, and laid 
 siege to Palermo. Not being able, however, to 
 reduce that place, he soon returned to Africa with 
 an immense booty, and a vast number of captives, 
 Being now become formidable to both empires, 
 Theodosius, emperor of the east, resolved to assist 
 Valentinian against so powerful an enemy. Ac- 
 cordingly, he fitted out a fleet consisting of 1100 
 large ships ; and putting on board of it the flower 
 of his army, under the conduct of Arcovindas, 
 Ansilus, a/id Germanus, he ordered them to land 
 in Africa, and joining the western forces there, 
 to drive Genseric out of the countries he had 
 seized. But the latter, pretending a desire to be 
 reconciled with both empires, amused the Roman 
 general with proposals of peace, till the season 
 for action was over; and, next year, Theodosius 
 being obliged to recal his forces to oppose the 
 Huns, V'aleiitinian found it necessary to conclude 
 a peace with »lie \'andals ; and this he could ob- 
 tam on no other terms than yielding to them the 
 quiet possession of the countries they had over-run. 
 So powerful was Genseric now become, or rather 
 so low was the Roman empire by this time re- 
 duced, that in 455 he took and plundered the city 
 of Rome itself (.See Rome), and, after his return 
 to Africa, made himself master of the remaining 
 countries held by the Romans in that part of the 
 world. Hereupon Avitus, wiio had succeeded 
 \'alentinian in the empire, despatched ambassa- 
 dors to Genseric, putting him in mind of the treaty 
 he had concluded with the empire in 442 ; and 
 threatening if he did not observe the articles at 
 that time agreed upon, to make war upon him, 
 not only with his own forces, but with those of his 
 allies the \'isigoths, who were ready to pass over in- 
 to Africa. To this Genseric was so far from paying 
 any regard that he immediately put to sea with 
 a fleet of sixty ships ; but being attacked by the 
 Roman fleet under Ricimer, he was utterly de- 
 feated, and forced to fly back into Africa. He 
 returned, however, soon after, with a more power- 
 ful armament, committing great ravages on the 
 
 coast of Italy : but in a second expedition he wa.s 
 not attended with so good success ; the Romans 
 falling unexpectedly upon his men,while busied in 
 plundering the country, put great numbers of 
 them to the sword, and among the rest the brother- 
 in-law of Genseric himself. Encouraged by this 
 advantage, Majorian, then emperor, resolved 
 to pass over into Africa, and attempt the recovery 
 of that country. For this purpose he made great 
 preparations ; but his fleet being surprised and 
 defeated by the Vandals, through the treachery of 
 some ofhis commanders, the enterprise miscarried. 
 Notwithstanding this misfortune, Majorian per- 
 sisted in his resolution, and would in all likelihood 
 have accomplished his purpose, had not he him- 
 self been murdered soon after by Ricimer. After 
 his death Genseric committed what ravages he 
 pleased in the poor remains of the western em- 
 pire, and even made descents on Peloponnesus 
 and the islands belonging to the emperor of Con- 
 stantinople. In revenge, Leo made vast prepa- 
 rations for the invasion of Africa, insomuch that, 
 according to Procopius, he laid out 130,000 
 pounds weight of gold in the equipment of his 
 army and navy. The forces employed on this 
 occasion were sufficient for expelling the Vandals, 
 had they been much more powerful than they were ; 
 but the command being given to Basiliscus, a 
 covetous and ambitious man, the fleet was ut- 
 terly defeated through his treachery, and all the 
 vast preparations came to nothing. By this last 
 defeat the power of the Vandals in Africa was 
 fully established, and Genseric made himself 
 master of Sicily, as well as all the other islands 
 between Italy and Africa, without opposition from 
 the western emperors, whose power was entirely 
 annihilated, A. D. 476. Thus was the Vandalic 
 monarchy in Barbary founded by Genseric, be- 
 tween the years 428 and 468. That prince's 
 government, in his new dominions, presents no 
 very agreeable prospect. Being himself a barba- 
 rian in the worst sense of the word, and an utter 
 stranger to every useful art, he displayed his 
 prowess by the destruction of all the monuments 
 of Roman greatness, which were so numerous in 
 the country he had conquered. Instead of 
 improving the country he laid it waste, by de- 
 molishing all the stately structures both public 
 and private with which those proud conquerors 
 had adorned this part of their dominions. Mo- 
 numents which the Romans had been at an 
 immense expense to erect, the barbarous \'an- 
 dals reduced to heaps of ruins. Besides this 
 kind of devastation, Genseric made his dominions 
 a scene of blood, by persecuting the orthodox 
 Christians; being himself.as well most ofhis coun- 
 trymen, zealously devoted to the Arian party. He 
 died in 477, after a reign of sixty years ; and 
 was succeeded by his son Hunneric, who also 
 proved a still greater tyrant than his father, per- 
 secuting the orthodox with the utmost fury ; and, 
 during his short reign of seven years and a half, 
 destroying more of them than Genseric had done 
 in all his life. He died miserably ; his flesh 
 rotting upon his bones, and crawling with worms, 
 so that he looked more like a dead carcase than 
 a living man. Concerning his successors Gun- 
 damund, Thrasimund, and Hilderic, we find 
 nothing remarkable, except that they sometimes
 
 628 
 
 B A R B A R Y. 
 
 persecuted, and sometimes were favorable to, the 
 orthodox. Hilderic by favoring them was ruined ; 
 for, having published, in the beginning of his 
 reign, a manifesto, v^rherein he repealed all the 
 acts of his predecessors against them, a rebellion 
 was the immediate consequence, lie was de- 
 posed in tlie seventh year of his reign by Gilimer, 
 a prince of the blood-royal, who caused the king 
 with all his family to be closely confined, and 
 himself to be crowned at Carthage. Gilimer 
 proved a greater tyrant tlian any that had gone 
 before him. He not only continued the perse- 
 cutions of the orthodox, but horribly oppressed 
 the rest of his subjects, so that he was held in 
 universal detestation, when the Greek emperor 
 Justinian projected an invasion of Africa. This 
 expedition is fabled to have been occasioned by an 
 apparition of Lffitus, an African bishop, wiio had 
 been murdered some time before, and now com- 
 manded the emperor to attempt the recovery of 
 Africa, assuring him of success. Justinian, not- 
 withstanding his being at that time engaged in a 
 war with Persia, now, therefore, sent a powerful 
 fleet and army to Africa, under the command of 
 the celebrated Belisarius. At this time Gilimer 
 was so much taken up with his pleasure that he 
 knew little or nothing of the formidable prepa- 
 rations against him. On the arrival of Belisarius, 
 however, he put himself in a posture of defence. 
 The management of his army he committed to 
 his two brothers, Gundimer and Gelamund, who 
 accordingly attacked the Romans at the ^head of 
 a numerous force. Tlie engagement was long 
 and bloody ; but at last the Vandals were de- 
 feated, and the two princes slain. Gilimer, in 
 desperation, sallied out at the head of his corps 
 of reserve, to renew the attack with the utmost 
 vigor; but by his own indiscretion lost a fair 
 opportunity of defeating the Romans. For as 
 soon as they perceived Gilimer hastening after 
 them at the head of a fresh army, they fled and 
 the greatest part were dispersed in such a manner, 
 that, had the king followed them close, they must 
 have been totally cut off". Instead of this, how- 
 ever, stumbling on the body of one of his slain 
 brothers, the sight of it made him lose all thoughts 
 of the enemy ; and instead of pursuing them, he 
 spent his time in idle lamentations, and in bury- 
 ing the corpse with suitable pomp. Belisarius 
 had thus an opportunity of rallying, which he 
 did so effectually, that, coming unexpectedly 
 upon Gilimer, he easily gained a new and com- 
 plete victory over him. This defeat was followed 
 by the loss of Carthage, which the barbarians had 
 been at no pains to put into a posture of defence. 
 Gilimer, having in vain solicited assistance from 
 the Moors and Goths, recalled his brother Zano 
 from Sardinia, resolving to make one desperate 
 attempt to regain the kingdom, or at least recover 
 the captives. The consequence was another en- 
 gagement, in which Zano was killed with 800 
 of his choicest men, while the Romans lost only 
 fifty; after which Belisarius, moving suddenly 
 forward at the head of his army, fell upon the 
 camp of the Vandals. This Gilimer was no 
 sooner apprised of than he fled towards Numidia 
 in the utmost consternation. As soon as the 
 flight was known among his troops, they aban- 
 doned their camp to the Romans, who plundered 
 
 it, and massacred all the men that were left, car- 
 rying the women captives. Thus a total end 
 was put to the power of the Vandals, and the 
 Romans once more became the masters of Bar- 
 bary. The Vandal inhabitants were permitted 
 to remain, on condition of exchanging the heresy 
 of Arius for the orthodox faith. Gilimer fled to 
 Medamus, a town situated on the top of the 
 Papuan mountains, and almost inaccessible by 
 its height and ruggedness. The siege of this 
 place was committed to Pharas, an officer of 
 great experience, who having shut up all avenues 
 to the town, the fugitive was reduced to the great- 
 est straits for want of provisions. Pharas being 
 apprised of the distress he was in, wrote him a 
 friendly and pathetic letter, exhorting him to put 
 an end to the distress of himself and his friends by 
 a surrender. This Gilimer declined ; but at the 
 same time concluded his' answer with a most sub- 
 missive request, that Pharas would so far pity his 
 great distress as to send him a loaf of bread, a ■ 
 sponge, and a lute. This strange request surprised I 
 Pharas, but was explained by the messenger, who I 
 told him that the king had not tasted any baked I 
 bread since his arrival on that mountain, and ear- 
 nestly longed to eat a morsel of it before he died ; 
 the sponge he wanted to allay a humor that had 
 arisen in one of his eyes; and the lute, on which 
 he had learned to play, was to assist him in setting 
 some elegiac verses, he had composed on the sub- J 
 ject of his misfortunes, to a suitable tune. At M 
 this mournful report, Pharas could not refrain 
 from tears, and immediately despatched the mes- 
 senger with tlie things he wanted. Gilimer had 
 spent nearly three winter months on the summit of 
 this inhospitable mountain, his misery hardening 
 him against the thoughts of surrendering, when a 
 melancholy scene in his own family at once re- 
 conciled him to it. This was a bloody struggle 
 between two boys, one of them his sister's son, 
 about a flat bit of dough, laid on the coals ; which 
 the one seized upon, burning hot as it was, and 
 clapped into his mouth, but the other by dint of 
 blows forced it out, and eat it from him. The 
 quarrel, which might have ended fatally, had not 
 Gilimer interposed, made so deep an impression 
 upon him, that he immediately despatched a mes- 
 senger to Pharas, acquainting him that he was 
 willing to surrender himself and all his effects 
 upon the conditions he had offered, as soon as he 
 was assured that they were embraced by Belisarius. 
 Pharas lost no time in getting them ratified and 
 sent back to him. Gilimer was afterwards brought 
 in golden chains before Justinian, whom he be- 
 sought in the most submissive manner to save his 
 life. That emperor treated him with a degree of 
 humanity he little merited ; allowing him a hand- 
 some yearly pension to live upon as a private 
 gentleman. But his mind was too much unsettled 
 to enjoy the sweets of a private life ; so that, op- 
 pressed with grief, he died in the first year of his 
 captivity, five years after he had been raised to the 
 throne, A. D. 554. Barbary being thus again 
 reduced under the power of the Romans, its his- 
 tory falls to be noticed under that of Rome. In 
 the khalifat of Omar this country was reduced 
 by the Saracens, as the reader will find under the 
 article Khalifs. It continued subject to the 
 khalifs of Arabia and Bagdad till the reign of
 
 B A R B A R Y. 
 
 529 
 
 Haroun Al Raschid, who having appointed Ibra- 
 him Ebn Aglab, governor of the western parts of 
 his empire, that prefect took the opportunity, 
 first of assuming greater powers than had been 
 granted by the khalif, and then erecting an inde- 
 pendent principality. The race of Aglab con- 
 tinued to enjoy their new principality peaceably 
 till the year of the llegira 297 or 298, during 
 which time they made several descents on the 
 island of Sicily, and conquered part of it. 
 About this time, however, one Obeidallaii re- 
 belled against the house of Aglab, and assumed 
 the title of khalif of Kairwan, the ancient Cyrene, 
 and residence of the Aglabite princes. To give 
 the greater weii^ht to his pretensions he also took 
 the surname of Al Mohdi, or Al Mohedi, the 
 director. lie pretended to be descended in a 
 right line from Ali Ebn Abu Taleb, and Fatema 
 the daughter of Mahomet ; for which reason 
 the Arabs called him and his descendents Fate- 
 mites. He likewise encouraged himself and his 
 followers by a traditional prophecy of Mahomet, 
 that at the end of 300 years the sun should rise 
 out of the west. Having at length driven the 
 Aglabites into Egypt, where they became known 
 by the name of INIagrebians, he extended his do- 
 minions in Africa and Sicily, making Kairwan 
 the place of his residence. In the 300th year of 
 the llegira, Habbasah, one of Al Mohdi's gene- 
 rals, overthrew the khalif Al Mokhtader's forces 
 in the neighbourhood of Barca, and made him- 
 self master of that city. After which he reduced 
 Alexandria; and was making great progress in 
 the conquest of the whole country, while Al 
 Mokhtader serit against him his generals Takin 
 and Al Kasem, with an army of 100,000 men. 
 Habbasah, being informed that the khalif 's troops 
 were in motion, advanced at the head of his 
 ;.riny to give them battle, and at last came up 
 with them in an island called by the Arabs Ard Al 
 Khamsin. Here he attacked them with incredible 
 bravery, notwithstanding their force was much 
 superior to his ; but the approach of night 
 obliged both generals to sound a retreat. The 
 action therefore was by no means decisive, though 
 extremely bloody, the khalif 's generals having lost 
 20,000 men and Habbasah 10,000. The latter, 
 however, durst not renew the fight next morning ; 
 but stole off in the night, and returned home, so 
 that Al Mokhtader in effect gained a victory. In 
 the 302d year of the Hegira, however, Habbasah 
 returned, possessed himself of Alexandria a se- 
 cond time, defeated a body of the khalif 's forces, 
 and killed 7000 upon the spot. In the 307th 
 year, Abul Kasem, son to Al INIohdi, entered 
 Kgiypt with an army of 100,000 men. At first 
 he met with extraordinary success, and overran 
 a considerable part of that fine country. He 
 made himself master of Alexandria, Al Tayum, 
 Al Baknasa, and the isle of Ashmaryin, penetra- 
 ting even to Al .lizah, where the khalif 's army 
 Uiider the command of Munes was posted to op- 
 pose him. In this country he maintained himself 
 till the 308th year of the Hegira, when he was 
 entirely defeated by Munes, who made himself 
 master of all his baggage, as well as of die plunder 
 lie had acquired. .This obliged Abul Kasem to 
 fly to Kairwan with the shattered remains of his 
 army, where he remained without making anv 
 V'OL. II [. 
 
 further attempt on Egypt. Al Mohdi reigned 
 twenty-four years, and was succeeded by Abul 
 Kasem, who then took the name of Al Kayem 
 Mohdi. During his reign we read of nothing 
 very remarkable, except the revolt of Yezid Ebn 
 Condat, a man of mean extraction, but who, 
 having been raised to the dignity of chancellor, 
 found means to create such a strong party, that 
 the khalif was obliged to shut himself up in the 
 castle of Mohedia. Yczid, being then at the 
 head of a powerful army, soon reduced the 
 capital of Kairwan, the cities of Al Rakkada and 
 Tunis, and several other fortresses. He was no 
 less successful in defeating a considerable number 
 of troops which Al Kayem had sent against him ; 
 after which he closely besieged the khalif himself 
 in the castle seven months, when die khalif died, 
 in the twelfth year of his reign, and 334th of the 
 Hegira. Al Kayem was succeeded by his son 
 Ishmael, who immediately took the title of Al 
 IVIansur, but concealed the death of his father 
 till he had made preparations for reducing the 
 rebels. In this he was so successful, that he 
 obliged Yezid to raise the seige of ]Mohetdi, and 
 in the following year obliged him to shut himself 
 up in the fortress of Kothama, where he besieged 
 him in his turn. Yezid defended the place a long 
 time with desperate bravery, but, finding the gar- 
 rison at last obliged to capitulate, he made shift 
 to escape privately. Al Mansur despatched a 
 body of forces in pursuit of him, who overtook, 
 and brought him back in fetters, after a vigorous 
 defence, in which Yezid got several dangerous 
 wounds, of which he died in prison. After his 
 death Al Mansur caused his body to be flayed, 
 and his skin stuffed and exposed to public view. 
 For Al Mansur's exploits in Sicily, see that 
 article. Nothing farther remarkable happened in 
 his African dominions. He died after reigning 
 seven years and sixteen days, in the 341st of the 
 Hegira, and was succeeded by his son Abu Zam- 
 min Moab, who assumed the surname of Al Moez 
 Ledinilloh ; and maintained a bloody contest with 
 Abdalsahman, khalif of Andalusia : for a particu- 
 lar account of which, see Spain. In the 347th 
 year of the Hegira, beginning March 25th A. D. 
 958, Al Moez sent a powerful army to the western 
 extremity of Africa, under the command of Abul 
 Hasan Jawhar, one of his slaves, whom he had 
 advanced to the dignity of vizier. Jawhar first 
 advanced to a city called Tahart, which he be- 
 sieged for some time ineffectually. From thenca 
 he marched to Fez, which he took at last by storm 
 in the following year. But the greatest achieve- 
 ment performed by this khalif was his conquest 
 of Egypt, and the removal of the khalifat to that 
 country. This conquest, though long projected, 
 he did not attempt till the year of the Hegira 358. 
 Having then made all necessary preparations for 
 it, he committed the care of that expedition to 
 an experienced general called Giafar, but in the 
 mean time, this enterprize did not divert Al Moez 
 from the care of his other conquests, particularly 
 those of Sicily and Sardinia ; to the last of which 
 he sailed in the year of the Hegira 361, continu- 
 ing a whole year in it, and leaving the care of his 
 African dominions to an experienced officer 
 named Yusef Ben Zeiri. He sailed thence the 
 following year for Tripoli in Barbarv, where he 
 
 2 M
 
 530 
 
 B A R B A R Y. 
 
 had not staid long, before lie received the agree- 
 able news tliat his general had made himsell" 
 m;ister of Alexandria, lie lost no time, but im- 
 mediately embarked for it, leaving the government 
 of his old African dominions in the hands of his 
 trusty servant Yusef, and arriving safely at that 
 port was received with all the demonstrations of 
 joy. Here he began to lay the foundations of his 
 new Egyptian dynasty, wiiich put a final end to the 
 old one of Kairwan, after it had continued about 
 sixty-five years. Al Mqez, however, preserved 
 all his old dominions of Barbary and Africa Pro- 
 per. But tlie avarice of the governors, whom he 
 appointed, occasioned them to run quickly to 
 decay ; particularly the new and opulent metro- 
 polis of jNIohedia, on which immense sums had 
 been lavished, so as to render it not only one of 
 the richest and stateliest, but one of the strongest 
 cities in the world. But the wealth and splendor 
 of this once famed, short-lived state, took their 
 leave of it with the departure of the khalif Al 
 Moez. The whole maritime tract from tlie Eyp- 
 lian confines to the Straits of Gibraltar has since 
 become the nest of the most odious piratical 
 crew that ever existed. Under the article Al- 
 giers we have given a short account of the 
 erection of a new kingdom in Barbary by Texe- 
 fien; which, however, is there no farther conti- 
 nued than is necessary for connecting the history 
 of that country. A general history might here 
 be given of the whole country of Barbary ; but 
 as that would occasion repetitions under the ar- 
 ticles Morocco, Tripoli, Tunis, &c. we must 
 refer to these articles for the rest of its history, as 
 well as for other particulars not here mentioned. 
 The great natural feature of this region, and 
 that which appears to exempt it from the sterility 
 by which it is surrounded, is the mountain chain 
 of Atlas. This celebrated range, which ancient 
 fable imaged as the prop of heaven, has its loftiest 
 pinnacles in the west, immediately behind Mo- 
 rocco ; but it extends in various branches, which 
 have been little explored, and at different heights, 
 along the whole southern frontier of Algiers and 
 Tunis, leaving a fertile tract of from 50 to 200 
 miles on the shores of the M.editerranean. Lime- 
 stone is the predominant rock of this range, which 
 in the western and loftier ranges appears in the 
 form of marble, and afterwards in the looser 
 forms of secondary limestone. The marbles of 
 Numidia are well known in history. The me- 
 tallic products are not well ascertained, from the 
 unskilful manner in which they have been 
 worked. Silver, copper, and lead, are found to 
 a consideralile extent in Algiers and Tunis. 
 Iron, lead, copper, silver, antimony, and a mix- 
 ture of antimony, lead and gold, are found in the 
 mountainous districts ; but none of them are 
 worked to any great extent. Salt, in many 
 places, especially in the southern countries bor- 
 dering upon the Great Desert, completely im- 
 pregnates the earth ; and tlie water of the springs 
 and pools, when evaporated, Knaves a thick crust 
 of saline matter : in otliers it appears in large 
 solid masses. Springs, some of them hot, con- 
 taining other mineral sul)stances, particularly 
 sulphur, are frequent; indicating the presence of 
 great internal heat. At llamuiaii Alescouteen, 
 near Constantia, the waters of a spring absolutely 
 calcine the rock over which they pass. 
 
 Much of the general character and produc- 
 tions of this entire region appears in our article 
 Algiers, above referred to: the whole is ill- 
 cultivated. Of the improvements in agriculture 
 they have no notion ; and their industry is con- 
 stantly checked by the pressure of a short-sighted 
 and iniquitous government. Burned stubble, 
 and the litter of the cattle turned out upon the 
 fallows, is the only manure they use. Their 
 ploughing is done by a wooden plough, drawn 
 by a single yoke of oxen, going over not more 
 than one acre in a whole day. Two bushels and 
 a half per acre is their ordinary allowance of 
 seed-corn, and 1200 per cent, the return ex- 
 pected. Dr. Shaw found the Asiatic customs 
 introduced by the Arabs everywhere prevailing ; 
 the ox is driven round the circular threshing- 
 floor, to tread out the corn, which is afterwards 
 winnowed by being thrown up against the wind, 
 just as it was in Judea three thousand years ago. 
 (Dent. xxv. 4. Is. xxx. 24.) The grain is depo- 
 sited in large subterraneous magazines called 
 raatm(jrs, each containing at least 500 bushels. 
 Wheat, maize, and different species of millet 
 (sorghum), pulse, vetches, lentils, and caravances 
 (garbanzos), chich-peas, (cicer arietinum), are 
 their agricultural objects. Neither oats nor hay 
 are used; but, as in western Asia, barley and 
 chopped straw are substituted for them. Hemp, 
 flax, cotton, and tobacco, make up the remainder 
 of their field produce. Their gardens abound 
 with figs, melons, oranges, lemons, and limes; 
 vineyards and olive-yards are seen on the plains 
 and declivities, and our common forest-trees, 
 corks and evergreen oaks, in the woods. There 
 are also some inferior kinds of fruit, such a.s 
 the jujube, lote-tree (zizyphus lotus), elseagnus, 
 argan (elseodendrum arg.), diospyros lotus, 
 celtis australis, and cornelian cherry (cornus 
 mascula), not common among us : some gum 
 resins, such as galbanum, opopanax, ammonia- 
 cum, and sandarac, the produce of the Arar, or 
 Juniperus communis, and medicinal herbs, such i^ 
 as wormwood, orrisroot (iris Germanica, Floren- ,P 
 tina), colocinth, or coloquintida, &c. 
 
 The climate is upon the whole temperate and 
 salubrious, with considerable variations in the 
 diff'erent regions. The formidable scorpion, the 
 boa constrictor, and above all the dreaded locust, 
 appear here ; the latter in those prodigious 
 swarms that convert a ' garden of Eden into the 
 wilderness.' Here also range the lordly lion, 
 (who is nowhere seen more strong or ferocious), 
 the panther, and the hyena. The last is said, 
 however, not to manifest in its wild state that 
 fierceness which it displays in our menageries, 
 and which is generated by confinement. It sel- 
 dom attacks man, unless molested by him; and 
 boys are sometimes seen leading it about with 
 ropes. It remains all day in its cave, staring 
 witli its eyes fixed, and comes out in the night, 
 chiefly after dead bodies. The same is observa- 
 ble of the jackal, here called the deeb, about 
 iialf the size of the hyena. The animal most 
 valued is the antelo]ie or gazel, whose beauty is 
 the object of universal admiration here; the 
 term gazel being omjiloyed as the highest praisei 
 to a beautiful woman. The mutton is very fat 
 here, but it is eaten as a great delicacy. The 
 sheep of eastern Barbary, according to Shaw,
 
 B A R B A R Y. 
 
 531 
 
 have fleeces coarse and hairy, like those of the 
 goat ; but Morocco contains some breeds with 
 very fine wool. That territory produces likewise 
 the breed of goats whose skins yield the leatlier 
 so much esteemed in Europe. The finest species 
 is produced in Tafilet, on the southern side of 
 the Atlas. They are tanned with the leaves of a 
 shrub called tizre, which are thought by some to 
 give them their peculiar softness and pliability. 
 The tanners, however, conceal as much as pos- 
 sible the processes employed. 
 
 The government of each of the four states, 
 Morocco, Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli, is essen- 
 tially despotic. For any varieties in their parti- 
 cular forms, we must refer the reader to the sepa- 
 rate articles. The general population of Barbary 
 consists of, 1 . Moors, who are the ruling race ; 
 2. Jews; 3. Arabs; and 4. Brebers, or ancient 
 natives. The Moors are the chief inhabitants of 
 the towns and cities. The term may be consi- 
 dered as including that portion of the Mahom- 
 medan conquerors of northern Africa who have 
 habituated themselves to a settled mode of life, 
 along with all the inhabitants who have been 
 incorporated with them, and trained to the same 
 religious habits, which here regulate all the social 
 relations, and extend their influence to the mi- 
 nutest practices of life. The daily ceremonies of 
 worship are very numerous. Prayer is repeated 
 five times a day, once before, once after sun-set, 
 and three times in the course of the day ; the 
 crier each time from the top of a minaret loudly 
 announcing the hour. Necessity allows the Moor 
 to worship in any spot where he may be placed, 
 at these hours ; but such devotions are not con- 
 sidered equally beneficial with the public ones. 
 At the door of the mosque is a bath for ablution ; 
 and no worshipper must enter unless barefooted. 
 Mr. Addison relates the contempt with which a 
 Moor once spoke to him, of the indecencies of 
 our admitting into Christian places of worship 
 * women, clogs, and dirty shoes,' all of which are 
 here excluded. 
 
 The Jews, who are numerous, are the objects 
 of constant insult and oppression. They are 
 envied for their wealth, despised for their avarice, 
 and abhorred as enemies to the faith ; and, as in 
 most of the states there exists no law for their 
 protection, the hardships of their situation are no- 
 where greater. As they form, however, the only 
 class capable of managing trade or money con- 
 cerns, they make immense profits, the opportu- 
 nity of reaping which no oppression can induce 
 them to relinquish. The Arabs occupy, with 
 their flocks and herds, all the interior and pastoral 
 districts. They live in movable villages or douars 
 composed of tents, which are generally arranged 
 in concentric circles, around the habitation of the 
 sheik. They are made of camels' hair and the 
 fibres of the palm tree. In removing, they place 
 on the backs of camels the women, children, and 
 young animals, the latter enclosed in baskets. 
 The interior government of these villages is en- 
 tirely conducted by their own chief or sheik, who, 
 when the supreme government is weak, often sets 
 it at defiance. The Brebers inhabiting the 
 mountain districts have a language of their own, 
 which seems to be indigenous. They live in 
 small fixed villages, and cultivate the ground. 
 
 They also elect their own sheik, and have some 
 forms of popular government ; are very strong, 
 athletic, and formidable. Their chief amuse- 
 ment consists in tlie use of the musket. 
 
 With respect to the habits and manners of 
 Barbary, nowhere is grovelling ignorance sulj- 
 ject to a worse tyranny on the part of knavish 
 priests, called here marabits, or as the word is 
 commonly written in Europe, marabouts. These 
 men, affecting a scrupulous observance of the 
 Koran, and continually repeating favorite texts, 
 gain the reputation of extraordinary sanctity, and 
 soon persuade the people to believe them the 
 favorites of heaven. Some pretend to miraculous 
 powers ; others practise the arts of divination, 
 and all deal in charms, from the sale of which 
 they make great profits. The greater part wan- 
 der about through the country, professing to live 
 on charity, (they call themselve dervises or fakirs, 
 i. e. poor men,) and doing far more mischief than 
 the mendicants in Popish countries. Amongst 
 all classes in Barbary their influence is uncon- 
 trolled. At the great festivals they give an en- 
 tire loose to religious phrenzy, heightened pro- 
 bably by large doses of opium, and the excesses 
 in which they then indulge are truly horrible. 
 Mr. Lyon (Travels, ii.) saw a man thrust his 
 hand into the side of a living ass, tear out his 
 bowels, and devour them ! Idiots and madmen 
 are, on the same stupid principle, considered as 
 half-inspired, and are therefore looked upon with 
 veneration, and allowed to do all the mischief 
 which their bewildered imagination suggests. 
 The most simple arts are little known here. 
 Though the liardest stone and better materials 
 abound, timber, we are told by travellers, is 
 almost the only thing used for building. They 
 have, however, in some parts, a sort of artificial 
 stone, called tabiah, a mixture of lime, sand, 
 and pebbles, put into a wooden frame of the pro- 
 per size and shape, and beaten down with square 
 rammers; and a hard and durable cement, a com- 
 pound of sand, wood ashes, and lime beaten toge- 
 ther for three days and nights without intermission, 
 and frequently sprinkled with oil and water. 
 Another cement used by them is made of tow, 
 lime, and oil. The houses are built round 
 (sometimes paved) square courts, into which tlie 
 windows open ; the lower part is used as stable? 
 or out-houses, the upper part for the apartments 
 of the family. In each story is an open corridor, 
 with which stair-cases from below and all tlie 
 chambers communicate. Sometimes a fountain 
 appears in the centre of the court, and an awn- 
 ing is stretched across from side to side. The 
 ordinary houses seldom have more than one 
 story, about sixteen feet high, with an apartment 
 on each side of the court ; and the windows being 
 small, the want of light and air are insufferable to 
 Europeans. No fire-places appear : a char<;oal 
 fire, in an earthern chafing dish, placed in one 
 comer of the court, serves to cook the dinner ; 
 and mattresses on the floors, with large cushions 
 against the walls, are the seats by day and beds by 
 night : at one end of the room, a raised platform 
 sometimes receives tlie beds. Their household 
 utensils consist of a few pewter plates, spoons 
 and basins, wooden bowls, earthen pots, and 
 iron ladles, some China iilates for show, anu 
 
 2 M 2
 
 532 
 
 B A R B A R Y. 
 
 perhaps a tea equipage. The roofs of their 
 houses are flat, and in the cool of the day are 
 much used by the females. Tlie rich have often 
 a small additional building, called oliyyali, for 
 the accommodation of strangers. It is like ano- 
 ther house on a small scale, and is placed over 
 the gateway at tli£ entrance, exactly answering 
 to the upper chamber of the Jews. Boarded 
 ceilings, diversified by painted lattice work, walls 
 covered half-way down with gilt and painted 
 wainscoting:, hangings of different colored cloths, 
 or tyger-skins, filling the interval between the 
 wainscot and the tloor, looking-glasses, clocks, 
 or arms arranged in fanciful patterns, are the de- 
 corations of their rooms ; and the courts of better 
 houses, paved with marble and elegantly covered 
 above, form an agreeable saloon for their com- 
 pany. 
 
 Eastern Barbary is distinguished by several 
 noble monuments of antiquity. The traces of 
 Punic architecture indeed have in a great mea- 
 sure disappeared; and the labors of that cele- 
 brated people are only attested by subterraneous 
 ruins,particularly those of the celebrated aqued uct, 
 by which water was conveyed to it from the dis- 
 tance of upwards of sixty miles. The whole 
 course of it may still be traced ; and several 
 arches are entire, seventy feet high, and sup- 
 ported by columns sixteen feet wide. The 
 architectural ruins being of Roman erection, are 
 chiefly of the composite order, the favorite one 
 of that people. The temple at Spaitla appeared 
 to Bruce to present a specimen superior to what 
 is to be found on any other spot. In conse- 
 quence of recent excavations, some very valua- 
 ble remains of statuary have been dug up ; and 
 it is probable that, by the continuance of similar 
 researches, further valuable discoveries might be 
 made. 
 
 The dress of the inhabitants of Barbary is cum- 
 bersome, and unlike those of eastern climates ge- 
 nerally. The men wear a red woollen skull-cap, 
 called Fez, (where it is manufactured,) and a white 
 shawl twisted round the head ; linen and woollen 
 trowsers, a cotton or silk shirt, a tunic called 
 kaftftn, with or without sleeves, having rows of 
 buttons down the front, kept close to the body 
 by a sash folded round the waist ; and a pair of 
 yellow slippers. The belter sort have a strip of 
 velvet passed over the right shoulder, by which 
 they suspend the sabre ; and the dagger is stuck 
 into the folds of the sash. 
 
 The arrangements in Barbary regarding the 
 female part of society are the same as in all Ma- 
 hommedan countries. The harem is supplied 
 chiefly from Constantinople, by Georgian or 
 Circassian slaves, trained for this purpose by 
 persons who carry on this employment as a trade. 
 The interior arrangements appear to differ con- 
 siderably in the different states, and, so far as 
 known, will be described respectively under each. 
 The women are fattened to make them plump, the 
 grand criterion of beauty ; and their under dress 
 resembles that of the men. Two broad straps 
 pass over the shoulders from their girdle, and 
 are crossed upon the breast. Their hair, as in 
 tiie east, is tressed and braided, and a handker- 
 chief is tied close round the head. They wear 
 earrings from the upper and lower parts of the 
 
 ears, and upon their ancles gold and silver rings. 
 Their slippers are always red, and usually em- 
 broidered. Veils and hayics, and sometimes 
 straw hats, form a part of tiieir dress out doors. 
 A black stripe down the forehead, along the 
 nose, chin, and throat, is considered as a great 
 improvement of their beauty. This is very con- 
 spicuous in a plate of the Tripolitine costume, 
 given by Captain Lyon, p. 7. They use a 
 profusion of hinna, for giving a red tint to their 
 hair and fingers, and stibium (al-cohl), to blacken 
 the inside of their eye-lids. Some days before a 
 marriage the bride is visited by her female 
 friends, and the bridegroom parades the streets 
 on horseback, attended by his associates, a band 
 of music, musketry, shouting, racing, &c. an- 
 nounce his expected joys. On the wedding 
 day the bride is carried through the town in a 
 sort of sedan-chair, fixed on the back of a mule 
 or camel, (see plate at p. 299, Captain Lyon's 
 Travels,) covered with silk or linen. In this at- 
 tire, surrounded by torches, drums, and musketry, 
 large bodies of her relations attend her home. Nor 
 are the attendants of the bridegroom less daz- 
 zling and noisy. Arrived, the company retire, 
 and he is left alone with his wife, whose veil he 
 then removes for the first time. 
 
 The amusements in Barbary are the indo- 
 lent Asiatic ones of smoking, tea, and pompous 
 talk, or the most violent exercises, such as play- 
 ing with the jerid, (see JERin,) leap-frog, foot- 
 ball, and a few more such games, probably 
 borrowed from Spain ; but one is quite peculiar 
 to themselves : it consists of a sort of mock-fight ; 
 parties of horsemen riding full speed at each 
 other, discharge their pieces, then wheel round 
 and retreat. This is much like the game with 
 the jerid ; but to improve it they ride full gallop 
 towards a wall, approach it as near as possible, 
 then stop short and fire. Sometimes, instead of 
 chasing a wall for this purpose, they chase 
 a friend, when they tliink they cannot do him a 
 greater honor, that by galloping up and dis- 
 charging their muskets full in his face. Their 
 lively musical airs are said to be simple and 
 beautiful ; but their serious ones dull and te- 
 dious. In riding they have a thong attached to 
 the rein, which serves as a whip. Their spur 
 is a long spike loosely attached to the foot, and 
 carefully kept from the horse's side, except in 
 case of need. 
 
 The principal and best manufacture here is 
 morocco leather. Good carpeting is also made : 
 mats of the palmetto ; and cotton, silk and wool- 
 len cloths. Their swords and gun-barrels are 
 also of home make. An inland traffic is main- 
 tained by periodical fairs; but the caravans, 
 protected by their numbers, are the only safe 
 medium of general commerce. 
 
 BARBASTELLUS, Vespehtilio, in zoology, 
 the tailed bat, with elevated hairy cheeks, and 
 large ears, angulated on the lower part, the bar- 
 bastelle of Buffon and Pennant. 
 
 BARBATA, in entomology, a species of 
 brown cantharis that mhabits Germany. 2. A 
 species of cicada (deflexa), of a brown color, with 
 greenish abdomen. 3. A species of phalsena 
 that inhabits Barbary. 4. A species of pimelia, 
 f llelops Fabr.) inliabiting Saxony. Fabricius.
 
 BAR 
 
 533 
 
 BAR 
 
 Barbata, in natural liistory, a species of co- 
 rallina, about three inches in length, that grows 
 on the shores of Jamaica. Ellis, in his work on 
 coralline, calls it the rosary or bead-coralline of 
 Jamaica ; it is the bead-band string of Plunket, 
 and corallina major, nervo cassiori fuciformi in- 
 termedia breviora nectente of Sloane. (Hist. 
 Jam.) Also, a species of Nais. 
 
 Barbata, in ornithology, is a species of frin- 
 gilla of Chili ; and a species of muscicapa, inha- 
 biting Cayenne : called by Linnaeus, the whis- 
 kered fly-catcher. 
 
 BARBATEU Leaf, in botany, a leaf termi- 
 nated by a bunch of strong hairs. 
 
 BARBATELLI (Bernardino), otherwise called 
 Pochetii, an eminent painter of history, fruit, 
 animals, and flowers, was bom at Florence in 
 1542. He was the disciple of Ridolfo Ghirlan- 
 daio at Florence, from whose school he went to 
 Rome, and studied there with such uncommon 
 assiduity, that he was frequently so absolutely 
 engrossed by the objects of his contemplations, 
 as to forget the necessary refreshments of sleep 
 and food. His touch was free, light, and delicate, 
 and the coloring of his objects inexpressibly true, 
 llie historical pieces which he designed were 
 much admired. He died in 1612. 
 
 BARBATINA, a seed which is thought effica- 
 cious in extirpating worms from the human body, 
 to which children are chiefly liable. It comes 
 from Persia, and the borders of Russia. It 
 ought to be chosen plump, of an agreeable scent, 
 and very green : special care must be taken that 
 the color be not dyed, and that the seed of sou- 
 thernwood be not sold instead of it. 
 
 BARBATULA, in ichthyology, a species of 
 cobitis, with six cirri ; head unarmed and com- 
 pressed ; the bearded loche of English writers ; 
 enchelyopus, &c. Klein ; cobitis fluviatilis, Ray ; 
 fundulus, Marsden. It is a native of Europe 
 and Asia ; and is most frequent in fresh-water 
 streams, and lakes in mountainous countries. 
 From its habit of lurking at the bottom of the 
 water, on the gravel, it has been called the 
 groundling ; but the latter name is now more 
 generally given to the spiny loche, a fish distin- 
 guished from the present by having a forked 
 spine under each eye, and is that species of cobi- 
 tis, which Gmelin calls ta;nia. This is a fertile 
 creature. We are told by Mr. Pennant, that it 
 is frequent in a stream near Amesbury in Wilt- 
 shire, where the sportsmen, through frolic, swal- 
 low it down alive in a glass of wine. It is also 
 found in great abundance in France. 
 
 BARBATUS, in entomology, a species of ce- 
 rambyx (prionus), of a large size that inhabits 
 South America. Also a species of scarabaeus, 
 unarmed, smooth, and black ; vent bearded. 
 (Fabricius.) A native of India. 
 
 Barbatus, in ichthyology, a species of gobius. 
 3. A species of lophius, of a depressed form, 
 with the lower jaw bearded. (Montin. act. suec, 
 1779.) Inhabiting the seas in the northern parts 
 of Europe. 
 
 Barbatus, in omithologj', a species of falco, 
 of a whitish red color, with brown back : the vul- 
 tus barbatus, Linn., and vulturine eagle of Albinus. 
 
 Barbatus Piscis, in ichthyoloofy, a name 
 given by Salvian and others, to the Silurus, or 
 sheat-fish ; the Glanus of Pliny, and the ancients. 
 
 This Artedi describes under the name of silurus 
 with four cirri at the mouth. By this it is dis- 
 tinguished from the fish called the alkussa, or 
 lake, which, though a genuine species of the 
 silurus, has one beard. 
 
 BARBAULD (AnnaLetitia), was the daughtei 
 of the Rev. John Aikin,,of Kibworth, in Leices- 
 tershire, and born June 20, 1743. She received 
 from her father, who in the early part of her life 
 presided over a dissenting academy at Warring- 
 ton, an excellent classisal education, to which she 
 was indebted for the full development of her 
 great natural talents. Her first production was 
 a small volume of miscellaneous poetry, printed 
 in 1772, which in the year following was suc- 
 ceeded by a collection of pieces in prose, pub- 
 lished in conjunction with her brother. Dr. John 
 Aikin, of Stoke Newington. Sheaccepted, in 1774, 
 the hand of the Rev. R. Barbauld, with whom 
 she took up her residence at Palgrave in Suffolk, 
 and there composed the work on which her re- 
 putation is chiefly founded, viz. Early Lessons 
 and Hymns for Children, pieces of standard 
 merit, in conveying the first rudiments of instruc- 
 tion. In 1785 she accompanied her husband on 
 a tour to the continent, and on their return they 
 resided for several years at Hampstead ; in 1802 
 they again removed to Stoke Newington, in order 
 the more constantly to enjoy her brother's society. 
 In 1812 appeared the last of her publications, 
 entitled Eighteen Hundred and Eleven, a poem ; 
 previous to which she had amused herself by select- 
 ing and editing a collection of English novels,with 
 critical and biographical notices. A similar selec- 
 tion followed, from the best British Essayists, since 
 the reign of Anne, and another from Richardson's 
 manuscript correspondence, with a memoir and 
 critical essay on his life and writings. JNlrs. Bar- 
 bauld died at Stoke Newington, ^larch 9, 182.5, 
 in her eighty- second year. 
 
 BARBAZAN, (Stephen) a French author, 
 born at Saint Fargeau, in the diocese of Auxerre, 
 in 1696, and died in 1770. He wrote Instruc- 
 tions from a Father to a Son, 8vo. 1760; but he 
 is chiefly famed as the editor of old French books, 
 particularly Tales and Fables of the twelfth and 
 thirteenth Centuries, 3 vols. 12mo. Few persons 
 were so well acquainted as he was with the an- 
 tique French language, and he had almost an 
 equal knowledge of the provincial dialects. 
 
 BARBE, or Barbette, in the military art. 
 To fire in barbe means to fire the cannon over the 
 parapet, instead of firing through the embrasures; 
 in which case the parapet must not be above 
 three feet and a half high. 
 
 Barbe, or Barb. See Barb. 
 
 Barbe, or Barde, is an old word, denoting 
 the armour of the horses of the ancient knights 
 and soldiers, who were accoutred at all points. 
 It is said to have been an armour of iron and 
 leatiier, wherewith the neck, breast, and shoulders 
 of the horse were covered. 
 
 Barbe, St. a town of Biscay in Mexico, near 
 which are rich silver mines, 500 miles north-west 
 of the city of Mexico. Long. 110° 5' W., lat. 
 26° 10' N. 
 
 The Barbe, or Barb, of zoolo::)- and com- 
 merce, brought from Barban,', is a iiorse much 
 esteemed for its beauty, vigor, and swiftnes-. 
 It lias a long fine neck, not overcharged with
 
 BAR 
 
 534 
 
 BAR 
 
 liair, vTell divided from the withers : the head 
 small and beautiful ; the ears handsome ; the 
 shoulders li',4u and flat; the withers thin and 
 well raised ; the back straight and short ; the 
 flank and sides round, and the belly not too 
 large. The haunch bones are properly concealed ; 
 the crupper is somewhat long, and the tail placed 
 high; the thigh is well formed, and rarely flat; 
 the limbs are fine, handsome, and not hairy ; the 
 tendon prominent, and the foot well made ; but 
 the pastern is often long. They are of all colors, 
 but generally gray. In their movements they are 
 apt to be careless, and require to be checked. 
 They are swift, nervous, light, and make very 
 fine hunters. These horses are much sought after 
 for improving a breed. They are seldom, how- 
 ever, above four feet eight inches, and never ex- 
 ceed four feet nine inches, or 14^ hands ; but 
 they produce foals which grow larger. Those of 
 the kingdom of Morocco are said to be the best, 
 and next to these the barbs from the mountains. The 
 horses from Mauritania are of an inferior quality, 
 as well as those of Turkey, Persia, and Armenia. 
 (Buff'on's Nat. Hist. vol. iii. p. 337.) It is a 
 maxim, that barbs grow ripe, but never grow old, 
 because they retain their vigor to the last, which 
 makes them prized for stallions. In Numidia, 
 the race of horses is much degenerated. The 
 Tingitanians and Egyptians have had the repu- 
 tation of preserving the best breed. Some of 
 these are sixteen hands high, and all of them 
 shaped, according to their phrase, like the ante- 
 lope. The good qualities of a Barbary horse, 
 besides the supposed one of never lying down, 
 and of standing still when the rider drops his 
 bridle, are to have a long walk, and to stop 
 short, if required, in full career. The barb is 
 very lazy and negligent in his general motions ; he 
 will stumble in walking upon the smoothest 
 ground ; his trot is like that of a cow, and his 
 gallop very low, very easy to himself. This sort 
 of horse, however, is for the most part sinewy, 
 nervous, and excellently winded ; it is therefore 
 good for a course, if not overweighted. The 
 mountain barbs, which are the largest and 
 strongest, are much esteemed : common barbs 
 have been usually bought in Provence and Lan- 
 guedoc in France, at a moderate price ; and many 
 of our persons of fashion in England have them 
 from thence. Barbs, amongst us, fall short of the 
 swiftness attributed to them in their native coun- 
 try ; this may be accounted for, partly from the 
 smallness and lightness of their riders, and partly 
 from their not being loaded with heavy saddles 
 and bridles, us in Europe, nor even with shoes. 
 An Arab saddle is only a cloth girt round with a 
 pair of light stirrups, and a sort of pummel to 
 sustain them. 
 
 Bas far d-BARBs, are those descending from 
 English mares, covered by barb stallions, and 
 who are, by experience, found both better shaped, 
 stronger, and fitter for the saddle, than their 
 sires. Phil. Trans. No. lOo. 
 
 BAIIBEAU Dr. la Bruyeue (John Lewis), a 
 celebrated French chronologer, born at Paris in 
 1710. He published an historic map of the 
 world, ill which geography, chronology, and his- 
 tory, are combined in one view; and an edition, 
 a great part of which he compiled, of tiie Abbe 
 
 Lenglet's Chronological Tables ; also, La Croix's 
 Modern Geography, and the two last volumes of 
 Bibliotheque de France. Besides which, he trans- 
 lated into French, Strahlenberg's Description of 
 Russia, &c. He died in 1781. 
 
 Barbe.'^u, a river of Canada, which runs into 
 the Utawas. Long. 76° 55' W., lat. 45° 5' N. 
 
 Barbed, in heraldry, the five petals or leaves 
 which appear on the outside of a full blown rose 
 are called barbs ; and are thus emblazoned : a 
 rose gules barbed and seeded proper, the rose is 
 red, the barbs green, and the seeds yellow or 
 gray. A barbed arrow, signifies an arrow whose 
 head is pointed of an angular form, and jagged. 
 A barbed horse is a horse barbed at all points, 
 that is, a war-horse completely armed, furnished, 
 and accoutred. 
 
 Barbed Cross, in heraldry, 
 a cross, the extremities whereof 
 are like the barbed irons used 
 for striking fish. 
 
 BAR'BEL. A fish so called by reason of the 
 barb, or wattels, at his mouth, which are under 
 his nose or chaps, so says old Izaak Walton. It 
 is the vulgar name of the cyprinus barbus, which 
 cost the fisherman so dear, when he presented it 
 to the gloomy and savage Tiberius, at Capraea. 
 The lavish slave 
 
 Six thousand pieces for a barbel gave ; 
 
 A sesterce for each pound it -weigh'd, as they 
 
 Gave out, that hear great things, but greater say. 
 
 Duke. 
 
 Barbel, in heraldry, is understood of a cock, 
 when his comb and wattles are of a different co- 
 lor from the rest of the body ; in which case he 
 is said to be barbed and crested. 
 
 Barbel, in ichthyology. See Cyprinus. 
 
 BARBELA, or Verbela, the branch of the 
 Zaire or Congo which comes from the south, and 
 is considered by the Portuguese geographers as 
 the principal one. It is said to take its rise in 
 the kingdom of Matamba. 
 
 BARBELICOT.E,, an ancient sect of Gnos- 
 tics, spoken of by Theodoret. Their doctrine was, 
 that one of the iEons, possessed of immortality, 
 had commerce with a virgin spirit named Barbe- 
 loth, who demanded of him, first prescience, then 
 incorruptibility, and lastly eternal life ; all which 
 were granted to her : that being one day in a 
 gayer humor than ordinary, she conceived and 
 afterwards brought forth light, which being per- 
 fected by the unction of the spirit, was called 
 Christ : the child Christ desired to have under- 
 standing, vsv, and obtained it; after which, un- 
 derstanding, reason, incorruptibility, and Christ 
 united together ; and from their union arose au- 
 togenes avroiyevrjc- To these fables, they add 
 divers others. They were also denominated Bar- 
 bariani. 
 
 BARBELOTII. See the last article. 
 
 T^ARBER-CiiiRDRGEONs anciently had a lute, 
 vicil, or some other musical instrument, as part 
 of the furniture of their shops, which were fre- 
 quented by persons above the ordinary level, 
 who resorted. to the barber either for the cure of 
 wounds, or to undergo some chirurgical opera- 
 tions, or, as it was then called, to be trimmed
 
 BAR 
 
 635 
 
 BAR 
 
 a word that signified eitlier shaving or cutting 
 and curling tlie hair ; these, together with letting 
 blood, were the ancient occupations of the bar- 
 ber-surgeons. As to the otlier important branch 
 of surgery, the setting of fractured limbs, that was 
 practised by another class, called bone-setters, of 
 whom there are hardly any now remaining. The 
 musical instruments in their shojis were for the 
 entertainment of waiting customers ; and an- 
 swered the end of a newspaper, with which those 
 who now wait for their turn at the barber's amuse 
 themselves. 
 
 Barker, Chirurgeoxs, in heraldry, were in- 
 corporated by king Edward IV., but the barbers 
 were separated from the surgeons 
 by 18 Geo. 2, c. 15. Their arms 
 are, ' A St. George's cross gules ; 
 thereon a lion passant gardant, 
 or quarterly ; the first and fourth 
 a chevron between three fleams; 
 the second and third per pale 
 argent and vert, a rose, gules, 
 crowned, and seeded or. 
 
 Barbers of Edinburgh were formerly united 
 in one incorporation with the surgeons ; but 
 about the year 1720, some disputes arising about 
 precedency, a process commenced before the 
 Court of Session, which ended in a total separa- 
 tion of these two bodies ; and the surgeons were 
 found entitled to retain the charter and privileges 
 of the incorporation. The barbers have ever since 
 met as a regular, but unincorporated society ; and 
 though they retain some of their former privileges, 
 such as their preses being one of the governors 
 of the Trades Maiden Hospital^ &;c. they have no 
 representative in the town council, nor even the 
 shadow of a vote in the election of a member 
 of parliament. Mr. Creech, in his Statistical 
 Account of Edinburgh, records a revolution of a 
 different nature in that society, which affords an 
 instance of the rapid progress of refinement, or, 
 as a philosopher would express it, the rapid in- 
 crease of luxury, in the metropolis of Scotland. 
 ' In 1763,' he says, ' there was no such profession 
 known as a perfumer; barbers and wigmakers were 
 numerous, and were in the order of descent bur- 
 gesses : hairdressers were few, and hardly per- 
 mitted to dress hair on Sundays ; and many of 
 them voluntarily declined it. In 1783 perfumers 
 had splendid shops in every principal street : 
 Some of them advertised the keeping of bears, to 
 kill occasionally, for greasing ladies' and gentle- 
 mens' hair, as superior to any other animal fat. 
 Hairdressers were more than tripled in number ; 
 and iheir busiest day was on Sunday. There 
 was a professor who advertised a hair-dressing 
 academy, and gave lectures on that noble and 
 useful art.' 
 
 Barber's Pole. See Appellation. 
 BARBEIUNO (Francis), one of the most ex- 
 cellent poets of his age, was born at Barberino, 
 in Tuscany, A. D. 1264. As his mother was of 
 Florence, he settled in that city ; where his pro- 
 fession of the law, but especially the beauty of his 
 jjoetry, raised him a very considerable character. 
 The greatest part of his works are lost ; but his 
 'Preceptsof Love, amoral poem, calculated to in- 
 struct all who have a regard for glory, virtue and 
 eternity,' has had a better fate. It was published 
 
 at Rome, adorned with beautiful figures, in 1640, 
 by Frederick Ubaldini ; who prefixed the au- 
 thor's life ; and, as there are in the poem many 
 words which are grown obsolete, he added a 
 glossary to explain them, which illustrates the 
 sense by the authority of contemporary poets. 
 
 BARBERINO, a town of Italy, in Tuscany, 
 situated at the foot of the Appenine mountains, 
 twelve miles south of Florence. 
 
 Bap.kerry, in botany. See Berberis. 
 
 BARBERSTOWN, a town of Ireland, in the 
 county of Kildare, Leinster, twenty-three miles 
 from Dublin. 
 
 BARBESULA, in ancient geography, 1. a 
 town, and 2. a river, of Bsetica ; 3. a colony in 
 the resort of the Conventus Gaditanus in Spain : 
 now Marbella, in Grenada. 
 
 BARBET, in natural history, a name given by 
 M. Reaumur, and other of the French writers, to 
 a peculiar species of the worms which feed on 
 the pucerons or aphides. See Aphis. 
 
 Barbet, in zoology. Buffon calls the watei- 
 dog of Pennant, canis aquaticus of Gmelin, &c. 
 le grand barbet ; and canis minor Gmel. le petit 
 barbet. Hist. Nat. 
 
 Barbet, in ornithology, the English name of a 
 genus of birds in Latham's Synopsis, correspond- 
 ing with that of bucco, Linn. See Bucco. 
 
 Barbets, the name of the inhabitants of seve- 
 ral valleys in Piedmont, particularly those of 
 Lucem, Angrona, Perusa, and St. Martin. 
 
 BARBEYRAC (Charles), an eminent physi- 
 cian, born at Cereste, in Provence, in 1629. He 
 studied at Montpelier, and afterwards settled 
 there. The celebrated Locke, with whom he 
 was in friendship, compared him to Sydenham. 
 He died in 1699. He was author of Traites nou- 
 veau de Medicine, &c. 12mo. 1654; and Ques- 
 tiones Medicae Duodecim, 4to. 1658. 
 
 Barbeyrac (John), was born at Besiers, 
 in Lower Languedoc, in 1674. He was madepro- 
 fessor of law and history at Lausanne in 1710, 
 which he enjoyed for seven years. In 1717 he 
 was professor of public and private law at Gron- 
 ingen. He translated into French, Puffendorf 's 
 Law of Nature and Nations, and his Duties of a 
 Man and a Citizen; to both which he wrote ex- 
 cellent notes, and to the former an introductory 
 preface. He translated also Grotius's treatise 
 De Jure Belli ac Pacis, with large and excellent 
 notes ; and several of Tillotson's sermons. He 
 wrote a work entitled Traite de Jeu, 2 vols. 8vo. 
 
 BARBEZIEUX, a town of France, in the 
 province of Saintonge, vvilh 2452 inhabitants, 
 and the title of raarquisate. It is the capital of 
 an arrondissement of six cantons, in the depart- 
 ment of the Charente. Here are thriving linen 
 manufactures ; -and in the neighbourhood there is 
 a mineral spring. Twenty-eight jniles south-east 
 of Saintes, and forty-four nortli-east of Bourdeaux. 
 Long. 0^ 4' W., lat. 45° 28' N. 
 
 BARBI, in natural history, aspecies of echino- 
 rhynchus, of an ovate shape, yellow color, fas- 
 ciated ; neck long, white, cylindrical; and 
 cyathiform (glass or pot-shaped) at the end, 
 found in the intestine of the barbel. 
 
 . BARBICAN. See Barbacan. 
 
 Barbican, in ornitholog}-, the name of the 
 Gmelinian bucco dubius, or doubtful barbet, in
 
 BAR 
 
 536 
 
 BAR 
 
 Buffon's Hist. Birds. Barbu is also a name 
 given by that writer to all the birds of the bucco 
 genus, which he describes. 
 
 BARBICANAGE, or Barbicanaoium, in 
 our old writers, money given for the maintenance 
 of a barbican, or watch tower; or a tribute 
 towards repairing or building a bulwark. 
 
 BARBICON (Baubicon de Cayenne), in or- 
 nithology, the name of the Muscicapa barbata of 
 Graelin, in Buffon's History of Birds. 
 
 BAllBICORNIS, in entomology, a species of 
 brentus that inhabits New Zealand, the curculio 
 barbicornis of Fabricius. 2. A species of ceram- 
 byx. 3. A species of cimex (reduvius), of 
 Sierra Leone. 4. A species of tipula. 
 
 BARBLER(M.), an English singer, who ap- 
 peared on the revival of the opera of Almahide, 
 in 1711. Her timidity on this occasion gave 
 birth to an admirable Spectator (No. 131), in 
 which Addison apologises for and commends 
 her diffidence and modesty. This lady was a 
 native, of England, who continued to sing at the 
 opera several years, and afterwards was a favor- 
 ite concert and playhouse singer till the year 
 1729. In 1717 it seems she had somewhat van- 
 quished her bashfulness in private. Her elope- 
 ment from her father's house gave occasion to 
 the following elegant lines by Hughes : — 
 
 All, ■who in town or countr}* dwell. 
 Say, can you tale or tidings tell 
 OfTortorella's hasty flight? 
 Why in new groves she takes delight ; 
 And if in concert, or alone. 
 The cooing murmurer makes her moan ? 
 
 Now learn the marks, by which you may 
 Trace out and stop the lovely stray. 
 
 Some wit, more folly, and no care. 
 Thoughtless her conduct, free her air ; 
 Gay, scornful, sober, indiscreet. 
 In whom all contradictions meet. 
 Civil, affronting, peevish, easy, 
 Form'd both to charm you and displease you ; 
 Much want of judgment, none of pride. 
 Modish her dress, her hoop full wide ; 
 Brown skin, her eyes of sable hue. 
 Angel when pleased, when vexed a shrew. 
 Genteel her motion when she walks. 
 Sweetly she sings, and loudly talks ; 
 Knows all the world, and its affairs. 
 Who goes to court, to plays, to prayers. 
 Who keeps, who marries, fails or thrives. 
 Lead honest or dishonest lives ; 
 What money match'd each youth or maid. 
 And who was at each masquerade ; 
 Of all fine things in this fine town. 
 She's only to herself unknown. 
 
 By this description, if you meet her. 
 With lowly bows, and homage greet her 1 
 And if you bring the vagrant beauty 
 Back to her mother and her duty. 
 Ask for reward a lover's bliss. 
 And, if she'll let you, take a kiss ; 
 Or more, if more you wish, and may. 
 Try if at church the words she'll say. 
 Then make her, if you can — obey. 
 
 BARBIERI (Giovanni Francesco), otherwise 
 called Guercino da Cento, an eminent histori- 
 cal painter, was born at Cento, near Bologna, in 
 1590. He was the disciple of Benedcttq Gen- 
 nad, but afterwards studied in the school of the 
 
 Caracci, though he did not adopt the manner of 
 that famous academy. He preferred the style of 
 Caravaggio to that of Guidft or Albano, imagin- 
 ing it impossible to imitate nature truly, without 
 the assistance of strong lights and strong shadows. 
 In effect, by this opposition, he gave such force 
 to his pictures, that few, except those of Cara- 
 vaggio, can stand near them, and not seem feeble 
 in their effect ; however, his manner is censured 
 as not being like nature, because it makes objects 
 appear as if they were seen by a candle-light, or 
 a sun-beam, which alone can justify the deepness 
 of his shadowing. His princpal attention seems 
 to have been fixed on perfection in coloring ; he 
 saw the astonishing effects produced by the color- 
 ing of the celebrated Venetian masters ; and ob- 
 served that notwithstanding any imperfection in 
 regard to correctness or elegance, their works 
 were the objects of universal admiration. On this 
 account he devoted his whole study to excel in 
 coloring ; being convinced that few are qualified 
 to discern the elevation of thought which consti- 
 tutes the excellence of a composition ; that few 
 are touched with the grandeur or beauty of the 
 design, or have a capacity to examine the correct- 
 ness of a painting ; but that every imperfect judge 
 may be sensibly affected by the beauty of the 
 coloring. His taste of design was natural, easy, 
 and often grand, but without any extraordinary 
 share of correctness or elegance. The airs of his 
 heads are often deficient in dignity, and his local 
 colors want truth. However, there is great har- 
 mony in his colors, although his carnations are not 
 very fresh ; and in all his works there is an expres- 
 sive imitation of life, which will always render 
 tliem estimable. Towards the decline of his life, he 
 observed that the clearer and brighter style of 
 (Juido and Albano had attracted the admiration 
 of all Europe; and therefore he altered his man- 
 ner, even against his own judgment. But he 
 apologised for that conduct, by declaring that in 
 his former time he painted for fame, and to please 
 the judicious ; and he now painted to please the 
 ignorant, and enrich himself. He died in 1666. 
 The most capital performance of Barbieri is the 
 history of St. Petronilla which is considered as 
 one of the ornaments of St. Peter's, at Rome. 
 
 Barbieri (Paolo Antonio, da Cento), painter 
 of still life and animals, was the brother of Gio- 
 vanni, and born at Cento in 1596. He chose for 
 his sQbjects, fruit, flowers, insects, and animals ; 
 which he painted after nature, witlt a lively tint 
 of color, great tenderness of pencil, and a strong 
 character of truth and life. He died in 1640. 
 
 BARBIGEROUS, bearded. 
 
 BARBILLONS, in entomolog), are certain 
 bodies, usually two in number, placed under the 
 head of an insect, and movable at pleasure, some- 
 what resembling hands or fingers placed on a 
 short or broken arm. The word is a diminutive 
 of the French barbe, the beard. 
 
 BARBING, is sometimes used in ancient 
 statutes for shearing. Cloth is not to be export- 
 ed till it be barbed, rowed, and shorn. 3 Hen. 
 VII. c. 11. 
 
 BARBISTON, an ancient castle in the parish 
 of Dalrymple, in Ayrshire, near which a battle 
 was fought. 'The dates of 1340 and 1345, are on 
 some stones in the old vaults.
 
 BAR 
 
 537 
 
 BAR 
 
 BARBITOS, or Barbiton, an ancient instru- 
 ment of music, mounted with three strings ; others 
 say seven, much used by Sappho and Alcaeus ; 
 whence it is also denominated lesboum. It is 
 said to have differed from tlie lyre and cithara. 
 Strabo makes it the same with tlie sambuca. It is 
 represented as yielding a grave, deep, sound, and on 
 that account peculiarly fitted for Doric composi- 
 tions. Anacreon is said to have been the inventor. 
 
 BARBLE, or Baebel, in ichthyology. See 
 Cyprinus. 
 
 BARBLES, Barbes, or Barbs, in farriery, 
 the icnots or superfluous flesh that grow up in the 
 channels of a horse's mouth; that is, in the inter- 
 vals that separate the bars, and lie under the 
 tongue. These obtain in black cattle as well as 
 horses, and obstruct tlieir eating. For the cure, 
 they cast the beast, draw out his tongue, and clip 
 oft' the barbies with a pair of scissars, or cut them 
 with a sharp knife;, others burn them off" with a 
 hot iron. 
 
 BARBO, a river of Mexico, which rises in the 
 province of Honduras, and runs into the Spanish 
 Main, forty miles south-east of Cape Camaron. 
 
 BARBONI, in ichthyology, a name given to 
 the mullus barbatus, a fish greatly esteemed at 
 table, and caught in the Mediterranean and some 
 other seas. ' 
 
 BARBONNE, a town of France, in the depart- 
 ment of the Marne, five miles from Sezanne. 
 
 BARBORA, a maritime town of Africa, in the 
 kingdom of Adel. 
 
 BARBOUR (John), archdeacon of Aberdeen, 
 was esteemed an elegant poet in the reign of 
 David I, He wrote the history of Robert the 
 Bruce, in an heroic poem, which is still extant, 
 and contains many facts and anecdotes omitted 
 by other historians. An edition of this book 
 was printed at Glasgow, 8vo, in 1762: en- 
 titled The Acts and Life of the most victorious 
 conqueror Robert Bruce, king of Scotland, where- 
 in also are contained the martial deeds of the 
 valiant princes Edward Bruce, Sir James Doug- 
 lass, Earl Thomas Randall, Walter Steward, and 
 sundry others. In one passage he calls it a ro- 
 mance ; but that word was then of good repu- 
 tation. The Romaunt of romaunts has been 
 applied to true history ; as well as the Ballad 
 of ballads to a sacred song. Mr. Pinkerton pub- 
 lished an edition in 1790, from an ancient MS. 
 
 BARBUD, a Persian musician in the service 
 of Kosru Parvif, whose name was afterwards 
 adopted to signify the master of music. Barbud 
 is also the name of a sort of lyre in use among 
 the Persians. 
 
 BARBUDA, or Berbuda, one of the British 
 Carribee islands, about twenty miles long, and 
 twelve broad. It is low land, but fruitful and 
 pretty populous, abounding in cattle and fruits, 
 especially in cocoa trees, which arc here ex- 
 tremely fine. It also yields cotton, pepper, 
 tobacco, indigo, ginger, and sugar-cane, besides 
 fine woods, herbs, and roots, with which it is 
 plentifully stocked. Several species of snakes 
 are found in this island, some of which are harm- 
 less, while others are exceedingly venemous. 
 Amongst die latter is one having a flat head, 
 whose bite occasions instant death. The island 
 has no harbour, but a well sheltered road on t!ie 
 
 west side. The inhabitants are about 1500, and 
 follow husbandry, finding always a ready mar- 
 ket for their corn and cattle in the sugar islands. 
 Barbuda is the property of the Codrington fami- 
 ly, who have great numbers, of negroes here, as 
 well as in Barbadoes. That family have one 
 merit which few slave-holders can lay claim to : 
 they have given large benefactions to instruct 
 their slaves in Christianity. Barbuda lies about 
 twenty miles north-east of St. Christopher's, and 
 forty-five north of Antigua. Long. 61° 50' W., 
 lat. 18° 30' N. 
 
 BARBUE, a river of North America, i-n the 
 north-western territory, which runs west by 
 north, and falls into the Lake of Michigan. It is 
 about 150 yards broad at the mouth. 
 
 BARBULiE in botany, a name given by 
 Pliny to the semi-flosculi. 
 
 BARBURY Castle, and Barbury Hill, 
 places in Wiltshire, west of Ogborn St. George, 
 and near Marlborough Downs. There formerly 
 stood here a castle of considerable magnitude, 
 surrounded by a double moat; and on the ad- 
 jacent plain are many barrows, which seem to 
 indicate that a great battle was fought on this 
 spot, at some remote period. 
 
 Barby, a county in the Prussian states on the 
 Elbe, between Magdeburg and Anhalt, consist- 
 ing of the bailiwics of Barby, Rosenburg, Wal- 
 ther-Nienburg, and Muhlingen. On the death 
 of the last of the counts in 1659, Barby Proper 
 came to the elector of Saxony, and after forming 
 part of Jerome Buonaparte's kingdom of West- 
 phalia, was annexed to Prussia in 181 5. 
 
 Barby, the chief town is situated on the Elbe, 
 near where it receives the Saale, and has 2900 
 inhabitants. It is well built, has an old castle, 
 and is the seat of the superintendant of eight 
 churches in the county. The Moravian brethren 
 obtained permission in 1749 to remove hither 
 their academy and theological seminary, and 
 they founded an academical college in 1 754. They 
 had here also a school and chapel, an observatory, 
 and a cabinet of natural history ; but the greater 
 number of these establishments have been trans- 
 ferred to Niesky, inUpperLusatia. Fourteen miles 
 north-west of Dessau, and fourteen S. S. E. of 
 Magdeburg. Long. 11° 58' 47" E., lat. 51° 59' N. 
 
 BARBYLA, in botany, a name by which The- 
 ocritus and other of the early writers, have called 
 the common damask prune. 
 
 BARCA, a large country of Africa, lying on 
 the coast of the Mediterranean sea, between the 
 kingdoms of Egypt and Tripoli, extending in length 
 from east to west from 39° to46°E. long., and in 
 breadth from north to south about thirty leagues, 
 as is generally supposed. It is for the most part, 
 especially in the middle, a dry sandy desert ; on 
 which account the Arabs call it Sahart, or Ceyart 
 Barka, that is, the desert or road of whirlwinds 
 or hurricanes. It labors almost everywhere un- 
 der a great scarcity of water ; and except in the 
 neighbourhood of towns and villages, where the 
 ground ])roduces some small quantities of grain, 
 such as millet, and some maize, the rest is in a 
 manner quite barren and uncultivated, or rather 
 uncultivable : and even of that small quantity 
 which those few spots produce, the poor inhabi- 
 tar*'- "-^ '^'-'''-ed to exchange some part with their
 
 538 
 
 BARCELONA. 
 
 indigent neighbours, for dates, sheep, and camels, 
 •which they stand in greater need of than they, by 
 reason of their great scarcity of grass and otjier 
 proper food ; for want of wliich, those that are 
 broushl to them, seldom thrive or live lonpr. In 
 this territory stood the famed temple of Jupiter 
 Amnion : and notwithstanding the pleasantness 
 of the spot where it stood, tliis part of the country 
 is said to have been the most dangerous of any, 
 being surroimded with such quick and burning 
 sands as are very detrimental to travellers ; not 
 only as their feet sink into theni, but being light 
 and heated by the rays of the sun, they are easily 
 raised bv every breath of wind ; which, if it chance 
 to be in their faces, almost burns their eyes out, and 
 stifles tliem for want of breath ; or, if vehement, 
 often overwhelms whole caravans. Against this 
 temple Cambyses, king of Persia, despatched an 
 army of 50,000 men. They set out from Thebes, 
 in Upper Egvpt, and under the conduct of pro- 
 per guides, reached the city of Oasis, seven days 
 journey from that place : but what was their fate 
 afterwards is uncertain ; for they never returned 
 either to Eg^'pt or to their own country. The 
 Ammonians informed Herodotus, that, after the 
 armv had entered the sandy desert which lies be- 
 yond Oasis, a violent wind began to blow from 
 the south at the time of their d inner, and raised the 
 sand to such a decree, that the whole army was 
 overwhelmed and buried alive. Concerning the 
 government or commerce of this country we know 
 nothing certain. The maritime towns are under 
 the nominal protection of the Porte, and the whole 
 countr>' is subject to Tripoli, the bashaw of which 
 appoints a sangiack, who resides at Deme, the 
 capital of Barca. 
 
 Barca, a sea-port town in the territory of the 
 same name. Long. 20° 25' E., lat. 32° 26' N. 
 
 BARC^VLAO, a Spanish word, which the 
 French pronounce baccala, or baccaliau. By 
 this last name the Basques most commonly call 
 tlie fish which we style cod; and those people 
 call also the island which we call Newfoundland, 
 the isle of Baccalian, cod island, because of the 
 great plenty of cod caught there. 
 
 BARCALON, an appellation given to the 
 prime minister of the king of Siam, who super- 
 intends every thing relating to commerce, both 
 foreign and domestic, as well as the king's 
 magazines. 
 
 BARCA-LONGA, a large Spanish fishing- 
 boat, navigated with lug-sails, and having two or 
 three masts, very common in the ^Mediterranean. 
 
 BARCALORE, a town of Cochin, twenty-two 
 miles east of Cranganore. 
 
 BARCaNS, the natives of Barca, which see. 
 
 BARCARIA, old law Lat, a barkery or tan- 
 house. 
 
 BARCARY, bergerie, Fr. a sheep-cote. 
 
 BARCAS, a town of New ^lexico, in the in- 
 lendancy of Guadalaxara, which has a numerous 
 population of Spaniards, ^lestizoes, and Mu- 
 lattoes. 
 
 BARCATTY, a town of Cochin, on the con- 
 fines of Dindigul, sixty miles east of Cochin. 
 
 BARCE, the chief city in the province of 
 Barca, about nine miles from the sea. It was 
 founded by the brothers of Arcesilaus, king of 
 Cyrene, 515 years before the Christian era. 
 
 BARCELONA, a handsome, rich, and strong 
 city of Spain, in the province of Catalonia, of 
 which it is the capital. It is situated by the sea 
 side, of a form between a square and an oval; 
 surrounded with a good brick wall, round which 
 is anotlier, with fourteen bastions, horn-works, 
 ramparts, and ditches; the ramparts are high, 
 broad and spacious. This city, which is reckoned 
 the second in Spain in population, is divided 
 into two parts, the Old and the New, separated 
 from each other by a wall and a large ditch; 
 the streets are handsome, well paved with large 
 stones, wide, and very clean. It is a bishop's 
 see, tlie seat of a captain-general, a governor, 
 and a royal audiencia; and here the archives of 
 the kingdom of Ai-ragon are preserved. 
 
 The Barcelonians have also a fine university, 
 and various institutions for the promotion of lite- 
 rature, arts and sciences; the academies for juris 
 prudence, natural philosophy, medicine, history, 
 and the fine arts, are celebrated throughout Spain. 
 The most remarkable buildings are the cathedral, 
 which is adorned with two high towers; the 
 church of the \'ir3:in ^Nlary, the palace of the 
 bishop, that of the inquisition, and several religi- 
 ous houses ; add to these the palace of the viceroy, 
 the arsenal, which contains arms for 1000 men, 
 and a cannon-foundry, the exchange, where 
 the merchants meet, the tersana, where they 
 build the galleys, and the palace where the nobi- 
 lit)^ of the country meet, called La Ca^a de la 
 Deputation. This last is built with fine large 
 free stone, and adorned with columns of marble : 
 there is in it a large hall, with a handsome por- 
 tico. There are several fine squares, particularly 
 that of St. Michael, into which all the great 
 streets run. 
 
 This city wras originally founded by Hamilcar 
 Barcas, and from him called Barcino. It was 
 reduced by the Romans, and continued subject 
 to them till Spain was over-run by the Goths 
 and Vandals. In the beginning of the ninth 
 century Barcelona was in the hands of the Sara- 
 cens, under the government of one Zade. Tlie 
 government having more than once abused the 
 clemency of Charlemagne, at last irritated Louis 
 king of Aquitain, his son, to such a degree, that 
 he gave orders to his generals to invest the city, 
 and not to rise from before it till they had put 
 Zade into his hands. Zade made a most obsti- 
 nate resistance, so that the siege lasted many 
 months; at last, finding it impossible to preserve 
 the city much longer,, and being destitute of all 
 hopes of relief, he deteroiined, or rather was 
 compelled by the inhabitants, to go to the Chris- 
 tian camp and implore the emperor's mercy ; and 
 being sent prisoner to Charlemagne, he was con- 
 demned to perpetual banishment. Tlie people 
 gaining nothing by this expedient, continued to 
 hold out for six weeks longer, when Louis him- 
 self took the command of the siege. To him 
 tliey made a proposal, that if he would allow 
 them to go where they pleased, they would sur- 
 render. Louis, having agreed to this, made his 
 public entry into Barcelona, where he formed a 
 design of extending his father's dominions as far 
 as the Ebro; but being recalled before he could 
 put his design in executiou, he appointed one 
 Bera, count of Barcelona. "The city continued
 
 BARCELONA. 
 
 539 
 
 subject to him and his successors, who enjoyed 
 tlie title of counts of Barcelona, from A. 1). 802 
 to 1131 ; during which time notiiing remarkable 
 occurred, except that the city was once taken by 
 the Moors, but soon after retaken by the assist- 
 ance of Louis IV'. king of France. In 1131 it 
 was united to the crown of Arraijon by the mar- 
 riage of Raymond V. count of Barcelona with 
 the daui.'hter of llamiro the monk, king of Arra- 
 gon. In 14G3 the Catalonians revolted against 
 John II. king of Arragon, out of hatred to the 
 queen Donna Joanna ; the consequence of which 
 was, that Bai-celona was besieged by that monarch 
 in 1471. \'arious efforts were made by Louis 
 XI. of France and the duke of Lorraine to raise 
 the siege, but without effect. Things at length 
 were brought to the utmost extremity, when the 
 king oflered to pardon them all, without the 
 smallest punishment either in person or property, 
 provided they would submit ; but these terms 
 they rejected, chietiy through the influence of the 
 count de Pailhars, who had been pardoned the 
 year before. The army on the other liand, was 
 very earnest in being led on to the assault, in 
 hopes of plunder. The king, however, wrote a 
 letter to the citizens, dated the 6th of October, in 
 terms as afiectionate as if he had been writing to 
 his children, bewailing the miseries they had 
 brought on themselves, and concluding with a 
 protestation that they, and not he, must be 
 answerable for the consequences. Upon this, 
 they sent deputies to the king, and made a capi- 
 tulation on the 17th of that month. In this the 
 king acknowledged they had taken up arms on 
 just motives; and forgave everybody except Pail- 
 hars, who was, however, suffered to escape. On 
 the 22nd of October the king made his entry into 
 the city, and confirmed all their ancient privi- 
 leges. In 1697 Barcelona was taken by the 
 French, after a bloody siege of fifty-two days ; 
 and the loss of this city had a considerable effect 
 in disposing the Spaniards to agree to the treaty 
 of Ryswick. In queen Anne's time it was taken 
 by the allies, under the earl of Peterborough, 
 Oct. 4, 1705; but, being afterwards shamefully 
 denied assistance by the English ministry, was 
 obliged to submit to Philip V. by whom the 
 whole province was deprived of its ancient pri- 
 vileges, in 1714; for a particular account of 
 which, see Si-ain. 
 
 The port of Barcelona is wide, spacious, deep, 
 and safe ; defended on the one side by a great 
 mole, and on the other sheltered from the west 
 wmd by two mountains that advance into the sea, 
 and form a kind of promontory ; the mole is 750 
 paces long, with a quay, at the end of which is 
 a light house and a small fort. One of the moun- 
 tains, called Montjoui or Mount Joy, is very 
 high, and rises in the middle of the plain near 
 tlie city : it is covered with gardens, vineyards, 
 groves of trees, and has a strong fort for the 
 defence of the city; this mountain being a rock, 
 yields an inexhaustible quarry of fine hard free- 
 stone. Barcelona is a place of great trade. The 
 number of ships which arrived here in 1803, 
 before its commerce was impeded by the penin- 
 sular war, has i)een stated at 1333, 927 of which 
 were Spanisli, and the remainder belonged to 
 other nations. The manufacturing establish- 
 ments are calico presses, looms for silk, wool. 
 
 and cotton, hats, laces, ribbons, stockings, and 
 soap. Here, also, are fabricated excellent mus- 
 kets, pistols, swo'-ds, and other small arms, not 
 only for the army at home, but for Naples and 
 America. There are, besides, ^several steel and 
 brass works. It has, also, a good trade in 
 linen, copper, and brass, from Germany. An- 
 other extensive article of its trade is salt fish, 
 from Ts'ewfoundland, tlie chief trade for which is 
 with F.ngland. 
 
 When the trade widi Mexico was first opened, 
 in 1778, the Barcelonese merchants soon distin- 
 guished themselves by successful enterprises in 
 it. Twenty-three ships, whose cargoes of Spa- 
 nish produce was valued at .£85,000 English, 
 and the foreign freight at £25,000, cleared o\it 
 here the first year. In ten years after, tlie goods 
 thus exported amounted to .£400,000, and the 
 return cargoes to £450,000. The present export 
 and irjiport trade are taken together at £1,750,000, 
 and the population at about 112,000. 
 
 At Barcelona Charles III., of the house of 
 Bourbon, landed from Naples in 1759, to take 
 possession of the throne of Spain. On the 16th 
 February, 1808, it was surprised by a body of 
 French troops under general Duhesme. They 
 arrived in the neighbouhood on the 13th of 
 February to the number of 10,000; and, hav- 
 ing requested permission to halt and refresh 
 themselves on their way to Valencia, the gates 
 were opened to receive them, and tliey were 
 hailed as friends and allies. On the IGtli, having 
 assembled on the parade, <is if for the purpose of 
 continuing their march, they filed off in two 
 divisions, one to the citadel, the other to Mon- 
 jui, a fort upon a hill which commands the town, 
 and having summoned those posts, tliey were 
 immediately surrendered. Barcelona continued 
 in possession of the French until the year 
 1814. 
 
 B.\RCELONA, one of the principal provinces 
 of the government of Cumana, South America : 
 bounded on the west by Cumana, east by the 
 Caracc;is, and south by the river Orinoco, which 
 also divides it from Guiana. Here commence 
 those immense plains, covered with excellent 
 pasturage, which, uniting with those of the Ca- 
 raccas, extend as far south as the Orinoco. They 
 were formerly well stocked with cattle, 8000 or 
 9000 head being killed annually, in salting of 
 which the inhabitants exhibited great skill. In 
 the province are four remarkable salt'-pits ; but of 
 late the supply is much diminished. This pro- 
 vince declared its independence in 1811, and is 
 now a part of the republic of Columbia. 
 
 Barcelona New, the capital of the foregoing 
 province, is situate in a plain on the left bank of 
 the river Neveri, lialf a league distant from 
 the sea, in 10° 10' N. lat. and 64° 47' \V. 
 long. It is twelve leagues from Cumana in 
 a direct line ; but the windings which it is neces- 
 sary to make to avoid bad roads, make it a 
 journey of twenty hours. It is reckoned ten 
 marine leagues by sea from the port of Barcelona 
 to tliat of Cumana. 
 
 On ascending on the east side of the river, 
 about four miles from its mouth, we observe, on 
 an eminence which bears the name of the city, 
 a fort erected for the protection of ves.sels which 
 anchor not far from it, in a bay so shallow as not
 
 540 
 
 BARCLAY. 
 
 to be capable of admitting veesels of considerable 
 size. This port, if it may be so called, affords 
 no shelter but against the breeze : but at the dis- 
 tance of one leagiie to the north, the island of 
 Borracha, inhabited by fishermen, presents, on 
 its south side, a safe harbour for ships of the 
 largest size. From the hill of Barcelona, the 
 coast runs to the north-east, as far as Cumana, 
 which is at the distance of two leagues. That 
 space is filled with a chain of islands, not far 
 removed from the coast. Some of these are pro- 
 vided with bays and ports; but they are of no 
 great consequence. 
 
 Barcelona has a population of fourteen thou- 
 sand souls, a single parish church, and an hospi- 
 tal for the Franciscans who support the missions 
 of this part. It is neither handsomely nor agree- 
 ably constructed. Its unpaved streets are ex- 
 tremely muddy in rainy weather; and in dry 
 seasons they are covered with a dust so light 
 that the least breath raises it in the air. The 
 immense quantity of hogs fed there, induce in 
 the city a number of stinking and infectious sties, 
 which corrupt the air and frequently create dis- 
 eases. In 1803, however, the commandant of 
 the place took measures for removing from the 
 town an infection which could not but poison its 
 residence. This town had, in 1807, a population 
 of 15,000 persons ; half whites and half mulattoes 
 and negroes. 
 
 Hides, tallow, oxen, mules, jirked and salted 
 beef, are the great articles of trade here, in 
 1800 eight thousand mules left this port for the 
 West India islands. The annual value of the 
 trade is computed at 400,000 dollars. 
 
 BARCELONETTA, a small and new town of 
 Spain, in Catalonia, a suburb of Barcelona. It 
 stands on the south-east of that city, between 
 the harbour and the light-house, and was built 
 Dy the marquis de la INIina, then captain-general 
 of Catalonia, about the middle of the last century. 
 In consists of a square, laid out in twenty-four 
 streets, composed of brick houses, all built upon 
 the same plan, which gives it a neat appearance. 
 The number of houses is stated at 600, and that 
 of the inhabitants at 10,000, the major part of 
 whom are soldiers, sailors, and persons other- 
 wise connected with the navy. The church is a 
 handsome structure, in the form of a Greek 
 cross. 
 
 BARCELONNE, a town of France, in the 
 department of the Gers, arrondissement of Miran- 
 de, on the river Adour. Population 840. Nine 
 miles south-west of Nogaro, twenty-seven W. N. 
 W. of Mirande. 
 
 Barcelonne, a small town of France, in the 
 department of the Drome, arrondissement of 
 Valence, five miles east of Valence. 
 
 Barcelonnette, a town of France, in the de- 
 jiartmeat of the Lower Alps, and capital of the 
 province and valley of this name. 
 
 The arrondissement contains above 18,000 
 inhabitants, in four cantons. Population of the 
 town 1900. The only objects of trade are corn 
 and cattle, particularly sheep. Near this place 
 is a passage across the Alps to Coni; and the 
 district was the scene of various military opera- 
 tions in the campaign of 1799. Twenty-eight 
 miles north-east of Digne, twelve miles south- 
 
 east of Embrun, and fifty-six north-west of Nice- 
 Long. 6° 44' E., lat. 44° 23' N. 
 
 BARCELORE, a town of Hindostan, in 
 Canara, on the banks of a broad river, about 
 four miles from the sea. It once belonged to 
 the Portuguese, from whom it was captured by 
 the Dutch, who immediately began to establish 
 a settlement here. It was formerly the capital of 
 an independent state, which in 1575 was ruled by 
 a female sovereign, and the daughters of the 
 family have since succeeded. Barcelore carries 
 on considerable trade with the Arabs of Maskat, 
 exporting rice, the chief product of the country, 
 and pepper, and receiving horses and dates n 
 return. This port is supposed to have been the 
 Barace of the ancients. Long. 74° 46' E., lat. 
 13° 45' N. 
 
 BARCELOS, a town of Portugal, in Entre 
 Duero-e-Minho, ten miles west of Braga, and 
 twenty north of Porto, seated on the river Sou- 
 rilla. 
 
 Barcelos, a town of Portugal, with the title 
 of a duchy, seated on the river Cavado, over 
 which there is a handsome bridge. 
 
 BARCES, or Berches, were formerly a kind 
 of ship guns, not unlike sakers, only shorter, 
 thicker in metal, and wider bored. 
 
 BARCINO, in ancient geography, a town of 
 the Tarraconensis in Spain, and capital of the 
 Laletani ; now called Barcelona. 
 
 BARCLAY (Alexander), a learned monk in 
 the reign of Henry VIII. Where he was bom, 
 has been subject of contention among his biogra- 
 phers. Bale, his contemporary, says he was born 
 in Somersetshire. There is indeed a village 
 of his name, and a numerous family, in that 
 county. Pits thinks he was born in Devonshire. 
 JNIackenzie is positive he was a Scotchman; but 
 without proof, unless we admit as such his name 
 Alexander. He was, however, educated at 
 Oriel College, Oxford. Afterwards he went 
 abroad, and continued some time in France, 
 Italy, and Germany, where he acquired a com- 
 petent knowledge of the languages of those 
 countries. On his return to England he was 
 made chaplain to his patron the bishop of Tyne, 
 who appointed him a priest of St. INIary, at 
 Ottery College in Devonshire. After the bishop's 
 death he became a Benedictine monk of Ely. 
 On the dissolution of that monastery he obtained 
 a vicarage in Somersetshire; and, in 1549, being 
 D.D., was presented to that of Great Baddow 
 in Essex. In 1552 he was appointed rector of 
 Allhallows, which he enjoyed but a short time; 
 for he died at Croydon in June following. He 
 improved the English lanouage, and was one of 
 of the politest writers of his time. He composed 
 several original works ; but was chiefly remark- 
 able for his translations from the I-atin, Italian, 
 French, and German languages. His version of 
 Sallust's Jugurthine war is accurate, and even 
 elegant. His lives of several saints, in heroic 
 verse, are still in MS. His Stuhifera Navis, or 
 The ship of fools, is the most singular o-f his per- 
 formances. It was printed by Richard Pynson 
 at London, 1509, in folio; and contains a variety 
 of wooden plates, which are worthy the inspec- 
 tion of tiie curious. 
 
 Barclay (John), son of William, was born
 
 BARCLAY. 
 
 541 
 
 in France, at Pont-a-Mousson, and was so great 
 
 favorite of the Jesuits, that they used all their 
 
 effortd to engage him in their society. I3ut his 
 
 father prevented this, and carried him \Citli him 
 
 to England. Previously to this young John had . . . , • 
 
 alreadV commenced author, for he had published if, after all those warninss and advertisements, 
 
 A Commentary upon the Thebais of Statius, a thou dost not turn unto the Lord with all thy 
 
 I-atin poem on the coronation of King James, heart, but forget him who remembered thee m 
 
 and the first part of Euphormio, in 1603. He thy distress, and give up thyself to follow lust 
 
 perity and adversity ; thou knowest what it is to 
 be banislied thy native country, to be overruled 
 as well as to rule and sit upon the throne ; and 
 being oppressed, thou hast reason to know how 
 hateful the oppressor is both to God and man ; 
 
 returned to France with his father in 1604 ; and 
 after his death went to Paris, but returned soon 
 after to London, where he was in 1606. He 
 published The History of the Gunpowder Plot, 
 a pamphlet of six leaves, printed at Amsterdam. 
 He published at London in 1610, An Apology 
 for the Euphormio, and his father's treatise De 
 Potestate Papaj. And at Paris, in 1612, he pub- 
 lished a book entitled Pietas, in answer to Car- 
 dinal Bellarmin, who had written against his 
 father's book, on the power of the Pope. Two 
 years after he publislied Icon Animorum. He 
 was invited to Rome by Pope Paul V. and re- 
 ceived a great deal of civility from Cardinal 
 Bellarmin, though he had written against him. 
 He died at Rome in 1621, while his Argenis was 
 printing at Paris. This celebrated work has 
 since gone through a great number of editions, 
 and has been translated into most languages. 
 M. de Peiresc, who had the care of the first 
 edition, caused the effigies of the author to be 
 p'aced before the book ; and the following dis- 
 tich, written by Grotius, was put under it : 
 
 Gente Caledonius, Gallus natalibus, hie est, 
 Romam Romano qui docet ore loqui. 
 
 Barclay (Robert), one of the most eminent 
 among the Quakers, the son of Colonel David 
 Barclay, descended of an ancient family, was 
 born at Edinburgh in 1648 He was educated 
 under an uncle, who was principal of the Scots' 
 college at Paris, where the Papists used all their 
 efforts to draw him over to their religion. He 
 joined the (Quakers in 1669, and distin- 
 guished himself by his zeal and abilities in de- 
 fence of their doctrines. His first treatise in 
 their defence was published at Aberdeen in 1670. 
 His father the colonel had joined them in 1666. 
 In 1676 he published in Latin at Amsterdam his 
 
 and vanity, surely great will be thy condemna- 
 tion.' He travelled with the famous Williani 
 Penn through the greatest part of England, Hol- 
 land, and Germany, and was everywhere re- 
 ceived with the highest respect ; for though both 
 his conversation and behaviour were suitable to 
 his principles, yet there was such liveliness and 
 spirit in his discourse, and such serenity and 
 cheerfulness in his deportment, as rendered him 
 extremely agreeable to all sorts of people. He 
 returned to his native country, spent the re- 
 mainder of his life in a quiet and retired man- 
 ner ; and died at his house at Urie, on the 3rd of 
 October 1690, aged forty-two. He wrote other 
 works; particularly, 1. A Treatise on Univer- 
 sal Love. 2. The Anarchy of the Ranters; a 
 turbulent sect with whom the enemies of the 
 Quakers endeavoured to confound them. 3. A 
 Letter to the ^Ministers of Nimeguen. 4. The 
 Possibility and Necessity of the Inward Revela- 
 tion of the Spirit of God, &c. &c. 
 
 Barclay (William), a learned civilian, was 
 born in Aberdeenshire, in 1541. He spent the 
 early part of his life, and much of his fortune, 
 at the court of ]Mary Queen of Scots, from whose 
 favor he had reason to expect preferment. In 
 1573 he went to France, and at Bourges com- 
 menced student of civil law under the famous 
 Cujacius. He continued some years in that se- 
 minary, where he took a doctor's degree ; and 
 was soon after appointed professor of civil law 
 in the university of Pont-a-Mousson, then 
 founded by the duke of Lorraine. That prince 
 afterwards made him counsellor of state and 
 master of requests. Barclay, in 1481, married 
 Ann de Malleville, a French lady, by whom he 
 had his celebrated son, John. 'This youth the 
 Jesuits would gladly have received into their 
 society. His father refused his consent, for 
 
 Apology for the Quakers ; which is the most ce- which reason they contrived to ruin him with the 
 
 lebrated of his works, and esteemed the standard duke. Barclay embarked for Britain, where 
 
 of the doctrine of the Quakers. His Theses James I. offered him preferment, if he would 
 
 Theologicie, which were the foundation of this join the church of England : but not choosing 
 
 work, and addressed to the clergy of what sort to comply, he returned to France in 1604; and, 
 
 soever, were published before the writing of the 
 Apology, and printed in Latin, French, High 
 Dutch, Low Dutch, and English. He trans- 
 lated his apology into English, and published it 
 lu 1678, with a dedication to king Charles II. 
 which is remarkable for the uncommon frankness 
 and simplicity with which it is written. Amongst 
 many other extraordinary passages, we meet with 
 the following : ' There is no king in the world, 
 who can so experimentally testify of God's pro- tarn Agricolae. 
 vidence and goodness ; neither is there any who Barclay, Castle Hilt, of, and Barclay 
 rules so many free people, so many true chris- Moat, or Merkland of, two relics of Danish 
 tians ; which thing renders thy government more forts, on the banks of the Urr, in the parish of 
 honorable, thyself more considerable, than the Colvend, in Kircudbrightshire. 
 accession of many nations filled with slavish and BARCLOSH, an ancient edifice in the parish 
 superslitJQus .souls. Tiiou liabt tasted of pros- of Kirkgunzeon, which seems to have been built 
 
 soon after, was appointed professor of civil law 
 in the university of Angers, where he died in 
 1605, and was buried in the Franciscan church. 
 He wrote elaborately in defence of the Divine 
 Rights of Kings, in answer to Buchanan and 
 others. His works are. 1. De Regno et Regali 
 Potestate, &c. 2. Commentarias in tit. Pandec- 
 tarum de Rebus Creditis, et de Jure-jurando. 
 3. De Potestate Papae, &c. 5. Praemetia in vi-
 
 542 
 
 BARDS. 
 
 as a place of refuge, being remote, inaccessible, 
 and more defended by nature than art. It belongs 
 to the family of Herries. 
 
 BARCOCHAB, or Barcochebas, a .Tewis'n 
 impostor, whose real name was Akiba ; but he 
 took that of Barcochab, which signifies the Son of 
 a Star ; in allusion to the prophecy of Balaam, 
 * There shall a star arise out of Jacob.' He pro- 
 claimed himself the Messiah ; and talking of 
 nothing but wars, victories, and triumphs, made 
 his countrymen rise against the Romans, by 
 which means he was the author of innumerable 
 disorders; he ravaged many places, took a great 
 number of fortresses, and massacred an infinite 
 multitude of people, particularly the Christians. 
 The emperor sent troops to Rufus, governor of 
 Judea, to suppress the sedition. Rufus, in 
 obedience, exercised a thousand cruelties, but 
 could not finish his attempt. The emperor 
 was therefore obliged to send Julius Sevems; the 
 greatest general of that time ; who attained his 
 end without a direct battle : he fell on them se- 
 parately ; cut oft' their provisions ; and at last 
 the whole contest was reduced to the siege of 
 Bitter, in the eighteenth year of Adrian. The 
 impostor perished there. This war cost the 
 Romans a great deal of blood. 
 
 BARCO-LONGA. See Barca-Longa. 
 
 BARCONE, a short broad vessel, of a middle 
 size, used in the Mediterranean sea for the car- 
 riage of corn, wood, salt and other provisions, 
 from one place to another. 
 
 BARD', 3 Fr. harder, Dut. barderen, pha- 
 
 Bard'ed. 3 lerure, phalerisornare. This word, 
 of so frequent occvirrence in the ancient chro- 
 nicles, is probably no more than a corruption of 
 barb. They are apparently of similar origin, 
 and it is certain that they are used synony- 
 mously. See Barb. 
 
 I saw the muster of the new band-men of arms, &c. 
 some with feathers, staves, and pencils of their 
 colours ; some with sleeves and half coats ; some with 
 bards and staves, &c. 
 
 Burnet's History of the Reformation. 
 
 Bard', '\ The bard, was the poet, the 
 Bar'dick, f musician, and the historian, of 
 Bar'dish, i^ ancient times. Thekind of song 
 Bard'lixg. ' which the bards sung, is called 
 barditus, by Tacitus ; and barditus is derived 
 by Wachter from the Germ, harten, pugnare. 
 The bards were, therefore, originally the com- 
 posers of the war-song, the song of battle, and 
 their task was to inspire the love of martial 
 fame, by impassioned tales of heroic deeds. The 
 title is now given to poets without discrimina- 
 tion. 
 
 There is among the Irish a kind of people called 
 bards, which are to them instead of poets ; whose pro- 
 fession is to set forth the praises or dispraises of men 
 in their poems or rhinie ; the which are had in high 
 regard and estimation among them. 
 
 Spenser on Ireland. 
 
 And many bards that to the trembling chord. 
 Can tune their timely voices cunningly. 
 
 Faerie Queenc. 
 Then you that valiant soules and slaine in warre. 
 Do celebrate with praise that ncuer dyes. 
 You bards securely sing your clegyes. Mot/. Lucan. 
 
 And indeed my jealousy hath oft vexed me with 
 particular inquisition of whatsoever recurs, bearing 
 not a mark of most apparent truth, ever since I found 
 so intolerable antichronisms, incredible reports, and 
 bardis/i impostures ; as well from ignorance as assumed 
 liberty of invention in some of our ancients. Selden. 
 
 The bard who first adorn'd our native tongue 
 Tun'd to his British lyre this ancient song. 
 Which Homer might without a, blush rehearse. 
 
 Dryden. 
 Rapt into future times, the bard begun ; 
 A virgin shall conceive, a virgin bear a son ; 
 From Jesse's root; behold a branch arise. 
 Whose sacred flow'r with fragrance fills the skies ; 
 Th' etherial spirit o'er its leaves shall move. 
 And on its top descends the mystic dove. 
 
 Pope's Messiah. 
 
 By Pella's bard, a magic name. 
 
 By all the griefs his thoughts could frame. 
 
 Receive my humblest rite : 
 Long, Pity, let the nations view 
 Thy sky-worn robes of tenderest blue. 
 
 And eyes of dewy light I 
 
 Collin's Ode to Pity. 
 
 Faith let him 'scape, let love and fame survive. 
 With your kind sanction keep his scenes alive j 
 Try to approve (applaud we will exempt) 
 Nor crush the bardling in this hard attempt. 
 
 Cunningham. A Prologxte to Love and Fatne^ 
 
 The Welsh, kept in awe as they were by the Ro- 
 mans, harassed by the Saxons, and eternally jealous 
 of the attacks, the encroachments, and the neighbour- 
 hood of aliens, were on this account attached to their 
 Celtic manners ; this situation, and these circum- 
 stances, inspired them with a pride and an obstinacy 
 for maintaining a national distinction, and for pre- 
 serving their ancient usages, among which the bardic 
 profession is so eminent. 
 
 Warton's History of English Poetry. 
 
 Their ashes flew ; 
 No marble tells us whither. With their names 
 No bard embalms and sanctifies his song -, 
 And history, so warm on meaner themes. 
 Is cold on this. Cowper's Task. 
 
 Bard, in antiquity, denotes one who was a 
 poet by genius and profession ; and ' who sung 
 of the battles of heroes, or the heaving breasts 
 of love.' Ossian's poems, i. 37. Lord Kaimes 
 justly observes, Sketches i. sec 2. that the cu- 
 riosity of man is great with respect to the trans- 
 actions of his own species ; and when such 
 transactions are described in verse, accompanied 
 with music, the performance is enchanting. An 
 ear, a voice, skill in instrumental music, and 
 above all the poetical genius, are requisite to 
 excel in that complicated art. As such talents 
 are rare, the few that possessed them were higlily 
 esteemed; and hence the profession of a bard, 
 which, besides natural talents, required more 
 culture and exercise than any other known art. 
 
 Bards anciently were capital persons at every 
 festival and at every solemnity. Their songs, 
 which, by recording the achievements of kings 
 and heroes, animated every hearer, must have 
 been the entertainment of every warlike nation. 
 Demodocus is mentioned by Homer as a ce- 
 lebrated bard ; and Pliemius, another bard, is 
 introduced by him deprecating the wrath of 
 Ulysses, Odyss vii. and urging him to
 
 BARDS. 
 
 543 
 
 spare the pod's ever gentle kind. 
 
 A deed like this thy future fame would wrong. 
 For dear to gods and men is sacred song. 
 Save then the poet, and thyself reward 
 'Tis thine to merit, mine is to record.* 
 
 Cicero reports, that at Roman festivals, an- 
 ciently, the virtues and exploits of their great 
 men were sung. The same custom prevailed 
 in Peru and Mexico, as we learn from Garci- 
 lasso and other authors. We have for our au- 
 thority Fatlier CJobien, that even tlie inhabitants 
 of the Marian islands have hards,, who are 
 greatly admired, because in their songs are cele- 
 brated the feats of their ancestors. 
 
 Bards, Celtic, British, &c. In no part of 
 the world did the profession of bard appear with 
 such lustre as in Gaul, in Britain, and in Ireland. 
 Wherever the Celta? or Gauls are mentioned by 
 ancient writers, we seldom fail to hear of their 
 druids and their bards ; the institution of which 
 two orders, was the capital distinction of man- 
 ners and policy. The druids were philosophers 
 and priests ; the bards their poets, and recorders 
 of heroic actions : and both these orders seem 
 to have subsisted among them, as members of 
 the state from time immemorial. The Celtae 
 possessed, from many remote ages, a system of 
 discipline and n^anners, which appear to have 
 had a deep and lasting influence. Ammianus 
 Marcellinus, lib. xv. c. 9. gives them this tes- 
 timony, that they cultivated the study of the 
 most laudable arts; introduced by the bards, 
 who sung in heroic verse the gallant actions of 
 illustrious men ; and by the druids, who lived 
 together in colleges or societies, after the Pytha- 
 gorean manner, and philosophising upon the 
 highest subjects, asserted the immortality of the 
 soul. Though CcESar, in his account of Gaul, 
 does not expressly mention the bards, yet it is 
 plain, that under the title of Druids, he com- 
 preliends that whole college or order ; of which 
 the bards, who probably were the disciples of 
 the druids, undoubtedly made a part. According 
 to his account, the druidical institution first took 
 rise in Britain, and passed from thence into 
 Gaul ; so that they who aspired to be thorough 
 masters of that learning were wont to resort to 
 Britain. He adds too, that such as were to be 
 initiated among tlie Druids, were obliged to 
 commit to their memory a great number of 
 verses, insomuch that some employed twenty 
 years in this course of education ; and that they 
 did not think it lawful to record these poems in 
 writing, but sacredly handed them down by tra- 
 dition from race to race. So strong was the at- 
 tachment of the Celtic nations to their poetry 
 and their bards, that amidst all the changes of 
 their government and manners, even long after 
 the order of the Druids was extinct, and the 
 national religion altered, the bards conlinued to 
 flourish ; not as a set of strolling songsters, like 
 the Greek 'Aoiooi or rhapsodists, in Homer's 
 time, but as an order of men highly respected in 
 the state, and supported by a public establish- 
 ment. We find them, according to Strabo, and 
 Diodorus, before the age of Augustus ; and we 
 find them remaining under the same name, and 
 exercising the same functions as of old, in 
 Ireland, and in the north of Scotland, almost 
 
 down to our own times. It is well known, that* 
 in both these countries, every regul .is or chief, had 
 his own bard, who was considered as an officer 
 of rank in his court. 
 
 Of the honor in which the bards were held, 
 many instances occur in (Jssian. They were the 
 ambassadors between contending chiefs ; and 
 their persons were held sacred. * Cairbor feared 
 to stretch his sword to the bards, though his soul 
 was dark. Loose the bards (said his brother 
 Cathmor), they are sons of other times. Their 
 voice shall be heard in other ages, when the kings 
 of Temora have failed.' Ossian ii. 22. They 
 and the Druids were exempted from taxes and 
 military services, even in times of the greatest 
 danger : and when they attended their patrons in 
 the field, to record and celebrate their great ac- 
 tions, they had a guard assigned them. At all 
 public assemblies they were seated near the per- 
 son of the king or chieftain, and sometimes even 
 above the greatest of the nobility and chief otficers 
 of the court. Nor was their profession less 
 lucrative than it was honorable. Besides the 
 valuable presents which they occasionally received 
 from patrons, they had estates in land allotted 
 for their support. So great was the veneration 
 which the princes of those times entertained for 
 their poets, and so highly were they delighted 
 with their strains that they sometimes pardoned 
 even their capital crimes for a song. We may 
 reasonably suppose that a profession so honorable 
 and advantageous would not be deserted. It was 
 indeed much cultivated, and the accounts which 
 we have of the number of bards in some countries, 
 particularly in Ireland, are hardly credible. We 
 often read, in the poems of Ossian, of 100 bards 
 belonging to one prince, singing and playing in 
 concert for his entertainment. Every chief bard, 
 who was called allah redan, or doctor in poetry, 
 was allowed to have thirty bards of inferior note 
 constantly about his person ; and every bard of 
 the second rank was allowed a retinue of fifteen 
 poetical disciples. 
 
 Though the ancient South Britons had originally 
 the same taste and genius for poetry with those 
 of the north, yet none of their poetical composi- 
 tions have been preserved. Nor can we be 
 surprised at this. After the provincial Britons 
 had submitted to the Roman government, yielded 
 up their arms, and lost their martial spirit, they 
 could take little pleasure in hearing or repeating 
 the songs of their bards, in honor of the glorious 
 achievements of their brave ancestors. The Ro- 
 mans also, though they did not exercise the same 
 barbarous policy, which was long after practisedby 
 Edward I. of putting the bards to death, would 
 at least discourage them, and discountenance the 
 repetition of their poems. These sons of the 
 song being thus persecuted by their conquerors, 
 and neglected by their countrymen, either aban- 
 doned their country or their profession ; and their 
 songs, being no longer heard, were soon forgotten. 
 It is probable that the ancient Britons, as well 
 as many other nations of antiquity, had no idea 
 of poems that were made only to be repeated, 
 and not to be sung to the sound of musical in- 
 struments. In the first stages of society in all 
 countries, the two sister arts of poetry and mu- 
 sic seem to have been always united ; every poet
 
 BAR 
 
 544 
 
 BAR 
 
 was a musician, and sung his own verses to the 
 sound of some musical instrument. This, we are 
 directly told by two writers of undoubted credit, 
 was the case in (iaul, and consequently in Bri- 
 tain, at this period. ' The bards, ' says Diodorus 
 Siculus, lib. V. sect, 31, 'sung their poems to 
 the sound of an instrument not unlike a lyre. ' 
 ' The bards, ' according to Ammianus Marcelli- 
 nus, lib. XV. c. 9, ' celebrated the brave actions 
 of illustrious men in heroic poems, which they 
 sung to the sweet sound of tlie lyre.* This ac- 
 count is confirmed hy the general strain, and by 
 many particular passages, of the poems of Ossian. 
 * Beneath his own tree, at intervals, each bard sat 
 with his harp. They raised the song and touched 
 the string, each to the chief he loved. Vol. ii. p. 
 112. The invention of writing made a consider- 
 able change in the profession of the bards. It 
 is now agreed, that no poetry is fit to be accom- 
 panied with music, but what is simple : a com- 
 plicated thought, or description, requires the 
 utmost attention, and leaves none for the music; 
 or, if it divides the attention, it makes but a faint 
 impression. The simple operas of Quinault 
 bear away the palm from every thing of the kind 
 composed by Boileau or Racine, who were poets 
 of a higher order. But when a language is 
 enriched with variety of phrases, fit to express 
 the most eievated thoughts, men of genius aspired 
 to the higher strains of poetry, leaving music 
 and song to the bards ; which distinguished the 
 profession of a poet from that of a bard. Homer, 
 in one sense, may be termed a bard ; for in that 
 character he strolled from feast to feast. But he 
 was not a bard in the original sense; he, indeed, 
 recited his poems to crowded audiences ; but his 
 poems are too complex for music, and he probably 
 did not sing them, nor accompany them with the 
 lyre. The troubadours of Provence were bards 
 in the original sense, and made a capital figure in 
 the days of ignorance, when few could read, and 
 fewer write. In later times the songs of the bards 
 were taken down in writing, which gave every 
 one access to them without a bard ; and the pro- 
 fession sunk by degrees into oblivion. Among 
 the Highlanders of Scotland reading and writing, 
 in their own tongue, is not common even at pre- 
 sent ; and that circumstance supported long the 
 bard profession among them, after it was dropt 
 among the neighbouring nations. 
 
 Among the ancient British bards the most ce- 
 lebrated is the great Merlyn, whose true name, 
 according to Lhuyd, is Merdhym. The genea- 
 logical sonnets of the Irish bards are still the 
 chief foundations of the ancient history of Ireland. 
 In the Highlands of Scotland there are consider- 
 able remains of many of the compositions of their 
 old bards still preserved. But the most genuine 
 entire and valuable remains of the works of the 
 ancient bards, and ])erhaps the noblest specimen 
 of uncultivated genius, are the poems of Ossian 
 the son of Fingal, a king of the Highlands of 
 Scotland, who flourished in the second or third 
 century ; collected by Mr. M'Pherson, and by 
 him translated from the Erse, or Gaelic, lan- 
 guage mto English. 
 
 BARDj'E, in antiquity, housings for horses. 
 
 BAR DAN A, or Bi rdock. See Arctium. 
 
 BARDARIOT/E, in antiquity, a kind of an 
 cient guards attending the Greek emperor, armed 
 with rods, with which they kept off' the people 
 from crowding too near the prince when on horse- 
 back. Their captain or commander, was deno- 
 minated primivergius. The word was probably, 
 formed from the Bard^, which see. 
 
 BARDAS, the brother of tlie empress Theo- 
 dora, and uncle of the famous Photius, is said to 
 have had no other good quality besides that of 
 loving the sciences, which he established in the 
 Eastern empire; for he was treacherous, cruel 
 and ambitious. In A. D. 856 he assassinated 
 Theoctistes, general of the emperor Michael's 
 forces, and obtained his post. He caused the 
 disgrace of the Empress Theodora; and St. Ig- 
 natius, patriarch of Constantinople, reproaching 
 him for his vices, he had him deposed in 848, to 
 make room for Photius. He was assassinated in 
 866 by Basilius, afterwards emperor. 
 
 BARDED, in heraldry, is used in speaking 
 of a horse that is caparisoned. He bears sable 
 cavalier d'or, the horse barded, argent. 
 
 BARDELLE, in the menage, a saddle made 
 in form of a great saddle, but of cloth stuffed with 
 straw, and tied tight down with packthread, 
 without either leather, wood, or iron. In Italy 
 they trot their colts with such saddles; and those 
 who ride them are called Cavalcadours, or 
 Scozone. 
 
 BARDESANES, a Syrian of Edessa in Me- 
 sopotamia, born in the middle of the second 
 century, who became eminent, after his conver- 
 sion to Christianity, for his zeal against heretics; 
 against whom, we are informed by St. Jerome 
 and Eusebius, he wrote a multitude of books ; 
 yet he himself fell into the errors of \'alentinus, 
 to which he added some others of his owm. He 
 taught that the act ions of men depend altogether on 
 fate, and that God hmiself is subject to necessity. 
 
 BARDESANISTS, a sect of ancient heretics, 
 thus denominated from their leader Bardesanes. 
 They went further than their teacher, and denied 
 the resurrection of the body, and the incarnation 
 and death of our Saviour ; holding that these were 
 only apparent or fantastical. They maintained 
 that the supreme God, being free from all imper- 
 fection, created the world and its inhabitants pure 
 and incorrupt : that the prince of darkness, who 
 is the fountain of all evil and misery, enticed men 
 to sin; in consequence of which, God permitted 
 them to be divested of those ethereal bodies, with 
 which he had endued them, and to fall into slug- 
 gish and gross bodies formed by the evil princi- 
 ple: and that Jesus descended from heaven, 
 clothed not with a real but aerial body, to recover 
 mankind from that body of corruption which they 
 now carry about them ; and that he will raise the 
 obedient to mansions of felicity, clothed with 
 aerial vehicles, or celestial bodies. 
 
 BARDEWICK, a town of Germany, in the 
 circle of Lower Saxony, and duchy of Lunen- 
 burg; formerly a very large place, but being 
 ruined in 1 1 89, by the Duke of Saxony, has never 
 yet recovered itself. It is seated on the Ilmenau, 
 seven miles north-east of Lunenburg,and seventeen 
 south-east of Hamburg. It belongs to the king- 
 dom of Hanover.
 
 BAR 
 
 545 
 
 BAR 
 
 BARD, a Binall fort and town in the valley of 
 Aosta, in Piedmont, Tlie fort commanded the 
 pass from the Valais into Piedmont. It was taken 
 by Buonaparte in 1800, after his passage of the 
 Great St. Bernard, and is now dismantled. 
 
 BARDI, a town of Italy, in the duchy of 
 Placentia, on tlie Genoese frontier. It is near 
 the river Cevo, has a magnificent castle, and is 
 thirty miles south-west of Parma. 
 
 BARDOWIE, Loch, a lake of Stirlingshire, 
 in the parish of Baldernock, extending about 
 seventy acres, and containing plenty of pike and 
 perch. The mansion-house of Bardowie lies 
 within a few paces of it. 
 
 BARDSEY, an island in the Irish sea, on the 
 coast of Wales, about two miles long, and one 
 broad, with a small harbour on the south-east side. 
 Tliere is good anchorage within tlie bay, but the 
 entrance is difficult for large ships. It forms 
 the north point of Cardigan bay, and formerly 
 contained a well-endowed monastery. Long. 
 5° 4' W., lat. 52° 48' N. 
 
 BARDT, a river of Germany, in Pomerania. 
 
 Bardt, a strong and ricli towm of Germany, 
 in the duchy of Pomerania, with a castle and 
 spacious harbour. It was subject to the Swedes 
 till 1815, but now belongs to Prussia; and is 
 situated near the Baltic sea, twelve miles west 
 by north of Stralsund. 
 
 BARDUS, a druid, the son of Dryis, and the 
 fifth king of the Celtce. 
 
 BARE', V. & adj. "") Heb. parah, to lay bare, 
 Bare'bones, and bar, pure, Goth. 
 
 Bare'faced, hairhtjan, Germ, baren, 
 
 Barefa'ceuly, Dut. baeren, old Sax. 
 
 Barefaced'ness, abarian. It signifies the 
 Bare'foot, absence of ornament, of 
 
 Bare'gnawn, S-concealment. It is the 
 Bare'head, I condition of nudity, of 
 
 Bare'legged, I destitution, of leanness 
 Bare'ly, and poverty, of rigid com- 
 
 Bare'xecked, pleteness, without any 
 
 Bare'xess, the least appendage. The 
 
 Bare'worn. J verb represents the act of 
 
 stripping oft", of uncovering, of bringing to light 
 and exposing what was hidden, of rendering de- 
 fenceless. Barefaced denotes the absence of all 
 disguise, or all shame ; when applied to express 
 impudence, it characterises the individual as 
 more than ordinarily lost to all sense of de- 
 corum. 
 
 Him thought he rode al of the newe get ; 
 Dischevele ; sauf his cappe, he rode all hare ; 
 Swiche glaren eyen hadde he as an hare. Chaucer. 
 
 Thereto he hath a groom of evil guise. 
 Whose scalp is hare, that bondage doth bewray. 
 Which pols and pils the poor in piteous wize. 
 But he himself upon the riche doth tyrannize. 
 
 Spenser. 
 
 For other meed may hope for none of mec. 
 To whom nought else but bare life doth remaine. 
 And that so wretched one as ye do see. 
 Is liker to lingering death than loathed life to bee. 
 
 Id. 
 
 How many fiies in hottest summer's day. 
 Do seize upon some beast, whose flesh is hare, 
 That all the place with swarmes do overlay. 
 And with their little stings do felly fare 
 
 Vol. hi. 
 
 So many taoeves about Itim swai-ming arc. 
 All which do him assaylc on every side. 
 And sore oppress, ne any him do spare. Id. 
 
 You hare an exchequer of words, and no other 
 treasure for your followers ; for it appears by thcii 
 hare liveries, that they live by your bare words. 
 
 Shaltepeare. 
 So you serve us 
 Till we serve you ; but when you ha^'e our roses. 
 You barely leave our thorns to prick ourselves. 
 And mock us with oar hareneti. Id. 
 
 To feed were best at home. 
 From thence, the sauce to meat is ceremony. 
 Meeting were bare without it. Id. 
 
 For their povertj', I know not where they had that ; 
 and for their bareness, they never learned that of mc. 
 
 Id. 
 She must have a husband ; 
 I must dan^e barefoot on her wedding-day. Id. 
 
 Ambitious love hath so in me offended. 
 That barefoot plod I the cold ground upon 
 With sainted vow. Id. 
 
 The duke of Lancaster is dead ; 
 
 And living too, for now his son is duke 
 
 . Barely in title, not in revenue. 
 
 Id. Richard II. 
 
 He bareheaded, lower than his proud steed's neck. 
 
 Bespoke them thus. Id. 
 
 Here comes lean Jack, here comes harehone ; how 
 
 long is it ago, Jack, since thou sawest thy own knee ? 
 
 I-d. Henry IV. 
 Your French crowns have no hair at all, anxl then 
 you will play barefaced. 
 
 Id. Midsummer Night's Dreum. 
 Going to find a barefoot brother out. 
 One of our order. Id. Romeo and Juliet. 
 
 Know, my name is lost, 
 By treason's tooth baregnawn and cankerbit. 
 
 Id. King Lear. 
 
 The external administration of his word, is as well 
 
 by reading barely the Scripture, as by explaining the 
 
 same. Hooker. 
 
 A desire to draw all things to the determination of 
 
 bare and naked Scripture", hath caused much pains to 
 
 be taken in abating the credit of man. Id. 
 
 That which offendeth us, is the great disgrace which 
 
 they offer unto our custom of bare reading the word of 
 
 God. Id. 
 
 Were it for the glory of God, that the clergy should 
 
 be left as bare as the apostles, when they had neither 
 
 staff nor scrip ; God would, I hope, endue them with 
 
 the stlf-same affection. Id. Preface. 
 
 He barely nam'd the street, promis'd the wine. 
 But his kind wife gave me the very si^. Dt/nne. 
 
 He himself, with a rope about his neck, barefooted, 
 came to offer himself to the discretion of Leonatus. 
 
 Sidney. 
 
 Next, before the chariot, went two men bareheaded. 
 
 Bacon. 
 
 There is a fabulous naiTation, that an herb groweth 
 in the likeness of a lamb, and feedcth upon the grass, 
 in such sort as it will bare the grass round about. 
 
 Id. Natural History. 
 
 Though' the lords used to be covered whilst the com- 
 mons were bare, yet the comm.ons would not be bare 
 before the Scottish commissioners j and so none were 
 covered. Clarendon. 
 
 The animosities increased, and the parties appear- 
 ed barefaced against each other. Id. 
 
 According to their growth and years, they did 
 change the exercises of tLsir bodies; they did shave 
 their hea-ls,. Ihey went bare-legged, \hty were constrain- 
 f d to play naked together the most part of their time. 
 
 North. Plutarch
 
 BAR 546 BAR 
 
 Beiug sQiiimer he v,ould go out bare-necked to th« 
 waste to work in his ground among his servants and 
 other workmen. '"• 
 
 How they stood 
 Their clory wither'd : as when heaven's fire 
 Hath scath'd the forest oaks, or mountain pines. 
 With singed top tlieir stately growth, though bare, 
 Stands on the blasted heath. Mitloit. 
 
 God said. 
 Be gathered now, ye waters under heav'n. 
 Into one place, and let dry land appear. 
 Immediately the mountains huge appear 
 Emergent, and their broad bare backs upheave 
 Into the clouds, their tops ascend the sky. Id. 
 
 He scarce had said, when the bare earth, till then 
 Desert and bare, unsightly, unadorn'd. 
 Brought forth the tender grass, whose verdure clad 
 Her universal face with pleasant green. Id. 
 
 Nor are men prevailed upon by bare words only, 
 through a defect of knowledge ; but carried, with 
 these puffs of wind contrary to knowledge. South. 
 
 Were it stripped of its privileges, and made as like 
 the primitive church for its bare7iess as its purity, it 
 tould legally want all such privileges. Id. 
 
 He held a stirrup, while the knight. 
 From leathern barebones did alight. Hvdihras. 
 He bar'd an ancient oak of all her boughs ; 
 Then on a rising ground the trunk he plac'd. 
 
 Dryden. 
 
 Then stretch'd her arms t' embrace the body bare ; 
 
 Her clasping hands inclose but empty air. Id. 
 
 It is most certain, that barefaced bawdry is the 
 
 poorest pretence to wit imaginable. Id. 
 
 In the old Roman statues, these two parts were 
 
 always bare, and exposed to view as much as our 
 
 bands and face. Addison. - • i j j • .1 ■ e 
 
 Envoys describe this holy man, with his Alcaydes government it was included in the province ot 
 about him, standing barefoot, bowing to the earth. Id. 
 
 Bakefoot Festivals. The Greeks, Romans, 
 and Barbarians, have a feast called nudipeda\^ia, 
 or the barefoot festival. The Abyssinians never 
 enter their churches, nor the palaces of kings and 
 great men, but barefooted. 
 
 Barefooted, in antiquity. Sagittarius has a 
 dissertation on those who went barefooted among 
 the ancients, De Nudipedalibus \'eterura ; where- 
 in he treats 1. of such as went barefooted in 
 journeys, either out of choice or necessity: 2. 
 of barefooted religious penitents ; and, 3. of the 
 Leviri. 
 
 BAREGES, or Barreges, a rugged valley of 
 Gascony, now included in the department of the 
 Upper Pyrenees, arrondissement of Argellez. The 
 village of Bareges, or Barreges les Bains, lies at 
 the foot of the Pyrenees, contains about 60 houses, 
 and 670 inhabitants, and is famed for its mineral 
 waters, the principal ingredient in which is sul- 
 phurate of potash. The springs are of different 
 degrees of heat, from 73° to 120° of Fahrenheit. 
 Their water is limpid, unctuous, and chiefly 
 recommended in consumptions, and in rheumatic 
 and cutaneous diseases ; they are used both for 
 bathing and drinking. The village is ten miles 
 south of Bagneres. Long. 0° 8' E., lat. 42° 53' N. 
 Bareheaded Women, in antiquity. The 
 Roman women, in times of public distress and 
 mourning, went bareheaded, with their hair 
 loose. 
 
 BAREILY, a district of Hindostan, to the 
 east of the Ganges, between the 27th and 29th 
 degrees of northern latitude. Under the Mogul 
 
 For virtue, when I point the pen. 
 Bare the mean heart that points beneath a star ; 
 Can there be wanting to defend her cause, 
 Liehts of the church, or guardians of the laws? Pope. 
 Making a law to reduce interest, will not raise the 
 
 Delhi, but was in fact a part of Kuttaher; in 
 modern times known by the appellation of Rohil- 
 cund. It is very fertile, and well watered. The 
 principal towns are Bareily, Anopsheher, Buda- 
 yoon, Pillybeet, Moradabad, Rampoor, Sumbul, 
 and Amroah. Towards the end of the seventeenth 
 
 price of land ; it will only leave the country barer of century this country was taken possession of by 
 
 i"onpy- ^'x^^- the Afghan chiefs of the tribe of Roh, and re- 
 
 Tliough only some profligate wretches own it too nj^ined in their possession till 1774, when itwas 
 
 fcar./ac.%. yet, perhaps, we should hear more, did ^^^^^^^.^^ ^^, ^liuja Addowleh, under whose, 
 
 and his successor's jurisdiction, it was cruelly 
 harassed and depopulated ; but, having been 
 ceded to the British in 1802, it is daily recover- 
 
 Id. 
 
 not fear tie people's tongues. 
 
 If to some common's fenceless limits stray'd. 
 He drives his flocks to pick the scanty blade. 
 Those fenceless fields the sons of wealth divide. 
 And even the bare-tvorn common is deny'd. 
 
 Goldsmith. The Deserted Village. 
 Nor stoop'd at barren bare necessity ; 
 But still advancing bolder, led him on. 
 To pomp, to pleasure, elegance, and grace. 
 And breathing high ambition through his soul. 
 Set science, wisdom, glory in his view. 
 And bade him be the Lord of all below. Thomson. 
 
 O may no winter season, bare and hoary. 
 See it half finished : but let autumn bold. 
 With universal tinge of sober gold. 
 Be all about me when I make an end. 
 
 Keat's Endymion. 
 How well such deed becomes the turban'd brave — 
 To bare the sabre's edge before a slave ! 
 
 Byron's Corsair. 
 Barefoot Augustines, Barefoot Carme- 
 lites, are religious of the order of St. Austin and 
 St. Carmel, who live under a strict observance, 
 and go without shoes, like tlie Capuchins. There 
 are barefoot fathers of mercy. Formerly there 
 were barefoot Dominicans, and even barefoot 
 juins of the order of St. Augustin. 
 
 ing. 
 
 Bareily, a city of Hindostan, and capital of 
 the above district, is situated on the banks of the 
 Sunkra river, about forty miles east of the Ganges. 
 It was the capital of Hafiz Rahmut, the Rohilla 
 chief, slain at the battle of Cutterah in 1774 ; it 
 is a large and populous town, and the seat of the 
 British judicial establishment of the province. 
 Long. 79° 21' E., lat. 28°. 
 
 BAllEITH, a ci-devant margravate of Ger- 
 many, in the east division of Franconia, subject 
 to the Brandenburg family, and thence styled 
 Brandenburg-Bareith. 
 
 Bareith, a town of Germany in Franconia, 
 in the margravate, with a famous college belong- 
 ing to the margrave of Brandenburgh-Bareith. It 
 is fifteen miles south by east of Culmbach. 
 
 BARENTS (Dieterich), an excellent painter, 
 born at Amsterdam, and the son of an industrious 
 but middling artist. He studied in Italy , and became 
 the favorite disciple of Titian, with whom he lived 
 along time; but at length returned to Amsterdam,
 
 BAR 
 
 547 
 
 BAR 
 
 where lie performed many extntordinary pieces, 
 lie died in 1582, a^ed forty-eight. 
 
 BARENTON', a town of France, in the de- 
 partment of the Channel, twenty miles E. S. E. of 
 Avranches. 
 
 BARETTI (Joseph), an ingenious writer of 
 the eighteenth century, was the son of an archi- 
 tect at Turin. We have no account of the early 
 part of his life ; but his writings show that he had 
 travelled through various countries. He came 
 to England in 1750 ; and, in a short time, he ac- 
 quired such a knowledge of the English language 
 as to write it with facility and correctness. Be- 
 coming acquainted with Dr. Johnson about 1753, 
 he was by him introduced, as a teacher of the 
 Italian lansruage, to the family of Mr. Thrale. 
 In 1760 he went back to Italy, and commenced 
 a periodical work, entitled Frusta Litteraria, 
 which was published at \enice; but the freedom 
 of sentiment which appeared in it, giving ofTence, 
 obliged him to leave that country, and he re- 
 turned again to England. He was tried at the 
 Old Bailey, in 1769, for killing a man who had 
 assaulted him in the Haymarket, and was ac- 
 quitted. In 1 770 he piiblished his Travels through 
 France, "Spain, Portugal, and Italy, in four vols. 
 8vo. When the Royal Academy was established, 
 he was chosen secretary ; and during Lord North's 
 administration he obtained a pension. He died 
 in 1789, aged about seventy-three. His temper 
 was pleasant, and his disposition liberal. His 
 works are: 1. A Dissertation on the Italian 
 Poetry ; 2. An Introduction to the Italian Lan- 
 guage; 3. The Italian Library, 8vo. ; 4- A Dic- 
 tionary, English and Italian, 2 vols. 4to. ; 5. A 
 Grammar of the Italian Language, Bvo. ; 6. An 
 Account of the ^Manners and Customs of Italy, 
 2 vols. 8vo. ; 7. An Introduction to the most use- 
 ful European Languages, 8vo.; 8. A Dictionary 
 English and Spanish, 4to. ; 9.Tolondron, Speeches 
 to John Bowie, about his edition of Don Quixote, 
 Bvo. ; and other tracts. 
 
 BAR-FEE, a fee of twenty pence, which every 
 person acquitted of felony pays the gaoler. 
 
 BARFLEUR, a Cape of France, in the de- 
 partment of the Channel, twelve miles east of 
 Cherbourg. Near this cape part of the French 
 navy was destroyed in 1692, the day after the, 
 victory of La Hogue, obtained by the confederate 
 fleet under Admiral Russel. 
 
 Barfleir, a town of France in the depart- 
 ment of the Channel, arrondissementof X'alognes. 
 It contains about 140 houses, and 900 inhabi- 
 tants. Its harbour, which is now choked up with 
 sand, was in former times the best on the coast. 
 Here William the Conqueror equipped the ex- 
 pedition which efiected the conquest of England. 
 In the year 1346 it was taken and destroyed by 
 the English army, in the same campaign in which 
 they fought the battle of Cressy. Since that time 
 the port has been neglected, and is now fre- 
 quented only by small vessels. The trade is 
 confined to tish, fresh and salted. Twelve miles 
 east of Cherbourg. Long. 1° 10' W., lat. 49° 
 40' N. 
 
 BARGjV, a town of Italy, in the grand duchy 
 of Tuscany, on the Serchio. It is the capital of 
 a vicarial, bordering on the principality of Lncca, 
 and contains 9000 inhabitants. In the neigh- 
 
 . ~\ See to Bar. Goth. ?(air- 
 igan, Ang.-Sax. beorgan 
 kbirgan byrgan, Welsh 
 V bargen, Fr. burgaigne. 
 
 bouring Ap]-.enines is found beautiful jasper- 
 Six miles from Lucca. 
 
 BAR'GAIN, I'. & 71. ^ See to Bar. Goth.ftair- 
 Bar'gaixing, 
 Bar'gaixed, 
 
 Bar'cainer. -f oargen, 
 
 To make a confirmed agreement. A contract 
 either with or without purchase, usually held 
 binding. 
 
 I do thee no wrong. Did I not bargayne with thee, 
 so that thou shouldeste haue a denarj'e for thy dayes 
 labours ? Thou haste done thy laboure, thou baste 
 thy couenaunte : I have nothing more to doe with thee. 
 Udall. Matthew, chap. xx. 
 Henry is able to enricn his queen. 
 And not to seek a queen to make him rich. 
 So worthless peasants bargain for their wives. 
 As market-men for oxen, sheep or horse. 
 
 Shakspeare. 
 
 No longer than we well could wash our hands. 
 
 To clap this royal bargain up of peace 
 
 Heaven knows they were besmeared and overstained 
 With slaughter's pencil. Id. 
 
 No bargain^ break that are not this day made. Id. 
 
 Hold, sir, for God's sake : now your jest is earnest : 
 Upon what bargain do you give it me. Id. 
 
 What is marriage but a very bargain? wherein is 
 sought alliance, or portion, or reputation, with some 
 desire of issue ; not the faithful nuptial union of maa 
 and wife. Bacon. 
 
 For those that are like to be in plenty, they may 
 be bargained for upon the ground. Id. 
 
 There was a difference between courtesies received 
 
 from their master and the duke •, for that the duke's 
 
 might have ends of utility and bargain, whereas their 
 
 master's could not. Id. 
 
 No more can be due to me. 
 
 Than at the bargain made was meant. Donne, 
 
 Where sold he bargains, whipstitch ? Dryden. 
 
 As to bargains, few of them seem to be excellent, 
 because they all terminate in one single point. Swift. 
 No maid at court is less ashamed, 
 Howe'er for selling bargains famed. Td. 
 
 Give me but my price for the other two, Eind you 
 
 shall even have that into the bargain. L'Estrange. 
 
 He who is at the charge of a tutor at home, may 
 
 give his son a more genteel carriage, with greater 
 
 learning into the bargain, than any at school can do. 
 
 Loche. 
 It is possible the great duke may bargain for the re- 
 public of Lucca, by the help of his great treasures. 
 
 Addison on Italy. 
 All offer incense at my shrine. 
 And I alone the bargain sign. Hay. 
 
 What is all righteousness that men devise, 
 ■WTiat '. but a sordid bargain for the skies ; 
 But God as soon would abdicate his own. 
 As stoop from heav'n to sell the proud a throne. 
 
 Cowper. 
 It is adjusted, however, not by any accurate mea- 
 sure, but by the higgling and bargaining of the market, 
 according to that sort of rough equality which though 
 not exact, is sufficient for carrying on the business. 
 
 Smith. Wealth of Nations. 
 
 Bargain, in the old Scottish writers, is ap- 
 plied to an armed fight or battle. A battle 
 where both parties have settled the preliminaries 
 of weapons and manner of fighting, and are so 
 far on equal terms of security and defence. In 
 this sense it is used by Chaucer in the Romaunt 
 of the Rose. 
 
 2 N 2
 
 BAR 548 
 
 This 13 the Btrife, and eke the affraic. 
 And the batcll that lasteth aie. 
 This bargaine end may neuer take 
 But if that she thj' peace wil make. 
 
 Bargain and Sale, in the English law, re- 
 quires to be farther explained. It is a contract 
 whereby the bargainer, for some pecuniary con- 
 sideration, bargains and sells, that is, contracts to 
 convey the land of tlie bargainee; and becomes 
 by such bargain a trustee for, or seized to the use 
 of, the bargainee ; and then the statute of uses 
 completes the purchase : or, as it hath been ex- 
 pressed, the bargain first vests the use, and then 
 the statute vests the possession. But as it was 
 foreseen that conveyances thus made would want 
 all those benefits of notoriety which the old com- 
 mon law assurances were calculated to give; to 
 prevent clandestine conveyances of freeholds, it 
 was enacted by statute 27 Hen. VIII. c. 16. that 
 such bargains and sales should not enure (be avail- 
 able) to pass a freehold, unless made by indenture, 
 and enrolled within six months in one of the 
 courts of Westminster-hall, or with the custos 
 rotulorum of the county. Clandestine bargains 
 and sales of chattel interests, or leases for years, 
 were thought not worth regarding, as such in- 
 terests were very precarious till about six years 
 before ; which also occasioned them to be over- 
 looked in framing the statute of uses : and there- 
 fore such bargains and sales are not directed to 
 be enrolled. This omission has given rise to the 
 Fpecies of conveyance by lease and release. 
 
 Bargains, in commerce, are distinguished, at 
 Amsterdam, into three kinds, viz. 
 
 Bargains, Conditional, for goods which 
 the seller has not yet in his possession ; but 
 which he knows have been bought for him by his 
 correspondents abroad, and which he obliges 
 himself to deliver to the buyer, on their arrival, 
 at the price and conditions agreed on. 
 
 Bargains, Firm, those v/herein the seller 
 obliges himself to deliver to the buyer a certain 
 quantity of goods, at the^ price and in the time 
 agreed on. 
 
 Bargains, Optional, those wherein a dealer 
 obliges himself, in consideration of a premium 
 received in hand, either to deliver or take a cer- 
 tain quantity of goods at a fixed price, and within 
 a time limited : but with a liberty of not deli- 
 vering or not receiving them, if he thinks proper, 
 upon forfeiture of their premium. 
 
 Bargains, Forehand, are those wherein 
 goods are bought or sold, to be delivered at a 
 certain time afterwards, some part of the price 
 being advanced. 
 
 BAR'GE, ^ See to Bar. Dut.hargie, lova 
 
 Bar'ger, >Lat. harga, Goth, bairgan, to 
 
 Bar'geman. 3 strengtlien. A barge, says 
 Tooke, is a strong boat, and this is still its widest 
 meaning, as in coal barge. Sec. &,c.; but it has 
 also grown to mean, not merely a boat massy and 
 sea worthy, but one of pleasure; light, airy, and 
 elegant, more remarkable for beauty than strength. 
 
 So mykell was {sat barge, it might not lightly saile> 
 And so heuy of charge, and )3C wynde gan faile. 
 
 R. Brtinne. 
 
 He knew wel alle the havens, as tliey were, 
 Fr5 Gotland to the Cape de Finistere, 
 
 BAR 
 
 And eucry crckc in Bretagno and in Spaine ; 
 His barge yclcped was the Magdelaine. 
 
 CItaucer. Prologue. 
 
 Many wafarers make themselves glee, by putting 
 
 the inhabitants in mind of this privilege ; who again, 
 
 like the Campellians in the north, and the London 
 
 bargers, forslow not to baigne thorn. 
 
 Carew's Survey of Cornwall. 
 Eno. I will tell you. 
 The barge she sat in, like a burnish'd throne. 
 Burnt on the water ; the poop was beaten gold. 
 Purple the sails ; and so perfumed, that 
 The winds were lovesick with them ; tha oars were 
 
 silver ; 
 Which to the tune of flutes kept stroke, and made 
 The water, which they beat, to follow faster. 
 As amorous of their strokes. 
 
 Shakspeare. Antony and Cleopatra. 
 Plac'd in the gilded barge. 
 Proud with the burden of so sweet a charge ; 
 With painted oars the youths begin to sweep 
 Neptune's smooth face. Waller. 
 
 Barges are vessels of state, furnished with 
 elegant apartments, canopies, and cushions ; 
 equipped with a band of rowers, and decorated 
 with flags and streamers : they are generally used 
 for processions on the water by noblemen, offi- 
 cers of state, or magistrates of great cities. Those 
 annually exhibited on the Thames, at the election 
 of the lord mayor of London, are uncommonly 
 elegant. 
 
 Barges for the use of admirals and captains 
 of ships of war, are smaller and of a lighter frame, 
 and may be easily hoisted into or out of the ships 
 to wViich they belong. 
 
 Barges of Burden, are for lading and dis- 
 charging ships, and removing their cargoes from 
 place to place in a harbour. 
 
 Barge, in ornithology, a name used by some 
 authors for the godwit or stone-plover ; the aego- 
 cephalus. 
 
 Barge, or Barges, a town of Piedmont in 
 the district of the Four Valleys ; seven miles 
 south of Pinarolo, or Pignerol. 
 
 Barge-coi'ples, in architecture, abeam mor- 
 tised into another, to strengthen the building. 
 
 Barge-coi;rse, with bricklayers, a term used 
 for that part of the tiling which projects over, 
 without the principal rafters, in all sorts of 
 buildings where there is either a gable or a kirkin 
 head. 
 
 BARGH-MASTER, Barmer, or Bar-Mas- 
 ter, from beirg-meister, Ger. i. e. master of 
 mines ; in the royal mines, the steward or judge 
 of the barmote. The bar-master keeps two 
 great courts of barmote yearly ; and every week 
 a small one, as occasion requires. 
 
 Barghmote, or Barmote, a court which 
 takes cognizance of causes and disputes between 
 miners. By the custom of the mines, no person 
 is to sue any miner for ore debt, or for ore, or 
 for any ground of variance, but only in tiie court 
 of barmote, on penalty of forfeiting the debt, and 
 paying the charges at law. 
 
 BARGRAVE (Isaac), an English divine, born 
 in 1586, and educated at Clareliall, Cambridge. 
 lie was appointed chaplain to .James I.; and in 
 162.5 was made dean of Canterbury. When the 
 civil war commenced he was iinprisoned in the 
 Fleet, by colonel Sandys, a man whom he had 
 saved from the gallows ! lie died in 1642.
 
 BARJAPOOR. 
 
 549 
 
 BARI, a province in tlie kingdom of Naples, 
 which lias the Gulf of Venice to the north, the 
 Terra d' Utranto to the east, Basilicata to the 
 south, and Capitanata to the west. It contains 
 17(10 square miles, and 290,000 inhabitants, and 
 is rich in grain, wine, oil, cotton, fruit, and saf- 
 fron. The chief town, called Bari, lies on the 
 Gulf of Venice, and is well fortified ; it is a 
 trading place of some consequence, with 18,000 
 inhabitants. The principal objects of its trade 
 are wine, oil, and fruit; and a great deal of linen 
 is woven here for inland consumption. It has 
 tl>o title of a duchy, and is an archbishop's see. 
 Eighteen miles east of Trani, 120 E.N. E. of 
 Naples. Long. 16° 52' E., lat. 41° 15' N. 
 
 Bari, a town of Hindostan, in the province 
 of Btjapoor, thirty miles south-west of Raibaug. 
 
 BARJAPOOR, Bejapoor, or Bija-pur, (a 
 corruption of Vijaya-puri, the impregnable, the 
 ancient name of the capital;) is a large province in 
 tlie Deccan, extendmg from the fifteenth to the 
 nineteenth degrees of north latitude. It is bound- 
 ed on the north by the province of Aurungabad, 
 so\ith by the Toombuddra River and North 
 Canara district, east by Aurungabad and Beeder, 
 and on the west by the Indian Ocean ; including 
 a superficial area of 350 miles in length, by 200 
 the average breadth. The chain of the western 
 Ghauts traverses the province at a moderate dis- 
 tance from the coast, with which it is in perfect 
 parallel ; the surrounding region is mountainous, 
 but the eastern part is more level, watered by 
 several fine rivers, particularly the Krishna, the 
 Beemah, the Toombuddra, and the Gutpurba; 
 the latter of which, before the year 1790, formed 
 the separating boundary bet\Yeen the dominions 
 of Tippoo and the JIahrattas. The productions 
 of this province are the same as of the Deccan 
 gnerally ; the internal traffic is considerable, and 
 the ban.ks of the Beemah, celebrated all over the 
 continent for their superior breed of horses, sup- 
 ply the best cavalry in the Mahralta armies. 
 
 The most remarkable natural features of the 
 province are rivers, of which the Krishna, de- 
 riving its name from the dark color of its waters, 
 or from its mythological connexion with the 
 Indian Apollo, the Crishna of the Hindoos, is tlie 
 most important. Emerging from the western 
 Ghauts, forty-two miles from the coast, this river 
 takes a south-west direction, falls in with the 
 Warnah about ]Merich, and then rolling its vast 
 stream to the east receives the principal rivers 
 which diversify this part of India in its course, 
 and at last empties itself by three channels into 
 the Bay of Bengal. Altiiougli from its lofty 
 banks, which do not admit of extensive irriga- 
 tion, this river contributes less to the fertilisation 
 of the country than others of inferior importance, 
 it is perhaps more abundant in gems than any 
 other river of India; gold, chalcedonies, cats- 
 eyes, onyxes, and even diamonds, being found 
 in its bed. 
 
 Of the province generally, four-fifths have long 
 appertained to the Mahrattas, and the remainder 
 to the government of Nizam. The Peshwa, 
 though nominal lord of the whole, has little 
 effective jurisdiction. The population is esti- 
 mated at seven millions, of whom one-twenlieth 
 part are Mahommedans, and the rest Hindoos of 
 
 the Brahminical order. Two languagfes gene- 
 rally prevail; the Canara on the north, the iVIah- 
 ratta on the south of the river Krishna; which 
 also forms an interesting line of separation b'- 
 tween the two different styles of building, the 
 houses to the south being covered witli clay or 
 mud, and flat roofed, those to the north having 
 the roofs pitched and thatched. 
 
 At the conclusion of the war between the 
 British and Sindia in 1804, the Mahratta terri- 
 tories of this province exhibited a scene of the 
 greatest anarcliy. The authority of the Peshwa 
 wo:5 resisted by the chief of every petty village. 
 The chiefs of the various banditti were almost 
 innumerable; amongst whom Goklah, Appah 
 Saheb, and Bala Saheb (the sons of Purseram 
 Bhow, and heads of the Putwurden family), Ap- 
 pah Dessaye, Furkiah, Bapoojee Sindiah, Mada- 
 row Rastiah, the Rajah of Colapoor, Futteh Sing 
 Bhoonslah, Chintamuny Row (the nephew of 
 Purseram Bhow), Tantia, Punt Pritty Niddy, 
 and others, presented formidable obstacles to the 
 return of peace and tranquillity. The country had 
 likewise been otherwise ravaged and depopu- 
 lated, from the laxity of its internal government, 
 and the rapid succession of governors appointed 
 by the Peshwa, the preceding one uniformly op- 
 posing his successor. The chiefs above-named 
 although commonly distinguished by the name 
 of ' Southern Jaghiredars,' were properly the 
 Serinjaray Sirdars of the Poonah state; the pos- 
 session of whose lands being granted for the pay- 
 ment of troops employed in state service, might 
 be changed annually; although in this instance 
 the lands themselves, with several other species 
 of property, had been retained for many years. 
 
 Amidst the confusions consequent on so em- 
 barrassed a state of government, the British em- 
 pire interposed her arbitration, ascertained on the 
 part of the Peshwa to what extent of service he 
 was entitled from the Jaghiredars, and, on the 
 part of the latter, engaged to guarantee their pos- 
 sessions, and protect them from the oppressions 
 of the Peshwa's government. General Welles- 
 ley (now duke of Wellington) expressed his 
 disapprobation of the projects of vengeance 
 which the above sovereign had formed against the 
 Putwurden family, and others of the Mahratta 
 state in immediate subjection to Poonah ; and 
 in his march southwards in 1804, entered into 
 negociations with the chiefs, adjusted the dissen- 
 sions of the sovereign, and by the able co-opera- 
 tion of Col. Close and Mr. Strachey succeeded in 
 what the home government contemplated, the 
 final settlement of these complicated claims. 
 That it was effected without bloodshed, is to the 
 honor of British prudence and benevolence. 
 j\lSS. Ferishta, Moor, Wilks, Scott, &c. 
 
 The territorial divisions of the province are as 
 follows : — 1. The Concan ; 2. Cola-pur ; 3. I\Iur- 
 teza-abad ; 4. Ased-nagar; 5. District of Bija- 
 piir; 6. Sacar; 7. Rai-chur; 8. Mudgal ; 9. Ga- 
 jindra-gar'h; 10. Anagimdi; 11. Bauca-pur ; 
 12. Gandac; 13. Nurgul; 14. Azim-nagar-, 15. 
 Rii-bagh. 
 
 1 . Tlie first of these divisions, Concan, Cancana, 
 or Cocan, includes a portion of territory 220 
 miles in length, and thirty-five in breadth, occu- 
 pying the whole sea coast of the province. It is
 
 550 
 
 BARJAPOOR. 
 
 bounded on the north by the river Sawatri, 
 which separates it from Calyani, on the west by 
 the Indian Ocean, on tlie south by Canara, and 
 on t!ie east by the G'hats or Ghauts. Formed 
 by the gradualdeclivity of tlie mountains towards 
 the sea, it presents a very unequal surface, inter- 
 sected by numerous streams and torrents, together 
 with a coast diversified with bays and inlets, 
 although without deep and spacious harbours. 
 The soil below the Ghauts is fertile, producing 
 grain, hemp, cocoa-nuts, &c. The trees planted 
 near the coast are, however, more vigorous and 
 fertile than those cultivated higher up the coun- 
 try, wiiich is commonly attributed to the sea air. 
 
 I'he language of the province is peculiar, pos- 
 sessing a great resemblance to the Sanscrit, from 
 which some imagine it is derived. It is chiefly 
 cultivated by the Brahmans, a peculiar race, not 
 acknowledged by their brethren in the rest of 
 India. 
 
 The principal divisions of the province are 
 Concan, B'honsala, and Goa. The former in- 
 cludes Fort Victoria, a fortress at the entrance of 
 the Bancut river. This division, comprehend- 
 ing nine villages, was taken by the British forces 
 in 1756. So" great is the advantage of living 
 under the British government, that in 1812 the 
 population had nearly doubled within the last 
 ten years. B'honsala, the second division of the 
 Concan, is a beautiful district formed by a gentle 
 slope of hills descending from the western Ghauts 
 to the sea, and watered by numerous rivers and 
 mountain torrents. Like the former, it has seve- 
 ral strong posts or rocky heights, difficult of 
 access. 
 
 Though thinly peopled, the soil is extremely 
 fertile, producing cocoa, betel nuts, ginger, 
 sugar, cardamoms, pepper, and other tropical ve- 
 getables in great abundance. Iron is also found 
 in the mountains, though wrought in a very 
 clumsy manner by the natives. Goa, now in 
 possession of the Portuguese, forms the southern 
 division of the Concan. Its capital, bearing the 
 same name, although dignified by many noble 
 churches and public buildings, is nearly deserted 
 from the unhealthiness of its climate and the 
 terrors of the Inquisition. So great is the fecun- 
 dity of the Roman church in this settlement, that 
 in the year 1808 were found no fewer than 2000 
 ecclesiastics, although the whole extent of the 
 territory does not exceed 400 square miles. The 
 trade has very much declined, and the wretched- 
 ness of the country presents a very striking con- 
 trast with the English settlements in its vicinity, 
 where every luxury is to be found. It had for- 
 inerly a considerable manufacture of arack, a 
 spirituous liquor made from toddy, or tari, ex- 
 tracted from the trunks of palm trees ; but this is 
 now superseded by a similar spirit at Batavia, of 
 which rice and sugar are the principal ingre- 
 --Jients. The dialect that is used here is a bar- 
 oarous mixture of the Portugtiese, Canara, and 
 Mahratta languages. This place has been ren- 
 dered interesting to the English reader by the 
 visit which Dr. Buchanan paid to it, a full ac- 
 count of which is inserted in his C^hristian 
 Researches. 
 
 2. Cola-par, or Cola-poor, according to the 
 former division of the province, was in the Ser- 
 
 car of Raib4gh, and subsequently formed a small 
 independent state, composed of several districts 
 above and below the mountains, but so inter- 
 mingled with the neighbouring states a." not to be 
 easily discriminated. 
 
 3. Mortezabad, a contraction of ]\Iorteza-abad, 
 is a small hilly division of llie province, at a much 
 greater elevation above the sea than the Concan, 
 and is traversed by the Krishna, which rises at 
 Mahibaliser, within the same division of Bija- 
 pur. Among the most remarkable ])laces of this 
 province is the hill-fort of Satarah, a strong-hold 
 of no small celebrity in the Mahratta annals, 
 standing in lat. 17° 42' N., and long. 74'' 12 E., 
 on the pinnacle of a lofty hill, and accessible 
 only by a narrow winding path, whicii admits no 
 more than one person at a time. Its name, 
 wjiich signifies 'seventeen,' answers to the re- 
 puted number of its towers. A wall of solid 
 rock encloses it on all sides to the height of thirty 
 or forty feet. Similar sites are found in the sur- 
 rounding country, and are occupied by fortresses, 
 which, to a native army, must be nearly im- 
 pregnable. Kelingah is considered as almost 
 capable of baffling European skill if resolutely 
 defended. 
 
 4. Ased-nagar (the city of Lions) is another 
 division of this province. Its chief town is Pun- 
 dar-pijr, a large well-built handsome town, and, 
 what is more extraordinary in an Indian city, 
 has several broad well-paved streets. The mar- 
 kets are supplied with native productions and 
 English manufactures. The banks of the river 
 are lined with stone walls, and handsome flights 
 of steps lead down to the water. The soil around 
 is fertile, but little cultivated ; the Brahmins 
 considering it too sacred to be used for the un- 
 holy purposes of producing fruit for mortals. 
 
 5. Bejapoor, or Mjayapura, the Impregnable, 
 The chief city, of the same name as, and formerly 
 the capital of, the province, has, by European 
 travellers of the last three centuries been deno- 
 minated Viziapoor. The wall of the city was 
 twenty feet thick, surrounded by a ditch of vast 
 dimensions, excavated out of the solid rock, from J| 
 the berme of which the curtain rises nearly forty " 
 feet, composed of huge stones strongly cemented, 
 
 and frequently adorned with sculptural repre- 
 sentations of Hqps, tigers, &c. The towers which 
 flank the wall are numerous and of vast size, 
 occurring at intervals of 100 yards. The fort is 
 one of the largest in the world, and, measured 
 by the counterscarp of the surrounding ditch, is 
 no less than eight miles in circumference^ and 
 adorned with a spacious courtway from 150 to 
 200 yards broad. Within the citadel were the 
 king's palace, the houses of the nobility, together 
 with several large magazines ; and without the 
 walls were large suburbs, adorned with noble 
 palaces. 
 
 The rock on which the city stood furnished 
 abundance of stone for public and private build- 
 ings, and the style of tlieir architecture unites 
 elegance with solidity. Tiie city is well watered 
 and the soil rich : large sums of money, with 
 other valuable articles, are also found among 
 its ruins. It is said, in its most flourishing state, 
 to have contained 984,000 inhabited houses and 
 1600 mosques.
 
 BAR 551 BAR 
 
 Several enormous pieces of cannon, to the its growing on a still drier Salter earth, conse- 
 
 number of twelve, are to be seen here, corres- quently it is impregnated witVi a stronger salt, 
 
 ponding with the magnitude of the fort, of which It does not rise above two inches out of the 
 
 the three largest are of the following dimen- ground, spreading out into little tufts. Its 
 
 giong . sprigs are much flatter and more pulpy than those 
 
 1. A Malabar gun. of barilla, and are still more like samphire. It 
 
 Feet. Inches, is sown but once in three, four, or five years. 
 
 Diameter at the breech 4 5 according to the nature of the soil. Soza, when 
 
 Length from breech to muzzle . . 21 5 of the same size, has the same appearance as 
 
 Circumference of the trunnions . 4 7 gazul, but in time grows much larger, as its na- 
 
 Diameter at the muzzle 4 3 tural soil is a strong salt marsh, where it is to be 
 
 Ditto of the bore 1 9 found in large tufts of sprigs, treble the size of 
 
 . , t u A 1 . «« „ barilla, and of a bright green color, which it re 
 
 2. A brass gun cast by Auren<jrzebe to comme- "i"'"*? »^' b b . n <• j„„„ 
 
 '^ , •' . f V) • tains to the last. Salicor has a stalk ot a deep 
 
 moiate the conquest of Beiapoor. ''^"'^ '■^ , ,. . . , , . , . u^ J 
 
 ^ •' ^pggt Inches S'"^'^" ^o'*^'"' inclining to red, which last becomes 
 
 Diameter at the breech 4 " lOi ' by degrees the color of the whole plant_ From 
 
 Ditto at the muzzle . 4 8 'he beginning it grows upright, and much resem- 
 
 Ditto of the bore 2 4 bles a bush of young roseinary. Its natura 
 
 T , 14 I soil is on the declivities of lulls near the salt 
 
 CircUference'in the middle '.'.'. 13 7 marshes, or on the edges of the small drains or 
 
 channels cut by the husbandmen tor the purpose 
 
 3. The gun called Iligh-flyer. of watering the fields ; before it has acquired its 
 
 Feet. Inches, full growth, it is very like the barilla of those 
 
 Length 30 3^- seasons in which the ground h.is been dunged 
 
 Circumference at the breach ... 9 2 before sowing. In those years of manuring, ba- 
 Circumference over the smallest rilla, contrary to its usual nature, comes up with 
 
 part of the moulding 6 a tinge of red, and when burnt falls far short of 
 
 Diameter of the bore 1 1 its wonted goodness, being bitter, more impreg- 
 
 The brass gun is fixed on its centre on an im- nated with salt than it should be, and raising a 
 mense iron, fastened in the ground, and grasping blister if applied for a few minutes to the tongue. 
 its trunnions in the manner of a swivel, its Barilla contains less salt than the others; when 
 breech resting on a block of wood supported burnt, it runs into a mass resembling a spongy 
 by a thick wall, so that it cannot recoil. I or the stone, with a faint cast of blue. Gazul, after 
 calibre of this gun an iron ball weighing 2646 burning, comes as near barilla in its outward 
 pounds would be required. The two other guns appearance as it does while growing in its ve- 
 are constructed of bars of iron hooped round, getable form; but, if broken, the inside is of a 
 not upon carriages, but lying on blocks of wood, deeper and more glossy blue. Soza and salicor 
 The other provinces above enumerated, as be- are darker, and almost black within, of a heavier 
 longing to the territory of Barjapoor are of minor consistence, with very little or no sign of spon- 
 importance, and capable of affording but little giness. All these ashes contain a strong alkali ; 
 interest. but barilla the best and purest, though not in 
 
 BAR-JESUS, or Elym.4S, a Jew, who pre- the greatest quantity. Upon this principle, it is 
 tended to be a magician ; and endeavouring to fittest for making glass and bleaching linen ; the 
 obstruct Paul and Barnabas, was miraculously others are used in making soap. Each of them 
 struck blind, Acts xiii. 8. — 12. would whiten linen; but all except barilla would 
 
 BARILHA, or Barilla, in botany, a plant burn it. A good crop of barilla impoverishes 
 cultivated in Spain for its ashes, from which the the land to such a degree, that it cannot bear 
 purest kinds of mineral alkali are obtained, good barilla a second time, being quite ex- 
 There are four plants, which in the early part of hausted. For this reason the richer farmers 
 their growth, bear so strong a resemblance to lay manure on the ground, and let it lie fallovr 
 each other, that they would deceive any but the for a season, at the end of which it is sown afresh 
 farmer or critical botanist. These four are, ba- without any danger, as the weeds that have 
 rilla gazul, or as some call it, algazul, soza, and sprung up in the year of rest have carried off all 
 salicornia, or salicor. They are all burnt to the pernicious effects of the dung. A proper 
 ashes, but applied to different uses, benig pos- succession of crops is thus secured by manuring 
 sessed of different qualities. Some of the far- and fallowing the different parts of the farm, 
 mers mix more or less of the three last with the each in their turn. The poorer cultivators cannot 
 first; and it requires a complete knowledge of pursue the same method for want of capital ; and 
 the color, taste, and smell of the ashes to be able are therefore under the necessity of sowing their 
 to detect their knavery. Barilla is sown afresh lands immediately after manuring, which yields 
 every year. Its greatest height above ground is them a profit just sufficient to afford a present 
 four inches : eacli root pushes out a vast number scanty subsistence, though the quality and price 
 of little stalks, which again are subdivided into of their barilla be but trifling, 
 smaller sprigs resembling samphire; and altoge- Barilla, Barillia, or Bariglia, in the 
 ther form a large spreading bush. The color is glass trade, is a sort of pot ashes imported from 
 bright green ; as the plant advances towards ma- Spain, inferior in goodness to those of the Levant, 
 turity, this color gradually changes to a dull called polverine when loose, small, and in pow- 
 green tinged with brown. CJazul bears the der, and rochetta when in hard rocky lumps, 
 greatest affinity to barilla, both in quality and The frit made of these becomes fine and clear 
 appearance, the principal difference consists in crystal glass, especially that Iroin the roehttar, or.
 
 BAR 
 
 552 
 
 BAR 
 
 the polvenne in lumps ; but the barilh of Spain, 
 though it be usually tatter, yet makes not a glass 
 so white, but usually inclinintj to a bluish color. 
 The method used in making barilla is the saine 
 as that followed in Britain in burning kelp. The 
 plant as soon as ripe is plucked up and laid in 
 heaps, and then set on fire. The salt juices run 
 out below into a hole made in the ground, where 
 they run into a vitrified lump, which is left about 
 a fortnight to cool. An acre may give about a 
 ton. 
 
 BARILLARIUS, an ancient officer in monas- 
 teries and great households, who had the care of 
 the casks and vessels of wine, &c. 
 
 BARJOLS, a small populous town of France, 
 in the department of the Var, (a part of the ci- 
 devant province of Provence.) nineteen miles 
 from Riez. 
 
 BAR-JONAS, a Syriac designation of St. 
 Peter, importing that he was the son of Jonas. 
 
 BARITONO, in music, denotes a voice of 
 low pitch, between a tenor and a base. 
 
 BARIOM, in ancient geography, a town of 
 Apulia, on the Adriatic ; so called from the 
 founders, who, being expelled from tlie island 
 Bara, built this town. 
 
 Barium, the metallic basis of the earth barytes, 
 and so called by its discoverer, Sir H. Davy. 
 Take pure barytes, make it into a paste with 
 water, and put this on a plate of platinum. Make 
 a cavity in the middle of the barytes, into which 
 a s^lobule cf mercury is to be placed. Touch 
 the globule with the negative wire, and the pla- 
 tinum with the positive wire of a voltaic battery 
 of about 100 pairs of plates in good action. In a 
 short time an amalgam will be formed, consisting 
 of mercury and barium. This amalgam must be 
 introduced into a little bent tube, made of glass 
 free from lead, sealed at one end, which being 
 filled with the vapor of naphtha, is then to be 
 hermetically sealed at the other end. Heat must 
 be applied to the recurved endof the tube, where 
 the amalgam lies. The mercury will distil over, 
 while the barium will remain. 
 
 ' This metal,' says Dr. Ure, ' is of a dark gray 
 color, with a lustre inferior to that of cast-iron. 
 It is fusible at a red heat. Its density is supe- 
 rior to that of sulphuric acid ; for, though sur- 
 rounded with globules of gas, it sinks immediately 
 in that liquid. When exposed to air it instantly 
 becomes covered with a crust of barytes ; and 
 when gently heated in air, burns with a deep red 
 light. It effervesces violently in water, convert- 
 ing this liquid into a solution of barytes.' Sir II. 
 Davy thinks it probable that barium may be 
 procured by chemical as well as electrical decom- 
 position. When chloride of barium, or even 
 the dry earth, ignited to whiteness, is exposed to 
 the vapor of potassium, a dark gray substance is 
 found diffused through the barytes or the chloride, 
 not volatile, which effervesces copiously in water, 
 and possesses a metallic appearance, which dis- 
 appe;irs in the air. The potassium, by being thus 
 transmitted, is converted into potash. From in- 
 direct experiments Sir II. Davy was inclined to 
 consider barytes as composed of 89"7 barium -|- 
 10-3 oxygen rz 100. This would make tlie 
 prime equivalent of barium 8"7, and that of ba- 
 rytes 9'7, compared to that of oxygen I'O; a 
 
 determination nearly exact. Dr. Clarke of Cam- 
 bridge, by exposing dry nitrate of barytes on char- 
 coal, to the intense heat of the condensed hydroxy- 
 gen flame,observed'metallic-looking globules in the 
 midst of the boiling fluid, and the charcoal was 
 found to be studded over with innumerable globules 
 of the most brilliant lustre and whiteness. On let- 
 ting these globules fall from the charcoal into 
 water, hydrogen was evolved in a continued 
 stream. When the globules are plunged in 
 naphtha, they retain their brilliancy but a few 
 days. Barium combines with oxygen in two 
 proportions, forming, 1st. barytes, and 2d. tlie 
 deutoxide of barium. See Bauytes. 
 
 BAR'K, V. & H. -\ These have the same ori- 
 Bar'kbared, 'gin with the words barge, 
 Bar'kv, i &c. The root from 
 
 Bar'ker. 3 which they are derived 
 
 conveys the idea of security and defence. See 
 Bar. The defence of a tree is its bark. It is 
 that which protects it from the weather. Hence 
 tlie application of the term to the rind or out- 
 side covering of the trees. To bark, is used in 
 opposite senses. It signifies either to strip off, 
 or to cover, as with bark. 
 
 And as in winter leaves ben biraft, 
 Ech after other til trees be bare. 
 So that there nis but burke and braunch ylaft. 
 
 Chaucer. Troilus and Creseide. 
 In a walnote, without ys a byter harke, 
 And often jjat biter barke, be J3e shall aweye, 
 Ys a curnal of comfort. Piers Ploughman. 
 
 Thy palate then did deign 
 The roughest berry on the rudest hedge ; 
 Yea, like the stag, when snow the pasture sheets. 
 The barks of trees, thou brow'sd. 
 
 Shakspeare, Antony and Cleopatra. 
 So doth the -woodbine the sweet honeysuckle, 
 Gently entwist ; the female ivy so 
 Enrings the 6ar/it/ fingers of the elm. 
 
 Id. Midsummer's Night Dream. 
 What craftsman art thou, said the king, 
 
 I pray thee tell me trowp, 
 I am a barker, sir, by my trade ; 
 
 Now tell me what art thou ? 
 Edward IV. and Tanner of Tamworth, in Pera/. 
 The cause is, for that trees last according to the 
 strength of their sap and juice ; being well munited 
 by their barh against the injuries of the air. 
 
 Bacon's Natural Histor!/. 
 Perhaps some cold bank is her bolster now. 
 Or 'gainst the bark of some broad elm. 
 Leans her unpillow'd head fraught with sad fears. 
 
 Milton. 
 The slant lightning, whose thwart flame driv'n down. 
 Kindles the gummy bark of fir orpine. 
 And sends a comfortable heat from far. 
 Which might supply the sun. Id. 
 
 I'll carve thy name on barks of trees. 
 With true love knots and flourishes. 
 That shall infu.se eternal spring 
 And everlasting flourishing. Ihtdiiras. 
 
 For oft engendered by the hazy north. 
 Myriads on myriads, insect armies warp 
 Keen in the poison'd breeze, and w-asteful eat 
 Through buds and bark into the blackened core. 
 Their eager way. Thomson. 
 
 Wand 'ring in the dark. 
 Physicians for the tree have found the bark. 
 
 Drt/deii. 
 
 TIio severest penalties ought to be put upon burking 
 
 any tree that is not felled. Temple.
 
 BAN 
 
 553 
 
 BAN 
 
 These trees, after thoy are harked and cut into 
 shape, are tumbled down from the mountains into the 
 stream. Addison. 
 
 Excorticated and bark-bared trees may be preserved 
 by nourishing up a shoot from the foot, or below the 
 stripped place, cutting the body of the tree sloping off 
 a little above the shoot, and it will heal, and be covered 
 with bark. Mortimer. 
 
 In the kingdom of Monomotapa, they have a me- 
 thod of deciding lawsuits equally v/himsical and uncer- 
 tain. The witness for the plainlifi' rliews the bark of 
 a tree, endued with an emetic quality ; which, being 
 rufficiently masticated, is then infused in water, which 
 is given the defendant to drink. 
 
 Blackstone's Commentaries, 
 
 Bar'k, V. & 7*. } Derived from the same 
 
 Bar'ker, ^ word as tlie preceding. Its 
 
 primary sense is to guard and defend. Thus 
 the ba7'k of a dog is his own defence and ours. 
 It apprises of danger, expresses anger, and ex- 
 cites fear. To bark, therefore, is to make a 
 noise, either to annoy others, or to protect our- 
 selves. 
 
 Vile is the vengeance on the ashes cold. 
 
 And euvy base, to bark at sleeping fame. 
 
 Spenser's Faerie Queene. 
 You dare patronage 
 The envious barking of your saucy tongue 
 Against my lord. Shakspe'wre. 
 
 Sent before my time 
 
 Into this breathing world, scarce half made up. 
 
 And that so lamely and unfashionably. 
 
 That dogs bark at me. Id. Richard III. 
 
 Why do your dogs bark so? be there bears i' th' 
 town ? Id. Merry Wives of Windsor. 
 
 What hath he done more than a base cur? barked 
 find made a noise ? had a fool or two to spit in his 
 mouth ? But they arc rather enemies of my fame 
 than me, these barkers. Ben Jmison. 
 
 Her clacking mill, driv'n by her flowing gall. 
 Could never stand, but chide, rail, hark, and bawl. 
 Her shield no word could find, her tongue engross'd 
 them all. Fletcher's Purple Island. 
 
 And when more age and strength more tierccnfiss 
 lent, 
 Sho taught him in a dark and desart wood. 
 With force and guile poor passengers to slay,; 
 And on their flesh his barking stomach stay. 
 And with their wretched blood his fiery thirst allay. 
 
 Id. 
 I have oft heard 
 My mother, Circe, with the graces three. 
 Amidst the flow'ry kirtled Naiades, 
 Culling their potent herbs and baleful drugs. 
 Who as they sung would take the prison'd soul. 
 And lap it in Elysium ; Scylla wept. 
 And chid her barking waves into attention. 
 And fell Charybdis murraur'd soft applause. 
 
 Milton. 
 
 Bar'k, ^ The barks are all of a family; 
 
 Bar'kmen, S for their great progenitor, see to 
 ^R. A bark, says Tooke, is a stout vessel, 'in 
 the same sense that barge is a strong boat, im- 
 plying safety and defence. The word, however, 
 does not always convey this its primary meaning. 
 It is frequently applied indiscriminately to small 
 ships employed either for commerce or plea- 
 sure. 
 Like as a ship with dreadful storme long tost. 
 
 Having spent all her mastes and her ground-hold. 
 Now far from harbour, likely to be lost. 
 
 At last some lishcr barlic doth ncare behold, 
 That giveth comfort to her courage cold. Spenser. 
 
 And I, in such a desperata bay of death. 
 Like a poor bark, of sails and tackling reft. 
 Rush all to pieces on thy rocky bosom. 
 
 S/uikspeare. 
 Tho duke of Parma must have flown, if lie would 
 have come into England : for he could neither get 
 bark nor mariner to put to sea. 
 
 Bacon, on the War with Spain. 
 O my soul's joy i 
 If after every tempest come such calms. 
 May the winds blow till they have waken'd death ! 
 And let the labouring hark climb hills of seas, 
 Olympus-high ; and duck again as low 
 As lu'U's from heaven! If it were now to die, 
 'Twere now to be most happy ; for, I fear. 
 My soul hath her content so absolute. 
 That not another comfort like to this 
 Succeeds in unknown fate. Id. 
 
 Whilst I, in vale of tears, at anchor ride 
 Where winds of earthly thoughts my sails misguide. 
 Harbour my fleshly bark safe in thy wounded side. 
 
 Fletcher's Purple Island. 
 Some have the boots of their own life to guide. 
 
 Some of whole families doe row the barge, 
 Some govern petty townships too, beside 
 
 (To those compar'd which of small barkes have 
 charge) 
 Some others rul? great provinces, and tkey 
 
 Resemble captains of huge Argosies ; 
 But when of kiugdomes any gayne the sway. 
 
 To generals of fleets we liken these. GeorgeWither. 
 When they come near the shore the harkemen leap 
 out of the barke into the sea to keep the barke right, 
 that she cast not thwart the shore. 
 
 Hackluyt. Voyages, S^x. 
 
 It was that fatal and perfidious bark 
 Built in th' eclipse, and rigg'd with curses dark. 
 That sunk so low that sacred head of thine. Milton. 
 Who to a woman trusts his peace of mind, 
 Trusffi a frail hark with a tempestuous wind. 
 
 Gra7imllo. 
 Like a flag floating when the bark's ingulph'd. 
 It floats a moment, and is seen no more •, 
 One Caesar lives, a thousand are forgot. Youvg. 
 Ill fares the bark with trembling wretches charg'd 
 That toss'd amid the floating fragments, moors 
 Beneath the shelter of an icy isle 
 AVhile night o'erwhclms the sea, and horror looks 
 More Horrible. Thomson. 
 
 My sole resourses in the path I trod 
 Were these — my bark — my sword — my lore — my 
 
 God! 
 The last I left in youth — he leaves me now — 
 And man but works his will to lay me low. 
 
 Byron's Corsair. 
 
 Bark, in the anatomy of plants, is that exte- 
 rior coat of trees, corresponding to the skin of an 
 animal. For its organisation, Sec. see Botany. 
 As animr.is are furnished with a panniculus adi- 
 posus, usually replete with fat, which invests and 
 covers all the Hcshy parts, and screens them from 
 external cold ; plants are encompasst-d with a 
 bark replete with fatty juices, by means whereof 
 the cold is kept out, and in winter the sjjiculao 
 of ice prevented from fixing and freezing the 
 juices in the vessels : whence it is tliat some sort 
 of trees remain ever-green all the year round, tiieir 
 barks containing more oil than can be spent and 
 exhaled by the sun, &c. The bark has its pecu- 
 liar diseases, and is infested with insects pecu- 
 liar to it. It appears from the experiments of 
 Buiibn, that trees stripped of their bark the whole
 
 BAR 
 
 554 
 
 BAR 
 
 length of their stems die in about three or tour 
 years. But it is very remarkable, that trees tluis 
 stripped in the time of the sap, and suffered to 
 die, afford. timber heavier, more uniformly dense, 
 stronger, and fitter for service, than if the trees 
 had been cut down in their healtliy state. Some- 
 thing of this nature was observed by Vitruvius 
 and Evelyn. The ancients wrote tlieir books on 
 bark, especially of the ash and lime tree, not on 
 the exterior, but on the inner and finer bark 
 called philyra ; and this custom is yet frequent 
 in the east. INIany kinds of bark are used in the 
 arts. Some in agriculture and in tanning lea- 
 ther, as the oak bark ; some in physic, as the 
 Jesuit's &c. others in dyeing, as the bark of 
 alder and walnut trees; others in spicery, as cin- 
 namon, mace, cassia lignea. Sec. ; and others for 
 divers uses, as the bark of the cork tree, Sec. In 
 the East Indies they prepare the bark of a cer- 
 tain tree so as to spin like hemp. After it has 
 been beaten and steeped in water, they extract 
 long threads from it, which are something be- 
 tween silk and common thread ; being neither 
 so soft nor so glossy as silk, nor so rough and 
 hard as hemp. They mix silk with it in some 
 stuffs, and these are called millaes, and cherque- 
 niolles. The Japanese make paper of the bark 
 of a species of mulberry tree. See Morus. In 
 the island of Otaheite, the natives make their 
 cloth, which is of three kinds, of the bark of 
 different trees ; the paper-mulberry above men- 
 tioned, the bread-fruit tree, and the cocoa-tree. 
 That made of the mulberry is the finest and 
 whitest, and worn chiefly by the principal peo- 
 ple. Of the bark, too, of a tree which they cal^ 
 poerou, tlie hibiscus tiliaceus of Linnteus, they 
 manufacture excellent matting; a coarse sort 
 which serves them to sleep upon, and a finer to 
 wear in wet weather. Of the same bark they 
 also make ropes and lines, from the thickness of 
 an inch to the size of a small packthread. 
 
 B.iRK, Jesuit's, or Bark by way of eminence, 
 quinquina, or cinchona. See Cinchona. 
 
 Bark, Indian, Thuris cortex, a medicinal 
 bark, brought from the East, rolled up like cin- 
 namon ; of a rusty color, a warm aromatic bitter 
 taste, and pleasant smell ; sometimes used in fu- 
 migation against fits of the mother. 
 
 Bark, in navigation, is a general name given 
 to small ships ; it is however sometimes peculiar- 
 ly appropriated to those which carry three mari- 
 ners, who are trained up in the coal trade. Some 
 apply this distinction to a broad sterned ship, 
 whicli carries no ornamental figure on the stern 
 or prow. 
 
 Bark, Long, is a small vessel without deck, 
 and longer and lower than the common barks, 
 being sharp before, and commonly going both 
 with sails and oars. It is built after the manner 
 of a sloop, and in many places is called a double 
 sloop. 
 
 Bark, Water, a little vessel used in Holland 
 for the carriage of fresh water to places wliere it 
 is wanting, as well as for the fetching sea-water 
 to make salt of. Water barks have a deck, and 
 are filled with water up to tlie deck. 
 
 Bark Bed, in gardening, is that sort of hot- 
 bed whicli is cither wholly or princi])ally con- 
 stilutod of tanner".s bark. This bed, from its pre- 
 
 serving the most unilorm and regular degrees of 
 heat, is found by much the most useful in the 
 propagation and culture of all kinds of tender 
 exotic plants that are brought from warm cli- 
 mates, and which stand in need of the continued 
 assistance of artificial heat in this part of the 
 world. Beds of this nature, with a little trouble 
 m the management of them, are found sometimes 
 to support a pretty uniform and regular tempe 
 rature for a considerable length of time. They 
 are generally employed in hot-houses, being 
 formed in pits or cavities constructed for the 
 purpose, frequently the whole length of the 
 house, six or seven feet in width, and three in 
 depth, being enclosed by means of brick-work. 
 See Bark Pit. 
 
 In these beds the pots of tender exotics are 
 plunged and supported ; while they at the same 
 time afford the houses or stoves degrees of heat 
 that may be proper for the growth and support 
 of other plants that do not require to be plunged 
 into the beds. Bark hot-beds are likewise occa- 
 sionally formed in pits, constructed for them in the 
 open ground, separately and detached from the ■ 
 hot-house. These are walled round with bricks, 1 
 chiefly above the surface of the ground, having a 
 frame or coping of wood upon the top, on which 
 glass lights are fixed so as to slide with facility. 
 See Bark Pit. 
 
 Beds formed of bark are also employed with 
 success in various sorts of early productions, as 
 early strawberries, melons, peas, French beans. 
 Sec, and, by the regular and moderate heat 
 they afford, they mostly bring them forward in the ^ 
 
 greatost perfection. They are likewise made use ■ 
 
 of in forcing different sorts of curious flowers, ' 
 
 of the bulbous, tuberous, and iibrous-rooted kinds, 
 into early bloom — as hyacinths, dwarf-tulips, 
 narcissus, jonquils, anemonies, ranunculuses, 
 pinks, Sec. also many flowering plants of the 
 small shrubby kind, as roses, hypericums, Si,c. 
 Bark beds are also employed with great advan- 
 tage in forcing frames for the purpose of pro- 
 ducing early fruit of the apricot, peach, and 
 grape kinds. See Forcing Frames and Hot- M 
 Walls. I 
 
 Hot-beds constituted of bark, from the slow ' 
 
 and regular manner in which the heat is in 
 common evolved, are not so liable, as those of 
 dung, to injure the plants by their steam ; they 
 are therefore to be preferred for all the more im- 
 portant purposes of forcing, where the material 
 can be olatained. The heat of them may be per- 
 petuated for a great length of time, by having re- 
 course occasionally to the practice of forking or 
 turning them over, adding in such operations 
 about a third part of new tan or bark. The beds 
 are, however, to be wholly, or in great part, re- 
 newed every autumn and spring. 
 
 Bark Mill, a mill constructed for the pur- 
 pose of grinding and preparing bark till it is fit 
 for the use of the tanner. Bark mills, like most 
 other mills, are worked sometimes by means of 
 horses, at others by water, at others by wind, or 
 by steam. Several of these mills are described 
 in different volumes of the Repertory of Arts and 
 Manufactures, and an ingenious one in Gregory's 
 Mechanics, vol. ii. Mr. Chapman's simple ma- 
 chinery for this pur[)ose (for which he took out a
 
 BAR 
 
 555 
 
 BAR 
 
 patent in July 1805) is thus described, as below, 
 in No. 3, of the Retrospect of Arts and Manu- 
 factures. It may be worked by horses, or in any 
 of the usual ways. A large horizontal face-wheel 
 gives motion to a horizontal tumbling shaft, 
 which unites with the gudgeon of a large rag- 
 bariel : two other cylinders are posited horizon- 
 tally with respect to this rag-barrel, one on each 
 side ; one of these is a smaller rag-barrel, the 
 other is a spike-roller. A moderate-sized wheel 
 at one end of the larger rag-barrel has its teeth to 
 play into the leaves of a pinion on the end of the 
 spike-roller, thus communicating motion to that 
 roller and to a large fly-wheel turning on the 
 same axis : two or three other smaller wheels 
 and pinions communicate motion from the larger 
 to the smaller barrel, and in such manner that 
 the latter has a considerably less velocity than the 
 former, and turns the contrary way. A hori- 
 zontal hollow frame contains the barrels and 
 spike-roller, and the bottom plate of this is 
 movable by means of screws, so as to be capable 
 of adjustment, and placed at a suitable distance 
 from the rag-barrel, to act as a grinding-plate. 
 Two screws, whose heads are at one end of 
 this frame, serve to place tlie smaller rag-barrel 
 at a convenient distance from the larger. This 
 large barrel has about twenty rows of plates with 
 their indentations turning downwards, while the 
 indentations of the smaller barrel project up- 
 wards ; so that this latter barrel gathers the bark 
 and holds it fast, while the larger one tears it to 
 jiieces ; and the spike-roller on the other side of 
 this larger barrel keeps it clean. A sloping 
 spout conveys the torn bark from the grinding- 
 plate to an inclining cylinder, posited like the 
 cylinders in dressing machines for flour-mills : 
 the wires of this cylinder are of two different 
 kinds with respect to fineness, the coarsest being 
 lowermost ; and beneath it two bins are placed, 
 the one to receive the finer dust, the other the 
 coarser or hand-dust from the cylinder ; and 
 next to these stands a basket to receive the torn 
 bark as it passes through the cylinder. 
 
 B.\RK Pit, a pit or cavity of a long, square, or 
 other form, a yard or more in depth, appertain- 
 ing to a hot-house or stove, &c. and being formed 
 internally, or detached externally, in which to 
 make tan or bark hot-beds, commonly called 
 bark beds. The dimensions are four, five, or 
 six feet in width, or more, having length in pro- 
 portion to that of the hot-house, &c., and when 
 in detached pits, such as may be required. In 
 both methods they are formed by a low surround- 
 ing brick-wall, about a yard in height in the in- 
 ternal pits, and in the external ones three or four 
 feet in front, by four or five in the back wall. 
 These different sorts of pits are indispensably ne- 
 cessary, where bark beds are intended, to make 
 the beds in, as the short loose nature of tlie tan 
 will not admit of being formed into compact re- 
 gular beds without the aid of such kinds of en- 
 closed pits to confine it close together within the 
 limits that are requisite in the formation of the 
 beds. 
 
 Bark pits are necessary for various purposes, 
 in all hot-houses or stoves, and occasionally in 
 forcing-houses, &c. And detached bark p\ts, 
 distinct from the hot-house, are likewise very 
 
 useful in all extensive gardens on many occa- 
 sions, being of great service in the culture of 
 many sorts of tender exotics, and in raising va- 
 rious kinds under different methods of propaga- 
 tion, as well as for raising and nursing those of 
 similar kinds in their young and tender growth ; 
 also occasionally for forcing and raising early 
 productions of several sorts of hardy plants in 
 the greatest perfection. 
 
 Hot-houses, or stoves of the common width, 
 have in general only one pit, extending length- 
 ways of them, as described above ; but, if they are 
 of considerable extent in length, the pit is some- 
 times divided in the middle by an intervening 
 passage, to render it more convenient in per- 
 forming the necessary culture of the plants. 
 Some hot-houses, however, of very great w^dth, 
 have two internal bark pits ranging parallel 
 lengthways, with an alley or passage extending 
 between them, which renders them more commo- 
 dious in giving the requisite culture to the plants 
 that are plunged in the beds, than if the whole 
 was in one extremely wide pit, in which it would 
 often be very inconvenient to come at the plants 
 placed towards the middle of them ; so that two 
 parallel pits, four or five feet wide each, become 
 more eligible than one of eight or ten feet, and, 
 by having an intervening passage, give a larger 
 scope, and afford a better current of air, for the 
 growth of the plants in the beds, as well as ad- 
 mit of viewing them to greater advantage and 
 effect. 
 
 Detached bark pits should always be erected 
 in warm dry situations, in a southerly aspect, 
 and be constantly ranged lengthways in the di- 
 rection of east and west, or nearly so, in order 
 to have the whole front incline fully to tlie south 
 sun, in a sloping manner, on which to place the 
 glasses in the same position, being generally sta- 
 tioned either contiguous to the hot-house or 
 stove, but at a proper distance in front of it, as 
 the situation and convenience of the place may 
 admit ; or they may be erected at one or at both 
 ends, extending in a line with it but separated 
 by a passage between them. But detached bark 
 pits are sometimes formed with ridged tops, like 
 the roofs of houses, the glasses sloping to both 
 sides, being ranged lengthways north and south, 
 in order to have the benefit of the sun equally on 
 both sides, and used for the same purposes as 
 the others ; though the common south-fronting 
 pits, extending east and west, are more generally 
 adopted, being less expensive in glass-work, &c. 
 and, in general, more convenient for different 
 purposes of the forcing kind. They should be 
 constructed with walls of brick-work, forming 
 the upright sides and ends nine inches thick ; 
 and where fire-flues are intended, the back wall 
 should be of a proper thickness from the bottom 
 to admit of having flues in the upper parts, a 
 fire-place being contrived externally at the 
 bottom at one end; or, in considerably ex- 
 tended pits a double fire-place may be formed 
 in the middle, behind, or one at each end, eitlier 
 endways or in the back part, as may be thought 
 the most convenient. Some detached pits are 
 formed of wood-work only, by means of post 
 and planking, serving lor particular occasions, 
 where no fire heat is required, as flues for that
 
 BAR 
 
 556 
 
 BAR 
 
 purpose cannot be admitted in such kinds of 
 pits ; where additional heat is occasionalW ne- 
 cessary in such pits, it is efl'ected by applying a 
 strong lining of hot dung to the outsides ; by 
 which a good constant heat may be supported. 
 In these bark pits sometimes the younger pine- 
 apple plants are deposited and nursed for the 
 first year; they are likewise occasionally used 
 for the purposes of propagating, raising, and 
 nursing tender plants in spring and summer, &c. 
 also for forcing early esculent crops, flowers. Sec. 
 
 The principal detached bark pits should, how- 
 ever, be formed with brick-work walls ; as being 
 the most effectual for general use, and of the 
 greatest duration. 
 
 BAllKARY, a tan-house, or place to keep 
 bark in, for tanners. 
 
 BARK-BINDING, a distemper incident to 
 trees ; cured by slitting tlie bark, or cutting along 
 the grain. 
 
 BARK-GALLING, is when the trees are 
 galled with thorns, &c. It is cured by binding 
 clay on the galled places. 
 
 BARK HAM (Dr. John), a learned divine and 
 antiquary, born at Exeter about 1572, and edu- 
 cated at Oxford. He possessed successively se- 
 veral preferments, and died at Booking in Essex, 
 of which he was rector and dean, 1G42. He 
 was an accomplished scholar, and an exact his- 
 torian. He had an excellent coUoction of coins 
 and medals, which he gave to arclibishop Laud, 
 and which Laud afterwards left to the university 
 of Oxford. Speed acknowledges the assistance 
 he had from Barkhara, whom he styles * a gen- 
 tleman, composed of learning, virtue, and cour- 
 tesy.' The 'Annals' of John and Henry II. are 
 reckoned to be chiefly of his writing. He had 
 also the principal hand in ' Guillim's Display of 
 Heraldry,' 1610, fol. 
 
 Barkam-sted. See Berkhamstf.ad. 
 
 BARKING OF Trees, the peeling off the 
 rind or bark. This rrvust be done, in our climate, 
 in the month of May, because at that time the 
 sap separates the bark from the wood. It would 
 be very difficult to perform it at any other time of 
 the year, unless the season was extremely wet 
 and rainy ; for heat and dryness are a very great 
 hindrance to it. 
 
 Barking, a town of Essex, on the river 
 Roding, near the Thames, chiefly inhabited by 
 fishermen. It once had a large monastery. The 
 Danes destroyed the town in 870, but it was re- 
 built soon after the coronation of William the 
 Conqueror. The soil of the vicinity is remark- 
 ably rich, but the air is unhealthy. Goods are 
 brought up from the Thames in vessels to its 
 quay. It is seven miles from London, has a 
 fair October 22d, and a market on Saturday. 
 
 BARKSDALE (Clement), a learned writer, 
 born at Winchcombe, in Gloucestershire, in 
 1609. He received the first part of his educa- 
 tion at Abingdon-school, and afterwards went 
 to Oxford. He became master of the grammar- 
 school at Hereford; but when the rebels took 
 that city, he removed to Hawling, in Glouces- 
 tershire, and opened a school tliere. At the Re- 
 storation he was presented to the living of Naun- 
 ton, and died there in 1687. His writings are, 
 1. Monumenta Literaria : sive obitus EloL'ia 
 
 Ductorum virorum, ex Historiis J. A. Thuani, 
 4to. 2. Nympha Libethtis, or the Cotswold 
 Muse, 8vo. 1651. 3. Life of Hugo Grotius, 
 12mo. 1652. 4. Memorials of Worthy Persons, 
 12mo. 1661 ; and other tracts. He also pub- 
 lished several sermons. 
 
 BAPtKWAY, a town of Hertfordshire, on the 
 great road from London to York; three miles 
 from Iloyston, eighteen from Cambridge, and 
 thirty-five from London. It has a fair July 20, 
 and a market on Friday. 
 
 BARLAAM, a learned monk of the fourteenth 
 century, was a native of Calabria. Having gone 
 to Constantinople to study the Greek language, 
 he gained the favor of the emperor Andronicus, 
 of whom he received the abbey of St. Saviour, 
 and was employed to negociate a reunion between 
 the two churches. The emperor also employed 
 him to solicit the assistance of the Christian 
 princes against the infidels ; and on his return 
 he occupied his pen in writing against the La- 
 tins. He, ho'.vever, quickly changed his princi- 
 ples on being made bishop of Gerace, in Italy, 
 and commenced an opponent of the Greeks. 
 He died in 1348. His letters were printed in 
 Ingolstadt in 1604. He was a great opponent 
 of Greg. Palama and the Hesychasts. 
 
 Baf.laamites, in church history, the followers 
 of Barlaam. 
 
 BARL/EUS (Gaspar), professor of philosophy 
 at Amsterdam, and one of the best Latin poets 
 of the seventeenth century. He defended Ar- 
 minius ; and showed his abilities as an historian 
 by his relation of what passed in Brasil, during i 
 the government of prince Maurice, of Nassau, I 
 published in 1647. He died in 1648. ' 
 
 Barl.eus (Lambert), professoi of Greek at 
 Leyden. In conjunction with Rivius, he trans- 
 lated the confession of the reformed cliurches 
 into Greek, and published the Timon of Lucian, 
 with notes ; also, Annotations on Hesiod's 
 Theogony. He died in 1655. 
 
 BARLAND (Adrian), a learned Dutch critic, 
 was professor of eloquence at Louvain. He 
 published Notes on Terence, Virgil, Pliny the 
 younger, and Menander; An Abridgement of 
 Universal History ; The Chronicles of the Dukes 
 of Brabant ; De Literatis urbis Romas Principi- 
 bus, &c. He died at Louvain in 1542. 
 
 BARLERIA, Snap-Dragon, in botany, a 
 genus of the angiospermia order, and didy- „ 
 namia class of plants, ranking in the natural ■ 
 method under the fortieth order personatfe : cal. ■ 
 quadripartite, two of the stamina much less 
 than the rest ; the capsule quadrangular, bilo- 
 cular, biviJved, elastic, and without claws ; and 
 the seeds are two. There are ten species ; 
 all natives of the warm parts of America, and 
 therefore required to be kept in a stove, and 
 treated like other tender exotics. They possess 
 no great beauty nor any remarkable property. 
 
 BARLETTA, a sea-port town of Italy, in Na- 
 ples, in the Terra di Bari, with a bishop's see. 
 It is situated on the Gulf of \'enice, thirty miles 
 south-east of Manfredonia. 
 
 Barletta (Gabriel), a Dominican of singular 
 fame in the fifteenth century. He was born at 
 Barletta, in the kingdom of Naples, about 1400. 
 ' His sefmons,' says Dr. Watkins, * exhibit such
 
 BAR 
 
 557 
 
 BAR 
 
 a mi-xturo of relif/ious and comic expressions, 
 sublime and vulj^ar ideas, the serious and the ri- 
 diculous, and, what is more remarkable, the 
 whole written in such a barbarous language, 
 compounded of Greek, Latin, and Italian, as to 
 have rendered them one of the most extraordi- 
 nary productions of literature. Such, however, 
 was his fame amon'^ his contemporaries, as to 
 have occasioned this proverb : ' nescit predicare 
 qui nescit Barlettare.' From tliis singular and 
 rare merit, his sermons were eagerly sought after 
 and read, and they quickly passed through more 
 than twenty editions. The best is that of \'e- 
 nice, in 1577, two vols. 8vo. 
 
 BA'RLEY, 71. s. derived by Junius from 13 
 hordeum.; grainof which malt is made. Ithath 
 a thick spike ; the calyx, husk, awn, and flower, 
 are like those of wheat or rye, but the awns are 
 rough ; the seed is swelling in the middle, and, 
 for the most part, ends in a sharp point, to which 
 the husks are closely united. The species are, 
 1. Common long-eared barley. 2. Winter or 
 square barley, by some called big. 3. Sprat bar- 
 ley, orbattledoor barley. All these sortsof bar- 
 ley are sown in the spring of the year, in a dry 
 time. In some very diy light land, the barley 
 is sown early in March ; but in strong clayey 
 soils it is not sown till April. The square barley, 
 or big, is chiefly cultivated in the north of Eng- 
 land and in Scotland; and is hardier than the 
 other sorts. — Miller. Barley is emollient, moist- 
 ening, and expectorating ; barley was chosen by 
 Hippocrates as a proper food in inflammatory 
 distempers. — Arbuthnot on Aliments. 
 
 Ba'rleybeake, n. s. a kind of rural play. 
 
 By neighbours prais'd she went abroad thereby. 
 
 At barleybrake her sweet swift feet to try. Sidney. 
 
 Ba'rlf.y-bkoth, n. s. from barley and broth; 
 a low word sometimes used for strong beer. 
 
 Can sodden water 
 A drench for surreyn'd jades, their hurley broth. 
 Decoct their cold blood to such valiant heat ? 
 
 Shakspeare. 
 
 Bahley-corx, n. e. from barley and corn ; a 
 grain of barley ; the beginning of our measure of 
 length ; the third part of an inch. 
 A long, long journey, choak'd with brakes and thorns, 
 111 measur'd by ten thousand barley corns. Tickell 
 
 Barley-mow, n. s. from barley and mow; the 
 place where reaped barley is stowed up. 
 Whenever by yon barley mow I pass. 
 
 Before my eyes will trip the tidy lass. Gay. 
 
 Barley Bird, in zoology, a name given in 
 Sussex to the fringilla spinus, or siskin, on ac- 
 count of its visiting them in barley time. 
 
 Barley, in botany. See Hor.nErM and 
 AcRici'LTURE. The principal use of barley in 
 England is for making beer ; in order to which 
 it is first malted. See Brewing. The Spaniards, 
 among whom malt liquors are little known, feed 
 their horses with barley as we do with oats. In 
 this country barley is a frequent ingredient in 
 broths. 
 
 B\rley, French, and Barley, Pearl, 
 barley freed of the husk by a mill ; the distinc- 
 tion bet^veen the two being, that the pearl 
 barley is reduced to the size of small shot, all 
 
 but the very heart of the gratn being ground 
 away. 
 
 Bari.f.t-Wateh is a decoction of either of 
 tliese, reputed soft and lubricating, of frequent 
 use in ])]iysic. This well known decoction is a 
 very useful drink in many disorders ; and is re- 
 commended, with nitre, by some authors of re- 
 putation, in slow fevers. 
 
 Barley-Broth. See Barley. 
 
 Barley-Corn, is used to denote a long mea- 
 sure, containing in length one-third of an inch, 
 and in breadth one-eighth. The French carpen- 
 ters also use l)arley-corn, grain d'orge, as equi- 
 valent to a line, or one-twelfth of an inch. 
 
 Barley-Corn, grain d'orge Fr. ; is also used 
 in building for a little cavity between the 
 moulding of joiners' work, serving to separate 
 or keep them asunder; thus called, because 
 made with a kind of plane of the same name. 
 
 BARLOW (Francis), an English painter, 
 born in Lincolnshire. On his coming to London, 
 he was placed with a limner ; but his genius led 
 him chiefly to drawing of birds, fish, and other 
 animals. Tliere are six books of animals from 
 his drawings, and his etchinirs are numerous ; 
 his illustrations of /K-sop is his greatest work. 
 He died in 1702. There is something pleasing 
 in his composition and manner, though neither 
 is excellent. His birds, in general, are better 
 than his beasts. 
 
 Barlow (Thomas), born in 1607, was ap- 
 pointed fellow of Queen's college, Oxford, in 
 1633, and two years after was chosen reader of 
 metaphysics to the university. He was keeper 
 of the Bodleian, and in 1657 was chosen provost 
 of Queen's college. After the Restoration, he 
 was nominated one of the commissioners for re- 
 storing the members expelled in 1648. He 
 wrote at this time The Case of Toleration in 
 Matters of Religion. In 1675 he was made 
 bishop of Lincoln. After the popish plot, he 
 published several tracts against the Roman Ca- 
 tholics; in wliich he shows an uncommon ex- 
 tent of learning and polemical skill. When the 
 duke of York, however, was proclaimed king, he 
 took every opportunity of expressing his aftec- 
 tion towards him; but after the Revolution, as 
 readily voted that the king had abdicated his 
 kingdom; and was very zealous in excluding 
 those clergymen who refused the oaths. His 
 moderation, to call it by the softest name, was 
 very great ; so great, indeed, as often to bring 
 the firmness of his character into question. But 
 casuistry, which was his most distinguished ta- 
 lent, reconciles seeming contradictions. He died 
 at Buckden, in Huntingdonshire, in 1691, aged 
 eighty-five. 
 
 Barlow (Joel), an American poet, the 
 author of the Columbiad, was born at Reading, 
 in the state of Connecticut, in the year 1757. He 
 received his education at Dartmouth College; 
 and in the latter part of the struggle which his 
 country maintained for independence, served in 
 he army. When his services were no longer re- 
 tuired in the capacity of a soldier, he commenced 
 the task of benefiting his country, and promoting 
 liis own fortune as a public writer ; and, having 
 engaged in partnership with a bookseller and 
 printer at Hartford, conducted u newspaper there
 
 i.58 
 
 BARLOW. 
 
 for two years. His education had been directed 
 tn the profession of law, although the troubles of 
 tlie American union had, for a time, diverted his 
 mind from legal pursuits ; and on the restoration 
 of tranquillity, and the establishment of inde- 
 pendence, he resumed his original determination. 
 He was accordingly called to the bar in 1785, 
 and practised for some time with success. Two 
 years afterwards he publish'ed his Vision of Co- 
 lumbus, a poem in nine books, which em- 
 braced almost all the events of the epic, which 
 he subsequently gave the world vinder the title 
 of the Columbiad. In the same year, or nearly 
 about the same time, he accepted of the situation 
 of agent to the Ohio Land Company. In this 
 capacity he came to England to sell their lands, 
 and to engage settlers to occupy them. The 
 same employment led him to France, where he 
 remained during the era of the French revolu- 
 tion ; and as he witnessed in his own country a 
 struggle for liberty and independence, ending in 
 the most brilliant success, so he sympathised, 
 without reserve, in the feelings of the French 
 popular party, and anticipated from their efforts 
 the most glorious results. Neither the precipi- 
 tate violence with which the demagogues pro- 
 secuted their objects of reform, nor the atrocities 
 of a licentious mob, who received the watch- 
 word of havoc and bloodshed from the fierce 
 spirits now called into action, nor the acts of 
 tyrannical injustice committed under the sacred 
 name of liberty, could deter this intrepid repub- 
 lican from admiring and applauding the work of 
 revolution. Nor was he satisfied with bestowing 
 on it his own individual tribute of encourage- 
 ment and approbation. He offered himself as 
 one of the deputies from the London Constitu- 
 tional Society, who should carry to the hall of 
 the French convention the congratulations of 
 England upon the glorious prospect of a regener- 
 ated people, and to unite their wishes with that 
 assembly for the general diffusion over the world, 
 of the freedom that assembly had conferred on 
 their country. About the same time he pub- 
 lished three political pamphlets, containing his 
 opinions on passing events, and preaching the 
 doctrine of reform. One of these is entitledt 
 Advice to the privileged Orders, and was a, 
 the time read with great avidity. His political 
 lucubrations, and the part he took in conveying 
 to the national convention of France the address 
 of English subjects, were regarded with a jealous 
 eye by the administration of this country, and 
 rendered it unadvisable in him to return to 
 Britain. He continued therefore at Paris, and 
 was much connected with the leaders of the Gi- 
 ronde party. Washington, being then president 
 of the United States, appointed him, in 1795, 
 envoy to the Barbary powers, and with them, in 
 the following year, he negociated treaties of 
 peace. From the year 179G till 1804, he prin- 
 cipally resided at Paris, kept an elegant house, 
 entertained occasionally the Americans, or the 
 few English who could visit that city, and gained 
 the esteem of the natives by the politeness and 
 urbanity of his manners. He thus had the mis- 
 fortune to see the tree of liberty, whose roots had 
 been watered with the best blood of France, cut 
 down by the axe of a militaiy despot. He had 
 
 the misfortune to see those ferocious citizens» 
 who, at first, pretended a desire to recline under 
 its shadow, only maddened with its fruits, and, 
 in the paroxysms of the fury which they inspired, 
 rushing forth to conquer and oppress the nations. 
 In 1804 Mr. Barlow resolved to return to Ame- 
 rica, and in his way thither visited England. In 
 the metropolis he was well received by many who 
 had experienced his hospitality at Paris, and re- 
 mained for a few months to enjoy their society. 
 He was cured of his admiration for French 
 liberty, and deplored the establishment of the 
 imperial power ; but his preference for a re- 
 public seemed to have remained unchanged. 
 After returning to America, he occupied him- 
 self with revising, amending, and enlarging his 
 poem on American history, which, upon republi- 
 cation, he entitled the Columbiad. It appeared in 
 1808, in a splendid volume, printed at Phila- 
 delphia, adorned with engravings, and was the 
 most magnificent work that had issued from the 
 American press. But its reception in the lite- 
 rary world was not conformable with the splen- 
 dor of its appearance. It was read and criti- 
 cised in this country when it first appeared, but 
 it never had much circulation, and we believe 
 is now almost forgotten. Mr. Barlow's prin- 
 ciples and conduct could not fail to render him 
 a favorite with the ruling party in the American 
 states, and as he was, from long residence in 
 Paris, well acquainted with the French charac- 
 ter, and the principles of the French government, 
 he was employed by president Maddison, in 
 1812, in amission to France. The relations of 
 America with the French empire were then in a 
 very intricate undecided state, but requiring a 
 speedy understanding and prompt adjustment ; 
 and as the emperor, in his Russian expedition, 
 had carried the powers of the government along 
 with him, Mr. Barlow set out from Paris to en- 
 counter the severities of a Polish winter in ob- 
 taining an interview with the Great Napoleon. 
 He was not favored with a sight of the empe- 
 ror ; and though he lived till he returned from 
 Moscow, the swords of the Cossacks had ren- 
 dered his lustre less dazzling, and a treaty of 
 alliance with him of less importance. He died 
 near Cracow, in Poland, about the beginning of 
 December, 1812. 
 
 Barlowe (William), bishop of Chichester, de- 
 scended of an ancient family in Wales, was 
 born in the county of Essex. In his youth he 
 favored the Reformation ; and went to Germany 
 to be instructed by Luther and other preachers 
 of the new doctrine. How long he continued a 
 Protestant is uncertain : but he was a regular 
 canon in the Augustine monastery of St. Osyth, 
 in Essex, and studied at Oxford with the brothers 
 of that order, where he took the degree of D. D. 
 He was then made prior of the convent at 
 Bisham, in Berkshire; and afterwards succeeded 
 to the several priories of Blackmore, Tjptree, 
 Lega, Bromhole, and Haverford West. On the 
 dissolution of abbeys, he resigned not only with 
 a good grace, but persuaded several abbots to 
 follow his example. Henry VII. was so pleased 
 with his ready obedience on this occasion, that 
 he sent him, in 1535, on an embassy to Scot- 
 land; in the same year made him bishop of St.
 
 BAR 
 
 559 
 
 BAIl 
 
 Asapli; in two months after translated him tc 
 the see of St. David's, and in 1547 to that of 
 Bath and Wells. During this time our good 
 bishop, as appears from his epistle to the king, 
 was, or pretended to be, a staunch papist. It 
 was written in 1533, and in it he regrets that he 
 had * made certayn bokes, and soffred them to be 
 imprinted, as the tretise of buryall of the masse, 
 &c. In these tretises I perceive and acknow- 
 ledge myself grievously to have erred against the 
 blessed sacrament of the altare ; disallowing the 
 masse and denying purgatory, with slanderous 
 infamy of the pope and my lord cardinal,' &c. 
 However, when Edward \' I. came to the crown, 
 he wa3 again a protestant ; and for that reason, 
 on queen Mary's accession, was deprived of his 
 bishopric, and sent prisoner to the Fleet, where 
 he continued some time. At length he found 
 means to escape, and join the other English Pro- 
 testants in Germany. Upon queen Elizabeth's 
 accession, he was raised to the see of Chichester, 
 and soon after made a prebendary of Westmin- 
 ster. He died in 1568, and was buried at Chi- 
 chester. He had five daughters, each of whom 
 married a bishop. He wrote, 1 . The Buryall of 
 tlie Masse. 2. The Climbing of Fryers and 
 Religious Persons, portred with Figures. 3. 
 Christian Homelies. 4. A Book upon Cosmo- 
 graphy. 5. The Godly and Pious Institution of 
 a Christian Man, commonly called the Bishop's 
 Book ; and several other works. He is said to 
 have been the translator of the Apocrypha, as 
 far as the Book of Wisdom.- His letters to M. 
 Parker, are in ]\IS. in Corpus Christi College, 
 Cambridge, Misc. i. 445. 
 
 Barlowe (William), a mathematician and di- 
 vine, the son of the bishop, was bom in Pem- 
 brokeshire, whilst his father was bishop of St. 
 David's. In 1560 he was entered of Baliol 
 college, Oxford; and in 1564 took a degree in 
 arts, which having completed by determina- 
 tion, he left the university' and went to sea; 
 l)ut in what capacity is uncertain: however, he 
 acquired considerable knowledge in the art of 
 navigation. About 1573 he became prebendary 
 of Winchester, and rector of Easton near that 
 city. In 1588 he was made prebendary of Litch- 
 field, which he exchanged for the place of trea- 
 surer. Some years after, he was made chaplain 
 to prince Henry, the son of king James I. ; and 
 in 1614 archdeacon of Salisbury. He was the 
 first writer on the magne( He died in 1625, 
 and was buried at Easton. His works are, 1. 
 The Navigator's Supply, containing many things 
 of principal importance belonging to Naviga- 
 tion, and the use of divers instruments framed 
 chiefly for that purpose. Lond. 1597, 4to. De- 
 dicated to Robert, earl of Essex. 2. Ma^netical 
 Advertisements, or divers pertinent observations 
 and approved experiments concerning the nature 
 and properties of the Loadstone. Lond. 1616, 
 4to. 3. A Brief Discovery of the idle animadver- 
 .sions of Mark Ridley, M. D. upon a treatise en- 
 titled Magnetical Advertisements. Lon. 1618, 4to. 
 BARM. Goth, barm, Ang. Sax. barm, bearm. 
 To cherish ; to foster as in the bosom. 
 
 And in hire barme this litel child she leid. 
 With full sad face, and gan the child to blesse. 
 And lulled it, ami after gan it kisse. 
 
 Chaucer. The Clerkei Tale. 
 
 A seint ske wcred, burred all of silk, 
 
 A burmecloth eke as white as morwe milk. 
 
 Id. The Milhres Tale.. 
 
 B.\rm', ) Welsh, tj/rm, Sax. beojtra. Yeast: 
 BAR.\f'Y. S the ferment put into drink, to make 
 it work ; and into bread to lighten and swell it. 
 
 Are you not he 
 That sometime makes the rlrink to bear no barm ; 
 Mislead night wand'rers, laughing at their harm ? 
 
 Shakspeare. 
 
 Try the force of imagination upon staying the work, 
 ing of beer, when the barm is put into it. Bacon^ 
 
 Their jovial nights in frolics and in play 
 They pass, to drive the tedious hours away ; 
 And their cold stomachs with crown'd goblets cheer. 
 Of windy cider, and of bamiy beer. Dryden. 
 
 Barm is said to have been first used by the 
 Celtae in the composition of bread. About the 
 time of Agricola's entrance into Lancashire, a new 
 sort of loaf had been introduced at Rome ; which 
 was formed only of water and flour, and much 
 esteemed for its lightness ; and it was called the 
 water-cake from its simple composition, and the 
 Parthian roll from its original inventors. But 
 even this was not comparable to the French or 
 Spanish bread for its lightness. The use of 
 curmi, see Ale, and the knowledge of brewing, 
 had acquainted the Celtae with an ingredient 
 for their bread, which was much better calculated 
 to render it light and pleasant, than the leaven, 
 the eggs, the milk, or the wine and honey of 
 other nations. This was the spume which arose 
 on the surface of their curw in fermentation, and 
 which the Welch denominate burm, and we 
 barm. The Celtae of Gaul, of Spain, and most 
 probably, therefore, of South Britain, had long 
 used it; and their bread was, in consequence of 
 this, superior in lightness to that of any other 
 nation in the world. See Baking, Bread, and 
 Yeast. 
 
 BAR-MASTER. See Bargh-Master. 
 
 BAR-MEKIN, a hill of Scotland, in the pa- 
 rish of Echt, in Aberdeenshire, of a conical 
 shape. On the top of it are the remains of an 
 ancient fortification, respecting which tradition is 
 silent. Two dry stone walls and three ditches, 
 all circular, are visible. The inner wall ap- 
 pears to have been twelve feet thick, and 330 
 yards in circumference: the outer about six 
 feet thick and the outer ditch 560 yards in cir- 
 cumference. 
 
 BARMOUTH, a small market and sea-port 
 town, in Merionethshire, South Wales. It is 
 very pleasantly situated, and is much frequented 
 as a bathing-place : 222 miles from London, and 
 ten from Dalgelly, 
 
 BARMINE denotes such mine or ore as is 
 adjudged at a court of Barghmote. 
 
 BARMOTE. See Barghmiite. 
 
 BARN, V. & n. See to bar, bairgain, Goth, to 
 defend ; to protect. A covered enclosure in 
 whidi grain, &c. is protected and defended. 
 
 But of herr songe it was as loud and yeme 
 
 As any swallow sitting on a beme; 
 
 Therto she coud skip and make a game 
 
 K% any kid or calf following his dame. Chaucer.
 
 BAR 
 
 560 
 
 BAR 
 
 Whilo the cock with lively diu 
 Scatters the rear of darkness thin. 
 And to the stack or the barn door 
 Stoatly struts his dauies before. Milion, 
 
 And as an owl that on a barn 
 Sees a mouse creeping in the corn 
 Sits still, and shuts his round blue eyes 
 As if he slept, until he spies 
 The little beast within his reach. 
 Then starts and seizes on the wretcli. Hudibras, 
 In vain the barns expect tlieir promis'd load ; 
 Nor bants at home, nor reeks are heap'd abroad. 
 
 Dryden. 
 I took notice of the make of barns here : having 
 laid a frame of wood, they place, at the four corners, 
 four blocks, in such a shape, as neither mice nor 
 vermin can creep up. Addison. 
 
 An owl of grave deport and mien. 
 Who (like the Turk) was seldom seen. 
 Within a barn had chose his station 
 As fit for prey and contemplation. Gai/. 
 
 As near a barn, by hunger led, 
 A peacock with the poultry fed; 
 All view'd him with an envious eye 
 And mock'd his gaudy pagaentry. Id. 
 
 Barn. See Bearn. The past participle of 
 iearan, to bear a child ; bear-en or born ; still in 
 use. 
 
 Goodlucke (and't be thy will), what have we here? 
 mercy on's, a barn-e, a very pretty barne. 
 
 Shaktpeare. Winter Night's 7aC6i 
 
 BARNABAS (St.), was born at Cyprus, and 
 descended of the tribe of Levi, whose Jewish 
 ancestors are thought to have retired thither to 
 secure themselves from violence during the 
 troublesome times in Judea. His proper name 
 was Joses, to which, after his conversion to 
 Christianity, the apostles added that of Barna- 
 bas, signifying the son of consolation. The 
 time of his conversion is uncertain; but he is 
 generally esteemed one of the seventy disciples 
 chosen by our Saviour himself. At Antioch, 
 Paul and Barnabas had a contest, which ended 
 in their separation : what followed with respect 
 to St. Barnabas is not related in the Acts of the 
 Apostles. Some writers say, he went into Italy, 
 and founded a church at Milan. He suffered 
 m.artyrdom at Salamis, where some Jews, being 
 come out of Syria, assailed him as he was dis- 
 puting in the synagogue, and stoned him to 
 death. He was buried by his kinsman Mark, 
 whom he had taken w-ith him, in a cave near 
 that city. The remains of his body are said to 
 have been discovered in the reign of the emperor 
 Zeno, with a copy of St. INIatthew's Gospel, 
 written with his own hand, lying on his breast. 
 
 Barkabas's Day (St.), a Christian festival, 
 celebrated on the 11th of June. 
 
 Barnaiias's Epistle (St.), an apocryphal 
 work ascribed to St. Barnabas, and frequently 
 cited by St. Clement of Alexandria and Origen. 
 It was first published in Greek, from a copy of 
 father Hugh Menard, a Benedictine monk. An 
 ancient version of it was found in a MS. of the 
 abbey of Corbey, near 1000 years old. Vos- 
 sius published it in 1656, with the epistles of 
 St. Ignatius. 
 
 Barnabas's Gospel (St.), another apocryphal 
 work, ascribed to St. Barnabas, the Apostle, 
 wherein the history of Jesus Christ is related in 
 a manner very different from the account given 
 
 us by the four Evangelists. Tlie Mahommedans 
 have this gospel in Arabic, and it corresponds 
 very well with those traditions which Mahomet 
 followed in his Koran. It was, probably, a 
 forgerj' of some nominal Ciiristians ; and after- 
 wards altered and interpolated by the Mahom- 
 medans, the better to serve their purpose. 
 
 BARNABITES, a religious order, founded in 
 the sixteenth century by three Italian gentlemen, 
 who had been advised by a famous preacher of 
 those days to read carefully the epistles of St. 
 Paul. They are regular priests of the congrega- 
 tion of St. Paul ; hence they were called Clerks 
 of St. Patil; and Barnabites, because they per- 
 formed their first exercise in a church of St. 
 Barnabas, at I\li!an. Their habit is black ; and 
 their office is to instruct, catechise, and serve in 
 mission. 
 
 BA'RNACLE, «, s., probably of beapn. Sax. a 
 child, and aac. Sax. an oak. A kind of shell- 
 fish that grows upon timber that lies in the sea. 
 A bird, like a goose, fabulously supposed to 
 grow on trees. 
 
 It is beyond even an atheist's credulity and impu- 
 dence to affirm, that the first men might grow upon 
 trees, as the story goes about barnacles; or might bo 
 the lice of some vast prodigious animals, whose spe- 
 cies is now extinct. Bentley. 
 And from the most refin'd of saints 
 As naturally grow miscreants. 
 As barnacles turn Soland geese 
 In th' islands of the Orcades. Hudihrat. 
 
 B.ARNACLE, an instrument made commonly of 
 iron for the use of farriers, to hold a horse by the 
 nose, to hinder him from struggling when an in- 
 cision is made. It is also called horse-twitcher, 
 or brake. The barnacle differs from pinchers, as 
 the latter have handles whereby to hold them ; 
 whereas the former is fastened to the nose with 
 a lace or cord. 
 
 Barnacle, in ichthyology, a knid of shell- 
 fish, which cleaves to the bottoms and sides of 
 ships in certain seas; the same with what is 
 called by sailors clam ; by naturalists, concha 
 anatifera. There are divers species of shell fishes 
 included under the denomination barnacles: 
 some reduce them to two, viz. the balanus and 
 pinna marina. See an account of several rare m 
 species of barnacles, by John Ellis Esq. Philoso- 1 
 phical Transactions, vol. i. part ii. No. 113. 
 
 Barnacle or Bernacle, a species of Anas, 
 common in the western isles of Scotland. — See 
 Anas. Concerning the origin and species of 
 this bird many fables have been advanced. Seve- 
 ral authors have represented it as the produce of 
 a shell-fi^h ; but later naturalists, on better 
 grounds, refer it to the natural manner of gene- 
 ration; making it a real goose, produced like 
 others from an q^^. Some reckon the barnacle 
 the same with the anser Scoticus, or Soland goose ; 
 others will have it to be the same with tlie French 
 macreuse. Dr. Robinson makes the barnacle to 
 be of the goose, and the macreuse of the duck 
 kind. The same author shows, that the mac- 
 reuse is the scoter, or anas niger minor,' described 
 by Ray and Willughby, contrary to the opinion 
 of Mr. Cattier, who took it for the greater coot 
 of Bellonius. 
 
 BARNADESIA, in botany, a genus of the 
 polygamia cequalis order, belonging to the syn-
 
 BAR 
 
 561 
 
 BAR 
 
 genesja class of plants ; the characters of which 
 are : the cor. is radiated ; the cal. is naked, 
 imbricated, and pungent; the pappus of the 
 rays feathery, of the disk bristly and retrofracted. 
 There is but one species, viz. B. spinosa, a native 
 of America. 
 
 BARNARD, or Bernard (John), the son of 
 John Barnard, gent, was born at Castor in Lin- 
 colnshire, and educated at Cambridge. After 
 several preferments, he was made a prebendary 
 of the church of Lincoln. He wrote Censura 
 Clerica, against scandalous ministers not being 
 fit to be restored to church livings ; the Life of 
 Dr. Heylin ; and several other works. lie died 
 at Newark, Aug. ITtli, 1783. 
 
 Barnard (Sir John), M. P. for London, a 
 spirited member of the opposition party, in the 
 reigns of Geo. L and IL He was born at Read- 
 ing in Berkshire in 1685. His father was a 
 wine merchant, to whose business he succeeded. 
 He particularly distinguished himself, on being 
 appointed by the body of wine merchants to 
 state before the house of lords their objections to 
 a bill then pending in that house; and, from the 
 abilitities he displayed on that occasion, was no- 
 mmated, in 1721, candidate for the city of Lon- 
 don, and elected the following year. In 172.5 
 he received the thanks of the common council, 
 for opposing a bill introducing a change in the 
 city elections. In 1727 he presented a bill for 
 the better regulation of seamen. In 1730 he 
 made a violent opposition to the bill prohibiting 
 British subjects from lending money to foreign 
 princes. In 1732 he received the honor of 
 knighthood from Geo. II. whom he attended 
 with an address; and, in 1733, he acquired 
 mucli popularity in opposing Sir R. Walpole's 
 excise bill, which was at last obliged to be relin- 
 quished. In 1735 he introduced a bill to limit 
 the number of play-houses, which passed two 
 years after, and is still in force. In 1737 he 
 formed a scheme for reducing the interest on the 
 national debt, which was afterwards adopted. 
 In 1736 he and his brother-in-law. Sir R. Gods- 
 chall, were elected sheriffs, and in 1738 he was 
 chosen lord mayor of London. He died at 
 Clapham in 1766, aged eighty, after repeatedly 
 receiving the thanks of his fellow citizens for his 
 public conduct. 
 
 Barnard, a township of Vermont, in Wind- 
 sor county ; sixty-five miles north-east of Ben- 
 nington. 
 
 Barnard's Castle, a town and barony on 
 the Tees, in the county of Durham, belonging to 
 the earl of Darlington. It is fifteen miles from 
 Kichmond, thirty south-west of Durham, and 
 244 north-west of London ; has a market on 
 Wednesday, and fairs on Whit-wednesday, St. 
 James's day, and 25th July. 
 
 BARNAUL, a town of Siberia, on the river 
 of the same name, which falls into the Obi. It 
 consists of 1000 houses, built chiefly of wood, 
 with several public edifices of stone. This town 
 is the seat of the supreme chancery of the mines 
 contained in the great Altaian mountain chain, 
 and has under its jurisdiction 40,000 peasants. 
 Many of the foundries, however, are abandoned 
 from the want of fuel, which has been exhausted. 
 There is still one mine in the vicinity of Barnaul, 
 \'0L. IIL 
 
 very productive both in gold and silver. A 
 foundry of bells, and maimfactories of tiles and 
 glass, are carried on in the town. Distant 100 
 miles south-east of Kolhyvane. 
 
 BARNAUL (Anthony), a victim of French 
 republicanism, was born in 1762. Having be- 
 come a member of the national assembly, he was 
 there distinguished by the warmth and zeal which 
 he displayed. On the stopping of the king at 
 \'arennes, he was appointed to conduct his ma- 
 jesty and family to Paris, in doing which he 
 showed the most respectful attention to the royal 
 captives. He was afterwards accused of being a 
 royalist, and guillotined at Paris in 1794. 
 
 BARNAY, an ancient fort of Dunse, in Ber- 
 wickshire. Dr. Anderson of Chirnside says, 
 these Barnays, or Barnekins, were a kind of forts 
 commonly placed, during the feudal system, at 
 some distance from the baron's castle, to defend 
 the bridge or passage to it. 
 
 BARNES (Joshua), a learned divine, born in 
 London in 1654. He was educated at Christ's 
 hospital, from whence he removed to Emanuel 
 college, Cambridge, where he was chosen queen's 
 professor of Greek in 1695 ; a language he wrote 
 and spoke with the utmast facility. His first 
 publication was a whimsical tract, entitled Gera- 
 nia, or a New Discovery of the little sort of people 
 called Pygmies. After that appeared his Life of 
 Edward IIL In 1700, when he had published 
 many of his works, Mrs. Mason, of Hemmingford, 
 in Huntingdonshire, a widow lady of between forty 
 and fifty, with a jointure of £200 per annum, 
 came to Cambridge, and desired leave to settle 
 £lOO a-year upon him after her death ; which he 
 politely refused, unless she would also con- 
 descend to make him happy with her person ; 
 and they were accordingly married. He wrote 
 several other books, viz. Sacred Poems; the Life 
 of Oliver Cromwell, the Tyrant ; several dramatio 
 pieces ; a Poetical Paraphrase on the History of 
 Esther, in Greek verse, with a Latin translation, 
 &c.; and he published editions of Euripides, 
 Anacreon, and Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, with 
 notes and a Latin translation. This excellent man 
 died in 1712, in the fifty-eighth year of his 
 age. 
 
 Barnes (Robert), a martyr for the doctrines of 
 Luther, was brought up to the church, obtained 
 the degree of D. D., and became chaplain to 
 Henry MIL, by whom he was sent to Germany, 
 to consult with the divines of that county re- 
 specting the lawfulness of his divorce. While 
 in tliat country he adopted the doctrines of the 
 Reformation, and on his return to England pro- 
 pagated his new opinions with such zeal that he 
 was taken into custody, brought to the. stake, 
 and burnt at Smithfield in 1540. He was author 
 of a treatise on Justification, and several other 
 tractis. 
 
 BARNET, Chipping Barnet, or High Bar- 
 net, a town on the top of a hill, partly in Mid- 
 dlesex, and partly in Hertfordshire, eleven miles 
 north by west of London. It is a great thorough- 
 fare ; has a market on Wednesday, and two 
 fairs, on April 8th, 9th, 10th, and September 4th, 
 5th, 6th. Near it two great battles were fought 
 between the houses of York and Lancaster, in 
 1468, and 1471 ; in the last of which the earl of 
 
 20
 
 BAR 
 
 6d2 
 
 BAR 
 
 Warwick and 10,000 men were slain. In 1740 
 Sir Jeremy Sambrooke, Bart, erected a stone 
 column with an inscription on the spot. 
 
 BARX EVELDT (John d'Olden), the celebrated 
 statesman, and one of tlie founders of the civil 
 liberty of Holland, was born about 1550. He 
 had a noble bold air, an expressive eye, and 
 was an able speaker. He possessed a genius 
 equally suited to commerce, tinance, and nego- 
 ciation ; the art of pushing any favorite point 
 without seeming importunate, and of withdraw- 
 ing without appearing indolent ; the singular 
 talent of penetrating the secrets of others, whilst 
 he concealed his own. His merit raised him to 
 the first dignities in the government, where he 
 showed himself an enemy to injustice, bribery, 
 parties, and novelties, even though they might 
 appear useful. He undertook to restore the 
 credit of his countrj', and had the good fortune 
 to succeed. He was the chief author of the truce 
 in 1599, which was concluded for twelve years, 
 between the Arch Duke and the states. He 
 had, by his assiduity prevented the latter from 
 taking part in the troubles of Bohemia, of wliich 
 Maurice, prince of Orange, was willing to avail 
 himself, to advance his fortune. Barneveldt, 
 •who perceived the designs of this ambitious 
 prince, judged it was his duty to oppose him, 
 and Maurice never pardoned his zeal for the li- 
 berty of the republic ; but having got his partisans 
 to accuse him of a design to deliver his country 
 into the hands of the Spanish monarch, on this 
 absurd charge, he was tried by twenty-six com- 
 missaries deputed from the seven provinces, con- 
 demned to lose his life and his fortune confiscated. 
 He heard the sentence with great composure. 
 * I have served the states,' said' he, ' thirty years 
 as pensionary of Holland, and the city of Rotter- 
 dam as pensionary ten years before. My labors 
 and fidelity deserved another reward. If you 
 will have my blood, it sliould seem that you 
 might spare my fortune, and not ruin, on my 
 account, my wife and children.' He was be- 
 headed in 1619. 
 
 Barn EVELDT(Renatus and William), sons of the 
 above, with a view of revenging their father's 
 death, formed a conspiracy against the stadtholder, 
 which was discovered. Williamfled; but Renatus 
 was taken and condemned to die ; which fatal 
 circumstance has immortalised the memory of his 
 mother, of whom the following anecdote is re- 
 corded. She solicited a pardon for Renatus ; upon 
 which Maurice expressed his surprise, that she 
 should do that for her son which she had not 
 done for her husband. To this she replied with in- 
 dignation, ' I would not ask a pardon for my 
 husband, because he was innocent. I solicit it 
 for my son, because he is guilty.' 
 
 Barneveldt, an island, south of Terra del 
 Euego. Long. 66° 58' W., lat. 55° 49' S. 
 
 BARNFIARD, in ornithology, the name of a 
 bird usually seen at sea, and esteemed as a fore- 
 teller of bad weather. It is about the size of a 
 sparrow, its neck and back are black, and its 
 breast and belly gray ; its feet are reel, and its 
 bill black and somewhat broad. It skims very 
 nimbly along the surface of the water. 
 
 BARNSTAREE, a county and peninsula of 
 
 Massachusetts, bounded on the east and south 
 by the Atlantic Ocean, north by Cape Cod B w, 
 west by Buzzard's Bay, and north-west by Ply-, 
 mouth county, where it is but four miles broad 
 This county lies nearly in the form of a man 'r, 
 arm when bent, with his hand turned inwards. 
 The whole extent on the outer shore, from Wood- 
 end to Buzzard's Bay, is about 120 miles; and 
 the inner shore on Cape Cod is nearly seventy ; 
 its greatest breadth is not more than two mile<. 
 It is in general a barren sandy soil, perhaps mon^ 
 so than any other part of the eastern states. The 
 trees which grow here are mostly pitch-pine. 
 It abounds with ponds of fresh water, generally 
 well stored with fish. The principal produce is 
 Indian corn and rye. It is divided into ten 
 townships, viz. Barnstaple, Falmouth, Sandwich, 
 Yarmouth, Harwich, Eastham, Wellfleet, Chat- 
 ham, Truro, and Province-town. The chief 
 towns are Barnstable and Falmouth. 
 
 Baknstable, a port of entry and post town of 
 Massachusetts ; situated in the above county, at 
 t!ie head of a bay of its own name. It is 
 .<!eventy-two miles south-east by south of Boston, 
 and 119 of Philadelphia. Long. 4° 5' E. lat., 
 41° 43' N. 
 
 Barnstable, or Barnstaple, a sea-port 
 town of Devonshire, seated on the river Taw, 
 over which there is a good bridge. It is a cor- 
 poration town, and sends two members to par- 
 liament. It lies thirty-six miles north of Exeter, 
 and 191 from London, has a market on Friday, 
 and fairs, Friday before April 21, September 19, 
 and second Friday in December, which last four 
 davs, toll free. 
 
 BARNSTEAD, a township of New Hamp- 
 shire, in Staff'ord county, thirty-two miles north- 
 west of Portsmouth. 
 
 BARNWELL, i. e. Bairn's Well, a village 
 about half a mile north-east of Cambridge. In 
 1092, a priory being founded in Cambridge in 
 honor of St. Giles, by Hugolina, a Norman lady, 
 Paganus Peverell, a favorite of Henry I., re- 
 ceived a grant of the property ; and finding the 
 site upon which it had been commenced too 
 small, he transferred it to the spot now called 
 Barnwell, where many of the ancient walls still 
 remain. A pottery fair is held yearly here, on a 
 common called Midsummer-green, which com- 
 mences on St. John's day, and lasts a fortnight. 
 It assumed a legal form as early as the reign of 
 Henry III., and is proclaimed by the heads of 
 the university. Another fair, called Sturbridge 
 fair, annually held in a meadow in this parish, 
 has been traced by Dr. Slukely to the times of 
 Carausius. Assured documents trace it up to 
 Icing John, who granted it for the use and main- 
 tenance of a hospital of lepers, which here pos- 
 sessed a chapel dedicated to St. Mary Magdelen, 
 which is still in existence. By a charter of 
 Henry \TII. this fair was transferred to the 
 mayor and corporation of Cambridge on the 
 payment of 1000 marks. On the fourth of Sep- 
 tember the ground is marked out. On the 
 eighteenth, the university officers first, and then 
 the officers of the corporation, proclaim the fair, 
 which lasts fourteen days. One of these days 
 (September 25) is appropriated to the sale of
 
 BAROMETER. 
 
 i63 
 
 horsc3. It was formerly tlie largest fair in Eng- 
 land ; and was attended in the year 1603 by 
 Hackney coaches from London. 
 
 BAllO, or Bauon (Peter), was born at F.stam- 
 pes in France, and educated in the university of 
 liourges, where he was admitted a licentiate in 
 the law : but, being of the Protestant religion, 
 he was obliged to leave his native country to 
 avoid persecution ; and withdrawing into Eng- 
 land, was kindly entertained by Lord Burleigh. 
 He afterwards settled at Cambridge; and by 
 Lord Burleigh's recommendation, was, in 1674, 
 chosen professor of divinity there. For some 
 years he quietly enjoyed his professorship ; but 
 at last a restless fiction was raised against him, 
 by his opposing the doctrine of absolute predes- 
 tination, whicli rendered his place so uneasy that 
 he left the university, and settled in London. 
 He wrote, 1. In Jonam Prophetam Praelectiones 
 xxxix; 2. De Praestantia et Dignitate Divinre 
 Legis ; and other pieces. He died in London, 
 about 1600. 
 
 BAROCCI, or Barozzi (Francis), a noble 
 \'enetian, wiio distinguished hinwelf in the latter 
 half of the sixteenth centuiy by his erudition, 
 and his extensive knowledge of mathematics. He 
 had, however, the weakness to believe in magic, 
 and his attempts to practise it brouglit him into 
 the hands of the Inquisition, from which he es- 
 caped with difficulty, by the payment of a heavy 
 fine. His published works are, Translations 
 from Proclus and Hiero ; four books of a Treatise 
 on Cosmography ; a Treatise on Geometry ; and 
 a curious volume, intituled, II Nobilissimo ed 
 Antichissimo giuco Pitagorico chiamata Ritmo- 
 machia,' cioe battaglia di consonanze di numeri, 
 with figures, imitated from the Latin of Buxerius. 
 Among his MSS. is a description of Crete. 
 
 BAROCCIO (Frederic), a celebrated painter, 
 bom at Urbino. In his youth lie travelled to 
 Rome, where he painted several things in fresco. 
 He then returned to Urbino : and giving himself 
 up to intense study, acquired a great name in 
 painting. His genius particularly led him to 
 religious subjects. At his leisure hours he 
 etched a few prints from his own designs ; which 
 are highly finished, and executed with great soft- 
 ness and delicacy. The Salutation is his capital 
 performance in that way : of which we seldom 
 meet with any impressions, but those taken from 
 the retouched plate, which are very harsh. He 
 died at Urbino in 1612, at the age of eighty-four. 
 
 BAROCIIAX, a barony in the parish of 
 Iloustoun, in Renfrewshire, belonging to an an- 
 cient family of the name of Fleming, whose an- 
 cestors came from Flanders in the reign of David 
 L, and one of whom was killed at the battle of 
 Floddon. It had a very ancient cross on the 
 side of the public road, which was removed 
 by the proprietor, Malcolm Fleming, Esq. to a 
 hill where tlie old mansion-house stood. In the 
 front of this cross, there are two rows of images, 
 four in each row, with long garmants and clubs 
 over tiieir shoulders. Tradition is silent respect- 
 ing it. The barony abounds in free-stone, coals, 
 and lime-stone, and the mansion-house is orna- 
 mented with plantations of ash, piane, oak, larch, 
 and fir. 
 
 BAROCIIE, or Broach, capiul of a district 
 
 of the same name, in the province of Gujrat, oa 
 the north bank of the Nerbuddah. It is walled 
 round, and w;is formerly a place of great trade. 
 It is now inhabited by weavers and manufacturers 
 of cotton cloth. Here they have tlie best cotton 
 in the world, and of consequence the best baftas 
 are manufactured in this place. The waters of 
 the Nerbuddah are also said to have the peculiar 
 property of bleaching cloths to a pure white. 
 Baroche was ceded to Madhajee Sindia in 1782, 
 but was retaken from his successor, Dowlet Row. 
 in 1803, by Sir Arthur Wellesley, and has eve.' 
 since remained in possession of the British. 
 Long. 72^5' E., lat. 22'' 13' N. 
 
 BAROCO, in logic, a term given to the fourth 
 mode of the second figure of syllogisms. A syllo- 
 gism in baroco has the first proposition universal 
 and affirmative, but the second and the third par- 
 ticular and negative, and the middle term is the 
 predicate in the two first propositions. Example : 
 
 Ba Every man is a two-legged animal : 
 
 RO But every animal is not two-legged ; 
 
 CO Therefore every animal is not a man. 
 
 BAR0:\1'ETER, i From (3apoc, weight, and 
 BAROMETR'iCAf.. ] fiiTpov, mcasurc. A ma- 
 chine for measuring the weight and variations 
 of the atmosphere, in order to determine the 
 changes of the weather, the elevation of particular 
 parts of the earth's surface, &c. 
 
 The measuring the heights of mountains, and 
 finding the elevation of places above the level of the 
 S'a, hath been much promoted by barometrical expe- 
 riments, founded upon that essential property of the 
 air, its gravity or pressure. As the colurunof mercury 
 in the barometer is counterpoised by a column of air 
 of equal weight, so whatever causes make the air 
 heavier or lighter, the pressure of it will be thereby 
 increased or lessened, and of consequence the mercury 
 will rise or fall. Harris. 
 
 He is very accurate in making barometrical and 
 thermometrical instruments. Derh. Pliysico-Theol. 
 
 Barometer. The name baroscope, signifying 
 an indication of weight, was originally given to 
 the mercurial tube by Sinclair, professor of philo- 
 sophy in the university of Glasgow, in Charles 
 II. reign : but the more definite one of baro- 
 meter, obtained universally a short timi after- 
 wards. The barometer is founded upon the 
 Torricellian experiment, so called from Torricelli 
 the inventor of it, at Florence, in 1623; it is a 
 glass tube, filled with mercury, horizontally sealed 
 at one end ; the other open and immerged in a 
 basin of stagnant mercury ; so that, as the weight 
 of the atmosphere diminishes, the mercury in the 
 tube will descend, and, as it increases, the mer- 
 cury will ascend ; the column of mercury sus- 
 pended in the tube being always equal to tl!.o 
 weight of the inciuubent atmosphere. It was 
 long the common opinion among philoso- 
 phers, that the ascent of water in pumps was 
 owing to what they called nature's abhorrence of 
 a vacuum ; and that thus fluids miglit be raised 
 by suction to any height whatever. But an acci- 
 dent having, early in the seventeenth century, 
 discovered that water could not be raised in a 
 pump, unless the sucker reached to within thirty- 
 three feet of the water in the well, it was con- 
 jectured by Galileo, who flourished about tbxt 
 
 2 2
 
 564 
 
 BAROMETER. 
 
 time, that there might be some other cause of the 
 ascent of water in pumps, or at least that this 
 abhorrence was limited to the finite height of 
 thirty-three feet. Being unable to satisfy himself 
 on this head, he recommended the consideration 
 of the difficulty to Torricelli, who had been his 
 disciple. After some time Torricelli suspected 
 that the pressure of the atmosphere was the cause 
 of the ascent of water in pumps ; that a column 
 of water thirty-three feet high was just a counter- 
 poise to a column of air of the same base, and 
 which extended up to the top of the atmosphere ; 
 and that this was the true reason why the water 
 did not follow the sucker any further. And this 
 suspicion was soon after confirmed by various 
 experiments. Torricelli considered, that if a 
 column of water thirty-three feet high were a 
 counterpoise to a whole column of the atmos- 
 phere, then a column of mercury of about two 
 feet and a half high would also be a counterpoise 
 to it, since quicksilver is nearly fourteen times 
 heavier than water, and so the fourteenth part of 
 the height, or nearly two feet and a half, would be 
 as heavy as the column of water. This reasoning 
 he soon verified ; for having filled a glass tube 
 with quicksilver, and inverted it into a basin of 
 the same, the mercury presently descended till 
 its height, above that in the basin, was about two 
 feet and a half, just as he expected. And this is 
 what has, from him, been called the Torricellian 
 experiment. The new opinion, with this confir- 
 mation of it, was readily acquiesced in by most 
 philosophers, who repeated the experiment in 
 various ways. Some, however, still adhered to 
 the old doctrine of Linus, and raised several 
 objections aginst the new one ; such as that there 
 was a film or imperceptible rope of mercury, 
 extended through the upper part of the tube, 
 which suspended the column of mercury, and 
 kept it from fallings into that in the basin. But 
 this and other objections were soon overcome by 
 additional confirmations of the true doctrine ; 
 particularly by varying the elevation of the place. 
 It was hinted by Descartes and Pascal, that if 
 the mercury be sustained in the tube by the pres- 
 sure of the atmosphere, by carrying it to a higher 
 situation it would descend lower in the tube, 
 having a shorter column of the atmosphere to 
 sustain it, and vice versa. And Pascal engaged 
 his brother-in-law, M. Perier, to try that experi- 
 ment for him, being more conveniently situated 
 for that purpose than he was at Paris. This he 
 accordingly executed, by observing the height of 
 the quicksilver, in the tube, first at the bottom of 
 a mountain in Auvergne, and then at several 
 different altitudes ; wherein it was found that the 
 mercury fell lower and lower all the way to the 
 top of the mountain ; and so confirming the truth 
 of the doctrine relating to the universal pressure 
 of the atmosphere, and the consequent suspen- 
 sion of the mercury in the tube of the barometer. 
 Thus, by the united endeavours of Torricelli, 
 Descartes, Pascal, jMeisenne, Iluygens, and 
 others, the cause of the suspension of the quick- 
 silver in the tube of the barometer became pretty 
 generally established. It was some time, how- 
 ever, after this general consent before it was 
 known that the pressure of the air was various at 
 different times at the same place. This could 
 
 not, however, remain long unknown. The fre- 
 quent measuring of the column of mercury soon 
 showed its variations in altitude ; and experience 
 and observation taught that those variations in 
 the mercurial column were always succeeded by 
 certain changes in the weather, as to rain, wind, 
 frosts, &c. Hence this instrument soon came 
 into use, as the means of foretellins- the changes 
 of the -^feather ; and on this account it obtained 
 the name of the weather-glass, as it did that of 
 barometer from its measuring the weight or pres- 
 sure of the air. 
 
 It should not be forgotten that Pascal and his 
 brother-in-law seem clearly to have seen the pos- 
 sibility of those numerous experiments of modern 
 times, for ascertaining the altitude of mountains by 
 the barometer. Early in the morning of the 1 9th of 
 Sept. 1648, the latter assembled with a few friends 
 in the garden of a monastery, situate near the lowest 
 part of the city of Clermont, where he had 
 brought a quantity of mercury, and two glass 
 tubes hermetically sealed at the top. Having 
 filled and inverted them as usual, he found the mer- 
 cury to stand in both at the same height, namely, 
 26 inches and 3| lines, or 28 English inches; 
 when leaving one behind, in the custody of the 
 subprior, he proceeded with the other to the 
 summit of the mountain, and repeated the expe- 
 riment. Here the party were surprised and de- 
 lighted to see the mercury sink more than three 
 inches under the former mark, and remain sus- 
 pended at the height of 23 inches and 2 lines, or 
 24-7 English inches. In his descent from the 
 mountain, he observed, at two several stations, 
 that the mercury successively rose; and, on his 
 return to the monastery, found it stood exactly 
 at the same point as at first. P^ncouraged by the 
 success of this memorable experiment, Perier re- 
 peated it on the highest tower of Clermont, and 
 noted a difference of two lines at an elevation of 
 twenty toises. Pascal, as soon as the intelligence 
 reached him at Paris, made similar obsei vations 
 on the top of a high house, and in the belfiy of 
 the church of St. Jacques des Boucheries, near 
 the border of the Seine ; and so much was he 
 satisfied with the results, that he immediately 
 proposed the application of the barometer for 
 measuring the relative height of distant places on 
 the earth's surface. The substance, therefore, 
 of all that has since been more accurately ascer- 
 tained, was thus at once discovered. Pascal, it is 
 well known, was attacked and persecuted as a 
 heretic by the Jesuits, for these and similar pur- 
 suits ; and when no other weapon would avail, 
 they contested the originality of his experiments. 
 Thei r base conduct on this occasion, however, only 
 stimulated his ardor, and gave a keener edge to 
 that wit, which he afterwards directed with such 
 overwhelming energy against this insidious order 
 of the priesthood. In 1653, he composed, though 
 they were not published till after his death, two 
 short but perspicuous treatises. On the Equili- 
 brium of Liquors, and On the Weight of the 
 Mass of Air. Tlie laws of the equilibrium of 
 fluids are here beautifully deduced from a single 
 principle. In those tracts, he likewise gives a 
 description of the hydraulic press. It has, how- 
 ever, been truly remarked, that the intention of 
 these philosophers, was merely to ascertain whe-
 
 BAROMETER. 
 
 565 
 
 ther the height of the mercury was affected by 
 being carried to different altitudes, and it was 
 some time afterwards that theorems and formulae 
 were invented for the purpose of barometrical 
 measurement ; the balance between the mercury 
 and the atmosphere was indeed known, but the 
 value of the weitjlits remained to be determined. 
 The first thing necessary to be ascertained was 
 the law of the condension of air under different 
 pressures. Mariotte in France, and Boyle and 
 Townley in England, found from experiment 
 that the density of this fluid was proportional to 
 the compressing weight , but this law is only 
 true when the temperature of the air remains 
 constant ; and attention was not at first paid to 
 this important restriction, which in fact could 
 not be indicated by experiments where the com- 
 pressed volumes of air differed but little from 
 each other in respect to temperature. 
 
 The law of compression being otherwise known, 
 Ilalleymade use of it for calculating the decrease 
 of density in the beds of the atmosphere at va- 
 rious altitudes; and thus led to the mathematical 
 formula', by means of which the difference of 
 altitude of two places may be calculated from the 
 heights of the mercury in the barometer observed 
 at eacli of them. Newton, in his Principia, per- 
 fected Halley's theory, by showing that regard 
 was to be paid to the diminution of gravity, ac- 
 cording as the distance from the surfoce of the 
 earth increased ; but, what is very remarkable, 
 he, as well as Halley, omitted to consider the 
 effect of the variations of heat, and of the pro- 
 gressive decrease of the temperature and density 
 of the different strata of the atmosphere. The 
 barometrical formulce thus obtained, without the 
 correction which renders them applicable to all 
 temperatures, could only furnish a very imper- 
 fect approximation, and therefore philosophers 
 and mathematicians, who endeavoured to apply 
 them, found that they succeeded only in a few in- 
 stances, and that generally the results seemed to 
 be subject to various errors, which appeared to 
 follow no law. Hypotheses were therefore formed 
 for explaining these irregularities ; but some 
 maintained that no dependence whatever was to 
 be placed upon such theorems ; and others, that 
 they ought to be wholly excluded from works of 
 science. No person seems to have conjectured 
 the true cause ; and the omission is the more re- 
 markable, when we reflect that Bouguer and 
 Lambert, men of such peculiar and opposite ta- 
 lents ; the one a most accurate observer and 
 philosopher, and the other a very inventive and 
 acute matliematician, were both much occupied 
 with this instrument, and its application. 
 
 Deluc at last discovered the true source of 
 these errors and anomalies, by searching in the 
 observations themselves for the correspondence 
 between the temperature of the air and the cor- 
 rection which the general formula required. Nu- 
 merous experiments on the comparative expan- 
 sions of air and mercury enabled him to perceive 
 the law that those corrections ought to follow, 
 and the quantity in all cases which should be 
 assigned to them. 
 
 This remarkable discovery, by giving to the 
 barometrical formula an unexpected accuracy, 
 animated the zeal of philosophers, and observa- 
 
 tions were multiplied to a great extent. Dr. Mas- 
 kelyne undertook to reduce the new formula into 
 English measures, while Playfair added a correc- 
 tion for the variation of gravity in different 
 latitudes. Sir George Shuckburgh, by very exact 
 measures, verified the results of M. Deluc, and 
 gave them a greater degree of precision : General 
 Roy also made an application of it at a great 
 number of places in the progress of his survey : 
 the Alps were levelled by MM. Saussure and 
 Pictet ; the Pyrenees by M. Ramond, and the 
 Andes by Humboldt ; and the barometer ren- 
 dered portable, became an indispensable instru- 
 ment to all well-informed travellers. 
 
 Still the theory of barometrical levelling was 
 far from being brought to its most simple terms. 
 M. Deluc had adapted the constant co-eflScient 
 of his formula to a certain degree of the thermo- 
 meter, which he called the normal temperature, 
 and which he had fixed from the condition, that, 
 for this temperature, the difference of level be- 
 came a decimal multiple of the difference of the 
 tabular logarithms of the observed barometrical 
 heights. All the corrections relative to tempe- 
 rature which the formula required, commenced, 
 therefore, according to M. Deluc, at the normal 
 temperature ; in consequence of which this point 
 of commencement changed whenever the formula 
 was applied to any other measures than French 
 toises. These variations were very inconvenient: 
 and it appeared much more natural to make all 
 the corrections commence at some fixed term, an, 
 for example, the freezing point, which is given 
 by experiment, and common to observers of all 
 countries. This is what Laplace has done, in a 
 chapter of his Mecanique Celeste, in which he 
 has established the requisite formula upon the 
 most simple and accurate data. He determines 
 the correction for temperature relative to the ex- 
 pansion of air, according to the experiments of 
 M. Gay Lussac ; but he has modified his results 
 in such a manner as to take into the account the 
 humidity of the atmosphere ; and, what is very 
 fortunate, the sum of this correction and the co- 
 efficient of the expansion of air is just equal to 
 •^. With respect to the expansion of mercury, 
 Laplace employed the values obtained, in con- 
 junction with Lavoisier, in experiments on the 
 expansion of bodies, of which there unhappily 
 remains only a small number of results. Finally, 
 he determined the general co-efficient of the for- 
 mula from barometrical observations themselves, 
 by combining for this purpose, a great number of 
 experiments made in the Pyrenees by INI. Ra- 
 mond, with a degree of care and an accuracy 
 before unknown in this science. The valuo of 
 this co-efficient has since been confirmed in a di- 
 rect manner by the experiments made by M. 
 Arago and M. Biot, on the comparative weight 
 of air and mercury ; so that all the elements of 
 the barometrical formula, the research of which, 
 has cost travellers so much labor, has been ob- 
 tained directly, and with great accuracy, without 
 quitting the chemical laboratory. Laplace's for- 
 mula, founded upon data so exact and so ably 
 combined, coincides with observations better than 
 any other in which these advantages are not 
 united, and the rigorous proofs to which MM. 
 Ramond and Daubusson have submitted it ex-
 
 .566 
 
 BAROMETER. 
 
 perimentally, have demonstrated its utility. It answer for all the ordinary purposes of a sta- 
 
 still remained, however, to render the observa- tionary or chamber barometer ; but for experi- 
 
 tions comparable with each other, thougli made ments on altitudes and depths, it is proper to 
 
 with different barometers ; which has also been have the divisions carried on a little higher up, 
 
 done by Laplace, who has shown that the diffe- and a great deal lower. In the proper filling 
 
 rent indications of these instruments, in circum- and otherwise fitting up of the barometer, several 
 
 stances otherwise equal, are the effect of capillary circumstances are to be carefully noted ; as, that 
 
 attraction, and has given tables for correcting this the bore of the tube be pretty wide, to allow the 
 
 effect. freer motion of the quicksilver, without being 
 
 The barometrical formula being thus improved, impeded by an adhesion to the sides ; that the 
 
 observations with that instrument have been con- basin below it be also pretty large, in order that 
 
 siderably multiplied, and carried to a degree of the surface of the mercury at F may not sensibly 
 
 precision almost incredible ; a precision which rise or fall with that in the tube ; that the bottom 
 
 has already led to the idea of distinguishing every of the tube be cut off rather obliquely, that when 
 
 place on the globe (in addition to its latitude it rests on the bottom of the basin there may be 
 
 and longitude) by its height above the level of a free passage for the quicksilver ; and that, to 
 
 the sea, or rather by its distance from the centre have the quicksilver very pure, it is best to boil 
 
 of the earth ; which corresponds in principle it in the tube, which will expel all the air from 
 
 with the determination of the position of a point it. This barometer is commonly fitted up in 
 
 in absolute space, by means of three rectangular 
 co-ordinates ; with this view various tables have 
 been computed, and principles of approximation 
 and compensation invented, highly creditable to 
 their respective authors. 
 
 a neat mahogany case, together with a ther- 
 mometer and hygrometer, as represented iu 
 fig. 1. As the scale of variation is small, being 
 included within three inches in the common 
 barometer, several contrivances have been de- 
 
 It remains only for us to describe the progres- vised to enlarge the scale, or to render the mo- 
 sive improvement of this instrument. 1. The tion of the quicksilver more sensible, 
 common, or Torricellian barometer, is repre- Descartes suggested a method of increasing the 
 sented in our plate Barometers, fig. 1. A B is a sensibility of tlris instrument, which was executed 
 glass tube, of +, or ^, or ^ inch wide (the wider by Huygens. This was effected by making the 
 the better), and about thirty-four inches Ion?, barometrical tube end in a pretty large cylindri- 
 being close at the top A, and the open end B im- cal vessel at top, into which was inserted also 
 mersed in a basin of quicksilver C D, which is the lower or open end of a much finer tube than 
 the better the wider it is. To fill this, or any the former, w'hich was partly filled with water, 
 other barometer, take a clean new glass tube, of to give little obstruction by its weight to the mo- 
 the dimensions as above, and pour into it well tion of the mercury, while it moved through a 
 purified quicksilver, with a small funnel either of pretty long space of the very fine tube by a small 
 glass or paper, in a fine continued stream, till it variation of the mercury below it, and so rendered 
 wants about half an inch or an inch of being full; the small changes in the state of the air very sen- 
 then stopping it close with the finger, invert it sible. But the inconvenience was, that the air 
 slowly, and the air in the empty part will ascend contained in the water gradually disengaged it- 
 gradually to the other end, collecting into itself self, and escaped into the vacuum in the top of 
 such other small air bubbles as unavoidably get the small tube, till it was collected in a body 
 into the tube among the mercury, in fillmg it there, and by its elasticity preventing the free 
 with the funnel : and thus continue to invert it rise of the fluids in the tubes, spoiled the instru- 
 several times, turning the two ends alternately ment as a barometer. And this is the reason 
 
 upwards, till all the air bubbles are collected and 
 brought up to the open end of the tube, and till 
 the part filled shall appear without speck, like 
 a fine polished steel rod. This done, pour in a 
 
 why a water barometer cannot succeed. This in- 
 strument, however, is represented in fig. 3. 
 C D is the vessel, in which is united the upper 
 or small water tube A C, with the lower or mer- 
 
 little more quicksilver to fill the empty part quite curial one C B. To remedy this inconvenience, 
 
 full, and so exclude all air from the tube ; then 
 slopping the orifice again with the finger, invert 
 the tube, and immerse the finger and end, thus 
 stopped, into a basin of purified quicksilver. In 
 this position withdraw the finger, so shall the 
 
 Huygens thought of placing the mercury at top, 
 and the water at bottom, which he thus contrived. 
 ADG, fig. 5, is a bent tube hermetically sealed 
 at A, but open at G, of about one line in diameter, 
 and passing through the two equal cylindrical 
 
 mercury descend in the tube to some place, as G, vessels, B C, EF, which are about twenty inches 
 
 between twenty-eight and thirty-one inches apart, and of fifteen lines diameter, their length 
 
 above that in the basin at F, as these are the being ten. The mercury being put into the tube, 
 
 limits between which it always stands in tiiis will stand between the middle of the vessels E F 
 
 country, on the common surface of the earth, and BC, the remaining space to A being void 
 
 Then measure, from the surface of the quicksilver both of air and mercury. Lastly, common water, 
 
 in the basin at F, tw^enty-eight inches to K, and tinged with a sixth part of aqua regia, to prevent 
 
 thirty-one inches to I, dividing the space be- 
 tween them into inches and tenths, which are 
 marked on a scale placed against the side of the 
 tube ; and the tenths are subdivided into Imndredth 
 ])arts of an inch by a sliding index cari-ying a 
 vernier or nonius. Tlrese three inches, between 
 twenty-eight and thirty-one, so divided, will 
 
 its freezing, is poured into the tube FG, till it 
 rises a foot above the mercury in D F. To pre- 
 vent the water from evaporating, a drop of od of 
 sweet almonds floats on the top of it. But the 
 column of water will be sensibly affected by heal 
 and cold, which spoils the accuracy of the instru- 
 ment. Altliough the invention of this barometf i
 
 BAROMETER. 
 
 567 
 
 was claimed by Huy2;eiis, and also by De la Hire, 
 Jt appears first to liave been contrived by Dr. 
 Hooke in 1G68, and described in Phil. Trans., 
 No. 185. It is most delicately movable; and, 
 wben properly mana<ied, by far the fittert for a 
 chamber, or for amusement, by observations on 
 tiio chani^fes of the atmospheric pressure. The 
 slightest breeze causes it to rise and fall, and it is 
 continually in motion. But, for philosophical 
 purposes, this, and all other instruments of the 
 kind, are inferior to the common barometer, 
 both on account of their being less manageable, 
 and also in point of accuracy. For their scale 
 mast be determined in all its parts by the com- 
 mon barometer, and therefore, notwithstanding 
 their great range, they are susceptible of no 
 greater accuracy than that with which the scale 
 of a common barometer can be observed and 
 measured. 
 
 The horizontal or rectangular barometer of 
 Bernoulli and C;issini is shown in fig. 4. AU 
 is a pretty wide cylindrical part at the top of the 
 tube, which latter is bent at right angles at B ; 
 the lower part, BC, bemg turned into the hori- 
 zontal direction and closed above at A, but open 
 at tlie lower end, where however the mercury 
 cannot run out, being opposed by tlie pressure 
 of the atmosphere. This, and the foregoing con- 
 trivance of Iluygens, are obviously founded on 
 the known principles of hydrostatics, ' tliat fluids 
 of the same base press according to their per- 
 pendicular altitude, and not according to the 
 cjuantity of their matter ;' so that the same pres- 
 sure of the atmosphere sustains the quicksilver 
 that fills the tube BDA and the cistern D, as 
 would support the mercury in the tube alone. 
 Hence having fixed upon the size of the scale, as, 
 for example, the extent of twelve inches instead 
 of three, that is four times as long ; the area of a 
 section of the cylinder D must be four times 
 that of the tube, and consequently its diameter 
 ilouble ; so that for every natural variation of an 
 inch of air in the cylinder A D, there will be a 
 variation of four inches in the tube C B. But on 
 account of the friction against the sides of the 
 glass, the quicksilver is liable to break ; and the 
 rise and fall is then no longer equable ; besides 
 the mercury is in danger of being thrown out of 
 the orifice at C, by any sudden motion of the 
 machine. 
 
 The diagonal barometer, invented by Sir 
 Samuel Moreland, fig. 6, is another method of 
 enlarging the natural scale of three inches per- 
 pendicular, CD, by extending it to any length, 
 BC, in an oblique direction. This is liable in 
 some degree to the inconvenience of friction and 
 breaking ; and hence it is found that the diagonal 
 part, B C, cannot properly be bent from the per- 
 pendicular more than in an angle of 45°, which 
 only increases the scale nearly in the proportion 
 of seven to five. 
 
 But the most perfect of all these instruments, 
 on an enlarged scale, unquestionably is Dr. 
 Hook's wheel barometer, fig. 7. This was in- 
 vented about 1G68, and is meant to render the 
 alterations in tlie air more sensible. Here the 
 barometer tube has a large ball, AB, at top, and 
 is bent up at the lower or open end, where an 
 iron ball, G, floats on the top of the mercury in 
 
 the tube, to which is connected another ball, H, 
 by a cord, hanging freely over a pulley, turning 
 an indtjx, KL, about its centre. When the mer- 
 cury rises in tiie part I'G, it raises the ball, and 
 the other ball descends and turns the pulley, 
 with the index, round a graduated circle from N 
 towards M and P ; and the contrary way when 
 the quicksilver and the ball sink in the bent part 
 of the tube. Hence the .scale is easily enlarged 
 ten or twelve fold, being increased in proportion 
 of the axis of the pulley to the length of the index 
 KL. But then tiie friction of the pulley and 
 axis is some obstruction to the free motion of tlie 
 quicksilver. Contrivances to lessen the friction, 
 &c., may also be seen in the Phil. Trans, vol. 52, 
 art. 29., and vol. 60, art. 10. 
 
 In the Philosophical Transactions, vol. 53, No. 
 29, Fitzgerald's improvement of the wheel 
 barometer is described as furnished with two 
 pulleys, which move on friction wheels ; each of 
 which turns an index on the centre of a graduated 
 circle. The smallest circle is four inches in 
 diameter, and divided into three equal parts, 
 each again being subdivided decimally ; and the 
 changes, corresponding to the rise or fall of the 
 mercury from twenty-eight to thirty-one inches, 
 are marked on the margin of it, as they are on 
 the scales of the common barometers. The large 
 circle, whicli is proposed by the inventor to be 
 thirty inches in diameter, is divided into three 
 hundred equal parts, and the index belonging to 
 it will therefore mark distinctly to tlie six- 
 hundredth part of an inch in the rise and fall of 
 the mercury. On the centre of this circle two 
 registers are fixed, which are placed along the 
 index when the instrument is adjusted ; one of 
 them is carried round as the index advances, and 
 left round on its return ; so that their distance 
 will determine the limits of the variation from 
 one observation to another. 
 
 Mr. Caswell's barometer, described in the 
 Philosophical Transactions, vol. 24, seems to be 
 as sensible and exact as any. Suppose A BCD, 
 fig. 8, is a bucket of water, in which is the baros- 
 cope X r e y z s m, which consists of a body 
 X r s m, and a tube e y z o, which are bodi con- 
 cave cylinders, made of tin, or rather glass, and 
 communicating with each other. The bottom of 
 the tube, z y, has a leaden weight to sink it, so 
 that the top of the body may just swim even with 
 the surface of the water by the addition of some 
 grain weights on the top. When the instrument 
 is forced with its mouth downwards, the water 
 ascends into the tube to the height z u. To the 
 top is added a small concave cylinder, or pipe, to 
 keep the instrument from sinking down to the 
 bottom : /n (/ is a wire ; and m s, d e, are two 
 threads oblique to the surface of the water, which 
 perform the office of diagonals : for while the in- 
 strument sinks more or less by an alteration in 
 the gravity of the air, where the surface of the 
 water cuts the thread is formed a small bubble, 
 which ascends up the thread while the mercury 
 of the common baroscope ascends, and vice versa. 
 It appears from a calculation which the author 
 makes, that this instrument shows the alterations 
 in the air 1200 times more accurately than the 
 common barometer. He observes, that the bub- 
 ble is .«eldom known to stand still even for a
 
 568 
 
 BAROMETER. 
 
 minute ; that a small blast of wind, -which cannot 
 be heard in a chamber, will sensibly make it 
 sink ; and that a cloud passing over it always 
 makes it descend, &c. 
 
 Rowxing's Compound Barometer has se- 
 veralcontrivances for enlarging the scale, and that 
 in any proportion whatever. One of these is 
 described in the Philosophical Transactions, No. 
 427, and also in his Natural Philosophy, part 2 ; 
 and another in the same part, which is repre- 
 sented in fig. 9. ABC is a compound tube, 
 hermetically sealed at A, and open at C ; empty 
 Srom A to D, filled with mercury from thence to 
 B, and from hence to E with water. Hence, by 
 varying the proportions of the two tubes AF and 
 F C, the scale of variation may be changed in any 
 degree. 
 
 A Steel-yard or Lever Barometer, is repre- 
 sented by fig. 13, which enlarges the scale in pro- 
 portion of the shorter to the longer arm of a steel- 
 yard. AB is the barometer tulje, close at A and 
 open at B, immersed in a cylindrical glass cistern 
 C D, which is but very little wider than the tube 
 A B is. The barometer tube is suspended to the 
 shorter arm of an index like a steel-yard, moving 
 on the fulcrum E, and the extremity of its longer 
 arm pointing to the divisions of a graduated 
 arch, with which index the tube is nearly in 
 equilibrio. When the pressure of the atmosphere 
 is lessened, the mercury descends out of the tube 
 into the cistern, which raises the tube and tlie 
 shorter arm of the index, and consequently the 
 extremity of the longer moves downwards, and 
 passes over a part of the graduated arch. And 
 on the contrary this moves upwards when the 
 pressure of the atmosphere increases. 
 
 Artists, however, have of late directed their 
 efforts rather to adapt barometers for particular 
 purposes, and to improve their accuracy of action, 
 than to enlarge the scale. 
 
 An instrument called the Chamber Barome- 
 ter, constructed by Messrs. Jones, opticianSj is 
 shown in fig. 11. It consists of a barometer d, 
 thermometer a a, and hygrometer c, all in one 
 mahoiiany frame. The thermometer or hygro- 
 meter of this apparatus may be separated from 
 the frame, and occasionally used apart if neces- 
 sary. The thermometer is separated by means 
 of two screws a u : and the hygrometer by un- 
 screwing a brass pin at the back of the frame. 
 The index of the hygrometer is set at any time, 
 merely by moving with the finger the brass 
 wheel seen at c; and the two sliding indexes of 
 the barometer and thermometer are moved by 
 rack work, set in action by the key g, pliced in 
 the holes h and i. The divisions of the barome- 
 ter, plate b, are in tenths of an inch, from twenty- 
 eight to thirty-one inches, and these are subdivided 
 into hundredths by the nonius or vernier scale, 
 on a sliding slip of brass. The vernier scale is 
 divided into ten equal parts, which are equal to 
 eleven on the scale of inches, or to eleven-tenths 
 of an inch. By this means the height of the mer- 
 cury at E is evident merely by inspection to the 
 one-hundredth part of an inch, according to the 
 principle of the vernier scale. 
 
 A more common sort of barometer is frequently 
 made, which differs from the one above princi- 
 pally in this, that in i^eneral it is not supposed to 
 
 register to the same degree of accuracy, having 
 no vernier, and being meant for the common pur- 
 poses of a weather-glass, its face is marked with 
 different words indicating the probable shades of 
 weather peculiar to different altitudes of the mer- 
 cury. As the lowest state of the mercury in this 
 country is not less than twenty-eight inches, nor 
 the highest above thirty-one inches, this lowest 
 point on the scale, on the face of the instrument, 
 is marked stormy, and the latter very dry for 
 summer, and on the other side very hard frost for 
 winter. To the next half-inch below this highest 
 point are written set. fair on the one side, and set, 
 frost on the other. At thirty inches, the word 
 fair is placed on the one side, and frost on the 
 other ; and at twenty-nine inches and a half there 
 is marked changeable, both for summer and win- 
 ter. At twenty- nine inches we have rain on the 
 one side, and snow on the other ; and at twenty- 
 eight inches and a half, much rain on the sum- 
 mer side, and much snow on the winter ; these 
 terms, for want of room, are omitted in the figure. 
 
 In the better sort of these chamber barometers 
 the reservoir of mercury is a leathern bag, which 
 is more or less compressed by the atmosphere, 
 according to its greater or less pressure, and the 
 scale is supposed to commence from the bottom 
 of the tube ; there is also a screw at the bottom, 
 fig. 29, by which the mercury may be forced t» 
 the top of the tube, and thus prevented from oscil- 
 lating when the instrument is removed. This 
 construction, however, is not sufficiently accurate 
 for those instruments designed for the mensura- 
 tion of altitudes ; portable barometers, therefore, 
 have several adjustments peculiar to this purpose. 
 
 Portable Barometer. — One of the best in- 
 struments of this kind, by Troughton, is exhibited 
 in figs. 12, 13, 14, and 15, (Barometers, plate 
 II.) Its distinguishing characteristic consists in 
 the excellent manner in which the mercury in 
 the cistern is set to the zero in the scale of inches. 
 For this purpose a glass cylinder, of about two 
 inches and a half diameter, and as much in 
 length, contains the mercury. An external cover- 
 ing of hollow brass, terminating in an interior 
 screw a little above and below the glass, admits 
 external screw pieces, whose ends, well leathered, 
 being pressed hard against the ends of the glass^ 
 prevent the escape of the fluid. Near the upper 
 end of the brass cover are two slits, made hori- 
 zontally, one before, and the other behind, ex- 
 actly similar, and opposite to each other. At 
 bottom is a screw, seen better in the section, fig. 
 13, which, acting upon the usual leathern bag, 
 forces the quicksilver upwards at pleasure, and, 
 by filling every part, renders the instrument por- 
 table. But the primary design of the screw is, 
 to furnish the means of adjusting the surface of 
 the mercury in the glass cistern, so as just to shut 
 out the light from passing between it and the 
 upper edges of the slits in the brass cover. This 
 is the mode of adjusting to zero ; and it follows, 
 that the upper edges of the slits must represent 
 the beginning of the scale of inches. The frame 
 is entirely made of brass tube, and above the cis- 
 tern is of about 1-1 inch in diameter. The first 
 ten inches of the lower end are occupied by a 
 thermometer, whose bulb, bent inwards, is con- 
 cealed within the fra\ne. At about three inches
 
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 BAROMETER. 
 
 569 
 
 higher, it is attached to the stand by a ring, in 
 which tlie frames turn round with a smooth and 
 steady motion, for the purpose of placing the in- 
 strument in the beFt light for reading off, &c. 
 The actually divided scale commences at about 
 fifteen inches above the zero, and is continued as 
 hiirh as thirty-three inches; and, by the usual 
 help of a vernier, is subdivided down to 001 of 
 an inch. A longitudinal slit, from end to end of 
 the divided part, exposes to view the glass tube 
 and mercury within it. The whole of this part 
 consists of two tubes of brass : in the inside of 
 the interior one, slides a cylindrical jiiece, and on 
 tiiis is divided the vernier scale, the index to 
 which is the lower end of the piece. In Uiking 
 the height of the mercury, this piece is brought 
 down so as just to exclude the light from passing 
 between itself and the spherical surface of the 
 mercury. The screw at top, although but a shoft 
 one, performs this office in whatever part of the 
 scale the vernier piece may be ; for it acts upon 
 the interior long tube, in the inside of which the 
 piece is sustained by friction, and in which it is, 
 on every occasion, to be set by hand nearly. 
 The tripod is altogether similar to what Mr. 
 Ilamsden used for the same purpose, as far back 
 as the year 1775. It affords when closed, fig. 
 15, a safe and convenient packing-case for the 
 instrument : the structure of the staff head is cu- 
 rious : the principal part is a circle fig. 16, 
 about -75 of an inch broad, joined in three pieces; 
 these, although they seem in principle to be in- 
 capable of motion, yet, in practice, produce what 
 is fully adequate to the purpose. The three 
 joint-pins extend inwards, so as to pass through 
 a circular rim, which they hold fast ; within this 
 rim is hung a similar one, by two pivots; and, 
 inside the latter, at right angles to the pivots, are 
 fastened two_y's, or angles, in which the barome- 
 ter hangs by its gudgeons. Thus are brought 
 about, in a small compass, the means of ex- 
 tending the legs, of turning the instrument 
 about in the tripod, and an universal joint, 
 whereon it readily places itself perpendicular to 
 tlie horizon. 
 
 The importance of these instruments at sea, 
 where every real indication of the approaching 
 weather must be important, early suggested a Ma- 
 rine Barometer, first invented by Dr. Hooke. 
 It is contrived so as not to be affected or injured by 
 the motion of a ship. His contrivance consisted 
 of a double thermometer, or a couple of tubes 
 half filled with spirit of wine ; the one sealed at 
 both ends, with a quantity of air included ; the 
 other sealed at one end only. The former of 
 these is affected only by the warmth of the air ; 
 but the other is affected both by the external 
 warmth and by the variable pressure of the at- 
 mosphere. Hence, considering the spirit ther- 
 mometer as a standard, the excess of tne rise or 
 fall of the other above it will show the increase or 
 decrease of the pressure of the atmosphere. This 
 instrument is described by Dr. Ilalley, in the 
 Phil. Trans. No. 269, where he says, ' I hud 
 one of these barometers with me in my late 
 southern voyage, and it never failed to prognos- 
 ticate and give early notice of all the bad weather 
 we had, so that I depended thereon, and made 
 provision accordingly ; and from my own expe- 
 rience I conclude, that a more useful contrivance 
 
 hath not for this long time been offered for the 
 benefit of navigation.' Mr. Nairne, an artist of 
 London, invented another kind of Marine Baro- 
 meter, having the lower part of the tube, for about 
 two feet long, made very small, to check the vi- 
 brations of the mercury, which would otherwise 
 arise from the motions of the ship. This was also 
 assisted by being hung in gimbals, by a part 
 which subjects it to be the least affected by such 
 motions. It was constructed for the use of Cap- 
 tain Phipps in his celebrated voyage to the North 
 Pole. A marine barometer has also been in- 
 vented by J\I. Passemente, an ingenious artist of 
 Paris. This contrivance consists only in twist- 
 ing die middle of the tube into a spiral of two 
 revolutions ; by which contrivance the impulses 
 which the mercury receives from the motions of 
 the ship are destroyed, by being transmitted in 
 contrary directions. 
 
 Troughton's Marine Barometer may be 
 considered the best, perhaps, at present known. 
 The upper part of the tube here is four-tenths of 
 an inch diameter, and the smaller part only one- 
 fiftieth ; and, to counteract more effectually the 
 effects of the ship's motion, the instrument, like 
 the above, is suspended in gimbals, as shown in 
 figs. 17 and 18. The whole is attached to the 
 side of the cabin by two brass tubes, which slide 
 one within the other, and render the instrument 
 capable of being suspended at different distances 
 from the place of support ; that the bottom of it 
 may not strike the side of the cabin during any 
 heavy rolling of the vessel, the inner tube carries 
 the gimbal. The external frame of the barometer 
 is a cylindrical tube of wood, on which the brass 
 sockets slide ; and in this is inserted the inner- 
 most pair of pivots, or universal joint, which 
 furnishes the instrument with a movable point of 
 suspension. The top is terminated with a brass 
 ball, of a weight nearly equal to that of the mer- 
 cury, 8cc. at the lower end. With respect to the 
 position of the point of suspension, no general 
 rule can be given applicable to every case, 
 though it is a circumstance on which the oscilla- 
 tions of the mercury greatly depends ; it is indeed 
 obvious, that, though this point were accurately 
 determined for one particular height of the mer- 
 cury, it would not correspond with every other. 
 By this ingenious contrivance of the counterpoise 
 to the weight of the mercury, the centre of gra- 
 vity of the whole will be about the middle ; and 
 if the instrument were of the same specific gra- 
 vity throughout, the point of suspension that 
 would produce the smallest oscillation, would be 
 about one-third of the length of the instrument 
 from the top, considering the lower part as a 
 fixed point; but as this is not strictly the case, 
 the point of suspension is best ascertained by ex- 
 periment. The graduation is on two scales of 
 ivory, about four inches long, for the reception of 
 which two opposite quarters of the cylindrical 
 frame are sunk through that length, their planes 
 pointing towards the centre of the tube, and the 
 index is very light, and slides on the ghiss tube, 
 without touching any other part. At the bottom 
 is the usual screw, which, pressing up the leather 
 bag, prevents the mercury from oscillating when 
 the instrument is removed. For an instrument 
 of this kind, lately invented by Mr. Adie, sec 
 Sympiesometer.
 
 570 
 
 BAROMETER. 
 
 Among barometers, or baroscopes, mijjht be 
 ranked a weather instrument to ascertain the 
 variation of the atmosphere, by tlie sound of a 
 wire, mentioned by M. Lazowski in his Tour 
 through Switzerland, and discovered by accident. 
 A clerijyinan, who was near-sighted, often amused 
 himself with tiring at a mark, and contrived to 
 stretch a wire so as to draw the mark to him to 
 see how he had aimed. He observed that the 
 wire sometimes sounded as if it vibrated like a 
 musical chord ; and that after such soundings a 
 change always ensued in the state of the atmos- 
 phere ; from whence he came to predict rain or 
 fine weather. On making farther experiments, 
 it was found that the sounds were most distinct 
 wlien extended in the plane of the meridian. 
 According to the weather which was to follow, 
 the sounds were more or less soft, or more or less 
 continued. Fine weather was announced by the 
 tones of counter-tenor, and rain by those of bass. 
 It has been said that IM. Volta mounted fifteen 
 chords in this way at Pavia, to bring this method 
 to some precision, but no accounts have appeared 
 of his success. 
 
 Marine barometers are now generally used on 
 board all ships of war and Indiamen. To fa- 
 cilitate the keeping of a register of barometrical 
 observations, Mr. Ilorsburgh, hydrographer to 
 the East India Company, has lately published a 
 set of engraved ruled sheets, adapted for the 
 convenience of navigators. In these plates the 
 height of the mercury, from twenty-seven to 
 thirty-one inches, is represented in inches and 
 tenth parts, by horizontal lines ; while each suc- 
 cessive day has a space apportioned to it by ver- 
 tical bars. The state of the barometer at every 
 observation is marked with a dot; and these dots 
 being afterwards connected together, exhibit an 
 irregular waved line, stretching across the sheet, 
 and indicating the series of the changes of the 
 weather. At the lowest points, from which the 
 curve again returns, a gale generally follows. 
 From the observations made off the Cape of 
 Good Hope, during the month of May 1815, by 
 Captain Basil Hall, of his Majesty's sloop Vic- 
 tor, it appears that whenever the mercury fell to 
 29'60 inches, a storm always ensued; the column 
 always rose when the gale abated, and when it 
 reached near thirty inches, the weather became fair. 
 Those gales often came on suddenly, without 
 any visible change in the aspect of the sky, 
 but the marine barometer never failed to give 
 warning of their approach. 
 
 The following observations, upon the move- 
 ments and state of the mercury in the marine 
 barometer, were made by Captain Flinders, of 
 his majesty's ship .Investigator, during his ex- 
 amination of the coasts of New Holland and 
 New South Wales, the Terra Australis of the 
 earliei charts, in the years of 1801, 1802, and 
 1803. Phil. Trans. 1806, Part. 2. The ba- 
 rometer, with which these observations were 
 made, was constructed by Nairne and Blunt, and 
 had been used in Captain Cook's voyages. The 
 height of the mercury was taken regularly at 
 day-break, at noon, and at eight o'clock in the 
 evening. The temperature of the thermometer 
 was also registered at the same periods. The 
 circumstances that led Captain Flinders to think 
 his observations worth attention were, the coin- 
 
 cidence that took place between the rising and 
 falling of the mercury, and the setting in of 
 •wind that blew from the sea and from off the 
 land, to which there seemed to be at least as 
 much reference as to the strength of the wind, 
 or the state of the atmosphere. Among the ex- 
 amples selected from the captain's journals, are 
 nine that relate to the south coast ; from these 
 it appears, generally, that a change of wind from 
 the northern, to any point in the southern half 
 of the compass, caused the mercury to rise, and 
 a contrary change, to fall ; and that the mercury 
 stood considerably higher when the wind was 
 from the south side of east and west, than it did 
 in similar weather when the wind came from the 
 north side. Tlie cause of this appears to be, 
 that the first proportion of air brought in from 
 the sea, is impelled upwards by the land which 
 it encounters, and along the inclined surface of 
 tlie land, in a sloping direction : the next portion 
 is, in the same manner, stopped and forced up- 
 wards ; but it has a shorter space to pass through, 
 because the former portion goes along two of the 
 sides, and the latter along the third side of an 
 obtuse-angled triangle: thus, the succeeding 
 portions of air meet the summit of land before 
 the first portions, and cause tlie latter to eddy and 
 stagnate ; while the stream blowing above this 
 portion, compresses it, and augments its density, 
 whence the increased lieight of the barometer. 
 
 * The barometer,' says Captain Flinders, ' was 
 of great service to me in the investigation of this 
 dangerous part of tlie east coast, where the ship 
 was commonly surrounded with rocks, shbals, 
 islands, or coral reefs. Near the main land, if 
 the sea-breeze was dying off at night, and the 
 mercury descending, I made no scruple of an- 
 choring near the shore, knowing that it would 
 either be a calm, or a wind would come off from 
 the land ; but if the mercury kept up, I stretched 
 off, in the expectation that it would freshen up 
 again in a few hours. Amongst the barrier-reefs, 
 when the wind was dying away, t'ae barometer 
 told me, almost certainly, from what quarter it 
 would next spring up. If the mercury stood at 
 30° 15' or near it, and was rising, I expected the 
 proper trade wind ; and if higher, that it would 
 be well from the southward, or would blow 
 fresh ; and, if it was up to 30° 30' both. The 
 falling of the mercury to 30° 10' was an indica- 
 tion of a breeze from the north-eastward ; and 
 its descent below thirty inches, that it would 
 spring up, or shift round to the westward.' Hence, 
 it appears, that this skilful commander navigated 
 his vessel througho)it those dangerous parts of 
 the eastern coast that are between the latitudes 
 of 23° and 17°, pursuant to a confident deduc- 
 tion from his own Jieory. 
 
 Dk. H.\lley's Rules for judging of 
 THE WEATHER BY Barometers. — I. In calm 
 weather, when the air is inclined to rain, the 
 mercury is commonly low. II. In serene, good, 
 and settled weather, the mercury is generally 
 high. III. Upon very great winds, though they 
 be not accompanied with great rain, the mercury 
 sinks lowest of all, accordmg to the point of the 
 compass the wind blows from. IV. The greatest 
 heights of the mercury are found upon easterly or 
 north-easterly windt;, other circumstances alike. 
 \'. In calm frosty weather, tlie mercury covnmonly
 
 BAROMETER. 
 
 571 
 
 stands liigli- ^'I• After very ^reat storms of wind, 
 when the mercury has been very low, it e,enenilly 
 rises again very fast. VII. The more northerly 
 places have greater alterations of the barometer 
 tiian tlie more soullicrly, near the equator. 
 VIII. Within the tropics, and near them, there 
 is little or no variation of the barometer, in all 
 weathers. For instance, at St. Helena it is little 
 or nothing, at Jamaica three-tenths of an inch, 
 nnd at Naples the variation hardly ever ex- 
 ceeds an inch ; whereas in England it amounts 
 to two inches and a half, and at Petersburgh to 
 '.ijt nearly. 
 
 Mr. Uowning justly remarks, that it is not so 
 iDucii the absolute height of tlie mercury in the 
 fil)e that indicates the weather, as its motion up 
 and down, and therefore, to i)ass a right judg- 
 ment of what weather is to be expected, we 
 ought to know whether the mercury is actually 
 rising or falling ; to which end the following 
 rules are of use. I. If the surface of the mer- 
 cury is convex, standing higher in the middle of 
 the tube than at the sides, it is a si<:n that the 
 mercury is then rising. II. But if the surface 
 is concave, or hollow in the middle, it is then 
 sinking. And, III. If it be plain, or ratlier a 
 very little convex, the mercury is stationary ; for 
 mercury being put into a glass tube, especially 
 a small one, naturally has its surface a little 
 convex, because the particles of mercury attract 
 one another more forcibly than tliey are attracted 
 by glass. IV. If the glass be small, siiake the 
 tube; then if the air be grown heavier, the mer- 
 cury will rise about half a tenth of an inch 
 higher than it stood before ; but if it be grown 
 lighter, it will sink as much. And, it may be 
 added, in the wheel or circular barometer, tap 
 the instrument gently with the finger, an^ the 
 mdex will visibly start forwards or backwards 
 according to the tendency to rise or fall at that 
 time. This proceeds from the mercury's sticking 
 to the sides of the tube, whicii prevents die 
 free motion of it till it be disengaged by tlie 
 shock ; and therefore, when an observation is to 
 be made with such a tube, it ought to be first 
 shaken ; for sometimes the mercury will not vary 
 of its own accord, till the weather is present 
 which it ought to have indicated. 
 
 Variations of the Barometer. Several 
 members of a German meteorogical society have 
 registered observations upon the barometer. The 
 most noted of those observers are, Steilehner, 
 Planer, Chiminello, and Ilemmer. 
 
 The first of these gentlemen says, that he 
 found, by several comparative observations, that 
 the greatest fall of the barometer does not happen 
 in very remote places at the same time; but that 
 it is earlier towards the west, and later towards 
 the east ; and that the difi'erence of the time is 
 nearly equal to the difference of die meridians 
 of the places ; an assertion which deserves to be 
 accurately examined. 
 
 M. Planer observed the barometer for a whole 
 year, six times every day, viz. at two, six, and ten 
 o'clock in tlie morriing, and at the same hours in 
 the afternoon ; and found, in general, that the 
 barometer, between ten in the morning and two 
 in the afternoon, and between ten at night and 
 two in the morning, was less in its rising, and 
 greater in its fall ; and that the contrary w;is the 
 
 case between the hours of six and ten in die 
 evening and morning. 
 
 CHuminello observed the barometer twenty-two 
 times a day, for three years, but he left a chasm 
 in the night, which he supplied by calculation. 
 The principal positions which he then deduced 
 are, that the barometer falls towards noon, as 
 well as towards midnight. 
 
 Ilemmer deduced the three following general 
 rules from a great number of accurate observa- 
 tions : 1. When the sun passes the meridian, 
 the barometer, if in the act of falling, continues 
 to fall, and the falling is accelerated. 2. When 
 the sun passes the meridian, the barometer, if in 
 the act of rising, falls, or becomes stationary, or 
 rises more slowly. 3. When the sun passes the 
 meridian, the barometer, wliich is stationary, 
 falls, if it has not risen before or after being sta- 
 tionary ; in which case it usually becomes sta- 
 tionary during the sun's passage. 
 
 From a register kept by a Mr. Dunbar, near 
 the banks of the Mississippi, in N. lat. 31° 28', 
 we find that, for the space of about four days 
 before, and six days after the summer solstice, 
 the barometer regularly rises from nine P. M. to 
 about six A. 31. then falls till the return of the 
 former hour in tlie evening, then rises again as 
 before, &c. in alternate periods. In the first 
 four days the direction is ascending, and the 
 I elevation of a line drawn through the mean is 
 about ^^ of an inch. In the latter six days the 
 mean line is perfectly horizontal, the elevation 
 each night amounting to ^^a , and the depression 
 each day to the same, but occupying double 
 time. 
 
 The celebrated Humboldt made some inter- 
 esting observations at Caraccas, in South America, 
 near the eqnator. There are, he says, four at- 
 mospherical tides every twenty-four hours, which 
 depend only on the attraction of the sun. The 
 mercury falls from nine in the morning to four 
 in the evening : it rises from four to eleven 
 o'clock : it falls from eleven o'clock till past four 
 in the morning : and it re-ascends from that time 
 till nine o'clock. Neither winds, storms, nor 
 earthquakes, have any influence on this motion. 
 
 Horsburgh, in his last voyage to Bombay, 
 employed two marine barometers, one made by 
 Troughton, and the other by Kamsden; with 
 which he made very minute observations ; which 
 were published in the second jiart of the Phil. 
 Trans, for 1805 ; and in the Hist. Roy. Soc. 
 Edin. of the same year, we have a comparison 
 of the diurnal variations of the barometer, made 
 in Peyrouse's voyage round the world, widi those 
 made at Calcutta, by Dr. Balfour. 
 
 The agreement between these observations 
 seems very remarkable. Dr. Balfour found that, 
 during the wliole lunation, in which he observed 
 the barometer from half hour to half hour, the 
 mercury constantly fell fcom ten at night to six 
 in the morning ; from six to ten in tlie morning 
 it rose; from ten in the morning to six at night 
 it fell again ; and, lastly, rose from six to ten at 
 ni'^ht. The maximum height i«, there-f^ore, at ten 
 at night and ten in the morning ; and the mini- 
 mum at six at night and six in t'.ie morning. 
 The only diff'erence is, that in M. l.amanon's 
 observations, the minimum is stated to have haji- 
 pened at about four instead of six. This, iiow-
 
 672 
 
 BAROMETER. 
 
 ever, will not seem a very material difference, 
 when it is remembered, that the instant when 
 any quantity attains either its greatest or its least 
 state is not easily ascertained with precision. 
 From the observations, as detailed by M. Lama- 
 non, the time of the minimum seems to answer 
 fully as well to five as to four; so that the dif- 
 ference of the results is in every view incon- 
 siderable, and their coincidence on the whole 
 not a little singular. The variation in Dr. Bal- 
 four's barometer between the nearest maximum 
 and minimum is sometimes about -^^ of an inch, 
 though, in general, considerably less. 
 
 Many hypotheses have been advanced to ex- 
 plain the cause of the variations of the barometer. 
 The various and often imaginary effects of 
 vapors of heat and winds have been employed 
 in framing an explication of the changes of the 
 atmosphere. The fact that the mercurial column 
 generally falls before rain, seemed at complete 
 variance with the intimation of the senses ; it being 
 a notion universally prevalent, that the air is 
 heavier when the sky appears lowering and over- 
 cast ; another proof, if it were wanted, how 
 fallacious are all current opinions in matters of 
 science. 
 
 Leibnitz endeavoured, by a sort of metaphysi- 
 cal argument, to demonstrate that, though a body 
 adds its own weight to the pressure of a fluid in 
 which it is suspended, yet it will cease to be 
 ponderous in the act of falling. This alleged 
 principle will not, in the actual state of science, 
 be thought to require any serious refutation. Dr. 
 Halley thought the winds and exhalations sufficient 
 to account for these variations ; and on this prin- 
 ciple gives a theory, the substance of which may 
 be comprised in what follows : 1st That the winds 
 must alter the weight of the air in any particular 
 country ; and this, either by bringing together a 
 greater quantity of air, and so loading the atmos- 
 phere of any place, which will be tfce case as 
 often as two winds blow from opposite parts, at 
 the same time, towards the same point ; or by 
 sweeping away some part of the air, and giving 
 room for the atmosphere to expand itself, which 
 will happen when two winds blow opposite ways 
 from the same point at the same time : or lastly, 
 by cutting off the perpendicular pressure of the 
 air, which is the case when a single wind blows 
 briskly any way ; it being found by experience, 
 that a strong blast of wind, even made by art, 
 will render the atmosphere lighter : and hence the 
 mercury in a tube below it, as well as in 
 others more distant, will considerably subside. 
 See Phil. Trans. No. 292. 2dly, That the cold 
 nitrous particles, and even the air itself condensed 
 in the nordiern regions, and driven elsewhere, 
 must load the atmosphere, and increase its pres- 
 sure. 3dly, That heavy dry exhalations from the 
 earth must increase the weight of the atmosphere, 
 as well as its elastic force : as we find tlie speci- 
 fic gravity of menstruums increased by salts and 
 metals dissolved in them. 4lhly, That the air 
 being rendered heavier by these and the like 
 causes, is thence better able to support the vapors ; 
 which being likewise intimately mixed with it,make 
 the weather serene and fair. Again the air being 
 made lighter from the contrary causes, it becomes 
 unable to support the vapors with which it is 
 
 replete ; these therefore precipitating, are collect- 
 ed into clouds, the particles of which in their 
 progress unite into drops of rain. Hence he 
 infers, that the same causes which increa.se the 
 weight of the air, and render it more able to 
 support the mercury in the barometer, likewise 
 produce a serene sky, and a dry season ; and 
 that the same causes which render the air lighter, 
 and less able to support the mercury, likewise 
 generate clouds and rain. 
 
 Dr. James Hutton, in his Theory of Rain, 
 printed in the Transactions of the Royal Society 
 of Edinburgh, vol. 1, gives ingenious and plau- 
 sible reasons for thinking that the lessening the 
 weight of the atmosphere by the fall of rain, is 
 not the cause of the fall of the barometer, but 
 that the principal, if not the only cause, arises 
 from the commotions in the atmosphere, which 
 are chietly produced by sudden changes of 
 heat and cold in the air. The barometer, says 
 he, is an instrument necessarily connected with 
 motions in the atmosphere ; but it is not equally 
 affected with every motion in that fluid body. 
 The barometer is chiefly affected by those motions 
 by which they are produced, accumulations and 
 abstractions of this fluid, in places or regions of 
 sufficient extent to affect the pressure of the 
 atmosphere upon the surface of the earth. But 
 as every commotion in the atmosphere may, 
 under proper conditions, be a cause for rain, and 
 as the want of commotion in the atmosphere is 
 naturally a cause of fair weather, this instrument 
 may be made of great importance for the purpose 
 of meteorological observations, although net in 
 the certain and more simple manner in which it 
 has been with the increase of science, so suc- 
 cessfully applied to the measuring of heights. 
 See Rain. 
 
 Hauksbee's celebrated experiment has been 
 quoted as confirming the theory of Dr. Halley. 
 That ingenious experimentalist, about the year 
 1 704,placed two barometers, about three feet asun- 
 der, with their naked cisterns in two close square 
 wooden boxes, connected by a horizontal brass 
 pipe ; one of these boxes had, inserted at right 
 angles, an open pipe on the one side, and a second 
 pipe, terminating in a screw, on the other side ; 
 to this end he adapted a strong globular receiver 
 of about a foot in diameter, which had been 
 charged, by injection from a syringe, with three or 
 four atmospheres ; then suddenly opening the 
 stop-cook, and giving vent for the escape of the 
 air through the box and over the surface of the 
 included cistern the mercury sunk equally in. both 
 barometers more than two inches. This experiment 
 might be deemed entirely conclusive, if a minute 
 circumstance, on which its success depends, had 
 not unfortunately been overlooked. It will be 
 perceived frem the inspection of the figure which 
 Hau'ksbee has given, that the exit pipe of the box 
 was considerably wider than the pipe which con- 
 veyed into it the stream of air. This fluid, 
 escaping from compression, would, therefore, be 
 carried by its elasticity as much beyond the state 
 of equilibrium ; while the width of the orifice, 
 by facilitating its emission, would allow the por- 
 tion occupying the box and the connected reser- 
 voir to preserve its acquired expansion. If the 
 pipe of discharge from the box had been much
 
 BAROMETER. 
 
 573 
 
 narrower than the other, an opposite effect must 
 have taken place; for the air accumulated over 
 the cistern, not finding a ready vent, would remain 
 in a state of condensation. This fact is a remark- 
 able indication of the great delicacy required 
 in performing such experiments. 
 
 The same result, however, can be exhibited by 
 a very simple apparatus. Let a small box, or 
 rather a glajs ball, have a short narrow tube 
 inserted in the one side, and another wide tube 
 opposite to this, with a cross slider of brass, for 
 contracting the oritice at pleasure; and, to the 
 under part of the ball, join a long perpendicular 
 tube, bent back like a syphon to more than half 
 its height and containing a double column of 
 water. Now, blow through the narrow tube into 
 the cavity of the ball, while the orifice of emission 
 is quite opened, and the liquor will rise several 
 inches in a long stem; but, still continuing the 
 blast, let the orifice be gradually contracted, and 
 the column will first descend to its ordinary level, 
 and then sink considerably below it. 
 
 It is clear that the fall and rise of the mercury 
 in the barometer must evidently be occasioned 
 by some corresponding reduction or accumulation 
 of the atmosphere at the place of observation. 
 Whatever augments the elasticity of the air will 
 cause part of the incumbent fluid to evade and 
 leave for the time a diminished vertical pressure. 
 The efflux of wind might also produce a tempo- 
 rary reduction of the atmospheric column. But 
 the real difficulty consists in explaining why the 
 variations of the barometer should be greater in 
 the high latitudes than between the tropics, and 
 why they do much exceed in all cases the quantities 
 which calculation might assign. On the whole, 
 the present state of physical science presents 
 nothing but a series of conjectures on this subject. 
 The augmented elasticity communicated to the 
 air by the action of heat or the presence of hu- 
 midity, and tlie. reduction of the incumbent mass 
 by the efflux of winds, have doubtless each their 
 distinct influence, in disturbing the equilibrium 
 of the atmospheric ocean. But the effects, par- 
 ticularly m tiie high latitudes, much surpass the 
 regular operation of those causes. The only 
 mode, perhaps, of removing the difficulty, is to 
 take into consideration the comparative slowness 
 with which any force is propagated through the 
 vast body of atmosphere. An inequality may 
 continue to accumulate in one spot, before the 
 counterbalancing influence of the distant portions 
 of the aerial fluid can arrive to modify the result. 
 In the higher latitudes, the narrow circle of air 
 
 may be considered as, in some measure, insulated 
 from the expanded ocean of atmosphere, and 
 hence, perhaps, the variations of the barometer 
 are concentrated there, and swelled beyond the 
 due proportion. 
 
 The use and application of barometers in 
 measuring altitudes, has of late attracted more 
 of the attention of philosophers than their fa- 
 culty of indicating the weather. As before ob- 
 served, this use of the instrument was first 
 proposed by Pascal and Descartes. Succeeding 
 philosophers have been at great pains to ascer- 
 tain the proportion between the fall of the ba- 
 rometer and the height to which it is carried ; 
 as Ilalley, Mariotte, Maraldi, Scheuchz.er, J. 
 Cassini, D. Bernoulli, Ilorrebow, Bouguer, 
 Shuckburgh, Roy, and more especially De Luc, 
 who has given a critical and historical detail of 
 most of the attempts, that have at different times 
 been made, for applying the motion of the mer- 
 cury in the barometer to the measurement of 
 accessible heights. We have noticed the re- 
 searches of Dr. Halley and De L»c, who intro- 
 duced the corrections of the columns of mercury 
 and air, on account of heat. The following 
 rules for computing heights (the principles of 
 which the reader will find explained under 
 Pneumatics,) are given by Dr. Maskelyne, in 
 his Introduction to Taylor's Tables of Loga- 
 rithms. The altitudes of the barometer at two 
 stations, with tlie heights of Fahrenheit's ther- 
 mometer attached to the barometer, and the 
 heights of two thermometers of the same kind, 
 exposed to the air but sheltered from the sun, at 
 the' two stations being given, to find the perpen- 
 dicular altitude of the one station above the 
 other? — Put B for the observed height of the 
 barometer at the lower station, and b for that 
 at the upper station, D for the difference of 
 heights of Fahrenheit's thermometer attached to 
 the barometer at the two stations, and F for the 
 mean of the two heights of Fahrenheit's thermo- 
 meter, exposed freely for a few minutes to the 
 open air, m the shade at the two stations. The 
 altitudes of the upper station above the low^, 
 in English fathoms, will be expressed as follows, 
 according to the respective observations of M. 
 de Luc, the late General Hoy, and Sir George 
 Shuckburgh, in which the upper sign — is to be 
 used when the thermometer attached to the baro- 
 meter is highest at the lower station, (which is 
 most usual,) and the lower sign ■\- when it is 
 lowest at the lower station. 
 
 M. De Luc Log. B — Log. 6zf:0-452D x 1 + F — 40° x 0-00223. 
 
 General Roy .... Log. B — Log./) ipoO-468 D x 1 -|- F — 32*^ x 0-00245. 
 
 Sir G. Shuckburgh . . Log. B — Log. tip 0-440 D X 1 -f- F— 32° X 000243. 
 
 Mean of the two last . Log. B — Log. b^O-Ai>\ D x 1 + F — 32° x 000244. 
 
 The observations of General Roy and Sir George vided by Mr. Ramsden, and with the detached 
 Shuckburgh having been made with barometers thermometers never expesed to tlie sun, appear 
 and thermometers constructed and accurately di- clearly to deserve the preference above those of
 
 i74 
 
 B A R O I\I E T E R. 
 
 M. de Laic. Tlie last of the above rules, which 
 is a mean between those of General Roy and Sir 
 George Shuckburgh, may be expressed in words 
 at length, as follows : take the difference of the 
 tabular logarithms of the observed heights of the 
 barometer at the two stations, considering t!ie 
 four first figures, exclusive of the index, as wliole 
 numbers, and the remaining figures to the right 
 as decimals, and subtract or add -^ of the dif- 
 ference of altitude of Fahrenheit's thermometer, 
 attaclied to the barometer at the two stations, ac- 
 cording as it was highest at the lower or upper 
 station; thus the height of the upper station above 
 the lower in English fathoms, will be found 
 nearly; to be corrected as follows: — Multiply 
 the height found nearly by the difference between 
 the mean of the two altitudes of Fahrenheit's 
 thermometer exposed to the air of the two sta- 
 tions and 3'^°, and by the decimal fraction 
 0-00244 ; the product will be the correction of 
 the approximate height, which added to, or sub- 
 tracted from the same, according as the mean 
 of the two altitudes of Fahrenheit's thermometer 
 exposed to the air was higher or lower than 32°, 
 will give the true height of the upper station 
 above the lower in English fathoms ; which mul- 
 tiplied by 6, will give the true height in English 
 feet. 
 
 Example. Let the state of the barometers 
 and thermometers be as follows, to find the al- 
 titude. 
 
 Thermometers. 
 
 Detached. 
 57 
 42 
 
 Mean 49i 
 
 Attached. 
 57 
 43 
 
 Diff 14 
 Heights 
 29-68 
 25-28 
 
 Barometers. 
 
 29-68 lower. 
 25-28 upper 
 
 Log. 
 
 4724-639 
 4027-771 
 
 from 606-868 
 Subtract ^X 14= 6-356 
 
 Height nearly = 690-512 
 Multiply by 49^—32 zz 17^ 
 
 Height nearly = 690-512 
 
 Product — 21083-960 
 
 Multiply by -00244 
 
 Correction =r 2Q-485 
 Height nearly zz 69051 2 
 
 Correct height in fathoms zz 719-997 
 
 Professor Play fair, in a learned paper, printed 
 in the first volume of the Transactions of the 
 Royal Society of Edinburgh, has examined all 
 the circumstances which can affect Joarometrical 
 measurements, with his usual correctness and 
 perspicuity. La Place resumed the subject in his 
 Mecanique Celeste, and brought all the condi- 
 tions together in a very complicated formula, to 
 which we have before alluded. Such an appear- 
 .'uice of extreme accuracy, however, is perhaps 
 to be regarded rather as a theoretical illusion, 
 than a view of results founded on the real state of 
 practice. Biot also, in attempting to arrive at a 
 similar conclusion, confines himself to the same 
 
 remark. He sfts out a priori from sonie careful 
 experiments on tlie relative density of air and 
 mercury, performed by him in conjunction with 
 Arago. He thence infers, that in the latitude of 
 Paris, and at the point of coiuielation, air, under 
 a mercurial pressure of 76 metres, or 29-922 
 English inches, is 10,463 times liijhter than mer- 
 cury at the temperature of water at its lowest 
 contraction. This would give 26-090 feet for 
 the height of a column of homogeneous fluid, 
 whose pressure is equivalent to the elasticity of 
 the atmosphere. The coefficient adapted to com- 
 mon logarithms, and adjusted to the force of at- 
 traction at the level of the sea, would therefore 
 be 60,148 feet, or 18,334 metres; scarcely dif- 
 fering sensibly from the quantity which Ramond 
 had deduced from a very numerous set of expe- 
 riments made by him on the Pyrenees. But 
 Biot prefers, as the coefficient, the number 
 18,993, answering for an elevation of 1200 me- 
 tres, or about 4000 feet above the sea, which is 
 not far from the general level of such observa- 
 tions. The formula is hence, in English feet, 
 
 60,346 (1+-002837 cos. 2^) ( 1 -}- ^^^^) 
 
 log. ~r; where \b denotes the latitude of the 
 h 
 
 place, T and t the temperatures of the air at the 
 two stations, as indicated by the centesimal ther- 
 mometer, and H and h the heights of mercurial 
 columns corrected for the effects of heat. 
 
 This writer has likewise given tables for ex- 
 pediting the calculation of barometrical measure- 
 ments; in which he was anticipated, however, 
 by Oltmans of Berlin, who published, in 1809, 
 large Hypsometrical Tables, as they are called, 
 accommodated to the complex formula of La 
 Place. Such tables might, no doubt, prove use- 
 ful where very frequent computations are wanted, 
 as in the case of the reduction of the numerous 
 observations brought home by Baron Humboldt, 
 for which, indeed, they were first designed. But 
 still they contain a needless profusion of figures, 
 and hold forth a show of extreme accuracy which 
 the nature of the observations themselves can never 
 justify. By barometrical admeasurements, prin- 
 cipally scientific, travellers have of late years 
 been able to form vertical sections of different 
 countries, which contribute further to our know- 
 ledge of their geological character than any pre- 
 vious mode of delineation. Thus Humboldt, in 
 his Geography of Plants, gives a section across 
 the American continent, one of the best and most 
 interesting that has yet appeared. It consists, 
 in fact, of four combined sections, traversing 
 through an extent of 425 miles. The line begins 
 at Acapulco on the shore of the Pacific Ocean, 
 and runs 195 miles, about a point of the compass 
 towards the east of north, to the city of Mexico ; 
 then eighty miles, a point to the south of east, to 
 La Puebla de los Angeles; again it holds a north- 
 east direction of seventy miles, to the Cruz 
 Blanca ; and finally bends eighty miles east by 
 south, to \'era Cruz, on the coast of the Atlantic. 
 A scale of altitudes is annexed, which shows the 
 vast elevation of the table-land at Mexico. 
 
 This mode of distant levelling has origmated 
 also a very interesting discovery, recently made 
 by Engelhardt and Parrot, two Prussian travel-
 
 B A R O M K T E R. 
 
 lors, in luiotlior quarter of our globe ; they pro- 
 ceedeJ, on the 13tli of July, 1814, from the 
 mouth of the Kuban, at the island of Tanian, on 
 the lilack Sea; and, examining carefully eveiy 
 day the state of the barometer, they advanced 
 with fifty-one observations, the distance of 990 
 versts, or 711 English miles, to the mouth of the 
 Terek, on the margin of the Caspian Sea. Si- 
 milar observations were repeated and multiplied 
 on their return. I'rom a diligent comparison of 
 the whole, it follows that the Caspian is .334 
 English feet below the level of the Black Sea. 
 That the Caspian really occupies a lower level 
 than the ocean, had been suspected before, from 
 a comparison of some registers of barometers kept 
 at St. Fetersburgh, and on the borders of that 
 itdand sea; but the last observation places the 
 question beyond all doubt. It farther appears, 
 that within 250 versts, or 189 miles, of the Cas- 
 pian, the country is already depressed to the level 
 of the ocean, leaving, therefore, an immense 
 basin, from whicli the waters are supposed to 
 have retired by a subterranean percolation. 
 
 \Vc subjoin a table of the altitude of some of 
 the most remarkable mountains, &c. on the earth 
 above the surface of the ocean : — 
 
 Eng. feet. 
 Mount Puy de Dome in Auvergne, the 
 first mountain measured by the baro- 
 meter 5088 
 
 Mount Blanc > 15G62 
 
 575 
 I'liosi'iioRts. See Pho-^- 
 
 Monte Rosa 
 Aiguille d'Argentiere 
 Monastery of St. Bernard 
 Mount (,'enis 
 Pic de los Reyes 
 
 > 
 
 Alps 
 
 yrenees 
 
 ric de los Keyes^ 
 
 Pic du Midi f 
 
 Pic d'Ossano ^ 
 
 Canegou ' 
 
 Lake of Geneva . 
 
 Mount iEtna 
 
 Mount Vesuvius . 
 
 Mount llecla in Iceland 
 
 Snowdon .... 
 
 Ben Moir .... 
 
 Ben l.awers .... 
 
 Ben Gloe .... 
 
 Schihallion .... 
 
 Ben i.omond 
 
 Tinto .... 
 
 Table Hill, Cape of Good Hope 
 
 Gondar, city in Abyssinia 
 
 Source of the Nile 
 
 Pic of Teneriff'e 
 
 Chimboraco 
 
 Cayambouro 
 
 Antisana .... 
 
 Pichincha .... 
 
 City of (iuito 
 
 The mean height of the barometer in London, 
 upon an average of two observations in every 
 day of the year, kept at the house of the Royal 
 Society, for many years past, is 29-88 ; the ini;- 
 dium temperature, or height of the thermometer, 
 according to the same, being 58°. But the me- 
 dium height at the surface of the sea, according 
 to Sir George Shuckburgh, (Phil. Trans. 1777. 
 p. 586.) is 30-04 inches, the heat of the thermome- 
 ler being 55°, and of the air G2°. 
 
 15048 
 
 13402 
 
 7944 
 
 9212 
 
 7620 
 
 9300 
 
 11700 
 
 8544 
 
 1232 
 
 10954 
 
 3938 
 
 4887 
 
 3555 
 
 3723 
 
 3858 
 
 3472 
 
 3461 
 
 3180 
 
 2342 
 
 3454 
 
 8440 
 
 8082 
 
 1402G 
 
 19595 
 
 19391 
 
 19290 
 
 1 5670 
 
 9977 
 
 B.\H0Mr.lHU AL 
 I'lIOl! IS. 
 
 BA'RON, "> Fr. baro,, ; Ital. haronc ; Sp. 
 Ba'iionage, huron. See to Bar. Bairgan, 
 B a'i;on ess, [ to arm ; to defend ; to strengthen . 
 Ba'iio.\et, <■ The etymology of this word is 
 Ba'ronial, very uncertain. Baro, among 
 Barony. J the Romans, signified a brave 
 warrior, or a brutal man ; and, from the first of 
 these significations, Menage derives baron, as a 
 term of military dignity. — Other* supi)0se it 
 originally to signify only a man, in which sens:- 
 baron or varon, is still used by the Spaniards ; 
 and, to confirm this conjecture, our law yet uses 
 baron and feinrnc, husband and wife. Others 
 deduce it from ber, an old Gaulish word, signi- 
 fying commander; odiers from the Hebrew "IDJ, 
 of the same import. Some think it a contraction 
 of par hornme, or peer, which seems least pro- 
 bable. Allowing the derivation to be from 
 bairgan, which is the suggestion of Tooke, then 
 the simple idea, of baron is a man of power, 
 armed and surrounded with abundant means of 
 defence. This generally implies rank ; and baron 
 is a title of nobility, it is likewise a name of 
 office. 
 
 When loue has told herr his extent 
 The baronaye to counsaile went. 
 In many siuti'nces they fdl. 
 And diuersly they saied her will. 
 
 Chaucer. Roniaun! of the Rose: 
 My lord, I'll tell you what, — 
 If my young lord, your son, have not the day. 
 Upon mine honour for a silken point 
 I'll s^ive my barony. Shahrijeare. 
 
 Where throngs of knights and barons bold 
 In weeds of peace high triumph hold, 
 Willi store of ladies, whose bright eyes 
 Rain influence, and judge the prize 
 Of wit or arms, while both contend 
 To win her grace whom all commend. Milton. 
 Sir Edward Walker, garter and secretary of war 
 to King Charles the First, observes, ' That in all 
 Queen Elizabeth's forty-four years reigu, she created 
 but six earls and eight or nine barons.' 
 
 OtJi/s' Life of Sir Walter Rdeirjh. 
 The second was the baronage, the nobility and 
 gentry who held their baronies of the king, and the 
 third was the boroughs, who held of the king by ba- 
 rony, though in a community ; so that the parliament 
 was truly the baronage "f the kingdom. The lesser 
 barons grew weary of this attendance. 
 
 Burnet. Hlslury of hit own Timet. 
 Coffee (which makes the politician wise. 
 And see thro' all things with his half shut eyes) 
 Sent up in vapours to the baron's brain 
 New stratagems the radiant lock to gain. I'.';ic. 
 
 Here might you sec 
 Barons and peasants on the embattled field. 
 Slain or half dead, in one Luge ghastly heap 
 Promiscuously amassed. Philij/s's Cider, b. ii. 
 
 The title of baronet, invented by Salisbury, wu'^ 
 sold ; and two hundred patents of th- 1 species of 
 knighthood were disposed of for so many thousand 
 pound?. Hmne. History of England. King Jamei 1st. 
 A baron is the most general and imiversal title of 
 nobility ; for originally every one of the peers of supe- 
 rior rank had also a barony annexed to his other 
 titles. But it hath sometimes happened, that when 
 an ancient baron hath been raised to a new degree of 
 peerage, in the course of a few generations the two titles 
 have descended differently. BUickstonc't Commen'uiiis.
 
 576 
 
 BARON. 
 
 Baron (Robert), a dramatic author, who 
 lived during the reign of Charles I. and the 
 protectorship of Oliver Cromwell. He was edu- 
 cated at Cambridge, after which he became a 
 member of the society of Gray's Inn. During 
 his residence at the university he wrote a novel, 
 called the Cyprian Academy, in which he in- 
 troduced the first two of the dramatic pieces 
 mentioned below. The third of them is a much 
 more regular and perfect play, and was probably 
 written when the author had attained a riper 
 age. Their names are, 1. Deorum Dona, a 
 masque. 2. Gripus and Hegio, a paitoral. 3. 
 Mirza, a tragedy. Mr, Baron was intimate with 
 the celebrated Mr. James Howell, the traveller, 
 in whose collection of letters there is one to this 
 gentleman, vol. iii. let. 418, who was then atParis. 
 To Mr. Howell, and the ladies and gentlewomen 
 of England, he dedicated his romance. 
 
 Baron. This title in ancient records was ap- 
 plied to all the nobility of England, because 
 regularly all noblemen were barons, though they 
 had also a higher dignity. But it has sometimes 
 happened, that when an ancient baron has been 
 raised to a new degree of peerage, in the course 
 of a few generations the two titles have descended 
 differently ; one perhaps to the male descendants, 
 the other to the heirs general; whereby the 
 earldom or other superior title has subsisted 
 without a barony : and there are also modern 
 instances, where earls and viscounts have been 
 created without annexing a barony to their other 
 honors : so that now the rule does not hold 
 universally that all peers are barons. The origin 
 and antiquity of barons has occasioned great 
 enquiries among antiquaries. The most pro- 
 bable opinion is, that they were the same with 
 our present lords of manors. It is said the 
 original name of this dignity in England was 
 vavassour, which by the Saxons was changed 
 into thane, and by the Normans into baron. It 
 may be collected from king John's magna charta, 
 that originally all lords of manors, or barons, had 
 seats in the great council of parliament; but 
 such is the deficiency of public records, that 
 the first precept to be found is of no higher 
 date than the 49 Henry III. which, although 
 it was issued out in the king's name, was neither 
 by his authority nor by hig direction : for tlie 
 king himself, his son prince Edward, and most 
 of the nobility who stood loyal to him, were then 
 prisoners in the hands of the rebellious barons ; 
 having been taken in May preceding, at the 
 battle of Lewes, and so continued until the battle 
 of Evesham, in August the year following ; 
 when, by the escape of prince Edward, he 
 rescued the king and his adherents out of the 
 hands of Simon Mountford, Earl of Leicester. 
 It cannot be doubted, but that several parliaments 
 were held by Henry III. and Edward I. yet no 
 record is to be found, giving any account of 
 them, e.xcept the fifth of Edward I. until the 
 twenty-second year of that king's reign. 
 
 Before the 49 Henry III. the ancient par- 
 liaments consisted of the archbishops, bishops, 
 abbots, earls, and barons. Of these barons 
 there were two sorts ; the greater barons, or 
 the king's chief tenants, who held of him in 
 capita by barony ; and the lesser barons, who 
 
 held of the first by military service in capite. 
 The former had summons to parliament by 
 several writs; and the latter (i. e. all those who 
 were possessed of thirteen knight's fees and a 
 quarter) had a general summons from the sheriff 
 in each county. Thus things continued till the 
 49 Henry III. when, insteeid of keeping to the 
 old form, the prevailing powers thought fit to 
 summon, not all, but only those of the greater 
 barons who were of their party ; and, instead 
 of the lesser barons who came with large retinues, 
 to send their precepts to the sheriff of each 
 county to cause two knights in every shire to be 
 chosen, and one or two burgesses for each 
 borough, to represent the body of the people 
 residing in those counties and boroughs ; whic'a 
 gave rise to the separation into two houses of 
 parliament. By degrees the title came to be 
 confined to the greater barons, or lords of par- 
 liament only ; and there were no otiier barons 
 among the peerage but such as were summoned 
 by writ, in respect of die tenure of their lands 
 or baronies, till Richard II. first made it a mere 
 title of honor, by conferring it on divers persons 
 by his letters patent. 
 
 Barons by ancient tenure, vvere those who 
 held certain territories of the king, who still re- 
 served the tenure in chief to himself. We also 
 read of barons by temporal tenure ; who are 
 such as hold honors, castles, manors, as heads of 
 their barony, that is, by grand serjeantry ; by 
 which tenure they were anciently summoned to 
 parliament. But at present a baron by tenure 
 is no lord of parliament, till he be called thither 
 by writ. The barons by tenure, after the con- 
 quect, were divided into majores and minores, 
 and were summoned accordingly to parliament ; 
 the majores, or greater barons, by immediate 
 writ from the king ; the minores, or lesser barons, 
 by general writ from the high sheriff", at the king's 
 command. Anciently they distinguished the 
 greater barons from the less, by attributing high, 
 and even sovereign jurisdiction, to the former, 
 and only inferior jurisdiction over smaller matters 
 to the latter. 
 
 When a baron is called up to the house of 
 peers by writ of summons, the writ is in the 
 king's name, and he is directed to come to the 
 parliament appointed to be held at a certain 
 time and place, and there to treat and advise 
 with his majesty, the prelates, and nobility, about 
 the weighty aff"airs of the nation. The ceremony 
 of his admission into the house of peers is this : 
 He is brought into the house between two barons, 
 who conduct him to the Lord Chancellor, his 
 patent or writ of summons being carried by a 
 king-at-arms, who presents it kneeling to the 
 Chancellor, who reads it, and then congratulates 
 him on his becoming a member of the house of 
 peers, and invests him with his parliamentary 
 robe. The patent is then delivered to the clerk 
 of the parliament, and the oaths are administered 
 to the new peer, who is conducted to his seat on 
 the barons' bench. Some barons hold their 
 seats by tenure. The coronation robes of a ba- 
 ron are the same as an earl's, except that he has 
 only two rows of spots on each shoulder. In 
 like manner, his parliamentary robes have but 
 two guards of white fur, with rows of gold lace.
 
 BARONS. 
 
 577 
 
 In other respects they are the same witli those 
 of other peers. 
 
 A Baron's coronet, in herald- 
 ry, is a gold circle, on which are 
 six pearls, which were assigned 
 to barons by king Charles II. 
 after the Restoration. Previously 
 to this time the barons wore 
 scarlet caps, turned up with 
 ermine, and on the top a tassel 
 of gold. Though called pearls, the globes round 
 the coronet are always made of silver. Ilis cap 
 is the same as a viscount's. His style is Right 
 Honourable ; and he is addressed by the king or 
 queen. Right Trusty and Well Beloved. See 
 Barony. 
 
 Baron and Femme, in English law, husband 
 and wife. They are deemed but one person ; so 
 that a wife cannot be witness for or against her 
 husbaiid, nor he for or against his wife, except 
 ill cases of high treason. 
 
 Baron and Femme, in heraldry, is when the 
 coats of arms of a man and his wife are borne 
 par pale in the same escutcheon, the man's being 
 always on the dexter side, and the woman's on 
 the sinister ; but here the woman is supposed 
 not an heiress, for then her coat must be borne 
 by the husband on an escutcheon of pretence. 
 
 Baron, Lord Chief, the president of the 
 court of Exchequer. 
 
 Barons of the Cinque-Ports, are members 
 of the house of commons, elected by the five 
 ports, two for each port. Those who have been 
 mayors of Corfe-castle, in Devonshire, are like- 
 wise styled barons ; and formerly the principal 
 citizens of London were honored with the title 
 of baron. See Cinque-Pouts. 
 
 Barons of the Exchequer, four judges in 
 England, and five in Scotland, to whom the ad- 
 ministration of justice is committed, in causes 
 between the king and his subjects, relating to 
 matters concerning the revenue. They were 
 formerly barons of the realm, but of late are ge- 
 nerally persons learned in the laws. Their office 
 is also to look into the accounts of the king, for 
 which reason they have auditors under them. See 
 Exchequer. 
 
 BARONAGIUM. See Barony. 
 Baronets of England. The dignity of 
 baronet is given by patent. The order was 
 founded by King James I. at the suggestion of 
 Sir Robert Cotton, in 1611, when 200 baronets 
 were created at once ; to which number it was 
 intended they should always be restrained : but 
 it is now enlarged at the king's pleasure, without 
 limitation. They had several considerable pri- 
 vileges given them, with an habendum to them 
 and their heirs male. They were allowed to 
 charge their coat with the arms of Ulster, which 
 are, in a field argent, a sinister hand, gules ; and 
 that upon condition of their defending the pro- 
 vince of Ulster in Ireland against the rebels, 
 who then harassed it extremely : to which end 
 they were each to raise and keep up thirty 
 soldiers, at their own expense, for three years 
 together, or to pay into the exchequer a sum 
 sufficient to do it ; which, at eight-pence per day 
 per head, was £1095. So that, including fees, 
 the expense of this dignity may be about £l200 
 Vol. III. 
 
 sterling. To be qualified for it, one must be a 
 gentleman born, and have a clear estate of £l000 
 per annum. Baronets take place according to 
 the dates of their patents ; by the terms of which 
 no honor is to be erected between barons and 
 baronets. The title, Sir, is granted them by a 
 peculiar clause in their patents, though they be 
 not dubbed knights : but both a baronet and his 
 eldest son, being of full age, may claim knight- 
 hood. The first English baronet was Sir Nicholas 
 Bacon, of Redgrave, in Suflblk, whose successor 
 is therefore styled primus baronetorum Anglia. 
 If a baronet be named at an installation as 
 proxy for a knight of the Bath, it appears es- 
 sential tliat he should be knighted for the 
 occasion ; thus Sir George Osborne, Bart, was 
 knighted by king George III. A baronet takes 
 precedence of all kniglits, except bannerets. 
 Baronets' mark ; the arms of 
 the province of Ulster, viz. \^^^jT^^ 
 argent, a hand, t^'ules, in a ^' ^ - 
 canton, or in escutcheon, are 
 borne by every baronet, as in 
 tiie annexed example. ' He 
 beareth, or, between two 
 chevronels,tliree trefoils, slip- 
 ped, sable,' as in the arms of the Abdy family. 
 
 Baronets of Ireland. In Ireland, an he- 
 reditary dignity somewhat similar to knighthood, 
 appears to have been occasionally conferred in 
 the earliest times ; and the kniglits of Kerry and 
 of Glyn are yet permitted to bear distinctions 
 bestowed on their ancestors by the ancient so- 
 vereigns of the country. The order of baronets, 
 however, was likewise instituted here by James 
 I. in the eighteenth year of his reign, for the 
 same purpose, and with the same privileges 
 within the kingdom of Ireland as he had con- 
 ferred on the like order in England; for which 
 the Irish baronets paid the same fees into the 
 treasury of Ireland. Tlie first of that kingdom 
 who was advanced to this hereditary dignity was 
 Sir Francis Blundell, then secretary for the 
 affairs of Ireland. Several more have been 
 added, no number being limited ; but since the 
 union in 1801, none have been created otherwise 
 than as baronets of the united kingdom. 
 
 Baronets of Nova Scotia, and Baronets 
 of Scotland. The order of knights baronets 
 was also designed to be established in Scotland 
 in 1621, by James I. for the plantation and cul- 
 tivation of the province of Nova Scotia, in 
 America ; but it was not actually instituted till 
 the year 1625, by his son Charles I. when the 
 first person dignified with this title was Sir Ro- 
 bert Gordon, of Gordonstone, a younger son of 
 the Earl of Sutlierland. The king granted a 
 certain portion of land in Acadia or New 
 Scotland, to each of them, whicli they were to 
 hold of Sir William Alexander, afterwards Earl 
 of Stirling, for their encouragement who sliould 
 hazard their lives for the good and increase of 
 that plantation, with precedency to them, and 
 their heirs male for ever, before all knights called 
 equites aurati. and all lesser barons tailed 
 lairds, and all other gentlemen, except Si: 
 William Alexander, his majesty's lieutenant in 
 Nova Scotia, his l^tirs, their wives and children ; 
 that the title of Sir should be prefixed to their 
 
 2P
 
 BAR 
 
 578 
 
 BAR 
 
 Christian name, anJ Baronet added to their sur- 
 iiaine ; and their own and tlieir eldest sons' wives 
 should enjoy the title of Lady, Madam, or Dame. 
 His majesty was so desirous of adding every 
 mark of dignity to this, his favorite order, that 
 four years after its institution, he issued a royal 
 warrant, granting tliera the privilege of wearing 
 an orange ribbon and a medal : wliich last was 
 presented to each of them by the king himself, 
 according to the words of the warrant. All the 
 privileges of tlie order, particularly this of 
 wearing the medal, were confirmed at the king's 
 request by the convention of estates in the year 
 1630 ; and, in order to establish them on the 
 most solid foundation, they were again con- 
 lirmed by an act of the parliament of Scotland 
 in 1633. The premier baronet of Scotland, at 
 present, is Sir Richard Strachan ; and the num- 
 ber of tlie order, exclusive of such titles as are 
 merged in peerages, is 135. Since t'ne union 
 the power of the king to create new baronets 
 within Scotland is held to have ceased. 
 
 BAIIONI (Adriana), baroness of Piancaretta, 
 in Mantua, an eminent singer, surnamed the fair, 
 on account of her uncommon beauty. See next 
 article. 
 
 Baroxi (Leonora), and her mother, Adriana, 
 were botli distinguished for their extraordinary 
 musical talents. Leonora was born at Naples, 
 but spent the greatest part of her life at Rome. 
 She had less beauty than h<^r mother ; but ex- 
 celled her in profound skill in music, the fineness 
 of her voice, and the delicacy of her manner. 
 Mr. Bayle styles her one of the finest singers in 
 the world ; she was equally eminent as a com- 
 poser, and was accordingly, as well as her 
 mother, celebrated by the wits. In 1639 there 
 was published, at Bracciano, a collection of 
 Latin, Greek, Italian, Spanish, and French 
 poems, in her praise, with this title, Applausi 
 Poetici alle Glorie della Signora Leonora Ba- 
 roni. Among the Latin poems of Milton there 
 are three addressed, Ad Leonoram Roma; ca- 
 nentem, wherein this lady is celebrated for her 
 singhig, with an allusion to her mother's ex- 
 quisite performance on the lute. A fine eulogium 
 on her is contained in a discourse on the music 
 of the Italians, printed with the life of Malherbe, 
 and some other treatises at Paris, in 1672, in 
 12mo. It was composed by M. Maugars, prior 
 of St. Peter de Mac, the king's English inter- 
 preter, who says, ' her singing threw me into 
 such raptures, that I forgot my mortality, and 
 thought myself among the angels, enjoying the 
 felicity of the blessed !' 
 
 BARONL'E Caput. See Caput. 
 
 BARONIS, a mountain of Chaus, in Barbary, 
 three miles north of Fez. It produces red grapes, 
 of which they make good wine, and is surrounded 
 by villages. 
 
 BARONIUS (Caesar), was born at Sora, in 
 1538, and studied at Rome, under Philip de 
 Neri. In 1593 ha was made general of the con- 
 gregation of the Oratory, on the resignation of 
 Philip de Neri, the founder. Pope Clement VIII. 
 made him his confessor, and created him a car- 
 dinal in 1493. He was afterwards librarian to 
 the Vatican ; and died in 160.5, at sixty-eight 
 year:; of age. He wrote several works, the prin- 
 
 cipal of which is his Annates Ecclesiastici, from 
 A. D. 1 to 1198, in twelve vols, folio; which 
 has been abridged by several persons, particularly 
 by Henry Spondoeus, Bzovius, and Ludovico 
 Aurelio. 
 
 BARONSTOWN, a town of Ireland, in 
 the county of Louth, six miles W. N. VY- of 
 Dundalk. 
 
 Barony, Baroma, or Baroxagium, may 
 be considered as a lordship, held by some service 
 in chief of the king, coinciding w'ith what is 
 otherwise called grand serjeanty. Baronies, in 
 their first creation, moved from the king himself, 
 the chief lord of the whole realm, and could be 
 holden of no other lord. For example, the king 
 enfeoffed a man of a great seigneurie in land, to 
 hold to the person enfeoffed and his heirs, of the 
 king and his heirs, by baronial service; to wit, 
 by the service of twenty, forty, sixty, knights, 
 or of such other number of knights, as the king 
 by his feoffment limited or appointed. In the 
 ages next after the conquest, when a great lord 
 was enfeoffed by the king of a large seigneurie, 
 such seigneurie was called barony, but more 
 commonly an honor; as, the honor of Glouces- 
 ter, the honor of Wallingford, and the like. 
 There were in England certain honors, which 
 were called sometimes by English and sometimes 
 by foreign names. This happened when the 
 same person was lord of an honor in Normandy, 
 or some other foreign country, and also of an 
 honor in England. For example, William de 
 Forz, de Force, or de Fortibus, was lord of the 
 honor of Albemarle in Normandy : he was also 
 lord of two honors in England; to wit, the honor 
 of Holderness, and the honor of Skipton in Cra- 
 vene. These honors in England were sometimes 
 called by the Norman name, the honor of Albe- 
 marle, or the honor of the earl of Albemarle. In 
 like manner the earl of Britannie was lord of the 
 honor of Britannie in France, and also of the 
 honor of Richmond in England ; the honor of 
 Richmond was sometimes called by the foreign 
 name, the honor of Britannie, or the bono:- of 
 the Earl of Britannie. This serves to explain 
 the terms honor Albemarliae, or comitis Albe- 
 marlice in Anglia ; honor Britannia^, or comitis 
 Britannire in Anglia; not that Albemarle or Bri- 
 tannie were in England, but that the same per- 
 son respectively was lord of each of the said 
 honors abroad, and of each of the said honors in 
 England. The baronies belonging to bishops 
 are by some called regalia, as being held solely 
 on the king's liberality. These do not consist in 
 one barony alone, but in many; for tot erant 
 baroniffi quot majora proedia. A barony, accord- 
 ing to Bracton, is a right indivisible. Where- 
 fore, if an inheritance be to be divided among 
 co-partners, though some capital messuage may 
 be divided, yet if the capital messuage be the 
 head of a county or barony, it may not be par- 
 celled : and the reason is, lest by this division 
 many of the rights of counties and baronies by 
 degrees come to nothing, to the prejudice of the 
 realm, which is said to be composed of counties 
 and baronies. 
 
 Baroxy of Glasgow. See Glasgow. 
 
 BAROPTIS, or Baroptinus lapis, among 
 ancient naturalists, a species of stone, supposed
 
 BARRACK. 
 
 579 
 
 to liave wonderful virtues against venemous bites, 
 externally applied. Pliny has left us but a very 
 short description of it; he says, it was black in 
 color, but variegated with large spots of red 
 and white. 
 
 BAROS, or Barios, a sea-port of the island 
 of Celebes, having a Dutch factory and settle- 
 ment. There is a good trade here in opium. 
 Long. 119° 15' E., lat. 1° 24' S. 
 
 BA'ROSCOPE, n. s. Bajjoc and oKoirno, an 
 instrument to show the weight of tlie atmosphere. 
 See Barometer. 
 
 If there was always a calm, the equilibrium could 
 only be changed by the contents ; where the winds 
 are not variable, the alterations of the barusoope are 
 very small. Arhutltnot. 
 
 BAROTII, a market-town of Transylvania, 
 ou the Aluta. 
 
 BARQUETTE, or Barchetta, denotes a 
 lesser sort of barks, used in the Mediterranean, 
 for the service of galleys, as boats and shallops 
 are for otiier ships. 
 
 BARQUISIMETO, a city of South America, 
 in the province of Venezuela, founded by the 
 Spaniards in 1552. It is placed on an elevated 
 plain, and enjoys great comparative coolness. 
 The most constant and equal wind which prevails 
 IS the north-east, and, whenever the rays of the 
 sun are not tempered by it, the thermometer of 
 Fahrenheit rises to 82° and 84°. In the surround- 
 ing plains and hills excellent pasture encou- 
 rages the rearing of all sorts of cattle. Many of 
 the citizens prefer this speculation, and tind it 
 to their advantaue, although at the same time 
 they cultivate the sugar-cane and wheat. From 
 a freshness preserved by irrigation the vales pro- 
 duce cacao abundantly, and of a good quality ; 
 and the sides of the hills have lately been em- 
 ployed in the culture of coffee. There are in 
 this place from 11,000 to 12,000 inhabitants, 
 and the aspect of the city announces ease and 
 affluence. The liouses are well built; the streets 
 straight, wide, and airj'. The parish church is 
 liandsome, and served by two priests. The judi- 
 cial and police duties are discharged by a com- 
 mon council and lieutenant. Barquisimeto is 
 120 miles W.S.W. of Caraccas, 450 N.N.E. of 
 Santa Fe, and forty-five N.N.E. of Tocuyo. 
 
 BAR Dice, a species of false dice, so formed 
 as that they will not easily lie on certain sides, 
 or turn up certain points. Bar dice stand oppo- 
 sed to flat dice, which come up on certain points 
 oftener than they should do. 
 
 Barr, or Barra, a small kingdom of Africa. 
 See Barra. 
 
 Barr, St. the tutelar saint of the island of 
 Barray, which was named after him. His holi- 
 liday is the 25th of September. On this day the 
 priest says mass, and all those of the Romish 
 religion used punctually to attend. See Barry. 
 
 BARRA, a hill of Scotland in Aberdeenshire, 
 in the parish of Bourtie, on the top of which are 
 still distinctly visible the remains of an ancient 
 camp, of a circular form, surrounded with ditches, 
 and extending to near three acres. 
 
 Barka, in commerce, a long measure used in 
 Portugal and some parts of Spain, to measure 
 woollen cloths, linen cloths, and serges. There 
 are three kinds; the barra of Valencia, thirteen 
 
 of which make twelve yards and six seventh. 
 English measure; the barra of Castile, seven o*' 
 which make six yards and four sevenths; and the 
 barra of Arragon, tliree of which make two yards 
 and four seventiis English. 
 
 Barra, in law. See Bap.. 
 
 Barra, a kingdom of the western coast of 
 Africa, at the mouth of the Gambia, fourteen 
 leagues in breadth, and eighteen long, according 
 to Golberry. It contains a population of 200,000 
 souls, chiefly of the Mandingo race, zealous 
 Mahommedans, and acute in commercial trans- 
 actions. The capital is 
 
 Barra Inding, where a considerable trade is 
 carried on to Barraconda in maize, elephants' 
 teeth, gold dust and cotton cloth. Every vessel 
 entering the Gambia here pays a tax of about 
 £20 sterling to the king of Barra. 
 
 BARRABA, or Barrada, a tract of land in 
 Siberia, lying between the rivers Irtisch and Oby, 
 in the province of Tobolsk. It is uninhabited, 
 but not through any deficiency of the soil; for 
 that is excellent for tillage, and part of it might 
 also be laid out in meadows and pastures. It is 
 interspersed with a great number of lakes, which 
 abound with carp, and the country produces 
 great numbers of elks, deer, foxes, ermine, and 
 squirrels. Between the Irtisch and Oby are some 
 copper-mines. 
 
 BA'RRACAN, n. s. Fr. houracan, or barracan, 
 a strong thick kind of camelot. 
 
 Barracan, or Barragax, is something like 
 camlet but of a coarser grain. It is used to make 
 cloaks, surtouts, See. to keep off" rain. Barracans 
 are chiefly made in l>ance, ;xs at Valenciennes, 
 Lisle, Abbeville, Amiens, and Rouen. Those of 
 \'alenciennes are the most valued. 
 
 BARRACIDA, in ichthyology, a species of 
 pike. See Esox. 
 
 BA'RRACK, n. s. Span, barracca. Little 
 cabins made by the Spanish fishermen on the sea 
 shore; or little lodges for soldiers in a camp. 
 It is generally taken among us for buildings to 
 lodge soldiers. It is not found in our early lexi- 
 cographers. Perhaps from burricado, barrique. 
 See Barricado. 
 
 Like ours it should wholly be composed of natural 
 subjects ; it ought only to be enlisted for a short 
 and limited time ; the soldiers also should live inter- 
 mixed with the people ; no separate camp, no bar- 
 racks, no inleind fortresses, should be allowed. 
 
 Blackstone, Commentaries. 
 
 Modern military men have always thought 
 barracks very convenient, when there is suflicient 
 room to make a lartre square, surrounded with 
 buildings; because the soldiers are easily con- 
 fined to their quarters, and the rooms being con- 
 tiguous, orders are executed with privacy and 
 expedition; and the troops havft not the iea^ 
 connexion with the inhabitants of Uie place. 
 This prevents quarrels and riots. Those for the 
 horse were formerly called barracks, and those for 
 tlie foot, huts ; but now barrack is used indiffer- 
 ently for both. 
 
 Much opposition was made in parliament dur- 
 ing the late war to the erection of barracks, as 
 inimical to the liberties of Britain, by tending to 
 estrange the soldiers from tHe citizens; thus ren- 
 dering the formtr fit tools to enslave the lattei-, 
 
 2 P 2
 
 580 BARRACK. 
 
 should any future king or ministry wish to change 5. South-western, containing Ilumpsiure an J 
 
 the constitution, or compel the people to submit Dorsetshire. 
 
 to unpopular and arbitrary measures. Plausible 6. Isle of Wight. 
 
 as these arguments may appear, there are otliera 7. Western, containing Deronshire, Cornwall, 
 
 that have also considerable weight, on the side and Somerset. 
 
 of these establishments : in regard to the morals of 8. Severn, containing Gloucestershire, Wor- 
 
 the people, we are persuaded the most virtuous cestershire, Herefordshire, ^Monmouthshire, and 
 
 country town or village will be proportionally South Wales. 
 
 corrupt as soldiers are quartered among them ; 9. North-western, containing Cheshire, Shrop- 
 
 and the fact is, that the soldiers and the citizens shire, Lancashire, North Wales, and the Isle of 
 
 may be too much as well as too little inter- Man. 
 
 mixed. 10. London. 
 
 Until the year 1793, barracks were neither IL Home, containing Middlesex, Surry, 
 numerous in Great Britain, nor were they under Hertfordshire, and part of Kent, 
 the control and management of a separate and 12. North-inland, containing Derbyshire, Not- 
 peculiar board. In January 1793, a superinten- tinghamshire, Staffordshire, Warwickshire, Lei- 
 dant-general of the barracks was appointed ; and, cestershire, and Rutlandshire, 
 on the 1st of JNIay that year, the king's warrant 13. South-inland, containing Bedfordshire, 
 was issued for their regulation. Greater powers Northamptonshire, Oxfordshire, and Bucking- 
 were given to hira in the year 1794; but as these hamshire. 
 
 seemed to interfere with the duties and powers 14. Jersey, Guernsey, and Alderney. 
 of the Board of Ordnance, a new warrant was 
 
 issued in the year 1795, defining and limiting Scotlaxd. 
 
 the respective duties and powers of the Board of Nortliern, containing Caithness, Sutherland, 
 
 Ordnance, and the superintendant-general, or Ross-shire, Inverness-shire, Nairnshire, Moray- 
 
 barrack-master-general, as he was now called, shire, and Bamffshire. 
 
 The salaries and extra pay of the barrack-master- Western, containing Aberdeenshire, Argyle- 
 
 general and his officers amounted in 1796 to shire, Ayrshire, Bute, Kincardineshire, Lanark- 
 
 £9524. 17s. 2d. The establishment was after- shire, Renfrewshire, and Wigtonshire. 
 
 wards considerably increased, in proportion as Centre, containing Angusshire, Clackmannan- 
 
 tlie number of barracks throughout the kingdom shire, Dunbartonshire, Fifeshire, Kinross-shire, 
 
 mcreased, and by the creation of some new offi- Perthshire, and Stirlingshire, 
 
 cers, among whom was a law clerk. In 1806, Southern, containing the Lothians, Berwick- 
 
 their salaries amounted to £19,329. 4s. lOd. shire, Peeblesshire, Selkirkshire, Roxburghshire, 
 
 During this year the commissioners of military and Dumfriesshire. 
 
 enquiry recommended that the offices of barrack- On the 14th of July, 1805, there were in 
 
 master-general, and deputy barrack-master-gene- Great Britain and Jersey, &c. 
 
 ral, should be totally abolished, and that the Established barracks of brick and stone . . 84 
 
 superintendence of the barrack establishment wood 12 
 
 should be vested in commissioners. This sug- Temporary barracks 75 
 
 gestion, and some others relative to the mode of rented 41 
 
 transacting the business of the department, and 
 
 preventing useless and extravagant expenditure, 212 
 
 have been foUovved ; and the barrack establish- The followino- statement exhibits the several 
 
 ment is now under the direction of fourcommis- particulars of the total expense incurred by the 
 
 sioners, one of whom is generally a mditary man. nation for barracks, and the barrack-office, in 
 
 As It frequently happened that it was abso- Great Britain, between the 25th of December 
 
 lutely necessary to bmld barracks on an emer- 1792, and the lOth of November 1804: 
 gency, government was often obliged to pay an 
 
 extravagant price for the land which they needed ^ ^- '^• 
 
 for their erection; in order to remedy this evil, it Buildings and purchases of land 3,930,223 5 8 
 
 was provided by the act, usually called the ^'orage 840,246 7 10 
 
 defence act, 43d Geo. III. ch. 55, that justices ^^er 643,030 9 6 
 
 of the peace might put any general officer into Coals, candles, furniture, rents, repairs, 
 
 the possession of such ground as he might deem supplied by barrack-masters, and 
 
 fit for the erection of barracks ; the value of it to salaries 1,685,487 8 
 
 be settled afterwards by a jury; provided, how- Office-establishment . . . 256,129 10 4 
 
 ever, the necessity for such ground was certified ^^^^^ ^^ War-office ..... 80,346 3 6 
 
 by the lord lieutenant, or two deputy lieutenants Insurance 1,519 2 2 
 
 of the county. The following are the barrack Additional rents 36,860 13 .5 
 
 districts in Great Britain: Lodging money to officers . . 139,582 16 
 
 1. Northern, containing Northumberland, Engines 11,866 5 
 
 Cumberland, Westmoreland, and Durham. Bedding, furniture, &c. issued by the 
 
 2. York, containing Yorkshire. barrack-office, and instore 1,357,215 7 3 
 
 3. Eastern, containing Norfolk, Suffolk, Cam- Miscellaneous 35,498 4 8 
 
 bridge, Huntingdonshire, and all Essex, except " ^ 
 
 Tilbury-fort. ^ Total, £9,024,005 8 9 
 
 4. Southern, containing Kent, Tilbury-fort, The annual expense, during the last war, 
 and Sussex varied from £350,000 to £500 000; in the year
 
 BAR 
 
 581 
 
 BAR 
 
 1814, it was £309,826. The peace estimate for 
 1816 is £173,500. In Ireland, where barracks 
 are more numerous, the expense, in 1814, was 
 £360,515, and the peace estimate for 1816 was 
 £•213,000. 
 
 See first, second, third, and fourth Reports of 
 the Commissioners of IVIilitary Enquiry, 180G; 
 Finance Reports and Estimates laid before Par- 
 liament for 1814 and 1816, 8.c. 
 
 Baurack ALLOWANcr,, a specific allowance 
 of bread, beer, coals, &c. to the regiments sta- 
 tioned in barracks. 
 
 Barrack Guard, tlie principal guard of a 
 regiment in barracks; the officer of which is 
 responsible for the regularity of the men, and 
 for all prisoners duly committed to his charge 
 while on that duty. 
 
 Barrack-master-genekai., a staff-officer at 
 the head of the barrack-department, who has 
 a number of barrack-masters and deputies 
 under him, that are stationed at the different 
 barracks. He has an office and clerks for the 
 despatch of business; and to this office all 
 reports, &c. respecting the barrack department 
 are made. 
 
 BARRACOL, in ichthyology, a name given 
 by Artedi, from the \'enetians, to the species of 
 ray fish called by Bellonius and Gesner mirale- 
 tus, ;ind by others raia oculata lavis. The spe- 
 cific name of Artedi carries in it a much better 
 character of the fish ; he calls it the ray, with a 
 smooth back and belly ; and with the eyes sur- 
 rounded with a series of spines, and three other 
 rows of them on the tail. 
 
 BARRACONDA, a considerable town in cen- 
 tral Africa, about 400 miles up the Gambia, where 
 very formidable cataracts obstruct the navigation 
 of the river, and prevent any but the smallest 
 canoes from passing. The tide flows up to this 
 place. Long. 13" W., lat. 13° 36' N. 
 
 BARRACUDA, a species of esox. 
 
 BARRADA, or Bauradys, a river of Syria, 
 rising at Barraud, twenty-four miles west of Da- 
 mascus. Receiving the Fichee, it divides into 
 seven branches, six miles from that city ; the 
 fourth alone, which washes the northern walls, 
 preserving the original name. All the different 
 branches afterwards rejoin the main stream, 
 which is discharged into a lake twenty-one 
 miles north-east. 
 
 BARRAGAN, a river of the province and 
 government of Buenos Ayres, which runs north, 
 and enters the Plata. 
 
 BARRAGAN, Bay of, in the La Plata, about 
 twelve miles below Buenos Ayres, to the south- 
 east. Ships discharge, in lighters, their car- 
 goes in the roadstead of Buenos Ayres, and 
 then go to the bay of Barragan to wait for 
 their cargoes out. The land about it is low, and 
 tlie bay therefore much exposed, nor can ships of 
 any burden come within two or three miles of 
 the shore. Some banks under water, how- 
 ever, meet the force of breakers, but there is 
 little security, when a storm comes on, against a 
 ship's parting from her ground-tackle, and being 
 driven on them. The river running into the bay 
 can receive vessels drawing twelve feet water, 
 but none larger. 
 
 BARRAI ScjAiiiAT, the Arabian name given 
 to the desert of Natron in Egypt, situated to the 
 
 west of the Delta, and the south of lake Mareo- 
 tis. It contains the two lakes Nedebe and Lebe 
 from which the Natron is drawn, and is pervaded 
 by a vast and deep ravine, called the Bahr Be- 
 lame, or river without water. This desert is 
 celebrated for the great number of monasteries 
 which were founded in it at a former period. 
 
 BARRAMAIIAL, a district in Southern India, 
 situated between twelve and fourteen degrees of 
 north latitude, consisting of twelve places, which 
 the name is said to signify. These are Krish- 
 nagiry, Jacadeo, \'arinaghada, Mahaiay-ghada, 
 Bujungaghada, Tripatura, \'anambady, Ghan- 
 ganaghada, Sudarshana-ghada, and Tatucallu. 
 This district was ceded to the British byTippoo, 
 in 1792. The inhabitants are Hindoos. 
 
 BARRATI, Barred, in ecclesiastical history, 
 an appellation given to the Carmelites, after they 
 were obliged to lay aside the white cap, and 
 wear cowls striped black and white. 
 
 BA'RRATOR, s. I' From barat, o\d French; 
 Barratry, s. S from which is still rettiined 
 barateur, a cheat; from the Dano-Norman baret, 
 our lawyers have baretter, barettry, a wran^-ler 
 and encourager of law-suits; one who harasses 
 tlie bar or courts with importunate litigations. 
 Lord Coke defines barrator to be a common 
 mover and maintalner of suits, in disturbance of 
 the peace. This exciting and fomenting of liti- 
 gious quarrels is an offence by common law, and 
 punishable by fine and imprisonment; and if the 
 barrator be an attorney, a statute of the 12th of 
 George the First provides that he shall be inca- 
 pacitated from practising for the future, under 
 pain of seven years' transportation. 
 
 Will it not reflect as much on thy character, Xic, 
 to turn barrator in thy old days, a stirrer-up of quar- 
 rels amongst thy neighbours .' 
 
 Arbuthnut's History of John Bull. 
 'Tis arrant barratry, that bears 
 Point blank an action 'gainst our laws. 
 
 Hudibras. 
 Barratry, in commerce. See Baratry 
 and IxsiRANCE. 
 
 Barratry, in the law of England, has been 
 noticed. See Baratry. The term, however, is 
 of foreign origin; and in Italy, and other coun- 
 tries, seems ordinarily to have been applied to 
 the traffic of ecclesiastical benefices; but was 
 afterwards used in a more general sense, as ap- 
 plicable to all corrupt buying and selling of jus- 
 tice. In Scotland it signified the corrupt pur- 
 chasing of benefices or oflices of collection, from 
 the see of Rome, by persons who left the realm 
 for that purpose ; a practice which had become 
 frequent, and was in various respects injurious 
 to the realm ; as a means of carrj'ing money out 
 of it, without any return of value, as prejudicial 
 to the right of patronage in the king or others, 
 and to the free elections of the monks in the mo- 
 nasteries, both which the pope by prevention 
 pretended to exclude ; and as contributing to 
 raise the rate of taxation upon benefices, by the 
 false accounts which those suitors for the office 
 of collector carried to the pope. 
 
 BARRAUX, or Fort Barrealx, a fortress 
 of France, in Dauphiny, on the borders of Savoy, 
 now included in the department of the Isere, ar- 
 rondissement of (Jrenoble. It stands on t'ne 
 right bank of the river Isere, near the entrance
 
 BAR 
 
 582 
 
 BAR 
 
 of the valley of Gresivaudan, on the road from 
 Grenoble to Chamberry, eighteen miles north- 
 east of the former town. The fort was erected 
 at a great expense by Charles Emanuel, duke of 
 Savoy, in 1597, and is strong both by nature and 
 art. The French, however, got possession of it 
 in a single night, and is retained it at the peace of 
 Vervins, on the plea that it was built on French 
 ground. Population 1320. 
 
 13ARRE (Louis Francis Joseph de la), an in- 
 genious writer, born at Tournay, in 1688. He 
 received his education at the college of St. Barbe, 
 at Paris, where he assisted Anselm Banduri in 
 his extensive work, Imper. Orientate, Recueils 
 de Medailles des empereurs, after whicli he had 
 a pension given him by the grand duke of Tus- 
 cany. He also published Memoirs for the His- 
 tory of France and Burgundy, and various other 
 works. He died in 1738. 
 
 Barre' or Barry ,(Madame Du), the favorite 
 mistress of Louis XV. She is said to have been 
 one of the richest women in France. She was 
 condemned by the revolutionary tribunal of Paris, 
 as a conspirator against the republic. Her beha- 
 viour was marked by unusual cowardice. The ex- 
 ecutoiner was obliged to support her all the way 
 to the scaffold, and he required two assistants 
 to lift her upon it ; after which she exerted all 
 her strength to prevent being fastened to the 
 pknk. She was guillotined on the 9th December 
 1793. 
 
 Barre', a township of Worcester county, Mas- 
 sachusetts, twenty-four miles north-west of Wor- 
 cester, and sixty-six west of Boston. Also a 
 township of Pennsylvania, in Huntingdon county. 
 
 BA'RREL, V. & 71. Ft. barril, Ital. bairile. 
 Span, barril. Junius says, perhaps from barre, 
 repagulum (see To Bar) ; because liquids are 
 held or contained in a cask, quasi in quondam 
 repagulo ; as if under bar, or in a stout strong 
 vessel stopped close. It is applied to any thing 
 hollow, as to the ear, the barrel of a gun, a cy- 
 linder about which any thing is wound. It also 
 denominates a particular measure. 
 
 I would have their beef beforehand barrelled, which 
 may be used as is needed. Spenser on Ireland. 
 
 Barrel up earth and sow some seed in it, and put 
 il in the bottom of a pond. Bacon. 
 
 It hath been observed by one of the ancients, that 
 an empty barrel, knoclied upon with the finger, giveth 
 a diapsison to the sound of the like barrel full. Id. 
 
 Trembling to approach 
 The little barrel which he fears to broach. 
 
 Dry den. 
 
 Several colleges, instead of limiting their rents to 
 a certain sum, prevailed with their tenants to pay the 
 price of so many barrels of corn, as the market went. 
 
 Swift. 
 
 Take the barrel of a long gun perfectly bored, set 
 it upright, with the breech upon the ground, and take 
 a bullet exactly lit for it; then, if you suck at the 
 mouth of the barrel ever so gently, the bullet will 
 come up so forcibly, that it will hazard the striking 
 out your teeth. Digby, 
 
 Your string and bow must be accommodated to 
 your drill ; if too weak, it will not carry about the 
 barrel. Moxon. 
 
 Barrel, in mechanics, a term given by 
 watch makers to the cylinder about which the 
 spring is wrapped ; and by gun-smidis to the 
 
 cylindrical tube of a gun, pistol, &c. through 
 which the ball is discharged. 
 
 Barrel of a Pump, is the wooden tube 
 which makes the body of the engine, and where- 
 in the piston moves. 
 
 Barrel of Eels and Barrel of Salmon, 
 ought to contain forty-two gallons each. 
 
 Barrel of Soap must weigh 2561b. 
 
 Barrel, or Barille of Florence, is a liquid 
 measure, containing twenty flasks, or one-third 
 of a star or staio. 
 
 Barrel, or Barique of Paris, contains 210 
 pints, or twenty-six septiers and a half; four 
 bariques make three muids, or one tun. 
 
 Barrels, in artillery, are used for holding 
 powder, small-shot, flints, sulphur, salt-petre, 
 resin, pitch, quick-match, &c. Barrels filled 
 with earth serve to make a parapet to cover the 
 men, like gabions and canvas bags. 
 
 Barrels, Fire, are casks of divers capacities, 
 filled with bombs, grenadoes, fire pots, &c. and 
 mixed with great quantities of tow soaked in 
 petroleum, turpentine, pitch, &c. used by the be- 
 sieged to defend breaches. Some are mounted 
 on wheels, filled with composition, and inter- 
 mixed with loaded grenades, and the outside full 
 of sharp spikes; some are placed under ground, 
 which have the effect of small mines : others are 
 used to roll down a breach, to prevent the ene- 
 my's entrance. Composition, corned powder, 
 thirty pounds, Swedish pitch twelve, saltpetre 
 six, and tallow three. Not used now. See Fire 
 Ship 
 
 Barrels of Gunpowder are about sixteen 
 inches diameter, and thirty or thirty-two inches 
 long, holding 100 pounds of powder; but the 
 quantity put into a whole barrel is only ninety 
 pounds, into a half barrel forty-five pounds, and 
 a quarter barrel, used for rifle powder, only 
 twenty-two pounds and a half; this propor- 
 tion leaves a space for the powder to separate 
 when rolled, or otherwise it would always be in 
 lumps, and liable thereby to damage. 
 
 Barrels, Budge, hold from forty to sixty 
 pounds of powder ; at one end is fixed a leathern 
 bag with brass nails : they are used in actual 
 service on the batteries, for loading the guns and 
 •mortars, to keep the powder from firing by ac- 
 cident. 
 
 Barrels's Sound, on the north-west coast of 
 America, is situated about six leagues north-west 
 of Washington, or Charlotte Islands. Long. 131" 
 W., lat. 52° N. 
 
 Barrelling of Herrings. See Herring 
 Fishery. 
 
 BA'RREN, adj. ^ Barren, i. e. hi 
 Ba'rrenly, arfu. > stopped, shut, st 
 Ba'rrenness, s. 3 closed up, which 
 
 fcarr-ed, 
 
 strongly 
 
 cannot 
 
 be opened, from which can be no spirit or 
 issue. — Tooke. See To Bar. Thus it is ap- 
 plied to sterile ground, unfruitful trees, unpro- 
 lific animals; to unimaginative and uninstructed 
 minds; to professedly intellectual works, desti- 
 tute of thought, and originality; to whatever is 
 useless and unproductive. 
 
 But I that am exiled ; and barreine. 
 Of alle grace, and in so gret despaire. 
 That there n'is erthe, water, fire, ue aire.
 
 BAR 
 
 >83 
 
 BAR 
 
 Ne crcaturn that of him maked ii 
 
 That may nic hele, or don comfort in tliis. 
 
 Chaucer. 
 Glad was the markis, and his folk therefore. 
 For though a maiden child come all before 
 She may unto a knave child attcine ; 
 By likclyhed, sin she n'is not barreiiie. Id. 
 
 It is a darksome delve, farrc undt r ground. 
 With thorncs and barren brakes environed round. 
 That none the same may easily out-wia j 
 Yet many waies to enter may be found, 
 l?ut none to issue forth vrhen one is in : 
 For discord harder is to end than to begin. 
 
 SpeTiser. 
 Thou barraine ground, whom winter's wrath hath 
 wasted. 
 Art made a mirror to behold my plight. 
 Whilome thy fresh spring flowr'd, and after hasted 
 Thy summer proude with dafibdillees dij:ht ; 
 And now, is come thy winter's stormic state. 
 Thy mantle mard wherein thou maskedst late. Id. 
 
 Yel, O most blessed Spirit ! pure Lampc of Light, 
 Eternal Spring of Grace and Wisedom trew. 
 Vouchsafe to shed into my barren spright 
 Some little drop of thy celestial dew. 
 That may my rimes with sweet infuse embrew. 
 And give me words equal unto my thought. 
 To tell the marveiles by Thy mercie wrought. Id. 
 
 It is one especial praise of many, which are due to 
 this poet, that he hath laboured to restore as to their 
 rightfull heritage such good and naturall English 
 wordes as have beena long time out of use and almost 
 clean disherited, which is the only cause that our 
 mother tongue, which truly of itself is both full enough 
 for prose, and stately enough for verse, hath long time 
 been counted most barren and bare of both. 
 
 Critique on Spemitr, prejixed to his Works. 
 
 There shall not be male or female barren among 
 
 you, or among your cattle. Deuteronomy. 
 
 Give me no help in lamentations ; 
 1 am not barren to bring forth laments. Shalispeare. 
 There be of them that will make themselves laugh, 
 to set on some quantity of barren spectators to laugh 
 too. Id. 
 
 Forget not in your speed, Antonius, 
 To touch Calphurnia ; for our elders say 
 The barren, touched in this holy chase. 
 Shake olT their steril curse. Id. 
 
 The situation of this city is pleasant, but the water 
 is naught, and the ground barren. 2 Kings. 
 
 Within the self same-liamlet, lands have divers 
 degrees of value, through the diversity of their fer- 
 tility or barrenness. Bacon. 
 The importunity of our adversaries hath constrain- 
 ed US longer to dwell than the barrenness of so poor a 
 cause could have seemed either to require or to admit. 
 
 Hooker, 
 Straight mine eye hath caught new pleasures 
 Whilst the landscape round it measures ; 
 Russet lawns and fallows gray. 
 Where the nibbling flocks do stray ; 
 Mountains, on whose barren breast 
 The lab'ring clouds do often rest ; 
 Meadows trim, with daisies pied. 
 Shallow brooks, and rivers wide. Milton. 
 
 They led the vine 
 To wed her elm ; she spous'd about him twines 
 Her marriageable arms, and with her brings 
 iler dow'r, th' adopted clusters, to adorn 
 His barren leaves. Id. 
 
 I pray'd for children, and thought barrenness 
 II wedlock a reproach. Id. 
 
 No more be mention'd then of violence 
 Against ourselves ; and wilful barrenness 
 That cuts off us from hope. Id. 
 
 The adventures of Vlysscs arc imitated in the 
 iEneis ; though the accidents are not th(; same, which 
 would have argued him of a total 6arrcnn^M of invention. 
 
 Drt/den. 
 
 Telemachus is far from exalting the nature of his 
 country ; he confesses it to be barren. Pope. 
 
 Some schemes will appear barren of hints and mat- 
 ter, but prove to be fruitful. Swift. 
 
 Without the evening dew and show'rs. 
 The earth would be a barren place. 
 
 Of trees, and plants, of herbs and flow'rs. 
 To crown her now enamell'd face. 
 
 Charles Cotton. 
 
 This heart, by age and grief congeal 'd. 
 Is no more sensible to love's endearments. 
 Than are our barren rocks to morn's sweet dew. 
 That calmly trickles down their rugged cheeks. 
 
 Miller's Mahomet. 
 
 There is a power upon me which withholds 
 And makes it my fatality to live : 
 If it bo life to wear within myself. 
 This barrenness of spirit, and to be 
 My own soul's sepulchre, for I have ccas'd 
 To justifj' my deeds unto myself. 
 
 The last infirmity of evil. Byron. 
 
 Barren Island, an island in the bay of 
 Bengal, about eighteen miles in circumfer- 
 ence ; the vegetation consists principally of 
 withered shrubs and trees. It contains a vol- 
 cano 1800 feet above the level of the sea. Im- 
 mense columns of smoke and showers of red-hot 
 stones, some of tliem three or four tons weight, 
 are discharged from it. Distant forty-five miles 
 east of the Lower Andaman Island. Lat. 12" 
 15' N. Also a small island in Chesapeake bay, 
 north-east from the mouth of Patuxent river. 
 Long. 76° 22' W., lat. 38= 34' N. 
 
 Barrfn Island, C ai'k, an island of the South 
 Pacific Ocean, in Bass Straits, between Great 
 Island on the north, and Clarke's Island on the 
 south. It is abput twenty miles in length, and 
 ten in breadth, chiefly covered with low vegeta- 
 tion. Here are found the peculiar quadrupeds of 
 the Australasian regions, the kangaroo, wombat, 
 and duck-billed ant eater. 
 
 Barrenness. See Sterility. 
 Barren-wort. See Epimedium. 
 BARRERIA, in botany, a genus of plants, 
 class pentandria, order monogynia. Its generic 
 character is cal. quinquedentate ; cor. rotate, 
 divisions scrobiculate ; filaments dilated ; antu. 
 tetragonal, marginate, margins cohering. The 
 only species of this genus is the B. theobroma;- 
 folia, a tree of about fifty feet in height, a native 
 of Cayenne. 
 
 BARRETRY. See Barratry. 
 BARRETT (George), an eminent landscape 
 painter, was born in Dublin about 1732. By 
 natural genius and application, he acquired, with- 
 out a teacher, such skill in the art of painting, 
 as to obtain the premium of £50 offered by 
 the Dublin society for the best landscape in oil. 
 He afterwaiils went to London, and there, in 
 1763, the premium of £50 for the best land- 
 scape, was adjudged to him by the society for 
 tlie encouratrement of arts, &c. lie was one 
 of the original planners of the Royal Academy, of 
 which he became a member. He died in 1784. 
 Barrett (William,) an eminent surgeon, born 
 in Somersetshire. He settled at Bristol, and 
 ■j.iined great reputation in his business. In 178B
 
 BAR 
 
 584 
 
 BAR 
 
 he published a history of the city of Bristol, in 
 one vol. 4to. the materials of which he had em- 
 ployed upwards of twenty years in collecting. 
 He died in 1789. Mr. Barrett was the early 
 patron of the celebrated Chatterton. 
 
 Barrica'de,i'.&»."\ From barr, to stop, 
 Barrica'do,u. &?j. ( bar, or obstruct. A 
 Ba'rrico, ^fortification; any thin^ 
 
 Barrier. 3 fixed to hinder entrance; 
 
 barrier likewise si^rnifies boundary or limit; a 
 bar to mark the limits of any place. 
 
 Why it hath bay windows, transparent as barrica- 
 dues ; and the clear stones to the north are as lustrous 
 as ebony ; and yet complainest thou of obstructions. 
 
 Shahf.-peare. 
 The access was by a neck of land, between the sea 
 on one part, and the harbour water, or inner sea on 
 the other ; fortified clean over with a strong rampier 
 and barricado. Bacon. 
 
 For justs, and toiu-neys, and barriers, the glories of 
 them are chiefly in the chariots, whereia the chal- 
 lengers make their entries. Id. 
 
 Fast we found, fast shut 
 The dismal gates, and barricado'd strong 1 Milton. 
 
 He had not time to barricadu the doors j so that the 
 enemy entered. Clarendon. 
 
 The truth of causes wc find so obliterated, that it 
 seems almost barricadoed from any intellectual ap- 
 proach. Harvey. 
 This he courageously invaded. 
 And having enter'd, barricaded, 
 Insconc'd himself as formidable 
 As could be underneath a table. Hudibras. 
 Pris'ners to the pillar bound. 
 At either barrier plac'd ; nor, captives made. 
 Be freed, or arm'd anew. Dryden. 
 The queen is guarantee of the Dutch, having pos- 
 session of the harrier, and the revenues thereof, be- 
 fore a peace. Swift. 
 But wave what'er to Cadmus may belong. 
 And fix, O muse, the barrier of thy song 
 At Oedipus. Pope's Statins. 
 
 How instinct varies in the grovelling swine, 
 Compar'd half reas'ning elephant I with thine : 
 'Twixt that and reason what a nice barrier ! 
 For ever sep'rate, yet for ever near. Pope. 
 
 Safe in the love of Heav'n, an ocean flows 
 Around our realm, a barrier from the foes. Id. 
 
 Now all the pavement sounds with trampling feet. 
 And the mix'd hurry barricades the street ; 
 Entangled here, the waggon's lengthened team. Gay. 
 11 you value yourself as a man of learning, you are 
 building a most impassable barrier against improve- 
 ment. Watts. 
 The barrier wall, the river deep and wide. 
 The horrid crags, the mountains dark and tall. 
 Rise like the rocks that part Hispania's land from 
 Gaul. Byron. 
 
 Barricade, in military affairs, is usually 
 formed when time permits, of pales or stakes 
 crossed with batoons, and shod with iron at the 
 feet, and set up in passages or breaches. 
 
 Barricade, in naval architecture, a strong 
 wooden rail, supported by stanchioss, extending 
 across the foremost part of the quarter deck. In 
 a vessel of war, the vacant spaces between the 
 stanchions are commonly filled with rope-mats, 
 cork, or pieces of old cable ; and the upper 
 part, which contains a double rope-netting above 
 the rail, is stuffed with full hammocks to inter- 
 cept the motion, and prevent tlie execution of 
 small shot in time of battle. 
 
 BARRIER, in fortification, a kind of fence 
 made at a passage, retrenchment. Sec. to stop up 
 the entry. It is composed of great stakes, 
 about four or five feet high, placed at the dis- 
 tance of eight or ten feet from one another, with 
 transums, or overtliwart rafters, to stop either 
 horse or foot, that would enter or rush in with 
 violence : in the middle is a moveable bar of 
 wood, that opens or shuts at pleasure. A bar- 
 rier is commonly set up in a void space, between 
 the citadel and the town, in half-moons, &c. 
 
 Barrier Islands, a range of islands near the 
 east coast of New Zealand, thirty miles in length, 
 at the mouth of the river Thames. Long. 184° 
 27' W., lat. 36° 11' S. 
 
 BARRIERS, styled the jeu de barres, French, 
 was a martial exercise of men armed and fighting 
 together with swords, within certain bars or rails 
 which separated them from the spectators. It is 
 now disused. 
 
 BARRIGA NEGRA,ariver in the vice-royalty 
 of Buenos Ayres, South America, which has its 
 rise about f 60 miles north-west of Monte \'ideo, 
 and after being augmented by the accession of 
 several streams, falls into lake ]Meri. The coun- 
 try around is well watered, mountainous, and 
 woody. Here are numbers of great breeding 
 estates for cattle. 
 
 BARRING A Vein. See To Bar. 
 
 BARRINGTON (John Shute, Viscount), a 
 distinguished theologian, wa^ the youngest son 
 of Benjamin Shute, Esq. a merchant and a pro- 
 testant dissenter. He was born in 1678, and re- 
 ceived part of his education abroad. On his re- 
 turn to London, he studied in the Inner Temple, 
 and in 1701 distinguished himself as a writer in 
 favor of the civil rights of the dissenters. Being 
 employed by Lord Somers to engage the Presby- 
 terians of Scotland to favor the union between 
 the two kingdoms, he was in 1708 rewarded by 
 the place of commissioner of the customs, from 
 which the torj' ministry of Anne removed him. 
 About this time an ample fortune was left him 
 by Francis Barrington of Tofts, Esq. whose name 
 he assumed. On the accession of George I. he 
 was chosen member of parliament for Berwick- 
 upon-Tweed, and in 1720 was raised to the 
 peerage by the title of viscount Barrington of 
 Ardglass. Unfortunately he became connected 
 with one of the bubbles of that time, called the 
 Harburgh Lottery ; and was in consequence ex- 
 pelled the House of Commons ; a censure which 
 lie scarcely merited, as the misconduct seems to 
 have rested principally with the ministry of Ha- 
 nover. But his strong opposition to Sir Robert 
 Walpole is thought to liave produced this seve- 
 rity. In 1725 Lord Barrington published his 
 ' Miscellanea Sacra,' 2 vols. 8vo., since reprinted 
 by his son, the late Bishop of Durham, 3 vols. 
 8vo. 1770. In the same year he published 'An 
 Essay on the several Dispensations of God to 
 Mankind,' 8vo. and was also the author of va- 
 rious other tracts relative to toleration in matters 
 of religion. He died in 1734, leaving severd 
 children, of whom five sons rose to high statiois 
 respectively in the state, the church, the law, the 
 army, and the navy; the youngest of them vas 
 the late venerable Bishop of Durham. Lcrd 
 Barrington was the friend and disciple of Locke,;
 
 BAR 
 
 585 
 
 BAR 
 
 and although bred a Dissenter, and a leader of 
 that body, was also a frequenter and communi- 
 cant of the Church of England. 
 
 BaRrington (Daines), fourth son of viscount 
 Barrington, was distinguished as a lawyer, anti- 
 quary, and naturalist. He was bom in 1727, 
 and, after preparatory studies at Oxford and the 
 Inner Temple, was called to the bar. He held 
 several offices previous to his being appointed a 
 Welch judge in 1757, and was subsequently se- 
 cond justice of Chester till 1785, when he re- 
 signed that post, and thenceforward lived in 
 retirement, in the Temple, where he died, March 
 1800. His works, which are numerous, consist 
 principally of papers in the Transactions of the 
 Royal and Antiquarian Societies, of both which 
 learned bodies he was a fellow ; Observations 
 on the Statutes, chiefly on the more Ancient, &c. 
 1766, 4to. ; an edition of Orosius, with the 
 Anglo-Saxon version of king Alfred, and an 
 English translation and notes, 1773; Tracts on 
 the Probability of reaching the North Pole, 1775, 
 4to. occasioned by the arctic expedition of Capt. 
 Phipps, afterwards Lord Mulgrave. 
 
 Barringtox, a township of Nova Scotia, in 
 Queen's county, on the east side of the bay of 
 Fundy. 2. A township of New Hampshire, in 
 Stafford county, about thirty miles north-west of 
 Portsmouth. Alum is found here. 3. A town- 
 ship of'Rhode Island, in Bristol county, on the 
 north-west branch of the Warren, seven miles 
 south-east of Fox-Point, in Providence. 
 
 Barrington, Great, a township in Berkshire, 
 county of ^lassachusetts. It lies 140 miles west 
 of Boston. 
 
 BARRINGTONIA, in botany, a genus of the 
 polyandria order, belonging to the monadelphia 
 class of plants, the characters of which are : one 
 female, the calyx dephillous above; with adrupa, 
 which it crowns ; and the seed is a quadrilocular 
 nut. There is but one species known, viz. B. 
 speciosa, a native of China and Otaheite. 
 
 BA'RRISTER; from barr, and e.sYfr, to re- 
 main or continue : thus the combination of the 
 two forms, barrester, one who takes his sta- 
 tion at a bar ; who continues there — that is who 
 carries on his profession at the bar; a pleader of 
 causes. 
 
 Jollier of this state. 
 Than are new-beneiic'd ministers ; he throws. 
 Like nets or lime-twigs, wheresoe'cr he goes. 
 His title of barrister on everj' wench. 
 And wooes in language of the Pleas and Bench. 
 
 Donne. 
 This being reveal'd, they now begun 
 With law and conscience to fall on. 
 And laid about as hot and brainsick. 
 As th' utter barrister of Swanswick. 
 
 Butler's Httdihras. 
 Barristers are sometimes termed juriscon- 
 sulti ; and in other countries called licentiati 
 in jure. Anciently barristers at law were called 
 apprentices of the law, in Latin, apprenticii juris 
 nobiliores. The time before they ought to be 
 called to the bar, by the ancient orders, was eiglit 
 years, now reduced to five ; and the exercises 
 done by them, (if they were not called ex gratia) 
 were twelve grand moots performed in the inns of 
 Chancery in the time of the grand readings, and 
 twenty-four petty moots in the term times, before 
 
 the readers of the respective inns : and a barris- 
 ter newly called is to attend the six (or four) 
 next long vacations the exercises of the house, 
 viz. Lent and Summer, and is thereupon for 
 those three (or two) years styled a vacation bar- 
 rister. The duties of a barrister are to be consi- 
 dered honorar}% and he can maintain no action 
 for his fees, which are reckoned a gratuity, not a 
 hire ; and which cannot be even demanded by a 
 barrister without doing wrong to his reputation. 
 
 BARRITUS is a word of German original, 
 adopted by the Romans to signify the general 
 shout usually given by the soldiers of their armies 
 on their first encounter after the classicum or 
 alarm. This custom, however, of setting up a 
 general shout was not peculiar to the Romans, 
 but prevailed amongst the Trojans according to 
 Homer, amongst the Germans, the Gauls, Mace- 
 donians, and Persians. See Classicum. 
 
 BARROS (John de), a celebrated Portuguese 
 historian, born at Visere, in 1496. He was edu- 
 cated at the court of king Emanuel, among the 
 princes of the blood, and made a great progress 
 in Greek and Latm. The infant John, to whom 
 he attached himself, and became preceptor, 
 having succeeded the king his father, in 1521, 
 Barros obtained a place in this prince's house- 
 hold ; and in 1522 was made governor of St. 
 George del ]Mina, on the coast of Guinea. The 
 king, having recalled him to court three years 
 after, made him treasurer of the Indies, and this 
 post inspired him with the ttiought of writing 
 this history ; for which purpose he retired to 
 Pombal, where he died in 1570. His historj' of 
 Asia and the Indies is divided into decades; the 
 first of which he published in 1552, the second 
 in 1553, and the third in 1563 ; but the fourth 
 decade was not published till 1615, when it ap- 
 peared by order of Philip III. who purchsised 
 the MS. Several authors have continued it, so 
 that we have at present twelve decades. He 
 left many other works. 
 
 BARROW, 11. s. bejiefje, Sax. supposed by 
 Skinner to come from bear; any kind of carriage 
 moved by the hand ; as a hand-bunou- , a frame 
 of boards, with handles at each end, carried be- 
 tween two men; a ichcel-barrow, that which one 
 man pushes forward by raising on one wheel. 
 
 Have I lived to be carried in a basket, like a barrow 
 of butcher's offal, and thrown into the Thames. 
 
 Sliakspeare. 
 No barrow's wheel 
 
 Shall mark thy stocking with a miry trace. Gay. 
 
 Ba'rrow, n. s. beji3. Sax. a hog; whence 
 barrow grease, or hog's lard. 
 
 His life was like a barrow hogge. 
 
 That liveth many a day. 
 
 Yet never once doth any good. 
 
 Until men will him slay. 
 
 The Jew of Venice, in Percy, 
 
 And therefore take my words thus, that 1 mean no 
 other swine but such as feed and root in the field : 
 among which the female, especially a guclt that never 
 farrowed, is more effectual than a (tame) bore, barrow 
 hog, or a breeding sow. Holland's Plinie. 
 
 Barrow, whether in the beginning or end of 
 names of places, signifies a grove ; from beanl"-S 
 which tlie Saxons used in the same sense. Gibson. 
 
 Barrow is likewise used in Com%N-all for a
 
 BAR 
 
 586 
 
 BAR 
 
 hillock, under which, in old times, bodies have 
 been buried. See Barrows. 
 
 Barrow, a river of Ireland, which rises in 
 Queen's county, and passing by Port-Arlington, 
 Monastereven, Athy, Carlow, &c. is joined by 
 the Nore before it arrives at Ross, after which, 
 continuing south, it joins the Suir in Waterford 
 Haven. ' 
 
 Barrow, a river of Westmoreland, which 
 runs into the Burbeck, near Howse-house. 
 
 Barrow (Isaac), an eminent mathematician 
 and divine, of the last century, was the son of Mr. 
 Thomas Barrow, a linen-draper in London, where 
 he was born in 1630. He was at first placed at 
 the charter-house school for two or three years ; 
 where his behaviour afforded but little hopes 
 of success in the profession of a scholar, but 
 being removed thence his disposition took a 
 happier turn ; and having soon made a suffi- 
 cient progress in learning, he was admitted a 
 pensioner of Peter House, Cambridge. He now 
 applied himself with great diligence to the study 
 of all branches of literature, especially that of 
 natural philosophy. He afterwards turned his 
 attention to physic, and made a considerable 
 progress in anatomy, botany, and chemistry ; 
 after which he studied chronology, astronomy, 
 and geometry. He then travelled into France 
 and Italy, and in a voyage from Leghorn to 
 Smyrna, the ship being attacked by an Algerine 
 pirate, he staid upon deck, and with the greatest 
 intrepidity, worked the guns, till the pirate, per- 
 ceiving the stout resistance the ship made, 
 sheered off and left her. At Smyrna he met 
 with a most kind reception from Mr. Bretton, 
 the English consul, upon whose death he after- 
 wards wrote a Latin elegy. From thence he 
 proceeded to Constantinople, where he received 
 similar civilities from Sir Thomas Bendish the 
 English ambassador, and Sir Jonathan Dawes, 
 with whom he afterwards preserved an intimate 
 friendship. At Constantinople he read the works 
 of St. Chrysostom, once bishop of that see, whom 
 he preferred to all the other fathers, and about 
 a year after he returned to Venice. From thence 
 he came home in 1659, through Germany and 
 Holland ; and was ordained by bishop Brownrig. 
 In 1660 he was chosen to the Greek professorship 
 at Cambridge, and gave lectures upon Aristotle's 
 rhetoric. In 1662 he was appointed professor of 
 geometry in Gresham college, and in 1603 
 elected a fellow of the Royal Society, in the first 
 clioice made by the council after their charter. 
 The same year he was chosen professor of mathe- 
 matics at Cambridge, and resigned his professor- 
 ship of Gresham college. In 1669 he resigned 
 his mathematical chair to his learned friend 
 Isaac Newton, being determined to give up the 
 study of mathematics for that of divinity. Upon 
 quitting his professorship, he was only a fellow 
 of Trinity college, till his uncle gave him a small 
 sinecure in Wales, and Dr. Seth Ward, bishop 
 of Salisbury conferred upon him a prebend in 
 his church. In 1670 he was created D. D. by 
 mandate ; and, upon the promotion of Dr. Pear- 
 son, master of Trinity college, to the see of 
 Chester, he was appointed to succeed him by the 
 king's patent, dated the 13th of February, 1672. 
 When the king advanced him to this dignity, he 
 
 said, ' he had given it to the best scholar in Eng- 
 land.' In 1675 he was raised to be vice-chancel- 
 lor of the university.- He died on the 4th of May, 
 1677, in the forty-seventh year of his age, and 
 was interred in Westminster abbey, where a 
 monument adorned with his bust was soon after 
 erected. Among other instances of his wit and 
 vivacity, is related the following rencontre be- 
 tween him and the Celebrated Lord Rochester. 
 These two meeting one day at the court, while the 
 doctor was king's chaplain in ordinary, Roches- 
 ter, thinking to banter him, with a flippant air, 
 and a low formal bow, accosted him with, * Doc- 
 tor, I am yours to my shoe-tie ;' Barrow, per- 
 ceiving his drift, and determined upon defending 
 himself, returned the salute, with, ' My lord, I 
 am yours to the ground.' Rochester, on this, 
 improving his blow, returned it with, 'Doctor, I 
 am yours to the centre ;' which was as smartly 
 followed up by Barrow, with, *My lord, I am 
 yours to the antipodes.' Upon which, Roches- 
 ter, disdaming to be foiled by a musty old piece 
 of divinity, as he used to call him, exclaimed, 
 ' Doctor, I am yours to the lowest pit of hell ;' 
 upon which, Barrow turning upon his heel, with 
 a sarcastic smile, archly replied, ' There, my lord, 
 I leave you.' 
 
 Of Dr. Barrow's numerous works, the princi- 
 pal are, 1. Euclidis Elementa, 8vo. Cantab. 
 1655. 2. Euclidis Data, 8vo. Cantab. 1657. 
 
 3. Lectiones Opticse XVIII. 4to. Lond. 1669. 
 
 4. Lectiones Geometricae XIII. 4to. Lond. 1670. 
 
 5. Archimedis Opera, ApoUonii Conicorum, 
 Libri IV; Theodosii Sphericorum, Lib. III.&c. 
 4to. Lond. 1675. 6. Lectio, in qua Theoremata 
 Archimedis de Sphaera et Cylindro exhiben- 
 tur, 12mo. Lond. 1678. 7. Mathematicae 
 Lectiones, &c. Lond. 1683. 8. Theological 
 Works in 3 vols. fol. Lond. 1683, published by 
 Tillotson. 9. Isaaci Barrow Opuscula, &c. fol. 
 Lond. 1687. 
 
 Barrows, in ancient topography,' artificial 
 hillocks or mounts, met with in many parts of 
 the world, intended as repositories for the dead, 
 and formed either of stones heaped up, o{ of 
 earth. For the former, more generally known 
 by the name of cairns, see Cairns. Of the lat- 
 ter Dr. Plott takes notice of two kinds in Oxford- 
 shire : one placed on the military ways ; the other 
 in the fields, meadows, or woods ; the first sort 
 doubtless of Roman erection, the other more 
 probably erected by the Britons or Danes. We 
 have an examination of the barrows in Cornwall 
 by Dr. Williams, in the Phil. Trans. No. 458, 
 from which we find that they are generally com- 
 posed of foreign or adventitious earth ; that is, 
 such as does not rise on the place, but is fetched 
 from some distance. Monuments of this kind 
 are also very frequent in Scotland. On digging 
 into the barrows, urns have been found in some 
 of them, made of calcined earth, and containing 
 burnt bones and ashes ; in others, stone chests 
 containing bones entire ; in others, bones neither 
 lodged in chests nor deposited in urns. These 
 tumuli are round, not greatly elevated, and ge- 
 nerally at their basis surrounded with a foss. 
 They are of different sizes ; in proportion, it is sup- 
 posed, to tlie greatness, rank, and power, of the 
 deceased person. The links of Skail, in Sand-
 
 BARROW. 
 
 587 
 
 wick, one of the Orkneys, abound in round 
 barrows. Some are formed of earth alone, others 
 of stone covered with earth. In the former was 
 found a coffin, made of six flat stones. Tliey 
 are too short to receive a body at full length : 
 the skeletons found in them lie with the knees 
 pressed to the breast, and the Icrs doubled along 
 tiie thighs. A bag, made of rushes, has been 
 found at the feet of some of these skeletons, 
 containing the bones, most probably, of another 
 of the family. In one were to be seen mul- 
 titudes of small beetles ; and as similar insects 
 have been discovered in the bag which enclosed 
 the sacred ibis, we may suppose that the Egyp- 
 tians, and the nation to whom these tumuli be- 
 longed, might have had the same superstition 
 respecting tliem. On some of the corpses in- 
 terred in this island marks of burning were ob- 
 served. Tiie ashes deposited in an urn, which 
 was covered on the top with a flat stone, have 
 been found in the cell of one of the barrows. 
 This coffin or cell was placed on the ground, 
 then covered with a heap of stones, and that 
 again cased with earth and sods. Both barrow 
 and contents evince them to be of a different age 
 from the former. These tumuli were in the 
 nature of family vaults : in them have been 
 found two tiers of coffins. It is probable, that 
 on the death of any one of the family, the tu- 
 mulus was opened, and the body interred near its 
 kindred bones. Ancient Greece and Latium 
 concurred in the same practice with tlie natives 
 of this island. Patroclus among the Greeks,' 
 and Hector among the Trojans, received but the 
 same funeral honors with our Caledonian heroes; 
 and the ashes of Uercennus the Laurentine 
 monarch had the same simple protection. The 
 urn and pall of the Trojan warrior might per- 
 haps be more superb than those of a British 
 leader : the rising monument of each had tlie 
 common materials from our motlier earth. See 
 Homer's Iliad, xxiv. 1003. The Grecian bar- 
 rows, however, do not seem to have been all 
 equally simple, '^he barrow of Alyattes, father 
 of Croesus king of Lydia, is described by Hero- 
 dotus as a most superb monument, inferior only 
 to the works of the Egyptians and Babylonians. 
 It was a vast mound of earth heaped on a base- 
 ment of large stones by three classes of the 
 people : one of which was composed of girls, 
 who were prostitutes. Alyattes died, after a long 
 leign, A. A. C. .562. Above a century inter- 
 vened, but the historian relates, that to his time 
 five stones (spoi termini or stela;) on which let- 
 ters were engraved, had remained on tiie top, 
 recording what each class had performed ; and 
 from the measurement it appeared, that the 
 greater j:ortion was done by the girls. Strabo 
 likewise has mentioned it as a huge mound, 
 raised on a lofty basement by the multitude of 
 the city. The circumference was six stadia or 
 three quarters of a mile ; the height two ple- 
 thra or 200 feet ; and the width thirteen plethra. 
 It was customary among the Greeks to place on 
 barrows, either the image of some animal or 
 sfela;, jommonly round pillars witli inscriptions. 
 The famous barrow of the Athenians in the plain 
 of Marathon, described by Pausanias, is an in- 
 stance of the latter usage. An ancient monu- 
 
 ment in Italy, by the Appian way, called the 
 sepulchre of the Curiatii, has the same number 
 of termini as remained on the barrow of Alyattes, 
 the basement which is square, supporting five- 
 round pyramids. Of the barrow of Alyattes, 
 the apparent magnitude is described by travellers 
 as now much diminished, and tlie bottom ren- 
 dered wider and less distinct than before, by the 
 gradual increase of the soil below. It stands in 
 the midst of others by the lake Gygxus ; where 
 the burying place of tlie Lydian princes was 
 situated. The barrows are of various sizes, 
 the smaller made perhaps for children of the 
 younger branches of the royal family. Four or 
 five are distinguished by their superior magni- 
 tude, and are visible as hills at a great distance. 
 That of Alyattes is greatly supereminent. All 
 of them are covered with green turf, and retain 
 their conical form without any sinking in of the 
 top. 
 
 Barrows, American. Barrows are also 
 found in great numbers in America. These are of 
 different sizes, according to Mr. Jefferson ; some 
 of them constructed of earth, and some of loose 
 stones. That they were repositories of the dead 
 is obvious ; but on what particular occasion con- 
 structed, is matter of doubt. Some have thought 
 tliey covered the bones of those who have fallen 
 in battles, fought on the spot of interment. 
 Some ascribed them to the custom said to pre- 
 vail among the Indians, of collecting, at certain 
 periods, the bones of all their dead, wheresoever 
 deposited at the time of death. Others again 
 supposed them the general sepulchres for towns, 
 conjectured to have been on or near these 
 grounds ; and diis opinion was supported by 
 the quality of the lands in which they are found 
 (those constructed of earth being generally in the 
 softest and most fertile meadow grounds on river 
 sides"!, and by a tradition said to be handed 
 down from the aboriginal Indians, thnt when 
 they settled in a town, the first person who died 
 was placed erect, and earth put about him, so as 
 to cover and support him ; that when another 
 died, a narrow passage was dug to the first, the 
 second reclined against him, and the cover of 
 earth replaced, and so on. ' There being one of 
 tliese barrows in my neighbourhood (says INIr. 
 Jefferson), I wished to satisfy myself whether 
 any, and which, of these opinions were just. 
 For this purpose I determined to open and ex- 
 amine it thoroughly. It was situated on the low 
 grounds of the Kivanna, about two miles above its 
 principal fork, and opposite to some hills, on 
 which had been an Indian town. It was of a 
 spheroidical form, of about forty feet diameter 
 at the base, and had been of about twelve feet 
 altitude, though now reduced by the plough to 
 7.^, having been under cultivation about a dozen 
 years. Before this it was covered witii trees of 
 twelve inches diameter, and round the base was 
 an excavation of five feet depth and width, 
 whence the earth had been taken of wliicli the 
 hillock was formed. I first dug superficially in 
 several parts of it, and came to collections of 
 human bones, at different depths, from six inches 
 to three feet below the surface. These were lying 
 in the utmost confusion, some vertical, some ob- 
 lique, some horizontal, and directed to every
 
 688 
 
 BARROW. 
 
 point of the compass, entangled, and held to- 
 getlier in clusters, by the earth. Bones of the 
 most distant parts were found together; as, for 
 instance, the small bones of the foot in the hol- 
 low of a skull, many skulls would sometimes be 
 in contact, lying on the face, on the side, on the 
 back, top or bottom, so as on the whole to give 
 the idea of bones emptied promiscuously from a 
 bag or basket, and covered over with earth, 
 without any attention to their order. The bones 
 of which the greatest numbers remained, were 
 skulls, jaw-bones, teeth, the bones of the arms, 
 thighs, legs, feet, and hands. A few ribs re- 
 mained, some vertebra of the neck and spine, 
 without tlieir processes, and one instance only of 
 the bone which serves as a base to the vertebral 
 column. The skulls were so tender, that they 
 generally fell to pieces on being touched. The 
 other bones were stronger. There were some 
 teeth which were judged to be smaller than those 
 of an adult ; a skull which, on a slight view, ap- 
 peared to be that of an infant, but it fell to 
 pieces on being taken out, so as to prevent satis- 
 factory examination ; a nb, and a fragment of 
 the under jaw of a person about half grown ; 
 another rib of an infant ; and part of the jaw of 
 a child, which had not yet cut its teeth. This 
 last furnishing the most decisive proof of the 
 burial of children here, I was particular in my 
 attention to it. It was part of the right half of 
 the under jaw. The processes by which it was 
 articulated to the temporal bones were entire ; 
 and the bone itself firm to where it had been 
 broken off, which, as nearly as I could judge, 
 was about the place of the eye-tooth. Its upper 
 edge, wherein would have been the sockets of 
 the teeth, was perfectly smooth. Measuring it 
 with that of an adult, by placing their hinder 
 processes together, its broken end extended to the 
 penultimate grinder of the adult. This bone 
 was white, all the others of a sand color. The 
 bones of infants being soft, they probably decay 
 sooner, which might be the cause so few were 
 found here, I proceeded then to make a perpen- 
 dicular cut through the body of the barrow, that 
 I might examine its external structure. This 
 passed about three feet from its centre, was 
 opened to the former surface of the earth, and 
 was wide enough for a man to walk through and 
 examine its sides. At the bottom, that is, on the 
 level of the circumjacent plain, I found bones ; 
 above these a few stones, brought from a cliff a 
 quarter of a mile off, and from the river one 
 eighth of a mile off; then a large interval of 
 earth, then a stratum of bones, and so on. At 
 one end of the section were four strata of bones 
 plainly distinguishable : at the other, three; the 
 strata in one part not ranging with those in 
 another. The bones nearest the surface were 
 least decayed. No holes were discovered in any 
 of them, as if made with bullets, arrows, or other 
 weapons. 1 conjectured that in this barrow might 
 have been 1000 skeletons. Everyone will readily 
 seize the circumstances above related, which 
 militate against the opinion that it covered the 
 bones only of persons fallen in battle ; and 
 against the tiadition also which would make it 
 the common sepulchre of a town, in which the 
 bodies were placed upright, and touching each 
 
 other. Appearances certainly indicate that it 
 derived both origin and growth from the ac- 
 customary collection of bones, and deposition 
 of them together ; that the first collection had 
 been deposited on the common surface of the 
 earth, a few stones put over it, and then a co- 
 vering of earth ; that the second had been laid 
 on this, had covered more or less of it in pro- 
 portion to the number of bones, and was then 
 also covered with earth, and so on. The fol- 
 lowing are the particular circumstances which 
 give it this aspect. 1. The number of bones. 
 2. Their confused position. 3. Their being in 
 different strata. 4. The strata in one part having 
 no correspondence with those in another. 5. The 
 different states of decay in these strata, which 
 seem to indicate a difference in the time of in- 
 humation. 6. The existence of infant bones 
 among them. But on whatever occasion they 
 may have been made, they are of considerable 
 notoriety among the Indians : for a paity passing, 
 about thirty years ago, through the part of the 
 country where tliis barrow is, went through the 
 woods directly to it, without any instructions or 
 enquiry ; and having staid about it some time, 
 with expressions which were construed to be 
 those of sorrow, they returned to the high road, 
 which they had left about half a dozen miles to 
 pay this visit, and pursued their journey. There is 
 another barrow, much resembling this in the low 
 grounds of the south branch of the Shenandoah, 
 where it is crossed by the road leading from the 
 Rockfish gap to Staunton. Both of these liave, 
 within these dozen years, been cleared of their 
 trees and put under cultivation, are much re- 
 duced in their height, and spread in width, by 
 the plough, and will probably disappear in time. 
 There is another on a hill in the Blue ridge of 
 mountains, a few miles north of Wood's gap, 
 which is made up of small stones thrown to- 
 gether. This has been opened and found to 
 contain human bones as the others do. There 
 are also many others in other parts of the 
 country.* In South Africa, to the north of the 
 Hottentots, innumerable barrows are described 
 to have been seen by Dr. Sparrow, (Travels ii. 
 264.) In New Caledonia, also, Mr. Foster met with 
 a barrow four feet high, surrounded by an en- 
 closure of stakes. But the most recent disco- 
 veries of the kind, in countries removed from 
 all intercourse with Europe, have been made 
 by Mr, Oxley during his expedition into the in- 
 terior of New South Wales, in 1817-18. On 
 his return, he passed two native burial places. 
 The first presented a raised mound of earth, 
 under which were some ashes ; but there was no 
 decisive proof whether they were from wood or 
 bones. A semicircular trench was dug round 
 one side of the barrow, as if designed to afford 
 seats for persons in attendance. The second 
 appeared not to have been constructed more than 
 a year or two ; and, from the care displayed in 
 it, evidently belonged to some personage of dis- 
 tinction. The form of the whole was semicir- 
 cular. Three rows of seats occupied one half; 
 the grave and an outer row of seats the other. 
 The seats formed segments of circles of' from 
 forty to fifty feet, and were raised by the soil 
 being trenched up between them. The grave
 
 BAR 
 
 589 
 
 BAR 
 
 was shaped into an obloiiiJj cone, five feet 
 high and nine long. On opening this barrow, a 
 layer of wood presented itself, about two feet 
 beneatli tlie surface, forminira sort of arch, which 
 su{)ported the upper cone. Beneath lliis were 
 placed several sheets of dry bark ; then dry grass 
 and leaves, to winch no damp IkkI ever pene- 
 trated. The body, which was fresh enougli to 
 be extremely offensive, was deposited, at the 
 depth of four feet, in an oval grave, as many 
 feet long, and about two feet broad. The legs 
 were bent quite up to tlie head, and the arms 
 were placed between the thighs. The face was 
 downwards. The direction of the corpse was 
 east and west, the head being to the east. The 
 body was carefully wrapped in a great number 
 of opossum skins. The head was bound round 
 by the common net and girdle of the natives. 
 Over the whole was a larger net. Two cypress 
 trees were to the west and north of this barrow, 
 distant about fifty feet. The sides of them to- 
 wards the sepulchre were barked, and curious 
 characters were deeply engraven in them. 
 
 Barhow, Little, a river of Ireland, which 
 falls into the Barrow, about four miles east of 
 Portarlington. 
 
 Bariiow, Poixt, a cape on the south coast 
 of Ireland, in the county of Cork, five miles 
 east of Kinsale. Long. 8° 21' W., lat. 51" 
 43' N. 
 
 Barrow's Strait, a considerable strait of the 
 Northern Ocean, so named by Captain Parry, in 
 one of his voyages, in honor of INIr. Barrow of 
 the admiralty. 
 
 Barrow upon Soar, a village in Leicester- 
 shire; the birth place of bishop Beveridge. It 
 is celebrated for ])roducing a hard blue stone, 
 which, when calcined, makes a lime fit for a 
 strong cement, and adapted to all works under 
 water. The Barrow blue stone was conveyed to 
 Ramsgate for the building of the piei and was 
 found to succeed, after the Dutch tarras mortar 
 had failed. 
 
 Barrows, in the salt works, are wicker cases, 
 almost in the shape of a sugar loaf, wherein the 
 salt is put to drain. 
 
 BARRSTOBRICK, a rocky moorish hill, in 
 the county of Kirkcudbright and parish of Tong- 
 land, where tiie unfortunate Mary, Queen of 
 Scots, rested and refreshed herself with a few 
 faithful friends, in 1568, after the fatal battle of 
 Langside; on her way to the Abbey of Dun- 
 drennan. From this circumstance the farm on 
 that part of Barrstobrick has ever since been 
 called Queen's Hill. 
 
 BARRUEL(Augustin), a French ecclesiastic, 
 and a literary man of some eminence during the 
 French revolution, commenced his career in 1774, 
 with an ode on the accession of Louis XV'I. 
 Soon after he united with Freron in the compo- 
 sition of the Annee Litteraire. In 1788 he 
 became editor of Le Journal Ecclesiastique, 
 which he carried on till July 1792. In 1794 he 
 had escaped, from the opposition his sentiments 
 encountered in Paris, to Entjland, and published 
 his History of the French Clergy during the Re- 
 volution. In 1796 appeared the first two volumes 
 of the work by which he is best known, Memoirs 
 for a History of Jacobinism, Impiety, and Anar- 
 chy, the remaining part of which followed some 
 
 years after. Tliough an exaggerated production, 
 it supplies many facts not otherwise to be found 
 recorded. lie returned to France in 1802, and 
 did (Jet. 5, 1820, at the age of seventy-nine. 
 
 BARRLLFT, in heraldry, the fourth part of 
 the bar, or the one half of tlie closset, an usual 
 bearing in coat-armour. 
 
 BAllRULY, in heraldry, is when the field is 
 divided bar-ways, that is, across from side to 
 side, into several parts. 
 
 BARRY (.lames), a celebrated painter, was 
 born at Cork on the lltli of October, 1741. His 
 father's occupation was that of a coasting-trader, 
 and, anxious to engage his son in the same busi- 
 ness, he carried him along with him in several 
 voyages. The mind of Barry, however, averse to 
 such an employment of his talents, was engaged 
 at all leisure moments in sketching and drawing; 
 and his father, perceiving the impossibility of fix- 
 ing his choice in a seafaring profession, allowed 
 him at last to pursue the natural bias of his dis- 
 position. His eager thirst of knowledge, and 
 his persevering industry in acquiring it, now 
 excited the admiration of all his acquaintance, 
 and carried him forward to improvement and 
 information far beyond his years. He read all 
 the books that his slender finances could com- 
 mand, or the kindness of his friends supplied ; 
 and his unwearied diligence allowed him no 
 time for frivolous amusement, and little for re- 
 pose. But he devoted a part of every day to the 
 exercise of his pencil, and at a very early age 
 furnished designs for a volume of fables, printed 
 by an Irish bookseller. He was seventeen years old 
 when he attempted oil painting; but his progress 
 in this first art must have been extremely rapid, 
 and his execution of individual pieces uncom- 
 monly quick, since we find him in less than five 
 years not only finishing sereral large paintings, 
 but producing that work which drew him from 
 the obscurity of a provincial town, and gave him a 
 high place among the artists of his country. The 
 subject that he chose for this picture was an old 
 traditionary story concerning the arrival of Saint 
 Patrick in Ireland ; and as soon as he had 
 finished it he set out with it for Dublin. With- 
 out acquaintance or recommendation of any 
 kind, he obtained leave to expose his piece in an 
 exhibition of paintings, which was just opening 
 upon his arrival, and had the happiness to see 
 it marked out by public approbation and ap- 
 plause. He shortly after was introduced to the 
 acquaintance, and soon obtained the friendship, 
 of Burke. With that great man he repaired 
 to London, as a better field for the display of his 
 talents, and, under his patronage, was introduced 
 to several artists of eminence. The talents of Mr. 
 Barry were here universally acknowledged to be 
 great ; but in proportion as nature had been libe- 
 ral, his friends and himself felt the importance 
 of seconding her views, by embracing every at- 
 tainable opportunity of improving her gifts. The 
 most important part of a painter's education 
 having for a long time been considered to be a 
 short residence in Rome, Barry, was enabled 
 to visit, by the assistance of the Burkes, that seat 
 of the arts. There he remained nearly five years, 
 engaged in the deepest researches on the princi- 
 ples of his art, and in the most laborious exami- 
 nation of its noblest specimens. For three years,
 
 590 
 
 BARRY. 
 
 he mentions in a letter to Sir Joshua Reynolds, 
 he was so completely occupied in studying the 
 inimitable ni0(lels of perfection bestowed upon 
 the world by the genius of INIichael Angelo, Ra- 
 phael, Titian, Guido, and other celebrated masters, 
 that he could not spare two hours for any other 
 employment. Nor was any of this portion of 
 his time spent in copying them,- — it was entirely 
 devoted to a minute and critical examination of 
 their peculiar manner and characteristic excel- 
 lencies. In 1771 he returned to his native 
 country, and soon displayed the extent of his 
 powers, and the improvement of his taste, in se- 
 veral masterly appeals to public admiration. His 
 first was a Venus, in which he embodied an 
 amazing assemblage of beauty and grace. The 
 subject he chose for the following year was like- 
 wise mythological, being, a representation of Ju- 
 piter and Juno on Mount Ida. But Mr. Barry's 
 chief object of ambition was to be employed in 
 some national work, which should raise the cha- 
 racter of his country, while it should confer per- 
 manent reputation on his own name. He had 
 beheld at Rome the works of Raphael and 
 ]\Iichael Angelo on the walls of the Vatican, and 
 he saw what splendor magnificent edifices, and 
 noble designs in painting, mutually diffused over 
 each other. He therefore concurred with ala- 
 crity in a proposal made to decorate the cathe- 
 dral of St. Paul's with paintings, and offered his 
 services as one of the artists. But this design was 
 reliquished, owing to the opposition of the primate 
 and the bishop of London. A proposal that was 
 made soon afterwards to Barry and his ' brother 
 artists, to decorate the great hall of the Society 
 of Arts with historical and allegorical paintings, 
 failed, to his great mortification, like the former. 
 Bent on his great object, he offered to execute 
 this work by himself, and the only condition that 
 he stipulated for was, that he might be allowed 
 to proceed to the end of his designs without in- 
 terference or control. The condition was agreed 
 to, and the work will remain a lasting monument 
 of his fame. We have not space in this short 
 sketch to describe his beautiful and ingenious 
 designs ; we must therefore refer our readers to 
 his own writings for their details, and to the pic- 
 tures themselves, for a knowledge of the feeling 
 of that excellence; to which his own description 
 can do justice no more than that of others can 
 convey. Dr. Johnson observed, upon seeing them, 
 that they displayed a grasp of mind which was 
 nowhere else to be found. This great work was 
 unproductive of emolument to the author. But 
 the society voted him their gold medal, 230 
 guineas at different periods, and allowed him 
 the profits of exhibitions, which amounted to 
 £500. It is not very pleasing to follow the 
 artist through tlie remaining part of his life. 
 In 1777 he was made a Royal Academician, and 
 in 1780 professor of painting in the academy, 
 which situation he lost in 1799, in consequence 
 of his extreme anxiety to induce the academy to 
 appropriate the receipts of the exhibitions to the 
 formation of a gallery of old masters for the use 
 of the pupils. Soon after, the earl of Buchan set 
 on foot a subscription for him, which amounted 
 to about £lOOO. With this it was intended to 
 purchase an annuity for him, when he was seized 
 with a pleuritic fever, which carried him off on 
 
 the 22d of February, 1 806, aged sixty-five. ' Mr. 
 Barry, as an artist,' Mr. Hazlett has well said, 
 'as a writer, and a man, w;is distinguished by 
 great inequality of powers and extreme contra- 
 dictions in character. He was gross and refined 
 at the same time ; violent and urbane ; sociable 
 and sullen ; inflammable and inert; ardent and 
 phlegmatic ; relapsing from enthusiasm into in- 
 dolence ; irritable, headstrong, impatient of re- 
 straint ; captious in his intercourse with his 
 friends, wavering and desultory in his profession. 
 In his personal habits he was careless of ap- 
 pearances or decency, penurious, slovenly, 
 and squalid. He regarded nothing but his im- 
 pulses, confirmed into incorrigible habits. His 
 pencil was under no control. His eye and his 
 hand seemed to receive a first rude impulse, to 
 which he gave himself up, and paid no regard 
 to any thing else. The strength of the original 
 impetus only drove him farther from his object. 
 His genius constantly flew off in tangents, and 
 came in contact with nature only at salient points. 
 His enthusiasm and vigor were exhausted in 
 the conception ; the execution was crude and 
 abortive. His writings are a greater acquisi- 
 tion to the art than his paintings. The powers 
 of conversation were what he most excelled in ; 
 and the influence which he exercised in this way 
 over all companies where he came, in spite of the 
 coarseness of his dress, and the frequent rude- 
 ness of his manner, was great. Take him for 
 all in all, he was a man of whose memory' it is 
 impossible to think without admiration as well 
 as regret.' Towards the close of life he was 
 doubtless occasionally deranged. His works 
 are collected in two quarto volumes, 1809, 
 of which his Lectures are deemed the best 
 part. 
 
 Barry (Girald), commonly called Giraldus 
 Cambrensis, Girald of Wales, an historian and 
 ecclesiastic in the reigns of Henry II. and 
 Richard I., was born at the castle of Manorbier, 
 near Pembroke, A. D. 1146. By his mother he 
 was decended from tlie princes of South \V ales, 
 and his father, William Barry, was one of the 
 chief men of that principality. Being a younger 
 brother, and intended for the church, he was sent 
 to St. David's, and educated in the family of his 
 uncle, who was bishop of that see. He acknow- 
 ledges, in his history of his own life and actions, 
 that in his youth he was too playful ; but being 
 reproached for it by his preceptors, he became a 
 very hard student, and excelled all his school- 
 fellows. When he was about twenty years of 
 age he was sent, A. D. 1166, for improvement, 
 to the university of Paris ; where he continued 
 five years. On his return to Britain he entered 
 into holy orders, and obtained several benefices 
 in England and Wales. Observing that his 
 countrymen were backward in paying the tithes 
 of wool and cheese, which he'was afraid would in- 
 volve them in eternal ruin, he applied to Richard, 
 archbishop of Canterbury, and was appointed 
 his legate in Wales for rectifying that disorder. 
 He executed his commission with great spirit; 
 excommunicating all who refused to save their 
 souls by surrendering the tithes of cheese and 
 wool. Not satisfied with enriching, he also at- 
 tempted to reform, the clergy ; and reported the 
 archdeacon of Brecon, for the unpardonable
 
 BARRY. 
 
 591 
 
 crime of matrimony. The poor old man refusnij^ 
 to put away his wife, wxs deprived of his arch- 
 deaconry ; which was bestowed upon our zealous 
 legate. Ilis great vigor involved him in many 
 quarrels. His uncle, the bishop of St. David's, 
 dyin? A. D. 1176, he was elected his successor 
 by the chapter : but this election having been 
 made contrary to the inclination of Henry II. 
 he did not insist upon it, but went a^niin to 
 Paris to prosecute his studies, in the civil and 
 canon law, and theology. Ilaviu'^ spent about 
 four years at Paris, he returned to St. David's, 
 where he found every thing in confusion ; and the 
 bishop being expelled by the people, he was ap- 
 pointed administrator by the archbishop of Can- 
 terburj-, and governed the diocese in that capacity 
 till A. D. 1184, when he was restored. About 
 the same time he was called to court by Henry 
 the Second, appointed one of his chaplains, and 
 sent into Ireland A. D. 1185, witli prince .lohn. 
 By this prince he was offered the united bishop- 
 rics of Femes and Leighlin, but declined them, 
 and employed his time in collecting materials for 
 his Topography of Ireland, and his history of the 
 conquest of that island. Having finished the 
 former work, which consisted of three books, he 
 published it at Oxford, A. D. 1287, in the follow- 
 ing curious manner, in three days. On the first 
 day he read the first book to a great concourse of 
 people, and afterwards entertained all the poor 
 of the town ; on the second day he read the se- 
 cond, and entertained the doctors and chief 
 scholars ; and on the third day he read the third 
 book, and entertained the young scholars, sol- 
 diers, and burgesses. ' A most glorious specta- 
 cle !' says he, ' which revived the ancient times 
 cf the poets, and of which no example had been 
 seen in Kngland.' lie attended Baldwin, arch- 
 bishop of (.'anterbury, in his progress through 
 Wales. A. D. 1186, in preaching a croisade for 
 the recovery of the Holy Land; in which he tells 
 us he was far more successful than the primate ; 
 and that the people were prodigiously affected 
 with his Latin sermons, which they did not un- 
 derstand, melting even to tears, and coming in 
 crowds to take the cross. Although Henry II. 
 entertained the highest opinion of his abilities, 
 he never advanced him to any higher dignity in 
 the church on account of his relation to the 
 princes of Wales. But on the accession of 
 Richard I. A. D. 1189, his prospects of prefer- 
 ment became better, for he was sent for by that 
 prince into Wales to preserve the peace of that 
 country, and joined in commission with William 
 Longchamp, bishop of Ely, as one of the regents 
 of the kingdom. He did not however, improve 
 this favorable opportunity, refusing the bishopric 
 of Bangor in A. D. 1190, and that of Landaff the 
 year after, having fixed his heart on the see of 
 St. David's, the bishop of which was very old and 
 infirm. In A. D. 1 1 92 the state of public affairs 
 and the course of interest at court became so un- 
 favorable to our author's \-iews, that he deter- 
 mined to retire. At first he revived to return 
 to Paris to prosecute his studies ; but meeting 
 with difficulties in this, he went to Lincoln, 
 where William de Monte read lectures in theo- 
 logy with great applause. Here he spent about 
 six years studying divinity, and composing vari- 
 
 ous works. The see of St. David's, woich had 
 long been the object of his ambition, now be- 
 came vacant, (A. D. 1 198) and brought him again 
 upon the stage. He was unanimously elected by 
 the chapter ; but met with so powerful an adver- 
 sary in Hubert, arclibishop of Canterbury, that it 
 involved him in a litigation which lasted three 
 years, cost him three journeys to Rome, at a 
 great expense, and in which he was at last de- 
 feated, A. D. 1203. Soon after, he retired from 
 the world, and spent the last seventeen years of 
 his life in a studious privacy, composing many 
 books, of which we have a catalogue in the Bio- 
 graphia Britannica. That Girald of Wales was a 
 man of uncommon activity, genius, and learning, 
 is undeniable; but these and his other good 
 qualities were much tarnished by his insuffera- 
 ble vanity, which must have been as offensive to 
 his contemporaries, as it is disgusting to his 
 readers. 
 
 Barhy (James, baron Santry), was also a 
 descendant of the ancient princes of Wales. Be- 
 ing bred to the law, he was appointed king's Ser- 
 jeant for Ireland in 1629. In this station he 
 was noticed by Lord Wentworth, after%vards earl 
 of Strafibrd, who promoted him to be second 
 baron of Exchequer in 1634. Barry was not un- 
 grateful. In 1640, when the Irish parliament pro- 
 posed sending over a committee to impeach Lord 
 Strafford, he did his utmost to oppose the mea- 
 sure, though his efforts proved fruitless. During 
 the commotion and revolution tliat followed, we 
 hear nothing of Mr. Barry; but in 1660 he was 
 appointed chairman of the Convention, which 
 voted for the restoration of monarchy ; and in the 
 end of that year, king Charles II. showed his 
 opinion of his services, by appointing him Lord 
 Chief Justice of the Iving's Bench, and a privy 
 counsellor, and creating him a peer of Ireland. 
 He did not live to see a third revolution, for he 
 died in 1672. 
 
 Baruy, a hill of Scotland, in Angiisshire, 
 three miles north of Belmont, and 688 feet in 
 height. Tradition says, that queen Guinever or 
 \'anora, the wife of Arthur king of the Britons, 
 was confined upon it, after having been taken 
 prisoner in a battle between that prince and the 
 Scots and Picts. Dr. Playfair has given the fol- 
 lowing particular account of this hill. ' Barry-hill, 
 the supposed place of V'anora's confinement, merits 
 some description. It is one of the Grampians, 
 one mile and a half north-east of Alyth. It 
 commands an extensive view of Strathmore, and 
 of several remarkable hills in the Sidlaw range, 
 viz. Dunsinnan, Kinpurnie, Sidlaw, Finhaven, &c. 
 all of which might have been anciently used as 
 watch towers, or places of defence. History in- 
 forms us that the Picts kept possession of Dun- 
 barry, and the adjacent country, from a remote 
 period to the ninth century, or later ; but the 
 precise dates of their settlement in these parts, 
 and of their expulsion, cannot be ascertanied. 
 The hill itself is of an ovnl form. Its summit 
 was levelled into an area 1 80 feet Ion?, and se- 
 venty-two or seventy-four broad. Around the 
 area a mound of earth w:is raised, from six 
 to eight feet high, and ten to twelve broarl 
 at top. On this mound a wall of free stone 
 was built without any cement whatever. The
 
 592 
 
 BARRY. 
 
 foundation of the wall was composed of rough 
 granite, and still remains. It is of the same 
 breadth with the summit of the mound ; but 
 the height of the wall cannot be known ; Gor- 
 don's estimate of it is extremely erroneous. 
 Among the ruins there are several pieces of vitri- 
 fied stone ; but these vitrifications must have 
 been accidental, as they are few and inconsider- 
 able. Along the west and north borders of the 
 area, barracks, or huts, were built of dry stone, 
 and sufficiently sheltered by the mound and 
 wall; but no structures of this sort can be traced 
 in the south part of the area. As the north and 
 west sides of the hill are steep, and of difficult 
 access, there was no need of an outer ditch in 
 those quarters: but, towards the south and east, 
 where the hill gently slopes, there is a ditch ten 
 feet broad, and from twelve to sixteen feet below 
 the foundation of the wall. At the south-east 
 extremity of the fort, a narrow bridge was raised 
 over the ditch, eighteen feet long, aijd two broad, 
 except towards each end, where the breadth was 
 increased. It was composed of stones laid to- 
 gether with much art and vitrified above, below, 
 and on both sides ; so that the whole mass was 
 firmly cemented. That an opening was left 
 below after the process was finished is doubtful. 
 On the upper part of the bridge a stratum of gra- 
 vel was laid, to render the passage smooth and easy. 
 This is the sole part of the fort intentionally vitri- 
 fied. A few yards distant from the ditch there 
 is an outer wall, the foundation or" which is about 
 three feet lower than the summit of the mound. 
 The approach to the fort is from the north-east, 
 along the verge of a precipice; and the entrance 
 was secured by a bulwark of stone, the ruins of 
 which are extant. There is no vestige of a well 
 within the fort; but westward, between the basis 
 of the mound and the precipice, there was a deep 
 pond or lake, recently filled up by the tenants in 
 that neighbourhood. About a quarter of a mile 
 eastward, on the declivity of the hill, there are 
 some remains of another oval fort, of less extent 
 than the preceding, consisting of a strong wall 
 and ditch. Tradition says, that there was a sub- 
 terranean communication between these forts, 
 which is not improbable. From the account 
 now given, it would appear, 1. That botii were 
 constructed before the Romans introduced the 
 art of building with lime and other cement. 2. 
 That the Picts and ancient Scots had stone edifi- 
 ces, which M'Pherson is not inclined to admit. 
 3. That they sometimes vitrified particular parts 
 of their forts, to render them the more durable. 
 
 BARR\, Barra, or Bara, one of the wes- 
 tern isles of Scotland, lying in the Atlantic 
 Ocean ; eight miles south from that of South Uist. 
 Its extent has been strangely misrepresented, 
 some stating it at five miles long and three broad, 
 and otliers reducing it to a mere rock, half a 
 mile in circumference, and inhabited only by 
 solan geese and wild fowls ! It is at least twelve 
 English miles long, and from three to six broad ; 
 being intersected in different places by arms of 
 the sea ; separated from the island of Watersay, 
 by a channel of one mile. It has a barren ap- 
 pearance, from the great quantity of rocks to be 
 seen every where ; but on the north end, in good 
 .seasons, it may vie in fertility with any ground 
 
 of equal extent in Scotland. In the middle and 
 south end there are very high hills, which are a 
 mixture of green, rock and heath, and seem fitted 
 for slieep-walks, if the island were near a good 
 market. The west coast is low and flat ; the 
 soil, fine shell sand, in many parts very fertile; 
 but the ground rises to the east coast, where it is 
 barren, and breaks off abrupt, irregular, and 
 steep. In some parts, where the soil is rocky 
 and uneven, it admits not of being plowed ; it 
 is cultivated, therefore, by a kind of crooked 
 spade, called cashroom. The inhabitants are 
 about 1500. Long. 7^ 30' W., lat. 56° 55' N. 
 
 Barry, a town of Ireland, in the county of 
 Longford, fifty-four miles from Dublin. 
 
 Barry, a small island in the Bristol channel, 
 near the south coast of Wales ; distant three 
 miles west of Flat Holm. Its name is said to be 
 derived from a hermit, St. Baruch, who died 
 there in 700. Giraldus Cambrensis states, that 
 in a rock near the entrance of the island there is 
 a small cavity, to which, if the ear be applied, 
 a noise is heard like that of smiths at work, the 
 blowing of bellows, strokes of hammers, grind- 
 ing of tools, and roaring of furnaces,' and Sir 
 Richard Iloare adds, that towards the southern 
 part of the island, on a spot, called Nell's point, 
 is a fine well, to which great numbers of women 
 resort on Holy Thursday : having washed their 
 eyes at the spring, each drops a pin into it. The 
 landlord of the boarding-house (for the island is 
 frequented by bathers) informed Sir Richard 
 Iloare, that in the last cleaning of the well he 
 took out a pint of these votive offerings. 
 
 Barry, in heraldry, is when an escutcheon is 
 divided bar-ways, that is, across from side to 
 side, into an even number of 
 partitions, consisting of two or 
 more tinctures, interchangeably 
 disposed. It is to be expressed 
 in the blazon by the word barry, 
 and the number of pieces must 
 be specified ; but if the divisions 
 be odd, the field must be firit named, and the 
 number of bars expressed. 
 
 Barry-bendy is when an 
 escutcheon is divided evenly, bar 
 and bendways, by lines drawn 
 transverse and diagonal, inter- 
 changeably varying the tinctures 
 of which it consists, thus: 
 
 Barry'-pily, is when a coat J 
 
 is divided by several lines drawn ^ '^^^ 
 obliquely from side to side. 
 
 where they form acute angles, p ^^^ ~^B 
 thus : 
 
 BARSA, in ancient geography, an island oh 
 the coast of France, in the English channel ; now 
 called Basepool, according to some ; according 
 to others, Bardsey. 
 
 BARSABAS ; from -|D, a son, and K3i', rest ; 
 a name of Joseph, surnamed Justus, who was 
 competitor with Matthias for the apostleship, and 
 is said to have been one of the seventy disciples. 
 
 Barsabas (Judas), a member of the synod at
 
 BAR 
 
 593 
 
 BAR 
 
 Jerusalem, wlio was sent witli Paul, Barnahas, 
 and Silas, to publis'p their decree against the 
 Judaising teachers among the Gentile churches 
 at Antioch. lie is also styled a prophet : Acts 
 XV. 32. 
 
 BARSAC, a town of France, in Guienrie, in 
 the Bourdelois, on the left hank of the Garonne ; 
 contains 480 liouses, and belongs to the depart- 
 ment of the Gironde, arrondissement of Bour- 
 deaux, eighteen miles south-east of Bourdeaux. 
 It is noted for its excellent wine. 
 
 BAllSALLACH, Point, a cape of Scndand, 
 on the coast'of the county of Wigton, in the bay 
 of ].uce, eight uiiies north-west of Burrowhead. 
 Long. 4° 35' 17" W., lat. 54° 48' N. 
 
 BARSALLI, or Baksali.o, ■&. kingdom of 
 Africa, bordering on the (Jambia, inhal)ited by a 
 Irioe of negroes called .lalofls. Their govern- 
 ment is a despotic monarchy ; all people being 
 obliged to prostrate themselves on the earth when 
 any of the royal family makes his appearance. 
 It is divided in to a number of provinces, over 
 which governors are apjiointed, called buineys. 
 The Mahommedan is the professed religion, but 
 little regard is paid to that part of the impdstor's 
 laws which forbids the use of wine ; for tlie king 
 cannot live without brandy ; nor is he ever more 
 devout than wlien he is intoxicated. \A'hen he 
 wants a fresh supply of this liquor, or of any 
 other commodity, he seizes a certain number of 
 his subjects, and sells them as slaves. 
 
 BARSANIANI, in church history, a sect who 
 held the errors of the Severians and Theodosians. 
 BARSANTI (Francisco), an eminent musi- 
 cal performer and composer, was born at Lucca 
 about 1690. lie studied the civil law in the 
 university of Padua ; but after a short stay there 
 preferred music, and put himself under the tui- 
 tion of some of the ablest masters in Italy. 
 Having attained to a considerable degree of 
 proficiency in practical composition, he resolved 
 to settle in England, and came hither with Ge- 
 miniani, in 1714. lie was a good performer on 
 the hautboy and flute. He was many years a 
 performer at the opera-house ; and at last went 
 to Scotland, where he improved the music of 
 that country, by making basses to a great num- 
 ber of the most popular Scots tunes. About 
 1750 he returned to England; but, being ad- 
 vanced in years, he went into the opera band 
 as a performer on the tenor violin ; and in the 
 summer season into that of ^'auxhall. At this 
 time he published twelve concertos for violins; 
 and shortly after, Sei Antifone,. in which he en- 
 deavoured to imitate the style of Palestrina, and 
 the old composers of motets ; but so little profit 
 resulted, that, towards tHe end of his life, the 
 industry and economy of an excellent wife, whom 
 he had married in Scotland, and the labors of a 
 daughter whom he had qualified for a singer, but 
 who afterwards became an actress at Covent 
 Garden, were his chief supports. iNIiss Barsanti 
 wgnt on the stage in consequence of her entirely 
 losing her singing voice by catching cold. Col- 
 man engaged her as a comic actress for the 
 ilaymarket tlieatre, and she gained great ap- 
 plause. She afterwards went to Ireland, became 
 a favorite there, and married Mr. Daly, the 
 manager of the Dublin theatre. 
 Vol. III. 
 
 BARSR, in ichthyology, an Engli.sh name for 
 tlie pearch, still used for the Siirne fish in the 
 Saxon language, and one of t!ie many Saxon 
 words we have retained. 
 
 B.VRSICK, a head land on the coast of the 
 island of South Ronaldshay, one of the Orkneys, 
 wiiich is 250 feet perpendicular above the level 
 of tlic sea. 
 
 BAR-SUR-AUBE. See Bar. 
 
 Bap-suu-sf.ine. See Bar. 
 
 BA'RTI'Jl, V. & n.^ Fr. harater; Ital. bur- 
 
 Bar'tkheh, ^rutarc ; Span, barrator, 
 
 liAu'TLiiY. J from t«rn^ craft, fraufl. It 
 
 is now, howevi-r, no longer used in this ill sense. 
 It signifies a particular mode of exchange. \\\- 
 change is the general term signifyinj; to take one 
 for another. To barter is to exchange one ar- 
 ticle of trade for another. The words that bear 
 a near affinity to this are truck and commute; 
 but their precise difference is this : truck is a 
 familiar term to express a familiar action for 
 exchanging one article of private property for 
 another ; and commute is applied to the ex- 
 changing one mode of punishment for another. 
 We may exchange one book for another ; traders 
 barter trinkets for gold-dust ; coachmen truck a 
 whip for a handkerchief; government commutes 
 the punishment of death for that of banishment. 
 
 For him was I exchang'd and ransoin'd ; 
 But with a baser man of anus by far 
 Once, in contempt, they would have barler'A me. 
 
 Shakspcare. 
 
 From England they may be furnished v.ith such 
 things as they may want, and in exchange or barter 
 send other things with which they may abound. 
 
 Bacon. 
 As if they scorn'd to trade and barter, 
 By giving or by taking (juarter. Hudibroj. 
 
 A man has not every tiling growing upon his sml, 
 and therefore is willing to barter with his ncis'hbour. 
 
 Ciillier. 
 
 I see notliing left us, but to truck and barter our 
 
 goods, like the vild Indians, with each other. Swift. 
 
 He who corrupteth English with foreign words, is 
 
 as wise as ladie.? that exchange plate for china ; for 
 
 which the laudable traffick of old clothes is much the 
 
 fairest barter. ■ Fclton. 
 
 It is a received opinion, that, in most ancient ages, 
 
 there w.is only bartery or exchange of commodities 
 
 amongst most nations. Camdcn't Rem. 
 
 Tlien as thou wilt dispose the rest. 
 
 To those who, at the market rate. 
 
 Can barter honour for estate. Prior. 
 
 If they will barter away their time, methinks they 
 
 should act least have some case in exchange. 
 
 Decay of Piety. 
 He also bartered away plums, that would have 
 rotted in a week, for nuts that would last good for his 
 eating a whole year. Locke. 
 
 At the same time those very men tear their lungs 
 in venJing a drug, and show no act of bounty, except 
 it be that tliey lower a demand of a crown to six, nay 
 to one penny. We have a contempt for such paltry 
 bartcren. Taller. No. 4. 
 
 The tiiost ancient and most obvious sort of commer- 
 cial contract is barter, or the exchange of goods for 
 goods. But, where there is no other sort of com- 
 merce, cotitra^cts of barter must be liable to great in- 
 equalities. Beattie. Moral Science 
 Some men are willing to bur.i'r their blood ir. « 
 lucre. tttirhe. 
 
 2Q
 
 BAR 
 
 594 
 
 BAR 
 
 Barter. See Arithmetic, Index. 
 
 Barth, or Bart ( Jolin), a Frencli admiral, born 
 at Dunkirk in 1651. He left his father, who was 
 a poor fisherman, and entered into the navy, 
 where he distinguished himself by his valor. 
 Having, in 1692, obtained the command of a 
 squadron of frisates and a fire ship, lie destroyed 
 eighty-six English mercliant ships, made a de- 
 scent on the English coast, near Newcastle, where 
 he set fire to several houses, and returned to Dun- 
 kirk with prizes valued at 500,000 crowns. In 
 1696 he was appointed with a squadron of six 
 ships, to convoy a fleet laden with corn, and be- 
 fore he fell in with it, it had been captured by a 
 Dutch squadron of eight men of war. Though 
 his numbers and strength were so much less, he 
 not only retook the prizes, but the war ships. 
 For this action a patent of nobility was granted 
 him. He died at Dunkirk in 1702. 
 
 BARTHELEMY (John James), a celebrated 
 French writer, born at Cassis, in Provence, in 
 1716. He was sent to school at Marseilles, and 
 admitted into the college of tlie Oratory, where 
 his promising genius was discovered, and encou- 
 raged, so that he made a rapid progress in learn- 
 ing. But his design being for the church, 
 it was necessary for him to leave the Oratory, 
 and go for philosophy and theology to the Jesuits. 
 Here he acquired, more by his own labor and 
 perseverance than by the instructions of the pro- 
 fessors, a knowledge of the Greek, Hebrew, 
 Chaldean, Syriac, and Arabic languages. Before 
 Barthelcmy left Marseilles, and when about 
 twenty-one years of age, the merchants of that 
 city having met with a Jew boasting of his learn- 
 ing, and wishing trial to be made, by introducing 
 him to some learned man, with some difficulty 
 got him to engage with the Jew ; and Bartlie- 
 lemy came off with the character of a prodigy of 
 oriental learning. After finishing his education 
 at the seminary, he retired to Aubagne, and 
 spent some time with his family, by whom he 
 was highly esteemed. But he ciften visited Mar- 
 seilles, for the company of learned men ; and he 
 was particularly taken up with one M. Gary, 
 who had a fine cabinet of medals and an exten- 
 sive library. He also associated himself with 
 Father Sigaloux, in making astronomical obser- 
 vations. At last, however, he resolved to devote 
 himself to literature, and accordingly went to 
 Paris in 1744. He was recommended to M. de 
 Boze, keeper of the medals, and secretary of in- 
 scriptions and belles lettres, who received him 
 kindly, and paid him every possible attention ; 
 and, in a short time, on account of the age and 
 infirmity of I\I. de Boze, Barthelemy was chosen 
 his assistant in the care of tlie cabinet of medals; 
 in arranging which he labored incessantly. Some- 
 time after he was nominated secretary to .the 
 academy of inscriptioni ; and on the death of his 
 colleague M. de Boze, in 1753, he succeeded 
 him as keeper of the cabinet. In 1 755 he visited 
 Rome and Naples; the latter being then pecu- 
 liarly interesting to an antiquarian by the recent 
 discoveries in its neighbourhood. Here, among 
 the numberless curiosities that drew his attention, 
 the manuscripts saved from the ruins of Hercu- 
 laneum were particularly noticed ; and he was 
 anxious to have a specimen of the ancient writing 
 in the Greek MSS. but those who had the care 
 
 of them, from their injunctions, could not gratify 
 him. On this he begged a sight of a page for a 
 few minutes. It contained twenty-eight lines, 
 which he read over attentively, and, retiring to a 
 corner, transcribed the whole, and sent the fac 
 simile to the academy of belles lettres. About 
 the end of 1758, the duke de Choiseid, having 
 been appointed minister for foreign affairs, gave 
 him a pension of £250, and in 17G5 conferred 
 on him the treasurership of St. Martin de Tours; 
 to which in 1758, he added the place of secretary- 
 general to the Swiss guards In 1768 appeared 
 his great work, the fruit of thirty years labor, 
 entitled, The \'oyage of the younger Anacharsis 
 in Greece ; in which the traveller gives an account 
 of the customs, government, and antiquities of 
 the country he visited ; remarks on the music of 
 the Greeks, on the library of the Athenians, and 
 on the customs of all the surrounding states. In 
 1789 Barthelemy became a candidate for a chair 
 in the French academy ; and so great was the 
 reputation he had gained by his writings, that 
 this learned body elected him by acclamation. 
 The speech he delivered on the occasion, for 
 modesty and simplicity, is deservedly celebrated. 
 In consequence of the revolution, he was re- 
 duced to a pittance merely sufficient to furnish 
 the necessaries of life ; yet, in 1790, when M. de 
 St. Priest off"ered him the place of librarian to the 
 king, he expressed his gratitude, but declined 
 accepting, lest it should interfere with his occu- 
 pations in the cabinet, which he still continued 
 to enrich. In 1792 his strength began to fail, 
 and, in 1793, now a feeble old man, he was 
 arrested as an aristocrat, and hurried to prison ; 
 but was liberated the same night, by order of the 
 committee. He died in 1795, regretted by all 
 his relations as their common father. Besides 
 his Anacharsis, he was author of many papers, 
 principally on medals, in the collection of the 
 academy of inscriptions, &c. 
 
 Barthelemy (St.), a town of France, in the 
 department of the Lot and Garonne, arrondisse- 
 ment of Marmande, with 2300 inhabitants. Nine 
 miles east of Marmande, and twenty-four north- 
 west of A gen. 
 
 BARTHIUS (Caspar), a learned and copious 
 writer, born at Custrin, in Brandenburg, in 1576. 
 Mr. Baillet, in his Enfans Celebres, tells us, that 
 at twelve years of age he translated David's 
 Psalms into Latin verse of every measure, and 
 published several Latin poems. Upon the death 
 of his father (who was professor of civil law at 
 Frankfort, counsellor to the elector of Branden- 
 burg, and his chancellor at Custrin), he was sent 
 to Gotha, then to Eisenach, and afterwards, ac- 
 cording to custom, went through all the different 
 universities in Germany. He afterwards virited 
 Italy, France, Spain, England, and Holland, 
 improving himself by the conversation and works 
 of the learned in every country. He studied also 
 the modern languages, and his translations from 
 the Spanish and French show that he was not 
 content with a superficial knowledge. Upon 
 his return to Germany he led a retired life at 
 Leipsic, his passion for study having made him 
 renounce all sort of employment. He wrote a 
 vast number of books; tlie principal of wliich 
 are, 1. Adversaria, a large volume in folio; the 
 second and third volumes of which he left in
 
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 MS. 2. A TransJatioii of TEneas Gazaeus. 3. 
 A large volume of Notes upon Claudian, in 4to. 
 4. Three large volumes upon Statius, &c. He 
 died at Leipsic, in 1658, aged seventy-otic. 
 
 J5AUT1 lOLINA, in botany, a genus of plants, 
 named after the naturalist Bartliolinus. Class 
 and order, gynandria monogynia. Natural 
 order, orcliidea. Essential character : cal. tu- 
 bular at the base : pet. united to the base of the 
 lip, whose spur is shorter than the germen. Stalks 
 of the pollen elongated ; their cells laterally 
 fixed ; glands distinct, half covered by the ex- 
 terior lobe. The principal species is, B. pecti- 
 nata. P'ringed bartholina. 
 
 BARTIIOLINUS (Caspar), a learned phy- 
 sician and anatomist of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury, born at Malmoe, in Schonen, which then 
 belonged to Denmark. At three years of age 
 he had such a quick capacity, that in four- 
 teen days he learned to read; and, in his 13th 
 year, he composed Greek and Latin orations, 
 and pronounced them in public. When he was 
 about eighteen he went to the university of 
 Copenhagen, and afterwards studied at Rostock 
 and Wittemberg. He afterwards travelled, and 
 neglected no opportunity of improving himself 
 at the different universities which he visited. 
 He was, in 1613, chosen professor of physic in 
 that university, which he enjoyed eleven years ; 
 when, falling into a dangerous illness, he made 
 a vow, that if it should please God to restore 
 him, he would solely apply himself to the study 
 of divinity. He recovered and kept his word ; 
 and soon after obtained the professorship of 
 divinity, and the canonry of Roschild. He died 
 in 1629, having written several small works, 
 chiefly on metaphysics, logic, and rhetoric. 
 
 Bartholincs (Thomas), a celebrated physi- 
 cian, son of the former, born at Copenhagen, in 
 1616. After studying some years in his own 
 country, he. in 1637, went to Leyden, where he 
 studied physic three years. He then travelled 
 into France; and resided two years at Paris and 
 Montpelier, for improvement. Afterwards going 
 to Italy, he continued three years at Padua ; and 
 at length went to Basil, where he obtained the 
 degree of doctor of philosophy. Soon after, he 
 returned to Copenhagen; where, in 1647, he 
 was appointed professor of mathematics ; and, 
 in 1648, of anatomy, a branch better suited to 
 his genius and inclination; which he discharged 
 with great assiduity for thirteen years, and dis- 
 tinguished himself by making several discoveries 
 with respect to the lacteal veins and lymphatic 
 vessels. His close application, however, having 
 rendered his constitution very infirm, he, in 
 1661, resigned his chair ; but the king of Den- 
 mark allowed him the title of honorary professor. 
 He now retired to a little estate he had purchased 
 at Hagested, near Copenhagen, where he hoped 
 to have spent the remainder of his days in peace 
 and tranquillity ; but his liouse being burnt in 
 1670, his library, with all his books and MSS. 
 was destroyed. In consideration of this loss the 
 king appointed him his physician, with a hand- 
 some salary, and exempted his land from all 
 taxes; the university of Copenhagen also ap- 
 pointed him their librarian; and, in 1675, the 
 king did him the honor to give him a seat in the 
 •Traod council of Denmark. He wrote, 1 . Anato- 
 
 mia Caspari Bartholini Parentis, novis Observa- 
 tionibus primum locupletata.Svo. L'.DeMonstris 
 in Natura et Medicina, 4to. 3. De Armillis Vete- 
 rum, 8vo; and several other works. This great 
 man died in 1680. 
 
 BARTHOLOMEW (St.); from 12, a son, 
 rhr\, elevating, and Q'O, waters ; one of the 
 twelve Apostles, and generally believed to be the 
 same with Kathanael, for the following reasons; 
 1. John never mentions Bartholomew but Na- 
 thanacl ; 2. the other Evangelists never mention 
 Nathanael but Bartholomew : 3. John classes 
 Philip and Nathanael, as the others do Philip 
 and Bartholomew: 4. Nathanael is mentioned 
 with the other apostles that met our Lord, after 
 his resurrection, at the sea of Tiberias : and 5. 
 Bartholomew is not a proper name, but a patro- 
 nymic signifying the son of Tolmai or Thiloma;us ; 
 a mode of denomination common among the He- 
 brews, and other ancient nations (seeBARJOXAs), 
 and which still prevails in some modern nations; 
 for instance in Russia, where Petrovvitz, Alexio- 
 witz, Alexandrowitz, &:c. signify, the son of Peter, 
 Alexis, Alexander, &c. It is said that this 
 apostle travelled as far as India, to propagate the 
 gospel : and Eusebius relates, that a famous phi- 
 losopher and Christian, named Pantienus, desiring 
 to imitate the apostolical zeal in propagating 
 the faith, and travelling for that purpose as far 
 as India, found tliere, among those who yet re- 
 tained the knowledge of Christ, the gospel of St. 
 Matthew, written by St. Bartholomew. From 
 thence he returned to the more northern and 
 western parts of Asia, and preached to the people 
 of Hierapolis ; then in Lycaonia ; and lastly, at 
 Albania, a city upon the Caspian Sea,; where 
 his endeavours to reclaim the people from idolatry 
 were crowned with martyrdom, he being flead 
 alive, and crucified with his head downwards. 
 
 Bartholomew, Cai'e, the southernmost point 
 of Staten-Land, in Le Maire straits, at the south 
 extremity of South America. 
 
 Bartholomew, St., one of the Caribbee 
 islands, to which, in 1748, a colony was sent by 
 the French, by whom it was ceded to Sweden in 
 1785. It is reckoned about fifteen miles in cir- 
 cumference, and is now the only island which 
 Sweden possesses in the Columbian Archipelago. 
 It is very fertile, producing sugar, tobacco, cot- 
 ton, indigo, and cassava, but having no water, 
 except what is supplied by the rains, is not much 
 resorted to. Many of the trees are valuable ; 
 the aloe is held in high estimation, and there are 
 others from which a gum of excellent cathartic 
 qualities is extracted. The branches u.^ the pa- 
 rotane growing downwards, take root and rise in 
 fresh stems ; forming an almost impenetrable 
 barrier. The species called sea trees, line many 
 parts of the shore. The isUmd also produces 
 lignum vitae and iron-wood ; and a great variety 
 of birds. The inhabitants also export a peculiar 
 kind of lime-stone. The coast is surrounded 
 with rocks, and cannot be safely approached 
 without a pilot ; but it has a very capacious and 
 well-sheltered harbour, capable of receiving and 
 sheltering the largest ships. About half the in- 
 habitants are Irish Roman Catholics, whose an- 
 cestors settled here in 1666. 
 
 Bartholomew, St. a river of South America, 
 
 2Q2
 
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 in the province of Antioquia, which falls into the 
 Madalena. 
 
 Bartholomew (St.), one of the islands of the 
 New Hebrides, in the South Pacific, three leagues 
 from the north-west point of Mallicolo, from 
 which it is separated by a channel, called Bou- 
 gainville's passage. It is from six to seven 
 leagues in circumference. Long. 169° 23' E., 
 lat. 15'' 41' S. 
 
 Bartholomew's Day (St.), a festival of the 
 Church, celebrated on the 24th of August. This 
 day has been rendered infamous in the annals of 
 France, for the massacre of the protestants in 
 1572, by the order of the bloody Catharine de 
 Medicis, and her tyrannical son, Charles IX. 
 
 On Bartholomew's day also, in the year 1662, 
 the act of uniformity, which obtained the royal 
 assent on the 19th of ^lay, took place, in conse- 
 quence of which about 2000 ministers relin- 
 quished their preferments in the church of Eng- 
 land. The liturg)-, with its alterations, carre out 
 of the press on Bartholomew eve, and the follow- 
 ing day was the ultimate time fixed by the act for 
 the subscription ; so that all those throughout the 
 kingdom who conformed, except a few in Lon- 
 don, subscribed in ignorance of its contents. 
 
 * Bartholomew's day,' says ]Mr. Locke, ' was 
 fatal to our church and religion, by throwing out 
 a very great number (about two thousand) of 
 worthy, learned, pious, orthodox divines, who 
 could not come up to this oath, and other things 
 in that act. And so great was the zeal in carry- 
 ing on this church affair, and so blind the obe- 
 dience required, that if you compute the time 
 of passing this act with that allowed for the clergy 
 to subscribe the book of common prayer thereby 
 established, you will find it could not be printed 
 and distributed so as that one man in forty could 
 have seen and read the book they did so perfectly 
 assent and consent to.' — ' The matter was driven 
 on,' says bishcp Burnet (Hist, of his Times, vol? 
 i. p. 212, 8vo.) 'with so much precipitation, that 
 it seemed expected the clergy should subscribe 
 implicitly to a book they had never seen. This 
 was done by too many, as the bishops themselves 
 informed me.' Among these were several, who, 
 according to Mr. Locke's description of them, 
 were ' taught rather to obey than to understand.' 
 
 Bartholomew's Gospel (St.), is mentioned in 
 the preface to Origen's Homilies on St. Luke, 
 and in the preface to St. Jerome's commentary 
 on St. Matthew ; but generally regarded as spu- 
 rious ; and placed by pope Gelasius among the 
 apocryphal books. 
 
 Bartholomew's Hospital (St.), an institution 
 for the reception of sick and wounded poor per- 
 sons, situated on the south-east side of Smithfield, 
 and incorporated by the name of the hospital of 
 the mayor, commonalty, and citizens, of London, 
 governors for the poor, called Little St. Bartho- 
 lomew's, near West Smithfield. The building 
 formerly belonged to the priory of St. Bartholo- 
 mew, in Smithfield, founded by one Habere, 
 about 1102. At the dissolution of the monaste- 
 ries, Henry V^IIL left 500 marks a year to it, on 
 condition that tlie city should add 500 marks 
 per annum for the relief of the sick and poor 
 people ; but it was more largely endowed for the 
 benefit of sick and lame persons only, by Edward 
 
 \T. and the munificence of the city and private 
 benefactors. This hospital having escaped the 
 dreadful fire in 1666, was repaired and beautified 
 by the governors in 1691. But the buildings be- 
 came at length so ruinous, that a subscription was 
 entered into in 1729, for defraying the expense 
 of rebuilding it, on a plan comprehending four 
 detached piles of building, to be joined by stone 
 gate-ways, about a court or area. The four 
 piles were erected and finished ; one of these 
 piles contains a large hall for the governors at 
 general courts, a counting-house for the com- 
 mittees, and otlier necessary offices ; the other 
 three piles contain wards for the reception of the 
 patients, &c. It is governed by a president, 
 treasurer, &c. It is attended by three physicians, 
 and three surgeons, besides as many assistant 
 surgeons. It has an apothecary, a chaplain, cook, 
 steward, renter, matron, and porter. Sines its 
 enlargement, it is capable of accommodating 820 
 patients ; it extends relief also to a great number 
 of out-patients. 
 
 BARTHOLOMITES,areligious order, found- 
 ed at Genoa in 1307 ; the monks leading very 
 irregular lives, the order was suppressed by pope 
 Innocent X.in 1650, and their effects confiscated. 
 In the cliurch of the monastery of this order at 
 Genoa, is preserved the image which it is pre- 
 tended Christ sent to king Abgarus. 
 
 BARTLEMAN (.1.), a very celebrated bass- 
 singer, was educated under Dr. Cooke, and 
 brought up in the choirs of the Chapel Royal and 
 Westminster abbey. His first appearance as a 
 professional singer was at the concerts at Free- 
 masons' Hall, where the compass and sweetness 
 of his fine baritone voice raised him at once to the 
 top of his profession. He was immediately en- 
 gaged in the ancient concerts, and became even- 
 tually one of the proprietors and conductors at 
 the Hanover-square rooms. He died in 1820, 
 and was buried in the cloisters of Westminster 
 Abbey, most of his professional associates of emi- 
 nence attending the funeral. There is a hand- 
 some tablet erected there to his memory. 
 
 BARTOLOCCI (Julius), a learned monk, and 
 professor of Hebrew at Rome, was born at Cela- 
 no, in 1613 ; and distinguished himself by writ- gt 
 ing an excellent Latin catalogue of the Hebrew ^ 
 writers, in 4 vols, folio ; a continuation of wliich 
 was drawn up by Imbonati his disciple. He died 
 in 1687. 
 
 BARTOLO]MEO (Francisco), whose real name 
 was Baccio, a celebrated painter, born at Savig- 
 nano, near Florence, in 1469. He was the dis- 
 ciple of Cosimo Rosselli, but owed to the works 
 of Leonardo da Vinci his extraordinary skill in 
 painting. Raphael, after quitting the school of 
 Perugino, studied perspective under him, 
 with the art of managing and uniting colors. 
 In 1500 he turned Doramican friar; and some 
 time after was sent by his superiors to the 
 convent of St. Martin, in Florence. He painted 
 both portraits and histories ; but his scrupulous 
 conscience would hardly ever suffer him to draw 
 naked figures, though nobody understood them 
 better. He died in 1517, aged 48. 
 
 BARTOLOZZl (Francis), an eminent en- 
 graven, was born at Florence in 1728. His father 
 was a silversmith, and he was intended for the
 
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 same business, but displayed so much taste and 
 execution at the first handling; of the graver, tliat 
 he was placed at the Florentian academy, under 
 Gaetano Biagio and I>(nazio llugford. Here 
 Giovanni C'ipriani was his fellow-pupil. ^Ile was 
 subsequently articled to Joseph Wagner, of Ve- 
 nice, who employed him too much in copying 
 from inferior masters. When this engagement 
 was expired, he married a respectable Venetian 
 lady, and accepted the invitation of cardinal 
 Bottari to repair to Rome. Here he engraved liis 
 fine plates from the life of St. Nilus, and the 
 heads of painters for a new edition of Vasari. 
 He returned to Venice, where Mr Dalton, libra- 
 rian to George III. employed liim to engrave 
 some of the drawings of Guercino, and, pleased 
 with tlie execution of them, offered him £300 per 
 annum to accompany liim to England, and work 
 on his account. Under this engagement he com- 
 pleted his beautiful collection of Guercinos. Af- 
 terwards he worked on his own account, and for 
 Mr. Alderman Boydell. He was highly distin- 
 guished for the elegance of his designs for the 
 benefit tickets of the higher performers of the 
 Opera-house ; and hearing that the celebrated 
 Strange said he could execute nothing else, in a 
 fit of emulation he produced his Clytie, and Vir- 
 gin and Child, from Carracci and Carlo Dolci. 
 About this time the red dotted or chalk manner 
 became prevalent ; and Bartolozzi contrived to 
 execute it so beautifully as to assist in seducing 
 the public taste from the superior and legitimate 
 style of the line. He was elected a member of 
 the Royal Academy, on its institution. In 1802 
 he accepted an invitation from the Prince Regent 
 of Portugal, to superintend a school of engravers 
 at Lisbon, with a pension of .£l00 per annum, a 
 handsome liouse, and the produce of the engrav- 
 ings. It is said a pension of £400 was offered to 
 him to remain in England; but that he would 
 accept it only on condition that government 
 would explain the matter to the prince Regent of 
 Portugal. It is quite clear that all his past labors 
 had left him in real need of one appointment or 
 other. This interference being deemed improper, 
 he bade England farewell, in his seventy-fifth 
 year, and was received at Lisbon with great dis- 
 tinction. He died in that capital in his eighty- 
 eighth year. Few artists have reached so dis- 
 tinguished a rank in every species of engraving, 
 as Bartolozzi. His etchings in imitation of the 
 drawings of the great masters, admirably repre- 
 sent the character and spirit of the originals ; and 
 his Marlborough gems, musical tickets, and 
 prints for Boydell's Shakspeare, exhibit exquisite 
 jiroofs of taste. Hewas so generous as to finish 
 a plate left incomplete by Ryland, at the request 
 of that 'mhappy man, while under sentence of 
 death for forgery, and exhibited many other 
 traits of a humane and benevolent united with a 
 thoughtless character. Among the pupils of 
 Bartolozzi were Sherwin, Tomkins, Cheeseman, 
 and the two Vandramini. 
 
 BARTON-ON-HUMBER, a market-town 
 
 and parish in the hundred of Yarborough, and 
 
 county of Lincoln, 167 miles north from London ; 
 
 containing 2500 inhabitants. It is seated on the 
 
 I south side of the Humber, over which there is a 
 
 ' ferry into Yorksliire, nearly six miles and a half 
 
 I 
 
 across. There is a great trade in com and flour, 
 as well as bricks and tiles, carried on, and a ma- 
 nufactory of Paris whiting. The town consists of 
 several streets irregularly built, and hast'.voparisli 
 churches, the livings of the two parishes bein=j 
 united. Market on Monday. 
 
 Barton (Eliz.), commonly called The Maid 
 of Kent, was a religious impostor in the reign of 
 Henry VIII. She was originally a servant at 
 Aldington, in Kent, who had long been troubled 
 with convulsions, which distorted her limbs and 
 countenance, and threw her body into the most 
 violent agitations. After she recovered, she is 
 said to have counterfeited the same appearances. 
 Masters, the minister of Aldington, with other 
 ecclesiastics, thinking her a proper instniment 
 for their purpose, persuaded her to pretend that 
 what she said and did was by a supernatural im- 
 pulse, and taught her to act her part in the most 
 perfect manner. Thus she would lie as it were 
 in a trance, then, coming to herself, would break 
 out into pious ejaculations, hymns, and prayer ; 
 sometmies delivering set speeches, sometimes 
 uncouth monkish rhymes. She pretended to be 
 honored with visions and revelations, to hear 
 heavenly voices, and the most ravishing melody. 
 Amongst other wickedness of the times, she de- 
 claimed against heresy and innovations; exhort- 
 ing the people to frequent tlie church, to hear 
 masses, to use frequent confession, and to pray 
 to our lady, and the saints. This artful manage- 
 ment, together with her great exterior piety, and 
 austerity of life, not only deceived the vulgar, but 
 the celebrated Sir Thomas More, bishop Fisher, 
 archbishop Warkam, &c. : the last of whom 
 appointed commissioners to examine her. She 
 now declared, that the blessed \'irgin had ap- 
 peared to her, and assured her that she should 
 never recover, till she went to visit her image, in 
 a chapel of the parish of Aldington. Tiiither she 
 accordingly repaired, processionally, and in pil- 
 grimage, attended by above 3000 people, and 
 many persons of quality of both sexes. She fell 
 into one of her trances, and uttered many things 
 in honor of the saints, and the popish religion : 
 for herself, she said that by the inspiration of 
 God, she was called to be a nun, and t!\at Dr. 
 Bocking was her ghostly father. Bocking was a 
 canon of Christ's church, Canterbury, and most 
 probably associate in carrying on the imposture. 
 Meanwhile, the archbishop ordered her to be 
 admitted into the nunnery of St. Sepulchre, Can- 
 terbury ; where she had frequent inspirations and 
 visions, and pretended to work miracles for all 
 such as would make a profitable vow to our lady. 
 The priests, her managers, having so far suc- 
 ceeded, now announced the great object of her 
 mission, i. e. to proclaim, that ' in case the king 
 should divorce queen Catherine of Arragon, and 
 take another wife during her life, his royally 
 would not be of a mondi's duration, but he sliould 
 die the death of a villain.' Bishop Fisher, and 
 others in the interest of the queen, and of the 
 Jiomish religion, hearing of this, held frequent 
 meetings with the nun, the fathers and nuns of 
 Sion, tlie Charter-house, Sheen, &c. Encouraged 
 by the lenity of the government, the ecclesia.stics 
 in this conspiracy resolved to publish the reve- 
 lations of the nun. in their sermons, t'-.roughcut
 
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 ttie kingdom : they had communicated them to 
 llie pope's ambassadors, to whom also they iii- 
 - troduced the maid of Kent ; and they exhorted 
 queen Catherine to persist in her resolutions. 
 At length this confederacy began to be a very 
 serious affair, and Henry ordered the maid and 
 her accomplices to be examined in the star-cham- 
 ber. Here they confessed all the particulars of 
 the imposture, and afterwards appeared upon a 
 scaffold erected at St. Paul's Cross, where tlie 
 articles of their confession were p\iblicly read in 
 their hearing. Thence they were conveyed to the 
 Tower, until the meeting of parliament; who, 
 having considered the affair, pronounced it a 
 conspiracy against the king's life and crown. The 
 nun, with her confederates. Masters, liocking, 
 Deering, Able, &c. were attainted of liigh treason, 
 and executed at Tyburn, April 20, 1534; where 
 she confessed the imposture, laying tjie blame on 
 her accomplices the priests, and craving pardon 
 of God and the king. 
 
 BARTIIAMIA, in botany, pellitory : a genus 
 of the decandria monogynia class of plants ; the 
 calyx of which is a perianthium, cut into five 
 parts ; the corolla consists of five wedge-sliaped 
 petals ; the fruit is globular, and the seeds are 
 four in number, convex on one side, and angular 
 on the other. It was so named in honor of a 
 friend of Linna;us, J. Bartram. Eight species 
 are described in English Botany. 
 
 BARTSIA, in botany, a genus of plants, 
 named after Linnseus' unfortunate friend, John 
 Bartsch,MD. Class didynamia; order angiosper- 
 mia. Its generic characters are, cal. perianth one- 
 leaved : COR. monopetalous : stam. filaments 
 four: ANTH. oblong: pist. germ ovate; style 
 filiform ; stigma obtuse : per. capsule ovate : 
 SEEDS numerous. The species are mostly peren- 
 nials, ,as — B. coccinea, pedicularis, seu crista 
 galli, &c. seu horminum, &c. lied bartsia, na- 
 tive of \'irginia. B. pallida foliis alternis, &c. 
 seu foliis lanceolatis. Sec. Pale-flowered bartsia, 
 native of Siberia. B. alpina foliis oppositis, Sec. 
 Staehelinia foliis. Sec. Staehelinia alpina, eu- 
 phrasia caule, Sec. Euphrasia rubra, Sec. Cha- 
 masdry vulgare. See. Clinopodium alpinum, Sic. 
 Teucrium alpinum, cratJEOgonon, seu pedicularis. 
 Alpine bartsia, native of Britain ; but the B. vis- 
 cosa, "euphrasia latifolia, seu alectorophos, Sec. 
 Viscid bartsia, or yellow marsh eye-bright, native 
 of Britain, is an annual. B. viscosa, marshy, or 
 yellow marsh eye-bright, was found by Mr. 
 Lightfoot in bogs and marshy places about Loch- 
 Goyl, near Loch-Lcng, in the district of Cowal 
 in Argyllshire. Tlie plant is about ten or twelve 
 inches high, with an erect stalk, downy and un- 
 branched : the leaves are sessile, spear-shaped, 
 and a little viscous ; the flowers are yellow, and 
 the plant dyes black. It is likewise found in 
 marshy places in Cornwall in England. 
 
 BAllUCH, the son of Neriah, the disciple and 
 amanuensis of the prophet .Jeremiah. Josephus 
 tells us he was descended of a noble family : it is 
 said in his prophecy that he wrote it at Babylon, 
 but at what time is uncertain. 
 
 Baruch's Prophecy, one of the apocryphal 
 books subjoined to die canon of the Old Testa- 
 ment. It has been reckoned part of Jeremiah's 
 prophecy, and is often cited by the ancient 
 
 fathers as such. It is difficult to determine in 
 what language it was originally written. There 
 are three copies of it extant; one in Greek, the 
 other two in Syriac. 
 
 BAKl LES, in church history, heretics who 
 held that the Son of God had only a phantom of 
 a body, that souls were created before the world, 
 and that they lived all at one time. 
 
 BAllUTH, an ancient town of Turkey, in 
 Syria, with a Christian church of the Nestorian 
 persuasion. It is situated in a fine fertile soil, 
 but is inconsiderable now to what it was for- 
 merly. 
 
 Baruth, an Indian measure, containing seven- 
 teen gantans : it ought to weigh about three 
 pounds and a half English avoirdupois. 
 
 BARWICK (John), an English divine of the 
 seventeenth century, was born at Wetherslack in 
 Westmoreland, in 1612. He studied at Cam- 
 bridge, where he took his degrees of B. A. and 
 M.A, in 1635 and 1638. When the civil war 
 broke out he conveyed the university's plate, by 
 their order, through bye roads to supply the king, 
 who was then in great necessity. "Through this, 
 and other acts of loyalty, having rendered himself 
 obnoxious to the parliament, particularly by keep- 
 ing up a secret correspondence with the royal 
 party, both before and after the king's death, he 
 was at last committed to the tower, where he 
 suffered great hardships for fifteen months, but 
 was at last discharged, 1652, and, to the surprise 
 of many, in better health dian when he was in- 
 carcerated. Upon the restoration he was made 
 dean of St. Paul's in 1661 ; in vrhich station he 
 repeatedly hurt his health, by his exertion in 
 putting in order the archives of that church. 
 He died of a pleurisy in 1664. His chief work 
 was a Treatise Against the Covenant, which he 
 published before the king's death. 
 
 Barwick (Peter), physician to king Charles 
 II. brother of the dean, was born in 1619, and 
 studied also at Cambridge, where he took the 
 degree of M. D. in 1655. Having settled in 
 London, he soon rose to fame in his profession, 
 by writing a defence of Dr. Harvey's discovery 
 of the circulation of the blood. He was equally 
 active and useful during the plague, and was no 
 less successful in curing the small pox. He not 
 only gave advice and medicines gratis to the 
 poor, but also supplied their other necessities. 
 He was. particularly kind to the sufferers for roy- 
 alty. He wrote the life of his brother in Latin, 
 in 1671, which he deposited in the college library 
 at Cambridge, and in 1693, when in his seventy- 
 fourth year, added an appendix in defence of the 
 EiKov BaffiXtKi; of king Charles I. He died in 
 1705, aged eighty-six. 
 
 BARYPYCNI ; (iapvirvKvoi ; in the ancient 
 music, such chords as formed the gravest notes of 
 the several spissa. There were five barypyeni in 
 the scale. See Pvcni. 
 
 BARYTES, in chemistry, a genus of earths, 
 which by Bergman, LaVoisier, and other eminent 
 chemists, has been considered as a refractory 
 metallic oxyd. This supposition has been con- 
 firmed by the experiments of Berzelius and Pon- 
 tin, who, led by Sir H. Davy's decomposition of 
 potash and soda by galvanism, subjected this 
 earth to the same agent. Their experiments were
 
 BAR 
 
 599 
 
 BAR 
 
 attended with complete success, and have been 
 since verified by Sir H. Davy himself. To this 
 metallic basis Davy gave the name of Barium, 
 which see. 
 
 ' Pure barytes, ' says Dr.Ure, < is best obtained 
 by ignitinpr, in a covered.crucible, the pure crys- 
 tallised nitrate of barytes. It is procured in the 
 state of hydrate by adding caustic pot;ish or soda 
 to a solution of the muriate or nitrate. And ba- 
 rytes, sli'jhtly colored with charcoal, may be 
 obtained by strongly igniting the carbonate and 
 charcoal mixed together in fine powder. Barytes 
 obtained from the ignited nitrate is of a whitish- 
 gray color ; more caustic than strontites, or per- 
 haps even lime. It renders tlie syrup of violets 
 green, and the infusion of turmeric red. Its 
 specific gravity by Fourcroy is 4. When water 
 in small quantity is poured on the dry earth it 
 slakes like quicklime, but perhaps with evolution 
 of more heat. When swallowed it acts as a vio- 
 lent poison. It is destitute of smell. When pure 
 barytes is exposed in a porcelain tube, at a heat 
 verging on ignition, to a stream of dry oxygen 
 gas, it absorb the gas rapidly, and passes to the 
 state of deutoxide of barium. But when it is 
 calcined, in contact with atmospheric air, we ob- 
 tain at first this deutoxide and carbonate of ba- 
 rytes ; the former of which passes very slowly 
 into the latter, by absorption of carbonic acid from 
 the atmosphere.' 
 
 Again — ' water at 50°, Fahrenheit, dissolves 
 one-twentieth of its weight of barytes, and at 
 212" about one-half of its weight; though M. 
 Thenard, in a table, has stated it at only one- 
 tenth. As the solution cools, hexagonal prisms, 
 terminated at each extremity with a four-sided 
 pyramid, form. These crystals are often attached 
 to one another, so as to imitate the leaves of fern. 
 Sometimes they are deposited in cubes. They 
 contain about 53 per cent, of water, or 20 prime 
 proportions. The supernatant liquiu is barytes 
 water. It is colorless, acrid, and caustic. It 
 acts powerfully on the vegetable purples and 
 yellows. Exposed to the air it attracts carbonic 
 acid, and the dissolved barytes is converted into 
 carbonate, which falls down in insoluble crusts. 
 It appears from the experiments of M. BerthoUet 
 that heat alone cannot deprive the crystallised 
 hydrate of its water. After exposure to a red 
 heat, when it fuses like potash, a proportion of 
 water remains in combination. This quantity is 
 a prime equivalent rr I'l'i 5, to 9-75 of barytes. 
 The ignited hydrate is a solid of a whitish-gray 
 color, caustic, and very dense. It fuses at 
 a heat a little under a cherry red ; is fixed in 
 the fire; attracts, but slowly, carbonic acid 
 from the atmosphere. It yields carburetted 
 hydrogen, und carbonate of barytes when 
 heated along with charcoal, provided this be 
 not in excess.' 
 
 * Sulphur combines with barytes, when they 
 are mixed together, and heated in a crucible. 
 The same compound is more economically ob- 
 tained by ignitiuix a mixture of sulphate of 
 barytes and charcoal in fine powder. Tliis sul- 
 phuret is of a reddish-yellow color, and when 
 dry without smell. Wiien this substance is put 
 into hot water a powerful action is manifested. 
 
 Thewatcr is decomposed, and two new products 
 are formed; namely, hydrosulphuret, and iiydpo- 
 guretted sulphuret of barytes. The first crystal- 
 lises as the liquid cools; the second remains 
 dissolved. Tiio hydrosulphuret is a compound 
 of 9-75 of barytes with 2-125 sulphuretted hy- 
 drogen. Its crystals should be quickly separated 
 by filtration, and dried by pressure between the 
 folds of porous paper. They are white scales 
 have a silky lustre, are soluble in water, and yield 
 a solution having a greenish tinge. Its taste is 
 acrid, sulphurous, and, when mixed with the hv- 
 droguretted sulphuret, eminently corrosive. It 
 rapidly attracts oxygen from the atmosphere, and 
 is converted into the sulphate of barytes. Tlie 
 hydroguretted sulphuret is a compound of 9-75 
 barytes wtth 4-125 bisulphuretted hydrotjen; but 
 contaminated with sulphite and hyposulphite in 
 unknown proportions. The dry sulphuret con- 
 sists probably of 2 suIphur-(-9-75 barytes. The 
 readiest way of obtaining barytes water is to boil 
 the solution of the sulphuret with deutoxide of 
 copper, which seizes the sulphur while the hydro- 
 gen flies off, and the barytes remains dissolved. 
 Phosphuret of barytes may be easily formed by 
 exposing the constituents together to heat in a 
 glass tube. Their reciprocal action is so intense 
 as to cause ignition. Like phosphuret of lime, 
 it decomposes water, and causes the disengage- 
 ment of phosphuretted hydrogen gas, which spon- 
 taneously inflames with contact of air. Wlien 
 sulphur is made to act on the deutoxide of ba- 
 rytes, sulphuric ac>d is formed, which unites to a 
 portion of the earth into a sulphate. ' Its salts 
 are all, more or less, white and transparent: the 
 soluble sulphates make, with the solulile salts of 
 barytes, a precipitate insoluble in nitric acid ; 
 and they are all poisonous except the sulphate. 
 See the respective Acids, for the most useful. 
 
 BAIIYTONO, in the Italian music, answers to 
 our common pitch of bass. 
 
 BARYTONUINI; from (iapvc, grave, and 
 Tovos, accent; in the Greek grammar, denotes a 
 verb, which having no accent marked on the last 
 syllable, a grave accent is to be understood. 
 
 BARZILLAI; from bna, iron, Ileb. : l.A 
 Gileadite of Kogelim, who supplied David and 
 his few faithful friends with provisions, while 
 they lay at Mahanaim, during the usurpation of 
 Absalom (2 Sam. xvii. 27 — 29); 2. A Simeonite 
 of Meholah, the father of Adriel, one of Saul's 
 sons-in-law (1 Sam. xviii. 19); 3. A priest who 
 married a daughter of the hospitable Barzillai, 
 and whose descendants returned from Babylon. 
 Neh. vii. 63. 
 
 BAS, an island of France, on the coast of 
 the department of Finisterre, to which department 
 it belongs ; it is about a league in leniitli, and is 
 situated two leagues north of St. Pal de Leon. 
 
 Bas (James Philip Le), a n->odern French en- 
 graver, by whom we have some excellent prints. 
 His great force seems to lie in landscapes and 
 small figures, which he executed in a superior 
 manner. His style of engraving is extremely neat; 
 he proves the freedom of the etching, and harmo- 
 nizes the whole with the graver and dry point. 
 We have also a variety of petty vignettes by this 
 artist. He flourished about the middle of th«
 
 600 
 
 BASALT. 
 
 present century ; but we have no account of the 
 time of his birth or death. 
 
 BAS.\AI>, in botany, an Indian tree which 
 grows about Cochin. 
 
 BASALITES, a word used by Salmasius for 
 Basaltes. 
 
 BASALT, ARTiFiciAr., or black porcelain, a 
 composition, having nearly the same properties 
 v.itli the natural basaltes, invented by Messrs. 
 Wedgwood and Bentley, and applied to various 
 purposes in their manufacture. 
 
 Basalt, or Basaltes; from basal, iron, or 
 /3affavi4'w, diligenter examine; in natural history, 
 a heavy, hard stone, chiefly black or green, con- 
 sisting of prismatic crystals, the number of whose 
 sides is uncertain. The English mmers call it 
 cockle; the German schoerl. It abounds in gi- 
 gantic masses in every part of Europe, and is now 
 regarded by mineralogists as one of the most 
 remarkable species of trap rocks. Basaltes was 
 originally found in columns in Ethiopia, and 
 fragments of it in the river Tmolus, and some 
 other places. We now have it frequently both in 
 columns and small pieces, in Spain, Russia, Po- 
 land, near Dresden, and in Silesia ; but the most 
 magnificent ranges of basaltic columns in the 
 world are those called the Giant's Causeway, in 
 Ireland : and next to them, perhaps, those of 
 Stafta, one of the western isles of Scotland. Great 
 quantities of basalt are likewise found in the 
 neighbourhood of Mount iEtna in Sicily, of 
 Ilecla in Iceland, of the volcano in the island of 
 Bourbon, and in the ci-devant province of V'iva- 
 rais in the south of France. It is found there- 
 fore in the neighbourhood of active volcanoes, 
 and one of the great questions that geologists 
 have agitated is, whether it does not always de- 
 monstrate the existence of some extinguished 
 volcano in its vicinity. 
 
 The rocks of the Cyclops, in the neighbour- 
 hood of iEtna, exhibit very magnificent basaltic 
 pillars. One is an island composed of lava, on a 
 base of basalt, of no uncommon nature ; above 
 which there is a crust of pozzolana, combined 
 with a certain white calcareous matter, hard and 
 compact; and which, as it is composed by the 
 action of the air, appears like a piece of knotty 
 porous wood. That rock, at some former period, 
 became so hard as to split ; and the clefts were 
 then filled up w-ith a very hard and porous mat- 
 ter like scoriai. This matter afterwards acquiring 
 new h.ardness, also splits, leaving large interstices, 
 which in their turn have been filled up with a 
 species of compound yellow matter. The island 
 was formerly inhabited; and there remains a 
 flight of steps leading from the shore to the ruins 
 of some houses, which appear to have been hewn 
 in the rock. These basaltic columns, at first 
 viev/, seem to resemble those of the Giant's 
 Causeway, and others commonly met with : But 
 on a nearer inspection, we find this difference, 
 fhat the former are assembled in groups of five or 
 six about one, which serves as tlieir common cen- 
 tre, and are of various sizes and forms ; some 
 square, others hexagonal, heptagonal, or octago- 
 nal. It seems also peculiar to that neiglibour- 
 hood, that some portions of the basaltic formation 
 present the likeness of cannon or hollow cylinders, 
 varying in their diameters from six inclies to 
 
 twenty feet ; but these descriptions not being so 
 well authenticated as some which we possess of 
 basaltes nearer home, we may proceed to remark, 
 that in Ireland the basalt forming the Giant's 
 Causeway rises far up the country, runs into tlie 
 sea, crosses at the bottom, and rises again on the 
 opposite land. The immense pillars of it have 
 been very particularly described and examined 
 in a work entitled Letters concerning the north- 
 ern coast of the county of Antrim ; from which 
 the following brief particulars are extracted : — 
 ' 1. The pillars of the Causeway are small, not 
 very much exceeding one foot in breadth, and 
 thirty in length; sharply defined, neat in their 
 articulation, with concave or convex terminations 
 to each point. (Basaltes, fig. 5.) In many of 
 the capes and hills they are of a larger size, 
 more imperfect and irregular in their figure and 
 articulation, having often flat terminations to their 
 points. At Fairhead they are of a gigantic mag- 
 nitude, sometimes exceeding five feet in breadth, 
 and 100 in length; often apparently destitute of 
 joints altogether. Through many parts of the 
 country this species of stone is entirely rude and 
 unformed, separating in loose blocks ; in which 
 state it resembles the stone known in Sweden by 
 the name of trappe. 2. The pillars of the 
 Giant's Causeway stood on the level of the beach, 
 whence they may be traced through all de- 
 grees of elevation to the summit of the highest 
 grounds in the neighbourhood. 3. At the Cause- 
 way, and in most other places, they stand per- 
 pendicular to the horizon. In some of the capes, 
 and particularly near Ushet harbour, in the isle of 
 Baghery, they lie in an oblique position. At 
 Doon Point, in the same island, and along the 
 Balintoy shore, tliey form a variety of regular 
 curves. 4. The stone is black, close, and uni- 
 form; the varieties of color are blue, reddish, 
 and gray; and of all kinds of grain, from extreme 
 fineness to the coarse granulated appearance of a 
 stone which resembles imperfect granite, abound- 
 ing in crystals of schorl, chiefly black, though 
 sometimes of various colors. 3. Though die stone 
 of the Giant's Causeway' be in general compact 
 and homogeneous, yet it is remarkable that the 
 upper joint of each pillar, where it can be ascer- 
 tained with any certainty, is always rudely 
 formed and cellular. The gross pillars also, 
 in the capes and mountains, frequently abound 
 in these air-holes through all their parts, w'hich 
 sometimes contain fine clay, and other appa- 
 rently foreign bodies : and the irregular bas- 
 altes beginning where the pillars cease, or lying 
 over them, is in general extremely honey- 
 combed ; containing in its cells crystals of 
 zeolite, little morsels of fine brown clay, some- 
 times very pure steatite, and in a few instances, 
 bits of a^ate.' 
 
 In Staflii, one of the western isles of Scotland, 
 the whole end of the island is supported by 
 ranges of pillars, mostly about fifty feet high, 
 standing in natural colonnades, according as the 
 bays and points of land have formed themselves, 
 upon a firm basis of solid unformed rock. Above 
 these, the stratum, which reaches to the soil or 
 surface of the island, varies in thickness, as the 
 island itself is formed into hills or valleys, each 
 hill, which hangs over the v;\lleys below, form-
 
 BASAI. TJE.B 
 
 J^LATKIL. 
 
 
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 ^1 
 
 £^l 
 
 ^ - ''S^Sf^^ 
 
 V^2| 
 
 ^^tf 
 
 
 ^5P 
 
 ^mi 
 
 p^i. 
 
 ^^^^^J 
 
 |F,, ■.n^iJM 
 
 "S^gKffl^^fl 
 
 hshh^^^^I 
 
 ^^^^^■v^^i 
 
 H^^^^BIi 
 
 /.,..,/.«. /»-/VV.W„-,//.,' /;i.w,«.r /w frt'-J /■•>-"
 
 B A v^ Ai t:e s 
 
 -PJ.-ITE 1 . 
 
 GJ.IXTS CJI stnwtT. 
 
 l.,„,/,„.h,/./,w,.,/ /,• /■/,„,„.,• T,;,,, I >,iri ift'jt:
 
 BASALT. 
 
 601 
 
 mg an ample pediment. Some of these, above 
 sixty feet in thickness from the base to the point, 
 are formed by the sloping of the hill on each side, 
 almost into the shape of those used in architec- 
 ture. Sir Joseph Banks observed tliat the bend- 
 in"; pillars of Stafiadifl'er considerably from those 
 of the Giant's Causeway. In Slurta they lie 
 down on their sides, eacii forming the segment 
 of a circle ; and in one place a small mass of 
 tliem very much resembles tlie ribs of a ship. 
 Those of the Giant's Causeway, which he saw, 
 ran along the face of a hi;2;h cliff, bent strangely 
 in the middle, as if unable at their first form- 
 ation, while in a .soft state, to support the mass 
 of incumbent earth. 
 
 Sir William Hamilton informs us,, that in 1779 
 he picked up some fragments of large and regu- 
 lar crystals of close-grained lava or basalt, in the 
 neiglibourhood of Vesuvius, the diameter of 
 wiiich, when the prisms were complete, might have 
 been eight or nine inches. He observes, that 
 Vesuvius does not exhibit any lavas regularly 
 crystallised, and forming what are called Giants' 
 Causeways, (jxcept a lava tliat ran into the sea, 
 near Torre del Greco, in 1631, which has a small 
 degree of such an appearance. As the fragments 
 of basaltes which he found on this mountain, 
 however, had been evidently thrown out of the 
 crater in their proper form, lie puts the question, 
 ' May not lavas be more ready to crystallise 
 within the bowels of a volcano than after their 
 emission? And may not many of the Giants' 
 Causeways already discovered be the nuclei of 
 volcanic mountains, whose lighter and less solid 
 parts may have been worn away by the hand of 
 time ? ilr. Faujas de St. Fond gives an exam- 
 ple of basalt columns placed deep within the 
 crater of an unextinguished volcano.' 
 
 We suppose this writer to allude to the moun- 
 tain of Aisa, called La Coupe, or the Col d'Aisa, 
 situated near the village Entrague, in the \ iva- 
 rais. This village, according ;to St. Fond, is 
 placed on a kind of platform of volcanic matter 
 above the torrent of the Volant, which has here 
 excavated a bed of great depth and width, bor- 
 dered on the right and left by grand ranges of 
 basaltic columns. In the midst of a prodigious 
 rampart of these columns, at different levels, may 
 be seen a current of lava descending from a 
 neighbouring mountain, and joining the columns 
 that border the river. Here we see, in the most 
 unequivocal and convincing manner, that the 
 lava, under the form of hard and compact basalt, 
 has flowed at several times from the mountain, 
 and has formed the great causeways at different 
 lieights, to which the lava is still united and ad- 
 hering. We may follow the current of basalt up 
 the declivity of the mountain, which has a conical 
 form and a great elevation, and is entirely vol- 
 canic from the base to the summit. According 
 to St. Fond, it is the most remarkable and best 
 characterised crater in all the X'ivarais. 
 
 All the base of the conical mountain La Coupe 
 is covered by porous and cellular lava in detached 
 irregular masses, heaped on each other, so as to 
 leave no doubt that they have, been ejected in a 
 liquid state by one or more formidable eruptions, 
 and have taken their forms as they fell at the foot 
 of tiie cone. On reaching the summit or edge of 
 
 the crater, we may see the vvhole mountnin, which 
 forms a regular cone resembling that of Vesuvius. 
 The edges of the crater are steep, and formed in 
 the sliape of a tunnel ; the greatest diameter be- 
 ing from 140 to 150 toises, and the depth about 
 600 feet. The lavas are colored, and converted 
 into a kind of puzzolani, and mixed with great 
 masses of black and shar]j scoriae, which makes 
 the descent difficult. At the bottom of this in- 
 verted cone is a magnificent plantation of chest- 
 nut-trees, which have flourished astonishingly in 
 this ancient moutli of a volcano, liaving no other 
 soil than the dry and friable puzzolani. It may 
 be noticed, that the crater of Vesuvius was lined 
 with lofty trees at the period of its eruption in 
 1631. At the bottom of the crater, in La Coupe, 
 we may observe a breivch or opening on the side 
 facing the houses of the Col d'Aisi; there is a 
 general inclination to this opening, which has 
 served to give a passage to the lava. When we 
 are arrived at the opening we may observe a 
 streani of lava coming from the interior, and 
 taking its course down the mountain, it descends 
 in a waving direction amidst the porous lavas. 
 This current is a true black basalt, compact and 
 similar to that of the columns ; in certain parts 
 its surface appears blistered, and in other places 
 it becomes porous. Following the current of lava, 
 after it has crossed the path, which is at the foot 
 o." the mountain, we may trace its course to the 
 bed of a torrent not far from the high road. There 
 may be seen, says St. Fond, a spectacle most 
 gratifying to the geologist ; for the lava whilst 
 still on the descent, and before it had reached the 
 level ground, has effected a prismatic form ; and 
 the lava at the bottom has formed a beautiful 
 colonnade. 
 
 There is a similar conical mountain in the Viva- 
 rais, with a distinct and much larger crater, 
 called La Coupe de Jaujeac. The river \ ignon 
 flows at the foot of it. On its banks are immense 
 ranges of basaltic columns, the most elevated of 
 any in the Vivarais. They enclose the borders of 
 the river on each side for more than a league. 
 Some of the prisms rise in one shaft to the lieigHt 
 of fifty feet; in other parts, the articulated columns 
 form a kind of regular causeway. In some places 
 the columns are bent, and abovewe see immense 
 ramparts of basalt, of more than 140 foet in 
 height, in several ranges, spreading out like a 
 fan, and diverging in every direction. On the 
 left, the current of basalt covers several little hills 
 of granite, and is moulded upon them. In some 
 parts the compact lava forms one solid mass ; in 
 other places it is arranged in great beds. Notiiing 
 can be more grand and varied, says St. Fond, 
 than the courseof the river V'ignon to the Ardeche, 
 where the great current of lava joins the stream* 
 that have flowed from the volcanoes of Thueyts 
 and Neyrac. — Faujux St. Fund sur lis Volcum 
 ctcint's (III Vivaraiis et du Vcliii/. 
 
 Having noticed the principal localities oi 
 b;isalt, we may now observe that the structure or 
 form in which it appears, presents one of its most 
 striking peculiaritiei. This would seem to be 
 essentially the same in the various and immense 
 stores of it yet discovered ; so that the accurate 
 description of one basaltic deposit might serve, 
 as far as any purposes of science are concerned.
 
 G02 
 
 BASALT. 
 
 for that of any other. Mr. Hamilton, for instancp, 
 the author of the Letters on Antrim, describes 
 the Giant's Causeway in language which might 
 at once be applied to the picturesque pillars of 
 Staffa; telling us that the pillars of the former, 
 varying in their length and thickness from 30 
 feet to 100, and from one foot to five respectively, 
 rise from the level of the beach, and ascend 
 gradually into the greatest elevations of the 
 neighbouring hills. Tliese colonnades, we are 
 also informed, are generally perpendicular to the 
 horizon, and particularly at the causeway itself; 
 but it is added that, in the vicinity, they are not 
 unfrequently observed lying in an oblique posi- 
 tion, and assuming a great variety of regular 
 curves. The same facts are recorded in reference 
 to the famed rocks of the Cyclops. The columns 
 there, as at Staffa and Antrim, are of various 
 sizes and forms, as we have indeed already 
 noticed ; some being four-sided, others hexagonal, 
 heptagonal, octagonal, and even nine-sided ; 
 which last is the rarest form which basalt ever 
 assumes. Tlie position, too, is equally various; 
 some standing erect, whilst others are laid on 
 their sides, piled above one another like sacks of 
 corn in a granary. The jointed columns too are 
 of ever-varying lengths and joints; some a few 
 inches, others many feet long, found occasionally 
 bent, but generally nicely fitted up, as by the 
 hands of a most skilful mechanic. 
 
 Kirwan is also of opinion, tliat the basaltes 
 owe their origin both to fire and water; they 
 seem to have been at first a lava, he observes ; 
 but this, while immersed in it water, was so dif- 
 fused or dissolved in it with tlie assistance of heat, 
 as to crystallise when cold, or coalesce into regu- 
 lar forms. That basaltes is not the effect of mere 
 fusion, he concludes from comparing its form 
 with its texture. Its form, if produced by fusion, 
 ought to be the effect of having flowed very thin ; 
 but in that case its texture should be glassy : 
 whereas it is merely earthy, and devoid of cavities. 
 Hence, we may understand how it comes to pass 
 that lava perfectly vitrified, and even water, have 
 been found enclosed in masses of basaltes. 
 
 It is known, in confirmation of this reasoning, 
 that when lava runs into the sea, it does in most 
 cases actually assume the basaltic structure 
 more or less perfectly : and, it is worthy of par- 
 ticular observation, that all the columnar trap 
 which has attracted any attention on account of 
 its regularity or beauty, is eitlier altogether insu- 
 lar or situated near the ocean. 
 
 As to its formation and analysis : — * Ten years 
 ago,' says Mr. Bergman,' it was a general opi- 
 nion, that the surface of the earth, together with 
 the mountains, had been produced by moisture. 
 It is true that some declared fire to be the original 
 cause, but the greater number paid little atten- 
 tion to this opinion. Now, on the contrary, the 
 opinion that subterraneous fire had been the 
 principal agent gains ground daily ; and every 
 thing is supposed to have been melted, even to 
 the granite. My own opinion is, that both the 
 fire and water have contributed their share in 
 this operation ; though in such proportion that 
 the force of the former extends nmch farther than 
 the latter ; and, on the contrary, that the fire has 
 only worked in some parts of the surface of the 
 
 earth. It cannot be doubted that there has been 
 some connexion betwixt the basaltic pillars and 
 subterraneous fire; as they are found in places 
 where the marks of fire are yet visible ; and as they 
 are even found mixed with lava, tophus, and other 
 substances produced by fire. As far as we know, 
 nature makes use of three methods to produce 
 regular forms in the mineral kingdom. 1. That 
 of crystallisation or precipitation. 2. The crust- 
 ing or settling of the external surface of a liquid 
 mass while it is cooling : and 3. The bursting of 
 a moist substance while it is drying. 1. The first 
 method is the most common ; but to all appear- 
 ance, nature has not made use of it in the present 
 case. Crystals are seldom or never found in any 
 quantity running in the same direction; but either 
 inclining from one another, or, what is still more 
 common, placed towards one another in sloping 
 directions. They are also generally separated a 
 little from one another when they are regular. 
 The nature of the thing requires this, because the 
 several particles of which the crystals are com- 
 posed must have the liberty of obeying that 
 power which affects their constitution. The 
 basaltic columns on the contrary, whose height 
 is frequently from thirty to forty feet, are placed 
 parallel to one another in considerable numbers, 
 and so close together that the point of a knife 
 can hardly be introduced between them. Be- 
 sides, in most places, each pillar is divided into 
 several parts or joints, which seem to be placed 
 on one another. And indeed it is not uncom- 
 mon for crystals to be formed one above another 
 in different layers, while the solvent has been 
 visibly diminished at different times : but then the 
 upper crystals never sit so exactly upon one 
 another as to produce connected prisms of the 
 same length or depth in all the strata taken to- 
 gether; but each stratum, separately taken, pro- 
 duces its own crystals. Precipitation, both in 
 the wet and dry way, requires that the particles 
 should be free enough to arrange themselves in a 
 certain order ; and as this is not practicable in a 
 large melted mass, no crystallisations appear, ex- 
 cepting on its surface or in its cavities. 
 
 Bergman found that the component parts of 
 various specimens of Basaltes were, at a medium 
 52 parts silex, 15 alumina, 8 carbonate of lime, 
 and 25 iron. 
 
 Several modern mineralogists have analysed 
 basalt, and other trap rocks, to discover their 
 affinity with one another, and to the lava of vol 
 canos, of which they are all conceived to be 
 only varieties. Indeed the facts we have already 
 given of the basaltic formations in France, seem 
 to put the question at rest. The following results 
 obtained by Dr. Kennedy, are extracted from 
 the Edinburgh Philosopliical Transactions. 
 
 The basalt from Staffa contains in 100 parts 
 
 Silex 48 
 
 Argil 16 
 
 Oxide of iron . . . . 16 
 
 Lime 9 
 
 Soda 4 
 
 Muriatic acid ... 1 
 
 Loss 6 
 
 100
 
 B A S 
 
 The lava of Catanea, iMouiit .'iL.tira, coiiluins 
 in 100 parts, 
 
 Silex 51 
 
 Argil 10 
 
 Oxide of iron .... 145 
 
 Lime 95 
 
 Soda 4 
 
 Muriatic acid .... 1 
 Loss 1 
 
 100 
 The greenstone of Salisbury craig, contains in 
 100 parts, 
 
 Silex 46 
 
 Argil 19 
 
 Oxide of iron .... 17 
 
 Lime 8 
 
 Soda 3-5 
 
 Muriatic acid .... 1 
 Loss 5*5 
 
 100 
 
 The lava of Santa \'enese, Mount .-Etna, con- 
 tains in 100 jjarts, 
 
 Silex 50-75 
 
 Argil 17-5 
 
 Oxide of iron .... 1425 
 
 Lime .10 
 
 Soda 4 
 
 Muriatic acid .... 1 
 Loss 2-95 
 
 ALT. 
 
 603 
 
 100 
 The greenstone of Calton hill, at Edinburgh, 
 contains in 100 parts, 
 
 Silex 50 
 
 Argil 18-50 
 
 Oxide of iron . . . . 16-75 
 
 Lime 3 
 
 Soda 4 
 
 Muriatic acid .... 1 
 Loss ...'.... 6-75 
 
 100 
 The amorphous basaltes, known by the name of 
 llowley Rasr, the ferrilite of Kirwan, of the speci- 
 fic gravity of 2748, afforded Dr. \\ithering 47-5 
 of silex, 32-5 of alumina, -.ind 20 of iron, at a 
 very low desree of oxidation. Klaproth givos, 
 for the analysis of the prismatic basaltes of ll;i.- 
 senberg, silex 44-5, alumina 16-75, oxide of iron 
 20, lime 9-,5, magnesia 225, oxide of manganese 
 12, soda 2-60, water 2. On a subsequent 
 analysis, with a view to detect the existence of 
 muriatic acid, he found slight indications of 
 It, but it was in an extremely minute propor- 
 tion. 
 
 On the whole, the affinity between lava and 
 trap rock formations seems established, but for 
 further information we would refer the reader to 
 the interesting work of Ur. M'Culloch, on the 
 vytstern isles ; Dr. boue's Essai Geologique sur 
 I' Ecosse, Necker de Saussure ; and the Geologi- 
 cal Essays of Messrs. Buckland, Conybeare, and 
 Dauting. 
 
 BASALTIC IIoRXEBLENDE, occurs usually 
 in opaque six-sided single crysuls, which some- 
 times act on the magnetic needle. It is imbedded 
 
 in basalt or wacke. Color velvet-black. Lustre 
 vitreous. Scratches trlass. Sp. gr. 3-25. Fuses 
 witii difficulty into a bl-ack glass. It consists of 47 
 silica, 26 alumina, 8 lime, 2 magnesia, 15 iron, 
 and 0-5 water. It is found in the basalt of 
 Arthur's Seat, in that of Eifeshire, and in the 
 isles of Mull, Canna, Eigg, and Sky. It is found 
 also in the basaltic and floetz trap rocks of Eng- 
 land, Ireland, Saxony, Bavaria, Hungary, France, 
 and Spain. 
 
 BASAN. See Bashan. 
 
 BASANITE, in mineralogy, is a variety of 
 silicious slate, commonly known under the name 
 of touchstone, and has been used both in ancient 
 and modern times, to determine the purity of 
 gold and silver by the color of the streak which 
 those metals leave when rubbed on it. The per- 
 manency or otherwise of the streak, under the 
 application of nitric acid, is a further test of the 
 purity of gold. Other stones have been occasion- 
 ally applied to this purpose. See Assay. 
 
 BASANWOW, in the Celtic mythology, was 
 the son of Diodes, the king of the Sicambrians. 
 lie disappeared suddenly, after having reigned 
 tliirty-six years, was supposed to have ascended 
 to heaven, and was honored by the Germans as 
 the god of armies. 
 
 BASARTSCIIIK, a considerable town of 
 European Turkey, in Romania. It is well built, 
 and has clean and broad streets. It is situated 
 on the river INIaritz. 
 
 BASARUCO, in commerce, a small base coin 
 in the East Indies, made of very bad tin. Of this 
 coin there arc two sorts ; the base sort is one- 
 sixth lower in value than the good. Three 
 basarucos are equal to two rees of Portugal. 
 
 BAS-BRETON, the language of the natires 
 of Bretagne, or Brittany. 
 
 BASCAMA, in antiquity, ridiculous or gro- 
 tesque figures, hungup by the ancient smitiis be- 
 fore their furnaces, as charms against envy. 
 
 BAS-CIIEVALIER. See Bachelor.' 
 
 BASE, V. n. & adj.'^ Derived from Ba<Tic, 
 Ba'seless, I that upon which we tread, 
 
 Ba'sely, (^ stand, or go, from Baivw, 
 
 Ba'seness, (Baivtiv, to go. Thus it 
 
 Baseborn, I means, with regard to 
 
 Base-String. J locality, any thing low; 
 
 the lower part of a pedestal, and the foundation 
 on which it rests ; any thing spurious or mixed. 
 It is metaphorically applied to sounds; to dis- 
 positions of the mind; to actions; to general 
 character. Thus it signifies wliatever is lowered, 
 degraded, disgraced, shameful, vile, mean, and 
 worthless. It is, however, a stronger term of 
 reproach than those employed to express its 
 meaning : mean and vile, especially, convey a 
 very inadequate sense of it. Base marks a high 
 degree of moral turpitude; vile and mean de- 
 note, in different degrees, the want of all value 
 or esteem; what is base excites our abhorrence; 
 what is vile provokes disgust ; what is mean 
 awakens contempt. A base voice or sound, is a 
 low deep voice or sound. 
 
 Mete the space from thy foote to the h(ue of the toure. 
 
 CluiuctT. AttTolabie. 
 
 And I will yet be more vile than this, and will be 
 
 base in mine own :>i!:Iit. 2 Hum.
 
 604 
 
 BASE. 
 
 Lpou this base a carious work is rais'd. 
 Like undivided brick, entire and one ; 
 
 Though soft, yet lasting, with just balance pois'd ; 
 Distri')ulcd with due proportion. 
 
 P. Fletcher. Purple Island. 
 Instead of music, and base flattering tongues. 
 
 Which wait to first salute my lord's uprise ; 
 The cheerful lark wakes him with early song. 
 
 And birds' sweet whistling notes unlock his eyes. Id. 
 By him Andicou pac'd of middle age. 
 
 His mind as far from rashness, as from fears ; 
 Hating base thoughts, as much as desperate rage. 
 
 The world's loud thunderings he unshaken hears, 
 Ti^or will he death or life, or seek or fly ; 
 
 Ready for both — He is as cowardly 
 Who longer fears to live, as he who fears to die. Id. 
 
 Wl-at if it tempt thee tow'rd the flood, my lord ? 
 Or to the dreadful summit of the cliflf. 
 That beetles o'er his base into the sea? Shakspeare. 
 If that rebellion 
 
 Came, like itself, in base and abject routs, 
 
 You, reverend father, and these noble lords, 
 
 Had not been here. Id. 
 
 It could not else be, I should prove so base 
 
 To sue and be denied such common grace. Id. 
 
 Why, bastard ? wherefore base ? 
 
 When my dimensions are as well compact 
 
 As honest madam's issue. Id. 
 
 The king is not himself, but basely led 
 
 By flatterers. Id. 
 
 Why brand they us 
 
 With base? with basciiess? bzistardy? Id. 
 
 I have sounded the very 5a»e-string of mortality. 
 
 Id. Henrt/ IVth. 
 
 Men of weak abilities in great place, arc like little 
 statues set on great bases, made the less by their ad- 
 vancement. Bacon. 
 
 Insurrections of base people are commonly more fu- 
 rious in their beginnings. Id. 
 
 In pipes, the lower the note holes be, and the fur- 
 ther from the mouth of the pipe, the more base sound 
 they yield. Id. 
 
 The just and measured proportion of the air per- 
 cussed towards the baseness or trebleness of tones, is 
 one of the greatest secrets in the contemplation of 
 sounds. Id. 
 
 This young lord lost his life with his father in the 
 field, and with them a base son. Camden's Rem. 
 
 A lieutenant basely gave it up, as soon as Essex in 
 his passage demanded it. Clarendon. 
 
 If fortune hath envyed me wealth, thieves have 
 robbed me, my father have not left me such revenues 
 as others have, that I am a younger brother basely 
 born, of mean parentage, a dirt-dauber's son, am I 
 therefore to be blamed ? an eagle, a bull, a lion, is 
 not rejected for his poverty, and why should a man ? 
 'Tis fortune's fault ; not mine. Anat. Melancholy. 
 
 Swinish gluttony 
 ; Ne'er looks to heaven amidst his gorgeous feast. 
 
 But with besotted base ingratitude 
 
 Crams and blasphemes his feeder. Milton'* Comut. 
 
 Phalastus was all in white, having his bases and 
 caparison embroided. Sidney. 
 
 Since the perfections are such in the party I love, 
 as the feeling of them cannot come unto any unuoble 
 hi'art ; shall that heart, lifted up to such a height, be 
 counted base. Id. 
 
 We hold, that seeing there is not any man of the 
 Church of En^^land but the same man is also a mem- 
 het of the commonwealth, nor any member of the 
 commonwealth which is not also of the Church of 
 England ; therefore, as in a figure triangle, the base 
 (loth ditfor from the sides thereof, and yet one and 
 tiie self-same line is both a ba^ie and also a side ■, a 
 
 side simply ; a bate if it chance to be the bottom aud 
 underlie the rest : so, albeit, properties and actions of 
 one do cause the name of a commonwealth, qualities 
 and functions of another sort, the name of the church 
 to be given to a multitude, yet one euid the self-same 
 multitude may in such sort be both. 
 
 Hooker. Ecclet. Pol. 
 Which when the cruel Amazon pcrceiv'd 
 
 She 'gan to storme, and rage, and rend her gall 
 For very fell despight, which slxe conceiv'd 
 
 To be so scorned of a fcote-born thrall. 
 Whose life did lie in her least eye-lids' fall. Spenser. 
 Such is the power of that sweet passion. 
 
 That it all sordid baseness doth expel. Id, 
 
 The silver-sounding instruments did meet 
 
 With the base murmur of the water's fall ; 
 The water's fall, with difference discreet. 
 
 Now soft, now loud, unto the wind did call ; 
 The gentle warbling wind low answered to all. Id, 
 If the lords and chief men degenerate, what shall 
 be hoped of the peasants and baser people. 
 
 Id. On Ireland. 
 Oh ! she is the pride and glory of the world j 
 Without her all the rest is worthless dross • 
 Life a base slavery ; empire but a mock ; 
 And love, the soul of all, a bitter curse. 
 
 Rochester's Valeniinian. 
 Nor shall it e'er be said, that wight. 
 With gauntlet blue and bases white, 
 .4.nd round blunt truncheon by his side. 
 So great a man at arms defy'd. Hudibras. 
 
 He, whose mind 
 Is virtuous, is alone of noble kind ; 
 Though poor in fortune, of celestial race \ 
 And he commits the crime who calls him base. 
 
 Dry den. 
 
 At thv well-sharpen'd thumb, from shore to shore. 
 
 The trebles squeak for fear, the bases roar. Id. 
 
 Your soul's above the baseness of distrust. 
 
 Nothing but love could make you so unjust. Id. 
 
 We alleged the fraudulent obtaining his patent, 
 
 the baseness of his metal, and the prodigious sum to 
 
 be coined. Swift. 
 
 When a man's folly must be spread open before the 
 
 angels, and all his baseness ript up before those pure 
 
 spirits, this will be a double hell. South, 
 
 It is base in his adversaries thus to dwell upon the 
 
 excesses of a passion. Atterbury. 
 
 At the first grin he cast every human feature out 
 
 of his countenance ; at the second he became the head 
 
 of a bas3-vio\. Addison. 
 
 A guinea is pure gold, if it has nothing but gold in 
 
 it, without any alloy or baser metal. Watts. 
 
 But see thy base-born child, thy babe of shame. 
 Who, left by thee, upon our parish came. Oay. 
 
 Those wise old men, those plodding grave state 
 pedants, 
 Forget the course of youth ; their crooked Prudence, 
 To baseness verging still, forgets to take 
 Into their finespun schemes the generous heart. 
 That through the cobweb system bursting lays 
 Their labours waste. 
 
 Thomson's Tancred and Sigismunda, 
 
 When men of rank sacrifice all ideas of dignity to 
 
 ambition without a distinct object, and work with 
 
 low instruments for low ends, the whole composition 
 
 becomes low and base. Burke. ' 
 
 Oh, ye seven hills ! awaken, I 
 
 Ere your very base be shaken. Byrcn. 
 
 Base. A game or play; to keep moving 
 about one spot of ground. 
 
 The first day of the challenge at base, or running, 
 the king won. Burnet's Hist, of Reform.
 
 BASE. 
 
 605 
 
 Base, in architecture, is used fer ony body 
 which bears another, but particularly for the 
 lower part of a column and pedestal. The 
 ancients, in the early times of arciiitecture, used 
 no bases. The doric columns in the temple of 
 Minerva at Athens have none, but stand immedi- 
 ately upon the floor of the porch. Columns 
 afterwards came to be supported on square pieces 
 called plinths, and after that on pedestals. The 
 base of a column, of whatsoever order, on a pe- 
 destal, is that part which comes between the top 
 of the pedestal and the bottom of the shaft of the 
 column ; when there is no pedestal, it is the part 
 between the bottom of the column and llie plinth : 
 some have included the plinth as a part of the 
 base, but it is properly the piece on which the 
 base stands, as the column stands upon that. 
 The pedestal also has its base as well as the co- 
 lumn, and the pilaster. The base of columns is. 
 diilerently formed in the different orders; but in 
 general it is composed of certain spires or circles, 
 and was thence in early times called the spire of 
 a column. These circles were in this case sup- 
 posed to represent the folds of a snake as it lies 
 rolled up ; but they are properly the represen- 
 tations of several larger and smtdler rings or circles 
 of iron, with which the trunks of trees, which 
 were the ancient columns, were surrounded to 
 prevent their bursting:; these were rude and irre- 
 tjular, butthe sculptor v%ho imitated them in stone 
 found the way to make them elegant. The base 
 is different in the different orders : thus. 
 
 Base, Composite, has an astragal less than 
 the Corinthian. 
 
 Base, Corinthian, has two toruses, two sco- 
 tias and a fillet. 
 
 Base, Doric, has an astragal more than the 
 Tuscan, though that was introduced by the mo- 
 derns. 
 
 Base, Ionic, has a lage torus over two slender 
 scotias, separated by two astragals : though in 
 the most ancient monuments of this order there 
 are no bases at all; which the architects are at a 
 loss to account for. 
 
 Base, Tuscan, is the most simple of all others ; 
 coiisisting of a single torus besides the plinth. 
 Base, in chemistry. See Basis. 
 Base, in fortification, the exterior side of the 
 polygon, or that imaginary line which is drawn 
 from the flanked angle of a bastion to the angle 
 opposite to it. 
 
 Base, in geometry, the lowest side of the 
 perimeter of a figure. 
 
 Base or a Conic Sfxtion, a right line in the 
 hyperbola and parabola, arising from the com- 
 mon intersection of the secant plane and the base 
 of the cone. 
 
 Base of a Rectancled Triangle, the side 
 opposite the right angle, i. e. the hypothenuse. 
 
 JjASE OF A Solid Iiguue, the lowest side, or 
 that on which it stands. 
 
 Base ok a Triangle, any side thereof is occa- 
 sionally so called ; though properly it is the 
 lowest side, or tliat which lies parallel to the 
 horizon. 
 
 Base, in gunnery, the least sort of ordnance, 
 the diameter of whose bore is 1^ inch, weight 
 200 pounds, length 4 feet, load 5 pounds, shot 
 IJ pound weight, and diameter J inch. 
 
 Base Colrt, in law, sometimes signifies any 
 court not of record. — Such, is the Court-baron. 
 
 Base Estates are such as base tenants have 
 in their lands. 
 
 Base Fee, a tenure in fee at the will of the 
 lord, as distinguished from soccage, or free 
 tenure; but, according to Lord Coke, a base 
 fee is what may be defeated by limitation, or on 
 entry, &c. 
 
 Base Tenure (bassa tenura), holding by vil- 
 lenage, or other customary service ; as distin- 
 guished from the higher tenures in capite, or by 
 military service. 
 
 Base, in music, see Bass. 
 
 Base, in trigonometry. See Alterx Base. 
 
 Base Knights, the inferior order of knights, 
 as distinguished from barons and bannerets, who 
 were the chief or superior knights. 
 
 BASELLA, climbing nightshade, from Malabar. 
 A genius of the trigfynia order, belonging to the 
 pentandria class of plants ; and in the natural 
 method ranking under the twelfth order, 
 holoraceae. Tlie calyx is wanting ; the corolla 
 is seven-cleft, with the two opposite divisions 
 broader and at last berried, there is one seed. 
 1. B. albrx, with oval, waved, flaccid leaves, and 
 small flowers and fruit. These plants will climb 
 to a considerable height, and send forth a great 
 number of branches ; so they should be trained u p to 
 a trellis, or fastened to the back of the stove ; 
 otherwise they will twist themselves about what- 
 ever plants stand near them, which will make a 
 very disagreeable appearance. 2. B. rubra, 
 with red leaves and simple footstalks, has thick, 
 strong, succulent stalks, and leaves which are of 
 a deep purple color. — This plant will climb to 
 the height of ten or twelve feet, provided it is 
 kept in a stove ; but in the open air it will not 
 grow so large in this country ; nor will the seed 
 come to perfection unless in very warm seasons. 
 The flowers of this plant have no great beauty, 
 but it is cultivated on account of the odd appear- 
 ance of its stalks and leaves, and the flowers of 
 a whitish green color tipped with purple. 
 
 BASELLI or Basels, in our old historians, 
 a species of coin abolished by King Henry II. 
 A.D. 11.58. 
 
 BASEMENTS, in architecture. See Archi- 
 tecture, Index. 
 
 BASE King of a cannon, is the great ring next 
 behind the touch-hole. 
 
 Base Rocket, in botany. See Reseda. 
 
 BAS-EN-BASSET, or Basset, a market to^vn 
 in the department of the Upper Loire, France, 
 arrondissement of Issengeaux. It is the head of 
 a canton and has 5000 inhabitants. Here are 
 manufactures of blond lace, tobacco-pipes, and 
 earthenware. It is three miles north-west of 
 Monistrol, and twenty north-east of Le Puy. 
 
 B.VSENET, ¥t. bassinet ; Old I-:ng. basrtyt ; 
 a little bowl, a small basin; a part of military 
 equipage, a kind of helmet or head-piece, worn 
 originally by the French men at arms. 
 
 Notwithstanding; at the last the king made him put 
 on his haaenet, and then took a surd with both his 
 hands, and strongly with a good will strake hira on 
 the nccke> and the same day hee made three oth^r 
 citizens knights for his sake in the same place. 
 
 S/o;r. .\nn. 1381. R. 2.
 
 BAS 
 
 606 
 
 BAS 
 
 Thcreforo he would her doe away all dread ; 
 And that of him shee mote assur'd stand. 
 He sent to her his basenet, as a faithful band. 
 
 Spenter. Faerie Queene. 
 
 BASH, V. n. -\ See To Abash. This 
 
 Bash'fui., flf/j. y word, with all those of 
 
 Bash'fully, adv. ^~ the same race, Ur. John- 
 
 Bash'mekt, n. s. i son snys, are of uncer- 
 
 Bash'fulxess, m. s. ) tain etymolojjy. Skinner 
 imagines them derived from base or mean ; Min- 
 sheii from irrbatsen, Dut., to strike with asto- 
 nishment ; Junius from ^amg, which he finds in 
 Hesychius to signify sliame. The conjecture of 
 IMinsheu seems most probable. It is sometimes 
 used as synonymous witli modest and modesty ; 
 but not with a nice regard to accuracy. Modest 
 signifies setting measure to ones estimate of one- 
 self; but bashful, a lady to be abashed. Modesty 
 is a habit or principle of the mind ; bashful/iess 
 is a state of feeling. Modesty is at all times be- 
 coming ; baskfiUness is only becoming in females, 
 or -rery young persons, in the presence of their 
 stiperiors. Modesty discovers itself in the ab- 
 sence of every thing assuming, whether in look, 
 word, or action ; baihfulness betrays itself by a 
 downcast look, and a timid air. A modest de- 
 portment is always commendable; a bashful 
 temper is not desirable. — Crabb. 
 
 Are you not ashamed, hash you not to broach and 
 set abroad, in the view and face of the world, such 
 mockeries of religion? Holland's Livius, fol. 320. 
 
 It might be either for the lacke of leamyng and 
 good bryngyng up (a great and common fault in 
 great princes of Germany), or els for his bashful na- 
 ture in youth, which propertie Xenophon wittely 
 faynged to be in Cyrus at lyke yeeires, judging bash- 
 fulness in youth, to be a great token of virtue in age. 
 Ascham. Report and Discourse. 
 
 He looked with an almost bashful kind of modesty, 
 as if he feared the eyes of man. Sidney. 
 
 They bashe not to defile the wives of other men. 
 
 Bale on the Reflations. 
 
 Ah! see the virgin rose, how sweetly shee 
 Doth first peep forth with bashful modestee. 
 That fairer seemes the lesse ye see her may ! 
 Lo ! see soone after, how more bold and free. 
 Her bared bosom she doth broad display ! 
 Lo ! see soone after, how she fades and falls away. 
 
 Spenser- 
 
 His countenance was bold, and bashed not 
 For Guyon's looks, but scornful eye glance at him 
 shot. Id. 
 
 I never tempted her with word too large ; 
 
 But, 2is a brother to a sister, show'd 
 
 Bashful sincerity with comely love. Shalispeare. 
 
 Hence bashful cunning ? 
 And prompt mc plain and holy innocence. Id. 
 
 Another, through bashfulness, suspicion, and timo- 
 rousness, will not be seen abroad, loves darkness as 
 life, and cannot endure the light, or to sit in light- 
 some places ; his hat still in his eyes, he will neither 
 see, nor be seen by his good will. Anat. Mel. 
 
 Her golden hair, her silver forehead hicrh. 
 
 Her teeth of solid, eyes of liquid pearl ; 
 
 But neck and breast no man might bare descry. 
 
 So sweetly modest was this bashful girl. 
 
 Fletcher's Purple Island. 
 
 There are others, who have not altogether so much 
 of this foolish bashfulness, and who ask every one's 
 opinion. Dryde'n. 
 
 Our author anxious for his fame to-night. 
 
 And bashful in his first attempt to write. 
 
 Lies cauliuasly obscure. Addison, 
 
 Mere bashfulness without merit is awkwardness. Id. 
 
 Doubtless there are men of great parts that are 
 guilty of downright bashfulness, that by a strange he- 
 sitation and reluctance to speak, murder the finest 
 and most elegant thoughts, and render the most lively 
 conceptions flat and heavy. Tatler, No. 252. 
 
 Our orators, with the most faulty bashfulness, seem 
 impressed rather with an awe of their audience than 
 with a just respect for the truths they are about to 
 deliver ; they, of all professions, seem the most bash- 
 ful who have the greatest right to glory in their com- 
 mission. Goldsmith. Essay III. 
 
 So bright the tear in Beauty's eye, 
 I<ove half regrets to kiss it dry. 
 So sweet the blush of bashfulness. 
 Even pity scarce can wish it less. Byron. 
 
 BASIIAN, or Basax, a kingdom beyond Jor- 
 dan, mentioned in Scripture. By Josephus, 
 Eusebius, and Jerome, it is called Batanae. When 
 the Israelites entered the land of Canaan, the 
 whole country beyond Jordan, from that of the 
 Moabites or Arabia, as far as mount Ilermon 
 and Lebanon, was divided into two kingdoms, 
 viz. those of the Amorites, and the Bashanites : 
 the former to the south, and the latter to the north. 
 The kingdom of the Amorites extended from the 
 river Arnon and the country of JNIoab, to the 
 river Jabbok ; which, running obliquely from the 
 east, was at the same time the boundary of the 
 Ammonites, as appears from Numb. xxi. 24. and 
 Deut. ii. 37. and iii. 16. It fell to the lot of the 
 Ileubenites and Gadites, and Bashan, to the half 
 tribe of Manasseh. To this was annexed a part 
 of the hilly country of Gilead, and the district 
 of Argob ; yet so that Bashan continued to be 
 the principal and greatest part : but after the 
 Babylonish captivity Bashan was subdivided, so 
 that only a part was called Batanea or Basan, 
 another Trachonitis, a tliird Aurunitis or Ituraea, 
 and some part Gaulonitis ; but to settle the limits 
 of each of these parts is now impossible. Bashan 
 was a country fomous for its pastures, and breed 
 of large cattle. 
 
 Bashan, a mountain in the above kingdom, 
 which seems to have retained its original name 
 long after the Israelites were in possession of 
 that country ; at least is often mentioned with a 
 reference to its original inhabitants, who were 
 idolaters and enemies to Israel. In this respect 
 bringing back from Bashan, signifies the deliver- 
 ance from bondage, even death. Bashan is refer- 
 red to in another view : the country is exceedingly 
 fruitful, and is therefore used to represent a 
 flourishing state. 
 
 BASHANITES, the people of Bashan. 
 
 BASHAR Ebn Motamer, a principal man 
 among the Motazalites, who varied in some points 
 from the general tenets of the sect, extending 
 man's free agency to a great length, even to the 
 making him independent. He asserted, that Cod 
 is not always obliged to ]do that which is best, 
 for that, if he pleased, lie could make all men 
 true believers. Accordingly he taught that God 
 might doom an infant to eternal punishment; but 
 taught at the same time, that he would be unjust 
 in so doing ! 
 
 BASIIARIANS, a sect of M;ihommedans, a 
 subdivision of the Motazalites, who maintain the | 
 tenets of Bashar Ebn Motamer. See last article. I 
 
 Bashaw, Pasciia, or I'acua, a Turkish go-
 
 BASHKIRS. 
 
 607 
 
 vernor of a province, city, or other district. All 
 Kiry|)t is, on the ])art of the grand sei'jnior, go- 
 verned by a bashaw, who has in reality but little 
 power ; but seems principally to be meant for 
 communicatinij to his divan of beys, and to the 
 divans of the several military ogiacs, the orders 
 of the grand seignior, and to see that they be 
 executed Ijy the proper officers. When a bashaw 
 farms a country of the grand seignior, the fines 
 tliat are paid, when any life drops upon the 
 lands, belon'^ to him. Originally all the lanrls of 
 Ei'vpt belonged to the grand seignior; and he 
 still looks on them as his own : but his power 
 beincr now lost, they all go to the next heir; who 
 must, however, be invested by the bashaw, and 
 he is, therefore chid to compound for a small sum. 
 The nature of the bashaw's office requires him 
 to be ever attempting means to cut ofl" such as 
 are too aspiring, or encaged in designs that may 
 be any way prejudicial to the Porte. This often 
 occasions his own deposition ; but he is uncon- 
 cerned about that, as his person is always sacred ; 
 and his losing his post is only a step to higher 
 preferment. Bashaws include beirlerbe^s, and 
 sometimes sangiachocs ; though a distinction is 
 sometimes made, and the name bashaw is appro- 
 priated to the middle sort or such as have two 
 ensigns or horse-tails carried before them. Those 
 who have the honor of three tails, are called 
 be<ilerbegs ; and those who have only one, san- 
 giachegs. The appellation of basliaw is also 
 given by way of courtesy, at Constantinople, to 
 the lords about the grand seignior's court, the 
 officers in the army, and almost every person of 
 any figure. A bashaw is made with the solem- 
 nity of carrying a flag or banner before him, 
 accompanied with music and songs by the Miria- 
 lem, an officer whose business it is to invest the 
 bashaws. Bashaw, used absolutely, denotes the 
 prime vizier; the others of that denommation 
 being distinguished by the addition of the pro- 
 vince, city, or the like, which thev have the 
 command of; as the bashaw of Ecypt, of Pales- 
 tine, &c. The bashaws are the emperor's 
 sponges. We find loud complaints among the 
 Christians who reside in Turkey, of their avarice 
 and extortions. As they buy their L'overnments, 
 every thing is venal with t'lem. When glutted 
 With wcoltb, the tmpei-ur frequently makes them 
 a present of a bow-string, and becomes heir to 
 all their spoil. There are also sul)-b;ishawr-, or 
 deputy-governors under the bashaws. 
 
 Bash.vw, Captain, is the title of the Turkish 
 high admiral. 
 
 BASHKE Islands, five islands in the Chinese 
 sea, and two islets, almost wholly rock, visited 
 by Dam pier in 1687, and so named from an 
 agreeable intoxicating liquor found here, made 
 from the sugar-cane. The principal one is 
 Orange Islam!, being about twenty-two miles 
 lone, and six broad. The other are Monmouth, 
 (Jrafton, Goats, and Bashee Proper. The soil is 
 very fertile in the productions of these seas : in 
 1783 the Spaniards formed a settlement on the 
 Bashee islands, in order to procure the gold 
 which is said to be washed down by the torrents. 
 The natives fabricate it into wire for ornaments. 
 
 B.\SHKMATII, the daughter of Ishmael, one 
 of Esau's wives , It appears to have been also a 
 
 name of Adah, his first wife. See Gen. xxvi. 34. 
 and xxxvi. 2. 
 
 BASEDOW (John Bernard), a celebrated 
 writer, born at Hamburgh, in 1723. After study- 
 ing under Keimarus, he went to Leipsic ; and in 
 1753 was chosen professor of moral philosophy 
 and the belles lettres at Soroe, in Denmark. 
 But having divulged some opinions in religion 
 differing widely from Lutheranism, he was re- 
 moved from this situation ; upon which he 
 formed a plan of reformed education, and raised 
 considerable stinis of money for perfecting it. 
 His plan, however, after a partial trial, proved 
 unsuccessful ; and he died through intemperance 
 and dissipation in 1790. His writings, though 
 full of dogmatical assertions and fanciful opinions, 
 show him to have been an ingenious man. 
 
 BASHILO, a river of Abyssinia, which sepa- 
 rates Becamder from Amhara, and falls into the 
 Bahr-el-Azergue, thirty miles south-east of Alata. 
 
 BASHKIRS, or Baschkirs, a people of the 
 Russian empire. They call themselves Bash- 
 kourt; and derive their origin partly from the 
 Nogay-Tartars, and partly from the Bol^arians. 
 Probably they are Nogays, whom the Bolgares 
 adopted among them : their countrj' at least is a 
 part of the ancient Bolgaria. They formerly 
 roamed about the southern Siberia under the 
 conduct of their own princes : but to avoid the 
 molestations of the Siberian khans, settled in 
 their present possessions, about the rivers N'olga 
 and Ural, and were subject to the Kazanian 
 khanate. On the overthrow of that state by czar 
 Ivan II. they voluntarily took refuge under the 
 Russian sceptre : they afterwards, however, fre- 
 quently revolted against the government, whereby 
 their prosperity as well as their population has 
 been considerably diminished. In the year 1770 
 they consisted of 27,000 families, baring their 
 homes in the gorernments of Usa and Perme. 
 The Bashkits have been long without khans ; 
 and all their nobility have been gradually de- 
 stroyed in the civil wars. At present every tribe 
 or wolost chooses for itself one or more ancients, 
 or starschinis ; and the whole nation composes 
 thiity-four wolosts. The huts or houses, which 
 they inhabit during winter, are built after the 
 Russian fashion ; the principal part, which the 
 family commonly possesses, is furnished with 
 large benches, which serve for beds ; the chim- 
 ney, of a conical form, and of the height of an 
 ordinary man, is in the middle of this division, 
 and so ill constructed, that they are very liable 
 to smoke : on this account the Bashkirs are very 
 subject to various complaints of the eyes. In 
 summer this people inhabit what the Russians 
 call juries ; they are tents or covers of felt, which, 
 like the huts, have several divisions and a chim- 
 ney in the centre. A winter village contains 
 from ten to fifty huts ; but the summer encamp- 
 ment never exceeds twenty jurtes. These juries 
 are a kind of barracks. 
 
 The bashkirs have some knowledge of the art 
 of writing, and have schools; but as it is from 
 their own nation that they elect their priests and 
 the instructors of youth, they remain in the pro- 
 fouiidest ignorance. With some knowledge of 
 tillage, they retam a liking to the pastoral life; 
 which spoils them for agriculture. They sow
 
 308 
 
 BASHKIRS. 
 
 Dut little grain ; consequently their harvests af- 
 ford them, only few resources for the winter, 
 being far from sufficient for their whole con- 
 sumption. They apply with greater success to 
 the cultivation of bees; makinij hollows in the 
 trees to serve the purposes of hives : which, to 
 secure from the attacks of the bears, they liave 
 invented a variety of ingenious contrivances, both 
 as weapons and traps. One man, in frequent 
 instances, is known to possess at least 500 hives. 
 They have the art of finding out the mountains 
 that contain mines ; but, like the Tartars, they 
 would think themselves disgraced by working 
 them themselves. It must be owned, however, 
 that they have not the strength of body which 
 that labor requires. Their practice is to let them 
 out for a term of sixty years to Russian con- 
 tractors ; assigning to them at the same time a 
 tract of forest necessary for the forges. The 
 poorest of them serve for wages in transporting 
 the ore. 
 
 The women understand the art of weaving, 
 fulling, and dyeing narrow co-irse cloths ; they 
 likewise make the clothes for the whole family. 
 They make a small quantity of linen of hemp ; 
 but they prefer weaving the filaments of the 
 common nettle, as that plant requires no 'culture, 
 and the linen they make of it is extremely coarse. 
 They have not the unwholesome practice of 
 steeping their hemp or their nettles in water, but 
 leave them to dry in the air on the top of their 
 huts during the autumn and winter; then strip- 
 ping oft' the bark, they pound them in wooden 
 mortars. The men follow tlie more difficult 
 business of making felt, and of tanning leather. 
 Both sexes wear shirts of the cloth made of net- 
 tles ; they also wear wide drawers, which de- 
 scend to the ankle-bone, and a sort of slippers, 
 like people in the East. Both men and women 
 wear a long gown, that of the men being gene- 
 rally of red cloth bordered with fur ; this ihey 
 bmd round their middle with a girdle, or with 
 the belt to which they fix their scimitar. The 
 poor have a winter pelisse of sheep-skin, and the 
 rich wear a horse-skin in such a manner that the 
 mane covers their back and waves in the wind. 
 The cap is of cloth like the frustum of a cone, 
 and ten inches high ; and that of the rich is 
 usually ornamented with valuable furs. The 
 gown of tlie wives is made of fine cloth or silk, 
 buttoned before as high as the neck, and fastened 
 by a broad girdle, which the richer classes have 
 made of steel. Their necks and throats are 
 covered with a sort of shawl, on which are several 
 rows of coins, or a string of shells. 
 
 The principal wealth of this people consists in 
 their flocks ; it is esp'ecially from their horses that 
 they derive the necessaries of life ; meat, milk, 
 vessels, garments. They have nearly as many 
 and even rather more sheep than horses; and 
 their horned cattle are about half as numerous ; 
 they likewise bring up some goats, and only the 
 rich have camels. A man of the ordinary class 
 has seldom fewer than between thirty and fifty 
 horses, many possess 500, and some 1000, 2000, 
 and more. Their sheep are of the broad-tailed 
 species ; they esteem the others for the fineness 
 of their wool. 
 
 The most opulent of the Bashkirs are those 
 
 who dvyell to the east of the Ural, and in the 
 province of Isset. Some of them are owners of 
 not less than 4000 horses, who fatten in the 
 richest pastures : the wasps and gnats oblige 
 them in the mouth of .fune to quit these fine 
 meadows, and retreat to the mountains ; the 
 horses then lose their flesh and pine away, but 
 regain their pristine vigor on coming down 
 again to the plains in the month of July. 
 
 Though the Bashkirs experience a long and 
 very severe winter, yet they abandon their flocks 
 and droves to the inclemencies of the season. 
 They, have neither granaries nor barns ; they only 
 lay up a little hay, which they range in cocks 
 round the trees, reserving it for the distempered 
 catde. Those that are healthy pick up a little 
 grass or moss from beneath the snow, and are 
 often reduced to the necessity of feeding on the 
 bark of the young elms. No farther attention is 
 paid to the camels than to wrap them in some 
 wretched coverings of felt, which they sew about 
 their body. The cattle towards the end of the 
 winter are become lean, weak, and emaciated. 
 Though the females are never kept apart from 
 the males, they rarely bring forth out of season ; 
 because the exhausted state of the flocks and 
 herds, during the winter, is unfavorable to genera- 
 tion. Neither the Bashkirs nor the Kalmucs 
 suffer the colts and the calves to suck their dams 
 except during the night, their practice being to 
 milk them in the day-tim-e for their own advan- 
 tage ; kumiss, prepared from mare's milk, being 
 their favorite liquor. (See Kumiss.) They are 
 also fond of a mixture of sour milk and mead, 
 called arjan. In the spring they drink the sap of 
 tlie birch, which they collect by means of deep 
 incisions in the trees. 
 
 Their arms are the bow, the lance, the helmet, 
 and coat of mail ; from the Russians they obtain 
 sabres, musquets, and pistols. A Bashkirian 
 army presents a truly curious spectacle ; ob- 
 serving no order in marching, they only form into 
 ranks when they halt. Every one leads a horse 
 in his hand, which carries all his provisions . the 
 load, however, is not heavy ; consisting only of 
 cheese, some corn dried in the kiln, and a hand- 
 mill to grind it to meal. With the meal they 
 form a ball which they swallow, and which serves 
 them for bread. Each warrior, dressed in his 
 long gown, equips himself as he chooses or as he 
 can. One has procured for himself the various 
 kinds of arms, and carries a whole arsenal with 
 him ; the other scarcely possesses more than one 
 ill-conditioned weapon. Sucli troops as these 
 rendered the armies of the ancient Persians at 
 once so numerous and so little formidable. 
 
 They are all well mounted, are skilful in draw- 
 ing the bow, and dexterously manage their horses. 
 A small number of Bashkirs are easily victorious 
 over a numerous squadron of Kirghises ; some- 
 times one of their regiments will traverse a whole 
 horde of Kirghises, put to flight by their very 
 looks all the enemies they meet, and return tri- 
 umphant without having sustained the slightest 
 loss. The military service which they are bound 
 to perform, and the only point in which ll.cy ari^ 
 galled by the Russian yoke, consists in furnish- 
 ing, in lime of war, 3000 cavalry, which form 
 thirty troops of 100 men each. Tlie Bashkirians
 
 BAS 
 
 609 
 
 BAS 
 
 are the most negligent and slovenly of the Tar- 
 tars. In commerce they are the least intellisrent; 
 but, at the same time, they are the most hospi- 
 table, the most lively, and the most brave. 
 Their diversions at any religious festival, or at a 
 marriage, consist in numerous libations of sour 
 milk, singing, dancing, wrestling, and horse- 
 racing, in which they excel. In their songs they 
 enumerate the achievements of their ancestors, or 
 their own, and sometimes their amorous adven- 
 tures. Their songs are always accompanied with 
 gestures, which render them very theatrical. 
 Among them old age meets with the greatest re- 
 spect. In their entertainments, it occupies the 
 place of honor ; and the stranger, to whom 
 compliments are paid, is always set among the 
 old men. The language of these people is a 
 Tartar dialect, very different from that spoken at 
 Kasan. The Bashkirians are, like most of the 
 Tartars, ^lahommedans ; but though they have 
 their mosques, their molaks, and their schools, 
 they are much addicted to superstition and sor- 
 cery. Their sorcerers challenge even the devil, 
 and pretend to engage witti him in combat ; and 
 thus they delude the credulous \ailgar, who con- 
 sult them in their distress, and particularly when 
 they lose any of their mares. Tooke's View of 
 tlussia, vol. i. p. 47.3. Chantreau's Travels, vol. 
 i. p. 281. 
 
 BASliUYSEN (Hemy James Van), a learned 
 and ingenious divine, bom at Hanau, in 1679, 
 where he became professor of the Oriental lan- 
 guages, and ecclesiastical history. He was after- 
 wards professor of divinity, and member of the 
 royal society at Berlin ; and had a printing press 
 in his house, from which he sent abroad some 
 curious tracts, principally on rabbinical learning. 
 He died in 1758. 
 
 BASIA Ultima. See Ultima. 
 
 BASIATRAIIAGI, in botany, a name used 
 by some for the common polygonum, or knot- 
 grass. 
 
 BASIER, or Basire (Isaac), a learned and 
 active divine in the seventeenth century, was born 
 in the isle of Jersey, in 1607. For some time 
 he was master of the college or free-school at 
 Guernsey : but, at length, became chaplain to 
 Thomas Morton, bishop of Durham, who gave 
 him the rectory of Stanhope, and the vicarage of 
 Egglesclifl:', in Durham. In July, 1640, he had 
 the degree of D. D. conferred upon him at Cam- 
 bridge, by mandate ; and at Oxford the Novem- 
 ber following. About that time he was made 
 chaplain in ordinary to king Charles I. and got 
 several other preferments, but did not long enjoy 
 them ; for, in the beginning of the civil wars, 
 being sequestered, plundered, and forced to fly, 
 he repaired to king Charles at Oxford, before 
 whom, and his parliament, he frequently prt-ached. 
 Upon the surrender of the Oxford garrison to 
 parliament, unwilling to stay any longer in the 
 British dominions, he resolved to go and propa- 
 gate the doctrine of the English church in the 
 Ea.st, among the Greeks, Arabians, 8cc. Leaving, 
 therefore, his family in England, he went first to 
 Zante, an island near the Morea, where he mad(? 
 some stay ; and had good success in spreading: 
 among the (Jreek inhabitants the doctrines of tlie 
 English church, the sum whereof he imparted to 
 \ OL. III. 
 
 several of them in a vulgar Greek translation of 
 our Church Catechism. The effect of it was so 
 remarkable, that it drew envy, and consequently 
 persecution, upon him from the latins. This 
 occasioned his voluntary recess into the I\Iorea, 
 where the metropolitan of Achaia prevailed upon 
 him. to preach twice in Greek, at a meeting of 
 some of his bishops and clergy, which was well 
 taken. At his departure he left him a copy of the 
 catechism above-mentioned. From thence, after 
 he had passed through Apulia, Naples, and Si- 
 cily again (in which last, at Messina, he officiated 
 for some weeks aboard a ship), he embarked for 
 Syria; and after some months stay at Aleppo, 
 where he had frequent conversation with the pa- 
 triarch of Antioch, then resident there, he left a 
 copy of the Church Catechism, translated into 
 Arabic, the native language of that place. From 
 Aleppo he went in 1652 to Jerusalem, and so 
 travelled over all Palestine. At Jerusalem he 
 received much honor, both from the Greeks and 
 Latins. Returning to Aleppo, he passed over 
 the Euphrates, into Mesopotamia, where he in- 
 tended to send the Church Catechism in Turk- 
 ish, to some of their bishops, who were mostly 
 Armenians. This Turkish translation was pro- 
 cured at Constantinople. After his return from 
 Mesopotamia, he wintered at Aleppo, where he 
 received several courtesies from the consul, IVIr. 
 Henry Riley. In the beginning of 1653 he de- 
 parted from Aleppo, and came to Constantinople 
 by land, being 600 miles, without either servant, 
 or Christian, or any man with him, that could so 
 much as speak the Frank language : yet, by the 
 help of some Arabic he had picked up at Aleppo, 
 he performed that journey in the company of 
 twenty Turks, who used him courteously be- 
 cause he was physician to them and their friends. 
 After his arrival at Constantinople, the French 
 Protestants there desired him to be their minister, 
 though '.le declared to them his resolution to 
 officiate according to the English liturgy, and 
 promised to settle on him, in three responsible 
 mens' hands, a competent stipend. Upon the 
 Restoration, Dr. Basier was recalled by king 
 Charles II. to England, in a letter written to 
 Prince Ragotzi. But this unfortunate prince 
 dying soon after, of the wounds he received in a 
 battle with the Turks at Gyala, the care of his 
 solemn obsequies was committed to the doctor 
 by his relict. Princess Sophia, whereby he was 
 kept a year longer out of England. At length, 
 returning in 1661, he was restored to his prefer- 
 ments and dignities; and made chaplain in ordi- 
 nary to king Charles II. He wrote several 
 books on divinity. Having for many years after 
 the Restoration, quietly enjoyed his large re- 
 venues, he died in 1676, aged sixty -nine. He 
 ■wrote, 1. Deo et Ecclesia Sacrum, Sec. 4to. 
 Oxon. 1646; and 8vo. London, 1668. 2. Dia- 
 triba de Antiqua Ecclesiac Britannicae Libertate, 
 Bvo. Brug. 1656, which was translated into Eng- 
 lish under the title of The Ancient Liberty of the 
 Britannic Church, &c. 8vo. 1661. 3. The His- 
 tory of the English and Scotch Presbytery, 8vo. 
 London, 1659, 1660. 4. Oratio Privata, boni 
 Theologi. (speciatim Concinnatoris Practici; 
 Partes Prxcipuas complectens, 8vo. London, 
 1670. 5. The Dead Man's Real Speech, &c. ; 
 
 2IL
 
 BAS 
 
 610 
 
 BAS 
 
 a funeral Sermon on the Death of Dr. John 
 Cosin, Bishop of Durham, 8vo. London, 1673. 
 BASIL, in botany. See Ocymum. 
 Basil, or Basle, a canton of Switzerland, 
 see Basle. 
 
 Basil, in mechanics, the name, among joiners, 
 for the sloping edge of a chisel, or of the iron of 
 a plane. To work on soft wood, they usually 
 make the basil twelve degrees, and for hard wood 
 eighteen; it being remarked that the more acute 
 the basil is, the better the instrument cuts ; and 
 the more obtuse, the stronger, and fitter it 's for 
 service. 
 
 Basil, American Field. See INIonarda 
 Basil (St.), the Great, one of the most 
 learned and eloquent doctors of the church, was 
 born atCcesarea in Cappadocia, about A.D. 328 ; 
 and went to finish liis studies at Athens, where 
 he contracted a strict friendship with St- Gregory 
 Nazianzen. He returned to his native country 
 in 335, where he taught rhetoric. Some time 
 after, he travelled into Syria, Egypt, and Lybia, 
 to visit the monasteries of these countries ; and 
 the monastic life so much suited his disposition, 
 that upon his return home he resolved to follow 
 it, and he was the first institutor thereof in Pon- 
 tus and Cappadocia. His reputation became so 
 great, that, upon the death of Eusebius, bishop 
 of Coesarea, in 370, he was chosen his successor. 
 It was with some difficulty that he accepted of 
 this dignity ; and no sooner was he raised to it 
 than the emperor Valens began to persecute him, 
 because he refused to embrace the Arian doc- 
 trine. He used his utmost endeavours to bring 
 about a re-union between the eastern and western 
 churches, who were then much divided, not only 
 about points of faith, but with regard to Meletius 
 and Paulinus, two bishops of Antioch ; a dispute 
 which was not terminated till nine months after 
 his death. Basil had a share in all the disputes 
 which happened in his time in the east, in regard 
 to the doctrine of the church; and died January 
 1, 379. — There have been several editions of his 
 works in Greek and Latin. The best is that of 
 Father Gamier, printed in Greek and Latin, in 
 three volumes folio. St. Basil's style is pure 
 and elegant, his expressions are grand and sub- 
 lime, and his thoughts noble and majestic. 
 Erasmus places him among the greatest orators 
 of antiquity. 
 
 Basil (St.), order of. The most ancient of 
 all the religious orders. See Basilian. 
 Basil Stone. See Thymus. 
 Basil, Syrian Field. See Z.iziphora. 
 Basil, Wild. See Thymus. 
 Basil, a physician and heretic, whom Alexius 
 Comnenus caused to be burnt alive in 1118. 
 He held that God had another son besides Jesus 
 Christ, called Sathanael, who, having revolted 
 from his duty to his father, was expelled heaven, 
 and cast to the earth, with the au'^els whom he 
 had influenced to take part with him ; and that 
 Jesus Christ was afterwards sent to destroy his 
 power, who shut him up in hell, and altered his 
 name by cutting of the last syllable. lie allowed 
 his followers every thing in common, not ex- 
 cepting their wives. 
 
 BASILAN, one of the Pliilippine islands, in 
 the midst of a cluster of smaller ones, off the 
 
 south-west extremity of Magindanoa. It is 
 mountainous, and about sixty miles in circum- 
 ference, abounding in rice, sugar-cane, and 
 bananas. Wild hogs and deer are the principal 
 animals of the interior, which is watered by con- 
 siderable streams, but thinly peopled. Distant 
 eighteen miles from Magindanao. Long. 121° 
 E., lat. 5° 50' N. 
 
 BASILARE Os, in anatomy, a barbarous de- 
 nomination given to the os sphenoides, on account 
 of its being situated at the bottom or basis of the 
 skull; or because a great part of the brain rests 
 hereon, as on its basis. 
 
 BASILEUS, ftaaiXevQ, a title assumed by the 
 emperors of Constantinople, exclusive of all othe 
 princes, to whom they give the title rex, king. 
 The same quality was afterwards given by them 
 to the kings of Bulgaria, and to Charlemagne, 
 from the successors of which last they en 
 deavoured to wrest it back again. The title ba- 
 sileus has been since assumed by other kings, 
 particularly the kings of England, Ego Edgar 
 totius Angliee basileus confirmavi. Hence also 
 the queen of England was intitled basilea and 
 basilissa. 
 
 Basileus, in ornithology, a name by which 
 several of the old authors called the regulus cris- 
 tatus, or golden-crowned wren. 
 
 BASILIAN Monks, the religious of the order 
 of St. Basil. That saint having retired into a 
 desert in the province of Pontus, founded a mo- 
 nastery for the convenience of himself and his 
 numerous followers ; and for the better regulation 
 of the new society, drew up in writing the orders 
 and rules he would have them follow. This 
 order soon spread all over the east ; nor was it 
 long before it passed into the West. The rule of 
 St. Basil was approved by Pope Liberius, the 
 same year in which it was written and published ; 
 and afterwards by several other popes; and, in 
 these last ages, by Pope Gregory III. who ap- 
 proved the abridgment made of it by cardinal 
 Bessarion, in the pontificate of Eugenius IV. 
 Some authors pretend, that St. Basil, before he 
 died, saw himself the spiritual father of more 
 than 90,000 monks, in the east only. But this « 
 order, which flourished so greatly for more than ■ 
 three centuries, was afterwards considerably di- ^ 
 'minished by heresy, schism, and a change af 
 empire. The greatest storm it felt was in the 
 reign of Constantine Copronymus ; who per- 
 secuted the monks of St. Basil, imprisoning some, 
 and banishing others; insomuch that the mo- 
 nasteries were abandoned and spoiled of all their 
 goods. The historians of this order tell us, that 
 it has produced 1805 bishops; and beatified, or 
 acknowledged as saints, 3010 abbots, 11,805 
 martyrs, and an infinite number of confessors 
 and virgins. They likewise place among the re- 
 ligious of the order of St. Basil, fourteen popes, 
 some cardinals, and a very great number of pa- 
 triarchs, archbishops, and bishops ; and they 
 boast of several emperors and empresses, kings 
 and queens, princes and princesses, who have 
 embraced its rules. This order was introduced 
 in the west in 1057 ; and was reformed in 1569 
 by Pope Gregory XIII. who united the rehgious 
 of this order in Italy, Spain, and Sicily into one 
 congregation; of which the monastery of St.
 
 BAS 
 
 611 
 
 BAS 
 
 Saviour at Messina is the chief, and enjoys 
 pre-eminence over the rest. Each community 
 has its particular rule, besides the rule of St. 
 Basil, which is very general, and prescril)es 
 little more than the common duties of a Christian 
 life. 
 
 Basilians. See Bogomili. 
 
 BASILIC, or Basilici, jSaffiXiKt], a royal 
 house, in the ancient architecture, denotes a kind 
 of public hall or court of judicature, where the 
 princes or magistrates sat to administer justice. 
 The basilics consisted of a great hall, with aisles, 
 porticoes, tribunes, and tribunals. The form was 
 generally that of a parallelogram. The bankers 
 had one part of the basilica allotted for their re- 
 sidence. The scholars also went thither to make 
 their declamations, according to the testimony of 
 Quintilian. In after times the denomination 
 basilica was also given to other buildings of 
 public use, as town-houses, exchanges, burses, 
 and the like. The Roman basilicae were covered, 
 by which they were distinguished from the fora, 
 which were public places open to the air. The 
 first basilica was built at Rome by Cato the 
 elder, whence it was called Portia ; the second 
 was called opimia ; the third was that of Paulus, 
 built with a great expense, and with much mag- 
 nificence, whence it was called by some regia 
 Pauli ; another was built by Julius Caesar, called 
 basilica julia ; of which \'itruvius tells us he had 
 the direction. There are eighteen or twenty 
 others. 
 
 Basilic is also used in ecclesiastical writers, 
 for a church. In this sense, the word frequently 
 occurs in St. Ambrose, St. Austin, St. Jerome, 
 Sidonius Appollinaris, and other writers of the 
 fourth and fifth centuries. It is thought that the 
 name was thus applied, from many of the an- 
 cient churches having been formed of the Roman 
 halls. In reality, on the conversion of Con- 
 stantine, many of the ancient basilicse were given 
 to the churcli, and turned to another use, viz. 
 for Christian assemblies to meet in ; as may be 
 collected from the passage in Ausonius, where 
 speaking to the emperor Gratian, he tells him, 
 the basilica;, which heretofore were wont to be 
 filled with men of business, were now thronged 
 with votaries praying for his safety : by which he 
 must needs mean, that the Roman halls or courts 
 were turned into Christian churches : and hence 
 the name came to be a general name for churches 
 in after ages. 
 
 Basilic, is chiefly applied, in modern times, 
 to churches of royal foundation ; as those of 
 St. John de Lateran, and St. Peter of the Va- 
 tican, at Rome, founded by the emperor Con- 
 stantine. 
 
 Basilics, among the ancient Franks, were 
 little chapels built over the tombs of their great 
 men, so called, as resembling the figure of the 
 sacred basilica;, or churches. Persons of inferior 
 condition had only tumbae or porticuli erected 
 over them. By an article in the Salique law, he 
 that robbed a tumba or porticulus, was to be 
 fined fifteen solidi; bu.the that robbed a basilica, 
 thirty solidi. 
 
 Basilics, in literary historj', a name supposed 
 to have been given by the emperor Leo to a col- 
 lection of laws in honor of his father Basilius I. 
 
 who began it A. D. 8G7, and in the execution 
 chiefly made use of Sabbathius Protospatharius, 
 who carried the work as far as forty books. Leo 
 added twenty books more, and published the 
 work in 880. The whole, thirty years after, was 
 corrected and improved by Constantine Por- 
 phyrogenitus, son of Leo: whence many have 
 held him the author of the basilica. Six books 
 of the basilica were translated into Latin in L557, 
 by Gentian Hervetus. An edition of the Greek 
 basilics, with a Latin version, has been since 
 published at Paris, in 1647, by Annibal Fabrot- 
 tus, in seven volumes. There are still wanting 
 nineteen books, which are supposed to be lost. 
 Fabrottus has endeavoured to supply in some 
 measure the defect, from the synopsis of the basi- 
 lica and the glosses, of which several had been 
 made under the succeeding emperors, and con- 
 tained the whole Justinian law, excepting the 
 superfluities, in a new and more consistent order, 
 together with the later constitutions of the em- 
 perors posterior to Justinian. 
 
 BASILICA, in anatomy, the interior branch 
 of tiie axillary vein, running the whole length 
 of the arm. It is one of the veins opened in 
 bleeding. 
 
 Basilica, or Basilicvs, in astronomy, a 
 fixed star of the first magnitude, in the constel- 
 lation Leo; called also Regulus and Cor Leonis. 
 
 Basilica Julia not only served for the hear- 
 ing of causes, but for the reception and audience 
 of foreign ambassadors. It was supported by 
 100 marble pillars in four rows, and enriched 
 with decorations of gold and precious stones. 
 In it were thirteen tribunals or judgment seats, 
 where the praetors sat to despatch causes. See 
 Basilic. 
 
 Basilica, Modern. Palladio gives this name 
 to the civil edifices which are found in many 
 Italian cities, and the destination of which is en- 
 tirely similar to the antique basilica. ' In imi- 
 tation of the ancients,' says this celebrated ar- 
 chitect, 'the cities of Italy construct public halls 
 which may rightly be called basilicce, as they 
 form part of the habitation of the supreme ma- 
 gistrate, and in them the judges administer jus- 
 tice.' ' The basilicse of our time,' he continues, 
 'diff"er in this from the ancient; that those were 
 level with the ground, while ours are raised upon 
 arches, in which are shops for various arts and 
 merchandise of the city. There the prisons are 
 also placed, and other buildings belonging to the 
 public business. Another difl'erence is, that the 
 modern basilicae have the porticoes on the out- 
 side, while in the ancient they were only in the 
 interior. Of these halls there is a verj' noble 
 one at Padua ; and another at Brescia, remark- 
 able for its size and ornaments.' The most ce- 
 lebrated of this kind is that of \'icenza; the 
 exterior part of which was built by Palladio, and 
 the whole so much altered that it may pass for 
 his work. Tlie body of the building is of much 
 greater antiquity, though the date of it is un- 
 known. Time, and various accidents had re- 
 duced this edifice to such a state of decay, that 
 it was necessary to think seriously of pre- 
 venting its total ruin : for this purpose the most 
 eminent architects were consulted, and the de- 
 sign of I'alladio was approved. He removed 
 
 2 R2
 
 BAS 
 
 612 
 
 Bx\S 
 
 tne ancient loggias, and substituted new porticoes 
 of a very beautiful invention. These form two 
 galleries in height, the lower order of which is 
 ornamented with Doric engaged columns, at 
 very wide intervals, to answer to the internal 
 pillars of the old buildings ; the space between 
 each column is occupied by an arch resting on 
 two small columns of the same order, and a pi- 
 laster at each side against the large columns, 
 which leaves a space between it and the small 
 columns of two diameters. The upper portico 
 of Ionic columns is disposed in the same manner, 
 and a balustrade is placed in the archway. The 
 entablature of the large orders is profiled over 
 each column. 
 
 This edifice is about 150 feet long and sixty 
 feet broad; the hall is raised above the ground 
 twenty-six feet ; it is formed by vaults supported 
 on pillars, and the whole is covered with a 
 wooden dome, 
 
 BASILICATA, a territory of Italy, bounded on 
 the north by the provinces of Otranto, Bari, and 
 Capitanata, on the west by the Principato, and a 
 small part of the Tuscan Sea, on the south by Ca- 
 labria, and on the east by the Gulf of Taranto. 
 It is watered by several rivers ; but as it is almost 
 all occupied by the Appennine mountains, it is 
 neither very populous nor fertile ; however, it 
 produces enough to maintain its inhabitants, and 
 has a small quantity of cotton. The principal 
 towns are Acerenza the capital, Melfi, Tursi, Ka- 
 poUa, Muro, Lavello, Tricarico, Monte Peloso, 
 and Venesa, which are all episcopal sees. Its 
 extent is about 1,605,047 moggie; five moggie 
 being equivalent to four English acres ; and it has 
 a population of nearly :330,000 souls. It is 
 watered by the Basiento, and several other 
 streams. In this province are the ancient ruined 
 cities of Heraclea and Metapontum. 
 
 BASILICI, jSaciKiKoi, in the Greek empire, 
 was a denomination given to the prince's man- 
 datories, or those who carried his orders. 
 
 Basilicon, in pharmacy, a name given to 
 several compositions to be found in ancient me- 
 dicinal writers. At present it is confined to 
 three officinal ointments, distinguished by the 
 epithets black, yellow, and green. See Piiau- 
 MACY, &c. 
 
 Basilicon, or Basilicum, in pharmacy, is 
 callee tetrapharmacum, as being composed of 
 four simples, viz. resin, wax, pitch, and oil of olive. 
 BASILICUS Sinus, in ancient geography, 
 the gulf of Mellasso, in Asia Minor, which sepa- 
 rates Lycia and Caria. 
 
 BASILIDES, an Egyptian, who lived near 
 the beginning of the second century. He was 
 educated in the Gnostic school, over which 
 Simon Magus is once said to have presided ; 
 and with whom he agreed tliat Christ was a man 
 in appearance, that his body was a phantom, and 
 that he gave his form to Simon the Cyrenian, 
 who was crucified in his stead. We learn from 
 Eusc'bius, that this heresiarch wrote twenty- 
 four books upon the gospel, and that he forged 
 several prophets; to two of which l;e gave the 
 names barcaba and barcoph. We have still the 
 fragment of a Basilidian gospel. 
 
 BASILIDIANS, a denomination, in the se- 
 cond century, from Basilides, chief of the Egyp- 
 tian Gnostics. They acknowledged, according to 
 
 ancient writers, the existence of one supreme 
 God, perfect in goodness and wisdom, who pro- 
 duced from his own substance seven beings, or 
 aions, of a most excellent nature. Two of these 
 aions, called dynamis and sophia, i. e. power 
 and wisdom, engendered tlie angels of the highest 
 order. These angels formed a heaven for their 
 habitation, and brought forth other angelic beings 
 of a nature somewhat inferior to their own. 
 Many other generations of angels followed. New 
 heavens were also created, until the number of 
 angelic orders, and of their respective heavens, 
 amounted to 365, and tims equalled the days of 
 the year. All these are under the empire of 
 an omnipotent Lord, whom Basilides called 
 Abraxas. The inhabitants of tlie lowest heavens, 
 which touched upon the borders of the eternal, 
 malignant, and self-animated matter, conceived 
 the design of forming a world from that con- 
 fused mass, and of creating an order of beings 
 to people it. This design was carried into exe- 
 cution, and was approved by the supreme God, 
 who to the animal life, with which only the in- 
 habitants of this new world were at first en- 
 dowed, added a reasonable soul, giving at the 
 same time to the angels the empire over them. 
 
 These angelic beings, advanced to the govern- 
 ment of the world which they had created, fell 
 by degrees from their original purity, and soon 
 manifested the fatal marks of their depravity 
 and corruption. They not only endeavoured to 
 efface in the minds of m^en their knowledge of 
 the supreme Being, that they might be wor- 
 shipped in his stead, but also began to war 
 against each other, witli an ambitious view to 
 enlarge every one the bounds of his respective 
 dominion. The most arrogant and turbulent of 
 all these angelic spirits, was that which presided 
 over the Jewish nation. Hence, the supreme 
 God, beholding with compassion the miserable 
 state of rational beings, who groaned under the 
 contest of these jarring powers, sent from heaven 
 his son Nus, or Christ, the chief of the aions, 
 tliat, joined in a substantial union with the man 
 Jesus, he might restore the knowledge of the su- 
 preme God, destroy the empire of those angelic 
 natures which presided over the world, and par- 
 ticularly that of the arrogant leader of the Jewish 
 people. The god of the Jews, alarmed at this, 
 sent forth his ministers to seize the man Jesus 
 and put him to death. They executed his com- 
 mands; but their cruelty could not extend to 
 Christ, against whom their efforts were vain. 
 Those souls who obey the precepts of the Son of 
 God, shall, after the dissolution of their mortal 
 frame, ascend to the Father, while their bodies 
 return to the corrupt mass of matter whence they 
 were formed. Disobedient spirits, on the con- 
 trary, shall pass successively into other bodies. 
 There are several gems still subsisting, inscribed 
 with the name Abraxas, which were used by the 
 Basilidians as amulets against diseases and evil 
 spirits. See Abraxas. 
 
 Bx\.SILIGOROD, or Vasihgorod, a town of 
 Russia, seated on the Volga, where the Sara falls 
 into it. The inhabitants are employed in agri- 
 culture and fishing. It is 1 1 2 leagues from Moscow. 
 
 BASILINEA, in entomology, a species of 
 pliala)na, a native of Ausf aia. 
 
 BASILIPOTAMO, the ancient Eurotas, a
 
 BAS 
 
 613 
 
 BAS 
 
 river of European Turkey, in the south of the 
 Morea, which falls into the Gulf of Kolokythia, 
 about four miles to the N. N. E. of the town of 
 that name. 
 
 BASILIPPUM, in ancient geography, a town 
 of Btetica, in Spain ; now called Cantillana, a 
 citadel of Andalusia, above Seville, on the (Jua- 
 dalquiver. 
 
 BASILISCUS, in alchemy, the sublimate 
 mercury of the philosophers. 
 
 Basiliscus, in ornithology, a name given by 
 some of the old authors to the regulus cristatus, 
 or golden-crowned wren. It is a diminutive of 
 hasileus, king, another of its names, because of 
 its golden crown. 
 
 Basiliscus, Basilicus, in zoology, a species of 
 lacerta, which, according to Linnaeus, has the tail 
 long and round, dorsal tin radiated, and back of 
 tlie head crested. This is the basilisk of modern 
 naturalists, and seems to unite the two genera of 
 lacerta and draco. The remarks of Dr. Shaw, 
 in tlie Gen. Zool. on this extraordinary creature, 
 are highly interesting, and ought not to escape 
 attention. It is, accordiny to this writer, parti- 
 cularly distinguished by a long and broad wing- 
 like process or expansion, continued along the 
 whole length of the back, and to a very consider- 
 able distance on the upper part of the tail, and 
 furnished at certain distances with internal radii, 
 analagous to those in the fins of fishes, and still 
 more so to those in the wings of the draco volans, 
 or flying lizard. This process is of different ele- 
 vations in different parts, so as to appear strongly 
 sinuated and indented, and is capable of being 
 either dilated or contracted at the pleasure of the 
 animal. The occiput, or hind part of the head, 
 is elevated into a very conspicuous pointed hood, 
 or hollow crest. 
 
 ' Notwithstanding its formidable appearance,' 
 adds this author, ' the basilisk is a perfectly 
 harmless animal ; and like many others of the 
 lizard tribe, resides principally among trees, 
 where it feeds on insects, &c. It has long ago 
 been admirably figured in the work of Seba; and 
 as it is an extremely rare species, has sometimes 
 been considered, from the strangeness of its form, 
 as a fictitious representation. Tliere is, how- 
 ei'er, in the British Museum, a very fine speci- 
 men, well preserved in s[iirits, and which fully 
 confirms the excelh-ncy of Seba's figure; from 
 which, in all probability, Linnocus himself, who 
 never saw the animal, took his specific description. 
 The color of tlie basilisk is a pale cinereous brown, 
 with some darker variegations towards the upper 
 part of the body. Its length is about a foot and 
 a half The young or small specimens have but 
 a slight appearance either of tlie dorsal or caudal 
 process, or of the pointed occipital crest. Tlie 
 basilisk is principally found in South America, 
 and sometimes considerably exceeds the length 
 before mentioned, measuring three feet, or even 
 more, from the nose to the extremity of the tail. 
 It is said to be an animal of great agility, and is 
 capable of swimming occasionally with perfect 
 ease, as well as of springing from tree to tree by 
 the help of its dorsal crest, which it expands in 
 order to support its flight.' 
 
 Among the French naturalists, the iguane is a 
 distinct genus of the oviparous quadrupeds, in 
 
 which the Linna;an lacerta basiliscus is included 
 imder the name of basilisk. 
 
 The basilisk of the ancients existed only in 
 the glowing fancy of their poets : they feigned it 
 to be the most malignant of all poisonous ser- 
 pents; as a creature whose breath empoisoned 
 the very air, and wliose baneful glance would 
 alone prove fatal to all other animals. A crea- 
 ture gifted with such extraordinary powers could 
 have no common origin, and therefore it was as- 
 serted to be the produce of the egg of a cock 
 brooded upon by a serpent. Galen says its 
 color is yellowish, and that it has three little 
 elevations on its head, speckled with whitish 
 spots, that have somewhat the appearance of a 
 crown. j-Elian, Matthiolus, Pliny, Lucan, and 
 others of the most distinguished ancients, relate 
 many marvellous properties of this creature; but, 
 notwithstanding their authority, the basilisk, as 
 they represent it, is most unquestionably fabulous. 
 It is needless to add to this article any of the 
 fables of Jerome liObo, although Dr. .lohnson 
 has received some of them with an unwarrantable 
 degree of credulity. The learned Prosper Al- 
 pinus informs us, on the authority of some re- 
 lations, which he seems to have credited, that 
 near the lakes contiguous to the sources of the 
 Nile, there is a number of basilisks, about a 
 palm in length, and the thickness of a middle 
 finger ; that they have two large scales which 
 they use as wings, and crests and combs upon 
 their heads, from which they are called basilisci 
 or reguli ; that is, crowned, crested, or kingly 
 serpents. And he says, that no person can ap- 
 proach these lakes without being destroyed by 
 these crested snakes. Our traveller, Mr. Bruce, 
 observes, that having examined the lake Goode- 
 roo, those of Court Ohha and Tzana, the only 
 lakes near the sources of the Nile, he never saw 
 one serpent there, crowned or uncrowned ; and 
 that he never heard of any : and, therefore, he 
 believes this account as fabulous as that of the 
 acontia, and other animals, mentioned by Prosper 
 Alpinus, lib. iv. cap. 4. The basilisk is a species 
 of serpent frequently mentioned in scripture, 
 though never described farther than that it cannot 
 be charmed so as to do no hurt, nor trained so 
 as to deligiit in music; which all travellers who 
 have been in Egypt allow is very possible, and 
 frequently seen, Jerem. viii. 17.: Psalm ix. 13. 
 However, it is the Greek text that calls this ser- 
 pent basilisk ; the Hebrew generally calls it 
 tsepha, which is a species of serpent real and 
 known. Our English translation very impro- 
 jierly renders it cockatrice, a fabulous animal 
 ihat never did exist. The basilisk of scripture 
 seems to have been a snake, not a viper ; as its 
 eggs are mentioned, Isaiah ix. 5 : whereas it is 
 known to be the characteristic of the viper to 
 bring forth living young. Bruce' a Travels in 
 Abi/xsinia, vol. v. p. 201. 
 
 BASILISK, n. s. Lat. basiliscus, from Gr 
 (iamXicFKoi, o( (5am\ivg, a king. A serpent, thus 
 denominated either because its head is adorned 
 with a tuft like a diadem, or because of its supe- 
 rior strength it is the monarch of the reptile 
 tribes. To this creature is ascribed the power 
 of fascinating its victims with its eyes. See the 
 article Basiliscus.
 
 BAS 
 
 614 
 
 BAS 
 
 That sleth right as the batilicok sleth folk by a ve- 
 nime of his sight. Chaucer. The Persunes Tale. 
 
 Basilisks ! whose breath 
 Is killing poison, and whose looks are death. 
 Make me not sighted like the basilitk ; 
 I've look'd on thousands who have sped the hetter 
 By my regard, but kill'd none so. Shakspeare. 
 
 Thine eyes, sweet lady, have infected mine. 
 Lapy Anne. Would they were basilisks to strike thee 
 dead. Id. 
 
 'Yh.Q. basilisk was a serpent not above three palms 
 long, and differenced from other serpents by advanc- 
 ing his head, and some white marks or coronary spots 
 upon the crown. Brown's Vulgar Errours. 
 
 Ba'silisk. a species of cannon or ordnance. 
 We practise to make swifter motions than any you 
 have ; and to make them stronger and more ^^olent 
 than your's are j exceeding your greatest cannons and 
 basilisks. Bacon, 
 
 Your eyes, which hitherto have borne in them 
 Against the French, that met them in their bent. 
 The fatal balls of murdering basilisks. Shakspeare. 
 And thou hast talk'd 
 Of sallies, and retires ; of trenches, tents. 
 Of palisadoes, frontiers, parapets ; 
 Of basilisks, of cannon, culverin. 
 Of prisoner's ransom, and of soldiers slain. Id. 
 Basilisk, in military affairs, a piece of ord- 
 nance; thus denominated from its resemblance 
 to the supposed serpent of that name. The 
 basilisk has thrown an iron ball of 200 pound 
 weight. It was much talked of in the time of 
 Solyraan, emperor of the Turks, in the wars of 
 Hungary, but seems now out of use. Paulus 
 Jovius relates the terrible slaughter made by a 
 single ball from one of these basilisks in a Spanish 
 ship; after penetrating the boards and planks in 
 the ship's head, it killed above thirty men. j\Ias- 
 seus speaks of basilisks made of brass, which 
 were drawn each by 100 yoke of oxen. Modern 
 writers also give the name basilisk to a much 
 smaller and more sizeable piece of ordnance, 
 which the Dutch make fifteen feet long, and the 
 French only ten. It carries forty-eight pounds. 
 BASILISSA. See Basileis. 
 BASILIUS I. surnamed the Macedonian, 
 emperor of the Greeks. He was a common 
 soldier, and of an obscure family in ^Macedonia, 
 and yet raised himself to the throne : for, having 
 pleased the emperor Michael by his address in 
 the management of his horses, he became his 
 lirst equerry, and then his great chamberlain. 
 He at length assassinated the famous Bardas, 
 and was associated to the empire in 849. He 
 held the eighth general council at Constanti- 
 nople ; deposed the patriarch Photius, but in 
 858 restored him to the patriarchate ; and de- 
 clared against the popes, who refused to admit 
 him into their communion. He was dreaded by 
 the Saracens, whom he frequently vanquished ; and 
 loved by his subjects for his justice and cle- 
 mency. He died in 886. Under his reign the 
 Russians embraced Christianity, and the doctrine 
 of the Greek church. 
 
 Basilivs II. succeeded Romanus II. as em- 
 peror of Constantinople, A. D. 903, and reigned 
 along with his brother, Constantine IX., six 
 years. This monarch is by some historians and 
 chronoiogists confounded with Basilius III. who 
 had also a brother colleague, called Constantine. 
 See the next article. 
 
 Basilits III. succeeded John Zimisces, em 
 peror of Constantinople, A. D. 975, and reigned, 
 along with his brother Constantine X., for no 
 less a period than fifty years. His brother sur- 
 vived him three years, the one dying in 1025, 
 and the other in 1028. See Constantinople. 
 BASILUZZO, one of the Lipari islands. 
 BA'SIN, n. ^ Fr. basin; Ital. bucile, bacino; 
 Ba'sined. S it is often written bason, but not 
 according to etymology. It is a term which de- 
 signates a vessel in common use. It is also ap- 
 plied to any hollow place capacious of liquids, 
 and is technically employed by anatomists and 
 artizans, to express any substance hollowed out, a 
 round cavity, or a concave. 
 
 But let us go now to that horrible swering of adju- 
 ration and conjuration, as don these false enchaun- 
 tours and nigromancers in basins full of water, or in a 
 bright swerd in a circle or in a fire, or in a sholder 
 bone of a shepe : I cannot sayn but that they do 
 Cursedly and damnably ayenst Crist, and all the 
 feith of holy chirche. Chaucer. The Persones Tale. 
 After that he poured water into a basin, and be- 
 ganne to wash his disciples feet. Bible, 1551. 
 
 Let one attend him with a silver basin. 
 Full of rose-water, and bestrewed with flow'rs. 
 
 Shakspeare. 
 We have little wells for infusions, where the waters 
 take the virtues quicker and better than in vessels and 
 basins. Bacon. 
 
 And send her home 
 Divested to her flannell in a cart. 
 And let her footman beat the hason afore her. 
 
 Ben Jonson, New Inn. 
 With scornful sound of bason, pot and pan. 
 They thought to drive him thence, like bees in 
 swarms. Harr. Ariost. 
 
 The jutting land two ample baj's divides -, 
 The spacious basins arching rocks inclose, 
 A sure defence from every storm that blows. Pope. 
 On one side of the walk you see the hollow basin, 
 with its several little plantations lying conveniently 
 under the eye of the beholder. Spectator. 
 
 If this rotation does the seas affect. 
 The rapid motion rather would eject 
 The stores the low capacious caves contain. 
 And from its ample ba^in csist the main. 
 
 Blachmore, 
 From step to step, with sullen sound. 
 
 The forc'd cascades indignant leap ; 
 Now sinking fill the bason's measur'd round ; 
 There in a dull stagnation doom'd to sleep. 
 
 Jtfason. Ode to a water-nymph. 
 Thy basin'd rivers and imprison'd seas. 
 
 Young's Night Thoughts. 
 BASING, a village of Hampshire, north of 
 Basingstoke, near which, in 871, Alfred was 
 defeated by the Danes. It is equally memora- 
 ble for the protracted siege sustained here by 
 John, the fifth marquis of Worcester, in his seat 
 of Basing-house, against the forces of the Parlia- 
 ment. The investment commenced August 
 1643; and the answer made by the marquis to 
 the first summons was, that ' if the king had no 
 more ground in England than Basing-house, he 
 would maintain it to the uttermost.' It stood out 
 till October, 1645, when Cromwell took it by 
 storm, and burnt it to the ground. A saying 
 still exists in the neighbourhood, ' clubs trumps, 
 as when Basing-house was taken;' and tradition 
 refers this to the surprise of the garrison, who 
 were at cards when finally assaulted. The mar-
 
 BAS 
 
 615 
 
 BAS 
 
 quishad written with a diamond on every pane of 
 glass, Aymez Loyaulte, whicli is still the family 
 motto. The plunder obtained by the parliamen- 
 tary forces amounted to £200,000, but their loss 
 before the walls exceeded 2000 men. See Journal 
 of the sieee of Basing-house, Oxford, 1645. 
 
 BASINGE (John), more commonly known 
 by the name of Basingstochius, or de Basing- 
 stoke, was born at Basingstoke, a town of 
 Hampshire, and from thence took his surname. 
 He was a person highly eminent for virtue and 
 learning. For having very good natural parts, he 
 so improved them by study, that he became a 
 perfect master of the Latin and Greek languages, 
 an eminent orator, a complete mathematician, a 
 subtle philosopher, and a sound divine. The 
 foundation of his great learning he laid in the 
 university of Oxford, and, for his further im- 
 provement, went to Paris, where he resided some 
 years. He then travelled to Athens, where he 
 made many curious observations, and perfected 
 himself in his studies, particularly in the know- 
 ledge of the Greek tongue. At his return to 
 England, he brought over with him several curi- 
 ous Greek manuscripts, and introduced the use 
 of the Greek numeral figures into this kingdom. 
 He became also a very great promoter and 
 encourager of that language, which was much 
 neglected in these western parts of the world; 
 and to facilitate it, he translated from the Greek 
 into Latin a grammar, which he entitled The 
 Donalus of the Greeks. He was archdeacon of 
 London, and afterwards, of Leicester. He died 
 in 12.52. 
 
 BASINGSTOKE, a market town in Hamp- 
 shire, which by means of a canal, begun in 1778, 
 carries on an extensive trade. Population in 
 1821, 3165. The church is a vicarage, in the 
 patronage of Magdalen college, Oxford. One of 
 its vicars, Sir George Wheeler, the celebrated 
 eastern traveller, annexed a library to the church. 
 This town was the birth place of Joseph and 
 Thomas Warton, whose father was vicar. It lies 
 sixteen miles north-east of Winchester, and forty- 
 six from London. 
 
 BASIOGLOSSUS, a muscle arising fiom the 
 base of the os hyoides. See Ak atomy. 
 
 BA'SIS. Lat. bask ; /3acrtC) from /3aivai, I go. 
 See Base. The foundation or the first principle 
 of any thing ; the lowest of the three principal 
 parts of a column, which are the basis, shaft and 
 capital. 
 
 It must follow, that Paradise, being raised to this 
 height, niust have the compass of the ■whole earth for 
 a basis and foundation. Raleigh. 
 
 How many times shall Caesar bleed in sport. 
 
 That now on Pompey's basis lies along 
 
 No worthier than the dust ! Shakspeare. 
 
 Ascend my chariot, guide the rapid wheels 
 
 That shake heaven's basis. Milton. 
 
 In altarwise a stately pile they rear ; 
 The basis broad below and top advanc'd in air. 
 
 Drt/den. 
 
 ^The fri'endsbips of the world arc oft 
 
 Confederacies in vice, or leagues of pleasure ; 
 Ours has severest virtue for its basis. Addisun. 
 
 Or if no basis bear my rising name. 
 But the fall'n ruins of another's fame. 
 Then teach me, heaven '. to scorn the guilty bays. 
 Drive from my breast that wretched lust of praise. 
 
 Pope. Temple of Fame. 
 
 Basis, in ancient music and poetry, denotes 
 the equability of sounds proceeding: in the same 
 tenor, and stands contradistinguished from arsis, 
 or elevation, as well as from thesis or depression. 
 
 Basis, or Base, in chemistrj', any body which 
 is dissolved by another body, which it receives 
 and fixes, and with which it forms a compound, 
 may be called the basis of that compound. 
 Thus, for example, the bases of neutral salts are 
 the alkaline, eartJiy, and metallic matters which 
 are saturated by the several acids, and form with 
 them these neutral salts. In this sense it is that 
 these neutral salts are called salts with earthy 
 bases, salts with alkaline bases, salts with metal- 
 lic bases; also the appellations basis of alum, 
 basis of nitre, basis of Glauber salt, basis of 
 vitriol, 8cc. signifying the argillaceous earth, 
 which, with the vitriolic acid, forms alum; the 
 vegetable alkali, which, with the nitrous acid, 
 forms nitre; the mineral alkali, which, with the 
 vitriolic acid, forms Glauber's salt; and the. metal 
 which, with the vitriolic acid, forms a vitriol ; 
 because the substances are supposed to be fixed, 
 unactive, and only yielding to the action of the 
 acids, which they fix, and to which they give a 
 body and consistence. 
 
 Basis or Base, in geometrj'. See Base. 
 
 Basis, in orator)', denotes the fourth member 
 of a complete exordium, being that which suc- 
 ceeds the apodosis, and prepares the way for the 
 proposition. 
 
 Basis, in pharmacy, the principal ingredient 
 in compound medicines. 
 
 BASIUiM, Lat. a kiss, a word used by che- 
 mists, for an extemporaneous tincture of iron and 
 copper, invented by Clossaeus. 
 
 BASK, V. a. 5c n.} Backeren, Dutch, pro- 
 
 Basking. ^ bably from the verb to 
 
 bake ; to warm by exposure to heat, wlietiier of 
 the sun or fire ; to lie in the warmth, used, says 
 Johnson, almost always of animals ; and, if in 
 the term animals he includes man, he is not far 
 from the truth; though it is sometimes applied 
 to reptiles. 
 
 As I live by food, I met a fool, 
 
 Who laid him down, and batk'd him in the sun. 
 
 And rail'd on lady fortune in good terms. 
 
 In good set terms, and yet a motley fool. 
 
 S/iakspeare. 
 
 Loue in her sunny eyes does basking play, 
 Loue walks the pleasant mazes of her hair j 
 Loue does on both her lips for ever stray. 
 And sows and reaps a thousand kisses there. 
 
 Cowley. The Change. 
 Then lies him down the lubber fiend. 
 And stretch'd out all the chimney's length 
 Basis at the fire his hairy strength. Milton. 
 
 'Tis all thy business, business how to shun. 
 To bask thy naked body in the sun. Dryden. 
 
 About him, and above, and round the wood. 
 The birds that haunt the borders of his flood , 
 That bath'd within, or bask'd upon his side, 
 To tuneful songs their narrow throats applied. Id. 
 Some in the fields of purest ather play. 
 And bask and whiten in the blaze of day. Pope. 
 Unlock'd in covers let her freely run 
 To range thy courts, and bask before the sun 
 
 TickeU. 
 
 O life ! thou universal wish ; what art thou ? 
 Thou'rt but a day — a few uneasy hours :
 
 BAS 
 
 616 
 
 BAS 
 
 Thy morn is greeted by the flocks and herds. 
 And every bird that flatters with its note. 
 Salutes thy rising sun : thy noon approaching. 
 Then haste the flies, and every creeping insect. 
 To bask in thy meridian ; that declining, 
 As quickly they depart, and leave thy evening 
 To mourn the absent ray : the night at hand. 
 Then croaks the raven conscience of time mispent. 
 The owl despair screams hideous, and the bat 
 Confusion, flutters up and down : 
 Life's but a lengthen'd day, not worth the waking for. 
 Howard's Charles I. 
 The naked negro, panting at the Line, 
 Boasts of his golden sands and palmy wine ; 
 Baika in the glare, or stems the tepid wave. 
 And thanks the gods for all the good they gave. 
 
 Goldsmith's Traveller. 
 Too late, all lost, for ever lost, he sees 
 The envy'd saints triumphing from afar, 
 And angels bashing in the smiles of God. Rowe. 
 Childe Harolde bask'd him in the noontide sun 
 Disporting there like any other fly. 
 
 Byron. Childe Harold. 
 
 BASKF.RVILLE (John), an eminent artist, 
 especially in letter-founding and printing, was 
 born in 1706, at Woverley in Worcestershire, 
 and was heir to an estate of about £60 a year; 
 the whole income of which he allowed to his 
 parents till their deaths. In his early years he 
 conceived a love for fine writing, and cutting in 
 ytone; and, being brought up to no particular 
 profession, he commenced writing-master in Bir- 
 mingham when about twenty years of age. The 
 improvements in different manufactures there 
 soon drew his attention, and he applied to the 
 japan business, which he carried on for a long 
 time with distinguished excellence and success. 
 In 1750 he applied himself to letter-founding, 
 the bringing of which to perfection cost him 
 much labor and expense. In a few years he 
 proceeded to printing; and his first work was an 
 edition of ^ irgil, in royal 4to. which now sells 
 for three guineas. He obtained leave from the 
 university of Cambridge to print a bible in royal 
 ("olio, and editions of the common prayer-book, 
 in three sizes; for which he paid a large sum. 
 He afterwards printed Horace, Terence, Catullus, 
 Lucretius, Juvenal, Sallust, and Florus, in 
 royal 4to; Virgil in 8vo.; and several books in 
 12mo. He published, likewise, some of the 
 English classics. These performances are the 
 best testimonies of Mr. Baskerville's merit; and 
 his name is deservedly ranked among those who, 
 in modem times, have brought the art of print- 
 ing to its greatest perfection. Not meeting, how- 
 ever, with that encouragement from the book- 
 sellers, which he expected, he set Tip a letter- 
 foundry for sale, a little before his death. He 
 died without issue in 1775. 
 
 Baskerville (Sir Simon), an eminent anato- 
 mist, and physician to king James I, and Charles 
 I. was the son of Thomas Baskerville, apothecary, 
 and born at Exeter in 1573. He studied at 
 Oxford, where he early displayed his abilities, 
 and at last took his degrees of B. D. and M. D. 
 in 1611. He afterwards settled at London, 
 where he became a member, and was for some 
 time president of the college of physicians. His 
 reputation for learning and medicine, attracted 
 the attention and esteem of the two sovereigns 
 
 above-mentioned, the latter of whom knighted 
 him. He wrote some memoirs of his own life 
 and times, and died in 1641, aged sixty-eight. 
 
 BA'SKET, n. s. basged, welch ; bascauda, 
 Latin ; perhaps, from the French bosse, or from 
 some British word signifying rush ; basket is a 
 vessel or utensil formed of osiers, rushes, of 
 twigs, splinters, or other slender bodies inter- 
 woven. 
 
 For I wol proche and beg in sondrj' londes, 
 I wol not do no labour with min hondes, 
 Ne make baskettes for to live there by. 
 Because I tvol not beggen idelly. 
 
 Chaucer. The Pardoner es Tale. 
 
 Here is a basket: he may creep in, and throw foul 
 
 linen upon him, as if going to bucking. Shakspeare, 
 
 Set down the basket, villain : — Somebody call my 
 
 wife : — You youth in a basket come out here. Id. 
 
 He threw out, to save life. 
 Your British basket?, with a thousand dishes. 
 
 Hulyday's Juvenal. 
 
 Poor Peg. was forced to go hawking and puddling ; 
 
 now and then carrying a basket of fish to the market. 
 
 Arbuthnot. 
 His puissant sword unto his side. 
 Near his undaunted heart, was ty'd. 
 With basket-hih that would hold broth. 
 And serve for fight and dinner both. Hiidibras. 
 There was a time, 
 Wben other regions were the swain's delight ; 
 And sheph'rdless Britannia's rushy vales. 
 Inglorious, neither trade nor labour knew, 
 But of rude baskets, homely rustic geer. 
 Woven of the flexile willow. Dyer. The Fleece. 
 Basket, as a measure, denotes an uncertain 
 quantity ; as, a basket of medlers is two bushels, 
 of assafcetida from twenty to thirty pound weight. 
 The ancient Britons were noted for their inge- 
 nuity in making baskets, which they exported in 
 large quantities. They were of very elegant 
 workmanship, and bore a high price. Martial 
 takes notice of them : — 
 
 Barbara de pictis veni bascauda Britannis, 
 Sed me jam mavult dicere Roma suam. 
 ' A basket I, by painted Britons wrought. 
 And now to Rome's imperial city brought.' 
 Baskets are generally made of osiers, stripped 
 of their bark, and dressed according to the design 
 of the basket. Large baskets or hampers are 
 made without any preparation but soaking the 
 wood, which is necessary for every size of bas- 
 ket. No great capital of money or ingenuity is 
 requisite to follow the business of a basket- 
 maker; yet some practice as well as dexterity 
 would seem necessary in forming fruit baskets 
 used on tables, work baskets, table mats, &c. 
 
 Basket, Corbeille, in architecture, a kind 
 of vase, or figure piece of sculpture, in form of 
 a basket, filled with {lowers or fruits, serving to 
 terminate some decoration. 
 
 Basket Fisn a species of sea-star. See As- 
 
 TERIAS. 
 
 Basket-making, the wea\-ing of reeds, twigs, 
 or leaves together, for baskets, is an art in use 
 among the rudest nations of the world ; even an 
 inferior specimen is seen among the natives of 
 \ an Diemen's Land, consisting of a bunch of 
 rushes tied together at each end, and spread out 
 in the middle. Other tribes of this neighbour- 
 hood make a basket of leaves interwoven, so skil- 
 fully executed, that it retains either milk or water
 
 B A S K E T - M A K I X G. 
 
 617 
 
 Very early in our history it is recorded that our 
 ancestors made baskets, whicli were celebrated 
 at Rome. At the same period, shields of wicker- 
 work, plain or covered with hides, were common 
 in Britain ; wicker boats, &c. Herodotus speaks 
 of boats of tliis kind, covered with bitumen, on 
 the Tiscris and Euphrates. Such boats, about 
 seven feet in diameter, are said to be used at the 
 present day on these rivers ; and similar ones, we 
 know, are employed in crossing the most rapid 
 streams of India. They are generally of a shal- 
 low construction, from three to fifteen feet in dia- 
 meter ; some will carry thirty men. They are 
 made thus : — A number of pieces of split Ijam- 
 boo, twenty for example, are laid on the ground, 
 crossing each other near the centre, and there 
 fastened with thongs ; the ends of the bamboos 
 are then elevated by several persons, and fixed 
 asunder at due distance by means of stakes, in 
 which position they are bound by other long slips 
 of bamboo. The latter are introduced alternately 
 over and under the pieces first crossed, and tied 
 at the intersections to preserve the shape. This 
 being completed, beginning from the bottom to 
 the centre, the parts above the intended height or 
 depth of the basket-boat are cut off, and it is 
 liberated from the stakes reversed, and covered 
 with half-dressed hides sewed together with 
 thongs. Six men will make one of these boats 
 in as many hours. They are navigated by pad- 
 dles where the water is deep, or are pushed over 
 a shallow bottom with long poles; and the pas- 
 sengers are kept dry by planks at the bottom. 
 The basket-boats on the river Kristna, in Hindos- 
 tan, are about twelve feet in diameter, and four 
 feet deep. Armies have been enabled by these 
 conveyances to continue their march, and even 
 heavy artillery has been transported by them. 
 Sometimes they are towed by bullocks. In other 
 parts of the world, houses, cottages, fences, and 
 gates, are formed of basket or wicker-work. On 
 the continent, a two-horse carriage, called a Hol- 
 stein waggon, of very considerable size, and fit to 
 carry several persons, is composed of basket- 
 work ; the same is done in Great Britain with 
 regard to the bodies of gigs ; and an appendage 
 of the stage-coaches, we know, is literally de- 
 nominated the basket. 
 
 This is an art therefore, however numble in 
 some of its branches, too extensively and too ser- 
 viceably in exercise not to merit more attention 
 than books of science have usually bestowed upon 
 it. The materials employed have been very vari- 
 ous. Twigs, branches, straw, and whalebone, 
 rushes, roots of plants, the bowing bamboo, and 
 the supple osier. The natives of some parts of 
 South America make baskets of rushes, so closely 
 interwoven as to hold water, and thousands of 
 them are annually sold throughout the new re- 
 publics. The Catt'res and Hottentots are alike 
 skilful with roots. Osiers or willows, however, 
 are most adapted for this use. These are either 
 taken entire, cut from the root, split asunder, or 
 stripped of their bark, according to the work to 
 be produced ; m the latter case, they are previ- 
 ously well soaked. The stripping is performed 
 by drawing the willows through an iron-edged 
 instrument called brakes, which reinoves the baik, 
 and the willows are then cleaned, so far as neces- 
 
 sary, by the manual operation of a sharp knife. 
 Next they are exposed to the sun and air, and 
 afterwards placed in a dry situation. But it is 
 not less necessary to preserve willows with their 
 bark in the same manner, for nothing can be 
 more injurious than the humidity inherent in the 
 plant ; and previous to use, they must be soaked 
 in water some days. The barked or white osier 
 is then divided into bundles or faggots according 
 to size ; the larger being reserved to form the 
 strong work in the skeleton of the basket, and 
 the smaller for weaving the bottom and sides. 
 Should the latter be applied to ordinary work, 
 they are taken whole, but for implements of 
 slight and finer texture, each osier is divided into 
 splits and skeins ; which names denote the dif- 
 ferent degrees of size to which they are reduced. 
 Splits are osiers cleft into four parts, by means 
 of a particular implement employed for that pur- 
 pose, consisting of two edge tools placed alright 
 angles, whereby the rod is longitudinally divided 
 down the pith. These are next drawn through 
 an implement resembling the common spoke- 
 shave, keeping the grain of the split next the 
 wood or stock of the shave, while the pith is pre- 
 sented to the edge of the iron, which is set in an 
 oblique direction to the wood : And, in order to 
 bring the split into a shape still more regular, it is 
 passed through another implement called an up- 
 right, consisting of a flat piece of steel, each end 
 of which is fashioned into a cutting edge, like 
 that of an ordinary chisel. The flat is bent round, 
 so that the two edges approach each other at a 
 greater or less inter\-al by means of regulating 
 screws, and the whole is fixed in a handle. By 
 passing the splits between the two edges, they 
 are reduced to skeins, the thickness of which is 
 determined by the interval between the edges of 
 the tool. All the implements required by a bas- 
 ket-maker are few and simple : they consist, 
 besides the preceding, of knives, bodkins, and 
 drills for boring, leads for keeping the work 
 steady while in process, and where it is of small 
 dimensions, a heavy piece of iron, called a beat- 
 er, which is employed to beat the basket close as 
 it is augmented. 
 
 In makingan ordinary basket, the osiers are laid 
 out in a length considerably greater than that of 
 the finished work. They are ranged in pairs on 
 the floor parallel to each other, at small intervals, 
 in the direction of the longer diameter ; and this 
 may be called the woof, for basket work is in 
 fact a web. These parallel rods are then crossed 
 at right angles by two of the largest osiers, with 
 the thick ends towards the workman, who places 
 his foot upon them ; and weaving each alter- 
 nately over and under the parallel pieces first 
 laid down, they are by that means confined in 
 their places. The whole now forms what is 
 technically called the slat or slate, which is tiie 
 foundation of the basket. Next, the long end of 
 one of the two rods is taken, and woven under and 
 over the pairs of shonends all round the bottom, 
 until the whole be woven in. The same is done 
 with the other rod ; and then additional long 
 osiers are also woven in, until the bottom be of 
 sufficient size, and the woof be occupied by them. 
 Tlius the bottom, or foundation on which the 
 superstructure is to be raised, is finished ; and
 
 BAS 
 
 618 
 
 BAS 
 
 this latter part is accomplished by sharpening the 
 large ends of as many long and stout osiers as 
 may be necessary to form the ribs or skeleton. 
 These are forced or plaited between the rods of 
 the bottom, from the edae towards the centre, 
 and are turned up in the direction of the sides ; 
 then other rods are woven in and out between 
 each of them, until tlie basket is raised to the in- 
 tended height, or, more correctly speaking, the 
 depth it is to receive. The edge or brim is 
 finished by turning down the perpendicular ends 
 of the ribs, now protruding and standing up over 
 each other, whereby the whole are firmly and 
 compactly united. A handle is adapted to the 
 work, by forcing two or three osiers sharpened 
 at the end, and cut to the requisite length, down 
 the weaving of the sides, close together ; and 
 they are pinned fast, about two inches from the 
 brim, in order that the handle, when completed, 
 may be retained in its proper position. The 
 osiers are then either bound or plaited, in such 
 fashion as pleases the taste of the artist. This is 
 the most simple kind of basket ; some are of 
 finer materials, and nicer execution. The skeins 
 are frequently smoked and dyed, of different 
 colors, by intermixing which, a good effect is 
 produced. 
 
 At Liverpool, where there is an asylum for the 
 blind, this art has, from its happy simplicity, 
 been extensively taught, and is practised witli 
 success. In the city of Edinburgh, a number of the 
 blind find similar employment in a blind asylum. 
 
 Some of the best materials for basket-making 
 have been imported into Great Britain from 
 France and Holland ; but the duration of the war 
 induced the inhabitants of this country to endea- 
 vour to obtain a home supply ; and Mr. Philips, 
 of Ely, has received a premium from the Society 
 of Arts, on account of his excellent observations 
 on this subject. He also has been very success- 
 ful in his cultivation of the osier. Of nine or 
 ten species of osier, he remarks that only one, the 
 grey or brinkled osier is of any use. See Trans- 
 actions of the Society, and our article Osier. 
 
 Basking Shark, in ichthyology, a species of 
 shark, the squalus maximus of Linnaeus, so 
 called from its lying in the sun on the surface of 
 the water. This fish inhabits the Arctic and 
 European seas, feeds on the smaller cetaceous 
 animals, and grows to a prodigious size, but is 
 not very fierce. The liver is very large, and 
 produces much oil. See Squalus. 
 
 BASLE, Bale, or Basil. One of the nine- 
 teen cantons of Switzerland, which joined 
 the confederacy in the year 1501. It is bound- 
 ed on the south by the canton of Solothurn; 
 on the north by the Brisgau ; on the east by 
 P'rickthal ; and on the west by part of Solothurn, 
 the former diocese of Basle, and the Sundgau ; 
 being upwards of twenty miles in length, and 
 about eighteen in breadth. It contains three 
 towns, twenty-seven parishes, seven bailiwics, 
 and 38,000 inhabitants ; the supposed area being 
 about 181 square miles. Although tlie mountains 
 are barren, the lower parts are fruitful in corn 
 and wine, and fit for pasture; hemp also abounds 
 here. It has many medicinal springs and baths, 
 and tlie air is wholesome and temperate. The 
 people are protestants : both men and women for 
 
 the most part wear the French dress ; but the lan- 
 guage commonly spoken is German, though the 
 French also is much used. By the constitution of 
 1803, the legislative power is vested in the large 
 council of 135, elected from among the citizens 
 at large ; it assembles every half year in the town 
 of Basle, and sits for a fortnight at a time. The 
 executive power is intrusted to the small council 
 of twenty-five, chosen from among tlie members 
 of the large council, and having at its head two 
 burgomasters, who preside alternately. The 
 whole cantOH is divided into the three districts of 
 Basle (the town), Wallenburg, and Liestal, each 
 of which is subdivided into fifteen corporations. 
 Every inhabitant who rents land or houses to the 
 value of 500 Swiss francs, has a seat in one of 
 these corporations, and is by virtue of it entitled 
 to vote at the election of members for the large 
 council. This canton sends three representatives 
 to the diet. Before the revolution its government 
 was aristocratical ; and its revenues arise chiefly 
 from secularised abbeys, and imposts on goods 
 carried through the country, to and from France, 
 Italy, and Germany. Besides the military esta- 
 blishment of the city of Basle, there were two 
 provincial regiments, consisting each of ten com- 
 panies, and a troop of dragoons. At present the 
 country furnishes two regiments of militia, each 
 consisting of nine companies of fusileers, a com- 
 pany of grenadiers, and one of dragoons. Ma- 
 nufacturing establishments are found in every 
 corner, particularly for those of silk, cotton, 
 ribbons and paper. The clergy form in the capital 
 a convention, and in the country three chapters ; 
 over all these the first pastor of the cathedral pre- 
 sides. Basle was the first canton which separated 
 from the Helvetic confederacy, and adopted the 
 new constitution ; and here, it is said, the first 
 paper of modern times was manufactured. 
 
 Basle, or Bale, the capital of this canton, is 
 the largest city in Switzerland, having upwards 
 of 200 streets, and six market-places or squares. 
 Its environs are exceedingly beautiful, consisting 
 of a fine level tract of fields and meadows. The 
 city is divided into two parts by the Rhine, over 
 which there is a handsome bridge ; the larger 
 on the side of Switzerland, the lesser on that of 
 Germany. It is thought by some to have risen 
 on the ruins of the old Augusta Rauracorum. 
 For its name it is indebted to Julian the Apos- 
 tate, who named it in honor of his mother 
 Basilina. The houses are well built, but thinly 
 peopled, Basle containing at presen; only 15,000 
 inhabitants, whereas in former times the town 
 was crowded to excess. A hereditary enmity 
 subsists between the inhabitants of the two divi- 
 sions. The minster, or cathedral church, the 
 town-house, and the arsenal, are objects worthy 
 of attention. The university, founded here in 
 1459, has an excellent library, a cabinet of me- 
 dals, and botanic garden ; the town has given 
 birth to a number of eminent characters, particu- 
 larly (Ecolampadius, Grynaeus, Buxtorf, Wet- 
 stein, Hermann, the Bernouillis, and Euler ; 
 Erasmus too resided here for many years, and 
 lies interred in the cathedral. The commerce is 
 extensive and flourishing, and is maintained 
 chiefly by the manufacture of silk ribbons. The 
 other manufactures of consequence are, silk stuffs.
 
 BAS 
 
 619 
 
 BAS 
 
 cotton, paper, linen, and gloves ; there are also 
 considerable Ijleachtields and dye-liouses. The 
 highest administrative power belongs to the large 
 council of 280, out of which are chosen the mem- 
 bers of the smaller council of 60. The Teutonic 
 and Maltese orders have each a commander at 
 Basle. It was remarked as a singularity in the 
 clocks of this town, that they always struck an 
 hour sooner than elsewhere ; but this peculiarity 
 no longer exists. Basle was formerly a city of 
 the empire, and only ceased to be so on its join- 
 ing the Swiss confederacy in 1501. Here was 
 held a famous ecclesiastical council, between the 
 years 1431 and 1444, 
 
 Basle was once the name of an independent 
 bishopric, which had the Sundgau to the north, 
 the canton of Basle to the east, that of Solothurn 
 to the south, nnd Franche Comte to the west. 
 The bishop was a prince of the empire, and had 
 a seat and vote at the diet of the Upper Rhhie. 
 He was at the same time in alliance with the se- 
 ven catholic cantons, but was never called to the 
 meetings of the Swiss diet. His ordinary resi- 
 dence was at Porentrui. The whole bishopric 
 contained, on 420 square miles, between 39,000 
 and 40,000 inhabitants. The nett revenue was 
 valued at £20,000 sterling, to which the mines 
 contributed between £3000 and £4000. In 1792 
 the French took possession of that part of the 
 bishopric which belonged to the German empire, 
 and formed it into a department of their republic, 
 under the name of Mont Terrible, with which 
 they soon after incorporated several of the other 
 districts that were previously connected with 
 Switzerland. After this it was included in the 
 department of the Upper Rhine. In 1815 the 
 bishopric of Basle, with the town and territory of 
 Bienne, was united to the Swiss republic, by the 
 congress of \'ienna, and now forms part of the 
 canton of Berne. 
 
 BAS MAN, an island in the Persian gulf, five 
 miles long, in the centre of which is a high hill. 
 Lat. 25° 24' N. 
 
 BASNAGE (Henry), Sieur de Beauval, 
 second son to Henry Basnage, and brother to 
 •Tames. He was admitted advocate in the par- 
 liament of Kouen, in 1679. He did not follov/ 
 the bar immediately upon his admission ; but went 
 to Valencia, where he studied under M. de 3Iar- 
 ville. Upon his return, he practised with great 
 reputation till 1687, when the revocation of the 
 edict of Nantz obliged him to fly to Holland, 
 where he composed the greatest part of his works, 
 and died in 1710. His chief work is Histoire 
 des Guvrages des Scavans. Ilotterd. 24 vols, 
 in 12mo. This work was begun in September 
 1687, and continued till June 1709. When he 
 arrived in Holland, Mr. Bayle, through indis- 
 position, had been obliged to drop his Nouvelles 
 de la Republique des Lettres, which indviced 
 Mr. Basnage to undertake a work of the same 
 kind, under a different title. 
 
 Basnage (James), a learned author, and pas- 
 tor of the Walloon church at the Hague, was 
 born at Rouen in Normandy, in 1653. He was 
 the son of Henry Basnage, one of the ablest 
 advocates in the parliament of Normandy. At 
 seventeen years of age, after he had made him- 
 self master of the Greek and Latin authors, as 
 
 well as the English, Spanish, and Italian lan- 
 guages, he went to Geneva, where he began his 
 divinity studies under Mestrezul, Turretin, and 
 Tronchin ; and finished them at Sedan, under 
 the professors Jurieu and Le Blanc de Beaulieu. 
 He then returned to Rouen, where he was received 
 as minster, September 1676; in which capacity 
 he remained till 1685, when, the exercise of the 
 Protestant religion being suppressed at Rouen, he 
 retired to Rotterdam, and was a minister pen- 
 sionary there till 1691, when he was chosen pas- 
 tor of the \\'alloon church, of that city. In the 
 year 1709 Pensionary Heinsius got him choiicn 
 one of the pastors of the Walloon church at the 
 Hague, intending not only to employ him in 
 religious but in state affairs. He was employed 
 in a secret negociation with ^Marshal d'Uxelles, 
 plenipotentiary of France at the congress of 
 Ltrecht; and he executed it with so much suc- 
 cess, that he was aftenvards entrusted with seve- 
 ral important commissions, all which he dis- 
 charged in such a manner as to gain a great cha- 
 racter for his abilities and address; a celebrated 
 modern writer has therefore said of him, that he 
 was fitter to be a minister of state than of a 
 parish. The abbe du Bois, who was at the 
 Hague in 1716, as ambassador plenipotentiary 
 from France, to negociate a defensive alliance 
 between France, England, and the States Gene- 
 ral, was ordered by the duke of Grleans, regent 
 of J' ranee, to apply himself to ^I. Basnage, and 
 to follow his advice ; they accordingly acted in 
 concert, and the alliance was concluded in 
 January 1717; and in return for his services he 
 obtained the restoration of all his property in 
 France. The catholics esteemed him no less 
 than the protestants ; and the works he wrote, 
 which are mostly in French, spread his reputa- 
 tion almost all over Europe; among these are, 1. 
 The history of the Religion of the Reformed 
 Churches. 2. Jewish Antiquities. 3. The His- 
 tory of the Gld and New Testament; and many 
 others. He died Sept. 12, 1723. 
 
 BASNET (Edward), dean of St. Patrick's, 
 Dublin. He was born in Denbighshire, in 
 ^\ ales, and was preferred to the dean of St. Pa- 
 trick's about 1537. He was a zealous promoter 
 of the Reformation, and in 1539, when the re- 
 bellion of G'Neal broke out, he laid aside the 
 dress of the dean for that of the soldier, and 
 joined the army under the lord deputy. For his 
 good services he was made a privy counsellor, 
 and besides other marks of royal favor, had the 
 lands of Kiltearn, in the neighbourhood of Dub- 
 lin, assigned to him by the crown. He died in 
 the reign of Edward \ I. 
 
 BASNETUM, low Lat. a helmet. Bailey. 
 
 Bason, bassin, Fr. See Basin. 
 
 Bason, in anatomy, pelvis. 1. Around ca- 
 vity in form of a tunnel, situate between the an- 
 terior ventricles of the brain, descending from its 
 base, and ending in the point at the glandula 
 pituitaria. It is formed of the pia mater, and 
 receives the pituita, which comes from the brain, 
 and passes through the pituitary gland, and 
 thence into the veins. 2. That capacity is also 
 called pelvis, or bason, which is for.iied by the 
 ossa ilia and os sacrum, and contains the bladder 
 of urine, the matrix, and the intestines.
 
 BAS 
 
 620 
 
 BAS 
 
 Bason, in glass-grinding, or dish. Glass- 
 Etrinders use various kinds of basons, of copper, 
 iron, &c. and of various forms, some deeper, 
 others shallower, accordin'j^ to the focus of the 
 glasses that are to be ground. In these basons, 
 convex glasses are formed, as concave ones are 
 on spheres or bowls. Glasses are worked in 
 basons two ways. In the first, the bason is fitted 
 to the arbor, or tree of a lath, and the glass, fixed 
 with cement to a handle of wood, is presented 
 and held fast in the right hand within the bason, 
 while the proper motion is given by the foot of 
 the bason. In tlie other, the bason is fixed to a 
 stand or block, and the glass with its wooden 
 handle moved. The movable basons are very 
 small, seldom exceeding five or six inches in 
 diameter ; the others are larger, sometimes above 
 ten feet diameter. After the glass has been 
 ground in the bason, it is brought smoother 
 with grease and emery, polished with tripoli, and 
 finished with paper cemented to the bottom of 
 the bason. 
 
 Bason, in hat-making, a large round shell or 
 case, ordinarily of iron, placed over a furnace ; 
 wherein the matter of the hat is moulded into 
 form. The hatters have also basons for the brims 
 of hats, usually of lead, having an aperture in the 
 middle, of a diameter sufficient for the largest 
 block to go through. 
 
 Bason, in hydraulics, a reservoir of water, as 
 the bason of a jet d'eau, or fountain ; the bason 
 of a port or harbour, of a bath, Sec. Basons 
 are made with clay, cement, or lead ; but the 
 diameter must be made four feet longer on each 
 side than the bason is to be. This will be taken 
 up by the walls of clay. For the same reason, 
 it must be dug two feet deeper than the intended 
 depth of the water; because it is to be laid over 
 eighteen inches thick with clay, and six inches 
 with gravel and paving. The wall is to be made 
 with shards, rubbish, or flints, with the natural 
 earth for mortar ; and the clay must be well 
 worked, and trod firmly down with the naked 
 feet. The way of making them with cement is, 
 to allow one foot nine inches every way for the 
 work ; then cut the banks perpendicularly, and 
 raise a wall of masonry a foot thick, made of 
 pebble stones, or the like, laid in a mortar of 
 lime and sand ; the bottom is then to be covered 
 to the same thickness ; and then the solid lining 
 of the cement is to be backed up against the 
 walls, and over the bottom. This is to be made 
 of small flints in beds of mortar, made of lime 
 and cement. When this solid is eight inches 
 thick, it must be plastered over the whole surface 
 with cement, well sifted, before it be mixed with 
 the lime ; and with this it is to be wrought over 
 smooth with a trowel. The proportion of this 
 cement should be two-thirds of the cement, or 
 powdered tile, to one-third of lime ; and this 
 cement has the property of hardening so under 
 water, that it will become like stone or marble, 
 and it will not be subject to decay for a long 
 time. After the finisliing, the bason should, for 
 four or five days, be anointed over very often 
 with oil, or bullock's blood, to keep it from 
 flawing or cracking in the drying ; and after this, 
 the water should be let in as soon as may be. 
 The leaded basons are made with walls a foot 
 
 thick, and a bottom of half a foot. These must 
 be of rubble stones cemented with plaster ; for 
 the lime will injure and eat the lead. Tiie sheets 
 of lead are to be spread over these walls and 
 bottom, and seamed with solder. These basons, 
 however, are but little in use now, from tlie ex- 
 pense of making them, and the danger of the 
 lead being stolen. The waste pipes of fountains 
 ought alsvays to be made large enough for fes,r 
 of choking. When the waste water is to be 
 carried oft' in common sewers, it may be carried 
 away in drains, or earthen pipes ; but when it is 
 to serve for basons that lie below it, it is to be 
 conveyed in leaden ones. — There are divers sorts 
 of basons ; as 
 
 1. Bason en Coquille, that shaped like a 
 shell. 
 
 2. Bason, Figured, that whose plane or cir- 
 cumference makes several turns and returns, 
 either straight, circular, or the like. Such are 
 most of the basons of fountains at Rome. 
 
 3. Bason with a Balustrade, that whose 
 cavity is surrounded with a balustrade of stone, 
 marble, brass, or the like. 
 
 4. Bason with a Trench, bassin a rigole, 
 that whose border being of marble, or other 
 stone, has a trench cut in it, whence, at 
 certain dislances, spring? cut a tliread of v.atei, 
 which lines the trench, and forms a kind of nape 
 or gargle around the balustrade. Such is that 
 of the fountain of the rock of the Belvidere at 
 Rome, 
 
 Bason, in ship-building, a circular dock for 
 the reception of ships. 
 
 Bason, Sale by the, at Amsterdam, is used 
 for the public sales made under the direction 
 of the vendu meester ; so called, by reason that, 
 before adjudging the lot or commodity to the last 
 bidder, they strike a brass bason, to give notice 
 of it. 
 
 Basons of a Balance, two pieces of brass, 
 or other matter, fastened to the.extremities of the 
 strings ; the one to hold the weight, the other 
 the thing to be weighed. 
 
 BASOUDHA, a town of Hindostan, in the 
 district of Bilsah.. Long. 78° 13' E., lat. 23° 
 54' N. 
 
 BASQUE Island, an island in the river St. 
 Lawrence, near the coast of Lower Canada. 
 Long. 68° 52' W., lat. 48° 15' N. 
 
 BASQUES Les, or French Biscay, a district 
 of Gascony, France, which has the Bay of 
 Biscay on the west, the river Adour and the 
 Landes on the north. Beam on the east, and the 
 Pyrenees on the south. It was formerly subdi- 
 vided into the three territories of Labour, Lower 
 Navarre, and Soule, and is now included in the 
 department of the Lower Pyrenees. It is very 
 mountainous, and rather barren ; it rears, how- 
 ever, a number of cattle. The inliabitnnts use 
 a dialect whicli resembles that of the Spanish 
 Biscayans, and is supposed to be a variety of the 
 Celtic. The agility of the inhabitants is pro- 
 verbial. It is not easy to imagine more grace 
 and expression than they display in their mo- 
 tions, or the spirit and activity of their dances. 
 
 BASQtJES, Jiio DE, a river in the province and 
 government of Costa Rica, kingdom of Guati- 
 niala, wliich falls into the Atlantic.
 
 BAS 
 
 621 
 
 BAS 
 
 BASQUEVILLE, or Baqueville, a town of 
 France, in Lower Normandy, with 2190 inha- 
 bitan'cs. Here are manufactures of serj^e, matrasses, 
 and woollen stufl's. It had the title of county 
 before the revolution, and is now the head of a 
 canton, in the department of the Lower Seine, 
 arrondissement of Dieppe. It is ten miles S. W. 
 of Dieppe, and twenty-eight N. of Rouen. 
 
 BASRAH. See Bassoka. 
 
 BASRODE, a town of the Netherlands, in 
 Flanders, on the Scheldt, near Dendermonde. 
 It contains 2150 inhabitants. 
 
 BASS, } This is the word from which 
 
 Ba'ssock. j basket is supposed to be derived ; 
 our gardeners even now call the soft sedge or 
 rush with which they bind plants bass, which is 
 the meaning of the word in the following cita- 
 tion from ]Mortimer. 
 
 Having woollen jarn, bass mat, or such like, to 
 bind them willial. Mortimer's Husbntuhy. 
 
 BASS, n. s., in Cumberland, a river-fish, of 
 the perch kind ; in Hampshire, a sea perch. 
 
 Bass, in gardening, a soft kind of sedge or 
 rush, used in binding plants, &c. 
 
 Bass, in geography, an insulated rock, about 
 a mile in circumference, in the mouth of the 
 Frith of Forth, at a small distance from tlie town 
 of North Berwick, in East Lothian. It is steep 
 and inaccessible on all sides, except on the 
 S. W. and even there it is with great difficulty 
 that a single man can climb up with the help of 
 a rope or ladder. It was formerly kept as a 
 garrison. A party of the adherents of James 
 \'II. surprised it at the revolution, and it was 
 the last place in the three kingdoms that sub- 
 mitted to the new govemment ; upon which its 
 fortifications were ordered to be neglected. In 
 summer this remarkable rock, which rises to a 
 great height above the water, in form of a cone, 
 is quite covered with sea-fowl, which comehitlier 
 to breed. The chief of these are the solan geese, 
 (See Bassa.nus), which arrive in June, and retire 
 in September. At that period these birds are so 
 numerous that they almost darken the air ; and 
 the surface of the Bass is so covered witli nests, 
 eggs, and young, that it is difficult to walk 
 without treading- on them. The ruins of the old 
 castle, which was once the state prison for Scot- 
 land, are situated at the north end of the pre- 
 cipice, which overhangs the sea in a tremendous 
 manner. The Bass also contains a small warren 
 for rabbits, and pasture for a few sheep. There 
 is a beautiful spring of water in the centre, high 
 on the rock. The force of the tides has now 
 almost worn a hole through this rock. I-ong. 
 2= 15' W.,lat. 56° 3' N. 
 
 Bass, in music, of uncertain etymolog}-; 
 whether from the Greek word jiaatr, a founda- 
 tion; or from the Italian adjective basso, low; 
 the lowest of the four parts of music, but the 
 most important, as it is ypon that the chor-.ls 
 ptoper to constitute a particular harmony are 
 determined. Hence the maxim among musicians, 
 that when the bass is properly formed, the har- 
 mony can scarcely be bad. It is the part of the 
 concert which is the most heard, which consists 
 of the gravest and longest sounds ; or which is 
 played on the largest pipes or strings of a common 
 
 instrument, or an instrument larger than ordi- 
 nar)', for tiie purpose. Musicians generally hold 
 the bass the principal part of a conceit, and the 
 foundation of the composition; tliough others 
 will have the treble tlie chief part. The late in- 
 genious Dr. Franklin, in his very curious letter 
 to Lord Kaimes on this subject, declares it to be 
 his opinion that the bass is unnecessary to some 
 tunes, and gives some reasons in support of it, 
 which the curious may see there. Exper. Ob- 
 serv. &c. 4lo. fifth edit. p. 489. Rousseau ap- 
 pears to have been of the same opinion. See 
 Diet, de iNIusique, an. 1768. — Bass cliflT, or F 
 
 cliff, the character is marked thus- 
 
 Bass, Counter, is a second or double bass, 
 where there are several in the same concert. 
 
 Bass Harbour, a harbour in the Eastern seas, 
 formed by several small islands, off the coast of 
 Malacca, forty-five miles W. of Queda. 
 
 Bass Island, an island in Lake Erie, four 
 miles N. of Sundusky. 
 
 Bass River, a river of East Greenland, which 
 runs into the sea. Long. 50"" 10' W., lat. 64° 
 30' N. 
 
 Bass-Relief. Vvhatever figures or repre- 
 sentations are cut, stamped, or otherwise wrought, 
 so that not the entire body, but only part of it, 
 is raised above the plane, are said to be done in 
 relief, or relievo ; and when that work is low, 
 flat, and but little raised, it is called bass or lov.- 
 relief. W hen a piece of sculpture, a coin, or a 
 medal, has its figure raised so as to be well dis- 
 tinguished, it is called bold, and we s-iy its relief 
 is strong. Bass-reliefs of the Trajan and Anto- 
 nine columns have been copied by Bartoli, and 
 explained' by Bellori, &c. Those of the arch of 
 Severus by Suaresius. Some have also made 
 maps of prospects of countries in basso-relievo. 
 Phil. Trans. No. 6, p. 99. See Basso Rilievo. 
 
 Bass, Tuorough, is the harmony made by 
 the bass-viols, or theorbos, continuing to play 
 both while the voices sing and the other instru- 
 ments perform their parts, and also filling up the 
 intervals when any of the other parts stop. It is 
 played by figures marked over the notes, on the 
 organ, spinet, harpsichord, &c. and frequently 
 simply and without figures on the bass-viol and 
 bassoon. 
 
 Bass-viol, a musical instrument of the same 
 form with that of a violin, but much larger. It 
 is struck with a bow, as that is ; has the same 
 number of strings ; and has eight stops, which 
 are subdivided into semi-stops : its sound is 
 grave, and has a much nobler effect in a concert 
 than that of the violin. 
 
 Bass .Strait, so called from the name of its dis- 
 coverer, separates \'an Diemen's Land from New 
 Holland, and is not more than fifty leagues wide. 
 It contains a chain of small islands, which run 
 north and south. \'an Diemen's land, which 
 was hitherto supposed to be a part of New Hol- 
 land, is thus ascertained to be a detached island ; 
 as, proceeding through this strait, .Air. Bass ac- 
 tually circumnavigated it. This discovery is not 
 only interesting, as it establishes this geograpiii- 
 cal fact, but may be useful, as it expedites the
 
 BAS 
 
 622 
 
 BAS 
 
 passage from the Cape of Good Hope to our 
 settlement of Port Jackson. 
 
 BASSA. See Bashaw. 
 
 Bassa, or Grand Bass a, a country on the 
 west coast of Africa, about 400 miles south 
 of Sierra Leone, where the American coloniza- 
 tion Society has obtained a grant of land frona 
 the king for a settlement. One of their agents 
 describes the Bassas as living in small villages, 
 or clusters of cottages, in each of which there is 
 a head-man, who has a plurality of wives, and is 
 the owner of all the people in his town. The 
 inhabitants of each village cultivate the ground 
 in common, which is chiefly done by the women 
 and boys; the men employ tliemselves in fishing, 
 hunting and trade, and in directing those under 
 them. The adults wear a piece of narrow cloth 
 about their loins ; but the children are not bur- 
 dened with any kind of clothing. They are very 
 fond of beads and various other ornaments ; and 
 are represented as good-natured people, but ex- 
 tremely ignorant and superstitious, depending 
 solely upon their gree-grees and devil worship, 
 to whom they make daily sacrifices, and even 
 dedicate a part of their regular food. 
 
 Bassac, a town of France, in the Angoumois, 
 department of the Charente, arrondissement of 
 Cognac, where was formerly an abbey. The 
 number of inhabitants is about 1000. On the 
 13th of March, 1569, a battle was fought near 
 this place between the Catholics and Protestants, 
 in w^hich the latter were defeated, and a prince 
 of Conde was killed. It is on the right bank of 
 the Charente, not far from Jarnac, and fifteen 
 miles E. S. E. of Saintes. 
 
 BASSAD, or Besd, an Arabian name for the 
 purple fucus of the Greeks, ussd by the women 
 to paint their cheeks, and \ v the dyers of cloths. 
 It has been misunderstood by late authors, and 
 interpreted coral; but the error of this is evident, 
 since coral has none of these properties. See 
 Margian. 
 
 BASSAN (Giacomo de Pont), or le Bassan, 
 a celebrated Venetian painter, born in 1510. 
 His subjects generally were peasants and vil- 
 lagers, cattle, landscapes, and historical designs; 
 the figures were well designed, and the animals 
 and landscapes have an agreeable resemblance 
 of simple nature. His compositions cannot boast 
 of much elegance ; but they have abundance of 
 force and truth. His local colors are well ob- 
 served, his carnations brilliant, and the chiaro- 
 scuro and perspective well understood. His 
 touch is free and spirited, and the distances in 
 his landscapes are always true, but sometimes too 
 dark in the nearer parts. His works are spread 
 all over Europe : many of them were purchased 
 by Titian ; and there were several in the late 
 French king's cabinet, the royal palace, and the 
 Hotel de Toulouse. They are readily known 
 from the similitude of characters and counte- 
 nance in the figures and animals, Sec, and par- 
 ticularly from a violet or purple tint that pre- 
 dominates in them all. But the genuine pictures 
 of his own hand are not so easily ascertained ; 
 because his sons were mostly employed in copy- 
 ing the works of their father, which he sometimes 
 retouched. As he lived to be very old, he 
 finished a great number of pictures; yet from 
 this circumstance his genuine pictures are not 
 
 commonly met with. But the true pictures of 
 Giacomo always bear a considerable price. He 
 was also a lover of music and gardening, and 
 used to intermingle among his plants figures of 
 serpents, drawn so much to the life that his visi- 
 tors were apt to mistake them for real ones. 
 Hannibal Caracci himself, when he went to see 
 him, was so far deceived by the figure of a book 
 upon the wall that he went to take it off" the sup- 
 posed shelf. 'He died in 1529. 
 
 Bassan (Leander and Francis), sons of 
 Giacomo, inherited their father's genius for 
 painting, and distinguished themselves in the 
 art ; but unfortunately they also inherited a 
 species of lunacy from tlieir mother, which 
 shortened their lives and their usefulness. 
 
 BASSANI (Giovanni Battista), maestro di 
 capella of the cathedral church of Bologna, about 
 the middle of the last century, was a very 
 voluminous composer of music, having published 
 no fewer than thirty-one different works. He is 
 equally celebrated as a composer for the church 
 and for concerts ; and being also a celebrated 
 performer on the violin, he taught Corelli. His 
 compositions consist of masses, psalms, motets 
 with instrumental parts, and sonatas for violins : 
 his fifth opera in particular, containing twelve 
 sonatas for two violins and a bass, is much 
 esteemed ; it is written in a style wonderfully 
 grave and pathetic. He was one of the first who 
 composed motets for a single voice, with accom- 
 paniments of violins ; a practice liable to objec- 
 tion, as it assimilates church-music too nearly to 
 that of the chamber. Two of his operas, viz. the 
 eighth and thirteenth, were printed in London, 
 by Pearson, above fifty years ago, with the title 
 of Harmonia Festiva. 
 
 BASSANO, a flourishing town of Italy, on the 
 river Brenta, in the \ enetian territory. It is 
 scarcely one Italian mile in circuit, but has 
 spacious suburbs, and contains, according to the 
 last French enumeration, 11,500 inhabitants. A 
 stone bridge, 182 feet in length, connects it with 
 the large village of Vicantino. The neighbour- 
 hood is highly favorable to the cultivation of the 
 vine and olive, and a good trade is carried on 
 in silk, cloth, and leather. The extensive printirig- 
 oflice of Remontini issues a number of elegant 
 ■|)ublications. In the kingdom of Italy this town 
 belonged to the department of the Tagliamento : 
 Buonaparte erected it into a duchy, with £'2,500 
 sterling annual revenue, which he conferred in 
 1809 on Maret, his minister for foreign afiairs. 
 It is twelve miles north of Vicenza, and twenty 
 west of Treviso. Long. 11° 43' E., lat. 45° 
 46' N. 
 
 Bassano, or Bassanella, a small town in the 
 Papal states, the head of a duchy, belonging to 
 the house of Colonna. It gives name to the lake 
 of Bassano, from which issues the river La 
 Barca, the ancient Cremera. Here was born the 
 celebrated Venetian printer, Aldus Manutius. 
 Three miles west of Orta. 
 
 Bassano (St.), a small town of Italy, in the 
 duchy of jNIilan, and district of Lodi. 
 
 BASSANUS, in ornithology, a species of Pe- 
 lecanus, as large as a common goose, with a 
 wedge-shaped tail; body white; bill and pri- 
 mary quill-feathers black ; and face blue. Gmelin. 
 Latham, &,c.
 
 BAS 
 
 623 
 
 BAS 
 
 This is the common gannet, or solan goose, 
 a bird found in great plenty on all the northern 
 coasts of BriUiin, but rather less common to tlie 
 southward. The adult birds have the plumage 
 nearly all white ; but during the first years it is 
 of a dusky color, and only speckled with white. 
 The bill is bluish-ash color, about six inches in 
 length, and has the nostrils placed in a furrow ; 
 the mouth within is black ; the throat is bare ; 
 and the skin very dilatable, forming a pouch of 
 sufficient size to contain five or six herrings ; the 
 legs are black, marked with a stripe of pea- 
 green before ; and the claw of the middle toe is 
 pectinated. The males and females are very 
 much alike in plumage. The gannet is par- 
 ticularly abundant in the isleof Ailsa in the firth 
 of Clyde ; the rocks adjacent to St. Kilda ; the 
 stalks of Souliskerry, near the Orkneys ; the 
 Skelig isles off the coasts of Kerry, Ireland ; 
 and tlie Bass island in the firth of Edinburgh. 
 Dr. Ilervey gives some account of die latter in 
 these words. ' There is a small island, called 
 by the Scotch Bass island, not more than a mile 
 in circumference; the surface is almost wholly 
 covered during the months of May and June 
 witli nests, eggs, and young birds ; so that it is 
 scarcely possible to walk without treading on 
 them ; and the flocks of birds in flight are so 
 prodigious as to darken the air like clouds ; and 
 their noise is such that you cannot without dif- 
 ficulty hear your next neighbour's voice. If you 
 look down upon the sea from the top of the pre- 
 cipice, you will see it on every side covered 
 with infinite numbers of birds of different kinds, 
 swimming and hunting for their prey ; if in 
 sailing round the island you survey the hanging 
 cliffs, you see in every cragg or fissure of the 
 broken rocks innumerable birds of various sorts 
 and sizes, more than the stars of heaven when 
 viewed in a serene night; if from afar you see 
 the distant flocks either flying to or from the 
 island, you would imagine them to be a vast 
 swarm of bees. 
 
 'The gannet,' observes Dr. Latham, 'inhabits 
 the colder parts of this kingdom, and more es- 
 pecially several of the northern isles, and in par- 
 ticular that of Bass in Scotland, whence the 
 name. It generally first makes its appearance 
 in March, and after making a circuit of the 
 island, departs in October or November. This 
 race seems to be in pursuit of the herrings and 
 pilchards, whose motions it watches ; and the 
 fishermen know the coming of these fish by the 
 appearance of the birds. That this is the in- 
 ducement seems probable, as they are likewise 
 seen, in the month of December, as far south as 
 the coast of Lisbon and Gibraltar, plunging for 
 sardinse. The gannet is also common on the 
 coasts of Norway and those of Iceland, and now 
 and then met with on the southern coast of 
 Greenland. In America it is found on the coasts 
 of Newfoundland, where it breeds, migrating in 
 winter as far as Carolina : said also to have been 
 met with frequently in the southern ocean ; but 
 we are not clear whether the sort meant by them 
 is the common gannet, or the lesser one.' 
 
 'The gannets,' Mr. Pennant remarks, 'are 
 birds of passajre. The first appearance in those 
 islands being in March, and their continuance 
 
 till August or September, according as the in- 
 habitants take or leave their first egg; but in 
 general the time of breeding and that of their 
 departure seems to coincide with the arrival of 
 the herring, and the migration of that fish, which 
 is their jjrincipal food, out of those seas.' ' I 
 have in the month of August,' he adds in another 
 place, ' observed in Caithness their northern mi- 
 grations. I have seen them passing the whole 
 day in flocks, from five to fifteen in each. In 
 calm weather they fly high, in storms they fly 
 low and near the shore ; but never cross over 
 land, even when a bay with promontories inter- 
 venes, but follow at an equal distance the course 
 of the bay, and regularly double every cape. I 
 have seen many of the parties makp a sort of 
 halt for the sake of fishing ; then, darting head- 
 long into the sea, make the water foam and 
 spring up with the violence of their descent : 
 after which they pursued their route. I enquired 
 whether they ever were observed to return south- 
 ward in the spring, but was answered in the ne- 
 gative ; so that it appears, they annually encircle 
 the whole island.' 
 
 They are well known on most of our coasts 
 by different names. In Cornwall and in Ireland 
 they are called gannets, and by the Welsh gan. 
 It comes on the coasts of Cornwall in the latter 
 end of the summer or beginning of autumn, 
 hovering over the shoals of pilchards that come 
 up through the St. George's channel from the 
 north sea. The gannet seldom comes near the 
 land, but is constant to its prey ; and when the 
 pilchards retire, which happens about the end of 
 November, they are seen no more. 
 
 The nest of the gannet is composed of various 
 materials, such as grass and water plants, inter- 
 mixed with any thing the birds find floating on 
 the water. Each bird, if undisturbed, would 
 lay only one eeg in the year ; but if that be taken 
 away they will lay another, and if that be taken 
 away also, they will lay a third, but no more. 
 The young gannets, as well as the eggs, are 
 eaten. Martin assures us, that the inhabitants 
 of St. Kilda consume annually no less than 
 22,600 young birds of this species, besides an 
 amazing quantity of their eggs ; these being their 
 principal support throughout the year : they 
 preserve their eggs and fowls in pyramidal stone 
 buildings, covering them with turf ashes to pro- 
 tect them from moisture. This is a dear-bought 
 food, and earned at the hazard of their lives, 
 either by climbing the most difficult and narrow 
 paths, where to appearance they barely cling, 
 and that too at an amazing height above the 
 raging sea; or else, being lowered down from 
 above, they collect their annual provision, thus 
 hanging midway ir. the air, and placinir their 
 whole dependence on the uncertain footing of 
 one person who holds the rope by which they 
 are suspended at the top of the precipice. The 
 young birds are a favorite dish with the nortli 
 Britons in general, during the season they are 
 constantly brought from the Bass isle to Edin- 
 burgh, and are roasted and served up a little 
 before dinner as a v^het : the price they are sold 
 for in the markets is twenty-pence a piece. 
 
 The following account of the ginnets in the 
 isle of St. Kilda is given by Mr. Maca\dey :
 
 BAS 
 
 624 
 
 BAS 
 
 ■ The rocks are in summer totally covered with 
 the solan geese and other fowls, and appear at 
 a distance like so many mountains covered with 
 snow. The nests of the solan geese, not to 
 mention those of other fowls, are so close, that 
 when one walks between them, the hatching fowls 
 on either side can always take hold of one's 
 clothes; and they will often sit till ihey are at- 
 tacked, rather tlian expose their eggs to the 
 danger of being destroyed by the sea gulls : at 
 the same time an equal number fly about, and 
 furnish food for their mates that are employed in 
 hatching ; and there are, besides, large flocks of 
 barren fowls of the different tribes that frequent 
 the rocks of St. Kilda. 
 
 'The solan geese, almost equal the tame 
 ones in size. The common amusement of the 
 herring-fishers shows the great strength of this 
 fowl. The fishers fix a herring upon a board, 
 which has a small weight under it to sink it a 
 little below the surface of the sea : the solan 
 goose observing the fish, darts upon it perpen- 
 dicularly, and with so much force, that he runs 
 his bill irrecoverably through the board, and is 
 taken up directly by the fishers. 
 
 ' The solan geese repair to St. Kilda in the 
 month of March, and continue there till after 
 the beginning of November. Before the middle 
 of tliat month they, and all the other sea-fowls 
 that are fond of this coast, retire much about the 
 same time into some other favorite regions ; so 
 that not a single fowl belonging to their element 
 is to be seen about St. Kilda from the beginning 
 of winter down to the middle of February. 
 Before the young soland geese fly off, they are 
 larger than their mothers, and the fat on their 
 breast is sometimes three inches deep. Into 
 what quarter of the world these tribes of wild 
 fowl repair, after winter sets in, whether into the 
 northern ocean, the native country and winter- 
 quarters of herrings in general, or into some 
 other region near the sun, or whether they be of 
 the sleeping kind, they who pry into the myste- 
 ries of natural history, or have conversed much 
 with writers of voyages, can best explain. I shall 
 only pietend to say that these different nations 
 of the feathered kind are taught to choose the 
 most proper habitations and feeding places, and 
 to shift their quarters seasonably by the unerring 
 hand of God. 
 
 ' From the account given above of the multi- 
 tudes of sea-fowls that seek their food on this 
 coast, we may justly conclude that there must be 
 inexhaustible stores of fish there. Let us for a 
 moment confine our attention to the consump- 
 tion made by a single species of fov.ls. The 
 solan goose is almost insatiably voracious ; he 
 flies with great force and velocity, toils all the 
 day with little intermission, and digests his food 
 in a very short time ; he disdains to eat any 
 thing worse than herring or mackerel, unless it be 
 in a very hvmgry place, which he takes care to avoid 
 or abandon. We shall take it for granted that 
 there are a hundred thousand of that kind around 
 the rocks of St. Kilda ; and this calculation is 
 by far too moderate, as no less than twenty thou- 
 sand of this kind are destroyed every year, in- 
 cluding the young ones. We shall suppose, at 
 the same time, that the solan geese sojourn in 
 
 these seas for about seven months in the year ; 
 that each of them destroys five herrings in a day, 
 a subsistence infinitely poor for so greedy a 
 creature, unless it were more than half supported 
 at the expence of other fishes. Here we have 
 100,000,000 of the finest fish in the world de- 
 voured annually by a single species of the St. 
 Kilda sea-fowls,' &c. 
 
 It is proper to observe that le grand fou of 
 Brisson and Buftbn, and great booby of Catesby, 
 an inhabitant of the sea-shores of Florida, is 
 supposed to be the young or at least a variety of 
 pelecanus bassanus ; and that observed by navi- 
 gators so common on Ascension island, peleca- 
 nus piscator, a different species. 
 
 BASSATERRE. See Basse-Terre. 
 
 BASSEE, La, in geography, a town of 
 France, in the department of the North, the ci- 
 devant French Netherlands, remarkable on ac- 
 count of the many sieges it has sustained. It is 
 seated on a canal which falls into the river 
 Deule ; eighteen miles south-west of Lille. 
 Its principal commerce is in cattle, linen, and 
 turf. Population about 2200. 
 
 Basse, in ichthyology, the English name of 
 the sea-wolf, the lupus piscis of authors. The 
 Greeks have called this labrax ; and some of the 
 later writers, as Paulus Jovius and others, spigola. 
 It is properly a species of pearch, and is dis- 
 tinguished by Artedi by the name of the pearch 
 with thirteen rays in the second fin of the back, 
 and fourteen in the pinna auri. See Lupus, 
 Marixus. 
 
 Basse, in writers of the middle age, a collar 
 for cart-horses, made of flags. Hence also the 
 round, matted cushion of flags, or hassock, used 
 for kneeling in churches, is called basse ; in Kent 
 a trush. 
 
 Basse-cour, in building, a court separated 
 from the principal one, and destined for the 
 stablrs, coach-houses, and livery servants. In 
 the country it is applied to the yard, or place 
 where the cattle, fowls, &c. are kept. 
 
 Basse Encientf, or Basse Enclosure, in for- 
 tification, a false trench, made to hide a real one. 
 
 BASSEEN, a sea-port of Hmdostan, the pro- 
 vince of Aurungabad, separated from the island 
 of Salsette by a narrow strait, in long. 72° 54' E., 
 lat. 19° 18' N. The district around is in a very 
 improved state of cultivation, although under a 
 Mahratta government. Many of the cultivators 
 are Roman Catholics. The Teak forests, which 
 supply the marine yard at Bombay, lie along the 
 western side of the Ghaut mountains, to the 
 north and north-east of Basseen. In 1780 it was 
 taken from the Mahrattas by the British, but re- 
 stored in 1782. Distant 27 miles north of 
 Bombay, and 152 south of Surat. 
 
 BASSEIN, or Persaim, a city in the south- 
 west part of Pegu, where the British formerly 
 had a factory ; but the Burmans now prevent any 
 European vessel from entering this branch of the 
 river Irrawaddy. Long. 95° E., lat. 16° 50' N. 
 
 BASSEN, or Bassum, a small town, castle, 
 and lordship of Germany, in the county of 
 Iloya, in Westphalia, with a Lutheran abbey. 
 It belongs to Hesse Cassel ; but the abbey stands 
 under the sovereignty of Hanover. Sixteen 
 miles west of Iloya.
 
 BAS 
 
 625 
 
 BAS 
 
 BASSES, a numerous cluster of islets, called 
 tlie Thousand isles by Maurelle, off the north-west 
 point of New Guinea. The most south is in 
 long. 139° 27' E., lat..l°40'S. 
 
 IJASSET, or Basette, a game at cards, said 
 to have been invented by h noble Venetian, for 
 which he was banished. It was first introduced 
 into France by Signior Giustiniani, ambassador of 
 Venice, in 1674. Severe laws were made against 
 it by Louis XIV., to elude which they disguised 
 basset under the name of pour et centre, that is, 
 * for and against,' which occasioned new arrets 
 and prohibitions of parliament. The parties con- 
 cerned in it are a dealer or banker ; his assistant, 
 who supervises the losing cards ; and the punter, 
 or any one who play? against the banker. The 
 other terms used in this game are : 1 . The fasse 
 or face, which is the first card turned up by the 
 tailieur belonging to the pack, by which he gains 
 half the value of the money laid down on every 
 card of that sort by the punters. 2. The couch, 
 or first money which every punter puts on each 
 card ; each person that plays having a book of 
 thirteen several cards before him, on which he 
 may lay his money, more or less, at discretion. 
 
 3. The paroli, which is, when a punter having 
 won the first stake, ind having a mind to pursue 
 his good fortune, crooks the corner of his card, 
 and lets his prize lie, aiming at a sept et le va. 
 
 4. The masse ; when having won the first stake, 
 the punter is willing to venture more money on 
 the same card. 5. The pay ; when the punter 
 having won the first stake, be it a shilling, half- 
 crown, guinea, or whatever he laid down on his 
 card, and not caring to hazard the paroli, leaves 
 off, or goes the pay : in which case, if the card 
 turn up wrong, he loses nothing, having won the 
 couch before ; whereas, if it turn right, he by 
 this adventure wins double the money staked. 
 6. The alpiew ; much the same with paroli, and 
 used when a couch is won by turning up or 
 crooking the corner of the winning card. 7. 
 Sept et le va, the first great chance or prize, 
 when the punter, having won the couch, makes 
 a paroli, and goes on to second chance ; so that 
 if his winning card turns up again, it comes to 
 sept et le va, which is seven times as much as he 
 laid down on his card. 8. Quinze et le vaisthe 
 next higher prize, when the punter, having won 
 the former, is resolved to push his fortune, and 
 lay his money a second time on the same card 
 by crooking another comer ; in which case, if it 
 comes up, he wins fifteen times the money laid 
 down. 9. Trent et le va is the next higher 
 prize, when the punter, crooking the fourth cor- 
 ner of his winning card, if it turn up wins thirty- 
 three times the money he first staked. 10. Soixant 
 et le va is the highest prize, and entitles the winner 
 to sixty-seven times his first money ; which, if it 
 vere considerable, stands a chance to break the 
 bank : but the bank stands many chances first of 
 breaking the punter. This cannot be won but 
 by the tailleur's dealing the cards over again. 
 The rules of the game of basset are as follows : 1 . 
 The banker holds a pack of fifty-two cards, and 
 having shuffled them, he turns the whole pack at 
 once, so as to discover the last card ; after which 
 he lays down all the cards by couples. 2. The 
 
 Vol. III. 
 
 punter has his book of thirteen cards in his liand, 
 from the king to tiie ace ; out of these he takes 
 one card, or more, at pleasure, upon whicli he 
 lays a stake. 3. The punter may, at his choice, 
 eitlier lay down his stake before the pack is 
 turned, or immediately after it is turned, or 
 after any number of couples are down. 4. Sup- 
 posing the punter to lay down his stake after the 
 pack is turned, and calling 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c. the 
 places of those cards which follow the card in 
 view, either immediately after the pack is turned, 
 or after any number of couples are drawn. Then, 
 5. If the card upon which the punter has laid a 
 stake comes out in any even place, except the 
 first, he wins a stake equal to his own. 6. If the 
 card upon which the punter has laid a stake 
 comes out in any even place, except the second, 
 he loses his stake. 7. If the card of the punter 
 comes out in the first place, he neither wins nor 
 loses, but takes his own stake again. 8. if the 
 card of the punter comes out in the second place, 
 he does not lose his whole stake, but only one- 
 half; and this is the case in which the punter is 
 said to be faced. 9. When the punter chooses 
 to come in after any number of the couples are 
 dovm, if his card happens to be but once in the 
 pack and is the last of all, there is an exception 
 from the general rule : for though it comes out in 
 an odd place, which should entitle him to win a 
 stake equal to his own, yet he neither wins nor 
 loses from that circumstance, but takes back his 
 own stake. Tliis game has been the object of 
 mathematical calculations. M. de Moivre solves 
 this problem : to estimate at basset the loss of 
 the punter under any circumstance of cards re- 
 maining in the stock when he lays his stake, and 
 of any number of times that his card is repeated 
 in the stock. From this solution he has formed 
 a table, showing the several losses of the punter 
 in whatsoever circumstances he may happen to 
 be. From this table it appears, 1. The fewer the 
 cards are in the stock, the greater is the loss of 
 the punter. 2. That the least loss of the punter, 
 under the same circumstances of cards remaining 
 in the stock, is when his card is but twice m it ; 
 the next greater when but three times ; still 
 greater when four times ; and the greatest when 
 but once. The gain of the banker upon all the 
 money adventured at basset is 13s. 3d. per cent. 
 
 Basset (Peter), a gentleman of a good family, 
 was chamberlain, or gentleman of the privy- 
 chamber, to Henry V. a constant attendant on 
 that brave prince, and an eye-witness of his most 
 glorious actions at home and abroad ; all which 
 he particularly described in a work entitled. The 
 Acts of King Henry \'. which remains in MS. in 
 the college of heralds. 
 
 BASSE-TERRE, the chief town of St. Chris- 
 topher's, in the West Indies, situated at the south- 
 east end of the island, and at the niouth of a river 
 opening into a bay called Basse-Terre road. It 
 consists of a long street, containing 800 hou.ses, 
 is a place of considerable trade, and defended by 
 three batteries. Long. 62° 36' W., lat. 17° 24' N. 
 
 Basse Terre, Fort de la, a castle of the 
 island of Guadaloupe, on the west coast. It n 
 also the name of a part of the island, between a 
 point of which, called Grosse Mome, to that of 
 
 as
 
 G26 
 
 BASSO RILIEVO. 
 
 A^ntigua in the Grande Terre, the basm called 
 the Great Cul, de Sac is five or six leagues in 
 lenorth, and affords safe riding for ships. 
 
 BASSETING, in the coal mines, denotes the 
 rise of the vein of coal towards the surface of the 
 eartli, till it comes within two or three feet of the 
 surface itself. This is also called by the work- 
 men cropping ; and stands opposed to dipping, 
 which is the descent of the vein to such a depth 
 that it is rarely, if ever followed to the end. 
 
 BASSETTO, a bass viol of the smallest size. 
 
 BASSEVILLE (Citizen), secretary to the 
 French legation at Rome, one of the many vic- 
 tims to the French revolution, but who fell, not 
 bv the hands of the zealots of liberty, but by the 
 da?mons of despotism and priestcraft, in March 
 1793. Having received orders from the Con- 
 vention to put up the arms of the republic over 
 the consular house, instead of those of the ci-de- 
 vant royalty, the popular furor was excited ; and, 
 though Basseville himself, being a man of mode- 
 rate principles, was against the measure, the blind 
 zealots of superstition stabbed him in the belly 
 with a razor, in the house of Moutte the banker, 
 which they after%vards plundered and burnt, 
 calling out ' Long live the pope ! — Long live reli- 
 gion ! ' &c. Basseville died in thiity-six hours; 
 and the convention decreed a pension to his 
 widow, with reversion to his child, whom they 
 also decreed to be educated at the public 
 expense. 
 
 BASSI (Laura), a celebrated Italian lady, of 
 the eighteenth century. She received a liberal 
 education, not only in the branches considered 
 as belonging to her sex, but in the languages and 
 sciences ; and such was her progress in learning, 
 that in 1732, she got the title of Doctor of Phi- 
 losophy. In 1745 she read lectures on experi- 
 mental philosophy, and continued to do so 
 during her life. She married Dr. Verati, and 
 preserved an excellent character, as the practiser 
 of every virtue. She died in 1778. 
 
 BASSIA, a genus of the monogynia order, be- 
 longing to the dodecandria class of plants, the 
 characters of which are : The cal. is quadriphyl- 
 lous ; the cor. octofid, with the tube inflated; 
 the STAM. are fifteen ; and the drupe is quin- 
 quespermous. There is but one species, viz. B. 
 longifolia, native of INIalabar. 
 
 BASSIGNY, a district of France, belonging, 
 before the revolution, to Upper Champagne, and 
 the duchy of Bar. At present it is included in 
 the department of the Upper Marne, with the 
 exception of some small portions which are in 
 the departments of the Vosges and Maese. There 
 is in it a small town of the same name, but the 
 chief places are Chaumont and Vaucouleurs. 
 
 BASSINGTIIWATE, or Bassenthwaite, 
 Water, a lake in Cumberland, four miles long, 
 and one broad, having on one side the vale of 
 Bassingthwate and the lofty Skiddaw, and on the 
 other the steep woody mountains of Withop. 
 
 BASSO, in music, generally signifies the bass, 
 but sometimes in pieces of music for several 
 voices, the singing bass is more particularly so 
 called. Thus also, 
 
 Basso Concertante, or Recitante, implies 
 the bass of the little chorus, which plays through- 
 out the whole piece. 
 
 Basso Continuo, the continual or thorough 
 bass, distinguished with figures over the notes, 
 for the organ, harpsicord, or theorbo. It origi- 
 nally meant the accompaniment to the higher parts 
 of a sonata, &c. in whatever cliff it was written. 
 
 Basso Rilievo. Italian. In sculpture, a 
 modern term for that kind of sculpture in which 
 the figures do not stand out from the ground in 
 their full proportion. The term belongs exclu- 
 sively to later times. Pliny (xxxiii. 11.) applies 
 the word avayXvnTa to workmanship of this kind ; 
 but it is a term by no means so distinctive as the 
 Italian basso-rdievo. All works in sculpture are 
 classed as bassi rilievi when the subjects repre- 
 sented are not isolated, but adherent to the 
 ground, whether they are of a similar or different 
 material, and applied or fixed to the ground, or 
 form a part of the material in which they are 
 wrought. There are three sorts of relief in sculp- 
 ture, alto rilievo, mezzo rilievo, and basso rilievo. 
 Strictly taken, alto rilievo is that relief in which 
 the figures are entire, or nearly so, being attached 
 only in a few places, and are relieved from the 
 ground like the metopes of the Parthenon ; mezzo 
 rilievo is that in which half the figure stands clear 
 from the ground, and the other appears buried 
 therein ; and basso rilievo that in which the 
 figures lose their projecture, and are represented 
 as nearly flat, like the Panathenaeic procession of 
 the same temple. Custom, however, has nearly 
 abolished two of these terms ; and basso rilievo 
 is often applied to each sort, be the projections 
 what they may. 
 
 The true basso rilievo, which has but small 
 projection, requires more skill in the sculptor 
 than that in which the projection is more con- 
 siderable ; because it is extremely difficult to 
 give a natural effect to a figure which is of its 
 proper height and size, but falls short of its real 
 thickness. What is more difficult even than this, 
 in the style of sculpture now under consideration, 
 is picturesque composition in grouping the figures, 
 because the artist cannot, as in painting, employ 
 different backgrounds remote from each other ; 
 and as the shadows in sculpture are real, and not 
 imitative, he must calculate l»is composition, and 
 arrange its form for the light in which it is to be 
 placed. 
 
 The ancients used bassi rilievi in decorating 
 architectural designs, and in ornamenting their 
 domestic furniture. All nations, however, in the 
 history of the arts have used them, and they re- 
 semble in style that of their other works. The 
 Egyptians ornamented their temples with an innu- 
 merable quantity of figures and hieroglyphics, of 
 which the greater part have the outlines only 
 sunk, and the area thus formed only painted ; 
 but many of them are of the class bassi relievi. 
 (See Denon's Travels /U Egypt, Captain Norden, 
 and Dr. Pococke; also the Egj'ptian sculp- 
 tures in the British Museum, those brought to 
 Europe by Belzoni, &c.) Their manner of exe- 
 cuting these sculptures is singular: they first 
 channelled an outline in the stone, and sunk it 
 round the figure, so that it did not project beyond 
 the original face ; being in fact more a species of 
 engraving than sculpture. The cabinet of the 
 royal library at Pans possesses a very curious 
 Egyptian sculpture thus wrought, and many of
 
 BASSO RILIEVO. 
 
 G27 
 
 *he same description are found in Kg>'pt, princi- 
 pally on the frontispieces of the temples where 
 the Scarabeus extends his reign. The Persians 
 ■were also partial to the use of bassi rilievi, as in 
 the walls of Tschelminar, the ancient Persepolis. 
 (See Persepolis.) They are executed in very 
 high relief. 
 
 The Etruscans also used bassi rilievi ; but 
 Winckelman errs in attributing to this people all 
 those works in which the figures are clothed in 
 draperies, with straight square folds, designed in 
 a stiff formal style like the antique altar of the 
 Cardinal Albani, on which is represented their 
 twelve principal god^. On the contrary, every 
 well informed archaiologist allows these and 
 other similar monuments of art to belong to the 
 very earliest period of the Greeks. Some bassi 
 rihevi of clay, painted in water colors, found near 
 the country of the \'olscii, which are preserved 
 in the cabinet of Cardinal Borgia, and published 
 under his patronage, prove, beyond a doubt, 
 that the Etruscans, like the Greeks, often painted 
 their sculptural figures. 
 
 The bassi rilievi used by the ancients were 
 often formed of baked clay : sometimes of ivory 
 and various metals, but oftener of marble. 
 
 Among the most celebrated Greek bassi rilievi 
 of antiquity are those which Phidias carved in 
 ivorj-, upon the shield and the base of the statue 
 of Minerva at Athens. Those which ornamented 
 the throne of Jupiter Olympus, executed by Al- 
 camenes ; those of Apollo, at Amyclae, in Laco- 
 nia ; the bassi rilievi of the temple of Hercules, 
 at Thebes, executed by Praxiteles ; those of the 
 temple of Delphos, the joint work of Praxias and 
 Androsthenes ; the celebrated funeral monument 
 of Mausolus, called the mausoleum, executed by 
 Scopas, Bryaxis, Timotheus, and Leochares ; the 
 thirty-six columns of the temple of Diana, at 
 Ephesus, Sic. 
 
 The sculptures in the metopes ajid pediments 
 of the Parthenon at Athens, which were entire in 
 the time of Spon, who has described them, are in 
 alto rilievo, like statues affixed to a back ground 
 of marble. Their great size and height preserved 
 them from those accidents to which they would 
 have been liable in a lower situation, and to 
 which, on the same account, they gave a less 
 projection. Many of these invaluable relics of 
 the brightest days of Grecian art, were brought 
 to England by Lord Elgin, and are preserved in 
 the British Museum. 
 
 As the greater part of the antique bassi rilievi, 
 now remaining, are executed in marble, they 
 form the principal criterion by which we can 
 judge of the excellency of their sculptors. Many 
 of the best preserved were used to ornament their 
 altars, as is seen in those which are in the muse- 
 um capitolinum. One of these represents the 
 education of Jupiter, and the others the labors 
 of Hercules. They were also used as decorations 
 to the bases of statues, and oftener to their tombs ; 
 and even sometimes to the pedestals or stones on 
 the margin of wells, as may be seen on one be- 
 longing to the last-named museum, representing 
 the education of Achilles ; and a beautiful one of 
 nymphs and fawns, in the British Museum. 
 
 The Romans made use of bassi rilievi to 
 commemorate victories and embellish columns, 
 
 triuin})hal arches, &c. But the greater number 
 now preserved were attached to sarcophagi. 
 The custom of burning their dead had fallen into 
 disuse, partly from a scarcity of fuel, and partly 
 because they had acquired many of the religious 
 opinions of the eastern nations, from whom they 
 adopted the mode of occasionally interring the 
 bodies of their dead in coffins of marble, and 
 other valuable materials. Their numbers at 
 length became immense, both in the city and in 
 the environs of Rome, if we may judge only 
 from those which are to be found in the cabinets 
 of the curious. The bassi rilievi, with which 
 these sarcophagi are ornamented, are usually 
 wrought with little care, and by sculptors of mi- 
 nor talents ; but they preserve to us many of the 
 finest compositions of their greatest artists, which 
 were the admiration of antiquity. In many of the 
 Greek bassi rilievi, the face of the deceased only 
 is finished, and many antiquaries, from this cir- 
 cumstance, have conjectured that it was a sort of 
 manufacture in Greece, to make sarcophagi for 
 the Romans, and that they were to be finished 
 after they were sold. The bad style of these 
 sculptures is no reason for supposing that these 
 iparbles were not carved in Greece, because in 
 the time of the emperors, the best Grecian artists 
 were removed to Rome, and those of meaner 
 talents remained at home. From the great quan- 
 tity of marble that Attica, and indeed all Greece, 
 possessed, it is natural to suppose that those 
 sculptors who remained behind m their country 
 would execute bassi rilievi for sarcophagi, when 
 so ready a sale was found for them at Rome. 
 Many archaiologists have supposed that the 
 greater part of the compositions which are found 
 on these sarcophagi, were copied from the great 
 masters, of which the originals (as the paintings 
 of Pana}nus and Polignotus in the ^oekile, &.c.) 
 perished, when the cities of Greece were pillaged 
 and ransacked. 
 
 The study of the ancient bassi rilievi is of great 
 service in the history of the arts ; as from them 
 may be collected many important facts of tiie 
 mythology, customs, costume, &c. of the ancients. 
 The finest collections of bassi rilievi now exist- 
 ing, are those of the British Museum, formerly 
 the Townly collection; the Eltrin marbles in the 
 same museum ; the collections of Mr. Thnmas 
 Hope, and Mr. Soane, the professor of architecture 
 in the Royal Academy of London ; and several fine 
 casts in the Royal Academy. In Paris they had 
 some fine antique bassi rilievi in the Royal Mu- 
 seum ; in the museum of the Augustins ; and 
 many private collections. The application of 
 bassi rilievi among the moderns is the same as 
 among the ancients ; being used to decorate pub- 
 lic buildings, palaces, churches, triumphal arches, 
 theatres, concert rooms, and private houses ; fur- 
 niture, tombs, and other subjects of ornamental 
 architecture. The most celebrated specimens of 
 bassi rilievi (properly so called) of modern art 
 in England, are those of the tympanum of the 
 pediment of the East India house, by Bacon ; 
 the monument of Captain Millar in a pannel of 
 St. Paul's cathedral, by Flaxman. Several otheis 
 on the public monuments, erected in that cathe- 
 dral, and in Westminster abbey, by Bacon, 
 Banks, Bacon, jun. Rossi, Chantiey, Kemirick, 
 
 2 S 2
 
 BAS 
 
 628 
 
 BAS 
 
 Hopper, and Westmacott. Ami on the conti- Baharin, and coffee from Mocha, iron, lead, 
 
 nent, most of the sculptures are thus decorated, and woollen cloth, from Europe. Some of these 
 
 and embrace the names of the most celebrated commodities are shipped on board small Arabian 
 
 artists. The French critics particularly admire vessels; but the greater part is brought by Eu- 
 
 the bassi rilievi on the Porte St. Denys, begun ropean vessels. Yet all European commodities 
 
 by Girardon, and finished by Michel Anguiere, are dear here ; a decided preference is given to 
 
 and those on the Fountain of the Innocents, called articles of English manufacture, especially broad 
 
 the Nymph's Fountain, by the celebrated Jean cloth and watches. Many of the products of other 
 
 Goujon. countries are re-exported, and an extensive traffic 
 
 Basso RipiENO,the bass of the ground chorus, is carried on in horses, which, being very strong 
 
 or that which plays only in particular places. and beautiful, are exported by the English. Its 
 
 Basso Violino, the bass for the bass viol. 
 
 BASSOON, bus son, ¥t. low sound ; an in- 
 strument which forms the natural base to the 
 hauthois. It is played like that instrument, with 
 a reed, and forms a continuation of its scale 
 downwards. The reed is fixed to a crooked 
 mouth-piece issuing from the side of the bassoon. 
 Three keys communicate to the ventages which 
 otherwise are too remote for fingering. The 
 Italian name fagotto is derived from its appear- 
 ance ; it consists of four tubes bound together so 
 as somewhat to resemble a fagot. Its compass 
 is three octaves, from double AA in the base, to 
 a in the second space of the treble. 
 
 BASSORA, Balsora, Bossoua, of Basra, a 
 city between Aralna and Persia, situated in the 
 extremity of the deserts of Irak, a little west of 
 
 population was estimated by Mr. Parsons, who 
 was here in 1775, at 200,000; but it is now 
 thought not to exceed 60,000 ; but it is still the 
 second city of the pachalic of Bagdad. It fell 
 into the hands of the Turks, (who took it from 
 the Persians) in 1688 ; was re-taken by Persia in 
 1777, but resigned to the Turkish army the fol- 
 lowing year. The Arabs expelled the Turks in 
 1787, but the latter, under Soliman Pacha o' 
 Bagdad, regained it shortly after, and have helc 
 it ever since. It is distant from Ispahan 21( 
 miles south, 903 from Alexandretta, and 181£ 
 south-east from Constantinople. Long. 44° 46 
 E., lat. 30° 32' N. 
 
 BASSOVIA, in botany, a genus of plants oi 
 the class pentandria, and order monogynia. It,' 
 generic characters are, cal. perianth one-leaved ; 
 
 the Tigris, where it is navigable for vessels of cor. one-petalled : stam. filaments five; anthers 
 500 tons, and not far from its junction with the 
 Euphrates. It was tjuilt by the khaliff Omar, in 
 the fifth year of the Ilegira, for the sake of carry- 
 ing on more commodiously an extensive com- 
 merce between the Syrians, Arabians, Persians, 
 and India. It is at present a famous emporium 
 of Eastern commerce, and stands upon a thick 
 
 ovate : pist. germ ovate ; style short ; stigma 
 thickish ; per. berry ovate ; seeds very many. — 
 The only species is the B. sylvatica, a perennial, 
 native of Guiana. 
 
 BASS Viol. See Bass. 
 
 BASSUM, a district in the province of Nan- 
 dere, in the Nizam's dominions, Hindostan. It 
 
 stony soil, as the name imports. That mouth of '^^s an uneven hilly surface, intersected^y several 
 the Tigris which empties itself into the Persian 
 Gulf after passing the town, is called from it, 
 the Bay of Bassora. The circumjacent country is 
 regarded by the Arabs as one of the most delight- 
 ful spots in Asia, and is certainly one of the most 
 beautiful tracts in the world; however, the hot 
 winds that frequently blow here are very trouble- 
 some to travellers, and sometimes overwhelm 
 them with sand. The city is inhabited by Nes- 
 torians, Jews, Mahommedans, and Chaldean 
 Christians, or Christians of St. John, which last 
 are pretty numerous. The walls are about seven 
 miles in circuit, and twenty-five feet thick. The 
 city is entered by five gates ; but much of this 
 space is occupied by plantations and gardens, in- 
 terspersed with canals, which are cleansed by the 
 tide flowing into them twice every day, to the 
 height of nine or ten feet. The city is indiffer- 
 ently built ; the houses very mean, and con- 
 structed chiefly of clay; the streets are irregular, 
 
 small streams, which flows into the Godavery ; 
 and it lies between the twenty-first and twenty- 
 second degrees of north latitude. The chief 
 town is Bassan, which is situated six miles from 
 the Gunga. Very little is known respecting this 
 part of Nandere. 
 
 BAST, lime tree bark made into ropes or 
 mats. 
 
 BASTAGA, from ^a^-a^ttv, portare, to carry, 
 the office of carriage or conveyance. 
 
 BASTAGARII, in ecclesiastical antiquity, 
 those who carry the images of saints at pro- 
 cessions. 
 
 BA'STARD, V. n. & adj.-\ Bas/ard(f, Welch, 
 Ba'stardize, {bastarde,l:x.oi\ovi 
 
 Ba'staf.dly, 4^ birth, from base, 
 
 Ba'stardy. } and ord, A. S., the 
 
 one signifies mean, disgraceful; and the other 
 source and origin; thus bastard means base- 
 born. It is also applied to any thing not pro- 
 
 and notwithstanding the advantage of the canals, ceeding from a legitimate source ; to whatever is 
 are kept in a filthy state. Even the bazaars, 
 though containing the richest products of the 
 East, are but miserable edifices. The English 
 factory is the best building in the city. The 
 abbe Raynal describes its trade as consisting of 
 rice, sugar, plain striped and flowered mus- 
 lins from Bengal, spices from Ceylon and the 
 Molucca islands, coarse white and blue cottons, 
 from Coromandel, cardamum, pepper, sanders- 
 wood, from Malabar, gold and silver stuffs, tur- 
 bans, shawls, indigo, from Sural, pearls from 
 
 spurious or mixed. In the earlier writers it is 
 not uncommon to meet with bast without the 
 termination ard. 
 
 When he was aryued, he sent to Harald, 
 And said that a bastard no kyngdom suld hald. 
 
 R. Brunne. 
 
 And so shee (queen Anne) putting in obliuion tlie 
 hastardyng of her daughter, deliuered into king 
 Richard's hands her five daughters, as lamhes "nee 
 again committed to the custodie of the raucnous 
 woolfc. Grafton. Richard III.
 
 BASTARDS. 
 
 629 
 
 And ouer this he (Sir H. Bolyngbrookc) hadde of 
 hatt, whiche after were made legyttymat, by dame 
 Katheryne Swynforde iii sonnys. 
 
 Fahyan. Ann. 1386. R. 2. 
 When thou shalt find the catalogue enroU'd 
 Of thy misdeeds, there shall be writ in text. 
 Thy boitarding the issues of a prince. 
 
 Ford's Love's Sacrifice. 
 Peace is a very apoplexy, lethargy, insensible, a 
 getter of more bastard children than war's a destroyer 
 of men. Shakspeare- 
 
 I should have been what I am, had the maidcn- 
 liest star in the firmament twinkled on my bastard- 
 ixing. Id. 
 
 Once she slandered me with bastardy ; 
 But whether I be true begot or no. 
 That still I lay upon my mother's head. Id. 
 
 Words 
 But rooted in your tongue ; bastards and syllables 
 Of no allowance to your bosom's truth. Id. 
 
 Score a pint of bastard. — 
 Then your brown bastard is your only drink. Id. 
 
 We are bastards all ; 
 And that most venerable man, which I 
 Did call my father, was I know not where 
 When I was stampt ; some coiner with his tools 
 Made me a counterfeit : yet my mother seem'd 
 The Dian of that time : so doth my wife 
 The nonpareil of this. Donne. 
 
 Good seed degenerates, and oft obeys 
 The soil's disease, and into cockle strays ; 
 Let the mind's thoughts but be transplanted so 
 Into the body, and bastardly they grow. Id. 
 
 She lived to see her brother beheaded, and her 
 two sons deposed from the crown, bastarded in their 
 blood, and cruelly murdered. Bacon. 
 
 He 
 That kills himself t' avoid misery, fears it. 
 And at the best shows but a bastard valour. 
 
 Massinger. 
 Of all passions, as I have already proved, love is 
 most violent, and of those bitter potions which this 
 love-melancholy affords, this bastard jealousie is tlie 
 greatest, cis appears by those prodigious symptoms 
 which it hath, and that it produccth. 
 
 Burton's Anatomy of Melancholy. 
 In respect of the evil consequents, the wife's adul- 
 tery is worse, as bringing bastardy into a family. 
 
 Taylor. 
 Him to the Lydian king Lycimnia bare. 
 And sent her boasted bastard to the war. 
 
 Dry den. 
 Men who, under the disguise of publick good, pur- 
 sue their own designs of power, and such bastard 
 honours as attend them. Temple. 
 
 Not more of simony beneath black gowns. 
 Not more of bastardy in heirs to crowns. Pope. 
 
 A bastard, by our English laws, is one that is not 
 only begotten, but born, out of lawful matrimony. 
 
 Blackstone's Commentaries. 
 And these are men, forsooth ! 
 Heroes and chiefs, the flower of Adam's bastards. 
 
 Byron. 
 Bastards; in the English law. The cele- 
 brated Blackstoiie observes in his Commentories 
 on the difference between our common and the 
 civil and canon law. The civil and canon laws 
 do not allow the child to remain a bastard, if the 
 parents afterwards intermarry : and herein they 
 differ most materially from our law ; which, 
 though not so strict as to require that the child 
 sliould be begotten, yet makes it an indispensible 
 condition that it should be born after lawful wed- 
 
 lock. And the reason of our law, he continues, 
 is surely much superior to that of the Uoinan, if 
 we consider the principal end and design of 
 establishing the contract of marriage, taken in a 
 civil light, abstractedly from any religious view ; 
 which has nothing to do with the legitimacy or 
 illegitimacy of the cliildren. The main end and 
 design of marriage, being to ascertain and fix 
 upon some certain person, to whom the care, the 
 protection, the maintenance, and the education 
 of the children, should belong: 1. Because of 
 the very great uncertainty there will generally be, 
 in the proof that the issue was really begotten ])y 
 the same man ; whereas, by confining the proof 
 to the birth, and not to the begetting, our law iias 
 rendered it perfectly certain what ciiild is legiti- 
 mate, and who is to take care of the child. 2. 
 Becatise by the Roman law a child may be con- 
 tinued a bastard, or made legitimate at tlie option . 
 of the father or mother, by a marriage ex post facto ; 
 thereby opening a door to many frauds and par- 
 tialities, which by our law are prevented. 3. 
 Because by those laws a man may remain a bas- 
 tard till forty years of age, and then become legi- 
 timate by the subsequent marriage of his parents ; 
 whereby tlie main end of marriage, the protection 
 of infants, is totally frustrated. 4. Because this 
 rule of the Roman law admits of no limitation as 
 to the time, or number, of bastards to be so legi- 
 timated ; but a dozen of them may, twenty years 
 after their birth, by the subsequent marriage of 
 their parents, be admitted to all the privileges of 
 legitimate children. Tiiis is plainly a great dis- 
 couragement to the matrimonial state; to which 
 one main inducement is usually not only the 
 desire of having children, but also the desire of 
 procreating lawful heirs. Whereas our constitu- 
 tion guards against this indecency, and at the 
 same time gives sufficient allowance to the frail- 
 ties of human nature. 
 
 By the law of Scotland, following the canon 
 law, bastards may be legitimated, or made law- 
 ful, 1. By the subsequent intermarriage of the 
 mother of the child with the father; and this legi- 
 timation entitles the child to all the rights of law- 
 ful children. The subsequent marriage, wiiich 
 produces legitimation, is considered by the law 
 to have been entered into when the child legiti- 
 mated was begotten ; and hence, if lie be a malc> 
 he excludes, by his right of primogeniture, the 
 sons procreated after the marriage, from the suc- 
 cession of the father's heritage, though these sons 
 were lawful children from the birth. Hence, 
 also, those children only can be thus legitimated, 
 who are begotten of a woman whom the father 
 might at that period have lawfully married. 2. 
 Bastards are legitimated by letters of legitima- 
 tion from the sovereign 
 
 A bastard, as such, is excluded by the Scottish 
 law. 1. From bis father's succession; because 
 law knows no father who is not marked out by 
 marriage. 2. From all heritable succession, 
 whether by the father or mother ; because he can- 
 not be pronounced lawful heir by the inquest, in 
 terms of the brief. And, 3. From the movable 
 succession of his mother ; for though the mother 
 be known, the bastard is not her lawful child, 
 and legitimacy is implied in all succession con- 
 ferred by law. Yet a bastard, though he cannot
 
 630 
 
 BASTARDS. 
 
 succeed jure sanguinis, may succeed by destina- 
 tion, where he is specially called to the succession 
 by an entail or testament. 
 
 Every attempt to introduce the civil law, in 
 this respect, into Enaland, by declaring children 
 legitimated by a subsequent marriage, has been 
 steadily rejected. It was upon an occasion of 
 this kind, that the barons of England, assembled 
 in the parliament of Merton, A.D. 1272, made 
 that famous answer, ' Nolumus leges Anglic 
 mutare.' 20 Hen. III. cap. 9. 
 
 From what has been said it appears, that all 
 children born before matrimony are bastards by 
 our law : and so it is of all children born so long 
 after the death of the husband, that, by the usual 
 course of gestatioa, they could not be begotten 
 by him. But this being a matter of some uncer- 
 tainty, the law is not exact as to a few days. 
 But if a man dies, and his widow soon after 
 marries again, and a child is born within such a 
 time as that by the course of nature it might have 
 been the child of either husband: in this case, he 
 is said to be more than ordinarily legitimate; for 
 he may, when he arrives at the years of discre- 
 tion, choose which of the fathers he pleases. To 
 prevent this, among other inconveniences, the 
 civil law ordained that no widow should marry 
 infra annum luctus; a rule which obtained so 
 early as the reign of Augustus, if not of Romu- 
 lus: and the same constitution was probably 
 lianded down to our early ancestors from the 
 Romans, during their stay in this island : for we 
 find it established luider th" Sa.Kon and Danish 
 governments. 
 
 As bastards may be bom before the coverture 
 of marriage-state is begun, or after it is deter- 
 mined, so also children born during wedlock 
 may in some circumstances be bastards. As if the 
 husband be out of the kingdom of England, or as 
 the law loosely phrases it, extra quatuor raaria, 
 for above nine months, so that no access to his wife 
 can be presumed, her issue during that period 
 shall be bastards. But generally during coverture, 
 access of the husband shall be presumed, unless 
 the contrary shall be shown ; which is such a 
 negative as can only be proved by showing 
 him, to be elsewhere; for the general rule is 
 prsesuraitur pro legitimatione. But modem 
 decisions have considerably narrowed this rule. 
 It is now held that the husband's being within 
 the four seas is not conclusive evidence of the 
 legitimacy of the child, and it is left to a jury to 
 determine whether the husband had access or 
 not. 3 P. W. 275, 276. 2 Str. 925. And evi- 
 dence may be given, that the husband was from 
 natural or incidental causes impotent. 2 Stra. 940. 
 1 Roll. Abr. 358. 1 Salk. 123. But in this latter 
 case an impossibility must be proved, and not a 
 bare improbability. In a divorce, amensa etthoro 
 if the wife breeds children they are bastards ; for 
 the law will presume the husband and wife con- 
 formable to the sentence of separation, unless ac- 
 cess be proved ; but in a voluntary separation by 
 agreement, the law will suppose access, unless the 
 negative be shown. So also if there be an appa- 
 rent impossibility of procreation on the part of 
 the husband, as if he be only eight years old, or 
 the like, there the issue of the wife shall be 
 bastards. Likewise, in case of divorce in the 
 
 spiritual court a vinculo matrimonii, all the issue 
 born during the coverture are bastards ; because 
 such divorce is always upon some cause that 
 rendered the marriage unlawful and null from 
 the beginning. 
 
 As to the rights and incapacities which appertain 
 to a bastard : the former are very few, being 
 only such as he can acquire ; for he can inherit 
 nothing, being looked upon as the son of nobody, 
 and sometimes called filiusnullius,sometimes filius 
 populi. Yet he may gain a surname by reputa 
 tion, though he has none by inheritance. All 
 other children have their primary settlement in 
 their father's parish : but a bastard in the parish 
 where born, for he hath no father. However, in 
 case of fraud, as if a woman be either sent by 
 order of justices, or comes to beg as a vagrant, 
 to a parish which she does not belong to, the 
 bastard shall, in the first case, be settled in the 
 parish from whence she was illegally removed ; 
 or in the latter case, in the mother's own parish, 
 if the mother be apprehended for her vagrancy. 
 Bastards also born in any licensed hospital for 
 pregnant women, are settled in the parishes 
 in which the mothers belong. The incapacity of 
 a bastaid consists principally in this, that he 
 cannot be heir to any one , for being nuUius fi- 
 lius, he is therefore of kin to nobody, and has no 
 ancestors from whom any inheritable blood can be 
 derived. Therefore, if there be no other claim- 
 ant upon an inheritance than such illegitimate 
 child, it shall escheat to the lord. And as bas- 
 tards cannot be heirs themselves, so neither can 
 they have any heirs but those of their own bodies. 
 For as all collateral kindred consists in being 
 derived from the same common ancestor, and as 
 a bastard has no legal ancestors, he can have no 
 collateral kindred ; and consequently can have 
 no legal heirs, but such as claim by a lineal de- 
 scent from himself. And therefore, if a bastard 
 purchases land, and dies seised thereof without 
 issue, and intestate, the land shall escheat to the 
 lord of the see. A bastard was also, in strict- 
 ness, incapable of holy orders ; and though that 
 were dispensed with, yet he was utterly disqua- 
 lified from holding any dignity in the church ; 
 but this doctrine seems now obsolete ; and in 
 all other respects there is no distinction between 
 a bastard and another man. And really any 
 other distinction but that of not inheriting, which 
 civil policy renders necessary, would, with re- 
 gard to the innocent offspring of his parent's 
 crimes, be odious, unjust, and cruel, to the last 
 degree ; and yet the civil law, so boasted of for its 
 equitable decisions, made bastards in some cases 
 incapable even of a gift from their parents. A bas- 
 tard may, lastly, be made legitimate and capable 
 of inheriting by the transcendant power of an act 
 of parliament, and not otherwise : as was done in 
 the case of John of Gaunt's bastard children, by 
 a statute of Richard II. 
 
 The principal duty of parents to bastard 
 children, by the English law, is that of mainte- 
 nance. For though bastards are not looked upon 
 as children to any civil purposes ; yet the ties of 
 nature, of which maintenance is one, are not so 
 easily dissolved ; and they hold indeed as to many 
 other intentions ; ;is jjarticularly that a man shall 
 not marry his bastard sister or daughter, &c. The
 
 BAS 
 
 631 
 
 BAS 
 
 method in which the English law provides main- 
 tenance for them is as follows : When a woman 
 is delivered, or declares herself with child, of a 
 bastard, and will by oath before a justice of the 
 peace charge any person with havin„'gother with 
 child, the justice shall cause such person to be ap- 
 prehended, and commit him till he gives security, 
 either to maintain the child, or appear at the next 
 quarter-sessions to dispute and try the fact. But 
 if the woman dies, or is married, before deliver)-, 
 or miscarries, or proves not to have been with 
 child, the person shall be discharged ; otlierwise 
 the sessions, or two justices out of the sessions, 
 •ipon original application to them, may take or- 
 der for the keeping of the bastard, by the charg- 
 ing of the mother or the reputed father with the 
 payment of money or other sustentation for that 
 purpose. And if such putative father, or lewd 
 mother, run away from the parish, the overseers 
 by direction of two justices may seize their rent, 
 goods and chattels, in order to bring up the said 
 bastard child. Yet such is the humanity of our 
 laws, that no woman can be compulsively ques- 
 tioned concerning the father of her child till one 
 month after her delivery ; which indulgence is, 
 however, very frequently a hardship upon pa- 
 rishes, by giving the parents opportunity to escape. 
 
 By the stat. 18 Eliz. c. 3, two justices may 
 take order for the punishment of the mother and 
 reputed father ; but what that punishment shall 
 be, is not therein ascertained : though the con- 
 temporary exposition was, that a corporeal pu- 
 nishment was intended. By stat. 7 Jac. I. c. 4. 
 a specific punishment, viz. commitment to the 
 house of correction, is inflicted on the woman 
 only. But in both cases, it seems that the pe- 
 nalty can only be inflicted if the bastard becomes 
 chargeable to the parish ; for otherwise tiie very 
 maintenance of the child is considered as a de- 
 gree of punishment. By the last mentioned sta- 
 tute the justice may commit the mother to the 
 house of correction, there to [he punished and 
 set on work for one year ; and in case of a second 
 offence, till she find surety never to offend again. 
 It was enacted by statute 21 Jac I. c. 27. that 
 if any woman be delivered of a child,, which if 
 bom alive, should by law be a bastard, and en- 
 deavours privately to conceal its death, by bury- 
 ing the child or the like; the mother so offending 
 shall suff"er death, as in the case of murder, un- 
 less she can prove by one witness Rt least that 
 the child was actually born dead. This law is 
 to be met with also in the criminal codes of 
 many other nations of Europe ; as the Danes, the 
 Swedes, &c. but it has been repealed by 4.3 
 Geo. III. c. 58. called Lord Ellenborough's act, 
 Women can only be convicted of murder in this 
 case on proof of the child being actually born 
 alive: but in all cases when a child would 
 have been a bastard, are punishable for conceal- 
 ment of birth, whether the child be born alive or 
 otlierwise, by imprisonment for two years. 
 
 Bastards, in history, a troop of banditti who 
 rose in Guienne about the beginning of the 
 fourteenth century, and joining with some Englisli 
 parties, ravaged the country, and set fire to tlie 
 city of Saintes. Mezeray supposes them to have 
 consisted of the natural sons of tlie nobility of 
 Guienne, who being excluded the right of inhe- 
 
 riting from tlieir fathers, put themselves at the 
 head of robbers and plunderers to maintain 
 themselves. 
 
 Bastards, in the sea language, large sails of a 
 galley, which will make way with a slack wind. 
 
 Bastard Cedar Tree, called guazuma in the 
 West Indies. 
 
 Bastard Floweh Pence. See Adesanthera. 
 The flowers of this plant bruised .and steeped in 
 breast milk are a gentle anodyne, for which pur- 
 pose they are often given in the West Indies to 
 quiet very young children. The leaves are us?d 
 in Barbadoes and the Leeward islands. In Ja- 
 maica the plant is called Sena. 
 
 Bastard Hemp. See Datisca 
 
 Bastard Rocket. See Resed . 
 
 Bastard Scarlet is a name given to red dyed 
 with bale-madder, as coming nearest the bow-dye, 
 or new scarlet. 
 
 Bastard Star of Bethlehem. See Alblca. 
 
 BASTARDY, according to Eustathius, was 
 held among the Greeks as honorable as legitima- 
 cy, down even to the time of the Trojan war ; 
 but tlie course of antiquity seems against him. 
 The ancient Greeks indeed, appear to have been 
 proud of their reputed descent from the gods, 
 but Potter and others show that there never was 
 a time when bastardy was not a disgrace. In 
 the time of our William the Conqueror, however, 
 it seems not to have implied any reproach, that 
 monarch himself not scrupling to assume the 
 appellation of bastard. His epistle to Alan, count 
 of Bretagne begins, Ego Willielmus,.cognomento 
 bastardus. 
 
 Bastardy, in relation to its trial in law, is 
 distinguished into general and special. 
 
 Bastardy General, is a certificate from the 
 bishop of the diocese, to the king's justices, after 
 inquiry made, whether the party is a bastard or 
 not, upon some question of inheritance. 
 
 Bastardy Special, is a suit commenced in 
 the king's courts, against a person that calls 
 another a bastard. 
 
 Bastardy, Arms of, should be crossed with a 
 bar, fillet, or traverse, from the left to the right. 
 They were not formerly allowed to carry the 
 arms of their father, and therefore they invented 
 arras for themselves ; and this is still done by the 
 natural sons of a king. 
 
 BASTARXyE, or Bastern.e, a people of 
 German original, manners, and language, who 
 extended themselves a great way to the east of the 
 Vistula, the east boundary of Germany among 
 the Sarmatse, as far as the mouth of the Ister 
 and the Euxine, and were divided into several 
 nations. 
 
 BASTARNIC/E Alps, in ancient geography, 
 mountains extending between Poland, Hungary, 
 and Transylvania, called also the Carpets, and 
 now the Carpathian mountains. 
 
 BASTAYOE, a bay on the east side of Yell, 
 one of the Shetland islands. Long. 1° 16' W., 
 lat. 60° 59' N. 
 
 BASTE', -^ Participle pass, basted, 
 
 Bastina'de, v. & n. ^^^o^ hasten. Fr. basionncr. 
 Bastixa'do, v. & n. J Bazata, in the Armorick 
 dialect, signifies to strike with a stick; from 
 which perhaps baston a stick, and all its deriva- 
 tives, or collaterals, may be deduced ; to strike,
 
 632 
 
 B A S T I L E. 
 
 l>eat, bang, bethwack with a cudgel ; so Cotgrave. 
 Applied to noisy abuse with the tongue. 
 
 What cannoneer begot this lusty blood ? 
 He speaks plain cannon, tire, zind smoke und bounce ; 
 He gives the bastinado with his tongue ; 
 Our ears are cudgell'd ; not a word of his 
 But buffets better than a fist of France. 
 Zounds ! I was never so bethump'd with words 
 Since I first call'd nay brother's father dad. 
 
 Shakspeare. 
 But this courtesy was worse than a bcutinado to 
 Zelmane j so with rageful eyes she bade him defend 
 himself. Sidney. 
 
 I am not apt upon a wound. 
 Or trivial basting, to despond ; 
 Yet, I'd be loth, my days to curtail. 
 
 Hudihras. 
 The beaten soldier proves most manful. 
 That like his sword endures the anvil. 
 And justly's held more formidable. 
 The more his valour's malleable. 
 But he that fears a baitinado. 
 Will run away from his own shadow. Id. 
 
 Quoth she, I grant it is in vain 
 For one that's basted to feel pain ; 
 Because the pangs his bones endure 
 Contribute nothing to the cure. Id. 
 
 Bastings heavy, dry, obtuse. 
 Only dulness can produce ; 
 While a little gentle jerking 
 Sets the spirits all a-working. Swift. 
 
 Nick seized the longer enj of the cudgel, and with 
 it began to bastinado old Lewis, who had slunk into a 
 ccmer, waiting the event of a squabble. Arbuthnot. 
 In T'lrkey, says Montesquieu, where little regard 
 is shown to the lives and fortunes of the subject, all 
 causes are quickly decided. The bashaw, on a sum- 
 mary hearing, orders which party he pleases to be 
 bastinadoed, and then sends them about their business. 
 Blackstone's Commentaries. 
 Baste, v. To baste meat ; to drop butter, or 
 any thing else upon it as it turns upon the spit. 
 This was formerlyrwith a stick covered with fat, 
 and it is therefore probable, that the term to 
 baste, to strike with a stick, came at length to be 
 thus employed. 
 
 Sir, I think the meat wants what I have, a basting. 
 
 Shakspeare. 
 The fat of roasted mutton falling on the birds, will 
 nerve to baste them, and so save time and butter. 
 
 Swift. 
 Baste', v. Besten. To sew or stitch together 
 slightly. Fr. baster, to stitch. 
 
 And on her legs the painted buskins wore. 
 Basted with bands of gold on every side ; 
 And mailes betweene; and laced close afore. 
 
 Spenser. Faerie Queene. 
 Shall the proud Lord 
 That battes his arrogance with his own seam. 
 And never suffers matter of the world 
 Enter his thoughts ; save such as do revolve 
 And ruminate himself, shall he be worshipt ; 
 Of that we hold an idol more than he. 
 
 Shakspeare. Troilits and Cressida. 
 BASTERNA, a kind of vehicle, or chariot, 
 used by the ancient Roman ladies. Papias thinks, 
 that basterna was first written for vesterna, but 
 the word seems better derived from the Greek 
 ftacaH^w, porto, I carry. Salmasius observes, that 
 the basterna succeeded the lectica, or litter ; from 
 which it differed very little, except that the litter 
 was borne on the shoulders of slaves, and the 
 basterna drawn by beasts. The inside they cal- 
 
 led the cavea, or cage : it had soft cushions or 
 beds, and glasses on each side like our chariots. 
 Basternae passed from Italy into Gaul, and thence 
 into other countries ; and to this we owe our 
 chariots, which, though we call them currus, yet 
 they have no conformity to the ancient currus, 
 but are in effect basternae improved. The bas- 
 terna appears also to have been used in war, for 
 carrying baggage. 
 
 BASTI, in ancient geography, a town of the 
 province of Ba;tica in Spain, situated to the west 
 of tlie Campus Spartarius, now called Baza in 
 Granada. 
 
 BASTIA, a sea-port town of Albania, in Tur- 
 key in Europe, over against the island of Corfu. 
 
 Bastia, a town of the island of Corsica, on 
 the north-east coast, seated on a hill, in the form 
 of an amphitheatre. It is ill built, and has nar- 
 row streets, but is defended by a citadel, and has 
 a safe but not very commodious harbour. The 
 inhabitants carry on a considerable trade in wine, 
 skins, pulse, oil, and figs, and the stilettos made 
 here are much valued by the Italians. In 1745, 
 it was bombarded and taken by the English, but 
 restored to the Genoese the following year. The 
 Austrians and Piedmontese besieged it unsuccess- 
 fully in 1748. It was annexed to France in 1768, 
 and with the exception of a short period after its 
 capture by the English in 1794, has remained 
 ever since in the hands of that power. It con- 
 tained a population of 11 or 1 2,000 souls, and 
 before the French revolution it was the capital of 
 the island, the seat of the governor, and of the 
 principal offices of state, and courts of justice. 
 It was also the see of tlie bishop of Marian and 
 Acci. On the new modelling of the French ter- 
 ritory in 1791, it was created the capital of the 
 department of the Golo,and subsequently the head- 
 quarters of the twenty-third military division. 
 It is now the chief town of an arrondissement in 
 the department of Corsica, the residence of a sub- 
 prefect, and the seat of a civil and a commercial 
 tribunal. Thirty-three miles E.N.E. of Calvi, 
 and fifty-eight north-east of Ajaccio. Long. 9° 
 26' 30" E., lat. 42° 41' 36* N. 
 
 BASTIDE de Clerence La, a town of Lower 
 Navarre, France, the head of a canton in the 
 department of the Lower Pyrenees, arrondissement 
 of Bayonne. It is about six miles E. S. E. of 
 Bayonne, and has 2000 inhabitants. 
 
 Bastide, La, a town of France, in Quercy, 
 the head of a canton in the department of the 
 Lot, arrondissement of Gourdon, with 1200 
 inhabitants, ten miles south-east of Gourdon. 
 
 Bastide de Seron, La, a town of France, in 
 the county of Foix, department of the Arriege, 
 arrondissement of Pamiers, with 1 760 inhabitants, 
 nine miles W.N.W. of Foix, and twelve north- 
 west of Tarascon. 
 
 BA'STILLE, or-^ Bastille, Fr., bastide, Sp. 
 
 Bastile, > from French fcasfiV, to build, 
 
 Ba'stillions. 3 probably from the Greek 
 and Latin basis, q. d. basitare, i. e. to raise upon 
 a basis or foundation ; applied to military for- 
 tresses, and to places of special defence, and of 
 confinement. 
 
 These lordes caused bastiles to be made roundc 
 about the cytie, with which they troubled their ene- 
 mies and assaulted the walles. Hall. King Henry VI,
 
 B A S T I L E. 
 
 633 
 
 The same season there iwas a capytayne at Calais, 
 Sir Johan Delnarnes, who receyued the bysshoppe 
 and his company with grete ioye ; and so they landtd 
 lytell and lytell, and all their horses and baggage, 
 and so lodged in Calays, and thereabout in bastyUes 
 that they made dayly. Frousart. Crmycle, v. i.e. 329. 
 
 Our soldiers rose at the call of their captains, and 
 removed their munitions farr from the wall, providing 
 to fight more close and short along the high hoMiles, 
 or countermures, which now, that they were finished, 
 overtopped th-j walls. Holland. A tnmianus. 
 
 Thus fortune fares her children to empound. 
 
 Which on her wheel their battilea bravely beeld. 
 
 Mirror for Mai/istratei. 
 Near which there stands 
 
 A bcutile built to imprison hands. Hudibras. 
 
 Bastile, anciently used as a common name 
 
 officers, together with some rooms appropriated 
 for prisoners of distinction. The second court 
 was seventy-two feet long, and forty-two broad, 
 containg two towers, and lodgings for persons 
 belonging to the castle. 
 
 The prisoners were chiefly confined in the 
 towers of the bastile, the entrances to whicli 
 were secured hy double doors of oak, and con- 
 ducted to a winding stair-case, lighted by narrow 
 grated windows, which led to the rooms above, 
 and the dungeon below. The dungeons had no 
 fire place, and instead of windows a small cre- 
 vice towards the ditch, that served the twofold 
 purpose of letting in air and light. They were 
 arched, paved, and lined with stone, and were 
 said to be places for the temporary punishment 
 
 for a prison, under the feudal system in our own of those unhappy persons who might attempt to 
 country, was a name particularly applied to make their escape. In these dungeons the un- 
 several state prisons in France : but that which fortunate princes of Armagnac, sons of James, 
 was termed the bastile, by way of distinction, who was beheaded, were confined by Louis XI., 
 was situated near the gates of Paris, on the road the oldest of whom lost his senses in prison, and 
 to St. Anthony. The building was originally the youngest, obtaining his liberty on the death of 
 commenced by order of Charles V., and finished the tyrant, related a tale of suffering which, if 
 in 1383 under the reign of his successor. The it were not corroborated by the most unqualified 
 original projector was Hugh d' Aubriot, mayor of evidences, would almost exceed belief. Above 
 Paris, who laid the first stone of the foundation each of these dungeons were four stories, con- 
 on the 22d of April, 1370. Descended from an taining each a single room, some of them having 
 obscure parentage, this person had been raised by a small dark closet adjoining them, indented in 
 his merit into the favor of his sovereign, and so the thickness of the wall. The rooms had each 
 unqualified was the confidence reposed in him, one window, glazed within, and doubly grated, 
 that the charge of the capital was committed ex- one near the centre of the wall, and again at its 
 
 clusively to his care. 
 
 The bastile, as planned by d' Aubriot, consisted 
 only of two round towers, one on each side of the 
 road leading into Paris, from the suburbs of St. 
 Anthony, and united by means of a strong high 
 wall, in the centre of which was the gate of the 
 
 exterior surface. Each room had a fire place 
 and stove, the vents of the chimneys being se- 
 cured by strong iron grates. The double doors 
 were secured by several locks and bars, and 
 many of the rooms had double ceilings ; the first 
 was composed of lath and plaster, and the second 
 
 town. Several additional towers were afterwards of oak, supporting the floor of the room imme- 
 
 erected, and in the succeeding reign two com- diately above. The walls and ceilings of these 
 
 plete courts were formed by means of intervening apartments were all plastered and white-washed, 
 
 walls, which composed the body of the edifice, and the floors laid with tile or stone; they were 
 
 The road itself turned off" to the right of the cas- perfectly dry, owing to the extreme thickness of 
 
 tie, and left the whole building enclosed by a the building, being nearly seven English feet in 
 
 deep ditch, and secured by a counterscarp of diameter at the top, and gradually increasing 
 
 nearly thirty-six feet from the bottom. The downwards to the foundation. The three first 
 
 usual entry into the bastile was from St. stories were irregular polygons of about eighteen 
 
 Anthony street. Above the first gate was an feet in diameter, and as many in height ; but the 
 
 armoury, and on the right side of the entrance a fourth, or top room, called calotte, was neither 
 
 guard room, The first enclosure, from which a so large nor so high as the others, and was 
 
 gate led to the arsenal, contained barracks for the 
 garrison, coach houses and stables for the gover- 
 nor and officers, shops for the sutlers, &c. A 
 draw-bridge led from the court into the second 
 enclosure, on entering which, was a guard-roam 
 to the left, and the governor's house to the right ; 
 and at the end a terrace, on which stood a pavi 
 
 arched to support the stone roof or platform with 
 which it was overlaid. 
 
 Such was the place of horror, in which hun- 
 dreds were confined at the caprice of an arbi- 
 trary monarch, or minister ; and so rigidly were 
 the wretched victims concealed, that many have 
 been shut up for years, cut off" from all commu- 
 
 lion, with beautiful walks, shaded with rows of nication with mankind, except the turnkeys and 
 
 trees. Opposite the governor's house was the 
 entrance into the castle, and between the two were 
 kitchens and other conveniences, erected on a 
 blind bridge thrown across the ditch. From the 
 second court was a draw-bridge, which led into 
 the castle, and within the gate was another guard- 
 room. The first court was 102 feet Ion?, and 
 
 keepers of the prison, and neither friends nor 
 relations have known what was become of the 
 persons so mysteriously lost. 
 
 The officers who had the charge of the bastile 
 were a governor, lieutenant du roi, a mayor, 
 two adjutants, a surgeon and his assistant, a 
 chaplain, and four turnkeys : these, with a com- 
 
 seventy-two broad. It had six towers, and was pany of invalids and officers, lodged in the castle ; 
 
 terminated by a modem building, on the ground- besides whom, a physician, two priests, a keeper 
 
 floor of which was the council chamber and of records, a clerk, a superintendent of buildings, 
 
 librarj', and over it the apartments of the Lieu- and an engineer, who lodged in the town, hia 
 
 tenant du Roi, the surgeon, major, and other services being only occasionally required.
 
 634 
 
 B A S T I L E 
 
 The king allowed the governor a daily sum 
 for the maintenance of each prisoner, according 
 to his rank in Society ; namely, 
 
 Livres. 
 For a prince of the blood ... 50 per day. 
 For a marshal of France ... 36 
 For a lieutenant-general ... 24 
 For a person of quality or a member 
 
 of parliament 15 
 
 For an oidinary judge, a priest, or 
 
 persons in the finances ... 10 
 For a respectable citizen ... 5 
 
 which, together with an additional salary for 
 firing, candles, washing, &c., more than indem- 
 nified him for the expenses of the prison. 
 
 The mode of arresting prisoners was by lettres 
 de cachet, which were sometimes signed by the king 
 himself, and always countersigned by the minister 
 of Paris, or one of the secretaries of state. We 
 subjoin the following as a copy of one of these 
 fatal instruments. 
 
 * MoN Cousin, 
 
 ' Etant peu satisfait de votre 
 conduite, je vous fais cette lettre, pour vous 
 dire, que raon intention est qu' aiissitot qu' elk; 
 vous aura ete remise, vous aycz a vous rendre em 
 mon chateau de la Bastile, poury rester jusqu' a. 
 nouvel ordre de moi. Sur ce je prie Dieu 
 qu'il vous ait, mon Cousin, en sa sainte garde. 
 Ecrit k Versailles, 25 Juin, 1748. 
 
 ' Signe, Louis, 
 
 'Voyer d' Argenson..' 
 
 The above was inscribed, 
 
 'A mon Cousin, le Prince de Monaco, Briga- 
 dier en mon Infanterie. 
 
 Every prisoner, on coming to the Bastile, had 
 an inventory made of ever}' thing about hinn. 
 His trunks, clothes, linen, and pockets, were 
 searched, to discover whether there were any 
 papers in them relative to the matter for which 
 he was apprehended. It was not usual to search 
 persons of a certain rank ; but they were asked 
 for their knives, razors, scissars, watches, canes, 
 jewels, and money. These were put into a box, 
 and labelled, with the tower and number of the 
 chamber in which he was to be confined, and by 
 which he was afterwards called ; so that the name 
 of a prisoner was never pronounced, nor even 
 known, among the inferior officers of the Bastile, 
 the appellation being No. 1, de la Bertaudiere; 
 No. 2, du Tresor ; No. 3, de la Liberte, &c. 
 
 After this examination of his person, the pri- 
 soner was usually conducted to his apartment, 
 where he was carefully locked up, and an invalid 
 soldier appointed to attend him, who slept near 
 him and waited upon him. The unliappy vic- 
 tim soon found that in this castle all was mystery, 
 trick, artifice, and •treachery ; the attendant 
 conveyed all his words to the police, while the 
 officers, turnkeys, valets, &c. used every effort to 
 draw him on to speak against government, merely 
 for the purpose of getting a reward for revealing 
 what w.as said. Oh a prisoner's first entrance, 
 lie was not permitted to write to any person, not 
 even the lieutenant of the police. When a per- 
 
 son had obtained permission to write to the latter 
 gentleman, he might solicit the indulgence of 
 being allowed to address a letter to his family, 
 and receive their answers, which on some occa- 
 sions was granted ; but letters when sent were 
 commonly intercepted, and seldom delivered to 
 the friends. The officers of the staff took tlie 
 charge of conveying the letters of the prisoners 
 to the police, by whom they were sent regularly 
 twice a day, and suitable answers were addressed 
 to the major, who commtmicated them to the pri- 
 soner; bu' if no notice was taken of any request 
 contained in the letter of the prisoner, it was to 
 be considered as a refusal. A criminal might 
 ask to see the lieutenant of the police when he 
 came to the Bastile, and in that case the conver- 
 sation always turned upon the cause of his con- 
 finement. This crentleman would sometimes ask 
 for written and signed declarations, and on these 
 occasions nothing that the prisoner wrote or said 
 was forgotten. A person confined in the Bastile 
 was never anticipated in any thin? — he must ask 
 for every thing; even for permission to be shaved, 
 an office always performed by the surgeon ; who 
 also furnished sick or indisposed persons with 
 sugar, coffee, tea, chocolate, confections, and the 
 remedies necessary for their complaints. Their 
 hour of dining was eleven, and of supping, six ; 
 and tlie time allowed for walking was commonly 
 one hour in the day, sometimes an hour in the 
 morning and an hour in the evening, in the great 
 court of the fortress. 
 
 To give the reader some imperfect idea of the 
 internal discipline of the BasMle, under its mildest 
 regime, we shall quote a short extract from the 
 account of a prisoner, once confined there. — 
 'About five in the morning,' says he, 'on the 
 2d of April, 1771, I was awaked by a violent 
 knocking at my chamber door, and was com- 
 manded in the name of the king to open it. I 
 did so, and an exempt of the police, three men 
 and a commissary, entered my room. They de- 
 sired me to dress myself, and began to search the 
 apartment. They ordered me to open my 
 drawers ; and having examined my papers, they 
 took such as they chose and put them into a box, 
 which, as I understood afterwards, was carried to 
 the police-office. The commissary asked me my 
 name, my age, the place where I was born, how 
 long I had been at Paris, and the manner in 
 which I had spent my time. The examination 
 was written down ; a list was made of every thing 
 found in tlie room, which, with the examination, 
 I was desired to read, and si'^n. The exempt 
 then told me to take all my body-linen, and such 
 clothes as I chose, and to come with them. 
 Having shut and sealed the drawers, they desired 
 me to follow ; and in goincj out they locked the 
 chamber door, and took the key. On coming 
 into the street I found a coach, into which I was 
 desired to go, and the others followed me. After 
 sitting for some time, the commissary told me 
 they were carrying me to the Bastile, and soon 
 afterwards I saw the towers. They did not go 
 the shortest and direct road : the coach stopped 
 at the gate in the street of St. Anthony. I saw 
 the coachman make signs to the sentinel, and 
 soon after the gate was opened ; the guard was 
 under arms, and the gate shut again. On coming
 
 B A S T I L E. 
 
 635 
 
 to the first draw-bridgf, it was let down, the 
 guard there also being under arms. The coach 
 went on and entered the castle, where a third 
 guard was stationed. I was conducted to a room 
 that I heard named the council chamber. After 
 an examination similar to that of the commissary, 
 1 was desired to empty my pockets, and lay what 
 I had in them on the table. My handkerchief 
 and snuff-box being returned to me, my money, 
 watch, and indeed every thing else, were put 
 into a box, and an inventory bavins been made, 
 were sealed up in my presence. The major then 
 called for the turnkey, whose turn of duty it was, 
 and asked what room was empty. lie said the 
 calotte de la Bertaudiere. He was ordered to 
 convey me to it, and to carry thither my linen 
 and my clothes. Tlie turnkey having done so, 
 left me and locked the doors. The weather was 
 still extremely cold, and I was glad to see him 
 return soon after with lire-wood, a tinder-box, 
 and a candle. lie made my tire, but told me, 
 on leaving the tinder-box, that I might in future 
 do it myself when so inclined. At eleven the 
 turnkey entered with my dmner. Having spread 
 the table with a clean napkin, he placed the 
 dishes on it, cut the meat, and retired, taking 
 away tlie knife; the dishes, plates, fork, spoon, 
 and goblet were of pewter. The dinner con- 
 sisted of soup and bouillie, a piece of roasted 
 meat, a bottle of good table wine, a pound loaf 
 of the best kind of household bread. In the 
 evening at seven he brought my supper, which 
 consisted of a roast dish, and a ragout. The 
 same ceremony was observed in cutting the meat, 
 to render the knife unnecessary to me. He took 
 away the dishes he had brought for dinner, and 
 returned at eight next morning to remove the 
 supper things. Fridays and Saturdays, being fast 
 or maigre days, the dinners consisted of soup, a 
 dish of fish, and two dishes of vegetables ; the 
 suppers of two dishes of garden-stuff, and an 
 omelet, or something made with eggs and milk. 
 The dinners and suppers of each day in the week 
 were different, but every Friday was the same ; 
 so that the ordinary class of prisoners saw in the 
 course of the first week their bill of fare for fifty 
 years, if they staid so long. I had remained in 
 my room about three weeks, when I was one 
 morning carried down to the council chamber, 
 and again examined by the commissary. He 
 then asked if I had any knowledge of some works 
 he named, meaning those which had been written 
 by me, if I was acquainted with the author of 
 them, whether there were any persons concerned 
 with him, and if I knew whether they had been 
 printed ? I told him that as 1 did not mean to 
 conceal any thing, I should avoid giving him 
 needless trouble ; that I was myself the author 
 of the works he had mentioned, and guessed I 
 was there on that account ; that they never had 
 been printed ; that the work which I conceived 
 was the cause of my confinement had never been 
 shown to any, but one person, whom I thought 
 my friend, and having no accomplices, the offence, 
 if tliere was any, rested solely with myself. He 
 said my examination was one of the shortest he 
 had ever been employed at, for it ended here. 
 1 was carried back to my room, and the next day 
 was shaved for the first time since my confine- 
 
 ment, it being usual never to shave a prisoner 
 till after his first examination. A few days after- 
 wards I wrote to the lieutenant of the police, 
 requesting to be indulged with the use of books, 
 pen, ink, and paper, which was granted ; but I 
 was not allowed to go down to the lib-^rj' (a col- 
 lection of about .500 volumes, founded by some 
 prisoner in the early part of the eighteenth cen- 
 tury) to choose the books. Several volumes were 
 brought to mie by the turnkey, who, when I de- 
 sired it, carried them back and brought others. 
 
 After my last examination I was taken down 
 almost daily, and allowed to walk about an hour 
 in the court within view of the sentinel ; but my 
 walks were frequently interrupted, for if anyone 
 appeared the sentinel called out ' au cabinet !' 
 and I was then obliged to conceal myself hastily 
 in a kind of dark closet in the wall. 
 
 ' The sheets of my bod were changed once a 
 fortnight. I was allowed four towels a-week, and 
 my linen was taken to be washed every Saturday. 
 I !iad a tallow candle daily, and in the cold season 
 a certain number of pieces of fire wood. Mm 
 being detained above eight months 1 was in- 
 formed that an order had come to discharge me. 
 I was desired to go down to the council chamber, 
 every thing I had brought with me was returned, 
 together with the key of my apartment, which I 
 found exactly in the state I left it. During ray 
 confinement I wrote many letters to several of 
 my friends, which were always received with 
 civility, but not one of them had been deli- 
 vered.' 
 
 The above was a case of uncommon indul- 
 gence, and displays a lenity unusual in the Bas- 
 tile. In common cases the course pursued was 
 as follows : — The prisoner, a few days after his 
 entrance into the Bastile, was brought down to the 
 council chamber, where a commission of interrr>- 
 gatory was executed by tlie lieutenant of the 
 police, a counsellor of state, a master of re- 
 quests, a counsellor or a commissioner of the 
 Chatelet. When the lieutenant of the police 
 did not himself interrogate, he casually came at 
 the end of the examination. These commis- 
 sioners were mere tools. Frequently they at- 
 tempted to frighten a prisoner : laying snares 
 for him, and employing the meanest artifices to 
 draw a confession from him. With this insidious 
 view, it was customary to pretend proofs, and 
 exhibit papers without suffering him to read 
 thera; asserting that they were instruments of 
 unavoidable conviction. Their interrogatories 
 were always vague, and turned not only on the 
 prisoner's own words and actions, but on his 
 most secret thoughts, and on the discourse and 
 conduct of persons of his acquaintance, whom 
 they likewise wished to bring into question. The 
 examiner usually told the prisoner that his life 
 was at stake ; that on that day his fate depended 
 on himself; that if he made a fair declaration, 
 they were authorised to promise him a speedy 
 release ; but if he refused to confess he would 
 be given up to a special commission : that they 
 were in possession of decisive documents, and 
 authentic proofs, more than sufficient to ruin 
 him ; that his accomplices had discovered all ; 
 that the government had unknown resources, of 
 wliich he could have no suspicion. The pri-
 
 636 
 
 B A S T I L E. 
 
 soners were thus beguiled by varied and infinitely 
 multiplied interrogatories ; by promises, caresses, 
 menaces, Sec. If the prisoner made the re- 
 quired confession, tlie commissioners then told 
 him that they had no precise authority for his 
 enlargement, but they had every reason to ex- 
 pect it ; that they were going to solicit it, &c. 
 The prisoner's confession, far from bettering his 
 condition, usually gave occasion to new interro- 
 gatories, often lengthened his confinement, drew 
 in the persons with whom he had connexions, 
 and exposed himself to new vexations. But 
 although there were rules adapted to all oc- 
 casions, yet every thing was subject to excep- 
 tions arising from influence, recommendation, 
 protection, intrigue, &c. Very frequently, per- 
 sons confined on the same account were treated 
 very differently, according as their recommenda- 
 tion was more or less considerable. The falsest 
 things were told the prisoners with an air of 
 sincerity and concern ; as ' it is very unfortunate 
 that the king has been prejudiced against you. 
 His majesty cannot hear your name mentioned 
 without being irritated. The aflTair for which you 
 have lost your liberty is only a pretext. They 
 had designs against you before, you have power- 
 ful enemies' These discourses were the etiquette 
 of the place. It was in vain for a prisoner to 
 ask leave to write to the king, for he never could 
 obtain it. What constituted the perpetual and 
 most insupportable torment of this cruel and 
 odious inquisition, was the vague, indeterminate, 
 false, or equivocal promises, inexhaustible and 
 constantly deceitful hopes of a speedy release, 
 exhortations to patience, and blind conjectures, 
 of which the lieutenant of the police and his 
 officers were very lavish. To cover the odium 
 of the barbarities exercised here, and slacken the 
 zeal of relations or patrons, to obtain justice for 
 incarcerated innocence, the most absurd and 
 contradictory slanders against the prisoner were 
 frequently published ; whilst the true causes of 
 imprisonment, and real obstacles to his release, 
 were concealed. These resources, so infinitely 
 varied, were inexhaustible. When a prisoner 
 who was known and protected had entirely lost 
 his health, and his life was thought in danger, he 
 was always sent out ; the ministry not choosing 
 that, persons well known should die in the Bas- 
 tile. Whenever a prisoner happened to die 
 there, he was interred in the Parish of St. Paul, 
 under the name of a domestic ; and this falsity 
 was also written in this register of deaths, in 
 order to deceive posterity. But there was another 
 register in which the true names of the deceased 
 were entered ; though it was not without great 
 difficulty that extracts could be procured from it : 
 and when this indulgence was granted, the com- 
 missary of ilie Bastile was first to be informed of 
 the use the family intended to make of the extract. 
 Singular Distress of an aged Prisoner 
 IN THE Bastile. Nowhere else on earth, per- 
 haps, has human misery, by human means, been 
 rendered so lasting, so complete, or so remediless, 
 as wiiliin the dire walls of the Bastile of France. 
 This the following case, the particulars of which 
 are translated from that elegant antl energetic 
 writer M. Mercier, may sufficiently show. The 
 heinous offence which merited an imprisonment 
 
 surpassing torture, and rendering death a bles- 
 sing, though for obvious reasons not specified by 
 our author, is known from other sources to have 
 consisted in some unguarded expression of dis- 
 respect towards the Gallic monarch Louis XV. 
 Upon the accession of his late unfortunate suc- 
 cessor, the ministers then in office, moved by hu- 
 manity, began their administration with an act 
 of clemency and justice : they inspected the re- 
 gisters of the Bastile, and set many of the pri- 
 soners at liberty. Among the number was an 
 old man, who had groaned in confinement, for a 
 period of forty-seven years, between four thick 
 and cold stcne-walls. Hardened by adversity, 
 which strengthens both the mind and the consti- 
 tution, when men are not overpowered by it, 
 he had resisted the horrors of his long im- 
 prisonment with an invincible and manly spirit. 
 His locks, white, thin, and scattered, had almost 
 acquired the rigidity of iron ; whilst his body, 
 environed for so long a time by a coffin of stone, 
 haa borrowed from it a firm and compact habit. 
 The narrow door of his tomb, turning upon its 
 grating hinges, opened not as usual by halves ; 
 and an unknown voice announced his liberty, 
 and bade him depart. Believing this to be a 
 dream, he hesitated ; but at length rose up and 
 walked forth with trembling steps, amazed at the 
 space he traversed : the stairs of the prison, the 
 halls, the court, seemed to him vast, immense, and 
 almost without bounds. He stopped from time 
 to time, and gazed around like a bewildered 
 traveller : his vision was with difficulty recon- 
 ciled to the clear light of day : he contemplated 
 the heavens as a new object : his eyes remained 
 fixed, and he could not even weep. Stupified 
 with the newly acquired power of changing his 
 position, his limbs, like his tongue, in spite of 
 his efforts, refused to perform their office ; at 
 length he got through the formidable gate wiiich 
 so long before had closed upon him. When he 
 felt the motion of the carriage designed to con- 
 vey him to his former habitation, he screamed 
 out, and uttered some inarticulate sounds ; and 
 as he could not bear this new movement, he 
 was obliged to descend. Supported by a bene- 
 volent arm, he sought out the street where he 
 had formerly resided : he found it, but no trace 
 of his house remained : one of the public edi- 
 fices occupied the spot where it had stood. He 
 now saw nothing that brought to his recollection, 
 either that particular quarter, the city itself, 
 or the objects with which he had formerly 
 been acquainted. The houses of his nearest 
 neighbours, which were fresh in his memoiy, 
 had assumed a new appearance. In vain were 
 his looks directed to all the objects around him; 
 he could discover nothing of wliich he had the 
 smallest remembrance. Terrified, he stopped 
 and fetched a deep sigh. To him, what did it 
 import that the city was peopled with living 
 creatures ? none of them were alive to him ; he 
 was unknown to all the world, and he knew 
 nobody : and whilst he wept, he regretted his 
 dungeon. At the name of the Bastile, which he 
 often pronounced, and even claimed as an asylum, 
 and tlie sight of his clothes that marked a for- 
 mer age, the crowd gathered round him : cu- 
 riosity, blended with pity, excited their attention.
 
 B A S T T L E. 
 
 637 
 
 The most aged asked him many questions, but 
 had no remembrance of the circumstances he 
 recapitulated. At length accident brought in 
 his way an ancient domestic, now a super- 
 annuated porter, who, confined to his lodge for 
 fifteen years, had barely sufficient strength to 
 open the gate : he did not even know the master 
 he had served ; but informed him that grief and 
 misfortune had brought his wife to the grave 
 thirty years before, that his children were gone 
 abroad to distant climes, and that of all his rela- 
 tions and friends none now remained. This re- 
 cital was made with the indifference which people 
 discover for events long passed, and almost for- 
 gotten. The miserable man groaned, and groaned 
 alone. The crowd around, offering only un- 
 known features to his view, made him feel the 
 excess of his calamities even more than he would 
 have done in the dreadful solitude that he had 
 lately quitted. Overcome with sorrow, he pre- 
 sented himself before the minister, to wliose hu- 
 manity he owed that liberty which was now a 
 burden to him. Bowing down, he said, ' restore 
 me again to that prison from which you have 
 tiken me : I cannot survive the loss of my 
 nearest relations ; of my friends ; and, in one 
 word, of a whole generation. Is it possible in 
 the same moment to be informed of this univer- 
 sal destruction, and not to wish for death ? This 
 general mortality, which to the rest of mankind 
 comes slowly and by degrees, has to me been 
 instantaneous, the operation of a moment. 
 Whilst secluded from society, I lived with my- 
 self only ; but here I neither can live with my- 
 self nor with this new race, to whom my anguish 
 and despair appear only as a dream. There is 
 nothing terrible in dying; but it is dreadful 
 indeed to be tlie last.' Tlie minister was melted ; 
 he aiused the old domestic to attend this unfor- 
 tunate person, as only he could talk to him of his 
 family. This discourse was the single consolation 
 that he received : for he shunned all intercourse 
 with a new race, born since he had been exiled 
 from the world ; and he passed his time in the 
 midst of Paris in the same solitude as he had 
 done whilst confined in a dungeon for almost half 
 a century. But the m.ortification of meeting no 
 person who could say to him, ' we were formerly 
 known to one another,' soon put at end to his 
 existence. 
 
 The man with the mask was the rrfost astonish- 
 ing prisoner ever known to have been within the 
 walls of the Bastile ; of whom, notwithstanding 
 all the curiosity and conjecture that have been 
 employed to ascertain his quality and pedigree, 
 nothing authentic has transpired to the present 
 time. In 1698 he was brought from the island'of 
 St. Marguerite by Mons. de St. Mars, the newly 
 appointed governor of the Biistile, was attended 
 with the greatest respect, maintained a sumptuous 
 table, and had every possible indulgence shown 
 him till the time of his death in Nov. 19, 1703. 
 This mysterious prisoner, on his removal to the 
 Bastile, was carried in a litter, accompanied by 
 several men on horseback, who had orders to put 
 him to death if he made the smallest attempt to 
 show his face or otherwise discover himself. 
 His face was concealed by a mask of black vel- 
 vet with. springs of steel, which were so contrived 
 
 that he could eat without taking it off. A phy- 
 sician of the Bastile, who had often attended him, 
 said he had never seen his face, thougli be had 
 frequently examined his tongue and other parts o. 
 his body; but added, that he wiis admirably well 
 made, that his skin wa.s brown, his voice interest- 
 ing; that he was very accomplished, read much, 
 played on the guitar, and had an exquisite taste 
 for lace and fine linen. 
 
 The pains taken for his concealment shows that 
 he was a person of considerable quality and im- 
 portance, and from the following circumstances 
 it appears singular that he was never discovered. 
 Whilst at St. Marguerite, he one day wrote 
 something with his knife on a silver plate, and 
 afterwards threw tiie plate through the window 
 towards a boat which lay near the tower. A 
 fisherman took up the plate and brought it to the 
 governor, who, with great aitonishment, asked 
 the man if he had read the writing or shown it 
 to any other person ; and, although he answered 
 in the negative, put him intn confinement till he 
 was perfectly satisfied, after which he dismissed 
 him, saying, ' It is lucky for you tliat you can- 
 not read.' The abbe Papon says, in the year 
 1778 I had the curiosity to visit the apartment oi 
 this unfortunate prisoner : it looks towards the 
 sea. I found in the citadel an officer in the inde- 
 pendent company there, seventy-nine years of 
 age. He told me that his father had often 
 related to him that a young lad, a barber, having 
 seen one day something white floating on the 
 water, took it up. It was a very fine shirt, writ- 
 ten almost all over; he carried it to Mons. de St. 
 Mars ; who, having looked at some parts of the 
 writing, asked the lad, with an appearance ot 
 anxiety, if he had not had the curiosity to read 
 it. He assured him that he had not, but two 
 days afterwards the boy was found dead in 
 his bed. 
 
 Mons. de Jonca, for many years Lieutenant du 
 Roi, kept an exact journal of all that passed in 
 the Bastile. He thus records the death of the 
 black mask. 'Monday, Nov. 19, 1703. The 
 unknown prisoner, whom Mons. de St. Mars 
 brought with him from the island St. Marguerite, 
 where he had been a long time under his care, 
 and who has always been masked with a mask o. 
 black velvet, found himself worse yesterday in 
 coming from mass and died tliis evening at ten 
 o'clock, without any great illness. The smell, 
 however, is not less offensive. Mons. Girault, 
 our chaplain, confessed him yesterday, his death 
 being sudden he had not an opportunity of 
 taking the sacraments ; but our chaplain exhorted 
 him a few minutes before he expired. He was 
 buried on Tuesday, the 20th of November, in 
 the burying-place of our parish of St. Paul. His 
 burial cost forty livres.' 
 
 Immediately after the prisoner's death his apparel, 
 linen, clothes, mattresses, and every thing that had 
 been used by him, were burnt; the walls of his 
 room were scraped, the floor was taken up, and 
 every precaution used that no trace of him might 
 be left behind; and yet there are traces. When 
 he was on the road from St. Marguerite to his 
 last residence, Mons. de St. Mars was ov( rheard 
 to reply to a question of the prisoner, relative to 
 any design against his life. ' No, prince, your
 
 BAS 
 
 638 
 
 BAS 
 
 life is in safety; you must only allow yourself to 
 be conducted.' A prisoner tolJ Mons. la 
 Grancce Chancel that he was lodged, with other 
 prisoners, in the room immediately over this cele- 
 brated prisoner, and found means of speakin^j to 
 him by the vents of the chimney; but he refused 
 to mform them wlio he was, alleging, that it would 
 cost his own life, as well as the lives of those to 
 whom the secret might be revealed. Various have 
 been the mdividuals supposed to be the masked 
 prisoner ; particularly the duke de Beaufort, tlue 
 count de V'ermandois, a foreign minister, and the 
 duke of Monmouth, have been conjectured in turn. 
 Collateral facts, nevertheless, demonstrate that 
 neither of these could have been the person. 
 Voltaire, who has expressly written on this mys- 
 terious affair, says, that the secret was known to 
 Mons. de Chamillard, and that the son-in-law of 
 that minister conjured him on his death-bed, to 
 tell him the name of the man with the mask ; but 
 he replied that it was a secret of state which he 
 had sworn never to divulge. The most singular 
 circumstance of the whole, perhaps, is, that dur- 
 ing the confinement of this man with the mask 
 no person of importance was missing in Europe; 
 ■whence it has been thought that he was the twin 
 brother of Louis XIV., whose birth was concealed 
 by the advice of cardinal Richelieu, but himself 
 preserved, lest, by the death of his brother, it 
 should be necessary to avow him. 
 
 Upon the whole, after a long series of oppres- 
 sions, the horrors of the Bastile became so noto- 
 rious that in July, 1789, the people made an 
 attack upon the building, which held out a few 
 hours and afterwards surrendered. The gover- 
 nor was seized, carried through the streets, and 
 afterwards beheaded. The major, aid-major, and 
 lieutenant of the invalids, were killed in the streets. 
 One soldier was killed and four wounded in the 
 defence; but numbers were wounded, another 
 killed, and two hanged, at the Greve, by the 
 populace, as soon as they gained possession ; the 
 prisoners were feasted and made public spectacles 
 in Paris, the governor's house and adjacent build- 
 ings were levelled, and the mayor afterwards 
 decreed that the whole edifice should be demo- 
 . lished. See Boulanvilliers' Histoire de I'ancien 
 Gouvemement, torn, iii.; Memoiresdu Marechal 
 Due de Richelieu. The History of the Bastile, 
 Lond. 1790, 8vo. 
 
 BASTIMENTOS, several small islands near 
 Terra Firma, in South America, at the mouth of 
 the bay cf Nombre de Dios, east of Porto-Bello. 
 These islands form a very good port which 
 serves as a watering-place for smugglers. Here 
 admiral Hosier lay witli a British squadron 
 many years ago, and the station being unhealthy 
 it proved fatal to himself and the greater part of 
 his men. Long. 79° 40' W., lat. 9° 32' N. It 
 was on this circumstance that Glover, the author 
 of Leonidas, grounded his spirited ballad of 
 Hosier's Ghost. 
 
 Bastinade, Bastonade, or Bastonado, the 
 punishment of 'oeating a criminal with a stick. 
 It was in use among the ancient Greeks, Romans, 
 and Jews, and still is among the Turks. The 
 Romans called it fustigatio, fustium admonitio, 
 or fustibus cadi ; which differed from the flagel- 
 latio, as the former was done with a stick, the 
 
 latter with a rod, or scourge. The fustigation 
 was a lighter punishment, inflicted on freemen ; 
 the flagellation more severe, and reserved for slaves. 
 It was also called tympanum, because the patient 
 here was beaten with sticks, like a drum. It is 
 much used in the East to this day. The method 
 there practised is this : the criminal being laid on 
 his belly, his feet are raised, tied to a stake, and 
 held fiist by officers for the purpose, in which 
 posture he is beaten by a cudgel on the soles of 
 his feet, back, chine, &;c. to the number of 100 
 or more blows. Dr. Shaw suggests (Travels, p. 
 253.), that it was probably in this manner that 
 St. Paul was * thrice beaten with rods.' 
 
 BAS'TION, n. s. Fr. bastion. A huse mass 
 of earth, usually faced with sods, sometimes with 
 brick, rarely with stone, standing out from a 
 rampart, of which it is a principal part, and was 
 anciently called a bulwark. 
 
 And with five bastions it did fence. 
 
 As arming one for every sense. Marvell. 
 
 To ward : but how ? ay there's the question : 
 
 Fierce the assault, unarm'd the hantion. Prior. 
 
 Bastion, in fortification, a large mass of earth 
 at the angles of a work, connecting the curtains 
 to each other. It is formed by two faces, two 
 flanks, and two demigorges. The two faces form 
 the saliant angle, or angle of the bastion ; the 
 two flanks form with the faces, the epaules or 
 shoulders ; and the itnion of the other two ends 
 of the flanks with the curtains, forms the two 
 angles of the flanks. There are various kinds of 
 bastions : such as, — Bastion composed, when 
 two sides of the interior polygon are very une- 
 qual, making the gorges also unequal. Bastion 
 cut, or Bastion with a <c7iai/^e, is that whose point 
 is cut off", and which instead thereof has a re-en- 
 tering angle, or an angle inwards, with two points 
 outwards. It is used either when without such a 
 contrivance the angle would be too acute, or when 
 water or some other impediment hinders the 
 carrying on the bastion to its full extent. Bastion 
 deformed, is when the irregularity of the lines 
 and angles throws the bastion out of shape ; as 
 when it wants one of the demigorges, one side of 
 the interior polygon being too short, &c. Bastion 
 flat, is one built in the middle of the curtain, 
 when it is too long to be defended by the usual 
 bastions of the extremities. Bastion half, or Demi- 
 bastion, also called an epaulement, has but one face 
 and flank. Bastion, solid, is one entirely filled 
 up with earth to the height of the rampart, with- 
 out any void space towards the centre. Bastion, 
 void, or hollow, has the rampart and parapet rang- 
 ing only round the flanks and spaces, so that a 
 void space is left within towards tlie centre, 
 where the ground is so low that if the rampart 
 be taken, no retrenchment can be made in the 
 centre, but what will lie under the fire of the be- 
 sieged. 
 
 BASTOGNE, or Bastognac, a large town 
 of the duchy of Luxemburg, in the Netherlands. 
 It carries on a considerable trade in corn and 
 cattle, and was formerly much more flourishing 
 than at present ; but is still, after Luxemburg, 
 the best town in this part of the Netherlands 
 The French took it in 1688, and demolished the 
 fortifications. Twenty-two miles north-west of 
 Luxemburg, and thirty-five south of Liege.
 
 BAT 
 
 G39 
 
 BAT 
 
 Bastox, Baton, or Battox, in heraldry. See 
 Batton. 
 
 Baston, Batoon, in architecture, a moulding 
 in the base of a column, called also torus. See 
 Architecture, Index. 
 
 Baston, in law,' one of the servants to the 
 \varden of the I'leet-pri-son, who attends the kintf's 
 courts with a red staff, for taking into custody 
 such as are committed by the court. He also at- 
 tends on prisoners who are permitted to go at 
 large by licence. 
 
 Baston (Robert), a Carmelite monk, prior of 
 the convent at Scarborough, and poetlaureat and 
 public orator at Oxford, in the fourteenth century. 
 Edward I. in his expedition into Scotland in 
 1304, took Baston with him to celebrate his vic- 
 tories over the Scots ; but the poet being taken 
 prisoner, was obliged to change his note, and 
 sing the successes of Robert Bruce. He wrote 
 several books in Latin, on the Wars of Scotland, 
 the Luxury of Priests, Synodical Sermons, &c. ; 
 and also a volume of Tragedies and Comedies 
 in English. He died about A. D. 1310. 
 
 BASTONIER, or Batonier, one who keeps 
 the staff of a community, and carries or follows 
 it in processions. 
 
 BASTWICK (Dr. John), born at Writtle, in 
 Essex, in 1593. He was educated at Emanuel 
 C'ollege, Cambridge, from whence he went to 
 Padua, where he took his degree of M. D. He 
 afterwards practised physic at Colchester; but 
 being a man of warm imagination, and a good 
 Latin scholar, he used great freedom in writing 
 against popery. About 1633 he printed in Hol- 
 land a Latin treatise, entitled Elenchus religionis 
 PapisticiE, with Elagellum Pontificis et Episco- 
 porum Latialium, in which the English prelates, 
 thinking themselves aimed at, he was lined 
 £1000 in the higii commission court, excommu- 
 nicated, prohibited from practising physic, his 
 iiooks ordered to be burnt, and himself to remain 
 in prison until he recanted. Instead of recanting, 
 he wrote in prison, Apologeticus ad prsesules 
 Anglicanos ; and another book called. The Li- 
 tany ; wherein he severely exclaimed against the 
 proceedings, and taxed the bishops with an in- 
 clination to poperj'. He was now condemned 
 by the star-chamber to pay a fine of £5000, to 
 be pilloried, lose his ears, and endure perpetual 
 imprisonment. The parliament in 1640 reversed 
 these proceedings, and ordered Dr. Bastwick a 
 reparation of £'5000 out of the estates of the 
 commissioners who had prosecuted him. 
 
 BAT, V. & n.-\ Bat, Sax. This word seems 
 Ba'tlet, 'to have given rise to a great 
 Ba'ton, i number of words in many lan- 
 
 B'atter. J guages ; as, fca/ire, Fr. tobeat; 
 baton, battle, beat, batti/, and others. It proba- 
 bly signified a weapon that did execution by its 
 weight, in opposition to a sharp edge; whence 
 whirlbat and brickbat ; a heavy stick or club : the 
 citation of Spenser gives another meaning, wliicli 
 agrees with the provincial usage of the word in 
 Sussex, where a walking-stick is called a bat ; 
 the bat is also now a common word for what 
 was once the stick in driving back the ball at the 
 game of cricket. 
 
 But while he spake, lo Judas, oon of the twelve 
 came, and with hino a ^reet company with swerdis 
 and baitis. Wkliffe. tit. Matt. xxvi. 47. 
 
 Hero were we first ybatred with the dartcs 
 Of our owne feers from the hye temples top. 
 
 Surreif . 
 But neither sword nor dagger he did bcare ; 
 Seenits that no foes revengement he did feare ; 
 Instead of thcin a handsome bat he held. 
 On which he leaned, as one far in eldc. Spemer. 
 Estsooncs the ape himself gan to vpreare 
 And on his shoulders high his hat to beare. 
 As if good service he were fit to doe. Id. 
 
 Nay, come not near the old man, keep out, che vor' 
 ye, or I'se try whether your cositard or my bat be the 
 harder, Shakspeare. 
 
 And I remember kissing of her ballet [a liandle 
 used in beating linen when taken out of the buck] and 
 the cows' dugs that her pretty chopped hands had 
 milked. Id. 
 
 They were fried in arm chairs, and their bones 
 broken with bats. HakewiU. 
 
 We came close to the shore and offered to land ; 
 but straightway we saw divers of the people with 
 basloTis in their hands, as it were forbidding us to 
 land. Bacon. 
 
 Get me a baton ; 'tis twenty times more court-like, 
 and less trouble ; and yet you wear a sword. 
 
 Beaumont arul Fietclier. Elder Brother. 
 
 That does not make a man the worse. 
 
 Although his shoulders with batoon 
 
 Be claw'd and cudgell'd to some tune. Hudibras. 
 
 BAT, ^ Skinner's conjecture that 
 
 Bat'eyed, this word is derived from the 
 
 Bat'tish, [ old Saxon word bat, a boat, 
 
 BatVowler, ( because the creature it de- 
 
 Bat'towling, j scribes, with its wings ex- 
 
 Bat'ty. J panded, resembles a boat 
 
 impelled by oars, is more ingenious than solid. 
 
 Our ancestors were accustomed to denominate 
 
 the animal back; it is called so in Huloet's old 
 
 dictionary ; that and reremouse appear to have 
 
 been the usual words for it ; ' the other face had 
 
 wings like a backe or fiindermouse.' See Knight. 
 
 Tryal of Truth, 1580, fol. 96; from hence, 
 
 probably, Dr. .lamieson's derivation of backie- 
 
 bird, its modern name in Scotland ; we know 
 
 not the reason for the change into Oaf. 
 
 See the bat hath flown 
 His cloister'd flight, ere to black Hecate's summons 
 The shard-borne beetle with his drowsy hums 
 Hath sung night's yawning peal, there shall be done 
 A deed of dreadful note. Shahpeare. 
 
 Wool of bat, and tongue of dog. 
 Adder's fork and blind worm's stini;, 
 Lizard's leg and owlet's wing. 
 For a charm of powerful trouble. 
 Like a hell-brolh boil and bubble. Id. 
 
 GoN. You are gentlemen of brave mettle ; you 
 would lift the moon out of her sphere if she would 
 continue in it five weeks without changing. 
 
 Seb. We would so, and then go a bat-fowling. 
 
 Id. Tcmpett. 
 Yet could his bat-ey'd legions cas'ly see 
 In this dark chaos. Fletcher. Purple Island. 
 
 But then grew reason dark ; that she no more 
 
 Could the fair forms of good and truth discern ; 
 Bats they became, that eagles were before ; 
 
 And this they got by their desire to learn. Daiirt. 
 
 Some animals are placed in the middle betwixt 
 
 two kinds, as bats, which have something of birds 
 
 and beasts. Locke. 
 
 Where swallows in the winter season keep. 
 And how the drowsy bat and dormouse sleep. Gat/. 
 Bodies hghted at night by fire, must have a 
 brighter lustre than by day, — as sacking of cities, bat- 
 fowling. Peachain.
 
 640 
 
 B A T A V I A. 
 
 Far different there from all that chartn'd before. 
 The various terrors of that horrid shore ; 
 Those matted woods where birds forget to sing. 
 But silent bats in drowsy clusters clin^. Goldsmith. 
 The birds of passage would in a dark night imme- 
 diately make for a light-house, ana destroy them- 
 selves by flying with violence against it, as is well 
 known to bat-fowlers. 
 
 Bat, Batch, Bate, or Batz. See Batz. 
 
 Bat-Fowling, a particular manner of bird- 
 catching in the night-time, while they are at 
 roost upon perches, trees, or hedges. They light 
 torches or straw, and then beat the bushes : upon 
 ■which the birds, flying to the flames, are caught 
 either with nets or otherwise. 
 
 Bat, in zoology. See Vespertilio. 
 
 Bat-Horses, or Baw-Horses, in military af- 
 fairs, baggage-horses belonging to the officer 
 when on actual duty. Bat-men, or Baw-men, 
 originally servants hired in war time to take care 
 of the horses belonging to the artillery, &c. The 
 same name is now given to those v^o are ex- 
 cused regimental duty for the express purpose of 
 attending to the horses belonging to the officers. 
 
 BAT A, in botany, the MusaParadisiaca of Lin- 
 naeus. 
 
 BATACOLO, a small fort and garrison on the 
 east of the island of Ceylon. Lat. 7° 45' N., 
 long. 81° 50' E. This place has little or no con- 
 nexion with the south and west parts of the 
 island, the harbour being incommodious. Here 
 is also an uncommonly bold shore, and immense 
 rocks of very grotesque figures, such are the 
 Friar's Hood, the Elephant, and the Pagoda 
 Rocks. 
 
 BATANY, Bataxg, or Batany Hook, a sea- 
 port town on the east coast of the island of Gi- 
 lolo, where cruizing vessels were formerly kept 
 by the Dutch for the prevention of smuggling. 
 There is a spacious natural fortress on a point of 
 land of very difficult access, and containing se- 
 veral houses and gardens. The whole area thus 
 surrounded is about three miles in circum- 
 ference. 
 
 BATARDEAU, in bridge building. See 
 Coffer-dams. 
 
 BATATAS, in entomology, a species of aca- 
 rus, found on the potatoe in Surinam, and some 
 other parts of South America. It is rather rough 
 and sanguineous ; anterior legs as long as the body. 
 
 BATA\'A, in ancient geography, a citadel of 
 Vindelicia, so called from the Cohors Batava, in 
 garrison under the commander in Rha?tia ; now 
 Passau ; being called Batau, from the Batavi ; 
 then Bassau, and Passau ; situated in Bavaria, 
 at the confluence of the Danube, Inn, and lltz. 
 See Passau. 
 
 BATAVI, the ancient Batavians, a branch of 
 the Catti, who, in a domestic sedition, being ex- 
 pelled their country, occupied the extremity of 
 the coast of Gaul, or the modern Holland, at that 
 time uninhabited, together with the island, called 
 from them Insula Batavorum, situated among 
 shoals. Thus, Lucan, 1. 1, v. 431. 
 
 Vangiones : Bataviquc truces, quos a:re recurvo 
 
 Stndentes acuere tubae : 
 Their name Batavi they carried with them from 
 Germany, there being some towns in the territory 
 of the Catti, called Battenberg, and Battenhau- 
 sen. The bravery of the Batavi, especially the 
 
 horsemen, procured them not only great honor 
 from the Romans, being called their brothers and 
 friends ; but an exemption from taxes, being 
 obliged only to furnish men and arms. 
 
 BATAVIA,^ a city on the north coast of the 
 island of Java, the capital of the Dutch settle- 
 ments in the East Indies. It stands at the 
 meutli of the river Jacatra, in the bosom of a 
 large commodious bay, which is one of the 
 safest harbours in India. Lat. 6° 12' N., long. 107'* 
 4' E. The Jacatra passes through the midst of 
 the towTj, and forms various canals of running 
 water, all faced with freestone, and adorned with 
 trees : over these canals are upwards of fifty 
 bridges, besides those which lie without the town. 
 The streets are all perfectly straight, and each, 
 on an average, thirty feet broad. The houses are 
 built of stone. The city is about a league and 
 a half in circumference, and has five gates ; but 
 there are far more houses without than within 
 them. 
 
 A circular range of islands protects the har- 
 bour of Batavia from any heavy swell, and ren- 
 ders it safe anchorage, these are Onrust, Edam, 
 Cooper's Isle, and Purmerend, containiiig ware- 
 houses, hospitals, and naval arsenals,. From the 
 roadstead there are scarcely any of the buildings 
 of Batavia visible, except the great church, the rest 
 being hid by the palms and other high spreading 
 trees. 
 
 Batavia is well fortified, and the approaches 
 both by sea and land are secured by strong out- 
 works. On an island, at the entrance of the har- 
 bour, there is a fort which command." that 
 passage, and protects tlie extensive dock-yards. 
 The citadel, on the east bank of the Jacatra, is a 
 regular fortress, built of coral rock : it contains 
 the house of the governor-general of the Indies, 
 and the principal authorities. The great church 
 is said to have cost £80,000 ; but the public 
 buildings, generally, are inferior. There are be- 
 sides five other Christian churches, a mosque, 
 and a temple belonging to the Chinese ; the 
 stadt-house, bridewell, infirmary, orphan-house, 
 and two public hospitals, one of which is in the 
 island of Purmerend. Here are also arsenals and 
 magazines, well stocked with military stores and 
 ammunition. The government consists of a 
 council formed by the governor-general of the 
 East Indies, who is president, the director-gene- 
 ral, or governor of Java, nine members, and two 
 secretaries. Tlie power of this body is absolute ; 
 and the governor-general may, on his own re- 
 sponsibility, adopt any measures rejected by the 
 others. The police and criminal magistracy is 
 under a Fiscal, who can levy fines and inflict 
 punishments at discretion. The regulation of all 
 matters relating to navigation are under the 
 marine fiscal ; and a Shah-bender, or captain of 
 the port, acts as consul-general for all nations. 
 A garrison of about 5000 men vras main- 
 tained by the Dutch, in Batavia, before it 
 was captured by our troops, under Sir Samuel 
 Auchmuty in 1811. At that period the number 
 of inhabitants was 47,217. 
 
 In 1792 this city contained upwards of 5000 
 houses liable to be rated ; and a population of 
 115,060 souls, of which 6000 were citizens, 
 22,000 Chinese, and 17,000 slaves ! The total
 
 B A T A V 1 A. 
 
 641 
 
 population of Batavia and its immediate depen- 
 dencies, is estimated at 150,000 souls. The 
 last census of the town is as follows : 
 
 Europeans, 543; Arab, 318; Javanese, 3331 ; 
 Bali-men, 7720 ; Moluccans, 82 ; native Dutch, 
 1485: Malays, 3155; Macassars, 4115; Sum- 
 bayans, 237; Timorotes, 24; Chinese, 11,854; 
 Slaves, 14,239. 
 
 The principal articles imported are cloths, 
 drugs, and opium, from Bengal ; camphor, ben- 
 zoin, birds-nests (hirundo esculenta), coa-lin, 
 and ivory, from Sumatra; garden-seeds, butter, 
 Madeira and Ci^nstantia wines, from the Cape of 
 Good Hope; porcelain, tea, silks, nankeens, 
 alum, borax, sulphur, cinnabar, mother of pearl, 
 paper, sweetmeats, and tobacco, from China; 
 copper, sword-blades, camphor, soy, porcelain, 
 lackered ware, and silks, from Japan. The ex- 
 ports from Batavia are pepper, sugar, rice, coffee, 
 and arrack ; sanchu, (burnt wine.) a kind of 
 Chinese arack. To China, besides these arti- 
 cles, they send birds-nests, of ^the edible swal- 
 low, ^bicho do mar, sea-slug, or holothuria ; 
 cotton, spices, tin, rattans, sapan-wood, sago, 
 and wax. To Borneo and the Moluccas, piece- 
 goods, opium, and a few European articles. To 
 the other Dutch settlements, rice. Bullion was 
 the principal article imported from Europe be- 
 fore the French revolution. 
 
 Batavia has always been unhealthy ; and the 
 mortality in the garrison of the fort is almost in- 
 credible. This arises evidently from the pecu- 
 liar position of the town, and its injudicious or- 
 naments. The plain around is flat, and filled 
 with rice grounds, which must necessarily be often 
 laid under water ; while the streets have each its 
 canal and row of evergreens, which at once oc- 
 casion pestiferous exhalations, and prevent a 
 free circulation of tiie air. A part of the plain, 
 also, on the left of the fort, is an impracticable 
 morass. The thermometer at Batavia is seldom 
 above 90°, and usually as low as 84<* : hence it is 
 not excess of heat that makes it so unhealthy, yet 
 such is the mortality, that one-fifth of the Euro- 
 pean inhabitants die annually. 
 
 Amongst other causes of this, however, the in- 
 temperance of the mode of living must not be 
 overlooked. The vile habits of the Pagan and 
 Mahommedan natives are but too contagious 
 with the Europeans. The multitude of domestic 
 slaves is a source of the worst habits : and most 
 of the femalp part of society are a degenerate, 
 debased race, lost in indolence and sensuality. 
 
 ' Notwithstanding the republican form of the 
 Dutch government,' says Mr. Hamilton, ' in no 
 part of the world is the distinction of ranks so mi- 
 nutely and frivolously attended to as at Batavia, 
 and the salaries allowed to the Dutch Company's 
 servants being inadequate to the support of the 
 establishment they think necessary for the sup- 
 port of their dignity, corruption and bribery are 
 universal. In society every individual is as stiff 
 and formal, and as feelingly alive to every infrac- 
 tion of his privileges, as if his happiness or mi- 
 sery depended on the due observance of them. 
 Nothing is more particularly attended to at en- 
 tertainments by the master of the house, than the 
 seating of every guest, and drinking their healths 
 in the exact order of precedency. 
 Vol. in. 
 
 To provide against future disputes on the 
 subject of precedency, the respective ranks of 
 all the company's servants were iiscertained by a 
 resolution of government, which was revised and 
 renewed in 1764. The act by whicli these rules 
 were first established consists of 131 articles, and 
 enters into the most minute details respecting 
 the carriages, horses, chairs, servants, &c. &c. of 
 the company's servants. 
 
 ' By the eighth article, little chaises for children, 
 drawn by the hand, must not be gilt or painted 
 but in exact proportion to the rank of the pa- 
 rents. Ladies whose husliands are below the 
 rank of counsellors of the Indies, may not wear 
 at one time jewels more in value than six thou- 
 sand rix dollars : wives of senior merchants are 
 limited to four thousand ; others to three, two, 
 and one thousand rix dollars. 
 
 'Article forty-ninth permits ladies of the higher 
 ranks to go abroad with three female attendants, 
 who may wear ear-rings of single middle sized 
 diamonds, gold hair pins, petticoats of cloth, of 
 gold, or silver gauze ; chains of gold and of 
 beads, and girdles of gold; but they must not 
 wear diamonds, pearls, nor any kind of jewels in 
 their hair. Wives of senior merchants may have 
 two, and ladies in an inferior station one female 
 attendant, who may wear ear-rings of small dia- 
 monds, gold hair pins, a jacket of fine linen, and 
 a chintz petticoat ; but no gold or silver stuffs or 
 silks, or any jewels, true or false pearls, or any 
 ornament of gold. The eighty-third article recom- 
 mends to the Dutch East India Company's ser- 
 vants in Bengal, not to surpass their predecessors 
 in pomp of dress and appearance; and the 11 0th 
 permits the director of the factory at Sural, when 
 he goes abroad in state, to carry among other 
 things, four fans, made after the fa.shion of the 
 country, with the feathers of the bird of para- 
 dise and cow-hair, with gold cases and hands. 
 It is remarkable, that in these regulations the 
 tax on carriages increases downwards, from the 
 higher to the lower ranks, and* penalties are 
 attached to the infraction of these statutes.' 
 
 The Chinese, who are the most effective part of 
 the population, are indefatigably industrious, but 
 notorious at the same time for cunning and dis- 
 honesty. ' The Dutch,' they say, ' have only one 
 eye, but the Chinese have two.' All the mecha- 
 nic trades are carried on by them ; and the more 
 wealthy are merchants, some of whom farm the 
 customs and taxes, "rhey inhabit a separate 
 town, or campong, close to the city ; it is thronged 
 with men and pigs, of which the Chinese keep 
 some hundred thousands. The Malays, who are 
 Mahommedans, have a bad character ; but they 
 have been misrepresented by the Dutch, whose 
 narrow, tyrannical policy has alienated the affec- 
 tions of most of the natives. The Amboynese, 
 generally employed as builders, are bold and tur- 
 bulent. 
 
 The foundations of Batavia were laid in 1619 
 by the Dutch commodore Koen, and so 
 prompt and successful were his companions, 
 that it soon became the metropolis of the East 
 India possessions. In 1629 it compelled an 
 army of 200,000 Javanese to retire, after a siege 
 of several months. Not long after, the viceroy 
 rebelled against the emperor of Java : the Dutch 
 
 2T
 
 642 
 
 BATE. 
 
 did not fail to turn this circumstance to their own 
 advantage ; and at length contrived to get these 
 sovereigns completely into their power. Their 
 avarice and injustice, however, made the natives 
 very anxious to emancipate themselves, and in 
 1722 a general conspiracy was discovered, only 
 just in time to prevent its execution. In 1740, 
 not twenty years afterwards, 12,000 Chinese were 
 massacred in one day, by order of the governor, 
 on the plea, real or pretended, of a similar 
 movement. 
 
 In 1798 a new camp at Welte Freden was 
 established in a woody plain, a league and a half 
 up the country. The road to it is along a fine 
 causeway, with country seats on one side, and 
 on the other a navigable canal. The barracks, 
 which are built of wood and stone, occupy a 
 third of the ground on the opposite side of the 
 entrance. The Tannabang, a large Malay village, 
 in which there are several Chinese families, 
 stands on a height two leagues and a half from 
 the city. Mester Cornells is a small fort, a 
 league beyond Welte Freden, surrounded by 
 small Javanese, Malay, and Chinese villages. 
 The ground rises insensibly to Mester Cor- 
 nelis, which is seen half a mile off. This 
 fort lies in a hollow, on the bank of the great river, 
 commanded by a small height. On the right and 
 left of the road are bamboo barracks for the 
 Maduran artillery, of which this is the depot. 
 The fort is built of stone, but is not strong, the 
 demi-bastions being scarcely two feet thick, by 
 four high, and surrounded by a dry ditch. The 
 entrance is by a stone bridge, within which is 
 the guard-house, and near to it another house 
 occupied by the European artillery. The fort is 
 quitted by another bridge on the opposite side, 
 communicating with a range of wooden barracks, 
 in which are the artillery officers and companies 
 under training. 
 
 The whole of the Dutch policy here has been 
 wretchedly arbitrary and severe ; and although 
 Sir Stamford Raffles, the British governor, dur- 
 ing our possession of the place, very successfully 
 reformed their system, the new authorities are 
 said to have returned to it. But Sir Stamford 
 observes, 'of the splendor and magnificence which 
 procured for this capital the title of the Queen of 
 the East, little is now to be found. Streets have 
 been pulled down, canals half filled up, forts de- 
 molished, and palaces levelled with the dust. The 
 stadt-house, where the supreme court of justice 
 and magistracy still assemble, remains ; mer- 
 chants transact their business in the town during 
 the day, and its warehouses still contain ttie 
 richest productions of the island, but few Euro- 
 peans of respectability sleep within its limits.' 
 
 Batavia, the ancient name of Holland. See 
 Batavobum. 
 
 BATAVIAN Republic, one of the late de- 
 mocratic states, formed upon the plan of the 
 French republic, out of the ei-devant United 
 Provinces, or States of Holland. The Stadhold- 
 erate was abolished in 1795, and the republic 
 established March 1798. On the 24th of May 
 1806, it was converted into a kingdom, and Prince 
 Louis Napoleon appointed hereditary and con- 
 stitutional king of Holland. See Holland. 
 
 BATAVORUM Oppidum, in ancient geogra- 
 
 phy, a town in the island of Batavia, mentioned 
 by Tacitus : some suppose it to be Nimeguen. 
 
 BATCALE, or Batacole, a sea-port on the 
 coast of Malabar, Uindostan, where the East 
 India Company formerly had a settlement. In 
 1670 all the settlers were murdered by the natives; 
 but it was again ceded to the company. Twenty 
 miles north from Barcelore. 
 
 Batchelor's Peau, a name given to a species 
 of nightshade. See Solanum. 
 
 BATCH, the past participle of bakan, to 
 bake ; any entire quantity ; a batch of bread is 
 the bread baked at the same time. 
 
 How now, thou core of envy. 
 Thou crusty batch of nature, what's the news ? 
 
 Skakspeare. 
 Except he were of the same meal and hatch. 
 
 Ben. Jonson. 
 BATCHIAN Island, one of the Moluccas, 
 separated from Gilolo by a narrow strait, and 
 situated between the equator and the first degree 
 of south latitude. It is of an irregular shape, in 
 length about fifty-two miles, by twenty the 
 average breadth. In 1 775 the Sultan of Batchian 
 claimed dominion over the islands of Ooby, Co- 
 ram, and Goram, but was himself entirely sub- 
 ject to the influence of the Dutch. The inhabi- 
 tants of Batchian are Malay Mahommedans. 
 BATE, "^ Dr. Johnson thinks it is con- 
 Ba'tatle, Mracted from debate; Skinner 
 Ba'teful. j imagines that it is derived from 
 Ang. Sax. beatan to beat to strike; Todd says 
 positively it is from the Saxon bate, contention, 
 strife or a make-bate. 
 Among which fooles (mark Baldwine) I am one. 
 
 That would not stay myself in mine estate ; 
 I thought to rule, but to obey to none, 
 
 And therefore fell I with my king at bate. 
 
 Mirror for Magistrates. 
 Naked as from the wombe we came, if we depart. 
 What toyle to seeke that we must leve ? what bate 
 to vex the heart ? 
 WTiat lyef leade tcatey men, they that consume their 
 days 
 In inwarde frcets, untemper'd batei, at stryef with 
 6um alwaies. Surrey. Ecclet. chap, iv, 
 Pletyng the lawe 
 For ev'ry strawe. 
 Shall prove a thrifty man. 
 With bate and strife. 
 But by my life 
 
 I cannot tell you whan. Sir That. More. 
 Breeds no bate with telling of discreet stories. 
 
 Shakspeare. 
 
 An honest, willing, kind fellow, as ever servant 
 
 shall come in house withal ; and I warrant you no 
 
 tell-tale nor no breed-6o<e. Id. 
 
 This sour informer, this fca<e-breeding spy. 
 
 This canker that eats up love's tender spring. 
 This carry-tale, dissensious jealousy. 
 
 That sometimes true news, sometimes false, doth 
 
 bring. Id. Venus and Adonis. 
 
 These appear unto us like unto the hatable ground 
 
 lying betwixt England and Scotland, (whilest as yet 
 
 two distinct kingdomes) in so dubious a posture it is 
 
 hard to say to which side they do belong. 
 
 Fuller. General Worthies. 
 
 Batable ground is terra pugnabilis. Eatable ground 
 
 seems to be the ground heretofore in question, whether 
 
 it belonged to England or Scotland, lying between 
 
 both kingdoms. Cowell. 
 
 He knew her haunt, and haunted in the game. 
 And taught his sheep her sheep in food to th'^art ;
 
 BATE. 
 
 643 
 
 Which soon as it did hateful question frame. 
 
 He might on knees confess his guilty part. Sidney. 
 
 Bate, ^ Contracted from abate, old 
 
 Bate'less, f Saxon ; to beat down ; to de- 
 
 Bate'ment, i^ press; to lessen; to diminish; 
 
 Ba'ting. J io sink; or cause to sink; to 
 cut off; to tike away; to remit. 
 
 Shall I bend low, and in a bondsman's key. 
 With bated breath, and whisp'ring humbleness. 
 Say this ? Shakspeare. Merchant of Venice. 
 
 GON. Sir, we were talking, that our garments seem 
 now as fresh, as when we were at Tunis, at the mar- 
 riage of your daughter : who is now queen. 
 
 Ant. And as the rarest thing that e'er came thero. 
 Bate, I beseech you, widow Dido. Id. Tempest. 
 
 Bardolph, am not I fallen away vilely since this 
 
 last election ? Do I not bate ? Do I not dwindle ? 
 
 Why my skin hangs about me like an old lady's loose 
 
 gown. Id. Henry IV. 
 
 Yet I argue not 
 
 'Gainst Heaven's hand or will, nor bate a jot 
 
 Of heart or hope ; but still bear up and steer 
 
 Rit;ht onward. Milton. 
 
 Abate thy speed, and I will hate of mine. Dryden. 
 
 When the landholder's rent falls, he must either 
 hate the labourer's wages, or not employ or not pay 
 him. Loche. 
 
 To abate, is to waste a piece of stuff: instead of 
 asking how much was cut off, carpenters ask what 
 batement that piece of stuff had. 
 
 Mozon'i Mechanical Exercise*. 
 
 But I hate disputes ; and (therefore hating religious 
 pcintfl, or such as toach society,) I would subscribe to 
 any thing which does not choak me in the first pas- 
 sage, rtither than be drawn into one. Sterne. 
 
 Bate, v. a term in falconry ; to flutter the 
 wings, as preparing for flight, particularly at the 
 sight of prey : probably from battre. Fr. 
 
 All plumed like estridges that wing the wind ; 
 
 Bated Like eagles haring lately bathed. 
 
 Shakspeare. I. Henry IV. 
 
 Hood my unmann'd blood bating in my cheek. 
 
 Id. Romeo and Juliet. 
 
 It is a natural action with birds, after bathing, 
 to shake the moisture from their wings; also 
 when desirous of their food or prey, as in the 
 following passage : 
 
 No sooner are we able to prey for ourselves, but 
 they brail and hood us so with sour awe of parents, 
 that we dare not offer to bate at our desires. 
 
 Albumaxar. Old Play vii. 179. 
 
 The true meaning of the word is beautifully 
 exemplified in the following passage of Bacon : 
 
 Wherein (viz. in matters of business) I would to 
 God that I were hooded, that I saw less ; or that I 
 could perform more ; for now I am like a hawk that 
 bates, when I see occasion of service ; but cannot fly 
 because I am ty'd to another's first. 
 
 Bate (George), an eminent physician, born 
 at Maid's Morton, near Buckingham, in 1608. 
 In 1629 he obtained a licence, and for some 
 years practised in and about Oxford ; chiefly 
 among the Puritans. In 1637 he took his de- 
 gree of M. D., and became so eminent, that when 
 king Charles I. kept his court at Oxford he was 
 his principal physician. When the king's affiiirs 
 declined, Dr. Bate removed to London, where he 
 became physician to the Charter-house, fellow of 
 the college of physicians, and afterwards princi- 
 pal physician to Oliver Cromwell. Upon the 
 Restoration he again got into favor with the royal 
 party, was made principal physician to king 
 
 Charles II., and fellow to the Royal Society ; 
 and this, as we are told by Wood, owing to a 
 report raised by his friends that he gave tlie pro- 
 tector a dose which hastened his death. Dr. 
 Bate wrote in Latin a history of the civil wars in 
 England, and some other tracts on physical sub- 
 jects. He died at his house in Hatton-garden, 
 and was buried at Kingston-upon-Thames in 
 Surrey. 
 
 Bate (John), prior of the monastery of Car- 
 melites at York in the fifteenth century, was born 
 in Northumberland, and educated at York and 
 Oxford. Bate abundantly answered the hopes 
 conceived of him, and became an eminent phi- 
 losopher and divine, remarkable for his skill in 
 the Greek tongue. lie took the degree of D. D. 
 at Oxford, and afterwards distinguished himself 
 as an author. The Carmelites of York were so 
 sensible of his merit, that, upon a vacancy, they 
 offered him the government of their house ; 
 which he accepted, and discharged that office 
 with great prudence and success. He died in 
 1423, in the beginning of the reign of Henry IV. 
 
 Bate (Julius), a voluminous author, and an 
 intimate friend of the celebrated Hutchinson ; by 
 whose recommendation he obtained from Charles, 
 duke of Somerset, a presentation to the living of 
 Sutton in Sussex. His publications were : 1. An 
 Essay towards explaining the first Chapter of 
 Genesis, in answer to Mr. Warburton, 1741, 8vo. 
 2. The Philosophical Principles of Moses as- 
 serted and defended against the Misrepresenta- 
 tions of Mr. David Jennings, 1744, 8vo. 3. 
 Remarks upon IMr. Warburton's Remarks, shew- 
 ing that the Ancients knew there was a Future 
 State, and that the Jews were not under an equal 
 Providence, 1745, 8vo. 4. Tlie Faith of the 
 Ancient Jews in the Law of Moses, and the Evi- 
 dence of the Types, vindicated in a Letter to Dr. 
 Stebbing, 1747, 8vo. 5. Micah, v. 2. and Mat- 
 thew, ii. C. reconciled, 1749, 8vo. 6. Aii He- 
 brew Grammar, formed on the Usage of the 
 Words by the Inspi'.ed Writers, 1750, 8vo. 7. 
 The Use and Intent of Prophecy, and History of 
 the Fall, cleared, 1750, 8vo. ; this was occasioned 
 by Middleton's Examination of Sherlock. 8. The 
 Blessing of Judah and Jacob considered, and the 
 ;Era of Daniel's Weeks ascertained, in two Dis- 
 sertations, 1753, 8vo. The Integrity of the He- 
 brew Text and many Passages of Scripture 
 vindicated from the Objections and Misconstruc- 
 tions of Mr. Kennicot, 1755, 8vo. 10. A Reply 
 to Dr. Sharp's Review, and Defence of his Dis- 
 sertations on the Scripture Meaning of Eloim 
 and Berith, 1755, 8vo. 11. A Reply to Dr. 
 Sharp's Review and Defence of his Dissertation 
 on the Scripture Meaning of Berith ; with an 
 Appendix in Answer to the Doctor's Discourse 
 on Cherubim, Part II., 1755, 8vo. 12. Remarks 
 upon Dr. Benson's Sermon on the Gospel Method 
 of Justification, 1755, 8vo. 13. Critica Hebraea, 
 or a Hebrew English Dictionary without Points, 
 See. 1764, 4to. 14. A new and literal Transla- 
 tion from the original Hebrew of the Pentateuct 
 of Moses, and of the Historical Books of the Old 
 Testament, to the end of II. Kings; with Notes 
 critical and explanatory, 1 737, 4to. This learned 
 writer died April 7th, 1771. 
 
 Bate, or Buatta Isle an island of the pro-
 
 644 
 
 BATH. 
 
 vince of Gujrat, Ilindostan, at the south-west 
 extremity of the gulf of Cutch. It possesses a 
 good harbour, and a fort, but is very barren. Tli.e 
 town consists of about 2000 houses, principally 
 inhabited by Hindoos. Long. 69° 21' E., lat. 
 22° 2-2' N. 
 
 BATECUMBE, or Badfxombe (William), an 
 eminent mathematician, supposed to have flou- 
 rished about 1420, in the reign of Ilcnry V. He 
 studied at Oxford, where he applied himself to 
 natural philosophy, but chiefly to the mathe- 
 matics, in which he made a very great proficiency. 
 His writings are : 1 . Of the Formation and Use 
 of the Concave Sphere. 2. Of the Solid Sphere. 
 3. Of the Use of the Astrolabe. 4. Philo.wphi- 
 oal Conclusions. 
 
 BATEMAN (William), bishop of Norwich in 
 the fourteenth century, was born at Norwich. 
 In 1328 he was collated to the archdeaconry of 
 that see ; soon after, he went to Rom^e, where he 
 so distinguished himself that he was promoted by 
 the pope to the place of auditor of the palace. 
 He was likewise advanced by him to the deanery 
 of Lincoln ; and sent twice as nuncio to endea- 
 vour to procure a peace between Edward HL 
 and the king of France. In 1343 he appointed 
 him bishop of Norwich, and consecrated him 
 with his own hands. In 1347 bishop Bateman 
 founded Trinity-hall in Cambridge, for the study 
 of the civil and canon laws ; and another hall 
 dedicated to the Annunciation of the Virgin 
 Mary, for the study of philosophy and divinity. 
 He was often employed by the king and parlia- 
 ment in affairs of the highest importance. In 
 1354 he was, by order of parliament, despatched 
 to the court of Rome, with Henry duke of Lan- 
 caster, and others, to treat, in the pope's presence, 
 of a peace. This journey proved fatal to him ; 
 for he died at Avignon, where the pope resided, 
 id 1334-5, and was buried with great solemnity 
 in the cathedral church of that city. 
 
 BATENITES, a sect of apostates from Ma- 
 hommedanism dispersed through the Ea.st, who 
 fell into the same abominable practices with the 
 Ismaelians and Karmatians. The word properly 
 signifies esoteric, or people of inward or hidden 
 light ; they are also called Batenians. 
 
 BATES (William), D. D. an eminent non- 
 conformist divine, born in November 1625, was 
 admitted of Emanuel college, Cambridge, and 
 thence removed to King's college in 1644. He 
 was one of the commissioners, at the conference 
 in the Savoy, for reviewing the Liturgy, and was 
 concerned in drawing up the exceptions against 
 the Common Prayer; however, soon after the 
 Restoration, he was appointed chaplain to king 
 Charles II., and became minister of St. Dun- 
 stan's in the west, but was deprived of that bene- 
 fice for nonconformity. He bore a very high 
 character ; and was honored with the friendship 
 of the lord keeper Bridgman, the lord chancellor 
 Finch, the earl of Nottingham, and archbishop 
 Tillotson. At the Restoration he was offered 
 the deanery of Litchfield, which he refused. He 
 published Select Lives of illustrious and pious 
 Persons, in Latin. His works, except his Select 
 Lives, have been printed in one volume in folio. 
 He died July 14th, 1699. Dr. Bates was well 
 acquainted not ordy with theology, but with 
 
 poetry and the belles lettres ; his style has been 
 much and justly praised for its elegance; and 
 has obtained for him the appellation of the silver- 
 tongued Bates. 
 
 Bath, one of the most elegant cities in the 
 kingdom, and a bishop's see; is situated in a 
 delightful vale, and on the acclivity of a hill, 
 facing the south and south-east, in the north-east 
 extremity of Somersetshire, near the borders of 
 Gloucester and Wilts. It is twelve miles from 
 Bristol, nineteen from Wells, thirty-eight from 
 Salisbury, forty-two from Gloucester, sixty from 
 Oxford, and 105 from London, by way of Chip- 
 penham, or 107 through Devizes ; surrounded by 
 an amphitheatre of hills, of considerable eleva- 
 tion, it enjoys, by means of the river Avon, 
 which is here of considerable magnitude, and 
 passes through a great portion of the city, a 
 direct communication with the Bristol channel : 
 the Rennet and Avon canal, which here falls into 
 the Avon, completes the inland communication, 
 by water, from London. 
 
 This was very early a favorite station of the 
 Romans, and called by them Aqua Solis, Pontes 
 Calidi, Badinia, and Thennte Achamannum. In 
 1755 the abbey-hous*; or priory was taken down, 
 and, about twenty feet below the surface, were 
 discovered the remains of numerous Roman baths 
 and sudatories, or sweating rooms, circular, semi- 
 circular, and oblong ; paved with smooth flag- 
 stones, with appropriate apartments adjoining, 
 beautifully ornamented with tesselated pave- 
 ments, &c. Such were the frigidarium, or outer 
 room, where the bathers undressed ; tlie tepida- 
 rium, or warmer apartment, within, and the 
 oleothesion, a small room containing oils, oint- 
 ments, and perfumes ; under these were vaults, 
 ingeniously contrived to convey and retain the 
 warmth required for the apartments above, lu 
 444, when the Romans left this country, the city 
 extended 12,000 feet in length, and 1150 in 
 breadth ; and was surrounded by a wall nine 
 feet thick, and twenty feet high ; some remains 
 of which are now to be seen. The several gates 
 have been taken down at different times (the 
 west gate lately), to open and improve the ap- 
 proaches. 
 
 Various other vestiges of this people are in the 
 possession of private individuals, but most of them 
 are preserved and classed in a building erected for 
 that purpose, by the corporation ; amongst these 
 are the remains and fragments of columns, cor- 
 nices and capitals, of a magnificent temple, dedi- 
 cated to Minerva, by Julius Agricola, on the 
 present site of the great pump-room. 
 
 The coins which have been found, are chiefly 
 those of Claudius, Vespasian, Trajan, Adrian, 
 Antoninus Pius, Severus, Maximian, Carausius, 
 and Constantine. Near the burial places of the 
 soldiery, under Lansdown, quantities of urns, 
 fibulae, arniilliE, and chains, have been dug up. 
 
 By the Saxons, Bath was known as Aceraan- 
 nes-ceaptji, the city of sick men ; Acemannes- 
 "oepi, and LerbaSun. It was a burgh town of 
 the kingdom of Wessex. In 775 it was seized 
 by Ofl!a, king of Mercia, who established here a 
 college of secular canons. During the incureions 
 of the Danes in the eighth century, Bath was 
 almost destroyed ; but, in the reign of Athelstan,
 
 BATH. 
 
 645 
 
 it once more recovered its grandeur. Coins 
 were at this time struck, and the grants to the 
 monastery here augmented. King Edgar was 
 inaugurated here, and gave many privileges to 
 the town. Many of the Danish monarchs re- 
 sided here. In the early part of the Confessor's 
 reign it was held by his consort Editha; but it 
 reverted to the crown after her father's death, 
 and was attached to the royal demesnes in the 
 time of William the Conqueror. In the reign of 
 \\'illiam Rufus, during the insurrection of Odo, 
 bishop of Bayeux, and the Norman lords who 
 espoused tl.e cause of the unfortunate Robert, it 
 was plundered and burnt. The city owes its 
 restoration to the liberality of John de \'illula, 
 a native of Tours, who purchased it of William 
 II. for 500 marks, and obtained leave to remove 
 the bishop's seat from Wells hither, uniting it to 
 the monastery and church. He may indeed be 
 considered as its second founder; all the public 
 edifices were rebuilt by him ; and, becoming 
 bishop of the see in the reign of Henry I., he 
 bestowed large endowments on the monastery. 
 The monks, at this and subsequent periods, are 
 said to have greatly encouraged manufactures of 
 woollen cloth. Corruption, however, crept among 
 them, along with the rest of the religious orders ; 
 and, in the reign of Henry VII., bishop King 
 was compelled to introduce several reorulations to 
 correct their excesses. Bath is indebted to this 
 prelate for her beautiful Abbey-church, &c., de- 
 dicated to St. Peter and St. Paul, built in the 
 form of a cross, and considered to be one of the 
 finest specimens extant of the pure Gothic archi- 
 tecture. It was begun by him in 1495, and 
 finished in 1532. The dimensions of t!ie win- 
 dows are nearly uniform ; they are large and 
 beautifully formed : from the centre of the cross 
 rises a tower 162 feet high, crowned with light 
 open battlements. The body of the abbey is 
 210 feet long from east to west, and 126 from 
 north to south ; and the breadth of the body and 
 aisles is seventy-two feet. The principal en- 
 trance at the west is through a fine arched door- 
 way, and the attention of visitors is forcibly 
 arrested by the excellent proportion and beauti- 
 ful symmetry of this noble pile. In the interior 
 is a handsome altar-tomb to the memory of 
 bishop Montague. The vestry contains a small 
 library, founded by bishop Lake. Bath has four 
 parishes, each of which has its church. The 
 abbey church is in the parish of St. Peter and St. 
 Paul ; the names of the three others are St. 
 James's, a freestone building, erected in 1768, at 
 the west end of which is a square tower, contain- 
 ing eight bells: St. Michael's, which was begun 
 in 1734, has a fine dome, and is of the Doric 
 order : Walcot church is dedicated to St. Swithin, 
 and was rebuilt in 1780; this parish has a 
 church entirely devoted to the accommodation 
 of the lower orders, and contains four chapels of 
 ease. In the reign of Elizabeth, the several 
 parishes of Bath were consolidated into one 
 rectory. 
 
 Here are also two reading-schools, many pub- 
 lic libraries, and literary and philosophical insti- 
 tutions, the West of England Agricultural Society. 
 &c. 
 
 Nor is Bath deficient in cliaritablc establish- 
 
 ments. Here is a great hospital and infirmary, 
 capable of receiving 150 patients, who have 
 advice and the use of the waters gratis ; Bellot's 
 hospital, and the Black alms ; the Stranger's 
 Friend Society; the Eye Infirmary, and the 
 Puerperal, or Child-bed Society. The free 
 Grammar-school, and Blue-coat school, are also 
 well-conducted establishments. The places of 
 divine worship for dissenters are numerous ; 
 that belonging to the Ilotnan Catholics was for- 
 merly the theatre. 
 
 By the census returned to parliament in 1021, 
 Batli contained 5127 houses and 36,811 inha- 
 bitants ; exclusive of the out-parishes of Bath- 
 wick, Bathhampton, Batheaston, and Bathford. 
 The city was at one time governed by a steward; 
 but, in 1590, queen Elizabeth granted it a char- 
 ter, declaring it a city, sole in itself, and vesting 
 the government in a mayor, recorder, ten alder- 
 men, and twenty-four common-council ; from 
 the body of aldermen the mayor is elected, and 
 from the council are chosen the chamberlain, 
 two bailiffs, and two constables, annually. It 
 sends two members to parliament, who are 
 elected by the corporation. The see of Bath 
 and Wells comprehends the whole county of 
 Somerset, except a fev/ churches in Bristol, and 
 contains 383 parishes, and 503 churches and 
 chapels. Sixty of the parishes are impropriate. 
 The bishop's palace is at ^VelIs. The vicarage 
 of the abbey is included in the rectory of Bath, 
 and Walcot is a rectoiy. Bath races are held in 
 September, on Lansdown, one of the highest hills 
 near the city, about three miles in extent. On 
 this down is also held an annual fair, on the 10th 
 of August, for cheese, cattle, horses', and all kinds 
 of merchandise, and a fair is also held in Hollo- 
 way, on the other side of the city, May 14th; 
 two other fairs are held in the town. 
 
 By far the largest and finest part of this beau- 
 tiful city is without the walls, particularly 
 Queen Square, in the midst of which is a garden 
 with gravel walks, and having an obelisk in the 
 centre. Another principal ornament of this part 
 of the town is the King's Circus, with three 
 openings at equal distances, leading into as many 
 streets. The fronts of the houses are adorned 
 with three rows of columns, in pairs of the Doric, 
 Ionic, and Corinthian orders, standing over each 
 other, and the frieze is embellished with sculp- 
 ture. In the centre is a large covered reservoir 
 of water, filled from springs rising in the adjacent 
 hills, and serving for the supply of the neighbour- 
 hood. 
 
 The Royal Cresent is another striking object : 
 the whole extensive front is of an elliptical form, 
 consisting of thirty -one noble stone houses, uni- 
 formly built, with rustic basements, surmounted 
 with columns of the Ionic order. It stands on 
 an eminence, with an open and gentle declivity 
 or lawn of twenty acres before it, down to the 
 Avon, commanding delightful and uninterrupted 
 prospects of the city, the vale below, and the 
 river as it meanders towards Bristol ; as well as of 
 the opposite hills, and numerous villas, ham- 
 lets, and roads, which intersect and adorn it. 
 Behind this crescent rise St. James's Square, 
 I>ansdown Crescent, Somerset Place, Camden 
 Place, Portland Place, Catherine Place, Mount
 
 646 
 
 BATH. 
 
 Zion, a larpre extent of buildings on the summit 
 of Beacon Hill ; Cavendish Crescent and Place, 
 Lansdown Grove, Lansdown Place, and Belle 
 Vue. Besides these are Belvidere, Belmont, and 
 Paragon Buildiags, Marlborough Buildings, 
 Burlington Place, and many other intervening 
 streets and buildings. Nothing indeed can be 
 
 the entrance from the London Road, are many 
 new ranges of magnificent buildings, with paved 
 terraces, called Kensington, Piccadilly, Grosvo- 
 nor Place, and Walcot Terrace. 
 
 The amusements of Bath are under the super- 
 intendance of two masters of the ceremonies, who 
 are elected to that office by the subscribers to 
 
 more picturesque than the appearance of this the assemblies, balls, &c., one of whom presides 
 
 part of the town, at the Upper Rooms, and the other at the Lower 
 
 Across the Avon, on the eastern side of the city, Rooms. Besides these, there is a third appointed 
 
 stands Pulteney Bridge, an elegant structure, of to preside at the city assemblies at the Tow/i 
 
 one arch, covered on each side with shops, and Hall. The lodging-houses are numerous and 
 
 leading immediately from High Street, in the commodious, and adapted to all ranks who may 
 
 centre of the city, to Bathwick, where several be induced to seek benefit from these salutary 
 
 elegant new erections have lately arisen, l-aura waters. Sedan-chairs are established here, the 
 
 Place, which is a square, built in the form of a fares of which are settled by the mayor and 
 
 lozengre, is peculiarly beautiful; and passing justices; and here are also hackney-coaches ana 
 
 through the centre of this place diagonally, in a chariots, regulated as in London. Besides the 
 
 direct line from the bridge, is Great Pulteney Assembly Rooms and Pump Room, which are 
 
 Street, of considerable length, uniformly built, the usual promenades for persons of fashion, in 
 
 and lighted with gas. At the distant extremity of wet or unfavorable weather; and the Riding 
 
 this street, in front, is Sydney Gardens, or Vaux- Schools, which are the resort of equestrians on 
 
 hall, which range and expand up the side of similar occasions ; the neighbourhood of Bath 
 
 Claverton Hill, and are very tastefully laid out. abounds with beautiful walks and rides, and 
 
 Here also runs the Kennet and Avon canal, or- 
 namented with two cast-iron bridges in the 
 Chinese style. At the top of the hill is an ex- 
 tensive plantation of firs. Around Sydney Gar- 
 
 particularly Clarerton Down, and Lansdown for 
 the latter, affording the most salubrious air, and 
 the most extensive prospects. 
 
 The old bridge over the Avon is a handsome 
 
 dens extends Sydney Place, an admirable speci- structure, with stone balustrades. The inter- 
 
 men of architecture, forming an area, of which 
 the gardens are the centre. In one of the wings 
 of this place her late majesty, queen Charlotte, 
 resided during her illness in 1817; and near it 
 stands the elegant new parish church of Bath- 
 wick, built in the modern gothic style, and 
 dedicated to St. Mary. 
 
 In the south-east part of the town is Orange 
 Grove, a spacious area, planted with elms, and 
 having an obelisk in its centre ; adjoining to this 
 are the walks where the Old Assembly Rooms 
 are situated, and near to them are the North and 
 
 course between Bath and Bristol is very great, 
 and besides carriages for the conveyance of goods, 
 and private carriages of every description, there 
 are not less than forty stage-coaches, that regu- 
 larly pass forward and backward between the 
 two cities. The whole city of Bath is amply 
 supplied with the most excellent spring-water, 
 brought from the neighbouring hills, and distri- 
 buted to every house by means of leaden-pipes. 
 
 The Guildhall, situate on the east side of 
 High Street, is worthy of such a city. Besides 
 the Vestibule and the Public Hall, for the city 
 
 South Parades. These are two elegant rows of sessions, court of record, justices' meetings, court 
 
 houses, each 580 feet long, elevated on arches, 
 and uniformly built, with paved terraces in front, 
 fifty-two feet wide: whence are extensive and 
 enchanting views of Prior Park, the magnificent 
 seat of the late Ralph Allen, esq. Beechen 
 
 of conscience, and other public business, is a 
 record-room, the town-clerk's and other offices, 
 and above stairs is a noble banqueting and ball- 
 room, with a music-gallery, tea-room, drawing- 
 room, &c. Behind this elegant structure is the 
 
 Cliff, with its hangiiig woods, and Claverton market-place, which is exceedingly commodious, 
 
 Hill, richly diversified with villas and enclosures, 
 and crowned with an ornamental castellated 
 structure, which is surrounded with a plantation 
 of firs, to a considerable extent. In the gardens 
 below the South Parade, on the banks of the 
 Avon, is now building an elegant new square, 
 to be called Kingston Square, which, with the 
 
 spacious, well paved, and under cover. The 
 markets are held daily for all kinds of provision ; 
 and in point of supply and regulation are ex- 
 celled by none in England. The principal days 
 for butchers' meat, are on Wednesday and Satur- 
 day; and for fish, Monday, Wednesday, and 
 Friday. The city prison is a handsome edifice, 
 
 intended new streets, and a spacious esplanade built of freestone, near the river in Bathwick. 
 
 next the water, will occupy the whole space of 
 ground between the city and the river on that 
 side. On the lower side of the town are many 
 ranges of building, which, in most other places, 
 would be deemed fine ; among these are St. 
 James's Parade, and Westgate Buildings, and 
 
 After this general outline of the place, the seve- 
 ral public baths next claim attention — these are, 
 the King's, the Queen's, the Cro^s, the Hot, and 
 the Corporation baths, which are the property 
 and under the superintendence of the corpo- 
 ration; besides which are the Kingston, or Abbey- 
 
 adjacent to Kingsmead Square are New King baths, now the property of lord Manvers, which 
 
 Street, Green-Park Place, east and west ; forming 
 two sides of a triangle, the base or hypothenuse 
 of which opens to the river, and Brunswick 
 Terrace, and Kingsmead Terrace, pleasantly over- 
 looking the meadov;s, and commanding views of 
 the surrounding country. 
 
 On the north-eastern extremity of the town, at 
 
 are commodiously fitted up, and where invalids 
 are accommodated at any hour of the day or 
 night. The taste of the waters is pleasant, 
 impregnated with a vitriolic principle, which 
 yields, upon evaporation, a small portion of 
 neutral salt, with a calcareous earth and iron. 
 They prove highly serviceable in bilious com-
 
 BATH. 
 
 647 
 
 plaints, as well as in nervous, paralytic, rheu- 
 matic, and gouty disorders. Tiie King's bath is 
 a large basin of sixty-five feet by forty, and con- 
 tains rather more than 346 tons of water, when 
 filled to its usual height. A brass hand-rail, of 
 an octagonal form, encloses the centre : under it 
 is a large reservoir, into which the main spring 
 rises with great force, and from whence the water 
 is conveyed, in its greatest purity, by means of 
 pipes, to the pumps above, for drinking, as well 
 as distributed with more equable heat through- 
 out the bath, in which the main spring has its 
 source; the sides of the bath are surrounded 
 by a handsome colonnade of the Doric order, to 
 shelter the bathers from the inclemency of the 
 weather. Two commodious rooms are connected 
 with this bath, fitted up with pumps and pipes 
 to direct the hot water to any particular part of 
 the body. The Queen's bath, wliich is attached 
 to the King's, and opens into it, forms a square 
 of twenty-five feet, and is furnished with similar 
 conveniences; its temperature is somewhat lower. 
 The Cross bath received its appellation from a 
 cross erected in its centre by the earl of Mel- 
 fort, in the time of James II. which is now 
 removed. It is situate at the western extremity 
 of Bath-street, about 150 yards from the two 
 former, is of a triangular form, and has a small 
 neat pump-room attached to it. Fahrenheit's 
 thermometer rises in it to between 93 and 94. 
 
 The Hot bath stands about forty yards south- 
 west of the King's, and is so called from the su- 
 perior heat of its waters, which approaches to 11 7 
 of Fahrenheit. This structure, which is about 
 fifty-six feet square, was built under the direction 
 of John Wood, Esq. The usual time of bathing 
 in the King's and Cross baths is between six and 
 ten in the morning, after which time the water is 
 discharged, and the springs afford a fresh supply 
 of water for the next day. The seasons for 
 bathing are the spring and fall. 
 
 Dr. Higgens has proved that a Winchester 
 gallon of Bath water contains. 
 
 oz. dwt. gr. 
 Calcareous earth combined with 
 
 vitriolic acid in the form of 
 
 selenite 319^ 
 
 Calcareous earth combined with 
 
 acidulous gas 22x5, 
 
 Marine salt of magnesia ... 00 22^ 
 
 Sea salt '01 li-{^ 
 
 Iron combined with acidulous 
 
 gas 0^, 
 
 Acidulous gas, besides that which 
 
 is contained in the above earth 
 
 and iron 12 
 
 Atmospheric air 2 
 
 Dr. Monro gives the highest degree of heat 
 attributed to them by 
 
 From the 
 pump of 
 the 
 
 ! 
 
 
 Dr. 
 
 Dr. 
 
 Dr. 
 
 
 
 Howard, 
 
 Charlton. 
 
 Lucas. 
 
 
 r King's bath 
 
 113 
 
 116 
 
 119-) 
 
 r Of 
 
 < Hot bath . . 
 
 115 
 
 116 
 
 119 > . . 
 
 . < Fahrenheit's 
 
 C Cross bath . 
 
 108 
 
 110 1 
 
 114) 
 
 C thermometer ; 
 
 and states that on evaporation, a gallon has been 
 found to contain of iron ^j or ^g parts of a grain ; 
 calcareous earth 22^ grains, selenite 31^ grains, 
 Glauber's salt 25J grains, sea salt 51^ grains, 
 which were mixed with an oily matter, but not 
 more so than is common to all waters. From 
 this it appears that the Bath waters are acidulous 
 chalybeates, in which iron and earth are kept 
 suspended by means of aerial acid ; and that they 
 are impregnated with a small portion of selenite, 
 sea salt, and muriated magnesia. They were 
 for a long time esteemed sulphureous ; but they 
 clearly are not, for they do not affect the color 
 of silver or metallic solutions, nor produce any 
 other effect of water impregnated with sulphur. 
 There is some probability that azotic gas is an 
 active ingredient in them, but this has not been 
 properly ascertained. Dr. Gibbes has lately 
 added to their impregnations the silicious earth. 
 But their contents have never been sufficiently 
 investigated to account for all their effects. They 
 operate powerfully by urine, and promote per- 
 spiration ; if drank quickly and in large draughts 
 they purge, but if taken slowly and in small 
 quantities liave an opposite effect. These waters 
 are adapted to atonic gout, to visceral obstruc- 
 tions, nephritic complaints, dyspepsia, and to 
 weak and exhausted constitutions ; they relieve 
 externally in all the complaints for which the 
 more stimulant power oi the balneum is em- 
 ployed. To the young and plethoric they are 
 frequently injurious; and unless some evacua- 
 
 tions are premised, they often disagree with the 
 patient, occasioning headache, heat in the hands, 
 drowsiness, and giddiness.' 
 
 jThe other public buildings in Bath are the 
 upper and lower assembly rooms. The former, 
 in the immediate vicinity of the circus, was 
 finished in 1791, at the expense of £20,000; the 
 ball room is 105 feet long, forty-three wide, and 
 twenty-two high ; one of the card rooms is an 
 octagon, forty-eight feet in diameter, the other is 
 seventy feet by twenty-seven ; these, with the 
 tea and coffee rooms, library, billiard room, and 
 other appropriate apartments, form the most su- 
 perb suite of rooms dedicated to pleasure, in the 
 kingdom. The lower assembly rooms, near the 
 parades, are also very elegantly fitted up, and 
 both are appropriated chiefly to public meetings, 
 promenades, balls, concerts, cards, and other 
 amusements, during the winter and spring sea- 
 sons. The pump room presents unrivalled 
 attractions; it was built in 1797, is eighty-five 
 feet long, forty-six wide, and thirty-four high ; 
 the interior is adorned with columns of the Corin- 
 thian order, crowned with a rich entablature. 
 In a recess at the west end is a music gallery, 
 and at the other end is a marble statue of Beau 
 Nash ; here the company promenade and drink 
 the waters from eight or nine till three, attended 
 by an excellent band of music. The theatre, on 
 the south side of Beaufort-square, was opened in 
 1805, and in point of size, elegance of structure, 
 and magnificence of decoration, is superior to
 
 648 
 
 BATH. 
 
 any provincial theatre. Tlie company of per- 
 formers have long been esteemed the best out of 
 the metropolis. 
 
 Bath, a town of Berkely county, Virginia. It 
 Is situated at the foot of a small mountain, known 
 by the name of the Warm Spring mountain. 
 Contisruous are springs much celebrated. The 
 country round is agreeably variegated with hills, 
 and the soil rich and well cultivated. It is thirty- 
 five miles from Winchester, twenty-five from 
 Martinsburg, and 269 from Philadelphia. 
 
 Bath, a large mountainous county of Virginia, 
 sixty miles in length, and fifty in breadth. It is 
 bounded on the east by Augusta, on the west by 
 €re€n-brier county, on the north by Pendleton, 
 and on the south hy Botetourt. In this county 
 are two springs remarkable for their medicmal 
 quality. They are called the wann and hot 
 spring, and rise near the foot of Jackson's monn- 
 tain, but more generally known by the name of 
 the Warm-spring-Mountain. The hot spring, so 
 called from its possessing a greater degree of heat 
 than the warm spring, has frequently been so hot 
 as to have boiled an egg. Some believe its heat 
 to be now diminished. The stream which issues 
 from it is small. A fountain of common water, 
 which rises near its margin, gives it a striking 
 appearance. The warm spring rises about six 
 miles from the former, and issues with a bold 
 stream sufficient to turn a grist mill, and to keep 
 the water of its basin, which is nearly 100 feet 
 in circumference, at the vital warmth. The water 
 is strongest in the hottest weather, which occa- 
 sions their being visited in the months of July 
 and August. They remove rheumatisms and 
 various other complaints. It rains here four or 
 five days every week. 
 
 Bath, a town of the United States, New York, 
 in the county of Steuben, handsomely situated on 
 the east side of the river Conhocton. It con- 
 tained in 1813, when its trade and population 
 were rapidly increasing, fifty houses and stores, 
 besides the country buildings. The Conhocton 
 is here seventy-five feet wide, and is navigable 
 for boats to the Tioga. It is forty-two miles 
 south-east from Williamsburgh, and 200 north 
 from Philadelphia. 
 
 Bath, a small town of Hyde county, North 
 Carolina; situated near a bay which sets north 
 from Tar river, eleven miles east by south of 
 Washington, and sixty-one south by west of 
 Eden ton. 
 
 Bath, a village in the island of Jamaica, so 
 named from a famous hot spring in its vicinity. 
 The water is sulphureous, and too hot to admit 
 a hand being held in it. 
 
 Bath, in Jewish antiquity. Some distinguish 
 five kinds of Hebrew measures so called, viz. the 
 greater bath containing eighty pounds of water, 
 or, according to Josephui, 1440 Roman ounces ; 
 the second bath containing 100 ounces; the third, 
 66| ounces ; the fourth containing 2o ounces ; 
 and the fifth, 6| ounces of water. Some have 
 estimated the sacred bath at half as much again 
 as the common bath ; but there is no sufficient 
 reason for this distinction. The word, in Hebrew, 
 signifies literally a daughter. See Bath-kol. 
 
 Bath, in metallurgy, is used to signify the 
 fusion of metallic matter in certain operations. 
 
 In refining or cupelling, for example, the raetals 
 are said to be in bath when they are melted ; 
 thus, bath of gold signifies melted antimony when 
 gold is purified in it; and bath of the king is the 
 title given to melted antimony by alchemists, 
 who style gold the king of metals, because gold 
 only can resist the action of antimony. 
 
 Bath, Kmghts of the, a military order of 
 England, concerning the origin of which antiqua- 
 ries differ. The most probable account is that 
 the ancient Franks and inhabitants of Lower Ger- 
 many, with whom it is highly probable the Saxons, 
 who invaded England, had the same descent, 
 introduced it, with other customs, upon their 
 settling here. These ancient Franks, when they 
 conferred knighthood, practised bathing amongst 
 other rites, before they performed their vigils; 
 and they were hence denominated Knights of the 
 Bath. Henry IV., on the day of his coronation 
 in the tower of London, conferred the degree 
 upon the forty-six esquires, who had watched all 
 the night before, and had bathed themselves. 
 From that time it was customary with our kings 
 to confer this dignity preceding their coronations, 
 the coronations of their queens, the births and 
 marriages of the royal issue, &c. ; several knights 
 of the bath were made at the coronation of king 
 Charles II. in 1661 ; after which the order was 
 neglected until 1725, when George I. revived it, 
 and ordered a book of statutes for the govern- 
 ment of it. By this the number of knights is 
 fixed to thirty-eight, viz. the sovereign, and thirty- 
 seven knights-companions. The apparel of a 
 knight of the bath is a red fur coat, lined and 
 edged with white, girded about with a white gir- 
 dle, without any ornament thereon ; the mantle is 
 of the same color and lining, made fast about the 
 neck with a lace of white silk, having a pair of 
 gloves tyed therein, with tassels of silk and gold 
 at the end; which mantles are adorned upon the 
 left shoulders with the ensign of the order, being 
 three imperial crowns, or, surrounded with the 
 ancient motto of this knighthood, Tria juncta in 
 uno, wrought upon a circle gules, with a glory 
 or rays issuing from the centre, and under it the 
 lace of white silk heretofore worn by the knights 
 of the bath. They have red breeches and stock- 
 ings, and have white hats, with a plume of white 
 feathers in them. The kmg allowed the chapel 
 of king Henry VII. to be the chapel of the order; 
 and ordered that each knight's banner, with 
 plates of his arms and styles, should be placed 
 over their several stalls, in like manner as the 
 knights of the garter's in St. George's chapel in 
 the castle, of Windsor; and he allowed them sup- 
 porters to their arms. The dean of Westminster 
 for the time being is dean of the order; the other 
 officers are, bath king at arms, a genealogist, 
 registrar, secretary, gentlenran usher, and messen- 
 ger. These several officers have their particular 
 duties assigned them by the statutes. The office 
 of genealogist is a distinct office of record, for 
 the pedigrees of the knights of the order and their 
 esquires, which are entered in a regular series, 
 from 1399, the period at which the order was 
 originally instituted, to the present time. 
 
 An esquire of the order is allowed to hunt and 
 fish in the king's royalty, and is exempt not only 
 from serving the office of high sherifl", but any
 
 BATHS. 
 
 G49 
 
 parochial office. To prevent any abuses in the 
 claiming these privileges and exemptions, the 
 following notification was inserted in the gazette in 
 1803, previously to the installation of twenty-two 
 knights, attended by their esquires, sixty-six in 
 number. 
 
 ' It is hereby notified, that no 'exemplificate 
 will be issued to any esquire, from his royal 
 highness the duke of York, after the ensuing 
 installation, until it shall be certified to his royal 
 highness, by the genealogist, that the pedigree 
 and coat armour of the several knights and their 
 respective esquires have been entered in the 
 genealogical books of the order, in obedience to 
 the said statutes. Given at the Horse Guards, 
 this 1 3th day of May 1 003 ; Freueuick, acting as 
 great master of the said most honorable military 
 order of the bath.' 
 
 We need hardly add, that, both in the number 
 of knights and the brilliancy of its appearance, 
 this order maintained its full splendor at the 
 coronation of the fourth sovereign of the House 
 of Brunswick. 
 
 Bath Metal is a preparation of copper with 
 zinc, which gives a more beautiful color than the 
 calamine used in the preparation of the common 
 brass. See Prince's Metal. 
 
 Baths, in ancient architecture, buildings of 
 various descriptions erected for the purpose of 
 bathing. Baths made a part of the ancient gym- 
 nasia, though they were frequented more for the 
 sake of pleasure than health. The most magni- 
 ficent among the Romans, were those of Titus, 
 Paulus yErailius, and Dioclesian, of which there 
 are some ruins still remaining. It is said that at 
 Rome there were 856 public baths. Fabricius 
 adds, that the excessive luxury of the Romans 
 appeared in nothing more visibly than in their 
 baths. Seneca complains, that the baths of ple- 
 bians were filled from silver pumps; and that 
 tlie freedmen trod on gems. Statius has plea- 
 santly described one in his poem upon the baths 
 of Claudius Etruscus, the steward of the em- 
 peror Claudius. 
 
 Nil ibi plebeium ; nusquam Temesaea videbis 
 jEra, sed argento felix propcllitur unda, 
 Argentoque cadit, labrisque nitentibus instat, 
 Delicias mirata suas, et abirc recusal. 
 
 Macrobius tells us of one Sergius Oratus, a 
 voluptuary, who had pendent baths hanging 
 in the air. According to Dion, Maecenas was 
 the first who made a bath at Rome ; yet there 
 are instances of public baths prior to this ; but 
 they were of cold water, small, and poorly deco- 
 rated. Agrippa, in his aedilate, built a number 
 of baths, where the citizens might be accommo- 
 dated, either with hot or cold water, gratis. 
 After his example, Nero, \'espasian, Titus, Domi- 
 tian, Severus, Gordian, Aurelian, Maximian, Dio- 
 clesian, and most of the emperors who studied to 
 gain the affections of the people, erected baths 
 laid with the richest marble, and wrought accord- 
 ing to the rules of the most delicate architecture. 
 The rich had baths at home, and frequently very 
 magnificent ones, especially after the time that 
 the practice of pillaging provinces had begun ; 
 but they only used them on extraordinary occa- 
 sions. The great men, and even emperors them- 
 
 selves, sometimes bathed in public with the rest 
 of the people. Alexander Severus was the first 
 who allowed the public baths to be opened in 
 the night during the heats of summer. 
 
 Dioclesian is said to have erected baths which 
 would accommodate 1800 bathers. According 
 to Alberti, in the eighth book of his architec- 
 ture, the extent of an ancient Roman bathing 
 establishment was at least 100,000 square 
 feet. Now, if we consider the great extent of 
 their ruins, the number of their apartments, courts, 
 and halls, which were enclosed and served for 
 recreation and exercise, Alberti does not err on 
 the side of excess. They were generally of f». 
 square or oblong form, and surrounded with 
 walls; this space had three enclosures, each of 
 which surrounded th€ building, as it were, one 
 placed within the other. The first, or what sur- 
 rounded the exterior, contained the halls in 
 which the philosophers gave their instructions, 
 and those which were used by the athletae. The 
 second division contained open places, planted 
 with trees, for the exercise of the youths. In the 
 third division, situated in the middle of the 
 building, were the baths, surrounded with por- 
 ticoes and open courts. Sometimes the entire 
 building was enclosed by a park, like that of 
 Alexander Severus, which contributed greatly to 
 the embellishment of the whole structure. 
 
 They were careful to place their public baths 
 in a warm situation ; to protect them from the 
 north winds, and expose them to the south or 
 south-west as much as possible, that they might 
 receive heat from the sun during the hours in 
 which the bath was generally used. In the 
 baths of individuals, especially in towns or cities, 
 they sometimes made a distinction between sum- 
 mer and winter baths. In the first, they placed 
 the cold bath towards the north, and in the win- 
 ter baths, towards the south. 
 
 The Greek baths were usually annexed to 
 palestrse or gymnasia, of which they were consi- 
 dered as a part. These baths consisted of seven 
 different apartments, usually separated from each 
 other, and intermixed with other buildings belong- 
 ing to the other sorts of exercises. These were, 
 first, the cold bath, frigida lavatio ; secondly, the 
 olajothesium, or room where they were anointed 
 with oil ; thirdly, the fvigidarium, or cooling 
 room; fourthly, the propnigeum, or entrance of 
 the hypocaustum, or stove; fifthly, the vaulted 
 room, for sweating in, or vapor bath, called 
 concamerata sudatio, or tepidarium ; sixthly, the 
 laconicum, or dry stove; seventhly, the hot bath, 
 called callida lavatio. The baths separate from 
 the palestrae appear to have been usually double, 
 one for men, the other for women ; but so near, 
 that the same furnace heated both. The middle 
 part was possessed by a large basin that received 
 water by several pipes, and was surrounded by a 
 balustrade, behind which there was an area for 
 the reception of those who waited to use the 
 bath. They were vaulted over, and only received 
 light from the top. In the Roman baihs, the 
 first part that appeared, was a large basin, called 
 Ko\i<nlit}6pa in Greek, and natatio or piscina in 
 Latin. In the middle was the hypocaustum, 
 which had a row of four apartments on eacli 
 side, called balnearia ; these were the stove, the
 
 650 
 
 BATHING. 
 
 bath, cold bath, and tepidarium. The two stoves, 
 called laconicum and tepidarium, were circular 
 and joined together. Their floor was hollow and 
 suspended, in order to receive the heat of a large 
 furnace, which was communicated to the stoves 
 through the vacuities of their floor. This fur- 
 nace also heated another room called vasarium, 
 in which were three large brazen vessels called 
 miliaria, respectively containing hot, warm, and 
 cold water; which were so disposed, that the 
 water might be made to pass by syphons and 
 pipes out of one or other of them into the 
 bath, in order to adjust its temperature. The 
 description is given by Vjtruvius. 
 
 The baths or thermae of the Romans, as well as 
 the gymnasia of the Greeks, were sumptuously 
 decorated with bassi rilievi, statues and paint- 
 ings; the basins were of marble, the pavements 
 of mosaic, and the cupolas splendidly deco- 
 rated. The remains of those at Rome prove, 
 more than any other of tlieir architectural ruins, 
 the love of magnificence and luxury which cha- 
 racterised the ancient Romans ; and as the public 
 baths were intended to collect together a great 
 number of people, they were divided into so 
 many various apartments, which afforded their 
 architects an ample field for the display of taste 
 and splendor of ornament. Agrippa ornamented 
 the apartments of his bath with encaustic paint- 
 ing, and covered the walls of the caldarium with 
 slabs of marble, in which were inserted small 
 paintings. In the earlier period of the Roman 
 history, before the arts and luxuries of Greece 
 were much known to, or practised by, the Romans, 
 their baths were small and simple, only calcu- 
 lated Jot the mere act of bathing, like that of 
 
 Scipio Africanus, described by Seneca. While 
 
 the ruins of the baths of Titus, Caracalla, Nero, 
 Dioclesian, and Antoninus, are the most splendid 
 examples of these kinds of buildings, and an- 
 ciently contained tlie finest statues that were 
 brought from Greece. The Laocoon was found 
 in the baths of Titus, and the Farnese Hercules 
 in those of Caracalla. 
 
 In Italy and the east, baths on a large scale are 
 still constantly seen. Denon, in his Egypt, des- 
 cribes the hot vapor baths of the countries through 
 which he passed ; and in St. Petersburgh, at Flo- 
 rence, and in several European capitals, these 
 are coming much into use. 
 
 BATHE (Henry De), a learned knight and 
 justiciary of the thirteenth century, born at Bathe 
 House, in Devonshire, the family seat. In 1238 
 he was appointed justice of the Common Pleas; 
 and within the cucceeding twelve years, an itine- 
 rant justice for eight different counties. In 1251 
 he lost the royal favor, and being accused of ac- 
 cepting bribes, perverting justice, &c. and, above 
 all, of seditiously alienating the affections of his 
 majesty's subjects, Henry III. became so irritated 
 against him, that De Bathe, either from his inno- 
 cence, or popularity, being acquitted of the crimes 
 laid to his charge, Henry is said to have declared 
 from the throne, that whosoever should kill 
 Henry De Bathe, should have a royal pardon for 
 him and his heirs ! — Not long after, however, by 
 the mediation of friends, and the payment of 
 2000 marks to the king, he was restored to favor, 
 and all his former offices, along with that of jus- 
 tice of the king's bench, which he enjoyed till 
 his death in 1261. 
 
 BATHING. 
 
 BATHE', ■\ Ang.-Sax. hathian, Dut. and 
 Bath', > Ger. toc^e??, Swed. 6a£?a. To wet, 
 
 Bath'ing. 3 to immerse in water or other 
 liquid. A bath, the receptacle of the fluid, in 
 •which subjects are covered or immersed, is either 
 hot or cold, either of art or nature. It is also a 
 technical term in chemistry. 
 
 The sleer of himself yet saw I there. 
 His herte-blood hath bathed all his here. 
 
 Chaucer. The Knightet Tale. 
 Quod he, 
 Brenne hire right in a hath with flames rede, 
 And as he bade right so was don the dedc. 
 For iu a bathe they gonne hire fast shetten. 
 And night and day gret fire they under batten. 
 
 Id. Second Nonnes Tale. 
 And whilst he slept she over him would spred 
 Her mantle, colour'd like the starry skyes. 
 And her soft arme lay underneath his hed. 
 And with ambrosiall kisses bathe his eyes. Spenser. 
 Except they meant to bathe in reeking wounds, 
 I cannot tell. Shakspeare. Macbeth. 
 
 Sleep, 
 The birth of each day's life, sore labour's bath. 
 Balm of hurt minds. Id. 
 
 Thereupon, belike, this humour of melancholy is 
 called balneum diaboli, the devil's bath; the devil 
 spying his opportunity of such humours, drives them 
 
 many times to despair, fury, rage, &c. mingling hinu 
 self among ^these humours. 
 
 Burton' t Anatomy of Mcla-.ioholt/. 
 But lo ! the day is ended with my song. 
 And sporting bathe* with that fair ocean maid. 
 
 Fletcher. Purple Island. 
 Others on silver lakes and rivers bath'd 
 Their downy breast ; the swan, with arched neck. 
 Between her white wings mantling proudly, rows 
 Her state with oary feet. Milton, 
 
 Mars could in mutual blood the centaurs bathe. 
 And Jove himself give way to Cynthia's wrath. 
 
 Drt/den. 
 She rear'd her arm, and with her sceptre struck 
 The yawning cliff from its disparted height ; 
 Adown the mount the gushing torrents ran. 
 And cheer'd the vallies ; there the heav'nly mother 
 Bath'd, mighty king, thy tender limbs. 
 
 Prior. First Hymn uf Callim. 
 Queen lilies : and ye painted populace. 
 Who dwell in fields, and lead ambrosial lives ; 
 In morn and ev'ning dew, your beauties bathe. 
 And drink the sun. Young. 
 
 Constantino survived that solemn festival about ten 
 months ; and, at the mature age of sixty-four, after a 
 short illness, he ended his memorable life at the 
 palace of Aquyrion, in the suburbs of Nicomedia, 
 whither he had retired for the benefit of the air, and 
 with the hope of recruiting hxi exhausted strength by 
 the use of the warm bath. Gibbon.
 
 BATHING. 
 
 651 
 
 Bathing, for medicinal or salutary purposes, 
 demands consideration under several distinct 
 heads ; in the first place, as the temperature of 
 the bath may be concerned : thus we have cold, 
 hot, and tepid or temperate baths. Secondly, 
 as the mode may vary in the application of the 
 media employed ; for immersing the body, 
 pouring water over the whole, or part of its sur- 
 face, the use of sponges or cloths to the naked 
 body, immersing the body in or exposing it to 
 vapor, and letting water fall from a greater or 
 less height upon the head and shoulders, are, in 
 fact, all varieties of bathing. We have, thirdly, 
 also to consider the question of specific qualities 
 in the agencies employed ; some substances, as 
 we shall see in the sequel, being used for the im- 
 pregnation of baths which are supposed to 
 operate with positive powers of a medicinal 
 kind. And, lastly, it may be remarked, that the 
 material itself varies beyond the circumstance of 
 temperature or peculiar quality ; for besides 
 water and vapor, air and earth have been 
 brought into requisition as subservient to the 
 purposes for which the practice of bathing was 
 instituted. 
 
 The term Cold Bath is generally made to in- 
 clude the whole range of temperature, from a 
 little above thirty-two to eighty degrees of Fah- 
 renheit's thermometer; by sudden immersion 
 in water, of this low temperature, the whole 
 surface becomes contracted, the bulbs of the 
 hair, as a modem author states, are made con- 
 spicuous, and the skin, resembling that of a 
 newly picked goose, has been styled cutis anse- 
 rina. The debility and tremor are considerable, 
 a sense of weight is felt in the head, the respi- 
 ration is quick and laborious. These appearances 
 ^re followed by a very different series. A glow 
 soon returns to the surface, the weight in the 
 liead is almost instantaneously relieved, and 
 every function appears to be carried on with 
 increased activity. If a person stays for a longer 
 period in the bath, the glow will be slighter 
 and will soon disappear, while every previous 
 symptom of debility will return and continue. 
 
 If this immersion be repeated at due inter\'als, 
 and the stay in the bath be not improperly con- 
 tinued, the general health and spirits are greatly 
 improved, the diff'erent necessary evacuations 
 properly carried on and supported, and the 
 body and mind appear to act with increased 
 vigor. 
 
 The explanation of these phenomena, says the 
 author from whom we extract, is not difficult : 
 the cold, by its sedative powers, represses the 
 circulation in the extreme vessels, and the fluids 
 are accumulated in the larger arteries and veins : 
 and he goes on to state, that re-action is set up 
 to produce die subsequent glow ; this after-glow, 
 however, and indeed the immediate impression 
 of the cold water, are probably more complicated 
 operations than those persons imagine who readily 
 receive the explication of the circumstances as 
 referrible to a sort of mechanical action and re- 
 action. The cold plunge seems to affect not 
 merely by directing the blood inwardly upon the 
 large blood-vessels and viscera, but there may 
 be a constringing agency produced through the 
 whole series of capillary vessels ; and the con- 
 
 sequent diminution of the capacity of these 
 vessels, or of their diameter, must, as is well 
 remarked by another writer on the subject, ne- 
 cessarily increase that part of the resistance to 
 the blood's motion which is derived from its 
 friction against tlie sides of the vessels, £uid must 
 therefore tend materially to lessen its velocity. 
 He might have added, that, upon this principle, 
 the generation of cold, or rather the subduction 
 of the sensation of heat is probably in a greater 
 measure than would be the consequence of the 
 mere cold immersion, had not this mode of ap- 
 plying cold some constringing as well as mere 
 sedative power ; this term sedative, we may here 
 incidentally remark, has been employed by phy- 
 siological and pathological writers with too much 
 laxity of signification. 
 
 In considering the phenomena directly and 
 indirectly produced by cold bathing, reference 
 ought likewise to be had to the sensations ; for 
 it will be found that both the first and subsequent 
 effects are very materially regulated, both as to 
 their degree and duration, by the condition of 
 the percipient power. That sensation has a 
 great deal to do, both \vith the principle of its 
 operation and the salutary or injurious effects of 
 cold bathing, has been shown with a great deal 
 of ingenuity by the late Dr. Currie, in his ex- 
 periments on cold water as a febrifuge power ; 
 and that the glow which succeeds to tlie first 
 sensation of cold, may be ascribed in a great 
 measure to the increased sensibility of the nerves 
 after a partial torpor, cannot be denied. At the 
 same time it must be admitted, that there is not 
 only a relative but an actual increase of heat on 
 the surface of the body, during the re-action 
 following the temporary torpor ; and it is pro- 
 bable, we are told, the causes concerned in the 
 production of animal heat are called up into a 
 more vigorous exertion in a strong constitution, 
 whenever they are required for the purposes of 
 life ; so that they at first supply the superficial 
 parts of the body, during the immersion, with 
 as much heat as is necessary to overcome the 
 painful sensation of cold ; and afterwards, by a 
 continuation of the same action, occasion an 
 actual elevation of temperature above the natural 
 standard. 
 
 It is worthy of remark, that re-action, as it 
 is called, or heat following exposure to cold 
 water, sometimes occurs, even when there has 
 been no prior depression of temperature. Ur. 
 Currie found that during the affusion of a bucket 
 of cold salt water on the heads and whole bodies 
 of two healthy persons, no depression of tem- 
 perature was observable ; but, in a minute or 
 two afterwards, although they remained without 
 motion, the mercury rose two degrees ; and in a 
 third person, of feebler constitution, although the 
 temperature remained equally unchanged during 
 the affusion, it sunk in a minute after, half a 
 degree. These eflTects seem to be almost entirely 
 independent of any change in the state of the 
 circulation, which must be rather retarded than 
 accelerated, while the generation of heat is 
 increased. It is true that the heart might be 
 called into more powerful action at the same 
 time that the pulsation of the wrist became 
 feeble, from the permanent contraction of the
 
 652 
 
 BATHING. 
 
 radial artery ; but the action of the heart would 
 still be exhibited by the carotids, undisguised by 
 this modification; and the carotids have not 
 been observed to beat more strongly in the cold 
 bath than at other times, although Dr. Currie 
 has remarked, that when the pulse could hardly 
 be felt at the wrist, the heart pulsated with great 
 steadiness and due force. 
 
 Much, it must be confessed, is wanting in the 
 •way of physiological experiment before we can 
 satisfactorily explain the laws of temperature of 
 the human body, or the vascular changes that are 
 concomitant with, or perhaps in some measure 
 the causes of, these changes ; and indeed it is not 
 easy to say precisely upon what principles cold 
 bathitjg, when it proves a sanative or salutary 
 process, operates the beneficial purpose : a priori, 
 we should scarcely have supposed that a tempo- 
 rary suspension, to be followed by excitation, 
 that excitation itself proving but transient, would 
 have been attended with much benefit to the 
 constitution ; and yet we do see that much and 
 unequivocal good occasionally, nay frequently, 
 follows the temperate and judicious employment 
 of the agent now under consideration. Much 
 mischief is also the result of its indiscriminate or 
 injudicious use, and we shall now proceed to 
 point out in what cases and circumstances cold 
 bathing is desirable or admissible ; where it is 
 contra-indicated ; and in what mode it is best 
 administered. 
 
 It has already been intimated that cold bathing 
 may be used with advantage under certain modi- 
 fications of febrile heat ; it is, however, of the 
 utmost importance to attend to certain precau- 
 tions which its use demands, when employed as 
 a febrifuge.. Dr. Currie tells us that cold bathing 
 or affusion, in fever, can only then be had re- 
 course to with safety and good effect, when the 
 heat of the body is steadily above the natural 
 standard, when there is no sense of chilliness, 
 and especially when there is no general nor pro- 
 fuse perspiration. If used during tlie cold stage 
 of fever, even though the heat be higher than 
 natural, it brings on interruption of respiration, 
 a fluttering, weak, and extremely quick pulse, 
 and certainly might be carried so far as to ex- 
 tinguish animation entirely. (See Medicine, 
 article Fever, &c). 
 
 In another affection, very opposite to fever, 
 viz. tetanus, cold bathing has been used with 
 decidedly beneficial effect ; and, in this case, it 
 may be remarked that the principle of its opera- 
 tion must be different ; the shock given to the 
 sensations, and the whole order of organic move- 
 ments, being temporarily changed, having more 
 seemingly to do with its healing influence than 
 any circumstances abstractedly connected with 
 change of temperature. The observation is as 
 old as Hippocrates, that the remedy under re- 
 mark is best adapted to these convulsive dis- 
 orders when they are the result rather of general 
 mobility of a morbid kind, than connected with 
 local affection ; aviv tXictoc is the expression of 
 the Coan sage, and we allude to it partly because 
 it is confirmatory of what we are immediately to 
 advance on the objectionable circumstances to 
 cold bathing in other complaints and tendencies. 
 
 But it will not be requisite or proper in this 
 
 article (which is intended rather for popular than 
 for professional direction), to go through the 
 various disorders in nosological order, for which 
 the practice of cold bathing has been instituted ; 
 suffice it to say, that it has generally been used 
 and recommended in those conditions of fibrous 
 debility which are under the grade of actual 
 disease, and in which those medicinal agencies 
 are demanded which pass under the name of 
 tonic. Such states are marked by irregularities 
 in the displays of nervous power, by tremors, by 
 more than natural sensibility to cold, by the easy 
 excitation of profuse discharges from the skin, 
 by head-aches, listlessness, and febricuia, with 
 lowness of spirits, irregular appetite, deficient 
 digestion, and torpid bowels. Individuals, in 
 this condition of the nervous and muscular 
 powers, may be greatly benefited by the daily 
 employment of cold water to the surface, in the 
 manner immediately to be pointed out. 
 
 But it may be right first to dismiss the much 
 agitated and very interesting question respecting 
 the propriety of bathing or washing children; 
 and this, perhaps, will be best done by extracting 
 from a modern writer on consumption. ' Immer- 
 sion in cold water,' says Dr. Reid, ' during the 
 period of infancy, has been very generally recom- 
 mended, and too frequently had recourse to in 
 an indiscriminate manner, to preserve health and 
 insure hardiness. The author has remarked 
 several instances where sensible and sometimes 
 serious injury has arisen from neglecting to ob- 
 serve the precautions necessary to regulate the 
 employment of this important agent in very early 
 years. In infancy, danger to the lungs from 
 cold bathing has been stated to exist in a very 
 inferior degree ; and by the practice of dipping 
 infants in cold water, susceptibility to the in- 
 jurious impression of cold in succeeding years 
 has been diought to be materially diminished. 
 This principle, in the abstract, is undoubtedly 
 correct ; and, with the exception and precautions 
 now to be mentioned, may be pursued with pro- 
 priety and advantage. Two infants may be sup- 
 posed of one family, with reverse constitutions ; 
 in the one, a general torpor, debility, and great 
 susceptibility to the impression of cold shall pre- 
 vail ; in the other, comparative vigor, activity, 
 and warmth. To pursue, without discrimination, 
 the same course with respect to immersion in 
 water with each of these children, would be 
 obviously improper. That degree of cold which 
 would refresh and invigorate the one, would 
 confirm debility, and augment torpor, in the 
 other. A bath which is not cold to the sensa- 
 tions must, in the first instance, at least, be re- 
 sorted to for the weaker infant ; and in neither 
 case should immersion in cold water be practised 
 when the external temperature of the body is in- 
 ferior in degree to its general standard, when 
 after immersion the body appears to be chilled, 
 or when returning heat is attended with febrile 
 languor, instead of the grateful and genial warmth 
 characteristic of the appropriate action of excit- 
 ing powers. If the practice of immersion be 
 guided by a cautions observance of these particu- 
 lars, it may be pursued with safety, and will be 
 attended with success; but a total neglect of 
 bathing were greatlj' preferable to the severe and
 
 BATHING. 
 
 653 
 
 incautious manner in which infants are frequently 
 exposed to these violent and rapid changes in 
 temperature.' 
 
 We may further remark, that, both in the 
 states of infancy and youth, cold bathing must 
 be cautiously, and only under professional per- 
 mission, employed, when the constitution is de- 
 cidedly of a scrofulous cast; and more especially 
 when, with that general condition of the organi- 
 sation to which the terra scrofula would be 
 applied, tendencies manifest themselves of local 
 or topical -disorder. Under the somewhat me- 
 chanical notion of hardening the frame, as some 
 inanimate bodies are hardened by being plunged 
 into cold media, cold bathing has been employed, 
 and persevered in, to a deleterious extent ; and 
 under the circumstances of consumptive disposi- 
 tion, or verging towards any internal or visceral 
 disorder, the shock, and irregular impulses, and 
 internal rushes, if we may so say, which the 
 frequent plunges into cold water imply, instead 
 of strengthening, irritate the feeble frame, and 
 assist the constitutional bias towards structural 
 and irremediable disorder. Dr. Beddoes pre- 
 sents an important and instructive example of 
 this principle and practice, on the authority of 
 the late Dr. Pulteney. * T. C. was rickety in his 
 infancy, and veiy weakly for several years after. 
 In the winter of 1759 he had pleuretic symp- 
 toms ; a rheumatic fever left him next summer 
 afflicted with chronic rheumatism ; he was ad- 
 vised to go into the cold bath ; he did so ; but on 
 coming out again felt such an increased load, 
 fainting, and anxiety, about the precordia, that 
 he thought he should hardly recover the shock it 
 gave him. Nevertheless he ventured in again a 
 day or two afterwards, but experienced the for- 
 mer symptoms in an aggravated degree, and 
 from this time dated the disorder that terminated 
 his life' 
 
 As mischievous mistakes have occasionally 
 arisen in the practice of cold bathing, from too 
 abstractly considering it a tonic or strengthening 
 process, so much error has connected itself with 
 the mode and circumstances of immersion. It 
 has been too generally considered that to be fitted 
 for immersion, the body should be cooled down 
 nearer to the temperature of the bath, than after 
 a little exercise it is made ; and that if a person 
 have hiirried to the side of the Avater into which 
 he is about to plunge, he ought to rest until pait 
 of the artificial heat he has produced from exercise, 
 be dissipated in the surrounding air. This is an 
 erroneous motion, which Dr. Currie was the first 
 fully to refute and rectify ; it is singular how 
 it should have arisen, since our own feelings, as 
 well as our observation on the instinct of animals, 
 seem to direct to a different conclusion and prac- 
 tice. The opposite doctrine, too, was taught by 
 the ancients. ' When we are fatigued or dried 
 up by exercise (says Galen, as quoted by Dr. 
 Young) the bath restores us to comfort, and defends 
 us from fevers. A strong young man in the 
 country will plunge into cold water at once, 
 when heated, and be much refreshed by it. Ani- 
 mals also, wash themselves when they are hot, by 
 a natural instinct, as they eat when they are hun- 
 gry, and seek warmth when they are cold. In 
 fevers, if we had sufficient powers of discrimi- 
 
 nation, we might probably sometimes derive 
 material advantage from the use of the cold bath, 
 without premising the hot; and some persons 
 have been actually benefited by this remedy. 
 But without a more intimate knowledge of dis- 
 eases than we possess, we cannot generally ven- 
 ture on the practice ; and least of all in hectic 
 fevers, where there is not strength enough to bear 
 the shock. A stout young man having a fever 
 in warm weather, without visceral inflammation, 
 would, bring on a salutary prespiration by bath- 
 ing in cold water ; and if he were iti the habit 
 of cold bathing, he might have recourse to it with 
 more confidence ; but for hectic, it is unsafe, 
 especially where there is much emaciation ; thus 
 in a hot and dry summer, those who have travelled 
 far, and are become thin and weak, have no need 
 of being cooled, nor would it be safe for them 
 to use the cold bath, without first going into the 
 warm. For we seem to be hardened by the cold 
 bath, like iron when heated first ; and if we 
 previously warm ourselves by exercise, the effect 
 is the same.' 
 
 We have extracted these observations of Galen, 
 because their practical inference is precisely the 
 same, as that to which the good sense and phi- 
 losophic acumen of Dr. Currie have brought us; 
 and because they are strongly contrasted with the 
 vulgar conceit, which, almost universally, and 
 still too generally, prevails. It is well observed 
 by the writer from whom we now borrow (see 
 supplement to the Encyclopaedia Britannica), that 
 Dr. Currie's relation, of an adventure of his 
 own, might almost be supposed to have been 
 intended as a commentary on these remarks of 
 Galen. ' On the first of September, 1778, two 
 students of medicine at Edinburgh, set out on 
 foot on a journey, a considerable part of which 
 lay along one of the rivers of Scotland. They 
 started by s(m-rise, and proceeded with alacrity 
 in the cool of the morning. At the end of eight 
 miles they breakfasted, rested for an hour, and 
 then resumed their journey. The day grew warm 
 as it advanced, and after a march of eight miles 
 more, they arrived heated, but not fatigued, on 
 the banks of the river above mentioned, about 
 eleven in the forenoon. Urged by the fervor of 
 the day, and tempted by the beauty of the stream, 
 they stripped instantly and threw themselves into 
 the river. The utmost refreshment followed, and 
 when they retired to a neighbouring inn, this 
 was succeeded by a disposition to sleep, which 
 was indulged. In the afternoon they pro- 
 ceeded, and travelling sixteen miles further, at a 
 single stretch, arrived at the inn where they were 
 to sleep a little after sunset. The afternoon had 
 been warm, and they perspired profusely ; but 
 the evening was temperate and rather cool. 
 They had travelled for some miles slowly, and 
 arrived at the end of their journey, stiffened and 
 wearied with exercise. The refreshment which 
 they had experienced in the morning from bathing 
 induced, however, one of them to repeat the 
 experiment, apd he went perfectly cool into the 
 same river, expecting to relax his limbs in thp 
 water, and afterwards to enjoy profound sleep. 
 The consequences were very different. The 
 Tweed, which was so refreshing in the morning, 
 now felt extremely cold, and he left the water
 
 654 
 
 BATHING 
 
 hastily. No genial glow succeeded, but a feverish 
 chill remained for some time, with a small fre- 
 quent pulse, and flying pains over the body. 
 Warm liquids, and frictions at length brought on 
 considerable heat, and towards morning, perspi- 
 ration and sleep followed. Next day, about noon, 
 they proceeded on foot, but the traveller who had 
 bathed was extremely feeble ; and though they 
 had to perform a journey of a single stage only, 
 as some part of it was difficult and mountainous, 
 he was obliged to take the assistance of a carriage, 
 which overtook them on the road. It was several 
 days before he recovered his usual vigor.' 
 
 It is generally known that the Russian goes 
 reeking from a bath, healed almost to the highest 
 pitch of endurance, and immediately, without 
 staying to cool himself, rolls his naked body in 
 snow: and the experiments made some time 
 since by Fordyce and Blagden prove that a rapid 
 transition from high heat to cold may, under 
 some circumstances, be made with the utmost 
 safety. So erroneous is the notion we are now 
 combating, that the body requires to be cooled 
 in order to render it fit for a chilling medium. 
 Still, there are certain facts connected with the 
 action of cold and heat on the living system, 
 which prove that we must not take too precipi- 
 tately, or in too unqualified a manner, the reverse 
 rule for our guide through all circumstances. As 
 an example, says a modern writer, of the injuri- 
 ous tendency of a precipitate application of cold 
 when the body is heated, in a more than ordi- 
 nary degree, the sufferings of the Macedonian 
 conqueror, irom plunging into the river Cydnus, 
 have frequently been adduced. Dr. Currie, how- 
 ever, has endeavoured to prove, that the situation 
 of Alexander, previously to bathing, was different 
 from that more commonly imagined ; and that 
 his subsequent illness, as related by his historian, 
 is referrible to circumstances exactly opposite to 
 those to which they are generally attributed. 
 From the length and difficulty of the march, it is 
 natural to suppose that he must have' been cooled 
 as well as debilitated, by excessive perspiration 
 and fatigue ; and under such circumstances, im- 
 mersion in the cold and rapid Cydnus was fol- 
 lowed by the consequences which we should 
 expect from the principles already laid down. 
 
 Other circumstances, however, have been 
 arrayed as evidences against the propriety and 
 safety of a sudden application of cold subse- 
 quently to violent heat. Many well attested 
 instances are on record, of instantaneous death, 
 or violent disorders, which have terminated 
 fatally, following imprudent exposure to cold, 
 while the body has been overheated ; and in 
 some of these, the application of the noxious 
 cause has confessedly been made previously to 
 the production of fatigue or coldness. It is by 
 no means uncommon for violent inflammation of 
 the stomach or lungs to be occasioned by large 
 draughts of cold water, incautiously taken to 
 abate thirst, consequent upon excessive heat; 
 and the injurious effects of the external appli- 
 cation of cold water, both to the whole surface, 
 and merely to a part of the body, have been 
 circumstantially related, in order to invalidate or 
 qualify the inferences of Dr. Currie. 
 
 These apparently contradictory deductions, 
 
 (says Reid), on this very interesting subject, 
 may perhaps be in some measure reconciled by 
 the following considerations : — 
 
 The state of the body, in relation to its suscep- 
 tibility of being acted on by cold media, has 
 more reference to the kind than degree of previ- 
 ously existing heat; or, more correctly speaking, 
 although an equal quantity of heat may be pre- 
 sent in the system, such heat may be abstracted 
 with greater or less facility and safety, according 
 to the mode in which it has been generated. 
 The increase of temperature occasioned by what 
 is termed an inflammatory action pervading the 
 whole system, such as is sometimes observed in 
 violent inflammation of th^ lungs; that attended 
 with an extremely debilitated state of the vital 
 power, as in instances of what has teen termed 
 improperly putrid fever; the heat consequent 
 upon violent exercise, and that produced by 
 communication from \Vithout, as in the example 
 of hot baths, or exposures to other sources of 
 great heat, while the body continues inactive ; 
 are all essentially different in their nature : and, 
 although in each case the quantity may be equal, 
 and the thermometer applied to any part of the 
 body shall indicate the same temperature, yet 
 from such temperature alone it would be im- 
 proper to form a judgment of the expediency 
 and safety of the sudden application of cold. In 
 the author's recollection a case occurred, of vio- 
 lent inflammation of the whole thoracic viscera, 
 which speedily terminated in death, almost im- 
 mediately following a large draught of cold 
 water, when the body had been heated from 
 unusual exercise. The deceased was previously 
 to the event a strong and healthy man, in the 
 prime and vigor of life. In this case the injury 
 appeared to arise, not from the sudden abstrac- 
 tion of heat, but from the precipitate interrup- 
 tion of those actions by which the increase of 
 temperature had been generated. Had the same 
 quantity of water equally cold been suddenly 
 swallowed by a person oppressed and debilitated 
 by febrile heat and irritation, these fatal conse- 
 quences would not have succeeded, because in 
 this latter case the cold fluid would have oper- 
 ated in deducting from the superfluous quantity 
 of generated and oppressive heat, and the re- 
 freshing sensation excited in consequence would 
 have stimulated the languid frame. The same 
 principle likewise applies in the application of 
 cold media, either partial or general, to the 
 external surface. Dr. Beddoes relates the case 
 of an obstinate eruptive affection being produced 
 on the face, in consequence of the immersion of 
 that part in cold water, when the subject of the 
 affection was heated and thrown into perspira- 
 tion by play. Had this immersion immediately 
 succeeded to hot bathing, or been made during 
 the existence of dry febrile heat, the injurious 
 effects would not have resulted ; for this reason, 
 that the action of tlie cutaneous vessels would 
 not in the latter cases have been injuriously 
 interrupted, and thus indirectly stimulated into 
 inordinate excitement. 
 
 The seeming contrarieties of speculation on the 
 subject of temperature, may, perhaps, likewise, 
 in some measure, have arisen from the very im- 
 portant circumstances of cooling applications
 
 BATHING. 
 
 655 
 
 acting through successive moments, or by succes- 
 sive quantities. If a person in a heated state 
 drink half a pint of cool liquid, that may not 
 sensibly reduce him below the natural healthy 
 state. But if he pour down double that quantity 
 at once, the last half pint may be regarded as 
 operating upon the system reduced by the first, 
 and sinking into a dangerous chilliness. So im- 
 mersion for a moment in a sunny river may 
 strengthen and refresh, as many pedestrian 
 travellers have experienced ; whereas delay in 
 the water would be attended with great hazard, 
 on account of the continued operation of a heat- 
 abstracting medium upon a system sufficiently 
 reduced in its temperature and action by the 
 first plunge. Whatever might have been the 
 actual condition of Alexander, when he plunged 
 into the Cydnus, the injurious effects of his 
 bathing unquestionably originated from the sud- 
 den reduction of heat below the standard of 
 health. 'Vixque ingressi subito horrore artus 
 rigore ceperunt : pallor deinde suffusus est, et 
 totum propemodum corpus vitalis calor reli- 
 quit.' In this case, perhaps, an exposure to cool 
 air, or immersion in water of a superior tempera- 
 ture, but which would nevertheless have abstract- 
 ed a certain degree of heat from the languid 
 frame, would have displayed effects exactly con- 
 trary to what the historian here relates. In like 
 manner, the Russian, who reeking from his 
 vapor bagnio, immediately rolls in snow ; or, 
 who, after immersion in a bath which has been 
 heated almost beyond endurance, instantaneously 
 plunges into contiguous cold water, requires 
 that the medium to which he is first exposed be 
 extremely great, or the succeeding cold appli- 
 cation would debilitate, and perhaps destroy. 
 Upon this principle, likewise, the statement of 
 Dr. Fordyce is explained, that a person passing 
 from a violent degree of heat to much cold, will 
 gradually return to his proper standard of tem- 
 perature, while from a sudden change from heat 
 to cold, when the heat has not been so high, 
 diseases will often be generated. 
 
 To revert to the subject more especially under 
 our present consideration, we may remark, that 
 cold bathing will in general be found applicable 
 to those conditions of nervous and muscular las- 
 situde and weakness, in which, though the powers 
 of the system are thus below their due grade, 
 there is sufficient energy to insure a healthy 
 re-action; while its use is objectionable and fear- 
 ful, where local and especially visceral irritation 
 of a vascular kind accompanies the general de- 
 bility; and this condition of the frame, it is right 
 to remark, is of more common occurrence than 
 is sometimes suspected ; th'e topical affection 
 often being masked, as it were, or concealed 
 under the systematic weakness; and the detection 
 of that something which is thus preying upon the 
 vitals requiring frequently the nicest tact, and 
 most extended experience. It will have been 
 remarked, that the two highest of the ancient 
 authorities in medicine, speak of local and hectic 
 circumstances as contra-indicating the propriety 
 of cold immersion; and it will" be recollected, 
 that we gave a case in point, as substantiating 
 the propriety of these cautions — cautions, how- 
 ever, which on the other hand, must not be con- 
 
 ceived and acted upon with too much nicety, lest 
 we lose sight altogether of radical weakness ; and 
 fear to stimulate and excite, where excitation 
 may prove abundantly serviceable. 
 
 In regard to the mode and times of using the 
 cold bath, the following directions, taken from 
 Ur. Willich, may be worthy attention. '1st, 
 Every cold bath applied to the whole body 
 ought to be of short duration ; all depends upon 
 the first impression the cold makes on the skin 
 and nerves, it being this impression which 
 hardens us against the effects of rough and cold 
 weather. 2d, The head should be always first 
 wetted, either by immersion, by pouring water 
 upon it, or the application of wet cloths, and 
 then plunging over head into the bath. 3d, The 
 immersion ought always to be sudden ; not only 
 because it is less felt than when we enter the bath 
 slowly and timorously, but likewise because the 
 effect of the first impression is uniform all over 
 the body, and the blood in this manner is not 
 propelled from the lower to the upper parts. 
 Hence the shower bath possesses great advan- 
 tages, as it pours the water suddenly upon the 
 whole body, and thus in the most perfect manner 
 fulfils the three rules above specified. 4th, The 
 due temperature of the cold bath can only be 
 ascertained in relation to individual cases, as it 
 extends from 33° to 56° of Fahrenheit, except in 
 partial bathings, where the degree of cold m.iy, 
 and often ought to be, increased by ice, nitre, 
 alum, salt, sal-ammoniac, or other artificial 
 means. 5th, Gentle exercise ought to precede 
 the cold bath, to produce some re-action of the 
 vascular system upon entering it ; for neither 
 complete rest nor violent exercise is proper, 
 previously to the use of this remedy. 6th, The 
 morning or forenoon is the most proper time for 
 cold bathing, unless it be in a river ; then the 
 afternoon or towards the evening, when the 
 water hao been warmed by the sun, and the 
 dinner has been digested, are the most eligible 
 periods of the day ; a light breakfast will not be 
 detrimental before using the bath. 7th, While 
 in the water we should not remain inactive, but 
 move about in order to promote the circulation 
 of the blood from the centre of the body to the 
 extremities. 8th, After immersion, the whole 
 body ought to be wiped as quickly as possible, 
 with a dry and somewhat rough cloth. Mode- 
 rate exercise out of doors, if convenient, is pro- 
 per, and indeed necessary.' 
 
 We now proceed to the consideration of hot 
 or warm bathing, from the temperature of ninety 
 to above a hundred degrees, about which much 
 of what is erroneous in theory has also been con- 
 ceived. As cold immersion was supposed to 
 harden, by constringing and contracting the 
 fibres of the body, so has it been thought that 
 immersion in warm water would tend to soften 
 and relax the material fabric of which the frame 
 is made up. That there may be something of 
 foundation, in fact, for these notions, we would 
 not in toto deny ; but it seems more consistent 
 with the laws that govern organised existence to 
 refer the effects to excitation, directly or indi- 
 rectly induced, than to imagine the fibres of the 
 body capable, or rather susceptible, of those 
 mutations tliat take place in inanimate matter ;
 
 656 
 
 BATHING. 
 
 and, in point of fact, we find that some indi- 
 vidual or individuals in some circumstances, 
 after a reiterated use of warm or hot water to the 
 whole or part of the body's surface, shall be ren- 
 dered firmer and more robust than they were 
 prior to the employment of this relaxing agency. 
 
 Another effect has also been attributed to the use 
 of hot water, or vapor, as a bath, about which 
 there is some reason also to doubt the full legiti- 
 macy of the inferences that have been deduced : 
 viz. its expanding or rarefying qualities, displayed 
 upon the fluids of the body, more especially upon 
 the blood ; and some writers have reasoned upon 
 the operation of the hot bath from beginning to 
 end under this assumption ; we are told, how- 
 ever, by experimenters, that the blood is very 
 little expansible by heat under any circumstances; 
 and it has been observed, that the mean tempe- 
 rature of all the fluids of the body is seldom ele- 
 vated more than a degree or two by a bath of any 
 kind ; and even if the elevation were ten degrees, 
 the expansion of all the circulating fluids would 
 not exceed the bulk of a single additional ounce 
 of blood or of water. So that to a certain sort of 
 stimulation, rather than to mechanical or chemical 
 impulse, are we to attribute the internal changes 
 that occur in the fluids and solids of the body, 
 from alterations of exterior temperature. That 
 these changes to some extent do occur, is, how- 
 ever, pretty certain ; and the swelling of the 
 veins, with, indeed, the temporary increase of 
 bulk in the feet, when immersed in hot water, 
 would seem attributable either to an entrance of 
 some of the fluid from without in among the 
 fluids of the body (the possibility of which, as 
 we shall immediately see, is questioned), or to 
 an altered state of the fluids and secretions, and 
 perhaps of the solids, induced by a modification 
 and mixture of exciting and expanding agency ; 
 which, in our present state of knowledge respect- 
 ing the laws and limits of vital forces in their 
 contest with inanimate matter, would appear not 
 sufficiently explained. 
 
 In observing upon the conditions of the body 
 in which warm bathing is likely to prove salutary 
 on the one hand, or is open to objections on the 
 other, it may be remarked, that some of the 
 circumstances which render cold bathing fearful, 
 cause warm bathing to be objectionable likewise. 
 Thus, in apoplectic fulness, in tendencies to 
 haemorrhage from the lungs, or from the head, in 
 some species of asthma, and in many of the dis- 
 orders ranged under the division of phlegmasiae by 
 systematic writers, we should equally avoid both 
 the hot and cold bath ; and were the old doctrines 
 of reaction and expansion permitted to explain 
 our objections, we should say that, in the first 
 case, rarefaction of fluids and consequent disten- 
 sion of vessel constituted the points of objection ; 
 while in the other, the rush of fluids into vessels 
 already in a condition of over excitement ren- 
 dered the practise dangerous ; and to some ex- 
 tent, it does, we repeat, appear to us, in spite of 
 modern refinements in theory, that we should be 
 correct in our reasoning. 
 
 There is one curious circumstance connected 
 with the eff"ects of warm bathing upon the sys- 
 tem, which is, that it may, by proper manage- 
 ment, be brought to reduce the inordinate heat 
 
 of fever; and Dr. Currie has particularly recom- 
 mended it with this view, in cases where objec- 
 tions might lie against the employment of cold 
 water for the same purpose; the possession of 
 this property and influence may be taken in full 
 proof that much remains still to be explained on 
 the subject of living temperature ; it should be 
 obser\'ed that the effect in question is often 
 operated without reference to perspiration, or at 
 least before perspiration appears externally upon 
 the body ; and Dr. Currie has proposed an inge- 
 nious explanation of the fact, by suggesting 
 whether the secretion of the perspirable fluid, 
 before it is poured out upon the surface, rnay 
 not occasion an absorption of heat and conse- 
 quent reduction of temperature, by the greater 
 capacity that the matter of perspiration has for 
 heat than the blood had from which it was 
 formed. See Temperature (Animal), and 
 Physiology. 
 
 From the mode and kind of excitation which 
 warm bathing produces, it might be supposed 
 that chronic rheumatism, that old-standing afTec- 
 tions of a paralytic kind, that contracted limbs 
 from arthritic disorders, that spasms and ob- 
 structions in the bowels, that many maladies 
 which implicate the nervous organisation without 
 producing plenitude of vessels, and that morbid 
 conditions of the external surface, whether of the 
 skin merely, or whether the cutaneous affection 
 have had to do with the state of internal mem- 
 branes and visceral derangement, would mate- 
 rially be benefited by its judicious employment — 
 and this we find to be the case. In several of 
 the functional disturbances that are incident to 
 children, arising from the extreme mobility of 
 the frame common to the infantile period of 
 existence, warm bathing, by equalising the cir- 
 culation, and determining, as it is expressed, to 
 the surface, often proves conspicuously, and 
 very speedily serviceable ; but in instances of 
 the occurrence of disorder, whether croupal, 
 convulsive, or intestinal, it is often necessary to 
 premise purging or blood-letting, especially 
 should the child be of a full habit, otherwise the 
 stimulating, and, if we may be permitted to say 
 so, expanding power of the heated water might 
 tend to the production of vascular plenitude to 
 a dangerous excess. It must be allowed that 
 the tendency of warm bathing to occasion co- 
 pious perspiration is calculated, in some mea- 
 sure, to obviate the objection now preferred 
 against its indiscriminate use ; but then the mis- 
 chief is sometimes done before the system shall 
 have been thus relieved ; and we have ventured 
 upon this intimation, because we think, in the 
 general way, too little regard is given in domestic 
 medicine to the circumstances calculated at 
 once to promote the efllcacy and insure the 
 safety of the measure under consideration. 
 
 Without reference to actual or positive disease, 
 it may be stated, generally, that warm bathing is 
 serviceable in those low conditions of the ner- 
 vous and vascular and muscular energy, in 
 which the same use of cold water would prove 
 rather injurious than useful ; it is a common, 
 and occasionally a good practice, to premise its 
 employment when it is eventually intended that 
 the individual shall go into the cold batli ; the
 
 BATHING 
 
 657 
 
 stimulus of tlie former beine; of such kind and 
 extent as to insure a<;ainst the hurtful tendency 
 of the latter ; and the good which results from 
 this method would prove that the idea is erro- 
 neous, which supposes an individual more liable 
 to take cold, as it is called, while using the 
 warm bath than when not subjected to these 
 changes of temperature. The ancients were in 
 tlie practice of gradual transition from the hot 
 bath or caldarium, to the tepidarium or cooler, 
 and thence to the frigidarium or cold ; but if 
 there be any correctness in the principles above 
 propounded, respecting the innoxious nature of 
 cold immediately upon heat, these precautions in 
 reference to successive temperatures, were un- 
 necessary ; and, indeed, in some cases might be 
 worse than useless. 
 
 With respect to the tepid bath very little need 
 be said on the present occasion, since water from 
 eighty to ninety degrees is very seldom em- 
 ployed except as a mere ablueut ; unless, indeed, 
 in those instances of natural or artiticial waters 
 which are impregnated with substances that are 
 conceived to have a specific agency of a medical 
 nature. In some disorders of the skin, indeed, 
 and in other chronic ailments, tepid bathing may 
 occasionally be advisable when circumstances 
 forbid the employment of water of either a very 
 low or very high temperature. 
 
 The modes of using cold water are, first, by 
 plunging, which is the best calculated, perhaps, 
 to insure all the good of bathing ; secondly, by 
 affusion, or pouring water over the head and 
 neck, which is especially applicable to those 
 states of nervous weaKness, and vascular fulness 
 and head-disorder, in which the common bath 
 might be objectionable ; and, thirdly, by spong- 
 ing the whole surface of the body immediately 
 upon rismg from bed ; which last practice may, 
 in the case of most individuals, be pursued with 
 safety and convenience. The writer of these 
 remarks, since he has been accustomed to daily 
 ablution in this way, has found himself much 
 less liable to catarrhal disorder than before ; and 
 it may be observed, that he tried, some years 
 since, cold bathmg by immersion, without the 
 same agreeable or salutary consequences ; but 
 part of this difference of effect he is disposed to 
 attribute to a recent improvement in constitu- 
 tional energy, which would probably insure, at 
 the present time, more steady re-action, and 
 better general effect than formerly followed im- 
 mersion. 
 
 Baths with Medicinal Impregxations. 
 In the article Waters, we purpose to enter into 
 a somewhat lengthened detail on the virtues that 
 have been ascribed to the several medicinal 
 springs that are resorted to by the invalid, and 
 which are used as remedies, some in the way 
 of internal administration, exclusively, others 
 both externally and internally. We mean here 
 principally to confine ourselves to one or two 
 remarks, bearing upon the much agitated and 
 still unsettled question, respecting the degree of 
 efficacy that may be expected to attend immers- 
 ing the body in water, containing particular im- 
 pregnation, or applying such water m any manner 
 to the external surface. 
 Vol. III. 
 
 This question involves in it the very interesting 
 one of cutaneous absorption, as it has been called ; 
 in other words, the enquiry, whether, while the 
 outer skin be whole and entire, any substances, 
 however subtle, can be made to penetrate through 
 it; it must, however, be recollected, that the 
 negativing of this proposition would not imply 
 the denial of ail influence from exterior applica- 
 tions, since the materials used may be of such a 
 stimulating or irritating quality as to produce a 
 sort of abrasion of the scarf or outer covering ; 
 and since some of them being of a volatile kind, 
 and surrounding the subject of the experiment 
 with their fumes, the lungs may be the media 
 through which the whole systehi may become im- 
 pregnated with their qualities. 
 
 Now several authors, who have written on the 
 subject of bathing, hav^ all along assumed the 
 permeability of the outer skin to the water em- 
 ployed ; and one of them. Dr. Marcard, states 
 that the sufferings of Tantalus will not be rated 
 very highly by the naturalist. We have already 
 said that the bulk of a limb, which is immersed 
 in hot-water, is for a time augmented ; and this 
 has been attributed by those who reason on the 
 supposition of cutaneous inhalation, or imbibing, 
 to the actual penetration, through the skin, of 
 some portion of the fluid. INIany experiments, 
 however, have been instituted, which seem to 
 prove that there is some fallacy in this conclu- 
 sion, and that the weight of the whole body is 
 not at all added to by total immersion, for some 
 length of time, in water even of a high tempera- 
 ture. 
 
 Seguin, Rousseau, Currie, and others, have 
 pursued a series of experiments, to which more 
 particular allusion will be made in the article 
 Physiology ; and from which they infer, that, 
 while the skin is uninterfered with, eitlier by 
 mechanical pressure or by actual abrasion, no 
 matter whatever, solid or fluid, medicinal or 
 otherwise, can ke received from without, the 
 scarf skin being impenetrable to the most subtle 
 material ; in the words of Dr. Currie, ' though 
 the exhalants of the skin pierce the epidermis 
 (scarf skin), and come in contact with the ex- 
 ternal air, the mouths of the absorbents terminate 
 under it, and are covered by it; and while it 
 remains unirritated and entire, no absorption of 
 solid, liquid, or aeriform elastic fluid takes place 
 on the surface. In the instances,' he adds, ' that 
 are supposed to favor the contrary opinion, it 
 will be found that the article absorbed is forced 
 through the epidermis by mechanical pressure ; 
 or that the epidermis has been previously de- 
 stroyed by injury or disease ; or, if sound, that 
 the article applied to it is of an acrid nature, 
 which first irritates and erodes this tegument, 
 and then, coming in contact with the mouths of 
 the lymphatics under it, is of course absorljed. 
 Seguin's words, expressive of this fact and prin- 
 ciple, are equally decided and forcible : * The 
 epidermis is a barrier which no kind of virus 
 (and he includes all internal matters) can pass 
 while tliat tissue is in a sound state and perfectly 
 whole; nor can they be absorbed by the skin.' 
 lor a more detailed discussion of this interest- 
 ing topic we must refer, as above intimated, to 
 the article Physiolugv. Under the word Medi- 
 
 2 U
 
 658 
 
 BATHING. 
 
 riNE, too, facts in support of, and against the 
 doctrine of cutaneous inhalation will call for no- 
 tice and comment; we must here limit ourselves 
 to stating that the anti-absorptionists have at least 
 proved a great deal, so much so, that it may be 
 very fairly doubted whether inferences respecting 
 impregnations of the system by baths have not 
 been deduced too hastily and empirically. But, 
 on the other hand, it cannot be doubted that there 
 are substances employed which have the power 
 of forcibly permeating the outer skin by their 
 irritating and eroding quality ; and are in this 
 way either actually absorbed into the system ge- 
 nerally, or by the sympathy which the true skin 
 constantly keeps up with internal organs ; the in- 
 fluence of the remedy may in this manner be 
 transmitted to the interior without any actual 
 conveyance of matter. There is still another 
 way in which medicinal substances may act upon 
 the frame without being actually received into 
 it, viz. either by corrugating and strengthening, 
 or relaxing and mollifying the fibres of the body ; 
 thus, chalybeate may be more tonic than com- 
 mon water, by the tonic influence it exerts ex- 
 teriorly. From what we have already advanced, 
 however, in another part of the present paper, 
 it will be understood that this principle of 
 agency is of somewhat equivocal admission ; 
 and that it is at any rate much modified and 
 limited by the laws of life. 
 
 It will not be proper to dismiss this part of 
 our investigation without adverting to one par- 
 ticular mode of exciting interior movements, 
 through the medium of exterior medicinals, viz. 
 by the use of mineral acids applied to the surface 
 of the body; which, whether they act through 
 the medium of the absorbing power, or whether 
 their agency be effected by means of the nervous 
 system, and that sympathetic relation which 
 we have already stated the skin maintains with 
 internal parts ; certain it is that they do display 
 an influence upon the frame which gives them a 
 fair claim of admission into the catalogue of the- 
 rapeutic agents. From Dr. Good's recently pub- 
 lished volumes, entitled the Study of Medicine, 
 we shall extract an account of the bath to which 
 we now refer. 
 
 ' There is yet another remedy,' says Dr. G. 
 ' for affections of the biliary organs, &c. which 
 of late years has excited great attention, and is 
 now surmounting an ungenerous prejudice that 
 was at first very extensively directed against it — 
 and that is the diluted aqua regia bath, invented 
 by Dr. Scott of Russell Square. For nearly 
 thirty years he has been in the habit of using this 
 preparation, and has tried it in almost every va- 
 riety of strengths, and almost every variety of 
 proportions wliich the two acids that enter into 
 the composition may be made to bear to each 
 other. He commenced his experiments in India, 
 where, on account of the greater degree of torpi- 
 tude the liver is apt to acquire than in more 
 temperate climates, he was in the habit of form- 
 ing his bath stronger, and making it deeper than 
 he has found it proper to do in our own country; 
 and where, upwards of twenty years ago, he 
 plunged the duke of Wellington into one up to 
 his chin, for a severe hepatic affection he was 
 then laboring under, and thus restored him to 
 health in a short time.' 
 
 In England it is not often that he finds it ne 
 cessary to raise the bath much above the knees ; 
 and he frequently contents himself with a mere 
 foot-bath or common wash-hand basin alone. In 
 both which cases, however, the attendants on the 
 patient should sponge him at the same time with 
 the diluted aqua regia over the limbs, and occa- 
 sionally over the body. 
 
 The aqua regia should be compounded of 
 three parts in measure of muriatic acid and two 
 of nitric acid ; and, in preparing them for use, a 
 pint of the combined acid is to be mixed with 
 the same measure of water. It should, however, 
 be observed by those who are inclined to form 
 this mixture extemporaneously at their own 
 houses, that, if either of the acids be poured im- 
 mediately on the other a large volume of very 
 offensive gas will be disengaged ; on which ac- 
 count it will be better to pour them separately 
 and slowly on their proper measures of water. 
 
 If the acids be of adequate strength, the mix- 
 ture, subdiluted for bathing, will, to the taste, 
 have the sourness of weak vinegar, and perhaps 
 prick the skin slightly, if very delicate, but not 
 otherwise, after it has been applied to tlie sur- 
 face for half an hour. But since these acids 
 vary much in their degree of concentration, as 
 distilled by different chemists, there will be some 
 variation in their power. The strength of the 
 bath, however, should not be much greater at 
 any time than the proportion here laid down ; 
 for otherwise it may excite a troublesome rash, 
 and give a yellow hue to the nails and skin of 
 the feet, or whatever other part is exposed to its 
 action. A narrow tub, for a knee-bath, just 
 wide enough to hold the feet and reach the 
 knees, should contain three gallons of the pre- 
 pared bath liquor, and consequently about nine 
 ounces in measure of the diluted aqua regia. 
 For a foot bath half a gallon may be sufficient, 
 and a common wash-hand basin may be em- 
 ployed as a vessel for the purpose. The feet 
 should remain in the bath for twenty minutes or 
 half an hour, and the legs, thighs, and abdomen, 
 be in the mean time frequently sponged with the 
 same. In the winter the water may be used 
 warm ; but this is not necessary in the summer. 
 The baths may be employed first daily for a 
 fortnight or three weeks, and afterwards every 
 other day, or only twice a week. 
 
 Dr. Scott affirms that he has employed this 
 process with decided advantage in almost all 
 cases dependent upon a morbid secretion of bile, 
 whether the secretion be superabundant, de- 
 fective, or depraved. He finds it often, within a 
 few hours of the first bathing, increase the flow 
 of bile and ameliorate its character ; and, in con- 
 sequence hereof, excite an expulsion of dark- 
 colored fffices, bright colored bile, or bile of a 
 green brown or black color, like tar mixed with 
 oil. He has told me, also, that when employed 
 in the midst of a paroxysm of severe pain from 
 spasm of the biliary ducts, or the passing of a 
 gall-stone, he has often known it to operate like 
 a charm, and produce almost immediate ease. 
 
 ' This account,' continues Dr. Good, ' may 
 be rather overcharged from the ardent mind of 
 its intelligent inventor ; but the process is worth 
 following up, and varying in other proportions, 
 as well as employing in other families of dis-
 
 BATHING. 
 
 659 
 
 eases. My own use of it is at present too limited 
 to speak with decision ; yet so far as 1 have 
 tried it, it has certainly appeared to me to allay 
 irritation, and produce a tonic effect. In two or 
 three instances the advantage has been decisive ; 
 and patients who had hitherto been seldom two 
 months without a severe return of the complaint, 
 have entirely escaped, and apparently lost the 
 morbid predisposition. In a few other cases it 
 has completely failed.' 
 
 Under the head of specific, as opposed to 
 common bathing, it may perhaps be right to 
 mention the sea water, which is generally 
 imagined to possess some superior, and even 
 different, efficacy from fresh water of the same 
 temperature. It is a vulgar notion that exposure 
 to sea water, in the way of accident or otherwise, 
 does not so readily engender catarrhal disorder 
 as would the like exposure to ordinary water ; 
 and if this be a well-founded notion, there would 
 seem to be some faculty possessed by the saline 
 impregnation, capable of counteracting its other- 
 wise injurious influence. How this operates, it 
 does not seem very easy to understand, and we 
 are disposed to suspect that there is some fallacy 
 in the conclusion altogether ; it may be that ex- 
 ternal circumstances, that habit, that the superior 
 robustness of those individuals who are mainly 
 exposed to sea water, may assist in its compara- 
 tive negation of deleterious influence, and that 
 the appendages to sea bathing may likewise act 
 in aid of its superior salubrity, to a greater ex- 
 tent than is usually conceived. While we throw 
 out these intimations, we would not, at the same 
 time, wish to be thought unjusiifiably sceptical 
 with regard to the greater power of sea, than of 
 common bathing ; and it may be, that the recent 
 project of causing 'the waters of the ocean to 
 come galloping up to London,' is not mere 
 quackery or chimera. . . 
 
 Dr. Parr observes that 'bathing in the sea is 
 on the whole preferable to common bathing, as 
 the heat is more uniform. It is, also, perhaps 
 from the agitation of the water, more refreshing. 
 Other causes of preference have been assigned ; 
 one is the greater pressure of the water impreg- 
 nated with salt ; the other the stimulus of that 
 salt left on the skin. Each may have some 
 effect, and the latter ground of preference is as- 
 suredly more certain than the former. We 
 cannot easily conceive how the momentary 
 increase of pressure can have any considerable 
 eflfect, except by the increase of momentum ; and 
 the stay in the sea is too short to expect much 
 advantage from this source.' 
 
 V^APOR Baths can scarcely be considered as 
 specifically diff'erent from those of water, heated 
 to an extremely high temperature. This mode of 
 bathing, though lately used in this country more 
 than formerly, has been more freely and [gene- 
 rally employed on the continent, and especially 
 in Russia, where it constitutes one of the princi- 
 pal luxuries of the inhabitants of all ranks : and 
 it is there employed for a multitude of diseases. 
 It conveys heat more gradually than immersion 
 in water; at the same time, more heat can be 
 applied to the body, and its application may be 
 continued for a longer time. The vapor bath 
 was used by the ancient Romans, as it is by the 
 
 modern Russians; but the former, as we have 
 observed in a former ])art of tlie present article, 
 did not practise the sudden transition which is 
 common with the latter. See Vai-or. 
 
 Air Bath. The celebrated Franklin, by his 
 recommendation of reducing the temperature of 
 the skill, in exposing the naked body to the air 
 for some minutes, and thus causing a healthy 
 excitation and pleasant feeling, in place of febrile 
 irritation and morbid heat, has brought the prac- 
 tice of air bathing into pretty general employ. 
 It merely consists in getting out of bed witliout 
 any clothing, and walking for a time on the cold 
 floor, and then either putting on the clothes, or 
 what is better, returning to the warm bed, and 
 lying for some time previously to dressing. This 
 may, indeed, be practised at any time of the night 
 with safety, when the individual is restless and 
 uncomfortable from feverish heat ; the eff'ect of it, 
 by the way, proves that the irritation connected 
 with febrile heat has reference to something be- 
 yond the mere augmentation of temperature, 
 since the re-action after returning to bed often 
 brings with it as great, though not so uncom- 
 fortable, a measure of heat as that which pre- 
 vailed previously to the exposure to cold; a 
 mild and gentle perspiration sometimes also 
 succeeds, which likewise shows that the capil- 
 lary vessels of the surface are brought into a 
 very different condition of being, from what was 
 their state prior to the temporary reduction of 
 temperature. 
 
 On Dry Baths, as they have been called, we 
 have very little to offer. Some time since a good 
 deal of attention was excited to a proposal, which 
 indeed was put in practice, of burying the body 
 in earth up to the chin, under the notion that its 
 attractive or absorbing powers would draw mor- 
 bid taints from the body, and thus restore health. 
 In the commentaries of Van Swieten, on the 
 aphorisms of Boerhaave, the following account is 
 given of this practice : — ' I have heard from a 
 person most deserving of credit, that through tlie 
 whole kingdom of Grenada, they have a method 
 of curing phthisis by an earth bath ; and I have 
 since read the same account in the works of 
 Francisco Solano de Lugue, who caused a pit to 
 be dug in the earth, where no plants had been 
 sown ; and into this pit he put his patients up lo 
 the neck, and then covered them with the same 
 earth which had been dug out, and there left 
 tlieui till they began to shiver, when he caused 
 them to be taken out and wrapped in linen 
 cloths, wetted with rose water.' A Dr. Graham, 
 too, an empiric, who gained some celebrity, pro- 
 posed and employed earth bathing ; a practice 
 (says a modern writer), which in the way he 
 used it, consigned some of his patients to a per- 
 petual mansion under the ground. 
 
 Sailors have been in the practice of employing 
 warm sand baths for scurvy, and the ancients 
 adopted many modes of exciting perspiration by 
 dry heat ; it is said moreover to be a practice at 
 this day, in some parta, to cover the body with 
 horse dung, for several chronic ailments ; but 
 these expedients are not in general thought avail- 
 able by individuals of the present period, who 
 make physiology and pathology the ground-work 
 of their remedial plans ; and we are not, there- 
 
 2 U2
 
 660 
 
 BATHING. 
 
 fore, called upon to engage in any further dis- 
 quisition respectint: their alleged efficacy, or 
 supposed modes of operation. 
 
 Bathing among the Tirks. — In modern 
 Turkey, as well as among the ancients, bathing 
 makes a part of diet and luxury ; so that in every 
 town, and even village, there is a public bath. 
 Indeed the necessity oi cleanliness, in a climate 
 where one perspires so copiously, has rendered 
 bathing indispensable; the comfort it produces 
 preserves the use of it ; and Mahomet, who knew 
 its utility, reduced it to a precept. Of these baths, 
 and the manner of bathing;, particularly at Cairo, 
 the following account is given by Savary, in his 
 Letters on Egypt : ' The first apartment one finds, 
 in going to the bath, is a large hall, which rises 
 in the form of a rotunda. It is open at the 
 top, to give a free circulation to the air. A 
 spacious estrade, or raised floor, covered with 
 a carpet, and divided into compartments, goes 
 around it, on which one lays one's clothes. In 
 the middle of the building, a jet d'eau spouts up 
 from a basin, and agreeably entertains the eye. 
 When you are undressed, you tie a napkin round 
 your loins, take a pair of sandals, and enter into 
 a narrow passage, where you begin to be sensible 
 of the heat. The door shuts to; and at twenty 
 paces off, you open a second, and go along a 
 passage, which forms a right angle, with the for- 
 mer. Here the heat increases. They who are 
 afraid of suddenly exposing themselves to a 
 stronger degree of it, stop in a marble hall, in 
 the way to the bath properly so called. The 
 bath is a spacious and vaulted apartment, paved 
 and hned with marble, around which there are 
 four closets. The vapor, incessantly rising 
 from a fountain and cistern of hot water, mixes 
 itself with the burning perfumes. These, how- 
 ever, are never burnt except the persons who 
 are in the bath desire it. They mix with the 
 steam of the water, and produce a most agreeable 
 effect. The bathers are not imprisoned here rs 
 in Europe, in a sort of tub, where one is never at 
 one's ease. Extended on a cloth spread out, the 
 head supported by a small cushion, they stretch 
 themselves freely in every posture, whilst they 
 are wrapped up in a cloud of odoriferous vapors, 
 which penetrates into all their pores. After re- 
 posing there some time, until there is a gentle 
 moisture over the whole body, a servant comes, 
 presses you gently, turns you over, and when the 
 limbs are become supple and flexible, he makes 
 all the joints crack without any difficulty. He 
 masses (i. e. touches delicately), and seems to knead 
 the flesh without making you feel the smallest 
 pain. This operation finished, he puts on a stuff 
 glove, and rubs you a long time. During this 
 operation, he detaches from the body of the pa- 
 tient, which is run niug with sweat, a sort of small 
 scales, and removes even the imperceptible dirt 
 that stops the pores. The skin becomes soft and 
 smooth like satin. He then conducts you into a 
 closet, pours the lather of perfumed soap upon your 
 head, and withdraws. The ancients did more 
 honor to their guests, and treated them in a more 
 voluptuous manner. Whilst Telemachus was at 
 the court of Nestor, 'the beautiful Polycasta, the 
 handsomest of the daughters of the king of 
 Pylos, led the son of Ulysses to the bath ; washed 
 
 him with her own hands ; and, after anointing 
 his body with precious oils, covered him with 
 rich habits and a splendid cloak.' Pisistratus 
 and Telemachus were not worse treated in the 
 palace of Menelaus. ' When they had admired 
 its beauties, they were conducted to basins of 
 marble, where a bath was prepared ; beautifid 
 female slaves washed them ; and, after anointing 
 them with oil, covered them with rich tunics and 
 superb pellices.' The closet to which one is con- 
 ducted is furnished with a cistern and two cocks ; 
 one for cold, the other for hot water. There you 
 wash yourself Soon after the ser\ant returns 
 with a depilatory pomatum, which in an instant 
 makes the hair fall off the places it is applied to. 
 Both men and women make general use of it in 
 Egypt. It is composed of a mineral called rusma, 
 which is of a deep brown. The Egyptians burn 
 it lightly, knead it with water, mixing it with half 
 the quantity of slacked line. This grayish jpaste 
 applied to the hair, makes it fall off m two or 
 three minutes, without giving the slightest pain. 
 After being well washed and purified, you are 
 wrapped up in hot linen, and follow the guide 
 through the windings that lead to the outer apart- 
 ment. This insensible transition from heat to cold 
 prevents one from suffering any inconvenience 
 from it. On arriving at the estrade, you find a 
 bed prepared for you ; and scarcely are you laid 
 down before a child comes to press every part 
 of your body with his delicate fingers, in order 
 to dry you thoroughly. You change linen a 
 second time, and the child gently grates the cal- 
 losity of your feet with pumice stone. He then 
 brings you a pipe and Moka coffee. Commg out 
 of a stove where one was surrounded by a hot 
 and moist fog, where the sweat gushed from every 
 limb, and transported into a spacious apartment, 
 open to the external air, the breast dilates, and 
 one breathes with voluptuousness. Perfectly 
 massed, and, as it were regenerated, one expe- 
 liences anvmiversal comfort. The blood circulates 
 with freedom ; and one feels as if disengaged from 
 an enormous weight, together with a suppleness 
 and lightness to which one has been hitherto a 
 stranger. A lively sentiment of existence diffuses 
 itself to the very extremities of the body. Whilst 
 it is lost in delicate sensations, the soul sympa- 
 thising with the delight, enjoys the most agreea- 
 ble ideas. The imagination, wandering over the 
 universe, which it embellishes, sees on every side . 
 the most enchanting pictures, every where the 
 image of happiness. Iflife be nothing but the suc- 
 cession of our ideas, the rapidity with which they 
 then recur to the memory, the vigor with which 
 the mind runs over the extended chain of them, 
 would induce a belief that in the two hours of 
 that delicious calm that succeeds the bath, one 
 has lived a number of years.' Such are the baths, 
 the use of which was so strongly recommended 
 by the ancients, and which are stUl the delight of 
 the Egyptians. It is by means of them that they 
 cure rheumatisms, catarrhs, and such cutaneous 
 disorders as are produced by want of perspiration. 
 There are no people who make more frequent 
 use of them than the Egyptians, and there is no 
 country where there are fewer asthmatic people. 
 The asthma is hardly known there. The women 
 are passionately fond of these baths, frequent
 
 BATHURST. 
 
 661 
 
 them at least once a week, and take with them 
 slaves ])roperIy qualilied to assist them. More 
 luxurious than the men, after undergoinff the 
 Usual preparations, they wash their bodies, and 
 above all, their heads, with-rose water. It is there 
 that female head-dressers form their long black 
 liair into tresses, which they mix with precious 
 essences instead of powder and pomatum. There 
 they blacken the edge of their eye-lids, and 
 
 lengthen their eye-brows with cohel, a prepara- 
 tion of tin burnt with gall-nuts ; and stain the 
 linger and toe nails with the leaves of henne, a 
 shrub common in Egypt, which gives them a 
 golden color. The linen and clothing they make 
 use of are passed through the sweet steam of the 
 wood of aloes ; and when the work of the toilet 
 is at an end, they remain in the outer apartment, 
 and pass the day in entertainments. 
 
 Bathing of Hawks, or Falcons, is done 
 when they have been thoroughly reclaimed ; they 
 are then offered water to bathe in where they may 
 stand up to the thighs, choosing a temperate clear 
 day for that purpose. By the use of bathing, a 
 hawk gains strength, with a sharp appetite, and 
 so grows bold. 
 
 Batu-kol, i. e. the daughter of a voice, an 
 oracle among the Jews, frequently mentioned in 
 the Talmud. It was a fantastical way of divina- 
 tion invented by the Jews, though called by 
 them a revelation from God's will, which he 
 made to his chosen people, after all verbal pro- 
 phecies had ceased in Israel. It was in fact a 
 method of divination similar to the sortes Virgil- 
 ianoe of the Heathens. For, as with them, the 
 first words they happened to dip into, in the 
 works of that poet, were a kind of oracle whereby 
 tliey predicted future events ; so, with the Jews, 
 when they appealed to Bath-kol, the first 
 words they heard from any man's mouth were 
 looked upon as a voice from heaven, directing 
 them in the matter they enquired about. See 
 
 SOUTILECF.. 
 
 BATIIMUS, HaOfiog, from fiaivw, I move; 
 in anatomy, an appellation given to such cavi- 
 ties of bones as receive the prominences of other 
 bones into them. 
 
 BATIIRUM, a name given by ancient sur- 
 geons to a kind of stool or bench proper for the 
 reduction of dislocated bones. This is called 
 /3a0()ov 'ImroKpaTtiov, or the hyppocratic stool. 
 Its description and use are represented at large 
 by Sculterus. Arm. Chir. p. i. 
 
 BATHSIIEBA, or Batshua, the daughter of 
 Eliam, or Ammiel, wife of Uriah the llittite. 
 She was the mother of four sons by David, of 
 whom Solomon and Nathan are reckoned in the 
 genealogy of Jesus Christ. 
 
 BATHURST (Allan), earl of Bathurst, one of 
 the most celebrated statesmen of queen Anne's 
 reign, was born in 1684. His studies and his 
 education were equally conducive to the brilliant 
 figure he was destined to make in social life and 
 in the senate, as a polite scholar, and a patriot. 
 These talents he had an opportunity of displaying 
 as early as 170,^ ; when, at the request of his fa- 
 ther. Sir Benjamin, and of the constituents of Ci- 
 rencester, he w;is returned to parliament for that 
 borough. He distinguished himself particularly 
 in the struggles and debates relative to the union 
 with Scotland, and firmly supported that mea- 
 sure. Though he consented to act a subordinate 
 character in the opposition planned by Mr. Har- 
 ley and St. John, to the measures of the duke of 
 
 Marlborough, he was of infinite service to his 
 party, and the loss of the battle of Almanza se- 
 conded his efforts to dispel the intoxication of 
 former successes. Amidst the storms of politics 
 he steadily maintained a personal regard for Lord 
 Somers, president of the council ; and when that 
 nobleman was divested of office, Mr. Bathurst 
 preserved his esteem. In consideration of his 
 zeal and services, the queen advanced him m 
 1711, to the dignity of a peer, by the title of 
 baron Bathurst, of Battlesden, in Bedfordshire. 
 He continued, however, to speak his sentiments 
 with an undaunted freedom in the upper house ; 
 and was a formidable opponent to the court mea- 
 sures during the whole of Sir Robert Walpole's 
 administration The acrimony of the prosecution 
 carried on against the earl of Oxford, lord Bo- 
 lingbroke, and the duke of Ormond, particularly 
 stimulated his indignation and his eloquence ; and 
 on this occasion he observed, ' that the king of 
 a faction was but the sovereign of half his sub- 
 jects.' The South Sea scheme having infected 
 the whole nation with a spirit of avaricious enter- 
 prise, an infinite number of families were involved 
 in ruin. Lord Bathurst publicly impeached the 
 directors, whcse arts enabled them to amass sur- 
 prising fortunes ; and moved for having thera 
 punished by a forfeiture of their estates. When 
 the bill of pains and penalties against Atterbury, 
 bishop of Rochester, was brought into the house 
 of lords, among the many friends the bishop's 
 eloquence and ingenuity had procured him was 
 Lord Bathurst. lie spoke against the bill with 
 vehemence, and declared, he ' could hardly ac- 
 count for the inveterate malice some persons bore 
 to the ingenious bishop of Rochester, unless it 
 was that they were infatuated, likethe wild Ameri- 
 cans, who believe they inherit not only the spoils, 
 but the abilities of the man they destroy.' Sir 
 Robert Walpole, having, after obstinate strug- 
 gles, been forced to resign all his employments. 
 Lord Bathurst was sworn of the privy council, 
 and made captain of the gentlemen pensioners, 
 which post he resigned in 1744. He was ap- 
 pointed treasurer to the Prince of Wales in 1757 
 and continued in the list of privy counsellors at 
 the accession of (ieorge III. Lord Bathurst's 
 integrity gained him the esteem even of his op- 
 jionents ; and his humanity and his benevolence, 
 the affection of all that knew him more intimately. 
 He added to his public virtues all the good 
 breeding, politeness, and elegance, of social in- 
 tercourse. Congreve, Vanburgh, Swift, Prior, 
 Rowe, Addison, Pope, Arbuthnot, CJay.and most 
 men of genius in his own time, cuitifated his
 
 662 
 
 B A T H U R S T. 
 
 friendship, and were proud of his correspondence. 
 Pope thus addresses him, in his Epistle on the 
 Use of Riches : 
 
 * teach us, Bathurst, yet unspoil'd by wealth ! 
 That secret rare, between th' extremes to move. 
 Of mad good nature, and of mean self-love.' 
 
 And Sterne, in his letters to Eliza, thus speaks 
 of him : ' This nobleman is an old friend of mine : 
 he was always the protector of men of wit and 
 genius ; and has had those of the last century 
 always at his table. The manner in which his 
 notice began of me, was as singular as it was po- 
 lite. He came up to me one day as I was at the 
 Princess of Wales's court ; * I want to know you, 
 Mr. Sterne ; but its fit you should know also 
 who it is that wishes this pleasure : you have 
 heard, continued he, of an old Lord Bathurst, of 
 whom your Popes and Swifts have sung and 
 spoken so much : I have lived my life with ge- 
 niuses of that cast, but have survived them ; and 
 despairing ever to find their equals, it is some 
 years since I have closed my accounts, and shut 
 up my books, with thoughts of never opening 
 them again : but you have kindled a desire in 
 me of opening them once more before I die, 
 which I now do ; so go home, and dine with 
 me.' ' At eighty-five,' he continues, ' he has all 
 the wit and promptness of a man of thirty ; a 
 disposition to be pleased, and a power to please 
 others beyond whatever I knew ! ' In the latter 
 part of his life, he preserved his cheerfulness, 
 and was always accessible, hospitable, and be- 
 neficent. He delighted in rural amusements ; and 
 enjoyed the shade of many a lofty tree which he 
 had planted himself. Till within a month of his 
 deatl:, he constantly rode out on horseback two 
 hours before dinner, and drank his bottle of cla- 
 ret or Madeira after it. He used to declare in a 
 jocose manner, he never could think of adopting 
 Dr. Cadogan's regimen, as Dr. Cheyne had 
 assured him, fifty years ago, he would not live 
 seven years longer, unless he abridged himself 
 of his wine. Pursuant to this maxim, having 
 invited several of his friends to spend a few 
 cheerful days with him at his seat, and being one 
 evening very loth to part with them ; on his son 
 the late chancellor's objecting to their sitting up 
 any longer, and adding that health and long life 
 were best secured by regularity, he suffered him 
 to retire : but as soon as he was gone, the cheer- 
 ful father said, ' Come, my good friends, since 
 the old gentleman is gone to bed, I think we 
 may venture to crack another bottle.' He was 
 advanced to the dignity of earl in 1772; living to 
 see the above nobleman, his eldest son, several 
 years lord high chancellor of Great Britain, and 
 promoted to the peerage in 1771, by the title of 
 Baron Apsley. Lord Bathurst married Catha- 
 rine, daughter of Sir Peter Apsley, by whom he 
 had two sons and five daughters. He died, after 
 a few days illness, at his seat near Cirencester, 
 in 1775, aged ninety-one. 
 
 Bathurst (Ralph), M. D. an eminent physi- 
 cian and divine, born in 1620. He studied 
 divinity in Trinity College, Oxford ; but the 
 times of confusion coming on, he applied himself 
 to physic. He took the degree of M. D. and 
 rose to such eminence, that he was, in the time 
 
 of the usurpation, appointed physician to the 
 state. Upon the Restoration he quitted physic ; 
 was elected F. R. S. and president of his college ; 
 and having entered into holy orders, was made 
 chaplain to the king, and afterwards dean of 
 Wells. Soon after, he served as vice-chancellor 
 of Oxford, and was nominated by king William 
 and queen Mary to the see of Bristol, but refused 
 to accept it. He was an orator, a philosopher, 
 and a poet : he possessed an inexhaustible fund 
 of wit, and at eighty years of age, was a facetious 
 companion. Ridicule was a weapon which he 
 had always at hand. His poetical pieces in the 
 Musffi Anglicanae are excellent. He wrote seve- 
 ral poems in English and Latin ; and died in 
 1704, aged eighty-four. 
 
 Bathurst, the chief town of a new settlement 
 near the Great Fish River, on the eastward of 
 the colony of the Cape of Good Hope. It is ra- 
 pidly increasing. A large inn has been already 
 built for the accommodation of visiters ; and as 
 the site has been well chosen, Bathurst is ex- 
 pected very soon to become one of the first towns 
 in the colony. 
 
 Bathurst, also a new British settlement on 
 the island of St. Mary, at the mouth of the Gam- 
 bia, on the western coast of Africa. Sir George 
 Collier, in his second report, on the settlements 
 of this coast, says, 'The island of St. INIary, upon 
 which Bathurst, the capital, is rising with the 
 same rapidity that the most healthful climate, 
 and most fruitful and productive country could 
 desire, is a barren, sandy spot, in many places 
 scarcely above the level of the sea. Buildings', 
 combining neatness and beauty, are appearing ; 
 and St. Mary bids fair to rival every spot on the 
 lengthened line of coast of western Africa, in 
 commerce and industry.' 
 
 BATHUS, in entomology, a species of papilio 
 (Pleb. Rur.), with entire black wings, glossed 
 with blue; beneath white, with numerous black 
 dots, and a continued fulvous band. Fabricius. 
 Inhabits Austria. It is the papilio battus of 
 Schmetterl, and papilio telephii of Esper. 
 
 BATHYCHRUS Color, in painting, a term 
 used by the Greeks to express what the Romaas 
 call austerus color. 
 
 BATHYERGUS, from ^aQvipyuv, to work 
 deeply in the earth ; in zoology, a genus of ani- 
 mals belonging to the order rodentia, class 
 mammalia. Its generic character is, incisor teeth 
 large, not covered by the lips, and wedge-shaped; 
 canine none ; grinders four on either side, above 
 and below, the posterior sloping deeply outwards ; 
 muzzle broad ; eyes small ; auricles none ; tail 
 short and bristly ; toes five on each foot, short 
 and armed with thin flat nails. The two species 
 are, 1. B. maritimus, Iliig. Cur.; mus mariti- 
 mus, Lin. ; la grande taup du cap, Bufl'. ; Afri- 
 can rat, Pen ; sand mole of the Dutch ; about the 
 size of a rabbit, and of a cinereous brown color ; 
 having a large head without auricles, and the 
 nose slightly flattened, wrinkled, and black ; the 
 legs are short, with four toes, long claws, and a 
 thumb, with a short claw on the anterior extre- 
 mities. The hind legs are long, having five toes 
 armed with short claws. It inhabits the Cape, 
 where it is known by the name of zand mole. It 
 burrows near the shore, and renders travelling on
 
 BAT 
 
 663 
 
 BAT 
 
 horseback dangerous. Pennant says, they some- 
 times let a horse sink in them up to the 
 shoulders! 2. B. capensis, Cur. ; muscapensis, 
 Lin. Pall.; taup du cap de Bonne Esperance, 
 Buff, Cape rat ; Pen. About seven inches loni,^, 
 of a dusky rufous ash brown color, with a white 
 stripe round the eye and ear, and on the vertex ; 
 muzzle black. It is very common in the gardens 
 at the Cape, and called, ' bless moll.' 
 
 BATIIYLLUS and Py lades, inventors of 
 pantomime entertainments on the stage. Ba- 
 tiiyllus succeeded in representing comedy ; Py- 
 lades in tragedy. The art consisted in expressing 
 the passions by gestures, altitudes, and dumb 
 show ; not, as in modern times, in machinerj', 
 and the fooleries of harlequin. They flourished 
 at Rome, under Augustus, about A. D. 10. 
 Each of them kept scholars, who perpetuated 
 their master's name : the followers of Bathyllus, 
 who excelled in the comic calling themselves 
 Bathylli ; and those of Pylades, who excelled in 
 the tragic, calling themselves Pyladse. 
 
 BATILDA (St.), commonly called St. Badour, 
 a Saxon princess, was carried away from Eng- 
 land by pirates, and sold to Archambaud, mayor 
 of the palace, where she was seen by Clovis II., 
 wiio married her, and had by her Clotarius III., 
 C'hilderic II., and Thierri III. She administered 
 the government with great wisdom after his death, 
 and after founding several abbeys, died about 
 680, in a monastery. 
 
 BATINDA, a small district in Hindostan, in 
 the north-west quarter of the province of Delhi, 
 comprehending the Lachy jungle, celebrated for 
 its breed of excellent horses, said to be descended 
 from some of the Persian horses stolen from the 
 camp of Nadir Shah, in the year 1739. 
 
 BATIS, in botany, a genus of the tetrandria 
 order, belonging to the dioecia class of plants, 
 the characters of which are : of the male, the 
 amentum is four ways imbricated, and both the 
 calyx and corolla are wanting ; of the female, the 
 amentum is ovate, the involucrum dyphyllous ; 
 calyx and corolla wanting; the stigma is bilobate 
 and sessile ; the berries condumate and four- 
 seeded. There is but one species ; viz. B. 
 mantima, a native of Jamaica. 
 
 Batis, in botany, the name by which Pliny 
 and some authors call the sea-plant samphire. 
 
 Batis, in ichthyology. See Batos, and 
 Raia. 
 
 BATISCAN, a river of Lower Canada, rising 
 in the ridge of mountains that run \\esterly into 
 the interior from (Quebec. It falls into the St. 
 Lawrence, about fifty-four miles above that city. 
 At its mouth, it is 350 yards broad, but is so 
 shallow as not to be accessible for boats higher 
 than six or seven miles up the stream, which is 
 also mterrupted by many falls and rapids. 
 
 BATISTE, in commerce, a fine white kind of 
 linen cloth manufactured in Flanders and Picardy. 
 There are three kinds of batiste ; the first very 
 thin ; the second less thin ; and the third much 
 thicker, called Holland batiste, as coming verj' 
 near the goodness of Hollands. The chief use 
 of batiste is for neck-cloths, head-cloths, surplices, 
 &c. 
 
 BATMAN, in commerce, a kind of weight 
 used at Smyrna, consisting of six okas. Eorty 
 
 batmans make a camel's load, and amount to 
 about 7201b. in English weight. 
 
 Batman, Peusian, or Battament, is of two 
 kinds : one called the king's weight, batman de 
 cliahi, or cheray, used for weighing most of the 
 necessaries of life, equivalent to about 12^lb. 
 Paris weight . the other called batman of Tauris, 
 equal to 6lb. 4oz. Paris or Amsterdam weight. 
 These are the proportions given by Tavernier. 
 Chardin rates the Persian batmans somewhat 
 lower, viz. the former at 12lb. 12oz. and the latter 
 at 5lb. 14oz. 
 
 Batman, Turkish, is also of two kinds ; the 
 larger, containing six okes, ocques, at 3^1b. Paris 
 weight the ocque ; so that tiie batman amounts 
 to about 22^1b. the smaller, composed likewise 
 of six ocques, at 15 oz. the ocque, amounting to 
 51b. 10 oz. 
 
 BATMANSON (John), prior of the Carthu- 
 sian monastery, in the suburbs of London. He 
 was some time a student at Oxford, and inti- 
 mately acquainted with Edward Lee, archbishop 
 of York, at whose request he wrote against Eras- 
 mus and Luther. He died in 1531, and was 
 buried in the chapel belonging to the monastery. 
 Bale says he was a proud forward person ; and that 
 Erasmus, in a letter to the bishop of Winchester, 
 calls him an ignorant fellow. But Pitts gives 
 him the character of a man of genius, zeal, piety, 
 and learning. He wrote, 1. Animadversiones in 
 Annotationes Erasmi in Nov. Testamentum. 2. 
 A Treatise against some of Luther's works. These 
 two he afterwards retracted. 3. Commentaria in 
 Proverbia Solomonis. 4. IncanticaCanticorum. 
 5. De unica Magdalena. 6. Institutiones Novi- 
 ciorum. 7. De Contemptu Alundi. 8. De 
 Christo duodenni. 9. On the words JNIissus 
 est, &c. 
 
 BATONI (Pompeo), a celebrated Italian pain- 
 ter, born at Lucca in 1708. He gained great 
 fame by his productions, which were eagerly 
 sought after by persons in the uighest stations. 
 So that honors and riches w ere heaped upon him ; 
 the emperor Joseph granted him a patent of no- 
 bility. He died in 1787. One of his most ad- 
 mired pieces, is a representation of Simon the 
 magician contending with St. Peter, in the great 
 church dedicated to the apostle at Rome. 
 
 BATNEER, a town of Battle, and province 
 of Delhi, in Hindostan. It is situated on the 
 borders of a sandy desert, and was formerly a 
 plarf of great consequence. It was taken by the 
 celebrated Timur, or Tamerlane, in the year 
 1398, who put all the inliabitants to death, and 
 burned the city. Long. 74°. 45'. E., lat. 29°. 
 28' N. 
 
 BATON, in botany, a name by which some 
 authors call the true turpentine tree. 
 
 Baton, in military afi'airs, a staff. 
 
 Bato.n" a deux bouts, a quarter-staff. 
 
 Baton de comm an dement, an instrument of 
 particular distinction, which was formerly given 
 to generals in the French army. Henry III. be- 
 fore his re-ascension to tlie throne, was made ge- 
 neralissimo of all the armies belonging to his 
 brother Charles the IX., and publicly received 
 the baton, as a mark of high commimd. 
 
 Baton rouoe, a flourishing post town of 
 Louisiana, on the east bank of the Mississippi,
 
 664 
 
 B A T T A. 
 
 about 140 miles above New Orleans. The po- 
 pulation is estimated at 5000 or 6000 persons. 
 
 BATOON, in military affairs, a truncheon, or 
 marshal's staff. 
 
 Batoons of St. Paul (Bastoncini di San 
 Paolo), in natural history, a name given by some 
 of the Italian writers, as Augustino Scilla, and 
 others, to the lapides Judaici, or other spines of 
 echini. These are found in vast abundance in 
 the island of Malta; and, like almost everything 
 else there, are denominated from St. Paul. 
 
 BATORI (Stephen), king of Poland. lie v?as 
 born of a noble family in Transylvania, and 
 elected prince of his native country in 1571 ; 
 after -which he gained such reputation, that upon 
 the deposition of Henry, duke of Anjou, by the 
 Poles, his party prevailed over that of Maximi- 
 lian; and, having married the princess Anne, he 
 was crowned in 1576. He proved an excellent 
 prince, and successfidly opposed both Russia 
 and Sweden ; while he gained great honor to 
 himself by his merciful conduct in the midst of 
 tlie most horrible cruelties on the part of his 
 enemies. He died in 1586. 
 
 BATOS, in ichthyology, the name given by 
 Aristotle, and all the old writers, to the skait. 
 They have generally called the male batos, and 
 the female batis. It is a species of the raia, and 
 distinguished by Artedi by the name of the va- 
 riegated ray, with the middle of the back smooth, 
 and one row of spines on the tail. Albertus 
 calls it the rayte, and rubus. 
 
 BATRACHIA, in zoology, one of the orders 
 or great divisions of the class Reptiles. 
 
 BATRACHIAS Lapis, from jiarpaxoi, a frog ; 
 the frog-stone, a name applied by different 
 writers to two very different substances ; some 
 understanding by it lumps of common flint, 
 accidentally formed into this figure ; and others, 
 those pieces of amber which contain either a 
 whole frog, or any part of one. 
 
 BATRACHOMYOMACHIA, from (Sarpa- 
 Xog, a frog, five, a mouse, and fiaxia, a battle ; 
 the battle of the frogs and the mice, the title of 
 a tine burlesque poem generally ascribed to 
 Homer. 
 
 BATRACHUS, from /Sarpaxof, a frog; in 
 zoology, the frog fish. A genus of animals be- 
 longing to the family perca, order acanthopte- 
 rygii, class, pisces. The generic character is 
 head flattened horizontally, larger than the body ; 
 ventral fins straight, attached under the throat ; 
 first dorsal fin short, supported by three spinous 
 rays; second dorsal long and soft, opposite to 
 which the anal fin also soft ; mouth and gills very 
 large; gill flap spined ; lips sometimes bearded. 
 This genus was established by Schneider in his 
 Bloch's Icthyology, and named from the im- 
 mense size of the head, resembling that of the 
 frog. The species inhabit the southern hemis- 
 phere, and are separated into two divisions, 
 those with and those witliout beards or cirrhi on 
 the lip. The principal are, 1. Widi beards, 
 B. didactylus ; two fingered frog fish, inhabits 
 Guinea; B. tau, toad fish; Garden states that 
 this animal is called by the inhabitants of Caro- 
 lina the * toad fish;' by the P'rench it has been 
 ialled ' crapaud de iner.' Its habits are very 
 httle known, but it is considered jre lacious. 
 
 It is found in hot climates, and is taken on the 
 coasts of Carolina. B. grunniens, Schneid. ; 
 cottus grunniens, Lin. Bloch; grunting bull 
 head, Shaw ; grunting frog fish. This animal 
 is about ten inches long; of a brown color 
 marked witli white on the sides ; inhabits Ame- 
 rica and the Indian Seas. 2. \Vithout beards. 
 B. Surinamensis. B. Indicus, are founded by 
 Bloch, the cottus insidiator, and E. guavina 
 of the Havannah. 
 
 BATSCH (Augustus John George Charles), 
 was born at Jena in 1761. He became professor 
 of philosophy in the university of his native 
 place, where he founded a society for the study 
 of natural history, of which he was president. 
 He died in 1802. His works are — 1. Elenchas 
 Fungorum, 8vo. 2. An Introduction to the 
 Knowledge and History of Vegetables, 8vo. 
 3. Essays on Botany and Vegetable Physiology, 
 8vo. 4. Botany, for Ladies and Amateurs, 8vo. 
 5. Introductory Essay to the Knowledge of 
 Animals and INIinerals, 8vo. 
 
 BATSEN, or Bacs, a county and town of 
 Hungary ; the county is bounded on the north 
 by that of of Scholt, on the south by Bodrog, on 
 the east by little Camania and the Theyss, and 
 on the west by the Danube, which separates it 
 from Sclavonia. It is inhabited by Hungarians 
 and Rascians, and a few Germans. After being 
 united with that of Bodrog, it was separated 
 from it for several years, but was re-united by 
 Joseph II. Since the introduction of the Spa- 
 nish breed of sheep the trade in wool has been 
 very considerable. This county has been fre- 
 quently the theatre of war between Austria and 
 Turkey. The capital, which was formerly more 
 considerable than at present, and was the see of 
 a bishop, suffragan of Colocza, is situated 
 four miles from the north side of the Danube, 
 and twenty from the conflux of the Danube and 
 Drave. Twenty miles north-east of Tunfkir- 
 chen, and seventy-five south of Buda. Long. 
 190. 10'. E., lat. 46°. 18'. N. 
 
 BATTA, a country of Sumatra, stretching 
 along the south-western shore between the Sin- 
 kell and Tabuyong, runs across the whole island. 
 This is one of those districts that have become 
 known to us principally by the modern mis- 
 sionary exertions. In the autumn of 1821 Mr. 
 Burton visited the interior, opposite to the East 
 India Company's settlement at Natal, and found 
 it composed of rugged hills, covered with thick 
 forests, and separated by ravines which often 
 formed the beds of rapid rivers. His journey 
 extended as far as Mora Summa, a station which 
 has lately been chosen by the Company's resi- 
 dent at Natal, for the purpose of maintaining a 
 freer communication with tlie Battas. This sta- 
 tion is situated about the middle of the range of 
 lofty mountains seen in a north-easterly direction 
 from Natal hill, and within three days walk of 
 the Mendeeling country, which is spoken of in 
 tlie highest terms by the princes nearer the shore, 
 wlio have visited it ; and is supposed to contain 
 a population of 100,000 individuals. Mr. Bur- 
 ton says, ' The country round here is the most 
 beautiful I have seen on Sumatra. It is culti- 
 vated chiefly with labangs, for several miles in 
 every direction. There is no sawah ground. The
 
 B A T T A. 
 
 665 
 
 Batta people of tliis place, unlike their neigh- 
 bours, and unlike Batta people of other places, 
 live on their respective farms, and not collected 
 togetlier in dusuns (villages). The liouses scat- 
 tered upon the surrounding hills, reminded me 
 much of my favorite Gloucestershire, as I 
 viewed them at a distance.' 
 
 The chief products of this country are pepper, 
 plantains, Indian corn, camphor, cotton, indigo, 
 cassia, and gum benzoin. Gold and sulphur 
 are among its mineral treasures ; the first of 
 which Mr. B. had an opportnnity of seeing the 
 Battas procure from the beds of the rivers, 
 in the same way nearly as in South America. 
 Among the animal tribes, monkeys, elephantc, 
 and tigers, are numerous; but there are very few 
 birds. 
 
 The Battas Mr. Burton describes as fine, tall, 
 stout, good-looking people, superior in appear- 
 ance to the generality of the Malays. They 
 have a peculiarly fierce and independent look, 
 are well dressed in cotton cloths, manufactured 
 by the women, and wear English beads as orna- 
 ments. ' These people,' he remarks, ' are per- 
 fectly independent ; they have no idea of their 
 own inferiority to any people on earth, and their 
 carriage and behaviour tell you so. They are 
 very polite in their own way, are good speakers, 
 and know perfectly well how to manage every 
 point of an argument, so as to turn it to their 
 own advantage.' 
 
 The Battas have a settled language, which is 
 extensively written and understood, and many 
 neatly executed books. The whole population 
 is estimated at a million, 2 or 300,000 of whom 
 can read. ' I have begun to read their language,' 
 says Mr. B., ' and find there is nothing to fear 
 relative to its acquisition, the character is re- 
 markably simple, and every sound having its 
 representative mark, the language may be pro- 
 nounced correctly by any person who has ac- 
 quired the character, though he may not under- 
 stand what he reads.' Mr. Prince, the Compa- 
 ny's Natal resident, drew up a brief account of 
 the religion of these peoplfe, at the request of 
 SirT. S. Raffles, from which it appears to be 
 compounded of the most ridiculous and barba- 
 rous superstitions. They do not, however, wor- 
 ship images, but believe in the existence of cer- 
 tain deities, whose attributes indicate a much 
 greater degree of knowledge and civilisation at 
 some former period. Dee Battah AsseeAssee is 
 the Creator and Father of all things, and is sup- 
 posed to have appointed three brothers as his 
 agents to instruct mankind. Bataragourou, the 
 god of justice; Seeree Padah, the god of mercy ; 
 but Mahalablioolan, the third brother, soon dis- 
 agreed with the other two, separated from them, 
 and propagated tenets directly in opposition to 
 theirs. lie is therefore described as the source 
 of ' discord and contention — the instigator of ma- 
 lice and revenge — the inciter of anger — the source 
 of fraud, deceit, lying, hypocrisy, and murder.' 
 He has the chief influence among the Battas, and 
 they acknowledge that petitions are seldom of- 
 fered to either of the others. The only semblance 
 of a priest among them, is a person named Dat- 
 too, who is skilled in all their superstitions ; and 
 there is generally one of these to every village; 
 
 but the only religious ceremonies the existence 
 of which Mr. Prince could ascertain, appeared 
 to consist in an invocation of the manes of the 
 dead. * The influence of the Dattoos over the 
 deluded Battas is such,' says Mr. P., ' that they 
 will not engage in any undertaking, however 
 trifling, without first consulting them. They ex- 
 pound all their religious books, and, according to 
 their interpretation, a day is chosen as propitious 
 to the accomplishment of the desired object, 
 whether it be a suit, a journey, or war. The 
 moral conduct of these people appears to be in- 
 fluenced by all the vile passions of an irregular 
 and irritable constitution. ' Truth is seldom re- 
 garded when in the way of their interests or 
 feelings; and honesty is never founded on prin- 
 ciple, but on the fear of detection. The general 
 tenor of their lives has obliterated the recollec- 
 tion and practice of the laws of Seeree Padah 
 and Bataragourou, and they have no priesthood 
 or rajah to recal them, or to reprove their obsti- 
 nate adherence to the principles of Mahalabhoo- 
 lan, who is certainly no other than the devil.' 
 
 One of the amusements of this people is a 
 peculiar and very cruel one, thus described by 
 Mr. Burton. ' In one of the bazars,' he says, 
 ' were about 100 persons amusing themselves 
 with a most cruel game. They drive a small 
 stake into the earth, and round it draw a circle, 
 which they divide into four equal parts ; in each 
 of the partitions different individuals put equal 
 sums of money; to the stake is tied a young 
 fowl, whose throat being cut, it flutters about 
 for a short time, and then expires. The person 
 whose money happens to be in the partition 
 where the fowl lies after death, sweeps the stakes. 
 The circle may be divided into as many parts as 
 there are persons who wish to follow the amuse- 
 ment. The man officiating as cut-throat was the 
 imum, or priest, of the place.' 
 
 BATTiE, a people of ancient Germany, for- 
 merly inhabitants of what is now called ilesse. 
 Being dissatisfied with their situation there, they 
 settled on the island formed by the \'ahalis and 
 the Rhine, which from them took the name of 
 Batavia, or Batavorum Insula. Their govern- 
 ment was a mixture of monarchy, aristocracy, 
 and democracy. Their chief was, properly speak- 
 ing, nothing more than a principal citizen, whose 
 business was rather to advise than to command. 
 The principal men who exercised jurisdiction, 
 and commanded the troops, in their respective 
 districts, were chosen, as well as the kings, in an 
 assembly of the people. A hundred persons, 
 selected from among the people, presided over 
 every county, and acted as chiefs in the diffierent 
 hamlets. I'he whole nation was, in some mea- 
 sure, an army always in readiness. Each family 
 composed a body of militia, which served under 
 a captain of their own choosing. See Batavi 
 and Batavorim Insci.a. 
 
 BA'ITAIL, V. & M.A Fr. Imttuille, Ital. but- 
 Battail'ant, I tagliu, Span, battala. 
 
 Battail'ous, VErom the ancient Saxon 
 
 BATTA'LtON, ibeatan, to fight, or to 
 
 Batta'lia. J strike. Battailous is hav- 
 
 ing the appearance of a battle ; battalia is Uie 
 order of battle ; and battalion signifies the divi- 
 sion of an army, and formerly an army itself.
 
 BAT 
 
 666 
 
 BAT 
 
 Sir Edward also sone \>ct gile gan he knowe, 
 Dight him to bataile bone. Lis trumpes did he blowe. 
 
 R. Brunne. 
 Lest any time it were assail'd, 
 Ful wel about it was battailed. 
 And round environ (ke were set, 
 Ful many a rich and fair touret. 
 
 Chaucer. Romaunt of the Rose ■ 
 At many a noble armee hadde he be ; 
 At mortal battailes, hadde he ben fiftene ; 
 And foughten for our faith at Tramissene ; 
 In listes thries — and aye slain his foe. Id. 
 
 Soon after this I saw an elephant, 
 Adorn'd with bells and bosses gorgeously. 
 That on his backe did beare (els katteilant) 
 A gilden towre which shone exceedingly. 
 
 Spenser. Visio7i of the Wcfrhl's Vanities. 
 But deeds of armes must I at last be faine, 
 And ladies love, to leave so dearely bought ? 
 What need of armes where peace doth aye remaine. 
 Said he, and battailes none are to be fought? 
 As for loose loves they are vaine, and vanish into 
 nought. Id. 
 
 He started up, and did himself prepayre. 
 In sun-bright armes, and battailous array ; 
 For W'ith that pagan proud he combatt will that day. 
 
 Id. 
 When sorrows come, they come not single spies. 
 But in battalions. Shakspeare. Hamlet. 
 
 A fiery region, stretch'd 
 In battailoits aspect, and nearer view 
 Bristled with upright beams innumerable 
 Of rigid spears and helmets throng'd. Milton. 
 Next morning the king put his army into battalia. 
 
 Clarendon. 
 The pierc'd battalions disunited fall 
 In heaps on heaps ; one fate o'erwhelms them all. 
 
 Pope. 
 Battalia, an army ranged in order of battle, 
 or ready for engagement. The word seems formed 
 from the Latin batualia, sometimes also written 
 batalia, denoting a sort of military or gladiatorial 
 exercise, a:; fighting with foils, or tilting at a post. 
 In this sense, we meet with the depth of a batta- 
 lia; to march in battalia, with the baggage in 
 the middle; to break the battalia, &c. In the 
 Roman battalia, the bastati made the front. It 
 further implies an army or considerable detach- 
 ment of troops drawn up in order of battle, or 
 in any other proper form to attack the enemy. 
 See Battle 
 
 Battaliox, in the British army, is an unde- 
 termined body of infantry in regard to number, 
 generally from 600 to 1000 men. The royal 
 regiment of artillery has consisted of ten batta- 
 lions, exclusive of the invalid or veteran battalion. 
 Sometimes regiments consist each of one batta- 
 lion only ; but if more numerous are divided 
 into several battalions, according to their strength ; 
 so that every one may come within the number 
 mentioned. A battalion of one of our marching 
 regiments consists of 1000 and sometimes of 
 1200 men, officers and non-commissioned in- 
 cluded. When there are companies of several re- 
 giments in a garrison to form a battalion, those of 
 the eldest regiment post themselves on the right, 
 those of the second on the left, and so on till the 
 youngest falls into the centre. The officers take 
 their posts before their companies, from the right 
 and left, according to seniority. Each battalion 
 is divided into four divisions, and each division 
 into two subdivisions, which are again divided 
 
 into sections. The companies of grenadier* 
 being unequal in all battalions, their post must 
 be regulated by the commanding officei. See 
 Regiment. 
 
 The Triangular Battalion of ancient military 
 history, was a body of troops ranged in the form 
 of a triangle, in which the ranks exceeded each 
 other by an equal number of men. If the first 
 consisted of one man only, and the difference 
 between the ranks was only one, then its form 
 was that of an equilateral triangle : and when 
 the difference between the ranks was more than 
 one, its form was an isoscele, having two sides 
 equal, or scalene triangle. 
 
 The Roiaid Battalion, is that in which the 
 soldiers are ranged in concentric circles. This 
 was much used by the Romans, and called in 
 orhem. Ca-sar, in his Commentaries, has given 
 many instances. 
 
 The Square Battalion. M. Folard shows at 
 large, in his book de la Colonne, the weakness 
 of the square battalion, and decries the modern 
 method of ranging battalions so shallow as to 
 render them weak, and unable to support each 
 other : so that they are easily penetrated or 
 broken ; an essential fault in tactics. The real 
 strength of a corps, according to this author, 
 consists in its thickness, or the depth of its files, 
 and their connexion and closeness. This depth 
 renders the flanks almost as strong as the front. 
 He adds, that it may be laid down as a maxim, 
 that every battalion ranged deep, and with a 
 small front, will beat another stronger than itself 
 ranged according to the usual method. (Polyb. 
 torn. i. p. 7.) But this opinion of Folard has 
 not been adopted in modern practice ; and his 
 theory has been vigorously attacked by French 
 tacticians. They admit the superior strength of 
 his column to that of a modern battalion, if the 
 action were to be decided with pikes and swords; 
 but where fire arms must be used, IVI. Folard's 
 column is so very ill disposed for this purpose, 
 that it must infallibly be destroyed. 
 
 BATTECOLLAH, Batlcata, a large open 
 town on the sea coast of the British district of 
 North Canara. The name signifies the round 
 town. It stands in lat. 13° 56' N., long. 74" 
 37' E, on the north bank of a small river, 
 which waters a very beautiful valley, surrounded 
 on every side by hills, and in an excellent state 
 of cultivation. Eight dams are yearly made, at 
 the public expense, in order to water the rice 
 grounds, which are constructed of earth, and 
 only intended to collect the stream. Battecollah 
 contains two mosques, one of which receives an 
 allowance of 100 pagodas from the Company, 
 and the other half as much. Many of the Ma- 
 hommedans are wealthy, and their commercial 
 speculations extend to difi'erent parts of the 
 coast. Here are a great many guddies, or 
 temples, belonging to the followers of \'yas ; and 
 two Jain temples, the only remains of sixty-eight 
 that were formerly in the place. 
 
 BATTEL, v., n. & adj. -\ It may be from the 
 Bat'tling, # Sax. batan, to bait, 
 
 Bat'table, S says Mr. Todd. But 
 
 Bat'tler, i Mr. Stevens thinks, 
 
 Bat'tul. J thattfl^ is an ancient 
 
 English word for increase. Perhaps it is from
 
 BAT 
 
 667 
 
 BAT 
 
 the Goth, ga-batnan, to advantac^e. Batfid is a 
 compound of the two participles, but and full. 
 The verb appears to be founded upon the noun, 
 md to signify to grow fat, to get flesh, to render 
 ertile and fruitful. Battabk, is capalale of cul- 
 avation. To battel (the verb neuter) is to stand 
 indebted in the college books at Oxford, for 
 what is expended at the buttery in the necessa- 
 ries of eating and drinking. At Cambridge size 
 IS used in a similar sense. Hence in the former 
 university there is a student named a butteler or 
 battler ; in the latter a sizer. At Eton, battel is 
 used to describe the small portion of food, which, 
 in addition to the college allowance, the pupils 
 receive from their dames. But in every appli- 
 cation the word has reference to increase. 
 
 This is the grayne of mustard scde whiche when it 
 was so fine and so little that the unlearned sort of 
 English me could scarce possibly fele or see it, ye of 
 your exceeding charitie and zele towards your country 
 folkes did in such wise helpe to some in the field of 
 Englande, and did so cherishe with the sable butleing 
 yearth of the paraphrase, that where before it was in 
 the eyes of the unlettered, the least of al sides, it is 
 now shot up, and growe much larger in bredth the 
 any other herbe of ye field. Udall. Luke, Preface. 
 
 The best advizcment was of bad, to let her 
 Sleepe out her fill, without encumberment ; 
 For sleepe (they said) would make her battel better. 
 Spenser. Faerie Queens. 
 
 For in the church of God sometimes it corameth to 
 pass, as in over battle grounds, the fertile disposition 
 whereof is good ; yet because it exceedeth due propor- 
 tion, it bringeth forth abundantly, through too much 
 ranknesse, things lesse profitable. 
 
 Hooker. Eccles. Pol. 
 
 Massinissa made many inward parts of Barbaric 
 and Xumidia in Africk (before his time incult and 
 horrid) fruitful and battable by this means. 
 
 Burton's Anatomy of Melanchohj. 
 
 Thomas Sorrocold, or Sorocold, was born in Lan- 
 cashire, became a battler or student of Brazen-nose 
 college, in 1-578, aged 17 years or thereabouts. 
 
 Wood. Athenec, Oxon. 
 
 Eat my commons with a good stomach, and battled 
 with discretion. Puritan. Malone's Supplement. 
 
 The hatful pasture fenc'd, and most with quickset 
 mound. 
 The sundry sorts of soil, diversity of ground. 
 
 Drayton. Polyhion. 
 
 Battel, in law, or Trial by wager of Bat- 
 tel, now disused. See Appeal. 
 
 Battel abbey. See Battel. 
 
 BATTELMA, a town of Syria, the ancient 
 Daphne; the scene, according to classical writers, 
 of the transformation of the nymph of that 
 name into a laurel. At a short distance these 
 trees are numerous. It is said that temples 
 dedicated to Daphne, Apollo, and Diana, stood 
 on this spot; and that Gallus built a church 
 at a later period, which Dr. Pococke conjectures 
 may have been the remains of that of Apollo. 
 He saw the remains of a Christian church, with 
 Greek inscriptions on the walls, and supposed 
 that it might have received the bones of Babylas, 
 bishop of Antioch, and those of several other 
 martyrs. There are fountains, and the remains 
 of foundations, walls, and aqueducts, about Bat- 
 telma. which is five miles south-west of Antioch. 
 
 BATTELY (John), an English divine, born at 
 St, Edmund's Bury, in Suffolk, in 1647, and 
 
 educated at Trinity college, Cambridge. Arch- 
 bishop Sancroft made him his chaplain, and orave 
 liim the rectory of Adisiiam in Kent, and the 
 archdeaconry of Canterbury. He wrote Anti- 
 quitates Rutupinse, and Antiquitates Edmund- 
 burgi. He died in 1708. 
 
 BATTEN, V. a. & n. A word, says Johnson, 
 of doubtful etymology. Probably of the same 
 derivation as battle, as it seems to have succeed- 
 ed it, and to have the same meaning. It is, 
 however, with its predecessor, growing fast into 
 desuetude. It signifies to fatten, or make fat ; 
 to feed plenteously; to fertilise; and to live in 
 indulgence. 
 
 CORIO. Follow your function, go and batten on cold 
 bite. Shaksjjeare, 
 
 A man may batten there in a week only, with hot 
 
 loaves and butter, and a lusty cup of muscadine and 
 
 sugar at breakfast, though he make never a meal all 
 
 the month after. Ford. Perkin Warheck. 
 
 We drove afield, 
 
 Batt'ning our flocks with the fresh dews of night, 
 
 Milton. 
 
 Burnish'd and batt'ning on their food, to show 
 The diligence of careful herds below, Drydm. 
 
 Twa mice, full blythe and amicable. 
 Batten beside erle Robert's table. Prior. 
 
 The meadows here, with batt'ning ooze enrich'd. 
 Give rpirit to the grass ; three cubits high 
 The jointed herbage shoots. Philips. 
 
 While ardent Sirius shoots a thirsty ray, 
 
 And autumn yet withholds retreating day. 
 They range at large, and gambol through the stream. 
 Frisk on the beach, or batten in the beam. Brooke. 
 Go thou ; the moan of woe demands thine aid ; 
 
 Pride's licens'd outrage claims thy slumbering ire ; 
 Pale genius roams the bleak neglected shade. 
 
 And battening avarice mocks the tuneless IjTe. 
 
 Beattie. 
 
 Batten is chiefly used by joiners, in speak- 
 ing of doors and windows of shops. Sec. which 
 are not framed of whole deal, &c. with stiles, 
 rails, and pannels like wainscoat; but are made 
 to appear as if they were, by means of these bat- 
 tens, bradded on the plain board round the edges, 
 and sometimes cross them and up and down. 
 
 Battens of the Hatches, in sea language, 
 are nailed along the tarpaulings, and serve to 
 keep their edges close dowti to the hatches, in 
 order to prevent the wafer which washes over the 
 deck from penetrating into the lower apartments 
 of the ship. 
 
 BATTEXBERG, a small town of Germany, 
 in the grand duchy of Hesse, on the Eder, with 
 an old castle, a bailiwic, and 720 inhabitants. 
 Twenty-five miles north of Giessen. 
 
 BATTENHAUSEN, an ancient town of Ger- 
 many, in the territory of the Catti. 
 
 BAITI.NKIL, a small river of North America, 
 in the state of \'ermont, which rises in Benning- 
 ton county, and running south-west, afterwards 
 turns directly west into the state of New York, 
 where it falls into the Hudson, nearly opposite to 
 Saratoga. 
 
 BATTER, V. & 7i.-\ Fr. battre ; Ital. battere ; 
 
 Bat'terer, (Germ, batten; of the same 
 
 Bat'tering, /etymology as ballail, Tiz. 
 
 Bat'tery. ' ancient Saxon bealan : ap- 
 
 plied to things it signifies to beat down, to shatter. 
 The substantive designates a mixture of several
 
 BAT 
 
 668 
 
 BAT 
 
 ingredients beaten together with some liquor ; so 
 called from its being so much beaten. Applied 
 to persons, it describes tliet urmoils and violence 
 through which they have passed, and the worn- 
 out condition in which they are left. 
 
 Man stondeth the sinne of contumelie or strif and 
 cheste, and hattereth and forgcth by vilians reprevinges. 
 Chaucer. The Persones Tale. 
 When Cupid scaled firsl the fort 
 Wherein my hart lay wounded sore. 
 The battry was of such a sort. 
 That 1 must yield or die therefore. 
 
 Hin-ace. Uncertain Authors, 
 For now were the walls beaten with the rams, and 
 many parts thereof shaken and battered: and at one 
 place above the rest, by continual batterie there was 
 such a breach, as the towne lay open and naked to 
 the. enemy. Holland's Livius, fol. 397. 
 
 Moreover take but three sextares or quarts of it 
 being steeped, and it will yield a measure called 
 modius, of thicke grewel or batter, called in Latin 
 puis. Id. Plinie, vol. i. p. 558. 
 
 They all that charge did fcrvendy apply. 
 With greedy malice afid importune toyle. 
 And planted there their huge artillery. 
 With which they daily made most dreadful battery. 
 
 Spenser. 
 Sconce call you it ? so you would leave battering. 
 I had rather have it a head. Shahspeare. 
 
 Many men neglect the tumults of the world, and 
 care not for glory, and yet they are afraid of infamy, 
 repulse, disgrace, they can severely contemn plea- 
 sure, bear grief indifferently : but they are quite bat- 
 tered and broken with reproach and obloquy. 
 
 Burton, Anat. Mel. 
 Others to a city strong. 
 Lay siege encamp'd ; by battery, scale, and mine. 
 Assaulting. Milton. 
 
 Crowds to the castle mounted up the street, 
 Batt'ring the pavement with their coursers' feet. 
 
 Dryden. 
 One would have all things little, hence has try'd 
 Turkey poults fresh from th' egg in hatter fry'd. 
 
 King. 
 If you have a silver saucepan for the kitchen use, 
 let me advise you to batter it well ; this will shew 
 ctmstant good housekeeping. 
 
 Swift's Directions to the Cook. 
 As the same dame, experienc'd in her trade. 
 By names of toasts retails each batter'd jade. Pope. 
 The ordinary machines invented to batter or under- 
 mine the walls, were rendered ineffectual by the supe- 
 rior skill of the Romans. Gibbon. 
 Ba'tter, V. 11. A word used only by work- 
 men. 
 
 The side of a wall, or any timber, that bulges from 
 its bottom or foundation, is said to batter. Moxon. 
 
 Bat'ter. In law, a violent striking of any 
 man. In an action against a striker, one may 
 be found guilty of tlie assault, yet acquitted of 
 the battery. Tiiere may therefore be assault 
 without battery ; but buttery always implies an 
 assault. 
 
 Why does he suffer this rude knave now to knock 
 him about ihe sconce with a dirty shovel, and will 
 not tell him of his action of battery? Sluikspeare, 
 
 Sir, quo' the lawyer, not tp flatter ye. 
 You have as good and fair a battery 
 As heart can wish, and need not shame 
 The proudest man alive to claim. Hudibras. 
 
 Battering, in the military art, is the at- 
 tacking a fortified place or work witli heavy 
 
 artillery. To batter in breacli, is to play furiously 
 on a work, as the angle of a half moon, (o demo- 
 lish and make a gap in it. In doing this, they 
 never fire a piece at the top, but all at the bot- 
 tom, from three to six feet from the ground. 
 See Battery. 
 
 Battering Ram, in antiquity, a military 
 engine used to batter and beat down the walls o. 
 places besieged. It is said to have been invented 
 by Artemorus of Clazomene, a Greek architect, 
 who flourisiied A. A. C. 441. It is thus described 
 by Josephus : A vast beam, like the mast of a ship, 
 strengthened at the one end with a head of iron, 
 resembling that of a ram, whence it took its name, 
 was hung by the middle with ropes to another 
 beam, winch lay across two posts ; and hanging 
 thus equally balanced, it was by a great number 
 of men drawn backwards and pushed forwards, 
 striking the wall with its iron head. But this 
 engine did most execution when it was mounted 
 on wheels, which is said to have been first done 
 at the siege of Byzantium under Philip of 
 Macedon. 
 
 Battering Ram, in military affairs. See 
 Aries. 
 
 Battering Ram, in heraldry, a bearing or 
 coat of arms resembling the military engine 
 above described. 
 
 BATTERS EA, a village in Surrey, which gives 
 the title of baron to the St. John family. Popu- 
 lation about 5000. In the church is a monu- 
 ment of Henry St. John, viscount Boling- 
 broke, who was born here, and his second wife, 
 who was a niece of Madame de IMaintenon. Oi> 
 another to the memory of Sir Edward Winter, 
 who lived in the neighbourhood, it is related 
 that being a captain in the East India company's 
 service, in the reign of Charles II., he was attacked 
 in the woods by a tiger, when, placing himself on 
 the side of a pond, as the tiger flew at him, he 
 caught him in his arms, and falling back with him 
 into the water, got upon him and kept him down 
 till he was drowned. On the site of Bolingbroke 
 House, which was pulled down in 1775, has 
 been erected a horizontal windmill of very large 
 dimensions. The height of the main shaft is 
 120 feet, and the diameter at the bottom fifty-two. 
 In 1771, a wooden bridge was built over the 
 Thames at Battersea, under the direction of Mr. 
 Holland, at an expense of X'22,500. 
 
 Battery, in electricity, is a combination of 
 coated surfaces of glass, commonly jars, so con- 
 nected together, that they may be charged at 
 once, and discharged by a common conductor. 
 JNIr. Gialath, a German electrician, was the first 
 who contrived to increase tlie shock, by charging 
 several phials at the same time. Dr. Franklin, 
 after he had analysed the Leyden phial, and found 
 that it lost at one surface the electric fire which 
 it received at the other, constructed a battery ot 
 panes of large sash glass, coated on each side, 
 and connected in such a manner that the whole 
 might be charged together, and with the same 
 labor as one single pane; and by bringing all 
 the giving sides into contact with one wire, and 
 all the receiving sides with another, he contrived 
 to unite the force of all the plates, and to di.s- 
 charge them at once. Ur. Priestley describes a 
 still more complete battery, of which he says.
 
 BATTERY. 
 
 669 
 
 that after long use he sees no reason for wishin<T 
 the least alteration in any part of it. This bat- 
 tery consists of sixty-four jars, each ten inches 
 long, and two inches and a half in diameter, 
 coated within an inch and a half of the top; 
 forming in the whole thirty-two square feet of 
 coated surface. The wire of each jar has a piece 
 of very small wire twisted about the lower end of 
 it, to touch the inside coating in several places; 
 and it is put through a pretty large piece of cork, 
 within the jar, to prevent any part of it from 
 touching the side, which would tend to promote 
 a spontaneous discharge. Each wire is turned 
 round, so as to make a hole at the upper end ; 
 and through these holes a pretty thick bra.ss rod 
 with nobs passes, each rod serving for one row 
 of the jars. The communication between these 
 rods is made by laying a tliick chain over them, 
 or as many of them as may be wanted. The bot- 
 tom of the box, in wliich the jars stand, is covered 
 with a plate of tin, and a bent wire touching the 
 plate passes through the box, and appears on the 
 outside. To this wire any conductor designed 
 to communicate with the outside of the battery is 
 fastened, and the discharge is made by bringing 
 the brass knob to any of the knobs of the battery. 
 ^Vilen a very great force is required, the quantity 
 of coated surface may be increased, or two or 
 more batteries may be used. But the largest and 
 most powerful battery, is that which was employed 
 by Dr. \'an Marum, to the amazing large electri- 
 cal machine constmcted for Teyler's Museum at 
 Haarlem. This grand battery consists of a great 
 number of jars, coated as above, to the extent of 
 about 130 square feet; and the effects of it, 
 which are truly astonishing, are related by Dr. Van 
 ]\Iarum, in his description of this machine, and of 
 the experiments made with it, at Haarlem, in 1783. 
 
 B.vTTEKY Gai.v.\mc. See G.^i.vanism. 
 
 Battery, in law, is the unlawful beating of 
 another in breach of the peace. The least touch- 
 ing of another's person wilfully, or in anger, is a 
 battery ; for the law cannot draw the line between 
 different degrees of violence, and therefore totally 
 prohibits the first and lowest stage of it; every 
 man's person being sacred, and no other having 
 a right to meddle with it, in the slightest man- 
 ner. Upon a ximilar principle, tlie Cornelian 
 law, de injunis, prohibited pulsation as well as 
 verberation ; distinguishing verberation, whicii 
 ■was accompanied with pain, from pulsation, 
 which was attended with none. But battery is in 
 some cases justifiable or lawful; as, first, where 
 one who hath authority, a parent or master, gives 
 moderate correction to his child, his scholar, or 
 his apprentice : second, in self-defence ; if one 
 strike another, or only assault him, he may strike 
 in his own defence ; and, if sued for it, may plead, 
 son asault demesne, that it was the plaintiff's ori- 
 ginal assault that occasioned it: third, in defence 
 of goods or possessions, if one endeavour to 
 deprive another of them, he may lay hands upon 
 him to prevent him; and in case he persist with 
 violence, may beat him away : fourth, in the exer- 
 cise of an office, as that of church-warden or 
 beadle, a man may lay hands upon another to turn 
 him out of church, and prevent his disturbing the 
 congregation : and if sued for this or the like bat- 
 
 tery, he may set forth the whole case, and plead 
 that he laid hands upon him gently, moUiter ma- 
 nus imposuit, for this purpose. On account of 
 these causes of justification, Imttery is denned to 
 be the unlawful beating of another : for which the 
 remedy is, as for assault, by action of trespass vi 
 et armis; wherein the jury will givn adequate 
 satisfaction in damages. 
 
 Batteky, in metalline manufactures, or bat- 
 tery works, includes pots, sauce-pans, kettles, 
 and the like vessels, which, though cast at first, 
 are to be afterwards hammered or beaten into 
 form. Some make battery for tlie kitchen, bat- 
 terie de cuisine, comprehend all utensils for tlie 
 service of the kitchen, whether of iron, brass, cop- 
 per, or other matters. Others take the term in a 
 narrower sense, and restrain it to utensils of brass 
 or copper. A society for the mineral and battery 
 work of Engl.ind, was incorporated by queen 
 Elizabeth. 
 
 Battery, in the military art, is a parapet 
 throv.n up to cover the guuners, and men 
 employed about tlie guns, from tiie enemy's 
 siiot. This parapet is cut into embrasures, for 
 the guns to be fired through. The height of 
 the embrasures on tlie insid; is about three 
 feet; but they slope lower to thfe outride. 
 Theirwidth is two or three fee.; but they open to 
 six or seven on the outside. The mass of earth 
 betwixt two embrasures, is called the merlon. 
 The platform of a battery is a floor of planks and 
 sleepers, to keep the wheels of the guns from 
 sinking into the earth ; and is always made slop- 
 ing towards the embrasures, both to hinder the 
 recoil, and to facilitate the bringing back of the 
 gun. The powder magazines, from which the 
 batteries are to be served, ought not to be far 
 distant from them, nor from each otiier. The 
 general one about sixty feet in the rear of the bat- 
 tery, and the small ones about half that distance. 
 The magazines are made either to tlie right or 
 left of the battery, as the officer may think fit for 
 deceiving the enemy: they are commonly built 
 five feet under ground; taking care to secure the 
 sides and roof with boards, and cover them with 
 earth, clay, or some such substance, lest fire 
 should get in to the powder. The balls are 
 generally piled up beside the merlons, between 
 the embrasures, to be in readiness. Though in 
 England engineers are employed to construct 
 batteries, the officers of artillery, who are daily 
 practising the different branches of their pro- 
 fession, would seem to be the fittest persons to 
 direct the situation and to superintend die con- 
 struction of their own batteries. Batteries are of 
 various kinds, viz. 
 
 Batteries Cross, are batteries which play 
 athwart one another upon die same object, form- 
 ing there an angle, and causing more destniction; 
 because what one bullet shakes the other beats 
 down. 
 
 Battery a Ricochet is adapted to the method 
 of ricochet, or duck and drake firing, first invented 
 by Vauban, at the siege of Aeth, in 1692: the 
 guns are loaded v/ith small charges, and elevated 
 so as to fire over the parapet; and the shot is 
 thus made to bound along the opposite rampart, 
 like a stone skimmed along the water. In a
 
 G70 
 
 BATTERY. 
 
 sie^'e they are generally placed at about 300 feet 
 before the first parallel, perpendicular to the 
 faces produced, which they are to enfilade. This 
 method has since been applied to mortars and 
 howitzers with great success, which are of singu- 
 lar use in action to enfilade the enemy's ranks; 
 for when the men perceive the shells bounding 
 about with their fuzes burning, expecting them 
 to burst every moment, the bravest among them 
 ■will hardly have courage to wait their approach. 
 
 Battery Boxes, square boxes to be filled 
 with earth or dung, for the purpose of making 
 batteries, where gabions and earth cannot be had. 
 
 B.\TTERY, Comrade, or Joint Battery, is 
 when several guns play at the same time upon 
 one place. 
 
 Battery, Coffer, is that where the sides of 
 the wall and merlons only are formed of fascines, 
 and all the cavities or included spaces filled with 
 earth. 
 
 Battery, Covered, or Masked, is when the 
 guns and men are covered by a bank made of 
 fascines and earth, of about eighteen or twenty 
 feet thick, and seven or eight feet high. The 
 guns are generally from nine to eighteen 
 pounders ; sometimes twenty-four pounders are 
 used. 
 
 Battery D'Exfilade, is one that scours or 
 sweeps the whole length of a straight line. 
 
 Battery de Revers, that which plays upon 
 the rear of the troops. 
 
 Battery en Echarpe, is that which plays 
 obliciuely. 
 
 Battery en Rouace, is that used to dis- 
 mount the enemy's cannon. 
 
 Battery Nails, pins used for fastening the 
 planks that cover the platforms, and not made of 
 iron but of the toughest wood, because iron might 
 be dangerous, by the iron-work of the wheels 
 striking against them in recoiling, &c. 
 
 Battery of a Camp is usually surrounded 
 wnth a trench and pallisades, at the bottom, and 
 with a parapet on the top, having as many holes 
 as there are pieces of artillery, and two redoubts 
 on the wings, or places of arms, capable of cover- 
 ing the troops, which are appointed for their 
 defence. 
 
 Battery of Mortars difllers from a battery 
 of guns ; for it is sunk into the ground, and has 
 no embrasures, it being designed to throw its charge 
 up into the air. It consists in a parapet of about 
 twenty feet thick, seven and a half in front, and 
 six in the rear; of a berme about three feet broad, 
 according to the quality of the earth ; of a ditch 
 twenty-four feet broad at top, and twenty at the 
 bottom. The beds are not made sloping like the 
 platforms for guns, but exactly horizontal : they 
 should be nine feet long, and six broad, with 
 eight feet betwixt them, and nine from the part. 
 
 Battery, Open, is a number of cannon, ge- 
 nerally field-pieces, ranged a-breast of one 
 another, on a small natural elevation of the 
 ground, or an artificial bank of about a yard or 
 two high. 
 
 Battery, Sunk or Buried, batterie en terre, 
 is that whose platform is sunk into the ground, 
 so that there must be trenches cut in the eartl;, 
 before the muzzles of the guns, for them to fire 
 out at 
 
 Battery, Floating, a sea battery of mortars, 
 generally composed of old ships consideried 
 unfit for active service, properly strengthened by 
 balks and other timbers. Several improvements 
 have been attempted on floating batteries in this 
 country. Among others, a mortar battery, for 
 the bombardment of the enemy's ports, hai> been 
 invented by Sir W. Congreve, which is proof 
 both against shells and red-hot balls. It is so 
 contrived that the masts and sails can be securely 
 disposed of in less than a quarter of an hour ; 
 so that it then presents upon the water nothing 
 but a mere hull, with sloping sides, which is 
 rowed by forty men, under cover of the bomb- 
 proof, and may, by the peculiar construction of 
 the masts and rigging, be brought under sail 
 again as expeditiously as dismantled. The 
 rudder and moorings are wholly under water, 
 and protected by the bomb-proof. The battery 
 is armed with four large mortars, for bombard- 
 ment, and four forty-two-pounder carronades, for 
 self-defence ; though, from being covered with 
 plates and bars of iron, she can neither be set 
 fire to nor be carried by boarding. Four such 
 vessels, though not more than 250 tons burden 
 each, and drawing less than twelve feet water, 
 would throw upwards of 500 shells into any 
 place in one tide, and with the greatest precision ; 
 both because from their construction they have 
 nothing to apprehend from approaching the 
 enemy's batteries, and because from the peculiar 
 contrivance of the mortar-beds, the elevation of 
 the mortars is not affected by the rolling or 
 pitching of the vessel. 
 
 BATTEURS D'Estrade, scouts, or horse- 
 men, sent out before, and on the wings of an 
 army, two or three miles, to make discoveries ; 
 of which they are to give an account to the 
 general. 
 
 BATTIE (William), M. D., was born in De- 
 vonshire, in 1704. He received his education 
 at Eton ; and in 1722 was sent to King's College, 
 Cambridge. His own inclination prompted him 
 to the law ; but his finances could not support 
 him at one of the inns of court. He therefore 
 turned his attention to physic, and first entered 
 upon the practice of it at Cambridge ; where in 
 1729 he gave a specimen of an edition of Iso- 
 crates, which in 1749 he completed in 2 vols. 
 8vo. He after^vards removed to London ; and 
 in 1738 or 1739 fulfilled by marriage a long en- 
 gagement to a daughter of Barnhara Goode, the 
 under master of Eton, who is honored with a 
 place in the Dunciad,for having abused Pope, in 
 The Mock iEsop. A cousin now left the doctor 
 £30,000. In the dispute which tlie college of 
 physicians had with Dr. Schomberg, about 1750, 
 Battle took a very active part. In 1751 he pub- 
 lished De Principiis Animalibus Exercitationes, 
 in Coll. Reg. Medicorum, in three parts; which 
 were followed in 1752 by a fourth. In 1757, 
 being physician to St. Luke's, he published A 
 Treatise on Madness, in quarto; and in 1762 
 Aphorismi de cognoscendis et curandis Morbis 
 nonnullis, ad principia accommodati. In Feb. 
 1762 he was examined before a committee of 
 the House of Commons, on the state of the 
 private mad-houses in this kingdom, and received 
 in their printed report a testimony honorable to
 
 BATTLE. 
 
 G71 
 
 his abilities. In 1776 he was seized with a ])a- 
 ralytic stroke, of whicli he died June 13, aged 
 scvcntv-five. 
 
 BATTI FOLIUM, or Battifollum, a kind 
 of tower or defence, frequently mentioned by 
 Latin historians of the middle age. It seems to 
 have been made of wood, and erected on sudden 
 occasions. 
 
 BAITING St.\ff, the same with Batlet. 
 BATTI STA (Franco), a celebrated painter, 
 bom at Venice, was one of the di'^ciples of 
 Michael Angelo, whose manner he followed so 
 closely, that, in the correctness of his outlines, 
 he surpassed most of the masters of his time. 
 His paintings are pretty numerous, and widely 
 dispersed ; but his coloring being very dry, they 
 are not much more esteemed than the prints he 
 etched. He died in 1561. 
 
 BATTITUKA, the scales that fly off from hot 
 iron, when newly taken out of tlie fire and beaten 
 on the anvil. 
 
 BATTLE, V. &-n.-\ Derivation, Old Saxon, 
 Bai'tlement, f beatan. See Battail, 
 Bat'tle.mented, i to fight; also to prepare 
 Bat'tling. 'for fight. The suKstan- 
 
 tive is used in various senses ; it sometimes is 
 applied to an encounter between opposite armies; 
 and to a body of forces, or division of an army ; 
 to the main or middle body of an army, says 
 Nares, between the van and rear. Crabbe traces 
 the verb to the Latin batuOj and to the Hebrew 
 abut, to beat, signifying a beating. The words 
 battle;,, combat, and engagement, are frequently, 
 but incorrectly, used as synonymes. Battlet 
 are fought between armies only. Combats are 
 entered into between individuals, whether of 
 the brute or human species. Engagements are 
 confined to no particular membe only to such 
 as are engaged. 
 
 If houses strongly built. 
 
 And towers battled hie. 
 By force of blast be orerthrowii. 
 When Eol's impes doe flie. 
 
 TurhervUle. 
 And he is bred out of that bloody strain 
 That haunted us in our familiar paths : 
 Witness our too much memorable shame. 
 When Cressy battell fatally was struck. 
 And all our princes captiv'd by the hand 
 Of that black name ; Edward, black prince of Wales. 
 
 Shaliipeare. 
 The ICnglish army, that divided was 
 Into two parts, is now conjoined in one ; 
 And means lo give you battle presently. Id. 
 
 The vaward, Zeibin hath in government. 
 The duke of Lancaster the baltell guides. 
 The duke of Clarence with the rcroward went. 
 
 Harringtun't Arwslo. 
 The king divided his army into tliree battles ; where- 
 of the vanguard only, with wings, cunie to tight. 
 
 Bacon. 
 Sicinius Dentatus fought in an hundred battlet ; 
 eight times in single combat he overcame, had forty 
 wounds before, was rewarded with 140 crowns. 
 
 Anat. Mel. 
 He ended frowning, and his look denounced 
 Desp'ratc revenge, and battel dangerous 
 To less than gods. Milton. 
 
 Go Michael, of celestial armies prince. 
 And thou in military prowess next. 
 
 Gabriel, lead forth to battle these my sons 
 Invincible ; lead forth my armed saints ; 
 By thousands, and by millions. /J, 
 
 Just so, by our example, cattle 
 Learn to give one another battle. Hudibrai. 
 Through this we pass 
 Up to the highest battlement, from whence 
 The Trojans threw their darts. Denluim. 
 
 'Tis ours by craft and by surprise to gain : 
 'Tis yours to meet in arms, and battle in the plain. 
 
 PriiT. 
 
 We receive accounts of ladies battling it on both 
 
 aides. Addiaon. 
 
 Should he go farther, numbers would be wanting 
 To form new battlet and support his crimes. Id. 
 
 I cannot find my hero ; he is mixed 
 With the heroic crowd that now pursue 
 The fugitives, or battle with the desperate. 
 
 Bt/run 
 There is given 
 Unto the things of earth, which time hath bent, 
 A spirit's feeling, and where he bath lent 
 His hand, but broke his scythe, there is a power 
 And magic in the ruined battlement ; 
 For which the palace of the present hour 
 Must yield its pomp, and wait till ages are its doom 
 
 /./ 
 Wave high your torches on each crag and cliff — 
 Let many lights blaze on your battlements — 
 Shout to them in the pauses of the storm. 
 
 And tell them there is hope 
 
 And let our deep-toned bell its loudest peals 
 
 Send cheerly o'er the deep 
 
 'Twill be a comfort to the wTCtrhed souls 
 In their extremity. All things are possible ; 
 Fresh hope may give them strength, and strength 
 deliverance. Maturin 
 
 Battles, Ancient. The ancients never joined 
 battle without much ceremony and preparation ; 
 as taking auguries, offering sacrifices, haranguing 
 the soldiers, giving the word, or a tessera, &c. 
 The signals were, sounding the classicum or ge- 
 neral charge, and displaying a peculiar flag, 
 called by Plutarch a purple robe. To which 
 may be added, singing pa;ans, raising military 
 shouts, and the like. A Roman legion, ranged 
 in order of battle, consisted of hasiati, placed 
 in the front; of principes, who were all old ex- 
 perienced soldiers, placed behind the former ; 
 and of triarii, heavy armed with large bucklers, 
 behind the principes. The hastati were ranked 
 close : the ranks of the principes were much 
 oi>ener, so that they could receive the hastati ; 
 and those of the tnarii opener still, insomuch 
 that they could receive both tlie principes and 
 the hastati within them, without any disordei, 
 and still facing the enemy. When therefore the 
 hastati found themselves unable to stand the 
 enemy's charge, they retired gently within the 
 principes, where joining with them, they renewed 
 the combat. If these found themselves too weak 
 to sustain the enemy, both retired among the 
 triarii, where rallying, they formed a new corps, 
 and charged with more vigor than ever. If Uiese 
 failed, the battle was lost; the Uoinans had no 
 farther resource. The moderns are unacquainted 
 with this method of inserting or embattling one 
 company into another ; without which the former 
 cannot be well succoured or defended, and their 
 places taken by others ; which was a tiling the
 
 672 
 
 BATTLE. 
 
 Romans practised with great exactness. For the 
 velites,and in later times the arciiers and si infers, 
 were not drawn up in this regular manner, but 
 either disposed of before the front of the hastati 
 or scattered up and down upon the void spaces 
 of the hastati, or sometimes placed in two bodies 
 in the wings. These always began the combat, 
 skirmishing in flying parties with the foremost 
 troops of the enemy. If they were repulsed, 
 which was usually the case, they fell back to the 
 flanks of the army, or retired again in the rear. 
 When they retired, the hastati advanced to the 
 charge. As to the cavalry, it was posted at the 
 two corners of the army, like the wings on a 
 body ; and fought sometimes on foot, sometimes 
 on horseback. The auxiliary forces composed 
 the two points of the battle, and covered the 
 whole body of the Romans. Other less usual 
 forms of battle among the Romans were the 
 cuneus, or wedge ; globus, or round form ; forfex, 
 or pair of sheers ; turris, or an oblong square 
 figure ; serra, or saw. The Greeks were inferior 
 to the Romans in marshalling their armies for 
 the battle, as they drew up their whole array in a 
 front, and trusted the success of the day to a single 
 force. They had three forms of battle for the 
 horse, viz. the square, the wedge, and the 
 rhombus or diamond form. The first held best 
 for the defensive; the latter for the offensive; 
 the wedge being preferred as bringing most hands 
 to fight. 
 
 The Romans had their particular days, called 
 prseclares dies, wherein alone it was lawful to 
 join battle ; and others wherein it was unlawful, 
 called dies atri. The Athenians, by the ancient 
 laws of their country, were not to draw out their 
 forces for battle till after the seventh day of the 
 month. Lucian relates of the Lacedemonians, 
 that, by the laws of Lycurgus, they were not to 
 fight before full moon. Among the Germans it 
 was reputed an impiety to fight in the wane of 
 the moon ; and Csesar tells us that Ariovistus 
 was beaten by him, because, contrary to the laws 
 of his country, he had fought when the moon 
 was in her wane. The German soldiers were 
 intimidated with the apprehension, and afforded 
 Csesar an easy victory; acie commissa, impeditos 
 religione hostes vicit. Jerusalem was taken by 
 Pompey in an attack on the sabbath day, when, 
 by the superstitious notions of the Jews, they 
 were not allowed even to defend themselves. 
 The Romans did not carry their superstition so 
 far ; their atri dies were only observed in respect 
 of attacking ; no day was too holy for them to 
 defend themselves in. Among the ancients, we 
 find frequent instances of battles in the night ; 
 it was by moon-light that Pompey beat Mithri- 
 dates, and Scipio, Asdrubal and Syphax. 
 
 The (ireeks notified the places of their battles 
 and victories by adding the word Nikj; ; whence 
 Nicomedia, Nicopolis, Thessalonica, &c. The 
 ancient Britons did the like, by adding the word 
 Mais; whence Maisseveth, Malmaisbury, &c. 
 The English by the word field. 
 
 Battle, or Battel, a market town in the 
 hundred of Battle, Hastings rape, Sussex, twenty- 
 six miles soutli-east from Tunbridge, and fifty-six 
 south from London ; containing 2852 inhabitants. 
 The ancient name was Epiton, but the famous 
 
 brtt'lp of Hastings gave it its present name, in 
 10G(i ; the conqueror first landed near Pcven- 
 sey, a few miles distant. In memory of this 
 important day, William founded a celebrated 
 abbey, at Heathfield, or Headfield plain, 
 called Battle- Abbey ; one of those religious 
 houses which had, formerly, the privilege of 
 sanctuary. From its remains it appears to have 
 been very magnificent, they being nearly a mile 
 in circumference : its abbot was mitred. The 
 gate-house is entire, and is converted into a 
 sessions' house. On one part of the site of the 
 abbey stands the family mansion of the Websters. 
 The incumbent of the church is called the dean 
 of Battle. Here is a charity school for forty boys. 
 At no great distance is Beacon-hili, form.erly 
 called Standard-hill ; where the standard of the 
 conqueror was first planted. The town has 
 long been famous for making the best gunpowder 
 in Europe. The market is on Thursday, till 
 1600 it wks held on Sunday : it has also a very 
 large market on the second Tuesday in every 
 month. 
 
 Battle-Ax ES we're a principal part of the 
 offensive armour of the Celtee. At the siege of 
 the Roman Capitol by the Gauls, under Brennus, 
 we find one of the most distinguished of their 
 warriors armed with a battle-axe. And Am- 
 mianus Marcellinus, many centuries afterwards, 
 describing a body of Gauls, ftirnishes them 
 all with battle-axes and swords. Some of 
 the weapons have been found in the sepulchres 
 of the Britons, on the downs of Wiltshire, and 
 in the north of Scotland. Within these four or 
 five centuries the Irish went constantly armed 
 with an axe. At the battle of Bannockburn, 
 king Robert Bruce clave an English champion 
 down to the chine at one blow with a battle-axe. 
 The axe of Lochaber remained a formidable im- 
 plement of destruction in the hands of the High- 
 landers, nearly to the present period ; and it is 
 still used by the city-guard of Edinburgh, in 
 quelling mobs, &c. 
 
 Battle Dykes, a place in the parish of 
 Oathlaw, in Angusshire, where there are the re- 
 mains of a Roman camp, and a via militaris 
 connecting it with another in the parish of In- 
 verarity. They are supposed to have been 
 erected by Agricola. 
 
 Battle-Fauld, a place in Aberdeenshire, in 
 the parish of Longside, where there are a great 
 number of tumuli and other evidences, as well 
 as the name, confirming tiie tradition of its 
 having been the scene of a foreign invasion. 
 
 BATTLEFIELD, a small place in Shrop- 
 shire, about five miles east of Shrewsbury, dis- 
 tinguished as tlie scene of the memorable battle 
 in which Henry IV. overthrew Hotspur's rebel- 
 lion, m 1402, in memory whereof he founded a 
 collegiate church, part of which is still used. A 
 mound adjoinmg the church-yard, marks the 
 burial place of the slain ; and a plot of ground 
 called King's Croft distinguishes the place in 
 whicli the royal tent was pitched. 
 
 BATTOL'OGIZE, ^ Fr. battologie ; from 
 
 Battol'ogist, Vthe Greek /SarroXoytw, 
 
 Battol'ogy. 3 which means to do ai 
 
 Baltus did, and which is described by Suid.is 
 in these words (iarroXoyia r] UoXvXnyia, hattolo-
 
 BAT 
 
 673 
 
 BAV 
 
 gy, is the multiplying of words, &c. liesychius 
 explains it * empty, idle, unseasonable dis- 
 course ;' and the translation of our Bible well 
 expresses it by ' vain repetitions.' 
 
 After the eastern mode, they wagged their bodies, 
 bowing their heads, and battologizing the name Al- 
 lough Whoddaw and Mahuinet very often. 
 
 Sir T. Herbert's Travels, p. 191. 
 
 BATTON, in merchandise, a name given to 
 certain pieces of wood or deal for flooring or 
 other purposes. 
 
 Battox, Battuxe, or Bas- 
 TON, Fr. baton, in heraldry, a 
 staff" truncheon, used as an abate- 
 ment in coats of arms to denote 
 illegitimacy, thus : 
 
 BATTORY, a name given by the Hans Towns 
 to their magazines or factories abroad. Tiie 
 chief of these battories are those of Archansel, 
 Novogorod, Berraen, Lisbon, Venice, and Ant- 
 werp. 
 
 BATRACHUS, in ichthyology, a species of 
 silurus, found in Asia and Africa. The dorsal 
 fin is single, and contains sixty rays ; beards of 
 the mouth eight. Lin. Mus. Fr. — The tail is 
 entire. 
 
 BATTUS, a general of the Celti, who, ac- 
 cording to Camden and Boetius, gave the first 
 check to the Roman conquests, under Augustus; 
 but, being routed in the reign of Tiberius, part 
 of them settled at the mouth of the Rhine, where 
 from him the country was named Batavia. 
 
 Battus, an order of ci-df-\-ant penitents at 
 Avignon, and in F'rovence, whose piety carried 
 them to exercise severe discipline upon them- 
 -Sdlves both in public and private. 
 
 Battus, in the heathen mytliolog)', a herds- 
 men, whom Mercury turned into a touch-stone, 
 for discovering, for a bribe, what he had pro- 
 mised to conceal. 
 
 BATTUTA, in tlie Italian music, the motion 
 of the hand or foot in keeping or beating time. 
 Among Italian musicians, a battuta imports, in 
 measure, or beating each time equally. This 
 usually occurs after what they call recitative, 
 which is rather declaiming than singing, and 
 in which little or no measure is observed. 
 
 BATUA, BiTUA, BuTUOE, or Butuoece, in 
 ancient geography, a town of Dalraatia situated 
 on the Adriatic ; now called Budoa ; which see. 
 
 BAT U ALIA, from baluere, Lat. to fence, the 
 exercise of those who learned to fence. 
 
 BATUATORES, iii antiquity, fencers. 
 
 BATUDA, a method of fishing mentioned m 
 some middle age writers, wherein the fish are 
 driven by beating the water with poles, till 
 flocking into one place, they are tlie sooner 
 caui;ht. 
 
 BATTUECAS, Las, a territory of Spain, in 
 the province of Leon, almost insulated amid tlie 
 higli mountains of the bisliopric of Coria, fifty 
 miles distant from Salamanca. It forms a sort 
 of valley, a league in length, the inhabitants of 
 which are supposed by some writers to have re- 
 ^lained for ages unknown to the rest of Spain. 
 
 BATl'RIN, a town of Etiropean Russia, in 
 \ OL. III. 
 
 the Ukraine, on the river Sem, now in tlie go- 
 vernment of Czernigov. The castle was formerly 
 the residence of the hetman, or commander-in- 
 chief of the Cossacks. On the desertion of the 
 hetman Mazeppa to Charles XII. of Sweden, 
 in 1708, the town was taken by the Russians, 
 sacked and burned, and all its inhabitants put 
 to the sword. The empress Elizabet'.i made 
 a perpetual yrant of it, with part of the sur- 
 rounding country, to the hetman Rasumoski, 
 under whom the houses were rebuilt. It is 
 eighty miles E. S. E. of Czernigov, the capital 
 of the province. 
 
 BATURIUS. See Bacuuus. 
 
 BATL'S, n3, Ileb. an Hebrew liquid measure, 
 containinsc seventy-three sextaries. 
 
 BATTU (PuLO Batl).— An island off" the 
 western coast of Sumatra, situated immediately 
 to the soudiward of the equinoctial line. In 
 length forty miles, by ten the average width. 
 Their exports are cocou-nuts, oil, and sivallo or 
 sea slug. It is largely wooded, and the inha- 
 bitants are subject to the Rajah of Buluam. 
 
 BATTY or Bhatti, the country of the Battles, 
 or Bhatties, bounded on the north by the Pun- 
 jab and the river Sutuleje, east by the district 
 of Ilurrianah, west by the desert, and south 
 by Bicanere. From north to south it extends 
 about 150 miles, and from east to west about 100, 
 comprehending part of the provinces of Lahore, 
 Delhi, and Ajmeer. 
 
 The productive part of the country is along the 
 banks of the river Cugsfur, from the town of Futte- 
 habadto Batneer. Tlie land within the influence of 
 the inundations of this river produces wheat, rice, 
 and barley, but the remainder of the Bhatty 
 country, o\\'ing to a scarcity of moisture, is ste- 
 rile and unproductive. The Cuggur is after- 
 wards lost in tlie sands to the west of Batneer, 
 though it is said formerly to have joined tiie Su- 
 tuleje in the vicinity of I'erozepoor. 
 
 The capital is Batneer ; the other towns of note 
 are Arroah, Futtehabad, Sirsah, and Ranyah. 
 There is but little commerce carried on in this 
 country, the inhabitants being more addicted to 
 thieving than industrious pursuits. With the 
 exception of the sale of their surplus grain, 
 ghee, and cattle, the Batties have little inter- 
 course witli the neighbouring states. Their im- 
 ports are coarse white cloth, suscar, and salt, but 
 the trade is inconsiderable. The Bhatties are 
 properly shepherds. Their morals are very in- 
 different, tlieir neighbours describing them as 
 cruel, savage, and ferocious thieves from their 
 birth. The females are allowed to appear in 
 public unveiled, and without any of that con- 
 cealment so common over Hindostan. 
 
 BATZ, Batzex, Bat, or Bate, in commerce, 
 a small copper coin, mixed with a slight portion 
 of silver, current in parts of Cermany, and in 
 Switzerland, and varying in value according to 
 its alloy. 
 
 BA\ AR, or Baler, or Bouweh rJohn Wil- 
 liam), was bom at Strasburgh in 1610, and be- 
 came a disciple of Frederick Brentel. He had 
 great genius, but the liveliness of his imagina- 
 tion hindered him from studying nature, or 
 the antique, in such a manner as to divest 
 himself of his German t;ttitc, though he went to 
 
 ■2 X
 
 674 
 
 BAVARIA. 
 
 Rome to improve himself. In Italy he applied 
 himself entirely to architecture, as far as it might 
 contribute to the enrichment of his landscapes, 
 which were his favorite subjects ; and for his 
 scenes and situations, he studied the rich pros- 
 pects about Frescati and Tivoli. He was fond 
 of introducing battles, marchings of armies, skir- 
 mishes, and processions ; but never arrived at a 
 grandeur of design ; nor could he ever express 
 the naked figure. His pencil however was light, 
 his composition good, and his general expression 
 beautiful. He painted in water-colors on vellum ; 
 his coloring is glowing, but his drawing is in- 
 correct. He etched from his own ideas nume- 
 rous designs from Ovid's Metamorphoses, very 
 much in the style and spirit of Callot, and died 
 at Vienna in 1640. 
 
 BAV' ARIA, now one of the principal secon- 
 dary states of Germany, was derived from a circle 
 of the same name, bounded by Franconia and 
 Bohemia on the north, Austria on the east, Tyrol 
 on the soudi, and Suabia on the west. The ori- 
 ginal circle included a territory of 16,500 square 
 miles, covered with a population of 1,300,000 
 inhabitants, and before the dismemberment of the 
 German empire, in 1806, formed one of its great 
 divisions. Tlie numerous states which comprised 
 it were formed into two divisions, governed by 
 the ecclesiastical and secular benches, the former 
 including the archbishop of Saltzburg, the 
 bishops of Ratisbon, Passau, and Freysingen, the 
 princely provostship of Berchtolsgaden, with the 
 abbeys of St. Emerau, Niederand Ober Munster, 
 in the city of Ratisbon. The latter consisted of 
 the elector of Bavaria, the dukes of Neuburg and 
 Saltzburg, the Landgrave of Leuchtenberg, the 
 prince of Steinstein, the counts of Haag and Or- 
 tenburgh, with the lords of Ehrenfels, Saltzburg, 
 Pyrbaum, Hohen-Waldeck and Breiteneck, to- 
 gether with a representative from the imperial 
 town of Ratisbon. 
 
 The greater part of this circle belonged to the 
 elector, who was at that time one of the most 
 powerful princes of Germany ; and before the 
 F'rench revolution wielded the imperial autho- 
 rity, not only over the countries of the secular 
 bench, already mentioned, but over the lordships 
 of Wiesenstein, Meindilheim, and Schwabach, in 
 Suabia; most of the country of Erbach, in Fran- 
 conia ; the palatinate of the Lower Rhine, in the 
 circle of that name ; the principalities of Simmern, 
 Lantern and Veldenz ; two-thirds of the country 
 of Spanheim ; half the bailliage of llomburg in the 
 circle of the Upper Rhine, together with the 
 duchies of Juliers and Berg, in the circle of 
 Westphalia. 
 
 The ancient duchy of Bavaria formed a great 
 part of the circle, bordering on Austria, Passau, 
 and Saltzburg on the east, Tyrol on the south, 
 Suabia on the west, Neuburg and the Upper Pa- 
 latinate on the north. It was formed of Upper 
 and Lower Bavaria, including, in round num- 
 bers, a territory of 12,000 square miles, and a 
 population of 900,000 inhabitants. 
 
 Bavaria originally made a part of the Rhretia, 
 Vindelicia, and Noricum, of the ancients ; and 
 received its Latin name Boiaria, or Bojoaria, 
 from the Boii, a peoj)le of Celtic Gaul, who co- 
 lonised it at an early period. These people were 
 
 governed 1)y native princes, till Charlemagne took 
 possession of the country, and committed the 
 government to some of his counts, and, on the 
 partition of his imperial dominions amongst his 
 grandsons, Bavaria was assigned to Louis the 
 German. It bore the title of margraviate till the 
 year 920, when Arnold, the reigning prince, was 
 raised to the quality of duke. In 1623 Maxi- 
 milian I., having assisted Ferdinand II. against 
 his Bohemian insurgents, was elevated to the 
 electoral dignity, after which few events of im- 
 portance occurred till the year 1777, wlien the 
 disputed succession, incident on the extinction of 
 the reigning branch, produced a disposition in 
 Austria to seize the whole electorate, and annex 
 it to her dominions ; a measure which was happily 
 prevented by the prompt and energetic conduct 
 of Frederic II. After the adjustment of the Aus- 
 trian pretensions, the electorate enjoyed the 
 blessings of peace till the French revolution, 
 which involved all Germany in the flames of civil 
 discord. The elector remained on the side of the 
 imperialists till 1796, when the French marched 
 a powerful army into his dominions, and con- 
 cluded a treaty for the cessation of hostilities. 
 The year following was signed the treaty of Cam- 
 po-Formio, and in 1801 that of Luneville ; by 
 which all the German dominions left of the Rhine, 
 were annexed to France, and the elector lost the 
 palatinate of the Rhine, the duchies of Juliers 
 and Deux Ponts, with all his possessions in the 
 Netherlands and Alsace, receiving as indemnities 
 the bishoprics of Freysingen, Bamberg, Augs- 
 burg, and Kempten, with ten abbeys, fifteen im- 
 perial towns, and two imperial villages, besides 
 the western part of the bishopric and town of 
 Passau. In the conflicts between France and the 
 continental powers, Bavaria remained neuter till 
 1805, when the elector entered into an alliance 
 with Napoleon, and was shortly afterwards raised 
 to the dignity of king, and had his dominions 
 enlarged by the annexation of several important 
 provinces. 
 
 Shortly after the campaign of 1806, when Aus- 
 tria, to purchase peace, sacrificed part of her 
 possessions, the kingdom of Bavaria received 
 still a further enlargement, by the addition of 
 Tyrol, Eichstadt, the eastern part of Passau, 
 and other territories, when she began to assume 
 a more important station amongst the surround- 
 ing states. Another alteration occurred at the 
 dissolution of the Germanic constitution, and the 
 formation of the Rhenish confederation, when the 
 duchy of Berg was resigned for the margraviate 
 of Anspach, together with the imperial towns and 
 territories of Augsburg and Nuremburg. in 
 1809, Bavaria took part with France against 
 Austria, and again shared the spoils of contiici ; 
 but subsequently ceded some of her territories to 
 Wirtemburg and Wurtzburg ; and by another 
 alteration, which shortly followed, exchanged a 
 great part of Tyrol for the acquirement of Bay- 
 reuth and Ratisbon. 
 
 Before the political proceedings of October 
 1809 the extent of Bavaria was calculated a 
 36,770 English square miles, and the population 
 at 3,231,570; and it furnished in time of war a 
 contingent of 30,000 troops. But by the treaty 
 concUrded at that tune, she acquired an additional
 
 BAVARIA. 
 
 675 
 
 territory of 5350 square miles, and a population 
 of 1,492,000, which augmented the Bavarian 
 territories to 42,320 square miles, and the popu- 
 lation to 4,723,570. 
 
 When the love of military conquest, and the 
 intoxication of unparalleled success, induced 
 Napoleon to march the French armies to Mos- 
 cow, the Bavarian troops were amongst those 
 which were destined never to return. The king 
 of Bavaria now began to apprehend the conse- 
 (]ucnces of this expedition upon the future suc- 
 cess of the French emperor, and just at the period 
 of that eventful crisis entered into a treaty with 
 the emperor of Austria, and joined the allies in 
 breaking that thraldom under which a great part 
 of Europe labored. These important services 
 were not forgotten, and in the subsequent nego- 
 ciations, at the congress of \'ienna, the title of 
 king was confirmed, part of the contribution 
 money paid by France was assigned him, and the 
 support of a body of Bavarian troops at the ex- 
 pense of France was agreed to. With respect to 
 territory, the remaining part of Tyrol was ceded 
 to Austria. The grand duchy of Wurtzburg, the 
 principality of AschafTenburgh, and' the greater 
 part of the ci-devant French department of Mont 
 Tonnere, were acquired ; amounting to about 
 4000 sqnare miles, and more than half a million 
 of inhabitants. 
 
 In 1810 Bavaria was divided into the follow- 
 ing circles : 
 
 Circles. 
 The Main 
 The Rezat 
 The Upper Danube 
 The Lower Danube 
 The Regen 
 The Uler 
 The Iser . 
 
 Chief towns. 
 
 Bamberg. 
 
 Anspach. 
 
 Eichstadt. 
 
 Passau. 
 
 Ratisbon. 
 
 Kempten. 
 
 Munich. 
 
 The names of these circles are derived from 
 the principal rivers of the several districts, and 
 a slight alteration in some of them has since 
 occurred. The subsequent acquisitions are as 
 follows : 
 
 The principality of AschafTen- ) » , a- , 
 burg ...... 5 -^sch^ffe^burg. 
 
 The grand duchy of Wurtzburg . Wurtzburg. 
 The circle of the Rhine, (late ) t j 
 Mont Tonnere) ... J Landau. 
 
 The population of Bavaria is by no means 
 equally distributed over its surface. Tlie sides of 
 the Danube, the lower districts of the grand 
 duclry of N\ urtzburg some districts of the margra- 
 viate of Anspach, with the recent acquisitions on 
 the le*"t bank of the Rhino, are much more thickly 
 inhabited than the other parts. Indeed, much 
 of the southern portion consists of rugged moun- 
 tains and otb.er tracts, which are scarcely fit for 
 habitation, except in the valleys formed by the 
 several divisions of the Alps. 
 
 Surrounded as it is by other countries, from 
 which it is separated by mere arbitrary divisions, 
 the outlines of Bavaria present nothing remarkable. 
 The surface is greatly diversified, and the southern 
 regions are mountainous and woody. The ground 
 near the Alps lies higher than tlie general area, 
 forming an ascent, in which numerous lakes are 
 
 embosomed, together with wastes and marshes, 
 which have not yet been brought to any conside- 
 rable pitch of cultivation. Much of the ancient 
 palatinate swells into mountains, which are dark- 
 ened with forests. The margraviate of Anspach 
 is in part mountainous and sandy. But the ex- 
 tensive and fertile plains that stretch along the 
 northern and central regions, and the wide valleys 
 which lie to the north and north-east of Munich, 
 and are watered by the rivers Inn and Iser, serve to 
 vary the general surface, and relieve the natural 
 features of the landscape. 
 
 Mountains and hills are numerous in Bavaria, 
 especially in Anspach, and the neighliouring dis- 
 tricts, together with the territories on the left 
 bank of the Rhine. The Alps, branching off in 
 a lofty chain, strike out the line of division be- 
 tween this kingdom and Tyrol ; while the broken 
 surface of Bohemia is bounded by an elevated 
 range, the lateral branches of which diversify the 
 surface of the adjacent regions. 
 
 Bavaria, from the position of its included area, 
 is intersected by numerous rivers, which, for the 
 most part, become tributary to the Danube. The 
 Inn descends from the lofty regions of eastern 
 Switzerland. Like its sister streams, it soon be- 
 comes a rapid river; and, having collected a 
 great body of water, rolls north-east through the 
 kingdom of Bavaria, and having formed the line 
 of boundary between that state and Austria, falls 
 into the Danube. The Iser and the Lech origi- 
 nate in the mountains and cascades of Tyrol, 
 and flow through the southern regions of Bavaria. 
 Tiie former passes Munich, Mosburg, and Lands- 
 hut, after which it falls into the Danube, oppo- 
 site to Deckendorf; and the latter proceeds 
 almost due north to the same receptacle. The 
 Iller flows nearly parallel to the Lech, and joins 
 the same parent river near the city of Ulm. 
 The Nab rises in the range lying between Bohe- 
 mia and Bavaria, and the Altmuhl in the higher 
 parts of the margraviate of Anspach : the former 
 joins the Danube, west of Ratisbon; and the 
 latter a few miles higher up the stream. The 
 Danube is the grand river of Bavaria, and inter- 
 sects the whole kingdom, east and west, though 
 not without a considerable sweep towards the 
 north. 
 
 These nvers greatly refresh the herbage and 
 terranean productions of the kingdom generally, 
 besides answering, to a considerable extent, the 
 izuportant purposes of an inland navigation. 
 
 The largest lake is that of Ammer, lying at the 
 foot of the Alps. Other lakes are found in dif- 
 ferent parts of the kingdom, but in general are 
 not of sufficient importance to require distinct 
 enumeration. 
 
 The climate and temperature of Bavaria are 
 various, owing to its relative situation, and the 
 different degrees of elevation observable upon 
 its surface, by which it is rendered capable of 
 producing all the necessaries of life, together 
 with many of its luxuries. While the vine flou- 
 rishes in one part, the fir attains maturity in 
 another ; but the native indolence of the inhabi- 
 tants prevents their reaping all the advantages of 
 their climate ; and thousands of acres of good land 
 lie completely unoccupied. The valleys are gene- 
 rally well watered, and possess a rich soil, v.hile 
 
 2 X 2
 
 676 
 
 BAVARIA 
 
 llie upland territories are overspread with rocks 
 and forests. Tlie plains produce grain, fruit, 
 wine, hops, &c. Flax is cultivated in the dis- 
 trict of the Bavarian desert. Vines flourish on 
 the banks of the rivers Danube and Iser ; and 
 much excellent fruit is grown in the vicinity of 
 Landshut, although the most fertile parts are 
 frequently spotted with oases and islands of 
 sand, which seem at present to be incorrigible. 
 
 The mineral productions of Bavaria comprise 
 copper, iron, marble, coal, gypsum, vitriol, and 
 several kinds of argillaceous earth, the most 
 noted of which is the species of clay of which 
 the Passau crucibles are made. Iron and copper 
 are the most important, and of the latter 3000 
 quintals are obtained annually. At Traunstein, 
 near the confines of Saltzburg, are numerous rich 
 salt-springs, which furnish employment to a great 
 number of the inhabitants. Mineral waters are 
 also common in Bavaria, but are generally con- 
 sidered inferior to those found in many other 
 parts of Germany. 
 
 The margraviate of Anspach is noted for its 
 superior breed of horses, which have been of late 
 much improved by an intermixture with those of 
 England. The same degree of attention has 
 been bestowed upon their cattle, by an intermix- 
 ture with the Swiss breed. The coarse wool of 
 their native flocks has also been much improved, 
 by the introduction of Marines amongst the sheep, 
 especially in Bavaria Proper. The wild animals 
 of Bavaria are bears, wolves, lynxes, foxes, wild 
 boars, &c. The rivers are well stocked with fish, 
 and in some of them beavers are common. 
 
 The principal towns are Munich, Augsburg, 
 Bamberg, Anspach, Bayreuth, Amberg, Wurtz- 
 burg, Eichstadt, Passau, Ingolstadt, and Nurem- 
 burg, together with some others of less note : as, 
 Kempten, Freysingen, Landshut, Mosburg, 
 Newburg, Nordlingen, Memmingen, Schweinfurt, 
 Straubing, and others. 
 
 Munich, the capital, is seated on the river Iser, 
 and in the year 1814, contained as many as 
 60,000 inhabitants, besides 18,659, who inhabited 
 the suburbs, and 26,000 strangers, who were 
 supposed to visit it annually. It is the centre of 
 the most valuable national manufactures, and 
 was rendered, by the concordat of 1817, the seat 
 of an archbishop. 
 
 The general manufactures and commerce of 
 Bavaria, are under a restrictive influence, from 
 the native indolence of the inliabitants, together 
 with the numerous fasts and saints' days of the 
 Roman church. Tlieir jnanufactures, which in- 
 clude linen, woollen, and cotton cloths, iron, fire- 
 arras, earthenwares, &c., are chiefly directed to 
 the supj)ly of tlieir domestic wants. Augsburg 
 has manufactures of paper, gold, silver, jewelry, 
 and cotton. It is engaged in the transfer of 
 goods between Germany and Italy, and is the 
 general focus of exchaiige for the southern coun- 
 tries of CJermany. Friedburg is noted for its 
 clocks and watches. Philosophical instruments 
 are made at Munich; and it was here that the 
 art of lithography was discovered. Near Iloheu 
 Aschau is an iron mine, tlie largest in the king- 
 dom, together with foundries and forges, the pro- 
 duce of which, with their grain, wood, wine, salt, 
 and vitriol, form the chief exports. 
 
 • The government of Bavaria approaches to an 
 unlimited monarchy, though not without some- 
 thing of the representative for.n. The senate 
 meet at Munich, but seldom exercise the func- 
 tions of the prerogative. The crown is hereditary 
 in the male line ; but in case of total failure of 
 the male descent, females may be invested with 
 the supreme power. The minority of the king 
 terminates with his eighteenth year, and his coun- 
 cil includes all the members of the royal family 
 above a certain age, the ministers of state, and the 
 great officers of the household. A royal com- 
 missioner presides over each of the circles into 
 which the nation is divided ; and commissaries 
 of police are distributed in all the pnncipal towns. 
 A court of appeal also, is established in each cir- 
 cle, to which causes may be removed ; and there 
 is a supreme court at Munich, whose sentence is 
 final. By the new constitution of Germany, ac- 
 cording to the decisions of the late congress, 
 Bavaria is made the first of its secondary king- 
 doms, possesses one vote in the federative diet and 
 four in the general assembly. 
 
 The Bavarian army, during the late war, 
 amounted to 60,000 men ; but after the peace it 
 was reduced to 40,000. The annual revenue is 
 estimated at two millions ; burdened, however, 
 with a considerable debt. 
 
 The inferior kingdoms of Germany are of too 
 litde importance to become principals in any 
 European war, but they are frequently found very 
 effective allies. For instance, in case of war be- 
 tween France and Austria, the alliance of Bavaria 
 with the former, would bring the French troops into 
 the very heart of Germany ; and with the latter, 
 would conduct the Austrian troops to the very 
 borders of France. It is in this light only that 
 the political importance of this kingdom can be 
 duly estimated : a practical illustration of whicli 
 took place in 1813, when, during the crisis in 
 which Napoleon was endeavouring to establish 
 himself at Dresden, Bavaria declared in favor of 
 the allies. 
 
 The prevailing religion of Bavaria is the Ro- 
 man Catholic, The inhabitants were formerly 
 considered some of the most intolerant in Europe, 
 and the Bavarian bishops being independent 
 princes, the power of the church knew no control ; 
 but by the difl'usion of superior light, liberal sen- 
 timents began to prevail, the temporal authority of 
 the ecclesiastics was abolishedin 1 802, as were also 
 many of the monastic institutions, and toleration 
 was regarded as a civil right. There are now 
 two archbishops, and four bishops ; the former, 
 according to a concordat agreed to by the Pope 
 in 1817, are those of Munich and Bamberg, and 
 the latter those of Augsburg, Wurtzburg, Ratis- 
 bon, and F.ichsta(lt. The influence of the churcli 
 is still greater in Bavaria tlian in any other part 
 of Germany. 
 
 Bavaria has never risen to any remarkable 
 distinction. Indeed the bigotry, ignorance, and 
 intolerance, which formed tl\e national character 
 of the people, presented almost insurmountable 
 obstacles to all liberal and enterprising views witli 
 resj)ect to education, agriculture, and commerce. 
 The almost ceaseless train of saints' days, and 
 holy days, seemed to breed nothing hut indolence 
 and superstition. Bavaria now begins to emerge
 
 B A \' A R I A. 
 
 677 
 
 from her long-cherished barbarism. Education 
 is attended to; academies, lyceums, and imiver- 
 sities,have been multiplied ; productions of foreign 
 literature have been imported, to excite the emu- 
 lation of native genius, and the effects of these 
 generous efforts liave already shone forth, in the 
 improved condition of society, and the gradual 
 advance of moral and physical renovation. 
 Much, however, yet remains to be done, especially 
 in those regions which were most darkened by 
 religious superstition. But, calculating upon the 
 measures of the present government, the eye of 
 anticipation looks through a train of consequences 
 to the distant period when t?ie mists shall disperse, 
 the clouds clear up, and Bavaria aspire to an 
 equality with the other kingdoms of Europe. 
 
 The language of the Bavarians is a dialect of 
 the German, which, howcve-r, they have neglected 
 to cidtivate; travellers agree in describing them 
 as the most sensual and phlegmatic of the German 
 nations. 
 
 The Bavarians are in appearance a stout and 
 vigorous race of men, well adapted to bear the 
 fatigues of war. They resemble the Irish pea- 
 santry in their propensity to drink and quarrel; 
 and tlieir manners at the close of the last century 
 were coarse in the extreme. Amidst all the dirt, 
 indolence, and laxity of morals, which are here 
 carried to excess, the Bavarian is, in general, 
 faithful to his word; which is almost the oidy 
 good feature that is at all prominent. IMany of 
 the females are lively, handsome, and graceful ; 
 but their charms are altogether personal, since 
 intellectual cultivation is scarcely a subject of 
 attention. 
 
 The antiquities and curiosities are few in num- 
 ber, but are calculated to awaken no ordinary 
 feelings of interest and astonishment. In the 
 capital, Munich, the objects most worthy of at- 
 tentif)n are the Cabinet of Natural Curiosities, 
 the l.ibrarj', the Arsenal, and the Ducal Gardens. 
 
 The INluseum contains a complete series of 
 busts of the Roman emperors, together with 
 many other remarkable antiquities. Roman 
 stations, roads, and coins, are frequent, and form, 
 with the churcties and castles, a charming colli- 
 sion of objects, highly interesting to the architect, 
 the statuary, and the antiquarian. But all the 
 works of art are more than eclipsed by the more 
 magnificent wonders of nature. The scenes in 
 the interior of the mountains. have often awakened 
 the astonishment of the traveller, and left him over- 
 whelmed by the terror of the sublime ; and no doubt 
 many unexplored caverns yet remain which no 
 human foot has ever trod. We shall select the 
 following instance of these amazing recesses, as 
 described by IMr. Parkinson, for the entertain- 
 ment of the reader. It is to be found in his 
 curious and valuable work The Organic Remains 
 of a former World. 
 
 ' Among the most remarkable of these caverns 
 are those of Gaylenreuth, on the confines of 
 Bayreuth. The opening to these, which is about 
 seven feet and a half high, is at the foot of a rock 
 of lime-stone, of considerable magnitude, and in 
 its eastern side. Immediately beyond the open- 
 ing is a magnificent grotto, of about 300 feet in 
 circumference, which has been naturally divided 
 by the form of the roof into four caves. The 
 
 first is about twenty-five feet long and wide, and 
 varies in height from nine to eighteen feet; the 
 roof being formed into irregular arches. Beyond 
 this is the second cave, about twenty-eight feet 
 long, and of nearly the same width and height 
 witli the former. In this cave the stalactitic 
 crust begins to appear, and in considerable 
 quantity ; but not in such quantity as in the 
 third cave, which is beautifully hung, as it were, 
 with this sparry tapestry. The roof now begins 
 to slope downwards, so that in the next, the last 
 of these caves, it is not above four or five feet in 
 height. In the caves forming this first grotto 
 fragments of bones are found, and it is said that 
 they were as plentiful here as they now are in the 
 interior grottoes. 
 
 ' The passage into the second grotto is about 
 six feet high, and fourteen feet wide. This 
 grotto, which extends straight forward sixty feet 
 from the opening, and is about forty feet wide, 
 and at its commencement about eighteen feet 
 high, would commodiously hold 200 men. Its 
 appearance is rendered remarkably interesting, 
 from the darkness of its recesses, and from the 
 various brilliant reflections of the light from the 
 stalactites with which its roofs and sides are 
 covered. The constant drip of water from the 
 roof, and the stalagmatic pillars on the floor, as- 
 sist in perfecting the wonders of the scene. In 
 this grotto no search was made for bones, on ac- 
 count of the thickness of the sparry crust. 
 
 * A low and very rugged passage, the roof of 
 which is formed of projecting pieces of rock, 
 leads to the third grotto ; the opening to which is 
 a hole, three feet high, and four feet wide. This 
 grotto is more regular in its form, and is about 
 thirty feet in diameter, and nearly round. Its 
 height is from five to six feet. This grotto is 
 very richly and fiintastically adorned by the 
 varying forms of its stalactitic hangings. The 
 floor is also covered with a wet and slippery 
 glazing, in which several teeth and jaws appear 
 to have been fixed. 
 
 * From this grotto commences the descent to 
 the interior caverns ; within only about five or six 
 feet an opening in the floor is seen, which is partly 
 vaulted over by a projecting piece of rock. The 
 descent is about twenty feet, and occasioned to 
 M. Esper and his companions some little fear, 
 lest they should never return, but remain to aug- 
 ment the zoolithes contained in these terrific 
 mansions. This cavern was found to be about 
 thirty feet in height, about fifteen in width, and 
 nearly circular; the sides, roof, and floor, dis- 
 playing the remains of animals. The rock itself 
 is thickly beset witli teeth and bones ; and th.e 
 floor is covered with a loose earth, formed by 
 animal decomposition, and in which numerous 
 bones are imbedded. 
 
 'A gradual descent leads to another grotto, 
 which, with its passage, is forty feet in length, 
 and twenty feet in height. Its sides and top are 
 beautifully adorned with stalactites. Nearly 
 twenty feet further is a frightful gulph, the open- 
 ing of which is about fifteen feet in diameter; and, 
 upon descending about twenty feet, another 
 grotto, about the same diameter with the former, 
 but forty feet in height, is seen. Here the bones 
 are dispersed about, and the floor, which is
 
 BAV 
 
 678 
 
 BAU 
 
 formed of animal earth, has great numbers of 
 them imbedded in it. The bones which are here 
 found seem to be of different animals ; but in 
 this, as well as in the former caverns, perfect and 
 unbroken bones are very seldom found. Some- 
 times a tooth is seen projecting from the solid 
 rock, through the stalactitic covering; showing 
 that many of these wonderful remains may here 
 be concealed. A specimen of this kind, which 
 I possess, from Gaylenreuth, is rendered par- 
 ticularly interesting by the first molar tooth of 
 the lower jaw, with its enamel quite perfect, 
 rising through the stalactitic mass which invests 
 tlie bone. In this cavern the stalactites begin to 
 be of a larger size, and of a more columnar form. 
 ' Passing on through a narrow opening in tlie 
 rock, a small cave, seven feet long and five feet 
 high, is discovered. Another small opening out 
 of this leads to another small cave, from which 
 a sloping descent leads to a cave twenty-five feet 
 in height, and about half as much in its diameter, 
 in which is a truncated columnar stalactite, eight 
 feet in circumference. 
 
 ' A narrow and difficult passage, twenty feet 
 in length, leads from this cavern to another of 
 twenty-five feet, which is everywhere beset with 
 teeth, bones, and stalactitic projections. This 
 cavern is suddenly contracted so as to form a 
 Tcstibule of six feet wide, ten long, and nine 
 high, terminating in an opening close to tlie 
 floor, only three feet wide, and two high; through 
 which it is necessary to writhe with the body on 
 the ground. This leads into a small cave, eight 
 feet high and wide, which is the passage into a 
 grotto twenty-eight feet high, and about forty- 
 three feet long and w-ide. Here the prodigious 
 quantity of animal earth, the vast number of 
 teeth, jaws, and other bones, and the heavy 
 grouping of the stalactites, produced so dismal 
 an appearance as to lead 1\I. Esper to speak of 
 it as a perfect model for a temple for a god of the 
 dead. Here hundreds of cart-loads of bony re- 
 mains might be removed, pockets might be filled 
 with fossil teeth, and animal earth was found to 
 reach to the utmost depth to which they dug. 
 A piece of stalactite being here broken down, 
 was found to contain pieces of bones within it, 
 the remnants of which were left imbedded in the 
 rock. 
 
 * From this principal cave is a very narrow 
 passage, terminating in the last cave, which is 
 almost six feet in width, fifteen in height, and the 
 same in length. In this cave were no animal re- 
 mains, and the floor was the naked rock. 
 
 ' Thus far only could these natural sepulchres 
 be traced ; but there is reason to suppose that 
 these remains were disposed through a greater 
 part of this rock.' By what means such im- 
 mense quantities of animal materials were accu- 
 mulated in these subterraneous abodes remains 
 totally inexplicable, and no reasonable conjectures 
 have yet been offered on the subject. 
 
 BAVATA Teuk^t:, i. e. a bavoch of land, an 
 ancient division of land, in the highlands of 
 Scotland, mentioned by the Regiam Majestatem, 
 as containing thirteen acres, and distinguished 
 from a smaller portion culled davata terra;, a 
 davoch of land, which contained only four 
 aratra, or the eighth part of a bavata i.e. 1^ 
 acres. 
 
 BAV AY, a small town of France, in the de- 
 partment of the north (late province of Hainault), 
 to which the French retired after the battle of 
 Malplaquet, in 1709. It was taken by the 
 Austrians in 1792, but recovered the same year. 
 This was anciently the capital of the Nervii ; and 
 a variety of Roman medals have been found in 
 the n.eighbourhood. It has manufactories of 
 woollen stuffs, stockings, and iron plate ; and 
 was ceded to France by the peace of Nimeguen, 
 in 1678. It stands on the road from Maubeuge to 
 Valenciennes, about eight miles north-east of 
 Quesnoy, and nearly thirty east of Douay. 
 
 BAUBEE'. A Scottish word for a halfpenny- 
 This coin, bearing the head of James the \'Ith 
 kin» of Scotland, when young, has been supposed 
 by some to have been therefore called baubee, as 
 exhibiting the figure of a baby. But Dr. Jamie- 
 son says this is a great mistake; the name, as 
 well as the coin, being known before that prince's 
 reign. Mr. Pinkerton derives it from the French 
 bas-billon, or the worst kind of billon. 
 
 Though in the drawers of my Japan bureau. 
 
 To Lady Gripeall I the Csesars show, 
 
 'Tis equal to her Ladyship or me 
 
 A copper Otho, or a Scotch baubee. 
 
 Bramston's Man of Taste. 
 
 And as to her false accusation of spoil, we did 
 remit us to the conscience of Mr. Robert Riche- 
 son, master of the coining-hous«, who from our 
 hands received silver, gold, and metal, as well 
 coined as uncoined, so that with us there did not re- 
 main the value of a baubee, or farthing. 
 
 Knox. Hittory of the Reformation of Scotland^ 
 
 BAUCHERVILLE, a port in lower Canada, 
 on the south bank of the St. Lawrence, opposite 
 Montreal. It is beautifully situated, and remark- 
 able as the retreat of several of the old French 
 nobles, who spend their small incomes in a little 
 society of their own. 
 
 BAUCIS, in fabulous history, a woman who 
 lived with Philemon her husband, in a cottage in 
 Phrygia. Jupiter and Mercury, travelling in the 
 country, were well received by them, after having 
 been refused entertainment by every-body else. 
 To punish the people for their inhumanity, these 
 gods laid the country waste with water; but took 
 Baucis and Philemon with "them to the top of a 
 mountain, where they saw the deluge, and their 
 own little hut above the waters, turned into a 
 temple. They desired to officiate in this temple 
 as priest and priestess, and that they might die 
 both together, v\hich were granted them. 
 
 BAUCOjNICA, in ancient geography, a town 
 of the Vangiones in Gallia Belgica, supposed to 
 be the present Oppekheim, which see. 
 
 BAUD, a town of France in Brittany, the 
 head of a canton in tlie department of Morbihan, 
 arrondissement of Pontivy. Population 6200. 
 18 miles north-west of \'annes. 
 
 BAUDEKIN, Baedicum, and Baldakinum, 
 in our old writers, a cloth of gold, or tissue, upon 
 which figures in silk, &c. were embroidered. 
 Some writers regard it as only a cloth of silk. 
 
 BAUDELOT (Charles Caesar), a learned advo- 
 cate of Paris,was distinguished by Iiis skill in ancient 
 monuments ; he was received into the Academy 
 of Belles Lettres in 1705. He wrote a Treatise 
 on the Advantages of Travelling ; Letters and
 
 BAU 
 
 679 
 
 BAY 
 
 Dissertations on Medals, &c; and died in 1722, 
 aged seventy-four. 
 
 BAUDIEIl (Michael), of Languedoc, lived in 
 the reign of Louis XII., and wrote 1. An Inven- 
 tory of the General History of the Turks ; 2. 
 The History of the Seraglio; 3. Of the religion 
 of the Turks ; 4. Of the Court of the King of 
 China; and 5. The Life of Cardinal Ximenes, 
 See. 
 
 BAUDISSERITE, in mineralogy, a compound 
 mineral, found at Baudissero in Piedmont, com- 
 posed principally of silver and magnesia. It 
 passes into Meerschaum, or sea froth, of which 
 bowls of pipes for smoking are frequently made. 
 
 BAUDIUS (Dominic), a professor of history 
 in the university of Leyden, born at Lisle, in 
 1561. He studied at Aix-la-Chapelle, Leyden, 
 and Geneva, and was admitted L. L. D. in 1585. 
 Soon after, he accompanied the ambassadors from 
 the states to England, where he became acquaint- 
 ed with Sir Philip Sidney. He was admitted 
 advocate at the Hague in 1587; but being soon 
 tired of the bar, went to travel in France, where 
 he remained ten years, and was much esteemed. 
 Through the influence of Achilles de Harlai, first 
 president of the parliament of Paris, he was ad- 
 mitted advocate of the parliament of Paris in 
 1592. In 1602 he went to England with Christo- 
 pher de Harlai, the president's son, wlio was sent 
 ambassador to London from Henry IV., but being 
 soon after appointed professor of eloquence at 
 Leyden, he settled in that university. Here he 
 read lectures on history, and on the civil law. 
 In 1611 the states conferred on him, in conjunc- 
 tion with Meursius, the office of historiographer, 
 and in consequence he wrote The History of the 
 Truce. He was an elegant prose writer, as ap- 
 pears from his letters, many of which were pub- 
 lished after his death, and also an excellent Latin 
 poet. His poems were first printed in 1587, and 
 he published separately a book of Iambics in 
 1591, dedicated to Cardinal Bourbon. He died 
 at Leyden in 1613. 
 
 BAUDOBRIGA, in ancient geography, a town 
 of the Treveri in Germany, now Boppart, in the 
 electorate of Triers. See Boppart. 
 
 BAUDKAND (Michael Antony), a celebrated 
 geographer, born at Paris in 1633. He travelled 
 into several countries, and then applied himself 
 to the revisal of Ferrarius' Geographical Diction- 
 ary, which he enlarged by one half. He wrote, 
 1 . Notes to Papirius Masson's description of the 
 Rivers of France ; 2. A Geographical and His 
 torical Dictionary ; 3. Christian Geography, or 
 an account of the Archbishoprics and Bishoprics 
 of the whole world ; and made several maps. 
 He died at Paris, May 29, 1700. 
 
 BAU ERA, in botany, a genus of plants, class 
 polyimdria, order digynia. Its generic charac- 
 ters are : cal. inferior eight-fid : coR. eight petals, 
 capsule bilocular, many seeded. Tlie species are, 
 1. B. rubia-'folia madder-leaved Bauera B. 
 rubioides ; Audr, llepos. t. 198, Curt. I\l£vg. t. 
 715. Venten. Malmais. t. 96. Native of New South 
 Wales, first discovered in that country by SirJ oseph 
 Banks. It requires the shelter of a green-house, 
 or conservatory, and flowers during most part of 
 the summer and autumn. Another species is 
 mentioned by the name oT B. humilis, in Ait. 
 
 Epit. 364, as introduced at Kew, from New Hoi" 
 land in 1805, and flowering in June and July. 
 
 BAUGE, a drugget m:uiufactured in Bur- 
 gundy, with thread spun tliick, and coarse wool. 
 
 Bauge', a small town of France, in the depart- 
 ment of the Mayenne and Loire, and late province 
 of Anjou, famous for the victory gained by 
 Charles VII. over the EngUsh in 1421. It is 
 seated on the Coesnon, twenty-two miles east 
 by north of Angers, and has about 3000 inhabi- 
 tants. 
 
 BAUHIN (Casper, or Caspar), an eminent 
 anatomist and botanist, born at Basil in 1550. 
 In 1580, he was chosen first professor of these 
 sciences at Basil, and in 1614 was first professor 
 of physic, and first physician of that city, a 
 distinction which he held till his death, in 1623. 
 He wrote, 1. Anatomical Institutions; 2. Prod- 
 romus Theatri Botanici, and other works. 
 
 Bauuin (John), elder brother to Caspar, a 
 great botanist, was born about the middle of the 
 sixteenth century. He took his doctor's degree 
 in physic in 1562, and afterwards became princi- 
 pal physician to Frederick duke of Wirtemburg. 
 The most considerable of his works is his Uni- 
 versal History of Plants. 
 
 BAUHINIA, Mountain Ebony, in botany^ 
 a genus of the monogynia order, and decandria 
 class of plants, ranking in the natural method 
 under the thirty-third order, lomentacea^ : cal. 
 quinquefid, and deciduous ; the petals, oblong ex- 
 panded, and clawed, the superior one more distant, 
 all inserted on the calyx ; the capsule, a logumen. 
 There are 10 species,which are propagated by seeds, 
 and must be sown in hot-beds, and are reared in 
 a bark stove. The most remarkable are : 1. B. 
 aculeata, with a prickly stalk, common in Ja- 
 maica and other American sugar islands, where it 
 rises to sixteen or eighteen feet, with a crooked stem. 
 2. B. acuminata, with oval leaves, a native of both 
 the Indies, rising with several pretty strong, up- 
 right, smooth stems, sending out slender branches, 
 garnished with oval leaves divided into two 
 lobes. 3. B. divaricata, with oval leaves, whose 
 lobes spread difi'erent ways. This grows na- 
 turally in great plenty on the north side of the 
 island of Jamaica. 4. B. tomentosa, with heart- 
 shaped leaves, a native of Campeachy ; and rises 
 to twelve or fourteen feet, with a smooth stem 
 dividing into many branches. 5. B. variegata, 
 with heart-shaped leaves, and lobes joining to- 
 gether, is a native of both the Indies. It rises 
 widi a strong stem upwards of twenty feet, divid- 
 ing into many strong branches. 
 
 BAV'IAN. The same as babian. A baboon 
 or monkey; an occasional but not a regular 
 character in tlie old morris dance. From Dut. 
 buviaan, Germ, puviiin, a great monkey. He 
 appears in act iii. scene 5, of Tlie Two Noble 
 Kinsmen, where his oflice is to bark, to tumble, 
 to play antics, and exhibit a long tixil with what 
 decency he could. So babouin in French, and 
 our baboon. 
 
 Where's the ftatjtan? 
 My friend, carry your tail without ofifence 
 Or scandal to the ladies, and be sure 
 You tumble with audacity and manhood ; 
 And when you bark, do it with judgment. 
 
 Beaumont and Flcti'hcr.
 
 BAU 
 
 680 
 
 BAU 
 
 BAVIN. Brushwood, or small faggots, made 
 of such light and combustible matter, used for 
 lighting fires. Still in use in some counties. 
 
 The skipping kin^, he ambled up and down. 
 With shallow jesters and rash bavin wits. 
 Soon kindled and soon burnt. 
 
 Shakspeare, Henry IV. 
 
 Bavins will have their flashes, and youth their 
 
 fancies, the one as soon quench'd as the others are 
 
 burnt. Mother Bombie, 1594. 
 
 BAVIUS and MjEvius, two wretched poets of 
 ancient Rome, who have been 
 
 ' Damn'd to everlasting fame,' 
 in that severe line of \'^irgil : 
 
 Qui Bavium non odit amet tua carmina Maevi. 
 
 BAULEAH, a considerable town of Bengal, 
 in a very fertile country, to the north-east of the 
 Ganges. The East India Company have here a 
 very extensive factory for silk, which supplies a 
 third part of that material exported from Bengal. 
 
 BAULOT, or Beaulieu, famous for his ope- 
 rations in lithotomy. He was born in 1651, of 
 parents in low circumstances, and he entered 
 early into the army ; but after he had been some 
 time a soldier, he got acquainted with an empi- 
 rical surgeon, who pretended to cure the stone ; 
 and having received some lessons from this man, 
 he assumed the monastic habit, though he be- 
 longed to no religious order, calling himself 
 brother James. Thus he travelled through vari- 
 ous provinces, and performed various operations; 
 and at last went to Paris. Here his practice was 
 disapproved of at first; but having been success- 
 ful in curing a boy, his patients soon after be- 
 came numerous. After extracting the stone he 
 left the wound to heal of itself. The famous 
 Cheselden adopted and improved upon brother 
 James's method. He died in 1720. 
 
 BAUM, in botany. See Melissa. 
 
 Baum, Bastard. See Melittis. 
 
 Baum, Shrubby. See Molucca. 
 
 BAUMAN Isles, a cluster of islands in the 
 South Pacific Ocean, discovered in 1722, Ijy the 
 person whose name they bear, in his voyage 
 round the world with M. lloggewein. They lie 
 in 12° of south latitude, and 173° of west longi- 
 tude. The largest is about twenty miles in cir- 
 cumference ; and the inhabitants were found to 
 manifest a gentle and friendly disposition. 
 
 BAUMANNIANA, in entomology, a species 
 of phalaena (tortrix) that inhabits Austria. The 
 anterior wings are yellow, with two ferruginous 
 anastomising bands bordered with silver ; poste- 
 rior one interrupted. 
 
 BAUMANSHOPLE, a remarkable cavern in 
 tlie Brunswick states, principality of Blanken- 
 burg, Germany , situated in a steep rock near 
 Rubeland. It consists of six or seven vaults, 
 communicating by narrow apertures, and filled 
 with stalactitic petrifactions, arranged in a thou- 
 sand fantastic forms. No one has ever penetrat- 
 ed to the bottom, on account of the dampness and 
 impurity of tlie air, which extinguishes all 
 lights. 
 
 BAU ME (Antony), an eminent French che- 
 mist towards the close of the last century, who 
 distinguished himself by his opposition to the 
 theory of Lavoisier, and his colleagues, lie prac- 
 tised as an apothecary at Paris, and was, in 1775, 
 
 cliosen a member of the Royal Academy of 
 Sciences. On the establishment of the National 
 Institute, he was also one of its members. His 
 principal works are a Treatise on Theoretical 
 and Experimental Chemistry, and a Manual of 
 Pharmacy. He also wrote a Memoir on Argil- 
 laceous Eartlis ; a Dissertation on /Ether, &c. 
 He died in 1805. He also wrote a great many 
 articles in the Dictionnaire des Arts et Metiers. 
 Baume-les-nones, a town of France, the head 
 of an arrondissement, in the department of the 
 Doubs, seated on the river of that name, and having 
 2500 inhabitants. Five miles from this town is a 
 remarkable cavern, containing a small brook, said 
 to be frozen in summer, but not in winter. When 
 the peasants perceive a mist rising out of this 
 cave, they know that it will rain the next day. 
 Before the revolution there were here two fa- 
 mous abbeys, one for males, the other for fe- 
 males. Sixteen miles north-east of Besanpon. 
 Long. 6° 25' E., lat. 47° 21' N. 
 
 BAUNACH, or Paunach, a market town of 
 Bavaria, capital of the district of Gleusdorf, circle 
 of the Maine. It is situated at tlie influx of a small 
 river of the same name into the Maine, and lay 
 formerly in the principality of Bamberg, in Fran- 
 conia. Here is a bridge across the latter river, 
 and the surrounding country is rich in corn and 
 wine. Seven miles nortli of Bamberg. 
 
 BAVOSA, in ichthyology, a name given by 
 Italians to a species of the ray fish, now called 
 leviraia, and raia oxyrynchus, and by earlier 
 authors, raja bos, bos marinus, and leioraia. It 
 is distinguished by Artedi as the variegated ray, 
 with ten prickly tubercles on the middle of the 
 back. See Pholis. 
 
 BAUR (Frederick William Von), a Russian 
 general, born in the county of Hessian Hanau. 
 He very early entered on a military life, and, in 
 1755, was in the British service as an officer of 
 Hessian artillery. In 1757 he was advanced to 
 the rank of general and engineer ; and was after- 
 wards ennobled by Frederick II. of Prussia. He 
 entered into the service of Catharine II. empress 
 of Russia, in 1769, and was by her appointed 
 director of the salt works in Novogorod. He 
 also superintended two great works, the supply- 
 ing of Moscow with water, and deepening the 
 canal near Petersburg, at the end of which he 
 constructed a commodious harbour. He died in 
 1783. He wrote Memoires Historiques et Geo- 
 graphiques sur la Valachie, &c. 8vo. ; and con- 
 structed the Carte de Moldavie, pour servir de 
 la Guerre e^ tre les Russes et le Turcs, in seven 
 sheets. 
 
 BAURAC, an ancient name for nitre, and 
 some other salts, confusedly called nitre. The 
 Arabians give the name to tincar or tincal, which, 
 when refined, is called borax, but when rough, 
 in little crystalline masses, like the small crystals 
 of sal gem, mixed with earth or other impuri- 
 ties, it is called tincal. 
 
 BAUTRU, a celebrated wit, and one of the 
 first members of the French academy, was born 
 at Paris in 1588, and died there in 1665. He 
 was the delight of the whole court, but while he 
 played the buffoon, took the usual privilege of 
 saying what he pleased. Many of his bon mots 
 are preserved. Once, when in Spain, having
 
 BAW 
 
 681 
 
 BAW 
 
 been to see the famous library of the Escurial, 
 where he found a very ignorant librarian, the 
 kin^j of Spain asked him what ho had remarked ? 
 iiautru replied, tliat ' the library is a very fine 
 one; but your majesty should make your libra- 
 rian treasurer of your finances.' 'Why so?' 
 * Because,' said Bautru, ' he never touches what 
 he it; entrusted with.' 
 
 BAUTZEN, or Budisskn, a considerable 
 town of Germany, the capital of Upper Lusatia, 
 in the kingdom of Saxony, with a strong ci- 
 tadel. It is seated on the river Spree, thirty 
 miles east by north of Dresden. Including 
 the suburb of Seidau, it contains a population of 
 11,000 or 12,000, most of whom are employed 
 in manufactures, of which the principal are 
 paper, cloth, linen, leather, and stockings. The 
 provincial diet assembles at Bautzen, which is 
 also tlie seat of the central post office. One half 
 of the parish church is given to the Catholics, 
 and the other to the Lutherans, the latter of wliom 
 are about three-fourths of the inhabitants. Here 
 is also a collegiate establishment, called the 
 provostship of St. Peter, all the members of 
 which are Catholics, except the head, who is 
 a Lutheran. The funds of this institution are 
 extensive ; and it possesses large tracts of land, 
 both in Saxony and Bohemia. The town-hall, 
 academy, orphan-house, ingenious water ma- 
 chines, as well as the public walks, are worthy of 
 attention. Bautzen has suffered much by fire, 
 particularly in the years 1709, 1760, and 1767. 
 it was also tlie scene of a bloody conflict between 
 the French and allies in 1813, in which the for- 
 mer were victorious. The language of the Wen- 
 dens, or descendants of the ancient Vandals, is 
 spoken at Bautzen nearly as much as the modern 
 German. 
 
 BAW'BLE, ^ Bauble, or bable, $. Low Dit. 
 Baw'bi.ing. S baubella; but that word being 
 found only in Hoveden, it is probable that the 
 English may be the original, and the con- 
 trary ; perhaps both are from the Fr. babiole. 
 Baciballum is found in Petronius Arbiter in a 
 similar sense ; and /3«/3aXia in Julius Pollux, 
 vol. 16, for bracelets. — Nares. Skinner suggests 
 that it may be from babe, Ital. babolo, an infant; 
 q. d. an infant's plaything. Any pretty, showy, 
 trifling toy. It was anciently used to signify 
 the badge of a fool. In its general signification 
 the word is still current, but the office of a fool 
 being obsolete, it requires, in the latter sense, 
 some explanation. A fool's bawble was a short 
 stick, with a head ornamented with asses' ears, 
 fantastically carved upon it. 
 
 An idiot holds his bauble for a god. 
 And keeps the oath which by that god he swears. 
 
 SliakfiJeare. Titus Andrunicus. 
 
 It had been fitter for you have found a fool's coat, 
 
 and a bauble. Linyua, 0. PI. v. 129. 
 
 If every fool should wear a babl<^, fewel would be 
 
 dear. Ray's Prov. p. 108, 
 
 It was also the subject of another proverb, 
 
 which, as well a.s several allusions made to it, 
 
 was of a licentious nature. It appears by the 
 
 French proverb, subjoined by Kay, that the 
 
 equivalent word in that language was marotle, 
 
 which is now used for a jwrson's particular 
 
 foible, or hobby-horse, C'est-ld sa murotle ; it is 
 
 his hobby-horse. It is in general whether ap- 
 l)lied to persons or things, a term of contempt. 
 And hapneth that the kynges foole 
 Sat by the fire upon a stole, 
 As he that witli his bable plaide. 
 And yet he heard all that thei saide. 
 And thereof toke thei no hede. 
 
 Gower. Conf. Ann. 
 In the reproof of chance 
 Lies the true proof of men : the sea hieing smooth. 
 How many .shallow bauble boats dare sail 
 Upon her patient breast, making their way 
 With those of nobler bulk ? 
 But let the ruffian Boreas once enrage 
 The gentle Thetis, and anon behold" 
 The strong-ribb'd bark through liquid mountains cut. 
 Bounding between the two moist elements. 
 Like Perseus' horse : Where's then the saucy boat. 
 Whose weak untimber'd sides but even now 
 Co-rival'd greatness? either to harbour fled. 
 Or made a toast for Neptune. Even so 
 Doth valour's show, and valour's worth divide 
 In storms of fortune. S/iakspeare. 
 
 A bawbling vessel was he captain of. 
 For shallow draught, and bulk, unprizable ; 
 With which such scathful grapple did he make. 
 With the most noble bottom of our fleet. Id. 
 
 Paper ! 
 Black as the ink that's on thee ; senseless bauble. 
 Art tliou a feodary, for this act, and look'st 
 So virgin-like without. /rf. 
 
 When a man begins ti-uly to fear God, and is in the 
 agonies of mortification, all these new-nothings and 
 curiosities will lye neglected by as baubles do by chil- 
 dren when they are deadly sick. Taylor's Sermons. 
 For who without a cap and bauble. 
 Having subdued a bear and rabble. 
 And might with honour have come off. 
 Would put it to a second proof. Hudibrai. 
 He (Cromwell) commanded a soldier to seize the 
 mace : ' What shall wc do with this bauble ? Here, 
 take it av.ay. It is you,' said he, addressing himself 
 to the house, ' tliat have forced me to this, I have 
 sought the Lord, night and day, that he would rather 
 slay me than put mo upon this work.' 
 
 Hume's History of England. 
 If, in our contest, we do not interchange useful 
 notions, we shall traffick toys and baubles. 
 
 Government of tlie Tongue. 
 This shall be writ to fright the fry away. 
 Who draw their little bawbles, when they play. 
 
 Drydcn. 
 A lady's watch needs neither figures nor wheels j 
 'Tis enough that 'tis loaded with bawbles and seals. 
 
 Prior. 
 Our author then, to please you, in your way. 
 Presents you now a bawble of a play. 
 In gingling rhyme. Granville. 
 
 A prince, the moment he is crown'd. 
 Inherits every virtue round. 
 As emblems of the sovereign pow'r. 
 Like other bawbles of the tow'r. Swift. 
 
 Whate'cr was light, impertinent, and vain, 
 Whate'cr was loose, indecent, and profane, 
 (So ripe was folly, folly to acquit), 
 Stood all absolv'd in that poor bauble, wit. 
 
 Churchill. Gotham, bk. iii. 
 BAW^'COCK, A burlesque word of endear- 
 ment, supposed to be derived from hcnu coq ; 
 but rather perhaps from boy and cock. It seem.s 
 to mean yoimg cock, or fine fellow. 
 
 Why that's my bawcock. What has smulch'd thy 
 nose .' S/iaks]ieare.
 
 BAW 
 
 682 
 
 BAW 
 
 Good hawcock, bate thy rage ! use lenity, sweet 
 chuck. Id, Henry IV. 
 
 BAWD', V; n.s. & adj. ") Either from baude, 
 Bawd'ily, I which signifies joy- 
 
 Bawd'ixess, [ ous, from baudy, 
 
 Bawd'ky, [ dirty, or from the 
 
 Bawd'siiip, I Goth, banyan, to 
 
 Bawdy. J scrape together, thus 
 
 baiud is a collector of filth, or obscenity. The 
 French have baudcrie, baudrie, that is pimping, 
 keeping a bawdy-liouse. It refers to obscenity 
 of language, and of intercourse. A bawd is 
 either a male or female pander. It is more fre- 
 quently applied, however, to the depraved 
 mother in the trade of debauchery, who either 
 facilitate the illicit intercourse of the sexes, as 
 procuresses, or as furnishing them with a place 
 of meeting. Johnson says, somewhat coarsely, 
 that bawdry is a wicked practice of procuring 
 and bringing whores and rogues together. 
 This false theef, this sompnour quod the frerc. 
 Had alway baudes redy to his hond. 
 As any hawke to Hue in Englelond. 
 
 Chaucer. The Freres Tale. 
 This thing is wonder mervaillous to me, 
 (Sin that thy lord is of so high prudence. 
 Because of which men shulde him reverence,) 
 That of his worship rekketh he so lite 
 His ovcrest sloppe it is not worth a mite, 
 Aj in effect to him so mote I go ; 
 It is all haudy and to sore also. Id. 
 
 But here, with al mine herte, I thee beseche 
 That never in me thou deme soche folie. 
 As I shall saine — Methought by thy speche. 
 That this whiche thou me doest for companie, 
 I should wenen it were a bauderie : 
 I am not wode, all if I leud ybe : 
 It is not so, that wote I well parde. Id. 
 
 H'yll hang handsome young men for the soote sinne 
 
 of iove. 
 When so his knavery himselfe a bawdy Jack doth 
 prove. Wlietstone. Old Play. 
 
 Besides, bawdry is become an art, or a liberal 
 science, as Lucian calls it ; and there be such tricks 
 and subtleties, so many nurses, old women, panders, 
 letter-carriers, beggars, physicians, friars, confessors, 
 employed about it ; such occult notes, stenography, 
 polygraphy, nuntius aniraatus, or magnetical telling of 
 their minds, which Cabeus, the Jesuit, by the way, 
 counts fabulous and false ; cunning conveyances in 
 this kind, that neither Juno's jealousie, nor Danae's 
 custody, nor Argo's vigilancy can keep them safe. 
 
 Burton. Anat. of Mel. 
 
 The eye is a secret orator, the first bawde, amoris 
 
 porta, and with private looks, winking, glances, and 
 
 smiles, as so many dialogues they make up the match 
 
 many times and understand one another's meanings 
 
 before they come to speak a word. Id. 
 
 Thy sin's not accidental, but a trade : 
 
 Mercy to thee -would prove itself a bawd : 
 
 'Tis best that thou diest quickly. Shakspeare. 
 
 She says enough ; — yet she's a simple bawd. 
 
 That cannot say as much. Id. 
 
 Come, sing me a bawdy song ; make 
 
 me merry ; I was as virtuously given as a gentleman 
 
 need to be ; virtuous enough : swore little ; diced not 
 
 above seven times a week ; went to a bawdy-hoa&e, 
 
 not above once in a quarter — of an hour ; paid money 
 
 that I borrowed, three or four times; lived well, and 
 
 in good compass : and now I live out of all order, 
 
 out of all compass. ifi. 
 
 Heart. For my part I have once escaped — and 
 when I wed again, may she br — ugly as an old bawd. 
 Vainl. Ill-natured, as an old maid — 
 BtLMOUR. Wanton as a young widow — 
 Sharp. And jealous as a barren wife. 
 
 Congreve. Old Bachelor. 
 Now nothing left, but wither'd, pale, and shrunk. 
 To bawd for others, and go shares in punk. Pope, 
 
 You may generally observe, that the appetites arc 
 sooner moved than the passions. A sly expression, 
 which alludes to batvdry, puts a whole row into a 
 pleasing smirk ; when a good sentence that describes 
 an inward sentiment of the soul, is received with the 
 greatest coldness and indifference. Spectator. 
 
 Has the pope lately shut up the bawdy-houses, or 
 does he continue to lay a tax upon sin ? Dennis. 
 
 Bawdy-House. The keeping of a house of 
 ill-fame is cognizable by ■ le temporal law, as a 
 common nuisance, not only because it endangers 
 the public peace by drawing together dissolute 
 and debauched persons, and promoting quarrels, 
 but because it tends to corrupt the manners of 
 the people by an open profession of lewdness 
 (3 Inst. 205. 1 Hawk. P. C. c. 74). Those who 
 keep bawdy-houses are punished with fine and 
 imprisonment, and also such infamous punish- 
 ment as the court shall inflict ; and so is a lod- 
 ger, who keeps only a single room for such pur- 
 poses. Also persons resorting to a bawdy-house 
 are punishable, and may be bound to their good 
 behaviour. If a constable receives information 
 that a man and woman are gone to a lewd house, 
 he may carry them before a justice of peace with- 
 out any warrant, and the justice may bind them 
 over to the sessions. In London, they may carry 
 them to prison ; and by the custom of the city, 
 whores and bawds may be carted. By stat. 25 
 Geo. II. c. 36, made perpetual by stat. 28 Geo. 
 II. c. 19, if two inhabitants, paying scot and lot, 
 shall give notice to a constable of any person 
 keeping a bawdy-house, the constable shall go 
 with them before a justice of peace, and shall, 
 upon the oath of such inhabitants, that they be- 
 lieve the contents of such notice to be true, and 
 their entering into a recognizance of £20 each, 
 to give material evidence of the offence, enter 
 into a recognizance of £30 to prosecute with 
 effect such person for such offence at the next 
 sessions. The constable shall be paid his reason- 
 able expenses by the overseers of the poor, ascer- 
 tainable by two justices ; and upon conviction of 
 the offender, the overseers shall pay tiie two in- 
 habitants £lO each. A constable, neglecting his 
 duty, forfeits £20. Any person appearing as 
 master or mistress, or as having he are or man- 
 agement of any bawdy-house, shall be deemed 
 the keeper of it, and liable to be punished ;:s 
 such. And a wife may be indicted and set in the 
 pillory with her husband for keeping a brothel ; 
 for this is an offence respecting the domestic eco- 
 nomy and government of the house, in which the 
 wife has a principal share. 
 
 Bawd-Money, a name given ♦) the aleum 
 athamanticum. 
 
 BAW'DRICKS, n. See Baldrick. Belts, 
 belt, according to Du Cange, is the ring, belt, or 
 girdle of a bold man, that is of a warrior. The 
 word is used by Sir Thomas More, by Hall, and 
 by Fabian, and is spelt by them variously, bawd- 
 rick, buudryrk, and baicdcryke.
 
 BAW 
 
 G83 
 
 BAX 
 
 And in her hanj a sharp bone spear she held. 
 And at licr backe a bow and quiver gay, 
 Stuft with steel-headed darts, wherewith she queld 
 The salvage beasts in her victorious play. 
 Knit with a golden hauldrick, wliich forelay 
 Athwart her snowy breast. Spenser. Faerie Queene. 
 
 Fresh garlands too the virgins' temples crown'd ; 
 The youths gilt swords wore at their thighs, with silver 
 bawdricks bound. C/utpman's Iliad. 
 
 BAWL, V. a. 8c 7i.''% \'ossius and Festus 
 Bawling, > concur in thinking that 
 
 Bawler, ?i. J tliis word is formed, a 
 
 sono vocis, from the sound of die voice; Min- 
 shew and Skinner conjecture that it is from the 
 noise which dogs make in barking; and Johnson 
 derives it from the Latin balo, to hoot, to cry 
 witli great vehemence, whether for joy or pain ; 
 to cry as in the market place, either wares or 
 news ; a word always used in contempt. 
 
 They haul for freedom in their senseless mood. 
 And still revolt when truth would set them free. 
 
 Milton. 
 To cry the cause up heretofore. 
 And bawl the bishops out of door. Hudibi-as. 
 
 Through the thick shades th' eternal scribler baicls. 
 And shakes the statues on their pedestals. Dryden. 
 
 From his lov'd home no lucre him can draw ; 
 The senate's mad decrees he never saw. 
 Nor heard at hauiling bars corrupted law. Id. 
 
 Loud menaces were heard, and foul disgrace. 
 And bawling infamj', in language base. 
 Till sense was lost in sound, and silence flea the 
 place. Id. Fables. 
 
 So on the tuneful Margarita's tongue 
 The list'ning nymphs and ravish'd heroes hung ; 
 But cits and fops the heav'n-bom musick blame. 
 And bawl, and hiss, and damn her into fame. Smith, 
 
 I have a race of orderly elderlj' people, who can 
 baivl when I am deaf, and tread softly when I am 
 only giddy and would sleep. Swift. 
 
 It grieved me when I saw labours which had cost 
 so much, bawled about by common hawkers. Id. 
 
 Fie ; fie miss, how you bawl ! — Besides, I have told 
 yoii, you must not call mo mother. Co)igreve. 
 
 A litde child w% bawling, aad a woman chiding it. 
 
 L'Entrnnge. 
 
 If they were never suffered to have what they cried 
 for, they would never, with bawling and peevishness, 
 contend for mastery. Locke. 
 
 My husband took him in, a dirty boy ; it was the 
 business of the servants to attend him, the rogue did 
 bawl and make such a noise. 
 
 Arbutlmot's History of John Bull. 
 
 When rosemary and bays, the poet's crown. 
 
 Arc bawl'd in frequent cries through all the town. 
 
 Then judge the festival of Christmas near 
 
 Christmas ! the joyous period of the year. Gay. 
 
 BA^^ LING, among sportsmen, is spoke of 
 the dogs when they are too busy before tliey find 
 the scent good. 
 
 BAW;aL See Balm. Bawmed, used by K. 
 Brunne. 
 
 BAWN, n. in the Gothic hauan, Germ, baiun, 
 a place to reside in; a dwelling; any edifice, 
 whether a fortification or a common habitation, 
 and with whatever materials constructed ; it is 
 used by Spenser for an eminence. In Ireland, 
 says Todd, a baivn is said to be a place, near 
 the house, inclosed with mud or stone walls, to 
 keep the cattle from being stolen in the night. 
 
 But these round hills and square haumes, which 
 you see so strongly trenched and thrown up, wcr» 
 (they say) at first ordained for the same puq)ose, that 
 people might assemble themselves therein, and, there- 
 fore, aunciently, they were called folkmotes, that is, a 
 place of people, to meete or talke of any thing that 
 concerned any difference between parties and town- 
 ships, which seemeth yet to me very requisite. 
 
 Spenser. View of the State of Ireland. 
 Thus spoke to my lady the knight full of care, — 
 Let me have your advice in a weighty affair ; 
 This Hamilton's bawn, whilst it sticks on my hand, 
 I lose by the house what I get by the land ; 
 But how to dispose of it to the best bidder. 
 For a barrack or malt-house, we now must consider. 
 Swift. The Grand Question Debated. 
 
 BAWTREY, or Bawtry, a market town and 
 chapelry, in the parish of Blythe, West Ilidin;.^ 
 of York. It stands near the river Idle, eight or 
 ten miles from its fall into the Trent : is nine 
 miles south-east from Doncaster, and 1 53 from 
 London, and contains from 900 to 1000 inhabi- 
 tants. This place has much trade from its river 
 navigation, having mill ami grindstones from 
 Derbyshire, and lead, and all kinds of iron manu- 
 factures, from Sheffield. It is a great thorough- 
 fare to Scotland, and has a good market on 
 Thursday, formerly on Wednesday. 
 
 BAXTER (Andrew), an ingenious metaphy- 
 sical writer, was born in 1686 or 1687, at Old 
 Aberdeen, and educated at King's College. 
 About 1724 he married the daughter of a clergy- 
 man in Berwickshire. A few years after, he 
 published in 4to, An Inquiry into the Nature of 
 the Human Soul, wherein its immateriality is 
 is evinced from the principles of reason and phi- 
 losophy. In 1741 he went abroad with .Mr. 
 Hay, and resided some years at Utrecht ; having 
 there Lord Blantyre also under his care. He 
 made excursions from thence into llanders, 
 France, and Germany ; his wife and family re- 
 siding, in the mean time, ciiietly at Berwick. In 
 1737 he returned to Scotland, and resided till his 
 death at Whittingham, in the shire of East Lo- 
 thian. He drew up, for the use of his pupils and 
 his son, a piece entitled Matho : sive, Cosmulhe- 
 oria puerilis, dialogus. In quo prima elementa 
 de mundi ordine et ornatu proponuntur, &:c. 
 This was afterwards greatly enlarged, and pub- 
 lished in English, in two volumes, 8vo. In 
 1750, he published an Appendix to his Inquiry. 
 He died April 23, 1750, after suffering for some 
 months under a complication of disorders. 
 
 Baxter, (Richard), an eminent nonconformi-st 
 divine, was born at Rowton in Shropshire, 
 in 1615. He was somewhat unfortunate in his 
 tutors, who were either men of little ability, or 
 very inattentive to their charge; but his own 
 genius and perseverance surmounted tiiis ob- 
 stacle ; and he was distinguished in early life for 
 his learning, as well as his piety. He was or- 
 dained in 1638, and upon the 'opening of the 
 long parliament, was chosen vicar of Kidder- 
 minster. In the heat of the civil wars he with- 
 drew to Coventry, and i)rtaclied to the garrison 
 and inhabitants. When (diver Cromwell was 
 made protector, he would not comply with his 
 measures, though he preached once before him. 
 He came to Loudon just prior to the deposing 
 of Richard Cromwell, and preached before the
 
 BAX 
 
 684 
 
 BAY 
 
 parliament the day before they voted tlie return 
 of King Charles II. Upon the llGStoration he 
 was appointed one of the king's chaphiins in or- 
 dinary, lie assisted at the conference in the 
 Savoy, as one of the commissioners for the set- 
 tlement of religion, and drew up a reformed 
 liturgy. About diis time he was offered the 
 bishopric of Hereford, which he refused ; and de- 
 sired only to resume his charge at Kidderminster. 
 He was not, however, permitted to preach there 
 above twice or Uirice after the Restoration. On 
 this he returned to London, and preached oc- 
 casionally about the. city, till the act of unifor- 
 mity took place. In 16(32 he married Margaret, 
 daughter of Francis Charleton, Esq. of Salop, a 
 justice of the peace. She was a woman of great 
 piety, and entered fully into her husband's views 
 concernirtg reUgion. During the plague in 1665, 
 he retired into Buckinghamshire; but aftersvard 
 returned to Acton, where he staid till the act 
 against conventicles expired ; and then his au- 
 dience was so large that he wanted room. Soon 
 after we find him imprisoned, but procuring 
 an habeas corpus, he was discharged. After the 
 indulgence in 1672 he returned to London; and 
 in 1682 he was once more incarcerated and put 
 to great expense. In 1684 he was again appre- 
 hended, and at the commencement of the reign 
 of James II. was tried before justice Jefferies, 
 for his Paraphrase on the New Testament ; 
 which was called a scandalous and seditious 
 book against the government. He continued in 
 prison two years ; from whence he was dis- 
 charged, and had his fine remitted by the king. 
 He died in 1691 ; and was buried in Christ 
 Church. One of his biographers says, rather 
 boldly, of Richard Baxter, * he could say what 
 lie would, and he could prove what he said.' 
 He was honored, however, with the friendship of 
 the earl of Lauderdale, the earl of Balcarras, L. 
 Chief Justice Hales, Drs. Tillotson, Barrow, &c. 
 and held correspondence with the most eminent fo- 
 reign divines. He himself wrote above 120 books, 
 and had above sixty written against him. Bar- 
 row says, that ' his practical writings were never 
 mended, and his controversial seldom confuted.' 
 Granger declares that he was a man famous for 
 weakness of body and strength of mind ; for 
 havi.ig the strongest sense of religion himself, 
 and exciting a sense of it in the thoughtless and 
 profligate ; for preaching more sermons, engaging 
 in more controversies, and writing more books, 
 than any other nonconformist of his age.. He 
 spoke, disputed, and wrote with ease ; and dis- 
 covered the same intrepidity when he reproved 
 Cromwell and expostulated with Charles II. as 
 when he preached to a congregation of meclianics. 
 His ])0rtrait, in full proportion, is drawn in his 
 Narrative of his own Life and Timfes ; which 
 tiiough a rliapsody, composed in the man- 
 ner of a diary, contains a great variety of 
 memorable things, and is itself, as far as it goes, 
 a History of Nonconformity. His most famous 
 works were, 1. The Saint's Everlasting Rest. 
 2. Call to the Unconverted, of which 20,000 have 
 been sold in one year ; and which has been trans- 
 lated into all the Eurojjcan languages. 3. Poor 
 Man's Family Book. 4. J3ying Thoughts ; and 
 *■. the above-mentioned Paraphrase. His prac- 
 
 tical works have been ])rintcd in four volumes 
 foUo. See Baxteri.ans. 
 
 BAXTERIANS, in ecclesiastical history, those 
 who adopt the doctrinal sentiments of Richard 
 Baxter. The opinions maintained by this excel- 
 lent man were conciliatory, and have, since his 
 time been embraced by many moderate and can- 
 did men, of different sects and parties. Baxter's 
 system was formed not to inflame the passions 
 and widen tlie breaches, but to heal those wounds 
 of the church under which she had long lan- 
 guished. Some controversialists, however, were 
 much displeased with Baxter's attempt; and we 
 have heard of a piece in which supposed incon- 
 sistencies in his doctrines are set in a kind of 
 battle-array against each other; — it is entitled 
 Richard against Baxter. 
 
 The Baxterian strikes into a middle path, be- 
 tween Arminianism and Calvinism, and thus 
 endeavours to unite both schemes. With the 
 Calvinist, he professes to believe that a certain 
 number, determined upon in the divine councils, 
 will be infallibly saved ; and with the Arminian, 
 he joins in rejecting the doctrine of reprobation 
 as absurd and impious ; admits that Christ, in a 
 certain sense, died for all, and supposes that such 
 a portion of grace is allotted to every man as 
 renders it his own fault if he doth not attain to 
 eternal life. 
 
 Bay, 1 The name of the tree which is 
 
 Bays. S translated laurel, and of which hono- 
 rary garlands were anciently made. Fr. bai/e, a 
 berry, Lat. bacca. To wear the bai^s, is, in poet- 
 ical language, to be pre-eminent in excellence. 
 The honorary crown or garland, which was be- 
 stowed as a prize for literary or military, or in- 
 deed any other species of merit, bearing this 
 name. 
 
 1 have seen the -wicked in great power, and spread- 
 ing himself like a green bay-trcc. Bible. 
 
 See where she sits iipon the grassie greene, 
 (0 seemely sight '.) 
 Yclad in scarlet, like a mayden queene. 
 
 And ermines white : 
 Upon her head a cremosin coronet. 
 With damaske roses, and datTadillies set; 
 Ba^Z-leaves betweene, 
 And primroses greene. 
 Embellish the sweete violet. 
 
 Spenser. Shepkeard's Calendar, 
 
 So him they led through all their strectes along. 
 Crowned with garlands of immortal haies. 
 And all the vulgar did about them throng. 
 To see the man, whose everlasting praise. 
 They all were bound to all posteritie to raise 
 
 Spenser. 
 
 I can but laugh at both. 
 That strive and storme with stirre outrageous. 
 For her, that each of you alike doth lotli. 
 And loves another, with whom now she go'th. 
 In lovely wise, and slcepcs, and sports, and playes ; 
 Whitest both you hero, with many a cursed oth, 
 Sweare she is yours, and stirre up bloodie frayes. 
 To win a willow bough, whilcst other wcares the ba>/g. 
 
 Id. 
 
 See how the stubborn damsell doth deprave 
 Jfy simple meaning with disdaynfull scorn; 
 And by tlic bay which I unto her gave ; 
 Accompts myself her captive quite forlorne. 
 The bay quoth she, is of the victors bom.
 
 BAY 
 
 685 
 
 BAY 
 
 Yielded them by the vanquisht as llipyr meeds. 
 
 And they, therewith, doe poetes heads adorne. 
 
 To sing the glory of their famous deeds. 
 
 But sith she will the conquest challcni;c needs. 
 
 Let her accept me as her faithful thrall. 
 
 That her great triumph, which my skill exceeds, 
 
 I may in trump of fame blaze over all. 
 
 Then would I decke her head with glorious bays, 
 
 And fill tlie world with her victorious prayse. Jcl. 
 
 To take a boat in a pleasant evening, and with 
 musick to row upon the waters, which Plutarch so 
 much applaudes, -Eliau admires, upon the river 
 Pencus, in those Thcssalian fields beset with green 
 baycs, where birds so sweetly sing, that pjussengers, 
 enchanted as it were with their heavenly musick, for- 
 get forthwith all labours, care and grief ; or in a 
 gundilo, through the grand canale in Venice, to see 
 those goodly palaces, must needs refresh and give 
 content to a melancholy dull spirit. 
 
 Burton. Anat. Meh 
 
 So up they rose, while all the shepherd-throng 
 With th( ir loud pipes a country triumph blew. 
 And led their Thirsil home with joyful song : 
 Mean time the lovely nymph, with garlands new. 
 His locks in hay and honour'd palm-tree bound, 
 With lilies set, and hyacinths around ; 
 And lord of all the year, and their may-sportings, 
 crown'd. Fletcher's Purple hla?id. 
 
 Like thunder 'gainst the bay. 
 Whose lightning may enclose but never stay. 
 Upon his charmed branches. Id. Faith. ShepJierdess. 
 
 That name I say in whom the muses meete. 
 And with such heate his noble spirits raise, 
 That kings r^lmire his verse, whil'st at his feete, 
 Orpheus his harpe, and Phoebus casts his bays. 
 
 F. Beaumont. 
 Till critics blame, and judges praise, 
 The poet cannot claim his bays. Swift. 
 
 Say, Britain ! could you ever boast 
 Three poets in an age at most ? 
 Our chilling climate hardly bears 
 A sprig of bays in fifty years. 
 While ev'ry fool his claim alleges. 
 As if it grew in common hedges. Id. 
 
 Bid the warbling nine retire ; 
 Venus string thy servant's lyre ; 
 Love shall be my endless theme. 
 Pleasure shall triumph over Fame : 
 And when these maxims I decline, 
 Apollo! may thy fate be mine ; 
 May I grasp at empty praise. 
 And lose the nymph to gain the bays. Prior. 
 
 The polish'd pillar difF'rent sculptures grace, 
 A work outlasting monumental brass. 
 Here smiling loves and bacchanals appear. 
 The Julian star, and great Aug\istus here. 
 The doves, that round the infant poet spread. 
 Myrtle and bays, hang hov'ring o'er his head. Pope. 
 
 Yet sufTer me, thou bard of wondrous meed. 
 Amid thy bays to weave this rural weed. Gay. 
 
 IUy', adj. -\ Lat. badiiis, old Fr. baye, bai, 
 Bay'ard, ^.rougc brun, Ital. fcoio, Or. /3fiic, 
 -Bay'ardly. S or /3aiov, the brancli of the palm. 
 Does it refer to the color of the bark? or the 
 tenacity with which the branch adheres to the 
 trunk ; to intimate boldness, determination, or 
 dogi^ed firmness ? It is applied both to signify 
 the color and spirit of a horse ; and also to men 
 who are bold, blind, and self-willed. A bai/ 
 horse is one whose color inclines to a chestnut ; 
 and this color is various, either a light buy, or 
 
 a dark bay, according as it is less or more deep. 
 All bay horses are commonly called brown l)y 
 the common people. Bui/ard is anotiier name 
 for a horse of this complexion. It was likewise 
 the appellation of a noted blind horse in the old 
 romances ; whence, perhaps, the proverbial ex- 
 pression ' as bold as blind Bayard.' Rinaldo's 
 horse, in Ariosto, is called Baiardo. Tliere is 
 an allusion to the proverb just cited, in the old 
 play entitled iNIatcli at Midnight, ' Do you hear 
 Sir Bartholomew Bai/ard? But leap before you 
 look.' Perhaps, says Nares, the whole proverb 
 might be ' as bold as blind Bri/ard, that leaps 
 before he looks,' in allusion to another proverb, 
 ' look before you leap.' Btycud occurs in 
 R. Brunne, and buy in Chaucer, 
 
 Upon a stede hay, trapped in Steele. 
 
 Ye ben €is bold as is Bayar . the blind. 
 That blondercth forth, and peril tareth non. 
 He is as bold to run against a ston. 
 As for to go besides in the way. Cliaucer. 
 
 But as baiarde the blind stede 
 Till he fall in the ditchc a midde 
 He gothe there no man will hym bidde. 
 He stant so fer forthe out of rcwle. 
 There is no witte that male hym reule. 
 
 Gower. Conf. Ann. 
 
 I marvel not so much at blind Bayards, which 
 neuer take God's book in hand. 
 
 Bernard Gilpin's Sermo}is. 
 
 Who is more bold than the bayard blind ? 
 
 Mirror for Magistrates. 
 
 Bay,v. ^n. From the Fr. ai//o/, which sig- 
 nifies the last extremity. Its primary sense is 
 the barking of a dog at hand, and relates to the 
 condition of a stag, when the hounds are almost 
 upon him. It does not refer to tlie assailant, 
 but to his selected victim, and in the moment of 
 liis utmost peril. It is figuratively employed to 
 describe the state of any thing surrounded by 
 enemies. It is sometimes applied to the simple 
 barking of a dog at any object. In Spenser it 
 is used in the sense of parley, before surrender- 
 ing. 
 
 So well he woo'd her, and so well he wTought her. 
 With faire entrcatie and sweet blandishment. 
 That at the last unto a bay he brought her. 
 So as she to his speeches was content 
 To lend an earc, and softly to relent. Spenser 
 
 Like dastard curres that, having at a bay 
 The salvage beast embost in wearie chacc. 
 Dare not adventure on the siubborne pray, 
 Ke byte before, but move from place to place. 
 To get a snatch when turned is his face. /'/. 
 
 Here wast thou hay'd brave hart. 
 Here didst thou fall, and here thy Imnters stand, 
 Sign'd in thy spoil and crimson'd in thy Lethe ; 
 
 world, thou wast the forest to this hart, 
 And this, indeed, O world, the heart of thee 
 How like a doer, stricken by many princes. 
 
 Dost thou here lie. Sliakspearc. 
 
 What, shall one of us. 
 That struck the foi 2most man of all this world. 
 But for supporting robbers ; shal' we now 
 Contaminate our fingers with base bribes ? 
 And sell the mighty space of our large honours, 
 For so much trash as may be grasped thus ? 
 
 1 had rather be a dog, and bay the moon. 
 
 Than such a Koniau. '"
 
 BAY 
 
 686 
 
 BAY 
 
 We are at the stake. 
 And hay'd about with many enemies. W. 
 
 I -was with Hercules and Cadmus once. 
 When in the wood of Crete they bai/'d the boar 
 With hounds of Sparta. M. 
 
 If he should do so. 
 He leaves his back unarm'd, the French and Welsh 
 Baying him at the heels. Id. 
 
 This ship, for fifteen hours, sate like a stag among 
 hounds at the hay, and was sieged and fought with, 
 in turn, by fifteen great ships. 
 
 Bacon's War with Spain. 
 
 Fair liberty, pursued and meant a prey 
 To lawless power, here turn'd, and stood at hay. 
 
 Denlmm. 
 
 Nor flight was left, nor hopes to force his way ; 
 Embolden'd by despair, he stood at bay ; 
 Resolv'd on death he dissipates his fears. 
 And bounds aloft against the pointed spears. 
 
 Dry den. 
 
 The hounds at nearer distance hoarsely bay'd ; 
 The hunter close pursued the visionary maid ; 
 She rent the heav'n with loud laments, imploring aid. 
 
 Id. Fables. 
 Joyful he knew the lamp's domestic flame 
 That trembled thro' the window ; cross the way 
 Darts forth the barking cur and stands at bay. Gay. 
 Sweet was the sound, when oft, at evening's close. 
 Up yonder hill the village murmur rose ; 
 There as I pass'd with careless steps and slow. 
 The mingling notes came soften'd from below ; 
 The swain responsive as the milkmaid sung. 
 The sober herd that low'd to meet their young ; 
 The noisy geese that gabbled o'er the pool. 
 The playful children just let loose from school ; 
 The watch-dog's voice that bay'd the whisp'ring wind. 
 And the loud laugh that spoke the vacant mind ; 
 These all in sweet confusion sought the shade. 
 And fill'd each pause the nightingale had made. 
 
 Goldsmith's Deserted Village. 
 But the hound bayeth loudly. 
 
 The boar's in the wood. 
 And the falcon longs proudly 
 
 To spring from her hood. Byron. 
 
 Bay. To bathe. 
 
 He feedes upon the cooling shade, and hayes 
 His sweatie forehead in the breathing wind. 
 
 Spenser. Faerie Queene. 
 
 BAY, from the old Saxon bugan, hygan, to 
 bow or bend ; it is applied to the curvings of a 
 shore ; to recesses in barns, buildings, or windows, 
 so say Skinner and Minshew; Nares thus de- 
 lines it: a principal division in a building; pro- 
 bably, as Dr. Johnson conjectured, a great 
 square, in the framework of the roof, whence, 
 barn of three bays, is a barn twice crossed by 
 beams ; in large buildings having the Gothic 
 framework to support tlie roof, like Westminster 
 Hall, the hai/s are the spaces between the sup- 
 porters ; houses were estimated by the number 
 of bays ; as a term among builders, it also signi- 
 fied every space left in the wall, whether for 
 door, window, or chimney. See Chambers's Dic- 
 tionary and Kersy. 
 
 Coles, in his Latin Dictionary, makes a bay a 
 space of a definite size ; ' a bay of building, men- 
 sura vigintiquatuor pedum,' i. e. the measure of 
 twenty-four feet. 
 
 Bay-Window, from /;aj/, supra; not accord- 
 ing to Minshew, from its resemblance to a bay 
 on a coast, or round, for it was usually square ; 
 
 bow-window has now effectually supplanted it, 
 in practice, and implies a semi-circular sweep, 
 like a bow. Mr. Tyrwhitt, in his Glossary to 
 Chaucer, thus explains it : — ' a large window, 
 probably so called because it occupied a whole 
 bay, i. e. the space between two cross-beams.' 
 We have the authority of an old dictionary for 
 asserting that a bay-windoio meant also a bal- 
 cony. 
 
 And there, beside, within a bay-window. 
 Stood one in green, ful large of head and length. 
 And beard as black as feathers of the crow. 
 
 There stands in sight an isle, hight Tencdon, 
 
 Rich, and of fame, while Priam's kingdom stood : 
 
 Now but a bay, and rode unshure for ship. Surrey. 
 Like as a ship that through the ocean wj-de 
 
 Directs her course unto one certaine coast 
 Is met of many a counter-winde and tyde. 
 
 With which her winged speed is let and crost. 
 And she herself in stormie surges tost ; 
 
 Yet making many a horde and many a bay. 
 Still winneth way, nor hath her compasse lost ; 
 
 Right so it fares with me in this long way. 
 Whose course is often stay'd, yet never is astray. 
 
 Spenser, 
 I'd have some pleasant lodging i' the high street, sir; 
 Or if 'twere near the court, sir, that were much better ; 
 'Tis a sweet recreation for a gentlewoman 
 To stand in a hay-window and see gallants. Middleton. 
 
 We have also some works in the midst of the sea, 
 and some bays upon the shore for some works, wherein 
 is required the air and vapour of the sea. Bacon. 
 
 A reverend Syracusan merchan.. 
 Who put unluckily into this bay. Shakspeare. 
 
 If this law hold in Vienna ten years, I'll rent the 
 fairest house in it after threepence a bay. Id. 
 
 WTiy it hath bay-windows transparent as Larrica- 
 does, and the clear stones towards the south-north 
 are as lustrous as ebony. Id. 
 
 Such murmur fill'd 
 The assembly, as when hollow rocks retain 
 The sound of blust'ring winds, which all night long 
 Had rous'd the sea, now with hoarse cadence lull 
 Seafaring men o'er-watch'd, whose bark by chance 
 Or pinnace anchors in a craggy bay 
 'After the tempest. Milton. 
 
 The bay of St. Nicholas, where they first put in, 
 lieth in sixtv-four degrees, called so from the abbey 
 there, built of wood, wherein are twenty monks, un- 
 learned, as then they found them, and great drunk- 
 ards : their church is fair, full of images and tapers. 
 There are besides but six houses, whereof one built 
 by the English. In the hay, over against the abbey, 
 is Rose Island, full of damask and red roses, violets, 
 and wild roses. Milton's History of 3Iztscovia. 
 
 Hail, sacred solitude ! from this calm bay, 
 I view the world's tempestuous sea. 
 
 Roscommon^ 
 Here in a royal bed the waters sleep. 
 When tir'd at sea, within this bay they creep. 
 
 Dryden. 
 Some of you have hay. Id. 
 
 Blake having heard that a Spanish fleet of sixteen 
 ships, much richer than the former, had taken shelter 
 in the Canaries, immediately made sail towards them. 
 He found them in the bay of Santa Cruz, disposed in 
 a formidable posture. The hay was secured with a 
 stronf castle, well provided with cannon, besides 
 seven forts in several parts of it, .ill imited by a line 
 of communication, manned with musqueteers. 
 
 Hume's History of England.
 
 BAY 
 
 687 
 
 BAY 
 
 They gain ''y twilight's hour their lonely isle. 
 To them the very rocks appear to smile. 
 The haven hums with many a cheering sound. 
 The beacons blaze their wonted stations round. 
 The boats are dartjng o'er the curly hay. 
 And sportive dolphins bend thr^m through the spray. 
 Even the hoarse sea-bird's shrill discordant shriek. 
 Greets like the welcome of his tuneless beak ! 
 Beneath each lamp that through its lattice gleams. 
 Their fancy paints the friends that trim the beams. 
 
 Byron. 
 
 Bay, in botany. See LAUiirs. 
 Bay, in hunting, is wlien the dogs have earthed 
 a vermin, or brought a deer, boar, or the like, to 
 turn head against them. In this case, not only 
 the deer, but the dogs are said to bay. It is dan- 
 gerous going in to a hart at bay, especially at 
 rutting time ; for then they are fiercest. 
 
 Bay of Islands, a bay on the east coast of 
 New Zealand, so called from the number of 
 islands off the shore. Here is good anchorage ; 
 high water takes place about eight o'clock at the 
 full and change of the moon, when the perpendi- 
 cular rise of the tide is from six to eight feet. 
 Abundanc? of fish frequent the bay, which the 
 natives take with enormous nets made of a kind 
 of gniss, five fathoms deep, and 300 or 400 fa- 
 thoms long. Round their villages nets lie in heaps, 
 like hay-cocks covered with thatch, to resist the 
 weather.. All kinds of refreshment may be had 
 here. Long. 135^ 38' W., lat. 35° 18' S. 
 
 Bay of Isles, a bay on the east coast of the 
 island of Georgia, so called from a great number 
 of small islands in and before it. Long. 37° 30 
 V,'., lat. 54° 3'S. 
 
 Bay Color, a sort of red inclining to chest- 
 nut, is formed from tlie Latin baius, and that from 
 the Greek j3aioc, a palm branch ; so that badius 
 or bay properly denotes color phoeniceus. Hence, 
 among tlie ancients, the horses now called bays, 
 were denominated equi palmati. 
 Bay, Plum. See Gl aiava. 
 Bay, Rose. See Oleander. 
 Bay Salt, a variety of common salt, (muriate 
 of soda), obtained from sea-water, and which is 
 thought to possess peculiar advantages for curing 
 provisions. In the bay of Biscay, on the shores 
 of the Mediterranean, and in the Bahama islands, 
 the process for procuring it is thus simply car- 
 ried on : — An artificial pond is -formed, of ten 
 inches or a foot deep, and carefully lined with 
 clay, at some convenient distance from the sea, 
 so that one end may have a ready communication 
 by means of a sluice, for the purpose of filling 
 when necessary, while at the opposite end the 
 brine pit communicates with smaller and shal- 
 lower receptacles. In the large reservoir the 
 sea-water is concentrated by evaporation, from 
 the action of the sun and air ; and in the smaller 
 ones the process is completed by removing the 
 crust of salt as fast as it may be formed. Thus 
 the salt obtained is deposited in large flattened 
 octohedral crystals which do not deliquesce, in 
 consequence of being free from the muriate of 
 magnesia, with which the common salt is contami- 
 nated. The process may be considered as one of 
 the most ancient applications of chemical princi- 
 ples, for in hot climates, and especially in Lgypt, it 
 was taught by nature herself. See Pliny lib. 
 
 xxxi. cap. 7. France is thus furnished with a 
 very profitable article for exportation into other 
 countries. The salt made is of different colors, 
 according to the color of the clay employed in 
 making the pits. That of the French is brown, 
 whence it is said comes the denomination of bay 
 salt, and it is usually sold widiout further pre- 
 paration ; ttiough in some places tliey make it 
 white by refining it in lariro flat cauldrons. The 
 great difliculty which attends the making it in 
 Great Britain arises from the heat of our summer 
 not being suliiciently stiong to evaporate a great 
 quantity of sea-water in a small portion of time. 
 BAYA, in ornithology, Indian grosbeak, or 
 Loxica Indica, rather larger tiian a sparrow, with 
 yellow brown plumage, yellowis'.i head and feet, 
 a light-colored breast, and a conic beak, very 
 thick in proportion to his body. Tiiis bird is 
 very common in llindostan ; and described as 
 surprisingly sensible, faitliful, and docile. In a 
 state of nature, it builds on the liighest tree which 
 it can find J generally on t!ie palmyra or Indian 
 fig-tree, preferring that whicli overiiancrs a well 
 or rivulet. There it suspends its bottle-shaped 
 nest, so as for it to rock with the wind, and 
 places it with its entrance downwards, to secure 
 it from birds of prey. It is taught with ease to 
 fetch a piece of paper, or any small thing which 
 his master wants. Almost incredi'ole tales are 
 told of its docility ; and it is confidently asserted, 
 that if a house or any other place be shown to 
 him once or twice, he will carry a note thither 
 immediately, on observing a proper signal. They 
 are also trained by the youths of Benares to 
 pluck off" the pieces of gold called ticas, placed 
 by way of oniament between the eye-brows of 
 their mistresses, which they brincj in triumph to 
 the lover. The flavor of the eggs is said to be ex- 
 quisite. 
 
 BAYA^IO, a town on the east part of Cuba, 
 on the river Estreo, which forms a bay on the 
 coast, twenty miles below the town. It gives 
 name to a channel between the small islands and 
 rocks called Jardin de la Reyna, on the north- 
 west, and the shoals and rocks which line the 
 coast on the south-east, situated eighty miles 
 W. S. W. of St. Jago Long. 76^ 50' W., lat. 
 20° 45' N. 
 
 BAYANO, a considerable river of South ^Vme- 
 rica, in the kingdom of Terra Firma, and pro- 
 vince of Panama, which rises in the province of 
 Darien, and falls into the sea twenty-four miles 
 from the bay of Panama. Its mouth is in long. 
 78° 55' W., lat 9° 3' N. 
 
 BAYARD (Peter du Terrail de), esteemed by 
 his contemporaries the model of soldiers and men 
 of honor, and denominated ' the knight without 
 fear and without reproach,' was descended from 
 an ancient and noble family in Dauphin^-. He 
 was with Charles VIII. at the conquest of the 
 kingdom of Naples; where he gave remarkable 
 proofs of his valor, especially at the battle of 
 Fornova. He was dangerously wounded at 
 the taking of Brescia ; and there restored to the 
 daughters of his iiost 2000 pistoles, which their 
 mother had directed them to give him in order to 
 prevent the house from being plundered. At his 
 return to France he was made lieutenant-general 
 of Uaupliinc. He fought by tlie side of Francis
 
 BAY 
 
 688 
 
 BAY 
 
 I. at the battle of Marignan ; and that prince af- 
 terwards insisted on being knighted by liis hand, 
 after the manner of the ancient knights. The 
 chevalier Bayard defended Mezieres during six 
 weeks against Charles V.'s army. In 1524, at 
 the retreat of Rebec (the general Bonnivet having 
 been wounded and obliged to quit the field), the 
 conduct of the rear was committed to Bayard, 
 who, though so much a stranger to the arts of a 
 court that he never rose to the chief command, 
 was always called, in time of real danger, to the 
 posts of greatest difficulty and importance. He 
 put himself at the head of tlie men at arms : and 
 animating them by his presence and example to 
 sustain the whole shock of the enemy, he gained 
 time for his countrymen to make good their re- 
 treat. But in this service he received a wound 
 which he immediately perceived to be mortal ; 
 and being unable to continue on horseback, 
 ordered an attendant to place him under a tree, 
 with his face towards the enemy ; then fixing his 
 eyes on his sword, which he held up instead of 
 a cross, he addressed his prayers to God; and in 
 this posture calmly waited the approach of death. 
 Bourbon, who led the foremost of the enemy's 
 troops, found him in this situation, and express- 
 ing his regret and pity at the sight, ' Pity not 
 me,' cried the high spirited chevalier, ' 1 die as a 
 man of honor ought, in the discharge of my duty ; 
 they indeed are objects of pity, who fight against 
 their king, their country, and their oath.' The 
 marquis of Pescara, passing soon after, manifested 
 his admiration of Bayard's virtue, as well as his 
 sorrow for his fate, with the generosity of a gal- 
 lant enemy ; and finding that he could not be 
 removed with safety from that spot, ordered a 
 tent to be pitched, and appointed proper persons 
 to attend him. He died, notwithstanding their 
 care, as his ancestors for several generations had 
 done, in the field of battle. Pescara ordered his 
 body to be embalmed, and sent to his relations ; 
 and such was the respect paid to military merit 
 in that age, that the duke of Savoy commanded 
 it to be received with royal honors in all the cities 
 of his dominions. 
 
 BAY AS, a town at the foot of Mount Amanus, 
 on the gulf of Issus (now of Scanderun), the key 
 to the celebrated defile (the Pylce AmanicaB of 
 the ancients), betvv-een it and Alexandretta 
 (Scanderiin). The neighboring countiy is fertile, 
 and the mountains, in summer time, a delightful 
 retreat. It is exactly opposite the Ayas, the an- 
 cient JEg^e, where the survey of the southern 
 coast of Asia Minor, by captain Beaufort, in 
 1812, was unfortunately terminated. The Aghas, 
 in this and the neighbouring places, have long bid 
 defiance to the authority of the Porte, See 
 Beaufort's Kai'amania. 
 
 BAYAZID, or Bajazid, a city of Turkish 
 Armenia, in tlie pachalic of Erzerum, on the de- 
 clivity of a mountain, the summit of which, as 
 well as the whole of this place, is strongly forti- 
 fied. It contains two churches, three mosques, 
 and an ancient monastery called Karu Killeesea, 
 celebrated for its beautiful architecture. The in- 
 habitants, who amount to about 30,000, are es- 
 teemed the most handsome and warlike people in 
 Armenia. The majority are Turks. Distant fifty 
 miles S. S.W. of Erii'an, and 140 east of Er- 
 zerum. 
 
 BAYEN (Peter), a celebrated French chemist, 
 was born in 1725, at Chalons sur Marne. Hav- 
 ing received a classical education, he studied 
 pharmacy ; and, during the seven years' war, was 
 chief apothecary to the French army in Germany. 
 He was afterwards employed in analysing the 
 mineral waters of France, on completing which, 
 he settled at Paris, where he pursued his chemi- 
 cal experiments with great reputation, till his 
 death in 1801. He pursued a tedious but certain 
 mode of analysing minerals, by exposing them, 
 without being reduced to powder, to the action 
 of sulphuric acid at the temperature of the atmos- 
 phere ; after this action had continued for a 
 length of time, he got by lixiviation the sulphates 
 formed by the combination of the acid with the 
 different component elements of the stone. He 
 did not make use of the trituration of the stone 
 to an impalpable powder, nor its fusion with 
 caustic potash, which facilitate the action of 
 acids, and which are used with so much advan- 
 tage at present. The account he has published 
 of his analysis will, nevertheless, be instructive 
 to the chemical student. His chemical tracts 
 have been collected in 2 vols. 8vo. 
 
 BAYER (John), a German lawyer and astro- 
 nomer of the latter part of the sixteenth and be- 
 ginning of the seventeenth century, but in what 
 particular year or place he was born, is not cer- 
 tainly known : however, his name will be ever 
 memorable in the annals of astronomy, on account 
 of his excellent work, published in 1603, under 
 the title of Uranometria, being a complete celestial 
 atlas, or large folio charts of all the constellations, 
 with a nomenclature collected from all the tables 
 of astronomy, ancient and modern. By means 
 of the Greek letters, which he used as marks of 
 their relative magnitudes, the stars of the heavens 
 may, with as great facility, be distinguished and 
 referred to, as the several places of the earth are 
 by means of geographical tables ; and our celes- 
 tial globes and atlasses have ever since retained 
 this method. Astronomers, in speaking of any 
 star in the constellation, denote it by saying it 
 is marked by Bayer, a, or (i, or y, &c. He greatly 
 improved and augmented this work by subse- 
 quent study. At length, in 1627, it was re-pub- 
 lished under a new title, viz. Coelum Stellatum 
 Christianum, i.e. the Christian Stellated Heaven ; 
 or the Starry Heavens Christianised ; in this 
 edition the Heathen names and characters, or 
 figures of the constellations, were rejected, and 
 others taken from the scriptures, were inserted 
 in their stead, an innovation, however, too great 
 for general reception. In later editions of his 
 work (in tliose of 1654 and 1661), the ancient 
 figures and names were restored. 
 
 Bayer (Theophilus Sigfred), a learned phiio- 
 loger and antiquarian, born at Konigsberg in 
 1694, applied himself successfully to the study 
 of the eastern languages, particularly the Chi- 
 nese, of which he acquired a great knowledge. — 
 When about twenty-three years of age, he was 
 appointed librarian at Konigsberg. In 1726 lie 
 accepted of an invitation to Petersburgh, and was 
 there made professor of Greek and Roman anti- 
 quities. In 1730, lie published a very curious 
 and learned work, entitled Museum Sinicum, in 
 2 vols. 8vo. He died at Peters'ourgh in 1738.
 
 B A Y L E. 
 
 689 
 
 BAYEUX, a considerable town of France 
 (the Beducassum and Bajoco, of ancient geof^ra- 
 phy), in the department of Calvados, and late 
 province of Normandy. It was formerly the ca- 
 pital of Bessin, and is still a bishop's see, wliose 
 jurisdiction extends over all the department. The 
 cathedral church is accounted one of the finest in 
 France, and contains a celebrated piece of tapes- 
 try, representing the conquest of England by 
 William I., supposed to have been the work of 
 his queen Matilda. It consists of a web of linen, 
 442 feet in length, and about two feet in breadth. 
 It is situated on the river Aure, four miles from 
 the English Channel ; and carries on a good 
 trade in corn, cattle, hemp, and butter, as well 
 as in its own manufactures of lace, camblets, 
 stockings, and leather. Inhabitants about 10,000. 
 
 Bayeux (Gtorge), an advocate at Caen, who 
 obtained the prize from the academy at Rouen for 
 a poem on Filial Pjety. He translated the Fasti 
 of Ovid, on which he added valuable notes, 
 printed in 4 vols. 8vo. He wrote also Reflec- 
 tions on the Reign of Trajan, 4to. He was, 
 however, unfortunate, and having been impri- 
 soned at Orleans, fell in the massacre which took 
 place there in 1792. 
 
 BAYLA, or Bela, a town of Persia, capital 
 of the district of Lus, in the province of Mekran. 
 It is situated on the north-east banks of the'river 
 Pooralie, and about a third of it is surrounded 
 by a good mud wall. It consists of above 2000 
 mud and wood houses, of which 250 or 300 are 
 inhabited by Hindoos, who are well treated 
 here. Bayla is, on the whole, a neat town, the 
 residence of the jam, or chief of Lus, who seems 
 dependent on the khan of Kelat. His durbar, 
 or hall of audience, is a very ordinary apartment. 
 The cemetery of tlie jam and his family contains 
 several curious tombs, ornamented with black 
 and white pebbles, arranged in short quotations 
 from the koran, and encircled with wreaths of 
 the same substance, which produce a pleasing 
 effect. Distant 293 miles north of Kelat. 
 
 BAYLE (Peter), author of the Historical and 
 Critical Dictionary, was born November 18, 
 1657, at Carlat, in France, where his father John 
 Bayle was a protestant minister. In 1666 he 
 went to the protestant university at Puylaurens, 
 and in 1669 removed to that of Toulouse, whi- 
 ther protestants at that time frequently sent their 
 children to avail themselves of the learning of 
 the Jesuits ; but here, to the great grief of his 
 father, he embraced the Romish religion ; being, 
 however, soon sensible of his error, he left that 
 university, and went to study at Geneva. After 
 this he was chosen professor of philosophy at 
 Sedan ; but that protestant university being sup- 
 pressed by Louis XIV. in 1687, he was obliged 
 to leave the city, and was soon after chosen pro- 
 fessor of philosophy and history at Rotterdam, 
 with a salary of about £45 a year. In 1682 ap- 
 peared his Letter concerning Comets. And 
 Father Maimboiirg having published his History 
 of Calvinism, wherein he endeavours to draw 
 upon the protestants the contempt and resent- 
 ment of the catholics, Mr. Bayle wrote a piece 
 to confute it. The reputation which he had now 
 acquired, induced the States of Friezland, in 
 1684, to offer him a professorship in their imiver- 
 VOL. III. 
 
 sity ; but he wrote litem a letter of thanks, and 
 declined the offer. This same year he began to 
 publish his Nouvelles de la republique des Let- 
 tres. In 1686 he was drawn into a dispute with 
 the famous Christina queen of Sweden. His 
 Journal for April had noticed a printed letter, 
 supposed to have been written by her Swedish 
 majesty to Chevalier deTerlon, wherein she con- 
 demns the persecution of the protestants in 
 France ; and had observed, that her tolerant spirit 
 was ' a remainder of protestantism.' This pro- 
 duced a letter to the philosopher, from that sin- 
 gular woman, in which she says, ' You express 
 so mucli respect and affection for me, that I par- 
 don you sincerely ; and I would have you know, 
 that nothing gave me offence but that remainder 
 of protestantism, of which you accused me. I 
 am very delicate upon that head, because nobody 
 can suspect me of it, without lessening my glory, 
 and injuring me in tlie most sensible manner. 
 My fortune, my blood, and even my life, are en- 
 tirely devoted to the service of the church ; but 
 I flatter nobody, and will never speak any thing 
 but the truth.' Mr. Bayle replied in a subsequent 
 number of his work, to that princess's entire satis- 
 faction. The persecution which the protestants at 
 this time suffered in France affected Mr. Bayle ex- 
 tremely. He made occasionally some reflections 
 on their sufferings in his journal; and some time 
 afterwards he published his Commentaire Philo- 
 sophique upon these words, ' Compel them to 
 come in;' and in the year 1690 appeared his fa- 
 mous Avis aux Refugiez, &c. which so excited 
 the anger of M. Jurieu, that he charged the author 
 with being a traitor against the state. Bayle 
 retorted with the utmost severity, and Jurieu re- 
 plied with equal bitterness; till at last the 
 magistracy of Amsterdam enjoined the contro- 
 versialists not to publish any thing against each 
 other before it had been examined by Mr. Boyer, 
 the pensionary of Rotterdam. In Nov. 1090, 
 Bayle advertised a Scheme for a Critical Dic- 
 tionary. Thepublic notapprovinghisfirstplan,iie 
 threw it into a different form; and the first vo- 
 lume was published in August, 1695, the second 
 in October following. The work at last was ex- 
 tremely well received by the public ; but it en- 
 gaged him in fresh disputes, particularly with 
 M. Jurieu and the Abbe Renaudot. Jurieu 
 endeavoured to eneage the ecclesiastical assem- 
 blies to condemn the dictionary; and presentt'd 
 it to the senate sitting at Delft, but they took no 
 notice of the affair. The consistory of Rotter- 
 dam granted Mr. Bayle a hearing ; and after 
 having heard his answers to their remarks, 
 declared themselves satisfied. Jurieu made 
 another attempt with the consistory in 1698; and 
 so far prevailed with them, that they exhorted 
 INIr. Bayle to be more cautious with regaj-d tn 
 his principles in the second enlarged edition of 
 his dictionary, which was published in 1702. 
 Bayle was a most indefatigable writer. In one 
 of his letters to Maizeaux, he says, that since liis 
 twentieth year, he hardly remembers to have had 
 any leisure. His intense application contributed 
 to imjmir his constitution, and to increase a nul 
 monary disorder which had cut oft' 3t;vcral of his 
 family. Judging it to be mortal he would take 
 no remedies. He died the twenty-eighth of De- 
 
 2 Y
 
 BAY 
 
 690 
 
 BAY 
 
 cember, 1706, after he had been writing the 
 greatest part of the day. Voltaire says of the 
 Critical Dictionary ' it is the first work of the 
 kind in which a man may learn to think ;' and 
 remarks, that ' the decree of the parliament of 
 Toulouse, when it declared his will valid in 
 France, notwithstanding the rigor of the laws,' 
 added, ' that such a man could not be considered 
 as a foreigner.' Bayle, however, has been more 
 correctly characterised as a sophist rather than a 
 philosopher. With great powers of distinguish- 
 ing truth from falsehood, he pushed enquiry into 
 universal doubt, and remained in doubt because 
 he thought indifferentism to truth a virtue, and 
 therefore cultivated it. In private life he is said 
 to have been an unassuming and temperate man ; 
 but his writings abound with the bigotry of 
 scepticism, and contain not a few uncharitable in- 
 sinuations against that religious zeal whicli he 
 never felt : moreover, he is notoriously indeli- 
 cate, and seems as if laboring to atone for dis- 
 tracting by debauching the tyro's mind. Lord 
 Lyttleton finely expostulates with him under 
 the assumed character of Mr. Locke, in his Dia- 
 logues of :;.ie Dead, vol. ii. Dialogue 24. p. 315. 
 * You have endeavoured,' says this excellent 
 writer, ' and with some degree of success, to 
 shake those foundations, on which the whole 
 moral world, artd the great fabric of social hap- 
 piness, entirely rest; how could you, as a philo- 
 sopher, in the sober hours of reflection, answer 
 for this to your conscience, even supposing you 
 had doubts of the truth of a system, which gives 
 to virtue its sweetest hope, to impenitent vice 
 its greatest fears, and to true penitence its best 
 consolations ; which restrains even the least ap- 
 proaches to guilt, and yet makes those allowances 
 for the infirmities of our nature, which the stoic 
 pride denied to it, but which its real imperfec- 
 tion, and the goodness of its infinitely benevo- 
 lent Creator, so evidently require V 
 
 BAYLY (Lewis), author of the Practice of 
 Piety. He was born at Caermarthen in Wales, 
 educated at Oxford, made minister of Evesham 
 in Worcestershire, about 1611, became chaplain 
 to knig James, and was promoted to the see of 
 Bangor in 1616. His celebrated book was de- 
 dicated to Charles, prince of Wales; in 1734 it 
 had rsached the fifty-ninth edition. He died in 
 1632. 
 
 BAYr^ES (John), an English lawyer, born 
 at Middleham, in Yorkshire, in 1758. He re- 
 ceived the first part of his education at Rich- 
 mond school, and afterwards went to Trinity 
 College, Cambridge, from whence he removed 
 to Gray's Inn. He became a member of the 
 Constitutional Society, and wrote a number of 
 anonymous pieces, chiefly political, in prose and 
 verse. There 'las also been attributed to him an 
 Archaeological Letter on the subject of the poems 
 printed by Chatterton under the name of Row- 
 Icy, addressed to dean Milles. He proposed the 
 republication of lord Coke's tracts, a design 
 prevented by his death in 1787. 
 
 Baynes (^Sir Thomas), an l^nglish physician, 
 born about 1622, was educated at Christ's Col- 
 lege, Cambridge, where he applied to the study of 
 physic. He afterwards became professor of 
 music at Gresham College; and travelled with 
 
 Sir John Finch to Italy and Constantinople. He 
 died at Constantinople in 1681, much lamented 
 by his companion, who survived him but a short 
 time. They left between them £4000 to Christ's 
 College. 
 
 BAY'ONET, V. & 7i. Fr. bai/onette. A short 
 swoi^i or dagger fixed at the end of a musket, by 
 which the foot hold off" the horse, so called be- 
 cause the first bayonets were made at Bayonne, 
 in France. 
 
 One of the black spots is long and slender, and re- 
 sembles a dagger or bayonet. Woodward. 
 
 You send troops to sabre and bayonet us into sub- 
 mission. Burke. 
 
 Not a single head 
 Was spared — three thousand Moslems perish'd ht-rc. 
 And sixteen bayonets pierced the seraskier. Byron, 
 
 You should but give few cartridge^ to such 
 Troops as are meant to march with greatest glory on. 
 When matters must be carried by the touch 
 Of the bright bayonet, and they all should hurry on. 
 They sometimes, with a hankering for existence. 
 Keep merely firing at a foolish distance. Id, 
 
 The town was entered : first one column made 
 Its sanguinary way good — then another. 
 The reeking bayonet and the flashing blade 
 Clashed 'gainst the scimitar. 
 
 Bayonets were formerly made with a round 
 handle fitted to the bore of a firelock, and 
 to be fixed there after the soldier had fired ; but 
 they are now made with iron handles and rings, 
 that go over the muzzle, and are screwed fast, so 
 that the soldier fires with his bayonet on the 
 muzzle of his piece, and is ready at once to act. 
 This use of the bayonet fastened on the muzzle 
 was a great improvement, first introduced by the 
 French; to which, according to M. Folard, they 
 owed a great part of their victories for some time 
 afterwards ; and to the neglect of this, in suc- 
 ceeding wars, and trusting to their fire, the same 
 author attributes most of the losses they sus- 
 tained. Of late the bayonet has come into very 
 general use ; and some battles have been won by 
 it without firing a shot. It was much encou- 
 raged by Frederick the Great, who caused an 
 inch and a half to be added to the length of the 
 Prussian bayonet. 
 
 A French writer, in a work entitled L'Essai 
 general de la Tactique, has proposed a method 
 of exercising soldiers in a species of fencing or 
 tilting with this weapon. But, as another very 
 sensible author, Mauvillon, in his Essai sur I'ln- 
 fluence de la Poudre a Canon dans I'Art de la 
 Guerre Moderne, justly asks, how can any man 
 tilt or fence with so cumbrous an instrument and 
 so difficult to be handled, as the firelock? It 
 seems probable that great advantage may be ob- 
 tained by a person who has been taught to use 
 such a weapon scientifically, when contending 
 with an individual ; but the niceties of parrying ' 
 are not applicable to the charge in line ; a firm 
 grasp and a cpiick and steady thrust are what is 
 required. 
 
 BAYONNA, a well-built town of the pro- 
 vince of Galicia, in Spain, situated on a small 
 bay of the Atlantic. It contains a collegiate 
 church, a Franciscan convent, and a hospital ; 
 and is defended by a castle, with a governor, 
 and a small garrison. The inhabitants obtain
 
 BAY 
 
 691 
 
 BAZ 
 
 their livelihood by fishing. Tiic Bay of Bayonna 
 forms part of the Gulf of Vigo, nine miles south- 
 west of Vigo, and twelve north-west of Tuy. 
 
 Bayonna Isles, or Islas de Seyas de Bay- 
 ONA Er D'EsTELAS, two Small islands, with a 
 number of insular rocks, situated in the Atlantic, 
 at the entrance of the Bay of Bayonna, oft" the 
 coast of Galicia, in Spain. They were called by 
 tlie ancients Insulae Deorum, or the Isles of the 
 Gods, and lie six miles N.N.W. of Bayonna. 
 
 BAYONNE, a rich, populous, and flourishing 
 commercial town of France, in the department 
 of the Eower Pyrenees. It is seated near the 
 mouth of the Adour, which forms a good har- 
 bour, and is divided into three parts : the great 
 town on this side the Nive ; the little town be- 
 tween the Nive and the Adour ; and the suburbs 
 of St. Esprit, chiefly inhabited by Jews, beyond 
 this last river. A citadel, constructed by Vauban, 
 on the top of an eminence in the suburb, com- 
 mands both the harbour and the town, which 
 are further defended by small redoubts. A 
 wooden drawbridge, which allows vessels to pass, 
 and where a small toll is levied, connects the 
 suburbs with the town. The ancient cathedral 
 is remarkable for the height of the nave, and the 
 delicacy of the pillars which support it. The 
 quay is an elegant and frequented promenade ; 
 but the most beautiful part of the city is the Place 
 de Grammont. The laishop was form.erly suf- 
 fragan of the archbishop of Auch ; he is now 
 under the archbishop of Toulouse, and exercises 
 jurisdiction over three departments, thoss of the 
 Upper and Lower Pyrenees and of the Landes. 
 Bayonne, before the revolution, was the seat of a 
 provincial tax-office, and court of justice. At pre- 
 sent it is the largest though not the chief town of 
 the Lower Pyrenees, and the head of the most west- 
 em arrondisseinent, which consists of seven can- 
 tons, and contains 70,000 inhabitants. An extensive 
 commerce is carried on here with Spain, in which 
 French and foreign goods are given in exchange 
 for wood, iron, fruit, and the precious metals. The 
 principal of the maritime tiade is the cod and 
 whale fishery ; in these branches from thirty to 
 forty ships of 250 tons average, were lately em- 
 ployed. Masts and other wood for ship-build- 
 ing, brought from the Pyrenees, are exported to 
 Brest and other ports of France. Hams, wines, 
 and chocolate, are exported in great cjuantities to 
 various parts. The military weapon called the 
 bayonet was invented here in the seventeenth 
 century. The language of the people is the an- 
 cient Biscayan or Basque. Forty-four miles 
 W.N.W. of Pau, and 518S.S.W. of Paris, 
 Long. 1° 24' W., lat. 43° 29' N. Inhabitants 
 about 13,000. 
 
 Bayonne Bay, or La Meu des Basques, a 
 part of the Bay of Biscay washing the shores of 
 the district of Labour in the south of France. 
 
 BAYREUTH, or Bareith, a principality of 
 Germany, formerly included in the Circle of 
 Franconia ; now forming a part of the kingdom 
 of Bavaria. It is bounded by the Upper Pala- 
 tinate and Bohemia on the east, and by the ter- 
 ritories of Nuremberg and Anspach soutli. Its 
 extent is estimated at 1760 square miles, and its 
 population at 200,000 souls. Oberland is a 
 hilly region • the climate is cold, and much of 
 
 the soil barren, but it still affords good pasturage, 
 and black cattle of a superior breed and sheep 
 are reared here. The lower division, Unter- 
 land, is flat, and in some parts sandy; but 
 aftbrds much fertile soil, and good crops of grain 
 and tobacco. The last is sent in great quantities 
 to Hamburgh and Bremen. Bayreuth is not 
 destitute of minerals ; iron and marble are found 
 in Oberland ; flax also constitutes a considerable 
 production here, in spinning and working which 
 into linen as well as into lace, a large portion of the 
 population is employed. At the peace of Tilsit, 
 Buonaparte appropriated this principality and an- 
 nexed it to the kingdom of Bavaria in 1810. 
 The upper division is included in the Circle of 
 the Maine, the lower in that of the Rezat. 
 
 Bayreuth, or Bakeith, the capital, is si- 
 tuated near the Maine, and is a handsome town 
 with broad and regular streets, entered by six 
 gates. Among the public buildings which de- 
 serve notice, are the old and new castles, the 
 convents and churches, the barracks, the mint, 
 and the gymnasium. Its chief manufactures are 
 cloth, earthenware, and tobacco-pipes. It is 
 about fifty miles north of Augsburg, in N. lat. 
 49° 54', and E. long. 11° 17' 
 
 BAYS, in antiquity. See Bay. 
 
 BAYZE, Bays, or Baize, was first intro- 
 duced into England, with says, serges, &c. by 
 the Flemings; who, being persecuted by the 
 duke of Alva for their religion, fled hither about 
 the fifth of queen Elizabeth's reign ; and had 
 afterwards peculiar privileges granted them by 
 act of parliament 12 Charles II. 1660, The ex- 
 portation of bayze was formerly much more con- 
 siderable than now, the French having learnt to 
 imitate it. The English bayze, however, is still 
 in request in Spain and Portugal, and even in 
 Italy. 
 
 BAY'ZE. See Baize. 
 
 BAZA, or Baja, a town of Spain. Sec 
 Baca. 
 
 Baza, IIoya de, See Ba^a. 
 
 BAZ'AAll, n. s, Persian buzsar, the market, 
 now written bazaar, in the commercial language 
 of the East Indies. A constant market; a kind 
 of covered market. 
 
 This noble city ( Cashan) is in compass not lesa 
 than York or Norwich, about four thousand families 
 heing accounted in her. The houses are fairly built. 
 The bitzzar is spacious and uniform, furnished with 
 silks, damasks, and carpets of silk. 
 
 Sir T. Herbert's TraveU, (edit. 1677 p.) 223. 
 
 Bazaii, BAZAAii,or Basar, a denomination ori- 
 ginally given by the Turks and Persians to a kind 
 of exchange, or places where their finest stufis and 
 miscellaneous wares are sold. These are also called 
 bezesteins. The word is of Arabic origm, where 
 it denotes sale, or exchange of goods. Some of the 
 eastern bazars are open, like the market-places in 
 Europe, and serve for the same uses, particu- 
 larly for the sale of the bulky commmodities. 
 Others are covered with lofty ceilings, or domes, 
 pierced to give light; and in thes'' the jewellers 
 and other dealers in rich wares, have their shops. 
 The bazar of Ispahan is one of the finest places 
 in Persia ; yet, notwithstanding its magnificence, 
 it is excelled by the bazar of Tauris, which is the 
 largest that is known, having several times held 
 
 2 Y a
 
 692 
 
 BAZEEGURS. 
 
 30,000 men ranged in order of battle. At Con- 
 stantinople there are an old and new bazar, 
 which are larc;e square buildings, covered with 
 domes, and sustained by arclies and pilasters ; 
 the former chiefly for arms, harness, and the like; 
 the latter for goldsmiths, jewellers, furriers, and 
 all sorts of manufactures. See Aleppo. 
 
 BAZAS, a town of France, in the department 
 of the Gironde, and late province of Guienne. 
 It is built on a rock, and lies thirty miles south- 
 east of Bourdeaux. Inhabitants about 5000. It 
 was formerly the bishop's see of a very extensive 
 diocese. 
 
 BAZAT, or Baza, in commerce, a long fine- 
 spun cotton, which comes from Jerusalem, whence 
 it is also called Jerusalem cotton. 
 
 BAZEEGURS, a tribe of Indians, inhabiting 
 different parts of Hindoostan, and recognised by 
 several appellations, as Bazeegurs, Panchperees, 
 Kunjura, or Nuts ; they follow a mode of life dis- 
 tinguishing them from the Hindoos, and abstain 
 from intermixing their families with them. The 
 name Bazeegur is said to signify a jungler, and 
 some etymologists find a derivation of conjuror 
 from kunjura. They are found partly in wander- 
 ing tribes, and partly adhering to fixed resi- 
 dences. 
 
 The Bazeegurs are divided into seven castes, 
 Charee, Athbhyeea, Bynsa, Purbultee, Kalkoor, 
 Dorkinee, and Gurgwar; but all the castes inter- 
 marry. Their own historical traditions trace 
 their descent from four brothers, who, finding it 
 difficult to provide for their followers, resolved 
 to separate, and direct their course respectively 
 to each quarter of the v.'orld ; in consequence of 
 which, one of them, named Sa, arrived in Bengal, 
 from Gazeepour or Allahabad. His first abode 
 was at Hoogly, and having governed his tribe 
 peaceably during many years, he died at Uncour- 
 poor. Sa left three sons who succeeded each 
 other, and the succession regularly passed through 
 several generations, and to Munbhungee, about 
 fifteen or twenty years ago. At that time, some 
 of the castes considered a woman called Toota as 
 their chief; but the power ascribed to her seems 
 merely nominal. ■ Munbhungee, however, would 
 not suffer any of Toota's people to remain in the 
 territory occupied by his sect; and the latter 
 were equally jealous of the former. 
 
 The features of the Bazeegurs do not decidedly 
 differ from those of other tribes around them. 
 Some of their women are reputed beautiful, and 
 are by no means scrupulous in forming tempo- 
 rary alliances. They are Mahommedans in food 
 and apparel ; some traversing the country as 
 Mahommedan Fakeers : a particular association 
 among them has been accused of sacrificing 
 human victims. Those called Panchperees seem 
 to venerate a female deity, Kali, probably the 
 sanguinary goddess of the Hindoos. The Bazee- 
 gurs, properly so called, are circumcised, and 
 have priests to officiate at their marriages and 
 funerals, but their knowledge of the system of 
 Mahomet is very imperfect. They seem to 
 acknowledge an omnipotent being, and believe 
 that all nature is animated by one universal 
 spirit, to which the soul, as a portion of it, will 
 after death l)e united. 
 
 The marriage ceremony among them begins 
 
 by the bridegroom repairing to the liut of his 
 elect, and calling aloud for her to be delivered to 
 him. A near relation, guarding the door, resists 
 his entrance, and pushes him away, while he is 
 the object of taunts and jocularity; at last the 
 bride is brought forward. Both now receive the 
 exhortation of a priest to practise mutual kind- 
 ness, and the bridegroom, marking the bride's 
 face with ochre, declares her his wedded wife, 
 and she, on her part, does the same in return. 
 The little fingers of their hands are now joined, 
 and a scene of merriment commences from which 
 the bride alone is spared. This consists chiefly 
 in the progress to intoxication, for these people 
 are addicted to the most immoderate use of 
 spirits ; and after copious libations, a cavalcade 
 is formed of the whole party, which moves on to 
 the hut of the bridegroom. Several enigmatical 
 ceremonies are performed before the door ; the 
 mother of the bridegroom advances with a sieve 
 containing rice, paint, and grass, with which the 
 foreheads of the couple are toiiched, after being 
 waved around them ; and the bride is led into the 
 house, before which there stands a small fresh 
 branch of the mangoe tree in an earthen pot of 
 water. In the evening the bride is conducted to 
 her own hut, when the sober friends of the parties 
 retire ; but the majority, and generally with the 
 bridegroom among them, pass the night in a 
 state of insensibility on some neighbouring plain. 
 
 The chief occupation of both the male and 
 female Bazeegurs consists in feats of address and 
 agility to amuse the public. The former are 
 very athletic, and the women are taught a species 
 of lascivious dancing. The men are also jugglers, 
 tumblers, &c. The people of each set, or dra- 
 matis persona;, go out under a sirdar, or manager 
 of a company, for a definite period, generally a 
 year ; but no person can establish a set of actors 
 without permission from the Nardar Boutah, or 
 chief of the Bazeegurs, who receives a proportion 
 of the profits. Each of five sets at Calcutta has a 
 subordinate sirdar or ruler. These sirdars and the 
 chief, apparently constitute'a court for the trial of 
 infringements of these regulations ; and if, on ap- 
 plication of the tongue to a piece of red-hot iron, 
 a suspected person be burnt, he is declared 
 guilty of a fraud, which is expiated by a fine, or 
 by the additional punishment of having his nose 
 rubbed on the ground. The fine being paid, it 
 affords a new opportunity for gratifying the 
 strong propensity implanted in these people for 
 ardent liquors. Sometimes differences are the 
 subject of reference to a larger assembly; where, 
 before commencing the business, both plaintiff 
 and defendant must provide a quantity of spirits 
 proportioned to the importance of the case ; the 
 party non-suited bears the whole expense, and 
 the assembly is regaled with the beverage pro- 
 duced. 
 
 Some of the females practise physic, and cup- 
 ping, and perform a kind of tattooing on the 
 skin of the Hindoos of their own sex. The men, 
 besides their usual occupations, collect medicinal 
 herbs, and a certain bud, the latter is dried, and 
 the former prepared by their wives as curatives, 
 especially of female complaints : thus they find 
 employment in the towns, in such vocations, or 
 by the sale of trinkets, though both afford but a
 
 BDE 
 
 693 
 
 BE 
 
 precarious subsistence. Some tribes also exhibit 
 wild beasts: to liie vulgar, orofi'er mats fabricated 
 by tlieinselves for sale. 
 
 A striking coincidence has been remarked in 
 tilt' mode of life, the vocations, manners, and 
 language of the different sects of these people 
 and those of the gipsies scattered over Europe 
 and Asia. Both the Jiazeegurs and gipsies have 
 a ciiief or king; each has a peculiar language, 
 bearing some reciprocal analogy, and different 
 from that of the people among whom they reside. 
 In India, and m Europe, they are equally an 
 itinerant race; their pursuits, in so far :is modi- 
 fied by the manners of countries distant from each 
 other, are alike; for the discrepancies they exhi- 
 bit may re;Lsonably be ;iscribed to an insensible 
 acipiisition of the habits of those near whom the 
 various tribes of mankind dwell. They are 
 equally indifferent as to the (juality of tlie food 
 serving for tlieir subsistence; and equally igno- 
 rant of systematic religious principles. All pre- 
 serve the strictest adherence to their own sect, 
 and sedulously abstain from intermixtures or 
 intermarriages with those of every nation: and 
 where infringements of these rules are seen, 
 they are to be ascribed more to necessity than 
 inclination. Another resemblance, which has 
 probably been lost in the lapse of time, is sup- 
 posed to consist in the three-stringed viol, intro- 
 duced into Europe by the jugglers of the 13th 
 century, which is exactly similar to the instru- 
 ment now used in Hindostan. On uniting and 
 combining the whole features of resemblance, it 
 does not seem unlikely, that if Asia is their ori- 
 ginal country, or if tney have found their way 
 from iigy|)t to India, they may also liave emi- 
 grated farther at a period of remote antiquity, 
 and reached the boundaries of Europe. 
 
 BAZGENDGES, in natural history, a sub- 
 stance used by the Turks and other eastern na- 
 tions in dyeing scarlet. Tiiey mix it for this 
 pur|)03e with cochineal and tartar, in the propor- 
 tion of two ounces of bazgendges to one of 
 cocjiineal. It seems to be no other than the 
 horns of tlic turpentine tree. They are found 
 also in Chiaa. Many things of this kind were 
 sent over to Mr. GeofiVoy at Paris from China, 
 as the substances used in the scarlet dyeing of 
 that country, and they all proved to be tiie same 
 with the Syrian and Turkish bazgendges, and with 
 the common turpentine horns. The lentisk, or 
 mastic tree, also produces horns of a similar 
 kind ; all being occasioned by the pucerons, 
 which make their way into the leaves, to breed 
 their young. See Reaumur s History of Insects, 
 vol. vi. 
 
 BDELEiV, in zoology, a genus of the class 
 arachnides, order acera, family Ricinia;. Generic 
 character : palpi very slender, filiform bent, 
 having a seta at the extremity ; eyes four ; hind 
 feet the longest. 
 
 BDELL'IUM, n. s. Gr. fiStWwv, Ilcb. 
 •"1713. An aromatick gum brought from the 
 Levant, used as a medicine and a perfume. 
 Bikllium is mentioned both by the ancient na- 
 luralists, and in Scripture; but it is doubtful 
 whether any of these be the same with the modern 
 kind. 
 
 This bdellium is a troc of the bigness of an olivcf 
 wlicroof Arabia liatli great plonty, whicli yicldctli a 
 certain gum, sweet to smell to, but bitter in taste, 
 called also bdellium. The Hebrews take the loadstone 
 for bdellium. Raleiqh 
 
 Bdellium is a gummy resinous juice, pro- 
 duced by a tree in the East Indies, of which we 
 have no satisfactory account. It is brought into 
 Europe, in pieces of different sizes and figures, 
 externally of a dark reddish brown, somewhat 
 like myrrh ; internally it is clear, and not unlike 
 glue. If held in the mouth, it soon becomes 
 soft and tenacious, sticking to the teeth. Laid 
 on a red-hot iron, it readily catches flame, and 
 burns with a crackling noise, and in proportion 
 to its goodness it is more or less f'-agrant. Near 
 half of its substance dissolves either in water or 
 in spirit of wine ; but the tincture made witli 
 s]Mrit is somewhat stronger and much more agree- 
 able. Vinegar, or verjuice, dissolves it entirely. 
 The simple gum is a better medicine than any 
 preparation from it. Though one of the weakest 
 of the deobstruent gums, it is sometimes used as 
 a pectoral and an emmenagogue with advantage. 
 Some authors suppose the word translated bdel- 
 lium (Gen. ii. 12) signifies a precious stone; 
 others fine crystal or steel ; and Bochart insists 
 that it denotes pearls, numbers of which are 
 fished near the mouth of the river Pison, in the 
 gulf of Persia. 
 
 BE, V. } This verb is so remarkably irre- 
 
 Be'ing, 7t. J gular, that it is necessary to set 
 down many of its terminations : 
 
 Present. I am, thou art, he is, we arc, Sic. 
 eom, ea/it, ip, ajaon, Sax. 
 / was, thou wast or wcrt, 
 pa-jxe, 
 2VC were, lice, 
 yap. papon. Sax. 
 
 The conjunctive mood, 
 
 I be, thou bcest, he be, we be, &.C. 
 
 beo, bifr, beo, beon, Sax. 
 Its etymology is as uncertain as its forms are 
 irregular. The simple words to which be is 
 prefixed, are used also in tlieir simiile form as 
 verbs. When eni])loycd as an auxiliary, it ren- 
 ders the verb ])assive. As a prefix, it appeare in 
 many instances to give emphasis to the applica- 
 tion of the simple term. As to bedaub, to bepruise, 
 to besmear, and particularly, say the compilers of 
 the Encyclopedia Metropolitana, when derision 
 or contempt is intended, as becurl, in Search ; 
 bemujjle, ike. in Sterne; bcpruse, in Mallet; bc- 
 scutcheon, betagged, in Churchill ; bclailcd, in 
 Goldsmith. To exist, to have existence. It is 
 also used in our old language, for the preposition 
 bi/, and also for the participle been. 
 
 And who so saith, and weueth it b« 
 A jape, or els a niccte. 
 To wene that dremes after fal, 
 Ijet who so lisle a fole nje call ; 
 For this trowe 1 and say for mc. 
 That drcames signifiaunce be 
 Of gudc and barnic to many wightcs. 
 That dr.-men in hir sloop a nightes, 
 Full many thinges covertly. 
 Tlir.t fallen afttJ- openly. 
 
 Cliauctf. Rftnaun! of tin: RvfC. 
 
 Prefer. 
 
 ciiin, ( 
 '\ I was, t 
 
 I he teas, 
 J pari
 
 BEA 
 
 694 
 
 BEA 
 
 Before this world's great frame, in wliicli all things 
 Ars now contain'd found any beeing \Ancc, 
 That high eternal pow'r which now doth move 
 In all these things, mov'd in itself by love. 
 
 Spenier. Hymn oti Heavenly Love. 
 Bel. Aye hopeless 
 
 To have the courtesy your cradle promis'd, 
 But to he still hot summer's tanlings and 
 The shrinking slaves of winter. 
 
 GUI. Than be, so. 
 
 Better to cease to he. Shakspeare . 
 
 Awake I arise ! or he for ever fall'n. Milton. 
 The mind is its own place," and in itself 
 Can make a heav'n of hell, a hell of heav'n. 
 What matter where, if I he still the same, 
 ' And what I should be, all but less than he. 
 Whom thunder had made greater '. Here at least 
 We shall be free. Id. 
 
 Neither did thy wisdom herein proceed in time 
 only ; but in degrees j at first thou madest nothing 
 absolute ; first thou madest things which should have 
 being without life ; then those which should have life 
 and being ; lastly, those which have being, life, and 
 reason : so we ourselves in the ordinary course of 
 generation, first live the life of vegetation, then of 
 sense, and reason afterwards. Hall. Con. 
 
 O Happiness ! our being's end and aim 1 
 Good, Pleasure, Ease, Content, whate'er thy name ; 
 That something still which prompts the eternal sigh. 
 For which sve bear to live, or dare to die ; 
 Which still so near us, yet beyond us lies ; 
 O'trlook'd, seen double by the fool and wise. 
 
 Pope. Essay on Man, 
 Men would be angels, angels would be gods ; 
 Aspiring to be gods if angels fell. 
 Aspiring to be angels, men rebel. 
 And who but wishes to invert the laws 
 Of order, sins against th' Eternal cause. Id. 
 
 For who, to dumb forgetfulness a prey. 
 This pleasing, anxious, being e'er resign'd. 
 Left the warm precincts of the' cheerful day. 
 Nor cast one longing, ling'ring look behind. 
 
 Gray's Elegy iyt a Country Churchyard, 
 From courts and thrones return, apostate praise '. 
 Thou prostitute '. to thy first love return. 
 Thy first, thy greatest, once unrivall'd theme. 
 Back to thy fountain ; to that parent power, 
 Vvlio giyc2 the tongue to seiiuil, the thought to soai , 
 The soul to be. Young. 
 
 This is the bud of being, the dim dawn ; 
 Life's theatre as yet is shut, and death. 
 Strong death, alone can heave the massy bar. 
 This gross impediment of clay remove. 
 And make us embryos of existence free. Id. 
 
 Count o'er the joys thine hours have seen. 
 Count o'er thy days from anguish free 
 And know whatever thou hast been 
 'Tis something better not to he. Byron. 
 
 BEACH, re. "^ It is not to be found in 
 
 Be'ached, at/;'. > any of our early lexicons. 
 
 Beachy. j Dr. Johnson offers no ety- 
 
 mology. Serenius gives the Goth. Ixtckar, sig- 
 nifying the same as beach. The Ency. Metro, 
 ventures to conjecture that it is derived from 
 fceo^' (from higan vel bugun, to bend, to wreathe) 
 whatever girds or surrounds. The shore, parti- 
 cularly that part that is dashed by the waves. 
 The loose stones that lie between the waters' 
 edge and the main land. 
 
 The fishtnnen, that walk upon the beach. 
 
 Appear like mite. Shakspeare. King Lear. 
 
 Timon hath made his everlasting mansion 
 L'pon the beacJtcd verge of the salt flood ; 
 W^hich, once a day, with his embossed froth 
 The turbulent surge shall cover. Shakspeare. 
 
 The beachy girdle of the ocear 
 Too wide for Neptune's hips. IJ. 
 
 What! are men mad? Hath nature given them eyes 
 To see this vaulted arch, and the rich crop 
 Of sea and land, which can distinguish 'twixt 
 The fiery orbs above, and the twinn'd stones 
 Upon the number'd beach ? And can we not 
 Partition make with spectacles so precious 
 'Twixt fair and foul ? Id 
 
 Deep to the rocks of hell the gather'd beach 
 They fasten'd, and the mole immense wrought on 
 Over the foaming deep. Milton. 
 
 They find the washed amber further out upon the 
 beaches and shores, where it has been longer exposed. 
 
 Woodward. 
 Nor far remote 
 A broken torch — an oarless boat — 
 And tangled on the weeds that heap 
 The beach where shelvinp; to the deep — 
 There lies a white capote ! 
 'Tis rent in twain — one dark-red slain 
 The wave yet ripples o'er in vain. 
 
 Byron. Bride of Abydos 
 
 Beach Hill, an ancient artificial mount, 
 north of Coupar in Angus, on which justice is 
 said to have been formerly administered in the 
 open air. From the top of it there is a delight- 
 ful prospect of the meandering of the Isla, through 
 a fertile and extensive champaign country, varie- 
 gated with fruitful fields and thriving villages. 
 Some Roman urns have have been found on this 
 mount. 
 
 BEACHLEY, or Old Passage, a point of 
 land at the confluence of the Wye and Severn, 
 Gloucestershire ; which from its insulated position 
 has always been considered an important military 
 post. Earth works of ancient British origin are 
 still remaining ; and it is the terminating point of 
 Offa's dyke. Here the Royalists, whom prince 
 Rupert had sent forth to fortify the point in the 
 wars of the commonwealth, were dislodged with 
 great loss, and afterwards defeated in a pitched 
 battle. The royalist commander, Sir John Wyn- 
 tour, is said to have escaped by a hazardous leap 
 from a cliff, still called Wvntour's Leap. 
 
 BEAQHY-HEAD, on the coast of Sussex. It 
 is known to sailors by the name of the Seven 
 Cliffs. The summit of the highest cliff, which 
 is also tlie liighest in the south of England, is 
 575 feet from the base. From this promontory 
 to Arundel the hills are called South Downs, 
 and are celebrated as sheep walks. On the 
 west side of Beachy-Head is an artificial ca- 
 vern, named Parson Darby's Hole ; consisting of 
 two apartments, just above high water mark, 
 dug out of the solid chalk. Tradition asserts it 
 to have been the residence of a recluse, who was 
 minister of East Dean. 
 
 BE'ACON, u, & 7i.^ Sax. beacon, from 
 Be'aconed, > been, a signal, and bec- 
 
 Be'aconage. j nan, wlience beckon, to 
 
 make a signal. Skinner thinks it is derived 
 from the Ang.-Sax be, and cennan, to ken, to 
 see. Any thing so placed, says the Ency. Met., 
 that it may be kenn'd, seen, or distinguished ; 
 intended as a sign, notice, or warning, i.> a bea-
 
 BEA 
 
 695 
 
 BEA 
 
 con. Its specific description connects with it 
 instantaneous firing, in the moment of alarm from 
 an enemy ; or of a constant light in the darkness, 
 to direct navigators in their course, and warn them 
 from rocks, shallows, and sandbanks. 
 
 His blazing eyes, like two bright shining shields. 
 Did bum with wrath, and sparkled living fire j 
 As two broad beacuns set in open fields 
 S'jnd forth their flames. Spenser. Faerie Queene. 
 
 Modest doubt is call'd 
 The beacon of the wise. Shakspeare. 
 
 The king seemed to account of Perkin as a May- 
 game ; yet had given ordjr for the watching of 
 beacons upon the coasts, and erecting more where 
 they stood too thin. Bacon. 
 
 'So flaming beacons cast their blaze afar. 
 
 The dreadful signal of invasive war. Gay. 
 
 On the top of the steeple there remains an iron 
 
 pitchpot, designed as a beacon, to be fired occasionally, 
 
 to alarm the country in case of invasion. It takes 
 
 its name from the Saxon becnian, to call by signs. 
 
 Pennant's Tour from Chester. Hoadley Church. 
 Wherefore, among other reasons, a suit for beacon- 
 age of a beacon standing on a rock in the sea, may be 
 brought into the court of Admiralty, the admiral 
 having an original jurisdiction over beacons. 
 
 Blackstone. Comment. III. 
 The haven hums with many a cheering sound. 
 The beacons blaze their wonted stations round. 
 
 Byron. 
 The bat builds in his haram bower ; 
 And in the fortress of his power 
 The owl usurps the beacon tower. 
 
 Id. Giaour. 
 
 Beacons anciently were intended as signals 
 for the better securing the kingdom from foreign 
 invasions. — See Signal. On certain eminent 
 places of the country were erected long poles, 
 whereon were fastened pitch barrels to be fired 
 by night, and to smoke by day, to give notice in 
 a few hours to the whole kingdom of an ap- 
 proaching invasion. These served to communi- 
 cate intelligence as rapidly as the modern inven- 
 tion of the telegraph. We find beacons frequently 
 tised among the primitive Britons and Western 
 Highlanders. The besieged capital of one of our 
 northern isles in the third century lighted up a 
 fire upon a tower, and Fingal knew ' the green 
 flame edged with smoke ' to be a token of attack 
 and distress, (Ossian, vol. i. p. 19.5). There 
 are to this day several cairns or heaps of stones 
 upon the heights along the coasts of the Ilnrries, 
 on which 'the inhabitants used to bum heath as a 
 signal of an approachiuL, enemy. 
 
 Beacons on the sea coasts, for guiding and 
 preserving vessels at sea, by night as well as by 
 day, are erected by the king's authority, being a 
 branch of the royal prerogative. The king has 
 the exclusive power, by commission under his 
 great seal, to cause beacons, light-houses and sea 
 marks to be erected in fit and convenient places, 
 as well upon the lands of the subject, as upon 
 the demesnes of the crown : which power is 
 usually vested by letters patent in the office of 
 lord high admiral. And by statute 8 Eliz. c. 13. 
 the corporation of the Trinity-house are em- 
 powered to set up any beacons or sea-marks 
 •wherever they shall think them necessary ; and 
 if the owner of the land or any other person 
 
 shall destroy them, or shall take down any 
 steeple,' tree, or other known sea-mark, he shall 
 forfeit £lOO, or, in c;isc of inability to pay it, 
 shall be ipso facto outlawed. 
 
 Beaconage, a tax paid towards the main- 
 tenance of a beacon. 
 
 Beacon-Hill, a high rock in the parish of 
 INIuthil, in Perthshire, from whence a fire in the 
 night might be seen at the distance of fifty miles 
 east. The top of it is flat, and covered with 
 ashes to a considerable depth. It is within two 
 miles of Strageath, and may be seen from Camp's 
 Castle, and from almost every part of a Roman 
 road, which runs from Strageath for several miles 
 eastward, in a straight line, to the parks of Gask, 
 where there are still the remains of a Roman 
 station. From all which it is evident that it has 
 been a place of signals, and hence derived its 
 name. It is also called Eagle's Craig. 
 
 Beacon-Hill, 1. a hill in Essex, on the south 
 side of the mouth of the port of Harwich, with a 
 light-house on it : 2. another in Wiltshire, be- 
 tween Marlborough and Sandv-Lane. 
 
 BEACONSFIELD, a town of Buckingham- 
 shire, seated on a hill in the road between Lon- 
 don and Oxford ; eight miles from Marlow and 
 Uxbridge, and twenty-five W.N.W. of London. 
 It has a market on Thursday, and two fairs, 
 February 13th, and Holy Thursday. In its 
 vicinity was the residence of the poet Waller, at 
 Hall Barn, and of Edmund Burke, at Butler's 
 Court. The duke of Portland's seat, Bulstrode, 
 is also within a short distance. Population 
 about 1736. 
 
 BEACUL, a town and fortress of Hindostan, 
 in South Canara, on a point of land projecting 
 into the sea. It consists of about 100 houses. 
 Long. 75° 9' £., lat. 12° 22' N. 
 
 From hede, Ang. Sax. 
 
 past parti- 
 
 orare, to 
 
 to solicit ; 
 
 quest ; to pray : bead 
 
 BEAD, 
 
 Be 
 
 Be 
 
 Beads' 
 
 Beads' 
 
 IAD, ^ From bede, . 
 
 ad'roll, # a prayer ; the ; 
 
 ads'man, >ciple of biddan 
 
 ADs'woMAN, ibid; to invite; 
 ads'bidding, /to request; to i 
 
 is likewise a small globe, or ball of glass, or 
 pearl, or other substance ; a number of these, 
 strung upon a thread, are used by Papists to 
 count their prapers. Beadroll is a catalogue of 
 prayers, or, perliaps, originally a list of those to 
 be prayed for in church, afterwards any list. 
 Beadsman, a prayer man, commonly one who 
 prays for another. From this use beads obtained 
 their name, which are now any small globular 
 body, and most frequently used to denominate 
 the little balls which are threaded and worn 
 about the neck for ornament. 
 
 A pairo of bedcs eke she here 
 
 Upon a lace, all of white threde. 
 
 On which tliat she her bedes bede : 
 
 But she ne bought hem nevre a dele. 
 
 For they were given hire, I wot wele 
 
 God wote of a full holic frere. 
 
 That said he was her father dcrc. 
 
 To whom she hod oftener went 
 
 Than any frere of his covent. Chaucer. 
 
 Where that old woman day and night did pray 
 
 Upon her beades devoutly penitent ; 
 
 Nine hundred Pater-nosters cverj' day. 
 
 And thrice nine hundred Avcs she was wont to My ,
 
 BEA 
 
 696 
 
 BEA 
 
 And to augment her painful penance more 
 Thrice every day in ashes she did sit, 
 And next her wrinkled skin rough sackcloth wore. 
 And thrice three times did fast from any bit. 
 
 Spetiser. 
 
 An holy hospital. 
 In which seven beadtmen, that had vowed all 
 Their life to service of high heaven's king. 
 
 Faerie Qtieene. 
 
 It was a friar of orders gray 
 Walk'd forth to tell his beads. 
 And he met with a lady fair. 
 Clad in a pilgrim's weeds. Old Ballad. 
 
 With scarfs, and fans, and double charge of brav'ry. 
 With amber bracelets, beads, and all such knavery. 
 
 Shakspeare. 
 Thy spirit within thee hath been so at war. 
 That beads of sweat have stood upon thy brow. /d. 
 In thy danger 
 Commend thy grievance to my holy prayer ; 
 For I will be thy beadsman, Valentine. Id. 
 
 The king, for the better credit of his espials abroad, 
 did use to have them cursed by name amongst the 
 beadroll of the king's enemies. Bacon's Henry VII. 
 
 'Twas such a bountie 
 And honour done to your poore bedes tcoman, 
 I know not how to owe it, but to thanke you. 
 
 Ben Jonsun. Tlie Sad Shepherd. 
 Several yellow lumps of amber, almost like beads, 
 with one side flat, had fastened themselves to the 
 bottom. Boyle. 
 
 Bring the holy water hither. 
 Let us wash and pray together : 
 When our beads are thus united. 
 Then the foe will fly affrighted. Herrick. 
 
 For who would rob a hermit of his weeds. 
 His few books, or his beads, or maple dish. 
 Or do his gray hairs any violence. Milton. Camus. 
 
 Then might ye see 
 Cowls, hoods, and habits, with their wearers tost 
 And flutter'd into rags ; then reliques, beads, 
 Indulgencies, dispenses, pardons, bulls. 
 The sport of winds. Milton's Paradise Lost. 
 
 While the disjointed abbess threads 
 The gingling chain-shot of her beads. Marvell. 
 
 Tell your beads, says the priest, and be fairly 
 truss'd up. 
 For you surely to-night shall in paradise sup. 
 
 Prior. Thief and Cordelier. 
 He taketh candle, beades, and holy watere. 
 And legends eke of saintes, and bookes of prayere ; 
 He entereth the room, and looketh round about. 
 And haspcn the door to haspen the goblin out. 
 
 Gay. Imitation of Chaucer. 
 Thy voice I seem in every hymn to hear. 
 With cv'ry bead I drop too soft a tear. Pope, 
 
 Much is the Virgin teas'd, to shrive them free 
 From crimes as numerous as her beadsmen be. 
 
 Bt/ro7i. 
 Bead, in architecture, a round moulding, 
 commonly made upon the edge of a piece of 
 stuff, in the Corinthian and Roman orders, cut 
 or carved in short embossments, like beads, in 
 necklaces. A plain bead is sometimes set on the 
 edge of each fascia of an architrave, and some- 
 times also an astragal is thus cut. It is not 
 uncommon to place a bead on the lining board 
 of a door-case, or on the upper edges of skirting 
 boards. 
 
 Bead, in assaying, the small lump or mass 
 of pure metal separated from the scoria;, and seen 
 
 distinct and pure in the middle of the cupel 
 while in the fire. Tluis, in separating silver from 
 its ore by means of lead, the silver remains in the 
 form of a bead, when the lead, that had before 
 assisted in the operation, is reduced to scoria. 
 In this process, the bead of silver must be taken 
 out of the cupel as soon as it is observed to be 
 pure, lest, gowing cold, it should be congluti- 
 iiated to the cupel or litharge. This bead, when 
 the assay is properly made, is always porous on 
 the under side. See Assaying. 
 
 Beads, in commerce, those glass globules 
 vended to the savages on the coast of Africa ; 
 thus denominated, because they are strung to- 
 gether for the convenience of traffic. 
 
 Beads, in devotional exercises, are much used 
 by Roman Catholics, as in rehearsing and num- 
 bering their Ave-Marias and Pater-nosters ; and 
 a similar practice prevails among the dervises 
 and other religious throughout the East, as well 
 Mahommedan as Heathen. The ancient Druids 
 appear also to have had their beads, many of 
 which are still found ; at least, if the conjectures 
 of an ingenious author may be admitted, who 
 takes those antique glass globules, having a snake 
 painted round them, and called adder-beads, or 
 snake-buttons, to have been the beads of our 
 ancient Druids. 
 
 Beads, Bidding of the, a charge given by 
 the Romish priests to their parishioners, at cer- 
 tain times, to say so many Pater-nosters upon 
 their beads for a soul departed. 
 
 Beads, used in necklaces, are made of various 
 materials, such as steel, garnet, coral, diamond, 
 amber, crystal, pastes, &c. The common black 
 glass of which beads are made for necklaces, &c. 
 is colored with manganese only : one part of 
 manganese is sufficient to give a black color to 
 near twenty of glass. 
 
 BEA'DLE, ^ Sax. by'^ell, a messenger; 
 
 Beadle'ship. J Fr. bedeau, Span, bedel, Dut. 
 bedelle. Junius derives it from biddan, beudan, 
 to bid, to tell, to order ; because he proclaims 
 and executes the will of his superiors. Beadle- 
 ship is the office of a beadle, it occurs in Wood's 
 Athense Oxon. vol. ii. fol. 388. 
 
 A dog's obey'd in office. 
 Thou rascal beadle, hold thy bloody hand : 
 Why dost thou lash that whore ? Shakspeare. 
 
 And I, forsooth, in love ! 
 I that have been love's whip : 
 A very beadle to a humourous sigh, 
 A critick ; nay, a night-watch constable. Id. 
 
 They ought to be taken care of in this condition, 
 either by the beadle or the magistrate. Spectator, 
 
 Their common loves a lewd abandon'd pack. 
 The beadle's lash still flagrant on their back. 
 
 Prior. 
 
 Beadle is also used for an officer in universi- 
 ties, whose place is to walk before the masters 
 at all public processions, &c. with a mace. 
 Spelman, \'ossius, and Sumner, derive beadle 
 from the Saxon ; in which sense bishops, in some 
 ancient Saxon manuscripts, are called beadles of 
 God, Dei bedelli. The translator of the Saxon 
 New Testament renders exactor by bidele ; and 
 the word is used in the same sense in the laws of 
 Scotland.
 
 BEA 
 
 G97 
 
 CEA 
 
 Beadle is chiefly applied in Scotland to those 
 church officers who keep the keys of the churches 
 and seats, and occasionally attend the ministers 
 and kirk sessions, in the exercise of their parochial 
 duties. The office is somewhat similar, though 
 not in every respect, to that of Church Warden 
 in England. 
 
 Be.\d-Makers, called by the French pater- 
 nostriers, are those employed in the making, 
 stringing, and selling of beads, for devotional 
 purposes. At Paris, before the revolution, there 
 were three companies of bead-makers; one who 
 made them of gleiss or crj'stal ; another of wood 
 and horn ; and the third of amber, coral, jet, 
 &c. 
 
 Bead-Proof, a term used by distillers to ex- 
 press that sortof proof of the standard strength of 
 spirituous liquors, which consists in their havinsr, 
 •when shaken in a pliial, or poured from on high 
 into a glass, a crown of bubbles, which stand on 
 the surface some time after. This is esteemed a 
 proof that the spirit consists of equal parts of 
 rectified spirits and phlegm. It however is a 
 fallacious rule as to the degree of strength in the 
 goods ; because any thing that will increase the 
 tenacity of the spirit, will give it this oroof, 
 tliough it be under the due strength. 
 
 Bead-Proof. A method of ascertaining the 
 strength of spirituous liquors, invented by Mr. 
 Brown of Glasgow. It consists of a number 
 of small glass globules, or beads, marked so as 
 to correspond with the degrees of a hydrometer. 
 These beads have a small glass cylinder appended 
 to them, which, being ground with emery, they are 
 brought to the degree of lightness required. They 
 are put up in a box, and being thrown into any 
 spirituous liquor, at a medium temperature, say 
 sixty degrees of Fahrenheit, the bead which re- 
 mains suspended in any part of it denotes the 
 specific gravity or the proportion of spirit it con- 
 tains. Thus No. 1. remains suspended in any 
 part of distilled water, of the required tempera- 
 ture, which is the standard from which the pro- 
 portion of spirit is computed. No. 32. remains 
 suspended in any part of pure alkohol ; and all 
 the intermediate beads indicate various propor- 
 tions of water and spirit in the mixture. When 
 these beads are made with accuracy, they seen? 
 to afford a more ea.sy method of ascertaining the 
 strength of spirits than any yet invented. See 
 Hydrometer. 
 
 BEA'GLE. Fr. bigles, perhaps from the Ital. 
 piccolo, q. d. cani piccoli, smaller dogs. A small 
 hound with which hares are hunted. 
 
 She's a beagle true-bred, and one that adores me. 
 
 Slutltspeare. 
 
 The rest were various huntings. 
 The graceful goddcsi was arrajr'd in green ; 
 About her feet were little beagles seen, ^ 
 That watch'd with upward eyes the motions of their 
 queen. Dryden's Fables. 
 
 To plains with well-bred beagles we repair. 
 And trace the mazes of the circling hare. Pope. 
 
 Already see the deep-mouth'd beagles catch 
 The tainted mazes ; and, on eager sport 
 Intent, with emulous impatience try 
 Each doubtful trace. Aniulruity. 
 
 BeactI.e, in zoology, a valuable dog, kept en- 
 tirely for hunting hares , they are of small size, 
 inferior to the hare in swiftness, but possess a 
 very delicate scent ; and when they have found 
 her, seldom fail of running a hare down. 
 
 Beagles are of various kinds, as the soutnern 
 beagle, something less and shorter, but thicker, 
 than the deep mouthed hound ; the fleet northern 
 or cat beagle, smaller, and of a finer shape than 
 the southern, and a harder runner. From these 
 two, by crossing, is bred a third sort, held pre- 
 ferable to either. To these may be added a still 
 smaller sort of beagles, scarce bigger than lap- 
 dogs, which make pretty diversion in hunting 
 the coney, or even tlie small hare in dry weather ; 
 but are otherwise unserviceable by reason of their 
 size. 
 
 BEAK', ~\ Ang.-Sax.p3/ca7j, Ger. /jjcfcen, 
 
 Beak'ed, (^to pick or peck. The beak, says 
 
 Beak'er, i theEncyclopediaMetropolitana, 
 
 Beak-head. ' is that which picketh or peck- 
 eth. It is applied generally to whatever is 
 pointed or sharp. Thus the bill of a bird is 
 called its beak ; the cup called a beaker, derives 
 its name from the shape of its spout. But the 
 Dutch bekcr Vossius derives from the Lat. bacar, 
 and thus bacar or baccar, says the just mentioned 
 authority, is perhaps from Bacchus. It means si 
 vessel or cup for wine. This is a little forced. 
 The term beak is now used to signify the fore- 
 part of a ship. In the ancient galleys it was a 
 piece of brass like a beak, fixed at their end, with 
 which they pierced their enemies. It is also 
 applied to a shoe peculiarly constructed, and to a 
 prominence of land. 
 
 Father, I sweare by Ibis' golden heahe. 
 More fair and radiant is my bonny Kate, 
 Then silver Xanthus, when he doth embrace 
 The ruddy Simois at Ida's feet. Wlietstone. 
 
 A little wren in beahe with laurell greene that flew, 
 Foreshew'd my doleful death, as after all men knew. 
 Mirror fin- Magktrates. 
 His royal bird 
 
 Prunes the immortal wing, and cloys his beak. 
 
 As when his god is pleas'd, 
 
 Shakspeare. Cymbeline. 
 
 I boarded the king's ship, now on the beak. 
 
 Now in the waist, the deck, in every cabin. Id. 
 
 The floating vessel swam 
 Uplifted, and secure with beaked prow. 
 Rode tilting o'er the waves. 
 
 Milton. Paradise Lost. 
 
 He asked the waves, and ask'd the felon winds. 
 What hard mishap hath doom'd this gentle swain ? 
 And queslion'd every gust of rugged wings 
 That blows from ofT each beaked promontory : 
 They knew not of his storj- ; 
 And sage Hippotadcs their answer brings. 
 That not a blast was from his dungeon stray'd : 
 The air was calm, and on the level brine 
 Sleek Panope with all her sisters play'd. 
 
 Id. Lycidas 
 
 Him thought, he by the brook of Cherith stood ; 
 And saw the ravens with their horaj beukes , 
 Food to Elijah bringing cv'n and niorn. 
 
 Id. Paradise Regained, 
 
 With boiling pitch, another mar at baud. 
 From friendly Sweden brought, tlir scams instops ; 
 Which well laid o'er, the salt sea waves withslaad. 
 And shake them from the rising beak in drops. 
 
 Vrydi II .
 
 698 
 
 BEAM. 
 
 The magpie, lighting on the stock. 
 Stood chatt'ring with incessant din. 
 And with her beak gave many a knock. 
 
 Swift. 
 And into pikes and musqueteers 
 Stampt beakers, cups, and porringers. 
 
 Hudibras. 
 With dulcet hev'rage this the beaker crown'd. 
 Fair in the midst, with gilded cups around. 
 
 Pope, Odytsey. 
 The hooked beak of the hawk-tribe, separates the 
 flesh from the bones of the animal which it feeds upon, 
 almost with the cleanness and precision of a dissect- 
 or's knife. Paley's Natural Theology. 
 It is as if the desart bird, 
 Whose beak unlocks her bosom's stream. 
 To still her famish'd nestlings' scream, 
 Vor mourns a life to them transferr'd ; 
 Should rend her rash devoted breast. 
 And find them flown her empty nest. 
 
 Byron. Giaoicr. 
 
 Beak, in ancient military affairs, was used for 
 one of the battalia, or forms of ranging an array 
 for battle, particularly by the Macedonians. 
 
 Beak, in architecture, a little fillet left on the 
 edge of a larmier, which forms a canal, and makes 
 a kind of pendent chin, answering to what 
 Vitruvius calls the mentum. 
 
 Beak, in farriery, denotes a little horse-shoe, 
 turned up, and fastened in upon the fore part of 
 the hoof. It is used to keep the shoes fast, and 
 to prevent them from being struck off by the 
 horse, when by reason of any itch, or being much 
 disturbed by the flies in hot weather, he stamps 
 his feet violently on the ground. 
 
 Beak, in ornithology : from the form and struc- 
 ture of the beaks of birds, Linnceus divides this 
 whole family, or general class of animals, into six 
 orders. See Orkititology. 
 
 Beak, or Beak-head, of a ship, that part 
 without the ship, before the forecastle, which is 
 fastened to the stem, and is supported by the 
 main knee. It is usually carved and painted, 
 which adds beauty to utility. The beak, called 
 by the Greeks tfjipoXov, by the Latins rostrum, was 
 an important part in the ancient sViips of war, 
 wluch were hence denominated naves rostratse. 
 Tlie beak was made of wood, but fortified with 
 brass and festened to the prow, serving to annoy 
 the enemy's vessels. Its invention is attributed 
 to Pisa;ns, an Italian. The first beaks were made 
 long and high; but afterwards a Corinthian, 
 named Aristo, contrived to make them short and 
 strong, and placed so low as to pierce the hostile 
 vessels under water. By the help of these, great 
 havoc was made by the Syracusans in the Athe- 
 nian fleet. 
 
 Beaked, in heraldry, a term used to express 
 the beak or bill of a bird. When the beak and 
 legs of a fowl are of a different tincture from the 
 body, we say beaked and membered of such a 
 tincture. 
 
 15 E ALE, a river of England, which runs 
 through part of the counties of Sussex and Kent, 
 and falls into the Medway. 
 
 Beale (Mary), particularly distinguished by 
 luT skill in painting, was the daughter of Mr. 
 Craddock, minister of Walton-upon-Thames, 
 and learned the rudiments of her art from Sir 
 
 Peter Lely. She painted in oil, water-colors, and 
 crayons, and had much business; her portraits 
 were in the Italian style, which she acquired by 
 coyjying pictures from Sir Peter Lely's and the 
 royal collections. Her master, says Mr. Walpole, 
 was supposed to have had a tender attachment to 
 her; but as he was reserved in communicating to 
 her all the resources of his pencil, it probably 
 was a gallant rather than a successful one. Dr. 
 Woodfall wrote several pieces to her honor, under 
 the name of Belisia. Mrs. Beale died in Pall- 
 mall in 1697, aged 65. Her paintings have much 
 nature, but the coloring is stiff and heavy. 
 
 BEALSBURG, a town of the United States 
 of America, in Kentucky, seated on the east bank 
 of the Rolling-fork. It is fifteen miles W. S. W. 
 of Bairdstown, fifty south-west of Frankfort, and 
 890 from Philadelphia. 
 
 BEALT, Bealth, or Builth, a town of 
 Brecknockshire in South Wales, pleasantly 
 seated on the river Wye. It is ninety-two miles 
 from Chester, sixteen north of Brecknock, and 
 171 from London. 
 
 BEAM, n. "^ Bagms, Goth, beam, Ang.- 
 
 Beamlike, a(^'. >Sax. a tree; the etymology 
 
 Bea'my. J uncertain; the applications 
 
 are various. See our scientific articles under 
 
 this term. 
 
 Als straught as ony lyne 
 Within a beme that fro the contree djrvine, 
 Sche percyng throw the firmament extendit. 
 To ground agayne my spiri-t is descendit. 
 
 James I. King't Qhuair. 
 With that at him his beam-like speare he aymed. 
 And thereto all his powre and might applyde. Spetiscr. 
 The staff of his spear was like a weaver's 6eo?n. 
 
 1 Chron. 
 Poise the cause in justice' equal scales. 
 Whose beam stands sure, whose riglitful cause pre- 
 vails. Shak^peaTe. 
 The building of living creatures is like the building 
 of a timber house ; the walls and other parts have 
 columns and beams, but the roof is tile, or lead, or 
 stone. Bacon. 
 So much they could with their chariots by use and 
 exercise, as riding on the speed down a steep hill, to 
 stop suddenly, and with short rein turn swiftly, now 
 running on the beam, now on the yoke, then in tlie 
 seat. Milton. Hist. Eng. 
 
 He heav'd, with more than human force, to move 
 A weighty stone, the labour of a team. 
 And rais'd from thence he reach'd the neighb'ring 
 beam, Dryden. 
 
 Juturna heard, and, seiz'd with mortal fear, 
 Forc'd from the beam her brother's charioteer. Id. 
 
 His double-biting axe, and beamy spear ; 
 Each asking a gigantic force to rear. Id. Fables. 
 
 Rouse from their desert dens the bristled rage 
 Of boars, and beamy stags in toils engage. Id. Virgil. 
 
 And taught the woods to echo to the stream 
 His dreadful challenge, and his clashing beam. 
 
 DenJiam. 
 Upon a beam aloft he sits. 
 And nods ajid seems to think by fits. Gay. Fables. 
 The pilot's fair machinery strews the deck ; 
 And cards and needles swim in floating wreck ; 
 The balanc'd mizcn, rending to the head. 
 In streaming ruins from the margin fled. 
 The sides convulsive shook on groaning beams, 
 And rent with labour, yawn'd the pithy seams. 
 
 Falconer. Shipuirech.
 
 BEAM. 
 
 699 
 
 BEAM, V. n."i Ang.-Sax. hcarman, to shine, 
 15ka'mless, >to emit rays, as from the sun ; 
 Uea'my. j any thing radiant. 
 
 Is aught on earth so pretious or dcarc 
 
 As praise and honour? or is ought so bright 
 And beautifule as glories heamea appcare. 
 
 Whose goodly light than Phoebus lampc doth 
 shine more clear ? Spenser. 
 
 Ifow shall a worm, on dust that crawls and feeds. 
 Climb to th' empyreal court, where these states reign. 
 And there take view of what heav'n's self exceeds ? 
 The sunless stars, these lights the sun distain : 
 Their beams divine, and beauties do excel 
 What here on earth, in air, or neav'n do dwell ; 
 Such never eye yet saw, sucii never ton^e can tell. 
 Fletcher's Purple Islatid. 
 Pile ten hills on the Tarpeian rock. 
 That the precipitation might down stretch 
 Below the Icam of sight. 
 
 Shakspeare. Cariolanvs. 
 Sunk though he be beneath the wat'ry floor ; 
 So sinks the day-star in the ocean bed. 
 And yet anon repairs his drooping head. 
 And tricks his beams, and with new spangled ore. 
 Flames in the forehead of the morning sky ; 
 So Lycidas sunk low, but mounted high. 
 
 Milton. Lycidas. 
 No sun to cheer us but a bloody globe. 
 That rolls above, a bald and beamless fire. 
 
 Dry den and Lee. 
 Wliat modes of sight betwixt each wide extreme. 
 The Hiolo's dim curtain, and the lynx's biiiim. Pupe. 
 
 Trutli bids me look on men, as autumn's leaves. 
 And all they bleed for, as the summer's dust. 
 Driven by the whirlwind : lighted by her beams, 
 I widen my horizon, gain new powers. 
 See things invisible, feel things rcnisote. 
 Am present with futurities \ think nought 
 To man so foreign as the joys possest. 
 Nought so much his as those beyond the grave. 
 
 Young. 
 Attempered suns ari«;, 
 Sweet-icam'd and shedding oft thro' lucid clouds 
 A pleasing calm, while broad and brown below. 
 Extensive harvests hang the heavy head. 
 
 Thomson's Seasons. 
 The ghastly form. 
 The lip pale quiv'ring and the beamless eye. 
 
 Id. Summer. 
 But lo ! from high Hymettus to the plain. 
 The queen of night asserts her silent reign. 
 No murky vapour, herald of the storm. 
 Hides her fair face, nor gilds her glowing form ; 
 With cornice glimmering as the moou-bcuiiis play. 
 There the white coluiiin greets her grateful ray. 
 And bright around with quivering beams beset 
 Her emblem sparkles o'er the minaret. 
 
 Byron. Corsair. 
 O Peace, thy injurod robes upbind I 
 O rise, and leave not one behind 
 Of all thy beamy train. 
 
 Collins's Ode to Peace. 
 One cultivated spot there was, that spread 
 Its flowery bosom to the noon-day beam. 
 Where many a rose-bud rears its blushing head. 
 And herbs for food with future plenty team. 
 
 Beattie's Minstrel. 
 
 Bkam, in architecture. Some of the best au- 
 thors have considered the force or strength of 
 Vioams, and bToun,ht their resistance to a precise 
 calculation: particularly M. \'arignon and .M. 
 
 Parejit. The system of the lattei is as follows 
 When, in a beam breakin;^ parallel to its base 
 wliich is supposed to be a parallelogram, two 
 planes of til)res, vvhicli were before contiguous, 
 are separated, there is nothing to be considered 
 in tliose fdjrcs, but their number, bigness, ten- 
 sion before they broke, and the lever by which 
 tliey act : all these together make the strength or 
 resistance of the ^eam to be broke. Suppose 
 then anotlier beam of the same wood, where the 
 base IS likewise a paralleloeram, and of any big- 
 ness, with regard to the other, the height or 
 thickness of each of these when laid horizontal, 
 being divided into an indefinite number of equal 
 parts, and their breadth into the same number, 
 ■■n each of their bases will be found an equal 
 number of little quadrangular cells, proportion- 
 ate to the base whereof they are parts. Tiiese 
 then w^ill represent little bases, or, which is the 
 same thing, tlie thicknesses of the fibres to be 
 separated by the fracture of each beam : and, 
 since the number of cells is equal in each, the 
 ratio of the bases of both beams will be that of 
 the resistance of their fibres, botli with regard to 
 number and thickness. Now the two beams be- 
 ing supposed to be of the same wood, the fibres 
 most remote from the points of support, which are 
 those which break first, must be equally stretched, 
 when they break. Thus the fibres, e. g. of the 
 tenth division, are equally stretclied in each case, 
 when the first breaks; and in whatever proportion 
 the tension be supposed, it will still be tJie same 
 in both cases ; so that the doctrine is entirely free 
 and unembarrassed with any physical system. — 
 La-stly, the levers whereby the fibres of the two 
 beams act, are represented by the height or depth 
 of their bases ; and of consequence the whole re- 
 sistance of each beam is the product of its base by 
 its height; or, it is the square of tlie heiglit mul- 
 tipli&d by its breadtli : whicli liolds not only in ca.se 
 of parallelogrammatic, but also of elliptic bases. 
 Hence, if tiie base of two beams be equal, though 
 both their heights and breadths be unetiual, their 
 resistance will be as their heights alone; and, by 
 consequence, the same beam laid on tlie smallest 
 S'de of its base will resist move than when laid flat, 
 in proportion as the first situation gives it a greater 
 height than the second: and thus an elliptic base 
 will resist more when laid on its greatest axis, 
 than when on its smallest. Since in beams equally 
 long the bases determine the proportion of their 
 weights or solidities, and since their bases being 
 equal, their heights may be different, two beams 
 of the same weight may have resistances difi'er- 
 ing to infinity : thus, if in one the height of the 
 base be supposed infinitely great, and the breadth 
 infinitely small, while in the other the dimensions 
 of the base are infinite ; the resistance of the first 
 will be infinitely greater than that of the second, 
 though their solidity and weight be the same. If, 
 therefore, all that was required in architecture 
 were to have beams capable of supporting va."5t 
 loads, and at the same time to be of the least 
 weights possible, it is plain they must be cut thin 
 as latiis and laid edgeways. If tlie bases of two 
 beams be supposed unequal, but the sum of the 
 sides of the two bases equal, e. g. if they be either 
 12 and 12, or 11 and 13, or 10 and 14, See. so 
 that they always ma^e 24 ; and further, if tliey
 
 700 
 
 BEAM. 
 
 be supposed to be laid edgeways ; pursuing the se- 
 ries, it will appear, that in the beam of 12 and 1 2, 
 the resistance will be 1728, and the solidity or 
 weight 144: and that in the last, or 1 and 23, 
 the resistance will be 529, and the weight 23 : 
 the first, therefore, which is square, will have less 
 than half the strength of the last, with regard to 
 its weight. Hence M. Parent remarks, that the 
 common practice of cutting the beams out of trees 
 as square as possible is reprehensible : he hence 
 takes occasion to determine geometrically, what 
 dimensions the base of a beam to be cut out of 
 any tree proposed shall have, in order to its be- 
 ing of the greatest possible strength ; or, which is 
 the same thing, a circular base being given, he 
 determines the rectangle of the greatest resistance 
 that can be inscribed ; and finds that the sides 
 must be nearly as 7 to 5, which agrees with ob- 
 servation. Hitherto the length of the beams has 
 been supposed equal ; if it be unequal, the bases 
 will resist so much the lesb, as the beams are longer. 
 To this it may be added, that a beam sustained at 
 each end, breaking by a weight suspended from its 
 middle does not only break at tlie middle, but 
 also at each extreme ; or, if it does not actually 
 break there, at least immediately before the mo- 
 ment of the fracture, which is that of the equili- 
 brium between the resistance and the weight, its 
 fibres are as much stretched at the extremes as in 
 the middle. So that of the weight sustained by 
 the middle there is but one-third part which acts 
 at the middle to make the fracture ; the other two 
 only acting to induce a fracture in the two ex- 
 tremes. A beam may either be supposed only 
 loaden with its own weight, or with other foreign 
 weights applied at any distance, or else only with 
 those foreign weights. Since, according to M. 
 Parent, the weight of a beam is not ordinarily 
 above one-seventieth part of the load given it to 
 sustain, it is evident that in considering several 
 weights, they must all be reduced by the com- 
 mon rules to one common centre of gravity. 
 M. Parent has calculated tables of the weights 
 that will be sustained by the middle in beams of 
 various bases and lengths, fitted at each end into 
 walls, on a supposition that a piece of oak of an 
 inch square and a foot long, retained horizon- 
 tally by the two extremes, will sustain 3151b. in 
 its middle before it breaks, which it is found by 
 experience it will. 
 
 Beam, in heraldry, is used to express the main 
 horn of a hart or buck. 
 
 Beam, in hunting, the main stem of a deer's 
 head, or that part which bears the antlers, royals, 
 and tops ; the little streaks whereof are called 
 circles. 
 
 Beam, or Roller, in weaving, is a long and 
 thick wooden cylinder placed lengthways on the 
 back part of the loom of those who use the slmt- 
 tle. The threads of the warp of linen or woollen 
 cloth, serges, or other woollen stuffs, are rolled 
 upon the beam, and unrolled as the work goes 
 on. That cylinder on which the stuff is rolled, 
 as it is weaved, is also called the beam or roller, 
 and is placed on the fore part of the loom. 
 
 Beam of a Balance, is that piece of iron or 
 wood, somewhat bigger towards the middle than 
 at the ends, where there are holes, through 
 which run the ropes or strings which liold the 
 
 scales ; the beam is divided into two equal parts 
 by a needle placed over it perpendicularly, and 
 the centre of motion must be placed a little above 
 the centre of gravity, that the beam may rest 
 exactly in an horizontal position. See Balance. 
 
 Beam of an Anchor. The straight part or 
 shank of an anchor, to which the hooks are 
 fastened. 
 
 Beam of a Plough, a name given by our 
 farmers to the great timber of the plough, into 
 which all the other parts of the plough-tail are 
 fixed. This is usually made of ash, and is 
 straight, and eight feet long in the common 
 plough : but in the four-coultered plough it is 
 ten feet long, and its upper part is arched. The 
 head of this beam lies on the pillow of the 
 plough, and is raised higher, or sunk lower, as 
 that pillow is elevated or depressed by being 
 slipped along the crow-staves. Near the middle 
 it has an iron collar, which receives the tow 
 chain from the box, and the bridle cliain from 
 the stake or gallows of the plough is fixed in it 
 a little below the collar. Some inches below this 
 there is a hole, which lets through the coulter ; 
 and below that there are two other small ones, 
 through which the heads of the retches pass 
 These are the irons which support the sheet, and 
 with it the share. Farther backward still is a 
 larger perforation, through which the body of the 
 sheet passes; and behind that, very near the ex- 
 tremity, is another hole through which the piece 
 called the hinder-sheet passes. See Husbandry. 
 
 Beams of a Ship are the large main cross 
 timbers, stretching from side to«ide, which hold 
 the sides of a ship from falling together, and 
 which also support the decks and orlops of the 
 ship. The main beam is that next the main mast; 
 and Irom it they are reckoned by first, second, 
 and third beam. The great beam is also called 
 the midship beam. There are usually twenty- 
 four beams on the lower deck of a ship of seventy- 
 four guns, and to the other decks additional ones 
 in proportion as the ship lengthens above. 
 Hence the following phrases in sea language :- 
 
 Beam, Before the, signifies an arch of the 
 horizon comprehended between the line of the 
 beam, and that point of the compass which she 
 stems. 
 
 Beam, on the, in sea language, denotes any 
 distance from the ship on a line with the beams, 
 or at right angles with the keel. Any object that 
 lies east or west when the ship steers northward, 
 is said to be on the starboard or larboard beam. 
 
 Beam, on the Weather, signifies on the 
 weather side of the ship. 
 
 Beam-antler, the branch of a deer's horn 
 next the head. 
 
 Beam-bird. See Motacilla. 
 
 Beam, Camber. See Camber Beam. 
 
 Beam Feathers, in falconry, the longest 
 feathers of a hawk's wing. 
 
 Beam-filling, in architecture, the filling up 
 the vacant space between the aising plate and 
 roof with stones or bricks, laid between the raft- 
 ers on the aising plate, and plastered on with 
 loam; this is frequent where the garrets are not 
 pargeted or ])lastt.'red. 
 
 BEAMINSTFR, a market town of Dorset- 
 shire, in England, seated on the river Biilun, six
 
 BEAN. 
 
 70 i 
 
 miles from Bridport, and 141 west of London. 
 A considerable manufactory of sail cloth, and 
 also of iron and copper goods, is carried on here. 
 It was nearly destroyed by fire inl645 and 1686, 
 and sufiered severely from the same cause in 
 1781. Population 2290. 
 
 BEAN, "J Saxon bean, bien, a well 
 
 Bean'fed, > known vegetable. Etymology 
 Bean'shaped. 3 unknown. Junius derives it 
 from the Greek nvavov vel irvavog ; but assigns 
 in our opinion a very unsatisfactory reason — so 
 called because they produce blood. And what 
 food does not? 
 
 But God wot that May thought in hire hestc. 
 When she him saw up sitting; in his shirt. 
 In his night cap, and with his necke Icne : 
 She praiseth not his playing worth a bene. 
 
 Chaucer. 
 And worse than that hare meat there did remain 
 To comfort her when she her house had diglit. 
 Sometime a barley-corn, sometime a bea7i. 
 For which she laboured hard both day and night. 
 
 ]Vi/att. 
 I jest to Oberon and make him smile. 
 When I a fat and 6ea7k;-fed horse beguile. 
 Neighing in likenesse of a silly foale. 
 
 Shakspeare, 
 Long let us walk. 
 Where the breeze blows from yon extended field 
 Of blossom 'd beans. Thomson. Spring. 
 
 On turnips feast whene'er you please. 
 And riot in my becms and pease. Gay's Fables. 
 Why does the pea put forth tendrils, the bean not ■, 
 but because the stalk of the pea cannot support itself, 
 the stalk of the bean can ! Paley. 
 
 Bean. The old method of choosing king and 
 queen on Twelfth-day, was by having a bean 
 and a pea mixed up in the composition of a 
 cakt. They who found these in their portion of 
 cake, were constituted king and qtieen for the 
 evening. 
 
 Now, now the mirth comes. 
 With the cake full of plums, 
 Where beam's the king of the sport here , 
 Besides we must know. 
 The pea also. 
 Must revell as queenc in the court here. 
 
 Herrick's Hesper, 
 Cut the cake : who hath the heane shall be kinge ; 
 and where the pease is she shall be queenc. 
 
 Nichol's Progresses. 
 You may imagine it to be twelfth day at night, 
 and the bean found in the corner of your cake, but it 
 is not worth a vetch, I assure vou. 
 
 .Middl. New IVond. Anc. Br. 272. 
 
 Beans. ' Three blue htans in a bhie bladder.' 
 What is the origin of this whimsical coml)ination 
 of words, it may not now bo easy to discover, 
 but at least it is of long standing. 
 
 F. Hark, does't rattle ? 
 
 S. Yes, like three blue beans in a blue bladder, 
 rattle bladder, rattle. 
 
 Old Fortunatus. Anc. Dr. III. p. 128. 
 Prior has it in his Alma : — 
 
 They say 
 That putting all his words together 
 'Tis three blue beans in one blue bladder. 
 
 Cant. I. V. 25, 
 
 Bean, in botany. See Vicia. 
 Beans, in antiquity, were applied to various 
 uses. The ancients made use of beans r:i gather- 
 
 ing the votes of the people, and for the election 
 of magistrates. A white bean signified absolu- 
 tion, and a black one condemnation. Bean!> had 
 a mysterious us'i in thelemuralia and parentuliu; 
 where the master of the family, after washing, 
 was to throw a sort of black beans over his head, 
 still repeating the words, 'I redeem myself and 
 family by these beans.' Ovid gives a lively 
 description of tJie whole ceremony in verse. Ab- 
 stinence from beans was enjoined by Pythagoras, 
 one of whose symbols is, sva^ov aTrt\iaUai, ab- 
 sfine a fabis. The Egyptian priests held it a 
 crime to look at beans, judging the very sight 
 unclean ! The flamen dialis was not permitted 
 even to mention the name. The precej)t of Py- 
 thagoras has been variously interpreted : some 
 understand it of forbearing to me<ldle in trials 
 and verdicts, which were then by throwing beans 
 into an urn ; others build on the equivoque of 
 the word Kvufioc, and explain it by abstinence 
 from sexual pleasures. Clemens Alexandrinus 
 grounds the abstinence from beans on this, that 
 they render women barren: which is repeated 
 by Theophrastus,, who extends the effect even to 
 plants. Cicero suggests that beans are great ene- 
 mies to tranquillity of mind. For a reason of 
 this kind it is, that Amphiarus is said to have 
 abstained from beans, even before Pythagoras, 
 that he might enjoy a clearer divination by 
 dreams. 
 
 Beans, in dietetics, are said to be nutritive, 
 but ilatulent. The horse-bean has been often 
 urged as a succedaneum for coffee, which in 
 princi])les it much resembles ; only that it con- 
 tains but half the quantity of oil. Mr. Boyle 
 describes several experiments of beans treate<l 
 pneumatically to show the great plenty of airtl'.ey 
 afibrd, on which their flatulency is supposed to 
 depend. The expansion of beans in growing, 
 the same author found so considerable, that it 
 would raise a plug clogged with above an hun- 
 dred pounds weight. 
 
 Beans, in farriery. See Farriery, Index. 
 Beans, in fishing, with proper management, 
 make the finest of all baits. The mediod of pre- 
 paring them for that purpose is tliis: take a new 
 earthen pot glazed on the inside, boil some beans 
 in it, suppose a quarter of a peck: they must be 
 boiled in river water, and should be previously 
 steeped in some warm water for six or seven 
 hours. When tliey are about half boiled, put in 
 three or four ounces of honey, and two or three 
 grains of musk ; let them boil a little on, then 
 take them oft' the fire. They are to be used in 
 tliis manner: seek out a clean place where there 
 are no weeds, that the fish may see and take the 
 beans at the bottom of the water. Throw some 
 in at five or six in the morning, and in the even- 
 ing for some days. This will draw them to- 
 gether, and they may be taken in a casting net in 
 great numbers. 
 
 Bean, Bog, or Bean, Buck. See Menyan- 
 
 THES. 
 
 Bean, Caper. Fabago. A plant. See Zy- 
 
 COPIIYLLUM. 
 
 BEAN-co^, a small fishing-vessel or pilot-boat, 
 common on the sea coasts and in the rivers of 
 Portugal. It is extremely sharp f )rward, having 
 its stem bent inward above into a great curve ;
 
 703 
 
 BEAR 
 
 the stem is also plated on the fore side with iron, 
 into which a number of bolts are driven, to for- 
 tify it, and resist the stroke of another vessel, 
 which may fall athwart-hause. It is commonly 
 navigated with a large lateen sail, which extends 
 over the whole length of the deck, and is accord- 
 ingly well fitted to ply to windward. 
 
 Bean-floue, called by the Romans lomen- 
 tum, was of some repute among the ancient 
 ladies as a cosmetic, wherewith to smooth the 
 skin, and take away wrinkles. 
 
 Bean-fly, in natural history, the name given 
 by authors to a verj' beautiful fly, of a pale pur- 
 ple color, frequently found on bean-flowers. It 
 is produced from the worm or maggot called by 
 authors Mida. 
 
 Bean Goose, in ornithology. See Anas. 
 
 Bean, Kidney, in botany. See Phaseolus. 
 
 Bean Kidney, Tree. See Glycine. 
 
 Bean, Molucca, or Anacardium, the fruit of 
 a tree growing in Malabar and other parts of the 
 East Indies, supposed by some to be the Avicen- 
 nia tomentosa; by others, the bontia germinans. 
 The fruit is of a shining black color, of the shape 
 of a heart flattened, about an inch long, termi- 
 nating at one end in an obtuse point, and ad- 
 hering by the other to a wrinkled stalk. It 
 contains within two shells a kernel of a sweetish 
 taste; betwixt the shells is lodged a thick and 
 acrid juice or oil. The medicinal virtues of ana- 
 cardia have been greatly disputed. Many have 
 attributed to them the faculty of strengthening- 
 the nerves, fortifying the memory, and quicken- 
 ing the intellect. Hence a confection made 
 from them was once dignified with the title of 
 confectio sapientium ; but which others have 
 thought better deserving the name of confectio 
 stultorum, as instances are said to have occurred 
 of its having rendered people maniacal. But the 
 kernel of anacardium is not different in quality 
 from that of almonds. The ill effects attributed 
 to this fruit belong only to the oil contained be- 
 twixt the kernels, whose acrimony is so great, 
 that it is said to be employed by the Indians as 
 a caustic. This oil is of service externally for 
 tetters, freckles, and other cutaneous deformities; 
 which it removes only by exulcerating or excori- 
 ating the part, so that a new skin comes under- 
 neath. See Anacardium. 
 
 Bean Tree. See Corallodendbon. 
 
 Bean Tree, Binding. See Mimosa. 
 
 BEAR, t;. ^ v.a.^ret. I bore, or bare; 
 
 Bear'er, n. f part. pass, bore or born; Sax. 
 
 Bear'ing, ^beojmn, bejaan, beoran ; Gothic 
 
 Bear'n. Jbairan; Lat. pario ; and Heb. 
 bara, to create. Dr. Johnson remarks, that this 
 word is used with such latitude that it is not 
 easily explained. The general divisions of its 
 meaning are to yield, to bring forth ; to carry, 
 to convey, and to transport ; to endure, to suflfer, 
 to support, and to undergo. Yet is it in all 
 these various significations to be distinguished 
 from the words employed to explain it. Bear 
 conveys the idea of creating within itself; yield 
 that of giving from itself. Animals bear "their 
 young; inanimate objects yield their produce, 
 an apple tree bears apples ; the earth yields fruits. 
 Bear marks properly the natural power of bring- 
 ing forth something of its own kind ; yield is said 
 
 of the results or quantum brought forth. Shrubs 
 bear leaves, flowers, or berries, according to their 
 natural properties ; flowers yield seeds plenti- 
 fully, or otherwise, as they are influenced by 
 circumstances. The second class of meanings 
 attaching to this word, the sense of retaining 
 as well as generating, is expressed by the words 
 carry, convey, and transport ; but these are not sy- 
 nonymous to bear. To bear is simply to take 
 the weight of any substance upon one's self; to 
 carry is to remove that weight from the spot 
 where it was ; we always bear in carrying, but we 
 do not always carry when we bear. Both may be 
 applied to things as well as persons ; whatever 
 receives the weight of any thing bears it; what- 
 ever is caused to move with any thing carries 
 it. Convey and transport are employed for such 
 actions as are performed not by immediate per- 
 sonal intervention or exertion : a porter carries 
 goods on his knot ; goods are conveyed in a 
 waggon or a cart; they are transported in a ves- 
 sel. It is customary at funerals for some to bear 
 the pall, and others to carry wands or staves ; 
 the body itself is conveyed in a hearse, unless it 
 has to cross the ocean, in which case it is trans- 
 ported in a vessel. In the sense of suffering and 
 endurance, which is the third class of meanings in 
 which this word is to be understood, it is likewise 
 to be distinguished from its exegetical representa- 
 tives. To suffer is a passive and involuntary act ; 
 it denotes simply the being a receiver of evil; it is 
 therefore the condition of our being ; to bear is 
 positive and voluntary, it denotes the manner in 
 which we receive the evil. To bear is a single 
 act of the resolution, and relates only to common 
 ills ; we bear disappointments and crosses ; to 
 endure is a continued and powerful act of the 
 mind. The first object of education should be 
 to accustom children to bear contradictions and 
 crosses, that they may afterwards be enabled to 
 endure every trial and misery. To bear and en- 
 dure signify to receive becomingly the weight 
 of what befalls ourselves : to support signifies to 
 bear either our own or another's evils ; for we 
 may either support ourselves, or be supported 
 by others ; but in this latter case we bear from 
 the capacity which is within ourselves ; but we 
 support ourselves by foreign aid, that is, by the 
 consolations of religion, the participation an«' 
 condolenceof friends, and the like. — -Crabbe. An 
 almost infinite variety of shades of meaning, ap- 
 proaching to and receding from these general 
 divisions, must be observed by every one at all 
 familiar with our best English writers. 
 
 For in trauayi of hys herying hys moder was first 
 deil. -R. Glouceiter. 
 
 For shall neucr brcre here beries 2is a vyne. 
 
 Fieri Plouhman. 
 
 Lo ! a virgyn schal haue in woinbe and sche s- hal 
 here a bono, and they schulcn clppe his name Ema- 
 nuel. Wiclif. Matt. chap. i. 
 
 " I wol not fro the door wend 
 Tyll 1 have my staff." Thou bribour then hava 
 
 the todir end 
 Quod hi that was within ; and ley'd it on his bak. 
 Right in the same plase as chapmen hereth their pak. 
 Chancer. Canterbury Tale).
 
 BEAR. 
 
 703 
 
 Rut lie was mounted in his seat so high. 
 And liis wing-footed coursers him did beare 
 So fast away, that ere his ready speare. 
 He couhl advance, he farro was gone and past. 
 Yet still he him did follow everywhere. Spenser, 
 Pan may be proud that ever he begot 
 
 Such a bcllibone ; 
 And Syrinx rejoice that ever was her lot 
 
 To beare such an one. Id. Shepheard's Calendar. 
 But fay rest she, when so she doth display 
 The gate with pearles and rubies richly diglit; 
 Through which her words so wise do make their way. 
 To beare the message of her gentle sprighr. 
 
 Id. Sonnets. 
 Withhold thine indignation, mighty heaven. 
 And tempt us not to bear above our power ! 
 
 Shaktpeare. 
 For my part, I had rather bear with you, than bear 
 you ; yet I should bear no cross, if I did bear you ; 
 for I think, you have no money in your purse. Id. 
 The queen, that bore thee 
 Oftner upon her knees than on her feet. 
 Died every day she liv'd. Id. 
 
 There be some phints that bear no flower, and yet 
 bear fruit ■, there be some that bear flowers and no 
 fruit ; there be some that bear neither flowers nor 
 fruit. Bacun. 
 
 Where witli his hands did help his feet to bear. 
 Else could they ill so huge a burthen ste»r. 
 
 Fletcher's Purple Island. 
 Majestic though in ruin : sage he stood 
 With Atlantean shoulders fit to bear 
 The weight of mightiest monarchies. Milton. 
 
 No keel shall cut the waves for foreign ware 
 For every soil shall ev'ry product bear. Dryden^ 
 My message to the ghost of Priam bear ■ 
 Tell him a new Achilles sent thee there. 
 
 Id. JEneid. 
 A guest like him, a Trojan guest before. 
 In shew of friendship, sought the Spartan shore. 
 And ravish'd Helen from her husband bore. Garth. 
 
 Ye good distrest! 
 Ye noble few I who here unbending stand 
 Beneath life's pressure, yet bear up a while. 
 And what your bounded view, which only saw 
 A little part, deem'd evii, is no more ; 
 The storms of wintry time will quickly pass. 
 And one unbounded spring encircle all. Thomson. 
 
 You'll see a draggled damsel here and there 
 From Billingsgate her fishy traffic bear. Gay. 
 
 I fancy the proper means of increasing the love v.e 
 bear our native country, is to reside some time in 
 a foreign one. Shcnstone. 
 
 Let a man be brought into some such severe and 
 trj'ing situation as fixes the attention of the public on 
 his behaviour, — the first question which we put con- 
 cerning him is not what does he suffer ? but how does 
 he bear it ? If we judge him to be composed and firm, 
 resigned to providence, aud supported by conscious 
 'niegrity, his character rises, and his miseries lessen 
 'n our view BLiir. 
 
 Each bears a prize of unregarded charms. Byron. 
 
 To bear up ; to stand firm without falling ; 
 not to sink ; not to faint or fail. 
 So long as nature 
 
 Will bear vp with his exercise, so long 
 
 I daily vow to use it. Shakspeare. 
 
 Persons in distress may speak of themselves with 
 dignity ; it shews a greatness »f soul, that they bear 
 up against the storms of fortune. Broome. 
 
 The consciousness of integrity, tlie sense of a life 
 spent in doing good, will enable a man to bear up 
 under any change of circumstances. Atterbury. 
 
 When our commanders an<l soldiers were raw and 
 unexperienced v.-e lost battles and towns : yet we bore 
 up then, as the French do now ; nor was there any 
 thing decisive in their successes. Swift. 
 
 To bear with. To endure an nnpleasing<.liinf:r. 
 They are content to hear with my absence and folly. 
 
 Sidney. 
 
 Though I must be content to l>ear with those that 
 
 say you are reverend grave men ; yet they lie deadly, 
 
 that tell you, you have good faces. Sluihtpeare. 
 
 Look you lay home to him. 
 Tell him his pranks have been too broad to bear with. 
 
 Id. 
 Bear with me, then, if lawful what I ask. 
 
 Milton. 
 To bear m hand. To amuse with false pre- 
 tences ; to deceive. 
 
 Your daughter, whom she bore in liand to love 
 With such integrity, she did confess. 
 Was as a scorpion to her sight. Shakspeare. 
 
 His sickness, age, and impotence. 
 Was falsely bore in hand. Id. 
 
 He repaired to Bruges, desiring of the states of 
 Bruges to enter peaceably into their town, with a re- 
 tinue fit for his estate ; and bearing them in /uind, that 
 he was to communicate with them of matters of great 
 importance, for their good. Bavun. 
 
 All which I suffer, playing with their hopes. 
 And am content to win them into profit. 
 And look upon their kindness, and take more. 
 And look on that, still beariny them in hand. 
 
 Ben Jonson. 
 It is no wonder, that some would bear the world in 
 hand, that the apostle's design and meaning is for 
 presbytery, though his words are for episcopacy. 
 
 South. 
 To bear off. To carrj' away. 
 I will respect thee as a father, if 
 Thou bear'st my life o^ hence. Shakspeare. 
 
 The sun views half the earth on either way, 
 And here brings on, and there bears off the day. 
 
 Creech. 
 Give but the word, we'll snatch this damsel up. 
 And bear her off. Addison. Cato. 
 
 My soul grows desperate. 
 I'll bear her off. A. Philips, 
 
 To bear out. To support ; to maintain ; to de- 
 fend. 
 
 I hope your warrant will bear out the deed. 
 
 Shakspeare. 
 
 I can once or twice a quarter bear out a knave 
 
 against an honest man. Id. 
 
 Changes are never without danger, unless the 
 
 prince be able to bear out his actions by power. 
 
 Sir J. Heyirard. 
 Quoth Sidrophel, I do not doubt. 
 To find friends that will bear ine ont. 
 
 Hitdibrat. 
 Company only can bear a man mit in an ill thing. 
 
 South. 
 I doubted whether that occasion could bear me out 
 in the confidence of giving your ladyship any farther 
 trouble. Temple. 
 
 To bear a brain. To exert attention. Inge- 
 nuity or memory. 
 
 My lord and you wire then at Mantua : 
 Nay, I do bear a brain. 
 
 Sluihspeare. Romeo and Juliet.
 
 704 
 
 BEAR. 
 
 But, still, take you heed, have a vigilant eye — 
 Well, sir, let me alone, I'll bear a brain. 
 
 All Fools, Old Play, iv. 177. 
 
 To hear six and six. An obscure phrase, occur- 
 ring in the Spanish Curate of Beaumont and 
 Fletcher. 
 
 He's the most arrant beast. 
 
 Mell. He may be more beast. 
 
 Jam. Let him bear siu: and six that all may blaze 
 him. Spa?i. Cur. ii. 3. 
 
 That the object is to make him a horned beast is 
 plain from the context, but by what allusion is not so 
 clear. He is to bear six and six, as his arms. After 
 one or two unsatisfactory conjectures, it was suggested 
 to me that the expression most probably alluded to 
 the horns of a ram, which by the aid of a little fancy 
 may be considered as two figures of six, placed back 
 to back 9 6. That this is the true interpretation there 
 seems no reason to doubt. Nares. Glossary 
 
 Bearing-Cloth. The mantle or cloth with 
 which a child is usually covered when carried to 
 church to be baptised, or produced among the 
 gossips by the nurse. 
 
 Here's a sight for thee ; look there, a bearing-cloth 
 for a squire's child ; look thee here, take up, take up 
 
 boy ; open't. 
 Bear', 
 Bear'baiting, 
 Bear'garden, 
 
 BEAR'ilERD, 
 
 Bear'ish, 
 
 Bear'sleek, 
 
 Bear'like, 
 
 Bear'skin, 
 
 Bear' WARD, 
 
 Beau'whelp. 
 
 ^ 
 
 J 
 
 Shakspeare. 
 Sax. bejia, Germ, huer, 
 Lat. ursns. Others derive 
 it from the Greek ipu^og, 
 which they interpret piLo- 
 siun villosum (ursus, quasi 
 hiusus, hirsutus, pilis hor- 
 rens.) A hairy sliaggy ani- 
 mal, a she bear, shaggy, 
 and of horrid aspect. 
 
 Some have falsely reported, that bears bring their 
 young into the world shapeless, and that their dams 
 lick them into form. Calmet. 
 
 A cruel beare, the which an infant bore 
 Betwixt his bloodiejawes besprinkled all with gore. 
 
 Spenser. 
 
 I would I had bestowed that time on the tongues, 
 that I have in fencing, dancing, and bear-baiting. O, 
 had I but followed the arts. 
 
 SJuikspeare. Twelfth Night. 
 They have tied me to a stake I cannot fly. 
 
 But bear-like I must fight the course. Id. Macbeth. 
 
 Virtue is of so little regard in these costermonger 
 times, that true valour is turned bear-herd. 
 
 Id. Henry IV. 
 
 Like to a chaos, or an unlick'd bear-whelp, 
 That carries no impression like the dam. Id. Hen. VI. 
 
 Call hither to the stake my two brave bears. 
 
 Bid Salisbury and Warwick come to me. 
 
 — Are these thy bears ; we'll bait thy hears to death. 
 And manacle the hearward in their chains. Id. 
 
 Thou'dst shun a bear ; 
 But if thy flight lay tow'rd the raging sea, 
 Thou'dst meet the bear i' th' mouth. Id. 
 
 Cor. O, by your leave, sir, 
 I must be bold to raise you ; else your physic 
 Will turn to futher sickness. 
 
 Mel. Physic, bear-leech? 
 
 Cor. Yes; physic! You are mad. Ford. 
 
 The worsted bear came oil" wilh storo 
 
 Of bloody wounds, but all before : 
 
 For as Achilles dipt in pond. 
 
 Was anabaptiz'd, free from wound. 
 
 Made proof against dead-doing steel 
 
 All over but the pagan heel — 
 
 So did our champion's arms defend 
 
 All of him but the latter end. Butlor'a Iliidihras. 
 
 His surcoat was a bcarshin on his back. Dryden. 
 
 In our own language wc seem to allude to this de- 
 generacy of human nature, when we call men, by 
 way of reproach, sheepish, bearish, &c. Harris. 
 
 I must propose some methods for the improvement 
 of the bear-garden, by dismissing all the bodily actors 
 to that quarter. Spectator. 
 
 Our nobility also kept their bear-ward. Pennant. 
 
 Bear, the name of two constellations, called 
 the greater and lesser hear; in the tail of the 
 lesser hear is the pole star. 
 The chiding billow seems to pelt the clouds. 
 The wind-shak'd surge with high and monstrous 
 
 main. 
 Seems to cast waters on the burning bear. 
 And quench the guards of the ever fixed pole, 
 I never did like molestation view 
 On the enchafed flood. Shakspeare. 
 
 Others derive it from the bear 
 
 That's fixed in northern hemisphere. 
 
 And round about his pole does make 
 
 A circle like a bear at stake. 
 
 That at the chain's and wheels about 
 
 And overturns the rabble rout. Butler's IhuUbras. 
 E'en then when Troy was by the Greeks o'crthrown 
 The bear oppos'd to bright Orion shone. Creech. 
 
 Bear, in astronomy. See Ursa. 
 
 Bear, in zoology. See Ursus. 
 
 Bear, in heraldry; this animal occurs as a 
 cliarge in coats of arms, as, ' He bearetli, or^ a 
 bear passant, sahle ; by the name of Fitzourse :' 
 and rampant, as in fig. 1. 
 
 Fig. 1. Fig. 2. 
 
 Bears' heads are also borne in coat armour 
 mostly erased, as in fig. 2. ' Argent, a chevron 
 between three bears' heads erased, sahle, muzzled, 
 or ; by the name of Pennarth.' 
 
 Bear, Orper of the, was a military order in 
 Switzerland, erected by the emperor Frederic II. 
 in 1213, by way of acknowledgment for the ser- 
 vice the Swiss had done him, and in favor of the 
 abbey of St. Gall. To the collar of the order 
 hung a medal, on which was represented a bear, 
 raised on an eminence of earth. 
 
 Bear, Sea. See Phoca. 
 
 Bear Island, an island in Bantry bay, Ireland, 
 six miles in length, and one and a half broad, 
 hilly and rugged, where batteries have been 
 erected for the defence of the bay. Distant 
 twelve miles from Bantry. Long. 9° 45' W., lat. 
 51° 35' N. 
 
 Bear Island, a small island in the Atlantic, 
 on the coast of Main. Long. 68° 20' W., lat. 
 44° 6' N. 
 
 Bear Lake, Black, a lake of North America, 
 in long. 107^- VV., lat. 53^ N. The navigation is 
 full of impediments from islands and rapids. 
 
 Bear Lake, Great, a considerable lake in the 
 north-west of America, near the arctic circle. 
 The North-west Expedition reached it in ttie 
 summer of 1820, and lieutenant Franklin and his
 
 BEARDS. 
 
 70L 
 
 party wintered here. In the ensuing spring tncy 
 attempted to reach the ocean by tlie Copper- 
 mine river; but, unable to accom])lish their ob- 
 ject, they returned to this lake the same year in 
 great distress, and passed a second winter in the 
 neighbourhood. 
 
 Bf.au Town, in Carolina county, Maryland, 
 lies about seven miles north from Greensburgh, 
 and about fifteen miles south-east from Chester- 
 town. 
 
 Bear's Breech, in botany. See Acanthus. 
 
 Beau's College, a jocular expression for 
 the bear-garden, commonly called Paris garden 
 
 From the diet and the knowledge 
 Of the students in heart' college. 
 
 Ben Jwnaon. Mask of Gips. 
 
 Bear's Ear, in botany, a name sometimes 
 given to the primula villosa, or auricula ; also to 
 the saxifraga sarmentosa, or Chinese saxifrage. 
 
 Bear's Foot, a name given to the helleborus 
 foetidus. 
 
 Bear's Flesh was much esteemed by the 
 ancients : even at diis day the paw of a bear, 
 salted and smoked, is served up at the table of 
 princes. 
 
 Bear's Grease was formerly esteemed a 
 sovereign remedy against cold disorders, es- 
 pecially rheumatisms. It is now much used in 
 dressing ladies and gentlemen's hair. 
 
 Bear's Skin affords a fur in great esteem, and 
 on which depends a considerable article of com- 
 merce, being used in housings, on coach-boxes, 
 &,c. In some countries clothes are made of it, 
 more especially bags wherein to keep tlie feet 
 warm in severe colds. Of the skins of bears' 
 cubs are made gloves, muffs, and the like. 
 
 To Bear a Body. A color is said to bear a 
 body in painting, when it is capable of being 
 ground so fine, and mixing with the oil so en- 
 tirely, as to seem only a very thick oil of the same 
 color. 
 
 BEARD, V. & n."^ The applications of this 
 Be'arded, ^ word are better under- 
 
 Beard'less. j stood than its etymology ; 
 
 the full obvious meaning of it is the hair that 
 grows on tlie lips and chin. It is supposed to 
 be derived from the German baren, to show or 
 manifest, because the beard is an indication of 
 manhood : but this is not to my mind satisfac- 
 tory ; its metaphorical application is to the sharp 
 prickles growing on the ears of corn ; to the 
 barb of an arrow ; it also describes the hairy 
 tuft that grows from the chin of some animals ; 
 the heard of a horse is that part which bears the 
 curb of the bridle ; the length of the beard marks 
 age ; to beard also is to take or pluck by the 
 ieurd in contempt or anger ; to oppose to the 
 face ; to set at open defiance ; adopted, accord- 
 ing to Mr. Stevens, from romance ; in the old 
 language of which it signified, to cut off the beard ; 
 beardless, without a beard ; a boy. 
 
 A merchant was there with a forkpd herd. 
 
 Chaucer. Prologue to the Canterbury Tales. 
 
 Upon the cop right of his noee he hade 
 A wert, and thereon stode a tuft of heres. 
 Rede as the bristles of a sowes eres. Id. 
 
 Art thou the caytive that defycst me. 
 And for this mayd, whose party thou dost take ? 
 Wilt give thy beard, though it but little be ? 
 Yet shall it not her lockes for raunsome fro me 
 free. Speneer. 
 
 He that hath a beard is more than a youth ; and 
 he that hath no beard is less than a man. Shakspcare. 
 shall a beardless boy, 
 A cockor'd silken wanton, brave our fields. 
 And flesh his spirit in a warlike soil, 
 Mocking the air with colours idly spread. 
 And find no check. Id, 
 
 No man so potent breathes upon the ground. 
 But I will beard him. Id. 
 
 and began to hem him round 
 
 A Franklein was in this compagnie 
 White was his berd as is the dayesie. 
 
 His berd as any sowe or fox was rede. 
 And thereto brodc as though it were a ?pade. 
 Vol. III. 
 
 Id. 
 
 With ported spears, as thick as when a field 
 Of Ceres ripe for harvest waving bends 
 Her bearded grove of ears, which way the wind 
 Sways them. Milton. 
 
 Ere on thy chin the springing beard began. 
 To spread a doubtful down, and promise man. 
 
 Prior. 
 Some thin remains of chastity appear'd, 
 Ev'n under Jove, but Jove without a beard. 
 
 Dryden. 
 
 Would it not be insufferable for a professor to have 
 
 his authority, of forty years standing, confirmed by 
 
 general tradition and a reverend beard, overturned by 
 
 an upstart novelist? Locke. 
 
 Paints, d'ye say ? 
 Why she lays it on with a trowel — Then she has a 
 great beard, that bristles through it, and makes her 
 look as if she were plastered with lime and hair. 
 
 Congreve. Double Dealer. 
 
 The beard, conformable to the notion of my friend 
 Sir Roger, was for many ages looked upon as the type 
 of wisdom. . Lucian more than once rallies the phi- 
 losophers of his time, who endeavoured to rival one 
 another in beards ; and represents a learned man who 
 stood for a professorship in philosophy, as unqualified 
 for it by the shortness of his beard. Spectator. 
 
 Girt with many a baron bold. 
 Sublime their starry fronts they rear ; 
 And gorgeous dames, and statesmen old 
 In bearded majesty, appear. Gray. 
 
 The artificial part of a feather is the beard, or as 
 it is sometimes I believe called, the vane. By the 
 beards are meant, what are fastened on each side of 
 the stem, and what constitute the breadth of the 
 feather ; what we usually strip off from one side or 
 both when we make a pen. 
 
 Paleyt Natural Theology. 
 
 But if thy beard had manlier length. 
 And if thy hand had skill and strength, 
 I'd joy to see thee break a lance. 
 Albeit against my own perchance. 
 
 Byron. Bride of Aby dot. 
 
 1 should have bearded him in halls of prido, 
 I should have mated him in fields of death \ 
 Not stolen upon his secret bower of peace. 
 And breathed a serpent's venom on his flower. 
 
 Maturin'i Bertram. 
 
 Beauts. ' Neither errors nor beards,' as arch- 
 bishop Tillotson says, ' are inconveniences lately 
 sprung up in the world.' As the distinguishing 
 sign of mature manhood, the beard has in all 
 ages commanded attention, and received particu- 
 lar veneration from the less civilised part of man- 
 
 2 Z
 
 706 
 
 BEARDS. 
 
 kind. But Moses is the earliest legislator on the 
 subject. The command which God gave by him 
 to the Israelites, ' Tliou shalt not mar the corners 
 of thy beard' (Lev. 1 9, 27.), seems clearly to al- 
 lude to some prenous well-known custom, 
 probably of the Egyptians. Maimonides, as 
 quoted by Whitby, describes the 'five corners' of 
 the beard, ' none of which,' says he, ' much less 
 all, they might shave off, as the manner of the 
 idolatrous priests was.' More Nevoch, c. xxxvii. 
 Herodotus confirms this with regard to the Egyp- 
 tian priests, who, as he tells us, shaved the head, 
 chin, and whole body. Accordingly, most of the 
 Egyptian figures are without beard. He further 
 informs us, that in time of calamity, they suifered 
 their beard and hair to grow. The Jews also, 
 in time of mourning, neglected to trim their 
 beards, that is, to cut off what grew superfluous 
 on the upper lips and cheeks. But occasionally 
 manifested their grief in great afflictions by 
 plucking off the hair of their beard. The vene- 
 ration of the Jews for this appendage of man- 
 hood, in the brightest period of their history, is 
 strongly exemplified in the indignation which 
 was felt by the ambassadors of David, when they 
 were outraged in this respect by Hanun the Am- 
 monite, 2 Sam. X. ' The men,' it is said, ' were 
 greatly ashamed,' and ' the children of Ammon 
 stank before David.' We were lately much 
 amused with the argument of a learned modern 
 Jew for the obligation of wearing his beard : 
 ' two of the strongest implications,' he said, ' of 
 the laws of his people required it ; the above com- 
 mand, Lev.xix. 27", not to mar its corners, which 
 he contended could only apply when the beard 
 was worn ; and the general precept, Deut. xxii. 5, 
 forbidding either sex to wear that which 'per- 
 taineth' to the other — a beardless face being, ac- 
 cording to nature, he insisted, a woman's face.' 
 
 The Assyrians, says Strabo, xvi., like the 
 Egyptians, permitted their beards to grow in 
 seasons of grief. The Persians, on the contrary, 
 shaved not only themselves in honor of the dead, 
 but docked the tails, and cropped the manes, of 
 their horses and mules. Compare Her. ix. 24, 
 II. K. 45. 
 
 According to the fables of the Greeks, when 
 Thetis wished to revenge the wrongs of her son, 
 she approached the knees of Jupiter with a kiss, 
 and touched his beard in supplication. In the 
 same manner Dolon would have besought pity 
 from Diomede ; and if he could have touched the 
 warrior's beard, his life, perhaps, would have 
 been secure. II. k. 454. 
 
 Athenaus observes that the Greeks always wore 
 their beards till the time of Alexander ; and that 
 the first who cut it at Athens ever after bore the 
 addition of Kopatj^, shaven, on medals, lie re- 
 cords a sarcasm of Diogenes, who asked a smooth 
 chined voluptuary ' whether he quarrelled with 
 nature for making him a man instead of a 
 woman?' xiii. 2. Plutarch states that Alexander 
 commanded the Macedonians to be shaven, lest 
 the length of their beards should give a handle 
 to their enemies. But his father, as well as 
 Amyntas and Archelaus, his predecessors, are 
 represented on medals witliout beards. The 
 Greek philosopiiers distinguished themselves 
 from the vulgar by their long beards : the custom, 
 
 however, was not invariable ; for the scholiast of 
 Aristophanes, Nub. 120, asserts that the ancient 
 philosophers shaved their beards. The Greeks 
 continued to shave till the time of Justinian, 
 under whose empire long beards came again into 
 fashion, and so continued till Constantinople 
 was taken by the Turks. The Roman philoso- 
 phers affected to preserve the distinctive charac- 
 ter of the mantle and long beard. Horace 
 describes them : 
 
 * Tempore quo me 
 
 Solatus jussit sapientem pascere barbam.* 
 
 Sermon, 1. ii. sat. iii. v. 34|j 
 
 and Aulus Gellius and Lucian express themselves 
 in a similar manner. Persius seems to have been 
 so convinced of the beard's being the symbol of 
 wisdom, that he thouglit he could not bestow a 
 greater encomium on Socrates than calling him 
 ' Magistrum barbatum.' 
 
 From the building of the city, till the year of 
 its foundation 454, barbers are said to have been 
 unknown at Rome. They were first imported 
 from Sicily by Publius Licinius. There is some 
 contradiction however on this point among the 
 ancient writers. Pliny, vii. 59, Aulus Gellius, 
 iii. 4., and Varro, de Re Rust. ii. 2., concur in 
 the foregoing statement. Livy, on the contrary, 
 among the other signs of popular mourning, 
 after the execution of Manlius Capitolinus, 
 which took place in the year U. C. 369, enume- 
 rates the letting the beard grow, which, unless 
 shaving had been customary, could not have 
 been noticed. Scipio Africanus is said to have 
 been the first daily shaver at Rome. Slaves 
 wore their beards and hair long ; but, when 
 manumitted, shaved their heads in the temple of 
 Feronia, and put on a cap, or ' pileus,' as a 
 badge of liberty. Those who escaped from ship- 
 wreck, shaved their heads; and persons acquitted 
 of a capital crime, cut their hair and shaved, and 
 went 'to the capitol to return thanks to Jupiter. 
 The Roman emperors shaved till the time of 
 Adrian, who retained the mode of wearing the 
 beard, as Plutarch tells us, to hide the scars in 
 his face. 
 
 According to Suetonius, Calig. 10., the young 
 Romans were first shaved when the toga virilis 
 was assumed. Macrobius, Somn. Scip. i. G., 
 says it was about the age of twenty-one. Au- 
 gustus did not shave before the age of twenty- 
 five. Young men with a long down, or ' lanugo,* 
 upon the chin, were called 'juvenes barbatuli,* 
 or ' benb barbati.' The day on which they first 
 shaved, among the Greeks and Romans, was a 
 festival ; visits of ceremony were paid them ; and 
 they received presents from their friends, as 
 Juvenal, Sat. iii. 186, 
 
 ' lUe metit barbam, crinem hie deponit amati : 
 Plena domus libis geaialibus.' 
 
 The first growth of the beard being consecrated 
 to some god, usually to the Lares. Nero conse- 
 crated his in a golden box, set with pearls, to 
 Jupiter Capitolinus. 
 
 Persons of respectability had their children 
 shaved the first time by others of the same, or 
 greater quality, wlio by this means became god- 
 fathers, or adoptive fathers, of the children : a 
 custom which was handed down to Rome Chris-
 
 BEARDS. 
 
 70-/ 
 
 tian, in which a person became godfather of a child 
 by barely touching his beard : thus historians 
 relate, that one of the articles of the treaty be- 
 tween Alaric and Clovis was, that Alaric should 
 touch the beard of Clovis, and become his god- 
 father. This was also an ancient form of tokens 
 on oath, Aumoin, lib. iv. 
 
 Ecclesiastical discipline has varied much on 
 the article of beards : sometimes they have been 
 enjoined on the clergy from a notion of too 
 much effeminacy in shaving, and that a long 
 beaid was more suitable to the ecclesiastic gra- 
 vity ; at other times they are forbidden, from the 
 supposed danger of pride lurking beneath a 
 venerable beard. The Greek and Romish churches 
 long disputed on this important matter. Since 
 the time of their separation, the Romanists seem 
 to have given more into the practice of shaving, 
 by way of opposition to the Greeks ; and have 
 even made some express constitutions * de ra- 
 dendis barbis.' The Greeks, on the contrary, 
 espouse very zealously the cause of long beards, 
 and are extremely scandalised at the beardless 
 images of saints in the Roman churches : There 
 are still extant prayers used in the latter on the 
 solemnity of consecrating the beard to God, when 
 an ecclesiastic was shaven. 
 
 The barbarous nations of Europe appear very 
 generally to have shaved, some of them reserving 
 the mustachios. When the Franks made them- 
 selves masters of Gaul, and assumed the au- 
 thority of the Romans ; the bondsmen were ex- 
 pressly ordered to shave their chins ; a law which 
 continued in force until the entire abolishment 
 of servitude in France, So likewise, in the 
 time of the first race of their kings, a long beard 
 was a sign of nobility and freedom. Princes 
 were emulous of having the largest beard ; Egic- 
 hard, secretary to Charlemagne, speaking of the 
 last kings of the first race, says, they came to 
 the assemblies in the Champ de Mars in a car- 
 riage drawn by oxen, and sat on the throne with 
 their hair dishevelled, and a very long beard, 
 crine profuso, barba submissa, solio residerent, 
 et speciem dominantis effingcrent. To touch 
 any one's beard, or cut off a bit of it, was, 
 among the first French, the most sacred pledge 
 of protection and confidence. For a long time 
 all letters that came from the sovereign had, for 
 greater sanction, three hairs of his beard in the 
 seal. There was long in being a charter of 1211, 
 which concludes with the following words : 
 Quod ut ratum et stabile perseveret in posterum, 
 praesentis scripto sigilli mei robur apposui cum 
 tribus pilis barbae mese. In the tenth century 
 Robert of France, the famous rival of Charles 
 the Simple, that it might be the more con- 
 spicuous to his soldiers when he was in the 
 field, used to let his long white beard hang down 
 on the outside of his cuirass. French historians 
 describe the beard of Henry IV., deservedly 
 styled the Great, as diffusing over the counte- 
 nance of that prince a high degree of amiable 
 openness, and majestic sweetness. By the pre- 
 mature death of that prince, the beard, hitherto 
 so highly respected, experienced a sudden and 
 fatal revolution. Louis XIII. mounted the throne 
 of his father without one. Every one concluded 
 immediately, that the courtiers, seeing their 
 
 young king with a smooth chin, would look upon 
 their own as too rough. The conjecture proved 
 right ; for they presently reduced their beards to 
 simple whiskers, and a small tuft of hair under 
 the nether lip. The people at first would not 
 follow this dangerous example, and the duke of 
 Sully never would adopt it. lie kept his long 
 beard, and appeared with it at court, and ob- 
 serving himself ridiculed by the young, said 
 to the king, ' Sir, when your father, of glorious 
 memory, did me the honor to consult me on his 
 great and important affairs, the first thing he did 
 was to send away all the buffoons and stage- 
 dancers of his court.' Whiskers now attained their 
 highest degree of favor, at the expense of expiring 
 beards. A fine black whisker, elegantly turned 
 up, was a very powerful mark of dignity with the 
 fair sex, and it was no uncommon thing for a fa- 
 vorite lover to have his whiskers turned up, 
 combed, and pomatumed, by his mistress ; for this 
 purpose, a man of fashion took care to be always 
 provided with every little necessary article, espe- 
 cially whisker wax. Whiskers were still in 
 fashion in the beginning of Louis XIV's reign. 
 That prince, and all the great men of his reign, 
 took a pride in wearing them. They were the 
 ornament of Turenne, Cond(5, Colbert, Corneille, 
 Molierc, &c. But they now underwent several 
 changes both in form and name : there were 
 Spanish, Turkish, guard dagger, royal whiskers, 
 &c., until their smallness proclaimed their ap- 
 proaching departure. In English history we 
 have no such copious details on this mighty 
 subject. Although the ancient Britons are sup- 
 posed to have shaved all but the upper lip, 
 Edward the confessor is represented, on his great 
 seal, with a large beard and mustachios. When 
 spies, according to William of Malmesbury, were 
 sent by Harold into the camp of William I. they 
 returned with an assurance of victory, since their 
 enemies were priests, they said, and not soldiers, 
 being all shaven. William the conqueror, on 
 his seal, appears with a short beard and musta- 
 chios. Among the edicts which he imposed upon 
 the English, few were considered more op- 
 pressive than that which enjoined the practice o 
 shaving. • Like a similar edict of Peter I. o 
 Russia, it was perpetually disobeyed, and the 
 hatred of it led in many cases to open insurrec- 
 tion. The Romish clergy, it seems, assumed tlie 
 right to legislate for princes on this topic among 
 others. The beard of Henry I. was loudly con- 
 demned by them ; Orderic Vitalis and Serlo both 
 denounced it from the pulpit. The king, to avoid 
 these fulminations, shaved the offending part; 
 yet within twenty years we again find it on the 
 effigy of Henry II. on his seal. In the reign of 
 Henry VIII. it is well known, Sir Thomas More 
 exhibited on the block this memorable orna- 
 ment : and perceiving it was likely to bo cut by 
 the axe of the executioner; took it away, suying. 
 my beard has not been guilty of treason : it 
 would be an injustice to punish it. In Shaks- 
 peare we read of ' your straw-colored beard, your 
 orange-tawny beard, your purple in-grain bt-urd, 
 and your perfect yellow.' Bottom's Histrionic 
 Company are instructed to have ' good strings 
 to their boards ;' an advice which has escaped 
 explanation. ' A beard of the General's cut' is
 
 ^08 
 
 BEARDS. 
 
 noticed in Henry V. ' A great round beard' is 
 disapproved of in Tiie Merry Wives of Windsor, 
 and compared to ' a glover's paring knife.' Charles 
 I. wore mustachios and a short peaked beard : 
 Charles II. mustachios alone : since the Revolu- 
 tion, except among our modern soldiery, the face 
 has been entirely smooth : — The Spaniards have 
 a proverb, which perhaps suggested the new 
 fashion in the Hussar regiment. Desde que no 
 hay barba, no hay mas alma. ' Since we have 
 lost our beards, we have lost our souls.' Among 
 the European nations that have been most 
 curious in beards and whiskers, none have been 
 more distinguished than Spain. 
 
 We cannot pursue the details of this subject 
 much farther. The Portuguese, whose national 
 character is similar to tliat of the Spaniards, have 
 imitated them in this respect. We read, that in 
 the reign of Catherine queen of Portugal, when 
 John de Castro had taken the castle of Diu, in 
 India, he was under the necessity of borrowing 
 from the inhabitants of Goa a thousand pistoles 
 for the maintenance of his fleet ; and that, as a 
 security for the loan, he sent them one of his 
 whiskers, telling them ' all the gold in the world 
 cannot equal the value of this national ornament 
 of my valor ; and I deposit it in your hands as 
 a security for the money.' The inhabitants of 
 Goa, it is said, generously returned both the 
 money and his whisker. Le Cornte observes, 
 that the Chinese affect long beards extravagantly; 
 but nature has baulked them, and only given 
 tliem very little ones, which, however, they cul- 
 tivate with infinite care; the Europeans are 
 strangely envied by them on this account. Among 
 the Turks it is more infamous for any one to 
 have his beard cut off, than among us to be pub- 
 licly whipt or branded with a hot iron. There 
 are many people in tiiat country, who would 
 prefer death to this kind of punishment. The 
 Arabs make the preservation of their beards a 
 capital point of religion, because Mahomet never 
 cut his. Hence the razor is never drawn over 
 the Grand Seignior's face. The Persians, who 
 clip them, and shave above the jaw, are reputed 
 heretics. It is likewise a mark of authority and 
 liberty among them, as well as among the Turks. 
 They who serve in the seraglio, have their beards 
 shaven as a sign of their servitude. They do 
 not suffer it to grow till the sultan as a reward 
 has set them at liberty. 
 
 Of that singular variety of our race, bearded 
 women, many marvellous stories are told. He- 
 rodotus speaks of a people above Halicarnassus, 
 the Pedasenes, amongst whom the chin of the 
 priestess of Minerva regularly budded with a 
 large beard, when any great public calamity im- 
 pended. Her. i. 175. Hippocrates tells us of 
 two bearded women of respectability, Phactusa 
 of Abdera, the wife of Pythias, and Hamysia of 
 Thasos, the wife of Gorgippus. Generally, where 
 this peculiarity has occurred, the menses have 
 totally ceased. Eusebius Nieurembergius men- 
 tions a woman, who had a beard reaching to her 
 navel ; and Bartholin speaks of a bearded woman 
 well known at Copenhagen. Whether it con- 
 "vinced his imperial majesty that beards no longer 
 distinguished men, and therefore produced his 
 decree against them, we are not told ; but a woman 
 
 is said to have been taken in 1724, by the Prussian 
 army in the battle of Pultowa, and carried to 
 Petersburg, where she was presented to the Czar, 
 Peter I. whose beard measured a yard and a half. 
 We read in the Trevoux Dictionary, that there was 
 a woman seen at Paris, who had not only a bushy 
 beard on her face, but her body likewise covered 
 all over with hair. The great Margaret, the 
 governess of the Netherlands, is said also to 
 have had a veiy long stiff beard, on which she 
 prided herself; and preserved it with the 
 greatest care. In the nursery of Albert, Duke 
 of Bavaria, in the time of Wolfius, there was 
 reported to be a virgin with a large black beard ; 
 but these good ladies, young or old, have been 
 singularly rare in modern times, and in all well- 
 authenticated history. 
 
 Beards, in entomology, are two snaall, ob- 
 long, fleshy bodies, placed just above the trunk, 
 as in the gnats, and in the moths and butterflies. 
 
 Beards of Comets. See Comet. 
 
 Beards of Horses. The part underneath 
 the lower mandible, on the outside and above 
 the chin, which bears the curb, is called the 
 beard or chuck. It should have but little flesh 
 upon it, without any chops, hardness, or swell- 
 ing ; and be neither too high raised nor too flat, 
 but such as the curb may rest in its right place. 
 
 Beards of Muscles, Oysters, &c. denote 
 assemblages of threads or hairs, by which those 
 animals fasten themselves to stones. The hairs 
 of this beard terminate in a flat spongy sub- 
 stance, which being applied to the surface of a 
 stone, sticks thereto, like the wet leather used by 
 boys in what they call a sucker. 
 
 Beard (John), an English actor and singer, 
 was brought up a sizer in the king's chapel. In 
 1737 he made his first appearance on the stage, 
 at Drury-lane, in the character of Sir John Love- 
 rule, in the Devil to Pay. About two years 
 after he married lady Henrietta Herbert, daugh- 
 ter of the earl of Waldegrave, and widow of lord 
 Edward Herbert; but this connexion brought 
 him little fortune, and though he gave up the 
 stage, for some time, he returned again to it, until 
 1758, when he joined with Mr. Rich, whose 
 daughter he had married on the death of his for- 
 mer wife. He died in 1763, aged seventy-four. 
 
 Bearded Brothers, fratres barbati, are par- 
 ticularly used in ecclesiastical writers for those 
 otherwise called fratres conversi in the order of 
 Grammont and of the Cistercians. They took 
 this denomination because they were allowed to 
 wear their beards, contrary to the rules of the 
 professed monks. 
 
 Bearded Husk, among florists, a husk which 
 is hairy on the edges, as that of the rose, &c. 
 
 Bearded Venus. The Romans paid their 
 devotions to a bearded Venus, Veneri barbatae, 
 supposed to have been of both sexes. A statue 
 of her was found in the Isle of Cyprus. 
 
 Bearers, at funerals, is applied to the sup- 
 porters of the pall. The ancients had peculiar 
 orders or officers of bearers, called by the Greeks 
 KOTTtaroi ; by the Romans, lecticarii. The ves- 
 pillones, or bajuli, were a lower sort of bearers, 
 appointed for persons of inferior rank. 
 
 Bearers, gestantes, in writers of the middle 
 age, are sometimes used for a child's gossips. 
 
 I
 
 BEA 
 
 709 
 
 BEA 
 
 because tliey hold ll\e infant in their arms, and 
 present him to the priest in the ceremony of 
 baptism. 
 
 Bearers, in heraldry, or supporters, are cer- 
 tain figures, standing on the scroll, and placed 
 by the side of an escutcheon, which they seem 
 to bear up. They are, chiefly, figures of beasts : 
 figures of human creatures, used for the like pur- 
 pose, are more properly called tenants. Some 
 make another difference between tenant and 
 bearer, or supporter : when the shield is borne 
 by a single animal, it is called tenant ; when by 
 two, they are called bearers, or supporters. The 
 figures of things inanimate, sometimes placed 
 aside of escutcheons, but not touchmg, or seeming 
 to bear them, though sometimes called bearers, 
 are more properly called cotises. Bearers have 
 formerly been taken from such animals as were 
 borne in the shields ; and sometimes they have 
 been chosen as bearing some allusion to the 
 names of those whose arms they are made to 
 support. ¥. Menestrier traces their origin to the 
 ancient tournaments, in which the knights caused 
 theii shields to be carried by servants or pages 
 under the disguise of lions, bears, griffins, black- 
 amoors, &:c. who also held and guarded the 
 escutcheons, which the knights were obliged to 
 expose to public view some time before the lists 
 were opened. But Sir G. Mackenzie says, that 
 the first origin and use of them are derived from 
 the custom of leading such a? are invested witli 
 any great honor to the prince who confers it, and 
 of his being supported by two of the quality 
 when he receives the symbols of such honor : 
 and, in remembrance of that solemnity, his arms 
 weie afterwards supported by any two creatures 
 which he might choose. See Supporters. 
 
 Bearers, in horticulture, denote the fruit 
 branches, or such as bear fruit. The bearers, or 
 bearing branches of an apple-tree, and the like, 
 are found to be rougher, and fuller of asperities 
 in their bark, than the other branches. 
 
 Bearers of a Biil of Exchange, denote 
 the persons in whose hands it is, and in favor of 
 whom the last order or indorsement was made. 
 \\ hen a bill, or order for money, is said to be 
 payable to bearer, it is understood to be payable 
 to him who first offers himself after it becomes 
 due. To be paid a bill or order of this kind, 
 there needs neither indorsement nor transfer; yet 
 it is proper to know to whom it is paid. 
 
 Bearing, in heraldry, a term used to express 
 a coat of arms, or the figures of armories, by 
 which the nobility and gentry are distinguished 
 from the other ranks of the people, and from one 
 another. These signs of nobility with us are 
 evidently a copy of the statues and images among 
 the ancient Komans, whicli they used to expose 
 before their houses on public days, and carried 
 before the body at the funeral of a great person. 
 These statues among them bore the resemblances 
 of their noble ancestors. And a-s our coats of 
 arms evidently were brought in the place of them, 
 we may date the origin of heraldry in England, 
 as now practised, from the time of the subversion 
 of the Roman empire by the Goths and Vandals; 
 who, as tliey destroyed many liberal arts, so they 
 seem, in return, to have given birth to the science 
 of heraldry ; for which their posterity, it must 
 
 be confessed, are under few obligations. These 
 warlike nations, having subdued tiie Roman eiQ- 
 pire and raised their glory by military service, 
 became fond of the achievements of their ances- 
 tors and great men, and derived their ensigns 
 and titles of honor from what concerned a sol- 
 dier. They first distinguished the whole com- 
 munity into three ranks, which they named 
 according to the different orders of military, 
 miles, eques, and scutifer; and their posterity, 
 willing to commemorate their honors, reserved 
 to themselves their military ensigns, and these 
 became what we call bearings, or arms, the 
 marks of gentility or of families, some one of 
 which had once deserved an elevation above the 
 common rank of men. While the direct de- 
 scendant of this honorable person carried his 
 ensigns of honor for his distinction, the collateral 
 branches also were ambitious of presen'ing the 
 memory of their having belonged to such an 
 honorable house ; and therefore assumed the 
 same figure, but with some difference, to dis- 
 tinguish the distance from the original claim. 
 In process of time, other families, who had de- 
 served as well of their prince and country, 
 whether in civil or military affairs, became de- 
 sirous of the same sort of distinction, by way of 
 perpetual memorial of their services ; and upon 
 this occasion many other devices were formed 
 into arms, and continued down to posterity in 
 their several families. Armorial bearings, in the 
 tenth and eleventh centuries, were single and 
 plain, consisting only of few figures. Charges, 
 differences, quarterings, &c. are the inventions of 
 later times. See Heraldry. 
 
 Bi:aring, in navigation, an arch of the horizon 
 intercepted between the nearest meridian and 
 any distant object, either discovered by the eye, 
 or resulting from the sinical proposition ; as in 
 the first case, at four P. M. Cape Spado, in the 
 isle of Candia, bore south by west by the com- 
 pass. In the second, the longitudes and latitudes 
 of any two places being given, and consequently 
 the difference of latitude and longitude between 
 them, the bearing from one to the other is disco- 
 vered by the following analogy : — As the meridi- 
 onal difference of latitude is to tiie difference of 
 longitude, so is radius to the tangent bearing. 
 Bearing is also the situationof any distant object, 
 estimated from some part of tiie ship according 
 to her position. In this sense, an object so dis- 
 covered must be either a-head, a-stern, a-breast, 
 on the bow, or on the quarter. These bearings, 
 therefore, which may be called mechanical, are 
 on tlie beam, before the beam, abaft the beam, 
 on the bow, on the quarter, a-head, or a-stern. 
 If the ship sails with a side wind it alters the 
 names of such bearings in some measure, since 
 a distant object on the beam is then said to be 
 to leeward or to windward ; on the lee-quarter 
 or bow, and on the weather-quarter or bow. 
 
 Bearing, in sea language. When a ship sails 
 towards the shore, before the wind, she is said to 
 bear in with the land or harbour. To let the ship 
 sail more before the wind, is to bear up. To put 
 her riuht before the wind, is to bear round. A 
 ship that keeps off from the land is said to bear 
 off. When a ship that was to windward comes 
 under a ship's stern, and so gives her the wind,
 
 BEA 
 
 710 
 
 BEA 
 
 she is said to bear under her lee, &c. There is 
 another sense of this word, in reference to tlie 
 burden of a ship ; for they say a ship bears, 
 when, having too slender or lean a quarter, she 
 will sink too deep into the water with an over- 
 light freight, and thereby can carry but a small 
 quantity of goods. 
 
 Bearing away (as well as Bearing up) is 
 improperly used to denote the act of changing the 
 course of a ship, in order to make her sail before 
 the wind, after she had sailed some time with a 
 side-wind, or close-hauled. 
 
 Bearing of an Arch, or Vault, denotes 
 the effort which the stones make to separate by 
 their gravity the piers or piedroits. This amounts 
 to the same with what the French call poussee. 
 See PorssEE. 
 
 Bearing of an Organ Pipe denotes an error 
 or variation from the just sound it ought to 
 yield. 
 
 Bearing of a Stag, in hunting, is used in 
 respect of the state of his head, or the croches 
 which he bears on his horns. If one is asked 
 what a stag bears, he has only to reckon the 
 croches, but never to express an odd number ; 
 as, if he had four croches on his near horn, and 
 five on his far, a huntsman will say he bears ten, 
 a false right on his near horn ; if but four on the 
 near horn, and six on the far horn, he will say he 
 bears twelve, a double false right on the near 
 horn. 
 
 Bearing off is used by seaman, generally in 
 business belonging to shipping, for thrusting off. 
 Thus in hoisting any thing into the ship, if it 
 has caught hold of any part of the ship, or be- 
 come any way entangled, they say, bear it off 
 from the ship's side. So if they would have the 
 breech or mouth of a piece of ordnance, &c. put 
 from them, they say, bear off, or bear about the 
 breech. 
 
 Bearing sail well is said of a ship, when 
 she is a stiff-guided ship, and will not couch 
 down on a side with a great deal of sail. When 
 a ship is said to bear out her ordnance, it is meant, 
 that her ordnance lies so high, and she will go so 
 upright, that in reasonable fighting weather, she 
 will be able to keep out her lower tier, and not 
 be forced to shut in her ports. The ship is said 
 to overbear another, when it is able, in a great 
 gale of wind, to carry out more sails, viz. a top 
 sail more or the like. 
 
 BEARN, a ci-devant province of France 
 bounded on the east by Bigorre, on the south by 
 the mountains of Arragon, on the west by Soule 
 and part of Navarre, and on the north by Gascony, 
 and Armagnac. It had the title of Vicomte as 
 early as the ninth century. It was afterwards 
 raised to a principality, and belonged, with Na- 
 varre, to Henry IV. when he came to the crown. 
 His son, Louis XIII, united it, with that part of 
 Navarre which was possessed by the house of 
 Albret, to France, in 1620. It now forms with 
 Basques, the department of the lower Pyrenees, 
 and is about sixteen leagues in length, and twelve 
 in breadth. In general it is barren, yet the plains 
 yield considerable quantities of flax, and Indian 
 com. It is also rich in mines of iron, copper, and 
 lead, and has 220,000 inhabitants. The capital 
 is Pau. See Pyranees. 
 
 Bearn, a city and canton of Switzerland. 
 See Bern. 
 
 BEAST, ^ Besfe, Fr. bestia, Latin' 
 
 Be'astlike, I an animal distinguished from 
 Be'astliness, ! birds, insects, fishes, and 
 Be'astly, (man ; an irrational creature ; 
 
 Be'astlihood, I or a brutal savage man, who 
 Be'astings. J practises any thing contrary 
 to the decencies of life and the dictates of hu- 
 manity. 
 
 If that the good man, that the testes oweth, 
 Wol every weke, er that the cock him croweth 
 Fasting ydrinken of this well a draught, 
 As thilke holy Jew our eldre taught. 
 His testes and his store shall multiplie. 
 
 Chaucer. Pardoneres Tale. 
 A beestli man parseyueth not tho thingis that ben 
 of the spyrit of God, for it is foli to him. 
 
 Wickliff. 1 Cor. chap. iii. 
 They held this land, and with their filthiness 
 Polluted this same gentle soil long time ; 
 That their own mother loath'd their beastliness. 
 And 'gan abhor her brood's unkindly crime. 
 
 Spenser. Faerie Qtieene. 
 And all wylde beasts, made vassals of his pleasures. 
 And with their spoyles enlarged his private treasures. 
 Id. Mother Hubbard's Tale. 
 Not that I being a beast, she would have me ; 
 but that she, being a very beastly creature, lays claim 
 to me. Shakspeare, 
 
 With lewd, profane, and beastly phrase, 
 To catch the world's loose laughter or vain gaze. 
 
 Ben Jonaon. 
 So may we see a little lionet. 
 When newly whelpt, a weak and tender thing, 
 Despis'd by ev'ry beast ; but waxen great. 
 When fuller times full strength and courage bring. 
 The beasts all crouchen low, their king adore. 
 And dare not sec what they contemn'd before ; 
 The trembling forest quakes at his affrighted roar. 
 
 Fletcher. Purple Island. 
 The sixth, and of creation last, arose 
 With evening harps and matin, when God said. 
 Let th' earth bring forth soul living in her kind. 
 Cattle and creeping things, and beasts of th' earth. 
 Each in their kind. Milton, 
 
 Here sat she by these musked eglantines ; 
 The happy flowers seem yet the print to bear : 
 Her voice did sweeten here thy sugar'd lines 
 To which winds, trees, beasts, birds, did lend an ear. 
 
 Drummond. 
 Heaven's king 
 Keeps register of every thing : 
 And nothing may we use in vain, 
 Ev'n beasts must be with justice slzdn 
 
 Marcell. Wounded Fawn. 
 Beast of a bird ! supinely when he might 
 Lie snug and sleep, to rise before the light \ 
 What if his dull forefathers us'd that cry. 
 Could he not let a bad example die. Dryden. 
 
 Medea's charms were there, Circean feasts 
 With bowls that tum'd enamour'd youths to beasts. 
 
 Id. 
 
 It is charged upon the gentlemen of the army, 
 
 that the beastly vice of drinking to excess hath been 
 
 lately, from their example, restored among us. Swift 
 
 Man cares for all ! to birds he gives his woods. 
 To beasts his pastures, and to lish his floods. Pope. 
 
 yc woods, spread your branches apace ; 
 To your deepest recesses I fly ; 
 
 1 would hide with the beasts of tho chase, 
 I would vanish from every eye. 
 
 Shemtone. Pastorals.
 
 BEA 
 
 711 
 
 BEA 
 
 Inspiring dumb 
 And helpless victims with a sense so keen 
 Of injury, with such knowledge of their strength. 
 And such sagacity to take revenge. 
 That oft the beast has seem'd to judge the man. 
 
 Cowper. Task. b. vi. 
 
 Beast, among gamesters, a game at cards, 
 played in this manner : the best cards are the 
 kinof, queen, &c. whereof they make three heaps, 
 the king, the play, the troilet. Three, four, or 
 five may play, and to every one is dealt five 
 cards. But before the play begins, every one 
 stakes to the three heaps, lie that wins most 
 tricks, takes up the heap called the play : he that 
 has the king, Uikes up the heap so called : and 
 he that has three of any sort, that is three fours, 
 three fives, three sixes, &cc. takes up the troilet 
 heap. 
 
 Beast, at ombre, is when the player, or person 
 that undertakes the game, loses it to the other 
 two, the penalty of which is a forfeiture equal 
 to the stake played for. 
 
 BEAT, t). 7j.^ Sax. beatan, beotan, Germ. 
 
 Be'ater, ^ batten, French, battre, to strike, 
 
 B'eatixg. 3 either with gentleness or vio- 
 lence, with or without an instrumental medium ; 
 mechanical or animal motion, rising and falling, 
 or terminating on an object, it is used metapho- 
 rically, and applied to almost every kind of re- 
 gular or repeated motion. 
 
 To Beat dow>, is to lessen, to depress, to 
 repel, or to conquer. 
 
 To Beat up, is to attack suddenly ; to alarm. 
 
 To Beat in, is to impress or to inculcate by 
 frequent repetition. 
 
 To Beat-about. To try different ways; to 
 search ; to hunt for any thing. 
 
 And oftentimis I finde that thei mette 
 With blody strokis, and with word is grcte 
 Assaying how ther speris weren whette. 
 And God it wote with many a cruel hete 
 Gan Troilus upon his helme to hete : 
 But nathelesse Fortune it naught ne would 
 Of cithers honde that either dyen should. 
 
 Chaucer. Troilus and Creseide, 
 And now the westerne winde bloweth sore. 
 That now is in his chief sovcraingntee 
 Beating the withered leafe from the tree. Spenser. 
 They've chose a consul that will from them take 
 Their liberties ; make them of no more voice 
 Than dogs, that are often heat for barking. 
 
 Skahspeare. 
 
 Mistress Ford, good heart, is beaten black and blue, 
 
 that you cannot see a white spot about her. Id. 
 
 Bid them come forth and hear 
 
 Or at their chamber door I'll beat the drum. 
 
 Till it cry, sleep to death. Id. 
 
 A turn or two I'll walk. 
 To still my beating mind. Id. 
 
 The tempest in my mind 
 
 Doth from my senses take all feeling else. 
 
 Save what heats there. Id. 
 
 It is strange how long some men will lie in wait to 
 
 speak, and how many other matters they will beat 
 
 over to come near it. Bacon. 
 
 We are drawn on into a larger speech, by reason 
 
 of their so great earnestness, who beat more and more 
 
 upon these last alleged words. Hooker. 
 
 How frequently and fervently doth the scripture 
 
 beat upon this cause ! Hakcicell. 
 
 Beyond this flood a frozen continent 
 Lies dark and wild, beat with perpetual stornut 
 Of whirlwind and dire hail. Milton. 
 
 They lay in that quiet posture, without making the 
 least impression upon the enemy by beating up his 
 quarters, which might easily have been done. 
 
 Clarendon. 
 Tho' oft bound to peace 
 Yet he never would cease 
 To vex his poor neighbours with quarrels. 
 And when he was beat 
 He .still made his retreat 
 To his Clevelands, his hells, and his Carwells. 
 
 Marvell. 
 Some have been beaten till they know 
 What wood a cudgel's of by the blow ; 
 Some kick'd until they can feel whether 
 A shoe be Spanish or neat's leather. 
 
 Butler's Hudibrtu, 
 He, with a careless beat 
 Struck out the mute creation at a heat. Dryden. 
 Surveys rich moveables with curious eye. 
 Beats dmcn the price, and threatens still to buy. Id. 
 My temperate pulse does regularly beat ; 
 Feel and be satisfied. Id. 
 
 When from the cave thou risest with the day 
 To beat the woods, and rouse the bounding prey. 
 
 Prior. 
 I am always heating about in my thoughts for some- 
 thing that may turn to the benefit of my dear coun- 
 trjmen. Addison. 
 
 She persuaded him to trust the renegado with the 
 money he had brought over for their ransom ; as not 
 questioning but he would heat down the terms of it. 
 
 Id. 
 Our warriours propagating the French language, 
 at the same time they are beating down their power. 
 
 Id. 
 Such an unlook'd-for storm of ills falls on me. 
 It heats down all my strength. Id. 
 
 Will fancies he should never have been the man 
 he is, had not he knocked down constables, and heat 
 up a lewd woman's quarters, when he he was a young 
 fellow. Id. 
 
 One sees many hollow spaces wor» in the bottoms 
 of the rocks, as they are more or less able to resist the 
 impression of the water that heats against them. Id. 
 To find an honest man, I heat ahotit. 
 And love him, court him, praise him, in or out. 
 
 Pope. 
 A man's heart heats, and the blood circulates, 
 which it is not in his power, by any thought or voli- 
 tion, to stop, Locke. 
 I would gladly understand the formation of a soul, 
 and see it heat the first conscious pulse. Collier. 
 I remember, that once lying a bed, and having 
 been put into a fright, I heard my own heart beat,. 
 but I took it to be one knocking at the door ofiencr 
 than once, before I discovered that the sound was in 
 my own heart. Reid. Enquiry into tlie Human Mind. 
 
 Beat, in fencing, denotes a blow or stroke 
 given with the sword. There are two kinds of 
 beats; the first performed by the foible of a 
 man's sword, on the foible of his adversary's, 
 wliich in the schools is commonly called batterie, 
 from the French battre, and is chiefly used m a 
 pursuit, to make an open upon the adversary. 
 'The second, and best kind of beat, is performed 
 witli the fort of a man's sword upon the foible of 
 his adversary's, not with a spring, as in binding, 
 but with a jerk or dry beat, and is therefore most 
 proper for the paraiies without or witliin the 
 sword, because of the rebound a man's sword
 
 BEA 
 
 712 
 
 BEA 
 
 has thereby from his adversary's, whereby he pro- 
 cures to himself the better and surer opportunity 
 of risposting. 
 
 BsAT OF Drum, in the military art, is diffe- 
 rently performed, according to the different pur- 
 poses intended. Notice is given by it of any 
 sudden danger ; or, that scattered soldiers may 
 repair to their arms and quarters : these are called 
 beating an alarm, or to arms. It is also intended 
 to signify, according to the different manners of 
 sounding the drum, that tlie soldiers are to fall on 
 the enemy : to retreat before, during, or after an 
 attack ; to move or march from one place to 
 another : to come out of their quarters, to repair 
 to their colors, &c. 
 
 Beats of a watch or clock, are the strokes 
 made by the fangs or pallets of the spindle of the 
 balance, or of the pads in a royal pendulum. To 
 find the beats of the balance in any watch, or in 
 one turn of any wheel : — Having found the num- 
 ber of turns, which the crown wheel makes in 
 one turn of the wheel you seek for ; those turns 
 of the crown-wheel, multiplied by its notches, 
 give half the number of beats in that one turn of 
 the wheel : for the balance or swing has two 
 strokes to every tooth of the crown wheel, inas- 
 much as each of the two pallets has its blow 
 against each tooth of the crown wheel ; whence 
 it is, that a pendulum which beats seconds, has 
 in its crown-wheel only tliirty teeth. To explain 
 this, suppo^ the numbers of a sixteen hour watch, 
 wherein the pinion of report is 4, the 
 dial-wheel 32, the great wheel 55, the 4)32( 8 
 
 pinion of the second wheel 5, &c. Tlie 
 
 number of the notches in the crown- 5)55(11 
 wheel 17, being multipHed into 6336, 5)45( 9 
 (the product arising from the continual 5)40( 8 
 
 multiplication of the quotients 8,11 ,9,8,) 
 
 gives 107,712, for half the numberof 17 
 
 beats in one turn of the dial-wheel ; for 
 
 8 times 17 is 136, which is half the number of 
 beats in one turn of the contrate-wheel 40 ; and 
 
 9 times 136 is 1224, the half beats in one turn 
 of the second wheel ; and 11 times 1224 is 13,464, 
 the half-beats in one turn of the great wheel 55 ; 
 and 8 times 13,464, makes 107,712. Multiply 
 this by the two pallets, i. e. double it, it gives 
 215,424, which is the number of beats in one turn 
 of the dial wheel, in 12 hours. To know how 
 many beats this watch has in an hour, divide the 
 beats in 1 2 hours into 1 2 parts, and it gives 1 7,952, 
 which is called the train of the watch, or the 
 beats in an hour. If this be divided into 60 parts, 
 it gives 299 and a little more for the beats in a 
 minute, and so you may proceed to seconds or 
 thirds. By the beats and turns of the fusee, the 
 hours that any watch will go may be found, thus : 
 As the beats of the balance in one hour are to 
 the beats in one turn of the fusee, so is the num- 
 ber of the turns of the fusee l,to the continuance of 
 the watch's going. Thus 20196 : 26028 : : 12 : 16. 
 To find the beats of the balance in one turn of the 
 fusee, say, as the number of turns of the fusee, 
 to the continuance of the watch's going in hours, 
 so are the beats in one hour, to the beats of one 
 turn of the fusee; i.e. 12 : 16 : : 20196 : 26928. 
 To find the beats of the balance in an hour, say, 
 as the hours of the watch's going to the number 
 ©f turns of the fiisee, so are the beats in one turn 
 
 of the fusee, to the beats of an hour; thus, 
 16 : 12 : : 26928 : 20196. Derham's Artificial 
 Clock Maker, p. 14, &c. and 22. See also Cloce- 
 
 MAKING. 
 
 To Beat an Alarm, in military affairs, is to 
 give notice by beat of drum of some sudden 
 danger. 
 
 To Beat a Charge, is to give the signal to fall 
 upon the enemy. 
 
 To Beat the General, is to give notice to 
 the forces that they are to march. 
 
 To Beat the Reveille, is to give leave, by 
 beat of drum at day-break, to come out of 
 quarters. 
 
 To Beat the Tattoo is to give notice to all 
 to retire to their quarters. 
 
 To Beat the Troop is to give notice to all to 
 repair to their colors. 
 
 To Beat upon the Hand, or to Chack, in 
 the menage, is spoken of a horse, when his head 
 is not steady, but he tosses up his nose and 
 shakes it all of a sudden, to avoid the subjection 
 of the bridle. Turkish horses are very subject to 
 this fault. When they beat upon the hand nei- 
 ther the best bits, nor the best hand, can fix their 
 heads. Croatian horses are also very apt to beat 
 upon the hand ; their bars being too sharp and 
 ridged, so that they cannot bear the pressure of 
 the most gentle bit. It is from this excess of sen- 
 sibility of the mouth that a horse is apt to chack j 
 but in order to secure his head it is only necessary 
 to put a small flat band of iron, beat arch-ways, 
 under his noseband, which answers as a martin- 
 gale. This will hinder him to beat upon the hand, 
 but will not break him of the habit ; for, as soon 
 as tlie martingale is taken off, he will fall into the 
 same vice again. 
 
 BEATA, Lat. i. e. the blessed, one of the many 
 titles given to the \'irgin Mary by the Roman 
 Catholics. 
 
 Beatek, in manufacturing, is applied to divers 
 sorts of workmen, whose business is to hammer 
 or flatten certain matters, particularly metals. 
 Thus, 1. Gold-beaters are artisans who, by 
 beating gold and silver with a hammer on a mar- 
 ble, in moulds of vellum and bullocks' guts, 
 reduce them to thin leaves, fit for gilding, or 
 silvering of copper, iron, steel, wood &c. Gold- 
 beaters differ from flatters of gold or silver; as 
 the former bring their metal into leaves by the j 
 hammer, whereas the latter only flatten it by ■ 
 pressing it through a mill preparatory to beating. ^ 
 2. Tin-beaters are employed in the looking- 
 glass trade, whose business is to beat tin on large 
 blocks of marble, till it be reduced to thin leaves, 
 fit to be applied with quicksilver behind look- 
 ing-glasses. See Foliating and Gold-beat- 
 ing. 
 
 BEATII, Ang.-Sax. bethian, bathian, to 
 steep, dip, or bathe. In Suffolk and Norfolk,. 
 beathing or bathing wood by the fire, means 
 straitening unseasoned wood by heat ; and this 
 is much the same as Spenser's meaning in the 
 example. To bathe or warm in fire so as tc 
 harden. — Todd's Johnson. 
 
 And in his hand a tall young oake he bore 
 Whose knottie snags were sharpen'd all afore. 
 And beath'd in fire for Steele to be instcd. 
 
 SjienscT. Faerie Queene,
 
 BEA 
 
 713 
 
 BEA 
 
 BrATl'FICAL,^ From leaius, beatifico, 
 Beati'fically, # to be happy; to make 
 Bea'tificatiox, v. happy with the completion 
 Beati'fick, r of celestial enjoyment. It 
 
 Be'atify, 1 is used only of heavenly 
 
 Beati'tlde. -^ fruition after death. Bea- 
 tification is an acknowledgment made by the 
 pope, that the person beatified is in heaven, and 
 therefore may be reverenced as blessed; but is 
 not a concession of the honors due to saints, 
 which are conferred by canonisation. 
 
 Beatifically to behold tho face of God, in the ful- 
 ness of wisdom, righteousness, and pejice, is blessed- 
 ness no way incident unto the creatures beneath man. 
 
 Hakewill. 
 
 If at the conversion of a sinner there is joy before 
 the beatified spirits, the angels of God, and that is the 
 consummation of our pardon sind our consignation to 
 felicity ; then we may imagine how great an evil it 
 is to grieve the spirit of God, who is greater than 
 the angels. Jeremy Taylor. 
 
 In midst of this city celestial. 
 
 Where the eternal temple should have rose, 
 
 Lighten'd the idea beatifical 
 
 End, and beginning, of each thing that grows. 
 
 Giles Fletcher, 
 
 Admiring the riches of heaven's pavement 
 Than aught divine or holy else, enjoy'd 
 In vision beatifick. Milton. 
 
 About him all the sanctities of hcav'n 
 Stood thick as stars, and from his sight received 
 Beatitude past utterance. Id. 
 
 It is also their felicity to have no faith ; for enjoy- 
 ing the beatifical vision in the fruition of the object of 
 faith, they have received the full evacuation of it. 
 
 Brown's Vulgar Errours. 
 
 He set out the felicity of his heaven, by the delights 
 of sense ; slightly passing over the accomplishment of 
 the soul, and the beatitude of that part which earth 
 and visibilities too weakly affect. Id. 
 
 \Vc shall know him to be the fullest good, the 
 nearest to us, and the most certain ; and consequently 
 the most beatifying of all others. Broum. 
 
 We may contemplate upon the greatness and 
 strangeness of the beatifick vision ; how a created eye 
 should be so fortified, as to bear all those glories that 
 Bircam from the fountain of uncreated light. South. 
 
 The obedient, and the men of practice, are those 
 sons of light, that shall outgrow all their doubts and 
 ignorances, that shall ride upon these clouds, and 
 triumph over their present imperfections, till persua- 
 sion pass into knowledge, and knowledge advance 
 into assurance, and all come at length to be com- 
 pleated in the beatifick vision, and a full fruition of 
 those joys which God has in reserve for them, whom 
 by his grace he shall prepare for glory. 
 
 South's Sermons. 
 
 This is the image and little representation of hea- 
 ven ; it is beatitude in picture. Taylor. 
 
 The use of spiritual conference is unimaginable and 
 unspeakable, especially if free and unrestrained, bear- 
 ing an image of that conversation which is among 
 angels and beatified saints. Hammond. 
 
 I wish I had the wings of an angel, to have as- 
 cended into Paradise, and to have beheld the forms 
 of those beatified spirits from which I might have co- 
 pied my archangel. Dryden. 
 
 Over against this church stands an hospital erected 
 by a shoemaker, who has been beatified, though never 
 sainted. Addison, 
 
 For you alone his raptures can describe. 
 And stem the impetuous joys that rise 
 
 Within your breasts when all unveil'd you view. 
 
 The wonders of the beatific sight. Mrs. Rowe. 
 
 Beatification, in ecclesiastical affairs, an act 
 by which the pope declares a person beatified, or 
 blessed, after his death. It is the first step 
 towards canonisation, or raising any one to the 
 honor and dignity of a saint. No person can be 
 beatified till fifty years after his or her death. 
 All certificates or attestations of virtues and mi- 
 racles, the necessary qualifications for saintship, 
 are examined by the conirregation of rites. This 
 examination often continues for several years; 
 after which his holiness decrees the beatification. 
 The corpse and relics of the future saint are from 
 thenceforth exposed to the veneration of all good 
 Christians; his image is crowned with rays, and 
 a particular office is set apart for him ; but his 
 body and relics are not carried in procession. 
 Indulgences likewise, and remissions of sins, arc 
 granted on the day of his beatification ; which, 
 though not so pompous as that of canonisation, is 
 however very splendid. Beatification differs from 
 canonisation in this, that the pope does not act as 
 a judge in determining the state of the beatified, 
 but only grants a privilege to certain persons to 
 honor him by a particular religious worship, 
 witliout incurring the penalty of superstitious 
 worshippers; but in canonisation the pope speaks 
 as a judge, and determines, ex cathedra,upon the 
 state of the canonised. Beatification was intro- 
 duced when it was thought proper to delay the 
 canonisation of saints, for the greater assurance 
 of the truth of the steps taken in the procedure. 
 Some particular orders of monks have assumed to 
 themselves the power of beatification. Thus 
 Octavia iMelchiorica was beatified with extraor- 
 dinary ceremonies by the Dominicans. 
 
 Beating, in book-binding. See Boei- 
 
 BINDING. 
 
 Beating, in English law. See Battery. 
 
 Beating, in hunting, a term used of a stag, 
 which runs first one way and then another. 
 He is then said to beat up and down. — The noise 
 made by conies in rutting time is also called beat- 
 ing or tapping. 
 
 Beating, or Pulsation, in medicine, is ap- 
 plied to the reciprocal agitation or palpiution of 
 the heart and pulse, or arteries. Some physi- 
 cians distinguish eighty-one different kinds of 
 simple beatings, and fifteen compound ones. 
 They compute sixty beats in the space of a 
 minute as the proper number in a temperate 
 man ; but, in fact, we generally find a greater 
 number. 
 
 Beating, in navigation, the operation of ma- 
 king a progress at sea against tlie direction of 
 the wind in a zig-zag line, or traverse, like that in 
 which we ascend a steep hill. Sec Tackisc. 
 
 Beating, in paper-making, signifies the beat- 
 ing of paper on a stone with a heavy hammer, 
 with a large smooth head and a short handle, in 
 order to render it more smooth and uniform, and 
 fit for writing. Engines driven by water are now 
 used. 
 
 Beating Flax, or Hemp, is an operation in 
 the dressing of these subsUinces, to render them 
 raore soft and pliant. When hemp has been
 
 BEA 
 
 714 
 
 BEA 
 
 swingled a second time, and the hurds laid by, 
 they take the strikes, and, dividing them into 
 dozens and half-dozens, make them up into large 
 thick rolls, which, being broaclied on long strikes, 
 are set to dry ; after which they lay them in a 
 round trough made for the purpose, and there 
 beat them well with beetles till they handle both 
 without and within as pliant as possible, with- 
 out any hardness or roughness to be felt: that 
 done, they take them from the trough, open and 
 divide the strikes as before, and, if any be found 
 not sufficiently beaten, they roll them up and 
 beat them over again. Beating hemp is a pun- 
 ishment that was often inflicted on loose or dis- 
 orderly persons, in houses of correction, before 
 the happy invention of the tread-mill ! 
 
 Beating, or inflicting stripes, on the person, 
 was one of the most ancient, as well as universal, 
 species of punishment. Among the Romans it 
 obtained, under the denomination of verberatio, 
 fustigatio, flagellatio, pulsatio, &c. In the East 
 it still prevails, under the name of Bastonado, 
 which see. 
 
 Beating the Wind was a practice in use in 
 the ancient method of trial by combat. If either 
 of the combatants did not appear in the field, at 
 the time appointed, the other was to beat the 
 wind, or make so many flourishes with his wea- 
 pon ; by which he was entitled to all the advan- 
 tages of a conqueror. Perhaps St. Paul alludes 
 to this 1 Cor. ix. 26. 
 
 Beating Time, in music, a method of mea- 
 suring and marking the time for performers in 
 concert, by a motion of the hand and foot up or 
 down successively, and in equal times. Know- 
 ing the true time of a crotchet, and supposing the 
 measure actually subdivided into four crotchets, 
 and the half measure into two, the hand or foot 
 being up, if we put it down with the very begin- 
 ning of the first note or crotchet, and then raise 
 it with the third, and then down with the begin- 
 ning of the next measure ; this is called beating 
 the time ; and, by practice, a habit is acquired of 
 making the motion very equal. Each motion 
 down and up is called a time or measure. The 
 general rule is, to contrive the division of the 
 measure so, that every down and up of the 
 beating shall end with a particular note, on which 
 greatly depends the distinctness; and, as it were, 
 the sense of the melody. Hence the beginning 
 of every timeor beating in the measure is reckoned 
 the accented part of it. Beating time is denoted, 
 in the Italian music, by the term of a battuta, 
 whicii is usually put after whatlhey call recitativo, 
 where little or no time is observed, to denote that 
 here they are to begin again to mark or beat the 
 time exactly. The Romans aimed at somewhat 
 of harmony in the strokes of their oars ; and had 
 an officer called portisculus in each galley, whose 
 business was to beat time with the rowers, some- 
 times by a pole or mallet, and sometimes only by 
 his voice. The ancients marked the rhythm in 
 their musical compositions ; but, to make it more 
 ol)servable in the practice, they beat the measure 
 or time in ditterent manners. The most usual 
 consisted in a motion of tlie foot, whicii was 
 raised from, and struck alternately against, the 
 ground, according to the modern method. 
 Doing this was commonly the province of the 
 
 master of the music, who was thence called 
 fi((roxo()OQ, and Kopv(patoQ, because placed in the 
 middle of the choir of musicians, and in an ele- 
 vated situation, to be seen and heard more easily 
 by the whole company. These beaters of mea- 
 sure were also called by the Greeks' TroooicruTroi, 
 and 7ro5o;|/i0oi, because of the noise of their feet; 
 and (TvvTovapioi, because of the uniformity or mo- 
 notony of the rliythm. The Latins denominated 
 them podarii, pedarii and pedicularii. To make 
 the beats or strokes more audible, their feet were 
 generally shod with a sort of sandals, either of 
 wood or iron, called by the Greeks KoovirtZea, 
 KpovTraXa, Kpevirtjra, and by the Latins pedicuia, 
 scabella, or scabilla, because resembling little 
 stools or foot-stools. Sometimes they beat upon 
 sonorous foot-stools, with the foot shod with a 
 wooden or iron sole. They beat the measure not 
 only with the foot, but also with the right hand, 
 all the fingers of which they joined together, to 
 strike into the hollow of the left. He who thus 
 marked the rhythm, was called manuductor. 
 The ancients also beat time with shells, as oyster 
 shells and bones of animals, which they struck 
 against one another, much as the moderns now 
 use castanets, and the like instruments. This 
 the Greeks called KprmpaXia^tiv, as is noted by 
 Hesychius. The scholiast on Aristophanes speaks 
 much to the same purpose. Other noisy instru- 
 ments, as drums, cymbals, citterns, &c., were 
 also used on the same occasion. They beat the 
 measure generally in two equal or unequal times ; 
 at least, this holds of the usual rhythm of a piece 
 of music, marked either by the noise of sandals, 
 or the slapping of the hands. But the other 
 rhythmic instruments last-mentioned, and which 
 were used principally to excite and animate the 
 dancers, marked the cadence after another man- 
 ner ; that is, the number of their percussions 
 equalled, or even sometimes surpassed, that of the 
 different sounds which composed the air or song 
 played. 
 
 Beatitude, in divinity, denotes the fruition 
 of God in a future life to all eternity. Beatitude 
 is also used in speaking of the tlieses contained 
 in Christ's sermon on the mount, whereby he 
 pronounces the poor in spirit, those that mourn, 
 the meek, &c., blessed. 
 
 Beatitude, in ecclesiastical affairs, was a title 
 anciently given to all bishops ; but of latter days 
 has been restrained to the pope. It appears to 
 have been sometimes also given to laymen. 
 
 BEATON (David), archbishop of St. Andrew's, 
 and a cardinal of Rome, in the early part of the 
 sixteenth century, was born in 1494. Pope Paul 
 III. raised him to the degree of a cardinal in De- 
 cember 1538 ; and being employed by James V. 
 in negociating his marriage with the court of 
 France, he was there consecrated bishop of Mire- 
 poix. Soon after his instalment as archbishop 
 of St. Andrew's, he promoted a furious persecu- 
 tion of the reformers in Scotland ; but the king's 
 death put a stop, for a time, to his arbitrary pro- 
 ceedings, he being then excluded from aff'airs of 
 government, and confined. He raised, however, 
 so strong a party, that, upon the coronation of 
 the young queen Mary, he was admitted in the 
 council, made chancellor, and procured a com- 
 mission as legate a latere from the court of Rome. 
 
 I
 
 B E A T T I E. 
 
 715 
 
 He now began to renew his persecution of here- 
 tics : and, among the rest, of the famous protestant 
 preacher George Wishart, whose sufferings at the 
 "take he viewed from his window with apparent 
 exultation. It is said, that Wishart, at his death, 
 loretold the murder of Beaton, which indeed 
 happened shortly after, he being assassinated in 
 his chamber, May 29th, 1547. Beaton had great 
 talents, and vices that were no less conspicuous. 
 
 Beaton (James), a nephew of the archbishop, 
 was born at Balfour, in 1530, and raised to the 
 archbishopric of Glasgow, when about twenty-five 
 years of age. In 1560 he collected the sacred 
 vessels and records belonging to his cathedral, 
 and embarked for France, where he died in 1603. 
 He wrote a history of Scotland, but it was never 
 printed. 
 
 BEATORUM Insula, in ancient geography, 
 was seven days journey west of Thebre, a district 
 of the Nomos Oasites, and called an island, be- 
 cause surrounded with sand, like an island with 
 water; yet abounding in all the necessaries of 
 life. Some suppose it to have been a third Oasis, 
 in the Regio Ammoniaca; and the site of the 
 temple of Ammon answers to the above descrip- 
 tion, as appears from the writers on Alexander's 
 expedition thither. Ulpian says, it was a place 
 of banishment for criminals from which there was 
 no escape. 
 
 BEATSON (Robert), an ingenious and e-^:- 
 tensive compiler of books, was born in 1742 at 
 Dysart, in the county of Fife. At the age of 
 fourteen he entered into the army, but rising no 
 higher than to the rank of lieutenant, turned his 
 attention to literature as a profession, and in 1786 
 published A Political Index to the Histories of 
 Great Britain and Ireland, of which there have 
 been three editions. In 1790 appeared his Na- 
 val and Military ^lemoirs of Great Britain, in 3 
 vols. 8vo., to which he subsequently added three 
 more; and in 1807 a Chronological Register of 
 both Houses of Parliament from the Union. He 
 obtained the degree of doctor of laws from the 
 university of Edinburgh, and was a member of 
 the Royal Society of Scotland. He died in 1818. 
 He was also the author of an Essay on vertical 
 and horizontal Windmills. 
 
 BEATTIE C James), LL. D., professor of mo- 
 ral philosophy and logic in the Marischal college, 
 Aberdeen, was born in Kincardineshire, in 1735. 
 His father, who kept a small shop in Laurence- 
 kirk, and rented a farm in the neighbourhood, 
 gave him all the education which could be ob- 
 tained at the parish school, and afterwards sent 
 him to the university of Aberdeen. There he 
 pursued his studies with great diligence, and was 
 soon preferred to a bursary. Havina: continued 
 four years at the university, studying philosophy 
 and divinity, with a view to the established 
 church, and no prospect opening for him, he ac- 
 cepted in 1753, of the office of schoolmaster and 
 parish clerk in the parish of Fordun. Here he con- 
 tinued four years, little known or noticed In 
 1758 he was appointed one of the ushers to the 
 grammar school of Aberdeen, and soon after 
 gained attention among the men of letters in the 
 university. In 1760 he published a small volume 
 of original poems and translations, and the same 
 year was appointed professor of philosophy ; the 
 
 duties of which situation he continued to dis- 
 charge till within a short t'nie of his death. 
 Aberdeen could at this period boast of I)rs. 
 Campbell, Gerard, Gregorj', and Reid, among 
 its professors ; and the benefits which their new 
 associate must have derived from such company, 
 were rendered still more invaluable, by the har- 
 mony in which they lived with each other, and 
 the familiar manner in which they communicated 
 their sentiments. In a kind of liteniry club, which 
 met twice a month, they discussed freely all the 
 topics of literature and philosopliy which occurred 
 to any of them ; and it was in this society that 
 those speculations took their rise, which have 
 since made their names so familiar to all who 
 read for instruction. In 1763 Mr. Beattie visited 
 London, and in 1765 published his Judgment 
 of Paris; this year also, he became acquainted 
 with the poet Gray, and continued in close 
 friendship with him while he lived. In 1767 he 
 married a daughter of Dr. Dun, master of the 
 grammar school ; and about this time seems to 
 have begun his Minstrel, and his Essay on the 
 Nature and Immutability of Truth ; the latter of 
 which was published in 1770. It was designed 
 particularly to oppose the philosophy of Hume, 
 who is said to have been so sensible of the 
 strength of its arguments and popularity, that he 
 never afterwards could hear the name of Beattie 
 mentioned without displeasure. In 1771 ap- 
 peared the first canto of tliat beautiful poem, 
 The Minstrel, which was completed in 1774, 
 and in a very short time ran through several edi- 
 tions. In a second journey to London, he was 
 introduced by his friend Dr. Gregory to Mrs. 
 Montagu, and to all the distinguished literary 
 society then in the metropolis. He visited Lon- 
 don a third time in 1773, and associated for some 
 months with Drs. Johnson, .Porteus, and other 
 eminent men. About this tune he received an ho- 
 norary degree of LLD. from Oxford; and obtained 
 a pension from the kin'zof £'200 per annum. He 
 had also the honor of an interview with their 
 majesties. This year there was a proposal for 
 transferring Dr. Beattie to the university of Edin- 
 burgh, but he declined it; and in 1774 two 
 offers were made him in the church of England, 
 one of them a living of £500 a year, with views 
 of further preferment; but these he also declined. 
 Dr. Priestley at this time made an attack upon 
 him, of which, however, he took no notice. In 
 1770 he published a volume of Essays; and in 
 1783, Dissertations Moral and Critical, in one 
 volume 4to, At the recommendation of the 
 bishop of London, in 1786, he publis^hed two 
 small volumes on the Evidences of the Chnstian 
 Religion; and in 1790 the Elements of Moral 
 Science, being the outlines of his academical 
 lectures. Dr. Beattie was very much tried by 
 domestic affliction : his wife became the victim 
 of hereditary insanity, and his two sons, James 
 Hay and Montagu, died successively, after at- 
 taining to manhood. The situation of his wife, and 
 the precarious state of his own health, had sunk 
 him into an habitual depression ; but the death 
 of his eldest son James, who had been conjoined 
 with him in the professorship, was so severe a 
 shock to him that he never recovered from it. 
 But the sudden death of his only remaining child
 
 BEA 
 
 716 
 
 BEA 
 
 in 1796, completely unhinged his mind ; the first 
 symptom of which was a temporary, but almost 
 total loss of memory, respectins^ his son. At this 
 time, after searching in every room in the Ixouse, 
 he would say to his niece, JMrs. Glennie, ' You 
 may think it strange, but I must ask you if I 
 have a son, and where he is ? ' She then felt her- 
 self,' says Sir William Forbes, 'under the painful 
 necessity of bringing to his recollection his son 
 Montagu's sufferings, which always restored him 
 to reason. And he would often, with many tears, 
 express his thankfulness that he had no child, 
 saying, ' Ilow could I have borne to see their 
 elegant minds mangled with madness ! ' When 
 he looked for the last time on the dead body of 
 his son, he said, ' I have now done with the 
 world.' Ilis last publication was An Account 
 of the Life, Character, and Writings of James 
 Hay Beattie. His spirits from this period were 
 never restored, and his health continued gra- 
 dually to decline, till, in 1799, he was struck 
 with palsy ; and, after being reduced to a state 
 of permanent insensibility, this excellent man, 
 all of whose labors tended to enlighten and be- 
 nefit mankind, expired in June, 1803. 
 
 BEAU', ") From the Fr. beau, good, gay, 
 Beau'ish, >fine. The plural beaux is now 
 Beau'ship. 3 Anglicised. A beau is a man of 
 dress, whose great care is to deck his person. 
 Vulgarly employed to designate a lover, who of 
 course must be a smart fellow. A beau was the 
 dandy of the last age, as a dandy is the fop of the 
 present. 
 
 What will not heaux attempt to please the fair. 
 
 Dryden. 
 
 The water nymphs are too unkind 
 To Vill'roy ; are the land nymphs so ? 
 
 And fly the}' all, at once combin'd 
 To shame a general, and a beau? Prim'. 
 
 You will become the delight of nine ladies in ten, 
 and the envy of ninety-nine beaux in a hundred. 
 
 Swift. 
 A youth more glitt'ring than a hirth-night beau, 
 That even in slumber caus'd her cheek to glow. 
 
 Pope. Rape of the Lock. 
 With varying vanities from ev'ry part. 
 They shift the moving toy-shop of their heart. 
 Where wigs with wigs, with sword-knots sword-knots 
 
 strive. 
 Beaux banish beaux, and coaches coaches drive. 
 This erring mortals levity may call. 
 Oh blind to truth 1 the sylphs contrive it all. Id. 
 
 Just at that time of life, when man by rule. 
 The fop laid down, takes up the graver fool. 
 He started up a fop, and fond of show 
 Look'd like another Hercules turn'd beau. 
 
 Churchill. 
 Beau (Charles le), a learned French author, 
 born at Paris in 1701. He became professor in 
 the Royal College, and secretary of the Academy 
 of Inscriptions. He wrote a history of the Lower 
 Empire, in 22 vols, which is much esteemed; 
 also Opera Latinse, published at Paris five years 
 after his death, in 3 vols. 12mo. He died at 
 Paris in 1778. 
 
 Beau (John Lewis le), brother of Charles, was 
 also a man of considerable learning. He was 
 born at Paris in 1721, and became professor of 
 rhetoric in the college of the Grassins, and mem- 
 
 ber of the academy of inscriptions. In 1746 he 
 published an edition of Homer in Greek and 
 Latin,- 2 vols: and in 1750, the Orations of 
 Cicero, 3 vols. : also a Discourse on the Poverty 
 of the Learned. He died in 1766. 
 
 BEAUBASSIN, a bay in the straits of Magel- 
 lan, on the coast of Terra del Fuego, so named 
 by Bougainville. According to his account, 
 there is good anchorage in it from forty to twelve 
 fathoms; the bottom of sand, small gravel, and 
 shells. Long. 71° 13' W., lat. 54° 22' S. 
 
 BEAUCAHIE, a town of France, in the 
 department of the Gard and ci-devant province 
 of Languedoc, on the Rhone, opposite to Taras- 
 con, with which it has a communication by a 
 bridge of boats. The fair of the Magdalen, which 
 is held July 22, partly in the town, and partly 
 under tents in an adjacent valley, for seven days, 
 is one of the most famous in Europe, though of 
 late it has declined. Beaucaire is ten miles east 
 of Nismes. The canal of Aigues Mortes now 
 extends to this town, where it communicates with 
 the Rhone. On the Rhone, opposite Tarascon, 
 are the picturesque ruins of an old castle. Its 
 population is stated to be 8500. Long. 4° 39' E.^ 
 lat. 43° 50' N. 
 
 BEAUCE, one of the former provinces of 
 France, famous for its fertility in grain. It was 
 situated between Perche, the Isle of France, the 
 Blasois, and the Orleanais, Chartnes was its capi- 
 tal. Beauce now forms apart of the department 
 of the Eure and Loir. 
 
 BEAUCLERC, Pout, a good harbour in an 
 island in the North Pacific, on the west coast of 
 North America. Long. 226° 23' E., lat. 56° 
 17' N. 
 
 BEAUCLERK (Topham), a gentleman of 
 whom Dr. Johnson said, referring to his conver- 
 sational power and facility of expression, that liis 
 talents were those which he had felt himself more 
 disposed to envy than those of any whom he had 
 known. He was the son of lord Sidney Beau- 
 clerk, and was born in December 1739. In 
 1763 he married lady Diana Spencer, daughter 
 of the duke of Marlborough, whose previous 
 marriage with viscount Bolingbroke had two 
 days before beep dissolved by act of parliament. 
 Mr. Beauclerk died at his house in Great Rus- 
 sell Street, Bloomsbury, March 11, 1780, leavmg 
 by his wife a son and two daughters, and a very 
 valuable library. Lady Diana Beauclerk long 
 survived him, and died in August 1808, at the 
 age of seventy-four. She was a lady distin- 
 guished for her txste and skill in the arts. 
 
 BEA'V'ER. Sax. befer, Dut. bever, Germ. 
 biber, Fr. bievre, Lat. /(6a. An animal, otherwise 
 named the castor, amphibious, and remarkable 
 for his art in building his habitation ; of which 
 many wonderful accounts are delivered by tra- 
 vellers.' His skin is very valuable on account of 
 the fur. Of this fur, hats of the best q\iality are 
 manufactured, and therefore called beavers. 
 
 Highe on hors he sat. 
 And on his b^ 1 a Flaundrish bever hat. 
 
 Chaucer. 
 Then unto him all monstrous beasts resorted. 
 Bred of two kindes ; as grifTons, niinotaurs. 
 Crocodiles, dragons beavers, and Centaures. 
 
 Spenser. Mother Hubberd's Tale.
 
 BEA 
 
 717 
 
 BEA 
 
 Ha ! you felt the wool of beaver ? 
 Or swans' down ever? 
 Or have smelt o' the bud o' the briar. 
 Or the nard in the fire. 
 Or have tasted the bag of the bee ; 
 Oh, so white ! Oh, so soft I Oh so sweet is she ! 
 
 Ben Jomon. 
 
 They placed this invention upon the heaver, for the 
 sagacity and wisdom of that animal •, indeed from its 
 artifice in building. Browne's Vulgar Errours. 
 
 You see a smart rhetorician turning his hat, mould- 
 ing it into different cocks, examining the lining and 
 the button during his harangue : a deaf man would 
 think he was cheapening -ixieaver, when he is- talking 
 of the fate of a nation. Addison. 
 
 The broker here his spacious beaver wears. 
 
 Upon his brow sit jealousies and cares. Gay. 
 
 Beaver, ) From baviere, French ; baviere, 
 Beaveued. ] says Cotgrave, is the bib, mocket, 
 or mocketer, to put before the bosom of a slaver- 
 ing child ; so that baviere or beaver, is, accord- 
 ing to the Ency. Met., that part of the helmet 
 which lets down to enable the wearer to drink, 
 and which receives the drops or dribblings; by 
 Shakspeare and others, however, as tlie editor 
 admits, it is quite oppositely applied. 
 His dreadful hideous head. 
 Close couched on the beaver, seem'd to throw 
 From flaming mouth bright sparkles fiery red. 
 
 Spenser . 
 Big Mars seems bankrupt in their beggar'd host. 
 And faintly through a rusty beaver peeps. Sliakspeare, 
 I saw young Harry, — with his beaver on. 
 His cuisses on his thighs, gallantly arm'd, — 
 Rise from the ground like feather'd Mercury, 
 And vaulted with such ease into his seat. 
 As if an angel dropp'd down from the clouds. 
 To turn and wind a fiery Pegasus, 
 And witch the world with noble horsemanship. Id. 
 He was slain upon a course at tilt, the splinters of 
 liis staff going in at his beaver. Bacon. 
 
 His beaver'd brow a birchen garland bears, 
 j)ropping with infant's blood, and mother's tears. 
 
 Pope. 
 
 Beaver, in zoology. See Castor. 
 
 Beaver Skins are a prodigious article of 
 trade, being the foundation of the hat manufac- 
 tory. In 17G3 were sold, in a single sale of the 
 Hudson's Bay Company, 54,670 skins. They 
 vary in their colors; the finest are black, but the 
 general color is a chestnut brown, more or less 
 dark: some have been found, but very rarely, 
 white. They are distinguished by the names of 
 coat beaver, which is what has been worn as 
 coverlets by the Indians: parchment beaver, 
 because the lower side resembles it; and stage 
 beaver, which is the worst, and is that which the 
 Indians kill out of season, on their stages or 
 journeys. Besides hats and furs, in which the 
 beaver's hair is commonly used, they attempted 
 in France, in 1699, to make cloths, flannels, 
 stockings, &c. partly of beaver's hair, and partly 
 of Segovia wool. This manufactory, whicli was 
 set up at Paris, in St. Anthony's suburbs, suc- 
 ceeded at tirst pretty well ; and, according to the 
 genius of the French, the novelty of the thing 
 brought into some repute the stuffs, stockings, 
 gloves, and cloth, made of beaver's hair. But 
 ihey were found of very bad wear, and the 
 
 colors quickly faded : when they had been wet, 
 they became dry and hard, like felt. When the 
 hair has been cut oH' from the skins, to be used 
 in the manufacture of hats, the skins are em- 
 ployed by trunk-makers, to cover trunks and 
 boxes ; by shoe-makers ; and by turners, to 
 make sieves, &c. Merchants distinguish beaver 
 skins into, 
 
 1. Beaver, Dry, which is sometimes called 
 lean beaver, and which comes from the summer 
 hunting at the time when these animals lose 
 part of their hair. Though this is inferior to the 
 tiew beaver, yet it may also be employed in furs; 
 but it is chiefly used in the manufacture of hats. 
 The French call it summer castor or beaver. 
 
 2. Beaver, Fat, is that which has contracted 
 a certain gross and oily humor, from the per- 
 spiration which exhales from the bodies of the 
 savages, who wear it for some time. Though 
 this is a better kind than the dry beaver, yet it is 
 used only in the making hats. 
 
 3. Beaver, New, or White Beaver, also 
 called Muscovy beaver, because it is commonly 
 kept to be sent into Russia, is that which the 
 savages catch in their winter hunting. It is the 
 best, and the most proper for making fine furs, 
 because it has lost none of its hair by shedding. 
 
 Beaver Creek, a river of North America, 
 which falls into lake Erie at its east end, about 
 seven miles south-east from Fort Erie. 2. A 
 river of North America, wiiich falls into die Alle- 
 gany. Twenty-eight miles north-west from Pitts- 
 burg. 3. A river of Kentucky, which runs into 
 the Cumberland. 4. A river of Georgia, which 
 runs into the Tennessee. 
 
 Beaver Islands, are a remarkable chain of 
 small islands in lake Michigan, extending about 
 thirty miles south-west. They appear beautiful, 
 but the soil is barren. 
 
 Beaver Kill, a river of North America, 
 which falls into the Popachton branch of the 
 Delaware. 
 
 Beaver Lake, in North America, lies in 
 about 52° 45' N. lat., and 101° 30' W. long. 
 
 Beaver River, so called from the multitude 
 of beavers which frequent its banks, a river of 
 North America, which rises on the eastern side 
 of tiie rocky mountains, and falls into the Yellow- 
 stone from the north. 
 
 Also a river of North America, which rises in 
 the ridge of mountains that divides the waters 
 which discharge themselves into Hudson's bay, 
 from those which flow towards the Northern 
 Ocean. It falls into Lake la Crosse, in about 
 56° N. lat. and 108o W. long. 
 
 Beaver's Towx, a town of the United States 
 of America, in the western territory, built in 
 1764. Eighty-five miles north-west of Pittsburg. 
 
 BEAUFORT a sea-port of the United States, 
 in Carteret, North Carolina county, Nortli Ame- 
 rica. Fifty-five miles south by east of Newbum. 
 Long. 77° W., lat. 34° 47' N. 
 
 Beaufort, a town of the United States, in 
 South Carolina, situated on the island of Port 
 Royal, at the mouth of Coosawhalchie river, 
 it has an excellent harbour, and is seventy-tliree 
 miles from Charlestown. Long. 80° 55' W., 
 lat. 32° 26' N. 
 
 Br.AL'FORT E.v Vallef, 3 town of France, in
 
 BEA 
 
 718 
 
 BEA 
 
 ine department of the Maine and Loire, late pro- 
 vince of Aniou, with a castle. It contains two 
 parishes, and formerly had a convent of Recolets. 
 Beaufort gives the title of a Duke in England' to 
 the noble family of Somerset, who are lineally 
 descended from John of Gaunt, duke of Lancas- 
 ter, whose duchess resided here. It contains 
 800 houses, 6000 inhabitants, and carries on an 
 active trade in grain, wine, and hemp, with 
 manufactures of linen and woollen stuffs, and 
 hats. The village of Beaufon en Franchise, or 
 Beaufort hors la Ville, is separated from this 
 town by an arm of the river Coesnon. Fifteen 
 miles east of Angers, and thirty-eight west of 
 Tours. 
 
 BE.4.UF0RT District, a county of South Caro- 
 lina, which lies on the sea-coast, between Com- 
 bahee and Savannah rivers. 
 
 Beaufort (Henry), brother of Henry IV. 
 king of England, was made bishop of I^incoln, 
 whence he was translated to Winchester. He 
 was also nominated chancellor of the kingdom, 
 and sent ambassador to France. In 1426 
 he received a cardinal's hat, and was appointed 
 legate in Germany. In 1431 he crowned Henry 
 VI. in the great church of Paris. He died at 
 Winchester in 1447. He was a haughty, turbu- 
 lent prelate, and Shakspeare is considered as 
 giving a true portrait of him, when he describes 
 his last scene. 
 
 Beaufort (Margaret), the foundress of Christ's 
 and St. John's colleges in Cambridge; the only 
 daughter and heir of John Beaufort, duke of 
 Somerset, and of Margaret Beauchamp, was born 
 in 1441. She married in 1456 Edmund, earl of 
 Richmond, by whom she had king Henry VII. 
 and died in 1509, after having had two other 
 husbands, namely. Sir Henry Stafford, and 
 Thomas, lord Stanley, earl of Derby. By her 
 marriage, according to bishop Fisher, with the 
 earl of Richmond, and by her birth, she was 
 allied to thirty kings and queens, within the fourth 
 degree of either blood or affinity. Besides the 
 foundation of the two colleges at Cambridge, 
 before-mentioned, she left salaries for two divi- 
 nity lecturers, one at Oxford, and the other at 
 Cambridge; as also for a grammar-school at 
 Wimborn, and other foundations in support of 
 learning, of which she was not altogether de- 
 ficient herself, as appears from some of her works, 
 namely, 1 . The Mirroure of Gold for the Sinful 
 Soul; translated from the French version of a 
 book entitled. Speculum Aureum Peccatorum. 
 2. A translation of the fourth book of Gerson's 
 treatise, entitled, Of the Imitation and Following 
 the Blessed Life of our Most Merciful Saviour 
 Jesus Christ; printed at the end of Dr. Atkin- 
 son's English translation of the three first books, 
 1504. 3. A Letter to her Son, printed in How- 
 ard's Collection of Letters. She was also pos- 
 sessed of extraordinary zeal in religion, and 
 declared that provided she could indivce the 
 princes of Christendom to form a league, and 
 march against the infidels, she would willingly 
 attend them as their laundress. 
 
 Beaufort (Lewis de), a celebrated writer of 
 the eighteenth century. He distinguished him- 
 self in the literary world by several valuable 
 works, and was chosen fellow of the Royal Society 
 
 of London. He wrote the History of Germani- 
 cus; Dissertation upon the Uncertainty of the 
 five first Ages of the Roman Republic;. History 
 of the Roman Republic, or Plan of the Ancient 
 Government of Rome. He died at Maestricht in 
 1795. 
 
 BEAUFORTIA, in botany, a genus of plants 
 of the class polyadelphia, and order icosandria. 
 Its generic characters are five groups of stam. 
 opposite to the petals: anther, inserted into the 
 base; bifid at the apex, lobes deciduous : caps. 
 trilocular one-seeded, connate, included in the 
 thickened tube of the calyx adnate at the base. 
 It contains two species, natives of New Holland. 
 
 BEAUFRONT,a small town of Northumber- 
 land, on the Tyne. 
 
 BEAUGENCY, a town of France, in the de- 
 partment of the lx)iret, and arrondissement of 
 Orleans, seated on the Loire. Long. 1° 46' E., 
 lat. 47" 48' N. It had formerly the title of 
 county, has 4900 inhabitants, and is the head of 
 a canton. It has a considerable trade in wine 
 and brandy; a few cloth stuffs are also manufac- 
 tured, and there are several tanneries. Over the 
 Loire is a stone bridge. Fifteen miles south-west 
 of Orleans, and eighteen north-east of Blois. 
 . BEAUHARNOIS (Alexander de), a French 
 nobleman, who perished during the revolution, 
 and who was the first husband of the late em- 
 press Josephine of France. He was born at 
 Martinique, and going early in life to Paris, was 
 elected deputy of Blois in the Constituent As- 
 sembly, in which he joined the popular party. 
 He proposed equality of punishments for all 
 classes of citizens, and their eligibility to all 
 offices. After the attempted flight of Louis XVI. 
 Beauharnois was appointed adjutant-general to 
 Luckner, general-in-chief of the army of the ]Mo- 
 selle, in which post he gave many proofs both of 
 his courage and humanity. He was offered the 
 place of minister of war, which he refused. Five 
 days previous to the fall of Robespierre, he was 
 condemned by the revolutionary tribunal, and 
 perished on tlie scaffold, July 23d, 1794. 
 
 Beauharnois (Eugene de), only son of the 
 preceding, and viceroy of Italy under Napoleon, 
 was intimately connected throughout life with his 
 father-in-law. He is said to have governed Italy 
 wth great judgment and moderation, so as to 
 conciliate the respect and esteem of the inhabi- 
 tants in general. In the Russian campaign he 
 commanded the Italian troops of the grand army. 
 Napoleon's downfall in 1814 terminated Beauhar- 
 nois's prosperity. In January, 1806, he married 
 the princess Augusta Amelia, eldest daughter of 
 the king of Bavaria, to whose court at Munich 
 he retired on the restoration of Louis XVIII. 
 and died there in 1824. 
 
 BEAULIEU, a village of Hampshire, four 
 miles south-west of Southampton, in which are 
 the remains of a Cistercian abbey, founded by 
 king John in 1204. Its walls afforded an asy- 
 lum to Margaret, the queen of Henry VI. after 
 the battle of Barnet. The celebrated Perkir 
 W^arbeck was protected here in later times ; 
 when their sanctity was so far respected, that 
 though surrounded by an armed force, he was not 
 seized, but voluntarily surrendered himself. 
 
 Beaulieu, a small town of France, on the
 
 BEA 
 
 719 
 
 BEA 
 
 right bank of the Indre, in the government of 
 Touraine. It had formerly the title of barony; 
 since the revolution it has been included in the 
 department of the Indre and Loire. It has 1500 
 inhabitants, and a few manufactures of linen and 
 woollen stuffs and hats. Nineteen miles S.S.W. 
 of Tours. 
 
 Beaulieu (Sebastian de Pontault de), a cele- 
 brated French engineer, and major-eieneral under 
 Louis XIV^. He published plans of all the battles 
 and sieges of his master, to which he added his- 
 torical subjects in perspective. He died in 1674. 
 
 BEAUMARCHAIS (Peter Augustin Caron 
 de), an ingenious French artist and dramatic 
 writer, was born at Paris in 1732. His father 
 was a clock-maker, and early in life he applied 
 himself with great diligence to that occupation. 
 He invented a new escapement, tiie honor of 
 which was contested by another artist, but the 
 Academy of Sciences determined it in favor of 
 young Beaumarchais. He also distinguished 
 himself by his skill in music, and particularly in 
 playing on the harp ; which recommended him 
 to the notice of the sisters of Louis XV'. who en- 
 couraged him to attend their concerts and private 
 parties. In three different great legal causes in 
 ■which he was engaged, he displayed his literary 
 talents so advantageously, as obtained for him a 
 considerable post under the government. He 
 ■wrote, 1. iNIemoires contre les Sieurs de Goetz- 
 man, &c. 2. Memoire en reponse a celui de G. 
 Kornmann. 3. Eugenie, a drama. 4. Les deux 
 Amis. 3. Le Barbier de Seville. 6. Le Marriage 
 de Figaro. 7. Tarare, an opera. 8. La Mere 
 Coupable. 9. Memoire en Reponse au Manifeste 
 du roi d'Angleterre. 10. Memoires a Lecointre de 
 Versailles. At the commencement of the revo- 
 lution he retired to Holland, from whence he 
 came to England, and was proscribed by tlie 
 convention, yet he ventured to return to his 
 country, where he died in 1799. . The first ap- 
 pearance of Le Mariage de Figaro, at the begin- 
 ning of the revolution, gave rise to a singular 
 trial of strength between the court and the popu- 
 lar party. See Antoinette. 
 
 BEAUMARIS, or Beaumarsh, Fr. Beau- 
 marais, the county town of Anglesey in North 
 Wales, seated on a bay, which affords good 
 anchorage, and is frequently a refuge for ships in 
 storms; having seven fathoms water at the lowest 
 ebb. It is neat and well built, and has one 
 very handsome street. Edward I. to overawe 
 the Welsh, built a fortress here in 1295, and 
 fixed on a marshy spot, near the chapel of St. 
 Meugan, that he might have an opportunity of 
 forming a foss round the castle, and of filling it 
 with water from the sea. He also cut a canal, to 
 permit vessels to discharge their lading beneath the 
 walls. Within the last century iron rings were 
 affixed to them, for the purpose of mooring ships 
 or boats. The marsh was in early times of f;ir 
 greater extent than at present, and covered with 
 fine bulrushes. " The first governor was Sir \\ il- 
 liam Pickmore, a Gascon knight. The constable 
 of the castle was formerly captain of the town. 
 It was garrisoned for Charles I. in the civil wars, 
 but captured by an overwhelming parliamentary 
 force. This castle is in ruins, and the present 
 government of Beaumaris is vested in a mayor, 
 
 recorder, two bailiffs, and twenty-four burgesses* 
 two sergeants at mace, a town clerk, four consta- 
 bles, and a water bailiff : the corporation only 
 electing the member of parliament returned b\' 
 this place. Here is a handsome church, contain- 
 ing some noble monuments : a commodious and 
 elegant town-hall, having shambles under it, with 
 iron gates and railings, and a secure prison. In 
 the hall the corporation business is transacted, 
 and the assemblies are held. It has been rebuilt 
 by viscount Bulkeley. The grammar-school and 
 alms-houses are also respectable establishments. 
 The ferry, which is near the town, is passable at 
 low water. The markets on Wednesday and 
 Saturday are well supplied with all kinds of pro- 
 vision. It is a chapelry, called Uie chapel ol^ the 
 Blessf^d Virgin, to the parish of Llaudegvan. 
 251 miles, by Aberconway, from London, and 
 fifty-nine west by north from Chester ; and con- 
 tains upwards of 2000 inhabitants. It is near 
 Beaumaris, over the Bangor ferry, that the noble 
 suspension bridge of Mr. Telford has been 
 recently erected. The span of the principal arch 
 is 580 feet, and it is 100 feet above the surface 
 of the sea at high water, which will allow the 
 largest vessels that pass the strait to sail beneath 
 it. At Plasnewydd, about one mile on the right, 
 is the elegant mansion of tiie marquis of Anglesey. 
 
 BEAUMELLE (Laurence), a French author, 
 bom at Vallerangue, in Lower Languedoc, in 
 1727. He was a man of considerable abilities, 
 and went to Denmark, where he settled for some 
 time as professor of belles lettres. He wrote a 
 Defence of the Spirit of Laws; Letters to \'ol- 
 taire ; Thoughts of Seneca ; a Commentary upon 
 the Henriade; a Life of Mad. Maintenon, &c. 
 but was twice confined in the Bastile for libels 
 and satires. The king, however, appointed hira 
 his librarian in 1772. He died at Paris in 1773. 
 
 Beaumont (Francis), a celebrated dramatic 
 writer, who flourished in the reign of James 1. 
 was descended from an ancient family of his 
 name at Grace-Dieu, in Leicestershire, where he 
 was born about 1585 or 1586, in the .reign of 
 queen Elizabeth. His grandfather, John Beau- 
 mont, was master of the rolls, and his father, 
 Francis, one of the judges of the common pleas. 
 He was educated at Cambridge, and afterwards 
 admitted cf the inner temple. It does not, how- 
 ever, appear, that he had made any great pro- 
 ficiency in the law. Out of fifty-three plays, 
 which are collected together as the joint labors 
 of Beaumont and Fletcher, (for an account of 
 their celebrated joint works, see Fletcher), Mr. 
 Beaumont was concerned in the greater part, 
 yet he did not live to comi)lete his thirtieth year, 
 death summoninj; him away in the beginning of 
 March, 1615. He was interred in the entrance 
 of St. Benedict's chapel, Westminster abbey. 
 He left a daughter, Frances Beaumont, who 
 died in Leicestershire, and who, having in her 
 possession several poems of her father s, lost 
 them at sea in a voyage from Ireland. 
 
 Beai-mokt (Sir John), the elder brother of 
 Francis the poet, w;is born in 1582, and edu- 
 cated at Oxford, whence he removetl to one 
 of the inns of court. In 1626 he had the dig- 
 nity of a baronet conferred on liiui by king 
 Charles I. He wrote, Tiie Crown of Thorns, a
 
 BEA 
 
 720 
 
 BEA 
 
 poem, in eight books; Bosworth Field, and 
 other poems; Translations from the Latin 
 Poets ; and several poems on religious and po- 
 litical subjects : as, on the Festivals ; on the 
 Blessed Trinity ; a Dialogue between the World, 
 a Pilgrim, and Virtue ; Of the miserable State 
 of Man; Of Sickness, &c. He died in 1628. 
 His poetic genius was celebrated by Ben Jon- 
 son and Michael Drayton. 
 
 Beaumont (Mad. le Prince de), a literary 
 lady, a native of Rouen, in Normandy, who kept 
 a boarding school for young ladies at London, 
 and afterwards at Annecy, in Savoy, where she 
 died in 1780. Her publications are, Magazin 
 des Enfaos ; Magazin des Adolescens ; Magazin 
 des Jeuncs Dames; Nouveau Magazin Anglois ; 
 Lettres de Madame du Montier ; and The New 
 Clarissa. 
 
 Beaumont (Elie d'), a French advocate, born 
 at Carentan in 1732. He distingiushed himself 
 by his interesting memoir in favor of the unfor- 
 tunate family of Calas, the effect of which upon 
 the nation was very great. Besides this, he 
 •wTQte several other pieces of considerable merit. 
 He died in 1785. The much admired novel, 
 entitled, Letters of the Marquis de Roselle, was 
 written by his wife, who died in 1783. 
 
 Beaumont de Lomagne, a town of France, 
 in Gascony, with 3700 inhabitants ; the head of 
 a canton, situated in the department of the Tarn 
 and Garonne. Here are marmfactures of coarse 
 cloths, hats, and leather. It stands on the small 
 river Gimone, twenty-eight miles north-west of 
 Toulouse. 
 
 Beaumont le Vicomte, a town of France, in 
 the province of Maine, and department of the 
 Sarthe. It contains 2400 inhabitants, with ma- 
 nufactures of woollen stuffs, and lies on the river 
 Sarthe, fifteen miles north of Le Mans, and fif- 
 teen south of Alenfon. 
 
 Beaumont sur Oise, a small town of France, 
 with 2150 inhabitants. It is situated in the de- 
 partment of the Seine and Oise, on the river 
 Oise, twenty miles north of Paris. 
 
 Beaumont sur Vingeanne, a town of France, 
 in Burgundy, department of the Cote d'Or, ten 
 » miles west of Gray, and thirteen north-east of 
 Dijon. 
 
 BEAUNE, or Beaulne, a town of France, in 
 Burgundy, included since the revolution in the 
 department of the Cote d'Or ; the head of an 
 arrondissement of nine cantons. It is tolerably 
 well fortified, and has a castle, with five suburbs. 
 The only public establishment deserving men- 
 tion is the hospital, founded in 1443, by the 
 chancellor RoUin. In former times it was the 
 third town in Burgundy, the seat of a gover- 
 nor, and other functionaries, and the capi- 
 tal of the district called from it the Beaunois. 
 The town is particularly celebrated for its wines, 
 and lies in an agreeable country, on the right 
 bank of the Bouzeoise, not far from the Saone. 
 Twenty miles S.S.W. of Dijon, and twenty- 
 tliree north-east of Autun. Inhabitants about 
 10,200. 
 
 Beauxe (James de), baron ofSamblan^ai, an 
 unfortunate financier under Francis I. While 
 that monarch was contending about the Milanese, 
 lieaune had settled matters for sending 300,000 
 
 crowns to Lautrec, the commander, for paying 
 the troops ; but the queen mother demanded the 
 money for herself, threatening to ruin the super- 
 intendant if he did not satisfy her demand, and 
 thus obtained it. In consequence of the army 
 not receiving the promised supply, they failed in 
 their design, and laid the blame upon Samblan- 
 cai, against whom they complained to the king. 
 The baron endeavoured to justify himself, by 
 laying before the king the real cause ; but the 
 queen mother bribed his secretary to deliver to 
 her the receipts she had granted to him, by which 
 means he was deprived of the only evidence for 
 substantiating his innocence ; he was accordingly 
 accused of having made use of the money him- 
 self, and was executed in 1527. He met his 
 fate with the utmost intrepidity ; and his courage 
 is commemorated in a beautiful epigram by the 
 poet Marot. 
 
 BEAU-PLEADER, or Bew-pleader, a writ 
 on the statute of Marlbridge, whereby it is pro- 
 vided that no fine shall be taken of any man in 
 any court for fair pleading, i. e. for not pleading 
 aptly, and to the purpose. 
 
 BEAURAIN (John de), geographer to Lewis 
 XV. was born at Aix in 1697. Besides con- 
 structing a number of charts, he published a to- 
 pographical and military description of the 
 campaigns of Luxemburg, from 1690 to 1694. 
 three volumes, folio. He died in 1771. 
 
 BEAUREGARD L'Eveque, a town of 
 France, in the department of the Puy-de-Dome, 
 has an elegant castle, which, before the revolu- 
 tion, belonged to the bishop of Clermont. The 
 memory of the celebrated Masillon is still che- 
 rished here by the inhabitants. Beauregard is 
 not far from the AUier. Nine miles east of 
 Clermont-Ferrand . 
 
 BEAURIEU (Gaspard-Guillard de), an inge- 
 nious French philosopher, born in the county of 
 Artois in 1727. His most celebrated work was 
 the Pupil of Nature, two volumes. He fell a 
 sacrifice to the revolutionary storms, being left ti> 
 perish in an hospital in 1795. 
 
 BEAUSOBRE (Isaac de), a very learned 
 French Protestant writer, was born at Niort in 
 1659. He was forced into Holland to avoid the 
 execution of a sentence, which condemned him 
 to make the amende honorable, for having bro- 
 ken the royal signet, which was put upon the 
 door of a church of the reformed, to prevent the 
 public profession of their religion. He went' to 
 Berlin in 1694; was made chaplain to the king 
 of Prussia, and counsellor of the royal consis- 
 tory. He died in 1738, aged seventy-nine, after 
 having published, 1. Defense de la Doctrine des 
 Reforraes. Q. A Translation of the New Testament 
 and Notes, jointly with M. Lenfant. 3. Disser- 
 tation sur les Adamites de Boheme. 4. Histoire 
 Critique de Manichees, et du Manicheisme, two 
 vols, quarto. 5. Several dissertations in the 
 Bibliotheque Britannique, See. M. Beausobre 
 had strong sense, with profound erudition ; he 
 preached as he wrote, with warmth and spirit. 
 
 Beausobre (Lewis), counsellor to the king of 
 Prussia, was born at Berlin in 1730. He wrote 
 Philosophical Dissertations on the Nature of Fire. 
 Le Pyrrhonisme du Sage ; and Les Songes d'Epl- 
 cure. He died in 1783.
 
 BEAUTY. 
 
 721 
 
 BEAUTY, V. & nO Beuuti, French ; from 
 Beaute'ovs, the ancient Latin, l/erws, 
 
 Beaute'ously, i. e. bonus; fair; good; 
 
 Beautegus'ness, lovely. It is applied to 
 BEAUTi'FfER, external objects; to what- 
 
 Beauti'ful, [ ever imparts pleasure, 
 
 Beauti'fully, Tand comes under the 
 
 Bealtiful'ness, cognizance of the senses; 
 Beauti'fy, there is also an ideal 
 
 Beautjfy'ixg, world of beauty ; the 
 
 Beauti'less, 'i various qualities of the 
 
 Bealty'warnixg, J human mind and cha- 
 racter, and the productions of the intellect which 
 liave a relation to taste ; beauty of scenery ; 
 beauty of person; beauty of description, of 
 thoughts, of words, of actions. 
 But, for to spekin of her eyin clere ! 
 ho ! truily thei writtin that hire scien. 
 That Patadis stode formed in hire eien ; 
 And with hire riche beaute evirmore 
 Strove love in hire aie which of hem was more. 
 
 Chaucer. Troilus and Creseide. 
 Faire Marian, the muses onely darling : 
 Whose heautie shyneth as the morning cleare. 
 With silver dew upon the roses pearling. Spenser. 
 'Tis beauty truly blent, whose red and white 
 Nature's own sweet and cunning hand laid on. 
 
 Shahtpeare. 
 Beauty and grace are like those beams and shinin£;s 
 that come from the glorious and divine sun, which 
 are diverse, as they proceed from the diverse objects, 
 to please and affect our several senses ; ' as the spe- 
 cies of beauty are taken at our eyes, ears, or con- 
 ceived in our inner soul,' as Plato disputes at large in 
 his Dialogue de Pulchro, Phaedos, Hyppias ; and, 
 after many sophistical errors are confuted, concludes 
 that beauty is a grace in all things, delighting the 
 eyes, ears, and soul itself ; so that, as Valesius infers, 
 hence whatsoever pleaseth our ears, eyes, and soul, 
 must needs be beautifuU, fair, and delightsome to us. 
 Burton. Anat. Mel. 
 His hair (which the young men of Greece used to 
 wear very long) was stirred up and down with the 
 wind, which seemed to hayc a sport to play with 
 it as the sea had to kiss his feet; himself full of 
 admirable beauty, set forth by the strangeness both 
 of his seat and gesture ; for holding his head up full 
 of unmoved majesty, he held a sword aloft with his 
 fair arm, which often he waved about his crown, as 
 though he would threaten the world in that extremity. 
 Sir Philip Sydney. Arcadia, 
 A bed of lilies flow'r upon her cheek. 
 And in the midst was set a circling rose ; 
 Whose sweet aspect would force Narcissus seek 
 New liveries, and fresher colours choose. 
 To deck his beauteous head in snowy tire ; 
 But all in vain ; for who can hope t' aspire 
 To such a fair, which none attain, but all admire? 
 
 Fletcher's Purple l.sla:,d. 
 Ask me no more where Jove bestows. 
 When June is past, the fading rose ; 
 For in your beauties orient deep. 
 These flowers, zis in their causes, sleep. 
 
 T. Carett. 
 But liker <:? soon together drew. 
 What she di. separate lay. 
 Of which one perfect beauty grew. 
 And that was Celia. ^larvell. 
 
 O ! she has beauty might ensnare 
 A conqueror's soul, and make him leave his crown 
 At random, to be scuffled for by slaves. 
 
 Otway. Orphan. 
 Vol. Ill 
 
 Like blossom'd trees o'ertum'd by vernal storms. 
 Lovely in death, the beauteous rnin lay. 
 
 Young. Night Thoughts 
 
 The lengthened night elaps'd, the morning shines 
 Serene, in all h( r dewy beauty briglit. 
 Unfolding fair the last autumnal day. 
 
 Thomson. Seasons. 
 As lamps burn silent, with unconscious light. 
 So modest case in beauty shines most bright. 
 
 A. Hill. 
 
 Perhaps the most complete assemblage of beautiful 
 objects that can anywhere be found, is presented by 
 a rich natural landscape, where there is sufficient 
 variety of objecU ; fields in verdure, scattered trees 
 and flowers, running water, and animals grazing. 
 
 Blair's Lectures. 
 
 A lady seldom listens with attention to any praise 
 but that of her beauty. Johnson, liamblsr. 
 
 The silver light, which hallowing tree and tower. 
 Sheds beauty and deep softness o'er the whole. 
 Breathes also to the heart, and o'er it throws 
 A loving languor, which is not repose. Byron. 
 
 Her cheek of youth was beautiful. 
 Till withering sorrow blanched the bright rose there. 
 Maturin. Bertram. 
 
 Beauty. Locke defines beauty, as, ' a certain 
 composition of color and figure, causing delight 
 to the beholder.' Mr. Burke, confining his defi- 
 nition to the merely sensible (jualities of things, 
 states beauty to be ' that quality, or those qua- 
 lities, in bodies by which they cause love, or some, 
 passion similar to it.' Others define it, more 
 generally, as a term whereby we express a certain 
 relation of some object, either to an agreeable 
 sensation, or to an idea of approbation. When, 
 therefore, we say a thing is beautiful, we either 
 mean that we perceive something that we ap- 
 prove, or something that gives us pleasure: 
 whence it appears, that the idea annexed to the 
 word beauty is double ; which renders the word 
 equivocal, and this is the source of most of the 
 disputes on the subject of beauty. 
 
 5lr. Hazlett, in an ingenious dissertation on 
 the subject, in the Supplement to the Encyclo- 
 paedia Britannica, speaks of it as that property 
 m objects by which they are recommended to the 
 power or faculty of taste — the reverse of ugliness 
 —the primary or most general object of love or 
 admiration. 
 
 We do not regard works of science as alto- 
 gether suited for dissertations on matters of taste. 
 W'e find our space and our attention occupied 
 with the more tangible and better defined objects 
 of imman knowledge. But we shall endeavour 
 to collect the most respectable opinions on this 
 dis])uted subject. 
 
 Beauty, says Dr. Reid, (Essay en the Intel- 
 lectual Powers of Man, ch. iv.) is found in things 
 so various and so verj' different in nature, that it 
 is diflficult to say wherein it consists, or what can 
 be common to all the objects in which it is found. 
 Of the objects of sense, we find beauty in color, 
 in sound, in form, in motion. There are beauties 
 of speech, and beauties of thought; beauties in 
 the arts, and in the sciences ; beauties in actions, 
 in affections, and in characters. In things so 
 different, and so unlike, is there any quality, the 
 same in all, which we may call by the name o. 
 beauty ? Why then should things so different be 
 called by the same name .' They please, and are 
 
 i A
 
 722 
 
 BEAUTY. 
 
 denominated beautiful, not in virtue of any one 
 quality common to them all, but by means of 
 several different principles in human nature. 
 The agreeable emotion excited by them, and 
 called beauty, is produced by different causes. 
 However, though there be nothmg common in 
 the things themselves, yet the kinds of beauty, 
 which seem to be as various as the objects to 
 which it is ascribed, must have some common 
 relation to us, or to something else, which leads 
 us to give them the same name. All the objects 
 we call beautiful, agree in two things, which seem 
 to concur hi our sense of bea\ity. First, when 
 they are perceived, or even imagined, they pro- 
 duce a certain agreeable emotion or feeling in 
 the mind ; and, secondly, this agreeable emotion 
 is accompanied with an opinion orbelief of their 
 having some perfection or excellence belonging 
 to them. Whether the pleasure we feel in con- 
 templating beautiful objects may have any ne- 
 cessary connexion with the belief of their ex- 
 cellence, or whether that pleasure be conjoined 
 with this belief, merely by the good pleasure of 
 our Maker, Dr. Reid does not determine. Beau- 
 tiful objects excite an emotion of a soothing and 
 enlivening kind, that sweetens the temper, allays 
 angry passions, and promotes every benevolent 
 affection, and disposes to other agreeable emo- 
 tions, such as those of love, hope, and joy. 
 
 ' There is nothing,' says Addison, ' that makes 
 its way more directly to the soul than beauty, 
 which immediately diffuses a secret satisfaction 
 and complacence through the imagination, and 
 gives a finishing to any thing that is great and 
 uncommon. The very first discovery of it strikes 
 the mind with an inward joy, and spreads a 
 cheerfulness and delight through all its faculties.' 
 This agreeable emotion, produced by beautiful 
 objects, is accompanied with an opinion or judg- 
 ment of some perfection or excellence of those 
 objects, adapted by its nature for producing that 
 emotion ; and this, according to J3r. Reid, is a 
 second ingredient in our sense of beauty. To 
 assert, says this writer, that there is in reality no 
 beauty in those objects, in which all men per- 
 ceive beauty, is to attribute to man fallacious 
 senses ; and thus to think disrespectfully of the 
 Author of our being ; who has diffused over all 
 the works of nature a profusion of beauties, 
 which are real, and not fanciful, and thousands 
 of which our faculties are too dull to perceive. 
 This author distinguishes our determinations with 
 regard to the beauty of objects into two kinds, 
 viz. instinctive and rational. In the former case, 
 objects strike us at once, and appear beautiful at 
 first sight, without any reflection, and without 
 our being able to say why we call them beauti- 
 ful, or being able to specify any perfection which 
 justifies our judgment. Whereas our rational 
 judgment of beauty is grounded on some agree- 
 able quality of the object, which is distinctly con- 
 ceived, and maybe specified. Beauty itself may 
 be distinguished into original, and derived. It 
 is natund and agreeable to the strain of human 
 sentiments and of human language, says Dr. 
 Reid, that in many cases the beauty which ori- 
 ginally and properly exists in the things signified, 
 should be transferred to the sign ; that which is 
 in the cause to the effect ; that which is in the 
 
 end to the means ; and that which is in the agent 
 to the instrument. E.G. The beauty of good 
 breeding is not originally in the external beha- 
 viour in which it consists ; it is derived from the 
 qualities of mind which it expresses ; and though 
 there may be good breeding without the amiable 
 qualities of mind, its beauty is still derived from 
 what it naturally expresses. Good breeding is 
 the picture ; these agreeable qualities are the ori- 
 ginal ; and it is the beauty of the original that is 
 reflected to our senses by the picture. 
 
 Dr. Reid is of opinion, that beauty originally 
 dwells in the moral and intellectual perfections 
 of mind, and in its active powers, and that from 
 this, as- the fountain, all the beauty which we per- 
 ceive in the visible world is derived. This was 
 the opinion of the ancient philosophers ; and it 
 has been adopted by lord Shaftesbury and Dr. 
 Akenside among the moderns. 
 
 Mind, mind alone! bear witness earth and heav'n. 
 
 The living fountains in itself contains 
 
 Of beauteous and sublime. Here, hand in hand. 
 
 Sit paramount the graces. Here, enthron'd. 
 
 Celestial Venus, with divinest airs. 
 
 Invites the soul to never-failing joy. 
 
 Akenside. 
 
 But neither mind, nor any one of its qualities or 
 powers, is an immediate object of perception to 
 man. These are perceived through the medium 
 of material objects, on which their signatures are 
 impressed. The signs of these qualities are im- 
 mediately perceived by the senses, and by them 
 reflected to the understanding : and we are apt 
 to attribute to the sign the beauty which is pro- 
 perly and originally in the thing signified. Thus, 
 the invisible Creator hath stamped on his works 
 signatures of his divine wisdom, power, and be- 
 nignity, which are visible to all men. The works 
 of men in science, in the arts of taste, and in the 
 mechanical arts, bear the signatures of those qua- 
 lities of mind, which were employed in their 
 production. Their external behaviour or con- 
 duct in life expresses the good or bad qualities 
 of their minds. In every species of animals we 
 perceive by visible signs their instincts, appetites, 
 affections, or sagacity ; and even in the inanimate 
 world, there are many things analogous to the 
 qualities of mind ; so that there is hardly any 
 thing belonging to mind, which may not be re- 
 presented by images taken from the objects of 
 sense ; and, on the other hand, every object of 
 sense is beautiful, by borrowing attire from at- 
 tributes of the mind. Thus, the beauties of 
 mind, though invisible in themselves, are per- 
 ceived in the objects of sense, on which their 
 beauty is impressed. Thus also, in those qua- 
 lities of sensible objects to which we ascribe 
 beauty, we discover in them some relation to 
 mind, and- the greatest in those that are most 
 beautiful. The qualities of inanimate matter, in 
 which we perceive beauty, are sound, color, form, 
 and motion : tlie first being an object of hearing ; 
 and the other three of sight. These several qua- 
 lities are particularly illustrated by Dr. Reid, 
 with a view of evincing the beauty that respec- 
 tively belongs to them. Of all the objects of 
 sense, the most striking and attractive beauty is 
 perceived in the human species, and particularly
 
 BEAUTY. 
 
 723 
 
 in the fair sex. In the following well-known 
 passage of Milton, this great poet derives the 
 beauty of the first pair in paradise from those ex- 
 pressions of moral and intellectual qualities, 
 which appeared in their outward form and de- 
 meanor. 
 
 Two of far nobler shape, erect and tall. 
 Godlike erect ! with native honor clad. 
 In naked majesty, seem'd lords of all. 
 And worthy seem'd, for in their looks divine. 
 The image of their glorious Maker, shone 
 Truth, wis 'om, sanctitude severe, and pure : 
 Severe, but in true filial freedom plac'd. 
 Whence true authority in man ; though both 
 Not equal, as their sex not equal seem'd j 
 For contemplation he, and valour form'd. 
 For softness she, and sweet attractive grace. 
 
 And here we cannot forbear subjoining the ex- 
 cellent reflections of Mr. Thomson, a late writer 
 on the subject of beauty : ' If we should see a 
 person employ himself with a sledge hammer to 
 dash the enchanting form of the \'enus de Me- 
 dicis to pieces, break, her lovely limbs, and de- 
 face her beauteous features, we should not hesi- 
 tate a moment to pronounce him a savage 
 barbarian, without taste, feeling, or sentiment; 
 though his frenzy was employed only on a sense- 
 less piece of stone : what then must we think of 
 the diabolical savage, who exercises the worst of 
 all cruelties (because the most lasting and affect- 
 ing both to body and mind) on the most beauti- 
 ful and amiable of all creatures on this side 
 heaven ? — made expressly for his happiness, so- 
 lace, and delight ; — by first corrupting and be- 
 traying her, and then basely abandoning her to 
 perish with want, wretchedness, and misery.' 
 
 Dr. Blair (Lectures, vol. i. p. 101, &c.), in his 
 enumeration of the separate principles of beauty, 
 in each of those classes of objects, which most 
 remarkably exhibit it, begins with color, as af- 
 fording the simplest instance of beauty. With 
 respect to this, lie observes, that neither variety, 
 nor uniformity, nor any other principle which he 
 knows, can be assigned as the foundation of 
 beauty ; and that it can be referred to no other 
 cause but the structure of the eye, whicli deter- 
 mines us to receive certain modifications of the 
 rays of light with more pleasure than others. As 
 this organ varies in different persons, they have 
 their different respective favorite colors. In some 
 cases, he thinks it probable, that association of 
 ideas has influence on the pleasure which we 
 receive from color. Green, for instance, may 
 appear more beautiful, by being connected in 
 our ideas with rural prospects and scenes; white 
 with innocence ; blue, with the serenity of the 
 sky. Independently of such associations, those 
 colors chosen foi beauty are, generally, delicate, 
 rather than glaring. Figure opens to us forms 
 of beauty more complex and diversified. Under 
 this head, regularity is first noticed as a source 
 of beauty. Thus a circle, a square, a triangle, 
 or a hexagon, please the eye by their regularity, 
 as beautiful figures. But regularity is not the 
 sole, or the chief foundation of beauty in figure. 
 On the contrary, a certain graceful variety is 
 found to be a much more powerful principle of 
 beauty. Regularity, according to tliis author. 
 
 expresses beauty chiefly, if not solely, on account 
 of its suggesting the idea of fitness, propriety, 
 and use, which have always a greater connexion 
 with orderly and proportioned forms, than with 
 those which appear not constructed according to 
 any certain rule. Nature, the most graceful 
 artist, hath, in all her ornamental works, pur- 
 sued variety with an apparent neglect of regula- 
 rity. Mr. Hogarth, in his Analysis of lieauty, 
 published about the year 1753, enumerates, as 
 elements of beauty, fitness, variety, uniformity, 
 simplicity, intricacy, and quantity ; and lie ob- 
 serves, that figures bounded by curve lines are, 
 in general, more beautiful than those bounded by 
 straight lines and angles. The beauty of figure 
 principally depends, in his opinion, upon two 
 lines which he has selected. One of them is the 
 ' waving line,' somewhat in the form of the letter 
 S : and this he calls the ' line of beauty,' which 
 is found in shells, flowers, and such other orna- 
 mental works of nature, and is also common in 
 the figures designed by painters and sculptors for 
 the purpose of decoration. The other line, which 
 be calls the ' line of grace,' is the former waving 
 curve, twisted round some solid body, and ex- 
 hibited in twisted pillars and twisted horns, and 
 in the curling worm of a common jack. Variety 
 plainly appears, in the instances which he men- 
 tions, to be so material a principle of beauty, 
 that he defines the art of drawing pleasing forms 
 to be the art of varying well; and, according to 
 him, the curve line, which is so much the favor- 
 ite of painters, derives its chief advantage from 
 its perpetual bending and variation from the 
 stiff regularity of the straight line. Motion, 
 says Dr. Blair, furnishes another source of 
 beauty, distinct from figure ; being of itself pleas- 
 ing, so that bodies in motion are, cjcteris pari- 
 bus, preferred to those at rest. But the quality 
 of beautiful belongs to gentle motion, such as 
 that of a bird gliding through the air, and that 
 of a smooth running stream. In general, motion 
 in a straight line is less beautiful than that in an 
 undulating direction ; and motion upwards is 
 also commonly more agreeable than motion 
 downwards. The easy curling motion of flame 
 and smoke is an object singularly pleasing, and 
 exhibits an instance of Mr. Hogarth's waving line 
 of beauty. This artist observes, that, as all the 
 common and necessary motions for the business 
 of life, are performed in straight or plain lines, 
 all the graceful and ornamental movements are 
 made in waving lines. 
 
 Dr. Beattie, in his Dissertations, Moral and 
 Critical, has introduced, in his digression on 
 beauty, some ingenious remarks on this subject. 
 After observing that custom has a perpetual in- 
 fluence in determining our notions of beauty, he 
 proceeds to prove, that from associations founded 
 on habit, many, or perhaps most of those pleas- 
 ing emotions are derived, which accompany the 
 perception of what in things visible is called 
 beauty. With regard to the beauty or awkward- 
 ness of motion, he observes, that the one will be 
 found to please, and the other to displease, chiefly 
 on account of certain disagreeable ideas suggested 
 by the former, and of certain disagreeable ones 
 associated with the latter. Motions, that imply 
 ease, with such an arrangement and proportion 
 
 3 A2
 
 724 
 
 BEAUTY. 
 
 of parts in the moving object, as may give reason 
 to expect its continuance without injury, are 
 generally pleasing, at least in animals, especially 
 when they betoken a sort of perfection suited to 
 the nature of the animal. But motions that 
 betray infirmity, unwieldiness, imperfection, or 
 the appearance of danger, cannot be called beau- 
 tiful, because they convey unpleasing ideas. 
 These observations are illustrated by a variety of 
 apposite instances. Cicero (de Off. 1. i. sect. 3G) 
 blames every motion that alters the countenance, 
 quickens the breath, or betrays any discompo- 
 sure. Rousseau observes, that in running, a 
 woman is destitute of that grace which attends 
 her on otlier occasions. Perhaps, says Beattie, 
 the jutting out of her elbows, the natural effect 
 of her endeavouring, with lifted hands, to secure 
 the most delicate part of the human frame, may 
 give to her motion the appearance of timidity and 
 constraint. Or, perhaps, she may fail in this 
 exercise, merely because, according to our man- 
 ners, she cannot be much accustomed to it. 
 
 It is not easy to convey, in so few words, so 
 many charming ideas of beauty, in its several 
 varieties of color, shape, attitude, and motion, as 
 Gray has combined in the following image : — 
 
 Slow melting strains their queen's approach declare ; 
 
 Wher&'er she turns the graces homage pay : 
 
 With arms sublime that float upon the air. 
 
 In gliding state she wins her easy way : 
 
 O'er her warm cheek and rising bosom move 
 
 The bloom of young desire, and purple light of love. 
 
 Burke, in hi^ Philosophical Inquiry into the 
 Origin of our Ideas of the Sublime and Beau- 
 tiful, excludes from the number of real causes of 
 beauty, the proportion of parts, fitness, or that 
 idea of utility which consists in a part's being 
 well adapted to answer its end, and also perfec- 
 tion; and he observes, p. 210, that beauty is, for 
 the greater part, some quality in bodies, acting 
 mechanically upon the human mind by the in- 
 tervention of the senses. The qualities of beauty, 
 as they are merely sensible qualities, which he 
 enumerates, are the following: they should be 
 comparatively small, smooth, various in the di- 
 rection of their constituent parts; these parts 
 should not be angular, but melted, as it were, 
 into each other; they should be of a delicate 
 frame, without any remarkable appearance of 
 strength; the colors should be clear and bright, 
 but not very strong and glaring ; and any glaring 
 color that is introduced should be diversified 
 with others. These are the seven properties 
 upon which, according to this author, beauty 
 depends; properties that operate by nature, 
 and are less liable to be altered by caprice, or 
 confounded by a diversity of tastes, than any 
 others. The physiognomy also, says Mr. Burke, 
 has a considerable share in beauty, especially in 
 that of our own species. The manners give a 
 certain determination to the countenance, which, 
 being observed to correspond pretty regularly 
 with them, is capable of joining the effects of 
 certain agreeable qualities of the mind to those 
 of the body. So that to form a finished human 
 beauty, and to give it its full influence, the face 
 must be expressive of such gentle and amiable 
 qualities as correspond with the softness, smooth- 
 
 ness, and delicacy of the outward form. For 
 Mr. Burke's mode of illustrating and confirming 
 his theory of beauty, the reader is referred to hi; 
 work above cited. 
 
 Dr. Sayers, in his Disquisitions, Metaphy- 
 sical and Literary, 8vo. in 1793, has given a new 
 analysis of beauty, conducted on the principles 
 which were applied by Dr. Priestley, in his Lec- 
 tures on Oratory and Criticism, and by Mr. Ali- 
 son, in his Essays on Taste, to the explanation 
 of the intellectual pleasures, namely, the doc- 
 trines of the Hartleyan school. His argument, 
 summed up in a few words, is as follows : that 
 individual of a class of objects is justly to be 
 esteemed more beautiful than the rest, with the 
 whole of which, or with its component parts, 
 when properly understood, the greater number 
 of the excellencies of its class are universally 
 associated. The same may be asserted of any 
 species of objects, when compared with any 
 other species of its kind ; and that object may 
 be justly esteemed a ' standard of beauty,' with 
 the whole appearance, or with the component 
 parts of which, when properly understood, all 
 the excellencies of its kind are ' universally' as- 
 sociated. 
 
 IVIr. Alison''s Essays, Mr. Knight's Analytical 
 Enquiry, and Mr. D. Stewart's Dissertations on 
 the Beautiful, and on Taste, in his Philosophical 
 Essays, are each of them modern works of sterl- 
 ing merit, and may be said to contain all the 
 known truths of this subject. 
 
 Mr. Alison contends, that all beauty, or at 
 least all the beauty of material objects, depends 
 on the associations that may have connected 
 them with the ordinary affections or emotions of 
 our nature ; and in this, which is the fundamental 
 point of his theory, we conceive him to be no 
 less clearly right, than he is convincing and judi- 
 cious in the copious and beautiful illustration 
 by which he has sought to establish its truth. 
 When he proceeds, however, to assert, that our 
 sense of beauty consists not merely in the sug- 
 gestion of ideas of emotion, but in the contem- 
 plation of a connected series of such ideas, and 
 indicates a state of mind in which the faculties, 
 half active and half passive, are given up to a 
 sort of reverie or musing, in wliich they may 
 wander, though among kindred impressions, fat 
 enough from the immediate object of perception, 
 we confess that he not only seems to us to ad- 
 vance a very questionable proposition, but very 
 essentially to endanger the evidence, as well as 
 the consistency, of his general doctrine. In the 
 long train of interesting meditations to which 
 Mr. Alison refers, — in the delightful reveries 
 in which he would make the sense of beauty 
 consist, — it is obvious that we must soon lose 
 sight of the external object which gave the first 
 impulse to our thoughts ; and though we may 
 afterwards reflect upon it, with increased interest 
 and gratitude, as the parent of so many charm- 
 ing images, it is impossible that the perception 
 of its beauty can depend upon a long series of 
 various and shifting emotions. 
 
 The work of Mr. Knight is more lively, va- 
 rious, and discursive, than Mr. Alison's, but not 
 so systematic or conclusive. It is the cleverer 
 book of the two, but not the most philosophical
 
 BEAUTY. 
 
 725 
 
 discussion of the subject. He agrees with Mr. 
 Alison in holding the most important, and, in- 
 deed, the only considerable part of beauty, to de- 
 pend upon association, and has illustrated this 
 opinion with a great variety of just and original 
 observations. But he maintains that there is a 
 beauty independent of association, prior to it, 
 and more original and fundamental, the primi- 
 tive and natural beauty of colors and sounds. 
 NovF this we look upon to be a heresy, and a 
 heresy inconsistent with the very first pnnciples 
 of catholic philosophy. Language, it is be- 
 lieved, affords no other example of so whimsical 
 a combination of different objects under one ap- 
 pellation, or of the confounding of a direct 
 physical sensation with the suggestion of a so- 
 cial and sympathetic moral feeling. 
 
 Mr. Stewart makes fewer positive assertions, 
 and enters less into the matter of controversy. 
 His Essay on the Beautiful is rather philological 
 than metaphysical. The object of it is to show 
 by what gradual and successive extensions of 
 meaning, the word, though at first appropriated 
 to denote the pleasing effect of colors alone, 
 might naturally come to signify all the other 
 pleasing things to which it is now apphed. In 
 this investigation he makes many admirable re- 
 marks, and touches with the hand of a master 
 upon many of the disputable parts of the ques- 
 tion ; but he evades the particular point at issue 
 between us and Mr. Knight, by stating, that it 
 is quite immaterial to his purpose, whether the 
 beauty of colors be supposed to depend on their 
 organic effect on the eye, or on some association 
 between them and other agreeable emotions, it 
 being enough for his purpose that this was pro- 
 bably the first sort of beauty that was observed, 
 and that to which the name was at first exclu- 
 sively applied. It is evident to us, however, 
 that he leans to the opinion of Mr. Knight, as 
 to this beauty being truly sensual or organic. In 
 observing, too, that beauty is not now the name 
 of any one thing or quality, but of very many 
 different qualities, — and that it is applied to 
 them all, merely because they are often united 
 in the same objects, or perceived at the same time 
 and by the same organs, — it appears to us that 
 he carries his philology a little too far, and dis- 
 regards other principles of reasoning of far 
 higher authority. To give the name of beauty, 
 for example, to every thing that interests or 
 pleases us through the channel of sight, includ- 
 ing in this category the mere impulse of light 
 that is pleasant to the organ, and the present- 
 ment of objects, whose whole charm consists in 
 awakening the memory of social emotions, seems 
 to us to be confounding things together that 
 must always be separate in our feelings, and 
 giving a far greater importance to the mere 
 identity of the organ of perception, than is war- 
 ranted either by the ordinary language or ordi- 
 nary experience of men. Upon the same 
 principle, we should give this name of beautiful, 
 and no other, to all acts of kindness or magna- 
 nimity, and, indeed, to every interesting occur- 
 rence which took place in our sight, or came to 
 our knowledge by means of the eye : nay, as the 
 ear is also allowed to be a channel for impres- 
 sions of beauty, the same name should be given 
 
 to any interesting or pleasant thing that we hear, 
 and good news read to us from the gazette should 
 be denominated beautiful, just as much as a fine 
 composition of music. These things, however, 
 are never called beautiful, and are felt, indeed, 
 to afford a gratification of quite a different na- 
 ture. ^ 
 
 Beauty in the Fixe Arts. Nothing here has 
 been decided as to the nature and properties of 
 abstract beauty itself, even if such a quality be 
 acknowledged. If an Asiatic artist was to treat 
 this subject, his principle, it is evident, would 
 differ from that of a European. This must not, 
 however, prevent us from studying some prin- 
 ciples of beauty, as they are the foundation of 
 the ornamental part of sculpture, painting, and 
 architecture ; and govern the proportion of the 
 human figure. Modem artists seem to have 
 implicitly adopted Grecian ideas ; which circum- 
 stance may account for the prevalence of the 
 antique profile in modem pictures, which is cer- 
 tainly a great inconsistency, when the subjects 
 are chosen from any other than Grecian history ; 
 there being one principle of beauty in the form 
 of the Greeks, another in that of the Romans, 
 and another in that of the modern Europeans, 
 and yet they are all beautiful. Professor Cam- 
 per, in his book upon the different forms of the 
 human cranium, has endeavoured to trace this 
 style of the straight or Grecian profile from a 
 probable source. The projection of the mouth 
 and depression of the forehead, with a flat nose, 
 marks that kind of face which is the nearest 
 allied to the brute creation ; there being but one 
 degree between a dog, monkey, ape, ourang- 
 outang, Calmuc, and negro. From the negro to 
 the European countenance are many degrees, 
 which may be traced by an attentive study of 
 the human species; and again, between the best 
 modern faces and those of the antique, there are 
 also many gradations of form and outline. Per- 
 haps from the Greeks observing the resemblance 
 between the lowest class of human countenances 
 and those of monkeys, may be the reason why 
 they conceived beauty to be as far as possible 
 removed from all resemblance to them. As the 
 lower part of the brutal face piojected, in such 
 proportion they thought the same position of the 
 human face should recede ; and as in the former 
 there was a descent from the forehead to the 
 nose, in the latter it should be perpendicular. 
 As a small space between the eyes gives tho ap- 
 pearance of an ape, they made the distance of 
 man wide. As a great breadth of cranium at 
 the eyes, ending above in a narrow forehead, 
 and below in a pointed chin, marked the face of 
 a savage; they gave a squareness of forehead 
 and a breadth of face below, to express dignity 
 of character. Hence, may be the origin of that 
 ideal beauty, which has created so many schisms 
 and feuds in art, and which nothing but a re- 
 currence to nature can rectify. See Ideal 
 Beauty. 
 
 BEAU\'AIS (Charles and William), two anti- 
 quaries. William, born in 1698, was a member 
 of the Literary Societies of Orleans, Cortona, 
 &c.; he published a work on the Medals of the 
 Roman Empire in 3 vols. 12rao. 1767, and died 
 in 1773.
 
 BEA 
 
 726 
 
 BEC 
 
 Charles Nicholas was a native of Orleans, 
 where he was born in 1745. He practised physic 
 at Montpelier, and is the author of some Essays 
 on the History and Antiquities of his native 
 city, a Topographical Description of ilount 
 Olivet, and other tracts. His death took place 
 in 1794. 
 
 Beauvais (Vincent de), a friar of the Domi- 
 nican order, was a native of the diocese of Beau- 
 vais, in France. Louis IX. supplied him with 
 the means of prosecuting his great work. It is 
 a kind of Encyclopaedia, divided into four parts: 
 the first entitled, Speculum Doctrinale, treats of 
 the sciences in general, from grammar to theo- 
 logy ; the second Speculum Historiale, contains 
 a summary of general history from the begin- 
 ning of the world to the year 1254, of which 
 there is a continuation by an anonymous author 
 to 1494; the third part, or Speculum Nalurale, 
 relates to physics, or natural philosophy ; the 
 fourth. Speculum Morale, is a treatise on vice 
 and virtue. This last part was completed by 
 another hand, Beauvais dying in 1224 
 
 Beauvais, a city of France, the ancient Bel- 
 lovacura, in the department of the Oise, and late 
 province of the Isle of France, on the Therin. The 
 cathedral is dedicated to St. Peter, and is much 
 admired for its fine architecture, and the extra- 
 ordinary elevation of the choir. It had formerly 
 a great number of relics, and a curious library. 
 Tliere are twelve other churches. The town was 
 ineffectually besieged by the English in 1443; 
 and by the duke of Burgundy in 1472, with an 
 army of 80,000 men. In this last siege the 
 women signalised themselves by sallying forth 
 against the besiegers, headed by Jeanne Laine, 
 and under a standard which was long after pre- 
 served in the church of the Jacobins. There 
 was, before the revolution, a procession on the 
 10th of July in memory of this exploit. Beau- 
 vais was long the capital of Beauvoisis, and 
 the see of a bishop, who was thp first of the 
 three ecclesiastical counts and peers of France. 
 At the coronation of the king, he carried the 
 royal mantle. This bishopric was suppressed at 
 the revolution. It is still a fortified town, 
 though commanded by several neights, and con- 
 tains about 12,800 inhabitants. It has several 
 flourishing manufactures of linen and woollen 
 cloths, calicos, serges, and fine tapestry. From 
 its supposed impregnability, it has obtained the 
 appellation of La Pucelle. Many eminent men 
 have been born here. It is about six leagues 
 from Paris, in lat. 49° 25' N., and long. 2° 19' E. 
 
 BEAU\TLLIERS (Francis de, duke de St, 
 Aignan), was born in 1607, and entered into the 
 army. He distinguished himself in several en- 
 gagements ; on which account Louis XIV. raised 
 him to a dukedom. He was adroit in the di- 
 rection of the court festivals, and many of his 
 verses are to be found in the works of Madame 
 Deshoulieres, of Scarron, &c- He died in 1637. 
 
 Beauvilliers (Paul, duke de), eldest son of 
 the above, was first gentleman of the bed- 
 chamber, minister of state, chief of the royal 
 council of finance, and governor of the duke of 
 Burgundy, father of Louis XV. He died in 
 1714 at the age of sixty-six. This nobleman 
 was distiniiuished for his cultivated talents and 
 
 probity of character; as well as for his success 
 in the education of the duke of Burgundy 
 which he shared with the celebrated Fenelon. 
 
 Beauvilliers (Paul Ilippolitus, duke de St 
 Aignan), son of the preceding, had the rank Oi 
 lieutenant-general in the army, the collar of the 
 royal orders, and was a member of the French 
 Academy. He was the author of Amusemens 
 Litteraires, and a Memoir of the Transactions 
 of the Academy of Inscriptions, on the cession 
 made by Andrew Paleologus, of the empire of 
 Constantinople and Trebizond, to Charles VIII. 
 of France. 
 
 BEAUV'OIR suR Mer, a maritime tovm of 
 France in the department of La Vendee, and 
 late province of Poitou ; twenty-three miles 
 south-west of ?>antes. It lies near the sea-coast, 
 opposite the Isle of Noirmoutier, and had for- 
 merly the title of marquisate. It contains about 
 1900 inhabitants, and trades in wood, wool, salt, 
 cattle, and butter. 
 
 BEAUVOISIS, a ci-devant territory of France, 
 formerly part of Picardy, and afterwards of the 
 Isle of France. Beauvais was the capital. 
 
 BEAUZEE (Nicholas), a French author, 
 born at Verdun in 1717. He became professor 
 of grammar in the military school ; and wrote 
 an Universal Grammar, or Exposition of the 
 Elements of Languages, in two vols. 8vo. ; an 
 Exposition of the Historical Proofs of Religion, 
 and several other works. Having been elected 
 member of the academy, he wrote the articles 
 relating to grammar for the Encyclopocdia ; but 
 though he was thus connected with infidels, he 
 was himself a faithful churchman. He once 
 asked Diderot how tliey came to elect him a 
 member of the academy, being a Christian ? 
 Diderot replied, ' Because we had not a gram- 
 marian among us, and we considered you an 
 honest man.' 
 
 BE'BATHE. Bathe, with the prefix be. 
 See Bathe. 
 
 BEBELINGUEN, or Boblikges, a town of 
 Germany, in the duchy of Wirtemburg, seated 
 on a lake from which proceeds the river Wurm, 
 ten miles north-west of Stutgard. 
 
 BE'BLAST. Blast, with the prefix be. See 
 Blast. 
 
 BE'BLED, ) Bled and blood, with the pre- 
 
 Be'blood. S fix. See both. 
 
 BE'BLIND. See Blind. 
 
 BE'BLISTER. Blister, with the prefix. See 
 Blister. 
 
 BE'BLOT. Blot, and the prefix. See Blot. 
 
 BE'BLUBBER. Blubber, with the prefix. 
 See Blubber. 
 
 BEBRYCIA, in ancient geography, the name 
 of Bithynia, so called from the Bebryces its in- 
 habitants ; who were afterwards driven out by 
 two Thracian nations, the Bithyni and Thyni ; 
 from whom, in process of time, the country took 
 the name of Bithynia. 
 
 BEC, a town of France, in the department of 
 the Lower Seine, and late province of Normandy, 
 seated on a tongue of land, at the confluence of 
 two rivers. 
 
 BECAH, or Bekah, a Jewish coin, being 
 half a shekel. In Dr. Arbuthnot's table of re- 
 ductions, the bekah amounts to \3\ld. In Dr.
 
 B E C C A R I i\. 
 
 727 
 
 Prideaux's computation to Is. 7(1. ]'>ery Is- 
 raelite paid 100 bekahs a-head annually for the 
 support of the temple. 
 
 BE'CALM, i Calm, and the prefix be. 
 
 Be'calmino. 5See Calm. The prefix thus 
 
 joined to give emphasis ; to add a syllable in the 
 
 verse ; to give a ludicrous or endearing force to 
 
 the term employed. 
 
 BECANCOUR, a river of Lower Canada, 
 which rises to the south of St. Lawrence, and is 
 afterwards increased by several tributary streams. 
 After an easterly course of about forty-six miles, 
 it diverges to the north-west for about twenty- 
 one miles, and discharges itself into the St. Law- 
 rence, seven miles below the town of Three 
 Rivers. 
 
 BECASSINE, in zoology, a name given to the 
 tringa minor, or sand-piper. 
 
 BECASSE, in zoology, a species of woodcock. 
 
 BE'CAUSE. Be and cause. Cause being ; 
 there being cause ; because of his sickness ; i.e. 
 his sickness is the cause. It formerly also ex- 
 pressed the motive or end ; but is not now so 
 used. It has in some sort the force of a prepo- 
 sition. But because it is compounded of a 
 noun, has of after it. 
 
 His squiers, which that stoden thcr beside. 
 
 Excused him because of his sikenesse. 
 
 Which letted him to done his besinesse. Chaucer. 
 
 God persecuteth us hycatue we abase his holy Tes- 
 tament, and hycause, when we knowe the truth, we 
 folowe it not. Tymlall's Works. 
 
 Because thou hast, though thron'd in highest bliss, 
 Equal to God, and equally enjoying 
 Godlike fruition, quitted all to save 
 A world from utter loss, and most been found. 
 By merit, more than birthright. Son of God ; 
 Found worthiest to be so, by being good. 
 Far more than great or high ; because in thee 
 Love hath abounded more than glory abounds. 
 Therefore thy humiliation shall exalt 
 With thee thy manhood also to this throne ; 
 Here shalt thou sit incarnate, here shall reign 
 Both God and Man, for both of God and Man, 
 Anointed universal king ; all power 
 I give then ; reign for ever, and assume 
 Thy merits : under thee as head supreme 
 Thrones, princedoms, pow'rs, dominions I reduce ; 
 All knees to thee shall bow, of them that bide 
 In heaven, or earth, or under earth, in hell. Milton. 
 Why is our food so very sweet? 
 
 Because we earn before we eat. 
 
 ■HTiy are our wanL< so very few ? 
 
 Because we nature's calls pursue. 
 
 Whence our complacency of mind ? 
 
 Because we act our parts assign'd. Cotton. 
 
 BECCABUNGA, brooklime ; the trivial name 
 of a species of veronica. See Veronica. 
 
 BECCAFICO, in zoology, a small bird, 
 scarely so large as the common linnet, and with 
 a remarkably short body. Its head, neck, back, 
 wings and tail, are of a greenish gray, and in some 
 of greenish brown. It feeds on vegetables, berries, 
 &c. and is common in the north of England, 
 where, according to Ray, it is called the petty- 
 chaps. 
 
 BECCARI (James Bartholomew), a physician 
 of Bologna, wa.s bom in 1682. He was professor 
 of chemistry at his native city many years, and 
 publislied, in 1729, a Dissertation on the Impurity 
 
 of its Air, and in 1730 a Treatise on the Inter- 
 nal Motion of Fluids; 8cc. He died 1706. 
 
 BECCARTA (.lohn Baptist), an ingenious 
 philosopher of the eighteenth century. He was a 
 native of Mondovi in Piedmont, and became 
 professor of philosophy at Palermo, and after- 
 wards at Rome, from whence he removed to 
 Turin. The king of Sardinia had a very great 
 regard for him, and made him tutor to his sons. 
 He made several important discoveries in electri- 
 city, and wrote, 1. Experimenta quibus Elec- 
 tricitas Vindex late constituitur, &c. 4to. Turin, 
 1771. 2. Electricismo Artificiale, 4to, 1772, 
 translated into English, 4to. London, 1776; be- 
 sides an Essay on the Cause of Storms and Tem- 
 pests, and several pieces on the Meridian of 
 Turin, &c. He died in 1781. 
 
 Beccaria (Bonesana Carsar, marquis), was 
 born at Milan in 173.5, and showed a very eaily 
 propensity to philosophical subjects. He first 
 studied under the Jeruits at Parma, but left col- 
 lege at seventeen, and became henceforth the 
 director of his own useful researches. His de- 
 votedness to the study of Jurisprudence and Po- 
 litical Philosophy, was first determined by llie 
 Lettres Persannes of Montesquieu ; a production 
 capable, indeed, of alluring a less enthusiiLstic 
 mind. But his industry appears to have been 
 chiefly stimulated by the patriotic and honorable 
 desire of diffusing instruction among his country- 
 men, whom he represents as abandoned to itnio- 
 rance; and who were little prepared for liberal 
 opinions or political science. Fortunately, 
 however, he gained the confidence of Count Fir- 
 miani, then governor of that part of the Austrian 
 dominions , a nobleman, who, witii comprehen- 
 sive views of policy, concurred in every plan 
 which was calculated for improving the state of 
 the provinces. 
 
 Beccaria's first work appeared in the year 
 1762, and coi.'sisted of Observations on the J,>e- 
 rangement of tlie Currency in the Milanese 
 States. Soon after he established a select lite- 
 rary society at Milan, which, among other dis- 
 tinguished men, included the brothers, Akssau- 
 dro and Pietro Verri. Assisted by these friends, 
 and patronised by Fermiani, he commenced a 
 periodical published under the name of the 
 Caffe, a plan suggested to them by the cele- 
 brity of our English Spectator. But, the 
 most remarkable production to which this as- 
 sociation gave rise, and that upon which the 
 reputation of Beccaria was destined chiefly to 
 rest, was the treatise on Crimes and Punishments 
 (Dei Delitti eDelle Pene). This is said to have 
 been undertaken at the earnest solicitation of 
 Count Alexander Verri, who then discharged the 
 functions of Protector of Prisoners (Protettore 
 de' Carcerati) at Milan. It was written at the 
 house of Peter \'erri, where the mcetincs of the 
 society were held ; and in concert with him the 
 author, every evening, corrected wliat he had 
 written during the day. In this manner this ce- 
 lebrated work was completed in two months, and 
 was printed in the course of the year 1764. 
 
 Tlie author here breaks up most of the impor- 
 tant ground that Sir Samuel Romilly, Benlham. 
 and others, have so well cultivated since : lie is 
 everywhere the advocate of reason, sound j)0-
 
 728 
 
 B E C C A R I A. 
 
 licy, and humanity; and, by examining the 
 foundation, objects, and consequent boundaries 
 of penal law, he exposes the inefficacy as well as 
 injustice of many provisions in the judicial code 
 of his own country, and in those of other Euro- 
 pean nations; — provisions only the more perni- 
 cious in many cases, as derived from remote 
 times, and perverting our respect for established 
 maxims into the most debasing and servile bar- 
 barism. Six Italian editions were immediately 
 called for ; and it is computed that it has run 
 through more than fifty editions and translations. 
 As a most important conclusion resulting from 
 this examination, or rather as concentrating a 
 number of his conclusions, he closes his book 
 ■with the following proposition : — ' In order that 
 punishment may not be an act of violence, of 
 one, or of many, against an individual member 
 of society, it is essential that it should be public, 
 prompt, and necessary, the least possible in the 
 given case, and determined by the law.' 
 
 The prospects which Beccaria entertained as 
 to the probable influence of his works, appears 
 from the sentence of Lord Bacon, which he pre- 
 fixed to some of the editions. ' It is not to be 
 expected in any difficult undertaking, of whatever 
 kind, that the same person who sows the seed 
 should also reap the harvest ; but there must of 
 necessity, be a preparation and gradual progress 
 to maturity.' ' Never,' says a writer in the Bio- 
 graphie Universelle, ' did so small a book pro- 
 duce so great an effect.' The medal given by the 
 academy of Berne was instantly bestowed upon 
 Beccaria ; and the Empress Catharine II. in- 
 vited him to St. Petersburgh, with the offer of 
 an honorable station at her court ; a proposal 
 which was the means of procuring him a similar 
 distinction at home. In 1767 was issued an impe- 
 rial order for establishing, in the Palatine College 
 at Milan, a Professorship of Public Law and 
 Economics, under the title of Scienze Camerali. 
 To this chair, endowed expressly for him, the 
 marquis was appointed on the 1st of November, 
 1768, and commenced the duties of it in the 
 month of January following. From the preli- 
 minary discourse (prohisione) which he pro- 
 nounced on this occasion, and in which he sets 
 forth the objects of. the institution, it appears 
 that the only instructions which he received on 
 his appointment, consisted in an order to deliver 
 his discourses in the vulgar tongue ; an injunction 
 as highly honorable to the government as all the 
 other circumstances of the transaction. Ilis lec- 
 tures, which he received a special permission to 
 deliver in his own house, attracted much notice. 
 They were not published during his life ; but 
 have since appeared, under the title of Elementi 
 di Economia Pubblica, in the compilation of the 
 Scrittori Classic! Italiani de Economia Politica, 
 printed at Milan. One of his inferences on this 
 subject is, that ' every restriction on freedom, 
 whether in the case of commerce, or any other, 
 ought to be a result from the necessity of pre- 
 venting an actual disorder, not the effect of a 
 purpose or aim at amelioration.' And he has 
 repeated the same doctrine under different views, 
 in various passages. 
 
 In 1770 he published an Enquiry into the nature 
 of Style, part 1. which he never completed. In 
 
 the following year he was appointed a member 
 of the Supreme Economic Council ; on the sup- 
 pression of which he was transferred to the Ma- 
 gistracy of State; and, lastly, by a despatch of 
 the 17th of January, 1791, was named one of the 
 Board for Reform of the Judicial Code, civil and 
 criminal. His activity in the discharge of these 
 important trusts is proved by the circumstance, 
 that all the chief matters in those different de- 
 partments were committed to his direction, or 
 guided by his counsels. The most remarkable 
 of his state papers were, various Ordinances re- 
 lative to the grain ; a very important Despatch 
 transmitted to the Court in 1771, .vhich gave 
 rise to the reform of the public money in 1778;. 
 a Plan, proposed in 1780, for effecting an uni- 
 formity in the weights and measures ; and cer- 
 tain Proposals, in 1786, founded on the tables 
 of the population. 
 
 In 1776 the marquis made a journey to Paris, it> 
 company with AlessandroVerri, and there passed 
 about three weeks in the society of D'Alembert,, 
 and other eminent men of letters : on his return 
 he visited Voltaire. This seems to have been 
 the only incident which, for a period of twenty- 
 five years, diversified his manner of life, or in- 
 terrupted his public duties. lie died of apoplexy 
 in the year 1793, having been twice married. 
 He has the character of having been stedfast in 
 his friendships ; modest, but tenacious of his 
 opinions; and much above jealousy or envy in 
 regard to other literary men. It is related of him 
 that the king of Naples, while at Milan, twice at- 
 tempted to find him at his house; but that the 
 marquis found means on both occasions to escape 
 from his distinguished guest. 
 
 BECCLES, a town of Suffolk, seated on the 
 Waveney . It has an elegant church, with a lofty 
 spire ; and two free schools, one of them with teik 
 scholarships for Emanuel college, Cambridge, 
 There is a market on Saturday. It lies twelve 
 miles south-west of Yarmouth, and 109 north- 
 east of London. 
 
 BE'CHANCE, v. & adv. Be and chance. 
 See Chance. 
 
 BE'CHARM. Be and Charm. See Charm. 
 BECHER (John Joachim), a celebrated che- 
 mist, born at Spires in 1645, and connected with 
 the most learned men in Europe. The emperor, 
 the electors of Mentz and Bavaria, and other per- 
 sons of high rank, furnished him with the means 
 of making experiments in mathematics, natural 
 philosophy, medicine, and chemistry. He was 
 invited to Vienna, where he contributed greatly 
 to the establishment of several manufactures, a 
 chamber of commerce, and an India company ; 
 but the jealousy of the ministers occasioned his 
 disgrace and ruin. He was not less unfortunate 
 at Mentz, Munich, and Wurtzburg ; which deter- 
 mined him to go to Haerlem, where he invented 
 a machine for working a great quantity of silk in 
 a little time, and with few hands; but new mis- 
 fortunes made him come to England, and he 
 died at London in 1685. He wrote, l.Physica 
 Subterranea, which was reprinted at Leipsic in 
 1703, and in 1739, in 8vo, with a small treatise, 
 by E. Stahl, entitled Specimen Becherianum. 
 2. Experimentum Chymicum Novum, 8vo. 3 
 Character pro Notitia Linguarum Universali, 4.
 
 B E C K E T. 
 
 729 
 
 Institutiones Chymica, seu Manuductio ad Plii- 
 sophiam liermeticam, 4to. 5. Institutiones 
 Chymicse Prodromi, 12mo. 6. Experimentum 
 Novum ac Curiosum de Minera Arcnaria Per- 
 petua, &c. 
 
 BECHERA, in botany, a genus of plants, 
 class, pentandria; order, digynia: cal. five-cleft, 
 with a globular tube : cor. five-petalled : cap. 
 two-celled and bi-valved. The name is derived 
 from the reverend John Becher of Southwell 
 Nottinghamshire, an accurate botanist, to whom 
 the science is indebted for the discovery of the 
 crocus nudiflorus. Tiiis plant is a native of 
 Tranquebar. 
 
 Bechics, Bechicha, among the old physi- 
 cians, amount to much the same with pneumo- 
 nics, thoracics, expectorants, and pectorals. 
 
 BECIilN, a town and circle of Bohemia, 
 which abounds in salt mines and mineral waters, 
 and particularly the singular mineral called 
 Bechin stone. Bechin, the capital, has an an- 
 cient castle. It was taken and burnt by general 
 Bucquoy in 1 619, and was often the scene of con- 
 flict in the thirty years' war. It is seated on the 
 river Luschintz, fifty miles south by west of 
 Prague. 
 
 BECK, D. & 7z. ^ Sax. becken, Fr. bee, head. 
 
 Beck'ing. S To make a sign with the 
 
 head ; a nod of command, or of intimation. 
 
 Bell, book, and candle, shall not drive me back. 
 When gold and silver beck me to come on. 
 
 S/iakspeare. 
 Oh this false soul of Egypt, this pay charm. 
 Whose eye beck'd forth my -wars, and call'd them 
 home. Id. Antony and Cleopatra. 
 
 Neither the lusty kind showed iny roughness, nor 
 the easier any idleness ; but still, like a well-obeyed 
 master, whose beck is enough for discipline. Sidney. 
 Haste, thee, nymph, and bring with thee 
 Quips, and cranks, and wanton wiles. 
 Nods, and bechi, and wreathed smiles. Milton. 
 Then forthwith to him takes a chosen band 
 Of spirits, likest to himself in guile, 
 To be at hand, and at his beck appear. Id. 
 
 The menial fair, that round her wait. 
 At Helen's beck prepare the room of state. Pope. 
 
 Beck, or Beke, a word which imports a small 
 stream of water issuing from some bourn or 
 spring. The word is chiefly used among us in 
 the composition of names of places originally 
 situated on rivulets; such as Welbeck, Bourr.- 
 beck, &c. The Germans use beck in the same 
 sense. 
 
 BECKET (Thomas), lord chancellor of Eng- 
 land, and archbishop of Canterbury in the 12th 
 century. The story of his birth is as extraordi- 
 nary as that of his life. His father, Gilbert 
 Becket, some time sheriff of London, went on a 
 pilgrimage to Jerusalem, where being surprised 
 and enslaved by a party of Saracens, his master's 
 daughter fell in love with him; and when he 
 made his escape, followed him to London. So 
 singular an instance of tieroic affection struck 
 him ; and after consulting with some bishops, he 
 baptised her by the name of Matilda, from 
 which marriage proceeded the haughty Thomas 
 Becket. Being raised to the archbishopric, he 
 began the great dispute between the crown and 
 
 the mitre, and sided with the pope: at which 
 King Henry II. was greatly offended ; and calling 
 an assembly of the bisliops at Westminster, 
 ofTered six articles against papal encroachments, 
 which he urged Becket to assent to. Becket, at 
 the importunities of several lords, signed them • 
 but relapsing he was ordered to be tried as a 
 traitor; upon which he fled into Flanders. The 
 king banished all his relations, and Becket excom- 
 municated all his opposers. At last, after seven 
 years, by the intercession of the French king and 
 the pope, he returned ; but refused to absolve 
 the bishops and others, whom he had excommu- 
 nicated : upon this the king grew enraged ; and 
 is reported to have said, in the presence of his 
 coart, then in Normandy, that he was an unhappy 
 prince, who maintained a great number of insig- 
 nificant persons about him, none of whom had 
 gratitude, or spirit enough, to revenge him on a 
 single insolent prelate. Hearing these exclama- 
 tions, four gentlemen of the court started for 
 Canterbury, determined upon assassinating the 
 archbishop. They endeavoured to drag him out 
 of the cathedral, but finding they could not do 
 this without difficulty, they beat out his brains 
 there, on the pavement: 29th of December, 1171. 
 The assassins being now afraid they had gone too 
 far, durst not return to the king's court, but 
 retired to Knaresborough in Yorkshire, and at 
 length took a voyage to Rome ; where, being 
 admitted to penance by Alexander III., they went 
 to Jerusalem; and, according to the pope's order, 
 spent their lives in penitential austerities. In 
 the mean time, king Henry was, or affected to 
 be, much disturbed at the news of Becket's death, 
 and despatched an embassy to Rome to clear 
 himself from the imputation of being connected 
 with it. Immediately all divine offices ceased in 
 the church of Canterbury, for a year, excepting 
 nine days ; at the end of which, by order of the 
 pope, it was reconsecrated. Two years after, 
 Becket was canonised; and the two following 
 years, Henry returned to England, went to Can- 
 terbury, where he did penance, as a testimony of 
 his regret for the murder of Becket. When he 
 came within sigtit of the cimrch where the 
 archbishop was buried, he alighted off his horse, 
 and walked barefoot, in the habit of a pilgrim, 
 till he came to the tomb. Here, after he had 
 prostrated himself, and prayed for a considerable 
 time, he submitted to be scourged by the monks, 
 and passed all that day and night without refresh- 
 ment, kneeling upon the bare stone. In 1221 
 Becket's body was taken up, fifty years after his 
 murder, in the presence of Henry III. and a 
 great concourse of the nobility, and deposited in 
 a rich shrine, erected at the expense of Stephen 
 Langton, archbishop of Canterbury. This was 
 soon visited from all parts, and enriched with 
 the most costly gifts and offerings: the miracles 
 said to be wrought at his tomb were so numerous, 
 that Gervase of Canterbury tells us, two large 
 volumes, recounting them, were kept in the church. 
 The monks used to raise his body every year; 
 and the day on which this ceremony was per- 
 formed, which was called the day of his transla- 
 tion, was a general holiday: every fiftieth year a 
 jubilee was celebrated to his honor, which lasted 
 fifteen days: plenary indulgences were then
 
 BEC 
 
 730 
 
 BEC 
 
 granted to all that visited bis tomb; and 100,000 
 pilgrims have been registered at a time in Can- 
 terbury. The devotion towards him had almost 
 effaced in this town the adoration of the Deity ; 
 nay, even that of the Virgin. At God's altar, 
 for instance, there were offered in one year £3 
 2s. 6d.; at the Virgin's, £63 5s. 6d. ; and at St. 
 Thomas's £832 12s. 3d. But next year the dis- 
 proportion was still greater: there was not a 
 penny offered at God's altar ; the Virgin's gained 
 only £4 Is. 8d.; but St. Thomas's had for its 
 share £954 6s. 3d. Louis V"II. of France made 
 a pilgrimage to this miraculous tomb, and 
 bestowed on the shrine a jewel, which was 
 esteemed the richest in Christendom. Henry 
 VIII., to whom it may easily be imagined how 
 obnoxious a saint of this character would appear, 
 not only pillaged St. Thomas's rich shrine, but 
 made the saint himself be cited to appear in 
 court, and be tried and condemned as a traitor, 
 lie ordered his name to be struck out of the 
 calendar ; the office for his festival to be expunged 
 from all breviaries; and his bones to be burnt, 
 and the ashes thrown in the air. From Thomas 
 Warton we learn, that Eecket was the subject 
 of poetical legends. The Lives of the Saints in 
 verse, in Bennet's library. No. CLX\'. contain 
 his martyrdom and translation. This MS. is 
 supposed to have been written in the fourteenth 
 century. The s.ame writer informs us, from 
 Peter de Blois, that the palace of Becket was 
 perpetually filled with bishops highly accom- 
 plished in literature, who passed their time there 
 in reading, disputing, and deciding important 
 questions of the state. These prelates, though 
 men of the world, were a society of scholars ; 
 yet very different from those who frequented the 
 universities, in which nothing was taught but 
 words and syllables, unprofitable subtleties, ele- 
 mentary speculations, and trifling distinctions. 
 De Blois was himself eminently learned, and one 
 of the most distinguished ornaments of Becket's 
 attendants. We know that John of Salisbury, 
 his intimate friend, the companion of his exile, 
 and the writer of his life, was scarcely exceeded 
 by any man of his time for his knowledge in phi- 
 lological and polite literature. 
 
 BECKETS, in the marine, large hooks, or 
 circular wreaths of rope, or wooden brackets, 
 used to confine ropes, tackles, oarj, or spars, in 
 a convenient place till they are wanted. And to 
 put the tacks and sheets in the beckets, is to hang 
 up the weather-main and fore-sheet, and the lee- 
 main and fore-tack, to a little knot and eye- 
 becket on the fore-mast, main, and fore-shrouds, 
 when the ship is close hauled, to prevent tliem 
 from hanging in the water. 
 
 BECKINGHAM (Charles), an English dra- 
 matic writer, the son of a linen draper in London, 
 was born in 1669; and educated under the 
 learned Dr. Smith. He early discovered an 
 uncommon genius in poetry, two dramatic pieces 
 of his writing being represented on the stage 
 before he was twenty years old. The titles of 
 these plays are, 1 . Henry IV. of France ; 2. Scipio 
 Africanus. He wrote, also, several other poems, 
 and died 18th Feb. 1730, aged thirty-two. 
 
 BECKMANN (John), forty-four years pro- 
 fessor at Gottingen, a native of Hoya, in the elec- 
 
 torate of Hanover, and born in 1730. His father 
 was a post-master and receiver of taxes. His 
 mother became a widow when Beckmann was 
 hardly seven years old, and, though left in nar- 
 row circumstances, sent him, in his fifteenth year, 
 to the school of Stade, then under the care of 
 Gehlen. In 1759 he repaired to Gottingen, to 
 study for the church, but quitted it, and this design 
 together, at his mother's death, in 1762, to fill 
 the situation of professor of natural philosophy 
 in the Lutheran academy at St. Petersburgh. 
 Beckmann soon gave up this place, and made a 
 journey through Sweden to acquire a detailed 
 knowledge of its mines. LinuKus receiving him 
 hospitably at Upsal, he prolonged his stay there. 
 In 1766 the governors of the university of Got- 
 tingen appointed him, on the recommendation of 
 Busching, professor to this celebrated establish- 
 ment, of which he became one of the chief orna- 
 ments. His mind, now entirely directed to the 
 practical uses of human knowledge, conceived 
 the idea of an academical classification of the 
 arts, both political and domestic. He therefore 
 composed, as a guide, to serve him in this course 
 of instruction. Treatises on Rural Economy — 
 On Policy — On Finance — On Commerce, and 
 other departments of practical knowledge; and 
 his lectures, which had at the time the recommen- 
 dation of novelty, were attended by the flower of 
 the youth of the most civilised nations of Europe. 
 He was in the habit of accompanying them to 
 the workshops, to give them a knowledge of the 
 different processes and handicrafts. His notices 
 on these subjects make five volumes in octavo, 
 published at Leipsic from 1783 to 1805; and 
 will furnish the most invaluable materials to the 
 individual, or to any society who may hereafter 
 venture to undertake the general history of the 
 origin and progress of the mechanic arts. Great 
 merit, also, belongs to his History of the earliest 
 Voyages made in modern times; of which he 
 lived only to publish eight numbers. Another 
 result of the literary application of the industry 
 of Beckmann was a return to the studies of 
 humanity, to which we are indebted to him, 
 likewise, for editions of the work De Mirabilibus 
 Auscultationibus, attributed to Aristotle, 1786; 
 of the Wonderful Histories of Antigonus Carys- 
 tius, 1711; and of Marbodius's Treatise on 
 Stones, 1799; publications which required the 
 rare union of physical knowledge and sagacity 
 with pliilological learning. The Royal Society 
 of Gottingen had, in the year 1772, admitted 
 him one of its members, and, from that period 
 to 1783, Beckmann supplied their proceedings 
 with several interesting memoirs, among which 
 are : On the Reduction of Fossils to their Origi- 
 nal Substances — On the History of Alum — On 
 the Sap of Madder— On the froth of the Sea, 
 from which the Heads are formed for the Nico- 
 tian Fistuloe — On the History of Sugar. Beck- 
 mann died, 3rd of February, 1811, a member of 
 almost all the learned societies of Germany and 
 the north of Europe. 
 
 BECK'ON, V. & 71. See to Beck. 
 
 Thou blinded god, quoth I, forgive me this offence. 
 Unwittingly I went about to malice thy pretence. 
 Wherewith he gave a beck, and thus methought he 
 bwore.
 
 BEC 
 
 731 
 
 BEC 
 
 Thy sorrow ought suffice to purge thy fault, if it were 
 
 more ; 
 The virtue of which sound mine heart did so revive. 
 That I methought was made as whole as any man 
 alive. Earl of Surrey. 
 
 For he that will be called with a heck. 
 Makes hasty suit on light desire. 
 Is ever ready to the check. 
 
 And burneth in no wasting fire. Wyatt. 
 
 Proceeding to the midst he stil did stand. 
 As if in mind he something had to say ; 
 And to the vulgare beckning with his hand. 
 In sign of silence, as to heare a play. 
 By lively actions he gan bewray. 
 Some argument of matter passioned ; 
 Which doeu, he backe retyred soft away. 
 And, peissing by, his name discovered. 
 Ease, on his robe in golden letters cyphered. 
 
 Spenxr. 
 It beckons you to go away with it. 
 As if it some impartraent did desire 
 To you alone. Shaksj>eare. 
 
 The queen, fair Fancy, past ; 
 And thro' her rainbow-tinged veil 
 
 A glance benignant cast 1 
 Then, beck'ning to a secret glade, 
 
 ♦ Come sec,' she cried, ' the train, 
 Who own beneath tliis mystic shade 
 
 My visionary reign.' Bishop. 
 
 Anon all this rout was brought in silence. 
 And I by an usher brought to presence 
 Of Lucifer ; then low, as well as I could, 
 I kneeled, which he so well allow 'd 
 That thus he heck'd, and, by St. Anthony, 
 He smiled on me well-favour'dly. 
 
 Heywood. The Pardoner. 
 
 So throng into the memory. 
 
 Of calling shapes, and beckoning shadows dire , 
 
 And aery tongues, that syllable men's names. 
 
 On sands and shores and desert wildernesses. 
 
 Milton. 
 With this his distant friends he beckons near. 
 Provokes their duty, and prevents their fear. Drydcn, 
 What beck'ning ghost along the moonlight shade. 
 Invites my steps and points to yonder glade. Pope. 
 When he had raised my thoughts by those trans- 
 porting airs, he beckoned to me, and, by the waving 
 of his hand, directed mo to approach. Addison. 
 
 All ether softening, sober evening takes 
 Her wonted station on the middle air, 
 A thousand shadows at her beck. First, this 
 She sends on earth, then that of deeper dye 
 Steals soft behind ; and then a deeper still. 
 In circle following circle, gathers round. 
 To close the face of things. Thomson. Summer. 
 They had not spoken ; but they felt allured 
 As if their souls and lips each other beckon'd. 
 Which being join'd like swarming bees they clung. 
 Their hearts the flowers from whence the honey 
 sprung. Byron. 
 
 BE'CLAP. Be and clap. See Clap. . 
 
 BE'CLAWE. Be and claw. See Claw. 
 
 BE'CLIP. Be and clip. See Clip. 
 
 BE'CLOUD. Be and cloud. See Cloud. 
 
 BE'COME, -) £e and come, Ang.- 
 
 cuman ; Dutcli ko- 
 Germ. kommen ; 
 Swed. komma. Beatman, ingredi, occurrere, per- 
 venire, svpervcnire ; to go ; to enter in ; to meet 
 with ; to come or attain to ; to come upon sud- 
 denly : it likewise signifies to convene ; to con- 
 cur ; and consequently to be convenient or con- 
 
 BE'COME, -% Be 
 
 Becom'ing, n. adj. >Sax. 
 Becoming'ly. jmen; 
 
 current; hence arises to befit; decent; appro* 
 priate; suitable; and further, graceful; orna- 
 mental. See Ency. Met. 
 
 The Lord God breathed into his nostrils the breatli 
 of life, and man became a living soul. Genesis, ii. 7. 
 And unto the Jews I became a Jew, that I might 
 gain the Jews. 1 Corinth, ix. 24. 
 
 Upon that other side Damian 
 Becomin is the sorwefallest man 
 That ever was. Chaucer. 
 
 So soone as she was entred, round about 
 Shce cast her eies, to see what was become 
 Of all those persons which she saw without : 
 But lo I they streight were vanisht all and some ; 
 Save that same woefuU laJy ; both whose hands 
 Were bounden fast, that did her ill become, 
 And her small waste girt rownd with yron bands 
 Unto a brasen pillour, by the which she stands. 
 
 Spenser. 
 She to her sire made humble reverence. 
 And bowed low, that her right well became. 
 And added grace unto her excellence. 
 
 Id. Faerie Qneene. 
 I cannot joy, until I be rcsolv'd 
 Where our right valiant father is become. 
 
 Shakspearr. 
 If I become not a cart as well as another man, a 
 plague on my bringing up. /(/. 
 
 I would I had some flowers o' th' spring thatmigiit 
 Become your time of day ; and your's and your's. 
 That wear upon your virgin branches yet 
 Your maidenheads growing. Id. 
 
 Yet be sad, good brothers ; 
 For, to speak truth, it very well becomes you. Id. 
 
 Your dishonour 
 Mangles true judgment and bereaves the state 
 Of that integrity which should become it. Id. 
 
 What is then become of so huge a multitude, as 
 would have overspread a great part of the continent, 
 t Raleigh. 
 
 But I should ill become this throne, O peers ! 
 And this imperial sovreignty adorn'd 
 With splendour, arm'd with power, if aught propos'fl 
 And judg'd of public moment, in the shape 
 Of ditTiculty or danger, could deter 
 Mc from attempting. Milton. 
 
 Perplex'd with thoughts, what would become 
 Of me, and all mankind ? Id. 
 
 The first hints of the circulation of the blood wero 
 taken from a common person's wondering what be- 
 came of all the blood that issued out of the heart. 
 
 Graunt. 
 What will become of me then 7 for, when lie is free, 
 he will infallibly accuse me. ' Dryden. 
 
 Why would I be a queen ? because my face 
 Would wear the title with a better grace ; 
 If I hecanw. it not, yet it would be 
 Part of your duty then to flatter me. Id. 
 
 Wicherly was of my opinion, or rather I of his ; 
 for it becomes me so to speak of so excellent a poet. 
 
 Id. 
 Their discourses are such as belong to thoir age, 
 their calling, and their breeding ; such as are becom- 
 ing of them, and of them only. Id. 
 What became of this thoughtful busy creator'^, when 
 removed from this world, has amazed the \'ulgar, and 
 puzzled the wise. Rogers. 
 He utterly rejected their fables concerning their 
 gods, as not becoming good men, much less those 
 which were worshipped for gods. Stillingflett, 
 Of thee, kind boy, I ask no red and white 
 To make up my delight. 
 No odd becoming graces. 
 Black eyes, or litllo know-not-whaU, in faces. 
 
 Suckling.
 
 732 
 
 BED. 
 
 BECSANGIL, the ancient Bithynia, a pro- 
 vince of Natolia in Asia; bounded on the north 
 by the Black Sea, on the west by the sea of 
 Marmora, on the south by Natoba Proper, and 
 on the east by the province of Boli. The prin- 
 cipal town is Bursa. 
 
 BECSKERECK, Nagy, i. e. Great, a mar- 
 ket town of Hungary, in the county of Torontal, 
 the capital of the circle of that name. It stands 
 on the Bega, and has a salt office, and the right 
 of choosing its own magistrate. 
 
 Becskereck, Kis, i. e. Little, a small town 
 of Hungary, in the county of Temeswar, circle of 
 St. Andrew. 
 
 BECTASH, preacher to Amurath I. sultan of 
 the Turks, and founder of the sect of Bectasse. 
 He is also said to have given rise to the order of 
 Janissaries. 
 
 BECTASSE, a sect of religious among the 
 Turks. All the janissaries belonging to the Porte 
 are of this sect. The habit of the bectasse is 
 white : on their heads they wear caps of several 
 pieces; with turbans of wood twisted like ropes. 
 They observe constantly the hour of prayer, 
 which they perform in their own assemblies, 
 and make frequent declarations of the unity of 
 God. 
 
 BECURL, be and curl. See Curl. 
 BED, r. & 71. ■^ A large family, from one 
 Bed'dikg, etymon; Ang. Sax. bed- 
 
 Bed'chamber, dian ; Germ, bedden or bet- 
 Bed'clothes, ten, sternere, bed ; that is, 
 
 Bed'fellow, says the etymologist, in 
 
 Bed'maker, the Ency. Met., stratum, 
 
 Bed'mate, is the past participle of 
 
 Bed'post, this verb ; therefore we 
 
 Bed'staff, .speak of a garden-bed, a 
 
 Bed'presser, j bed of gravel, &;c. In the 
 Bed'stead, Ang.-Sax. bedde is some- 
 
 Bed'straw, times used for a table. See 
 
 Bed'swerver, Mark iv. 21. From the 
 Bed'rid, strata of earth where things 
 
 Bed'rite, are deposited, &c., and in 
 
 Bed'time, which, till disturbed, they 
 
 Bed'ward, repose; the word has been 
 
 Bed'work. J to whatever bears applied 
 
 and supports ; to whatever is spread, or laid out, 
 or prepared, for the purpose of bearing and sup- 
 porting. Thus it is more generally applied to a 
 lodging; to something made to sleep on ; hence, 
 figuratively, it is used for marriage. To bed is 
 to go to bed with ; to place in bed ; to make 
 partaker of the bed ; to sow or plant in earth ; 
 to lay in a place of rest or security ; to lay in 
 order ; to stratify ; to cohabit. The various deri- 
 vatives explain, by their application, their own 
 meaning. 
 
 To bed he goth, and with him goth his wife. 
 
 As any jay she lyht was and jolif. Chaucer. 
 
 Flora now culleth forth eche flower. 
 
 And bids make readie Maia's bower. 
 
 That newe is upryst from hedd. Spenser, 
 
 There be no inns where meet bedding may be had, 
 so that his mantle serveth him then for a bed. Id. 
 
 On my knees I beg. 
 That you'll vouchsafe me raiment, bed, and food. 
 
 Shakspeare. 
 
 E\o. Mine, and most of our fortunes, to night, 
 shall be — drunk to bed. Dryden, Ant. atid Cleop. 
 
 Iros. There's a palm, presages chastity, if nothing 
 else. 
 
 Char. Even as the overflowing Nilus presageth 
 famine. 
 
 Iros. Go, you wild bedfellow, you cannot soothsay. 
 
 Id. 
 
 And as the sleeping soldiers in th' alarm. 
 Your bedded hairs, like life in excrements. 
 Start up and stand on end. Id. 
 
 She's a bedswervcr, even as bad as those 
 That vulgars give the boldest titles to. Id. 
 
 They have married me : 
 I'll to the Tuscan wars, and never bed her. Id. 
 
 For he will be swine drunk, and in his sleep he 
 does little harm, save to his bedclothes about him. Id. 
 
 He loves your people. 
 But tie him not to be their bedfellow. Id. 
 
 Misery acquaints a man with strange bedfellows. Id_ 
 
 This sanguine toward, this bedpresser, this horse- 
 back breaker, this huge hill of flesh. Id. 
 
 Lying not erect, but hollow, which is in the making 
 of the bed ; or with the legs gathered up, which is in 
 the posture of the body, is the more wholesome. 
 
 Bacon. 
 
 There was a doubt ripped up, whether Arthur was- 
 bedded with his lady. Id. 
 
 Kerbs will be tenderer and fairer if you take them 
 out of beds when they are newly come up, and re- 
 move them into pots with better earth. Id. 
 
 She was publickly contracted, stated as a bride, and 
 solemnly bedded; and, after she was laid, Maximi- 
 lian's ambassador put his leg, stript naked to the 
 knee, between the espousal sheets. Id. 
 
 Let coarse bold hands, from slimy nest. 
 The bedded fish in banks outwrest. Donne. 
 
 So high as heav'd the tumid hills, so low, 
 Down sunk a hollow bottom, broad, and deep. 
 Capacious bed of waters. Milton. 
 
 Rigour now is gone to bed. 
 And advice with scrupulous head. Id. 
 
 George, the eldest son of this second bed, was, after 
 the death of his father, by the singular care and affec- 
 tion of his mother, well brought up. Clarendon. 
 
 He was now one of the bedchamber to the prince. Id. 
 
 They were brought to the king, abiding them in his 
 bedchamber. Haywurd. 
 
 First, with assiduous care from winter keep. 
 Well fother'd in the stalls thy tender sheep ; 
 Then spread with straw the bedding of thy fold, 
 AVith fern beneath, to fend the bitter cold. Dryden. 
 
 Arcite return'd, and, as in honour tied. 
 His foe with bedding and with food supply'd. Id. 
 
 Those houses then were caves, or homely sheds, 
 With twining oziers fenc'd, and moss their beds. Id. 
 
 See hoary Albula's infected tide 
 O'er the warm bed of smoaking sulphur glide. 
 
 Addison. 
 
 What charming bedfellows, and companions for life, 
 men choose out of such women. Id. 
 
 I was deeply in love with my bedmaker, upon which 
 I was rusticated for ever. Id. Spectator, 
 
 I came the next day prepared, and placed her 
 in a clear light, her head leaning to a bedpost, an- 
 other standing behind, holding it steady. 
 
 Wiseman's Surgery. 
 
 Chimnies with scorn rejecting smoke ; 
 Stools, tables, chairs, and bedsteads broke. Sunft. 
 
 l^
 
 BED 
 
 733 
 
 BED 
 
 Bed may be more accurately aefiHed a conve- 
 nience for stretching and composing tlie body on, 
 for eai-e, rest, or sleep ; consisting, generally, of 
 feathers enclosed in a ticken case, and supported 
 by a frame work, called the bedstead, standing 
 on pedestals. Mr. Whittaker in his history of 
 Manchester observes, that it was universally the 
 practice, in the first ages, for mankind to sleep 
 upon the skins of beasts. It was originally the 
 custom of the Greeks and Romans, as well as 
 of the ancient Britons, before the Roman Inva- 
 sion. These skins were spread on the floor of 
 their apartments. Afterwards they were changed 
 for loose rushes and heather: the VVelsh a few 
 years ago lay on the former, and many of the 
 Highlanders of Scotland sleep on the latter to 
 this day. In process of time, the Romans sug- 
 gested to the interior Britons the use, and the 
 introduction of agriculture supplied them witli 
 the means, of the neater convenience of straw 
 bads. The beds of the Roman gentry at this 
 period were generally filled with feathers, and 
 those of the inns with the soft down of reeds. 
 But for many ages the beds of the Italians had 
 been constantly composed of straw; it still formed 
 tliose of the soldiers and officers at the conquest 
 of Lancashire; and from both, our countrymen 
 learnt their uae. But it appears to have been 
 taken up only by the gentlemen, as the common 
 Welsh had their beds thinly stuffed with rushes 
 as late as the conclusion of the twelfth century ; 
 and with the gentlemen it continued many ages 
 afterwards. Straw was used even in the royal 
 chambers of England as late as the close of the 
 fifteenth century. 
 
 In the Highlands heath is generally used as 
 bedding even by the gentry; and a heath bed has 
 been celebrated by travellers as a peculiar luxury, 
 superior to that of down. In France and Italy 
 straw beds are frequent to this day. But after 
 the above period, beds were no longer suffered to 
 rest upon the ground. The better mode, that 
 had anciently prevailed in the east, and long 
 before been introduced into Italy, was adopted 
 in Britain; and they were now mounted on pedes- 
 tals. This, however, was equally confined to the 
 higher ranks. Beds still continued on the floor 
 among the common people, and were laid along 
 the walls of their houses, as one common dormi- 
 tory for all the members of the family. 
 
 Bed, in masonry, a course or range of stones; 
 and the joint of the bed is the mortar between 
 two stones, placed over each other. 
 
 Bed, in sea language, a flat, thick piece of 
 timber laid under the quarters of casks contain- 
 ing any liquid, and stowed in the ship's hold. 
 
 Bed, Dining, lectus triclinaris, or discubito- 
 rius, that whereon the ancients lay at meals. 
 The dining or discubitory beds were four or five 
 feet high. Three of these were ordinarily ranged 
 by a square table (whence both the table and 
 the room where they ent, werp called triclinium), 
 in such a manner th^it one of the sides of the 
 table remained open and accessible to the waiters. 
 Each bed would hold three or four, rarely five 
 persons. They were unknown in Rome before 
 the second Punic war : the Romans, till then, 
 sat down to eat on plain wooden benches, in 
 imitation of the heroes of Homer, or, as Varro 
 
 expresses it, after the manner of the Lacedemo- 
 nians and Cretans. See Accubation. 
 
 Bed of a great Gun; that thick plank 
 which lies immediately under the piece, being, as 
 it were, the t)ody of the carriage. 
 
 Bed of a Mortar, with gunners, a sond 
 piece of oak hollowed in the middle, to receive 
 the breech and half the trunnions. 
 
 Bed of Corn, is a heap, flat at top, three or 
 four feet high, otherwise called a couch. Corn 
 in granaries, keeps best in beds. 
 
 Bed of Justice, in the ci-devant French cus- 
 toms, a throne upon which the king was seated 
 when he went to the parliament. The king 
 never held a bed of justice but for affairs that 
 concerned the state, and then all the officers of 
 parliament were clothed in scarlet robes. 
 
 BEDA, commonly called Venerable Bede, one 
 of our most ancient historians, was born A. D. 
 672, near Weremouth, in the bishopric of Dur- 
 ham. He was educated by the abbot Benedict, 
 in the monastery of St. Peter, near the mouth of 
 the river Wyre. At the age of nineteen he was 
 ordained deacon, and priest at thirty. About 
 this time he was invited to Rome by Pope Ser- 
 gius ; but it is not certain that he accepted the 
 invitation. In 731 he published his Ecclesiasti- 
 cdl History ; a work of so much merit, notwith- 
 standing the legendary tales it contains, that it 
 were alone sufficient to immortalise the author. 
 He died A. D. 735, of a lingering consumption, 
 probably occasioned by a sedentary life, and long 
 uninterrupted application to study and literary 
 compositions, of which he left an incredible num- 
 ber. He was buried in the church of his con- 
 vent at Jarrow ; but his bones were aftervvads 
 removed to Durham, and deposited in the same 
 coffin with those of St. Culhbert. Bede was 
 undoubtedly a singular phenomenon in an igno- 
 rant and illiterate age. His learning, for the 
 times, was extensive, his application incredible, 
 his piety exemplary, and his modesty excessive. 
 He was universally admired, consulted, and 
 esteemed, during his life ; and his writings are 
 deservedly considered as the foundation of our 
 ecclesiastical history. His language is neither 
 elegant nor pure, but perspicuous and easy. All 
 his works are in Latin. The first general collec- 
 tion of them appeared at Paris in 1544, in three 
 volumes, folio. They were printed again at 
 the same place in 1554, in eight volumes. They 
 were also published in the same size and number 
 uf volumes at Basil, in 1567, reprinted at Co- 
 logne in 1613, and at the same place in 1688. 
 Besides this general collection, there are several 
 of his compositions, which have been printed 
 separately, or amongst the collections of the 
 writings of ancient authors ; and there are several 
 MSS. ascribed to him, which are preserved in 
 the libraries of Oxford and Cambridge. 
 
 BE'DABBLE. Dabble, with tlie prefix be. 
 See Dabble. 
 
 BE'DAFF. Daff", and the prefix be. SccDaff 
 
 BE'DAGGLE. Daggle, and the prefix be 
 See Daggle. 
 
 BEDAH, or Vedah, also called Battas or 
 \N addas, a wild people inhabiting the mountains 
 and forests in the interior of Ceylon. See Cey- 
 lon and Batta.
 
 BED 
 
 734 
 
 BED 
 
 BEDAL, a market town in the north riding 
 of Yorkshire, through which passes a Roman 
 causeway to Richmond, Barnard Castle, &c. 
 The parts adjacent are noted for hunting and 
 road horses. It has a market on Tuesday : and 
 is six miles from North Allerton, eight from Rich- 
 mond, and 220 from London. 
 
 BEDALACH, in the materia medica, a name 
 given by some writers to the gum bdellium ; but 
 particularly to that kind of it which was brought 
 from Arabia, and was of a yellowish color, like 
 wax. 
 
 BEDALGENSE, a name given by the Arab 
 astronomers to a fixed star of the first magnitude, 
 in the right shoulder of Orion. It is of a ruddy 
 color, by which it is easily distinguished. 
 
 BEDAMUNGALUM, atown of the Mysore, 
 Ilindostan, near the river Palar, which is here 
 about forty feet wide. It was formerly a con- 
 siderable place, but is now reduced. Salt 
 abounds throughout the neighbouring countrj', 
 which consists of poor black soil, and low wet 
 grounds. Long. 78° 24' E., lat 12° 58' N. 
 
 BEDAN, a deliverer, and, probably, a judge 
 of the Israelites, mentioned by the prophet Sa- 
 muel (1 Sam. xii. 11.), in his expostulation with 
 the people ; but not mentioned particularly else- 
 where, in Scripture. Some suppose him to be 
 the same with Barak ; others with Samson, who 
 was Ben Dan, the son of Dan ; others, that he 
 was Jair, and named Bedan after his ancestor. 
 
 BEDARIDES, a town of France, near the 
 Rhone, formerly in the papal county of X'enais- 
 sin ; but, since the revolution, included in the 
 department of Vaucluse. The population is 
 about 1700, and the environs are fertile and 
 beautiful. Five miles north of Avignon. 
 
 BE'DARK. Be and dark. See Dark. 
 
 BEDARRIEUX, or Bec du Rieux, a town 
 of France, on the river Orbe, in the department 
 of the Herault. It has 3340 inhabitants, with 
 manufactures of drugget and woollen stuff's, which 
 are exported as far as into Germany. Thirty- 
 three miles west of Montpelier. Long. 3°15'E., 
 lat. 43° 57' N. 
 
 BE'DASH Be and dash. See Dash. 
 
 BE'DAW. Of uncertain etymology. Awake 
 on the watch. See Adaw, to watch over, to 
 keep under. 
 
 BE'DAUB. Be and daub. See Dabble and 
 Dauc. 
 
 Bedchamber, Lords or the, in the British 
 court, are twelve noblemen who attend in their 
 ■turns, each a month ; during which time they 
 anciently lay in the king's bedchamber, and 
 waited on him when he dined in private. 
 
 BEDDAPOLLAM, a town of Ilindostan, in 
 the Mysore, fourteen miles west of Gurram- 
 conda. 
 
 BEDDER, Bedek, or Bedr, a valley of Arabia, 
 where the tribe of Koreish was defeated by Ma- 
 liomet in the first year of the Hejira, A. D. 622. 
 ]])i3tant forty miles from Mecca, and twenty from 
 Medina. 
 
 BEDDIJAM, a town of Ceylon, eighty miles 
 south of Candy. 
 
 BEDDINGTON, a village of Surry, between 
 Carshalton and Croydon, adjoining which is Bed- 
 dington Park, where queen Elizabeth is said to 
 
 have resided. The parish church is an ancient 
 Gothic building, with stalls in the aisle like a 
 cathedral. 
 
 BEDDOES (Thomas), M. D. a physician of 
 considerable celebrity, was born at Shiffnal, 
 Salop, in the year 1760. He was educated at 
 Bridgenorth, Oxford, and Edinburgh. In 1786 
 he took his doctor's degree, and was appointed 
 professor of chemistry at Oxford ; an appoint- 
 ment which his political opinions, on the break- 
 ing out of the French Revolution, did not permit 
 him to retain. In 1793 he removed to Bristol, 
 where he began a series of medical and physiolo- 
 gical researches, experiments, lectures, &c. ; 
 which might have established for him a lasting 
 reputation. He was capable of great things but 
 aimed at too much. Publications upon a variety 
 of subjects political, scientific, and medical, came 
 from his pen in rapid succession, until 1808, when 
 he was seized with a liver complaint, which proved 
 fatal in the course of that year. Of his numerous 
 works, the principal are; 1. A Translation of 
 Spallanzani's Dissertations on Natural History, 
 1784; reprinted in 1790. 2- A Translation of 
 Bergman's Essay on Elective Attractions, 1785. 
 3. Translations of Scheele's Chemical Essays, 
 1786. 4. Chemical Experiments and Opinions, 
 extracted from a work published in the last ceO' 
 tury, &c. 
 
 BEDE. See Beda. 
 
 BE'DEAD. Be and dead. See Dead. 
 
 BE'DECK. Be and deck. See Deck. 
 
 BEDELL (Dr. William), a learned prelate, 
 born at Black Notley, in Essex, in 1750, and 
 educated at Emanuel College, Cambridge, where 
 he obtained a fellowship in 1593. After being 
 some time minister of St. Edmund's Bury, he 
 went to Venice, as chaplain to Sir Henry Wot- 
 ton, the'English ambassador, and continuing eight 
 years in that city, contracted an intimate ac- 
 quaintance with the famous Father Paul ; during 
 this time he translated the English Common 
 Prayer Book into that language ; and drew up 
 an English grammar for Father Paul, who de=- 
 clared he had learned more from him in divinity 
 than from any one. At his departure Paul pre- 
 sented him with his picture, the MSS. of his 
 History of the Council of Trent, his History of 
 the Interdict and Inquisition, with other literary 
 donations. In 1629 Dr. Bedell obtained the 
 bishopric of Kilmore and Ardagh in Ireland, 
 and applied himself vigorously to reforming 
 abuses. He procured an Irish translation of the 
 common Prayer-Book, which he caused to be 
 read in his cathedral every Sunday. The New 
 Testament having been translated by archbishop 
 Daniel, he patronised a corresponding version 
 of the Old Testament; which was after^vards 
 printed at the expense of the great Mr. Boyle. 
 In 1624 he published a controversial book against 
 the Roman Catholics, which he dedicated to 
 Charles, prince of Wales ; and assisted the arch- 
 bishop of Spalatro in finishing his famous work 
 De Republica Ecclesiastica. When the rebel- 
 lion broke out in Ireland, in October 1641, the 
 bishop at first did not feel the violence of its 
 effects; for the very rebels had conceived a 
 great veneration for him, and they declared he 
 should be the last Englishman they would drive
 
 BEDFORD. 
 
 735 
 
 out of Ireland. About tlie middle of December, 
 however, the rebels required him to dismiss the 
 people who had taken refuge with him ; and, 
 upon his refusing to do this, they seised him and 
 his family, and carried them prisoners to the 
 castle of Cloughboughter, putting them all ex- 
 cept the bishop in irons. After being confined 
 for about three weeks, the bishop and his sons 
 were exchanged for some of the principal rebels ; 
 but the worthy prelate died soon after, on the 
 7th I'ebruary, 1642, his death being chiefly 
 occasioned, it is said, by this imprisonment. 
 Tiie Irish rebel chiefs, and a large part of their 
 force, accompanied his body to the church- 
 yard. 
 
 V) , 'J Be and delve. See Delve. 
 
 iJEDELVEN. s 
 
 BEDENGIAN, in botany, a name given by 
 Avicenna and Serapion to the pomum amoris, 
 or love-apple, a sort of fruit used in food by the 
 Italians, and some other nations, and seeming to 
 be the third species of the strychnos, or solanum, 
 mentioned by Theophrastus. The author first 
 describes two kinds of this plant, the one of 
 which occasioned sleepy disorders, and the other 
 threw people who eat of it into madness. After 
 these, which he properly accounts poisonous, he 
 mentions a third, which was cultivated in gar- 
 dens, for the sake of tlie fruit, which, he says, is 
 large and esculent. This is certainly the same 
 with bedengian. 
 
 BE'DEML. Be and devil. See Devil. 
 
 BE'DEW, i Ang-.-Sax. deawian, to wet, to 
 
 Be'dew. 5 moisten. 
 
 Both nations shall, in Britaine's royal crowne. 
 Their diff'ring names, the signes of faction, drowne ; 
 The silver sireames which from this spring increase. 
 Bedew all Christian hearts with drops of peace. 
 
 Beaitmont. Bosworth Field. 
 
 For never, gentle knight, as he of late. 
 So tossed was in fortune's cruell freakes. 
 And all the while salt tears bedeaw'd the hearers' 
 cheaks. Spenser. 
 
 What slender youth bedew'd with liquid odours. 
 Courts thee on roses, in some pleasant cave ? Milton. 
 
 Thrice happy he ! who, on the sunless side 
 Of a romantic mountain, forest-crown'd. 
 Beneath the whole collected shade reclines ; 
 Or in the gelid caverns, woodbine wrought. 
 And fresh bedew'd with ever-spouting streams. 
 Sits coolly calm. Thoimon. 
 
 May all the youths, like me, by love deceiv'd, 
 Not quench the ruin, but applaud the doom ! 
 And when thou dy'st, may not one heart be griev'd. 
 May not one tear bedew the lonely tomb ! Hammond. 
 
 Go, my boy, and if you fall, though distant, ex- 
 posed, and unwept by those that love you, the most 
 precious tears are those with whi'h heaven bedews 
 the unburied head of a soldier 
 
 Goldsmith. Vicar of Wakefield. 
 
 BEDFORD (John, duke of), a younger soa 
 of Henry I\'., was Shakspeare's ' prince John of 
 Lancaster.' During the reign of Henry \'. he 
 took a leading part in the conquest of France ; 
 and was, after the death of the kmg, appointed 
 regent of that country. He displayed great mili- 
 tary skill in the battle of Verneuil in 1424. The 
 only blemish in his character is his cruel and 
 unjustifiable treatment of the maid of Orleans. 
 
 He survived this event al>out four years, and 
 dying at Uouen, in 1435, was buried in the ca- 
 thedral of that city. Bedford deserves notice as 
 a patron of the arts. A curious proof of his 
 taste in them is still existing in the Bedford Missal, 
 a small thick folio volume, highly illuminated, 
 described by Mr. Dibdin in his Bibliomania, 
 pao;e 253. 
 
 The dukedom of Bedford, now enjoyed by the 
 Russel family, is perfectly distinct from that of 
 this prince. The title has been twice revived 
 since his time. 
 
 Bedfo£d (Francis Russel, duke of), an illus- 
 trious English nobleman, and distinguished agri- 
 cultulist; was bom July 23d, 1765. Upon 
 the death of his grandfather in 1771, he succeeded 
 to the tide and fortunes of his family. He 
 received the first rudiments of education, we 
 believe, at Loughborough house, a fashionable 
 preparatory school : from this place he was re- 
 moved at an early age to Westminster-school, 
 but he did not remain long at tliis celebrated 
 seminary. Here it was that, in consequence of 
 a blow from a cricket ball, he became subject to 
 an inveterate hernia, which proved the ultimate 
 cause of his premature death. His grace, at the 
 university, applied to his studies with more 
 diligence than most young noblemen, and soon 
 acquired the esteem of his fellow-students, 
 and of those who superintended his conduct. 
 Early in life he manifested a strong predilection 
 for the amusements of the turf, but this was soon 
 weakened (though not destroyed) in consequence 
 of a superior attachment to the more rational 
 pursuits of agriculture. On his first outset in 
 public life he was connected with Mr. Fox, 
 and became a firm and disinterested supporter 
 of the whig principles. It was long before he 
 could so far overcome his natural diffidence as 
 to speak in public ; although, in private com- 
 pany, the clearness of his judgment, the solidity 
 of his remarks, and the strength and accuracy 
 of his expression, had decidedly proved thai 
 his grace possessed the chief requisites of a 
 distinguished orator. What the persuasions of 
 his friends could not effect, was at length un- 
 expectedly produced by a momentary glow of 
 indignation. In a debate in the house of lords, 
 the duke imagined himself personally alluded to 
 by one of the speakers. He rose and defended 
 himself and his party by a most able and ani- 
 mated reply. From tliat period he occasionally 
 spoke upon the most important questions that 
 divided the house, and was constantly lieard, 
 even by his political adversaries, with the most 
 respectful attention. His eloquence was rather 
 solid and masculine than brilliant and showy ; 
 he did not trim up his language with the gaudy 
 flowers of the rhetorician, but always spoke with 
 such accuracy, and dignity of style and manner, 
 as naturally resulted from the profound medita- 
 tion of an enlarged and cultivated mind. 
 
 But the duke of Bedford was not merely 
 eminent as an orator and politician; he deserved 
 much regard as an anxious promoter of agricul- 
 cure, and every art subservient to tlial highly 
 important pursuit. The late Mr. Bakewell was 
 one of his first instnictors in the knowledge of 
 cattle ; but he soon equalled, if not excelled, his
 
 736 
 
 BEDFORD. 
 
 master, at least in a knowledge of the subject, 
 ihough not perhaps in success as an improver of 
 the different breeds. His improvements in farm- 
 ing^, as well as grazing, were very considerable. 
 His experimental farm consisted of about 3000 
 acres, and it was in a state of cultivation, before 
 his time, unexampled in this country. In the 
 practice of irrigation his grace was remarkably 
 successful, and he evinced its wonderful effects 
 upon several hundred acres of land. The far- 
 mers and graziers for miles round his family 
 seat at Woburn will long remember his grand 
 annual sheep-shearings held there ; from which 
 every one returned pleased with the hospitality 
 and affability of the noble duke, and with the 
 prospect of advantage to the agricultural in- 
 terests of the nation at large, which the pre- 
 miums here offered were likely to produce. 
 His grace was never married. His death was 
 occasioned by the strangulation of the hernia 
 already spoken of; which was brought on by 
 playing at tennis. He died March 2d, 1802, in 
 his thirty-seventh year. 
 
 Bedford, the chief -town of Bedfordshire, 
 is a place of great antiquity, supposed to be an 
 ancient Roman station, and by some the Lacti- 
 dorum of Antoninus ; although Camden is of 
 a different opinion, from the fact of its not 
 standing on any of the Roman roads, as also 
 from no Roman coins having been found in the 
 immediate vicinity. It is situated on the river 
 Ouse, ten miles from Olney, and fifty miles 
 north of London ; and, according to the census 
 of 1821, contains upwards of 1070 houses, and 
 5466 inhabitants. 
 
 Bedford is supposed to be the Bedicanford of 
 I the ancient Saxons, called Bedician Forda, for- 
 tress of the Ford, from its fortifications, which 
 commanded the river, and rendered the place 
 almost impregnable. Several ancient battles 
 were fought here, between the Britons and the 
 Saxons, particularly one in 372, the obstinacy 
 of which has been justly celebrated. It has also 
 been the scene of many severe and bloody con- 
 flicts with the Danes, and of many other changes 
 and remarkable events, since the extinction of 
 the Danish power. Offa, king of the Mercians, 
 chose this town as his burial place, and his re- 
 mains were accordingly interred in a small chapel, 
 on the brink of the river; but both the royal 
 deposit and the chapel containing them have been 
 long swept away by a violent inundation. Shortly 
 after the Norman conquest, William Rufus gave 
 the barony of Bedford to Pain de Beauchamp, 
 who built a strong castle, adjoining the town. 
 This place, in 1137, stood a siege against king 
 Stephen and his army, and was afterwards com- 
 mitted to Faux de Brent, a royal favorite. But 
 this gentleman, having fortified it strongly, set 
 the royal power at defiance, and having other- 
 wise rendered himself obnoxious to Henry III. 
 the king, in 1224, marched with an army to re- 
 duce him to obedience ; and after a siege of two 
 months, which forms one of the most curious 
 details in English history, the place was stormed 
 by four assaults, and taken, the castle was dis- 
 mantled, the trenches filled up, and of the site on 
 which it stood only a few traces are now visible. 
 Before the conquest, here was a collegiate church. 
 
 dedicated to St. Paul, which was afterwards re- 
 moved to the parish of Goldington, about a mile 
 distant. Numerous other religious houses, in the 
 town and suburbs, were founded at an early 
 period, of which scarcely any vestiges remain. 
 A bridge of great antiquity stood over the river, 
 which is hence navigable to the German Ocean ; 
 but that edifice being in a state of great decay, 
 was removed in 1813, and a new and handsome 
 one was erected on its site, preserving the com- 
 munication between the northern and southern 
 divisions of the town. Bedford is generally con- 
 sidered a compact, handsome place, containing 
 the parishes of St. John, St. Mary, St. Cuthbert, 
 St. Peter, and St. Paul. It is governed by a 
 mayor, recorder, aldermen, two chamberlains, 
 and thirteen common council men. It gives the 
 title of duke to the family of Russel, and, as 
 early as 1295, sent two members to parliament, 
 the election of whom is vested in about 1400 
 voters, consisting of burgesses, freemen, and 
 householders not receiving alms. The town is 
 a borough and corporation by prescription, and 
 the earliest charter is dated in 1166, 100 years 
 after the conquest. Of the five churches three 
 are on the north side of the river, and two on 
 the south. St. Paul's is a very handsome Gothic 
 edifice with a spire. It has a fine organ, a very 
 ancient stone pulpit, and contains an altar tomb 
 with brass figures of Sir William Harpur and 
 his lady, the former of whom, a great benefac- 
 tor of the town, died in 1574. The dissenters 
 in Bedford are numerous and respectable. There 
 are three Independent chapels, one of which 
 was built as early as 1707, and a second in 1772. 
 The celebrated John Bunyan was one of the 
 pastors of the original meeting-house, which 
 preceded both, from 1671 to 1688, and during 
 the thirty-two years exercise of his ministry in . 
 that place and the neighbourhood, suffered twelve 
 years imprisonment, in the course of which he 
 finished his celebrated work entitled The Pil- 
 grim's Progress. A free grammar school was 
 founded here in 1556, by Sir William Harpur, a 
 native of Bedford, who, in the sixteenth century, 
 was elevated to the dignity of lord mayor of Lon- 
 don. It was endowed with thirteen acres of land, 
 which, being now let for building, produces an 
 improved rent of £6000 per annum, the surplus 
 of which is applied to other purposes of a chari- 
 table nature ; £700 is given in small premiums 
 for the apprenticing of children, and £800 is 
 given in marriage portions, of £20 each, to 
 forty poor maidens of the town, with restrictions 
 that the young women must be of good reputa- 
 tion, between the ages of sixteen and fifty, and 
 married within two months after receiving the 
 gratuity. An infirmary, capable of receiving 
 thirty-eight patients, was erected in 1803; to- 
 wards the building and endowment of which 
 Mr. Whitbread, one of the members of parlia- 
 ment for the borough, gave £8000. A new gaol 
 was erected in 1801, towards which the same 
 gentleman contributed £500. In 1812 was 
 erected an asylum for lunatics. The assizes and 
 sessions of the county are held in the Shire 
 hall, erected in 1753. 
 
 The principal manufacture is lace, but in the 
 house of industry an extensive manufactory of
 
 BEDFORD. 
 
 737 
 
 flannel has been established, which has consider- 
 ably reduced the poor's rates. 
 
 The soil in the neiufhbourhood is singularly 
 productive of good wheat and barley, which are 
 chiefly sent to the markets of llitchin and Hert- 
 ford. There are six annual fairs, besides a wool 
 fair, which has been established by the Agricul- 
 tural Society of the county. There are also 
 two weekly markets ; one on Saturday, for corn, 
 and another on Tuesday for cattle. A consider- 
 able trade is carried on in coals, timber, and 
 iron, which are brought by the river from Lynn 
 and Yarmouth. 
 
 The bailift' of Bedford is a name which the 
 inhabitants of Ely have from time immemorial 
 given to the inundations of the Ouse, the waters 
 of which, after violent rains, frequently over- 
 spread the island, so as to suspendall pursuits, 
 and confine the people prisoners till they are 
 abated. 
 
 Bedford, a county of the United States, 
 in Virginia, bounded on the north by James 
 river, east by Campbell, west by Botetourt, and 
 south by Franklin county. It is thirty-four 
 miles in length, and twenty-five in breadth. 
 Chalk and gypsum are met with in this county. 
 It is agreeably variegated with hills. The chief 
 town is New London. 
 
 Bedford, a large mountainous county of 
 Pennsylvania, bounded on the north by Hunting- 
 don, east by the North mountain, west by the 
 Alleghany mountain,and south by part of Washing- 
 ton and Alleghany counties, in the state of Mary- 
 land. It is fifty miles in breadth from north to 
 south, and fifty-four in length from east to west; 
 and is divided into nine townships, viz. Bedford, 
 ^V'oodbury, Hopewell, Dublin, Providence, Bel- 
 fast, Bethel, Colrain, Cumberland valley, and 
 Londonderry. The chief waters are the Rays- 
 town branch of the Juniatta, Wills, and Licking 
 creek. The chief mountains are Wills, Evits, 
 W^arriors, Sideling-hill, Dunnings, &c. and,a few 
 others of inferior magnitude. The valleys between 
 some of these are extensive, rich, and in many 
 parts well cultivated. Limestone and iron ore 
 are found in many places. This county was pur- 
 chased from the Indians in 1768 by William 
 Penn, and established in 177L 
 
 Bedford, a post town of Pennsylvania, and 
 capital of the above county, situated on the south 
 side of the Raystown branch of Juniatta river, 
 between two small creeks. Tlie town stands on 
 an eminence, and is embosomed by still loftier 
 hills on all sides ; that on the west rising to the 
 altitude of 1300 feet, and that on the east 1100. 
 It is regularly laid out, and contains a brick 
 market-house, a stone jail, a court-house, a brick 
 building for keeping the records of the county, 
 and a bank. The inhabitants are supplied witli 
 water from a spring at the distance of half a mile, 
 ■which is conveyed by wooden pipes to a reservoir 
 in the centre of the town. It was incorporated 
 by an act of the assembly, passed in the winter 
 session of 1795, and is governed similar to Chester. 
 It is ten miles west of Philadelphia. Long. 
 3° 16' W., lat. 40' 0' N. 
 
 Bedford New, a sea-port and post town in 
 the county of Bristol, Massachusetts, United 
 States of America, is about fifty-two miles south 
 Vol. III. 
 
 of Boston, the capital of that province. Seated 
 pleasantly on an arm of the sea, which stretches 
 from Buzzard's Bay, and forms the estuary of the 
 Accushnet river, it commands an extensive pros- 
 pect, with a si)acious and commodious harbour. 
 As late as 1810 Bedford included Fairhaven, on 
 the opposite side of the estuar)', which has since 
 been incorporated into a distinct town. Its popu- 
 lation, after the above division, was computed at 
 something more than 5000, many of wjiom are 
 engaged in commerce. The chief buildings are 
 a bank, five places of worship, and a library, be- 
 sides which there is a considerable academy, for 
 the use of the Society of Friends. The amount 
 of shipping belonging to the port in 1818 was 
 24,000 tons. The vessels are employed in the 
 whale, cod, and other fisheries, with the excep- 
 tion of* a few which trade to Europe and the 
 West Indies. The average value of exports from 
 this port of America has been calculated at 
 130,000 dollars; the imports are not accurately 
 known. Ship-building is carried on to a con- 
 siderable extent, and a weekly newspaper is pub- 
 lished. The town lies in lat. 41° 38' N., lono-. 
 70° 54' W. 
 
 Bedford, a town of the United States in West 
 Chester, county of New York, thirty-five miles 
 N.N.E. of New York. Long. 70' 51' W. 
 
 Bedford, a town of Virginia, 100 miles south- 
 west of Richmond. 
 
 Bedford, a town of the United States in tlie 
 west end of Long Island, New York. Four miles 
 north-west of Jamaica bay, and six east from the 
 city of New York. 
 
 Bedford, a township of New Hampshire, in 
 Hillsborough county. It lies on the west bank 
 of the Merrimack, fifty-six miles west of Ports- 
 mouth. 
 
 Bedford, Cape, a cape on the coast of Labra- 
 dor, in Davis' straits. Long. 67° 50' W., lat. 
 67° N.; also a cape at the north-east extremity of 
 New Holland. Long. 214° 45' W., lat. 15° 16' S. 
 
 Bedford, New, a town of Massachusetts, in 
 Bristol county. Fifty-eight miles south of Bos- 
 ton. Long. 70° 52' W., lat. 40' 41' N. 
 
 Bedford Level, an extensive tract of low- 
 land, stretching over part of the counties of 
 Sufi"olk,Norfolk, Huntingdon, Lincoln, Northamp- 
 ton, Cambridge, and the Isle of Ely, including a su- 
 perficial area of nearly 400,000 acres, or 625 square 
 miles. It appears from various phenomena, 
 noticed by different authorities, that the greater 
 part of this space anciently consisted of dry and 
 cultivated land, although ft-om mismanagement, 
 neglect, or some convulsion of nature, it lost its 
 fertility, and assumed its present appearance. 
 Numerous trees of considerable dimensions, re- 
 mains of buildings, with other natural and arti- 
 ficial productions, found at various depths below 
 the surface, sufficiently evince, that it could no: 
 always have been a morass ; although they furnisii 
 no means of ascertaining the original causes and 
 steps of its deterioration. Dugdalo states, that 
 in draining the isle of Axholme, many oaks, firs, 
 and other trees were found at tlie depths of three, 
 four, and five feet ; the roots were firm in the 
 earth, and the trunks had been evidently burnt 
 down, as the ends were reduced to a kind (5t 
 charcoal. ' The oaks were lying in multitudes, 
 
 3 n
 
 738 
 
 BEDFORDSHIRE. 
 
 attd of an extraordinary size, being five yards in 
 compass, and sixteen yards loni^, and some smal- 
 ler, of a great length, widi a great quantity of 
 acorns, and small nuts near them.' Coincident 
 with the above statement, is the following of Mr. 
 Elstob, in his Historical Account of the Hedford 
 Level; which relates, that ' in 1764, many roots 
 of trees were found near Boston in Lincolnshire, 
 in the position in which they had grown, at the 
 depth of eighteen feet below the thin p;Lsturage 
 of the surface.' But the most remarkable cir- 
 cumstance is, that not only trees, but the foun- 
 dations of buildings, a smith's forge, with many 
 of his tools, several iron articles, horse-shoes ?cc. 
 have been found near Boston, at sixteen feet depth 
 in the soil. Tacitus, in his Life of Agricola, 
 states that 'the Britons complained of their hands 
 and bodies being worn out and consumed by the 
 Romans, in clearing the woods, and embanking 
 the fens,' in which he is thought to allude more 
 particularly to the destruction of the forests, which 
 anciently covered a considerable part of the Bed- 
 ford Level. Henry of Huntingdon, a writer of 
 the time of king Stephen, who reigned from 1136 
 to 1134, describes this part of the kingdom ' as 
 very pleasant and agreeable to the eye, watered 
 with many rivers which run tlirough it, diversi- 
 fied with many lai'ge and small lakes, and adorned 
 with many woods and islands.' William of 
 Malmsbury, who flourished in the reign of Henry 
 IL, Stephen's successor, describes this tract of 
 country in the most favorable terms, and mentions 
 with astonishment the size of the trees, by which 
 many parts of it were adorned. This statement 
 forms a singular coincidence with those already 
 given, and is corroborated by facts and evidences 
 yet remaining, which furnish, perhaps, the best 
 illustration of this singular and interesting sub- 
 ject. 
 
 It is evident, from the above testimonies, that 
 the inundation, by which this beautiful country 
 was converted into the present morass, must have 
 happened after the period of the latter historian, 
 although the precise circumstances which led 
 to it are not determined. This is certain, that the 
 country was completely overflowed, and that it 
 was rendered almost impassable, even for boats, 
 by the sedge, reeds, and mud, with which it was 
 covered, while the putrid effluvia, arising froni 
 the stagnant waters, destroyed the health of the 
 inhabitants. 
 
 The reign of Edward I. was distinguished by 
 an unsuccessful effort to drain these fens, and 
 several succeeding attempts, in the reigns of 
 Henry \ I. and Charles L, after involving consi- 
 derable expenses, were alike unfortunate. At 
 length, in the year 1634, Francis, earl af Bed- 
 ford, in conjunction with thirteen gentlemen, \\n- 
 dertook the Herculean task, and to a considerable 
 length succeeded ; whence the whole of this 
 farming district was called after his name. As 
 a considerable part of the estate of this nobleman 
 consisted of possessions in the vicinity of this 
 marsh, which liaej been granted to his ancestor 
 on the dissolution of the monasteries, by Henry 
 VIII ; he prosecuted the work with the greater 
 assiduity, on the promise of having 95,000 acres 
 assigned him in case of a successful accomplish- 
 ment of his enterprise. Tiie king granted an 
 
 immediate charter of incorporation, and within 
 three years and u-half from the before mentioned 
 period, the public surveyor, at the instance of the 
 commissioners, set out the land. The right of 
 this corporation was afterwards opposed, and the 
 earl dispossessed of the reward of his services ; 
 but the civil wars giving a new direction to the 
 schemes of political enterprise, William Duke of 
 Bedford was, in 1649, restored to the possession 
 of his rightful patrimony, and under the patron- 
 age of a new act, operations were continued upon 
 an extensive scale ; and in 1653, after an expense 
 of £400,000, the level was thought to be fully 
 drained, and the original grant was finally con- 
 firmed. The new territory was afterwards (for 
 the better regulation of property), divided into 
 three districts, viz. the northern, middle, and 
 southern. A surveyor was appointed for each of 
 the former, and two for the latter ; numerous 
 contentions, litigations, charters, and laws, have 
 nevertheless issued ; for further information upon 
 which we refer the reader to the Beauties of 
 England and Wales, vol. ii. and Elstob's 
 Historical Account of the Bedford Level. 
 Notwithstanding all that has been done, much 
 fine land remains undrained in this part of En- 
 gland ; and, in the winter season, is subject to 
 frequent inundations. It is the haunt of vast 
 flocks of water fowl, which are taken in consi- 
 derable numbers. As many as 3000 couple are 
 often sent to the London markets in one week, 
 from a single decoy, in the neighbourhood of 
 Ely. 
 
 BEDFORDSHIRE, a small inland county of 
 England, bounded on the north and north-west 
 by Northamptonshire, on the east by the counties 
 of Huntingdon, Cambridge, and Hertford, and on 
 the west by those of Buckingham and Northamp- 
 ton. Its limits are winding and irregular, and 
 the only natural ones are the Ouse, for a short 
 space on the east and west, and a small rivulet 
 on the south-west border. Its form is nearly 
 oval; it is thirty-six miles in extreme length, from 
 eighteen to twenty-two in breadth, and 145 in 
 circumference. 
 
 The total of land in this county has been 
 variously calculated. The report of the Board of 
 Agriculture states the superficial area at 307,200 
 acres. The returns to parliament, relative to the 
 poor's rates, make it 275,200 acres ; but Dr. 
 Becke, in his (Observations on the Income Tax, 
 gives the content at 293,059 acres ; whilst the 
 Population Returns of 1821 state the area at 403 
 square miles, which is rather more than the mean 
 of the three preceding numbers, and is founded 
 upon the Trigonometrical Survey of England and 
 Wales. According to one, we believe, of the 
 most correct authorities, the superficial content 
 of land in Bedfordshire is computed at 296,320 
 square acres, of which 80,000 are in a course of 
 tillage, and 168,000 employed in pasturage. 
 This populated area includes 1'24 parishes, with 
 ten market towns, in which are 13,640 houses, 
 and upwards of 71,000 inhabitants, of whom 
 4135 families are employed in commerce and 
 manufactures, and 9431 in agriculture. It is in 
 the Norfolk circuit, province of Canterbury, and 
 bishopric of Lincoln, and is divided into nine 
 hundreds, viz, Barford, Biggleswade, Clifton,
 
 BEDFORDSHIRE. 
 
 739 
 
 Flitt, Manslicad, lledborne, Stoddeii, W'illey, and 
 Wixamtree. Its rivers are tlie Ouse, tlie Ivel, 
 the Lea, and the Ouzel, together with a few others 
 of inferior note, whicli come more properly under 
 the denomination of streams. The Ouse is made 
 navigable to Bedford, and divides the county 
 into two parts. Nearly the whole of Bedfordshire 
 lies upon the eastern side of the grand ridge, 
 which separates the waters which How into the 
 German Ocean from those wiiich pour themselves 
 into the Irish Sea : its general inclination is there- 
 fore towards the east, and in that direction its 
 principal rivers flow. 
 
 The face of the county is generally varied with 
 small hills and valleys, few of which aspire to 
 the height of mountains. There are, nevertheless, 
 some of a bolder description. Tlie Chiltern hills, 
 composed of a vast mass of chalk and flint stones, 
 lie along the southern border, and form a lofty 
 range, which, rising to an unusual altitude, and 
 irregularly projecting over the valleys, gives the 
 whole landscape a remarkable appearance. The 
 clay hills are stretched over the northern part, 
 and a ridge of sand hills enters the county from 
 the west, in a direction towards the north-east. 
 From the south-east corner to the middle of the 
 county runs a line of good dairy land ; the 
 western side is, for the most part, flat and sandy. 
 The north and east portions have a deep soil, 
 which produces large crops of corn, and is gene- 
 rally well wooded. The alluvial soils, which pre- 
 vail in Bedfordshire, generally consist of yellow 
 and dark colored clays, which are diversified with 
 tracts of chalk and sand. On the south of Luton 
 and Dunstable particularly, the upper stratum is 
 chalk, blended with numerous layers of flints and 
 silicious earth, which is succeeded by hard chalk 
 alone. The mineral productions of the county 
 are limestone, coarse marble, and some coal. 
 The fuller's earth, which is found so plentifully, 
 is a kind of mixed clay, chiefly obtained in the 
 neighbourhood of Woburn, and is of great use in 
 cleansing woollen goods. Mineral springs are 
 also found in different parts of the county, fil- 
 though they have not acquired much celebrity. 
 The cliief are those of Barton, Bedford, Bletsoe, 
 Blunham, Bromham, Bushmead, Clapham, 
 Cranfield, Ilolcot, Milton Ernest, Odell, Perten- 
 hall, Riseley, Silsoe, Turvey, and Wrest Garden. 
 Some of these are saline, and others chalybeate, 
 whilst several have not been yet analysed. 
 
 The climate of Bedfordshire, from its situation 
 as an inland county, is of a medium temperature 
 and moisture. From meteorological observations, 
 made at Leigh ton-Buzzard, for four years, ending 
 with 1804, it appeared that the mean monthly 
 height of the barometpr was 29°52 inches ; that 
 of the thermometer, with a northern aspect, and 
 in the open air, observed at eight o'clock in the 
 morning, was 47° 2. The average quantity of 
 rain per month was 1,93 inches, and the evapo- 
 ration 1'05. Thus, by multiplying these numbers 
 by 12, we have 23' 16 and 12-6, the former of 
 which is little more than the average of London. 
 The most prevalent wind observed during this 
 period was the south-west. Upon the whole, this 
 county does not appear to be remarkably salu- 
 brious, since, from the late returns of the popu- 
 lation, fewer instances of longevity were found, 
 
 ill proportion to the number of inhabitants, than 
 in many others of tlie united kingdom. 
 
 This county has never been remarkable for the 
 extent of either its commerce or manufactures. 
 The most general employment is tlie making of 
 lace, and preparing straw-plat for the manufac- 
 ture of hats, bonnets, baskets, toys, mats, &.c. 
 The market-towns, for the promotion of internal 
 commerce, are, Bedford, Am))thill, Dunstable, 
 Biggleswade, J^eighton-Buzzard, Luton, Potton, 
 Shefford-Tuddington, and Woburn. Four mem- 
 bers are sent from tliis county to parliament, in 
 which the llussel, Osborne, and Whitbread fa- 
 milies have a preponderating influence. 
 
 When the Romans landed in Britain, A. A. C. 
 55., this county was included in the district in- 
 habited by the Catieuchlani, whose chief, Cassi- 
 belinus, headed the force of the whole island 
 against Ca;sar, and the year following was totally 
 defeated. In 310 the emperor Constantine di- 
 vided Britain into five Roman provinces, when 
 this county was included in the third division, 
 called Flavia Casariensis ; in which state it con- 
 tinued 426 years, when the Romans quitted Bri- 
 tain. A severe battle was fought at Bedford in 
 571 or 580, between the Saxons and the Britons. 
 At the establishment of the kingdom of Mercia 
 (one of the divisions of the Saxon heptarchy), it 
 was considered as part of that kingdom ; and 
 so continued from 582 to 827, when, with the 
 other petty kingdoms of the island, it became 
 subject to the West Saxons, under Egbert, and 
 the whole was named England. In 889 Alfred 
 held the sovereignty, when England was divided 
 into counties, hundreds, and tythings, and Bed- 
 fordshire first received its present name. 
 
 In the tenth and eleventh centuries, this county 
 was the seat of various conflicts with the Danes, 
 which terminated in the final expulsion of the 
 invaders. Many castles had been erected during 
 these periods, most of which were demolished 
 by king John, during his progress to the north, 
 except that of Bedford, which was dismantled by 
 Henry III. ; after which the county is noted for 
 few remarkable occurrences till the year 1642, 
 when it entered into an association against 
 Charles I. 
 
 The remains of both Saxon and Gothic archi- 
 tecture are to be seen in several of the churches, 
 as also a few specimens of stained glass in their 
 windows. Roman antiquities, also, are frequently 
 discovered in the county. It is intersected by 
 three Roman roads, and interspersed with mili- 
 tary stations. A fortification, called Totternhoe 
 Castle, is seen on the brow of a hill, about two 
 miles from Dunstable, and consists of a lofty cir- 
 cular mound, with a slight vallum around its 
 base ; at a distance from which is a much larger 
 one, of irregular form. The other remarkable re- 
 mains are, a Roman station at Sandy near Potton, 
 (the Magiovinum of Antoninus,) by others sup- 
 posed to be the ancient Salena;, containing thirty 
 acres, where many urns, coins, &c. have been 
 dug up. Another at MadinLng-bowre, or Maiden- 
 bower, one mile from Dunstable, containing 
 about nine acres, which Camden supposes to 
 have been a Roman station, from the coins of the 
 emperors having been frequently dug up there, 
 and calls it Magintum. Lcighton-Buzzard is 
 
 3 B 2
 
 BED 
 
 740 
 
 BED 
 
 supposed to have been a Roman camp, and ano- 
 tlicr is at Arlesey near Sheirord, ami a lloman 
 ampliitheativ may be traced near Bradford iMagna. 
 Tlie Roman road, Icknield-strect, crosses this 
 country; entcrinjT at Leighton-Buzzard, from 
 whence it passes Dunstable, where it inclines 
 nortliwai'd over Warden hills to Baldock in Hert- 
 fordshire. The Watling-street enters this county 
 near Luton from St. Albans, passes a little north 
 of Dunstable, where it crosses tlie Icknield-street, 
 and from thence to Stoney Stratford in Bucking- 
 hamsiiire. A Roman road also enters near Potton, 
 passes on to Sandy, and from thence to Bedford, 
 where it crosses the Ouse, and proceeds to New- 
 port I'agnell in Buckinghamshire. The following 
 antiquities in this county are well worthy of 
 attention : Bedford Bridge and Priory ; Chick- 
 sand Abbey, near Sheflbrd ; Dunstable Priory, 
 near Luton ; Eaton Park House, or Eaton Bray ; 
 Five Knolls, near Dunstable ; Newnham Priory, 
 near Bedford; Nortliill church, three miles from 
 Biggleswade ; Summeris Tower, near Luton ; 
 Warden Abbey, near Shefford ; Woburn Abbey ; 
 and Woodhill Castle, or Oddhill Castle, near . 
 Harwood. — John duke of Bedford, third son of 
 Henry IV. king of England, commanded the 
 English army in France in 1422; and, after mak- 
 ing himself master of that kingdom, died at 
 Rouen in 1435, where a handsome monument 
 was erected to his memory. One of the courtiers 
 of Charles VHL having advised him to destroy 
 it, the king answered, ' Let him rest in peace, 
 who, when living, made all the French tremble.' 
 
 BEDIM, be and dim. See Dim. 
 
 BEDIZEN, be and dizen. See Dizen. 
 
 BED'LAM, n. & adj. \ Corrupted from 
 
 Bed'lamite. S hethkhem, the name 
 
 of a religious house in London, converted after- 
 wards into an hospital for the mad and lunatic. 
 The adjective, in the sense of mad, is applied to 
 things as well as persons. 
 
 Let's follow the old earl, and get the bedlam 
 To lead him where he would ; his roguish madness 
 Allows itself to any thing. Slutkapcare. 
 
 One morning very early, one morning in the spring, 
 I heard a maid in Bedlam, who mournfully did sing. 
 Her chains she rattled on her hands, while sweetly 
 
 thus sung she, 
 .1 love my love, because I know my love loves me. 
 
 Prior, 
 If wild ambition in thy bosom reign, 
 Alas! thou bcast'st thy sober sense in vain ; 
 In these poor bedlamites thyself survey. 
 Thyself less innocently m;;d than they. 
 
 Fitzgerald. 
 
 At this rate we are wonderfully mistaken when we 
 speak of Don Quixote as a madman, and of Leonidas, 
 Brutus, Wallace, llampdcn, Paoli, as wise, and good, 
 and great ! The case it seems is just the reverse ; these 
 deserve no other names than that of raving bedla- 
 mites. Bcattie. Dun (Juixote. 
 
 BEDLIS, or Betlis, a strong town of Asiatic 
 Turkey in the Pachalic of \';ui, lat. 38° 34' N., 
 and long. 42" 35' E. It is placed in a narrow 
 defile, defended by a triangular castle, between 
 two lofty mountains, and traversed by the river 
 Kuzur, which joins the Jui Rubat below. Hero 
 are many public buildings deserving notice, and 
 
 among them several medresehs, or colleges, 
 which, together with the list of eminent writers 
 who have been natives of this place, show that 
 learning was much encouraged by its former 
 rulers. The castle contains 300, and the town 
 about 5000, houses within its precincts. This 
 fortress submitted to the Mussulman arms under 
 the caliphate of Omar (A. D. 647), and was con- 
 quered by the Turks under Sultan Murad IV. 
 (A. D. 1634). Its inhabitants are Ruzegis, a 
 tribe of Kurds and Armenians, in nearly equal 
 proportions, who amounted in the middle of the 
 seventeenth century to about 80,000. The 
 strength of its position has often enabled them to 
 maintain a virtual independence of the Porte. 
 
 BEDLOE (William), who assumed the title of 
 captain, was an infamous adventurer of low 
 binh, in the reign of Charles II. He had tra- 
 velled over great part of Europe under diti'erent 
 names and disguises, as a man of rank and for- 
 tune. Encouraged by the success of Oates, he 
 gave an account of Godfrey's murder, and added 
 many circumstances to the narrative of the for- 
 mer. These villains had the boldness to accuse 
 the queen of entering into a conspiracy against 
 king Charles I's life. A reward of £500 was 
 voted to Bedloe by the Commons. He is said 
 to have asserted the reality of the plot on his 
 death-bed : but it abounds with absurdity, con- 
 tradiction, and perjury. He died at Bristol, 
 August 20th, 1680. Giles Jacob informs us, 
 that he was author of a play, called The Excom- 
 municated Prince, or the False Relict, 1679. 
 The printer of it having, without the author's 
 knowledge, added a second title, and called it 
 The Popish Plot in a Play, greatly excited the 
 curiosity of the public, who were, however, much 
 disappointed, when they found the plan of the 
 piece to be founded on a quite different story. 
 Anth. Wood, however, asserts that this play was 
 written partly, if not entirely, by Thos. Walter, 
 M. A. of Jesus College, Oxford. 
 
 BED-MOULDING, in architecture, usually 
 consists of an ogee, a list, a large boultine, and 
 another list under the coronet. 
 
 BEDNORE, or Biddanore, a district in tlie 
 north-west extremity of the Mysore, Ilindostan, 
 on the summit of the western Ghauts. From 
 the elevation of the country, the season is a month 
 later here than on the sea coast. The exports 
 consist of cattle of small size, pepper, betel-nut, 
 cardamoms, sandal-wood ; the imports are salt, 
 lice, cocoa-nuts, oil, turmeric, and cotton cloths. 
 When overrun by Ilyder, in 1762, the Bednore 
 dominions extendi'd over the maritime province 
 now named Canara, and to tiie east over a tract 
 of open country, extending to Sunta, Bednore, 
 and Hoolukera, within twenty miles of Chlttel- 
 droog. 
 
 JiEDNORE, or Biddanore, a town of Ilindos- 
 tan, capital of the district of that name, 452 miles 
 south-east of Bombay, and 187 north-west of 
 Seringapatam. It was taken by the British in 
 1783, and retaken soon after by Tippoo Sultan; 
 but on his defeat and death, in 1799, the town 
 and its .suburbs bectuue subject to the British. ! 
 It is said to have been once a well-fortified and 
 magnificent city, containing 20,000 houses : at 
 the time of the sultan Tippoo's death, it con-
 
 B E D O W I N S. 
 
 741 
 
 sisted of about 1500 houses, besides liuts. Wlicii 
 taken by Ilyder, in 1763, it was eight miles in 
 circumference, and it is said the plunder actually 
 realised amounted to twelve millions sterling. 
 He afterwards clianj^ed its name to Ilydernagur. 
 
 BEDOTE, To doat upon, to pet, to befool; 
 obsolete. 
 
 To hedote this I ween was their interest. 
 
 REDO WINS, or Beowins, the nomade inha- 
 bitants of the Arabian and African deserts, whose 
 name, derived from the Arabic bedowi, 'a native 
 of the desert,' answering to the Arabes scenita; 
 of the ancients, or Arabs dwelling in tents, agrees 
 with their mode of living in encampments, pitch- 
 ing their movable habitations wherever they can 
 find pasturage, and changing their site as often 
 as plunder, famine, and other circumstances may 
 require. 
 
 They are the purest and best preserved of all 
 the Arab tribes, tracing tlieir origin to the twelve 
 tribes of Ishmael, mentioned in Oen. xvi. 11, 
 XXV. 12 ; and are the lineal descendants of those 
 ancient Arabs mentioned by the Greek historians, 
 whose site they occupy, and whose customs, 
 manners, prejudices, and superstitions, they ri- 
 gorously preserve. These people have been fre- 
 quently confounded by ecclesiastical writers with 
 tile Edomites, Amalekites, and other neighbour- 
 ing nations to the Hebrews ; but it is evident 
 that the latter nations, although branches derived 
 from the same stock, differ in many important 
 ])oints from the genuine Bedowins. 
 
 Dwelling in the interior of those vast deserts 
 which extend from the confines of Persia to 
 Morocco, the true Arabians have had little 
 foreign intercourse, and have never mixed with 
 surrounding nations, either by conquest or cap- 
 ture ; few emigrations occurred even at the 
 epoch of the revolution efi'ected by Mahomet : 
 on which account, the prophet, in his Koran, is 
 continually styling the Arabs of the desert infi- 
 dels and rebels ; nor has the lapse of tune since 
 that period effected any remarkable change in 
 their national character. They still answer the 
 description given by the angel in prophecy, 
 ' wild men, whose hand is against every man, 
 and every man's hand ag;iinst them ;' and their 
 mode of living, at the present day, is precisely 
 the same as that mentioned by Diodorus Siculus, 
 nearly 2000 years ago. It has, indeed, been 
 thought remarkable, that Diodorus should ob- 
 serve silence with respect to their predatory 
 habits ; but it is highly probable that, at that 
 time, they were so much restrained by the vigi- 
 lance of the Roman government, as rarely to have 
 an opportunity of exhibiting that distinguishing 
 feature of their character. 
 
 The wanderinff life of these people arises in a 
 great measure from the site they occupy. To 
 paint to himself these deserts (says Mr. \'olney,) 
 the reader must imagine a sky almost perpetually 
 inflamed, and without clouds, immense and 
 boundless plains, without houses, trees, rivulets, 
 or hills, where the eye frequently meets nothing 
 but an extensive and uniform horizon, like the 
 sea, though in some places the ground is uneven 
 and stony. Naked as it is almost invariably on 
 all sides, the earth presents nothintj but a few 
 wild plants thinly scattered, and thickets, whose 
 
 solitude is rarely disturbed but by antelopes, 
 hares, locusts, and rats. Such is the nature of 
 nearly the whole country, which extends 600 
 leagues in length and 300 in breadth, stretching 
 from Aleppo to the Arabian Sea, and from l''.gypt 
 to the Persian (nilf. It must not, however, be 
 imagined that the soil in so great an extent is 
 everywhere the same; it varies considerably in 
 different places. On the frontiers of Syria, for 
 exami)le, the earth is in general fat and culti- 
 vable, nay even fruitful. It is tlie same also on 
 the banks of the Euphrates : but in the internal 
 parts of the country, and towards the south, it 
 becomes white and chalky, as in the parallel of 
 Damascus ; rocky, as in the Tih and the Hed- 
 jaz; and a pure sand, as to the ea.stvvard of Ye- 
 men. This variety in the qualities of the soil is 
 productive of some minute diflferences in the 
 condition of the Bedowins. For instance, in the 
 more sterile countries, that is, those which pro- 
 duce but few plants, the tribes are feeble and 
 very distant ; which is the case in the desert of 
 Suez, that of the Red Sea, and the interior of the 
 great desert called Najd. Where the soil is 
 more fruitful, as between Damascus and the 
 Euphrates, the tribes are more numerous, and 
 less remote from each other ; and, lastly, in the 
 cultivable districts, such as the pachalics of 
 Aleppo, the Hauran, and the neighbourhood of 
 Gaza, the camps are frequent and contiguous. 
 In the fonner instances, the Bedowins are purely 
 pastors, and subsist only on the produce of their 
 herds, and on a few dates and fresh meat, which 
 they eat either fresh or dried in tlie sun and re- 
 duced to a powder. In the latter, they sovv some 
 land, and add cheese, barley, and even rice, to 
 their flesh and milk diet. In those districts 
 where the soil is stony and sandy, as in the Tih, 
 the Hedjaz, and the Najd, the rains make the 
 seeds of the wild plants shoot, and revive the 
 thickets, ranunculi, wormwood, and kali. They 
 cause marshes in the lower grounds, which pro- 
 duce reeds and grass, and the plain assumes a 
 tolerable degree of verdure. While the rains 
 continue, the soil produces great abundance both 
 for the herds and their masters ; but on the re- 
 turn of the heats every thing is parched up, and 
 the earth, converted into a gray and fine dust, 
 presents nothing but dry stems as hard as wood, 
 on which neither horses, oxen, nor even goats 
 can feed. Such is the situation in which nature 
 has placed the Bedowins, to make of them a race 
 of men equally singular irr their physical and 
 moral disposition. 
 
 The peculiarities of the Bedowin Arabs are so 
 striking, that their neighbours the Syrians regard 
 them as extraordinary beings, especially those 
 tribes which dwell in the depths of the deserts, 
 such as the Anasa, Kaibar, Tai, and others, 
 which never approach the towns. When, in the 
 time of Sheik Dalier, some of their horsemen 
 came as far as Acre, they excited the same curi- 
 osity there as a visit from the savages of America 
 would among us. Ever}'body viewed with sur- 
 prise these men, who were more diminutive, 
 meagre, and swarthy, than any of the known Be- 
 dowins. Their withered legs were only composed 
 of tendons, and had no calves. Their bellies 
 seemed to cling to their backs, and their hair was
 
 742 
 
 B E D O W I N S. 
 
 frizzled almost as much as that of the negroes. 
 They, on the other hand, were no leas astonislied 
 at ever)' thing they saw ; they could neitier con- 
 ceive how the houses and minarets could stand 
 erect, nor how men ventured to dwell beneath 
 tliem, and always in the same spot ; but above 
 all, they were in ecstacy on beholding the sea, 
 nor could they comprehend what that desert of 
 water could be. The Arabs of the frontiers are 
 not such novices ; there are even several small 
 tribes of them, who, living in the midst of the 
 country, as in the valley of Bekaa, that of the 
 Jordan, and in Palestine, approach nearer to the 
 condition of the peasants ; but these are despised 
 by the others, who look upon them as bastard 
 Arabs and Ilayas, or slaves of the Turks. The 
 Bedowins in general are small, meagre, and tawny, 
 owing to the heat of the climate, their con- 
 tinual exercise, and extraordinary abstinence ; 
 but well formed, active, and aleit in a high de- 
 gree, having expressive countenances, and bright 
 sparkling eyes. Their beards are remarkably 
 thin, their hair is black and wiry. The two ends 
 of the shawl which forms their turban, hang 
 down upon their shoulders, and constitute almost 
 the only distinction between the dress of the Be- 
 dowins and other Arabs. Their sheiks wear 
 very wide sleeves to their robes, and girdles 
 richly embroidered. They also preserve a single 
 lock from the crown of the head, by which, in 
 common with other superstitious Mussulmans, 
 they believe the prophet will carry them up to 
 Paradise. They are continually stroking and 
 anointing their beards; to spit upon which is the 
 greatest possible offence, and the loss or diminu- 
 tion of it will cause an Arab to wander far from 
 his tribe, and even from his country, to avoid 
 the derision consequent upon such a catastrophe. 
 The abstinence of the Bedowins has long been 
 celebrated ; indeed the inferior classes live in a 
 state of almost habitual wretchedness and famine, 
 especially among the tribes of the Najd and the 
 Hedjaz. It will appear almost incredible to us, 
 but is an undoubted fact, that the quantity of 
 food usually consumed by the greatest part of 
 them does not exceed six ounces a day. Six or 
 seven dates soaked in melted butter, a little sweet 
 milk or curds, is the Bedowin's common allow- 
 ance, and he deems himself happy when he can 
 add a small quantity of coarse flour, or a little 
 ball of rice. Meat is reserved for the greatest 
 festivals ; and they never kill a kid but for a 
 niarriage or funeral. A few wealthy sheiks alone 
 kill young camels occasionally, and eat baked 
 rice with their victuals. In times of dearth, the 
 vulgar, always half famished, do not disdain the 
 most wretched kinds of food : and eat locusts, 
 rats, lizards, and serpents, broiled on briars. 
 Hence are they sucii plunderers of the cultivated 
 lands, and robbers on the high roads. Habit 
 luidoubtedly has its mtiuence in enabling them 
 to support this extraordinary abstemiousness, by 
 preventing the dilatation of the stomach, other- 
 wise common to the h\iman constitution; whilst 
 the extreme heat of the climate destroys in a 
 great measure the activity and tone of the diges- 
 tive organs. When we consider the influence of 
 climate, custom, and discipline, the real wants of 
 the Bedowin appear few, and easily satisfied ; 
 
 and it has been questioned whether even the 
 above abstinence arises from choice or necessity. 
 But, depending for provisions entirely on the 
 oases, or small islands of verdure, which lie scat- 
 tered upon tlie desert, the produce of which is 
 often destroyed by the hot pestilential winds, 
 his means appear still more contracted than his 
 exigencies, and leave no doubt that necessity is 
 the parent motive. 
 
 M. Volney remarked that the sheiks, that is 
 the rich, and their attendants, were always taller 
 and more corpulent than the common class. He 
 has seen some of them above five feet five and \ 
 six inches high ; though in general they do not 
 (says he) exceed five feet two inches. Tiiis dif- 
 ference can only be attributed to their food, with 
 which the former are supplied more abundantly 
 than the latter : the effects of this are equally 
 evident in the Arabian and Turkish camels, for 
 the latter, dwelling in countries rich in forage, 
 are far more robust and fleshy than the former. 
 
 With respect to their internal constitution and 
 government, the Bedowins are divided into sepa- 
 rate tribes, each composed of one or more prin- 
 cipal families, the members of which bear the 
 title of sheiks, i. e. chiefs or lords. These families 
 have a great lesemblance to the patricians of 
 Rome, and the nobles of modern Europe. One 
 of the sheiks has the supreme command over the 
 otliers. Mr. Neibuhr styles him the grand sheik. 
 He is die general of their little army ; and some- 
 times assumes the title of emir, which signifies 
 commander and prince. The more relations, 
 children, and allies he has, the greater is his 
 strength and power. To these he adds particu- 
 lar adherents, whom he studiously attaches to 
 him, by supplying all their wants. A number of 
 small families also, who, not being strong enough 
 to live independent, stand in need of protection 
 and alliances, range themselves under the ban- 
 ners of this chief; forming by their union the 
 elementary parts of what is called a kabila, or 
 tribe. The tribes are distinguished from each 
 other by the name of their respective chiefs, or 
 by that of the ruling family ; and when they 
 speak of the individuals who compose them, they 
 call them the children of such a chief, though 
 they may not be all really of his blood, and he 
 himself may have been long since dead. Thus 
 they say, Beni Temin Oulad Tai, the children 
 of Temin and of Tai. This mode of expression 
 is even applied, by metaphor, to the names of 
 countries : the usual phrase for denoting its in- 
 habitants being to call them the children of such 
 a place. Thus the Arabs say, Oulad INIasr, the 
 Egyptians ; Oulad Sham, the Syrians ; they 
 would also say, Oulad Fransa, the French ; Ou- 
 lad Moskou, the Russians ; a remark which is 
 not unimportant to ancient history. 
 
 The principal sheik has an indefinite and 
 almost absolute autliority. He nevertheless 
 leads a simple life, and commonly studies the 
 welfare of his subjects. Persons of this descrip- 
 tion, according to M. Volney, who in 1784 
 resided witti one of the most powerful in the 
 country of Gaza, may be compared to our sub- 
 stantial farmers. A sheik who has the command 
 of 500 horsemen, does not disdain to saddle and 
 bridle his own horse, and [jive him barley and
 
 B E D O W I N S. 
 
 743 
 
 chopped straw. In the tent, his wife makes the 
 coffee, kneads tlie dou<^h, and superintends the 
 dressing of the victuals. liis daughters and kins- 
 women wash the linen, and go with pitchers on 
 their head, and veils over their faces, to draw 
 water from tlie fountain. These manners are 
 highly antique, and agree precisely with tlie 
 descriptions of Homer, and the history of Abra- 
 ham in the book of Genesis. 
 
 Every grand sheik considers himself, in a po- 
 litical point of view, absolute lord of his whole 
 territories ; he exacts duties upon all goods car- 
 ried through his dominions, to which impositions 
 those who send caravans through tlie desert to 
 Mecca, are obliged to submit. The Bedowins, 
 on the other hand, keep open the wells for them ; 
 permit the free passage of merchandise, escort the 
 caravans, and if they sometimes pillage them, the 
 haughty perfidious conduct of the Turkish offi- 
 cers is the invariable cause. The latter affect to 
 consider the former as rebels, and violate tlieir 
 engagements. The Arabs take their revenge by 
 pillaging the caravans. When the famous Ali 
 Bey conducted the Egyptian caravan to Mecca, 
 he refused to defray all the duties on the road, 
 but promised to pay the rest on his return. This 
 promise was broken, and the year following, the 
 Arabs assembled in greater numbers, and obliged 
 the captain of the caravan to pay for himself and 
 Ali Bey both. The Turks exclaimed against 
 this as an act of robbery ; yet the Arabs had only 
 done themselves justice. The conduct of Abdal- 
 lah, pacha of Damascus, who commanded the 
 Syrian caravan in 1756, was still more odious. 
 When the sheiks of the tribe of Ilarb came to 
 meet him, to receive the stipulated toll, he gave 
 tliem a friendly invitation to visit him, but 
 instead of paying the toll, cut off their heads, and 
 sent them to Constantinople, as a proof of his 
 victory over the rebel Arabs. The stroke which 
 the latter suffered by the death of their chiefs, 
 prevented their attempting any thing in revenge 
 either that or the following year ; the caravans 
 travelled in triumph to Mecca; and the Turks 
 boasted of the valor and prudence of Abdallah 
 Pacha. But, in the third year, the dark storm of 
 vengeance burst over the heads of tlie aggressors, 
 when the Arabs, with an army of 80,000 men, 
 under the command of the sheik of the Anasse 
 tribe, routed the Turks with great slaughter, and 
 confiscated the treasures of a large caravan. 
 These violent measures, however, may be con- 
 .sidered as only the effects of perfidy and pro- 
 vocation. Mr. Niebuhr observes, that the 
 Bedowins are not cruel, and do not murder 
 those whom they rob, except where the travellers 
 stand upon the defensive, and in the contest kill 
 one of their number; in which case the Arabs 
 proceed according to the law of retaliation. A 
 mufti of Bagdad, returning from Mecca, says the 
 same author, was robbed in Is'edsjed. He entered 
 into a written agreement with the robbers, who en- 
 gaged to conduct him safe and sound to Bagdad 
 for a certain sum, payable at his own house. 
 They delivered him to the next tribe ; those to 
 a third, and he was thus conveyed from tribe to 
 tribe, till he arrived safe at home. 
 
 An European, belonging to a caravan which 
 was plundered, had been infected with the plague 
 
 upon his journey. Tlie Arabs, seeing him too 
 weak to follow his companions, took him with 
 themselves, lodged him without their camp, 
 attended him till he was cured, and then sent 
 him to Basra. An Englishman, who was tra- 
 velling express to India, and could not wait for 
 the departure of a caravan, hired two Arabs at 
 Bagdad, who were to accompany him to Basra. 
 By the way he was attacked by some sheiks, 
 against whom he at first defended himself with 
 his pistols ; but, being hard pressed by their 
 lances, was forced to surrender. The Arabs, 
 upon whom he had fired, beat him till he could 
 not walk. They then carried him to their camp, 
 entertained him for some time, and at last con- 
 ducted him safe to Basra. When ^Ir. Forskal 
 was robbed by tlie Arabs in Egypt, a peasant, 
 who accompanied him, was beaten by the robbers 
 because he had pistols, although lie had made 
 no attempt to defend himself with them. Pil- 
 laging expeditions amongst the Arabs are con- 
 sidered as lawful hostilities against enemies, who 
 would defraud the nation of their dues, or 
 against rival tribes, who have undertaken to 
 protect illegal traders. 
 
 The tribes of the Bedowins are extremely 
 numerous, and to attempt an enumeration of 
 them would be a hopeless task. Soyuti, in the 
 fifteenth century, collected many interesting 
 accounts respecting them ; but all investigations 
 must, from the very nature of the subject, be 
 exceedingly imperfect. The principal noticed 
 by modern travellers lie in the following 
 order : — 
 
 I. Those on the southern and eastern side of 
 the Great Arabian and Syrian Desert, extending 
 from the province of Nejed and El Ahsa to the 
 banks of the Euphrates. 
 
 1. Beni Khaled ('the children of Khiled), in 
 El Ahsa. 
 
 2. Beni Kiyab, on the northern side of the 
 Persian Gulf, and in Persia. 
 
 3. Beni Lam, on the Tigris. 
 
 4. ]\Iontefic, or Montefij, on the Euphrates, 
 between Basra and Baghdad. 
 
 II. Those on the borders of Mesopotamia (Al 
 Jezirah), nominally subject to the pacha of 
 Baghdad. 
 
 1. Tai, one of the most ancient and powerful 
 tribes, occupying the fertile plains between ilosul 
 and Nisibis, and rendered illustrious by one of 
 its princes named Hatim, the subject of many 
 well-known romances. 
 
 2. Some other tribes which are small and un- 
 important. 
 
 III. Those on the borders of Syria, who 
 
 Srovide escorts for tlie caravans of pilgrims to 
 lecca. 
 
 1. The Mawali. 
 
 2. The Bern Saker 
 
 3. The Fiihili, and 
 
 4. A numerous and powerful tribe, master of 
 the whole caravan route between Aleppo and 
 Medinah; and, during the reign of the Wahhabis, 
 one of their most effective adherents. It is di- 
 vided into five inferior clans, and extends from 
 Syria to the Nejed. 
 
 I\ . More than one hundred otlier tribes have 
 been mentioned by the writers whose names are
 
 744 
 
 B E D O W I N S. 
 
 at the close of this article ; besides which there 
 are several in Oman. Hadramaut, INIahrah, and 
 other provinces of the Arabian peninsula, who 
 have never been visited by Europeans. Bedo- 
 wins also occupy a large portion of Egypt, 
 stretch along the banks of the Nile, almost to 
 the confines of Abyssinia, and are found even in 
 the Sudan itself, as far as the fifteenth degree of 
 east longitude. The latter call themselves 
 branches of the Anezelis, Johainahs, and other 
 well-known tribes in the Arabian and Syrian 
 deserts. The Bedowins in Sudan retain the 
 Arab cast, both in complexion and features, 
 bearing no similitude to the negroes, and one of 
 the Beni Hassan, established in Dar Katakij, 
 near Bornij, whom Burckhardt met at Mecca, 
 was of a dark brown color, ' approaching to a 
 copper tinge ;' yet ' his features were decidedly 
 Arab,' having nothing of the Negro in them. — 
 Biirchhardt's Nubia, p. 477. 
 
 Each of the Bedowin tribes appropriates to 
 itself a tract of land, forming its territorial do- 
 main ; and collected in camps, which are dispersed 
 through the country, make a successive progress 
 over the whole, in proportion as it is exhausted 
 by the cattle. Hence it is, that within a great 
 extent few spots are inhabited, and these vary 
 from one day to another ; but as the entire space 
 is necessary for the annual subsistence of the 
 tribe, whoever encroaches on it is deemed a 
 violator of property ; this is with them the law 
 of nations. If, therefore, a tribe, or any of its 
 subjects, enter upon a foreign territory, they are 
 treated as enemies and robbers, and a war breaks 
 out. Now, as all the tribes have affinities with 
 each other by alliances of blood or conventions, 
 leagues are formed which render these wars more 
 or less general. Tlic' manner of proceeding on 
 such occasions is very simple. The offence made 
 known, they mount their horses and seek the 
 enemy ; when they meet they enter into a parley, 
 and the matter is frequently made up ; if not, 
 they attack either in small bodies or man to man. 
 They encounter each other at full speed with 
 fixed lances, which they sometimes dart, not- 
 withstanding their length, at the flying enemy : 
 the victory is usually decided by the first shock ; 
 the vanquished take to flight full gallop over the 
 naked plain of the desert, and the night generally 
 favors their escape from the conqueror. The 
 tribe which has lost the battle immediately 
 strikes its tents, removes to a distance by forced 
 marches, and seeks an asylum among its allies. 
 The enemy, satisfied with their success, drive 
 their herds farther on, and the fugitives soon 
 after return to their former situation ; although 
 the slaughter made in these engagements fre- 
 quently sows the seeds of hatreds which originate 
 future dissensions. 
 
 An eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth, 
 was, we know, exacted by the law of Moses ; 
 and the universality of this Lex Talionis is one 
 of the distinctive marks of the Bedowin race, 
 prevailing through the whole extent of the 
 Arabian deserts. By this law tlie blood of every 
 man must be avenged by shedding that of his 
 murderer. This vengeance is called tar, or re- 
 taliation ; and the right of exacting it devolves 
 on the nearest of kin to the deceased. So nice 
 
 are the Arabs on this point of honor, that if 
 any one neglects to seek his retaliation he is dis- 
 graced for ever. He therefore watches every 
 opportunity of revenge : if his enemy perishes 
 from any other cause, still he is not satisfied, 
 and his vengeance is directed against the nearest 
 relation. These animosities are transmitted as 
 an inheritance from father to children, and never 
 cease but by the extinction of one of the families, 
 unless they agree to sacrifice the criminal, or 
 purchase the blood for a stated price, in money 
 or in flocks. Without this satisfaction there is 
 neither peace, nor truce, nor alliances, between 
 them, nor sometimes even between whole tribes : 
 there is blood between us, say they on every 
 occasion ; and this expression is an insurmount- 
 able barrier. Such accidents being necessarily 
 numerous in a long course of time, the greater 
 part of the tribes have ancient quarrels, and live 
 in an habitual state of war ; which, added to 
 their way of life, renders the Bedowins a military 
 people, though they have made no great progress 
 in war as an art. Their camps are formed in a 
 kind of irregular circle, composed of a single 
 row of tents, with greater or less intervals. These 
 tents, made of goat or camel's hair, are black or 
 brown, in which they differ from those of the 
 Turkmen, which are white. They are stretched 
 on three or four pickets, only five or six feet high, 
 which gives them a very flat appearance ; at a 
 distance, one of these camps seems only like a 
 number of black spots ; but the piercing eye of 
 the Bedowin is not to be deceived. Each tent 
 inhabited by a family is divided by a curtain 
 into two apartments, one of which is appro- 
 priated to the women. The empty space within 
 tiie large circle serves to fold their cattle every 
 evening. They never have any intrenchments ; 
 their only advanced guards and patroles are 
 dogs ; their horses remain saddled and ready to 
 mount on the first alarm ; but as there is neither 
 order nor regularity, these camps, always easy 
 to surprise, afford no defence in case of an attack : 
 accidents, therefore, very frequently happen, and 
 cattle are carried off every day ; a species of 
 marauding war in which the Arabs are very ex- 
 perienced. The tribes which live in the vicinity 
 of the Turks are still more accustomed to attacks 
 and alarms. The latter never cease to wage 
 secret or open war against them. The pachas 
 study on every occasion to harass them. Some- 
 times they contest with tiiem a territory which 
 they had let them, and at others demand a tribute 
 wliich they never agreed to pay. Should u family 
 of sheiks be divided by interest or ambition, 
 they alternately succour each party, and conclude 
 by the destruction of both. Frequently too 
 they poison or assassinate those chiefs whose 
 courage or abilities they dread, though they 
 should even be tlieir allies. The Arabs, on their 
 side, regarding the Turks as dangerous enemies, 
 watch every opportunity to do them an injury, 
 cut their harvests, carry off their flocks, and in- 
 tercept tiieir communication and commerce, 
 making it their study to put them to every in- 
 convenience, and deprive them of every thing 
 but life.. 
 
 Notwithstanding the depredations which render 
 tJieni a terror to those around them, among
 
 B E D O W I N S. 
 
 745 
 
 themselves they are remarkable for a pood faith, 
 a disinterestedness, and a i^'enerosity, which 
 would do honor to the most civilised people. 
 The rights of hospitality are scrupulously re- 
 garded. The tent of a Bedowin is an asylum 
 amongst all the tribes, and the moment a stranger, 
 or even an enemy, flying for refuge arrives there, 
 his person becomes instantly inviolable ; from 
 that moment it would be reckoned an in- 
 delible shame to satisfy even a just vengeance at 
 his expense, and all the power of the sultan 
 would be insufficient to force a refugee from the 
 protection of a tribe, but by its total extermina- 
 tion. Ali Bey (Don Pedro de la Badia), informs 
 us, that when one of the Bedowins heard that 
 his wife had given some food to his enemy, who 
 by mistake solicited charity at his tent, he replied, 
 * I should probably have killed my enemy had I 
 found him here, but I should not have spared 
 my wife if she had forgotten the law of hospi- 
 tality.' What little the Bedowin possesses he is 
 ever generous to divide, he sits at the door of 
 his tent, and invites passengers to partake of his 
 repast ; and to observe the conduct of the Bedowin 
 Araljs towards eacii other, one would be tempted 
 to suppose they had all things in common. 
 
 With respect to their domestic laws, Mr. Nie- 
 buhr tells us, ' that, although the Mahommedans 
 are permitted to have four wives, the Bedowins, 
 who are poor, and cannot easily find the means 
 of subsistence, content themselves with one, for 
 the most part. Those who are in the easiest cir- 
 cumstances, and who have two wives, seem to 
 have married so many, chiefly that they miglit 
 superintend their concerns in two different 
 places. The conduct of our sheik of Beni 
 Said, as well as his conversation, led us to make 
 this reflection. The disagreement that subsisted 
 between his two wives afforded an instanc-e of 
 some of the inconveniences that attend polygamy. 
 The dress of the females in the desert, although 
 simpler, is in reality the same as that worn by 
 tlie ordinary women of Egypt, although the wife 
 of one of our sheiks wore an uncommon piece 
 of dress : brass rings of an enormous size in her 
 ears. These women living remote from the 
 world, and being wholly occupied in the 
 manasement of their domestic affairs, appear 
 to be, from these circumstances, less shy and 
 scrupulous than the other women of the east. 
 They make less difficulty of conversing with a 
 stranger, or exposing their faces unveiled before 
 him.' 
 
 The property of the Bedowin, like his wants, 
 lies within a small compass, and consists of 
 movables, of which the following is a pretty 
 exact inventory : — A few male and female camels ; 
 some goats and poultry ; a mare and her bridle 
 and saddle; a tent; a lance sixteen feet long; 
 a crooked sabre ; a rusty musket with a flint or 
 matchlock ; a pipe ; a portable mill ; a pot for 
 cooking; a leathern bucket; a small cofl'ee 
 roaster ; a mat; some clothes ; a mantle of black 
 wool ; a few glass or silver rinf^s, which the 
 women wear upon their legs and arms. If none 
 of these are wanting their furniture is complete. 
 But what the Arab takes most pleasure in is his 
 mare, which is his chief support, and assists him 
 in his excursions. They prefer the mare on ac- 
 
 count of her superior docility, and her milk, 
 together with the improbability of her neighing, 
 to the betrayment of the rider. The Arabs trace 
 the genealogies of their favorite horses to the 
 mares of ]\Iahomet's stud, or even to those of 
 Solomon's. The power of enduring hunger and 
 fatigue in these animals is astonishing. The 
 Emir visited by the Chevalier d'Arvieux was 
 saved by a mare, who carried him three days and 
 nights, without rest or food, and conveyed him 
 out of the reach of his enemies. The attach- 
 ment of the Bedowin to his horse is almost as 
 proverbial as the fleetness of the animal itself, 
 lie inhabits the same tent, is treated with the 
 same care, and is almost as much caressed as the 
 children of the family ; which gives the Arabian 
 steeds a docility and tractability which no other 
 breed possesses. Niebuhr, indeed, speaks of the 
 Kohlanlet, or thorough bred Arabian horses, as 
 not possessing any beauty, or other excellence 
 than swiftness ; but it is highly probable that he 
 was deceived by the wretched condition in which 
 they are commonly kept, from the great difficulty 
 of procuring fodder. He appears also to have 
 been equally misinformed, as to the little value 
 set upon them by tlie Turks ; since the fact is 
 certain, that the Turks esteem them highly, and 
 give immense prices for them, when they can 
 meet with the genuine Arab breed. 
 
 The simplicity of the Bedowins has long been 
 celebrated, and numerous illustrations of it have 
 been given. Their love of poetry is well known, 
 and the most ancient Arabian poems, containing 
 the lively descriptions of their customs and 
 opinions, are the productions of Bedowins. The 
 book of Job affords a more ancient picture of 
 the same nation ; and botii its phraseology and 
 imagery are susceptible of much illustration from 
 the poems and romances of the early Arabs. 
 Tales in prose form another part of their favorite 
 amusements, after the manner of the Adventures 
 of Antar and Ablat, and the Arabian Nights. 
 They have a peculiar passion for such stories, 
 and employ in them almost all their leisure, of 
 which they have a great deal. In the evening 
 they seat themselves on the ground, at the thresh- 
 old of their tents, or under cover, if it be cold ; 
 and there, ranged in a circle round a little tire 
 of dung, their pipes in their mouths, and their 
 legs crossed, they sit a while in silent meditation, 
 till on a sudden one of them breaks forth with, 
 once upon a time, and continues to recite the 
 adventures of some young sheik and female Be- 
 dowin : he relates in what manner the youth 
 first got a secret glimpse of his mistress ; and 
 how he became desperately enamored of her : 
 he minutely describes the lovely fair; boasts 
 her black eyes, as large and soft as those of the 
 gazelle ; her languid and impassioned looks, iier 
 arched eye-brows, resembling two bows of ebony; 
 her waist straight and supple as a lance ; he 
 forgets not her steps, light as those of the young 
 filley; nor her eye-lashes, blackened with kool ; 
 nor her lips painted blue ; nor her nails, tinged 
 with the golden colored henna; nor her breasts, 
 resembling two pomegranates ; nor her words, 
 sweet as honey. lie recounts the sufferings of 
 the young lover, so wasted with desire and pas- 
 sion that his body no longer yields any shadow.
 
 746 
 
 B E D O W I N S. 
 
 At length, after detailing his various attempts to 
 see his mistress, the obstacles of the parents, 
 the invasions of the enemy, the captivity of the 
 two lovers, &c. he terminates, to the satisfaction 
 of the audience, by restoring them, united and 
 happy to their paternal tent; and receives the 
 tribute paid to his olociuence, in the Ma cha allah 
 (an exckimation of praise, equivalent to admi- 
 rably well!) he has merited. The Bedowins 
 have likewise their love songs, which have more 
 sentiment and nature in them than those of the 
 Turks and inhabitants of the towns ; doubtless, 
 because the former, whose manners are chaste, 
 know wliat love is; while the latter, abandoned 
 to debnuchery, are acquainted only with enjoy- 
 ment. These tales, together with a few traditional 
 receipts in medicine, and a practical knowledge 
 of a few of the constellations, constitute the 
 whole of their literature; and their ignorance in 
 other respects is very remarkable. Tlie following 
 anecdote by Mr. Niebuhr, has been thought 
 worthy of insertion. ' In one of those expedi- 
 tions, a few years since, undertaken against the 
 pacha of Damascus, who was conductor of the 
 Jiyrian caravan to Mecca, the tribe of Anaese, 
 which gained the victory, showed instances of 
 their ignorance, and of the simplicity of their 
 manners. Those who happened to take goods 
 of value knew not their worth, but exchanged 
 them for trifles. One of those Arabs having ob- 
 tained for his share a bag of pearls, thought 
 them rice, which he had heard to be good food, 
 and gave them to his wife to boil, who, when 
 she found that no boiling could soften them, 
 threw them away as useless.' 
 
 With respect to religion, the freedom of the 
 Bedowins is remarkable. There is, however, a 
 striking difference between the Arabs of the 
 towns and tliose of the desert. While the former 
 crouch under the double yoke of political and 
 religious despotism, the latter live in a state of 
 perfect freedom from both. On the frontiers of 
 the Turks, indeed, the Bedowins, from policy, 
 preserve the appearance of Mahommedanism ; 
 but so relaxed is their observance of its cere- 
 monies, and so little fervor has their devotion, 
 that they are generally considered as infidels, 
 who have neither law nor prophet. They even 
 make no difficulty in saying that the religion of 
 Mahomet was not made for them : ' For (add 
 they) how shall we make ablutions who have no 
 water ? How can we bestow alms who are not 
 rich ? Why should we fast in the Ramadan, since 
 the whole year with us is one continued fast? 
 And what necessity is there for us to make the 
 pilgrimage to Mecca, if God be present every- 
 where ?' In short, every man acts and thinks 
 as he pleases, ana the most perfect liberty exists 
 amcmg them. 
 
 Their superstitious dread of charms appears 
 from the following passage of Burckhardt's Ac- 
 count of his Journey in the Peninsula of Mount 
 Sinai, lie had made it a rule never to let the 
 Arabs, among whom he was travelling, see him 
 Vpfrite ; but ' on one occasion his long absence 
 from his companions roused their curiosity. One 
 of them came to look after him, and seeing him 
 immovably fixed, squatted down on the ground, 
 and closely iruifiled up, he approached on the 
 
 tiptoe, and suddenly lifting up Uie cloak which 
 skreened him, detected a book in his hand. 
 ' What is this?' exclaimed the Arab, ' What are 
 you doing ? I shall not make you answerable 
 for it at present, because I am your companion ; 
 but I shall talk further to you about it when we 
 are at the convent.' When they had returned 
 to their halting place, Burckhardt, ' requested 
 him to tell what he had further to say.' To this 
 the Bedowin replied, in a passionate lone, 'You 
 write down our country, our mountains, our 
 pasturing places, and the rain which falls from 
 heaven ; other people have done this before you, 
 but I at least will never assist in the ruin of my 
 country.' Burckhardt assured him that he liked 
 the Arabs too well to wish to injure them. ' On 
 the contrary,' he added, ' had not I occasionally 
 written down some prayers ever since we left 
 Taba, we should most certainly have been all 
 killed, and it is very wrong in you to accuse me 
 on account of that, the omission of which would 
 have cost us our lives.' He was startled at 
 this reply, and seemed nearly satisfied. ' Per- 
 haps you say the truth,' he observed ; ' but we 
 know that some years since, several men, God 
 knows who they were, came to this country, 
 visited the mountains, wrote down every thing, 
 stones, plants, animals, even serpents and spiders, 
 and since then little rain has fallen, and the game 
 has greatly decreased.' The same opinions pre- 
 vail in the mountains as are current among the 
 Bedowins of Nubia, and they believe that a sor- 
 cerer, by writing down certain charms, can stop 
 the rains and transfer them to his own country.' 
 /Travels in Sip-ia and the lioli/ Land, p. 519. 
 
 Notwithstanding this general ignorance and 
 credulity, the Bedowins possess considerable 
 strength of genius ; their poems abound with 
 native similitudes, which embellish by their force 
 and variety, and are distinguished by unexpected 
 epigrammatic turns. The skill, also, with which 
 they draw an unforeseen inference, or bring out 
 an unexpected result, shows the acuteness of 
 their understandmjs, habituated to a rapidity 
 of plan and execution. Their talent for repartee 
 is well known. When one who could repeat 
 all the Hadith or sayings of Mahomet by heart, 
 was asked how his memory could retain so many 
 dirterent sentences at once, he instantly replied, 
 'just as the sand in the desert retains all the 
 pearly drops that fall from the heavens without 
 losing a single one of them.' Amusing sketches 
 of these people may be found in \'olney, Son- 
 nini, Bruce, and other Asiatic travellers ; but 
 the most accurate are those of the Chevalier 
 d'Arvieux, Memoires; six tomes, in 12mo. Paris 
 1735, edited by Father Labat, Niebuhr, Bescli- 
 reibung von Arabien, p. 379. Seetzen, \'oa 
 Zachi, Monathliche Correspondenz, 1819, Fe- 
 bruary and March. Description de I'Egypte, 
 IMemoires par Dubuis et Larrey ; also in Burck- 
 hardt's Travels, who, as he took great delight in 
 studying the manners and characters of the Be- 
 dowins, has left a separate and detailed account 
 of them. 
 
 Living constantly, as the Arabs do, under their 
 camel's hair tents, occupied as they are solely 
 with the care of their flocks and herds, speaking 
 nearly the same language, and placed many of
 
 BEE 
 
 747 
 
 BEE 
 
 them in the same regions as the Israelites under 
 Muses, tlieir customs and habits bear in many res- 
 pects a strong resemblance to those of the Jewisii 
 patriarchs. The Memoires of the Chevalier 
 d'Arvieux, already quoted, have supplied mucli 
 curious and useful information on tliis subject, 
 the perusal of which will interest the reader, 
 and by comparing the articles, as he proceeds, 
 with the Jewish narrative, he will find his views 
 of the patriarchal period, with respect both to 
 the geography and political incidents of it, 
 greatly enlarged. 
 
 Those who are fond of tracing the effect pro- 
 <luced by local circumstances upon the genius 
 and national character of a people, will find 
 much interesting matter for their consideration 
 in the detailed particulars of the history of this 
 remarkable people. For further historical au- 
 thorities, we refer to the Mezhur of Soyutl ; the 
 great historical works of ylftii I'Feda, Shahristdni, 
 and Mukr'iz'i; Pococke's Specimen Historic Ara- 
 bum ; Sale's Preliminurr/ discourse to his transla- 
 tions of the Koran ; Burckhardt's Translations 
 from Makriii ( Nubia, Appendix, 'No. iii.) Qua- 
 tremeres Mimoires sur I'Egj/pte, ii. 190 ; Jackson's 
 Account of Morocco ; Soimini, Voyages en Egypte, 
 and Volneys Travels, ii. 25. 
 
 BED'RAGGLE, oe and draggle. See 
 Draoole. 
 
 DE'DRAWE, be and draw. See Draw. 
 
 BE'DREINTE, ) o ,, , ^i 
 
 T, / > See Drescu and Drink. 
 
 UETREINTE. S 
 
 BEDRI, a town and district in the pachalic of 
 Bagdad, the former surrounded by fine gardens. 
 It is the frontier of the Turkish empire. 
 
 BEDRIACUM, in ancien- geography, a vil- 
 lage of Italy, situated, according to Tacitus, be- 
 tween Verona and Cremona, but nearer the 
 liUter than the former. From an account given 
 by that historian, Cluverius conjectures that the 
 ancient Bedriacum stood in the place where the 
 town of Caneto now stands. This village was re- 
 markable for the defeat of the emperor Galba by 
 Otho, and afterwards of Otho by Vitellius. 
 
 BE'DRIBBLE, be and dribble. See Drib- 
 ble. 
 
 BEDRIP, Bedrepe, or Bederape, the cus- 
 tomary service which inferior tenants anciently 
 paid their lord, by cutting down his corn, or 
 doins; other work in the field. 
 
 BE'DROPT, be and drop. See Drop. 
 
 BEDWTN, Great, a town of Wiltshire, six 
 miles south of Hungerford, and seventy west from 
 London. It is an ancient borough by prescrip- 
 tion, and sends two members to parliament. It 
 is said to have been a considerable city in the 
 time of the Saxons, and that the traces of its for- 
 tifications are extant. It is situated by the side 
 of the Kennf.t and Avon canal. Tlie church is 
 spacious, with a lofty tower, and is constructed 
 entirely of flints. 
 
 BEE, '\ Ang.-Sax. beo. Wachter 
 
 B EE-u A rdek, (^ derives the name from the 
 
 Bee-hive, {Old Saxon byan, which sig- 
 
 Bee-master. J nifies to build, and to inhabit, 
 because the animals designated by the term 
 dwell together under one government, and con- 
 stru< t tlieir ha'jitations with great skill and in- 
 du try. 
 
 Monsieur Cobweb; good Monsieur, get your wea- 
 pons in your band, and kill me a red-liip'd liuniblo 
 bee on tbe top of a thistle ; and good Monsieur bring 
 me the honey bag. Shakspeare. 
 
 So work the honey bees, 
 Creatures that by a ruling nature teach 
 The art of order to a peopled kingdom. Id. 
 
 For that doth wrong must look to be wronged again ; 
 Habet et musca splenem, et formica sua bills incst. 
 The least fly hath a spleen, and a little bee a sting. 
 An asse overwhelmed a thisselwarps's nest, the little 
 bird pecked his gaul'd back in revenge, and the 
 humblc-6ee in the fable flung down the eagle's eggs 
 out of Jupiter's lap. Burton, Anat. Mel. 
 
 As bees 
 In spring time, when the sun with Taurus rides. 
 Pour forth their populous youth about the hive 
 In clusters ; they among fresh dews and flowers 
 Fly to and fro ; or on the smoothed plank. 
 The suburb of their straw built citadel, 
 New rubb'd with balm, expatiate and confer 
 Their state affairs. Milton. 
 
 They that are bee-mtutert, and have not care 
 enough of them, must not expect to reap any consi- 
 derable advantage by them. Mortimer. 
 A convenient and necessary place ought to bo 
 made choice of for your apiary or bee-garden. Id. 
 To have Bees ix the head. A phrase mean- 
 ing to be choleric; to have that in the head 
 wliich is easily provoked, and gives pain when 
 it is. Also to be restless. To have ' a bee in 
 the bonnet,' is a similar phrase. 
 
 But, Wyll, my maister hath bees in his head. 
 If he find me here pratinge, I am but deade. 
 
 Damon and Pith. O. PI. 
 He has a head full of bees. 
 
 Ben Jonson. Barth Faer. 
 
 Bee, in natural history, a genus of insects, the 
 characters and habits of which are fully given 
 under the general name, apis. The principal 
 species are there also described. See Apis. 
 
 Bee, in astronomy. See Apis. 
 
 Bee, in metaphorical language, denotes sweet- 
 ness, industry, &c. Thus Xenophon is called 
 the Attic bee, on account of the great sweetness 
 of his style. Antonius got the denomination of 
 Melissa, or the bee, on account of his collection 
 of common places. Leo Allatius gave the ap- 
 pellation of apes urbanae, i. e. city bees, to tlie 
 illustrious men at Rome from 1630 to 1632. 
 
 Bee, or Bie, in the Saxon language, signifies 
 a station ; and in this sense makes part of the 
 names of several places in Scotland ; such as 
 Cairnbie, Middlebie, Overbie, &c. Perhaps also 
 the different Beestons, &c, in England may have 
 had their names from the same origin. 
 
 Bee-15ird. See Colibri. 
 
 Bee-bread, Bee's-bread, or Bee-glie, the 
 farina of flowers collected by the working bees : 
 called by the ancients propolis. See Apis. We 
 feel, however, the following remarks of Mr. Bon- 
 ner's too sensible and important to be omitted 
 here : — ' The substance, commonly called bee- 
 bread,' he says, ' is to be found at the bottom of 
 many of the cells, and is frequently covered over 
 with honey. The bees carry it home in loads upon 
 their legs, or rather their thighs. It is generally of 
 a yellow color, but often takes its color from the 
 flowers from which it is collected. Various con- 
 jectures have been made by different authors re-
 
 BEE 
 
 748 
 
 BEE 
 
 spectino; its use. Some allege that the bees eat it ; 
 hence the name bee-bread. Others suppose, that 
 after being taken into their stomachs, it is con- 
 verted by some peculiar action of their internal 
 juices into wax, of which everybody knows their 
 combs are made. But an objection to this hy- 
 pothesis arises from the consideration, that the 
 bees, when first put into an empty hive, carry 
 little or none of this stuff on their legs for some 
 time, till a great number of combs are made ; 
 and that after the combs are completed (which 
 they generally are within two Or three weeks after 
 the swarm have taken possession of the hive), the 
 bees still continue to carry in this stuff' during 
 the whole working season. To this, however, it 
 may be replied, that, perhaps, as they have no 
 cells to put it into at that time, they carry it 
 home in their bellies, where it probably undergoes 
 a speedy change in passing through their bodies, 
 and may thereby be converted into perfect wax, 
 with which they manufacture their combs. There 
 is another class of authors, who suppose that the 
 bee-bread is used by the old bees to feed the young 
 ones in the cells, by the mouth, as pigeons feed 
 their young ones. To this it may be objected, 
 that the young bees surely cannot make use of 
 all the bee-bread, which the old bees are almost 
 constantly carrying into the hive, when they are 
 at work. Perhaps both these last hypotheses may 
 be true ; as it may not only serve to feed the 
 young bees, but also, by passing through the bo- 
 dies of the old ones, may be converted into wax ; 
 with which bees not only build their combs^ 
 when a swarm is newly put into a hive, but also 
 seal up both their young in the cells, and their 
 honey in the combs. If this supposition be true, 
 then the consumption of bee-bread, through the 
 course of the year, but especially during the 
 honey and breeding seasons, must be very great; 
 and therefore we need not be surprised at the 
 quantities imported by the working-bees. But, 
 whatever truth may be in either or both of these 
 theories, I am certain of one thing, that the bees 
 do not live on bee-bread alone ; for they will die 
 of hunger, although there be plenty of it in the 
 hive, if there be no honey in it; whereas, when 
 they have abundance of honey, they will live 
 without bee-bread, at least for many weeks. 
 Reaumur, however, says, that it is absolutely 
 necessary for food to bees. For my part, I have 
 always observed the bees most busily employed 
 in carrying in this stuff while the young bees are 
 breeding ; but when they want a queen, and 
 liave no eggs to rear another, they immediately 
 give over carrying it into the hive ; thinking 
 (as it would seem), that as they have no young 
 bees to feed or seal up in the cells, it would be 
 an idle business to bring a.ny more of it home; 
 especially as they do not make much use of it 
 themselves, and have more already in the hive, 
 than they will stand in need of, for their own 
 use.' 
 
 Bee-eater. See Meeropis. 
 
 Bee-hives. See Apis. 
 
 Bee humble. See Bombyliues. 
 
 BEEBAN, a pass in the high road between 
 Algiers and Constantina. The rocks which 
 cross it are in many cases hewn down like so 
 many doors, which has led the Arabs to give it 
 
 the appellation of beeban, or gates. Six miles 
 north of Accaba. 
 
 BEECH, ^ Bece and boc. Old Saxon ; (ptjyoc, 
 
 Bee'chek, ^and hzt'in fug its. The 0. and /". 
 
 Bee'chy. j being changed into b. The mast 
 bearing tree in the earliest ages furnished food 
 for man. 
 
 The smooth-leaved beeches in the field receive him. 
 With coolest shades till noontide rage is spent. 
 
 Fletcher's Purple Island. 
 
 Black was the forest, thick with beech it stood. 
 
 Dryden. 
 With diligence he'll serve us when we dine. 
 
 And in plain beechen vessels fill our wine. Id. 
 
 I know not why the beech delights the glade. 
 
 With boughs extended, and a rounder shade; 
 
 Whilst towering firs in conic forms arise. 
 
 And with a pointed spear divide the skies. Prior. 
 
 Dull are the pretty slaves, their plumage dull. 
 Ragged, and all its brightening lustre lost ; 
 Nor is that sprightly wildness in their notes 
 Which, clear and vigorous, warbles from the beech. 
 
 Thomson's Seasons. 
 Not a pine in my grove is there seen. 
 But with tendrils of woodbine is bound ; 
 Kot a beech 's more beautiful green. 
 But a sweet-briar twines it around. 
 
 Shenstone. Pastorals. 
 
 Beech, in botany. See Fagus. 
 
 Beech-Fork, a river of the United States 
 in Kentucky, and one of the three principal 
 sources of the river Salt, which rise in three dif- 
 ferent parts of Mercer county ; and, winding 
 westward, unite and form that large navigable 
 river, about fifteen miles from the Ohio. 
 
 Beech Gall, in natural history, a hard 
 knot on the leaf of the beech, containing the 
 maggot of a species of fly. There are some- 
 times only one of these upon a leaf, some- 
 times more ; they always grow from the same 
 point, owing to the fly's having laid so many 
 eggs in the same spot. They are of an oblong 
 figure somewhat flatted, and shaped like the stone 
 of a plum. They are so hard as not to be broken 
 between the fingers ; their substance seems of 
 the same nature with that of a nut-shell. In 
 each gall there is only one cavity inhabited by a 
 white worm, which in time passes through the 
 nymph state into that of the fly, to which it owed 
 its origin. 
 
 Beech Mast, the fruit of the beech-tree; a 
 triangular seed, like an acorn, containing a whitish 
 oleaginous pith, of a very agreeable taste. 
 It is used for fattening hogs, deer, &c. It has 
 sometimes, even to men, proved an useful substi- 
 tute for bread. Chios is said to have endured a. 
 memorable siege by means of it. 
 
 Beech Oil, an oil drawn by expression from 
 beech mast. This oil is very common in Picardy, 
 and used there, and in other parts of France, 
 instead of butter ; but most of those who take a 
 great deal of it complain of pains and a heaviness 
 in the stomach. An attempt was made some 
 years ago to introduce the manufacture of beech- 
 oil into England, and a patent was granted to 
 the proprietor, but without success ; the country 
 people turning their mast to better account in 
 feeding hogs with it, than by selling it to the pa- 
 tentee for oil. 
 
 BEEDEil, a province in the Deccan, llin- 
 dostan, now possessed by the Nizam, situated
 
 BEE 
 
 749 
 
 BEE 
 
 principally between the sixteenth and eigiiteentli 
 degrees of north latitude. To tlie north it is 
 bounded by Aurunsabad and Xandere ; on the 
 soutli by the river Krishna ; to tiie east it lias the 
 provinci' of Hyderabad ; and to the west the pro- 
 vince of Bejapoor. In lentrth it may be estimated 
 at 140 miles, by sixty-five the average breadth. 
 The surface of this province is uneven and hilly, 
 but not mountainous, and it is intersected by 
 many small rivers which fertilise the soil, and 
 flow into the Beemah, Krishna, and Godavery. 
 The country is very productive, and under tlie 
 ancient Hindoo government contained a redun- 
 dant population, but is now thinly peopled. 
 
 BKF.ncn, a town in the province of Beeder, 
 of which it is the capital, hat. 17° 47' N., long. 
 77° 48' E. It is fortified with a stonewall, a dry 
 ditch, and many round towers. The wall is 
 six miles in circumference, and the town which 
 it encloses stands in an open plain, except the east 
 side, which is arisingorroundabout 100 yards high. 
 The remains of many good buildings are to be 
 seen in this decayed city. It was formerly noted 
 for works of tutenague inlaid with silver, and be- 
 fore the Mahommedan invasion, was the capital 
 of a Hindoo sovereignty. Travelling distance 
 from Hyderabad, seventy-eight miles, from Delhi 
 857, from Madras 430, and from Calcutta 980 
 miles. 
 
 BEEF', n. & adj. '\ Fr. hoenf, from the Lat- 
 Beef'-eater, >6as, bovis, Gr. ^ovq, from 
 Beef'-witted. j iioui{\3ovK(ji). To feed. The 
 flesh of the ox, bull, or cow, prepared for food. 
 The plural is beeves. Johnson says, the flesh of 
 black cattle. Beef-eater, because the commons 
 is beef, when in waiting. ]\Ir. Stevens derives 
 it thus : beef-eater may come from benufetier, 
 one who attends at the sideboard, wliich was 
 anciently placed in a beaufct. The business of 
 the beef-caters was to attend the king at meals. 
 A yeoman of the guard. 
 
 Have by the night, accursed thieves, 
 Slaine his lamBes, or stolne his beeves. 
 
 Browne. The Shepherd's Pipe. 
 A pound of man's flesh 
 Is not so estimable or profitable. 
 As flesh of muttons, beeves, or goats. 
 
 Shakspeare. 
 
 The plague of Greece upon thee, thou mongrel beef- 
 
 u-itled lord . JJ. 
 
 One way a band select from forage drives 
 A herd of beeves, fair oxen, and fair kine. 
 From a fat meadow ground. Milton. 
 
 The fat of roasted ie?/ falling on birds, will baste 
 them. Su-ift. 
 
 On hides of beeves, before the palace-gate. 
 
 Sad spoils of luxury ! the suitors sate. Pope. 
 
 Beef-eaters, (Beaufetiers), yeomen of the 
 guard to the king of Great Britain, so called from 
 being stationed by the sideboard at great royal 
 dinners. They are kept up rather from state 
 than for any military ser\'ice. Their arms are a 
 sword and lance. Tliey were first raised by 
 Henry VII. in the year 1485, and ancienUy con- 
 sisted of 250 men of the first rank under gentry, 
 and of a larger stature than ordinary, each being 
 required to be six feet high. At present there 
 are but 100 on constant duty and seventy more 
 
 not on duty ; and whenany oneof thelOOdies, his 
 place is swpi'ylied out of tlie seventy. Tiiey go 
 dressed after the manner of king Henry VllUh's 
 time. Tlieir first commander, or captain, was 
 the earl of Oxford. 
 
 Beef-i.atek, in zoology, the English name of 
 the Buphaga Africana. See Bi puaga. 
 
 Beep Island, one of the smaller \'irgin islands 
 in the West Indies, between Dog Island on the 
 west and Tortola on the east, about five miles long 
 and one broad. Long. 63° 2' W., lat. 18° 23' N. 
 
 Beef Tea, in medicine, the substance of beef, 
 extracted by boiling it in water, which is now 
 very generally prescribed, and with great success, 
 in all diseases of debility, when the stomach is 
 not able to digest solid food. 
 
 Beek (David), an eminent portrait-painter, 
 was born at Arnheim, in Guelderland, in 1621, 
 and became a disciple of Vandyck ; from whom 
 he acquired a fine manner of penciling and co- 
 loring. He possessed, besides, that freedom of 
 hand, and rapidity of execution, for whicli \'an- 
 dyck was so remarkable. King Charles I. when 
 he observed his expeditious manner of paintins, 
 was so surprised, tliat he told him, he supposed 
 he could paint if he was riding post. He was 
 appointed portrait-painter to queen Christina of 
 Sweden ; and by her recommendation, most of 
 the illustrious persons in Europe sat to him for 
 their pictures. Having an earnest desire to visit 
 his friends in Holland, he left the court of Swe- 
 den much against the queen's inclination, and 
 died soon after at tlie Hague, where, it is sus- 
 pected that he was poisoned. This happened in 
 1656, when he was only thirty-five. A singular 
 adventure happened to him, as he passed through 
 Germany. He was suddenly and violently taken 
 ill at the inn where he lodged, and seeming to all 
 appearance dead, w;is laid out as a corpse. His 
 servants expressed the strongest marks of grief 
 for the loss of their master ; but consoled them- 
 selves, while they sat beside his bed, by drinking 
 very freely. At last one of them said to his com- 
 panions, ' our master was fond of his glass while 
 alive, let us give him one glass now : ' and 
 raised up his master's head to pour the liquor 
 into his mouth. Beek, on this opened his eyes; 
 and by proper management and care recovered 
 perfectly. 
 
 BEELE,akind of pick-axe, used by the miners 
 for separating the ores from the rocks in which 
 they lie ; and called a tubber by the miners of 
 Cornwall. The iron part of it weighs about eight 
 or ten pounds. Though it is steeled at each end, 
 it wears out so fast, that it requires new points 
 once a fortnight. 
 
 BEELIKE, or Beelicii, a town of Prussia, in 
 the duchy of Westphalia, with a Benedictine pro- 
 vostship. Twelve miles E. N. E. of Arensberg, 
 and thirteen north-west of Brilon. Long. 8° 
 27' E., lat. 51° 30' N. 
 
 BEELZEBUB, Beelzebcl. See Baal- 
 
 ZEBUB. 
 
 BEE]\IAH,or Bewrah River (Bhima, ter- 
 rific), rises in the mountains to the north of 
 Poonah, not far from the source of the Godavery, 
 and passes within thirty miles to the east of 
 Poonah, wjiere it is esteemed sacred. It is one 
 of the principal rivers that join the Krishna,
 
 750 
 
 BEER. 
 
 ^^llich it does near tlie town of Firozegur, in the 
 province of Beeder. The length of its course, 
 including the windings, may be estimated at 400 
 miles. Tlic horses most esteemed by the Mah- 
 rattas, are those bred on the banks of the 
 Beemah. 
 
 BEKMEN, or Sheemen, in astronomy, seven 
 
 stars of the fourth magnitude, following each 
 
 other, in the fourth flexure of the constellation 
 
 Eridanus. 
 
 BEER', -^ Ger. and Dut. tier. Gold- 
 
 Beek'-house, >ast thinks from pyrk, beer 
 
 Beer'-brewer.3 being first made of pears. 
 
 Vossiiis derives it from the Lat. bibere, to drink ; 
 
 ]\oel from bear, describing a kind of beverage 
 
 made from honey. Johnson traces it to bir, 
 
 Welsh, and adds, liquor made of malt and hops. 
 
 It is distinguished from ale either by being older 
 
 or smaller. 
 
 Oh, let them come, and taste this beer. 
 And water henceforth they'll forswear. 
 
 Thomas Nabbes, in Ellis. 
 
 Among those that were -without the fort, and which 
 
 were of tJie foresaid company of Captains Ribault, 
 
 there was a carpenter of threescore years olde, once a 
 
 bere-b^ewer. Halduyt'a Voyages. 
 
 Here's a pot of good double beer, neighbour ; drink- 
 
 Shahspeare. 
 
 Flow, Welsted '. flow, like thine inspirer, beer ; 
 Tho' stalf>, not ripe ; tho' thin, yet never clear ; 
 So sweetly mawkish, and so smoothly dull ; 
 Heady, not strong-, and foaming, tho' not full. 
 
 Pope^ 
 
 Beer is perhaps any fermented liquor made 
 from a farinaceous grain, but generally from 
 barley. It is, properly speakinsi^, the wine of bar- 
 ley. Under the article Ale, we have entered upon 
 the subject of brewing that article pretty generally. 
 The only other species of beer is porter. See 
 therefore, Ale, Porter, and Brewing. Small 
 or Table Beer, we may here add, is usually made, 
 particularly in quantity and for sale, by mashing 
 with a fresh quantity of water what is left after 
 the beer or ale wort is drawn ofi"; and sometimes 
 from a small quantity of malt brewed on pur- 
 pose. Two parts of London table beer may be 
 considered equivalent in strength to one of ale ; 
 but, according to the legal distinction, (59. Geo. 
 III. c. .'is. sect. 25.), all beer sold above the price 
 of 18s. per barrell is deemed ale, or strong beer, 
 and pays ale duty, viz. 10s. per barrel ; and beer, 
 of the price of 18s. per barrel, or under, exclu- 
 sive of the duty, namely, 2s. per barrel, is consi- 
 dered as table beer within the meaning of the act. 
 
 The final gravity of table beer wort is usually 
 from 11 to 12,50lbs. per barrel. Every breweV, 
 however, fixes that final standard strength, which 
 he finds most suitable to his trade. 
 
 Beer, in weaving, nineteen threads running 
 through the whole length of the piece. 
 
 Bkeu, in ancient geography, a city twelve 
 miles north of Jerusalem, on the road to Shechem ; 
 where Jotham the son of Gideon concealed liim- 
 self from his bloody brother Abimelech. 
 
 Beer, or Beer Elim, a place in the country 
 of the Moabites, where the Israelites dug wells. 
 Numbers, xxi. 18. 
 
 j'Beer, Beerjick, Bir, or BiRAT)SiircK,a town 
 of Asiatic Turkey, in the government of Orf.x, 
 
 the ancient Thiar or Barsampse. It stands upon 
 a lofty eminence on the west bank of the Eu- 
 phrates, which is here deep and rapid, about 
 130 yards broad. A bridge of boats conveys ca- 
 ravans from Aleppo to Urfa at this point, for 
 which privilege a pontage is paid here. Niebuhr 
 says, it consists of 500 houses, protected by a 
 citadel and a wall ; but the whole place is in a di- 
 lapidated condition. It was long deemed im- 
 pregnable, and is still considered a place of 
 strength. Pococke notices a collection of ancient 
 arms and armour, which he saw here. Among 
 these were various sorts of foil arrows : many 
 of them pointed with iron, and to the extremities 
 of some, combustible matter, made up in a 
 triangular form, was attached, which being ig- 
 nited was carried into the town which it was 
 intended to set on fire. There was another sort 
 to which iron bottles, or cases filled with similar 
 combustibles, were fixed, which were inflamed 
 previous to their discharge. The cross-bows 
 were straight, and were about five feet long. 
 Tliere were also a variety of slings. Some writers 
 are of opinion that the arms now describeii may 
 have been those of the Romans, as they very well 
 correspond with the description given of tiiem by 
 Ammianus Marcellinus. Formerly considerable 
 trade was carried on to Bagdad by means of ves- 
 sels descending the river. Beer is sixty-seven 
 miles fromOrfa; 115 south-west of Diarbekir; 
 and 114 north-east of Aleppo. It is tlie great 
 thoroughfare from Aleppo to Diarbekir and 
 Persia. 
 
 Beer, Eager, is used by calico printers, 
 chemists, lapidaries, scarlet-dyers, vinegar-mer- 
 chants, white-lead men, &lc. 
 
 Beer La-iia-roi, in ancient geography, a 
 place between Kadesh and Shur, south of Canaan, 
 where the angel appeared to Hagar. Genesis 
 xvi. 14. 
 
 Beer Machines, are contrivances by means 
 of which that liquor is drawn from three or four 
 casks at once, and delivered from cocks placed 
 close together in the bar of a tavern or other con- 
 venient place above the cellar. These machines 
 are nothing else than an assemblage of small lift 
 pumps, whose suction pipes communicate with 
 the casks containing the beer : they are now very 
 common in London and other large towns. The 
 internal part of the machine consists of four lift 
 pumps, firmly fixed between two blocks of wood, 
 and in each of which semicylindric excavations 
 are made to contain the barrels : these are held 
 together and fasteueu ^„ the case enclosing the 
 pumps by two screws between each barrel, seen 
 plainly in the figure. The upper part of the case 
 of the pumps is a half cylinder, and has four narrow 
 openings in it, corresponding to the axis of each 
 pump ; in these openings the levers which give mo- 
 tion to the pump buckets move : they are bent, the 
 angular point being the centre on which they 
 move : a short arm has the pump rod joined to 
 it, and to a long one is attixed the handle. The 
 centre pins of the levers are supported on a piece 
 of wood fixed in the case nearly in the axis oi 
 its cylindric head ; the pump rod is divided into 
 two branches ; at their lower en<is which receive 
 a pin, joining them to the bucket rod, through 
 which the pin passes. The rod is continued above
 
 BEE 
 
 751 
 
 BEE 
 
 as well as below the joint : the lower part goes 
 into tiie pump, and the upper slides tlirough a 
 brass collar fixed to the back of the case; this 
 collar is included between the two branches of 
 the pump rod : its use is to confine the bucket 
 rod to move truly vertical, while the pump rod 
 being attached to it at only one point can obey 
 the irregular motion occasioned by the lever de- 
 scribing a circular arc. The bucket rod passes 
 through a stuffing box in the top of the pump, 
 through which it moves easily, and yet without 
 permitting the escape of any liquor by it : below 
 this it is screwed into the branches of the bucket, 
 which has a valve in it, and is surrounded by soft 
 leather, which makes it fit the barrel of the pump 
 without leaking. In the bottom of the barrel 
 another valve, similar to that in the bucket, is 
 placed, and a close tube leads from it to a leaden 
 pipe, bringing the liquor from the casks in tiie 
 cellar. At the upper part of each barrel a small 
 leaden pipe is soldered: these pipes are bent up- 
 wards, and come through the side of the case. 
 Sometimes the pipes leading from the two first 
 pumps are brought into one, and both deliver 
 through the same spout ; for the convenience of 
 mixing two kinds of beer. . The operation of the 
 pumps is exactly the same as the common sucking 
 pump. Some beer-pumps (as those invented by 
 Mr. Kowntree of Blackfriar's-road) are of a 
 more complex construction. 
 
 liEElllNCrS or Beiirixg's Bay, is situated 
 in the sixtieth degree of latitude, on the west 
 coast of North America, and received this name 
 from captain X'ancouver, in honor of \' itus Beli- 
 ring, who visited these shores in 1740, and an- 
 chored in a large bay, the position of which was 
 not correctly ascertained. Captain Cook assigned 
 this appellation to a different part of this shore ; 
 but as he only saw it at a distance, he could not 
 perceive the tract of low ground tliat stretches 
 from the base of the mountains which he sup- 
 posed to bound the bay. \'ancouver found that 
 this low land precluded all appearance of a bay, 
 in the place which Captain Cook had assigned 
 to it ; and therefore, as the name was intended 
 to be applied to the bay in which Behring an- 
 chored, he transferred it to that which Mr. Dixon 
 had previously called Admiralty Bay. There 
 is no other Bay, he tells us, between Cape Suck- 
 ling and Cape Fairweather, in which Behring 
 could have found slielter. 
 
 Beering's Island, an island in the North 
 Pacific ocean, which is sometimes classed with 
 the Aleutian chain, of which it may be considered 
 the most western link. It extends 104 miles in 
 length, by fifteen in breadth ; is mountainous and 
 sterile. The west coast is elevated, the northern 
 point low land ; the principal mountains, called 
 the liana voy ridge,consistingof gr'anite and sand- 
 stone, contam many caverns. There are two 
 nays on the coast, wherein vessels in the fur trade 
 winter, but they are shallow, of dangerous access, 
 and exposed to the north winds; the climate is ri- 
 gorous. No wood grows here, but various kinds of 
 pbints are common. Several small streams issue 
 iVomthe lakes and pools near the shore. Mine- 
 rals of value are said to have been found, and 
 pieces of native coi)[)er are cast ashore after 
 storms. The surrounding seas abound in whales ; 
 
 phocae are numerous on the shores, and multi- 
 tudes of sea otters ; black and blue foxes formerly 
 inhabited tlie island. The sea cow was an object 
 of pursuit, but so incessantly sought after, that 
 the species is either extinct or deterred by danger 
 from approaching the island, as none have been 
 seen on it since the year 1708. When the sea 
 otter, whose nimibers have also been greatly di- 
 minished, disappears in March, it is replaced by 
 the sea lion, because in the northern regions ani- 
 mals frequent particular places in the most regular 
 succession. This island was discovered in 1740, 
 or 1741, by Vitus Beering, a Dane, a commodore 
 in tlie Russian service. The latitude of this 
 island is about 55° N., and the long. 167° E. 
 
 BEEIIOC), a country of central Africa, to the 
 south of Bambara, and having Ludamar on the 
 west. The government is in the hands of the 
 Moors. It is probably very populous, since 
 Walet, the capital was reported to be larger than 
 Tombuctoo ; but the interior is little known. 
 
 BEERSHEBA ; from -|K3, a well, and V:iV, 
 he sware, or r\y*X\P, an oath ; a city to the south 
 of the tribe of .Tudea, adjoining to Idumea, where, 
 anciently, Abraham and Isaac swore friendship 
 to Abimelech. It stood twenty miles south of 
 Hebron, and forty-two in the same direction from 
 Jerusalem. When Eusebius wrote, A. D. 315, 
 it was still a considerable town, kw/xt) fiiyiaTi), 
 garrisoned by Roman soldiers. The boundaries 
 of the Holy Land are often described in Scrip- 
 ture as extending from Dan to Beersheba (2 Sam. 
 xvii. 11); and after the separation of the king- 
 doms of .Tudah and Israel, the boundaries of the 
 former are mentioned as from Beersheba to 
 iMount Ephraim. The Beersheba which is de- 
 scribed by the historian of the Crusades (Jaco- 
 bus de \ itriaco, Hist. Hieros. 36; Gulielmus 
 Tyrius, xiv. 22), as situated ten or twelve miles 
 from Ascalon, is a different place. 
 
 BEES Head (St.), a lofty promontory, with a 
 light-house on the top of it, about five miles 
 from Whitehaven, to which it is connected by 
 one continued range of rocks rising perpendicu- 
 larly from the beech. 
 
 Bees, Saint, a town in the county of Cum- 
 berland, between Whitehaven and Egremont, 
 noted for its public school. It liad once a nun- 
 nery, the church of which is still used, and the 
 free grammar-school has a good library. The 
 schoolmaster is appointed by the provost and 
 fellows of Queen's College, Oxford. The parish 
 is of great extent, and appears, from its ruins, to 
 have been fortified by the Romans at all the con- 
 venient landing places. 
 
 BEESTIN(jS, Breastikgs, or perhaps more 
 properly Beastings, a term used by country 
 people for the first milk taken from a cow after 
 calvmg. The beestings are of a thick consist- 
 ence, and yellow color, seemingly impregnated 
 with sulphur. Dr. Morgan imagines them pecu- 
 liarly fitted and intended by nature to cleanse 
 the yo\uig animal from the recrements gathered 
 in its stomach and intestines, during its long 
 habitation in utero. The like quality and virtue 
 he supposes in women's first milk id'ter delivery ; 
 and hence infers the necessity of the mother's 
 suckling her own child, rat'-cr than committing 
 it to a nurse whose first milii is gone.
 
 BEG 
 
 752 
 
 BEG 
 
 BE'ET, n. s. Lat. beta, the name of u plant. 
 See Beta. 
 
 Beet, in botany. See Beta. 
 
 BEETLE, r. & h.~^ 
 
 Beet'ling, 
 
 Beetle'isrows, 
 
 Beetle, an insect, the 
 name probably derived 
 from tlie word beat, be- 
 
 Beetle'duowed, [cause it heavily beats the 
 Beetle'headed, I air with its wings. Beetle, 
 Beetle'stocked. J a mallet; a tliree-man- 
 heetle, was one so heavy that it required three 
 men to manage it, two at the long handles, and 
 one at the head. Bee tie headed, probably in 
 allusion to this it means a thick and heavy skull. 
 Beetlcbrow is an overhanging heavy brow. To 
 beetle is to hang over like the top of a cliff. 
 
 The poor beetle that we tread upon. 
 In corporal sufF'rance feels a pang as great 
 As when a giant dies. Shahspeare. 
 
 A ■whoreson, beetleheaded, flap-ear'd knave. Id. 
 
 Enquire for the beetlebrow'd critic, &c. Swift. 
 
 When by the help of wedges and beetles, an image 
 
 is cleft out of the trunk of some well-grown tree ; yet 
 
 after all the skill of artificers to set forth such a divine 
 
 block, it cannot one moment secure itself from being 
 
 eaten by worms, or defiled by birds, or cut in pieces 
 
 by axes. Stillmyjleet. 
 
 Others come sharp of sight, and too provident for 
 
 that which concerned their own interest ; but as blind 
 
 as beetles in foreseing this great and common danger. 
 
 Knolles' History of the Turlis. 
 
 The butterflies and beetles are such numerous tribes, 
 
 that, I believe, in our own native country, alone, the 
 
 species of each kind may amount to one hundred and 
 
 fifty, or more. Ray, 
 
 Or where the hawk 
 
 High in the beetling cliff his eiry builds. 
 
 Thomson. 
 Now fades the glimm'ring landscape on the sight. 
 
 And all the air a solemn stillness holds. 
 Save where the beetle wheels his droning flight. 
 And drowsy tinklings lull the distant folds. 
 
 Gray's Elegy. 
 
 Beetle, in entomology. See Attelabus, 
 and ScARAB.^us. 
 
 Beetle, in mechanics, is likewise called a 
 stamper, and by paviours a rammer. 
 
 BE'FALL. Be and fall. See Fall. 
 
 BE'FIGHT. Be and fight. See Fight. 
 
 BE'FIT. Be and fit. See Fit. 
 
 BE'FOAM. Be and foam. See Foam. 
 
 BE'FOOL. Be and fool. See Fool. 
 
 BE'FORE, "^ Compounded of be and 
 
 BEF0RE'ItA^D, More, written differently in 
 
 Before'time. j different eras of our literature, 
 as bifore, bijfore, beforn, and beforne. When re- 
 ferring to time, it signifies anterior or prior ; to 
 place in front, or in presence of; and to the state 
 of the mind it expresses preference. 
 
 Beforetime in Israel, when a man went to enquire 
 of God, thus he spake. 1 Sam. ix. 9. 
 
 But tell me, lady ! wherefore do you beare 
 This bottle thus before you with such toilo. 
 And eke this wallet at your backe arreare. 
 That for these carles to carry much more comely were ? 
 
 SpeTuetc 
 
 Thou'rt so far before. 
 The swiftest wing of recompense is slow 
 To overtake thee. Shakspeare. 
 
 His profession is to deliver precepts necessary to 
 eloquent speech ; yet so, that they which receive 
 them, may be taught, beforeliand, the skill of speak- 
 ing. Hooker. 
 
 In this realm of England, before Normans, yea, be- 
 fore Saxons, there being Christians, the chief pastors 
 of their souls were bishops. Id. Eccles. Pol. 
 
 Heavenly born. 
 Before the hills appear'd, or fountain flow'd. 
 Thou with eternal wisdom didst converse. Milton. 
 
 You tell me, mother, what I knew before. 
 The Phrygian fleet is lauded on the shore. 
 
 Dry den. 
 Your soul has been beforeliand with your body. 
 And drunk so deep a draught of promis'd bliss. 
 She slumbers o'er the cup. Id. 
 
 I have not room for many reflections, the last cited 
 author has been beforehand with me, in its proper 
 moral. Addison. 
 
 BEFORT, a ci-devant district of France, on 
 the frontiers of Switzerland, now comprehended 
 in the department of the Upper Rhine. Though 
 comparatively sterile, it has excellent iron Vnines ; 
 these, and the forges connected with them, em- 
 ploy a large portion of its population. 
 
 Befort, or Belfort, once the capital of the 
 county, and now of an arrondissement, is a small 
 but strong town, seated on the Savoureuse. It was 
 ceded to France by the treaty of Westphalia, in 
 1648. It is important as being a pass from Al- 
 sace to Franclie Comte ; and it is, by its central 
 position, enabled to carry on a good trade in the 
 wines of Burgundy and Champagne. It is si- 
 tuated at the point of meeting of several great 
 roads, viz. of two from Paris, two from Switzer- 
 land, one from Strasburg, and one from Lorraine. 
 The county and town of Befort were ceded by 
 Austria to France in 1648. In 1659, Louis 
 XIV. granted them to cardinal Mazarin ; and in 
 1781 they were obtained by the duke of ^'alen- 
 tinois, who lost them at the Revolution. The 
 fisheries and forests, as well as the mines, are 
 considered very productive. Befort is about 
 thirty-five miles south-west of Colmar, and 
 seventy in the same direction from Strasburg. 
 Lat. 47° 38' N., long. 6° 57' E. 
 
 BE'FRIEND. Be and friend. See Friend. 
 
 BE'FRINGE. Be and fringe. See Fringe. 
 
 BEG', V. 
 
 Beg'gar, v., n. s., & adj. 
 
 Beg'gable, v. 
 
 Beg'gary, 
 
 Beg'ging, n. 
 
 Beggar'ing, 
 
 Beggar'liness, 
 
 Beggak'ly, adj. & adv. 
 
 Beggar'fear, 
 
 Beggar'maid, 
 
 Beggar'man, 
 
 Beggar'woman. 
 
 Ger. beggeren. 
 It is probably 
 a corruption of 
 baggar, because, 
 says the Ency- 
 clopaedia Metro- 
 politana,beggars 
 carry with them 
 bags, into which 
 they put the alms 
 that may be 
 bestowed upon 
 
 them. To beg, is to ask, to entreat, with a view 
 to obtain any object. It is the gentle force of 
 persuasion opposed to violence and demand. 
 To beggar, is to reduce to a state of dependence 
 on the gratuitous aid of others. To bring into 
 the condition of imploring favor. 
 
 And she was clad full porely. 
 All in an old torno courtpy.
 
 BEG 
 
 753 
 
 BEG 
 
 As slic were all with iloggcs toriif, 
 And both behinJ and eke beforne 
 Clouted was she heijgerly. CImuccT. 
 
 He raiscth up the poor out of the dust, and liftclh 
 up the beggar from the dunghill, to set them among 
 princes. Samuel. 
 
 Touching God himself, hath he revealed that it is 
 his delight to dwell beggarly? And that he taketh no 
 pleasure to be worshipped, saving only in poor cot- 
 tages ? Hooker. 
 
 So as their begging now them failed quite ; 
 For none would give, but all men would them wytc ; 
 Yet would they take no pains to get their living. 
 But seeke some other way to gaine by giuing. 
 Much like to begging, but much better nam'd ; 
 For many heg, which are thereof ashaiii'd. 
 
 Spenser. Mother Hubbard's Tale. 
 On he brought me into so bare a house, that it was 
 the picture of miserable happiness and rich beggary. 
 
 Sidney, 
 Well, whiles I am a beggar, I will rail. 
 And say, — there is no sin, but to be rich j 
 And being rich, my virtue then shall be. 
 To say, — there is no vice but beggary I Shakspeare. 
 
 For her person. 
 It beggar'd all description ; she did lie 
 In her pavilion, cloth of gold, of tissue, 
 O'er-picturing Venus. Id. 
 
 I will ever, though he do shake me off 
 To beggarly divorcement, love him dearly. Id. 
 
 He finds it his best way to be always craving, be- 
 cause he lights many times upon things that are dis- 
 posed of or not beggahle. Butler. 
 
 thy suppliant 
 
 I beg and clasp thy knees ; bereave me not. 
 Whereon 1 live, thy gentle look, thy aid. 
 Thy counsel in this uttermost distress. Milton. 
 What subjects will precarious kings regard ? 
 A beggar speaks too softly to be heard. Dryden. 
 These shameful beggars of principles, who give this 
 precarious account of the original of things, assume 
 to themselves to be men of reason. Tillotson, 
 
 Beg, a place in Ayrshire, in the parish of 
 Galston ; celebrated for being one of the retreats 
 of the patriotic Sir William Wallace, where, in 
 a rude fortification, attended by only fifty of his 
 friends, he obtained a complete victory over 200 
 Englishmen. 
 
 Beg, or Bey, in the Turkish government. See 
 Bey. Beg is more particidarly applied to the 
 lord of a banner, called in the Turkish language 
 sangiak beg. A beg has the command of a cer- 
 tain number of the sipahis, or horse, maintained 
 by the province under the denomination of tima- 
 riots. All the begs of a province obey one go- 
 vernor-general, called begler-beg, or beyler-beg, 
 q. d. lord of lords, or of the beys of the pro- 
 vince. 
 
 Begs, or Beghs, of Egypt, generals who 
 have the command of the militia or standing 
 forces of the kjngdora ; and are appointed to se- 
 cure the country from the Arabs, as well as to 
 protect the pilgrims in their annual expeditions 
 to Mecca. The begs, several of wliom are de- 
 scended from the ancient race of the jMumalukes, 
 are very rich and powerful, maintaining 500 
 fighting men each for their own guard, and the 
 service of their court. On discontents, they have 
 frequently risen in rebellion. They are often at 
 variance with the bashaw, whom they have more 
 than once imprisoned and plundered, 
 Vol. III. 
 
 BEGA (Cornelius), painter of landscapes, cat- 
 tle, and conversations, was born at Ilaerlem in 
 1G20, and was tlie di.sciple of Adrian (J.stade. 
 Falling into a dissipated way of life, lie was dis- 
 inherited by his father : for which reason he cast 
 off his father's name, Begeyn, and assumed that 
 of Bega ; his early pictures being marked with 
 the former, and his later works with the other, 
 lie liad a tine pencil, and a delicate manner of 
 handling his colors, so as to give them a look of 
 neatness and transparence ; his performances are 
 so much esteemed in the Low Countries as t.> be 
 placed among the works of the best artists. He 
 caught the plague from a woman witli whom he 
 was deeply enamoured, and died a few days after 
 her, aged forty-four. 
 
 Bf.GA, St. an Irish virgin, who is said to have 
 lived a solitary life of devotion at the spot in the 
 county of Cumberland, where the town of St. 
 Bees was afterwards built, and thus named after 
 her. 
 
 BEGALLED, be and galled. See Galled. 
 BEGAWED, be and gawed. See Gawed. 
 BEGAY, be and gay. See Gay. 
 BEGEMDER, a fertile province of Abyssi- 
 nia, bounded by Dembea on the west, Samen on 
 the north, Angot on the east, and Amhara on 
 the south. It includes the dependency of Lasta, 
 and its length h;us been stated at 180 miles, and 
 its breadth at sixty. There is a much greater 
 proportion of what may be called level ground 
 here, than in almost any of the other provinces in 
 this alpine region. The mountains abound witli 
 iron, and afford good pasturage for the noble herds 
 of cattle, with which Begemder is stocked. Mr. 
 Bruce was informed that it was capable of rais- 
 ing 45,000 effective cavalry. The southern 
 boundary is full of deep and rugged ravines. 
 BE'GET, -N Be and get. Ang.-Sax. be- 
 Beget'ter, / gettan, gettan. To obtain, to 
 Beget'tinGjV produce as effects; to produce 
 Be'got, i as accidents ; to generate, to 
 
 Begot'ten. J procreate; to become the father 
 of, as of children. 
 
 A yongc man called Melibeus, mighty and riche, 
 begate upon his wif, that was called Prudence, a 
 daughter which that called was Sophie. Cluiticer. 
 
 next he did beget 
 
 An infinite increase of angels bright. 
 
 All glist'ning glorious in their Maker's light. 
 
 Spemer. 
 But first come the hours, which -we hegot 
 In Jove's sweet paradise, of day and night, 
 Which do the seasons of the year allot. Id. 
 
 see here be all the pleasures 
 
 That Fancy can beget on youthful thoughts. 
 When the fresh blood grows lively, and returns 
 Brisk as the April buds in primrose season. 
 
 Milton. 
 
 Love is begot by fancy, bred 
 
 By ignorance, by expectation fed. Granville. 
 
 Men continue the race of mankind, commonly 
 
 without tlie intention, and often against the consent 
 
 and will, of the begetter. Locke. 
 
 My whole intention was to beget, in the minds of 
 
 men, magnificent sentiments of God and his works. 
 
 C /ley lie. 
 Son of the Father, first begotten Son I 
 Ere the short measuring line of lime begun, 
 The world has seen thy works, and joy'd to sec 
 The bright etlulgencc manifest in thee. Parnell, 
 
 3C
 
 BEG 
 
 754 
 
 BEG 
 
 BEGGnE,(ST.), tlie founder oi" the order of 
 the Beguards, and probably of that of tlie Be- 
 guines' She Hourished about A. D. 680. 
 
 BEGHEiniE, an extensive country in the 
 eastern part of central Africa, little known. It 
 is said to have Bornou on the north, Bergoo on 
 the east, and Cassina on the west, and to be go- 
 verned by a sultan of its own, dependent on that 
 of Bornou; according to Dr. Seetzen it has 
 lately been annexed to Bergoo, which is also de- 
 pendent upon Bornou. 
 
 BE'GILT, be and gilt. See Gilt. 
 BE'GIN, v.Scn.-\ I began or begun ; I have 
 BEaiN'xNER, (begun. Sax. be^innan, 
 
 Begin'nixg, i from be, or by to, and jan- 
 Begix'nikgless.3 ^an, ^aan, or jan, to go; 
 applied to the first motion towards any act, pur- 
 pose, or design ; to enter upon existence, to have 
 its original. 
 
 Mindes he our tears; or ever moued his eyen? 
 Wept he for ruth ? or pitied he our loue ? 
 What shall I set before, or where begin ? Surrey. 
 
 Thus heaping crime on wime, and grief on grief. 
 To loss of love adjoining loss of friend, 
 
 I meant to purge both with a third mischief. 
 And, in my woe's beginner, it to end. Spenser. 
 
 They began at the ancient men which were before 
 the house. Esekiel. 
 
 By peace we will begin. Shakspeare. 
 
 I'll sing of heroes and of kings. 
 Begin my muse '. Cowley. 
 
 They are, to beginners, an easy and familiar intro- 
 duction ; a mighty augmentation of all virtue and 
 knowledge in such as are entered before. Hooker. 
 
 if ye know. 
 
 Why ask ye, and superfluous begin 
 
 Your message, like to end as much in vain ? 
 
 Milton. 
 
 Begin every day to repent; not that thou shouldst 
 at all defer it ; but all that is past ought to seem 
 little to thee, seeing it is so in itself. Begin the next 
 day with the same zeal, fear, and humility, as if thou 
 hadst never begun before. Taylor. 
 
 The air was soon after the fight begun 
 Far more inflam'd by it than by the sun. 
 
 3Iarvell. 
 Youth, what man's age is like to be, doth show; 
 We may our end by our beginning know. Denham. 
 
 By viewing nature, nature's handmaid, art. 
 Makes mighty things from small beginnings grow : 
 
 Thus fishes first to shipping did impart, 
 Their tail the rudder, and their head the prow. 
 
 Dryden. 
 
 The understanding is passive ; and whether or not 
 it will have these beginnings, and materials of know- 
 ledge, is not in its own power. Locke. 
 
 These systems arc so many enchanted castles ; 
 they appear to be something — they are nothing but 
 appearances : like them, too, dissolve the charm, and 
 they vanish from the sight. To dissolve the charm, 
 we must begin at the beginning of them : the expres- 
 sion may be odd, but it is significant. 
 
 Bolingbroke. Study of History. 
 
 Rapt into future times, the bard begun, 
 A virgin shall conceive. Pope. 
 
 I have taken a list of several hundred words in a 
 sermon of a new beginner, which not one hearer could 
 possibly understand. Sirift. 
 
 BE'GIRT, ^ Saxon bcgierdan, hegi/rclan, 
 Be'gfrteu. S gyrdan; to close in round about ; 
 be and gird, to bind with a girdle ; to shut in 
 with a siege; to beleaguer; to block up. 
 
 Begird th' Almighty throne, 
 Beseeching, or besieging. 
 
 Or should she, confident 
 As sitting queen adorn'd on beauty's throne. 
 Descend, with all her winning charms begirt, 
 T' enamour. 
 
 Milton. 
 
 Id. 
 
 At home surrounded by a servile crowd. 
 Prompt to abuse, and in detraction loud : 
 Abroad begirt with men, and swords, and spears ; 
 His very state acknowledging his fears. Prior. 
 
 BEGLERBEG, a governor of one of the prin- 
 cipal governments in the Turkish empire, and 
 next in dignity to the grand vizier. To every 
 beglerbeg the grand seignior gives three ensigns 
 or staves, trimmed with a horse-tail, to distin- 
 guisli them from the bashaws, who have but two; 
 and from simple begs, or sangiac begs, who have 
 but one. Five of the beglerbegs have the title of 
 viziers, viz. those of Anatolia, Babylon, Cairo, 
 Romania, and Bud a. The beglerbegs appear 
 with great state, and a large retinue, especially 
 in the camp, being obliged to bring a soldier for 
 every 5000 aspers of rent which they enjoy. 
 Those of Romania brought 10,000 effective men 
 into the field. The beglerbegs are become al- 
 most independent, and have under tiieir jurisdic- 
 tion several sangiacs or particular governments, 
 and begs, agas, and other officers, who obey 
 them. 
 
 BEGLERBEGLIK, or Beglierbeglik, the 
 province or government of a beglerbeg. These 
 are of two sorts, viz. 1. Beglerbeglik, basilo, 
 which have a certain rent assigned out of the 
 cities, countries, and signiories allotted to the 
 principality : and are in number twenty-two, 
 viz. those of Anatolia, Caramania, Diarbekir, 
 Damascus, Aleppo, Tripoli, Trebizond, Buda, 
 Temeswar, &c. 2. Beglerbeglik, saliana;, for 
 maintenance of which is annexed a salary or 
 rent, collected by the grand seignior's officers with 
 the treasure of the empire. These are in num- 
 ber six, viz. those of Cairo, Babylon, &,c. 
 BE'GNAW. Be and gnaw. See Gnaw. 
 BE'GONE. Be and gone. Decayed or worn. 
 Far advanced, or sunk deep, either in weal or 
 woe. Also, the imperative be, and the past par- 
 ticiple gone ; as go, depart ; generally expressing 
 impetuosity or displeasure. As, Get out of my 
 sight. 
 
 I was a lusty one. 
 And faire, and riche, and yonge, and well begone. 
 
 Chaucer. 
 
 And witteth well, that one of the 
 Is with treasour so full begone. 
 That if ye happe thereupon. 
 Ye shall be riche men for ever. Gower. 
 
 Begone, I will not hear this vain excuse ; 
 But, as thou lor'st thy life, make speed from hence. 
 
 Shakspeare. 
 
 Begone! the goddess cries with stern disdain. 
 Begone! nor dare the hallow'd stream to stain. 
 She fled, for ever banish'd from the train. 
 
 Addison.
 
 BEG 
 
 755 
 
 BEG 
 
 Ungrateful wretch I begone, and no longer ^^uiiUte 
 niy dwelling witli thy baseness ; begone, and never let 
 me see thee again. Go from my doors ; and the only 
 punishment I wish thee, is an alarmed conscience, 
 which will be a sufficient tormentor. Goldtmith. 
 
 BEGONIA, in botany, a genus of plants of 
 the polyi^amia moncecia class ; the characters of 
 which are tliese : the flowers are of two kinds ; 
 the one is the male flower, composed of four 
 leaves, some broader, and others narrower ; the 
 other, which produces the embryo fruit, is of the 
 rosaceous sort, and is composed of several petals, 
 arranged in a circular form, and placed on a 
 foliated cup, which finally becomes a trigonal 
 alated fruit, divided into three cells, and con- 
 taining small seeds. Willdenow describes 
 twenty-five species of this genus, which belong 
 principally to the West India Islands. See 
 Transactions of the Linmean Society, vol. i. 
 
 BE'GORED. Be and gored. See Gore. 
 
 BE'GRA\'E. Be and grave. See Grave. 
 
 BE'GRIME. Be and grime. See Grime. 
 
 BE'GRIPE. Be and gripe. See Gripe. 
 
 BE'GROW. Be and grow. See Grow. 
 
 BE'GRUDGE. Beandsnidge. SeeGRuncE. 
 
 BE{JSHEIIRI (BeVshehri) a town and cap- 
 taincy in the Pachalic of Karaman-ili, Anatolia. 
 The town is protected by a castle built by Ala- 
 ud-din, theSeljQke sultan in the twelfth century. 
 This district contains 122 smaller, and 12 larger 
 fiefs, called by the Turks Zirairets and Ziya- 
 mets. 
 
 BEGUARDS, or Begiiards, the third order 
 of the religious of St. Francis in Flanders. They 
 were established at Antwerp in the year 1228, 
 and took St. Begghe for their patroness, whence 
 they had their name. From their first institution 
 they employed themselves in making linen cloth, 
 each supporting himself by his own labor, and 
 united only by the bonds of charity, without 
 having any particular rule. But pope Nicholas 
 I\'. having confirmed that of the third order of 
 St. Francis in 1289, they embraced it in 1390. 
 They were greatly favored by the dukes of Bra- 
 bant, particularly John II. and John III. who 
 exempted them from all contributions and taxes. 
 See Franciscans. 
 
 BEGUE, an old term for the natural mark in 
 the mouth of a horse, which distinguishes his 
 age. It is probably derived from the French, in 
 which the same word signifies a stutterer. 
 
 Begle (Lambert le), the founder or restorer 
 of the order of the Beguines, flourished about the 
 end of the twelfth century. 
 
 BE'GUILP^,-\ Be and guile. Guile, from 
 
 Be'gvilers, tgewiglinn, and wile, from tcig- 
 
 Be'guilixg, ilian, to deceive, to allure into a 
 
 Be'guilty. J snare ; the worst kind of wick- 
 edness ; hence the general term jjuilt. The be- 
 guilers and the beguiled divide our species, with 
 the exception of those who are abused and hated 
 by both, because they have wisdom without 
 knavery, and goodness without folly, qualities 
 equally detestable to the deceivers and the de- 
 ceived. 
 
 This miller smiled at hir nicetee. 
 And thought, all this n' is don but for a wile. 
 They wenen that no man may hem begile. 
 
 ChnucpT. 
 
 For often he that will begile. 
 
 Is gulled with the sirnn: guile. 
 
 And thus the guiler is beguiled. Gower. 
 
 When we escape from a little wile, and know the 
 
 bcguilcr, we thinke that we are beguiled already with 
 
 other greate wiles. Golden Book. 
 
 Her lips, most happy each in other's kisses. 
 From their so wisht imbracenients seldome parted. 
 Yet seem'd to blush at such their wanton blisses ; 
 But, when sweet words their ioyning sweet disparted. 
 To th' eare a dainty musique they imparted. 
 Upon them fitly sate delightful smiling, 
 A thousand smiles with pleasing stealth beguiling : 
 Ah, that such shows of ioyes should be all ioyes ex- 
 iling. Spenser. 
 And often did beguile her of her tears. 
 When I did speak of some distressful stroke 
 That my youth suffered. Shakspeare. 
 
 Sweet, leave me here awhile ; 
 My spirits grow dull, and fain I would beguile 
 The tedious day with sleep. Id. 
 
 By easy commutations of publick penance, for a 
 private pecuniary mulct, thou dost at once beguilty 
 thine own science with sordid bribery, and embolden 
 the adulterer to commit that sin again without fear. 
 
 Bishop Satuierson_ 
 Some cursed fraud 
 Of enemy hath beguiled thee, yet unknown. 
 And me with thee hath ruin'd, for with thee 
 Certain my resolution is to die. Milton. 
 
 Whosoever sees a man, who would have beguiled 
 and imposed upon him by making him believe a lye, 
 he may truly say, that is the man who would have 
 ruined me. South. 
 
 While o'er his lips her lovely forehead bow'd. 
 Won by his grateful eloquence, which sooth'd 
 With sweet variety the tedious march. 
 Beguiling time. Glover. Leonidat. 
 
 BEGUINAGE, the place of residence of a 
 society of Beguines. See next article. The 
 finest beguinage in Flanders was that of Malines. 
 That of Antwerp was very spacious, and had 
 two separate churches. 
 
 BEGUINES, a congregation of nuns, which 
 must not be confounded with the Beghards, 
 founded either by St. Begghe, or by Lambert le 
 Begue. They were established first at Liege, 
 and afterwards atNivelle in 1207; and from this 
 last settlement sprang the great number of Be- 
 guinages, which are spread over all Flanders, and 
 which have passed from Flanders into Germany. 
 In the latter country, some of these religious fell 
 into extravagant errors, persuading themselves 
 that it was possible, in the present life, to arrive 
 to the highest perfection, even to impeccability, 
 and a clear view of God ; in short, to so eminent 
 a degree of contemplation, that there was no ne- 
 cessity, after this, to submit to the laws of mortal 
 men, civil or ecclesiastical. The council of Vien- 
 ne, in 1113, condemned these errors, and abo- 
 lished the order of Beguines ; permitting, never- 
 theless, those among them, who continued in the 
 true faith, to live in chastity and penitence, either 
 with or without vows. It is by favor of this lat- 
 ter clause, that there still subsist (or at le;ist sub- 
 sisted till lately) so many communities of Be- 
 guines in Flanders ; who, subse(iuenily to the 
 council of X'ienne, conducted themselves with so 
 much wisdom and piety, that pope John XX 11. by 
 his decretal, which explains that of his predecessor 
 inade in the council of \"ienne, took them under 
 
 3 C 2
 
 BEH 
 
 756 
 
 BEH 
 
 his protection ; and Boniface Mil. in another, appearance. It is taken in either a good or bad 
 exempted tliem from the sccuhir tribunal, and sense, as he behaved well or ill. 
 put tliem under the jurisdiction of the bishops. 'f lie beautiful prove accomplished, but not of great 
 There was scarce a town in the Low Countries in 
 which there was not a society of Beguines ; and 
 even at Amsterdam there was a very flourishing 
 one. Tliese societies consisted of several houses 
 placed together in one enclosure, with one or 
 more churches, according to tire number of Be- 
 guines. There was in every house a prioress, or 
 mistress, without whose leave they durst not stir 
 out. Tliey made a sort of vow, in the following 
 terms : ' I promise to be obedient and 
 
 chaste as long as I continue in this Beguinage.' 
 They observed a three years noviciate before they 
 took the habit. They were formerly habited in 
 different manners ; some in gray, others in blue ; 
 but of late they all wore black. When they 
 went abroad, in Amsterdam, they put on a black 
 veil. Formerly they had as many different sta- 
 tutes as there were societies. In the visitations 
 of the year 1600 and 1601, by the archbishop 
 Matthias Hovius, they were forbidden, under the 
 penalty of a fine, to have lap-dogs. 
 
 BEHABAN, a town of Persia, in the province 
 of Fars. It is the capital of the district of Kho- 
 gilffia, and is pleasantly situated in an extensive 
 and highly cultivated valley, which is intersected 
 by the rivers Zab and Jerahi. The walls are three 
 miles in circumference, and the population is 
 10,000. It is 153 miles from Shiraz. 
 
 BEHALF. This word Skinner derives from 
 half, and interprets it, for my half; as, for my 
 part. It seems, to be rather corrupted from 
 behoof, profit ; the pronunciation degenerating 
 easily to behafe ; which, in imitation of other 
 words so sounded, was written, by those who 
 knew not the etymology, behalf. For my or your 
 part or share, or sake. Whatever is done in 
 favour, for tlie sake of, either in support or vin- 
 dication. 
 
 Yet this I say in hir hehalfe 
 If Helen were hir leeke. 
 Sir Paris need not to disdaine 
 Hir through the seas to seeke. Turberville. 
 He might, in his presence, defy all Arcadian 
 knights, in the behalf of his mistress's beauty. 
 
 Sidney. 
 Michael this my behest have thou in charge. 
 Take to thee from among the Cherubim, 
 Thy choice of framing warriors, lest the fiend. 
 Or in beJialf of man, or to invade 
 Vacant possession, some new trouble raise ; 
 Haste thee, and from the paradise of God 
 Without remorse drive out the sinful pair. Milton, 
 Were but my heart as naked to the view. 
 Marcus would see it bleed in his behalf. Addison. 
 
 Never was any nation blessed with more frequent 
 interpositions of divine providence in its behalf. 
 
 Atterlniry. 
 
 BE'HANG. Be and hang. See Hang. 
 
 BETLA.PPEN. Be and happen. See Happen. 
 
 BE'HATED. Be and hate. See Hate. 
 
 BEHA'V'E, "^ Be and have ; be and haviour. 
 
 Beha'ving, VGoth.haban.Ang.-Sax.habban. 
 
 Beha'viour, J See Have and Haviour. 
 To govern, to subdue, to discipline, its ancient 
 and now obsolete sense. To carry, to act, to 
 conduct ones' self. Manners, carriage, gesture. 
 
 spirit ; and study, for the most part, rather behaviour 
 than virtue. Bacon. 
 
 He who adviseth the philosopher, altogether de- 
 voted to the Muses, sometimes to otfer sacrifice to the 
 altars of the Graces, thought knowledge imperfect 
 without behaviour. Wotton, 
 
 But who his limbs with labours, and his mind 
 Behaves with cares, cannot so easy miss. 
 
 Faerie Queene, 
 With such sober and unnoted passion 
 He did behave his anger ere 'twas spent, 
 As if he had but prov'd an argument. Shalupeare. 
 One man sees how much another man is a fool, 
 when he dedicates his behaviour to love. Shakspeare. 
 Get ye all three into this box-tree ; Malvolio's 
 coming down this walk ; he has been yonder i'the 
 sun, practising behaviour to his own shadow, this half 
 hour : observe him for the love of mockery. 
 
 Shakspeare. 
 To their wills wedded, to their errours slaves. 
 No man like them, they think, himself behaves. 
 
 Denham. 
 We so live, and so act, as if we were secure of the 
 final Issue and event of things, however, we may 
 behave ourselves. Atterhury. 
 
 We are not, perhaps, at liberty to take for granted 
 that the lives of the preachers of Christianity were as 
 perfect as these lessons ; but we are entitled to con- 
 tend, that the observable part of their behaviour roust 
 have agreed in a greater measure with the duties 
 which they taught. Paley. 
 
 BE'HEAD, ) Be and head. See Head. 
 Beheading, S To head, or behead, is to 
 take off, cut off, strike oft', the head : a Gallican 
 accomplishment, greatly in vogue during the 
 Revolution. 
 
 His beheading he underwent with all Christian 
 magnanimity. Clarendon, 
 
 Mary, queen of Scots, was beheaded in the reign 
 of queen Elizabeth. Addison. 
 
 I think it was Caligula who wished the whole city 
 of Rome had but one neck, that he might behead them 
 at a blow. Spectator. 
 
 She (Anne Boleyn) was beheaded by the execu- 
 tioner of Calais, who was sent for, as more expert 
 than any in England. Hume, 
 
 On each side they fly. 
 By chains connext, and, with destructive sweep. 
 Behead whole troops at once. Philips. 
 
 Lord Clarendon relates that he (marquis of Argyle) 
 was condemned to be hanged, which was performed 
 on the same day ; on the contrarj', Burnet, Woodrow, 
 Heath, Echard, concur in stating that he was be- 
 headed ; and that he was condemned upon the Satur- 
 day, and executed on the Monday, Paley. 
 Beheading, a capital punishment, wherein 
 the head is severed from the body by the stroke 
 of an axe, sword, or other cutting instrument. 
 DecoUatio, or beheading, was a military punish- 
 ment among the Romans. Among them tlie 
 head was laid on a cippus, or block, placed in a 
 pit dug for the purpose ; in the army, without 
 the vallum ; in the city, without the walls, at a 
 place near the porta decumana. Preparatory to 
 the stroke, the criminal was tied to a stake, and 
 whipped witli rods. In the early ages the blow 
 was given with an axe, and was but clumsily 
 performed ; but in after-times with a sword, 
 which was thought the more reputable manner of 
 dying : when the executioners grew more expert.
 
 BEH 
 
 757 
 
 BEH 
 
 and took off the head with one circular stroke. 
 St. I'iuil thus says that tlie masjistrate ' boareth 
 not the sword in vain.' In England, beheading 
 is the punisliment of nobles, being reputed not 
 so disgraceful as hangin<j:. In France, during 
 the revolutionary government, the practice of be- 
 heading by an instrument called a guillotine (so 
 denominated from its inventor. Dr. Guillot,) was 
 very general. It resembles an instrument long 
 ago used for the same purpose in Scotland, called 
 the maiden, and which is still prcsersed in Edin- 
 burgh. See Guillotine and Maidln. It is 
 doubtless the most speedy, and least painful, of 
 capital punishments. 
 
 BE'liEARD, he and heard, past participle of 
 the verb to hear. See Hear. 
 
 BEIIEM (Martin), an eminent geographer of 
 the fifteenth century, was born at Nuremberg. 
 Assuming the existence of a western continent, 
 he is said to have applied, in 1459, to Isabella, 
 regent of the duchy of Burgundy and Flanders, 
 to su])ply him with a vessel, with wiiich he dis- 
 covered the island of Fayal, one of the Azores, or 
 at least established a colony of Flemings there, 
 for the discovery is claimed for Gonsalvo Velho, 
 a Portuguese. After residing at Fayal for twenty 
 years, in 1484 (eight years before the expedition 
 of Columbus), according to letters of his still 
 preser\ed, it is said, in the archives of Nurem- 
 berg, he induced John II. of Portugal, to intrust 
 him with the command of an expedition to the 
 south-west. He is said, at this time, to have dis- 
 covered Brasil, and even to have sailed to the 
 Straits of Magellan, which he mathematically 
 delineated on a map. These letters bear date 
 1486; and the event is related in the Latin 
 Chronicle of Hartman Schedl, and by Peter 
 Mateus, who wrote on the canon law two years 
 before the expedition of Columbus. His dis- 
 coveries are likewise referred to by Cellarius and 
 Riccioli, the first of whom mentions the service 
 which his charts afforded Magellan ; and the latter 
 asserts that Columbus obtained direct informa- 
 tion from Behem in Madeira. He was knighted 
 by the king of Portugal, and otherwise honored 
 as a person of great merit ; although these re- 
 wards some writers attribute to his discovery of 
 Congo. He died at Lisbon in in July 1506, 
 leaving no works behing him, except the chart 
 before mentioned, and a terrestrial globe, still in 
 the library of Nuremberg, &c. Dr.llobertson treats 
 the story of his discovery of America as a legend; 
 it is certainly strange that he should leave the 
 world without more formally claiming it ; but 
 the memoir of M. Otto, in vol. ii. of the American 
 Philosophical Transactions, may be profitably 
 consulted on this curious question. 
 
 BEHEMOTH, n. s. Behemoth, in Hebrew, 
 signifies beasts in general, particularly the 
 larger kind, fit for service. But Job speaks of 
 an animal behemoth, and describes its properties. 
 Bochart has taken mucti care to make it the 
 hippopotamus, or river-horse. Sanctius thinks 
 it is an ox. The fathers suppose the devil to be 
 meant by it. Catmet. 
 
 Behold now behemoth, which I made with thee ; he 
 cateth grass as an ox. Job. 
 
 Scarce from his mould 
 Behemoth, biggest bora of earth, upheav'd 
 
 His vastness : flccc'd the flocks and bleating rose 
 As plants : ambiguous between sea and land. 
 The river-horse and scaly crocodile. Milton. 
 
 Behold ' in plaited mail 
 Behemoth rears his head. Thomson. 
 
 Behemoth is generally supposed by commen- 
 tators, as well as natural historians, to mean 
 either the elephant or the river-horse. The late 
 Mr. Bruce endeavours to prove that the |rliino- 
 ceros is the animal meant by this word. Others 
 think that this word denotes the same animal with 
 mammoth, a huge creature, generally supposed 
 to be extinct ; but whose bones are frequently 
 found in marshy grounds in Asia and America. 
 See Mammoth. According to the Jewish rab- 
 bin, God, in the beginning, created two behe- 
 moths, male and female ; the female was killed 
 and salted to be reserved as an entertainment for 
 the faithful whenever the ^lessias shall come ; 
 the male is still living, and when the last day 
 arrives, God will kill it, and give it to the Israel- 
 ites, who shall then rise from the dead. Calmet 
 relates that the Jews are still so convinced of 
 these extravagant traditions, that it is a common 
 custom to swear by the share that they are to 
 have of Behemoth hereafter. Job xl. 15. See 
 Calmefs Dictionary, and Hanner's Observations 
 on Scripture, vol. ii. 
 
 BETIELD, participle passive from Behold, 
 which see. 
 
 All hail ! ye virgin daughters of the main ! 
 Ye streams, beyond my hopes, beheld again ! Pope. 
 
 BE'HEN, I Valerian roots; a name of the 
 Ben. S silene inflata or bladder campion. 
 
 BE'HEST, Be and best; Goth, haitan ; A 
 Shatan, hat an ; Dutch, hcten ; Germ, heisstn. 
 command ; precept ; mandate ; the declared will 
 of any personage, power, or sovereignty. 
 To broken forword is not min entente 
 Behest is dette, and I would hold it fayn 
 All my behest I can no better sayn. Chaucer. 
 
 Her tender youth had obediently lived under her 
 parents' behests, without framing, out of her own will, 
 the forechoosing of any thing. Sidney. 
 
 To visit oft those happy tribes. 
 On high behests his angels to and fro 
 Pass'd frequent. Milton. 
 
 In heav'n God ever blest, and his divine 
 Behests obey, worthiest to be obey'd. Id. 
 
 The plain, by slow degrees, shall rise 
 Higher than erst had stood the summit hill ; 
 For time must nature's great behest fulfil. Prior. 
 
 BEHET, 
 Behi'ght, 
 Beho'te, 
 Beho 
 
 ^ See Behest. Fromhatan, 
 / to promise, is the primary 
 . ^, y sense. It also signifies to en- 
 
 i'ten, i trust; to commit ; and some- 
 Behe'teer, J times to name, or call. See 
 HiGHT. Likewise to command ; to adjudge ; to 
 address ; to intend ; to reckon ; to esteem. 
 
 In right ill array 
 
 She was with storm and heat, I you behigltt (inform). 
 
 Chaucer, 
 
 False faitour, Scudamour, that hast by flight 
 And foulc advantage this good knight dismay 'd, 
 A knight much better than thyself behiglU (esteemed). 
 
 Spenser.
 
 BEH 
 
 758 
 
 BEH 
 
 The author's meaning should of right be heard, 
 I[e knoweth Lest to what end he rnditcth ; 
 M ords sometimes bear more than the heart behighteth 
 
 (means). Mirror for Magistrates. 
 
 And him restoring unto living light. 
 So, brought unto his lord, where he did sit 
 Beholding all that womanish weake fight ; 
 Whom soone £is he beheld he knew, and thus hehight 
 
 (addressed). Spenser. 
 
 There it was judged, by those worthy wights. 
 That Satyrane the first day best had donne ; — 
 The second was to Triamond hehight (adjudged). Id. 
 So taking courteous conge, he hehight (commanded) 
 Those gates to be unbarr'd ; and forth he went. Id. 
 
 But now aread, old father, why of late 
 Didst thou hehight (name) me born of English blood. 
 Whom all a faeries son do nominate ? Id. 
 
 That most glorious house that glis'treth bright. 
 Whereof the keys are to thy hands hehight (en- 
 trusted) 
 By wise Fidelia. Id. 
 
 Sir Guyon, mindful of his vow yplight, 
 I7prose from drowsy couch, and him addrest 
 Unto the journey which he had hehight (proposed or 
 
 premised). Id. 
 
 BEIIE'W, r. be and hew. See Hew. 
 BEHIND, jsT-f/j. "^ The imper. be, and the 
 Behind, arft;. Vnounhind. Goth, hinder ; 
 Behindhand. j Sax. behinclau, hindun, 
 after. Posterior in time or space, dilatory, too 
 late. There is a distinction, however, to be ob- 
 served between the meaning of after and behind : 
 after respects order ; behind respects position : 
 one runs after a person, or stands behind his 
 chair. After is used eitlier figuratively or li- 
 terally; behind is used only literally. See 
 Ceabbe. 
 
 Whan that thou wendest homeward by the mell. 
 Right at the entree of the dore behind, 
 
 Thou shalt a cake of half a bushel find. 
 That was ymaked of thin owen mele 
 Which that 1 halpe my fader for to stele. 
 
 Chaucer's Canterbury Tales. 
 After the overthrow of this first house of God, a 
 second was erected ; but with so great odds, that they 
 wept, which beheld bow much this latter came behind 
 it. Hooker. 
 
 Therefore the prince, whom great affaires in myud 
 Would not permit to make there longer stay. 
 Was forced there to leave them both hehynd 
 In that good hermit's charge, whom he did pray 
 To tend them well, so forth he went his way. 
 
 Spenser. 
 All hurt behind, backs red, and faces pale 
 With flight and agued fear ! Mend and charge home. 
 Or, by the fires of heaven, I'll leave the foe. 
 And make my wars on you. Shakspeare. 
 
 And these thy offices. 
 So rarely kind, are as interpreters 
 Of my behindhand slackness. Id. 
 
 • his ponderous shield. 
 
 Ethereal temper, meissy, large, and round, 
 Bchiml him cast. Miltun. 
 
 Such is the swiftness of your mind. 
 That like the earth's, it leaves our sense behind. 
 
 Dryden. 
 
 What he gave me to publish, was but a small part 
 
 of what he left behind him. Pope. 
 
 Consider, whether it is not better to be half a 
 
 year behindhand with the fashionable part of the 
 
 world, than to strain beyond his circumstances. 
 
 Spectator. 
 
 We cannot be sure that we have all the particulars 
 before us ; and that there is no evidence behind, and 
 yet unseen, that may cast the probability on the other 
 side. Locke. 
 
 In the journey of life some are left behind, because 
 they are naturally feeble and slow ; some because 
 they miss the way, and many because they leave it 
 by choice, and, instead of pressing onward with a 
 steady pace, delight themselves with momentary de- 
 viations, turn aside to pluck every flower and repose 
 in every shade. Johnson. Rambler. 
 
 BEHIRAT EL Merdj, or Khotaibe, a lake 
 of Syria, about seven or eight leagues in circum- 
 ference. It has no visible outlet, and the waters 
 not exhibiting any sensible increase by the rivers 
 and the melting of snow which it receives, it is 
 supposed to discharge them by some subterra- 
 neous channel. Distant twenty-one miles east of 
 Damascus. 
 
 BEHMEN (Jacob). See Boehmen. 
 
 BEHN (Aphra), an authoress, descended from 
 a good family in Canterbury, was bom in the reign 
 of Charles I. Her father's name was Johnson, 
 whothrough the interest of lord Willoughby, to 
 whom he was related, was appointed lieutenant- 
 general of Surinam. Mr. Johnson died on the 
 voyage thither ; but his family reaching Suri- 
 nam, settled there for some years. Here Aphra 
 formed an intimacy with the American prince 
 Oroonoko, and his beloved Imoinda, whose ad- 
 ventures she relates in her celebrated novel of 
 that name, and which Mr. Southeme afterwards 
 made the ground-work of one of the best trage- 
 dies in the English language. On her return to 
 London, she became the wife of Mr. Behn, a mer- 
 chant, of Dutch extraction ; but her wit, abilities, 
 and some less creditable qualifications, having 
 brought her into estimation at the court of Cliarles 
 II. she was sent over to Antwerp, where, by means 
 of her influence over \'ander Albert, a Dutch- 
 man of eminence, she, in 1666, sent' home in- 
 telligence of the design formed by De Ruyter, 
 to burn the English ships in their harbours. In 
 her return to England she was nearly lost in a 
 storm. From this period she devoted her life 
 entirely to pleasure and the Muses ; and her wit 
 gained her the acquaintance of Dryden, South- 
 erne, and other men of genius. She published 
 Miscellaneous Poems ; Histories and Novels ; 
 translated Fontenelle's Plurality of Worlds, and 
 annexed a criticism on it ; her Plays make four 
 volumes. The character her plays should main- 
 tain in dramatic history, it is difficult to deter- 
 mine, as their faults and perfections are equally 
 striking. In all, even tlie most indifierent of 
 her pieces, there are strong marks of genius and 
 understanding. Her plots are full of business 
 and ingenuity, and lier dialogue everywhere 
 sparkles with the dazzling lustre of genuine wit. 
 But then she has been accused of interlarding 
 her comedies with the most indecent scenes, and 
 giving an indulgence in her wit to the most in- 
 delicate expressions. Pope, in his characters of 
 women, alludes to Mrs. Behn under her poetical 
 name of Astrea : 
 
 The stage how loosely does Astrea tread. 
 Who fairly puts her characters to bed. 
 
 After a life intermingled with numerous disap-
 
 BEH 
 
 759 
 
 BEH 
 
 pointments, she died April 16, 1689, and lies 
 interred in NVestiniuster Abbey. 
 
 BEHO'LD, "\ Compounded of tlie in- 
 
 Bkiio'ldkx, / tensive be and hold, it sig- 
 
 Bkuo'ldixo, Unifies to hold or fix the eye 
 
 Beho'lder, i on afn object; it is derived 
 
 Bemo'ldingness,^ from the Saxon beliealdan. 
 It is sometimes employed as an interjection, in 
 order to excite attention or admiration. Behol- 
 den, participle adjective. Uut. Gelumdeii. To 
 be held, and as applied to the mind, to be held 
 in obligation. Beholdingncss expresses the staie 
 of being obliged. Hold in the sense of being 
 under bond or obligation, is used by Gower, 
 Conf. Am. book vii. and also in book viii. 
 Behold is used by NViclif, and some of the elder 
 writers, in the sense of preference, to look on 
 with favor. 
 
 Maistere wc witen that thou art soth fast and 
 thou tcchist in treuth the wcy of God, and thou char- 
 gist not of ony man, for thou beholdist not the per- 
 sona of men, therefore seye to us, what it seemeth to 
 thee. Wiclif. Matt. chap. xxii. 
 
 They should consider howe deeply they wer bounden 
 and beholden to hym, therefore, and with devout 
 thankes inwardlyc remember his inestimable boiity 
 therin. Sir Thomas More's Workes. 
 
 His pleasure was, that for our saluaclon we should 
 to him be beholding, and not to the kepyng of the 
 lawe. Udall. Galathies. cap. ii. 
 
 This olde Soudanncsse 
 Ordeined hath the feste of ■which I tolde ; 
 And to the feste, Cristen folk hem dresse. 
 In (reneral ya, both yongc and olde 
 Ther may men fest and realtee helwlde 
 And deintees, mo than I can you devise ; 
 But all to dere they bought it or they rise. 
 
 Chaucer. Cant. Tales. 
 Dan Troilus, as he was wont to gide. 
 His yonge knightis, ledde hem up and downc 
 In thilke large temple on every side ; 
 Beholding aie the ladeis of the toune, 
 Now here, now there ; for no devociounc 
 Had he to none, to revin him his rest. 
 But gan to praise and lackin whom he lest. 
 
 Id. Troilus and Crtseide. 
 
 All sodainely she saw transfigured 
 Her linnen stole to robe of scarlet red, 
 .4nd moone-like mitre to a crowne of gold ; 
 That even she herself much wondered 
 At such a chaunge, and ioyed to beliold 
 Herself adorn'd with gems and icwells manifold. 
 
 Spenser. 
 With him went Hope in ranckc, a handsome mayd. 
 Of cheareful lookc, and lovely to behold-. 
 In silken samite she was light array'd. 
 And her fayre locks were woven up in gold. Id, 
 
 The king invited us to his court, so as I must ac- 
 knowledge a beholdingness unto him. Sidney. 
 
 In this, my debt, I seem'd loth to confess. 
 In that I sbunn'd beholdingness. Donne. 
 
 W'hen Thessalians on horseback were helteld afar 
 off, while their horses watered, while their heads were 
 depressed, they were conceived by the spectators to 
 be one animal. Brown's Vulgar Errours. 
 
 I found you next, in respect of bond, both of near 
 alliance, and particularly of communication in stu- 
 dies : wherein I must acknowledge mysolf beliolden to 
 you. Bacon. 
 
 Horns, which such as you arc fain lo be beholden to 
 your wives for. Shakspeare. 
 
 Little arc we beliolden to your love. 
 And little look'd for at your helping hands. Id, 
 
 For Brutus' sake, I am beholden to you. Id. 
 
 But I will haste, and from each bough and brake 
 Eacli plant and juiciest gourd will pluck such cheer 
 To entertain our angel guest, as he 
 Beholding shall confess, that here on earth 
 God hath dispens'd his bounties as in heaven. 
 
 Slilton. 
 When out of hope behold her 1 not far off. 
 Such eis I saw her in my dream, adorn'd 
 With what all earth or heaven could bestow. 
 To make her amiable. Id. 
 
 The philosophy you have condescended to reveal to 
 us is most extraordinary. We are beholden to you 
 for your instruction. Shaftesbury. 
 
 Man looks aloft, and, with erected eyes. 
 Beholds his own hereditary skies. Dryden. 
 
 At this the former tale again he told. 
 With thund'iing tone, and dreadful to behold. 
 
 Id. 
 The Saviour comes, by ancient bards foretold ! 
 Hear him, ye deaf; and all ye blind behold! Pope, 
 I think myself mighty beholden to you for the repre- 
 hension you then gave us. Addison, 
 We, who see men under the awe of justice, cannot 
 conceive what savage creatures they would be without 
 and how much beholden we arc to that wise con- 
 
 trivance. 
 
 BEHO'OVE, or-) 
 
 Beho've, v. k,n 
 
 Behoof, 
 
 Behove'ful, 
 
 Beiiove'fully, 
 
 Behov'able, 
 
 Beuo'vedly, 
 
 Behove'ly. 
 
 Atterbury. 
 
 Sax. 
 duty, 
 meet: 
 
 behopan, it is a 
 
 To be fit; to be 
 
 eidier with respect 
 
 r to duty, necessity, or con- 
 
 I venience. It is used only 
 
 impersonally with it. 
 
 J 
 
 Her majesty may alter any thing of those laws, for 
 her own behoof, and for the good of the people. 
 
 Spenser, 
 
 It is very behooveful in this country of Ireland, 
 
 where there are waste deserts full of grass, that the 
 
 sajne should be eaten down. Id. 
 
 Tell us of more weighty dislikes than these, and 
 
 that may more behoovefully import the reformation, 
 
 Id. 
 
 Laws are many times full of imperfections ; and 
 
 that which is supposed befiooveful imto men, proveth 
 
 oftentimes most pernicious. Hooker, 
 
 For better examination of their quality, it behooveth 
 
 the very foundation and root, the highest well-spring 
 
 and fountain of them, to be discovered. Id, 
 
 Madam, we have cuU'd such necessaries 
 
 As arc behooveftd for our state to-morrow. 
 
 Shakspeare, 
 No mean rccompencc it brings 
 To your behoof: if I that region lost. 
 All usurpation thence expell'd, reduce 
 To her original darkness, and your sway. 
 
 Milton. 
 Wert thou some star, which from the ruin'd roof 
 Of shak'd Olympus by mischance didst fall ; 
 Which careful Jove, in nature's true behoof. 
 Took up, and in fit place did reinstall. Id. 
 
 Because it was for the behoof o{ the animal, that, 
 'upon any sudden accident, it might be awakened, 
 there were no shuts or stopples made for the ears. 
 
 Ihiy. 
 
 It may be most behoovf^d for princes, in matters 
 of grace, to transact the same publicly ; so it is as
 
 BEI 
 
 166 
 
 BEI 
 
 requisite in matters of judgment, punishment, and 
 censure, that the same be transacted privately. 
 
 Clarendon. 
 It would be of no behoof, for the settling of go- 
 vernment, unless there were a way taught, how to 
 know the person to whom belonged this power and 
 dominion. Locke. 
 
 He did so prudently temper his passions, as that 
 none of them made him WEinting in the offices of life, 
 which it beliooved or became him to perform. 
 
 Atterhury. 
 
 But should you lure the monarch of the brook. 
 Behooves you then to ply your finest art. Thomson. 
 
 BEHOWL, be and liowl. See Howl. 
 
 BEJA, or Bexa, an appanage of the queens 
 of Portugal, in the province of Alentejo, com- 
 prehending a city, three towns, and twenty-one 
 parishes. The chief place is the city of Beja, 
 which was raised to the rank of duchy by King 
 John II., and has a population of 6000 inhabi- 
 tants. It was anciently the Roman Pax Julia. 
 It is the see of a bishop, who is suffragan of Com- 
 postella, and lies on the side of a hill, in a de- 
 lightful tract of country, seventy-two miles 
 S. S. E. of Lisbon. Long. 7° 50' W., lat. 37° 
 55. N. 
 
 BEJADE, be and jade. See Jade. 
 
 BEJAGUR (Vijayaghar), a district in the 
 province of JNIalwah, situated about the twenty- 
 second degree of north latitude. It is possessed 
 by different ]\Iahratta chiefs. The chief towns 
 are Awass, Sindwah, and Gherowd. 
 
 BEJAPE, be and jape ; perhaps as jabber, 
 and gibe; from Germ, gabharen ; Fr. gaber; Ital. 
 gabbare. To joke, mock, deride, delude, jeer. 
 Thou hast bejaped here dark Theseus 
 And falsely changed hast thy name thus. 
 
 CJiuucer. 
 
 BEJAPOUR, a city of Hindostan. See Vi- 
 
 SIAPOUR. 
 
 BEJAR, a town of Estremadura in Spain, in 
 the district of Placentia, famous for its baths. It 
 is seated in a very agreeable valley, surrounded 
 with high mountains, whose tops are always co- 
 vered with snow. Here the duke of Bejar had 
 a handsome palace : it was raised to a dukedom 
 in the house of Zuniga in 1448. In this neigh- 
 bourhood are forests filled with game, and 
 watered with fine springs ; also a lake abounding 
 with excellent fish. It is pretended that this lake 
 is so much agitated before a storm as to be heard 
 fifteen miles off. 
 
 BEJASI, or Beiasites, a liberal sect of Ma- 
 liommedan Arabs. 
 
 BEIBENIjE Stella:, a name given by some 
 astronomers to the principal fixed stars in each 
 constellation; otherwise called corda, though 
 some distinguish between corda and beibeniae 
 Stella, restraining the former to stars only of the 
 first magnitude, and extending the latter to seve- 
 ral of the second or third. Hermes has a trea- 
 tise express De Stellis Beibeniis, published by 
 Junctinus, in his Speculum Astrologicum, and 
 also in his commentaries upon Jo. de Sacrobos- 
 co's book De Sphera. 
 
 BEICHLINGEN, a county of Saxony, in 
 Thuringia, on the Lossa, and belonging, since 
 1815, to the king of Prussia. The castle of 
 Beichlingen is situate not far from Kolleda, 
 
 eighteen miles north of Weimar, and twenty 
 north-east of Erfurt. 
 
 BEIDELSAR, in botany, a name by whkh 
 some authors call the apocynum Syriacum, or 
 Syrian dog's-bane, a poisonous plant. 
 
 BEJETZK, or BeShezh, a town of Russia, 
 in the government of Twer, the capital of a circle 
 of the same name. Here are 3100 inhabitants ; and 
 an annual fair is held here, which lasts five days. 
 The principal articles for sale are pain, iron, 
 silk, and cotton stuft's. It is forty -eight miles 
 N. N. E. of Twer, 260 south-east of St. Peters- 
 burg. 
 
 BEJIGHUR, a town in the Mahratta territo- 
 ries, in the province of Agra, Hindostan, about 
 seventy miles south-west from Agra. It stands 
 at the extremity of a low hill, and has an upper 
 and lower fort. The surrounding country con- 
 sists of ranges of low hills much covered with 
 jungle, and separated from each other by inter- 
 mediate plains, intersected by deep ravines ; but 
 upon the whole, well supplied with water. 
 
 BEILD, beeld, shelter. Old Sax. be-hlidan, 
 to cover, to protect, to shelter. 
 
 BEILSTEIN, in mineralogy, axe-stone, a 
 green stone, remarkable for its toughness, and 
 used by the South Sea islanders, the New Zea- 
 landers, for making hatchets, &c. Images of 
 idols and personal ornaments have also been 
 made from it; numbers of which have been 
 brought to this country, and may be seen in both 
 public and private cabinets. 
 
 BEIN, Beinx, or Bhein, in the Gaelic lan- 
 guage, signifies a mountain, and accordingly 
 makes part of the names of a considerable num- 
 ber of hills and mountains in Scotland; particu- 
 lariy, 
 
 Bein-ak-Ini, in Argyllshire, which has a seam 
 of coals in it, that has been twice attempted to 
 be wrought, but from various causes given up. 
 
 Bein-ax-Lochax, i. e. the hill of the lake, in 
 Argj'Ushire, so named from a lake which washes 
 its base. 
 
 Beix-Akdlanich, in Ranoch, in the parish of 
 Fortingal, Perthshire, about 3500 feet above the 
 level of the sea, &c. 
 
 BEINASCHI (Giovanni Battista), historical 
 painter, was a Piedmontese, and born in 1634. 
 He studied.'at Rome, under Pietro del Po ; and 
 some say afterwards under Lanfranc. It is cer- 
 tain he was particularly fond of Lanfranc's 
 works, and became so thoroughly acquainted 
 with his style and manner, that many of his pic- 
 tures are, at this day, accounted the works 
 of Lanfranc. He was an admirable designer; 
 his invention was lively, and he was not only 
 expeditious but correct. His merits procured 
 him the honor of knighthood, whence he is 
 styled cavalier. 
 
 BEINHEIM, a fort of France, in the depart- 
 ment of the Lower Rhine, and ci-devant pro- 
 vince of Alsace ; seated on the Sur, near its 
 confluence with the Rhine. 
 
 BEIRA, a province of Portugal, bounded on 
 the west by the Atlantic ocean, on the south by 
 the Portuguese I'.siremadura; on the south-east 
 by the Spanish I'.strtmadura ; on the east by the 
 province of Tralos iMontes, and Enlre-Duero-e- 
 Minho ; and on the north by the river DourOv
 
 BEI 
 
 761 
 
 BEK 
 
 It extends in length about thirty-four leagues, 
 and in breadth about tliirty lea<^ies, and is di- 
 vided into six commarcas. The chief e])iscopal 
 city is ('oimlna, whicli is likewise an university; 
 and V'iseu, also a bishopric, and formerly tlie 
 capital of a dukedom. It contains, altogether, 
 seven episcopal cities, 230 towns, and 900,000 
 inhabitants. The country is equally agreeable 
 and fruitful, producing corn, wines, &c. in 
 abundance, and the hills affording excellent pas- 
 ture to cattle and sheep. Of late, however, the 
 grain has been said not to be sufficient for 
 home consumption ; and that the chestnut-trees, 
 which cover many of the mountains, supply 
 the place of it to many of the lower orders of the 
 people. Olive plantations are numerous, and 
 their produce, with that of the vineyards, forms the 
 chief exports. Mines, both of silver and lead, 
 were formerly wrought in the mountainous dis- 
 tricts, and rich specimens of ore have been 
 found near J^amego ; but since Portugal ob- 
 tained her American possessions, the inhabitants 
 have been prohibited from extracting the precious 
 metals. 
 
 BEMIAM, or Bairam. See Bairam. 
 
 BKISCII (Joachim Francis), a painter of 
 landscapes and battles, born at Ravensburgh in 
 Suabia in 1665. He was taught the rudiments 
 of the art by his father; and first employed at 
 the court of Munich in painting the battles of the 
 emperor Maximilian Emanuel in Hungary. 
 While that prince was absent on some of his 
 expeditions, Beisch took the opportunity of visit- 
 ing Italy, and it is a sufficient testimony of the 
 perfection to which he arrived to say, that even 
 Solimene copied several of his landscapes. The 
 scenes of his landscapes are agreeably chosen, 
 and picturesque : his touch is light, tender, and 
 full of spirit ; and his style of composition re- 
 sembles that of Caspar Poussin, or Salvator 
 liosa. He etched several pleasing views in a 
 good taste, but these prints are scarce. lie died 
 in 1748. 
 
 BEISSKER, in ichthyology, a name given by 
 Gesner and others to the fish commonly called 
 mustela fossilis. It is a species of the cobitis, 
 distinguished by Artedi by the name of the bluish 
 cobitis, with fine longitudinal lines on each 
 side. Schonefeldt calls this the psecilia, and 
 Johnson the piscis fossilis. 
 
 BEISTON, a township in the parish of Bun- 
 bury and coimty of Chester, distinguished for 
 the ruins of a fortress built in the year 12'20, by 
 Randle Blundeville, earl of (Chester. It enclosed 
 an area of about five or six acres, and was 
 guarded on the accessible side by a vast moat cut 
 in the solid rock. The other side rose on a mass 
 of insulated rocks, almost perpendicularly, to the 
 height of 366 feet. In the time of Henry VI H. 
 this stately pile was almost dilapidated : yet in 
 the civil wars of Charles I.'s reign, we find it in 
 a state of defence, which rendered it a most im- 
 portant ]iost. It was garrisoned for the parlia- 
 ment, wiien a Captain Sandford, a celebrated 
 cavalier, undertook to scale its perpendicular 
 side; and having thus gained entrance with 
 eight men, he intimidated the commander, Cap- 
 tain Stiel, and com])elled him to surrender. Steel 
 was soon afterwards shot for cowardice. The 
 
 royalists were then besieged for upwards of four 
 months. Prince Rupert relieved them ; hut the 
 castle was a second time invested, and a block- 
 ade of eighteen weeks reduced the garrison to 
 the most piteous extremity of famine. Never- 
 theless, after a gallant defence, they obtained 
 honorable terms, and the castle was immediately 
 dismantled by order of the parliament. 
 
 BEIT-EL-FAKIII (the Doctor's-house^, a 
 town and district of Arabia, in lat. 14° 31' N., 
 long 43° 2' E. It was founded by a Mussulman 
 saint, named Ahmid ibn Musa, in the seventeenth 
 century, and is the great emporium of the coffee 
 trade, the best samples of thai article being pro- 
 duced in the neighbouring mountains. The 
 quantity carried to Mocha, twenty-five leagues 
 distant, is about 4000 bales of 313 pounds each, 
 of which thirteen pounds are allowed for pack- 
 age, unless the English or French happen to be 
 there, when it is greater. A bale generally costs 
 forty-two Spanish piastres, which, with all duties 
 and expenses, makes the cofl'ee amount to 14^^. 
 per pound. Several European powers have had 
 residents at Beit-el-Fakih, and merchants resort 
 thither from manypartsof the east. It is subject to 
 the imam of Yemen, and has risen considerably 
 since the ruin of (ihalefkah, a town on the Red 
 Sea, formerly the port of this part of Arabia. 
 
 BEIZA, or BEIZATH, in Hebrew antiquity, 
 1, a word signifying an egg; 2, a certain mea- 
 sure among the Jews ; 3, a gold coin, weighing 
 forty drachms, among the Persians, wlio gave out 
 that Philip of Macedon owed their king Darius 
 1000 beizaths, or golden eg'zs, for tribute money, 
 but Alexander the Great refused to pay them, 
 saying, that the bird wliich laid these eggs was 
 flown to another world. 
 
 HEIvES, or Bekesch, a populous and 
 tiiriving market town of Hungary, in the above 
 county. It is situated on the river Black Ka- 
 rosch, and was formerly a place of strength. It 
 is inhabited by aboriginal Hung-arians, who pro- 
 fess the reformed faith, and have a parish 
 cimrch. 
 
 BEKESCH, a county of Hungary, bounded 
 on the north by great Cu.mania and Bihar, on 
 the east by Zarand, on tlie south by Arad, and 
 on the west by Zolnok and Czongrad. it forius 
 a square of nearly forty miles, and contains four 
 towns, sixteen villages, and about .5.5,000 inhabi- 
 tants, who are composed of Hungarians, Bohe- 
 mians, Sclavonians, and Walachians, professing 
 the Greek, the Lutheran, and the Catholic reli- 
 gions. 
 
 BEKIA, Bec olva, or Beqiia, a small island 
 among the Grenadilloes, in about lat. 13° N., 
 belonging to Britain, and chiefiy valuable for 
 turtle. It produces also wild cotton and water- 
 melons. It lies sixty miles north-east of Gre- 
 nada. The French have called it Little. 
 
 BEKISS, be and kiss. See Kiss. 
 
 BEKKEK (Halthazar), a famous Dutch di- 
 vine, born in 1634 at Warthuisen, in the province 
 of (Jroninuen. In 1679 he was chosen minister 
 at Amsterdam, where he published The World 
 Bewitched, an ingenious piece against the 
 vulgar notion of spirits. It raised such a 
 clamor against him, that he was deposed from 
 the ministry, but the magistrates of Amsterdam
 
 BEL 
 
 762 
 
 BEL 
 
 continued his pension. His opinions were, that 
 the essence of spirits consists in thinking ; that 
 therefore spirits cannot act on bodies or other 
 spirits : and that those texts, which speak of their 
 actions are metaphorical. The possessions in 
 the gospels he ascribes to mental disorders. He 
 died in 1698. 
 
 BEKNOWE, be and know. See Know. 
 
 BEL, '?j;3, i. e. the Lord, Heb. Chald. or 
 Belus, the supreme god of tlie ancient Chaldeans, 
 or Babylonians. He was considered as the 
 founder of the Babylonian empire; and supposed 
 to be the Nimrod of Scripture ; the same with 
 the Phoenician Baal. See Baal and Baby- 
 lon. 
 
 Bel, in botany, the name of a plant called by 
 some the cucumis capparis, or caper cucumber. 
 This plant is very imperfectly described to us ; 
 and we find among the Arabian writers, that the 
 fniit was called by that name, as well as the 
 whole plant. Avicenna, who gives the fullest 
 account of it, says that it was an Indian plant, 
 resembling in growth the common cucumber, 
 but bearing a fruit like the caper: he tells us that 
 this fruit was the only part of the plant used in 
 medicine, and that it was very hot and bitter, 
 being somewhat like ginger in the fiery taste. 
 
 Bel (Matthias), an eminent Hungarian divine, 
 born at Orsova in 1684. He at first studied 
 physic at Halle, but gave it up for theology, and 
 jecame rector of the school at Presburg, and 
 minister to a Lutheran congregation there. He 
 wrote, among other works, a History of Hungary, 
 which was so much admired, that the emperor 
 Charles VL appointed him his historiographer, 
 and ennobled him ; and notwithstanding his be- 
 ing a Lutheran, the pope in 1 736 sent him his 
 picture, and many large gold medals. He was a 
 member of the Ptoyal Society of London, and of 
 the academies at Berlin and Petersburg. He 
 died in 1749, aged sixty-five. 
 
 Bel (Charles-Andrew, son of Matthias), was 
 born at Presburg in 1717. In 1741 he was ap- 
 pointed professor extraordinary at Leipsic, and 
 in 1756 professor of poetry, and librarian to the 
 university, with the title of counsellor of state. 
 1 le wrote De Vera Origine et Epocha Hunnorum, 
 ice. 4to. ; besides which he conducted the Acta 
 Eruditorum from 1754 to 1781. He died in 
 1782. 
 
 Bel and the Dragon, the History of, an 
 apocryphal and uncanonical book. It was al- 
 ways rejected by the Jewish church, and is ex- 
 tant neither in tiie Hebrew nor the Chaldee 
 language, nor is there any proof that it ever was 
 so. St. Jerome gives it the title of the Fable of 
 Bel and the Dragon. 
 
 BELA, a large town of Hungary, in the 
 county of Zips. It was one of the sixteen towns 
 which were mortgaged to Poland in 1412, and is 
 inhabited by German Lutherans, who gain a live- 
 lihood by the tillage of the ground, and a trade 
 in wine, iron, and tobacco. 
 
 BELABOUR, be and labor. See Labor. 
 
 BELAC, or Bellac, a city of France, in the 
 department of the Upper \'ienne, and ci-devant 
 province of Lyonnois ; seated on the \'in^on, 
 twenty miles north of Limoges, and 160 south of 
 Paris. It contains 3291 inhabitants. 
 
 BELACED, be and laced. See Lace. 
 BE'LAMIE, ^ Fr. bcl aniie, bel amour; a 
 Be'lamol'r. 5 friend, a paramour, a gallant,, 
 a consort. 
 
 Wise Socrates 
 Pour'd out his life, and last philosophy. 
 To the fair Critias, his dearest belamie. 
 
 Faerie Qiieene. 
 Lo, lo, how brave she decks her boxinteoiis bow'r 
 With silken curtains and gold coverlets. 
 Therein to shroud her sumptuous belamour. Id, 
 
 BEL'ATE, ) , J , ^ , 
 
 Bel'atedness. 5 ^' ^"^ '^''- ^'^ L^^'^- 
 Fairy elves. 
 Whose midnight revels, by a forest side. 
 Or fountain, some belated peasant sees. 
 Or dreams he sees. Milton's Paradise Lost. 
 
 Or near Fleetditch's oozy brinks. 
 Belated, seems on watch to lie. Swift. 
 
 BELATUCADRUS, the name of an ancient 
 British idol, recorded in old inscriptions ; and 
 supposed by Selden and Vossius to be the same 
 with Belenus. 
 
 BE'LAY, ^ Be and lay. To waylay, to lie 
 
 Be'layed. S in wait, to place in ambush, to 
 overlay, to cover. 
 
 'Gainst such strong castles needeth greater might. 
 
 Than those small forces ye were wont belay. 
 
 Spenser, 
 
 All in a woodman's jacket he was clad. 
 Of Lincolne greene, belayd with silver lace. /(/. 
 
 The speedy horse all passages belay. 
 
 And spur their smoking steeds to cross their way. 
 
 Dryden. 
 
 To Belay, on board a ship, signifies the same 
 as fasten. Thus they say, belay the sheet, or 
 tack, that is, fasten it to the kevel, by winding it 
 several times round a last, &c. 
 
 To Belay' a Rope, a sea term ; to splice : to 
 mend a rope, by laying one end over another. 
 
 Belbeis, a town of Egypt, near the Syrian 
 frontier, four miles north-west of Suez. It was 
 formerly well fortified, and the only bulwark of 
 the kingdom on this side. Buonaparte, in 1798, 
 availed himself of it, and strengthened the forti- 
 fications against the Turks. Its population is now 
 scarcely a third of what it formerly was, and 
 does not exceed 5000. It has been supposed to 
 be the ancient Bubastum, but D'Anville radier 
 thinks that it was Pharbothus. A junction here 
 takes place of the canals derived from different 
 parts of the Nile. 
 
 BELCH', u. & 71. \ Sax. bealcan. To eject 
 
 Belch'ing. S wind from the stomach; to 
 
 eruct. To issue out, as by eructation. To throw 
 out from the stomach ; to eject from any hollow 
 place. It is a word implying coarseness, hate- 
 fulness, or horror. 
 
 The bitterness of it I now belch from my heart. 
 
 S/ia/iepeare. 
 
 They are all but stomachs, and we all but food ; 
 They eat us hungerly, and, when they're full, 
 They belch us. Id. 
 
 This thing, nor man, nor beast, turns all his wealth 
 In drink ; his days, his years, in liquor drenching: 
 So quatfs he sickness down, by quaffing health ; 
 Firing his cheeks with quenching ; strangely quench-
 
 BEL 
 
 763 
 
 BEL 
 
 His eyes with firing ; dull and faint they rollM ; 
 ]hit, nimble lips, known things and hid unfold ; 
 Bclchinys, oft sips, large spits point out the talc he 
 told. Flelclier's Purple Island. 
 
 Immediate in a flame. 
 But soon obscur'd with smoke, all hcav'u appear'd. 
 From those deep-throated engines belch'd, whose roar 
 Imbowell'd with outrageous noise the air. 
 And all her entrails tore, disgorging foul 
 Their devilish glut, chain'd thunderbolts, and hail 
 Of iron globes. sMilton. 
 
 The waters boil, and belching from below. 
 Black sands as from a forceful engine throw. 
 
 Dry den. 
 A triple pile of plumes his crest adorn'd. 
 On which with bekhimi fljunes Chimaera burn'd. 
 
 Id. 
 The symptoms arc, a sour smell in their fices, 
 belchings, and distensions of the bowels. 
 
 Arbuthnot on AlimerU. 
 
 BE'LEAGUE, -^ Be and league. Germ. 
 
 Be'leagler, '^lagcn, Dut. lueghen, be-lae- 
 
 BE'LEAGUERER.JgAen, Swed. beleagra, Ancr.- 
 Sax. licjan, to lay, to place before, to attacli, to 
 besiege ; to lie before a town, in order to force 
 it to capitulate. 
 
 Their business, which they carry on, is the general 
 concernment of the Trojan camp, then beleaguered by 
 Turnus and the Latins. Dryden's Dufresnoy. 
 
 Against beleaguer'd heav'n the giants move; 
 Hills pil'd on hills, ou mountains mountains lie. 
 To make their mad approaches to the sky. Dryden. 
 
 BE'LEE, V. a. A term used in navigation. 
 To place in a direction unsuitable to the wind. 
 
 But he (sir) had th' election ; 
 And I (of whom his eyes had seen the proof 
 At Rhodes, at Cyprus, and on other grounds 
 Christian and heathen) must be be-leed, and calm'd. 
 By debitor and creditor. Shaltspeare. Othello. 
 
 BELEM, a town and fortress of Portugal, in 
 Estremadura, about a mile from Lisbon, on the 
 north side of the Tagus, and designed to defend 
 the entrance of the river. Here all ships that 
 sail up to Lisbon must bring to. The fortress is 
 on an island in the middle of the Tagus, and on 
 the opposite side is the station for quarantine. 
 After the earthquake of 1755 the royal family of 
 Portugal removed their residence to this town, 
 ■where they occupied a wooden house. On 3d 
 September, 1758, king .loseph narrowly escaped 
 assassination in this neighbourhood. The town 
 was founded by king Emanuel, and contains, 
 besides the royal palace, an hospital for decayed 
 noblemen, and a rich monastery of Hierony mites, 
 the church of which encloses the tombs of many 
 kings and princes of the royal family. 
 
 BELEMNITE, in mineral conchology, a 
 species of fossil organic remains, occurring in 
 chalk formations, but very sparingly in the 
 upper beds of. that substance. It is, however, 
 abundant in the beds immediately below the 
 chalk : its form is cylindrical, pointed at one end, 
 and having a conical hollow at the other. The 
 animal is considered to have belonged to the tes- 
 taceous moUusca', and to have been contained in 
 a multilocular univalve siiell ; but the fossil does 
 not present itself in a sufficiently perfect state to 
 furnish an accurate knowledge of its form. Its 
 substance is fibrous carbonate of lime, radiating 
 perpendicularly from the axis of the cylindrical 
 
 body. In the districts in which they are found 
 tiiey have been vulgarly called thunderbolts. 
 
 BELEM'MTES, a. s. From /3t\oc, a dart or 
 arrow, because of its resemblance to the point 
 of an arrow. Arrowhead, or fingei-stone, of a 
 whitish, and sometimes a gold color. See Be- 
 
 LEMMTE. 
 
 BELEMNOIDES, or Belennoides, in 
 anatomy ; from /StXcc a dart, and hcoq form ; the 
 shooting forth of the bone called aliformis, which 
 is the sixth in the basis of the scull. 
 
 BELENNUS, in ichthyology, the name of a 
 small anguiliform fish, called by some biennis. 
 It is a sea fish, and very scarce. It approaches 
 much in figure to the English bull-head, or mil- 
 liar's thumb, the cottus of authors. 
 
 BELENUS, in mythology, a name which the 
 Gauls gave to the sun, which they also called 
 Mithra ; and, as some suppose, the same with 
 the Baal of Scripture, and the Belus of the As- 
 syrians. 
 
 BELERIUM, in ancient geography, a pro- 
 montory of the Dumnonii or Damnonii, the west- 
 most Britons. It is now called the Lund's End, 
 in Cornwall. 
 
 BELESIS, or Nanybrvs, said by some ancient 
 historians to liave been the founder of the Baby- 
 lonish empire, and, in conjunction with Arbaces 
 the Mede, to have put an end to the kingdom of 
 the Assyrians, by the defeat and death of Sarda- 
 napalus. Belesis is represented both as a hero 
 and a crafty knave. It is said he was base 
 enough to endeavour to obtain from his col- 
 leagues, by treachery, the immense treasures 
 which had been concealed in the contlagration at 
 Nineveh. When the secret was discovered, he 
 was called to an account, and tried by the other 
 chiefs who had been assistant in the war, and 
 who, upon his confession, condemned him to lose 
 his head. But Arbaces freely forgave him, left 
 him in possession of the treasure, and also the 
 independent government of Babylon, saying, 
 The good he had done ought to serve as a veil to 
 his crim.e. Under the successor of Arbaces he 
 became a man of show and effeminacy, of whom 
 we hear nothing more that is worthy of notice. 
 
 BELESME, or Bellesme, a town of France, 
 in the department of the Orne, and ci-devant 
 province of Perciie ; seventy-five miles south-west 
 of Paris. 
 
 BELESTAT, a town of France, in the de- 
 partment of the Arriege, remarkable for a spring 
 which regularly flows and ebbs. 
 
 BELEZ, or Belz, a town of Austrian Galicia, 
 circle of Zokien, not far from the river Bug, witli 
 a castle. It once belonged to Poland, and was 
 the capital of a circle in Red Russia ; but was 
 annexed to Austria, at the first partition of Po- 
 land, in 1772. The town is large, but neither 
 ricli nor commercial. It lies in the middle of a 
 plain, at the extremity of whicii is a morass; the 
 houses are of wood, and the only buildings of 
 note are the churches of the Catholic and Greek 
 communions. The extensive oak forests in the 
 neigbourhood yield abundance of potash. 148 
 miles east of Cracow, and 1 52 S. S. E. of Warsaw. 
 Long. 24'' 12' E., lat. 50° 24' N. 
 
 BELFAST, a town of Ireland, on the east 
 coast of the county of Antiini ; seated on »he
 
 BEL 
 
 764 
 
 mouthof the Lagan, at tlie bottom of Carrickfergus found 
 Bay. It is the cliief town and port in this part of bells. 
 
 BEL 
 
 He whose trade it is to found or cast 
 
 Ireland, and is connected with the lougii Neaijh by 
 means of a canal. Its local situation enables it 
 to carry on an extensive export trade in butter 
 and salt provisions, as well as in its own manu- 
 factures of cotton, cambric, sail-cloth, and linen. 
 Here are also some flourishing sugar and glass- 
 
 Thosc that make recorders know this, and likewise 
 belfoundcrs in fitting the tune of their be'ls. Bacon. 
 
 BELFRY, Belfredus, is used by military 
 writers of the middle age, for a sort of tower 
 erected by besiegers, to overlook and command 
 the place besieged. Belfry originally denoted a 
 
 houses, potteries, distilleries, &c. The govern- high tower, where sentinels were placed to watch 
 
 ment of the town is vested in the marquis of the avenues of a place, and prevent surprise from 
 
 Donegal, as lord of the castle, the constable of parties of the enemy, or to give notice of fires by 
 
 the castle, and twelve burgesses. There is also a ringing a bell. In the cities of Flanders, where 
 
 police magistrate. The sister kingdom of Scot- there is no belfry on purpose, the tower of the 
 
 land has supplied this town with such a large chief church serves the same end. The word 
 
 portion of its inhabitants that it has sometimes belfry is compounded of the Teutonic bell, and 
 
 ijeen called a Scottish colony. The streets are Jreid peace, because the bells were rung for pre- 
 
 broad and regular, and the houses generally of serving the peace. Belfry is now used for that 
 
 brick. Among the best of the public buildings part of a steeple wherein the bells are hung. This 
 
 are the new church, the assembly room over the is sometimes called by middle age writers campa- 
 
 exchange, and the linen hall, surrounded by a nile, clocaria, and tristegum. It is likewise used 
 
 garden. Here also is a good bridge over the for the timber work which sustains the bells in a 
 
 Laggan, built of free-stone and consisting of steeple, or that wooden structure to which the 
 
 twenty-one arches ; and a number of excellent bells in church steeples are fastened, 
 
 charitable institutions, to which the gentlemen BELG/Ii-, the ancient inhabitants of Gallia 
 
 of Belfast carefully attend ; also a public library, Belgica, stiled by Cffisar the bravest of the Gauls, 
 
 and Catholic and dissenting chapels. I"rom its being untainted by luxury. See Belgium. The 
 
 press occasionally issue scientific works of great first migration of the Belgae into Britain took 
 
 merit, as well as some well-edited newspapers, place at a very early period ; some of the latest 
 
 In 1798 this town contained only 3107 houses, 
 and about 18,320 inhabitants. The population 
 in 1824, inclusive of Ballymacarret, was nearly 
 double the above number; immerous streets are 
 
 colonies were established here but a short time prior 
 to the Roman invasion. At that time their main 
 body inhabited the present Hampshire, Wiltshire, 
 and Somersetshire. Those on the south coast, 
 
 just built, various public buildings erected, and according to Casar, Com. 1. v. c. 10, had pitssed 
 
 the public schools are rapidly assuming the over from different parts, and still retained the 
 
 character of a northern university. Above fifty names of the states from which they descended, 
 
 vessels belong to the port, the united burden of The last by Divitiacus,'thekingof the Suessiones, 
 
 which exceeds 8330 tons, and they emoloy 7200 one of the most powerful Belgic nations of Gaul; 
 
 sailors. The custom-house dues have of late 
 amounted to £400,000 per annum. Belfast re- 
 turns one member to parliament ; and is eighty 
 miles from Dublin, and nine from Carrickfergus. 
 
 and, having obtained a firm settlement on the 
 British coast, he continued to exercise his au- 
 thority on both sides of the channel. The Ro- 
 mans found m these tribes the most powerful 
 
 Belfast, a post town of the United States of opponents to their arms; and the honor of their 
 
 America, in the district of Maine; situated on the final subjugation was reserved for Vespasian, 
 
 west side of the Penobscot ; 246 miles from Bos- who fought thirty-two battles, and took more 
 
 ton, and 591 from Philadelphia. — A town of than twenty towns, before he could regard his 
 
 Pennsylvania, in the county of Bedford. — A conquest of them as complete. After this the 
 
 township of the United States, in Hancock 
 county, district of INlaine, on the mouth of the 
 Penobscot. 
 
 Belfast Bay, a bay on the coast of the dis- 
 trict of Maine, which runs into the land by three 
 arms. 
 
 BELFLOWER, n. s. From bell and flower, 
 because of the shape of its flower ; in Latin cam- 
 pana. A plant. There is a vast number of the 
 species of this plant. 1 . The tallest pyramidal 
 belflower. 2. The blue peach-leaved belflower. 
 3. The white peach-leaved belflower. 4. Gar- 
 den belflower, with oblong leaves and flowers; 
 commonly called Canterbury bells. 5. Canary 
 belflower, with orrach leaves and a tuberose root. 
 6. Blue belflower, with edible roots, commonly 
 called rampions. 7. Venus looking-glass bel- 
 flower, &:c. — Miller. 
 
 BEl.FORD, a market town in Northumber- 
 
 Romans greatly improved the country of the 
 Belgae by their celebrated military ways, the 
 erection and rebuilding of towns, &c.; among 
 the most celebrated of which were X'enitL- Bel- 
 garum, the present Winchester, and Aqua? Solis, 
 the modern Bath. See Bath and Winchester. 
 BEL'GARD, n. s. Fr. belle egard. A soft 
 glance ; a kind of regard ; an old word, now 
 wholly disused. 
 
 Upon her eyelids many graces sat. 
 Under the shadow of her even brows. 
 Working belgards, and amorous retreats. 
 
 Faerie Queene. 
 
 BELGICA, a town of the Ubii in Gallia Bel- 
 gica, midway between the Rhine and the Roer : 
 now called Balchusen, a citadel of Juliers. 
 
 Belgica Gallia, or Belgic Gaul, one of 
 Caesar's three divisions of Gaul, contained be- 
 tween the ocean to the north, the Seine and the 
 
 land, north of Wooller, seated on the ridge of a INIarne to the west, the Rhine to the east, but on 
 
 hill on the Berwick road, twelve miles from the south at different times within difl'erent limits. 
 
 Alnwick, and 319 from London. Augustus, instituting everywhere a new partition 
 
 BEL'FOUNDER, n. s. From bell and of provinces, added the Sequani and Ilelvetii,
 
 BEL 
 
 765 
 
 BEL 
 
 who till then made a part ol" Celtic Gaul, to the 
 Bclgic. 
 
 BELGINUM, a town of the Treviri, in Gallia 
 Belgica : now called Baldenau, in the electorate 
 of Triers. 
 
 BKLGIUM, in ancient geography, is mani- 
 festly distinguished from Belgica, as a part from 
 the whole, by Caesar ; who makes Belgium the 
 country of the Bellovaci ; Ilirtius adding the 
 Atrebates. But as the Ambiani lay between the 
 Bellovaci and Atrebates, we must also add these ; 
 and thus Belgium reached to the sea, because the 
 Ambiani lay upon it, and these three people 
 constituted the proper and genuine BelgK (all 
 the rest being adventitious, or foreigners); and 
 were the ancient inhabitants of Beauvais, Amiens, 
 and Artois. In modern times the name has been 
 applied by Famianus and others to the whole of 
 the Netherlands, French, Dutch, and Austrian. 
 
 This name was given by the French, during 
 the revolution, to tliat tract of country which 
 was previously called the Austrian Netherlands. 
 It now forms the southern portion of the king- 
 dom of the Netherlands. See Netut-rlands. 
 
 BELGRADE, tiie ancient Alba Graecoruni, a 
 city of European Turkey, the capital of Servia, 
 seated on a hill a little above the confluence of 
 the Save and tiie Dan vibe ; which near this city is 
 very rapid, and the water singularly white. Bel- 
 grade was formerly large, strong, and populous, 
 surrounded with a double wall, flanked with 
 towers, and defended by a castle, built with square 
 stones. The suburbs are still very extensive; and 
 the appearance of the place is imposing. The 
 dilapidated walls of the fortress enclose tlie prin- 
 cipal mosque, and the residence of the pacha, or 
 governor, of Senia. Between these walls and the 
 other portions of the town there is a space of 
 about 400 paces, the best part of which is towards 
 the north of tiiese buildings. The market-place 
 is large ; and, as Belgrade has always been an im- 
 portant bulwark on the north-west of Turkey, a 
 strong garrison is maintained iiere, and most of 
 the inhabitants consist of the families of the .lanis- 
 saries, who defend it. The whole population is 
 estimated at twenty or twenty-five thousand ; 
 and when the town w;ls taken by the Austrians, 
 in 1789, about 7000 of them were soldiers. It 
 is, indeed, rather a military depot than a trading 
 city. 
 
 In the fifteenth century it was unsuccessfully 
 attacked by Amurath II. ; but was taken by Soly- 
 man, the Ottoman emperor, in 1522. Being re- 
 taken by the Imperial army, under the elector of 
 Bavaria, in 1688, it reverted again to the Turks 
 in 1690, with whom it remained till August 1717, 
 when it surrendered to prince Eugene ; and will 
 always be famous in military liistory by the bat- 
 tle fought at this time in its vicinity, and which 
 was the last grand victory obtained by that prince. 
 It then remained in possession of the Austrians 
 for twenty-two years, durina- which they were en- 
 gaged in repairing and strengthening its defensive 
 works. In 1739, however, it was given up to the 
 Turks, on condition that these should be de- 
 molished ; but so important did the possession of 
 it always appear to tlic Austrians, that they again 
 invested it m 1789, under the command of Field- 
 marshal Laudohn. The suburbs were all carried 
 
 sword in hand, and the garrison surrendered upon 
 honorable terms. About 300 pieces of artillery, 
 and vast military stores, were said to be found in 
 the fortress on this capture. It was again re- 
 stored to the Turks however, by the peace of Sis- 
 tova, in 1791, under whom it has since remained. 
 Long. 20° 10' E., lat. 44"- 43' N. 
 
 Bki-giiafje, a small town of Romania, on the 
 strait of Constantinople. 
 
 Belorade, a township of the United States, 
 in Lincoln county, district of Maine, between the 
 Kennebeck and the Androscoggin. 
 
 BELGRADO, a town, late of Friuli, in the 
 \'enetian territories in Italy. It stands near the 
 river Tagliamento. 
 
 BELCJRAM, a town in the Nabob of Oude's 
 territories, twelve miles north-east from Kanoge, 
 in lat. '27° 13' N., long. 80° 3' E. It is ' of 
 considerable auti()uity, and is still distinguished 
 by a ruinous fort and moat. The buildings ap- 
 pear to have been in the best style of Mogul 
 architecture. 
 
 BELIAL, 'jy^bD, Ileb. i. e. wicked, worthless, 
 or unprofitable ; a name eiven in Scripture to 
 the devil. Thus the inhabitants of Gibeah, who 
 abused the Levite's wife, Judges xix. 22, are 
 styled sons of Belial. Ilophni and Pliineas, the 
 high priest Eli's eldest sons, are likewise called 
 sons of Belial, 1 Sam. ii. 12, upon account of 
 tlieir crimes. And that the name Belial, denotes 
 the devil, is evident, from what St. Paul says, 
 2 Cor. vi. 15. 
 
 BELIDES, in mythology, the fifty daughters 
 of Danaus. See Danaides. 
 
 BELIDOR (Bernard Forest de), a Catalo- 
 nian engineer in the service of France, member 
 of the Academies of Sciences at Paris and Ber- 
 lin, and of the Royal Society of London ; he 
 was a celebrated mathematician, and author of a 
 number of military tracts, in which the science 
 of mathematics is applied to military uses. He 
 died 1765, aged seventy. 
 
 BE'LIE, V. a. From be and lie. To coun- 
 terfeit ; to feign ; to mimic. To calumniate ; to 
 raise false reports of any man. To give the lie 
 to ; to charge with falsehood. To give a false 
 representation of any thing. To fill with lies. 
 
 Uncle, for heaven's sake, comfortable words. 
 Should I do so, I should belie my thoughts. 
 
 Shakspeare. 
 Thou dost belie him, Percy, thou heliest him ; 
 He never did encounter with Glendower. Id. 
 
 'Tis slander, whose breath 
 Hides on the posting winds, and doth belie 
 All corners of the world. Id. Cymhelme. 
 
 Which durst, with horses' hoofs that beat the ground. 
 And martial brass, belie the thunder's sound. 
 
 Dry den. 
 
 The shape of man, and imitated beast, 
 The walk, the words, the gesture could supply, 
 The habit mimic, and the mien belie. Id. 
 
 Sure tlierc is none but fears a future state ; 
 And when the most obdurate swear they do not, 
 Tlicir trembling hearts belie their boastful tongues. 
 
 ^ Id. 
 
 Tuscan Valerius by force o'ercamc, 
 .4nd not hely'd his mighty father's name. 
 
 Id. Mneid.
 
 BEL 
 
 766 
 
 BEL 
 
 Paint, patches, jewels laid aside. 
 At night astronomers agree 
 
 The evening has the day hely'd, 
 And Phillis is some forty-three. 
 
 Prior. 
 
 In the dispute what'cr I said. 
 My heart was by the tongue behf'd. 
 
 And in my looks you might have read 
 How much 1 argued on your side. Id. 
 
 BELl'EVE, V. ~\ The old Sax. lyfan, be- 
 Beli'eve, n. liifun, is the English to 
 
 Beli'ef, live, to belive. In Pier's 
 
 Belie'ful, Plouhman to bring forth 
 
 Belie'fuln'ess, )>your bcli/ve is to bring 
 Beli'evable, fortli that by which you 
 
 Belie'ver, live. It was early applied 
 
 Behev'ing, to Christianity, and to re- 
 
 Believ'ingly, J ligion, as the revelation of 
 life ; and as crediting the divine testimony was 
 the means of life immortal ; that credit was 
 called life and belife — hence to believe. It is 
 now of much more comprehensive import. Be- 
 lief is credit given to something which we know 
 not of ourselves, on account of the authority by 
 which it is delivered. It is likewise the theolo- 
 gical notice of faith ; the creed and body of 
 tenets held by the professors of faith ; to believe 
 is the act or habit of the mind ; in reference to 
 all these a believer is one that gives credit to a 
 testimony ; a professor of Christianity. 
 
 I sey to you, if ye hav feith and douten not, alle 
 
 thinges whatevere ye hileevynge schulen are in 
 
 preier, ye schulen take. Wiclif. Matt. xm. 2. 
 
 For with the heart man believeth unto righteousness, 
 
 and with the mouth confession is made unto salvation. 
 
 Roniaiis. 
 Sire, it is Cristes might. 
 That helpeth folk out of the fendes snare. 
 And so ferforth, she gan our lay declare. 
 That she the constable, or that it were eve. 
 Converted, and on Crist made him beleve. 
 
 Chaucer. 
 
 And though that I, unworthy son of Eve, 
 Be sinful, yet accepteth my beleve. Id. 
 
 As he that readeth Caesar's Commentaries, believing 
 the same to be true, hath hereby a knowledge of 
 Caesar's life and notable acts, because he believeth the 
 history of Caesar ; yet it is not properly said, that he 
 believeth in Caesar, of whom he looketh for no help 
 nor benefit, even so, he that believeth that all that is 
 spoken of God in the Bible is true, and yet liveth so 
 ungodlily, that he cannot look to enjoy the promises 
 and benefits of God ; although it may be said that 
 such a man hath a faith and belief to the words of 
 God, yet it is not properly said that he believeth in 
 God, or hath such a faith and trust in God, whereby 
 he may surely look for grace, mercy, and everlasting 
 life at God's hand. Homily on Faith. 
 
 Infidels themselves did discern, in matters of life, 
 when believers did well, when otherwise. Hooker. 
 
 If he which writeth do that which is forcible, how 
 should he which readeth be thought to do that, which, 
 in itself, is of no force to work belief, and to save 
 believers ? Id. 
 
 Discipline began to enter into conflict with 
 churches, which, in extremity, had been believers of 
 it. Id. 
 
 And sundry battels, which she had atchieved 
 With great succcsse, that her hath glorifide. 
 And made her famous, more than is believed ; 
 Ne would I it have ween'd had I not late it prieved, 
 
 Spemer, 
 
 Superstitious prophecies arc not only the belief of 
 fools, but the talk sometimes of wise men. Bacon. 
 Now God be prais'd, that to believing souls 
 Gives light in darkness, comfort in despair. 
 
 Shakspeare. 
 Horatio says, 'tis but our fantasy ; 
 
 And will not let belief take hold of him 
 
 Touching this dreaded sight, twice seen of us. Id. 
 
 When suddenly stood at my head a dream. 
 
 Whose inward apparition gently moved 
 
 My fancy to believe I yet had being 
 
 And liv'd. Milton. 
 
 The action is baptizing or immersing in waters ; 
 the object thereof, those persons of any nation, whom 
 his ministers can by their instruction and persuasion 
 render disciples ; that is, such as do sincerelj* believe 
 the truth of his doctrine, and seriously resolve to 
 obey his commandments. Barrow. 
 
 Adherence to a proposition which they are per- 
 suaded, but do not know, to be true, is not seeing, 
 but believing. Locke. 
 
 Though they are, I believe, as high as most steeple* 
 in England, yet a person, 'in his drink, fell down» 
 without any other hurt than the breaking of an arm. 
 
 Addison on Italy. 
 
 I could not be so duped, even by the areh-enemy 
 himself, as to be made to question the divine nature 
 of those comforts ; but I have been made to believe 
 (which you will say, is being duped still more) that 
 God gave them to me in derision, and took them 
 away in vengeance. Cotvper's Correspondence, vol. 2. 
 
 Belief, in its general and natural sense, de- 
 notes, 1. A strong assent of the mind to the 
 truth of any proposition. In this sense, belief 
 has no relation to any particular kind of means 
 or arguments, but may be produced by any 
 means whatever. Thus, we are said to believe 
 our senses, to believe our reason, to believe a 
 witness, &c. And hence, in rhetoric, all sorts 
 of proofs, from whatever topics deduced, are 
 called 7ri<r«(c, because apt to produce belief or 
 persuasion touching the matter in hand. 2. Be- 
 lief, in its more restrained and technical sense, 
 invented by the schoolmen, denotes that kind of 
 assent which is grounded only on the authority or 
 testimony of some person or persons, asserting 
 or attesting the truth of any matter proposed. 
 In this sense, belief stands opposed to know- 
 ledge and science. We do not say we believe 
 that snow is white, or that the whole is equal to 
 its parts ; but we see and know them to be so. 
 That the three angles of a triangle are equal to 
 two right angles, or that all motion is naturally 
 rectilinear, are not said to be things credible, 
 but scientifical ; and the comprehension of such 
 truths is not belief but science. 3. But when 
 a thing propounded to us is neither apparent to 
 our senses, nor evident to our understanding ; 
 neither certainly to be collected from any clear 
 and necessary connexion with the cause from 
 which it proceeds, nor with the effects which it 
 naturally produces; nor is taken up upon any 
 real arguments, or relation thereof to other ac- 
 knowledged truths ; and yet, notwithstanding, 
 appears as true, not by manifestation, but by 
 an attestation of the truth, and moves us to as- 
 sent, not of itself, but in virtue of a testimony 
 given to it — this is said to be properly credible ; 
 and an assent to this is the proper notion of be- 
 lief or faith.
 
 B i: L L. 
 
 767 
 
 Bemevfus, in church liistory, an appellation 
 g^iven, towards the close of the first, century, to 
 those Christians who had been admitted into tlie 
 church l)y baptism, and instructed in all the 
 mysteries of religion. They had also access to 
 all parts of divine worship, and were authorised 
 to vote in the ecclesiastical assemblies. They 
 were thus called in contradistinction to the ca- 
 techumens who had not been baptised, and were 
 debarred froin these privileges. 
 
 BEI-l'KE, > Bo and like. See Likk. 
 
 Ukli'kei.y, S Belike in our older writers, 
 and in vula;ar speech, at the present day, is used 
 for it is likely, probably, perhaps. It is some- 
 times used in a sense of irony, as it may be 
 supposed. 
 
 There canie out of the same woods a horrible foul 
 bear, which fearing, belike, while the lion was pre- 
 sent, came furiously towards the place where I was. 
 
 Sidney. 
 
 Lord Angelo, belike, thinking me remiss in my 
 office, awakens me with this uawonted putting on. 
 
 Shakspeare. 
 
 Joeephus affirmeth, that one of them remained in 
 his lime ; meaning, belike, some ruin or foundation 
 thereof. Raleigh. 
 
 We think, belike, that he will accept what the 
 meanest of them would disdain. Hooker. 
 
 God appointed the sea to one of them, and the 
 land to the other, because they were so great, that 
 the sea could not hold them both •, or else, belike, if 
 the sea had been large enough, we might have gone a 
 tishing for elephants. Brerew. an Lang. 
 
 BKLINGELA, in botany, a name given by 
 some authors to the malum insanum, or mad 
 apple. 
 
 BELIO, in ancient geography, a river of Lu- 
 sitania, called othenvise Limoeas, Limeas, Eimius, 
 and Lethe, or the River of Oblivion : the boun- 
 dary of the expedition of Decimus Brutus. The 
 soldiers refusing, out of superstition, to cross, 
 he snatched an ensign out of the hands of the 
 bearer, and passed over, by which his army was 
 encouraged to follow. He was the first Roman 
 who ever proceeded so far, and ventured to pass. 
 The reason of the appellation, according to 
 Strabo, is, that in a military expedition a sedi- 
 tion arising between the Celtici and Turduli 
 after crossing that river, in which the general 
 was slain, they remained dispersed there ; and 
 from this circumstance it came to be called the 
 river of Lethe, or Oblivion. It is now called 
 Lima. 
 
 BELISARIUS, general of the emperor Jus- 
 tinian's army, who overthrew the Persians in the 
 East, the Vandals in Africa, and the Goths in 
 Italy. See Rome. But after all his great ex- 
 ploits, he was falsely accused of a conspiracy 
 against the emperor. The real conspirators had 
 been detected and seized, with daggers hidden 
 under their garments. One of them died by his 
 own hand, and the other was dragged from the 
 sanctuary. Pressed by remorse, or tempted by 
 the hopes of safety, he accused two officers of 
 the household of Belisarius; and torture forced 
 them to declare that tltey had acted according to 
 the secret instructions of their patron. Posterity 
 will not hastily believe, that a hero, who in the 
 vigor of life had disdained the fairest offers of 
 
 ambition and revenge, should sloop to the murder 
 of his prince, whom he could not long expect to 
 survive. His followers were impatient to fly ; 
 but flight must have been supported by rebellion, 
 and he had lived enough for nature and for 
 glory. Belisarius appeared before the council 
 with less fear than indignation : after forty years 
 service, the emperor had prejudged his guilt ; 
 and injustice was sanctified by the presence 
 and authority of the patriarch. Tiie life of Be- 
 lisarius was spared, but his fortunes were se- 
 questered; and, from December to July, he was 
 guarded as a prisoner in his own palace. At 
 length his innocence was acknowledged, his 
 freedom and honors were restored, and death, 
 which mi^ht be hastened by resentment and 
 grief, removed him from the world about eight 
 months after his deliverance. That he was de- 
 prived of his eyes, and reduced by envy to beg 
 his bread, is a fiction of later times ; which has 
 obtained credit, or rather favor, as a strange 
 example of the vicissitudes of fortune. The 
 source of this idle fable may be derived from a 
 miscellaneous work of the twelfth century, the 
 Chiliads of John Tzetzes, a monk. He relates 
 the blindness and beggary of Belisarius in ten 
 verses, Chiliad iii. No. 88. 339 — 348. in Corp. 
 Poet. Graec. torn. ii. p. 311. This romantic tale 
 was imported into Italy with the language and 
 MSS. of Greece ; repeated before the end of 
 the fifteenth century by Crinitus, Pontanus, and 
 \'olaterranus ; attacked by Alciat for the honor 
 of the law, and defended by Baronius, A. D. 
 561, No. 2, &c. for the honor of the church. 
 Tzetzes himself had read in other chronicles, 
 that Belisarius did not lose his sight, and tliat he 
 recovered his fame and fortunes. The statue in 
 the Villa Borghese at Rome, in a sitting posture, 
 with an open hand, which is vulgarly given to 
 Belisarius, may be ascribed witli more dignity to 
 Augustus in the act of propitiating Nemesis. — 
 Winkelman's Hist, de I Art, tom. iii. p. 266. 
 
 BELr\'E. adv. bihve, Sax. probably from l>i 
 and hj-e, in the sense of vivacity, speed, quick- 
 ness. Speedily; quickly: a word out of use. 
 
 By that same way the direful dames do drive 
 Their mournful chariot, fill'd with rusty blood. 
 And down to Pluto's house are come belive. 
 
 Faerie Queene, 
 
 BELK, one of the Serangani islands in the 
 Eastern seas, high, and with a bold north coast. 
 It is paKly cultivated, and the inhabitants have 
 plenty of cocoa nuts and yellow wax. It is the 
 most northerly of the group, which consists of 
 three, and lies about twelve miles from Magin- 
 danao. 
 
 BELL, V. & ii.-\ Bel, Sax. supposed by 
 
 Bf,i.'frv, (^ Skinner to come from pelvis, 
 
 Bei/roi'e, i Latin, a basin ; Ang.-Sax. 
 
 Bel'rinoer. ' bellan, signifies to bellow, 
 
 and to sound a bell. A vessel, or hollow 
 
 body of cast metal, formed to make a noise 
 
 by the act of a clapper, hammer, or some other 
 
 instrument striking against it. Bells are in the 
 
 towers of cliurches, to call the congregation 
 
 togetiier. It is used for any thing in the form of 
 
 a bell, as the cups of flowers. Belfry is a tower 
 
 wliere bells are huns:.
 
 768 
 
 BELL. 
 
 Get thee gone, and dig my grave thyself. 
 And bid the merry bells ring to thy car. 
 That thou art crowned, not ihat I am dead. 
 
 S/iakipeare. 
 
 Now see that noble and most sov'reign reason 
 Like sweet 6W/j jangled out of tune. Id. 
 
 As the ox hath his yoke, the horse his curb, and 
 the faulcon his bells, so hath man his desires. 
 
 Id. As You Like It. 
 
 Where the bee sucks, there suck I, 
 In a cowslip's bell I lie. Id, Tempest. 
 
 What time the native belltnan of the night, 
 The bird that warned Peter of his fall, 
 First rings his silver bell t' each sleepy w-ight. 
 That should their mindes up to devotion call. 
 She heard a monstrous noise below the hall. 
 
 Spenser. 
 
 The humming bees, that hunt the golden dew. 
 In summer's heat on tops of lilies feed. 
 And creep within their bells to suck the balmy seed. 
 
 Dryden. 
 He has no one necessary attention to any thing 
 but the bell, which calls to prayers twice a-day. 
 
 Addison. Spectator. 
 How too-like is this (cracked) bell to scandalous 
 and ill-lived teachers ! His calling is honourable : 
 his noise is heard far enough : but the flaw which 
 is noted in his life, mars his doctrine, and offends 
 those ears which else would take pleasure in his 
 teaching. Bishop Hall. 
 
 WTien cockle-shells turn siller bells. 
 And muscles grow on every tree. 
 When frost and snow shall warm us aw. 
 Then sail my love prove true to me. 
 
 Burn's Ballads. 
 But the sound of the church-going bell 
 
 These vallies and rocks never heard. 
 Never sighed at the sound of a knell. 
 
 Or smil'd when a Sabbath appear'd. Couper. 
 
 To hear the Bell. To be the first; from the 
 wether, that carries a bell among the sheep, or 
 the first horse of a drove that has bells on his 
 collar. 
 
 The Italians have carried away the bell from all 
 
 other nations, as may appear both by their books 
 
 and works. Hakewell. 
 
 To shake the Bells. A phrase in Shakspeare, 
 
 taken from the bells of a hawk. 
 
 Neither the king, nor he that loves him best. 
 The proudest he that holds up Lancaster, 
 Dares stir a wing, if Warwick s/iakes his bells, 
 
 Shakspeare. 
 
 To Bell, v. n. from the noun. To grow 
 in buds or flowers, in the form of a bell. 
 
 Hops, in the beginning of August, bell, and are 
 sometimes ripe. Mortimer. 
 
 Bkll-fashioned, adj. from bell and fashion. 
 Having the form of a bell ; campaniform. 
 
 The thorn-apple rises with a strong round stalky 
 having large bell-fashioned flowers at the joints. 
 
 Mortimer. 
 
 Bell. The parts of a bell, are the body or 
 barrel, the clapper, on the inside, and the ear or 
 cannon, by which it hangs to a large beam of 
 wood. The matter of which it is usually made 
 is a composition called bell-metal. The thick- 
 ness of a bell's edge is usually one-fifteenth 
 of tlie diameter, and its height twelve times its 
 thickness. The best founders have a diapason, 
 or bell-scale, wherewith they measure the size. 
 
 tliickness, weight, and tone, of their bells. For 
 the method of casting bells, see Foindrt. 
 
 The theory of the sound of bells belongs pro- 
 perly to acoustics, but wo may here observe, 
 that the most sonorous bell, according to a paper 
 by M. Reaumur (Mem. Acad. Par. 17'26), may 
 be formed of the segment of a sphere. The 
 sound of a bell, says the Campanalogia, arises 
 from a vibratory motion of the parts thereof, 
 much like that of a musical chord. The stroke 
 of the clapper, it is evident, must cliange the 
 figure of the bell, and of round make it oval ; 
 but the metal having a great degree of elasticity, 
 that part which the stroke drove farthest from 
 the centre will fly back again, and this even 
 somewhat nearer to the centre than before; so 
 that the two points, which before were the ex- 
 tremes of the longer diameter, now become those 
 of the shorter. Thus, the circumference of the 
 bell undergoes alternate changes of figure, and 
 by means thereof gives that tremulous motion 
 to the air, in which sound consists. M. Per- 
 rault maintains, that the sound of the same bell, 
 or chord, is a compound of the sound of the 
 several parts thereof; so that where the parts are 
 homogeneous, and the dimensions of the figure 
 uniform, there is such a perfect mixture of all 
 these sounds, as constitutes one uniform, smooth, 
 even sound : and the contrary circumstances 
 produce harshness. This he proves from the 
 bell's differing in tone according to the part you 
 strike ; and yet strike it anywhere, there is a 
 motion of all the parts. He, therefore, considers 
 bells as composed of an infinite number of rings; 
 which, according to their different dimensions, 
 have diflferent tones, as chords of diff'erent 
 lengths have ; and when struck, the vibrations 
 of the parts immediately struck, determine the 
 tone ; being supported by a sufficient number of 
 consonant tones in the other parts. Mr. Hawks- 
 bee, and others, have found by experiment, that 
 the sound of a bell struck under water is a 
 fourth deeper than in the air : though jMersennus 
 says, it is of the same pitch in both elements. 
 This writer has treated largely of the different 
 metals of which bells are formed, of their figure, 
 crassitude, and degrees of ponderosity, as they 
 respect each other in a given series. 
 
 Bells are observed to be heard farther, placed 
 on plains, than on hills ; and still farther in val- 
 leys than on plains; the reason of which it will 
 not be diflScult to assign, if it be considered, 
 that the higher the sonorous body is, the rarer 
 is its medium; consequently the less impulse it 
 receives, and the less proper vehicle it has to 
 convey it to a distance. 
 
 The use of bells is very ancient as well as ex- 
 tensive. We find them among Jews, Greeks, 
 Romans, Christians, and Heathens, variously ap- 
 plied, as on the necks of men, beasts, birds, 
 horses, and sheep: but chiefly hung in build- 
 ings, either religious, as in churches, temples, 
 and monasteries ; or civil, as in houses, markets, 
 and baths; or military, as in camps and frontier 
 towns. Among the Jews it was ordained, that 
 the lower part of the blue tunic which the higii 
 priest wore, when he performed certain religious 
 ceremonies, should be adorned with pomegran- 
 ates and golden bells, intermixed equally and at
 
 BELL. 
 
 769 
 
 equal distances. The sacred historian mentions 
 the use and intent of them in Exod. xxviii. 33 — 
 35. 'It shall be upon Aaron to minister, and 
 liis sound shall be heard when he goeth in unto 
 the holy place before the Lord, and when he 
 Cometh out, that he die not.' The sound of the 
 numerous bells gave notice to the assembled 
 people that the most awful ceremony of their 
 religion had commenced. It was a signal, per- 
 haps, that they should prostrate themselves at 
 the moment in which the high priest entered the 
 sanctuary with a vessel of incense, in order that 
 their prayers might ascend with the column of 
 fragrance before the throne of heaven. The 
 kings of Persia, from a remote period, are said 
 to have had the hems of their robes adorned 
 like the Jewish high priests with pomegranates 
 and golden bells. 
 
 The poet, Covvper, gives a moral turn to this 
 circumstance, worth remembering : 
 
 With golden bells, the priestly vest, 
 And rich ponriegranates bordered round. 
 
 The need of holiness expressed. 
 And called for fruit as well as sound. 
 
 The prophet Zachariah, xiv. 20, speaks of bells 
 hung to war-horses. 
 
 Among the Greeks, those who went the nightly 
 rounds in camps or garrisons, carried with them 
 a little bell, which they rung at each centry-box 
 to see that the soldiers on each watch were awake. 
 A codonophorous, or bell-man, also walked in 
 funeral processions, at a distance before the 
 corpse, not only to keep off the crowd, but to 
 advertise the flamen dialis to keep out of the 
 way for fear of being polluted by the sight, or 
 by the funeral music. The priest of Proserpine, 
 at Athens, called hierophantus, rung a bell to 
 call the people to sacrifice. There were also 
 bells in the houses of great men to call up the 
 servants each morning. Zonaras assures tis, that 
 bells were hung with whips on the triumphal 
 chariots of their victorious generals, to put them 
 in mind that they were still liable to public jus- 
 tice. Bells were put on the necks of criminals 
 going to execution, that persons might be warned 
 hy the sound to avoid meeting so ill an omen, 
 as the sight of the hangman, or the condemned 
 criminal. Maggi has given the print of a wretch 
 whose neck is weighed down by an enormous 
 bell, while his back is exposed to the lash of the 
 hangman. 
 
 The responses of the Dodonaean oracle were 
 doubtless in part conveyed by bells. The de- 
 scription of it which Strabo has left (lib. vii.), 
 the lebetes of Virgil, the pelves of Juvenal, and 
 the tironitus aheni of Ausonius, admit of no other 
 interpretation. The bells were of copper, and 
 so suspended round the temple, that one being 
 struck put the whole in motion ; and, by the 
 manner in which the sounds died away, the 
 priestess framed her revelation. Plutarch men- 
 tions (Symp. xiv.) a bell in the Gtecian fish- 
 markets, which reminds the writer of this article 
 of an exactly similar construction in the little 
 sea-port town of his birth. 
 
 Strabo connects with this custom a curious 
 story. A musician being deserted by his au- 
 ditory in the town of Jassus, found it was the 
 Voi. III. 
 
 fish-bell which had attracted them away. One per- 
 son alone remained, as if decidedlyprefcrring his 
 melody. The grateful harper approached, thanked 
 his hearer for the honor which he paid to the 
 art, and congratulated him on the superior pu- 
 rity of taste which prevented him from accom- 
 panying the rabble, which had vanished at the 
 first stroke of the bell. 'Has the bell rung?' 
 answered the other, ' alas ! I am deaf; good 
 morning to you !' 
 
 OrnamenUil bells in building, after the manner 
 of the Chinese, were clearly in use among the 
 Romans. Pliny (vii. 45, xxxvi. 13,) mentions 
 the monument of Porsenna as decorated with 
 pinnacles, each of which was surmounted by 
 bells. The dream of Augustus transferred a 
 similar ornament from the portals to the roof of 
 the Capitoline Jove, (Suetonius, Oct. xci.) 
 
 On the origin of church bells, Mr. Whitaker, 
 in his History of Manchester, observes, that 
 bells being used, among other purposes by the 
 Romans, to signify the times of bathing, were 
 naturally applied by the Christians of Italy to 
 denote the hours of devotion, and summon the 
 people to church. 
 
 The first application of them to ecclesiastical 
 purposes is, by Polydore Virgil and others, 
 ascribed to Paulinus, bishop of Nola, a city of 
 Campania, about the year 400. Hence, it is 
 said, the names Noise and Campanae were given 
 them ; the one referring to the city, the other to 
 the country. Though others say they took the 
 latter of these names, not from their being in- 
 vented in Campania, but because it was here 
 the manner of hanging and balancing them, now 
 in tise, was first practised. It is obvious, that 
 during the days of early persecution, any public 
 summons to the meetings of Christians would 
 have betrayed them to their enemies. In Bri- 
 tain, bells were used in churches before the con- 
 clusion of the seventh century, in the monastic 
 societies of Northumbria, and as early as the 
 sixth, even in those of Caledonia. They were, 
 therefore, used from the first erection of parish 
 churches among us. Those of France and Eng- 
 land appear to have been furnished with several 
 bells. In the time of Clothairll. king of France, 
 A. D. 610, the army of that prince was frighted 
 from the siege of Sens, by the ringing of the 
 bells of St. Stephen's church. The second ex- 
 cerption of Egbert, A. D. 750, which is adopted 
 in a French Capitulary of 801, commands every 
 priest, at the proper hours, to sound the bells of 
 his church, and then to go through tlie sacred 
 offices to Cod. And the council of Euham, in 
 1011, requires all the mulcts for sins to be ex- 
 pended in the reparation of the church, clothing 
 and feeding the minister of God, and the pur- 
 chase of church vestments, church books, and 
 church bells. These were sometimes com- 
 posed of iron in France; and in England, as 
 formerly at Rome, were frequently made of 
 brass. As early as the ninth century tliere were 
 many cast of a large size and deep note. In- 
 gulphus mentions, that Turketulus, abbot of 
 Croyhnd, who died about A.D. 870, gave a 
 great bell to the church of that abbey, which he 
 named Guthlac ; and afterwards six others, viz. 
 two which he called Bartholomew and Betelin, 
 
 3D
 
 770 
 
 B E L L. 
 
 two called Turketul and Tatwin, and two named 
 Pega and- Bei;a, all which rang together; the 
 same author says, Non erat tunc tanta conso- 
 nantia campanarum in tola Anglia. Not long 
 after, Kinsens, archbishop of York, gave two 
 great bells to the church of St. John at Beverly, 
 and at the same time provided that other churclies 
 in his diocese should be furnished with bells. 
 Mention is made by St. Aldhem, and William 
 of Malmcsbury, of bells given by St. Dunstan to 
 the churches in the west. The number of bells 
 in every church gave occasion to a curious 
 and singular piece of arcViitecture in the cam- 
 panile or bell-tower ; an addition, which is more 
 susceptible of the grander beauties of architec- 
 ture than any other part of the edifice, and is 
 generally therefore the principal or rudiments of 
 it. It was the constant appendage to every parish 
 church of the Saxons, and is actually mentioned 
 as such in the laws of Athelstan. The Greek 
 Christians are usually said to have been unac- 
 quainted with bells till the ninth century, when 
 their construction was first taught them by a 
 \^enetian. But it is not true that the use of 
 bells was entirely unknown in the ancient eastern 
 churches, and that they called the people to 
 church, as at present, with wooden mallets. Leo 
 Allatius, in his Dissertation on the Greek Tem- 
 ples, proves the contrary from several ancient 
 writers. He says bells first began to be disused 
 among them after the taking of Constantinople 
 by the Turks; who, it seems, prohibited them, 
 lest their sound sliould disturb the repose of 
 souls, which, according to them, wander in the 
 air. He adds, that they still retain the use of 
 bells in places remote from the intercourse of the 
 Turks, particularly very ancient ones in Mount 
 Athos. F. Simon thinks the Turks prohibited 
 the Christians the use of bells, rather from poli- 
 tical than religious reasons, as the ringing of 
 bells might sei-ve as a signal for the execution of 
 revolts, &c. 
 
 In the dark ages bells were constantly baptised 
 and anointed, oleo chrismatis, as well as exor- 
 cised and blessed by the bishop ; from a belief, 
 that when these ceremonies were performed, they 
 had a power to drive the devil out of the air, to 
 calm tempests, extinguish fire, and even to re- 
 vive the dead. The ritual for these ceremonies 
 is contained in the Roman pontifical ; and it 
 was usual in their baptism to give to bells die 
 name of some saint. In Chauncey's History of 
 Hertfordshire, p. 383, diere is a relation of the 
 baptism of a set of bells in Italy with great ce- 
 remony, a sliort time before the publication of 
 that work : and so late as September, 1782, the 
 St. James's Chronicle contains an account of 
 the lovers of ecclesiastical ceremonies running 
 in crowds at' Paris, to see the ceremony of 
 christening the new bells of St. Sulpicius, of which 
 the king and queen, monsieur, and madame, were 
 the sponsors. The bells of Osney Abbey, near 
 Oxford, were veiy famous; their several names 
 were Douce, Clement, Austin, Ilautecter, or ra- 
 tlier Hautcleri, Gabriel, and John. The bells of 
 the parish cimrch of Winnington, in Bedford- 
 shire, had their names cast about the verge of 
 every one in particular, with these rhiming hex- 
 ameters : — 
 
 Nomina Campanis luce indita sunt quoqno noslris. 
 
 1. Hoc signum Petri pulsatur nomine Chvisti. 
 
 2. Noincn Magdalen campana sonatc melodc. 
 
 3. Sit nomen Domini bcnedictum semper in evum. 
 
 4. Musa RaphaeUs sonat auribus Iramanuelis. 
 
 5. Sum Rosa pulsata mundique Moria vocata. 
 
 Weev. Fun. 122. 
 
 By an old chartulary, once in die possession of 
 Weever the antitjuary, it appears that the bells of 
 the priory of Little Dunmow in Essex, were, 
 A. D. 1501, new cast, and baptised by the names 
 of St. Michael, St. John the Evangelist, St. John 
 the Baptist, the Virgin Mary, and the Holy Tri- 
 nity. Weever further mentions, that bells had 
 frequently this inscription : 
 
 Fuuera plango, Fulgura frango, Sabbata pango, 
 Excito lentos, dissipo vcntos, Paco cvuentos. 
 
 Durandus mentions six kinds of bells in the 
 ancient monasteries, viz. Squilla rung in the 
 refectory ; cymbalum in tlie cloister ; nola iu the 
 choir; nolula or dupla in the clock; campana in 
 the steeple; and signum in the tower. Belethus 
 has much the same; only that for squilla he puts 
 tintinnabulum, and places tlie campana in the 
 tower, and campanella in the cloister. Others 
 place the tintinnabulum or tinniolum in the 
 refectory or dormitory ; and add another bell 
 called corrigiuncula, rung at the time of giving 
 discipline or to call the monks to be flogged. 
 The cymbalum is sometimes, also, said to have 
 been rung in the cloister, to call the monks to 
 meat. 
 
 Abroad, bells are found of great magnitude. 
 In the steeple of the great church at llonen in 
 Normandy there was in modern times a bell with 
 the following inscription : 
 
 Je suis George de Ambois, 
 Qui trenie cinque mille pois. 
 Mes lui qui me pesera, 
 Trente six mille me trouvera. 
 I am George of Ambois, 
 Thirtis five thousand in pois ; 
 But he that shall weigh me, 
 Thirtie six thousand shall find me. 
 
 The great bell at St. Peter's in Rome weighs 
 18,007 pounds. In the Palazzo Vecchio at Flo- 
 rence, is one weighing 17,000 pounds ; and it is 
 raised 275 feet from the ground. Great Tom, of 
 Christ Church, Oxford, weighs 17,000 pounds; 
 of Lincoln, 9894 pounds. The bell of St. Paul's, 
 London, 8400 pounds. 
 
 It is a common tradition that the bells of 
 King's College chapel, in the university of Cam- 
 bridge, were taken by Henry \^ from some 
 church iu France, after the battle of Agincourt. 
 They were taken down some years ago, and sold 
 to Phelps, a bell-founder, in Whitechapel. 
 
 The Musurgia Universalis of Kircher describes 
 a bell at Erfurth, which was cast in the year 
 1497, by Gerard \"on de Campis, at the expense 
 of the citizens, the neighbouring ])rinces, and 
 noblemen. Its thickness is a quarter and half 
 quarter of an ell; its height four ells and three 
 quarters; its exterior periphery fourteen ells and 
 a half; and its weight 252 cwt. Twenty-four 
 men are required to ring it, besides two men 
 who, on each side, push forward the clapper. Its 
 K^.,r.f\ jj, olainlv heard at the distance of three
 
 BELL. 
 
 '^'A 
 
 (Jerman lea&;iies. Its fundamental note is I) sol 
 re, but it jiives also 1" faiit, making a consonance 
 of a minor third. But from tlie above account, 
 Sir John Hawkins (Hist, of Music, iv, 211) has 
 doubted whether the bell is ever rung at all ; that 
 is, whetlier it is elevated by a rope and wheel. 
 Tlie action of the twenty-four men is obscurely 
 described ; but the two are plainly employed not 
 in ringing but in tolling. 
 
 A bell in tlie church of St. Ivan, at Moscow, 
 weighs 127,836 pounds. But the wonder of 
 travellers is the unsuspended bell in the Krem- 
 lin of that city. It was cast in 1653, in the 
 reign of the empress Anne, and a fire took place 
 in the building erected over it. The metal thus 
 became hot, and the water, which fell upon it 
 while in this state, occasioned a fracture, by 
 which it was rendered useless. Dr. Clarke, in 
 his Travels, has given the following account of 
 it: — ' It reaches from the bottom of the cave to 
 the roof The entrance is by a trap-door, placed 
 even with the surface of the earth. We found 
 the steps very dangerous; some of Uiem were 
 wanting, and others broken, which occasioned 
 rae a severe fall down the whole extent of the 
 first flight, and a narrow escape for my life in not 
 being dashed upon the bell. In consequence of 
 this accident, a sentinel was stationed afterwards 
 at the trap-door, to prevent people becoming vic- 
 tims to their curiosity, lie might have been as 
 well employed in mending tlie steps, as in wait- 
 ing all day to say they were broken. The bell 
 is truly a mountain of metal. They relate that 
 it contains a very large proportion of gold and 
 silver; for that, while it was in fusion, the nobles 
 and the people cast in, as votive offerings, their 
 plate and money. It is permitted to doubt the 
 truth of traditionary tales, particularly in Russia, 
 where people are much disposed to relate what 
 they have heard, without reflecting on its proba- 
 lity. I have endeavoured, in vain, to assay a 
 small part. The natives regard it with super- 
 stitious veneration, and they would not allow 
 even a grain to be filed oft'. At tlie same time 
 it may be said, the compound has a white shin- 
 ing appearance, unlike bell-metal in general; 
 and perhaps its silvery aspect has strengthened, 
 if not given rise to, a conjecture respecting the 
 richness of its materials. On festival days, the 
 peasants visit the bell as they would a church, 
 considering it an act of devotion ; and they cross 
 themselves ;is they descend and ascend the ste])s. 
 The bottom of the pit is covered by water, mud, 
 and large pieces of timber, which, added to the 
 darkness, render it always an unpleasant and 
 unwholesome place, in addition to the danger 
 arising from the steps which lead to the bottom. 
 1 went frequently there, in order to ascertain the 
 dimensions of Uie bell with exactness. We 
 applied a strong cord close to the metal in all 
 parts of its periphery, and round the lower part 
 w here it touched the ground ; taking caie at the 
 same time not to stretch the cord. From the 
 piece of the bell broken off', it was ascertained 
 that we had thus measured within two feet of its 
 lower extremity. The circumference obtained 
 was sixty-seven feet and four incites; which 
 allows a diameter of twenty-two feet, five inches, 
 and one third of an inch. We then took the 
 
 pcqjcndicular height from the top of die b(:ll, 
 and found it correspond exactly with the state- 
 ment made by llanway, namely, twenty-one 
 feel, four inches and a half. In the stoutest 
 I)art, that in which it should have received the 
 blow of the hammer, its thickness equalled twenty- 
 three inches. We were able to ascertain this, by 
 placing our hands under water where the fracture 
 had taken place, which is above seven feet high 
 from the lip of the bell. The weight of this enor- 
 mous mass of metal has been computed to be 
 443,772 pounds; which, if valued at three shil- 
 lings a pound, amounts to £66,565. 163. lying 
 unemployed, and of no use to any one.- 
 
 In 1684, Abraham Kudliall, of Gloucester, 
 brought the art of bell-founding to great perfec- 
 tion. His descendants in succession continued 
 the business ; and by a list published by them, it 
 appears, that at Lady-day, 1774, the family, in 
 peals and odd bells, had cast to the amount of 
 3594. The peals of .St. Dunstan's in the east, 
 and St. Bride's, London, and St. Martin's in the 
 Field's, Westminster, are in the number. See 
 Foundry. 
 
 The practice of ringing bells in change, or 
 regular peals, is said to be peculiar to England ; 
 wiience Britain has been termed the bell-ringing 
 island. The custom seems to have commenced 
 in the time of the Saxons, and was common 
 before the conquest. The tolling a bell is nothing 
 more than the producing a sound by a stroke 
 with the clapper against the side of the bell, the 
 bell itself being in a pendent position and at 
 rest. In ringing, the bell, by means of a wheel 
 and a rope, is elevated to a perpendicular; in its 
 motion to this situation the clapper strikes forci- 
 bly on oiie side, and in its return downwards on 
 the other side of the bell, producing at each 
 stroke a sound. There were in London, for- 
 merly, many societies of ringers, particularly one 
 known by the name of the College Youllis: of 
 this it is said the celebrated Sir Matthew Hale, 
 was, in his youthful days, a member ; and in the 
 life of that judge, by bishop Burnet, are some 
 facts that at least prove his attachment to 
 such exercises. Ringing has sometimes claimed 
 the name of a science, and peals have been com- 
 posed which bear the name of inventors. Some 
 of the most celebrated of these were composed 
 about fifty years ago by one Patrick. This man 
 was a maker of barometers ; in his advertise- 
 ments he styled himself Torricellian Operator, 
 from Torricelli, who invented instruments of 
 this kind. The ancient peals do not appear to 
 have exceeded five in number. Iloldeii, in his 
 Treatise on the natural grounds of Harmony, 
 remarks, that ' the completest and most perfect 
 ring is a peal of six, in which, whether ascend- 
 ing or descending, the hemitone holds the mid- 
 dle position, as it does in both the natural and 
 the durum hexachord ; in the niolle hexachord 
 the tiitonus intervenes.' cap. vi. Stowe, in his 
 Survey of Cornhill Ward, mentions, that in 
 1430, a sixtli bell was added to the peal of five 
 in the church of St. INIichael ; after which it was 
 accounted the best ring of bells, for harmony 
 and sweetness, in all England. 
 
 The theory of ringing may be completely 
 learned from either tlie Campanologia (of 1 733;, 
 
 3 U 2
 
 772 
 
 BELL. 
 
 or tlie Harmonia Universalis (the Latin not the 
 Frcncli work) of Mersennus, in which he has enu- 
 merated and reduced to musical notation, the 
 changes of the hexachord, or the Tintinnalo- 
 gia, or Art of Ringing, (1668), in which every 
 possible change of diatonic sound, from two 
 bells to twelve, is laid down; and innumerable 
 passages presented wholly new to musical com- 
 position. Tiiis may easily be imagined, when it 
 is recollected, that in the simple arrangements of 
 natural sound, without the intervention of a 
 single flat or sharp, twelve bells produce 
 479,001,600 changes. Not all the changes, 
 however, if reduced into an air, would be equally 
 agreeable or practicable ; and it is somewhat 
 remarkable, that in the art of ringing, melody 
 has never been studied. Mechanical order and 
 succession has been all in all ; and Dr. Burney, 
 from whom we borrow the observation, states, 
 that even in the clams or collision of two bells 
 together in counterpoint, no knowledge of har- 
 mony has ever been displayed. 
 
 The number of changes upon a given number 
 of bells is readily calculated : S:z:lx2x3x4 
 X .... n. So that the changes upov 
 
 bells are 2 
 
 6 
 
 24 
 
 120 
 
 720 
 
 • 5,040 
 
 40,320 
 
 362,8m 
 
 ■ 3,628,800 
 
 ■ 39,916,800 
 
 479,001,600 
 
 No peal, beyond twelve, we believe, has ever been 
 erected. The churches having twelve bells, in 
 London, are St. Bride's, St. Martin's in the 
 Fields, St. Michael's Cornhil), St. Leonard's 
 Shoreditch, St. Saviour's Southwark, St. Giles's 
 Cripplegate, and Christ Church Spitalfields. 
 In the country, York Minster, Cirencester, Great 
 St. Mary's Cambridge, St. Martin's Birming- 
 ham, St. Peter's Mancroft Norwich, St. Chad's 
 Shrewsbury, and Payne Church Gloucestershire, 
 have the same number. 
 
 It is calculated that twelve changes may be rung 
 m one minute, that is 720 in an hour. On this 
 computation, all the possible changes on twelve 
 bells could not be rung in less than seventy-five 
 years, ten months, and ten days. 
 
 A peal is the whole number of changes which 
 can be rung on any given number of bells : and 
 as the style of eacii peal differs according to the 
 variation in the succession of these changes, so 
 each peal is distinguished by a peculiar name, 
 as times are in psalmody, the peal of regular 
 permutations on five bells, is called a grandsire. 
 These permutations are represented in the fol- 
 lowing diagram. ' 
 
 12345 
 
 13542 
 
 31254 
 
 25143 
 
 
 31524 
 
 32145 
 
 52413 
 
 
 21354 
 
 35142 
 
 23415 
 
 54231 
 
 23145 
 
 53412 
 
 24351 
 
 4532- 
 
 32415 
 
 54321 
 
 42531 
 
 43512 
 
 34251 
 
 45231 
 
 45213 
 
 34152 
 
 43521 
 
 42513 
 
 54123 
 
 B 31425 
 
 45312 
 
 24153 
 
 51432 
 
 13452 
 
 54132 
 
 B 21435 
 
 15342 
 
 14325 
 
 51423 
 
 12453 
 
 13524 
 
 41352 
 
 15243 
 
 14235 
 
 31542 
 
 43125 
 
 12534 
 
 41253 
 
 35124 
 
 34215 
 
 21543 
 
 42135 
 
 53214 
 
 32451 
 
 25134 
 
 24315 
 
 52341 
 
 23541 
 
 52314 
 
 23451 
 
 25431 
 
 25314 
 
 53241 
 
 32541 
 
 24313 
 
 52134 
 
 35421 
 
 35214 
 
 42153 
 
 51243 
 
 34512 
 
 53124 
 
 B 41235 
 
 15423 
 
 43152 
 
 51342 
 
 14253 
 
 14532 
 
 41325 
 
 15432 
 
 12435 
 
 41523 
 
 14352 
 
 14523 
 
 21453 
 
 45132 
 
 13425 
 
 41532 
 
 24135 
 
 54312 
 
 31452 
 
 45123 
 
 42315 
 
 53421 
 
 34125 
 
 54213 
 
 43251 
 
 35241 
 
 43215 
 
 52431 
 
 34521 
 
 32514 
 
 42351 
 
 25341 
 
 35412 
 
 23154 
 
 24531 
 
 23514 
 
 53142 
 
 S 21345 
 
 25413 
 
 32154 
 
 51324 
 
 12354 
 
 52143 
 
 S 32145 
 
 15234 
 
 12345 
 
 51234 
 
 13254 
 
 12543 
 
 
 15324 
 
 13245 
 
 21534 
 
 
 The letter B, in the above example, signifies a 
 bob, or an alteration in the direction of the 
 changes. S denotes single; a term used when 
 half the peal is rung, and, also, when one change 
 only remains. A plain bob, grandsire bob', or 
 single bob minor, is the peal of regular permuta- 
 tion on six bells. A grandsire treble is the same 
 on seven. A bob major the same on eight. 
 Caters the same on nine. Ten in, or bob royal, 
 the same on ten. Cinques the same on eleven. 
 Twelve in, or bob maximus, the same on twelve. 
 In the grandsire treble complete, there are 5040 
 changes : to ring through which, admitting 720 
 changes in an hour (a number which cannot be 
 kept up), seven hours would be required. It is 
 plain that this is the most extensive complete 
 peal which can be rung. The next in order, 
 the bob major, contains 40,320 changes, and 
 could not be rung even on a light peal in les? 
 than twenty-four hours, a length of time during 
 which no eight men could stand to the labor. 
 
 These regular changes, in which the place of 
 two bells only is altered in each round, are 
 called plain changes. When the place of more 
 than two bells is altered, and the changes do not 
 succeed each other progressively, but by inter- 
 vals, diey are called cross changes. 
 
 The bell, the regular motion of which guides 
 the rest, is called the hunt, and it is generally 
 the treble bell. In the above example, the figure 
 1 represents the hunt; it moves from its own 
 place into the second's place, and so on till it 
 reaches fifth's place, which is called hunting up 
 behind. Here it strikes two blows, called lay- 
 ing behind a whole pull; and it then hunts back 
 again in the reverse order, and so on to the end 
 of the peal. ' The first step,' says tiie Campa-
 
 BELL. 
 
 773 
 
 nologia, ' he (the learner) tnake^j in this art, is 
 lo learn perfectly to set a bell, both back stroke 
 and fore; and to have it so much at his com- 
 mand, as tliat he may be able to cut it down at 
 either hand (being the sally or back stroke), and 
 set it again the next pull ; without which he can- 
 not attain to any perfection or knowledge in this 
 art. And, to make this the more easy to him, he 
 must observe to keep the rope tight or stiff, to 
 stand upright to his bell, not stirring, or using 
 any ungenteel posture; which in ringing, as well 
 as dancing, is very ridiculous. When he is mas- 
 ter of this, he may then try to ring one round in 
 three, four, five, or six bells, and afterwards in 
 eight or ten, wherein, as in all ringiug, the princi- 
 pal thing to be observed is a true and exact 
 compass, which in music is called time, other- 
 wise the ringing becomes very unpleasing and 
 disturbing to the hearers, and may be compared 
 to the nauseous music of a country fiddle-player 
 before a company of boors and peasants going to 
 the celebration of a homely country-wedding.' 
 p. 11. 
 
 In the Low Countries, particularly at Ghent 
 and Antwerp, is a species of chime termed caril- 
 lons, played with great labor by a performer, 
 the carrjlloneur, upon a number of bells, disposed 
 in a scale of tones and semitones like a harpsi- 
 chord. The bass is played by pedals ; the treble 
 by violent strokes of the hands edgeways upon a 
 series of projecting sticks, which act as keys. 
 From this barbarous and unwieldy music, the 
 term carillon has been applied to a small keyed 
 instrument, imitating a peal of hand-bells, in 
 which box hammers are made to strike iron bars 
 of different lengths. Handel employed this 
 instrument as an accompaniment in his air, ' O 
 let the merry bells ring round,' in L' Allegro ; 
 and to the chorus, ' Welcome, welcome, mighty 
 king,' in Saul. See Chimes. 
 
 The Passing Bell was anciently rung for two 
 purposes ; one, to bespeak the prayers of the mi- 
 nister and all good Christians for a soul just 
 departing; the other, to drive away the evil 
 spirits who were supposed to wait about the 
 house, ready to seize their prey, or to molest and 
 terrify the soul in its passage. By the ringing of 
 tliis bell, for Durandus informs us evil spirits 
 are much afraid of bells, they were thought to 
 be kept aloof: and the soul, like a hunted hare, 
 gained the start, or had what is by sportsmen 
 called law. Hence, perhaps, exclusive of the 
 additional labor, was occasioned tlie liigh price 
 demanded for tolling the greatest bell in the 
 church. This dislike of spirits to bells is men- 
 tioned in the (Jolden Legend, by W. de Worde. 
 * It is said, tiie evil spirytes that ben in the 
 regyon of thayre, double moche when they here 
 the belles rongen: and this is the cause why the 
 bells ben rongen whan ,it thondrelh, and whan 
 grete tempeste and outrages of wether happen, 
 to the ende that llie fiends and wycked spirytes 
 shold be abashed and flee, and cease of the 
 movynge of tempeste.' Lobineau observes, that 
 the custom of ringing bells, at the approach of 
 thunder, is of some antiquity; but tliat the 
 design was not so much to shake the air and so 
 dissipate the thunder, as to call the people to 
 
 church, to pray that the parish might be pre- 
 served from disasters. 
 
 Legends Concerning Bells, as might be ex- 
 pected, are endless. The bells at Canterbury are 
 said to have rung of themselves on the murder of 
 Thomas a Becket : but the influence of bells as 
 exorcists has occasionally failed. The history 
 and antiquities of Shrewsbury, by Phillips, con- 
 tains the following item : ' This yere 1533 
 upon twelffe daye in Shrewsbury, The Dyvyll 
 appearyd in Saint Alkmondschurche there when 
 the priest was at high masse, with great tempeste 
 and darknesse, so tiiat as he passyd through the 
 churche, he mounted up the steeple in the sayde 
 churche, tering the wyers of the seid clocke, and 
 put the print of hys clawes upon the 4th bell, 
 and tooke one of the pynnacles away with hym, 
 and for thetyme stayed all the bells in the church- 
 es within the said towne, that they could ney- 
 ther toll nor ringe.' It is clear that this is 
 simply the reference of a thunder storm to 
 diabolical agency. We are told of a bell of St. 
 David, which cured the King of Dublin of a 
 mortal disease by applying it to his cheek. This 
 was preserved in the church of Glascwm in Rad- 
 norshire. It was portable, and endowed with 
 great virtue. Giraldus Carabrensis says, that ' a 
 certain woman secretly conveyed tliis bell to her 
 husband, who was confined in the castle of 
 Raidergwy nearWarlhrenia, which Rhys, son of 
 Gruffydd, had lately built, for the purpose of his 
 deliverance. The keeper of the castle not only 
 refused to liberate him for this consideration but 
 seized and detained the bell ; and in the same 
 night, by Divine vengeance, tlie whole town, ex- 
 cept the wall on which the bell hung, was con- 
 sumed by tire.' A similar bell, called Bangu, 
 was kept in all Welsh churches during Popish 
 times. On the day of a funeral, the sexton took 
 it to tlie house of the deceased. When the pro- 
 cession' began a Psalm was sung, and the bell- 
 man sounded the Bangu in a solemn manner, 
 till the corpse arrived at the church. \N ithin 
 the memory of living persons this custom is said 
 to have prevailed in Wales. We must mention 
 yet one more marvellous bell in Ireland, which, 
 unless it were tied fast every night, used to 
 wander far from home into another church ! We 
 read also of a comet, which in the time of Pope 
 Calixtus III. cast upon the Turks all the mis- 
 chief which it threatened, in consequence of tlie 
 ringing of bells, by order of the pontiff', pre- 
 cisely at noon. Plat, in vita. 
 
 We may finally observe (with Stavely, on 
 Churches,) that anciently and sometimes besides 
 the before specified oitices, an extraordinary 
 and dreadful use w;is also made of bells, and 
 that was the cursing by Bell, Book, and Candle : 
 the manner whereof, he adds, I hope, will not be 
 altogether impertinent here to relate ; out of an 
 ancient Festival, and the articles of the general 
 great curse, found at Canterbury, A. D. 1562. 
 It was solemnly thundered out once in every 
 Quarter; ' The Fyrst Sonday of Advent, at 
 comyng of our Lord Jhesu Cryst : the fyrst 
 Sonday of Lenteen : 'Die Sonday in the Feste of 
 the Trynyte : and Sonday within the Utas (Oc- 
 taves) of the blessed X'yrgin our Lady St. Mary.' 
 At which action the prelate stands in the [)ulpit
 
 774 
 
 BELL. 
 
 in liis Aulbc, tlio cross being lifted up before him 
 nnd the candles lighted on both sides of it, and 
 begins thus, * By authority, Ood, Fader, Son, 
 and Holy-Ghost, and the glorious Moder and 
 Mayden, our Lady St. Mary, and the Blessed 
 Apostles Peter, and Paul, and all Apostles, 
 Martyrs, Confessors, Vyrgyne, and the hallows 
 of God ; All thos byn accursed that purchases 
 writts, or letters of any leud court, or to let the 
 jirocesse of tlie law of holy church of causes that 
 longen skilfully to christen court, the which 
 sliould not be demed by none other law : And 
 all that maliciously bereaven holy chirch of her 
 right, or maken holy chirch lay fee, that is hal- 
 lowed and blessed. And also all thos that for 
 malyce or wrathe of parson, vicare, or priest, or 
 of any other, or for wrongfull covetyse of himself 
 witholden rightful tyths, and offerings, rents, or 
 mortuaries from her own parish church, and by 
 way of covetyse fals lyche taking to God the 
 worse, and to hemself the better, or else torn him 
 into another use, then hem oweth. For all 
 chrysten man and women been hard bound on 
 pain of deadly sin, not onlyche by ordinance of 
 man, but both in the ould law, and also in the 
 new law, for to pay trulyche to God and holy 
 chirch the tyth part of all manner of encrease that 
 they winnen trulyche by the grace of God, both 
 with her travell, and alsoe with her craftes whatsoe 
 they be truly gotten.' ' And then concludes all 
 with the curse itself, thus :' ' A.nd now by 
 authoritie aforesaid we denounce all thos accur- 
 syd tliat are so founden guyltie, and all thos that 
 maintaine hem in her sins or gyven hem hereto 
 either help or councell, soe they be departed froe 
 God, and all holi chirch : and that they have noe 
 part of the passyon of our Lord Jhesu Cryst, ne 
 of noe Sacraments, ne no part of the prayers 
 among christen folk : But that they be accursed 
 of God, and of the chirch, froe the sole of her 
 foot to the crown of her hede, sleeping and 
 waking, sitting and standing, and in all her 
 words, and in all her werks ; but if they have 
 noe grace of God to amend them here in this 
 lyl'e, for to dwell in the pain of hell {or ever 
 withouten end : fiat : fiat. Doe to the boke : 
 (piench the candles : ring the bell : Amen, 
 Amen.' * And then the book is clapp'd together, 
 the candles blown out, and the bells rung, with 
 a most dreadful noise made by the congregation 
 present bewailing the accursed persons concerned 
 in that black doom denounced against them.' 236. 
 The uses of bells were summed up in the fol- 
 lowing distich, as well as one above mentioned : 
 l,;iuiio Dcum vcruiii, plebcm voco> coujuga cieruni, 
 Di'fuuctos ploro, pcstcm fugo, fcsta dccoio. 
 
 Bell, in architecture, is used to denote the 
 body of tlie Corinthian and Composite capital, 
 by reason of its resemblance to the figure of a 
 l)ell inverted. It is also called vase and tambour, 
 and sometimes corbeil. The naked of the bell 
 should always be even and perpendicular with 
 the bottom of the flutings of the column. See 
 AncHnrxTLRE. 
 
 Bia.L, in chemistry, denotes a glass vessel 
 placed over some matter in a state of exhalation, 
 iitlier to collect the vapor or gather tiie Howers. 
 (Iienucal bells arc a sort of receptacles chicily 
 uicd inprej)aring the oil or spirit of suljihur, lor 
 
 gathering and condensing fumes into a liquor. 
 Bell, Diving. See Diving. 
 Bell (Benjamin), member of the Royal College 
 of Surgeons, and F.R.S. Edinburgh, was born 
 at Dumfries, in 1749, and after a classical educa- 
 tion, under the celebrated Dr. George Chapman, 
 began his medical studies at Edinburgh, in 1766. 
 About 1770 he went to Paris, and from thence 
 to London. Mr. Bell returned to Edinburgh 
 in 1772, with a design of settling there. Flis 
 address and dexterity, and the success of his 
 cures in the iniirmaiy, were soon observed, but 
 his fame was not confined to the circle of prac- 
 tice : in 1778 he published A Treatise on the 
 management of Ulcers, &c. which soon passed 
 through several editions, and was occasionally im- 
 proved by the author. He afterwards incorpo- 
 rated it into his System of Surgery, of which Mr. 
 Bell published the first volume in 1783 which was 
 well received. He completed it in 1788. Before 
 the year 1801 it had gone through six editions, 
 receiving, as they came out, whatever improve- 
 ments his experience could add : the 7th edition, 
 considerably improved, was that year published 
 in 7 vols. 8vo. In the year 1793 Mr. Bell pub- 
 lished a Treatise on the Gonorrhoea Virulenta, 
 and Lvies Venerea, 2 vols. 8vo. which passed to 
 a third edition. In 1794 appeared a more en- 
 larged treatise on Tlie Hydrocele, on Sarcocele 
 or Cancer, and other diseases of the Testes, than 
 what was contained in his System of Surgery. 
 In 1782 Mr. Bel! published tlie first volume of 
 a Series of Essays on Agriculture, with a plan 
 for the speedy improvement of land in Great Bri- 
 tain ; the 2d volume of which he was preparing 
 for the press immediately before his death. He 
 also sent abroad into the world several anony- 
 mous political tracts. Mr. Bell married a 
 daughter of the llev. Dr. Hamilton, professor of 
 Divinity ; and some years before his death he 
 was assisted in his professional pursuits by his 
 eldest son, Mr. George Bell. He made different 
 tours for the improvement of his health about the 
 year 1800, but nature continued to fail, and he 
 expired without any sympton of pain, on 4th 
 April, 1806. 
 
 Bell (.John), an eminent surgeon of Edin- 
 burgh, delivered anatomical lectures there, and 
 published some professional works of considerable 
 importance. Among these are Discourses on the 
 ISature and Cure of Wounds, 8vo ; The Anatomy 
 of the Human Body, 3 vols. 8vo ; Principles of 
 Surgery, 3 vols. 4to. A few years ago he travel- 
 led to Italy, and dying at Rome in 1820, left 
 for the press a work published in 1825 with the 
 title of Observations on Italy, 4to. 
 
 Bell (Henry Nugent), a student of the Inner 
 Temple, of considerable iieraldic and genealogi- 
 cal research. His exertions were the means of 
 the recovery of the dormant Huntingdon Peer- 
 age. He died October 18, 1822, on the day a 
 verdict was given against him for a sum of money 
 advanced to liim by Mr. Cooke, an engraver, to- 
 wards the investigation of a claim to an estate. 
 He ])ul)lishcd an ;:ccount of the claim to tlie 
 Huntingdon peerage. 
 
 Bill (Elizabeth), of Kinvaid, and lier friend 
 INIary Gray, of Lcilnock, crlebrated in the well 
 known song, Bessy Bell and Mary Ciray, vere
 
 BEL 
 
 / /D 
 
 BEL 
 
 Ijotlj natives of Perthshire, where tliese estates 
 are situated. The history of these younp; hidies 
 is recorded by the ministers of Methven and 
 Monedie, in Sir J. Sinclair's Stat. Ace. Vol. III. 
 G04; and X. 621. 
 
 BELLA (Stefano De la), an eminent enj^raver, 
 born at Florence, A.]). IGIO. His father was a 
 lioldsniith ; and he began to follow tliat business, 
 but whilst learnin;^ to draw, Callot's ]>rints fell 
 into his hands ; with wliich he was so delighted, 
 that he prevailed upon his father to permit him 
 to apply to engraving; and he became the dis- 
 <;iple of Canto (Jallina, the instructor of Callot. 
 Bella at first imitated the manner of Callot, but 
 soon adoj)ted one, his own, which in freedom 
 and spirit is said even to have surpassed that of 
 his fellow pupil. lie went to Paris A. 1). 1642, 
 ■where he formed an acquaintance with Israel 
 Silvestre, and was much employed by llenriete, 
 Silvestre's uncle. Some time after. Cardinal 
 Richelieu engaged him to go to Arras and make 
 drawings of the siege of that town by the royal 
 army. After staying a considerable time at 
 Paris, his family affairs obliged him to return to 
 riorence ; where he obtained a pension from the 
 Great Duke, and was appointed to instruct 
 Cosmo, his son, in the art of design. He was 
 subject to violent head-aches, which terminated his 
 life, A.D. 1664, when he was only fifty-four years 
 of age. He drew very correctly, with great taste, 
 and vast fertility of invention. The animation 
 which appears in his works compensates for their 
 slightness, which we can hardly be surprised at 
 when we are told that he engraved 1400 plates. 
 
 BKLLADONA, in botany the trivial name of 
 a species of Atropa. See Atuopa. 
 
 Bki-ladoxa Lily. See Amakyi.lis. 
 
 BELLAI (William du), lord of Langey, a 
 French general who signalised himself in the 
 service of Francis I. He was also an able nego- 
 ciator, so that the ^;mperor Charles V. used to say, 
 that Langey 's pen had fought more against him 
 than all the lances in France. He was sent to 
 Piedmont in quality of viceroy, where he took 
 several towns from the Imperialists. His address 
 in penetrating into the enemy's designs was sur- 
 prising. In this he spared no expense, and 
 thereby had intelligence of the most secret of the 
 imperial councils. It being then the interest of 
 France to favor the king of England, he was 
 extremely active in influencing some of the 
 French universities to give their judgment 
 agreeable to the desire of Henry VIII. on the 
 subject of divorcing i^ueen Catharine. He was 
 sent several times into Germany to the princes 
 of tlie Protestant league, and was made a knight 
 of the order of St. Michael. He was also a man 
 of learning, and composed several works ; the 
 most remarkable of which was the History of his 
 Own Times, in Latin, divided into several parts, 
 eacii consisting of ei'^dit books ; most of which, 
 however, have been lost. He died at St. Sapho- 
 rin, between Lyons and Roan, the 9th January, 
 1542, and was buried in the church of Mans. 
 
 BELL.\M()RESKOV-LElM)U()I,aprovince 
 of Russian Lapland, on the While St-a, which is 
 called in the language of the country Bella or 
 Bicloi "MoTG. 
 
 BELLAMY (Thomas), was born at Kingston- 
 upon-Thames in 174.5, and bred a hosier, becam.e 
 subsequently a publisher, and also an author. 
 Among other things, he produced Sadaski, a 
 novel, Lessons from Lift-, Miscellanies, and The 
 Friends, a musical interlude. He was the 
 original projector and editor of the Monthly 
 Mirror. He died in 1800. 
 
 BELLARDIA, in botany, a genus of plants, 
 of the class tetandria: order monogynia: cat.. 
 four-cleft: nf.ct. with a four-lobed margin, 
 surrounding the style : cai'S. two-celled, two- 
 partible, many-seeded. One species ; a native 
 of Guiana. 
 
 BELLARMIN (Robert), an Italian Jesuit, one 
 of the best controversial writers of his time. In 
 1576 he read lectures at Rome witli such ap- 
 plause, that Sixtus V'. sending a legate into 
 France in 1590, appointed him as an attendant 
 divine, in case any dispute should arise in re- 
 ligion. He returned to Rome, and was raised 
 successively to different offices, till at last, in 
 1599, he was honored with a cardinal's hat; his 
 acceptance of which, it is said, they were ob- 
 liged to force, by threatening him with an ana- 
 thema, in case of refusal. It is certain that no 
 Jesuit ever did greater honor to his order, and 
 that no author ever so well defended the Romish 
 church. Protestants have owned this ; for, during 
 the space of fifty years, there was scarcely any 
 considerable divine among them, wlio did not 
 fix upon this author for the subject of his Ipooks 
 of controversy. Notwithstanding the zeal with 
 which he maintained the power of the pope over 
 the temporality of kings, he displeased Sixtus V. 
 in his work De Romano Pontifice, by insisting 
 that the power which .Jesus Christ gave to his 
 vicegerent was only indirect, and had the morti- 
 fication to see it put into the index of the In- 
 quisition, though it was afterwards removed. He 
 left, at his death, one half of his soul to the 
 \'irgin Mary, and the other to Jesus Christ. 
 
 BELLASPOOR. a town of Delhi, Hindostan, 
 on the east side of the Sutubje river, which is 
 here 100 yards broad. I.at. 31° 35' N., long. 
 76°21'E. It is well built, and exhibits a re- 
 gularity not often seen in this part of Hindostan. 
 The streets are roughly paved, and the houses 
 built of stone and mortar. From Belhispoor, 
 fertile valleys, though not wide, extend to Bi- 
 polie ; and it is the residence of the ranny, or 
 female ruler of the Calowr territory. 
 
 BELLATRIX, in astronomy, a ruddy glittering 
 
 star of the second magnitude, in the left shoulder 
 
 of Orion. It takes its name from bellum, war, 
 
 as being anciently supposed to have a great 
 
 influence in kindling wars, and forming warriors. 
 
 BELLE, ^ Belle, Fr., from the Latin 
 
 Bki.i.'yciie, / hellus, is applied to the female, 
 
 Bf.i/dam, y as beau to the male. Beldam, 
 
 Bei.'siue, i now a term of derision and re- 
 
 BELL'moxn.J proach, literally signifies fair 
 
 lady. Bellibone, bonny belle ; bonny lass ; 
 
 Belli/cfie occurs in Pier's Plouhman. Beldam^ 
 
 in lord, simply, as an aged woman ; and 
 
 Shakspeare applies it to the earth, — shakes the 
 
 old beldame earth : he uses it, however, in its 
 
 common acceptation. Bclsire occurs in Drayton.
 
 BEL 
 
 776 
 
 BEL 
 
 Who this land in such estate maintain 'd. 
 As his groat helsire Brute from Albion's heirs it won. 
 
 Drayton, 
 
 Pan may be proud that ever he begot 
 ' Such a bellibone. 
 
 And Syrinx rejoice that ever was her lot 
 
 To bear such a one. Spenser. 
 
 Per. I saw the bouncing beUihone, 
 
 Will. Hey, ho, Bonibell, 
 
 Per. Tripping over the dale alone. 
 
 Will. She can trip it very well. 
 
 Id. Shepherd's Calendar. 
 
 What motive could compel 
 
 A well-bred lord t' assault a gentle belle ? 
 
 O say, what stranger cause, yet unexplor'd. 
 
 Could make a gentle belle reject a lord. Pope. 
 
 BELLEAU (Remi), a French poet, born at 
 Nogent le Rotrou. He lived in the family of 
 Renatus of Lorraine, Marquis of Elbeuf, general 
 of the French galleys; and attended him in his 
 expedition into Italy in 1557. This prince 
 highly esteemed Belleau for his courage and 
 abilities, and entrusted him with the education 
 of his son, Charles of Lorraine. Belleau was 
 one of the seven poets of his time, who were 
 denominated the French Pleiades. He translated 
 the odes of Anacreon, but is thought not to have 
 preserved all the natural beauties of the original. 
 His pastoral pieces are most in esteem. He 
 also wrote an excellent poem on the Nature of 
 Precious Stones; he died at Paris in_ 1577, in 
 the family of the Duke d'Elbeuf. 
 
 BELLE DE NuiT, in botany, a name given 
 by the French to the flower of the jalap. 
 
 BELLEFOREST (Francis de), a French au- 
 thor, born in Guienne in 1530. He was seven 
 years of age when he lost his father ; but his 
 mother, though left in poor circumstances, con- 
 tributed all in her power to his education. He 
 was supported some years by the queen of Na- ■ 
 varre, sister to Francis L Some time after, he 
 went to study at Bourdeaux, then at Toulouse, 
 and at last at Paris ; where he became acquainted 
 ■with several men of learning, and was honored 
 with the friendship of many persons of quality. 
 He wrote, 1. A History of the Nine Charleses 
 of France. 2. Annotations on the Books of St. 
 Augustine. 3. An Universal History of the 
 World. 4. The Chronicles of Nicholas Gillet 
 augmented. 5. An Universal Cosmography. 
 6. Annals, or a General History of France : and 
 many other works. He died in 1583. 
 
 BELLEGARDE, a strong barrier town of 
 France, in the department of the Eastern Py- 
 renees, and ci-devant province of Roussillon, on 
 the frontiers of Catalonia. It commands a pas- 
 sage through the Pyrenean mountains. Early in 
 the revolutionary war it was taken by Spain, and 
 stood a severe siege by the French in July and Aug. 
 1794; but was obliged to surrender at discretion 
 on the 17th of September to General Dugommier, 
 who named it Sud-Libre. It is four miles south- 
 east of Ceret, and fifteen south of Perpigan. 
 
 Bei.legarde, a town of France, in the de- 
 partment of the Saone and Loire, and late pro- 
 vince of Burgundy, seated on the Saone, fifteen 
 miles north-east of Chalons. Long. 5° 10' E., 
 Int. 460 57' N. 
 
 BELLEISLE, an island of France, called also 
 Belle-Isle-en-Meb, 115 miles from the coast 
 
 of the department of the INIorbihan, in the ci- 
 devant Brittany. It is the largest of the French 
 European islands, being fifteen miles long and 
 five broad. It is a mixture of craggy rocks and 
 fertile soil ; but the inhabitants are very poor, 
 and the principal trade carried on in it is the 
 curing of pilchards. There are three harbours in 
 the island, every one of which is defective, either 
 in being exposed, shallow, or dangerous of en- 
 trance. Its chief town is Le Palais, besides 
 which it contains three county towns, 103 villages, 
 and about 5000 inhabitants. In 1742 it was 
 erected into a duchy, in favor of jNIarshal 
 Belleisle. The town of Palais has a citadel 
 fronting the sea, fortified principally by horn- 
 works, provided with two dry ditches, the one 
 next the counterscarp, and the other so contrived 
 as to secure the interior fortifications. This ci- 
 tadel is divided from the larger part of the town 
 by an inlet of the sea, over which there is a 
 bridge of communication. In this state was the 
 island in 1761, when an expedition was under- 
 taken against it by a British fleet, under the 
 command of Commodore Reppel, having on 
 board a considerable land force, commanded by 
 General Hodgson. The fleet sailed from Spit- 
 head on the 29th of March, and arrived before 
 Belleisle on the 7th of April. The attempt to 
 land was made in three places with great reso- 
 lution ; but die British were at last repulsed, 
 with the loss of 500 men. It was not before tlie 
 25th of April that the weather allowed a second 
 attempt, which was successful, though the as- 
 sailants had many obstacles to encounter. The 
 French were driven into Palais, and there the 
 chevalier de St. Croix, a brave and experienced 
 officer, resolved to hold out to the last extremity. 
 It was not till the 7th of .June that he capitu- 
 lated, and the garrison marched out with the 
 honors of war. At this siege the marine corps, 
 then newly formed, gave the first signal proofs 
 of that intrepidity, discipline, and fidelity, for 
 which they have ever since been so much dis- 
 tinguished. The island was restored to the 
 French by the treaty of 1763. Long. S'^ 6' W., 
 lat. 47° 18' N. 
 
 Belle-Isle, an island of North America, 
 lying at the mouth of the strait between New 
 Britain and the north end of Newfoundland ; 
 whence the passage between them is called the 
 Straits of Belle-Isle. The island is twenty-one 
 miles in circuit, and the nearest land of the La- 
 brador coast is sixteen miles distance. It has a 
 harbour for fishing vessels, and a cove which 
 will admit shallops. Long. 55° 15' W., lat. 51° 
 58' N. 
 
 BELLENDEN, or Ballantine (William), a 
 Scottish writer, who flourished in the beginning 
 of tiie seventeenth century, was professor of hu- 
 manity, or belles-lettres, at Edinburgh, and 
 master of the requests to .lames I. of England. 
 But both appointments are supposed to have 
 been only nominal, since he appears to have re- 
 sided almost constantly at Paris, where, by the 
 favor of his sovereign, he was enabled to live in 
 easy circumstances. There he published in 1608 
 his Cicero Princeps, a singular work ; in which 
 he extracted, from Cicero'", writings, detached 
 passages respecting monarchial government, with
 
 BEL 
 
 777 
 
 BEL 
 
 the line of conduct to be pursued, and the virtues 
 proper to be encouraged by the prince himself. 
 This treatise, when finished, lie dedicated to 
 the son of his master, Henry, Prince of Wales. 
 In 1612 he published a work of a similar nature, 
 called Cicero Consul, Senator Senatusque Ro- 
 manus. He now conceived a plan of a third 
 work, I)e Statu prisci Orbis, which was to con- 
 tain a history of the progress of government 
 and ]iliilosophy, to their various degrees of im- 
 ])rovement under the Hebrews, (Jreeks, and 
 llomans. He proceeded so far as to print a few 
 copies of this work in 161.5, when it was 
 suggested to him that his treatises De Statu Prin- 
 cipis, De Statu Reipublictc, and De Statu Orbis, 
 being on subjects so nearly resembling each 
 other, there might be a propriety in uniting them 
 into one work, by republishing the vviiole under 
 the title of Bellendenus de Statu. With tiiis 
 view he recalled the few copies of his last work, 
 and the three treatises appeared together under 
 the new title in 1616. These pieces were re- 
 printed by the late Dr. Parr. He inscribed 
 them to INIr. Burke, Lord North, and Mr. Tox, 
 whose talents and virtues he celebrates in a 
 preface of seventy-six pages, and enters upon a 
 very free and bold discussion of public men and 
 measures, undernames borrowed from antiquity. 
 Bellenden wrote another work, published after 
 liis death, De tribus Luminibus Romanorum, 
 whom he conceives to be Cicero, Seneca, and the 
 elder Pliny. Dr. Middleton has been charged 
 with borrowing not only the matter, but the ar- 
 rangement, of his Life of Cicero, from Bellenden, 
 without the least acknowledgment. 
 
 BELLKNDENA, in botany, so called by Mr. 
 Brown, in honor of John Bellenden Ker, l''.sq. a 
 scientific botanist ; class tetrandria, order mono- 
 gynia : natural order proteaceae. Its essential 
 characters are : pet. four, regular and spreading : 
 COR. white, and soon falling: stam. inserted 
 into the receptacle: germ, two-seeded: stig. 
 simple : caps, without wings, not bursting : 
 SEEDS one or two. 1. B. montana, mountain 
 bellendena. — The only known species ; found 
 by Mr. Brown on the mountains of \'an Diemen's 
 land, but as yet unknown in our gardens. This 
 is a perfectly smooth shrub : the leaves are scat- 
 tered, flat ; three-cleft at the extremity : llowers 
 scattered, rarely in pairs : seed-vessel colored, 
 furrowed along one edge. 
 
 BKLLKR, Bkllay, or Bellev, a town of 
 France, in the department of the Ain, and capital 
 of the ci-devant district of Bugey ; seated near 
 the Rhone, among the hills, on the borders of 
 Mont Blanc, twelve or sixteen miles north-west 
 of Chamberry, and '2.50 south-east of Paris. 
 
 BELLKROPHON, or 13ei.lerophontes, in 
 fabulous history, the son of Glaucus, king of 
 Kpinis, happening accidentally to kill his brother, 
 he fled to Pralus, king of Argos, who gave him a 
 hospitable reception : but Sthenobea, his queen, 
 falling in love with him, and finding that nothing 
 could induce him to injure his benefactor, she 
 accused him to her husband of an attempt to 
 violate her honor. Prcetus, however, not willing 
 to infringe tiie laws of hospitality, sent him to 
 lobates, king of I.ysia, and father of Sthenobea, 
 with letters desiring him to put him to death ; 
 
 whence the proverb, Bellerophontis literas afTeref, 
 equivalent to carrying the letters of Uriah. That 
 prince, at the receipt of these letters, was cele- 
 brating a festival, wliich prevented Beller'ophon'g 
 destruction. lobates, however, sent him in the 
 mean time to subdue the Solymi, die Amazons, 
 and Lysians, and thought to get rid of him by 
 exposing him to the greatest dangers ; but by his 
 prudence and courage he came off victorious, 
 lobates next employed him to destroy the Chi- 
 ma;ra : when Minerva, or, according to otliers, 
 Neptune, in consideration of his innocence, fur- 
 nished him with the horse Pegasus, by whose 
 assistance he killed the Chimacra. lobates, on 
 his return, being convinced of his truth and in- 
 tegrity, and charmed with his heroic virtues, 
 gave him his daughter Philonoe in marriao-e, 
 and declared him his successor; which when 
 Sthenobea lieard, she killed herself. Bellerophon 
 at length growing vain with his prosperity, re- 
 solved, by the assistance of Pegasus, to ascend 
 the skies ; when Jupiter checked his presumption, 
 by striking him blind ; on which he fell down 
 to the earth, and wandered till his death in con- 
 tempt and misery : but Pegasus mounting into 
 heaven, Jupiter placed him among the constel- 
 lations. 
 
 Belles Lettres. — Of the meaning of this 
 term no precise definition has yet been given. 
 It appears to be a vague designation, under 
 which every one may include whatever he pleases. 
 Sometimes we are told, that by the belles lettres 
 is meant the knowledge of the arts of poetry and 
 oratory ; sometimes that the true belles lettres 
 are natural philosophy, geometry, and other 
 essential parts of learning ; and sometimes that 
 they comprehend the art of war, by land and 
 sea. In treating on the belles lettres, some even 
 talk of the use of. the sacraments, &c. See 
 Rollin on the Belles Lettres. Some comprehend 
 under tlie term all those instructive and pleasing 
 sciences which occupy the memory and the 
 judgment, and do not make part either of the 
 superior sciences, or of the polite arts (see Arts), 
 or of mechanic professions : hence they make 
 history, chronology, geography, genealogy, bla- 
 zonry, philology, &c. the belles lettres. In a 
 word, it were an endless task to attempt to 
 enumerate all the parts of literature wliich dif- 
 ferent learned men have comprehended under 
 this title. 
 
 BELLEVILLE, a town of France, in the de- 
 partment of the Rhone, and ci-devant district of 
 I3eaujolois, seated near the Saone. Wine is its 
 principal article of commerce. 
 
 BELLEV'OIS, painter of sea-pieces, is known 
 through all parts of Europe, though no parti- 
 culars have been handed down concerning his 
 life. lie died in 1684. His subjects are views 
 of havens, sea-ports, shores, calms, and storms 
 at sea. In his calms he shows peculiar excellence. 
 His pictures are often in public sales ; and those 
 of his best style are sold pretty liigh. 
 
 BELHEIM, a large market town in the circle 
 of the Rhine, and district of Spire, subject to 
 Bavaria. The population, which amounts to 
 1500, is partly Catholic, partly Calvinistic, and 
 partly Lutheran. The first two persuasions have 
 churches.
 
 BEL 
 
 778 
 
 BEL 
 
 BELLTCA CoLUMNA, in antiquity, a column 
 near the temple of Bellona, from which the 
 consuls or feciales threw javelins towards the 
 enemy's country, by way of declaration of 
 war. 
 
 BELLI'CAL, -N Latin, helium, hellmim, 
 
 BELLi'cots, (^ warlike; waging war. Old 
 
 Belli'que, i Douglas introduces, in his 
 
 Belli'gerent. 3 translation of the Ajieid, the 
 
 word bellical in the sense given. Feltham, in 
 
 his Resolves, denominates Ceesar ' the bellique 
 
 Caesar.' 
 
 Never mind, brother Toby, he would say, by God's 
 blessing vre sliall have another war break out again 
 some of these days ; and when it does the belligerent 
 powers, if they would hang themselves, cannot keep 
 us out of the play. Sterne. 
 
 BELLICULI, or Belliuici Marixi, among 
 naturalists, denote a species of sea-shells of an 
 umbilical figure, sometimes of a white color, 
 spotted with yellow ; and sometimes of a yellow, 
 streaked with black lines. 
 
 BELLIDUFF, an ancient tumulus, in the 
 parish of Meigle, Angus-shire, which tradition 
 says is the spot where ]Macbeth fell. At some 
 distance, a stone of granite, twenty tons in 
 weight, stands almost erect, to commemorate, it 
 is said, the death of one of his generals. ' But, 
 (Dr. Playfair, who records this tradition, observes 
 that) that tyrant, it is more probable was slain at 
 Lumphanan, in the iNIearns.' 
 
 BELLI E, from Beul aith, Gaelic, i. e. the 
 mouth of the Ford ; a parish of Scotland, situated 
 in Banffshire (except tlie town of Fochabers, 
 which lies in the county of Murray,) extending 
 from north' to south about six miles, and from 
 east to west nearly four, on tlie left bank of the 
 river Spey. It contains about 1900 inhabitants. 
 The soil is abundantly fertile in grain, sown grass, 
 potatoes, and pasturage for cattle. Among its 
 spontaneous productions is the rare plant, called 
 satyrium repens. The town of Fochabers lies 
 on the other side of the river, and the parish 
 church is now built there. A handsome bridge 
 has been thrown over the Spey at this place by 
 the duke of Gordon. On a rising ground stands 
 Gordon Castle, the seat of the duke of Gordon, 
 the front of which is 568 feet in length. Near 
 this place the duke has a capital salmon fishery 
 on the Spey. 
 
 BELLING, applied to hops, denotes their 
 opening and expanding to their customary shape, 
 supposed to bear some relation to that of a bell. 
 Hops blow towards the end of July, and bell the 
 latter end of August or the beginning of Sep- 
 tember. 
 
 BELLINGIIAM'S Bay is on the west coast 
 of America, in the gulf of Georgia, extends from 
 north to south about twelve miles, and lias every- 
 where sood anchorage. The bordering shores 
 
 them, that lie wrote to the republic, entreating 
 them to send him. Bellini accordingly went to 
 Constantinople, where he executed many excel- 
 lent pieces. Amongst the rest, he painted the 
 decollation of St. John the Baptist, whom the 
 Turks revere as a great prophet. INTahomet ad- 
 mired the proportion and shadowing of the work; 
 but he remarked one defect in regard to the skin 
 of the neck, from which the head was separated ; 
 and, in order to prove the truth of his observation, 
 he sent for a slave and ordered his head to be 
 struck off. This sight so shocked the pjiinter, 
 that he could not be easy till he had obtained his 
 dismission ; which the grand seignor granted, 
 and made him a present of a gold chain. The 
 republic settled a pension upon him at his return, 
 and made him a knight of St. Mark. He died 
 in 1501. 
 
 Bellini (.Tobn), brother to Gentil, painted 
 wath more art and sweetness; and died in 1512, 
 aged ninety. 
 
 Bellini (Laurence), an eminent physician, 
 born at Florence in 1643. After having finished 
 his early education, he went to Pisa, where he 
 was assisted by the generosity of the grand duke 
 Ferdinand II. and studied under two of the most 
 learned men of that age, Oliva and Borelli. At 
 twenty years of age he was chosen professor of 
 philosophy at Pisa, but had acquired such a repu- 
 tation for his skill in anatomy, that the grand 
 duke procured him a professorship in that sci- 
 ence. This prince was often present at his lec- 
 tures. About thirty years after, Bellini, now in 
 his fiftieth year, accepted of an invitation to 
 Florence, where he practised physic with great 
 success, and was advanced to be first physician 
 to the grand duke Cosmo III. He wrote in 
 Latin: 1. An Anatomical Discourse on the 
 structure and use of the Kidneys. 2. A Speech 
 byway of thanks to the serene duke of Tuscany. 
 3. Of the Urine and Pulse, of Blood-letting, 
 Fevers, and Diseases of the Head and Breasts. 4. 
 Several Tracts concerning urine, the motion of the 
 heart, and bile, &c. He died January 8th, 1703, 
 His works were read and explained publicly, 
 during his life, by the famous Scotch physician, 
 Dr. Pitcairn, of Leyden. 
 
 BELLINZONA, a district of Switzerland, on 
 the east bank of theTicino. It has for boundaries 
 the country called the Gray League of tlie Ori- 
 sons, the lake of Como, and the districts of 
 Riviera, Locarno, and Lugano, containing 530 
 square miles, 46,000 inhabitants, and twenty 
 parishes. On the re-organisation of the Swiss 
 republic in 1798, Bellinzona constituted for some 
 time an independent canton, but was formed in 
 1801, along with the other Italian districts of 
 Switzerland, into the canton of the Ticino, of 
 which the town of Bellinzona is capital. 
 
 Bellinzona, a town of Switzerland, formerly 
 
 are high and rocky, but the interior consists of the capital of the preceding district, and now of 
 
 beautiful lawns. tlie canton of the Ticino, is at the extremity of a 
 
 BELLINI (Gentil), a \'enetian painter, born valley of tlie same name, where two projecting 
 
 in 1421. He was employed by the republic of rocks leave only sufficient room for the course of 
 
 Venice: and to him and his brother John, the the Ticino, and the road to Milan. The town is 
 
 \'enetians are indebted for the beautitul paint- 
 ings which are to be seen in the council-hall. 
 Mahomet II. emiieror of the Turks, having seen 
 some of his performances, was so struck with 
 
 built on these rocks, and forms the main pass on 
 tlie Italian side of mount St. Gothard. It con- 
 tains 1500 inhabitants, an old citadel (formerly 
 the residence of the governor of the district), a
 
 BEL 
 
 779 
 
 BEL 
 
 coUeiriate churcli, and tliree convents. It is well 
 built, lias its own magistrates, and ismucli bene- 
 fited by the continual passage of merchandise 
 between Switzerland and Italy. It suffered much 
 in the campaign of the French and Russians in 
 1799. Twenty-five miles S.S.W. of Como, and 
 forty south of Zurich. 
 
 Bl^LLlllICI Mauini. See Belliculi. 
 
 JJEI^LIS, in botany, the daisy ; a genus of the 
 syngeiiesia order, and the polygamia superflua 
 class of plants; ranking in the natural method 
 under the forty-ninth order, compositae discoides. 
 The receptacle is naked and conic ; there is no 
 pappus ; the calyx is hemispherical, with equal 
 scales; and the seeds are ovated. There are 
 three species, and many varieties. I. B. annua, 
 with leaves on the lower part of the stalk, is a 
 low annual plant growing naturally on the Alps, 
 and the hilly parts of Italy. 2. B. hortensis, the 
 garden daisy, witii a large double flower. 3. B. 
 ]>erennis, the common daisy, with a naked stalk, 
 and one flower, grows naturally in pasture lands 
 in most parts of ILurope. It is often a trouble- 
 some weed in the grass of gardens, and so is 
 never cultivated. 
 
 Bellis Major. See Chrysanthemum. 
 
 BELLIUM, in botany, bastard daisy; a genus 
 of plants of the class syngenesia, order polyga- 
 mia superflua. Generic character is receptacle 
 naked; seeds conical; crown paleaceous, of 
 eight leaves ; awned, and furnished with a pap- 
 pus: leaflets of the calyx equal. It is a genus 
 allied to bellis, containing two species, one of 
 which is a native of Italy, and the other of the 
 Levant. 
 
 Bell-metal, a composition of tin and cop- 
 per melted together, which is more sonorous 
 than either of these inoredients taken apart. The 
 ordinary proportion is about twenty -two or 
 twenty-three poundsof tin to 100 pounds of cop- 
 jier; though it varies according to the size of the 
 bells ; a greater quantity of copper being used in 
 the greater bells than in the smaller. Some add 
 lead and brass, others zinc or spelter. Tiiough 
 tin is specifically lighter than copper, yet the 
 gravity of the compound is greater than that of 
 copper. Some speak of a native mineral under 
 the denomination bell-metal, from which Becher 
 afiirms he procured zaffer and smalt. SeeCnE- 
 
 MISTRV. 
 
 BELL-MUSCIIUS, in botany, a name given 
 l)y some authors to the plant called bamia mos- 
 chata, the mosch seed. 
 
 BELLON, a distemper common in countries 
 where they smelt lead ore. It is attended with 
 languor, intolerable pains and sensations of gri- 
 \)ing, and generally costiveness. It frequently 
 jiroves fatal. Beasts, poultry, &c. as well as 
 men, are subject to this disorder: hence the term 
 
 Bellon Groind, for the space round the 
 smelting iiouses, because it is dangerous for an 
 amimal to feed upoa it. 
 
 Blllon, or Bej lOMUs (Peter), a celebrated 
 IVench physician, born at Caen, in Normandy, 
 w;is the aullior of many tracts on bcjtany, natural 
 history, kc. and gave name to tlie genus of 
 plants called Bellonia. 
 
 BEELONA, in I'auan mythology, the goddess 
 of war, is generally reckoned the sister of i\Iars ; 
 
 some represent her as both his sister and wife. 
 She is said to have been the inventress of the 
 needle ; and from that instrument is supposed to 
 have taken her name. BiXovr), a needle. She 
 Wiis of a cruel and savage disposition, and is 
 commonly represented in an attitude expressive 
 of fury; her hair composed of snakes, clotted 
 witli gore, and her garments stained with biood : 
 thus she drives the chariot of Mars, with a bloody 
 whip in her hand ; or sometimes holding a light- 
 ed torch or brand ; at others a trumpet. She 
 had a temple at Rome,near the circus Flaminius, 
 before which stood the column of war, from 
 whence the consul threw his lance when he de- 
 clared war. She was also worshipped at Cu- 
 mana, in Cappadocia: and Camden observes, 
 that in the time of the empe- 
 ror SeveiMs, there was a tem- 
 ple to Bellona in the city of 
 York. Tiiis goddess is repre- 
 sented on medals of the Brutii, 
 &:c. as in the annexed figure, 
 with a shield in both her 
 liands, and a spear resting on 
 her shoulders. 
 
 BELLONARII, in antiquity, priests of Bel- 
 lona. The bellonarii cut and mangled their 
 bodies with knives and daggers, to pacify the 
 deity. In this they are singular, tliat they offered 
 their own blood, not that of other creatures, in 
 sacrifice. In the fury and enthusiasm wherewith 
 they were seized on these occasions, they ran 
 about raging, uttering prophecies, and foretell- 
 ing slaugliter, devastations of cities, and revolu- 
 tions of states : whence Martial calls them turba 
 entheata Bellouae. In after-times they seem to 
 have abated much of their zeal, and to have 
 turned the whole into a kind of farce, content- 
 ing themselves with making signs and appear- 
 ances of cutting. Lampridius tells us, the 
 emperor Commodus, out of a s;)irit of cnielty, 
 turned the farce again into a tragedy, obliging 
 them to cut and mangle their bodies really. 
 
 BEELUNIA, in botany, a genus of the mono- 
 gynia order, and pentandria class of plants. 
 The characters are, the flower is wheel-shaped, 
 of one leaf with a short tube, but spread open 
 above, and cut into five obtuse segments; it has 
 five stamina, which close together ; the germen 
 is situated under tlie receptacle of the flower, 
 which afterwards becomes an open turbinated 
 seed-vessel, ending in a point, having one cell 
 filled with small round seeds. Of this genus 
 there is only one species known, viz. B. aspera, 
 or shrubby bellonia, which has a rough balm 
 leaf. It is very common in the warm islands of 
 America. 
 
 BELEORI (John Peter), of Rome, a cele- 
 brated antiquary and connoisseur : author of the 
 lives of the modern painters, architects, and 
 sculptors, and other works on antiquities. He 
 died in 169(5. 
 
 BELL()\ACI, a people of Gallia Belgica, 
 reckoned tiie bravest of the Belga? ; who anciently 
 possessed that part of France called Inauvoisis, 
 before the revolution in the isle of I" ranee. 
 
 BEE'LOW, \ Ang.-Sax. hlowan ; a Iowt 
 
 Bi.l' LOWER, fing; a loud roaring noise, 
 
 BELLow'iNf.. S \iU- A bull, or like the sea in
 
 780 
 
 BELLOWS. 
 
 a storm; any continued noise that may cause 
 terror. 
 
 Till, at the last, he heard a dreadful sound. 
 Which thro' the wood loud bellowing did rebound. 
 
 Spenser. 
 
 Jupiter became a bull, and bellowed; the green 
 Neptune a ram, and bleated. Shakspeare. 
 
 He fastened on my neck, and bellow'd out. 
 As he'd burst heaven. Id, 
 
 The rising rivers float the nether ground ; 
 And rocks tlie bellowing voice of boiling seas rebound. 
 
 Dryden. 
 
 What bull dares bellow, or what sheep dares bleat. 
 Within the lion's den ? Id, 
 
 But now the husband of a herd must be 
 Thy mate, and bellowijig sons thy progeny. Id. 
 
 The dull fat captain, with a hound's deep throat, 
 Would bellow out a laugh in a base note. Id, 
 
 This gentleman is accustomed to roar and bellow so 
 terribly loud, that he frightens us. Tatler. 
 
 Bellows are properly defined a machine, so 
 contrived as to expire and inspire the air by 
 turns, by enlarging and contracting its capacity. 
 This machine is used in chambers and kitchens, 
 in forges, furnaces, and foundries, to blow up 
 the fire : it serves also for organs and other 
 pneumatic instruments, to give them a proper 
 degree of air. All these are of various construc- 
 tions, according to their different purposes ; but 
 in general they are composed of two flat boards, 
 sometimes of an oval, sometimes of a triangular 
 figure. Two or more hoops, bent according to 
 the figure of the boards, are placed between them ; 
 a piece of leather, broad in the middle, and nar- 
 row at both ends, is nailed on the edges of the 
 boards, which it thus unites together ; as well as 
 on the hoops which separate the boards, that the 
 leather may the easier open and fold again : 
 a tube of iron, brass, or copper, is fastened to the 
 undermost board, and there is a valve within 
 that covers the holes in the under board, to keep 
 in the air. 
 
 Anacharsis, the Scythian, is said to have been 
 the inventor of bellows. Their action bears a near 
 affinity to that of the lungs ; and what we call 
 blowing in the latter, affords a good illustration 
 of what is called respiring in the former. Ani- 
 mal life itself may on some occasions be subsisted 
 by blowing into the lungs with a pair of bellows. 
 Dr. Ilooke's experiment is remarkable : having 
 laid the thorax of a dog bare, by cutting away 
 the ribs and diaphragm, pericardium, &c. and 
 liaving cut off the aspera arteria below the epi- 
 glottis, and boimd it on the nose of a bellows, he 
 found, that as he blowed, the dog recovered, and 
 as he ceased, fell convulsive ; and thus was the 
 animal kept alternately alive and dead above the 
 space of an hour. There are bellows made wholly 
 of wood, without any leather about them ; one 
 of which is preserved in the repository of the 
 Royal Society; and Dr. Plot describes another 
 in the copper-works at Ellaston in Staffordshire. 
 Bellows are in constant use among the apparatus 
 of the Royal Humane Society, for the recovery 
 of the apparently drowned : and will enable any 
 intelligent person to inflate the lungs, and by 
 occasional pressure on the breast to imitate the 
 action of natural breathing. 
 
 Tor the great operations of metallurgy, such as 
 are of uncommon construction, and great power, 
 
 are found necessary, and have generally assumed 
 the name of Blowing Macuines, which see. 
 
 Chinese Bellows consist of a box of wood, 
 about two feet long, and one foot square ; though 
 the machine may be made of any requisite dimen- 
 sions. The opposite boards are exactly parallel 
 to each other, smooth, and varnished both on the 
 outer and inner sides. A thick square board of 
 wood, which exactly fits the internal cavity of the 
 box, is pushed backwards and forwards, from 
 end to end of the box, by means of a cylindrical 
 rod of wood, which comes out at an aperture 
 in the centre of one end of the box, and in order 
 to make the rod move steadily, and prevent the 
 escape of air, the aperture through which the rod 
 passes has a wooden tube projected from it to 
 the distance of a little more than an inch. For 
 the conveniency of pushing the rod backwards 
 and forwards, its extremity is furnished with a 
 handle, or cross bar of wood, like the head of a 
 gimlet, by which it can be laid hold of. In the 
 bottom of the box, at each end, there is a small 
 conical or plug valve, concealed in the upper 
 board of the box. The two valves below admit 
 air alternately into the box, while the valves 
 above alternately discharge the air; and, at the 
 same time, the valves prevent the air from return- 
 ing the same way it had once passed. The upper 
 board is double, and the space betwixt them 
 serves as a reservoir in which the accumulated air 
 is condensed. Into the side of this reservoir, 
 between the boards, a metallic pipe is inserted, 
 which conducts the air, in a constant stream, into 
 the furnace or forge. It is evident that if the 
 movable board or piston, within the box, be 
 pushed by the rod from the end next the handle 
 to the opposite end of the box, all the air in the 
 box will be forced up through the valve above 
 that end of the box ; while the under valve at 
 that end will shut, and prevent its escape down- 
 wards : at the same time new air will rush in 
 through the under valve next the handle, and 
 again fill the box. By pulling out the rod, the 
 movable board or piston will be drawn in the 
 opposite direction, and all the air in the box will 
 now be forced up through the upper valve next 
 the handle, into the reservoir, and from thence, 
 as it cannot escape by the opposite valve, rush 
 through the metallic pipe into the furnace. Thus 
 these valves, by opening and shutting alternately, 
 as long as the piston or movable board is pushed 
 or drawn by the rod, backwards and forwards, 
 from end to end of the box, a constant and pow- 
 erful stream of air will be blown into the furnace. 
 The above description is copied from a machine 
 of this sort, which the ingenious Dr. Lind, of 
 Windsor, brought from Canton, in China. By 
 its help he could melt pig-iron in a small fur- 
 nace, consisting of an Austrian crucible, fixed on 
 a table. Such bellows are neither so costly, nor 
 so apt to go wrong, as those composed of leather. 
 They may be made of any dimensions, and may 
 be wrought by any power as well as that of the 
 hand. It is surprising that no attempts have 
 been made to bring them into use in this 
 country. 
 
 Bellows, Hydrostatic. See Hydrostatii^. 
 
 Bellows of an Organ are commonly six feet 
 long, and four broad ; each having an aperture
 
 I
 
 J-afferSJ.roLS. 
 
 'MrU-'Jio ck L (,i'/, /-Hot/ ,u' 
 
 Pi.ATt: I 
 
 \4 — v>^^^^, , ^//f «|p/| 
 
 ^- - ~^^.=." ^=^^- 
 
 Ulii.l.r, I,i/>li.</,nl hyT/xmi.i.iTea;!. 7.1 ('/m^.mf,- XptfmJxvJ.M'iZS . 
 
 .ISkmysmlj.
 
 BELL-ROCK. 
 
 781 
 
 of four inclips, tliat the valve may play easily. 
 There should likewise be a valve at the nose of 
 the bellows, that the one may not take tiie air 
 from the other. To blow an organ of sixteen 
 feet, there are required four pairs ofthese bellows. 
 They are wrought by a man called the blower; 
 and, in small organs, by the foot of the player. 
 
 Bf.ii.ows, Watkii, a contrivance to save ex- 
 pense in the fusion of metals, wherein water, 
 falling through a funnel into a close vessel, sends 
 from it so much air as blows the fire. See Fur- 
 nace. 
 
 BELL-PEPPER, in botany. See Capsi- 
 cum. 
 
 BELI>-ROCK, or Cape, a dangerous ridge of 
 sunken rocks, lying about twelve miles east from 
 the point of Fife-ness, and an equal distance south 
 from Arbroath harbour, between the 0])enings of 
 the Frithsof Tay and Forth. The ridge extends 
 about a mile in length, and half a mile in breadth ; 
 the top of the rock only being seen a few hours 
 at low water in spring tides. This rock not only 
 renders the navigation of the Tay and Forth very 
 hazardous, but is also highly dangerous to all ves- 
 sels navigating coast-wise. Every year, formerly, 
 vessels of great value were wrecked upon it, and 
 there is reason to suspect that many whicli were 
 supposed to have foundered at sea, have suffered 
 on this dangerous reef. It is a remarkable fact 
 that hardly a single instance has been known of 
 a vessel being saved which bad the misfortune 
 to strike upon this rock. Captain Brodie of the 
 royal navy placed a beacon on it some years ago, 
 but though the greatest care was taken to have it 
 properly secured, the first storm broke the chains, 
 and the beacon was driven ashore. Previous to 
 the erection of the new and noble light-house 
 now placed here, it was commonly remarked that- 
 even if it were practicable to erect it upon such 
 a sunken rock, no one would be found hardy 
 enough to live in an abode so dread and dreary, 
 and that it would fall to the lot of the projectors 
 themselves to possess it for the first winter. The 
 bill appointing commissioners for this great under- 
 taking, however, passed both houses of parliament 
 late in the session of 1806. In the following 
 summer, a vessel was fitted out as a floating-light, 
 and moored off the Bell-rock. Captain Brodie 
 had previously constructed a veiy ingenious 
 model of a cast-iron light-house standing on pil- 
 lars ; and Mr. Murdoch Downie, author of se- 
 veral marine surveys, brought forward a plan of 
 a light-house, to stand upon pillars of stone. 
 Mr. Telford, the engineer, was also employed in 
 some preliminary steps, connected with Mr. 
 Downie's enquiries. But Mr. Stevenson, engi- 
 neer for the commissioners of the northern light- 
 houses, modelled the first design, which was sub- 
 mitted to the opinion and advice of Mr. Rennie. 
 This distinguished engineer coincided with Mr. 
 Stevenson in preferring a building of stone, upon 
 the principles of the Eddystone light-house. 
 
 The Br.LL-iiocK LiciiT-uouse is a circular 
 building, tlie foundation-stone of which is nearly 
 on a level with the surface of the sea at low-water 
 of ordinary spring-tides ; and consequently at 
 high-water of these tides, the building is immer- 
 sed to the height of about fifteen feet. Tlie two 
 first or lower courses of the masonry are imbed- 
 
 ded into the rock, and the stones of all the 
 courses are dovetailed and joined with each other, 
 forming one connected mass from centre to cir- 
 cumference. The successive courses of the work 
 are also connected by joggles of stone ; and to 
 prevent the stones from being lifted up by the 
 force of the sea, while the work was in progress, 
 each stone of the solid part of tiie building had 
 two holes bored through it, entering six inches 
 into the course immediately below, into which 
 oaken tree nails, two inches in diameter, were 
 driven, after Mr. Smeaton's plan at the Eddystone. 
 The cement used at the bell-rock, like that of the 
 Eddystone, was a mixture of pozzolano, earth, 
 lime, and sand, in equal parts, by measure. The 
 building is of a circular form, composed of stones 
 of the weight of from two tons to half a ton each. 
 The ground course measures 42 feet in diameter, 
 and the building diminishes, as it rises 
 to the top, where the parapet-wall of tlie light- 
 room measures only 13 feet in diameter. The 
 height of the masonry is 100 feet, but including 
 the light-room, the total height is 115 feet. The 
 building is solid from the ground course to the 
 height of 30 feet, where the entry-door is situate, 
 to which the ascent is by a kind of rope-ladder 
 with wooden steps, hung out at ebb tide, and 
 taken into the building again when the water 
 covers the rock; but strangers to this sort of 
 climbing are taken up in a chair, by a movable 
 crane projected from the door, from which a 
 narrow passage leads to a stone stair-case 1 3 feet 
 in height. Here the walls are seven feet in 
 thickness, but they generally diminish from the 
 top of the stair-case to the parapet-wall of the 
 light room, where they measure one foot in thick- 
 ness. The upper half of the building may be 
 described as divided into six apartments for the 
 use of the light-keepers, and for containing light- 
 house stores. The lower or first, formed by an 
 inside scarfement of the walls at the top of the 
 stair-case is chiefly occupied with water tanks, fuel, 
 and the other bulky articles ; the second floor is 
 for the oil, cisterns, glass, and other light-room 
 stores ; the third is occupied as a kitchen ; the 
 fourth is the bed-room, the fifth the library or 
 strangers' room, and the upper apartment forms 
 thelight-room. The floors of the apartments are 
 of stone, and the communication is made by 
 means of wooden ladders, excepting in the light- 
 room, where every article being fire proof, the 
 steps are made of iron. There are two windows 
 in each of the three lower apartments, but the 
 upper have each four windows. The casements 
 are all double, and are glazed with plate-glass, 
 having besides an outer storm-shutter, or dead 
 light of timber, to defend the glass from the 
 waves and spray. The parapet wall of the light- 
 room is six feet in height, and has a door which 
 leads out to the balcony or walk formed by the 
 cornice round the upper part of the building; 
 which is surrounded by a cast-iron rail, wrought 
 like net-work. This rail rests upon batts of 
 bniss and has a massive coping, or top rail, of the 
 same metal. In the kitchen, there is a grate or 
 open fire-place of cast iron, with a smoke tube 
 of the same metal, which passes through the 
 several apartments of the light-room, and heats 
 them in its passage upwards. This grate and
 
 BEL 
 
 782 
 
 BEL 
 
 chimney merely touch the building, witliout 
 being included or built into the walls, winch, by 
 this means, are neither weakened, nor liable to 
 be injured by it. The timber of the doors, the 
 pannelled partitioning of tlie rooms from the 
 stairs, and the bed frames and furniture in general, 
 are of wainscot. 
 
 The light-room, and its apparatus was entirely 
 prepared at Edinburgh. It is of an octagonal 
 figure, 12 feet across, and 15 in height, formed 
 with cast-iron saslies, glazed with large plates of 
 polished glass, measuring about 2 feet 6 inches 
 by 2 feet 3 inches, each plate being a quarter of 
 an inch thick. The light-room is covered with 
 a dome roof of copper, terminating in a large 
 gilded ball, with a vent-hole in the top. Tlie 
 light of the Bell-rock is very powerful, and is 
 readily seen at the distance of six or seven leagues, 
 when the atmosphere is clear. The light is from 
 oil, with Argand burners placed in tlie focus of 
 silver plated reflectors, measuring 24 inches over 
 the lips; the silvered surface or face being 
 hollowed or wrought to the parabolic curve. That 
 the Bell-rock light may be easily distinguished 
 from all other lights upon the coast, the reflec- 
 tors are ranged upon a frame with four faces or 
 sides, which, by a train of machinery, is made 
 to revolve upon a perpendicular axis once in six 
 minutes. Between the observer and the reflectors, 
 on two opposite sides of the revolving frame, 
 shades of red glass are interposed, in such a 
 manner, that during each entire revolution of 
 the reflectors, two appearances, distinctly differ- 
 ing from each other, are produced ; one is the 
 common bright light familiar to every one, but, 
 on tlie other, or shaded sides, the rays are tinged 
 of a red color. These red and bright lights, in 
 the course of each revolution, alternate with 
 intervals of darkness, which, in a very beautiful 
 and simple manner, characterise this light. 
 
 In foggy weather two large bells of about 12 
 cwt. each, are tolled day and night by machinery. 
 Vessels who cannot see the lights, thus get 
 warning to put about. The establishment 
 at the Bell-rock, consists of a principal light- 
 keeper, who has 60 guineas per annum, paid 
 c[uarterly, a principal assistant, who has 55 gui- 
 neas ; and two otlier assistants at 50 guineas each, 
 besides a suit of uniform clothes, in common 
 with the other light-keepers of the northern light- 
 houses, every three years. While at the rock, 
 these men get a stated allowance of bread, beef, 
 butter, oat-meal, pot-barley, and vegetables, 
 besides small beer, and an allowance of fourpence 
 per day each for the purchase of tea and other 
 necessaries. At Arbroath, the most contiguous 
 town on the opposite coast, a suite of buildings 
 has been erected, where each light-keeper has 
 three apartments for his family. Here the master 
 and mate of the liuiit-house tender, have also 
 accommodation for their families; a plot or piece 
 of an enclosed garden ground is attached to each 
 house, and likewise a seat in one of the pews in 
 tlic parish church of Arbroath. Connected with 
 tliese buildings there is a signal tower erected, 
 which is about 50 feet in height. At the top of 
 it, there is a room with an excellent five feet 
 achromatic telescope, placed upon a stand. From 
 this tower, a set of corresponding signals is 
 
 arranged, and kept up with the light-keepers at 
 the rock. Three of the light-keepers are always 
 at the light-house, while one is ashore on liberty, 
 whose duty it is for the time to attend the signal 
 room ; and when the weather will admit of the 
 regular removal of the light-keepers they are six 
 weeks at the rock, and a- fortnight ashore with 
 their families. 
 
 The attending vessel for the Bell-rock, and the 
 light-houses at the isle of May and Inchkeith, in 
 the Firth of Forth, is a very handsome little 
 cutter of about 50 tons register, carrying upon 
 her prow a model of the light-house, and is 
 appropriately named the Pharos. She is stationed 
 at Arbroath, and is in readiness to proceed for the 
 rock at new and full moon, or at spring-tides, 
 carrying necessaries, and the lisrht-keeper on leave, 
 to the rock, and returning with another. This 
 vessel is navigated by four m.en, including the 
 master, and is calculated for carrying a boat of 
 16 feet keel, or of sufficient dimensions for land- 
 ing at the rock in moderate weather. The master 
 and mate are kept in constant pay, and have 
 apartments in the establishment ashore ; the for- 
 mer, acting as a superintendent, has the charge 
 of the buildings and stores kept at Arbroath. 
 
 BELLULiE, in zoology, the sixth order of the 
 mammalia; the character of which is, that their 
 fore teeth are obtusely truncated, their feet hoofed, 
 their walk heavy^ and their food vegetables. See 
 Zoology. 
 
 BELLUGA, in ichthyology, a large fish, 
 accounted a species of sturgeon, and called by 
 Artedi, accipenser tuberculis carens. It is like 
 the sturgeon in shape, but its snout is shorter and 
 thicker. Of its row or spawn is made cavear, 
 and some of them are so large as to yield 200 
 weight of it. The fish is very common and very 
 large in the Volga, near the city of Astracan. It 
 has been caught there thirty-six feet long, and 
 eighteen thick. It is also found in the Don, and 
 other rivers, and iu the Baltic and Caspian seas. 
 See Accipenser. 
 
 BELLUEA Bos, in icthyology, a name given 
 by Paulus Jovius to tliat species of the ray fish 
 which was called by the old Greek and Latin 
 writers bos marinus, and by tlie late authors nija 
 oxyrynchus. It is distinguished by Artedi, by 
 the name of the variegated ray, with ten prickly 
 tubercles on the middle of the back. 
 
 BELLUM, Lat. war ; in old law, trial by 
 combat. 
 
 BELLUNESE, a territory of Italy, which be- 
 longed to the Venetians, till ceded to Austria, 
 by the treaty of Campo Formio. It now forms 
 a part of the Lombardo-Venotian kingdom, and 
 lies between Friuli, Cadorino, Feltrino the 
 bishopric of Trent and Tyrol. It is tliirty miles 
 long, and twenty-two broad, and produces plenty 
 of corn, wine, fruits, &c. besides rearing great 
 numbers of cattle. It contains besides the capi- 
 tal, Belluno, 200 towns, villages, and forts, with 
 40,000 inhabitants. 
 
 BELLUNO, a town of Italy, and a bishop's 
 see; is situated among the Alps, on the river 
 Piave. 
 
 BELLUTUS (Sicinius), a plebeian Roman, 
 who, about the year of Rome 256, headed the 
 people in their opposition to the exorbitant powcj- 
 
 I
 
 BEL 
 
 783 
 
 BEL 
 
 of the SeiKito and I'atricians ; and under wliom 
 tliey retired to llie Mons Sacer, about three miles 
 from Home, intending to form a new establish- 
 ment for themselves, till, after repealed messaj^es 
 sent in vain by the senate, Menenius Agrippa 
 persuaded them to return, by the well known 
 fable of the belly and the other members. On this 
 occasion the tribune-ship being first instituted, 
 Hellutus was ap]H)inted the first of the five Tri- 
 bunes, A. U. C. 5(JU. See Rome. 
 
 Gothic, balgs ; Ang.- 
 Sax. bali^ ; Lat. bu/ga ; 
 that part of the human 
 body wliicli reaches from 
 the head to the thighs, 
 ^containing the bowels; 
 the womb ; any thing 
 that swells out to a large 
 capacity. To belly out, 
 is to swell out; to in- 
 flate ; to sketch ; to dis- 
 
 BKLLY, V. &. n. 
 Belly'ache, 
 
 BELI.Y'liOrND, 
 
 Belly'ciieer, 
 
 Bkl.i.v'full, 
 
 Belly'faue, 
 
 Belly'sl.we, 
 
 Beli.y'god, 
 
 Beley'imnciied, 
 
 Belly'timbek, 
 
 Belia'worm. 
 lend. 
 
 The body's members 
 Rebell'd afjainst the bellij ; thus accus'd it : — 
 That only like a gulf it did remain, 
 Siill cupboarJing the viand, aever bearing. 
 Like labour with the rest. Shakspeare. 
 
 Do you set down your name in the scroll of youth, 
 that are written down old with all the characters of 
 age? Have you not a moist eye, a dry hand, a 
 yellow cheek, a white beard, a decreasing leg, an 
 increasing 6eWi/.' Id. 
 
 This night, wherein the cubdrawn bear would 
 couch. 
 The liou and the belly-pinclted wolf 
 Keep their fur dry, unbonnetted he runs. Id. 
 
 Back and side go bare, go bare. 
 
 Both hand and foot go cold : 
 
 But bellij, God send thee good ale enough. 
 
 Whether it be new or old. Still. Old Sung, 
 
 With Methos, Gluttony, his guttling brother. 
 
 Twin parallels, drawn from the self-same line ; 
 So foully like was either to the other. 
 
 And both most like a monstrous beily'd swine. 
 
 Fletclier. Purple Island. 
 
 What infinite waste they made this way, the only 
 siory of Apicius, a famous bellygod, may suffice to 
 sjicw. Hakewell. 
 
 Thus, by degrees, day wastes, signs cease to rise. 
 For bellying earth, still rising up, denies 
 Their light a passage, and confines our eyes. 
 
 Creech's Manilitts. 
 
 Ijonii rattling shakes the mountains and the plain, 
 Ilcav'u bellies downwards, and descends in rain. 
 
 Dryden, 
 
 'Midst these disports, forget they not to drench 
 Themselves with bellying goblets. Philips. 
 
 The strength of every other member 
 Is founded on your belly-limber. Prior, 
 
 Belly in anatomy, the abdomen. See Ana- 
 tomy, Index. 
 
 Belly, Dragon's, venter draconis, is used by 
 some astronomers to denote the point in a pla- 
 net's orbit, wherein it Iuls its greatest latitude, or 
 is farther distant from the ecliptic, more frequent- . 
 ly called its limit. 
 
 BKLMONTE, a town of Italy, in the hither 
 C!alabria and kingdoni of Naples. It is situated 
 on the coast of the Tuscan sea. It is celebrated 
 for its fine marbles. 
 
 BJiLOCK, be and lock. See Lock. 
 
 BELOE (William), a native of Norwioii, 
 educated at Cambridge. About 1773 he became 
 assisUuit to Dr. I'arr, who was then head master 
 of the Norwich grammar school. He shortly 
 after obtained the vicarage of Earlham. Re- 
 moving to the metropolis, he was made master of 
 Emanuel College, N\'estminster, and he joined 
 widi Archdeacon Naresin establishing and editing 
 the British Critic. His connexion with this 
 work continued till the close of the forty-second 
 volume. He also obtained the living of Allhal- 
 lows, London-wall, a prebend in St. Paul's, and 
 the desirable post of a librarian to the Britisli 
 Museum. Of the last situation, however, he was 
 deprived, in consequence of the loss of some 
 valuable prints, which were stolen by a dishonest 
 artist. He died at Kensington in 1817. He 
 translated Herodotus, and Aullus Gellus,and was 
 the author of Miscellanies, 3 vols. Anecdotes 
 of Literature and Scarce books, G vols. 8vo. The 
 Sexagenarian (his own memoirs), 2 vols. Svo.and 
 some works of minor importance. 
 
 BE'LOMANCY, 71. s. Erom fitXoc and jiav- 
 Tua. 
 
 Belomancy, or divination by arrows, hath been in 
 request with Scythians, Alans, Germans, with the 
 Africans and Turks of Algiers. 
 
 Brown's Vulgar Errows. 
 
 Belomancy, Belomantia, was practised in 
 the east, but chiefly among the Arabians, and 
 in different ways. One was to mark a parcel 
 of arrows, and put eleven or more of them into 
 a bag : these were drawn out ; and according as 
 they were marked or not, they judged of future 
 events. Another way was to have three arrows, 
 upon one of which was written, ' God orders it 
 me :' upon another, ' God forbids it me ;' and 
 upon the third nothing. These were put into 
 a quiver, out of which one was drawn at ran- 
 dom ; if it happened to be that with the first 
 inscription, the thing was to be done : if it 
 chanced to be that with the second, it was let 
 alone ; but if it it proved that without inscrip- 
 tion, they drew over again. Belomancy is an 
 ancient practice, and probably that which Ezekiel 
 mentions, chap. xxi. 21. At least St. Jerome 
 understands it so, and observes that the practice 
 was frequent among the Assyrians, and Baby- 
 lonians. Something like it is also mentioned in 
 Ilosea, chap. iv. only that slaves are mentioned 
 instead of arrows, which is rather that of de- 
 mancy than belomancy. Grotius, as well as .le- 
 rome, confounds the two together, and shows that jt 
 prevailed among the INIagi, Chaldeans, and Scy- 
 thians ; whence it passed to the Sclavonians, and 
 thence to the Germans, who, as Tacitus observes, 
 made use of it. 
 
 BELON (Peter), born at Mans, in France, 
 flourished about the middle of the sixteenth 
 century. He was murdered near Paris by or>e 
 of his enemies, in 1565. His principal works 
 are, 1. i)e Arboribus Coniferis, 4to. Paris, 
 1553. 2. Histoire de la Nature des Oiseaux, 
 fol. 1555. 3. Portraits d'Oiseau^, 4to. 1557. 
 
 4. Histoire des Poissons, 4to. 1551, with plates. 
 
 5. De la Nature et Diversitc des Poissons, 8vo. 
 1555. 
 
 BELONE, in ichthyology, the trivial name of 
 a species of esox. See Esox.
 
 BEL 
 
 784 
 
 BEL 
 
 BE'LONG, V. n. Dutch hdangcn. To be 
 the property, province, or business of; to ad- 
 here, appertain, or have relation to. 
 To light on a part of a field belonging to Boaz. Ruth. 
 There is no need of such redress ; 
 Or if there were it not belongs to you. 
 
 Shakspeare. 
 The declaration of these latent philosophers belongs 
 to another paper. Boyle. 
 
 To Jove the care of heav'n and earth belongs 
 
 Dryden, 
 He went into a desart belonging to Bethsaida. 
 
 Luke, 
 To whom belongest thou ? whence art thou ? 
 
 1 Samuel. 
 The faculties belonging to the supreme spirit, are 
 unlimited and boundless, fitted and designed for in- 
 finite objects. Clwyne. 
 He careth for things that belong to the Lord. 
 
 1 Corinth. 
 
 BELOSTOMA, in zoology, a genus of insects 
 of the order hemiptera, family hydrocorisas. Its 
 generic character is, fore feet terminated by a 
 single hook ; antennae semi-pectinated. There 
 is no European species. 
 
 BE'LO\'ED, part. From belove, derived of 
 love. It is observable, that though the partici- 
 ple be of very frequent use, the verb is seldom 
 or never admitted ; as we say ' you are much be- 
 loved by me,' but not ' I belove you.' Loved ; 
 dear. 
 
 1 think it is not meet, 
 Mark Antony, so well beloved of Caesar, 
 Should outlive Casar. Shakspeare, 
 
 In likeness of a dove 
 The Spirit descended, while the Father's voice 
 From heav'n pronounc'd him his beloved Son. 
 
 Milton. 
 Each lonely scene shall thee restore. 
 For thee the tear be daily shed ; 
 Belov'd till life can charm no more. 
 And moura'd till pity's self be dead. 
 
 Collins' Dirge. 
 BE'LOW, prep. & adv. j Be and low. Low 
 Be'lowt, v. S is the past participle 
 
 of the Ang.-Sax. verb, lic^an, jacere, cubiere. 
 Belotvt, is to treat as a lowt. Under, in place ; 
 not high ; unbefitting ; unworthy of; in the lower 
 place ; in hell ; in earth, in opposition to 
 heaven. 
 
 For all below the moon I would not leap. 
 
 Shakspeare. 
 He'll beat .4ufidius' head below his knee. 
 And tread upon his neck. Id. 
 
 To men standing below on the ground, those that be 
 on the top of Paul's seem much less than they are, 
 and cannot be known ; but, to men above, those below 
 seem nothing so much lessened, and may be known. 
 
 Bacon, 
 
 The upper regions of the air perceive the collection 
 
 of the matter of the tempests and winds before the 
 
 air here below ; and therefore the obscuring of the 
 
 smaller stars, is a sign of tempest following. Id. 
 
 His sultry heat infects the sky ; 
 The ground below is parch 'd, the hcav'ns above us fry. 
 
 Dryden. 
 
 'Tis much below me on his ihsonc to sit ; 
 But when I do, you shall petition it. Id. 
 
 This said, he led them up the mountain's brow. 
 And show'd them all the shining fields belmv. Id. 
 
 The gladsome ghosts in circling troops attend ; 
 Delight to hover near, and long to know 
 What bus'ness brought him to the realms below. Id. 
 
 When suff'ring saints aloft in beams shall glow. 
 And prosp'rous traitors gnash their teeth below. 
 
 Tickell. 
 
 And let no tears from erring pity flow. 
 For one that's bless'd above, immortaliz'd below. 
 
 Smith. 
 The fairest child of Jove, 
 Below for ever sought, and bless'd above. Prior. 
 
 The noble Venetians think themselves equal at 
 least to the electors of the empire, and but one degree 
 6eZoK7 kings. Addison. 
 
 His Idylliums of Theocritus are as much below his 
 Manilius, as the fields are below the stars. Felton. 
 
 Sieur Gaulard, when he heard a gentleman report, 
 that at supper they had not only good cheer, but also 
 savoury epigrams and fine anagrams, returning home, 
 rated and belowted his cook as an ignorant scullion, 
 that never dressed him either epigrams or anagrams. 
 
 Camden. 
 
 Father of all above and all below, 
 O great I and far beyond expression so, 
 No bounds thy knowledge, none thy power confine, ' 
 For power and knowledge in their source are thine. 
 
 Pamell. 
 
 BELPECH, a town of France, in Languedoc, 
 department of the Aude. In 1369 this place 
 was taken by the English, and among the pri- 
 soners was Isabella, mother of the queen of 
 France. It is seven miles north-west of Mire- 
 poix, and twelve south-west of Castelnaudary. 
 Long. 150° E., lat. 43° 12' N. 
 
 BELSHAZZAR, Naboxadius, or Labyni- 
 Tus, the last king of Babylon, is generally agreed 
 to have been the son of Evil-Merodach, by the 
 celebrated Nitocris, and grandson of Nebuchad- 
 nezzar the Great. He succeeded upon the deaths 
 of his uncle-in-law Neriglissar, and his infant 
 cousin Laborosoarchod (with whom some authors 
 confound him), about A. M. 3393, or, according 
 to others, 3449. He is said to have reigned 
 seventeen years, but was so devoted to pleasure, 
 that nothing is recorded of him, excepting his 
 folly, dissipation, and impiety, till the last day 
 of his reign and life : when the miiaculous vision 
 of the hand-writing on the wall, denouncing the 
 immediate overthrow of his empire, alarmed him 
 and his impious nobles, in the midst of their 
 guilty festival ; and led him to apply for advice, 
 when too late, to the long neglected prime 
 minister and prophetic instructor of his grand- 
 father. See Daniel, chap. v. Babylon was 
 taken by Cyrus, Belshazzar slain, and the king- 
 dom transferred to the Medes and Persians ; 
 A. M. 3410, or 3466, and about A. A. C. 538. 
 See Babylonia. 
 
 BEL'SWAGGER, n.s. A cant word for a 
 whoremaster. 
 
 You are a charitable belswagger ; my wife cried out 
 fire, and you cried out for engines. Dryden. 
 
 END OF VOL III.
 
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